., WWI/5W] V //\" W \\"7/ /, \\ 71$“ (/7 f%111% % /\/” Rw/fl' “72/” fix? //\/f ,/ /\’/'\11‘-'\\V//}\ ! . jg? \/7\\M gig/$4 if K 3:11 111M111 _ 111: TEXAS A&M UNI‘ 7ERSITY LIBRARIES Acquired through part1c1pat1on 1n the L1brary of Congress Geography and Map D1v1s1on Spec1a1 Map Project 1978 ._.i_~_.‘__... Wwww.h w.-.” .Nwoflflv may»... .v‘...\..-~~.-... . ,. ATLAS OF U. s. A. ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY . ' _ OUTLINING SUGGESTED REGIONAL ELECTRIC POWER DISTRICTS AND PROPOSED CONSTANT/POTENTIAL TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS FOR THE UNITED STATES OF NORTH AMERICA By FRANK G. BAUM Consulting Hyd'ro’Electric Engineeq' (FELLOW A I. E. E., MEMBER A. s. M. E., A. s. c. E.) SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA I923 \ MCGRAWrHILL BOOK COMPANY, INC. NEW YORK: 370 SEVENTH AVENUE LONDON: 6 E9” 8 BOUVERIE ST., E. C..4 C COPYRIGHT, 1923, BY FRANK G. BAUM (Second Edition, May 1923) TABLE OF CONTENTS fly/7o SUBJECTS PART 1 Electric Power Indnjtry; Suggerted Power Dirtrictr and Propored Constant-Potential Transmirrion Syrternr PAGE NO. Brief History of the United States Electric Power Industry 1 Present Status of Electrical Industry 1 Advantage of Grouping Small Plants Into Large Systems 2 Large Power System Compared to Bank. Reason for Large Power Stations. Problems of the Power Industry 2 Suggested Regional Electric PoWer Districts 3 Consolidation of Smaller Plants. Regrouping of Plants Controlled by Groups. Water Power Developments Necessary. Large Regional Power Districts. Outline of Suggested Regional Power Districts 3 Constant—Potential Electric Transmission System . 4 Outline of Proposed Constant- Potential Transmission System 4 Residence, Commercial and Industrial Customers . . 5 Central Station Capacity and Customers and Ratio of Revenue and Sales to Customers and Population Summary of Mechanical and Electrical Power 1n Utilities and Industries . 6 Summary of Power by Regional Districts. Probable Developments Required by Central Stations. Regional Power Study and Plan. Water Power Developments . . 7 Generator Capacity and Output of Central Stations . . 8 Installed Generator Rating, Average Output and Capacity Factor for Central Stations. Prime Movers Installed 1n Central Stations (Estimated). Distribution of Output of Central Stations in the United States in Millions of K. W. Hrs. Installed Generators Average Output, and Motor Connected Load of Central Stations in the United States. General Power Service for Industries 9 Output and Load Factor for Largest Generating and Distributing Systems In the United States (19.21) Electric Machinery, Apparatus and Supplies Manufactured 1n the United States. K. W. Hr. Output and Fuel Consumption of Electric Public Utility Plants in the United States for 1921. Average Daily Output ofElectricity and Fuel Consumption by Months for Public Utility Plants in United States for 1922. Mechanical and Electrical Power and Wage Earners 1n Manufactures Installed Primary Power and Wage Earners by General Groups of Industries 1n the United States Installed Primary Power In the Manufactures 1919. Installed Primary Power and Wage Earners 1n all Manufactures 1n the United States for 1899,1904,1909,1914 and 1919. Mechanical and Electrical Power In Mines and Quarries Installed Power 1n Principal Mining and Quarrying Industries, 1919 Installed Power in Mines and Quarries, 1919. Railway Data and Discussion . . . General Statement of Comparative Steam and Electric Power Cost of Operation for Railways. Steam Rail lway Operating Data. Cost of Maintenance of Steam Locomotives for 1919. Railway Electrification,1923. Railway Data for Western Railway—1, 000 Miles, Mainly Double Track. Effect of Diversity on Load Factor . Economic Proportion of Hydro- Electric and Steam Power PART [1 Electric Power Tran‘rrnr'srion; Conrtant—Potential Syrtem The Present Power Transmission System The Constant- Potential Transmission System - Economical Conductor Section Efficiency of Transmission System and Cost Need of Large— Capacity T1ansmission Lines Service Conditions for Energy-Transmission Routes . 10 11 12 13 14 PLATES ;,. w [3 f9”: . ti ’3 ‘ PART I .1) 2:‘ " Electric Power Industry, Snggerted Power Dirtrlcts and Proposed Conytant-Potential Tramminron Syrternr Central Stations, Investments, Income, Expenses, Operating Ratios, etc. . Existing Transmission Lines . Suggested Regional Power Districts Transmission Lines and Proposed 220, 000- Volt Constant-Potential Transmission Systems . Residence, Commercial and Industrial Customers, and Residences . Power Summary for Water Power, Central Stations, Manufactures and Quarries Developed and Undeveloped Water Power of United States Central Stations, CapaCIty and Output etc. . . . . Central Stations and Electric Railway Output and Fuel Consumption ,. Mechanical and Electrical Power and Ratio of H. P. to Wage Earners 1n Manufactures Mechanical and Electrical Power In Mines and Quarries Possible Power for Electrification of Main— Line Steam Railways EHect of Diversity on Load Factors Economic Division of Hydro and Steam Power PAIRT [1 Electric Power Transmirrion; Conrtant—Potential Syrtern Diagrammatic Presentation of Constant—Potential Transmission System Analytical and Graphical Development of Constant-Potential Transmission System Electrical COnstants of Transmission Lines Economic Conductor Section and Annual Cost Economic Span Determination for High—Strength Towers Proposed Standard Towers for ZZO-Kilovolt Lines Structure and Tower Outlines for ZZO—Kilovolt Lines Sag and Tension Formulas and Diagrams . Sag and Tension Diagram Transposition Methods for Transmission Lines PAR T I I I General Data, U nited State; and World Fuels Produced and Consumed in the United States . World Water Power Developed and Undeveloped. Coal Fields of the United States . Petroleum and Natural Gas Fields 1n the Un ted States . Precipitation over the United States Altitude of Lands in the United States . Precipitation over the World Altitude of Lands in the World . Forest Regions of North America . . . . . . . . . National Forests, Indian Reservations and National Monuments of United States PLATE NO. I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX' XI XII XIII XIV XV XVI XVII XVIII '2 XIX XXI XXII XXIII XXIV XXV XXVI XXVII XXVI II XXIX XXX XXXI XXXII XXXIII XXXIV This volume 15 deciicafccl hr,» those technica1,btlsm€ss and financial LEADERS OF THE INDUSTRY Whose visia‘n and abilfiy, energy ancl sewage i3 responsime Far {he remarkable Progress in Pm: me {:sf eiecitric power in the service 0? mankiud ,ny‘r'w ’ j“ Snmllrf IltL‘L‘jl ‘ > mewfl Mmfia an MMDN 1 mmiy.” MmmmH MANq' flmnmmm mfimn MmysquV u mewm; mmmmx MU‘MHW‘ mmmmd sumu1flu WWMHM“ MHMgp mhmh& ~ "I: I l “V“? ., . HE author has been connected with water power develop- ment and electric power transmission since 1898, and has given a large part of his time and study to this industry in California. It happens that the natural conditions in Cali— fornia for hydro—electric power and transmission are such as to have forced extensive water power developments and transmission, because the location of the sources of this power being east of the large central valleys made it necessary to build transmission lines across and through the valleys in order to reach the large industrial power markets and cities near the seacoast. Justification for the water power and transmission rested on these large markets, but there were also developed along the transmission lines power loads in the valleys and cities of the interior. (California now has the largest interconnected system in the world and the highest percentage of residences lighted by electricity.) The result of such a power and transmission system is that the same service in electric power is available to the mining camps in the mountains and to the small towns and indus— tries in the central part of California as that supplied to the larger cities. Aside from the economies of such a system, resulting from the “banking” of the facilities, the power con— ditions throughout the area tend to become equalized, result- ing in a distribution of population and industries not otherwise possible, and also resulting in adding to the general stability of \the country, and in great saving in capital and operating expen- dfiures for the industries and cities served. Very often it enables the establishment of an industry—for example, a small factory, a rock quarry, a cement plant, a farm-at a. ' point otherwise not practical, adding to the economic value of the district. Electric service in California is essentially the same in icities of 5,000, 50,000 and 500,000 population. And I believe the real solution of the power problem of the country requires keeping this fundamental of practically universal service thoroughly in mind. Electric service is too popular to make it possible long to deny the use of this service to a large pro— portion ofthe people, or to have the cost so high in the smaller cities that the growth of the nation must take place in‘ the larger cities. Very large power systems undoubtedly will develop all over the country, and finally make power service almost universal in the United States. If this is to be the case, then electrical men should plan the system some time ahead, and not allow it to grow without general plan as the railways of the United States grew without general and dfiEcted plan. Could the railway construction have been planned and directed, a great deal of useless mileage could have been avoided and many of the present railway dificulties would not exist. Electric power men now know the power resources and they also know the power markets fairly well, so that a gen- eral plan that is based on facts and that can be laid along practical and scientific lines should be possible. The present construction of power systems radiating from large central stations, and the interconnection of the lines of the different systems where they meet, will not satisfy the needs of the present or the future power industry, with its large power units, large power stations and very large power resources and markets. Moreover, so long as the central stations rely on steam power developed from coal or other fuel they will not solicit the power business so energetically. This is shown by the fact that the steam and other mechanical power in manufactures and mines is greater than‘all the central station power. The increasing price of coal (I understand on good authority that the “Pittsburgh vein” of coalwill be exhausted at present rate in about twenty—five years) naturally makes some power men hesitate to take on more business. To add to the sta— bility of the power industry there should be developed water powers that are attractive, and this power should then be transmitted over large areas to cities and industries, and operated in combination with large eH'icient steam power plants. The entirely local use of the large water powers of the country is not to the best interest of the industry or of the nation. Further, by spreading the "use of these water powers over a greater area a sound public opinion for water power development may be created. The combination of water power and steam power stabilizes the electric business and meets the economic conditions. During the war period some big ideas for the power industry Were made generally known in the plan for the proposed Super Power Zone connecting the larger cities near the Atlantic Coast from Washington to Boston. The results of this survey are given in a report by Mr. W. S. Murray and others in Professional Paper No. 123 of the Department of the Interior at Washington. The restrictions of Congress limiting the territory for the super power zone restricted the system and conclusions, and yet it was shown that very marked economy would result from the establishment of such a super power zone. Secretary of Commerce Hon. Herbert Hoover and others have called attention to the need of several large power zones in the United States to‘ best solve the power problem. Dr. C. P. Steinmetz and other engineers have called attention to the advantages of large power and transmission systems. But engineers have dif— fered as to the method of transmitting power over the long distances required to bring the surplus water power to the large markets. With a practical transmission system as now available, which has Virtually no limit\ations, except those due to economic considerations, financial men may now proceed to form the organization that will best carry out the power program for the United States. Each step can be analyzed, justified, and the results made certain with a general plan efficiently carried out. The purpose of the study I have undertaken was to collect the facts of the power resources and the power demands of the United States, and put them in such form as to be easily understood, in Order to have a basis for analyzing the situa— tion and determining what is the best solution of the power problems of this country. The data of the power supply and uses have been collected by states from the United States Census, the Electrical World, and other sources. The work has been under way in office and field for more than a year, and was undertaken without influence and without pre- conceived ideas of what was the best solution of the electric pov'ver problem of the country. With the facts before us, and with an open mind, we are driven to certain fundamental conclusions as to what is the best course for the fullest de— velopment of the industry. GENERAL STATEMENT The conclusion as to what course is best for the power industry is the same as that which is best for the country as a whole; and this is gratifying. This only means that the best course for the power industry is the use of natural water power sources as far as practicable for the purpose of saving human energy, and saving as far as possible the coal, oil and other resources of energy by the use of water power. We thus save our capital in the form of coal, oil, etc., and save the energy of the people, as well as multiply their capacities. Electric power is an aid to production of raw material, an aid to transportation, an aid in manufacture and an aid in utilization of the products of industry. The electric system is also a complete system for the production, transmission and distribution of energy, which may be utilized as a necessity, convenience or luxury, and add to our pleasure, comfort and safety. It may even be said that a nation’s civilization may be largely measured in terms of kilowatt—hours consumed per capita, because as the electric energy consumption is large so the inefficient human labor energy will be small. The chief merits of hydro—electric developments and trans— mission are that they (1) tend to stabilize rates for power uses and therefore tend to extend the use of electric power; (2) tend to equalize the service and rates for power as between larger and smaller cities, so that the smaller towns and cities may build up industries and progress parallel with the larger cities; (3) con— serve coal, oil and labor. In order that the smaller cities may prosper along with the larger, and in order to result in a satisfactory distribution of population and industries, it is necessary that the use of water power and more economical steam power be made available to the smaller cities. This can be done by connecting the large water powers to the large economi— cal steam power plants by large-capacity transmission systems. The system of transmission proposed to be used to convey power from the large water power sources to the large markets ' may be termed a constant-voltage transmission system, the voltage control or regulation being accomplished through the means of synchronous regulatOrs or condensers located every 100 to 200 miles along the transmission. Such a transmission system, which largely relieves the power stations of the system’s voltage control, will result in cheaper generators and more standard as to voltage regulation requirements and transformers standardized for one voltage; and result in a large—capacity transmission system having the flexibility of a railway system, allowing power to be taken from or supplied to the line at the regulating stations as demanded, and the power flow may be reversed and maintain the constant— voltage feature. (The present system of transmission results in high and low potential points and can not be used for very long distances or as a universal system.) The economic unit for such a transmission system as proposed would have a capacity of about 300,000 K. W., or 400,000 H. P., over a double—circuit tower line. In connecting the large water powers, by such large power transmissmn lines, to the big economical steam plants, there will result the most economi— cal power supply. By such combinations there may be realized load factors of 75 per cent or better for the water power and transmission, and each double-circuit tower line will then deliver about two billion kilowatt—hours per year or the equivalent of about two million tons of coal per year. Energy may thus be transported at less cost than by rail transpor— tation of coal. With such a transmission system available it is recom- mended that the power supply for the United States can be best worked out practically by dividing the country into large Regional Power Districts. In each Regional District the power supply and transmission would generally be under the control of one company. The different Regional DiStricts (of which I have suggested twelve) Would be interconnected to obtain the greatest possible benefits from diversity, service, insurance, etc. Generally the Regional Power Company would wholesale the power to smaller units for distribution. In each Regional District there would be distributing com- panies, which should be of such size and cover such areas as would result in a satisfactory utility, with the management close enough to the consumers to be responsive to their needs. There should be consolidated a large number of the small plants, now supplying power to the smaller cities from inefficient local plants, into larger utility units, in order to obtain the advantages of better service, financing and man- agement. There should also be a rearrangement of the properties operated and managed by the various “holding companies,” in order to more nearly concentrate the prop- erties of the different groups, so as to make the problem of management less arduous than it is now and give better results. ' . ‘ It is shown that it is possible to double the business of the electric utilities in about five years with the business in sight. This will require additional investments of about $5,000,- 000,000, and result in an annual revenue of about $1,000,- 000,000. The annual saving to the consumers will probably be more than the gross revenue of the utilities. A saving of about 200,000,000’tons of coal, or 40 per cent of the pro- duction, is possible, and the labor released, directly or in- directly, will probably exceed 500,000 men. Thus, in solving the power problem at a profit to the users, we save our coal, and the released labor may be otherwise employed. The considerate analysis and conclusions of the men in the industry will, I believe, sustain my conclusions and bring about action on the suggestions and proposals. The electric power men have met the problems with cou age and straight reasoning in the past and may be depended upon to meet future problems in the same way. A careful reading of the text as well as a study of the plates is necessary to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the entire problem now before the industry, in order to bring about nation-wide electric service. “ The preparation of this work was first undertaken per— sonally as a record of water power and transmission experi— ences that might aid in the solution of the United States power problem. Then I accepted the generous support, offered voluntarily, of the Westinghouse Electric &’ Manu— facturing Company. For the encouragement of the engineers and officials of this company, and for the encouragement received from other men who have the good of the industry at heart, I am grateful. I also acknowledge the able work of Messrs. Svend Barfoed, Frank ’P. Lawler and Otis Gibson, engineers in my oflice, in the preparation of the work. W/flww. SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA, May, 1923. , A A . __ . . ‘ w . _, . ‘ , . x , ‘ , < P . A W . , , . ’ k A 4 , r ,_ n V x . . , , ~., , ‘ j .1 . . n , \ , «, .. . . . .. A . u 4 . , . PART I ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY; SUGGESTED POWER DISTRICTS ‘ , AND- ‘ PROPOSED CONSTANT POTENTIAL TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS ~~A~ ' ~v-*«"-~\..~:u.w-x~-—,v N WNW...” ugmxwvétimsfi... ._r ,. .—..; \.._ PAGE I Brief History of the U. S. A. Electric Power Industry THE use of electricity for lighting in the United States developed rapidly in the 80’s, and between 1880 and 1890 “direct-current” lighting plants were installed in many cities. The use of‘electricity was generally for lighting of . stores and residences in the commercial districts, the area of service being small on account of the voltages employed being 110 and 220. These power plants and systems were generally known as “Edison Systems,” and such systems were installed in many of the larger cities. ' Seeing the restrictions inherent in the low-voltage direct- current system, William Stanley and George Westinghouse developed, about 1890, what is known asrthe alternating- current system, using at first voltages of 220 and 440. The increased voltage allowed a distribution over a wider radius from the power plants and reduced the losses. Progress of the alternating-current system was vigorously contested by the D. C. advocates. But its advance was rapid, and soon 2200-volt systems were built, using transformers to reduce the voltage for the consumers. This increase in voltage allowed the extension of service to residence sections of cities and marked a distinct advance in the development of the electric industry. Early in the 90’s the Westinghouse Company developed and’brought out, after much thought, effort and COSt, the Tesla induction motor. The application of electric power to perform useful work by the use of the induction motor revo- lutionized the application of power for industrial purposes, for this made it unnecessary for the small manufacturing plants to have their own power plants. And the develop— ment of the transformer, which allowed higher voltage trans— mission to cover larger areas, and the development of the induction motor to perform useful work at the place desired, are really the main causes of the remarkable electric-service development in this country. ‘ Much credit is due to Stanley, Westinghouse and Tesla for this development work, which added enormously to our industrial efficiency. . But 2200 volts still limited very much the area over which a given power plant could give service, and we find this voltage increased to 11,000 in the early 90’s in Southern California, to transmit power from a water power plant in the mountains to Pomona 18 miles away, and in 1895 a system using 11,000 volts was installed on the American River at Folsom, California, to transmit power to Sacramento.- The voltages used for transmission from that time rapidly increased to 22,000, 33,000 and 44,000; and in about 1898 the trans— mission of power at 60,000 volts was first planned by the ' Standard Electric Co. of California, and the same plan was adopted later by the Bay Counties Power Co. of California. A 60-cycle, grounded system was adopted and thissystem is becoming standard in the United States. This increased transmission voltage was the cause of much water power development in the mountains,the power to be transmitted to cities, mines and industries. About 1908, transmission voltages -of 100,000 were used, and these have since been increased in one instance to 165,000 and to inter- mediate voltages in several other cases. In most of these installations the distance of transmission was not over 150 miles and amounts of power were limited to about 30,000 H. P. per line. The line for 165,000 volts was for transmission from the San Joaquin River to the Los Angeles district, a distance approximating 240 miles. It is now planned to raise the voltage of the line to 220,000 volts. A line has also been built to transmit power at 220,000 volts from the Pit River n California to the San Francisco Bay District.* During this development period the size of individual steam and water power units increased from about 100 H. P. to 50,000 and 75,000 H. P., and single power stations of several hundred thousand horsepower are in operation. The demands of the present time have exceeded what can be done economically at voltages below 220,000, because the real transmission problems of the East require a transmission of 200 to 400 miles and trunk lines are desirable and neces- sary which will take away the entire power of a given stream or supply the market of a region over one or two tower lines. To find a market for the surplus water power of the Rocky Mountain states, in addition to that used for main-line railway electrification, will require a transmission of about 800 miles. *See “The Pit River Power and 220,000-Volt Transmission Problem,” by Frank G. Baum,'ElectricalWorldJanuary 27 and February 3,1923. Present Status of Electrical Industry THE original Edison Companies have generally grown into large systems supplying electric light and power to . large cities, and most cities of this class have efficient power systems as regards both plant and management. The small concerns that started with water power developments some twenty and twenty—five years ago have in many cases grown to be important systems and some of them supply wide areas. Most of these concerns also have the advantage of efficient plants and management, and are doing a wonderful work in supplying power for industrial purposes. Some of the water power systems also have steam auxiliaries. A num— ber of “holding” companies, each of which manages several independent properties in different sections of the country, were organized some years ago. The reason for the operation of these “holding” companies was generally to give more efficient financing, management and engineering to these isolated properties. These “holding” companies have been in most instances successful in supplying a remedy for the conditions that existed and that still exist in certain places. Aside from properties controlled by the above three main ' groups, the remaining light and power business of the United States is largely done by small local companies, and these generally supply local lighting service only. This type of plant and management is the least efficient, and, since the plants usually do not supply power service, the smaller cities in which they are located have difficulty in building up any manufacturing or other industries. The larger cities which derive their electric service mainly or entirely from steam plants are located mostly in the north- eastern quarter of the United States—that is, east of the Mississippi River and north of the Ohio River—and in this same region are also to be found by far the greater number of small steam plants serving smaller communities. The larger water power companies are located mainly in the Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain states and in the states bordering on the southern Appalachian Mountains, the exceptions being the Niagara Falls Power Company at Niagara and some smaller systems in New England, New York and some other states. Plants owned by the “holding” companies are varied in type as well as in location—that is,‘they consist of both water power plants and steam plants—and we find them in nearly every state of the Union, one of these concerns operating in seventeen states. On Plate 1 are shown the principal operating statistics of the central stations of the United States. There is installed in central stations approximately 20,000,000 H. P. in prime movers, of which about 30% is in water power. The invest- ment in these systems is approximately $5,000,000,000 and the gross income per year about $1,000,000,000, or approxi— mately 20% of the investment. (See Fig. 9, also Figs. 3, 4, 7 and 8.) (This compares with an investment of about $20,000,000,000 in Class 1 steam roads and subsidiaries and an operating revenue of about 5% billion per year.) The operating expenses of the central stations as a whole are approximately 50% of the gross revenue. The operating ratio of Steam plants is usually between 60% and 70% and the operating ratio of hydro—electric plants usually between 30% and 40%. (See Figs. 1 and 2.) The total energy sales for 1922 were approximately 50,000,000,000 K. W. Hrs., of which the lighting represents generally only about 10% of the total K. W. Hrs. of those concerns that do a large power business. The gross revenue derived from the lighting part of the business may, however, be more nearly 50% of the gross revenue of the companies. Plate 1 will, I believe.» give a fair idea of the general central station power business today. Other plates which follow will give the conditions more in detail. Most of the electric utilities are now subject to state regulation by public utility commissions. These commissions control-the issuance of securities and fix the rates for service. It is necessary in an industry which is a natural monopoly that there be some regulation of‘securities, service and rates. This is essential to protect the industries as well as the public against the promotion type of developer, who cares for nothing except his promotion profit; for during the development period of any industry there is always this danger of speculative promoters breaking down the confidence that others have built up, andgthe electric industry should therefore, through regulation, avoid many of the‘diflficulties that have confronted the railways. The major financing for the properties is generally done through the sale of bonds, supplemented by the sale ofjunior securities in the form of preferred and common stocks. (See Fig. 11.) Some of the power companies have been quite successful in the sale of their junior securities to investors in the territory in which the companies operate, which has resulted largely in customer ownership of the equities of the companies; thus is brought about a very satisfactory rela— tion between power company and community. Electric power securities are more popular now than at any previous time and good electric utility securities are in demand, so that the money required for expansion is available, especially since the need for new capital to develop other industries is reduced owing to the over—expansion as a result of the war. ELECTRIFYING AMERICA The author wrote the following in 1914, and the results show that the‘ economic value of electric transmission is proving the statements very conservative: “The men who built the first electric power transmission systems in California did not realize how rapidly and to what magnitude the business would grow; yet, in a general way, they did appreciate the great advantages to be gained by a transmission system furnishing power to operate various industries from large, efficient power plants, instead of each industry supplying its own power from'a small, ineflicient plant. The economy to the consumer in any particular case could, of course, be determined and the saving to the power user effectively shown, "but as the power transmission lines ‘ operating as a unit have become larger and made to cover more and more territory, the additional advantages of having large power systems supported by a varied series of industries have added additional economy and stability to the large systems and have also added general benefits to the in- dustries and communities. The total resultgives strong reasons for the increase of the electric transmission systems to cover generally a wider territory and more diversified industries.” With electric securities popular, and with a general plan for water power and steam power developments and trans— mission systems laid out for the country, we may look for— ward to an era of development which will really “electrify America.” ‘ The view of Hon. Herbert Hoover on the value of “elec- trifying America” should be encouraging to men in the industry: “The growing interconnection of existing power systems and their reinforcement with larger centralized production units will serve to further assure the productive industries stability of their power to a degree of importance that can be compared only to the relation of our Federal Reserve system in stabilizing credit. Furthermore, the increased application of electrical power to replace the innumerable small units of direct steam production not only becomes a great saving in human labor, a great assu ance of continuity in operation and a great reduction in the waste of material, but it also is a great contribution to the lightening of manual labor. One of the incidental problems of our industrial sys— tem is the inevitable growing shortage of common labor and the complete necessity that it shall be replaced with fewer units of skilled labor performing the laborious tasks of the many. The more general spread of electrical power is inevit- able for this reason, if for no other. The time is ripe for a great national program of super-power development. The stretch of economic transmission distance has brought power develop— ment from the mouth of our coal mines and upon our streams to within the economic reach of our industrial centers and our farms. Few appreciate the industrial revolution that lies pregnant in the 350 miles of transmission that is so well within economic possibilities. Nor does any engineer despair that we shall yet develop transmission to the thousand-mile radius. To ‘electrify America' is not only a great economic purpose, but it is also a great human purpose and one that may well enlist the whole of your membership in the national crusade.” (From address for the 45th Convention of the National Electric Light Association.) COVE“ v. 1 53:57» L w? .1 ovrarw 30v: 2: R‘ a " . PAGE 2 Advantages of Grouping Small Plants Into Large Systems THE engineering reasons for the advantages of the group- ing of many small plants into larger groups are generally known, but may be repeated. There are also similar large advantages to be gained from combining a number of small groups of plants to form a large syytem favorable to economic power supply, financing and management. Plate XIII brings out the advantages of grouping loads of different characteristics on one system. The following was written by the author in 1914 and the results today prove the state— ments! to be very conservative. ‘ . LARGE POWER SYSTEM COMPARED To BANK* “To use an illustrative analogy, the large electric system may be compared to a bank in its economic function, and the electric medium of transmission may be compared to amoney, the medium of property exchange. If we had no money we would have to trade by direct exchange of property, and if we had money but no banks in which to deposit our funds from which those of us who need it might draw, the difficulties of doing business may be imagined. Without a central power—distributing system each consumer must develop his own power and have some surplus power. Hence there is no medium of exchange, no means of ‘banking’ the total power of all on the transmission system, and no draw— ing at such points and in such amounts as may be needed from time to time. Electric transmission provides the elastic medium for exchanging any one form of mechanical power to any other form of mechanical power at some point on the System.” . “Now if one hundred isolated power plants are connected together by a transmission system, .and their power—producing possibilities thus concentrated‘on the system, we will then be able to supply the demands of the one hundred original consumers and have a fair—sized surplus always on hand. That is, by ‘banking’ the individual energies through the medium of the transmission system, we can all get the con— venience of the power facilities, and the system will be able to meet the demands of all its patrons~—and carry a yurplm. This is because we have concentrated the surplus of the several plants and because the individual needs do not all come at the same time. This surplus power is principally due to the fact that the diversity of interests now supplied from the one system is such that the system as a whole has a more uniform load. a better ‘load factor,’ than the indi— vidual plants when operating separately. In general, the more varied the interests which draw power from the lines the more uniform will be the demand, and the better for the transmission system, just as the more varied the business of the bank’s patrons the more even the demands of money and the better for the bank and its patrons.” REASON FOR LARGE POWER STATIONS “Having now connected the hundred small plants by an electric transmission system with a large power demand, we find we can no longer afford to operate the one hundred small plants, but, instead, we install a few large power units to supply the entire system, and by this means produce a large saving in operating expense. The economies resulting from large power systems with large central stations is in this way working a revolution in America, especially in Cali- fornia, and also in other countries. That this revolution is progressing from economic reasons which are fundamentally sound is certain, and, therefore, larger and larger electric power yyxterm may be expected.” “In consequence of this electrical development, industries are being established in many of the smaller cities and out— . . _. ”—4177...“ "W... .-x—,:~,-zr".r Lagx'v‘mv-aa. a“; :‘e'. .'—.'_-.a-~~1w».«, lying districts where the employees can live more advan— tageously. The natural effective result is a healthy growth of all parts of the state, a large saving in operating expenses, capital and resourCes, a general equalizing of opportunities, and on the whole, a tremendous economic gain for the com- munities, and increasing in geometric ratio. It i; naturally to the interest; of the people that the power nylM’I’LJ‘ be extended a; rapidly a: condition; warrant, as the resultant economies from the extension of the business will of necessity redound to their benefit. For this reason, as I said before, California or any state or nation having available cheap power need never fear decay.” Mr. William B. Jackson in a paper on “Advantages of Unified Electric Systems Covering Large Territories,” read before the A. I. E. E., February 10, 1911, says: “A few years ago the advantages of electric light and power were considered to belong to cities and the larger towns alone, but it is becoming recognized that with properly organized companies and with plants suitably planned the benefits of electric lighting and power may be supplied at reasonable cost also in sparsely settled regions. “To provide electric light and power for a densely settled district, except in cases of very large cities, is comparatively simple, for this requires an organization and plant for a limited and homogeneous community. But for the larger possibilities of service, which means the tying together of many cities and towns, villages, and even outlying home— steads, by a great network of transmission and distribution lines, a more complex problem is presented. “To realize one of the material operating advantages of unified electric systems, the general direction of the opera- tions of the company must be centralized, while the local characteristics and requirements of each community must be intimately considered, if the most satisfactory service is to be provided. This requires an organization controlled by exceptionally broad and discriminating engineering and com- mercial judgment. ’ “Several factors tend toward making it economically pos— sible to serve any territory from a comprehensive trans- mission and distribution system as a substitute for discon— nected central stations located in the cities and villages. These may be here summarized as follows: “1. Saving in power—house equipment made possible through taking advantage of the diversity of different com— munities by serving them from the same transmission system. “2. Lower power-generating cost per kilowatt-hour due to larger power plants and improved load factor. “3. Less investment in power plants per kilowatt capacity on account of larger plants as compared with smaller. “4. The possibility of decreased percentage of spare appar— atus by appropriate arrangement of power plants. “5. Saving in cost made possible by centralized manage— ment, general superintendence and other general expenses. “6. The possibility of providing rural and suburban service that could not be profitably reached by a local central station. “7. The possibility of large corporations providing power service which would be too extensive for small companies to undertake. “8. The development of water powers for electric service.” It is impossible to quote all the statements of different engineers and business men who have recognized the advan- tages of the large general power systems. Plate II shows the main high-voltage transmission lines of the United States. (Only lines that are or may be operated at 55,000 volts or above are shown.) *From “The Economic Values of Electric Transmission,” by F. G. Baum. journal of Electricity, Power and Gay, S. F., January, 1914. Problems of the Power Industry HILE the results as shown by Plate I and by Plates V, VI, VII, VIII and IX are very gratifying, yet there is much more that can be done; for there is approximately 20,- 000,000 H. P., mainly steam power, operating in the manu- factures of the country, and in mines and quarries there are some 5,000,000 H. P., mainly Steam power. There are about 24,352,000 families in the United States, but the residence electric service amounts to only 8,468,000, or 35%. In California there are about 900,000 families and 757,000 consumers, or 84%. The situation as regards residence con— sumers is shown on the map, Plate V, and this shows the room for growth, especially in the eastern states. In 1920 customers per capita (as shown on page 5) for the United States are 0.08 and for California, 0.22. Plate VI shows the summary of central station power by states and the steam power in manufactures, mines and quarries. This plate should be given careful study by central station men, together with Plate VII showing the undeveloped water power in the United States. A careful study of these plates will, I believe, indicate what is the problem confront- ing the electric power industry of the United States and the best solution therefor. An indication of how far the industry may yet go is shown by the fact that in California the per capita consumption of electric energy was 1085 K. W. and in the United States 372K. W. for 1921. California uses nearly three times as much per capita as does the United States as a whole. The total revenue for the United States from electric utilities is about $9 per capita. For the Pacific Coast and mountain states it is about $13 per capita, and in California about $17 per capita. (All 1922 figures.) This situation is partly due to the small plants still existing in many of the smaller eastern cities and partly due to the fact that many of the large power plants in the eastern states do not “go after” the power business as is done in the western and the south— eastern states. More than half the revenue of some of the electric power- companies in California is received from the sale of electricity for power. (The results given in California are not for the purpose of boasting, but for the purpose of illustrating what may be expected if the eastern states develop water power and transmission systems and connect these up with the large steam plants.) Mr. Samuel Insull is largely responsible for'the very efiicient power service of Chicago, supplied by the Common— wealth Edison Company. This is one of the best examples of a system giving a general power service to a community. About 75 per cent of the business of this company comes from wholesale power customers. If the power companies can offer to the steel mills and other manufacturers a power supply that is more nearly fixed in cost for the future than their own power supply, then there will be strong reasons for purchasing power. This 7 stability of price of power is assured if the main yupply of energy is from water power. On Plate XXV, Fig. 11, is shown the reduction of coal used per K. W. Hr. produced by central stations from 3.22 pounds of coal in 1919 to 2.52 pounds in 1922. This has resulted from the substitution of large modern steam power units for the smaller and less eflicient plants. A further reduction to less than 2 pounds per K. W. Hr. may be pre— dicted. Summarizing what shOuld bedone (see plates and analyses following) in order that the electric power industry may take its proper place, we Should: ' lst. Develop the available practical water powers and connect these up with the big power markets and with the economical Steam plants of the larger cities and steam plants near coal mines, through the medium of large—capacity transmission systems. 2nd. Consolidate many of the small electric plants in the smaller cities into larger groups, in order to get the economies of financing, management and operation that can be obtained only through larger utility units. 3rd. Regroup the properties controlled by the “holding,” operating and management concerns, so as to form more concentrated groups or systems that will make the problems of management much less severe than they are now and give better results. 4th. Bring about the best power-supply. system for the United States by dividing the country into large Regional Power Districts, so laid out that there will be brought into use the largest possible amount of water power, balanced as nearly as possible in the various regions with the steam power plants required in connection with the water power to form an economical system for both light and power. The various Regional Power Districts should be interconnected through the means of high-voltage, large—capacity power —trans— mission lines. 5th. Build transmission systems for 60-cycle, 220,000—volt constant-voltage regulation, to give finally a universal power system for the United States. With such a transmission system installed, as described later, we may transmit over one circuit about 150,000 K. W., or 300,000 K. W. per double-circuit tower line. And at the load factor at which water power plants should operate, this would mean a transmission of about 1,000,000,000 K. W. Hrs. per circuit per annum, or 2,000,000,000 K. W. Hrs. per tower line. Such a system of Regional Power Districts is described on pages 3 and 4 and shown on Plates III and IV. The high-voltage power lines shown on Plate IV must be justified by the transmission of 500 to 1,000 million K. W. Hrs. per circuit per year. It requires large energy trans— mission to make the 220—K. V. lines practical, for only then can energy be transmitted more cheaply electrically than by rail. The Regional Districts and transmission routes as sug— gested are the result of much study and consideration in the office and field. 1‘- “111111111111 11111 ‘1 "S111 1111111 1.33 ‘QE1NM :“LE 51111111 111111311 ' 3 1‘1. 11 11111111 ,1. 1111}; 11 111-1. 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DOVGW. 1 ‘g E p“ 7‘ “Jr-~—1 1 w 55" 1 (6L EGENDG) TRANSMISSION LIN ES: —— zzo.oooVou- EExIsrme) — “0.000VOLT 55,000V0L'r (60 To 30km) (PROPOSED LINES, ARE SHOWN DOTTED) EXISTI N6) INDICATETI -—G 'rTIMEL..._ CLOCKS SHOWN AT Top 01: MAP ME WHEN NOONA-r GREENWICH '7 MusrrooEE Four 5mm DULum SUPERIOR 1w 1:" A MINNEAPOLIS SiPAuL IO— LA CROSSE DuIIUGUE CEDAR Rmo Des MOINES Kaus’s CI" : oSPmNGFIELD AF? -41— :1ng “ES “'jgvfiffi'uysfi ,4......—><- 6 75490] ITTLE‘ OCK ‘MMD gums D .‘(Aumwo H‘C’P ""“'"""I'" "’TbEBa CsOumDEND ~ I_ T RRA LOUIva LE EVANSVILLE 1 1 \ i E . g 1 1 3 '7 1 l ') fl / , PENSACOLA 1:, N w ORLEANS ~9 37% Q 4- .‘/‘I n / i PanrHvfiatiu/T" ._. g./ ' C‘ a). Is 0 .4» M1. - LANSING INDIANAPOLIS I_ MowreoMERY -\ ./‘ PI" 58036 5AV‘NNAK rxa. ___._.._.._.._..__,._\ I JACKSONVILLE HARRISWRG T //’"/N\D~ HINGTON \ .2. ,r-a’yu], "flimsy; Vida/v; m};_. uxIU‘ ' sand“ 90%“ E \ 75“ \ v° Nb 0 \K %F .1. IKII 113$: 1:! PLATE II to 0‘ g- \ \ E way“ \ ‘ \ ¢ .1 %.\5 M6 w”“ \I / ( 9\'\ 1A «:3. A T. 3 A06” 3 2/111” '1. H " \ RT” T . p \’\'\ 1 N 1. . 50W” 1. ; / \"\ 5 MW“. ’// 51. N ‘17 ‘1’- ' 9° 55‘ ,.. "I K I . 1.1 1. p . 1 \. 1E?! 11/- I .32 'C 56“”“ W|L 5 IR“ ‘ N“ ’ NEW ORK “one EH’LADELM J - b ‘ Cl . TIC "121.19% ”’C‘ N Aflv " Q \ . \. , DALT’MM '\ DEL. \‘ 1 \ 2 NORFOL » O \. RALEIGH N WIL’Ml" N \. dfiARLE TON / (OLEGENDG) TRANSMISSION LIN ES! — 220:000VOLT EXISTING) — IIO,OOOV0LT EXISTING) 55,000 VOLT (60 To 301m) (PROPOSED LINES ARE SHOWN Do‘rrao) ,. . - TIME LINE CLOCKS SHOWN AT Top OF MAP INDICATE TIME WHEN NOON ATGREENWICH MAP OF‘ UNITED STATE S \ F M X I C O SHOWING EXISTING TRANSMISSION LINES FRANKG.BAUM J CONSULTINGENGINEER SAN FRANCISCO,CALIF IS 0 SO IOO ISO 100 250 SCALE IN MILES ‘ C ., - r u u 3,. if L L. E. L.- v. PAGE3 Suggested Regional Electric Power Districts . A indicated by the brief history of the industry and as shown by the plates in this study, the growth of the power-transmission industry has been very rapid. During this same period the size of individual steam and water power units has increased from about 100 H. P. to 50,000 and 75,000 H. P. units, and single power stations of 100,000 to 500,000 . K. W. are in operation or contemplation. Plates II and III Show the high-voltage power transmission lines of the United States, the ownership being in many companies. The power lines are growing out from large cities and power stations, in most cases, in response to what are largely local demands. When the lines of two companies meet they are Often “interconnected,” which allows the transfer of small amounts of power and is a valuable feature of the power business. But interconnecting the small power lines built out from various points for local uses will not generally give a transmission system to meet the present and future needs of the electric-power industry.There are required large- power high-voltage transmission lines that will carry the power from places where there is little demand, like the power in the Adirondacks, the St. Lawrence and Niagara and that in the southern Appalachians and the Rocky Mountains, to places of large demand. And the tranrmiryion-ryrtem capacity, to meet the need: of the preJent day, mart be commenrurate with the power available at there yourcer and commenmrate ‘ with the needy in the large indurtrial region: and citier. Just as the interconnectiOn of the old county and city roads which were built out from various places years ago for local uses will not give a solution of the present demands of the automobile and truck traflic, so the interconnection of these power lines built out for local uses will not meet the needs of the present-day power problems. (See “The Pit River Power and Transmission Problem,” by F. G. Baum, Electrical World, January 27, 1923.) CONSOLIDATION OF SMALLER PLANTS AND REGROUPING OF PLANTS CONTROLLED BY GROUPS That consolidation of many of the smaller plants is neces- sary requires no argument. That a concentrated system like the Pacific Gas & Electric Company is simpler to Operate than a lotiof widely Separated plants like those of the “hold- ing” companies also requires no argument. Many of the big men managing these large “holding” companies are literally wearing themselves out by overwork. .131": mxmmzn gar-Afizmzsrzuu 2-K, ~ ~:> WATER POWER DEVELOPMENTS NECESSARY The chief merits of hydro—electric developments and trans- mission are that they (1) tend to Jtahilize rate; for power uses and therefore tend to extend the are of electric power; (2) tend to equalize the service and rates for power as between larger and smaller cities, SO that the smaller town; and citier may build up indmtrier and progrerr parallel with the larger The develop— ment of favorable water power also needs no argument. citier; (3) tend to conserve coal, oil and labor. LARGE REGIONAL POWER DISTRICTS . In order to carry out a program of water power and trans— mission developments to meet the needs of the country, it requires the coOperation Of all the people interested in the success of the business. If we are to avoid the difficulties that resulted from the period of construction of the railways of the country, I believe we must divide the entire United States into large regional power zones, in each of which regions the power and transmission problem would be studied, planned and solved as a whole. AS far as practicable, each region Should have an ultimate outlet for the possible water power in the region. The successful railways .that have emerged out of the maze of the railway—construction period have resulted from a grouping of certain related lines that form a fairly compre— hensive economical yyrtem, like the Pennsylvania, the New York Central, the Union Pacific, the Southern Pacific, and the Santa Fe. The successful power companies, I feel certain all will agree, must also come from a grouping of the related systems in a given territory to form comprehensive systems furnishing power'service over large areas. For a plant fur- nishing lighting only may be compared to a street—car system, and a system furnishing all electric service may be compared to a large general railway system. We now know our power resources and power demands fairly well, and the country has been developed so that the markets for power are fairly well determined—especially is this true in the eastern States, where the largest part of the power is now used. We have, therefore, more definite knowl- edge to lay out a power-transmission system than the railway men had fifty years ago to guide them in building their lines. Moreover, the electric industry has been developed by men with good technical knowledge or advice. It should therefore be possible to lay out a transmission system for the United States in such a way as to give the greatest result for the least money. Plate IV Shows the proposed main power- transmission routes. Outline of Suggested Regional Power Districts On Plate III, I have Shown 12 Regional Power Districts. District 1 covers the New England States; District 2, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania east Of the Alleghanies, Maryland and Delaware; District 3 is east of the Appalachian summit and it includes Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Florida; District 4 contains Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas and Louisiana; District 5 includes that part of Pennsylvania west of ti e Alleghanies, West Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee and Michigan east of Lake Michigan. Districts 1 to 5, inclusive, have enough desirable water power in each region to form with large steam plants economical systems for power production and transmission. District 6 includes Illinois and Indiana. . Passing now to the Pacific Coast: District 10 is shown to include Washington, Oregon and Idaho. This district has very large power resources and it will be some time before it can all be absorbed; and in this district there should be installed as far as possible such industries asrequire very large amounts of power for along time at low rates, as there will probably‘be surplus power in this district long after the water powers in the other districts have been utilized. The surplus power of Idaho should be used as far as practicable for the electrification of railways in Idaho, Eastern Nevada and over the Rocky Mountains in Utah and Wyoming. District 11 Northern California and Northern Nevada, as shown. District 12 includes Southern California includes and a part Of Western Arizona, giving this district a part. of the power on the Colorado River. District 12 may get some of the Colorado River power from District 9, and District 11 may get power from Oregon and Idaho. District 7 includes the drainage of the Missouri and upper Columbia Rivers, and contains quite a large amount of water power which must probably find its use largely by trans- mission easterly along the three northern railway systems, the remainder of the power to be used probably in Minnesota and Wisconsin. District 8 includes the upper Colorado River and the states as Shown. The surplus power from the upper Colorado River may partially find market through transmis— sion lines built easterly along the Union Pacific and Santa Fe Railways, the surplus power over the needs of the railways being used in the Missouri River Valley. District 9 includes Oklahoma, Texas, New Mexico and Arizona, and the main power resources for this region are on the lower Colorado River in Arizona, and in the gas fields of Oklahoma and Kansas. A system of Regional Power Districts such as suggested would, I believe, give great advantage to the development of the industry. The power developments and transmission system in each of such regions should be largely made by one concern, that would handle the development side of the power and transmission business, and probably to a very large extent wholesale the power to smaller distributing companies. The regional power districts would be subdivided into economic subdivisions, through the means of Public Service Commis- sions, to form distributing units of such size as would give economic management, and a management cloSe enough to the power consumer to be responsive to the needs of the districts served. (The suggested Regional POwer Districts were outlined after Study of the power supply and demands and give my best judgment of the matter at this time.) The local power-distributing companies would thus largely be relieved of the burden of raising money for power-plant construction and could therefore better meet the needs for capital for distribution to consumers. The local distributing companies would also obtain the advantage of economy from the generation of power by water power or large steam plants. The smaller cities and manufacturing communities would reap the greatest benefits from such a system of regional power districts, as they would have power available for developing their local industries, affording them an oppor- tunity for progress Otherwise impossible. The power-producing and transmission agency in each Regional Power District would bear a relation to the local distributing companies somewhat comparable to the relation of the Federal Reserve District banks to the local banksy The several Regional Power Districts would have inter- relations somewhat similar to the relations between the several Federal Reserve banks. It happens that the number (twelve districts) of Regional Power Districts into which I have suggested that the country be divided is the same as the number of Federal Reserve Districts. With a general plan made, the industry may proceed with greater confidence in the various sections of the country, knowing that the development work follows a logical course. On Plate VI is shown a summary of the water power resources and the Steam power used by central stations, manufacturers, mines and quarries, by States and by Regional Power Districts, and these data and a knowledge of the country were largely used to lay out the Regional Power Districts as suggested and shown on Plate III. \ PLATE III m m ms :04 w: ' D: m mo 99 so :r T I” r v “I w 'YX I j "T\ 5‘ 8‘ II] \ A\ [M \ 1: I \ ,I [K' v\ VI 1;. \ }.r\ I1" 7 ‘C ‘I‘urENCOZQNML ‘5 I M E lytm I I E N NIT R A L. I; 4%} T I} M E\ “I; W E (’IN’I A s T (MUN R N {3}) T H Hf)” E ‘-\ flfiy‘ I I‘ (i ‘. SI ' In: J <\ “‘97"? I A 2 $3 "I «LC: r ~4 ‘ \‘ Ts . 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III"II“ 'IIIIIéI-plflm i ._ M CgDARRAPIDS “WWW HAanlsauHG PHILADELCH \\\ J ~~ I I” : ‘\. ' Des owe a: A . .. CANTO“ , ,mc 'LIIIHIIIIIII -\ . J: \"‘{~.\J E B D .‘mAHA “W” I f‘ O V ‘ H 'b {Inn I “‘"T“; L. L— PEDRIA ‘III': Ilsm u b m _ at ' I , \ -‘. L\ , LINCOLN KEOKUK 6 I \ N go‘yefi I ‘rI'I‘HOmIIIUm . ~ \ I I QU'W SPRINGFIEL F ‘ I‘Impmms' ~513.1059»! ’NC’NNAT' I:'IVII‘I‘IIUES IVOUId 'COLORADOSPRING‘S fl. BPEKA l KANSAS CITY 0 V 'f‘HI III I‘E‘EIOHRI FUEaLo i I I'I’IIISME for _ M29} III; [III UPPOI' OSPRINGFIELD M In each : SA ;A' , . O NT F4. I “I . I A E I MUSKGGEE WM“ ON 5 I III the O ‘ Noam . . ' .‘II I ' . _ ALBUQUERQUE MEMPHIS‘ & I » IOII '1 I‘m: IEIII LITTLE QCK 2 \ I: , ,I 'é ./ 0:9 I, «II III] bflnl‘" ' ‘2; ,-' Sig , ~ . I a 3!: I I ‘ CHA I- / "LIIJ IIII IHII @ 3% I IIIII'IEII III / f A \m J .. YIIIII‘ I’ ' I ~ _ __I._I_._...A- --—»-—-- L , , ‘ / / : a L‘ E c, E N DO ‘ [IIIInUmbfl' » .. ‘ ' I M I ES 8 I IA ”"50”? SWIM” ~ TRANSMISSION LINES: III/7‘ '” ' ' . . . , . I “cm” I —— 220, OOOVOLT (Emma) , I r ~--— w -------------- - .4. I —- $388351 EEs'IS—Tgsa ) L 0 V _ > “Pl/(RA? —.. : Q? E PASO ($3713? $335 . ’1/ I \ (PROPOSED LINES ARE SHOWNDOTTED) MS '\.. é'” ' )H llll {'""‘> "a I C ......... __,_,,_.,_._-._.._.-.._U . DISTRICT BOUNDAR / L A _ _______ 87) “E6 ,1 I S 7 wTALAmssss JACKSONV'LLE \ I) Owed :2. ‘ ---»—---—GovERNMENr'fiMt-:LINE - u mflI pr 4‘ ’CLOCKs SHOWN AT Top or: MAP M. I} I , E323 ' W ORLE NS INDICATE TIME WHEN NOON ATGREENWICH / OI [hf HUI/2Y0 % V % ' raw“ \5 \ -» w GALVES ON / MAP OF‘ 7 WA F L A ” ' /( III 3 UNITED STATES M New ' C 0 \ 0 II M X I / SHOWING "“ I I SIIIES sand it <0 / G U I; F F M ’ . ' i EXISTING TRANSMISSION LINES AND / o 7 O . ‘ ’ a V ”' PROPOSED SUPER- POWER DISTRICTS n jg‘III ‘ RIM i , up A 3“” FRANKG. BAUM I III [III “ , 9 ' ’ , 0 _ . .37 - CONSULTINGENGINELR M m f F v 9‘ :I"” SAN FRANCISCO,CALIF. W16 (3 I“ , ‘15 0 so I00 use too 250 7 _ KEYWEST‘ ‘ \SCALE In: MILES I 15‘ PAGE 4 Constant-Potential Electric Transmission System* For many years engineers differed as to what should be the standard power and transmission system, and they differed also on théiquestion of how far power could be trans- mitted. The limitations set by various engineers varied widely as to length of transmission and the reasons for the limita- tions. Fortunately there is now, I believe, practically unani— mous opinion that the power system should be 60—cycle: and a grounded system. The distance limitation has also been removed, so that we now may transmit power as far as economically desirable. For a system of electric-power trans- mission has recently been developed which practically eliminates the question of distance of transmission, except from an economic standpoint. There are many places in the world where poWer could now be transmitted economically 500 miles and there are places where 500 to 1,000 mile trans— mission would be economical. The system of transmission which makes very long electric- power transmission possible may be briefly defined. The entire transmission distance is divided into sections of, say, 100 to 200 miles, and at the end of each section there are to be placed synchronous condensers or regulators which also act as electric stabilizers. The function of the regulators is to maintain the time relation of the current and voltage so as to produce the highest economy and maintain practically con— stant voltage and stability for all points of the line, and for all loads, for any length of line. Each regulated section of the line is practically a repetition of the previous section, and the line may be extended as far as economy dictates. Power may be supplied to or taken from the line as demanded, and generally this would be at synchronous—condenser control points; and the-power flow may be reversed over sections or over the entire line and the constant-potential condition maintained. That is, this power system has a flexibility comparable to a railway system. With such a system we may transmit about 400, 000 horse- power at 220, 000 volts over one tower line supporting two circuit (six wires, each about 0.9” in diameter). From the 220, 000—volt system there would radiate secondary trans— mission lines, of 110, 000 volts and lower voltage, for trans— mission to power-consuming centers. We will see suCh a sys- tem grow in the next few years into a national power system extending over the United States. (Plate IV, showing prob— able super—power routes, gives some idea of the future system for the United States.) Into this transmission system there will be supplied power from many water ower and steam— power sources; and from these transmission lines there will be power delivered to numerous municipalities and industries and railways. This system of transmission will make full and better use of all existing facilities of present systems by the addition of synchronous motors and synchronous con— densers to meet the requirements of a universal power system. It is easily seen that such a national power system will make much better use of the potential power sources of the country because the system will be so large as to make best use of the varying stream characteristics in the various sections. Such a system will also obtain advantage from the time difference between east and west. It will also take best advantage of the diversity of power demands of the different classes of power users in the various sections of the country. The large power system will also be more favorable for financing large construction programs. Many small water powers are not now possible of develop- ment; because the cost of takmg the power to a market 1s too high, but with a large system as proposed, the problem of transmission and marketing would practically end at the main transmission system. On the other hand, many large water powers are not now feasible because the market for very large blocks of power is not available; but with a national system (due to the fact that 1n the eastern part of the United States there will always have to be many large steam power plants to make up the water power deficiency) the market will be available at once. Such a national power system will reduce the costs of power to local companles, and much reduce the cost of main— line railway electrification; and will develop business along railways, thus giving an added reason for electrification. It will cause acceleration of water power developments and result in demands for capital, labor, copper, aluminum, hydraulic and electrical machinery, steel, etc. Such a system of electric— —power transmission is necessary for the economic development of this country; for, aside from the economics of such a system in connecting up the surplus power sources with the large consuming markets and 1n bringing into use many power sources otherwise not fea- sible of development, such a system will bring about a dis— tribution of the industries and population of the country not otherwise possible, resulting in adding to the general stability of the country. The construction and operation of such a system will raise the country to a higher economical level. Only by such a system can the power resources of the country be made of greatest value. “After eighteen years of study and work on this problem,” Governor Pinchot of Pennsylvania recently wrote, “I have come confidently to expect the growth of a nation-wide inter- locking power system. Furthermore, really cheap power cannot be supplied to consumers unless the burning of coal and the flowing of water contribute their energy to a common reservorr for the common supply of industries, farms, homes and railroads. Such a system must transcend state lines and is likely to become nation—wide. ” Quoting Gen. Guy E. Tripp, T ‘When several water powers are interconnected, a considerable area of country is inclosed by the connecting transmission lines. By installing suitable service lines electric service can easily be given to the whole area thus inclosed. With the water powers developed sep— arately, however, the energy from each is inevitably sent to the nearest congested district, and the regions not actually traversed by the transmission lines are unable to obtain electricity except at a prohibitive distribution cost. With such a system, all of the now wasted water power would be put to useful work, and though supplementary steam plants would still be necessary, they would be called upon for the minimum amount of power and, since they would be of the largest and most efficient type, they would consume fuel with the highest obtainable economy. Further— more, they would be established in the coal regions and at points of convenient access along the coast, so that a large part of the railroad facilities now devoted to hauling coal would be released for other purposes. Both the power sup- plied by the water powers and the demand for electricity by the communities served would, of course, vary constantly, but the great network of transmission lines would act as an equalizing reservoir and would make up deficiencies at one point from surpluses at others. Thus are the views of states— men in agreement with conclusions of the engineer. Back of both lie but one desire—to bring to the people of the United States and Canada the greatest possible prosperity.” *See “The Regulation and Insulation of Large Power High Voltage Trans- mission Systems,” by F. G. Baum, A. I. E. E., June, 1921. TChairman of the Board of Directors of the Westinghouse Electric 8: Manu- facturing Company. Outline of Proposed Constant—Potential Transmission System N Plate IV are shown the suggested main routes for lines 0 representing such a national power system as it may come to be 1n time. For some of the eastern states a system of this kind has been very much needed for some time. We may outline the reasons for some of the lines drawn. Lines to be built from the Adirondacks to New York with a connection to District 1 are shown, in view of the New England States being short of water power. District 1 may in addition 1n time get some water power from Canada, and two propositions for bringing power from Canada are now under consideration. From the Adirondacks the line would finally extend back to the St. Lawrence water power. A second line would be required to take the St. Lawrence power to New York, and this could be from the St. Lawrence southerly towards Utica and then to the Metropolitan areas. In time two tower lines over each route to carry a total of 1,200,000 K. W. may be required for the Adirondack and St. Lawrence power. A line is shown extending from Niagara Falls southeasterly to the Metropolitan area and connecting southerly through the Susquehanna River region with the Susquehanna power at Holtwood, and the Niagara power and the St. Lawrence power interconnected as shown through Philadelphia and the industrial regions of Eastern Pennsylvania west of New York. From Niagara a second line is shown extending westerly to Erie, Cleveland, Toledo, connecting with the power systems of Michigan and going westerly, finally connecting with the large steam plants on Lake Michigan. The two lines from Niagara would require 600, 000 K. W. 60-cycle power avail- able at Niagara. Steam reserve for District 2 may come from District 5 over the connecting lines shown. This will result in great savings of anthracite coal and reduce rail transportation of coal over the Alleghany Mountains. A line is shown in District 5, extending westerly from Pittsburgh to Columbus, Dayton (connecting to Indian- apolis), Cincinnati and Louisville. This is an easterly and westerly high tension power route to which available water power and large steam power stations should supply their output. Some water power can be delivered to the Pittsburgh district by power lines from branches of the Allegheny, Monongahela and Youghiogheny rivers. A line 18 shown running southeasterly from Cincinnati and from near Columbus, Ohio, to Charlestown, W. Va., and thence over the Appalachian range, connecting with the system of the Southern Power Co. The upper Kanawha River and the New River can be developed for quite a large amount of water power, suflicient to justify a double-circuit 220,000- Volt transmission line. Along the Kanawha and New rivers there could also be large steam plants using the coal of this region. This line would serve a very valuable function in feeding power into District 5 and also acting as a steam reserve plant to District 3 for the systems east of the Alle— ghany Mountains. District 2 may finally get some steam power from this region No 220—K. V. lines are shown in District 3 except those bringing steam reserve and water power over the mountains from Districts 5 and 4. From Louisville, extending south— easterly, another trunk line is shown, going to the branches of the Tennessee River, where a considerable amount of water power can be developed. It is probable also that steam plants could be located on this line and a line connected across the mountains for reserve to the systems in District 3, east of the Appalachians as shown. Another line is shown extending from Muscle Shoals northerly to connect with the trunk line to Louisville and St. Louis, as this seems the best means of disposing of this power at this time. ~ It would seem logical that the Muscle Shoals power should finally be used largely 1n District 4, but 1t will take some time for this market to develop, as outside of Alabama no large market IS now available. But with the reclamation of the lower Mississippi, which contains the largest undeveloped land area in the United States, large amounts of power will be required, and I have therefore shown the Muscle Shoals lines as running westerly across the Mississippi near Memphis and southerly to New Orleans; and westerly from New Orleans into Texas, connecting with the power lines finally to be built to supply Region No.9 from the power of the lower Colorado River and power developments 1n Texas and Oklahoma. Some of this power could be developed from the waste gases of the oil fields. The lines radiating in Eastern Oklahoma are to take away the power from the gas fields. District 6 is largely a steam—power district, which may be used to balance the water power flowing towards this district from all directions. Fortunately, District 6 has large coal resources. District 6 may finally get some water power from Minnesota and Manitoba, Canada. From the power available on the upper Missouri River and its branches trunk lines are shown going easterly which could supply the three northern railway routes with power for elec- trification, one main power line going to Minnesota and St. Paul, and connecting finally with Milwaukee as shown. From the uppei Colorado River three lines are shown going easterly, one along the route of the Union Pacific, another along the route of the Santa Fe, the third being located intermediate. In the Pacific Coast states, in District 10, the market conditions have not yet developed sufficiently to determine all the main trunk transmission routes. Districts 11 and 12 have already 220,000-volt lines, which are shown as part of the entire system as outlined. The new plant being built on the Tuolumne River for San Francisco should connect the 220—K. V. lines of District 11 with those of District 12 as indicated. This is a practical example showing the value of such a transmission system. It is thus seen that there are four main power problems confronting the industry. One is to develop the water powers and supply the markets of District 2. The second is to develop the water powers on the Ohio River drainage to supply the markets of District 5. The third problem is to find a market for the power in the Rocky Mountains, and it seems this latter must be done largely by taking the power easterly along the railway routes as shown. (This problem of taking the surplus power from the Rocky Mountains to the Missis- sippl Valley may require in the future 330, 000 volts, but initially 220, 000 volts will suflice.) The fourth problem 1s to find a market for the very large amount of water power available in the states of District 10, Washington, Oregon and Idaho, and in this region should be located at various points some large power-using industries, such as are now near Niagara. (In the above statement of power problems, I am assuming that the steam power developments now going ahead and being planned will form a part ofthe comprehensive power system of the entire nation.) All of these problems require for their best solution large- capacity transmission systems, such as herein proposed Length of transmission will not generally be the determin- ing factor in the power problem, but dependable economic power supplies, good load factor and large stable markets are often more important than length of transmission. With such a power system in use the cost of power in “bulk” will not vary greatly over the United States. The actual local cost of power then will be largely determined by the demands of the various communities. The lines as outlined on Plate IV are proposed energy routes. Justification for the lines must generally be for their major purpose as energy carriers, with interconnection of the varlous lines and districts as a large indirect advantage. PART I ' PLATE IV “aw” pOWVrShUUH a, z, w 5 I: z a, zr , . , , r ‘ 5 u a 1 r or M w .x m 0‘ .0: m o oo 9: w ~r ‘ y a: f [w "11- J ( ~\ / § 35' b; \/\’ \ h \’ \ \ f/m 7" § y I": 5" / ‘\5 " w W 1 ”mu“- ,. . " - . u "~ " ‘ "' '. i ' "' ', “’1' n_' ”\ l l | S' It" ""1 u V “('1‘ ‘ INYERCDAONIAL ‘ ' ‘ H uuktsometlme } P A c l r: l c 3 To| M E TD ’ j» M o u N T A 1 N , ; T 1 M E .‘ C E N (3:2 T R 5A l. w 3/) T I, M E (U29 1 E H N” A 5‘ T (’3’, 3" E ,r R N ‘3; 2 T _. ' w M E v we )1‘ t ; I , _ ~ ._ a 4 . 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BAUM O . , n 9 \p‘ w - ,9,” CONSULTINGENGINEER , g ‘A , , SAN FRANCISCO,CALI F > G V V a“ * 1:13 so I00 :50 200 250 ‘ 1’ KEYWEST SCALE IN MILES A . , . | x \ 1 \ ’ . 13‘ ...- :u' u;- u.- I-o' 1w wt; or ‘ - Ios' mt ‘ mz‘ .m- noo‘ :y s - r 54' 5- 1 9y at Sr y: Jr w sr w w a" 0" '3' . 0" 5" ’>‘ . 1" V" 7" , 75' "' EJJ€W32;- -, g , ,~.~.<..'.:»...: «4.- a... ,7. .1... . r ._ . ; ”1‘52“?“ Lg“. PAGE 5 .Residence, Commercial and Industrial Customers ' LATE V shows some interesting conditions in Figs. 3 Pand 4 where residential customers are compared with the number of families and dwellings. There are about 11 million electric customers in the United States today, compared to about 14 million telephone users. (The electric customers are about equal in number to the automobiles in the country.) The income per electric customer is about $90 per year, but this includes all power used for manufacturing and other uses. Taking one—half the revenue as coming from lighting gives a revenue of about $50 per customer for residence and commercial lighting. The revenue then per industrial cus~ tomer is over $1,000 per year. In California the average lighting customer pays about $33 and the average power customer about $500. This is due to more residence lighting and to more small industrial customers in California. New electric customers were added in 1921 at the rate of about 100,000 per month, or an increase at the rate of about 12%. The total customers practically doubled in the last six years, and they practically doubled in the six years previous to that. The customers shown by states indicate clearly that there is much business yet to be connected to the Central Stations. It appears that the total business of the electric power utilities should double in the next five years. A large part of the increase should come from manu— factures and mines where the energy used per customer is large. Pennsylvania, for example, has nearly 1,000,000 H. P. in steam power operating for coal mining in private plants. Of the total of 11,000,000 electric customers, California has about 1,000,000, or one for every 3.5 persons, whereas in the United States there is approximately one customer for every 10 persons. California has about 9% of the total resi- dence customers, 10% of the total commercial customers and 15% of the total industrial customers, compared to about 3.5% of the population. The most surprising showing, however, is that California has 64,000- industrial customers , as against 42,600 for Illinois, 30,500 for Pennsylvania, 27,350 for Ohio and 25,550 for New York. ' The number of telephone users in California is practically 600,000 and of these, it is estimated, approximately 60%, or ' 360,000, are residence phones. In California, therefore, there are about two residence electric customers to one residence telephone service. (Often two or more families will use one phone service, but nearly every family Will have separate electric service.) In California the number of residence and commercial lighting customers is greater than the number of families, but in the United States there are more than two families to one electric customer. About 90% of the residences in California are electrically lighted as against about 40% for the United States in 1922. The figures are given for California because it has the widest use of electricity and this gives a measure of what can be done in other states. The per capita production in California was 1085 K. W. Hrs. as against 372 for the United States in 1921. The revenue per capita in California was about $17 as against about $9 for the United States. Cali— fornia, however, is by no means saturated and more power per capita will be used due to electric cooking, etc. See Figs. 14 and 15, Plate V, showing data on K. W. Hrs. and growth of revenue per customer. On Plates V and VI there has been condensed much of the informationfrom Plates VII to XI, and these should be given careful consideration. They show that the eastern states have the possibility for. great electric expansion by supplying the power for manufactures, mines, etc. In the United States there are 238,000 manufacturing establish— ments that use power, with an average of 124 H. P., and 22,000 mining and quarrying enterprises, with an average of 309 H. P. It is essential that the density of electrification in some of the states be improved, as electricity is nowtoo much of a necessity to have a large proportion of the people go. Without this service. The solutionfor the financing of the industry is largely to be found through the sale of securities to customers, thereby bringing about customer—ownership. I believe that many electric customers, customer—ownership of electric utility securities, good electric service and management responsive to the needs of the business, Will solve the public ownership problem. Public ownership and operation under any con- ditions must fail. Public ownership would be a serious set- back to development, especially with such a highly technical industry as the electric business, which is developing very rapidly in technique and methods. . Mr. John Moody, president of Moody’s Investors’ Service, in a recent special analysis of the public utility field, said: “We have come to regard public utility securities taken as a whole as the most desirable and attractive class in the investment market today. More favorably and intelligently regulated than the steam railroads, fundamentally more stable in every respect than the average industrial enter- prise, the public utilities of the country face an assured future confronted by one great problem—to finance expansion of their facilities rapidly enough to take care of 'the steadily increasing volume of business offered them. It is evident that the power companies represent one of the most important and most stable of the basic industries; that their future, simply on the basis of past accomplishment, is definitely assured for a considerable time to come, and that well- placed mortgage bonds of the strongest of these companies may be freely classified among the highest grade of invest— ment securities.” The following is quoted from an address before the Indiana Public Utility Association, by Mr. Edward N. Hurley, former head of the Shipping Board: “While public ownership was creating inefficiency and dissatisfaction, customer—ownership was demonstrating its undeniable merits. An industry engaged in rendering so essential a public service will continue to be judged by exact— ing standards. Management must be alert and seize on new methods. It must be honest in all political contacts. It must be quickly responsive to sound public opinion. It must be not only fair but liberal in dealing with employees. To be ‘ successful, an industry must be well equipped both in men and material.” The men in the electric industry have before them a con— structive program that will benefit the entire country. It is essential that they show the people that the interest of the public in this constructive program is identical with the interests of the electric industry. As one well-known bUsiness leader puts it: . “There is a perpetual struggle between the constructive forces of society and the forces of blind agitation, in which the former win in the long run, because they- alone can pro— duce results; but they will win more easily and surely if they have a clear appreciation of their responsibilities and of the conditions to which they must conform. They must satisfy the average man that his interest is one with theirs; that orderly, efficient, uninterrupted industry will bring better results to him than turmoil and confusion. The really valu- able citizen and leader is he who understands our social and economic system, and is qualified to guide public opinion along the way of steady permanent advancement.” Central Station Capacity and Customers and Ratio of Revenue and Sales to Customers and Population Generator Capacity and Customers Jan. 1, 1920, from Electrical World Data All other Items are from U. S. Census Reports JANUARY 1, 1920 YEAR 1917 STATE AND GEOGRAPHIC DIVISION: Gen. Installed Population K. W. gem Sta. CusItomers Gress Revenue K. W. Hrs. Sold in Central Sta. in ' per ustomers er Per Per Per Per Per Thousands K.W. Thousands Capita Thousands Caplta Customer Capita K.W.Hr. Sold Customer Capita UNITED STATES 12,7609 105,711 0.12 8,456 0.08 $70.00 $4.90 2 . 84¢ 2,465 172 New England .................... 1,359.2 7,401 0.18 812 0.11 81.00 7.30 3.79¢ 2,140 191 Maine ........................ 122.8 768 0.16 105 0.14 57.10 3.80 2. 38 2,400 161 New Hampshire ................ 52.4 443 0.12 34 0.08 81.50 7.00 6.43 1,270 109 Vermont ...................... 87.2 352 0.25 48 0.14 58.80 5.50 3 .79 1,550 145 Massachusetts ................. 763.6 3,852 0.20 406 0.11 86.00 7.90 3.98 . 2,160 198 Rhode Island .................. 145.3 604 0.24 65 0.11 100.00 7.45 2.78 3,600 268 Connecticut ................... 187.9 1,381 0.14 154 0.11 77.40 7 . 90 4.07 1,900 195 Middle Atlantic .................. 2,865.3 22,261 0.13 1,528 0.07 98.20 6.90 2.68 3,660 258 New York ..................... 1,466.4 10,385 0.14 709 0.07 100. 30 7.90 2. 52 4,000 313 New Jersey .................... 320.3 3,156 0.10 290 0.09 100.00 7.20 4.73 2,120 141 Pennsylvania .................. 1,078.6 8,720 0.12 529 0 . 06 94. 40 5.85 2 . 51 3,760- 232 South Atlantic ................... 1,310.7 13,990 0.09 605 0.04 84.10 2.20 1.95 4,320 113 Delaware ..................... Maryland .................... 225.6 2,111 . 0.11 129 0.06 83.40 4.40 2.37 3,520 185 District of Columbia ........... Virginia ....................... 165.3 2,309 0.07 109 0 . 05 66.00 1.05 2 .48 2,670 43 West Virginia .................. 202.1 1,4?4 0. 1171 45 0.03 106.20 2 . 50 2. 20 4,840 113 North Carolina ................. 191.1 2,5 9 0.0 70 0.03 ' South Carolina ................. 222.5 1,684 0.13 62 0.04} 113-00 “0 129 81770 178 Georgia ....................... 246.6 2,896 0.09 108 0.04 71.80 1.20 2.48 2,890 48 Florida ........................ 57.5 968 0.06 82 0.08 46. 80 2.50 5.83 800 43 East North Central ............... 3,249.5 __21,475 0.15 2,182 0.10 60.00 5.50 3.28 1,830 168 Ohio ................. i ......... 1,046.9 5,759 0.18 495 0 . 09 62.80 4.00 2 .68 2,340 148 Indiana ....................... 343.8 2,930 0.12 235 0.08 45 .30 4.20 3.65 1,240 115 Illinoisf ....................... 987.0 6,485 0.15 823 0.13 66. 50 7 . 20 4.03 1,650 179 Michigan ...................... 529.4 3,668 0.14 429 0.12 55.80 6.75 2.72 2,060 248 Wisconsin ..................... 342.4 2,632 0.13 200 0.08 59.80 4. 50 3.31 1,810 137 West North Central .............. 1,154.6 12,544 0.09 1,083 0.09 49.50 4.10 3.95 1,250 104 Minnesota ..................... 229.9 2,387 0.10 248 0.10 55 .20 5.20 2.65 2,080 196 Iowa .......................... 301.5 2,404 0.13 140 0.06 49.50 4.15 7.36 670 56 Missouri ...................... 347.2 3,404 0.10 288 0.08 50.60 . 4.15 4.04 1,250 102 North Dakota ................. 23.1 647 0.04 55 0.09 49.00 2.70 8.54 570 32 South Dakota .................. 29.1 637 0.05 51 0.08 45 .20 3.05 7. 39 610 41 Nebraska ...................... 85.7 1,296 0 . 07 122 O . 09 39.60 3 .65 4. 87 810 75 Kansas ................ 7 ........ 138.1 1,769 0.08 179 0.10 49.10 3.85 3.22 1,520 119 East South Central ............... 477.1 8,893 0.05 298 0.03 66.40 1.55 3.20 2,070 48 Kentucky ..................... 113.4 2,417 0.05 115 0 . 05 47.10 1 . 80 4. 39 1,070 41 Tennessee ..................... 173.8 2,338 0.07 72 0.03 93 .80 2.10 4.36 2,150 49 Alabama ...................... 147.4 2,348 0.06 64 0.03 86.20 1.30 1.58 5,470 83 Mississippi .................... 42.5 1,791 0.02 47 0.03 49.40 0.70 6.20 800 12 West South Central ............... 420.2 10,242 0.04 459 0.04 51.40 2.00 4.62 1,120 42 Arkansas ...................... 54.3 1,752 0.03 61 0.03 41.40 1.00 6.05 680 17 Louisiana ...................... 87.4 1,799 0.05 56 0.03 67.10 1.80 4.23 1,590 43 Oklahoma ..................... 79.5 2,028 0.04 79 0 . 04 48.00 2.15 4. 50 1,070 48 Texas ......................... 199.0 4,663 0 . 04 263 0 .06 51.40 2 .20 4. 57 1,120 49 Mountain ....................... 577.4 3,336 0.17 380 0.11 77.40 8.15 1.59 4,880 514 Montana ...................... 146.4 549 0. 27 63 0.12 134.60 15.40 0.96 13,970 1600 Idaho ......................... 101.8 432 0. 24 51 0.12 56.50 5.35 1.94 2,910 276 Wyoming ...................... 25.9 194 0.13 18 0.09 47.60 5.15 4.34 1,100 119 Colorado ...................... 133.4 940 0.14 121 0.13 67.50 6.80 3.04 2,220 224 New Mexico ................... 10.5 360 0.03 16 0.04 62.50 2.45 6.88 910 36 Arizona ....................... 56.4 334 0.17 14 0.04 87.80 6.85 3.29 2.670 g 208 Utah .......................... 81.8 449 0.18 81 0.18 64.60 11.45 1.39 4,660 828 NeVada ....................... 21.2 77 0.28 16 0.21 75 .70 10.40 2.00 3,800 523 Pacific .......................... 1,346.9. 5,567 0.24 ‘1,109 _ 0.20 57.50 8.60 2.36 ' 2,430 364 Washington .................... 331.3 1,357 0.24 251 0.19 36.60 3.20 2.32 1,580 138' Oregon ........................ 132.2 783 0.17 101 0.13 43.80 3 .20 3.01 1,460 107 California ..................... 883.4 3,427 0.26 757 0.22 62.60 12.05 2.34 2,680 516 Large K. W. Hr. consumption per capita in Montana and Utah is due to large use in copper production. r. Ni: 1‘ \ * Niim \ \ .3. r r r A ,2 ‘r ., “\xn = 1811101“ \wiwiiznn-nrin 10‘ \i" ‘ m‘ PAGE 6 «srr-r~.-«-,.V.a V- V . Summary of Mechanical and Electrical Power in Utilities and Industries Plate VI, Fig. 11, shows power summary of the United States (in:horsepower) approximately as follows fOr 1921: Manufactures, Mines and Quarries, not including purchased power Total owned power, Manufactures, Mines and Quarries .............. H orrepower Water Power ....... 1,800,000 Mechanical Power. . 15,000,000 Owned Elec. Power. 8,400,000 25,200,000 (The M anufacturey, M ine: and Quarries have alro connected to Central Station; about 11,000,000 H orrepower.) Central Stations I Total Central Station Power. .................. Electric Railways I Total Electric Railways ...................... Total Central Stations and Electric Railways ................... V I ‘HE Central Stations and electric railways have practically the same installed power as the manufactures, mines and quarries. The electrification of about 50,000 miles Of steam railways would require an installed generator capacity of about 4,000,000 K. W. or about 25% of the power now in— stalled in Central Stations and about 22% of the owned . power of manufactures, mines and quarries. This shows that the railway load is not so important when compared with the possible load from manufactures, mines and quarries. (See Plate XII and discussion on railway electrification.) SUMMARY OF POWER BY REGIONAL DISTRICTS Plate VI, Figs. 9 and 10, shows by Regional Power Districts a summary of the United States power used, not . including the steam railways. The purchased power has been subtracted from the manufactures and mines power. The installed capacity in manufactures and mines was multiplied by 0.5 to make up Figs. 9 and 10, showing a summary Of power by Regional Power Districts. This assumes that due to diversity the Central Stations would require one—half the capacity to care for the load now carried by the independent plants in the manufactures and mines. ' Fig. 10 has been so drawn as to show the, undeveloped water power in each district set Off against thesteam and other power (reduced one—half as explained above) that is installed in manufactures and mines. The developed water power is set Off against the steam power in Central Stations and electric railways. The surplus or deficiency of water power developed and undeveloped is thus shown clearly for each suggested regional power district. , - Beginning at the top of Fig. 10, District 11 is fairly well balanced as between hydro and. steam developed. District 12 shows a fairly good balance between hydro and steam. Both these districts have about 3,500,000 H. P. in undeveloped water. power. District 10 has a surplus of about 10,000,000 H. P., if we allow about 3,500,000 H. P. for the future needs of each of the states of Oregon, Washington and Idaho. District 10 has some very good water powers, and this district should , attract some of the large power users that must have cheap power and can locate the plants in this district to advantage. WaterPower................. ............ Steam and other Power ................... ooooooooooooo coca-u Water Power ........................... ........................ 3 ,600,000 Steam and other Power .................. ........................ 6,200,000 ........................ 13,600,000 19,800,000 600,000 T 4,200,000 24,000,000 District 3, in the southeastern part of the United States, is fairly well balanced and has a surplus of about 1,500,000 H. P. in undeveloped water power. This district would also get some power from District 5, especially steam reserve power, so District 3 could better utilize its water powers. Water storage in District 3 is difficult, hence the value of the steam reserve and connection with District 5 which would have steam power near the coal mines. Districts 7, 8 and 9 have a surplus of water power in the Rocky Mountains and there is probably about 6,000,000 H. P. in these three districts that may be taken easterly. The transmission distance is long but the power can be de- livered in competition with steam in the eastern end of these districts. (See Plate XV and discussion on page 21.) District 4 has coal and water power and can develop power - by the combination of the two. More water power is required which'will result when power from Muscle Shoals is available. District 1 (the New England states) can get some water power from the St. Lawrence and the Adirondacks and also from Canada to help their needs. Little steam power should be used in this district, because of the New York and Cana- dian water powers. District 6 (Illinois and Indiana) has a total demand'of nearly 3,000,000 H. P. and only about 450,000 H. P. in pos- sible water power. This district could get some water power from Minnesota and this power be replaced by water power from District 7. Water power from District 8 could also go towards Chicago. District 6 fortunately also has good coal mines and hence the steam power can be a large proportion of the total. This district may also get some water power from Manitoba, Canada. District 6 would largely be a steam power balancing district, as water power can flow from all directions towards this district. District 2 has about 1,400,000 H. P. in developed water power, about 2,750,000 H. P. in undeveloped water power, and this amount Of water power would materially aid the power situation in this district. The total demands in the district are about 7,000,000 H. P. with over 4,000,000 H. P. in possible water power. District 5 has nearly the same total power demands as District 2 and only about 3,000,000 H. P. in possible water power. Fortunately, District 5 can havea larger proportion of Steam power because some of the plants can be located near the coal mines, and part of this steam power can go to District 2 to save the pOwer developed from anthracite coal, since this coal is needed for. domestic and other uses. The eastern section of the United States should have at least one horsepower in water power for one horsepower in steam power, and ultimately there should be a greater per- centage of water power. (See Plate XIV for Economic Divi— sion of Water Power and Steam Power.) PROBABLE DEVELOPMENTS REQUIRED BY CENTRAL STATIONS It appears that the power industry, to meet the economic situation of the United States, may be required to double its plant capacities and loads in about five years. If the plant additions be largely made by the construction of water powers and by the development of high-voltage transmission systems, there could be saved by the electrification of the manufactures, mines and quarries probably 100,000,000 tons of coal per year. This is about 20% of the present production, and represents about one—half the coal used by these industries. There should result a saving to the present users of this Coal of probably $10 per ton of coal burned under boilers. (Considering cost in terms of coal burned under boilers, including cost of coal, cost of firing, cost Of water, boiler repairs, etc., an average cost of $10 per ton of coal burned is not too high.) This would mean a saving to the industries of about one billion dollars per year. About half this saving would be realized to the manufactures and mines after paying for the purchased power to replace the steam power. The investment .required by the industries tO realize this saving would be that required to motorize the plants, which for the manufactures and mines would mean an investment Of less than the annual saving. The other half of the billion dollars saved would represent the earnings required by the utilities to pay a return on their investment for the development of the systems. The utilities would have to increase their present facilities about 50% to take care of the demands of the manufactures and mines and this would require an investment Of about two and one- half billion dollars, to support which the half billion dollars per year mentioned will be applied. Possibly a saving of 70,000,000 tons‘of coal can be made by the electrification of main trunk lines of railways. The investment required by the utilities would be about one billion dollars and the earnings at 20% would be two hundred million dollars per year. (This assumes an average of 40,000 K. W. or the installation of 80,000 K. W. in plant capacity, transmission and substation per 1,000 miles of track or a total of 4,000,000 K. W., at $250 :2 one billion dollars.) The savings to the railways at $8 per ton for coal burned would be $560,000,000 or the savings would net $360,000,000 per year to the railways, subtracting the $200,000,000 to be earned by the utilities. (Cost of coal burned wouldmean cost of coal plus cost of hauling, storing, handling, also cost of boiler repairs, etc., and on this basis probably $8 per ton coal burned seems none too high.) The investment of the railways to make the electrification would probably be double that for the utilities or probably two billion dollars. See discussion re railway electrification, page 12. REGIONAL POWER STUDY AND PLAN District power studies should be made of possible future re— quirements, and also the possible and logical power develop- ments that should be made to meet the demands of the future. A comprehensive study of the power resources in a given territory is a matter that does not involve very large sums of money; but there is a too general tendency for the power companies to neglect to make the study of a logical construc- tive program. The result is that the companies Often wait until they are forced “to do something” in a hurry, which Often results in a merely temporary solution of the power problem and only defers the time when the matter must be attacked fundamentally and a plan worked out to be followed far ahead Of the needs. Without a constructive. program the companies are merely drifting on an unknown sea, which may lead to serious losses, and certainly “does not get anywhere.” Water power developments can be made to come up to expectations with competent study, plan and construction. Once a general plan of power and transmission develop-7 ment 1S agreed on, I have confidence that the men in the electric—utility industry will meet the responsibility. Such a plan would merit the support of the financial men, as they will know that they are proceeding on firm ground and that the dangers due to incomplete plans, conflicting interests, etc., will be avoided. The author has attempted to the best of his knowledge and ability to outline a general power program which will merit and’receive the support of all those interested in the success of the industry and in the stability of the country. Mr. M. H. Aylesworth, executive ”manager of the National Electric Light Association, discussing superpower as a na— tional policy recently in Pittsburgh, said in part: “The idea of bulk supply is not new; it is as old as the electric lighting industry itself. From the very beginning it was recognized that the economics of the situation demand that the supply of electricity for the home, for the store, for the factory and for transportation should come from one central source. Manifestly, if we are to maintain the high standard of living which is characteristic of America, the per capita earnings Of the country must also be high. With the competitive markets of the world, it would be impossible to bring this about without the aid Of machinery, and there— fore in this country use is made of every trade facility, in— vention and appliance. The United States, through its great use of machinery and electricity, is able to maintain a higher standard of living than any Other country because its labor produces more and earns more. During the twenty years prior to the war the annual national per capita earnings in the United States increased 116 per cent, those of Germany 52 per cent, France 27 per cent, and Great Britain 21 per cent. “These percentages reveal much. They show what an enormous influence cheap power, which means electricity, has on the productive capacity Of a nation and people, and it is chiefly because they are such great users of electricity that Americans excel in so many directions. But if we are to continue to enjoy an abundant and cheap supply of power, we must concentrate more and more in its production; we must erect fewer but larger stations; we must develop our water powers, conserve our fuel resources, and through inter— ‘ connected networks of transmission lines make power avail- able in every market. Full use of power means taking the City to the farm, giVing City electrical fac1l1ties to the farmer, and this Will be the salvation of this country. “Superpower is a measure Of advancing civilization. It is machinery raised to the nth degree, superseding municipal and state boundaries and becoming national and continental in its character. It can find no abiding place in countries where life is primitive and labor cheap.” To make such a national power system feasible requires that we have large-capacity transmission lines; and the best solution is Obtained by a constant—potential transmission as herein proposed. 1 INDIA». 1 NEWSL‘EV “1"“ 1 Within F ,.. l WHOM Er- '- ' WEN-$01 %~ i "I... ‘ mm l .. >w_u h” PAGE 7 Water Power Developments* THE effect of hydro-electric power and transmission has been previously discussed and is generally known. The lack of water power developments in the eastern states has been due largely to the low price of coal before the war. Coal was often cheaper at the mine than crushed rock, and we could not expect much water power development, with the higher investment and fixed charges. With the increase in the price of coal, men interested in the power industry are showing a decided interest in water power. As stated previously, the chief merits of hydro-electric developments and transmission are that they (1) tend to stabilize rates for power uses and therefore tend to extend the use of electric power; (2) tend to equalize the service and rates for power as between larger and smaller cities, so that the smaller towns and cities may build up industries and progress parallel with the larger cities; (3) tend to conserve coal, oil and labor. By developing water power and connecting by transmission with the large steam plants we obtain a system under which the smaller cities will get cheaper power for manufacturing, etc., and therefore, as previously stated, ‘ “aside from the economies of such a system, resulting from the ‘banking’ of the facilities, the power conditions through— out the area tend to become equalized, resulting in a distri- bution of population and industries not otherwise possible, and resulting, also, in adding to the general stability of the country; ”and in great saving in capital and operating ex— penditures for the industries and cities served.” In the large cities of the East there will always have to be very large steam plants for service insurance and these can be used to work well with the water power plants to give an economical general power system. For it is well known that p'ower loads are not sought as vigorously for steam plants as for water power. I am informed, on authority in which I have con- fidence, that the “Pittsburgh vein” of coal will be exhausted at present rate of use in about 25 years. That means higher coal prices before that time is reached. Secretary of Commerce Hoover has pointed out that the elimination of waste is one of our greatest problems. By developing water power we use a waste energy to save energy needed for other purposes. Water power energy is everlasting. It has its original source in the energy of the sun and is replaced by the seasonal rains. If our civilization is to endure, it must be built on an everlasting foundation. Water power is everlasting and will be here when other forms of energy are exhausted. A nation having abundant water power, to aid in production, transportation and utilization of products, need never fear decay from lack of energy. Aside from the ranges of mountains in the Pacific Coast . states and the Rocky Mountains, we have only one other range of mountains, the Appalachian Mountains, which has large resources in potential water power, and this range extends from the New England states southwesterly. into Alabama. In this range «of mountains and including the water powers of the St. Lawrence and Niagara there is probably 10,000,000 H. P. possible of development. The New England water powers, with the exception of some in Maine, have been fairly well developed, but additional power for this region may come from Canada, and I understand there are two projects under consideration for bringing some power from Canada to New England. A connection to New England could also be made from the water power of the Adirondacks. In the Adirondack Mountains there can probably be de— veloped enough water power to justify a double-circuit transmission line southerly to New York. From the St. Law— ence there can probably be justified in time the develop- ment of about 1,000,000 H. P., and this would require the construction of three double—circuit transmission lines south— erly towards the Metropolitan district. At Niagara Falls and in the canyon below the falls addi- tional power can. be developed in such a way as to add to the scenic valueof the region; and the power plants at Niagara Falls can be developed in such a way as to reduce the destruc- tion. now rapidly going on in the V gorge on the Canadian side and at the same time increase the scenic effect of the Falls. (It appears that the American Falls are doomed to final extinction unless some protective measures are taken.) The additional power to be developed at Niagara should, I believe, be largely taken easterly, southeasterly and westerly, as shown by Plate IV. In this way the advantages of water power will be spread out among more people, and this in turn will give a more favorable public opinion for the logical development of water power and transmission systems to meet the needs of the states and nation. The water powers that may be developed from the interior streams, the Delaware, Susquehanna, Potomac, etc., can be developed from time to time to help the supply in these regions, and some of these water powers may be over- developed for peak load conditions, since the distances of transmission will be short. The water powers on the branches of the Allegheny and on the branches of the Monongahela and Youghiogheny would be connected with the water powers east of the Alle— ghany Mountains, but this power would be' largely trans— mitted westerly and utilized along the main trunk bus shown running westerly from Pittsburgh. Steam plants located near coal mines could also feed into these transmission sys- tems, supplying steam power for Districts 2, 3 and 5. From the Kanawha and New River, supplemented by steam plants in this coal region, there can be developed enough water - m.» aur> ,~ » mu" savvy-xntaarfl rmnwmgwmqhmxnat -.. inqflflw .. ,. . , power to justify a double-circuit transmission line connecting to the main east and westbus near Cincinnati and Columbus, Ohio, and connecting also to the power systems east of the Appalachian Mountains as shown. From the upper Ten- nessee and branches enough power development can be made to justify a double—circuit transmission line connecting to Louisville and also connecting with the systems east and south of the Appalachian Range to Districts 3 and 4. 5 At Muscle Shoals a development is now proceeding which can be partly used in District 4 and would justifya trans— mission line run northerly to supply power into Districts 5 and 6. This power, like the large water powers of other regions, should be made a part of the general power system of the country. I The above shows an outline of projects in District 2 amounting to about 2,000,000 K.W. to 2,500,000 K. W., and the Alleghany and Appalachian projects in District 5 total about the same amount, which can be justified atlthis time by the market conditions. The developments outlined would materially relieve the power situation in Districts 1 to 6, inclusive, and allow a progressive development of the indus— tries in each district. As shown by Plate VII, the three: Pacific Coast states have undeveloped water power of about 20,000,000 H. P. This power will be largely needed for the development of indus— tries in these states and to supply the power required for the railway electrification across the mountain ranges of these states, and for other main—line electrifications that may be undertaken in time. Idaho has in addition about 5,000,000 H. P. possible; and in the Rocky Mountain states including Idaho there is about 15,000,000 H. P. possible of development, and this amount could be increased if the storage on the Colorado River is carried out to conserve the water in various reservoirs so as to be able to use this power to the best advantage. There are tentative plans for the development of about 500,000 H. P. on the lower Colorado as a by—product from water stored for irrigation. To effectively use such a large seasonal power product requires a very large interconnected transmission system, as is proposed herein for the United States. And to fully utilize the power of the Colorado to the best advantage with irrigation given first consideration re— quires other water—storage and power developments above the lower storage now proposed, so that the power of the upper sections of the river may be more continuous, the water from the upper storage reservoirs being stored for the final irrigation in the reservoir of lowest elevation. Such a plan. for several storage sites would also much reduce the amount of final storage in the lowest reservoir. The outlet for this power maybe partially to Southern California, Arizona, Colorado, and Utah, but the main bulk of power would have to be transmitted easterly if we are to find a use for this power in a reasonable time. Some of this power could be used for the electrification of railways in Districts 8 and 9, and for power uses along these railways. The water poWers of Idaho, Oregon and Washington, as previously stated, should be used to a large extent by in— dustries requiring a large amount of cheap power, as the Snake and Columbia rivers and their branches have some} good power sites. The water powers of Idaho should also be used in Idaho, Nevada, Utah and Wyoming as far as pos- sible for the power needs of the railways in this region when electrified. Some water power from Oregon and Idaho may finally go to Northern California. The remaining power from the Rocky Mountain states will have to go easterly to the Missouri River Valley if we are to find a market in a reasonable time. The natural routes for these transmission lines would be along the railWays and this would aid railway electrification. The transmission lines shown on Plate IV from the Rocky Mountains easterly will, of course, have to be justified one by one at the proper time, but the only solution I can see for making use of the large surplus power in the Rocky Mountain states is to take it easterly to supply the power requirements of the states west of the Mississippi and Missouri rivers. This will materially aid these mid— western states in their development. The water power plants would generally be constructed for load factors around 7597, but in some cases development may be justified for lower load factors. Plate XIV gives some studies of the economic ratio of hydro to steam power. It is not the purpose of this report to go into details of the developments or the costs of the developments, but merely to outline a general plan/of development. Each Regional District power plan should be carefully studied and each step in the program based on all the facts. Each step must justify itself and if the developments are fundamentally sound and capably carried out, there should result a great era of water power and transmission developments. With able work water power developments may be made to realize expectations. Once built they are an asset of increasing value. By developing water power and transmitting to places where required we use a waste to supply aneed, and in using this waste energy to lift the burdens of humanity we make a net gain for civilization and do not merely trans— fer a burden from one set of shoulders to another. That is, electric power tends to make masters of men and to elimi— nate slavery. This gives us assurance for the future, for an increasing population requires progress, progress requires profits, profits require efficiency—and we may claim in all confidence that modern efficiency requires electric power. NOTE.—The potential water power of the United States was estimated by the U. S. G. S. by dividing the rivers into sections of different lengths, the length depending on the slope of the channel, and the fall and flow of each section were determined from the best information available. With these factors the potential water power of each stream was determined on the assumption of an efficiency of 75 per cent in the water wheels. The portions of the streams where the slope is so small that water power can probably never be profitably developed were not included. The potential water power as shown on Plate VII is based on the flow available for 50 per cent of the time without the use of storage and is con- sidered conservative. By the use of storage probably a larger installation will be justified in most cases. *See also “The Effect of Hydro-electric Power and Transmission upon the Economic and Soc1al Conditions of the U. S. A.,” by Frank G. Baum, International Engineering Congress, San Francisco, September, 1915. \% lDHC , , {cuss IIII'E some 7 ‘3" IIIOIIIII also It region when [00 50 O 50 I00 STATUTEMILES I50 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 MAP SCALE LISA. POWER INDUSTRY . DEVELOPED AND UNDEVELOPED WATER POWER 'FRANKG. BAUM PLATE VII ”I M0 my CONSULTING ENGINEER,SAN FRANCISCO,CALIF NEW YORK 0.88 NEWMEXICO 0.95 ml..- I,OO0,000 H.RDEVELOPED. IQZI MAR. I925 W‘nm power ' EIIII‘DJJIJ I,0oo,ooo HP. UNDEVELOPED ITISItI‘IV I , . KEY To SYMBOLS ON MAP II “I . , . l , , 5 I USAI907 2,900,000 H.I= i, I I ' “ELIIIIIIltIIII u.S.A.I9I2 4,400,000 HI? . I i . , . ‘ U 5A. I9I7 6,500,000 HF.’ I I i - r IIIIIISIIIISSIOII USA, I92I 7,900,000 HP SASK iI MAN I NOTE—The estlmates of undu 1d I‘IIII'II' NEVADA a ATCH SWAN ,- ITOBA I veIoped power by the U. S. G. S. l "‘a , “. ~ I 55mm I for New York llm1t the power "iiI1IHP§IIIlI KANSAS E I [um i at Nlagara to the amount de- hays“) I I ' veloped by the. present treaty ”m l WEST VIRGINIAa w1th Canada. ThIS does not III III IIIII' » take Into account the addltlonal . I. U‘VII I NEBRASKA 0 mngo‘f'mo’c’w HF power that may be developed “Pump I NEW JERSEY ' In 0.0 on the N1agara Rlver or on the —,',;’I:I‘Il\'[llsllpply M550“, h L°U'5”"‘”\ °~° ' St. Lawrence Rlver.’ Mr. John I ”W 334;:ch 3:2. : P. Hogan, member A. S. C. E, . I'll? ”8MP SOUTH DAKOTA E - ' IDELAWARE 0.02 I estlmates the total water power «I IIIESI IIIIII' ........................ E M’NNESOTA 33122:” 3-8:: of New York as follows: II» 2 . ’ND'ANA “2:32;” 3-3: : Niagara River . 1000888 g. g. ' ' St. Lawrence River 8 , . . °H‘° % ”,5’;R*A”5"5°-'3 “ Delaware River . 150,000 H. P. C4 ISSIPPI 0J4- H I - S 1050 000 H P ,. -II1:IIIICI€III01 RHODE ISLAND' NEWJERSEY 0.I9 a “tenor ”cams ' _’ _’_ '_' '4 I III ARIzoNA L INDIANA 0.20 B 4,000,000 H. P.‘ :A WWI IIII _ MD.&D.G 0.27 a . Lib ,P E % g; ”'550UR' 0-3" E! The above power ofthe Nlagara 7‘ All Elwom ”‘L'NOIS , g‘é :ELC’TUCKY 3:22: and the St. Lawrence 1ncludes . .,,,,MII’II.I‘EI,II coLORAoo % 5g OKLAHOMA 0.45 a . only the Unlted States propor- .. II ”I" G “0mm“ 0-455 tlon. If we assume that only ”9 WM HE VIRGINIA = .............. EXZAS 2:: 2 1,000,000 additlonal power may 0 I IIIIIIIIIIEII ' ILLINOIS 0.565 be developed at Nlagara, the IN" . I UTAH amigo” 3:: total avallable 1s about 3,000.- . ,I-II, ,5:th REIIOM wmms,” 0:73 E, 000 horsepower for New York. H II Md EICII ALABAMA GEORGIA 0.75 E " ,-I;._’I;d ‘1“ ~ $0.0AROLINA 0.75 E .. ‘I fl.pmusI TENNESSEE NEBRASKA 0.76 E . “.l,jfLIl5~“. MISSOURI MAINE 0.73 a « TIIIIII‘ El ,3 IIIIIIIIIII - VERMONT E CONNECTICUT PENNSYLVANIAIJI E ............. TEXAS I.|7 E3 ............ No. CAROLINA [.34 E3 ' . TENNESSEE 1.37 SE PENNSYLVANIA Ea ._._._,_,___! OKLAHOMA VIRGINIA [.60 EB I .‘ ALABAMA L79 ES I lowA | EU I _ WEST VA 2.24 E .' I D _ ”TA” 2.03 g FROM ESTIMATE 0F 0.50.5. I E S I I ‘\ \/ uTH WYOMING 2.82 E=_.E OREGON I I '\ $0 COLORADO 3.48 a - . ARKANSAS , NA NEW MEXICO I A \.\CAR°L‘ ARIZONA 5.59 E=—E . MINNESoTA I IIIIID . MONTANA 0.05 V— IDAHO I047 a I OREGON I3.9I _ .L “t IDAHO . CALIFORNIA I444 I] 1 I WASHINGTON I7.74 . . T. °/ NEW HAMPSHIRE— OF TOTgLO I Z 3 4 5 6 7 8 MILLIONS OF’ HJ? UNDEVELOPED WATER POWER BY STATES I II NO RTH CAROLINA EE \ WA”, __FIG- 4 MICHIGAN ‘ l jLOUISIANA FLORIDA La C I: N I R A L y I I II. $un GEORGIA | “III/WW . II ”0mm”, ‘ mmfl souTH CAROLINA ‘ 4 I WISCONSIN Immmmm I907 MASSACHUSETTS m '9': USA. 54,000,000 HI? ' E '9'7 WEST SOUTH CENTRAL I.sa% — I92I MILLIONS H.? DEVELOPED WATER POWER MONTANA PLANTS WITH LESS THAN IOOHI? EAST NoRTH CENTRAL 3 2195% N°T INCLUDE? NEW ENGLAND I: 2.957. MAINE WEST NORTH cENTRAL :I 5.03% —OEVELOPEO :UNDEVELOPED EAST SOUTH CENTRAL E: 3.64% WASHINGTON MIDDLE ATLANTIC In: 4.62 CALIFORNIA - SOUTH ATLANTIC 19070 I -- moumw I . I I I I I I m lie/72% #fl— IIIIIIIIII—IIIIIII NEW YORK ——= PACIFIC I 1 I I l I I | | I I l l I 1 [Tr—n 42$|% O I Z 5 4 5 6 7 6 9 IO II |2 I3 HUNDREDS OF‘ THOUSANDS H.F.’ FIGJ DEVELOPED WATER POWER BY STATES-l907,l2,l'7&2|. o 5 IO .Is 20 1900 I910 I920 , 1930 FIGZ POTENTIAL WATER POWER BY GEOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS FIGS RATE OF GROWTH FOR FOUR STATES ”‘0“ . . :IIIIIflzhe , ”5510“" um IIIIIFI III ' / II“ III ‘ IrIIIIIlI 1’ PAGE 8 Generator Capacity and Output of Central Stations THE Central Station systems of the United States have about $5,000,000,000 invested in approximately 15,000,— 000 K. W. installed capacity, or $333 per K. W. installed. The gross earnings are about $1,000,000,000 per year, or $66 per K. W. installed, and about $200 per average K. W. output for the annual average output of approximately 5,000,000 K. W. (One K. W.‘ = practically 1% horsepower.) On Plate I are shown the operating ratios of various types of utilities and the operating ratio of different companies. On Plate VIII are shown the Central Station capacities by states, the average output, and the capacity factors by states. A comparison of the capacity factors as shown by states in Fig. 2 and the load factors of large Central Stations as shown in Fig. 1 shoWs that the capacity factor by states is considerably smaller than the load'factors of the large companies. The reason for this, of course, is obvious, and it is plain that if all the power facilities of the state were interconnected through transmission systems of larger capacity, then the capacity factor of the state would more nearly approach the load factors of the large systems. A particular example of this is shoWn 'in Fig. 6, in which the principal data of the Pacific Gas and Electric Co., which operates a concentrated system in California, are compared with the 11 properties in 17 states operated by the Standard Gas and Electric Company. Although the gross earnings and operating expenses are very nearly the same for these properties, the K. W. Hrs. output of the Pacific Gas properties is about 50% greater than the Standard Gas and Electric System, which serves a greater population. The Connected power load is also considerably larger for the concentrated system than it is for the larger system made up of small units not interconnected. It is evident, of course, that it is much easier to operate a large concentrated system than it is a system made up of small units. Fig. 7 shows another example of a large concentrated system, that of the Com- monwealth Edison Company of Chicago. Figs. 4 and 5 show the growth of installed capacity and average output and also the growth of connected load. This shows that the growth of the industry has taken place practically in the last twenty years, and in the last ten years the installed generator capacity has multiplied nearly three times, and the connected load has multiplied nearly four times. These curves and those on Fig. 9, Plate 1, show that the industry has practically doubled in the past siX years. Plate VI shows a summary of power conditions of the United States. This plate should be carefully studied. The question arises as to what we may expect in the next few years. As shown by Fig. 11, Plate VI, there is about 23,000,000 H: P. in steam and other mechanical power operating in manufactures, mines and quarries. We have here a possible connected load of about 23,000,000 H. P., and if we include the electrification of only the main lines of the large steam-railway systems, there is a possible connected load of approximately 30,000,000 H. P. If we add to this 30,000,000 H. P. another 10,000,000 H. P., which may result in the next five years from increase in lighting and commercial uses, we have a total possible additional connected load of about 40,000,000 H. P. If we assume the installed capacity required to handle this load to be 20,000,- 000 H. P., it would require the installation of about double the present installed capacity in Central Stations, and the average output of the Central Stations would probably be at least doubled. The additional installed capacity should be in the form of water power so far as economical. At present the water power capacity of Central Stations is about 30% of the installed steam power, and for best economy, as shown by Fig. 3, Plate XIV, the installed water power shOuld be- from 50% to 75% of the total installed capacity required, and the K. W. Hr. output of the water power stations should be very much larger than that from steam power. To make the water and steam power installed capacities approximately equal, the additional 20,000,000 H. P. installed should be approximately 14,000,000 H. P. in water power and 6,000,000 H. P. in steam power. This is, of course, a general figure for the United States and will vary for different sections. In the states east of the Rocky ,Mountain states there is a possible economic water power development of from 10,000,— 000 to 12,000,000 H. P., so that there is a possible develop— ment in these states of about as much water power as there is steam power now operating in this region. The saving in coal resulting from replacing the mechanical power and by the proposed installations should result in a saving of about 200,000,000 tons of coal per year, and, if taken at $5 per ton, results in a saving of about $1,000,- 000,000 per year, which is about equal to the additional amount required to be earned by the utilities to double, their investment. As the cost of this Coal delivered under the boilers of the various plants is probably $10 per ton, we see here that there is a saving to these power users of an amount about equal to the gross earnings added to the utilities. The saving to the power users wOuld be, of course, a net saving, less cost of motorizing plants, whereas the earnings of the utility must support the investment and pay the operation expenses, maintenance and depreciation on an investment of about $5,000,000,000. It is seen, therefore, that the gain to the power user is very much greater than the gain to the electric utility, and especially is this true of the small manufacturer. The saving of about 200,000,000 tons of coal is about 40% of the present production of the United States. This reduction in COal out— put would make a labor saving in the mines alone of about 275,000 men which could be used in other industries; but probably more labor is used in handling this coal after it leaves the mines than there is required in mining. All this released labor will of course be available for other lines of work and this is one way of solving our labor problem and is, I believe, the rational way of largely solving it and main— taining our level of civilization. The additional $5,000,000,000 which would be required to be invested in electric utilities would be largely in power plants and transmission lines and in distributing systems to industrial consumers, as the additional investment in dis— tributing systems to lighting consumers would be compara— tively small. The average cost, therefore, of about $250 per H. P. or $330 per K. W. for the additional plants, transmis— sion lines and’industrial distributing systems should not be far from correct. The investment for the power supply for railway electrification may be less than $330 per K. W. in most cases. Installed Generator Rating, Average Output and Capacity Factor for Central Stations Year 1921 from U. S. G. S. and Electrical World Data. Year 1917 from United States Census Report. a Prime Movers Installed in Central Stations (Estimated) 1917 1921 1921 GEOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS AND Inst. Generators Average Output . Inst. Generators Average Output . Water Power Total STATES CapaCity FCRpaClty K. W. K. W. FaCtor % K. W. K. W. acwr % Horsepower Per Cent Horsepower United States ................. .—. 8,994,407 2,904,750 323 14,466,915 4,404,400 30 5 6.068,300 29 7 20.43.5000 New England .................... 918,152 209,540 22.8 1,343,542 341,700 25.4 544,500 27 3 1,991,000 Maine ....................... 63,242 18,900 29.9 . 116,281 40,100 34.5 125,000 77.3 162,000 New Hampshire .............. 65,560 18,350 28.0 52,157 19,600 37.6 110,000 71.0 155,000 Vermont .................... 51,751 7,440 14.4 87,619 12,800 14. 6 72,000 76.7 94,000 Massachusetts ............... 478,933 106,900 22.4 739,917 157,800 21 , 3 155,000 15 ,1 1,030,000 Rhode Island .............. .. 106,017 18,500 17.4 143,283 39,400 27. 5 3,500 1_8 200,000 . Connecticut ................. 152,649 39,450 _ 25 .9 204,285 72,000 35.2 79,000 22.6 350,000 Middle Atlantic .................. 2,362,759 874,200 37.0 3,257,974 1,057,700 32 , 5 1,146,800 24. 0 4,570,000 New York ................... 1,202,804 437,000 36.4 1,586,443 524,000 33.0 973,000 43.7 2,230,000 ‘ New Jersey .................. 249,521 89,200 35. 8 349,556 109,700 31.4 8,800 1.8 490,000 Pennsvlvania ................ 910,434 348,000 38. 2 1,321,975 424,000 32 . 0 165,000 8.9 1,850,000 South Atlantic .............. i ..... “735,619 199,320 27.1 1,777,373 460,300 25.9 799,300 34.3 2,327,000 Delaware .......... . ........ . 2,697 380 28 5 34,315 8,100 30 9 0 0 48.000 District of Columbia .......... 55,000 16,050} ' 90,000 30,300 ' 0 0 126,000 Maryland ................... 73,591 20,820 28. 3 191,523 27,100 14.1 2,100 0.8 268,000 Virginia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I . . .. 65,913 12,290 18.7 167,941 61,900 36.9 76,000 32.4 235,000 West Virginia ................ 103,611 23,320 22. 5 351,620 125,900 35 . 8 8,400 1.7 493,000 North Carolina ............... 153,410 42,450 27.6 221,117 39,800 18.0 126,000 45 .0 280,000 South Carolina ............... 159,255 57,150 35.9 396,819 87,800 22.1 321,000 75.7 424,000 Georgia ..................... 84,330 21,050 25 .0 250,718 62,900 25 .1 262,000 75 .0 350,000 Florida ...................... 37,812 5,810 15.4 73,320 16,500 22.5 3,800 3 , 7 103,000 East North Central ............... 2,089,849 657,400 31.5 3,548,763 1,054,200 29.7 516,200 10. 4 4,972,000 Ohio ........................ 420,481 123,800 29. 5 1,098,433 288,000 26. 2 18,000 1.2 1,540,000 Indiana ..................... 227,825 50,450 22.2 373,113 103,400 27.7 21,200 4.1» 20,000 Illinois ...................... 737,621 252,200 34. 2 961,814 341,000 35 . 4 69,000 5.1 1,3 50,000 Michigan .................... 451,276 171,800 38.1 712,624 217,000 30.5 223,000 22.3 1,000,000 Wisconsin ................... 252,646 59,150 23 . 4 402,779 104,800 26 . 0 185,000 32.9 562,000 West North Central .............. 780,138 202,900 26.0 1,313,292 334,800 25.5 359,600 19.5 1,841,000 Minnesota ................... 162,854 50,400 30.9 299,131 67,100 22.4 145,000 34.6 420,000 Iowa. . . , .................... 184,506 70,200 38.1 298,244 113,000 37.9 169,000 40.4 419,000 Missouri .................... 166,813 30,450 18.3 397,911 67,600 17.0 17,600 3.2 558,000 North Dakota ............... 20,041 2,620 13 .1 25,433 3,600 14.1 0 0 35,000 South Dakota ................ 24,323 3,640 15 .0 30,760 5,800 18.9 6,000 13 .9 43,000 Nebraska .................... 78,227 14,790 18.9 112,106 30,200 , 26.9 12,000 7.7 156,000 Kansas ...................... 143,374 30,800 21.5 149,707 47,500 31 . 7. 10,000 4. 8 210,000 East South Central. . . .g ........... 366,532 119,770 32.7 517,569 149,600 28.9 228,000 31.5 725,000 Kentucky ................ 69,442 14,000 20.2 109,483 32,500 29. 7 0 0 W Tennessee ............ 145,335 64,490 44.4 172,280 55,900 32 . 5 126,000 52.4 241,000 Alabama.‘ ................ 128,509 37,800 29.4 192,918 54,100 28.0 > 102,000 37.8 270,000 MiSSiSSippi .................. 23,246 3,480 15.0 42,888 7,100 16. 5 0 0 60.000 West South Central ............... 242,375 55,080 22.7 485,063 151,800 31.3 12,700 1.9 677,000 Arkansas ............... , . . .. 24,913 4,410 17. 7 . 59,277 14,200 24.0 1,000 1.2 83,000 Louisiana ................ 25,762 2,970 11.5 87,674 26,800 30. 6 0 0 122,000 Oklahoma ....... 57,783 11,500 19.9 104,328 24,500 23 .5 1,700 1.2 146,000 . exas .................. 133,917 36,200 27.0 233,784 86,300 37.0 10,000 3 .1 326,000 Mountain .................. .. . .. 533,997 232,740 43.6 683,930 211,600 31.0 805,300 76.6 1,052,000 Montana .................... 182,079 110,400 60. 7 227,791 68,100 29.9 342,400 96.0 357,000 Idahou ...................... 37,103 16,600 44. 8 121,160 62,900 51.9 222,400 99.0 225,000 Wyoming ....... ' ............. 20,627 3,120 15.1 21,699 4,300 19.8 7,500 25 .0 30,000 Colorado .. ................... 94,791 31,350 33.1 136,605 41,500 30.4 79,000 41.6 190,000 New Mexico ................. 12,713 1,970 15.5 10,506 1,800 17.1 700 4. 7 15,000 Arizona ..................... 26,972 7,500 27.8 58,439 15,100 25 .9 38,700 47. 2 82,000 Utah ........................ 147,359 55,650 37.8 85,380 13,700 16.0 101,800 83.5 122,000 Nevada ..................... 12,353 6,150 49.6 22,350 4,200 18. 8 12,800 41.4 31,000 Pacific. . . . . . . . i ................. 964,986 353,800 36.7 1,539,409 642,700 41.7 1,655,900 72.6 2,280,000 Washington .................. 99,875 27,700 27.7 416,278 134,200 32. 3 400,000 69.0 580,000 Oregon. 5 .................... 47,917 12,300 25. 7 144,708 53, 37.0 126,000 63 .1 200,000 California ................... 817,194 313,800 38 . 4 978,423 455,000 46. 5 1,129,900 , 75 .4 1,500,000 Distribution of Output of Central Stations in the United States in Millions of K. W. Hrs. From estimates by Electrical World of September 9, 1922 1897 1902 1907 1912 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 l 1920 | 1921 Total. Generated. . .‘ ............................. 800 2,337 5,862 11,569 14,400 16,175 21,230 25,438 33,200 38,921 43,555 40,976 Distribution and Line Losses .................... 250 650 1,332 2,546 2,968 3,000 ,205 , 6,360 6,680 7,995 7,530 Lighting ...................................... 485 4985 1,870 2,752 3,732 4,100 4,900 5,600 5,700 6,200 6,870 7,400 Industrial Power ............................... 50 602 1,500 3,254 4,061 5,175 7,564 9,599 16,180 21,061 23,700 21,046 Electric Railways ............................... 15 100 1,160 3,017 3,639 3,900 4,561 4,947 4,960 4,980 4,990 5,000 NOTE—The figures in above table differ in distribution of output from U. S. Census report, but agree in total output. ~ For years 1918 to 1921 total output includes Electric Railways as per U. S. Geological Survey data for output of all plants generating 10,000 K.W. Hrs. or more per month. Installed Generators, Average Output, and Motor Connected Load of Central Stations in the United States From U. S. Census Reports and Electrical World data 1902 1907 1912 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 Installed Generators, thousands of K.W ...................... 1,212 2,709 5,165 8,994 .............. 12,761 .............. 14,467 Average Output, thousands of K.W .......................... 287 669 1,317 2,905 .......................................... 4,404 otor Connected Load, thousands of H.P .................... 438 1,649 4,131 9,216 11,355 12,930 .............. 16,000 Other Connected Load, thousands of H.P. (not lighting) .................................................. 1,447 1 697 1,869 ............................ 1 i w lurmo 5:“ l ‘ 16~[:_.’.,fir;9:. . . .. / -. 1; ’ hm .~ L” w, am” i . 1555' =11 Jljfifi'fli ELE’,‘ C 1 Means”: :. m ‘ 4- r v.40 5,1 IIHIIdlllflemal I UNION GAS a: ELECT. CO. 3 6 [,I. ‘ 536 L56 lured] a a»: a GEORGIA For 3. POWER CO. 0 u 0 ~ 352 Z “.3?- n u" 2 g E g z _, - '3' NI IQAI I II; I AFAI :l I Y AN] I I II I I Pl I I E26 I-E' S’.‘ 225 )_ l,4 n U ‘ PORTLAND RY LT A: R CO. g :0 m In a 9 ~ ‘IEE I: , 524 . g , m S . P ‘ < 33 Id 3} o I“ I .120 :0 . Los ANGELES BUREAU OF PJ ‘T ‘1 ' . /I MONTANA ILLINOIS m. PURCHASEO EL. PR. l,629,000 HP RATE 0 F' G R O WTl—I F O R U, 8 A ‘ . III MISSOURI a: NEW YORK GENERATEO EL. PR I,260,000 HP , . /. WASHWGWwN 7,:- OHIO __ I MECHANICAL PR. 0,042,000 HP. F—O R A L.'I_ IN D U ST R I E S . , . IIII OKLAHOMA PENNSYLVANIA m2: ENTERPRISES az,ooo. FIG 2 " ' '5 3 VIRGINIA O so I00 AVERAGE PR. 309 HP __ _ - ,,;;, III . . — WATER POWER , . .. . . in, ALABAMA W’ STONE QUARRYING E GENERATED ELECTRIC POWER PACWIC _ I “ IIIj INDMNA 7/, ’ FIG a MECHANICAL PowER OTHER THAN WATER. WEST NORTH CENTRAL . . I , . § . . .. I9 I ‘ II: KENTUCKY 1mm. WEST SOUTH CENTRAL J . I. OHIO MOUNTAIN ‘ ' I , III ILLINOIS SOUTH ATLANTIC . l l . ‘ u WEST VIR6|N|A W/JWVl/Il/I/l 'I I I EAST NORTH CENTRAL ME I If! I I I I l I l I I ' , , J )7 PENNSYLVANIA { /// liv/l/l/l/l/Il/I/I/I/I: I I I BITUMINOUS I , MIDDLE ATLANTIC . , I I I I I I I I I I I l I 1; ~ . . I I I I *- ANTHRACITE o 200 400 600 800 , Iooo I200 I400 I600 I000 2000 2200 :,‘ . III O I00 200 300 TH‘zggANDs 653%? 600 700 500 900 , THOUSANDS o,- H, P : . III —F———§—IG- COAL- M'N'NG INSTALLED POWER BY GEOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS 19I9 III INSTALLED POWER BY STATES FOR PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIES ISIS FIG.1 ‘ Z . III I" 17 ‘ /I , vi PLATE XII 0.68:0 I W.J.&$ B D MJIN E VIRGINIAN E L 1 E K C- 50 a B &L E E NY 6.1:5TLE I? .4. LE. 5 w. MD a c. lgA. E THOUSANDS OF' 0 I880 I890 O I Z 5 4 5 6 7 8 9 IO ll THOUSANDS or MILES MILES OF ROAD OPERATED ISZI. BY RAILROAD SYSTEMS FIG.2 TOTAL USA. 253.ISO. RHODE ISLAND D DELA RE a CONNEC ICUT VERMONT NEW HAMPSHIRE MARYLAND WYOMING MASSACHUSETTS , NEVADA UTAH MAINE NEW JERSEY ARIZONA IDAHO NEW MEXICO OREGON SOUTH CAROLINA KENTUCKY WEST VIRGINIA TENNESSEE SOUTH DAKOTA MISSISSIPPI VIRGINIA ARKANSAS MONTANA FLORIDA LOUISIANA NORTH DAKOTA ALABAMA NORTH WASHINGTON COLORADO NEBRASKA OKL‘AHOMA GEORGIA INDIANA WISCONSIN MISSOURI CALIFORNIA NEW YORK MICHIGAN OHIO MINNESOTA KANSAS IOWA PENNSYLVANIA ILLINOIS TEXAS PROPOSED P'OR ELECTRIFICATION O | Z 3 4 5 6 7 8 3 IO THOUSANDS or MILES ROUTE MILES OF STEAM RAILWAYS ISIS. SHOWING MILEAGE PROPOSED FOR ELECTRIFICATION BY STATES. FIG. 1 RAILWAY IMILEAGE. FOR U. S. A. RATE OF GROWTH FIG. IO D. &H C. RR or D. L a. w Cl: O L.V PO R N.3¢N NY NH.&H- 617 NO. N. PAC. R&L.E I ET: 6. C. 3.0. I U.PAC. DMIgN. I (1.510. “”1““? - C.M.&5‘EE W0 ‘5. - O.‘ NW. a " L E a S. PAC. L“ 3 AT 8. 5.:- NY. CAST-La Big VIRGINIAN a Nx c. ORROE NJ. 3 R RR K C. SO. a o , z 3 :31: E. ‘ THOUSANDS 9 AH LOCOMOTIVES ISZI. D L Aw. BY RAILROAD SYSTEMS. C. Gw. C.A EIELOE P I: R L.v. NY. NHA-H. N.&W. ERIE GAO. ILL. C. B.&O. NY. 6. N. PAC. S. PAC. P. RR. at NO. U.PAC. CJrNW. AIIrSE OBAQ c.M.x.STP. ’ 5.8:0. W4. 45. L. I. RJTJr E C.C.& O. R M. AN. C. NO.&‘EI? E.J.&E. I? I: LE. 3.1-. L.E. C. GW. K. C. 50. W MD. 6. 3< $40..$3,000,000 Steam power, fixed charge. . . .25,000 kw. x $20.. 500,000 Total power, fixed charge ...................... $3,500,000 or $35 per K. W. Yr., as shown by the ordinate of the line s H'at 75% water power, 25% steam power. All water power fixed charge would cost $4,000,000 and all steam power fixed charge $2,000,000 per year. All steam power costs for 100% L. F. $6,000,000, assuming steam energy charge for "100% L. F. equals $40 per K. W. Yr. For any other assumption of cost per year of water power or steam power, it is only necessary to determine the yearly fixed charge against steam power (0 s) and water power (01H) and draw the line 3 H, and we have immediately the total fixed charge for any proportion of water power and steam power. This very much simplifies the problem and Visualizes the results. The figures $40 per K. W. Yr. for all charges against hydro and $20 for fixed charges and $40 per . K. W. Yr. for steam for 100% L. F. are taken to represent average conditions. It is simple, however, to make a diagram for any desired proportion of steam and hydro cost. To determine now the total charge per K. W. Yr} against the combined steam and water power, it is necessary to add the K. W. Hr. charge against the steam power. (It is of course assumed that all charges against the water power are fixed charges, which would be the case if there. were no seasonal storage of water.) To determine the yearly’charge against ' steam power for any load factor we must start with the load curve of the power system. The load curve assumed is that shown in the center of Fig. 1. The ordinates, it will be noted, are plotted in percentage of the load, the peak load being 100%. Now we must determine the K. W. Hrs. carried by steam for any percentage of the total load carried by steam, it being assumed of course that the steam power takes the load off the top of the curve. For this purpose we determine kilowatt—hours to be carried by. steam power when 10%, 20%, etc., of the top of the load curve is carried by steam. To do this we take the area of the load curve above 90%, for example, and determine the load factor of this piece of the load curve. Similarly for areas above 80%, 70%, etc. The results are shown in Fig. 1. For example, if all load over 87.5% is carried on steam, we get the steam load factor 210%, and steam kilowatt—hours 1.25% of the total as shown by the example. Also. we get a hydro—electric load factor 82.6% and kilowatt-hours 98.75% of the total. See example Fig. 1. From the curves in Fig. 1 and the cost per kilowatt—hour of fuel and other strictlyflsteam energy charges, we determine for any percentage of load carried by steam power the yearly energy charge per kilowatt—year. Assuming $40 per kilowatt— year for energy charge where all the energy is supplied by steam for the particular load curve under consideration, and adding the energy charge to the fixed charge for steam and hydro power, we obtain the total cost of power as shown by the curve H S in Fig. 1. This Curve starts at $40 [per kilowatt- year if all power is carried by water power. By adding some steam power to take off the peaks, we see there is a slight decrease in the yearly charge until the steam power carries about 20% of the load. At 50% of the load the cost again comes to about $40 per year, and then a gradual increase in power cost results up to $49 per K. W. Yr. for 73.5% L. F. Hence, at between 20% and 30% load carried by steam, . for this particular load curve, there is little change in the yearly charge per kilowatt and we would not for this case be warranted in installing less than 20% steam; for naturally, unless very material savings result, the decision will always be to install steam power because of the smaller capital cost. Rising fuel costs, however, tend to make decisions in favor of water power, as once installed the cost of hydro— electric power varies little. Instead of using the actual load curve, we may get some general. conclusions by taking the peak load as 1 K. W. and assume the load of any part of total as carried for 24 hrs. In Fig. 2, % K. W. is carried 24 hrs., % K. W. for 18 hrs., % K. W. for 8 hrs. and % K. W. for 4 hrs., giving a L. F. of 75%. In Fig. 3 the loads and hours are changed as shown to give a 61% L. F., and in Fig. 4 for 46.8%. The steam energy costs for carrying % of peak load for 4 hrs. is simply 1><1><$40 8X6 way the various practical load curves can be quickly analyzed. 5 =$6 per year. By blocking off load curves in this The interesting general relation is brought out that the economical hydro in per cent of total capacity is approxi- mately the same as the L. F. That is, for 50% L. F. there should be 50% hydro and for 75% L. F. there should be approximately 75% hydro. This of course depends on the factors of fixed cost for hydro, and fixed and energy cost for steam power. The resultant line of total yearly power demand costs per kilowatt shows graphically what we want to know, and after we have the curve of energy cost of steam power at various load factors, we can very quickly make up total costs per kilowatt—year for any assumption of fixed cost of hydro—electric and steam power. It is believed this method will assist engineers in their work. This gives an outline of the general principles and gives the general method to follow. There are, of course, many details and different conditions in different sections of the country. It is believed that the method presented will appeal to engineers and managers. The actual proportion of steam to hydro-electric power will of course be somewhat influenced by service insurance conditions. Also the decision will be influenced by the fact that water power tends to remain more constant in cost while coal cost tends to increase. Judgment must be used, but the general result is that the loads are usually built up on the steam reserve until there is enough demand to warrant the particular hydro—electric development that is favorable. Then the hydro-electric development is brought in to reduce the steam power; then the steam power is again used to build up the load for a second water—power development, etc., etc. Occasionally it may occur that the steam power plant would carry a base load and the water power be used as a peak load plant. The cost of power for the combination can be determined by a variation of the method here given. Generally, the energy routes shown on Plate IV will be used for carrying water power long distances, and for long dis— tance transmission the water power plants will be used to carry the base load. The steam plants at the mines will be sometimes used as base load"plants. The steam power plants of the larger cities will generally be used for service insurance and for peak load conditions. *“Economic Proportion of Hydro-Electric and Steam Power,” by F. G. Baum. Trans. A. I. E. E, 1918. PART 90% O fie“ m C) A vi” \ r\\\ A 40 . c :\:.+ .\ \T \f: \.. ENE. ,\: _ \ A \m 30 \44 A IO 2 / / / / 0% -—’;7s\ a n .A > r \ g . 8K»; H c (RS3 (< ( 4.4V PART II ELECTRIC PO\VER TRANSMISSION; CONSTANT POTENTIAL SYSTEM _ PAGE I 5 The Present Power-Transmission System THE ordinary power—transmission system in operation raises the potential at the generating end of the line and the power flows because the potential at the receiving end is lower; that is, we slide the power down hill, so to speak, from high potential to low potential. This is as though we transported products by building an inclined plane and coasted the cars down the track. When the limitof grade was reached we would hoist the cars to a second elevation and then transport another distance. This is of course a very crude system. We must put the motive power in the trains, that is, we must put the potential control in the transmission system so that we may transport power at one potential and be able to take power off the line or put power on the line, or even entirely reverse the direction of the power flow. SUCh a system has the flexibility of a railway system. This is what 1 described as a constant—potential system in the paper, “Voltage Regulation and Insulation for Large-Power, Long—Distance Transmission Systems,” A. I. E. E., Aug., 1921'. Theordinary power system also places a very heavy burden on the power companies. Due to the low power factors of induction motor loads, an extra burden of 20% to 50% may be placed on the transformers, lines and generators on ac— count of the extra current required to be carried. This extra current, as is well known, is due to the fact that the excita— tion of transformers and induction motors must come from some synchronous machine which is often many miles away. If the current is increased 25%, the copper losses are in— creased as 12 or practically 56%. Hence, the burden of losses as well as capacity due to low power factors. In addition an extra burden is placed on the system due to the extra voltage required to overcome the drop in voltage over the reactance of the transformers, lines and generators. The total burden may be 25% to 50% of the installed capacity in lines, transformers and generators. Let us take an example: A system has a load of 100,000 K. W. at 0.8 P. F., or 125,000 K. V. A. to carry the load. The losses in transformers and transmission including main sub— stations are designed for say 10% for unity P. F., and this line and transformer loss would be 10,000 K. W. At 0.8 P. F. the losses, due to the extra current of 25%, are 56% higher, or 5,600 K. W. extra losses. Now the extra line loss has a value of say $25 per K. W. Yr. (the value cost of ' water power at the power station) or 5,600 K. W. X $25: $140,000 per year for water power conditions. (In the gen- erators the armature losses, the field and core losses, etc., will be increased 40% to 50%. At 40%, assuming 97.5% ef. of generators at unity P. F., the extra losses are 1%, or 1,250 K. W. The reduced generator and transformer core losses will care for the losses in condensers required to cor— rect the power factor.) That is only part of the burden of carrying the 0.8 P. F- load. The wattless K. V. A. of the 125,000 K. V. A. at 0.8 . P. F. is 75,000 K. V. A. By providing this K. V. A. in lead— ing current in. synchronous motors, condensers or in trans- mission lines we may correct the power factor to unity and reduce the capacity required at the generator to 94,- 400 K. W. The cost of condensers may be taken at $15 installed, including transformers, switches, etc., which would total $1,125,000. When this is done we would have reduced the losses, which have a yearly cost of $140,000, and we have now reduced the loadin the generators, transformers and transmission so that we may add 25,000 K. W. to the load. The value of this plant capacity in generators, step-up and step-down transformers and transmission if taken at a value of $60 is $1,500,000, or more than the cost of the con- densers installed. ' The above figures are for water power conditions. For steam- power conditions the line and transformer losses may be one— half the above or a total of 2,800 K. W. extra loss. The coal or oil cost of this loss at $50 per K. W. Yr. will again be $140,000 per year. The released generator capacity, trans- formers and lines of 25,000 K. V. A., if taken at $30, has a tOtal value of $750,000. Subtracting this from the cost of the condensers leaves $350,000. This is the capital cost for which we get a saving of $140,000 per year in coal. The value of improved service has not been estimated. Every induction motor added to the system calls for a certain capacity current for correction of power factor to reduce the losses from motor through to the power station. The lagging K. V. A. of the induction motor and trans- former load is like the empty—car load of the railways; this can be balanced by leading K. V. A. On the other hand, every synchronous motor added, instead of an induction motor, helps in the economy all along the line, improves the service and reduces the menace of large lagging currents. Every synchronous motor added becomes an asset to the entire system. Power—factor correction should be done largely at load centers, the final correction and regulation being accomplished by the synchronous condensers and trans— mission line capacity current. There are many places where synchronous motors could replace induction motors to great advantage. The electrical manufacturers and the power companies should cooperate in developing simplified en— closed types of synchronous motors for constant—speed work. Fortunately the burden on the present system which comes largely from the lagging K. V. A. of induction motors and transformers may be eliminated, as shown above, by the addition of synchronous condensers and by the proper design and control of the transmission lines to get the most economic advantage of the charging K. V. A. of the lines. It therefore means that to get a modern power system it is only necessary to add controllable lagging or leading K. V. A.’ to the present system which 'will reduce the losses, Increase the capacity and give an almost perfect power—transmission system. The present system of power transmission also is not a stable and safe system. The high excitation necessary to be applied to generators is a menace to the system. It is also not a system that can be extended without high and low points of potential. And the voltage requirements of service are very exacting. A system that may be used as a universal system must be a reversible system, which means a constant— potential system. Recently there has been a tendency to recognize the merits of the more perfectly regulated system. The Constant-Potential Transmission System _ 0 have a standard universal power System we must have (1) a standard frequency; (2) a constant-voltage system; (3) a stable system; (4) a reversible system. We will see that a constant-voltage system gives a stable and reversible system. 3 Standard Frequency: To have a national electric power system requires first standardization of frequency. Since 60— . cycles is generally advantageous for generators, transformers and distribution, 1 will assume that this is the frequency of the very long distance transmission. It is generally assumed that this frequency is disadvantageous for long transmission lines on account of voltage regulation, but it will be seen that all regulation requirements can be very successfully met with 60—c‘ycles. It will be seen by a study of the equations and diagrams that the natural power system gives a system independent of the distance of transmission and frequency. 1, therefore, believe it will be best to standardize on 60-cycles. Conytant Voltage at All Point: of Lines: It will be necessary for the successful IOng transmission line to have practically a uniform voltage for all points of the line—not only for one load but for all loads. (This voltage can be'controlled within 2 per cent from no-load to full load and with no greater variation for any points on the line.) The standard trans— mission system must provide for power being supplied to the line and for loads to be taken off at certain points, just as does a railway system. Such a system means good service. Reverrible Flow of Power: The system must be such that the power loads supplied to the line or taken from the line may vary and that the flow of power over sections may be actually reversed, or the flow of power over the entire line may even be reversed—without disturbing the voltage regulation necessary to give good service at all points. The present plan differs from the ordinary plan in that synchronous condensers are located, say, every 100 miles to 200 miles, and with these condensers the current and voltage would. be maintained practically constant and give a stable system. A Safe Syrtem—~Tlte Synehrononr Condenrer; Stabilize the Line and Give a Safe System: It will be seen that the main— tenance of constant voltage at all points is not a difficult matter and in doing this we get rid of a lot of other troubles and expense—such as voltage rise due to dropping loads, transformer variable ratios, voltage regulators, etc.,—and reduce the insulation strain. The successful very long lines must provide for keeping the impedance pressure tangent to the voltage circle or, in other words, provide for the current and voltage practically in phase at all points of line. The condensers resist inherently voltage changes of the system, and by design of condensers and regulators the voltage control of the system may be made largely automatic. A grounded system is necessary for stability. Tranymijrion Inherent Characterirtier: The transmission line, properly designed, has largely inherently the character— istics required for self-regulation, if we correct initially the power factor of the loads to near unity and add the conden- sers. The advantages of such a system are: Simpler and cheaper generators; transformers standardized for one volt- age; insulation strains reduced; resulting in a safer system; and with constant voltage the flow of power has the greatest possible flexibility. Such a system of constant—potential transmission is practi- cal, and is the only practical way of giving good service for long lines. Retransforming or regeneration or direct- current schemes for long-distance transmission will not give as good service and the shocks that are likely to come on the line are much greater than for the constant—potential system. Such a system of “loading” the transmission line to rotate the current through approximately the same angle as the pressure is rotated, thus causing the impedance pressure to be tangent to voltage circle, is necessary for all very long distance transmission. This “loading” to maintain the cur— rent and voltage approximately in phase eliminates the question of the natural periodicity of the line, and hence the frequency may be selected independently of this point. The transmission capacity alone will not give a stable system; for a rise in voltage results in greater charging cur— rent and a still further voltage rise. The synchronous con— densers on the other hand resist inherently changes of voltage and by the use of automatic regulators this inherent stabiliz— ing characteristic can be made to give a very stable line. Elaborate electrical tests made by the Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company onvthe equivalent of a 500-mile line showed that with such a system stability of operation results very far beyond the practical needs. Instability does not result until the power transmitted over one circuit (600,000 C. M. or equivalent) is of the order of 450,000 K. W. The tests made verified the correctness of the present methods of calculating line characteristics by means of circle diagrams. With normal ratios of resistance and reactance there was absolutely no tendency to hunt. With such a transmission system the generators carry a much lower excitation than for the present system, and hence the switching burden is much reduced. The large K. W. capacity per circuit and the few switches makes the switch cost per K. W. reasonable. At 220 K. V. we may transmit four times as much power per circuit as we can at 110 K. V. and at 220 K. V. the cost per K. W. per mile will be about one—half that for 110 K. V. The 220—K. V. transmission system will solve the power problems of the country and energy may be transmitted at materially less cost than transporting it by rail in the form of coal or oil. A Study of the characteristics of the 220—K. V. system shows that it meets the needs of the industry ex— ceptionally well. ' The natural capacity of such a 220,000-V. transmission line is about 120,000 K. W. per 3-phase circuit, with full load about 150,000 to 175,000 K. W. We thus have a transmission system good for 300,000 K. W. per tower line, and this is commensurate with the needs of the business. The outline of such a system and the costs, losses, etc., are given on Plate XV. The costs for transmission, not including energy losses, will be about 0.1 cent per K. W. Hr. for 200 miles, 0.2 cent for 500 miles and 0.3 centfor 800 miles. Line—loss costs depend on cost of furnishing the losses. The following table gives total approximate cost of power for various distances: APPROXIMATE CosT OF POWER 100,000 K. W. (AVERAGE) DELIVERED PER CIRCUIT Total Cort at Subxtationr in Bulk Cort of Power Generated 200 mile: 500 mile: 800 mile; 0.43 0.575 0.75 0.54 0.7 0.875 0.65 0.825 1.00 ' (See Plate XV, Fig. 2B, for costs, and Fig. 7 for efficiency.) (See Plate XVI for detail development of diagram.) PART II PLATE XVII INDUCTIVE REACTANCE I00 DER MILE CONDUCTOR 8 ' BO CYCLES X= 2x 80+74I rln 6 e C.M. 700,000 800,000 2 9 00,000 OHMS DER MILE CONDUCTOR I2 I3 I4 IS I6 I7 I8 I9 20 2| 22 23 . 24 25 26 SRACING IN FEET I2 I3 I4 IS I6 I7 I8 I9 20 2| 22 23 24- 25 26 CARACITANCE TO NEUTRAL PER MILE CONDUCTOR MICRO FARADS PER MILE CONDUCTOR CIRCULAR MILS) § g g g, g. g g g g. E E OF CONDUCTOR a 2 8 3 § g g g S g RERCENT INCREASE /, / OF /, EFFECTIVE RESISTANCE ’ ,/ DUE TO SKIN EFFECT BO CYCLES ,/ #- o '.0)(p ragga“, U AMDEDES DIED .MILE CONDUCTORP N m 4 ~mm+|flmqowO—mw4~. N O K.V.A. DER MILE OF LINE 8 PHASE 0 mqow < (n 01 6) 0 N o INCREASE RESISTANCE 0 v5? RERCENT IN 0 CHARGING CURRENT RER MILE CONDUCTOR I [0,000 VOLTS BO CYCLES ~ L:= 271'. SO x C x VOLTS TO NEUTRAL I3 I4 I5 I6 I7 I8 I9 20 2| 22 23 24: 25 SRACING IN FEET I3 I4 I5 I6 l7 I8 l9 20 2| 22 23 25 26 I I0,000 VOLTS CHARGING K.V.A. DER MILE OF LINE 8 DHASE SC CYCLES CIRCULAR MILS 0F CONDUCTOR CONDUCTOR 200,000 400,000 I,000,000 I 2 00 000 L4 00,000 [,6 00,000 I,eoo,000 RESISTANCE . 2,000,000 RESISTANCE OHMS PER MILE a”: CHARGING CURRENT RER MILE CONOOCTOR E a 22O,OOOVOLTS SO CYCLES (j) 7 Ic=27tOOxCxVOLTS TO NEUTRAL ’ 9 6 o 7f U 3 [U ,2 :1 I 2 .70 a 9 IJJ 6 fl 7 U) 6. g .65 [LI 4 I1 3 E 2 < I O'GOIZ l3 I4 I5 I6 I'7 - l8 I9 20 2I 22 23 24 25 26 SRACING IN FEET SOOIZ I3 I4» I5 I6 I7 I8 I9 20 2| 22 23 24 25 26300 “J I 3 290 290 I D" 280 280 CO 270 270 DJ g 260 260 % 250 250 U_Jl 240 240 2 230 230 E! El" 22° 220 <‘ ZZ0,000 VOLTS >: CHARGING K.V.A. DER MILE OF LINE X. 3 'DHASE _ SO CYCLES ELECTRICAL CONSTANTS CF TRANSMISSION LINE CONDUCTORS % AT IIO,OOO AND 220,000 VOLTS FRANK G. BAUM,C0NSULTING ENGINEER » SAN FRANCISCO,CALII=. - , ' JULY I922. PAGE 18 Economical Conductor Section* KELVIN’S law for the most economical conductor has been stated in a great many ways, and it will do no harm to re- peat some of the statements and to put the matter in the best form for quick results. Lord Kelvin stated the law in 1881 as follows: “The most economical area of conductor will be that for which the annual interest on the capital outlay equals the annual cost of the energy wasted.” This has been put in a more exact way by Gisbert Kapp: “The most economical area of conductor is that for which the annual cost of energy wasted is equal to the annual interest on that portion of the capital outlay which can be considered to be' V proportional to the weight of metal used.” An attempt is here made to put this great law in the best working form for practical purposes. Let it be assumed that ' the structures are up, and that there is a place for a circuit. Assume that the cost of the insulators is not affeCted by the size of the conductors, and that the voltage is determined from other considerations. (These are the usual conditions.) Let A = Interest cost per year of the pole structure ready to receive the wires. B = Interest cost per year of the con— ductors in place. C = Value of energy lost in transmission in one year. Then the total annual cost of transmitting the energy will be Y=A+B+C. With interest at 6 per cent B=.06 K1 (.003) LD2 where K1 is the cost in dollars per pound of copper wire in place, L is the length of the circuit in thousands of feet, and D2 represents the circular mils in the wire. Also C= K12 10.5%2 where K is the cost per K. W. Yr. of the lost energy in dollars, and I is the current used in transmiss10n. The equation for Y then becomes Y = A + .06 x1 (.003) LD2 + K12 10.5—1L32 To find when Y is a minimum, the equation should be dif— ferentiated with respect to D and equated to zero. There 1. will then be obtained the result which mathematically ex- presses Kelvin’s law. Assuming A to be constant, the law is, Interest cost=Cost of lost energy. Or, L /K 2 = 2 _ 2 = .06 K1(.003) LD KI 10.5DZ or D 2201\/ K1; that is to say, the circular mils per ampere to be used for any voltage, any distance and any amount of power is given by the equation D2=240\//—II§ . As shown by this 1 equation, the cross section is a factor solely of the current transmitted. The equation for determining D2 for aluminum is .06 K1 (.0009) LD2 = KI2 168—1152, or circular mils per am— /K Kl' As seen above it is necessary to know onlythe cost per pound of the conductor on the line and the cost per K. W. Yr. to the company of the lost energy. With interest at 6% and copper at $0.20 per lb. in' place and power costing $20 per K. W. Yr. we get the most economical condition = 2,200 circular mils per ampere; This would be for, water power conditions. For steam power conditions, if the losses cost $40 per K. W. Yr., the circular mils for the most economical condition should be increased as V?- pere is D2 = 550V In Figs. 1, 2 and 3 (Plate XVIII) curves are given for copper in place at $0.20 per lb. and for power to furnish line losses at $20, $25 and $30 per K. W. Yr. and interest rates at 6%, 8% and 10%. As aluminum is usually compared to copper the curves for aluminum are not given. In applying the curves use should be made of the mean annual value of the current employed in transmission, determined by the square of the mean square. Another interesting problem arises in practice. Assume that for some reason use is not made of the most economical size, but a smaller or a larger. What is the effect upon the total cost ofdelivering the energy.P The equation for the total cost is Y=A+B+C; A being fixed, the problem is to deter— mine how the cost is affected by varying B and C. It has been noted that the most economical condition exists when B is equal to C. For this condition suppose, for example, that the sum of B and C is 100%. That is, neglecting A, Y=50%+ 50%=100%. Now, if the interest cost on the conductor is halved the losses are doubled. In this case Y=50%X2+§29% =125%. That is, the sum of B—l—C is increased 25% by doubling the losses; therefore 25% more is paid for delivering the energy to cause a decrease of one—, half the outlay for copper. The above relation may be expressed generally as follows: » 50 50 B=50a, C2: and Y=,50a+—a, a being proportional to the weight of the conductor. The results are shoWn in Fig. 4. As seen, when the interest cost on the conductor and the value of the lost energy are equal, or when each is equal to 50%, the total cost is 100%, which is the minimum, as given by Kelvin’s law. If C is increased to, say, 100%, then B, the conductor investment, decreases to 25%, giving a total of 125%. If the invest— ment for conductor is decreased from 50% to 40%, or by 20%, the losses are increased from 50% to 62.5%, or the cost of delivering the energy is increased from 100% to 40%+62.5%=102.5%, or by 2.5%. The above shows that the investment may be decreased by 20% with no great increase in the total cost of delivering the energy. This is especially true when the fixed cost due to pole structures, operation of lines, etc., is taken into consideration. To get the total cost Y=A+50a+§a9;the value of A must be added to the upper curve. Y = A is the equation of a straight line parallel to a, or the X axis, and will therefore not affect the position of the Y curve. The results in Fig. 4 are valuable when the future con— ditions of load are not entirely known. The conditions may be such that the load is expected to materially increase in a few years; or initially we may have water power going to waste until the market is built up. For such cases Fig. 4 will be a good guide as to what should be done about conductor investments. Fig. 4 is also valuable in following changing conductor costs and change of costs of power. *“Economic Conductor Section,” by Frank G. Baum in Electrical World, May 25, 1907. Efficiency of Transmission System and Cost COPPER conductor of 600,000 circular mils or the equiva— A lent aluminum conductor will generally give about the most economical condition for the averageload of about 120,000 K. W. of the 220 K. V. system. Such a wire has about 15 ohms per 150—mile section. With 400 amperes for full load this gives a loss of practically 5%, or a line efliciency of 95%. If the current and power at beginning of section is 100%, then current and power at end of section will be practically 95%. For the. second section the current and power will be reduced by the losses in this section, which will be approxi— ' mately(1i — 13) B, so that the [power at the end of'the E E second section will be Rea—(14.3) —] (14.1%)? For 300 miles the line efficiency would then be 95% X95% = 90.25%. And for 600 miles 90.25%X90.25%= 81.45%. (This is the same as though we had machines of the given efficiencies connected in series. The slight variation of current and power factor will affect this some but it may be taken as correct for practical purposes.) The condenser losses may be taken at 2% of condenser capacity at full load, and for 75,000 K. V. A. per 150 miles for 300,000 K. W. line capacity, we have condenser loss equal 0.5% of line capacity. The core loss of transformers may be taken at 0.5% and the copper loss at full load 0.75% or 2.5% for all losses for step—up and step—down transformers. This is practically fixed for any length of line. For 300 miles then the efficiency ofline will be about 95%—0.5%—2.5%= 92%. For 300 miles ef.=90.25%—1%——2.5%=86.75% and for 600 miles the efficiency is practically 77%. The above are for full—load conditions. The losses and efficiencies at other loads may be calculated in the usual way. (See Plate XV, Figs. 3 and 7.) The cost of such a transmission system depends on four main items in place: (1) towers and rights of way; (2) in— sulating system; (3) conductors; (4) synchronous condensers. The last three items are fairly well fixed for a 220 K. V. sys— tem of 300,000 K. W. capacity. The cost of transformers and switches in place may be generally taken as fixed practically independent of the length of the line. The tower designs shown on Plate XX are worked out for triangular spacing of wires of 26 ft. for different ice and snow loading assumed for the various sections of the country as shown. This design is heavy, due to considering two wires broken to determine weights. The triangular spacing has advantages for heavy ice and snow, where we may not be certain that all the wires will become loaded or unloaded the same. This gives a heavy tower but should give very good service. The cost per mile of double—circuit towers in place and insulators for the heavy design, as shown by Plate XIX, is about $19,500 for District No. 3 and $15,000 for District No. 1. (Single—circuit towers, as shown, will cost about one—half the double—circuit.) The six wires in place will cost about $12,000 per mile. The synchronous condensers may be taken at 250 K. V. A. per circuit mile or 500 K. V. A. per mile for 300,000 K. W. line. At $10 per K. W. in place (transformer and switch costs already cared for) the cost per mile is $5,000. (This investment increases the capacity of the line, reduces losses and makes possible lower investment in generators, trans— formers and copper; see Plate XV and discussion.) The total cost of 300,000 K. W. line will therefore be between $32,000 and $36,500 per mile. For certain conditions the weight of tower may be reduced by reducing the spacing or by using some of the types shown on Plate XXI. The cost of conductors, condensers and insulators may be taken at $20,000 to $22,000 per mile in place, so that for high— class construction we may assume for estimating purposes $30,000 to $40,000 per mile of transmission. (Where poles are available near the job this cost may be further reduced.) (See Plates XX and XXI for towers and structures.) The investment cost then will be $10 per K. W. for trans— formers, and $10 to $13.33 per 100 miles for transmission line and condensers, all based on capacity of 300,000 K. W. Assuming an average delivery of 200,000 K. W. the costs are $15 for transformers and-$15 to $20 per 100 miles for trans- mission. The latter gives an annual cost per average K. W. delivered (at 15% earnings on investment) of $2.25 plus $2.25 to $3 per 100 miles. This is} practically 0.1 cent per K.W. Hr. for 200 miles, 0.2 cent for 500 miles and 0.3 cent for 800 miles. To this must be added the cost of power and the losses. (See Plate XV, Figs. 2 and 3.) Comparison of Energy Transmitted or Transported: Taking coal transportation at 1 cent per ton mile the cost of hauling 1 ton 500 miles is $5, or 0.25 cent per lb. for 500 miles. Assuming 2.0 lb. of coal required per K. W. Hr. the freight cost is 0.5 cent per K. W. Hr. for 500 miles. We may transmit electric energy, however, at 0.25 cent per K. W. Hr. for 500 miles, including investment and cost of lost power, or this compares to a freight rate of 0.5 cent per ton—mile. We thus see that by 220 K. V. transmission, energy may be transmitted cheaper electrically than coal energy can be transported by rail; See Plate XV. With the 220 K. V. sys— tem we also obtain a transmission system capacity that is commensurate with the development of the large capacity water and steam power units and stations developed in the last few years, and commensurate with the large power resources and markets. With a proper selection of copper or aluminum, lines of different capacities may be designed to fit different conditions. It is not the intention of this work to go into details of designs, but these must be handled by engineers entirely familiar with local conditions. The diagrams and calculations are given as suggestions. Only where there are cheap power sources and good markets at good load factors, will the very long distance transmission of power be made economical. There are many such places in the United States, and the lines shown on Plate IV are drawn showing main routes for carrying energy, as they will probably develop in the next few years. l\\R1 PART II PLATE XVIII fiféga-mita CIDCULAIQ >_ MILS DEF? >_ AMIDEIRE ~ I IIII ' 600 800 I000 I200 I400 I600 |600 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000 _J 600 800 I000 I200 I400 I600 I800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000 _J 600 800 I000 I200 I400 I600 I800 2000 2200 2400 2600 .2800 3000 ' ; MM. 250 250 03250 25033250 \\ 250 :“iII ixx'irth / - ,, ,~ 3 . 3 \ \ g \\ 8 \\x I gigkégmi Z \\ Z \\\ n 71ml — I'— IIH ' E \\II\ Z \\ I: might 0‘5 0 O , mI‘vthsinE U \\ U \ \\ - ‘ - ‘ zoo \ zoo .zoo \ 200:0.200 \ 200 m \\ \\\ A 7 pmrme D. I D. V\ _ I-fm‘high- \\ 2 \ \\\ 2 \ \\\ ‘ 'nig-QII'IIIISES N\\\ < \\\ < \ \ ‘\ .' \IWPHIES O O : i16:‘:::i:IttIn \\ g \\\ 9 ‘\ \\ _‘ I‘IIII I \ \ “ \ \ C ER 7: IIIIIIIIIIII-IIII I I50 \ \\ I50 2 I50 \ \\k\\ I50: I50 4\ \ %@?0¢ONTHELINE+l0%/NTEREST+L05T I J 3 J o \ ‘ “Wrmsms p ' """ I. ‘3 \ \ Cap/3 I T I I I Pow/ER O 0 o 30¢ I o D O 3'6 FT T OWER ’,.‘\rI-]\‘\\I m \ 5%,) T+L35T Q Q Q i \ 04, O D ,9 HIM- .\ 20¢0NTHELINE+8%INTERES V v «x 77751 V V ' ‘ EceIII‘III \ I ‘0 C‘ 2 ‘9 \le +6%/NTER + I WER 2 VA ,1 I .I. o opp 'V EST Losrpo D )5,‘ ,, II If 31‘in [I16 '00 17;“ wQEOS‘IO/I/T I00 8 I00 A)? [00 U [00 O30\ I00 I I97 Xflwt‘ + 6% INTEREST +L05T POWER (3‘ . A / I {CI I1I€11I1IIIg _l A _‘ {MIMI / — E I {It ‘III'IICIII // 2 Q -::‘JIIEIIII[ a [I I’III {all III I.” LI" II I.-,I HIICIIIS / D- D- " :I-‘IHI 50 50 50 50 13113 *— l— O O U U _l /’ —l /l :1 I ' O O 0 O O 0 I Z 2 WM FIG.I- POWER AT $20 PER K.W. YEAR < FIGZ-ROWER AT $25 PER K.W. YEAR <( FIG.3- POWER AT 5530 RER K.W. YEAR II‘II :: 'Hns‘ ‘ 'IV-M‘ICIIIIIIIIIIII 5 If) . ‘ IIEI‘IIIII ‘II- , , “0’ +550: ‘ No— v » ANNUAL COST PER MILE I,II:aImIfi“I‘III I COST X CURRENTS 5 :\x~‘ F IG.4 I :IW‘I COST FOR OTHER C URHENTS = /00 g VARIATIONOFCOSTSWITH 0F cop DER C 0NDU C TOP 8 . v-III‘II'III‘ 537" [WITH FIXEDCHARGES OF 6%,8%8( IO7oAND POWERAT$ZO-25-3O PER K.W.YEAR] 2 ,. rc‘rll‘I‘IIIIIIII E I I. ‘ . ' .. III,I,.;3I:1HII.III E? FRANK G. BAUM,CONSULTING ENGINEER IIIIJIIIIII: oII/I’o .Sa Ia LSa 2a 2.5a 3 , SAN FRANCISCO,CALIF. NOVEMBER I922. I w in [he I“ ' ‘ ” PART II PLATE XIX 500 600 700 500 900 I000 IIOO I200 500 600 700 500 300 I000 II00 I200 500 600 700 800 300 I000 II00 I200 500 600 700 800 900 I000 II00 I200 500 600 700 soo 300 I000 II00 I200 5300 600 100 800 900 I000 II00 I200 355.00 600 700 800 900 I000 II00 I200 '300 '70 - 60 ‘8 m , j g IZ IIJIOO —___ _— / 3 E 5 \ . In “I so I @250 E , Zso\ ”- 45 [£300 I I I | 3 ' 3 [I 9/ —’ m II 0 90 :1 DOUBLE CIRCUITLINE E 3 C) o- “- In “J CIRCUIT LI of u- u. 3 E m k$ O 3 :‘ uJ — _ " ‘ O I9 I I- E 4000 E," \ o E 3 DOUBLE C/RCUIT LINE 0 , (I) F "9/ ' g 0 _ \ I—- a: 0 40 f l ”J 250 o 40 0 mac V, 250 (1 I0 m 80 I— ._I \ E 8 ‘X I '2' Q M . / ‘I <3 “‘ a a: / / E 0 II . g 6 _ / 'E ~- {700% __ CT. (Effl 0‘. I8 I11 I a: Q 62;? 9 “i ‘ <3 ’ > 9‘5 / 8 ”o ‘6’ s T 70 a / / 3: ‘92» \% ' ‘D =’ .I z / =3 z / / ’OA 0 }T 30 8 . 2I50 ,r4/ DwTNO/ 0:40 900/ Z; 0 9 35 079 / 2200 \ 46\ (5/ I\\ E 7 E / <5 A04, (I) (In ‘12 L O<$ / . IS3 V GET/V08 V 0- T a: O- m ‘9 w ‘ ‘ w ‘ —— E / ' ' III/2’ / 1003/ g \ <2 8 z aware ’ / , § \\§- \ m 20 . «\A “'3 .00 \emw ..I 30 \ \ I: 8 Q 30 Q9 ‘40\ I o 150 \ 0,3 7 . cz> / 4 \o 2 ‘1 D ' Z 8 \\ 8 LL “J 09" D / / X , \ \ Olsf‘NO-E‘ (‘5 / / We 09/ g / DW/ ‘5 94W LE 7 .2— 50 ‘2 T T I «00/ / Uqu W I— /’ //0‘5 O-\ I2 ’— //I/NIET O 9‘s E E 0'3 )— T 6 ‘0 7/ V / CI \-5INGI_ECIFICUIT LINE 1 {N IL .I / DIST . a: 04, I; . In :5 ‘ ‘40- )— I 9 I0 /,/7 DI" O 50 " M20 00,, m a: O 25 r I 61. .\ .Ioo LLI /%/ l I. ‘29 (We L22 6 240 f 06‘61‘40 O 3 / I {—3 . z: \‘ o 8 CIRCUIT LINE SINGLECIRCUIT TOWER g \TSINGLE CIRCUIT| TOWER l \ 0 SINGLE CIRCUIT LINE \ o 0 I0 5 30 20 ' ‘ ' I . so WEIGHT PERTOWER WEIGHT PERMILEOF LINE STRINGSPERMILEOF LINE Cu.YDs.PERTOWER Cu.YDs.PERMII_EOF LINE Cu.YDs.PERTOWER CU.YDS.PERMILE OF LINE FIG.I FIGZ FIG.3 . FIG.4_ , BASIS OF CHARTS: SPAN IN FEET SPAN IN FEET 500 600 700 800 300 I000 II00 I200 . 500 600 700 000 300 I000 II00 I200 CONDUCTOR: 500 600 700 800 900 I000 II00 I200 500 600 700 000 900 I000 II00 I200 500 500 700 600 900 IoooIIoo I200 500 600 700 500 300 I000 II00 I200 —— . . 25 25 5 ‘ 600,0006.m.Conducfor - 26FT. TrIanguIar SpaCIng. 25 ' 30FT. Minimum Clearance TO Ground. , Maximum Tension In Conducfor = /0,850Lb5. [23,000 Lbs.5q‘. In). 2° 20 20 20 LOADING: N I IZLb W' d O C d I 0 06 ' . II? n on UC OI" DISTRICTNO. I 20 L b, Win 21 On To wer }LIGHT LOADING ‘ _3_H _ 8 . . IS IS I5 I5 DISTRICT No.2 {4 2/0621. Wizmgzdgcviinducmr} MEDIUM LOADING I“! —8Lb.W O I DISTRICTNO.3{ 2255b. Win 0, ggTonWiinduc or} HEAVY LOADING I0 I0 IO IO COSTS; Tower Sfeel = ‘7CT5. Per Lb. /n5u/afor5&Har-a’ware = 3/00 Pcr‘S Tring. 5 Concrefc = $20 Per Yd. Excavaf/on = $ 2.50 Per Yd. Backfi/l = 61$ [.00 Per Yd. G / ULA //v A COST PER MILE-THOUSANDS OF DOLLARS CONCRETE FOOTINGS EXCAVATION & BACKFILL DISTRICT ‘ NC. I\ CONCRETE FOOTINGS EXCAVATION5< BACKFILL CONCRETE FOOTINGs EXCAVATIONC5< BACKFILL DISTRICT DISTRICT CONCRETE NGs EXCAVATION & BACKFILI. DISTRICT. CONCRETE FOOTINGs E XCAVATIONOI BACKFILI. DISTRICT CONCRETE FOOTINGS EXCAVATION6< BACKFILL DISTRICT ND- 3 NO. 2 No. I N0. 3 N0_ 2 ECONOMICAL SPAN DETERMINATION 220,000 VOLT TRANSMISSION LINE DOUBLE CIRCUIT. LINE § SINGLE CIRCU'T LINE [DMD—z AND DOUBLE DEM] FIGS E C D N D M l C A I— S D A N FlG'6 _ WFRANK G.BAUIM,CONSUI_TING ENGINEER SAN FISANCISCO, CALIF. OCTOBER I922 PII PART II . 82 FT. 220,000 VOLT DOUBLE CIRCUIT... TRANSMISSION LINE DISTRICT N0.I 900' SRAN DISTRICT N02 800' SPAN DISTRICT N03 700' SRAN W , IT E M 8 ONE MILES OF LINE ONE MILES OF' LINE ONE L MILES OF LINE 2: TOWER I I00 200 300 TOWER I 200 300 TOWER I I00 200 300 ”ZGng-Jgfp'ggifgjn I: TOWERS — NUMBER DEQUIRED I 5.867 586.7 I,I73.4- |,760.I l 6.6 I,320.0 I,980.0 I ' 7.543 754.3 I,508.6 2,262.9 / \ STEEL IN TOWERS ~ DOUNDS 24,500 I43,700 I4,370,000 28,740,000 43,II0,000 24,000 I58,400 3I,680,000 47,520,000 24,000 I8I,000 I8,I00,000 36,200,000 54,300,000 EXCAVATION FOR FOOTINCs—CUYOs. 30.0 _ I76 I7,6oo 35,200 52,800 30.5 20I 40,200 60,300 32.0 242 24,200 48,400 72,600 _ CONC PETE FOR FOOTINCS~C0YDS 9.4 55 5,500 II,000 I6,500 9.6 64 I2,800 I9,200 I00 76 7,600 I5,200 22,800 1: 3E REINFOROINC I—TOnI-TOOTINCs — LBS. 3Io I,820 I82,000 364,000 546,000 330 2,I8o 436,000 654,000 360 2,720 272,000 544,000 8I6,000 35 SE _ 6, STRANDS » 0,593INID,A_ 59,000 , 5,900,000 II,800,000 I7,700,000 59,000 II,800,000 I7,700,000 59,000 5,900,000 II,800,000 I7,700,000 ‘ , CONGENTRIO LAY 1.85LSSPERFT. _ ALUMINUM ALUMINum—Las. 28,380 2,838,000 5,676,000 8,5I4,000 ' 28,380 5,676,000 8,5I4,000 28,380 2,838,000 5,676,000 8,5I4,000 SSI,000 c.m. STEEL — LBS. I0,500 I,050,000 2,I00,000 3,150,000 I0,500 2,I00,000 3,I50,000 I0,500 I,050,000 2,I00,000 3,I50,000 CONCENTRIG LAY I.I94l~.DIA. “5432-9723553324327" TOTALWT.—Las. 38,880 3,888,000 7,776,000 II,664,000 38,880 7,776,000 II,664,000 38,880 3,888,000 7,776,000 II,664,000 220,000 VOLT SINGLE CIRCUIT TRANSMISSION LINE . DISTRICT N0.l 900' SPAN DISTRICT N0.2 800' SPAN DISTRICT N0.3 '700' SPAN I T E M 8 ONE MILES OF LINE ONE MILES OF' LINE ONE MILES OF LINE 3 TOWER I I00 200 300 TOWER I 200 300 TOWER I I00 200 300 3; TOWERS — NUMBER REQUIRED I 5.867 586.7 I,I73.4 I,760.I I 6.6 I,320.0 I,980.0 I 7.543 754.3 I,508.6 2,262.9 $3 . LIJ D STEEL IN TOWERS — DOUNDS II,400 66,900 6,690,000 I3,380,000 20,070,000 II,000 72,600 I4,520,000 2I,780,000 II,000 83,000 8,298,000 I6,596,000 24,894,000 63 EXCAVATION FOR FOOTINOs—Cuyos. 24.0 W I4,I00 28,200 ‘ 42,300 245 I62 32,400 48,600 25.6 I93 I9,300 38,600 57,900 g0 0 CONCRETE FOR FOOTINCs—CuYOs. 7.5 44 4,400 8,800 I3,200 7.7 51 I0,200 5,300 8.0 6I 6,I00 I2,200 I8,300 gl— REINFORCINC I—‘ORI—‘OOTINOs — LBS. 180 I,060 I06,000 2I2,ooo 3I8,000 I90 I,260 252,000 378,000 200 I500 I5o,000 300,000 450,000 2 COPPER-800,000cm. 6, STRANDS 0.898040%. 29,500 2,950,000 5,900,000 8,850,000 29,500 5,900,000 8,850,000 29,500 2,950,000 5,900,000 8,850,000 CONCENTRIOLAY LBSLSSPERFT. ~ ALUMINUM ALUMINUM‘LBS. I4,I90 I,4I9,ooo 2,838,000 4,257,000 I4,I90 2,838,000 4,257,000 I4,I90 I,4I9,ooo 2,838,000 4,257,000 951503 093.91. STEEL. — LBS. 5,250 525,000 I,050,000 I,575,000 5,250 I,050,000 I,575,000 5,250 525,000 I,050,000 I,575,000 ZZO’OOO VOLT DOUBLE C'DCU'T TOWER CONCEN IC I. N. IA. “547937235,gag-627" TOTALWT.—LES. I9,440 I,944,000 3,888,000 5,832,000 I9,440 3,888,000 5,832,000 0,440 I,944,000 3,888,000 5,832,000 S 26 FT TRIANGULAR é; CONSTRUCTION . _L\ V \ A A'A ‘7 I Y [F‘ZGFT . / v ' ' (D LIGHT LOADING -\ A A No Ice. lf’fi'Wind On Conducfor: —— 201PWI‘nd On Tower, ' I @ MEDIUM LOADING ‘I iz'flce. 6+Wind On Conducfor. 20*Wind On Tower. ’ AK _ Lu . MAD SHOWING v 92) v HEAVY LOADING . I . ls'"lce.a#Wi_nd omens/06,66. DISTRICT LOADING % 9 20*WI‘nd On Tower. L F53 A (PROPOSED) *‘ IL 0“ TANDARD TOWERS F0 I (0 go I . ' ’ L . 220 000 VOLT TRANSMISSION LINE" 2 __ / _ _/ , , , - , , ,_ . y v_,,':"> -, ., V v ‘V , 'l 7 'l, \ / r, v“ ’/ I v' v, 'I a!“ v], 'I " / » ’, , _, _/ I - . .- 'l \ * . / [SINGLE AND DOUBLE CIRCUIT] /-‘\:'-_’_:-:, 7m / an? .mv/ / FIG.3 . m . 8m; FIG.4 ' " FIG 2 " ' SINGLE , DOUBLE FRANK G BAUM,CONSULTING ENGINEER 220,000 VOLT SINGLE CIRCUIT TOWER M . _, M SAN FRANCISCO, CALI I—-. FLATS XX PAGE 21 Need for Large-Capacity Transmission. Lines* ' IT is not sound practice under present conditions to allow practically all the water power of Niagara to be used locally to the advantage of a few industries, but part of this power should be required to flow out into the smaller cities to help them prosper. Similarly, the water power of Muscle Shoals and other sites of great potentiality should not all be used locally to the advantage of a few industries, but a very large proportion of this power should find a market through the construction of transmissiOn lines that will take it to available markets and build up present communities. In that way we will spread out the advantages of water power among more people, and this will in turn create a more favorable public opinion for the logical development of water power and transmission systems to meet the needs of the states and nation. I believe the men in the electrical industry in the United States will see the logic of the reasoning now that there is available a transmission system with which to back it up. For the power problems have become of such magni— tude, owing to the large single power units and stations and the large markets, coupled with the high prices of coal, that the question of the transmission system must be attacked in a proportionately big way if the electric power industry is to meet the needs of the times. Electric power units are now generally of 20, 000 K. W. to 60,000 K. W. capacity and 75,000 K. W. units will be 1n use in a few years. Single power stations of 100,000 K. W. to 500,000 K. W. are now being constructed. The power- transmission circuits must of course have. commensurate capacities. i i i We could not expect the old county and city roads, that made possible a speed of about 10 miles an hour and loads of 1 ton or 2 tons, to meet the needs of present—day anto-truck traffic. Roads allowing a speed of 40 miles an hour and loads of5 tons are required. Connecting 'up the old-fashioned roads would not have given a national or state highway system that would meet present—day needs. A new system of high— ways had to, be designed and built to meet the new require- ments. Similarly, interconnecting the small-capacity poWer lines built out from various points for local uses will not generally give a transmission system to meet the needs of the electric power industry. We need large high—power transmission lines that will carry the power from places where there is little demand, like the St. Lawrence, the Niagara, the southern Appalachians, the Rocky Mountains, etc., to places of large demand, and the transmission system capacity must be commensurate with the power available at these sources and commensurate with the needs in the large industrial regions. Without the automobile and truck there would be no need of the modern highway'system, and similarly without the development of the large steam and hydraulic power units and without the big markets, there would be no need for the high-power transmission systems we must have. Without a feasible power transmission system the problem could not be solved, but with a transmission system laid out on a big scaleT so that we may transmit say 100,000 K.W. to 150,000 K. W. per circuit and 200,000 to 300,000 K. W. per tower line, we have a solution of the transmission problem commensurate With the wonderful development of the water power and steam units in the past few years and commensurate with the needs of the large markets in the eastern states, and to meet the requirements for the long—distance transmission to furnish a general power supply for the United States. Each double- circuit line will deliver about 2 billion K. W. Hrs. per year, with a normal full load of about 300,000 K. W. or 400,000 horsepower. This represents the power equivalent of the’efforts of about 10 million men working in three eight- hour shifts. (The work of these electric laborer; can be pur— chased for a few cents per day.) One of these double—circuit tower lines will deliver in a continuous stream the energy equivalent of about 2,000,000 tons of coal per year, at less cost than the coal can be transported by rail. With large water power and steam power stations delivering their output to these transmission circuits, the delivery in bulk to large centers of power use entails little labor or expense, except the fixed charges on the transmission system. This will largely relieve the railways of the most diflicult of their present problems. Length of transmission will not generally be the determin— ing factor in the power problem, but dependable economic power supplies, good load factor and large stable markets ' are often much more important than length of transmission. With such a power and transmission system in use the costs of power in “bulk” will not vary greatly over the United States. The cost to the customer will depend upon what class of customers he is a part of, that is, upon what time of day or night he uses the power, also on the proportion of time the service is used (that is, on the load factor) and the investment required to serve him, and on the demands of the. community of which he is a part. The cost of electric service will thus be largely dependent on how the people build up the demand for power in their own communities. In these days, as President Frank W. Smith of the National Electric Light Association says, “a prosperous community means havinggood electric service and a prOsperous utility.” *See “The Pit River Power and Transmission Problem,” by F. G. Baum, Electrical World, January 27,1923. J[See “Voltage Regulation and Insulation for Large—Power Long- -Distance Transmission Systems,” by F. G. Baum, Transactions A. I. E. E., June, 1921, pages 643—648. Service Conditions for Energy-Transmission Routes THE transmission lines indicated on Plate IV Will become large energy routes, just as the railways are traflic routes. The importance of the service of one of the transmission lines may be indicated by the fact that each tower line carry— ing two circuits will furnish the power required by industrial plarits in which there may be employed 100,000 to 500,000 men; or such a tower circuit may carry the energy re- quired by several large cities, or several states may be dependent upon a power supply from one or more such energy routes. There is a demand for many such transmission lines at the present time and in a few years there may be 100 such routes in operation. As shown, these energy routes will be interconnected and this will add to the service insurance. At the same time the importance of these energy carriers demands that they be built in a substantial manner, with due regard to the losses of revenue ($1,000 per hour or more) to the power company as a result of power interruptions, and also due to the losses in the industries. The early railway lines were not built as substantial as they are at present, and we now find dirt road beds, wood culverts and bridges, and light rails only on lines of little importance. The power highway lines must be built sub— stantially and with a full appreciation of the conditions in the locality, and with a full appreciation of the kind of service the line is to give. They should be considered of importance comparable to the main-line railways. The power lines must deliver a continuous stream of energy, and cessation of the energy flow for a few minutes or even seconds may cause considerable loss. On Plate XXI are shown outlines ofvarious types of towers that may be used for different conditions. The type shown on Figs. 1 and '2 are for the most severe conditions. The triangular spacing is designed to take care of the snow and ice conditions. Towers as shown by Fig. 3 with the vertical spacing should not be used where there is heavy snow or ice. The loading or unloading of the wires under snow or ice conditions can not be expected to be uniform and such spacing may then cause short circuits. Figs. 1 and 2 or Figs. 4 and 5 should be used for sections of country where snow and ice may be expected. Plate XX shows proposed standard towers with 26—ft. triangular spacing. This is a high—strength design for the most severe conditions of ice'and snow and for two wires broken on one side of the tower. The assumption of two wires broken may be more severe than warranted in a great many cases. On Plate XXI the approkimate weights of these towers are shown for the district with two wires and with one wire broken, and also for the spacings as shown down to 20 ft. For districts having little snow or ice a reduced spacing may be justified. Fig. 5 will give a very satisfactory line for such sections of the country where good poles can be secured. Under this condition the cost per mile of this type will be materially less than any of the others. The maintenance of such a line will be higher than the steel line, but the interest on the extra investment will make this type of line much cheaper. This type of line fits especially well the northwest section of the United States. The summary of conditions and quantities of material for each type is shown and these may be used for general esti— mating purposes. The cost of structures (with insulators) for two circuits may vary from about $9,000 per mile to $19,500 per mile, depending upon the type of structure and the conditions for which it is determined. It is not the intention of this work to go into the designs that should be used for particular conditions, but these must be worked out by engineers thoroughly familiar with the local conditions, service requirements, etc. Insulation for 220 K. V; The insulation for high voltage for outdoor conditions necessitates in my opinion: (1) A long string of insulators (not less than 6 ft.), so that birds, etc., will not cause short circuits; (2) a string containing five to seven units, so as to give good natural potential distribu— tion, reducing the shield to small proportions; (3) the sur— faces of the units to be of such shape that the maximum discontinuity of water streams caused by rain, dew or fog will result; (4) each unit to be designed for good potential , distribution under wet and dry conditions. Fig. 7 shows the design of an insulator to meet the above conditions. Fig. 6 shows a string of insulators made up of alternate large and small units, which meets the above con- ditions except that because of the large number of units the potential distribution over the string is not nearly so good as for the design shown in Fig. 7. (See insulator studies and tests in A. I. E. E. paper referred to on this page.) Switcher: With the constant—potential power system the generating stations deliver K. W. Hrs. into the system, the voltage control of the system being largely handled by the synchronous condensers. The generators will operate prac- tically at unity power factor, hence the exCitation of the generators will be much lower than under the present power system. The short- circuit current of the system being de— termined largely by the excitation of the power— producing units, it is seen that the switches will be relieved of a con- siderable burden. Air disconnecting switches and oil switches have been designed and built for 220 K. V. operation. Because of the large K. W. capacity per circuit, the cost per K. W. for switches becomes very reasonable. PART #:0154534, —L TABLElI'Ai MAXlMu COW "I , PART 11 A PLATE XXIII Z4 EXAMPLE . SHOWN BY DOTTED ' LINES & ARROWS 600,000 c.m.CO PPER- 700 FT.SPAN MAX. LOAD IE " ICE WITH 8*WIND MAXALLOWABLESTRESS = 23,0004?cm MAX.TEN$I0N IN CABLE= 23,000“‘5<.47IZ°“= READ SAG FROM CHART=35.6 ZO z . . , iAEL— COPPER ALUMINUMREFIEESIED 24 IS 8xTEN$ION IO 5 o THICKNESS OF ICE THICKNESS OF ICE 0 I! II E, II lll léll '% On 7;." %II %II lll ii" 'JE" IJJ _I LI CIRCULAR g NO. MILS. H0 I 95I000 l‘ 2 900,000 LI. 3 C] 4 7 l.‘ 5 LL 5’; 0:“) 5 LL] 9 [1 I0 03' [D _IL0 Z 53 9d- IJ_I E CI mm D < O .4 EN <[ l.— _I D (0 “J— CE 4 BIZ 048 WIND PRESSURE IN POUNDS RER SQFT. COPPER TABLE ALUMINUM TABLE BIZ CIRCULAR STRANDS OUgFAPE AREA WE'BGsfiT CIR. NDI M MILS. No. DIA.~IN. INCHES SQJN. PER FT. MILS. A A I,ooo,ooo GI .I2804 I:I523 .7854 3.09 7x.I29| 900,000 GI .I2I47 I.O932.'706'7 2.76 7 800,000 GI .I I452 |.030'7 .6285 2.47 700,000 GI .IOG5I .9586 .5498 2.IG I5I II5I 600,000 GI .099I8 .6926 .47I2 I.85 x 500,000 37 .ll625 .5137 .3927 1.54 400,000 37 .I0363 72543042 l.24 II5I I5I 300,000 37 .09004 63032356 .926 x.|059 7l5 74I 250,000 I9 .II47I .5735 .I964 .772 o-zu,600 l9 .I0505 .5253.IGG2 .653 Ix TENSION IN CABLE(THOUSANDS OF LBS. , SAG DIAGRAM FOR . FEEL U AND F OR ANY MAXIMUM CONDITION OF ICEWIND {I STRESS . FRANK G. BAUM, CONSULTING ENGINEER SAN FRANCISCO,CAI_IF. JULY I, I922 "a; ‘ nr’” w :13 ' ' PLATE XXIV ' ‘ PART II I I ___________________________ STANDARD_L 600FT.SPAN 600FT.SPAN V , STANDARD. SPAN T . ‘ SPAN PLAN OF 220, 000 Van LINE SHOWING SINGLE CIRCUIT TRA NSPOSITION w. \ VA '1' VA AV; BASE &( FOUNDATIONS OF TRANSPOSITION TBWER To BESAME As FOR A SINGLE CIRCUIT STANDARD TOWER —————— RV) I ’4'; v.4 A ‘ ‘ 1m; Am], i’, 220,000 VOLT' TRANSPOSITION TOWER G 53:?04 STANDARD 6‘00F T. SPAN 600 FT. SPAN STANDARD .----.---.-—--- .0-Ioooooo--.------------------p--—--------------------------- #w—“w ‘ A _ ----- - TRANSPOSITION METHODS FOR ' 22OOOO VOLT TRANSMISSION LINE _--— ..... _.-.-.' ----------------- ” ' [SINGLE AND DOUBLE. CIRCUIT] . > FRANK G. BAUM, CONSULTING ENGINEER PLAN OF 220,000er LINE SHOWING DOUBLE CIRGUIT TRANSPOSITION \. SAN FRANOSCO, CALIF DECEMBER 1922‘ "w!“p: PART III " GENERAL DATA, UNITED STATES AND THE WORLD ;FUR N W II \A\_ \\ \_ \ , L 5 \‘I I ‘I\‘~‘ I w' ) '4‘. 4a O ‘\ x u ',:j PART III Io,ooo,ooo H.P. DEVELOPED EUIIIIIED 10,000,000 H.P. UNDEVELOPED KEY TO SYMBOLS ON MAP ALASKA IID THE WORLD 46,400,000 KW. GENERATOR RATING. THE WORLD 57.8 KWH. CONSUMED PER CAPITA. THE. WORLD 99,450, 000 000 KWH. TOTAL CONSUMED. \‘\—._- w, ocEANIA I \VL. SOUTH AMERICA 3 \_ AFRICA a \. ASIA $3 I ‘1 I EUROPE MEXICO NORTH AMERICA I ' ' I O 5 IO 20 50 4O 50 CONSUMPTION IN BILLIONS OF KWH. BY COHTIHENTS __- USE OF ELECTRICITY IN ISZO. '5 FIG. 5 74> THE WORLD 22,000,000 HP PORTUGAL SUMATRA BOLIVIA VENEZUELA WEST INOIES ESTHONIA, LATVIA, LITHUANIA ARGENTINA COLOMBIA RUMANIA HUNGARY TASMANIA PERU CENTRAL AMERICA UKRAINE ALASKA NEW ZEALAND czcho - SLOVAKIA .JAVA CHILE. NEWFOUNDLAND POLAND RUSSIA .Jueo- SLAVIA INDIA FINLAND AUSTRIA ORITISH ISLES BRAZIL MEXICO SPAIN JAPAN GERMANY SWITZERLAND ITALY SWEDEN NORwAY FRANCE CANADA MILLIONS H.P. if» , / 04*", V; I a M.» a“ C A FIINLANC 0 05 I090 I900 I930 DEVELOPED WATER POWER RATE OF GROWTH FIG. é IIIIIIIII FRANKG. BAUM CONSULTING ENGINEER,SAN FRANCISCO,CALIF. I925. FEB. ED RUSSIA I I" \. LATVIA‘? -LITHUANIA NEWFOUNDLAND PORTUGAL _ - I TANG|E II4_,. ~ I (m ! IQ II \. ALSERIA ‘\ MOROCCO/ ~ . ,II \/ .,-" K. I D / EGYPT .4. . ,A 4* AFRIOA o {h I: ‘ _ 0% Ir '00 FRENCH SUDAN ! / e I? / &e° T ’f‘ A ’ n / ‘9 \ f DID ‘ BRITISH («ENTL-I \_\ALR|CA (ABYSSINIA '\ -\. /‘“X I ‘\ I>~ 4 _ <39. 90 0...? j/ ./ .) «L/ \ . CD3 'LVENEZUELA "‘1. D \_ :m’ BR D \ . IIEU COLOMBIA y / L n... . . 0 4‘13,” / ./ ’ I / “‘0‘“ / A E. AFRIC ‘y‘ ' \ '\, M/ \. 'TANGANYI ‘ -’ \BELGIAN f KONGO IIEEI ANGOLIA “I\ —- \‘ EIID :RHODESIA Li, I? .4> 2255 --‘— \ ,/:A ”A i 33ft“) “(J/T ./' «)7 “(YD . SOUTHWEST- ' AFRICA 4v, I._. ._ q} ‘7< 6;" A EI: “74,0 "‘0 6A THE WORLD 468,000,000 HI? OCEANICA E UROPE SOUTH AMERICA ASIA 1 NORTH AMERICA UNITED STATES O N I: U! 0 I V 5 MILLIONS HIP FIG. 2 DEVELOPED WATER POWER DY COUNTRIES~ISEO AFRICA 0 IO 20 50 40 50 60 70 60 90 I00 M l LLIONB H I? F__I__G.1 POTENTIAL WATER POWER BY I20 I40 I60 CONTINENTS E/U:ROPE DIED \ BRITISH @645? ”£00 I90 FIG.4 POPULATION-RATE OF GROWTH MILLIONS '- POPULATION DEVELOPED AND UNDEVELOPED WATER POWER OF THE WORLD PLATE XXVI I:I:III:I:I:I:I SIBERIA _{l/x‘ flf\'\ \ I ‘2 T\, N A, / \\ // ‘\I_.-/ V \. A V”? ‘l / I r , / CHINESE REPUBLIC C ISEN V; POPULATION OF THE WORLD 1920- 1,720,000,000. I50 I60 I40 I20 ‘ ‘7‘ I00 v) 71— 499 Q)? 80 Q‘ / A $4 1 ‘J\P~/\ 60 0. H // %y / go moon/1 40 E ’/_.._ “I‘L/ ”—- EBA‘S—C—w // ’ ,- .—":v —; -__’_‘.-_— iff—Pir—Y J____‘_ - 20 y‘— — ’5?5\_N___ __ ___ ______. ”fly- "”0 NORwAY_ a_ SW1 :_O_EN___ """ " "I I I I O I I500 1650 .500 D AUSTRALIA TASMANIA PLATE XXVII / PART III I ._ T j |29 I27 I25 95 93 9| 59 87 85 53 8| 79 77 '75 73 7' 69 67 , f 4"\ 47 > \ \47 II I D V J ‘ w A . .h-‘. J I ° , ' ‘. ‘. I ‘. L’ . ‘- III' 45 A |\‘ 1 1 45 ‘ _- ‘ 2 M6 .i -x‘ ~‘. ‘ I i. GRANDFORKSA\ 3 M INN. ; [I I‘ I MINNEAPOLgs I, 4| é STPAUL L‘ W I S . I ‘\.\ I x . 2 \‘soLACRossa Fuuunwuum \ 0 ’ MADISON I . s.‘ '\ I v (. 9 \3 «v3.89... ‘ o \\ 9 0’, i" ---------- OMAHA J 7. ! .' l 37 ‘L'm—‘v-‘I-lh‘hmm-“WM-mm“. TOPEKA° KANS. 35 * OKLAHOMA ° CITY . .' y . I i ,. . ' I , ! . ‘ ’ - o \ ' ! . I \. z , : ‘ ‘z ‘ -' i . l . . , I" ." I’ . ' -' .i ‘u-a. "u ‘3 oPHoENIX " N ' M EX . .1 \'\A.r . v ‘00-" -- .' l \.AV.‘ (“\‘r' .' i - , . ! i , 3| 1 ' ‘9‘ l ‘- a . , . o, g i ~., I I DALLAS " . O i ' ; . I l , » O E OKLA. "8.. ' Pn-n _______________________ J I u.-|.-”-. . l - -* 2 *0 so IOO I50 200 7"‘4 [:3 5y E I ‘ 29 MILES N LIGNITE s. \ l . . i ; New ORLEAN "MAP OF ANTHRICITE I - , s. ,o'"“‘\. y HOUSTON° ~ j ZIIUNITED STATES ‘ _UNI ‘~. . SEMIBITUMINOUS ‘5- %, gr I .3’ ‘SHOWING 7 I COAL FIELDS M g o' F ' PE I F 0 7 LOWGRADE BITUMINOUS U D DATA FURNISHED BY \IITU ZSI ' ‘ ' 'G , USGEOLOGICALSURVE ’45 25“ V FRANKG.E>AUM,CONSULTING ENGINEER H G B \\ - - Y . FRANK m. IGH RADE ITUMINOUS x.-. . 7 SAN FRANCISCO,CALIF. 1 NOVEMBER l92§ ’ I I I I I _ . \ \ 7 SANFW Na “'7 us ”3 III |09 |07 I05 103 I0I 99 97 . 95 93 BI 09 07 as 53 8| - 79 77 75 ‘IT :EXXVH X PART III _ I I ’ ' X ' ' , . V v ‘ ' _ ~ PLATE XXVIII 4 75 '73 7! 69 67 ' 47 "N -' \. ~ \ s’ \. ....-..-i .~ i’ E “\ 4 i .‘o 0‘ g M . ' 5 XI "l.. (-0.. ! GRAND FOR’G‘IX . _’ 'n \. N. DA K' I ---\' ""X) \. AUGUSTA I . ‘- ‘. ’1' \‘\ i ‘i \l T“; I“ ' 43 . -\\ !: N'HA‘ ' ‘| X 1‘" TON ' MINNEAPO sf \(. ‘.‘ J ,.—-" 506 E 8 DA K : stpi‘ieg W \S. N‘ N: (“#55 OPIERRE : \K ALBA {v"”’-T%;‘ 4| E \‘fLACROSSE -.—\ X CT \. i """""" "' """"""""" x ' """"""""""" \‘ .| \ a —————— “~ ’ ---""'"""""’ ---------- \ . )- | O W A "-\_ ISIADISON "“ 1"“ \/\ ~VN- "xi Dueuqurgk;""""w”.-. ' A ' “aw \(OR @ X X“ D MOINES' I CH‘CAGO . ’ ----- T P . 3 N E B R . ‘i 0E5 --"! uRG PHH—‘fiL ' N J . . -—-"‘""l—.‘—.;\;\M0R \‘ . ,. _. - @ MD? » -------------- . ________ ___ ________________ 3 { L. wfsumGYo“ \--— : ‘ \." ‘\\ X L. . "J" A 3 _ “\ a" \/ ' \ . . . TOPE KA "I“- .. . ‘ . . A 5' K A N s ST.LOUISZ " 4 __.‘/\‘:ou\sv1LLE ’J . >\W.Z-/’§ . 0 ' KY ,1" \__,!‘ ................. -—-’ r'. V """""""""""" 3 .............................. _: 3"!“__‘..!«‘—’1-—-"“"'T' QALE‘GH . 7 it_____._‘_’___._,___._._.-. NAgHV‘l-LE 'I'I’J,’ N ‘C . 5 OK LA I TENN- ./—-+——-—~~‘.,.-.\. & ;. OKLAHOMA °CITY ; ______ Q ....... ' ------- r 7’ - »\ .' I 'i"'"' """ \\ '~\\ “~. 33 E : A F? K ! \. \ oCoLUMe‘A \. ' ‘. '\. I: ,l I ‘\ OATLANTA \'\_\ S , C . i i I \ N. “ I y \. \ y . s a , \ DALLAS !~ ---------------- '\ MISS. :3 ALA, “1 GA \ , 3| '! ~ 1' Pu-"-[I-r ----------- - ......... J In m g I °JACK50N 9’ MoNTGOoMERY / , _ 2 0 so roo ISO 20 WNW" “ X 3 29 [EEO .. A In} filial) '. __________________ X .:- E s, ‘2 2’ , MILES ,., .. ILLINOIS °‘ L—-------} ‘. <; , ---—--—w-E--- "x 23 / § ‘ T E XAS K . / a / MAP OF §\\\\\ GULF COAST 1‘ $3M Y“ I , V I ". ’.’.-.-.\ HOUSTON RLEANS 121 UNITED S TATES E LIMA‘lND'ANA 9;» ‘ § 6W FLA- SHOWING IIflIIfl] MID‘CONTINENT \ ® ‘ TAMPA _ 27 E PETROLEUM AND -AppA._ACH.AN @ Ry ~ F o F E X , . c / ZSNNATURAL GAS FIELDS ~ CAUFORNNC as fl U n DATAFW 5,, ”D W 25 . I OASTAL OUTHERN \ G U 5 3531/25va FRANK G. BAUM CONSULTING ENGINEER V/ C I . , asceowgcxgstjavev /2 , W W _ . UREAU F ENSUS y SAN FRANCISCO,CAL|F. NOVEMBER I922 AL|F3RNIA Sf‘N‘JOAQIU'N VALILEY T‘N-x . ROCKYI MOUNTAIN , A 1 l l I I ‘ HS 5 / 117 II H3 _Ill I09 I07 I05 103 I0! 39 97 95 93 91 89 57 85 . 83 8| 79 7X7 X75 J 3. .I; «I! ,I, I \ T x I: DIRK) x R DIV/.I I \T WV \ .. \\ \ n . \ o PLATE XXIX . ,'\\\~ I S O \ u ‘ ‘1 {I 1’ . V. . , .I..\ o ,0 vooso‘ . s b \Icsfinfi L Q5. O§\\§\\\V§$§§ .Q N v 9s. \a PIN\ ww\\ NVQV 3 i&\\ «\\\L\\\\ : Am T . .. FROM APRJ TO SEPT.3O RIVER REGION CALIFORNIA ULF COAST NORTHERNGREA PERIOD WITHINWHICH 507° OFTHEANNUAL PRECIPITATION OCCURS SOUTHERNGREAT OCCURING DURING GMONTH PERIOD NEWYORK LAKE R. CENTRALVIRGINIA NORTHERN FLORIDA MISSOURI WILLAMETTEVALLEY PERCENTAGE OF ANNUAL PRECIPITATION UNDERZOZ 207040?!) 4073-6073 6022-807; OVER80‘Z. DATA FURNISHED BY U.S.DEPARTMENT OFAGRICULTURE-WEATHER BUREAU (ATLAS OF AMERICAN AGRICULTURE) BASED ON RECORDS OFABOUT I600 STATIONS FORTHE ’EOYRPERIOD 1895-1914, AND 2,000 ADDITIONAL RECORDS FROM 5T0 |9YRS.INLGT UNIFORMLY ADJUSTED To THE SAME PERIOD. STATUTE MILES DECEMBER I922. INCHES FRANKG. BAUM,CONSULTING ENGINEER MAP OF UNITED STATES MEiWF‘I‘LUAL PREfiIPITATION ISGO,CALIF. PART 111 SAN FRA .\ . 1 . P11 PART III . , * - PLATE XXXI ///1 150° 135° 120° 105° 1 90° V 7 I I I 1 I 1 7 120° 135° 1 150° l65° 1 o \\\ ‘ '1 1 Q ‘ " \\ '\\\ . ‘/ . 333% Q \x\\\\\\ \\ \V - Q 1 v G ‘ ' // %% _ 1 \_ / _ 1___ , , 5.13.91.55.05? _ _ ///. i I , , . . k // f BERING SEA 45° 11 P A ‘ Q o c E A N ‘ a , -. $5» 1K = . ‘ 1 1 30° 0 C .E A N :5 r - ._ 0. c E A N. 36 1 .................. TROPVGOFCANCER _ __ '02. - 1 ’ v 1 1541/ 15° 17-} 3 15° ‘ A ,1 if“. =. 1 I ’ '3 w. .« a. v ._ . . . {1° 1 0° I ‘ I ‘ .: 5 o EQ UATOR J" . . 0° 0511/P . a . $ 5 - \. . 4.: 13:“ , .‘ " 1' I . N. '31) I A N ‘ln..,_r:?-:-u3 .. ‘03 .. 1 S r 'o 0 ' ‘ ‘ C D .2: . _ 1., 1 156 m S o L T H . 15° of ..... TROPMOFCAPR160R~_ \_ 1 T L A N T I C’ ‘ P A c’ A 2 0 C E A N Kr 30‘ Z§//: ‘ 30° 3 / o §g§ 0 C’ E A N =E§r .' j o c E A N g 45° .450 “51'" SCALE-MERCATon’sPROJEc‘TION 3 _ LEGEND 1 E 0 500 1000 . - - 1 0° 0°. A R C' T I C’ 0 C’ E A N MORE THAN 1 15 . . 80 INCHES eo°—— , . . . 'F . WORLD MAP W4OTO 80|NCHES $075.1: T M —60 11 75° 75° ' - ' . SHOWING V TATA 01: H1511; P 1 152 0 100 200 300 403' 500 6800 700 800 900 1000 - ~ ------ 20TO4OINCHES (9::ng1:fo SQRQEY 1 0 (SCALE FOR THE DEGREES OF LATITUDE) .--_6!‘c!%g_§g_ PRECIPITATION ' ‘ -=+»:;---------------}-,-.:j'-‘==51'-‘==55: W 'OTO ZO'NCHES WORLDATLAs' --- 1 13 NOTE: THEMERCATOR PROJECTION USED ON 77415 MAP _ . ‘~. . ~-~ ........ > - ° , ,‘. E , 1111 GREATLYEXAGGERATEsW-IEAREAS7Z>WARD7745P0LES . 04,— ‘\ FRANK G BAUM’ CONSULTING ENGINEER , N' m L105 1551011455!“ 1 61151 1 1 "”5 K. SAN FRANc1500,CAL11=. MARCH l923. 1 1 1 1 1 L LL 165° 150° 135° 120° 105° 90° f75° 60° 45° 30° 15° 0° 15° 30° 45° 60° 75° 90° 105° 120° 135° 150° 155° 150° ' 111-. «g PART III PLATE XXXII 165° 150° 155° 120° 105° 90° 75° 60° 45° 30° Ci 15° 0° 15° ‘4! 30° 45' 60° 75° 90° '105° 120° 135° 150° 165° I80" 3 , a ~ , . ' .6 I 13 4 R E N 1' s ‘ 75° ° . ‘ . . . "- , '1‘ 9 % Baf f i n 4% 5 E A D .. .0 3 Ba y I C ‘0 0 ¢ ““6 .53... ~ . '2 ' 0‘” ° 9‘ 3% 1 o L_--_ - - --__-______--AIR-9.779913%? _ _ ° 0 "r ,. 60° H d V b ‘3' f v o. i , BERING .5? "$9 B “y ‘2} SEA or ' ‘ zJ'b‘ V 0101on ‘ ’ Q 3' ‘0 11".»!- N o R T H .- Q» I: NORTH - 'I.-'N0RTH 45° . , , A T L A N T I a 0 gr PACIFIC ,-,. °0 PACIFI o C E A N a . . .5 ~ 969 30° 0 C’ A N . ;3’.a' 0 c E A N. ----------------------------------------- - _-.;.\-_____ZBQELQQEHCAIXQEB___-__--_-_-__ - 9- } flag I 0 3.. . ~r :. 51% . u Q 3/ 8: .- 4 I : o A I , . "' ‘ ' . _ ’- == . ' EQUATOP . ' EQUATOR 4-. o a: 0 " \ ‘ '.- -‘-‘ - ’ . °: - u \. ‘ ' a .nu“ '- . V o ‘ u .. ‘ . .a, - I A N anfify-n‘ ~-: fig - ' a U T H S 0 U 1' H =‘- ‘ ‘ ' I ‘ '37.. 15° ,- “ ‘ ‘: '3' _______________ ‘ ___ 1 : OF CAPRICORN _______‘§'_______~______ “ """""" ' ”"7". """"""""""""""""""""" " "“"A"T'L'"X‘N‘"1""‘I"'é """"" ' """"""""""""""""" P A v I F I c E A N . 30° 0 c ‘E A N .' o c E A N I ‘ ~ ' w 45. l:- ' o a . f In. . 9 5% “I” . ° SCALE'MERCATORSPROJECTION ° .: .. \ , ALTITUDE LEGEND o 500 10%). ‘”‘ ‘ MORE THAN . ° ° T 1‘ ° WORLD MA P ° ° ° A N — 45° WSOOOTOIOOOOFTL DATAFORTHIS MAP _ 7.50 SHOWING , ’ TAKEN FROM UtS. o ICC 200 300 423' [sic-3% 6800 700 800 900 IOOO 2,000 To 5,0003% 3500;101:1211: ngVEY - ANTARC7 ‘ I ______ a _____ 7 - -— (SCALE FOR THE DEGREES OF LATITUDE) -------------- ALTIT DE OF LAND ——————— -— ----- W1.ooonz,oooa Nora: THEMERCATOR PROJECTIONUSED ON THIS MAP ~ “N ________ , V LESS THAN I GREATLY EXAGGERATESTHEAREASTOWARD-fi-IEPOLES. ,c FRANK G BAUM’ CONSULTING'ENG'NEER m 1,000 FT. I I I I (9 SAN FRANCISCO,CALIF.I JANUARY I923. I I I I l L l | I ~ I 165° 150° 135° 120° 105° 90° 7 75° 60° . 4___5° 7_ 30° _ 15° 0° 15° 30° 45° 60° 75° 90° 105° 120° 135° ’50:, ,65. I80° 1 i , 4-7 PART" III : ' i —‘ PLATE XXXIII 65 7o '75 so as 85 so 75 7o 65 :1” _ - L E G E N D — D N - v . F! 0 C K Y M0 U N TAIN YELLOW PINE, DOUGLAS FIR, FIRS, (BALSA M),SRRUCES,. ‘ ‘ F on E S T JUNIPERS, PINON, PINES, ASPEN, COTTONWOODS, OAKS. ,9 . Dem RC C O A WHITE, BLACK& RED OAKS, HICKORIES, CHESTNUT, WALNUT' / CENTRAL FOREST ANDBUTTERNUT,YELLOWPOPLAR,CHERRY, ASHES, ELMS, 6° MA PL ES,BEACH, LOCUST, LINDEN, BUCKE YES,COTTONWOOD. ‘2 6 - \\\\ ‘ YELLowPINES, WHITE, LIVE, REDcSl BLACK OAKS, HICKORIES, ' m m S O U T HE P N FOR E S T CYPRESSES,WHITE CEDAR,JUNIRER, RED fil TUPELo GUMS, i o A MACNOLIAS,BAYS,ELMS,HOLLIES,ASHES, OSACE ORANGE. 8' 7’- ' DOUGLAS FIR SPRUCES LARcHES WESTERN RED CEDAR (ARBOR-VITA E) w 55 pAC I FIG C OAS T HEMLOCKS,REDWOOD& BIC-TREE, YELLOW&< WHITE PINE, INCENSE, _ ‘39 F on E S T PORT OREORDO‘ YELLOWCEDARS, FIRE (5A LSAM), JUNIPERS, b e - . YEW, COTTONWOODS,MAPLE,ALDERS, BIRCHES, MA DRONA,LAUREL ' %/ ' NORTHERN PORTION: WHITE REDOiJAcK PINE SRRUCES FIRS 3’ f? W0 % /// NORTHE RN FOREST (BALSAM),POPLARS&{ASPENS, BIRCHES,TAMARACK. N BAY so - SOUTHEASTERN PORTION:MAPLES,BEEOH,BIRCHES, ASHES, H“ 50 ASPEN,CHESTNUT, WHITE, RED&( SCRUB PINES, SPRUCES, \ V FIRS (BALSAM), HEMLOCKS,TAMA RACK, ARBOR-VITAE. 7, ' T ’HH SUB-TROPICAL AND MEXICO? \ 4:: 45 ' TROPICAL FOREST MAHOGANY, PINES,CEDRELA5, PRIMA—VERA,MORA, SANTA " _ MARIA,CHICHIPATE, LOGWOOD, MEXICAN ROSEWOOD, Q ZEBRAWOOD, MESOUITE,SA POT/LO, E BA No, A LISO (A LDER), 2 GENERALCHARACTER'ISTICS OF FOREST REGIONS: ASH, ELM/MULBERRY, COTTONWOOD, SILKCOTTON TREE 0R "'\. , . . CEIBA, LINDEN, CHINA, PIMIENTA,STYRAX,ANONA,JOHNCRDW ~ \ T 40 ”OZ/1:33;??? Zr; :9; 23%;: T’sr’ei/onegfiej” 2:”), WOOD, BUTTONWOOD, BLACK MA BA, HA-aINr ,SALM-wooo. . ’\ " raTher Small, scaTTered bodies of Woodland CENTRAL AMERICA 5i WEST INDIES‘. ‘ , _ o, and for-65f- Infer-spel—sed by cleared farmlands, MAHOGANY, CEDRELAS,LIONUM—VITAE,LOCWOOD,SABICU, 0 \ 0 brush and ofher lands devalal of foreST. Large MORA, ROSEWOOD, FUSTIC, QUIEBRA HACHA,ALGARROBA, 35 bodies of COnTInued foresT occur mainly in ZEBRAwooo(RONRON), NISPERo, Tlmao,GRANDlLLA, 1m 2057‘6F7V04203/a: fgrfsi Qf Mags: Q'EWJZM’ /‘ a CALABASH,AUSUBA,ALMACloo,ALMENDRO,COCOBOLA, , ennsy anl , 65 IF nla, W65 rn OI" UFO In 0 eaSTern Tennessee, MISSI’SSippi, Louisiana and J NOGAL‘ (JUGLA NS)’ COR KWOOD’ pANAMA ’ JAQUA’ AMAR' LLO’ Oklahoma. NANCE,MEM5RILLO,QUACHIPILIN, QUAYACAN, LAUREL, 7. A 30 WiTh some excepTionS, The WesTern foresT LAUREL—SAB’NO,MAGA: HUESO, PATA DE “ABA; HAUCHELO) ~ reg/‘Onsponsisf‘ of large and small bodies of QUAYAVO,QUAC!MO, lCAco,UCAR TREEs, MAGNO, Timber“ IUTGFRPCFSGG/ by fifrefches Of free/ass CHICHIQUE,SARSAPARILLA,COCOA-WOOD,iNGA, ESPAVE. Y park and and lands. ThIs oompOSITIon Is . ' V parTI'CU/ar/y True of The Rocky MOUnTain A 25 region. ConTinUOUS bodies of foresTs exisT ¢Lvofla now maiply in wfesTern Cajrzada, in wesfern , 0 Washing on, nor hern Cali ornia, Oregon, 7- Ken rom dafa Ished b #76 GULF 0 MEX’CO o 1...: “3‘44! norThern Idaho and WesTern MonTana. (f3 Déarfmenf-fgjcrjagriculfiljre’ CUBA ”5 :° 20 ForesT Service , Office of Geography 4) a and The Drendo/ogIsT. , T Q ' ’66 m4 SAN 00"“ Go A ‘4’ '5 NATURAL FOREST REGIONS . H ._ L ., OE ‘ '° NORTH AMERICA 120 . .Is . no .05 95 go - 55 so 75 70 F RANK (3. BAUM CONSULTING ENGINEER SAN FRANCISCO,CALI F. DECEMBER I922- .WWT _,...,;. . _ .. 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NATIONAL FLA- 7 l 69 67 '33 3| 29 2'7 25 NATIONAL FORESTS pARKS ' F o 'F M E iNDIAN RESERVATIONS U I! o \ NATIONAL PARKS —— DISTRICT BOUNDARIES A G DATA Fumsueo By FRANKG.BAUM,CONSULT!NGENGINEER 5 DISTRICT NUMBERS U-S-ggpg-Eggeggg-gvne SAN FRANCISCO,CALIIF. NOVEMBER I922 L (CH-E5 SHOWN ARE P'ST-HE’AI‘DQUARTERS) \ , \ ”9 n7 us ”3 m I09 I07 105 103 I0! 99 97 95 93 91 as ' 8'7 85 as 51 79 77 75 _,., .. M,,pAvnn"\ TIT ‘ A Texas A&M Universitmm I\IIHHlllllllllllllHNllllll|||||HlllllHllllllllllllllllH 914800284 .83 DATE DUE DEMCO 38-297 HECKMAN BfNDERV 3ND APR Ex: Jo, HECKMAN BINDERY INC. APR 97