' B-IE TEXAS PLANTS P0|SONOUS T0 uvssrocx TEXAS A&M UNIVERSITY TEXAS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIUN TEXAS AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE College Station, Texas A UTUIr-ROQ l5 16 17 l7 l8 18 18 19 19 19 20 2O 2O 21 22 23 24 24 25 25 27 28 28 28 29 30 30 31 31 31 CONTENTS THE PROBLEM POISONOUS PLANT RESEARCH IN TEXAS TOXIC PLANT CONSTITUENTS TEXAS PLANTS POISONOUS TO LIVESTOCK Acacia berlandieri, Guajillo Aesculus glabra var. arguta, Texas buckeye Aesculus pavia, Red buckeye Agave lecheguilla, Lechuguilla Aloysia Iycioides, Whitebrush Amaranthus spp., Carelessweed Apocynum cannabinum, Dogbane Asclepias latifolia, Broad-leafed milkweed Asclepias subverticillata, Horsetail milkweed Asclepias verticillata, Whorled milkweed. Astragalus emoryanus, Peavine Astragalus mollissimus, Loco-weeds Astragalus mollissimus var. coryi, Yellow-flowered loco Astragalzas mollissimtts var. earlei, Earle loco Astragalus mollissimus var. mollissimus, Woolly loco Astragalus wootoni, Garboncillo Baileya multiradiata, Desert Baileya Cassia occidentalis, Coffeesenna Centaurium spp., Centaury, mountain pink Cephalanthus occidentalis, Buttonbush Cicuta maculata, Spotted waterhemlock Colubrina texensis, Hogplum Conium maculatum, Poison hemlock Conyza coulteri, Conyza Corydalis aurea, Golden corydalis Datum spp., Jimsonweeds Delphiniztm virescens, Plains larkspur Drymaria arenarioides, Alfombrilla Drymaria pachyphylla, Thickleaf drymary Eupatorium rugosum, White snakeroot Euphorbia spp., Spurges Flourensia cernua, Blackbrush, tarbush Helenium amarum, Bitter sneezeweed Heleniztm microcephalum, Smallhead sneezeweed Hymenoxys odorata, Bitterweed Isocoma wrightii, Rayless goldenrod, jimmyweed jatropha cathartica, Berlandier nettlespurge jatropha dioica, Leatherstem Kallstroemia spp., Caltrops Karwinskia humboldtiana, Coyotillo Kochia scoparia, Summercypress Lantana camara, Largeleaf lantana Lobelia berlandieri, Berlandier lobelia M elia azedarach, Chinaberry Melilotus spp., Sweetclovers 32 32 32 33 34 34 35 36 36 36 38 38 38 39 39 40 40 41 42 42 43 43 44 44 45 46 46 46 46 46 47 47 48 49 49 50 50 50 51 52 52 54 54 55 58 Nerium oleander, Oleander- N icotiana glauca, Tree tobacco Nolina texana, Sacahuista Notholacna sinuata var. cochisensis, Jimmy fe Oxytropis lambertii, Lambert loco Panvicum antidotale, Blue panicum Peganum harmala, African rue Phyllanthus abnormis, Abnormal leafflower Phytolacca americana, Pokeweed Prosopis glandulosa, Mesquite Prunus spp., Wild plum f\} Psilostrophe gnaphalodes, Cudweed paperflow Psilostrophe tagetinae, Woolly paperflower Pteridium aquilinum. var. pseudocaudatum, Bracken fern Quercus spp., Oaks Ricinzts communis, Castorbean Senecio longilobus, Threadleaf groundsel Senecio spartioides, Riddell groundsel Sesbania drummondii, Drummond sesbane Sesbania vesicaria, Bagpod sesbane Solanum carolinense, Horsenettle Solanum elaeagnifolium, Silverleaf nightshade Solanum nigrum, Black nightshade Solanum rostratum, Buffalobur Sophora secundiflora, Mescalbean Sophora sericea, Silky sophora Sorghum halepense, Johnsongrass Sorghum vulgare, Sorghums Sorghum almum, Sorghum almum Stillingia treculiana, Trecul queensdelight Tribulus terrcstris, Puncturevine Xanthium spp., Cocklebur Xanthocephalum microcephalum, Threadleaf broomweed, Slinkweed Xanthocephaluvn sarothrae, Broom snakeweed, Perennial broomweed Zygadenus nuttallii, Nuttall deathcamas SPECIAL PROBLEMS Ergot Hydrocyanic or prussic acid poisoning Nitrate poisoning I Photosensitization Wheat pasture poisoning PLANTS GROWING IN TEXAS KNOW i TO HAVE CAUSED ANIMAL LOSSES I - OTHER PARTS OF THE CONTINENTAL UNITED STATES ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES INDEX Sperry, ]. W. Dollahite, Hoffman and B. ]. Camp‘ xns nuis lSONOUS TESTQCK ,7 THE PROBLEM-A poisonous plant is one which causes chemical or physiological disturbances when consumed by livestock. The effects may vary from mild sickness to death. Plants that interfere with growth in Weight or milk produc- tion are included. Loss from poisonous plants is one of the major economic problems in livestock production. A compilation of numer- ous reports indicates that the annual loss from poisonous plants in Texas is between 5O and 100 million dollars. Approximately 80 species and varieties of poisonous plants growing in pastures and on range areas of Texas are listed alphabetically by scientific names in this publication. An additional list includes plants growing in Texas and reported to be poisonous in other areas. Some species described seldom cause trouble but are included since they have been proved toxic and may, under conditions, bring about livestock losses. Poisoning of livestock is more commonly the result of management, range conditions, or kinds of animals rather than the presence of the plants concerned. Poor range condition from overgrazing or other conditions resulting in a lack of palatable forage is commonly the cause of poisoning. The real danger is whether or not the toxic species is grazed. Many species are seldom eaten, but some are relished by certain animals and may be taken in prefer- ence to other forage. In some instances animals will select flowers or fruits or new growth; in other situations grazing is less discriminate. Many poisonous plants are green at a time of the year when other plants are dormant. Small amounts of plant material can be lethal shortly after con- sumption in some cases. In others, the toxic substances are accumulative and the species must be grazed over a period of time before signs of poisoning appear. Frequent cases of poisoning occur when hungry animals are turned into new pastures or are given access to poisonous plants near pens, watering places or along trails. Most poisonous plants are eaten because the animal is hungry and the poisonous plant is readily available. ""Respectively, professor, Department of Range and Forestry; associate rofessor, Veterina Toxicol ; Extension ran e s ecialist and P _ FY 03V _ _ g P _ _ associate professor, Department of Biochemistry and Nutrition. Poisoned animals should be treated as soon as the condition is recognized. Treatment of animals that have eaten poisonous plants is based on four principles: destruction of poisonous substance within the alimentary tract, prevention of absorption into the blood stream, promotion of excretion and evacuation, and symptomatic treatment. Poisoned animals should be removed from accessible poisonous plants and pro- vided with feed, water and shelter. Some animals need hand feeding and watering. Specific antidotes are available for some poisons but others require symptomatic treatments such as laxatives, stimulants and good nursing. Prevention of poisoning should be practiced when possible. Since certain plants are more poisonous to one type of animal than to another, a change in kind of livestock may be in order. Reduction of weed population and improvement of desirable forage are good management practices. Many poisonous plants can be controlled with herbicides. This method of control is practical for use on hazardous sites, and in some instances, on large-scale areas. The primary use of herbicides in weed control is to reduce the weed population to a minimum. In addition, mechanical control, modification of pasture use, correction of watering and salting, establishment of control fences and application of forage-improving management practices are most important procedures to follow to avert losses from poisonous plants. The determination, management and control of toxic species depends upon many individuals. An operator having livestock losses normally works with the veterinarian, the county agricultural agent, or range technician in the locality. If catastrophic or continuous losses occur, the problem may move into the realm of the Agricultural Experiment Station. The research veterinarian, the range research special- ist, biochemists or others may become involved in the problem. Before the operator can efficiently cope with poisonous plant problems on the range or pastures, he must be able to recognize the important species and be aware of the way in which they cause the trouble. A field problem on poisonous plants may be brought into the research center by Extension Service or Experiment Station personnehranchman or prac- ticing veterinarian. The problem, when of major importance, is directed into multi-discipline channels of research in the several departments of the Texas Agricultural Experiment Station. The program may have numerous avenues of approach. One or more of the following may be involved: 1. Field work to locate and determine the pos- t sible toxic species. 2. Feed the plants concerned to determine their toxicity and the signs and lesions produced in the affected animals. 3. Find laboratory animals that are suscepti: to poisoning by the plant. 1; 4. Determine the toxic constituent of the pl 5. Determine the specific action of the poison‘ principle on the animal. a 6. Research to find specific antidotes that i neutralize the poison before it causes ill; or that may be used as treatments after “ of poisoning occur. i‘ 7. Research to find methods of control or e cation of the more important species poisonous plants. 8. Develop range management practices that g prevent or reduce losses from poisonin plants. “ Poisonous Plant Research in Texas The problem of poisoning by plants is as f: as the livestock industry. It has been recogniz Texas as long as owners and veterinarians I attempted to make differential diagnoses. Spa’ missionaries described shin oak poisoning in 5 Southwest as early as the sixteenth century. f members of the Department of Veterinary Rese, of the. Texas Agricultural Experiment Station g ‘the USDA made many early investigations. F' Station l4, located south of Sonora and now s, as the Ranch Experiment Station, was establish 1916 primarily to investigate swellhead in sheep goats, a condition proved to be caused by sacahu, Numerous other poisonous plants have been in i gated and determined by workers on this station The Loco Weed Research Laboratory was lished in Alpine in 1929. This work was f; Marfa in 1945 and the name» changed to A Disease Laboratory. In addition to the loco numerous other weeds have been investigated , poisonous species determined by workers in this st, for the Trans-Pecos area. The Range Expen“ Station located near Barnhart and administere the Ranch Experiment Station in cooperation -' the University of Texas was established in i Emphasis on this station during the past 20 yearsg‘ been aimed at determining methods for red :_ losses from bitterweed. In 1947, research on pois plants was formalized in the Department of g and Forestry at College Station. A bulletin en i» “Texas Range Plants Poisonous to Livestock" , published in 1955 and brought together the avail information on the Texas poisonous plant pro This publication is an expansion and updati g.“ the 1955 work. Research on the chemistry of toxic constituent of plants was initiated in the ment of Biochemistry and Nutrition in 1954. Toxic Plant Constituents ‘oisono-us plant may contain a single com- iseveral similar compounds or compounds of it chemical structure, and the poisonous prin- _j be organic or inorganic in nature. different types of toxic compounds associated fisonous plants are alcohols, alkaloids, glyco- ytotoxins and salts of organic and inorganic TCSOSIDE. A glycoside is a complex com- f hat contains a non-sugar group attached to of a sugar molecule. Glucose is the sugar quently found in glycosides. Examples of gcosides are: Cyanogenetic, which releases prussic acid rolysis of the glycoside. iCardiac, which yields a compound similar in J t0 the sterols upon hydrolysis. Saponin, which releases a steroid or terpenoid p,‘ pound upon hydrolysis. y ALOID. An alkaloid is a complex molecule ‘ng nitrogen, whose free base is alkaline in and capable of neutralyzing acids to- form TGAIVIC ACIDS. The great majority of acids contain a carboxyl group. Other iacids contain the phenol group. The toxic c’ d tannic acids. TOTOXINS. A vegetable protein that re- acterial toxins in that the injection of the ‘ uajillo, Acacia berlandieri. é. ilacids associated with plants are fluo-roacetic, Figure 2. Guajillo, Acacia berlandieri. protein into animals causes the production of an anti- toxin. Texas Plants Poisonous to Livestock Acacia berlandieri-Guajillo DESCRIPTION. Guajillo is a shrub in. the legume family (Leguminosae) with few or no prickles, twice- pinnate leaves and flowers in globose heads, Figure l. The flattened fruit pods are four to six times as long as wide and have somewhat thickened margins. DISTRIBUTION. Guajillo grows in great density in Texas, especially in the southern part of the Edwards Plateau and in the central and northern parts of the South Texas Plains. It extends from Terrell County on the north to Webb County on the south and east- ward int.o Bee County. Scattered plants and small patches of guajillo are found in areas adjacent to the South Texas Plains and the Edwards Plateau and in the Trans-Pecos, especially in the Chisos Mountains, Figure 2. It extends southward into Mexico. ANIMALS POISONED. Sheep and goats are poisoned by guajillo. CLINICAL SIGNS. Animals poisoned by guajillo develop» a locomotor incoordination of the legs re- ferred to as “limberleg” or “guajillo wobbles.” The “rubbery” action of the rear limbs defies accurate description, except by means of motion pictures. At first, this sign is observed only when the animals are forced to move; after several days or weeks the inco- ordination is complete, with the animal recumbent and unable to rise. Affected animals retain their appetite for long periods after recumbency. Animals develop poisoning after an exclusive diet of guajillo 5 Figure 3. Texas Buckeye, Aesculus glabra var. arguta. for 9 months or longer. Losses are negligible during years 0f favorable rainfall but may reach 50 p-ercent in periods of extended drouth (Price et al. 1953) . LEsIoNs. No significant gross pathology has been observed. PoIsoNous PRINCIPLE. The leaves of guajillo contain three sympathomimetic amines. Camp and Lyman. (1956) identified one of the compounds as N-methyl-beta-phenylethylamine, and Camp et al. (1963) isolated and identified two additional amines, tyramine a.nd N-methyl tyramine, from this plant. The oral administration of N-methyl-beta-phenyl- ethylamine hydrochloride to sheep (375 milligrams per kilogram of animal weight) produces increased respiration, nervousness, tremors and ataxia of the hindquarters. The oral lethal dose of the amine hydrochloride in sheep is approximately 450 milli- grams per kilogram of body weight. MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. Guajillo is a valu- able browse plant but should not be grazed to the exclusion of other range forage. When poisoning does occur, supplemental feeding and reduce-d stocking rates will lower the percentage of poisoning. If pos- sible, the flock should be move-d to a range free of guajillo when signs of illness first appear. Few new cases will develop after removal from guajillo range, and many early cases will show marked improvement and eventual recovery if place on an adequate ration. Guajillo may be killed with herbicides. Aesculus glabra var. arguta-Texas Buckeye and Aesculus pavia-Red Buckeye DESCRIPTION. Buckeyes are trees or shrubs with opposite palmately compound leaves with 5 serrate leaflets. The flowers are polygamous in large erect panicles with a tubular, 5-lobed calyx; 4 or 5-clawed and unequal petals; 6 to 8 stamens and a 3-celled 6 ovary. The fruit is a leathery capsule with one three large glossy brown seed. Buckeyes are mem ‘_ of the horse-chestnut family (Hippocastinacea Figure 3. The Mexican buckeye,Ungnadia specie, is a member of the soapberry family (Sapindac and, as the name implies, is not a true bucke Apparently, it is not poisonous. DISTRIBUTION. Two species of Aesculus are foul in Texas. These occur from East Texas to the east .1 part of the Edwards Plateau with some record fr? the canyons in the Rolling Plains, Figure 4. Buck usually is found on river bottoms and along the vi of streams. Shrub forms are most common as fill’ growth in canyons and on valley floors. ANIMALS POISONED. Cattle, horses, sheep w swine have been poisoned by buckeye. Also, chil have been poisoned by eating the nut-like seed. CLINICAL SIGNS. Animals poisoned by buck have an uneasy, staggering gait, weakness and tr bling. Mucous membranes are congested, and pupils are dilated. The animals become depr and go into a stupor and coma before death. L) animals. will vomit, and colic may be seen in ho _ (Tehon est al. 1946). POISONOUS PRINCIPLE. At least seven species? Aesculus have been reported as poisonous when ea by animals. Several glycosides have been isola, ' from species of buckeye (Muenscher 1951), two which are aesculin and fraxin. At least one spe contains a narcotic alkaloid. MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. In the e spring, animals should not be allowed to graze, pastures where there are buckeye seedlings .3 sprouts, until grass or other forage is abundant. i ------- ~- Inna-v u." Figure 4. Buckeye, Aesculus spp. cases are found soon enough, a veterinarian should be acalled to administer purgatives and stimulants. Co-ntrol of buckeye can be obtained by basal applications of 32 pounds of 2,4,5-T L.V. ester in 100 gallons of diesel oil. The best kills were obtained experimentally on trees with stems under _6 inches in diameter which were notched around the bole xnear the ground. The kill on larger trees was --; erratic but effective (Sperry and Pond 1957). Seed- ialings and. plants less than 2 feet in height can be gcontrolletl by foliage spraying. Derscheid and Ferrell (I955) reported control of red buckeye with foliage sprays of ZA-D and 2,4,5-T emulsions in water at the rate of 4 pounds per 100 gallons of water. w rm .. "H"... T,” . ,,.‘q,.....,,,.,,,..,..,.;n.,,. .. .‘.,_..._,...,_,.._,..‘,,7, ”\v<( “Agave lecheguilla-Lechuguilla DESCRIPTION. Each lechuguilla plant consists of ; a crown bearing 20 ,to 30 thick, fleshy leaves, l to 11/2 inches wide and from l2 to 24 inches long. The leaves are ascending with recurving marginal prickles é-and terminate in a sharp spine. The flowering scapes are 6 to l2 feet long and bear a terminal panicle with short branches, Figure 5. Numerous black flattened Lpseed are produced in a leathery, FS-celled capsule. i Each plant requires 1O to 15 years to reach maturity, then flowers, sets fruit and dies. Reproduction is by both seed and offsets around the base of the parent plant. The formation of offsets is stimulated by ~ browsing of the flowering stalks. The century plant Figure 5. Lechuguilla, Agave lecheguilla. Figure 6. Lechuguilla, Agave lechegiailla. and maguey also are species of Agave, which belongs to the amaryllis family (Amaryllidaceae) . DISTRIBUTION. Lechuguilla occurs in Texas west- ward from the southern and western portions of the Edwards Plateau across the Trans-Pecos to» the Frank- lin Mountains at El Paso. The heaviest infestations are in the lo-w rainfall areas paralleling the Rio Grande and on the dry hills of the Trans-Pecos, Figure 6. This plant extends westward into New Mexico and south into Mexico. Lechuguilla occurs characteristically on low limestone hills, dry valleys and bordering cayons west o-f the Pecos river. ANIMALS POISONED. Sheep and goats are poisoned most frequently by lechuguilla. Although cattle are poisoned less frequently, lechuguilla poisoning may be a series problem in this species during dro-uth or when there is a shortage of good feed. CLINICAL SIGNS. Poisoned animals become listless and make no effort to keep up with the flock or herd. There is a progressive decrease in consumption of water and food, with eventually a complete loss of appetite. The animals become pro-gressively weaker and emaciated, and a short period of coma usually precedes death. jaundice is marked. The skin and visible mucous membranes are golden yellow to orange. A yellow excretion adheres to the internal canthus and the nostrils are occlude-d with a yellow, tenacious discharge. The urine is occasionally port wine in color. Photosensitization with edematous swelling of face, ears and intermandibular space is seen frequently. Animals experimentally fed as little as l percent of their body weight of lechuguilla leaf material have developed signs of poisoning and died. LESIONS. There is a pronounced icterus. The liver is light brownish yellow, and the capsule is usually 7 thickened. The gallbladder is usually distended with normal appearing bile, but occasionally the bile has a doughy consistence. Compression along the edge of the cut surface o-f the liver results in the expression of numerous plugs of thickened bile from the severed bile ducts. The» kidneys are swollen and greenish black. There are numerous pinpoint grey specks under the capsule of the kidney. In some cases there is a decrease in the number of erythrocytes. There is a leucocytosis with poly- morphonuclear leucocytes co-mprising as high as 90 percent of the leucocytes. The nonprotein nitrogen content of the blood is greatly increased, and albumi- nuria is evident (Mathews 1937). PoIsoNous PRINCIPLE. Lechuguilla poisoning is the combined action of two principles, photodynamic agent and nephrotoxic and hepatotoxic agent. The chemical constitution of the photodynamic agent has not been established. Mathews (1938) identified the hepatotoxic agent as a saponin. Wall et al. (1954) have isolated the steroidal sapogenin smilagenin from this plant. MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. Lechuguilla poi- soning usually occurs from grazing the leaves during the winter and spring but may appear at any time during the year, Figure 7. When poisoning occurs, animals should be re- moved from pastures where lech.uguilla grows, or the number should be reduced to where there is an adequate amount of other forage. Supple-mental feeding is beneficial in preventing losses. WVhen animals first exhibit signs of illness they should be placed in the shade and fed nutritious feed. Most of the animals that develop severe jaundice will die. Figure 7. Grazed lechuguilla. 8 racemes, Figure 8. Figure 8. Whitebrush, Aloysia lycioides. a: Aloysia lycioides-Whitebrush, Beebrush DEsCRIPTIoN. Whitebrush is a shrubby plant ¥ the verbena family (Verbenaceae). It has entire ,1 ‘ sparsely denticulate, oblong to obovate dull {l leaves. The small white or bluish flowers are f ' open, leafy panicles of elongated spikes or spikel DISTRIBUTION. Whitebrush is frequent to ab? dant in Central, West and South Texas and exte: into New Mexico and Mexico. It may be present‘? undergrowth in open woodland and may be pro nent in overflow and flood areas. Whitebrush quently increases in stand and density follow mechanical and chemical brush control. i ANIMAL POISONED. Horses, mules and burros affected by whitebrush. ‘ CLINICAL SIGNS. When grazed heavily by ho . whitebrush produced weakness and death. Ho probably have to graze it from 30 to 40 days be symptoms develop (Mathews 1942a) . i POISONOUS PRINCIPLE. A water-soluble toxi; present in whitebrush. I MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. Whitebrush I valuable honey plant and has some value for ¢~__ The most effective control of whitebrush has bee foliage spraying with 1% pounds MCPA with 1 ga of diesel oil and enough water to make 8 gallo l ' solution per acre. Spraying should be done plants are fully leafed and in full bloom (McC 1959). f’ Amaranthus spp-Amaranth, Carelessweed, Pigwi DEsCRIPTIoN. Care-lessweeds are annual w; herbs and belong to the amaranth family nthaceae). They are so» commonly known that tle description is necessary, Figure 9. Twenty-three icies are recorded for Texas. The growth form of various species ranges from prostrate to branch- upright. Most species, especially in early growth, palatable to domesticated animals and are relished wine; hence, the name “pigweed” often is applied. DISTRIBUTION. Amaranths are present to abun- tinalmost every disturbed pasture area. They common in barnyards having rich, moist soil. POISONOUS PRINCIPLE. It is assumed that potas- nitrate is the toxic compound, although careless- poisoning does not always show the classical p, (brown blood) of nitrate poisoning. Analyses ‘lants at time of losses were as follows: green plant te; plants that had stopped growing as a result inadequate moisture, 0.828 percent potassium te; and plants that were wilting because of fequate moisture, 2.874 percent potassium nitrate Vllahite and Camp 1956). For further information nitrate poisoning, see nitrates under Special Prob- MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. Frequent deaths ive occurred in animals grazing amaranths and eat- ,8 amaranth hay. If there are pregnant animals in herd, there may be abortions within 2 weeks fol- t 'ng the initial deaths. Under certain conditions, - losses reach alarming numbers. Losses almost ays occur when animals are eating moisture- 'cient plants. If conditions permit, amaranths can be killed by ying with 2,4-D or other herbicides. Rea and e (1957) reported 1/2 pound, acid equivalent, of x in 50 gallons of water per acre killed amaranths nches high or less in corn up to 30 inches tall. d pulling when the soil is moist or mowing or ping localized areas are good control practices. 9. Carelessweed, A maranthzzs spp. Figure l0. Dogbane, Apocynum cannabinum. Apocynum cannabinum-Dogbane, Indian Hemp DESCRIPTION. Dogbanes are perennial, herba- ceous, erect, leafy herbs with pink or whitish flowers, Figure l0. They belong to the dogbane family (Apocynaceae). DISTRIBUTION. Dogbane is found along streams and in moist situations over most of Texas. Another species, A. androsaemifolium, grows on range areas of West Texas and is considered toxic. ANIMALs POISONED. horses, cattle and sheep. Dogbane is poisonous to CLINICAL SIGNS. Both green and dried dogbane are poisonous. From 15 to 30 grams will cause death in horses and cattle (Muenscher 1951). MANAGEMENT AND ‘TREATMENT. Dogbane is not considered a serious problem on the range since domesticated animals usually avoid these plants. The bitter, milky, rubber-containing juice presumably renders dogbane unpalatable, and plants are grazed only when other forage is not available. Asclepias latifolia-Broad-leafed Milkweed DESCRIPTION. Broad-leafed milkweed is a peren- nial plant with stout simple stems and four or more pairs of large thick leaves, which are not more than 1.5 times as long as wide. The flowers are greenish and give rise to two to four smooth pods about 11/2 inches long, Figure l1. Of the 30 species of Asclepias recorded for Texas, broad-leafed milkweed is note- worthy fo-r its robust nature and leaf size, while other 9 Figure ll. Broad-leafed milkweed, Asclepias latifolia. Texas species have proportionally narrower leaves. The milkweeds belong to the family Asclepiadaceae. DISTRIBUTION. Broad-leafed milkweed is frequent to abundant over much of the range country of the Trans-Pecos, the Plains area and the central and west- ern portion of the Edwards Plateau, Figure 12. It is found from Nebraska to Utah, south to Texas and west to Arizona. Broad-leafed milkweed is a common constituent of grasslands and is frequent along trails and roadsides. As with many weeds of low palatability, this species increases on heavily grazed pastures. ANiMALs POISONED. A quantity of broad-leafed milkweed fed in as small an amount as the equivalent of 0.5 percent of the body weight of the animal has poisoned cattle (Mathews 1932) , and less than 0.15 percent body weight of plant material has poisoned sheep and goats (Tunnicliff and Cory 1930). The young plant is more toxic than the mature plant. Cattle graze frost-killed plants readily, but no signs of poisoning have been observed. SicNs AND LESIONS. Poisoned animals are rest- less, show signs of abdominal pain, excessive saliva- tion and labored respiration. The liver may be swollen. The liver, spleen, kidneys and sometimes the lungs are congested. There is an enteritis which may be hemorrhagic. Poisoned animals apparently die quickly without struggling (Tunnicliff and Cory 1930). MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. Since most cases of poisoning usually occur on pastures in which broad- leafed milkweed is abundant, mana ement ractices I O O g p to improve the range condition are- the best measures of prevention. The removal of plants along trails and in holding traps may prevent many losses, especially 10 ---- u- l\\ There are approximately 30 species and variet' of Eupatorium in Texas, some similar to E. rugosu but, as far as known, not toxic. Hershey (194 reported another species, E. zzrrightii, as poisonous the Rocky Mountain area. i DISTRIBUTION. White snakeroot occurs in f Texas and as far west as the Chisos Mountains r1 is most abundant and troublesome in the Hill fffl; try. Luxuriant growth is found in north Uvalde a? Medina. Counties, over most of Real and Band, Counties and in portions of Kerr County, Figure ‘y The general distribution of white snakeroo-t is if eastern North America westward to Minnesota a i Texas (Couch 1933). White snakeroot is most f; quent in wooded areas but may persist in open cle i, ings. It frequents most hardwood areas in East Te and is associated with juniper and oak in the H. Country. This plant may become abundant follof ing timber clearing, especially in juniper areas. the Hill Country, white snakeroot is not confined ravines and valleys but extends up the slopes a ‘I occasionally over hilltops. ANIMALS POISONED. White snakeroot is poison p 9' to goats, cattle, sheep, horses and swine. Huma may be affected by drinking milk from, cows grazi on this plant. Goats are most commonly poison in Texas. CLINICAL SIGNS. Signs of white snakeroot poisi ing are trembling of muscles, especially after exerc’, depression, weakness, inactivity, stiff movements will frequent stumbling and falling, labored respirati. Figure 41. White snakeroot, Eupatorium rugosum. 42. White snakeroot, Eupatoriunz rugosum. ipation, blood in feces and an odor of acetone je breath (Couch 1933). Humans acutely affected disease usually show delirium and coma pre- i; death (Graham and Michael 1935) . i IONS. Necropsy reveals extensive degenera- gof kidneys and liver (Wolf et al. 1918). olsoNous PRINCIPLE. Couch (1927) gives the 'ple toxin o-f white snakero-ot as an unsaturated tremetol. This alcohol is found primarily ’ tissue and decreases as the plant dries. The is cumulative in effect, and is transmitted in ilk. ANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. Animals should allowed to graze in pastures where white snake- ows unless there is adequate palatable feed. ‘in should not be used for animal or human f: ption. oisoned animals should be removed from in- pastures as soon as possible. The young should in milk fro-m cows that have not had access jite snakeroot. The use of purgatives, stimu- nd laxative feeds improve chances of recovery ‘ should be given by stomach tube or injection 1+ animals have throat paralysis (Tehon et al. I alized areas may be isolated by fencing, or i, may be pulled and burned. White snakeroot ptible to herbicidal sprays. The best control obtained withilamine formulations. bia spp-Spurges ' CRIPTION. The spurges are a large group of and perennial herbs and shrubs with milky, gjuice. The leaves are simple and alternate, whorled or opposite on the stem. The monoecious flowers are in cup-shaped heads surrounded by four or five-lobed involucres. A single pistilate flower is surrounded by staminate or sterile flowers and from it develops a three-carpeled, three-seeded fruit. The spurges vary in habit from mat form growing close to the ground to upright leafy or almost leafless plants. Figure 43 of snow-on-the-mountain, Euphorbia marginata, is an example of an upright leafy form. DISTRIBUTION. Some species of the approximately 65 species and varieties listed for Texas are present in every section of the state. At least eight o-f these are known or suspected of being poisonous. Most species are weeds and are fairly abundant on over- grazed pastures and disturbed areas. PolsoNous PRINCIPLE. The acrid juice of a number of species of this genus is reported to be toxic. A resinous substance, euphorbin, which is toxic, or at least an irritant, has been extracted. Species other than those listed by various workers undoubtedly are potentially poisonous. One of the common properties of seed of the spurges and other parts of spurge plants is the strong purgative effect. Approximately 3 kilograms of both E. prostrata and E. marginata fed to cattle produced severe scours and emaciation (Hoffman 1954). The animals concerned recovered from the effects in several months. The milky juice of many of the spurges is often irritating to the skin of animals and may cause loss of hair. MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. Intestinal astrin- gents should be administered to poisoned animals to relieve diarrhea. Since most of the spurges can be grazed to a limited degree without noticeable reaction, light in- Figure 43. Snow-on-the-mountain, Euphorbizi nutrginata. festations in pastures should not be a problem. When a heavy infestation is present, poisoning may be expected. As most pasture species of Euphorbia are annual weeds, a good practice is to mow, reseed with goo-d forage plants and stock lighter to improve - desirable forage. The bitter juice of the spurges apparently makes most species unpalatable and plants are grazed only accidentally when better forageis available. Snow-on-the-mountain can be controlled with 2,4-D or 2,4,5-T. F lourensia cernua-Blackbrush, Tarbush DESCRIPTION. Blackbrush is a much-branched, leafy shrub of the composite family. The leaves are alternate, entire, obovate or oblong. The rayless flowers are solitary in the leaf axils, forming a leafy inflorescence. The fruit is a one-seeded achene. Blackbrush plants may not exceed l2 inches in height in dry sites, but attain a height and spread of 5 to 6 feet in more favorable situations, Figure 44. DISTRIBUTION. Blackbrush is frequent to abun- dant in the Trans-Pecos area and in counties immedi- ately east of the Pecos River. It extends across New Mexico into Arizona and southward into Mexico. This shrub grows on dry hills, plains and mesas, often on limestone areas. ANIMALs POISONED. Sheep, goats, cattle and rabbits are poisoned by blackbrush. Mathews (1944) demonstrated the toxicity of the ripe blackbrush fruit by experimental feeding to sheep and goats. A marked variation in the susceptibility of individuals was observed as well as a narrow margin between slightly toxic and lethal amounts. As little as l per- cent of the animal’s body weight of dry fruit eaten in one day will kill some animals. Figure 44. Blackbrush, Flourensia cernua. Figure 45. Bitter Sneezeweed, Helenizun amarum. Although Mathews only reported severe losses sheep and goats when they were hungry, sporad‘ losses occur regularly in sheep, goats and cattle v ranges where blackbrush grows, when good fora is scarce. The blossoms, buds and immature fruit are as toxic as the ripe fruit (Dollahite y, Allen 1957 and 1959). CLINICAL SIGNS. The signs of blackbrush pois ing are loss of appetite, a listless attitude, muscul twitching, abdominal pain, groaning, grinding teeth and poor equilibrium. LESIONS. There is usually severe gastroenterii with some hemorrhage in the abomasum and fi part of small intestines. There is marked congesti of the liver and kidneys with albuminous degene tion in some cases. MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. Hungry ani L should be kept off ranges where blackbrush unless there is adequate forage or adequate supp“ mentary feed provided. A Large range areas infested with blackbrush ha been cut with roller brush cutters and regrowth t;- provided some cattle forage during winter months. I H elenium amarum ( H elenium tenuif0lium)— Bitter Sneezeweed DESCRIPTION. Bitter sneezeweed, also called e ern bitterweed and fineleaf sneezeweed, is an erg branching annual with narrow alternate leaves. A many-flowered, composite heads have yellow, c _ ray flowers. The glabrous, much-branched plant u‘ reduce the lower leaves and branches during i summers and put on a profusion of terminal gro before late summer flowering, Figure 45. H. n f florum, purplehead sneezeweed, recorded for Texas, also is reported as toxic to livestock (Te ,9 et al. 1946) . Orange sneezeweed, H. hoopesii, is y other poisonous sneezeweed which infests much the Western United States. DISTRIBUTION. Bitter sneezeweed occurs “ Central and East Texas across the Southeast aStates. It grows in old fields, overgrazed is a frequent roadside weed and may be t on waste and disturbed areas. ALs POISONED. Sheep, cattle, goats, horses kits have been poisoned by eating the differ- lies of sneezeweed. Sneezeweed poisoning is problem in sheep than in other species. have a bitter, sharp taste, but some jgraze them in quantity when more palatable is scarce. In addition to their poisonous by , the sneezeweeds give a bitter taste to ICAL SIGNS. Animals affected with sneezeweed g become weak and stagger, develop diarrhea, g, salivation and bloating. They groan, grind 9th and retract their lips. Respiration is nd usually fast. The pulse is irregular and ind they have a nasal discharge. IONS. Sneezeweed poisoning produces gastro- with an edema in the walls of the stomachs. ial hemorrhage, pulmonary edema, fluid in h ral cavity and ascites are usually produced i and Boughton 1940; Dollahite 1963). AGEMENT AND TREATMENT. Mineral oil ad- d in large doses in the early stages of sneeze- iisoning may help prevent losses. Pasture ent to pro-mote ample forage or to keep i? t of pastures infested with sneezeweed should the amount of the plant. i, 1 ter sneezeweed is susceptible to 2,4-D and good éhas been attained by spraying with the amine ftions at the rates of 1/2 to 1 pound per acre 1 when the weed is small (Harris 1956, 1957). ive regulations and the proximity of suscep- fps, such as cotton, must be adhered to if a l; program is initiated. Older weeds in the “stage also may be killed if the rate of applica- Smallhead Sneezeweed, Helenium microcephalum. -- ~2- ' iced. Mowing before seed maturity greatly Figure 47. Bitterweed, Hymenoxys odorata. tion is increased to 2 pounds per acre (Harris 1956, 1957). Tests have ‘shown that good control also is obtained with the ester formulatio-ns and 2,4-D applied at the rate of 1/2 pound per acre (Dunbar 1956). Helenium microcephalum-Smallhead Sneezeweed DESCRIPTION. Smallhead sneezeweed is an. erect, branching herb with alternate, lanceolate or oblong leaves decurrent on an angled stem. The disk flowers of the composite heads assume a somewhat spherical appearance and are equal to or more obvious than the yellow ray flowers, Figure 46. The plant usually grows as an annual but may be biennial. The Rio Grande sneezeweed, H. ooclinum is quite similar to the smallhead but has larger flower heads. DISTRIBUTION. Smallhead sneezeweed is usually found in moist soil around tanks, ponds and bar ditches in South Texas and adjacent Mexico. The Rio Grande sneezeweed is found in the area of the Rio Grande in southwest Texas. ANIMALS POISONED. Smallhead sneezeweed is very poisonous. The plant, when in flower, 1's particularly poisonous and consumption of as little as. 0.25 percent of their body weight of the plant will produce death in sheep and cattle (Hardy and Boughton 1940; Dollahite 1963) . CLINICAL SIGNS AND LESIONS. See bitter sneeze- weed. MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. In general, man- agement and treatment are similar to that for bitter sneezeweed. Since smallhead sneezeweed usually is in localized areas, hand pulling and burning is easily accomplished. This plant is susceptible to herbicides, and when possible, may be killed by spraying with 2,4-D. H ymenoxys odorata-Bitterweed DESCRIPTION. Bitterweed is a member of the composite family. It is a much-branched annual plant that varies in height from a few inches to about 2 feet according to environmental conditions. Each 25 Figure 48. Bitterweed, Hymenoxys odorata. o-f the ascending stem branches terminates in a yellow-flowered head. The flower heads are made up of many small flowers, and under normal growth conditions each head produces from 50 to 75 seeds, Figure 47. Seedlings or older green plants may be found at almost any time of the year, but most growth is from early spring to early summer. If climatic conditions are favorable, growth may start as early as December. The plant has a bitter taste that apparently is strongest in mature plants and plants growing on dryer sites. Crushed or bruised leaves have an aromatic odor. Pingue, Hymenoxys richard- sonii, another poisonous plant of the same genus, causes heavy loss of sheep on grazing areas of Colo- rado, Arizona andNew Mexico. DISTRIBUTION. Bitterweed is found over most of Texas west of the 99th meridian. The heaviest in- festations and the most severe losses in Texas occur in about l2 counties in the eastern portion of the Edwards Plateau and the adjacent Trans-Pecos region, Figure 48. Bitterweed ranges from Central Texas to California and from Kansas south into Mexico. ANIMALS POISONED. Bitterweed produces poison- ing in sheep and occasionally in cattle. Poisoning occurs in winter and early spring, or at other times when there is inadequate green range forage. The average poisonous dose is 1.3 percent of the animal's body weight. This plant is more poisonous during times of drouth. CuNIcAL SIGNS. The signs of acute poisoning are loss of appetite, cessation of rumination, depres- sion, indications of abdominal pain, bloating and green regurgitated material about the mouth and nose. Loss of weight is. the most common sign of chronic bitterweed poisoning. 26 LESIONS. The most constant lesion observed i congestion o-f the lungs. There usually are hemore rhages on the epicardium and occasionally on the endocardium and costal pleura. The submaxillary and retropharyngeal lymph nodes are frequentl 1 congested or hemorrhagic. The fourth sto-mach is congested and usually contains hemorrhages; th lesions usually continue into the fduodenum and may be found scattered throughout the intestinal tract‘ The spleen may be tumefied, the kidneys may vi__ congested, and the liver may be congested and friabl (Hardy et al. 1931).‘ MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. When bitterweé’ poisoning occurs, animals should be moved to clea i pastures or supplied feed. There is no medical cur for severely poisoned animals. When taken in smal quantities, the weed must be grazed for several day before the animal becomes noticeably ill. The anima . will recover within a few days if it is removed from the bitterweed range. Reduced sto-cking rates, change in the type of, livestock, and supplementary feed will help prevent losses. Temporary relief and a reduction of bitterwe ‘ are: obtained by hand pulling and destroying weeds or by spraying with herbicides. Complete near complete control of bitterweed has been obtaine over a period of several years when plants growin under optimum soil moisture conditions and wit; related vigorous growth were sprayed with the L.V'.§ ester formulations of 2,4-D in water at the rate of 1 pound per acre by either air or ground equipment; The importance of proper soil-moisture plant-vigg relationships has been confirmed by experiments The best results were obtained when soil moistur was near or above the determined wilting point for the soil type concerned (Sperry and Sultemeier 1965).} Figure 49. Rayless goldenrod, Isocoma wrightii. m“. --..u~.-- ---- u vvvv .1 ---- -¢ ----- u nu“- Dunnv Rayless goldenrod, Isocoma zurightii. wrightii (Aplopappus heterophyllufl- Goldenrod, Jimmyweed, Alkaliweed Rayless goldenrod is a member of te family but is not a true goldenrod. bushy half-shrub with numerous upright which arise from a perennial, woody, root The branches, which range from 2 to 4 feet rise to numerous yellow flower heads and A back to the ground each year, Figure 49. on Texas range areas start in early spring, f ' begins in late summer. Reproduction following fall, winter and early spring rains. oN. Rayless goldenrod is abundant in River and Rio Grande valleys, and is fre- water sites and irrigated areas of the the South Texas Plains and the High Plains area, Figure 50. Rayless golden- frequents drainage areas, springs and irri- Large acreages along the upper Pecos infested through irrigation, Figure 51. POISONED. Cattle, horses and sheep may by consuming the weed, and their young by their milk. Humans may develop or trembles by consuming milk from on rayless goldenrod. SIGNS. The most noticeable sign of goldenrod poisoning is trembling, especially muscles about the nose, legs and shoulders. may ibe preceded by a period of de- and inactivity. The animal stands in a ” position and moves with a stiff gait. and weakness is most pronounced in The inactivity gradually increases and in extended weakness. In later stages, the animal lies down most of the time and eventually may be unable to rise. Most cases of poisoning result in constipation, vomiting, quickened and labored respiration and almost continuous dribbling of urine. The abnormal respiration in sick animals a short time before death is especially characteristic. Affected animals breathe with a prolonged inspiration being followed by a pause and then a short and somewhat forcible expiration. .In still later stages, the animal may breathe in a series of gasps. Horses sweat pro- fusely in early stages of poisoning. LEsIoNs. Necropsy findings are not especially marked but are uniform. There usually is congestion in the fourth stomach and intestines. The liver is generally pale, the bile thick, dark and viscid and the gall bladder distended. The brain and spinal cord are congested in some cases (Marsh 1926) PoisoNous PRINCIPLE. Tremetol, an alcohol, is present in both dry and green plant material, and is thought to be the principal toxin. From 1 to 1.5 percent of the animal's body weight of the plant fed over a period of 2 to 3 weeks has been found toxic. The poison of rayless goldenrod is cumulative, and since there may be some elimination, larger amounts would be required to be poisonous if taken over a longer period of time. Sometimes calves, colts and lambs become ill from the milk and die before their mothers show signs of illness. An average daily feeding of 11/2 pounds of the green plant per 100 pounds of animal, continued for a week, usually produces toxic symptoms or death (Couch 1929, 1930). MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. The treatment of poisoned animals is the same as for White snake- root, Eupatorittm rugosum. Eradication of rayless goldenrod is imperative if areas are to be grazed by livestock. Infested areas are commonly fenced off, and large areas are idle due to heavy infestation. Plants have been grubbed in some localized areas. Late summer, before flowering, is apparently the best time for grubbing. Individual plants may be killed economically by basal spraying with 2 to 4 pounds of L. V. 2,4-D mixed in 100 gallons of diesel oil. Control by foliage spray- ing has been erratic in control studies to date. Figure 51. Rayless goldenrod, Isocoma wrightii. [atropha dioica (]. spathulatm-Leatherstem Jatropha cathartica-Berlandier Nettlespurge DESCRIPTION. The species of Jatropha differ from other native members of Euphorbiaceae by having petals and united filaments in the flower. They do not have stinging hairs as do some related genera. Leatherstem is an erect, perennial, shrubby plant with simple or somewhat lobed leaves. The stems are quite flexible, thus the name leatherstem, Figure 52. Nettlespurge has long-petoile-d, palmately 7-parted leaves. The stems are from a large starchy rootstock, Figure 53. DISTRIBUTION. Leatherstem grows on gravelly bluffs, hillsides, and ravine slopes of the South Texas Plains, the Edwards Plateau and Trans-Pecos areas. Nettlespurge grows in the southern portion of the ' South Texas Plains. CLINICAL SIGNS AND ANIMALS POISONED. Berlandier nettlespurge has. been shown to be poisonous to sheep, goats and rabbits. Rabbits died in convusions within 4 hours after eating the equivalent of 2 percent of their body weight of plant material (Dollahite 1963). A goat that was fed 3.7 percent of its body weight of leatherstem leaves develop-ed progressive anemia and died (Boughton and Hardy 1939) . Kallstroemia hirsutissima-Hairy Caltrop Kallstroemia parviflora-Warty Caltrop DESCRIPTION. The caltrops are much-branched annuals with long prostrate stems from a central root, Figure 54. The growth habit and general appearance is similar to the p-uncturevine or goathead, Tribulus terrestris. Both are members of the caltrop family (Zygophyllaceae). The fruit of the caltrops is beaked and breaks up into 8 to 12 one-seeded nutlets at ematurity. The stems and leaves of hairy caltrop are conspicuously hairy and the beak of the fruit is not more than 3 millimeters long. The beaks of the fruits of warty caltrop are commonly longer than the nutlets Figure 52. Leatherstem, Jatropha dioica. Figure 53. Berlandier nettlespurge, jatropha cathartica. (4-6 mm. long), which are tuberculate (warty) on back. The nutlets of thehairy caltrop have q‘ like tubercules. DISTRIBUTION. Both species of caltrop are widel distributed over Texas; hairy caltrop is more comm, in the western portions. and warty caltrop m0 common in the eastern sectors. They may be fou in old fields, heavily grazed pastures and distur’ areas. a ANIMALS POISONED. The caltrops are poisono to cattle, sheep, goats and rabbits. CLINICAL SIGNS. This plant was first shown t be the cause of cattle losses in the Trans-Pecos by Mathews (l944a) . The first signs of hairy calt A poisoning, according to Mathews, is a weakness the hind legs with a knuckling of the fetlock joi followed by posterior paralysis. Frequently conv sions occur before death. 1 Sporadic losses due to eating warty caltrop ha been observed in sheep. Signs of illness are similj to those in cattle, except that sheep were observ to be walking on their front knees before convulsio’ developed. Lesions of congestion with hemorrha were observed in the lungs, heart, kidneys, stoma and intestines (Dollahite 1955). MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. In recent ye), extensive losses in cattle have been reported as p result of eating hairy caltrop. These losses hav occurred in widely scattered areas of Texas but have been most severe in the Trans~Pecos. Animals should not be grazed where a majority g of the forage is caltrop. Animals that have not reached the convulsive stage will usually recover if they are placed in the shade with ample feed and ogwater. Excessive handling or driving of these animals is contraindicated. a Since hairy caltrop is an annual weed, general practices to eliminate the weed population and pro- vide better forage is the best precaution. Turning hungry animals into heavily infested fields should be done only with close observation and caution. SP-Karwinskia humboldtiana-Coyotillo DESCRIPTION. Coyotillo is a spineless shrub of the buckthorn family (Rhamnaceae) with mostly opposite-veined leaves. The small greenish flowers and brownish black fruits are in the axils of the eaves. The fruit is an ovoid-shaped drupe. The imple veins end in the untoothed margins of the jleaves and, being quite distinct, are an aid in recog- nizing the plant in the field, Figures 55 and 56. . DISTRIBUTION. Coyotillo occurs in the southern iportions of the Edwards Plateau and Trans-Pecos and in the South Texas Plains, Figure 57. Marsh (1929) gives the general distribution as Southwest Texas and Mexico. This shrub grows along arroyos, » river canyons and on gravelly hills and ridges. Figure 54. Hairy caltrop, Kallstroemia hirsutissivrza. Figure 55. Coyotillo, Karwinskia humboldtiana. ANIMALS POISONED. The seeds and leaves of coyotillo are poisonous to cattle, sheep, goats, guinea pigs, horses, swine and chickens. Poisoning may result from a single feeding but usually several days or even weeks elapse after the initial feeding before symptoms appear. While as little as 0.2 percent of the body weight of a sheep of ground coyotillo fruit may cause death, as much as 2O to 25 pounds of leaves may be required to obtain this toxicity (Marsh et al. 1928). CLINICAL SIGNS. Coyotillo produces signs of un- thriftiness, depression, weakness, trembling, incoordi- nation and respiratory distress. This condition is commonly known as “limberleg.” LESIONS. Animals that die of coyotillo toxicity have a severe p-ulmonary edema. Microscopically, Figure s6. Coyotillo, Karwinskih humboldtiana. 29 Figure 57. Coyotillo, Kazvinskia hunzboldtiana. there is usually degeneration of some of the skeletal and the cardiac muscles. There is a mild to-xic nephritis and hepatitis (Henson 1963). MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. Heaviest losses occur when animals that have never been on coyotillo- infested range are first exposed to this plant. Animals unfamiliar with coyotillo~ should not beturned into infested areas when the plants are in fruit. Supple- mental feed and proper stocking rates will help pre- vent poisoning. Poisoned animals should be placed in pens and fed. Purgatives and stimulants may help. In severe cases, death usually occurs, but mildly poisoned animals often recover. Experimental control studies have shown that coyotillo is difficult to- kill with herbicides (Sperry est al. 1962). The best kills were obtained with fenuron pellets applied at the base of the plant before summer rains. Selective herbicides obtain reasonably good kill if sprayed on the lower portions of the stems when the plants are in lush growing condition following spring and early summer rains. Kochia scoparia-Summercypress DESCRIPTION. Summercypress is an annual herb of the goose-foot family (Chenopodiaceae). The many-branch stems give the plant a bushy appear- ance when mature. The leaves are petiolate, lanceo- late, thin and flat. Some plants have small leaves 1/2 to» 1 inch in length while others have leaves to about 3 inches in length. Some plants have both types of leaves, Figure 58. The fruit has five wedge- shaped, horizo-ntal wings. DISTRIBUTION. Summercypress is a native of Eurasia. It is cultivated as a garden plant and frequently escapes. It often grows abundantly on 30 disturbed areas in the Gulf Prairie, the Rolling Plai and the High Plains. i} *3 ANIMALs PolsoNEn, CLINICAL SIGNS, POISONOU PRINCIPLE. Cattle grazing summercypress have d veloped ataxia, incoordination, muscular spasms recumbency. Many of these cattle die. The leavf of summercypress contain as much as 10.24 perce of oxalic acid on a dry weight; basis (Camp 1963i Cattle that had signs of poisoning after eating su mercypress recovered following intravenous injectio, of calcium gluconate (Hardy 1963). Death loss were prevented in sheep grazing Halogeton, a containing large quantities of oxalic acid, by feedif pellets made of alfalfa and 5 percent dicalcium ph phate (Binns 1961). if Lantana camara-Largeleaf Lantana DESCRIPTION. Lantana is an irregularly shap, shrub with spreading or ascending branches. Th opposite, petioled leaves are ovate to oblong. T t many-flowered heads are on long peducles usuall from the axils of the leaves, Figure 59. The flowe I’ vary from yellow to red-orange. The drupaceo» fruits are fleshy o-r juicy and nearly black whe mature. Two varieties of the largeleaf lantana w‘ three additional species are known in Texas. T), common lantana, L. horrida, is the most widely (1') tributed form in the State. '7 DISTRIBUTION. Largeleaf lantana usually gro 3 in sandy soil as an escape, but thrives under vario V conditions when cultivated. It grows from Texas t. Florida and south into Mexico. ‘l CLINICAL SIGNS. Symptoms o-f lantana poisoni include sluggishness, partial paralysis and Figure 58. Summercypress, Kochia scoparia. re 59. Largeleaf lantana, Lantana camara. rrhea (West and Emmel 1952). Acute poisoning y cause death within 3 to 4 days. POISONOUS PRINCIPLE. In addition to gastro- estinal irritants, this plant contains a substance will cause photosensitization (see under special f oblems) . The amount necessary for poisoning may so small (5% to 1 pound of dried-frosted leaves for 00 pound animal) that evidence of browsing may overlooked (Sanders 1946). Lantana poisoning is a problem in Southern Africa, Australia and yia. MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. For treatment and e of poisoned animals, see photo-sensitization. l though lan.tana can be killed by basal spray appli- itions of 8 pounds of 2,4,5-T L.V. ester, acid equiva- _ t, in 100 gallons of diesel oil, grubbing and truction of plants is most practical. ‘ belia berlandieri-Berlandier Lobelia p DESCRIPTION. Berlandier lobelia is an erect, f ching, herbaceous member of the bellflower ily (Cam.panulaceae). The small, blue, bilabiate ers are in loose racemes, Figure 60. DISTRIBUTION. Varieties of berlandier lobelia are horded in moist habitats in South, Central and .est Texas. POISONOUS PRINCIPLE, ANIMALS POISONED AND CLIN- SIGNS. Some species of Lobelia have been known poisonous for a long time, but losses from this have not been reported in Texas. In February, ch and April 1959, approximately 1,500 cattle and ‘fl goats were reported to have died from suspected nt poisoning in a mountain area 30 to 5O miles ith of Monterrey, Mexico. The signs of sickness [these cattle, similar to those produced by lobeline jsoning, were profuse salivation, dilation of the foils, atrophy of leg muscles and extreme narcosis. 5} cattle had been eating berlandier lobelia. The iii-dried lobelia was found to contain .079 percent the alkaloid lobeline, and plant mate-rial fed to sheep produced signs similar to those seen in most of the cattle. Some of the poisoned cattle were in a comatosed condition for 3 weeks, but continued to» eat when food was placed in their mouth and drink when their mouth was placed in water. About half o-f the poisoned animals recovered when care- fully nursed (Dollahite and Allen 1962). M elia azedarach-Chinaberry DESCRIPTION. Chinaberry is a tree with rounded crown and large, twice-pinnate leaves. The purplish flowers are produced in panicles. The fruit is a a smooth, yellow drupe, 1/2 to 5% inch in diameter. The drooping clusters of fruits mature in the fall and may persist on the tree into the winter. DISTRIBUTION. Chinaberry was introduced into the United States as an ornamental from Asia and has naturalized as an escape from Texas to Florida and north to Qklaho-ma, Arkansas andthe Caro-linas. ANiMALs POISONED AND CLINICAL SIGNS. The fruit is most toxic, but the flowers, leaves and bark also contain poison. Hogs are more frequently poisoned than other animals, and develop signs of illness 3 to 4 hours after eating the green or dried berries. They become stiff, incoordinated, lose their appetite, are constipated with blood stained feces and develop general weakness. Death usually occurs within 24 hours or the animal recovers. The lethal dose for swine is about 3 grams of berries per pound of body weight. The berries are less toxic for chickens, ducks and goats (West and Emmel 1952). Melilotus alba—White Sweetclover Melilotus officinalis-Yellow Sweetclover DESCRIPTION. Sweetclover is a well-known, valu- able forage and soil improvement legume. POISONOUS PRINCIPLE. Dicumarol is the toxic agent in sweetclover. Figure 60. Berlandier Lobelia, Lobelia berlandieri. ANIMALS POISONED. Sweetclover hay or silage may cause extensive internal hemorrhages in cattle and sheep. Sheep have been observe-d to become ill and have died after grazing green sweetclover. CLINICAL SIGNS AND TREATMENT. Poisoned animals should be kept quiet and give-n blood transfusions. Intravenous or intraperitoneal injections of hemo- static solutions should be given to speed blood coagu- lation (Milks. 1949). Administration of vitamin K also will speed blood coagulation. Small or alternate feeding of alfalfa hay will help prevent losses. N erium oleander-Oleander DESCRIPTION. Oleander is. a shrub which. may grow from l5 to 2O feet in height. The variously colored, odorless flowers. are produced in terminal cymes during the summer. The dark green, entire- margined, linear-to-elliptic leaves are opposite or in whorls of three or four. DISTRIBUTION. Oleander is a common cultivated plant in Southern United States and is. a native of Asia. ANIMALS POISONED, CLINICAL SIGNS, POISONOUS PRIN- CIPLE AND TREATMENT. Animals may be poisoned when oleander garden cuttings are thrown into a dry lot or when animals have access to the shrub. People have been poisoned by using the twigs as meat skewers. All parts of the plant contain highly toxic cardiac glycosides which are more concentrated in the seeds. Oleander produces abdominal pain, vomiting, diar- rhea, stimulation of the heart and constriction of the blood vessels. Poisoned animals tremble, develop a progressive paralysis, become comatose and die. Animals poisoned by oleander should be kept warm and quiet, and be given atropine and emetics or gastric lavage (Hubert and Oehme 1961). N icotiana glauca-Tree Tobacco DESCRIPTION. Tree tobacco is a shrub or small tree with mostly entire glabrous and glaucus leaves. The terminal paniculate or racemelike inflorescence is diurnal and is composed of tubular-funnelform yellow flowers. DISTRIBUTION. Tree tobacco is frequent along the Rio Grande,.in the Big Bend and is often planted as an ornamental in Southwest Texas. Tree tobacco Figure 61. Sacahuista, Nolina texana. Figure 62. Sacahuista, Nolina texana. é is naturalized from South America and is found fro Texas to central California. POISONOUS PRINCIPLE. Tree tobacco contains ni tine and is poisonous to most animals. It also c tains an alkaloid, anabasine, reported to be m efficacious than nicotine in killing certain species aphid (Kearney and Peebles 1951). ANIMALS POISONED. Cattle and horses are soned frequently by tree tobacco. Sheep are poison occasionally. f. CLINICAL SIGNS. After the plant is eaten, si of poisoning appear rapidly. Animals have a we‘, pulse, staring eyes, unsteadiness, stumbling a, trembling of the entire body. Salivation and freque; urination are characteristic, and breathing bec _ difficult before death. (Sampson and Malstrom 194 p N olina texana-Sacahuista DESCRIPTION. Sacahuista is a perennial of lily family (Li.liaceae). The plants have a thi woody caudex which gives rise to numerous cluste long, narrow, fibrous leaves. The several flower st i bear numerous small, white flowers in somew j elongated clusters. The fruit is a dry, three-part) capsule. The flower stalks usually are not appar until the plant is in full bloom, Figure 61. i DISTRIBUTION. Sacahuista occurs in Texas f Bell and Travis Counties to the western boun of the state. It is abundant on the Edwards Pla and the Tra.ns-Pecos area, but is less frequent on g Rolling and High Plains, Figure 62. It extends i southeast Arizona and northern Mexico. Sacahu' usually grows in open grassland on rolling hills ' slopes. p IMALS POISONED. The flower buds, flowers and are toxic to cattle, sheep and goats. INICAL stems. Sacahuista produces signs of ized jaundice, loss of appetite and progressive tion.. Affected animals may have a yellow y fdischarge. Ingestion of sacahuista flowers or and some green plants may produce photo- gtion, as evidenced by a swollen face and ears. ~lish band may appear around the top of the Above the coronary band. Dermatitis with itch- j- occur in the early stages of photosensitization. IONS. Lesions of "sacahuista poisoning are A ized jaundice, yellow-brown liver and greenish to greenish black swollen kidneys. ANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. Animals should loved from the sacahuista-infested pastures A; the time that the plant is in bloom. and early When animals. first exhibit signs. of intoxi- A they should be placed in the .shade and fed ious feed. Most of the animals that develop jaundice will die. 0st operators do not like to eradicate or con- cahuista unless the stand is dense. When range are dry, the green leaves of sacahuista are d and, although the plant is very fibrous, some jg,» is obtained. I na sinuata var. cochisensis-Jimmy Fern ESCRIPTION. Jimmy fern is an evergreen, erect i "ith simple, pinnate leaves. The numerous leaf-i 1':- scaly beneath and smooth above. The leaves Figure 63. Jimmy fern, Notholaena sinuata var. cochisensis. Figure 64. Jimmy fern, Notholaena sinuata var. cochisensis. are from a short, chaffy, woody stem, Figure 63. Growing in dry habitats, this fern is of the “resurrec- tion” type, in that the leaflets roll and become quite dry when moisture is lacking. They unroll and appear green and fresh following rain. DISTRIBUTION. In Texas, this fern is found on the southwest part of the Edwards Plateau and the Trans-Pecos area, and there are a few records from canyons in the Rolling a.nd High Plains, Figure 64. It extends into New Mexico and Arizona and south into Mexico. jimmy fern grows on rocky slopes and crevices and is often closely associated with some of the grasses characteristic of dry habitats. ANIMALS POISONED. jimmy fern poisoning occurs in sheep, goats and cattle, in this order of severity. The trembling reaction called “jimmies” develops about 48 hours after animals are fed as much as 0.5 percent of their body weight of the fern and are exercised. It takes from 10 to 60 minutes of walking for animals to develop signs. CLINICAL SIGNS. After exercise, animals affected with jimmy fern poisoning have an arched back, a peculiar stilted movement of the hind legs and usually increased respiration. The animals stop and tremble violently from head to foot, and by this time both respiration and heart action are increased. If exercise is continued, the spasms of trembling will recur. Sheep and goats usually die. Cattle tremble but usually live. Non-fatal cases require 5 to 19 days to recover (Mathews 1942). MANAGEMENT. Most fatalities occur in winter; thus sufficient forage or supplemental feed should be supp-lied to animals on infested pastures during this period. Under severe conditions, animals should be 33 moved from pastures in which jimmy fern is abundant during the ‘winter months before losses occur. Under range conditions, it is important to leave sheep strictly alone during the danger period, since excite- ment or exercise will aggravate their condition. Ample watering places should be provided in pastures where jimmy fern grows so that animals can water conveniently. Since jimmy fern usually grows in rough, rocky areas, control of the plant would be difficult. Oxytropis lambertii-Lambert Loco, Crazyweed, Point Loco DESCRIPTION. Lambert loco is a perennial legume with basal pinnate leaves from the crown of the deep taproot. The leaves have ll or more linear leaflets which often are covered with appressed silky hairs. The flowers are violet to bluish purple, Figure 65. Flowers ranging from white or yellowish white have been reported for the species in some mountain states. The genus Oxytropis may be distinguished from Astragalus (Le. earle loco, woolly loco, etc.) by a peculiar point o-r appendage on the keel of the flower, and by the absence of stems or branches above the crown of the plant other than the scapelike flower stalks. DISTRIBUTION. Lambert loco occurs on open grassland o-f North-Central Texas and on the Rolling and High Plains. It extends westward to Eastern Arizona and northward across the Rocky Mountain States into Canada. This loco usually grows on well- drained sandy or gravelly soil and frequently on rocky knolls. Figure 65. Lambert Loco, Oxytropis lambertii. 34 Figure 66. Blue Panicum, Panicum antidotale. ANIMALS POISONED. Horses, cattle and sheep a , Susceptible to Lambert loco- poisoning. ‘ TOXIC PRINCIPLE, SIGNS, LESIONS, MANAGEMENT Am TREATMENT. See Astragalus mollissimus, locoweeds. Panicum antidotale-Blue Panicum A DESCRIPTION. Blue panicum is native to A tralia, Afghanistan and India. It was introduced i the United States in 1912 from India and was broug _. from Australia in 1920 and 1935 by the USDA. Blu panicum is a perennial, warm-season bunchgrass grows in large, dense tufts. It is bluish green an} grows over 4 feet tall. The short, bulbous rhizom enable the plant to- withstand short drouth. Th stems branch freely at the nodes, are woody an, coarse when mature, Figure 66. if DISTRIBUTION. Blue panicum is best adapted t , the South Texas Plains, Rolling Plains, High Plai c’ Edwards Plateau and Trans-Pecos areas west of t 30-inch annual rainfall line. It is adapted to a range o-f soils from fine sandy loams to clays ge erally having a high lime content. ANIMALS POISONED. Losses of 30 to 50 perc; of flocks of sheep on irrigated blue panicum followi heavy application of nitrogen fertilizer have observed. Fewer losses occur in sheep grazing u, fertilized blue panicum. Severe losses have be observed in cattle grazing irrigated and fertilized bl panicum. _ CLINICAL SIGNS. Animals poisoned by blue éiiifpanicum suddenly become ill, breathe rapidly and imay die within a few minutes of the first signs of éillness. LEsIoNs. The lesions of blue -panicum poisoning Fare primarily pulmonary emphysema and edema. In E-ffisheep dying on irrigated pastures, the thoracic cavity iijmay be half or entirely filled with a straw colored Lffluid containing a fibrinous exudate. The blood is “dark, almost black, indicating anoxia. Cattle grazing son dry blue panicum may have pulmonary emphy- _sema and edema without the fluid in the thoracic Qcavity. , MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. Cattle and sheep féshould not be allowed to graze blue panicum for at fleast 40 days after fertilization and irrigation, and jfjshould be closely observed at all times. All animals ifishould be removed from blue panicum as soon as lgsigns of illness are observed. Animals that are acutely will probably die, but quiet nursing may save the ifless seriously affected animals. _ Blue panicum is a valuable forage crop when flproperly managed for grazing or hay. A rotation “grazing program in small blocks is necessary to obtain ‘igood utilization during peak production periods. The coarse, unpalatable stems that are not grazed should Ylbe mowed to force nutritious basal growth that can fébe grazed easily during the next ro-tation period. iProper amounts of fertilizer are necessary to maintain i-the stand for high production of forage. i An established stand of blue panicum can. be Wiliminated by cultivation. Peganum harmala-African Rue DESCRIPTION. African rue is a much-branched perennial herb of the caltrop family (Zygophyllaceae). The alternate, dissected, succulent leaves are glabrous and divided into narrow segments. The flowers have five white petals and the fruit is a two, three or four- celled, many-seeded capsule, Figure 67. A jDIsTRIBuTIoN. Records show that African rue has been collected in Texas in six or seven counties of the Trans-Pecos area and Edwards Plateau, Figure 68. It also is recorded for New Mexico and Arizona. Figure 67. African rue, Peganum harmala. Figure 68. African rue, Peganum harmala. African rue, native to North Africa and Asiatic deserts, was introduced near Deming, New Mexico, (Cory 1949) and apparently has spread into Texas and Arizona from this introduction. The heaviest in- festation o-f the plant in Texas appears to be on the Pecos Air Field near Pecos and it has spread along highways leading from the city. ANIMALs POISONED. African rue is poisonous to cattle, sheep, guinea pigs and probably horses. CLINICAL SIGNS. The signs of chronic poisoning include loss of appetite, listlessness, weakness of hind legs and knuckling of the fetlock joints. In acute poisoning, stiffness, trembling, incoordination and frequent urination occurs. The temperature is sub- normal. There is excessive salivation and the lower jaw and muzzle may be wet. Acute poisoning usually is caused by eating the seeds. LEsIoNs. There is severe gastroenteritis and a congestion of the kidneys. Hemorrhages are present under the capsule of the liver. The lungs are con- gested and usually there are hemorrhages on the heart. PoIsoNous PRINCIPLE. African rue has been proved poisonous by experimental feeding (Black and Parker 1936, Moran et al. 1940; Mathews 1941). The seed are most toxic, and the leaves and stems less so. The leaves of young plants are more toxic than leaves of the mature plant. This plant con- tains the alkaloids vasicine, harmaline, harrnin.e and harmalol (Manske and Holmes 1952). MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. Although African rue is not palatable, hungry animals should not be allowed access to this plant, particularly when the fruit is ripe. Cattle that previously have consumed a large amount of mesquite beans will develop a 35 i- j’: ‘ii ., . ‘w: ‘Q’ w. 1t w; i ?.- .4- depraved appetite and the-n will graze African rue. Poisoned animals should be removed from the weed and given water and good feed. Chronic cases will recover if properly nursed. Hazard areas may be cleaned by pulling or grubbing the plants. African rue is not easily con- trolled with herbicides but experimental tests have shown that this method of control is possible. Phyllanthus abnormis-Abnormal Leafflower DESCRIPTION. Abnormal leafflower is an annual or short-lived perennial herbaceous plant with up- right stems and spreading or recurved branches, Figure 69. It is a member of the spurge family (Euphorbiaceae). DISTRIBUTION. Collections of abnormal leaf- flowers in Texas are from about 17 counties of the Rolling and High Plains, the Trans-Pecos area and South and South-central Texas. This plant usually grows in sand or on sandy soils. ANIMALs POISONED. Mathews (1945) demon- strated the toxicity of this species to cattle, sheep and goats. Sheep and goats were more resistant to the toxicity than cattle. MANAGEMENT. As with most spurges, abnormal leafflower is relatively" unpalatable. Supplemental feed or a change of pastures should alleviate further poisoning. Phytolacca americana-Pokeweed DESCRIPTION. Pokeweed or pokebeny is a tall, usually branched, juicy, perennial herb which dies back to the ground each year. The large leaves are Figure 69. Abnormal leafflower, Phyllanthus abnormis. Figure 70. Pokeweed, Phytolacca americana. ovate-lanceolate and usually acute tipped. The flow ers are in terminal racemes but develop opposite the leaves as the stem continues to grow. The frui is flattened-globose and dark purple o-r nearly blac l at maturity, Figure 70. DISTRIBUTION. Pokeweed is found in fields, aloniii , fencerows, in rich low ground and may be arounf barn lots and in waste places. It is recorded fromi Maine and Ontario to Florida, Texas and Arizona. POISONOUS PRINCIPLE. Pokeweed contains an alkaii i loid and a substance called phytolascotoxin (Hardi a 1961). ANIMALs POISONED. Pokeweed is poisonous cattle and sheep, and occasionally is poisonous to horses, goats and swine. The entire green plant g toxic, but the roots are more toxic (Hubert Oehme 1961) . Leaves are sometimes eaten as greens, but in the cooking process, water should be changed. twice (Hardin 1961). ~ CLINICAL SIGNS. This plant is a gastrointestinaf irritant. It causes abdominal pain, vomiting purging. There may be convulsions and death usuall is due to respiratory failure (Hubert and Oehme 1961). § Prosopis glandulosa-Mesquite DESCRIPTION. Mesquite is a small tree or shrub; i. somewhat thorny and often branching near th_ ground. The alternate leaves are deciduous, A pinnately-compound and dark green. The fruits ar loosely-clustered legumes (beans) up to 8 or l0 inch, in length, Figure 71. Three varieties are recogniz within the state. 5 o_ I ;. DISTRIBUTION. Mesquite grows throughout t Southwestern United States from Texas to Kansas, 1* Utah and California, south through Mexico an Central America to Colombia and Venezuela (Littl 195s). IMALS POISONED. Primarily cattle are affected it will protrude from their mouth for l to 4 inches. quite beans, but goats also may be affected. They can lick themselves and usually keep their hair ing is not a serious p-roblem in goats since they damp in this way. At least l0 percent of these cattle fldom found on a range where only mesquite will have swelling under their jaws or tongue, and An acute form of mesquite poisoning occurs some will have enlarged salivary glands. They are '~ the cattle become acutely ill with an aceto- extremely nervous and with some muscular tremor j-like condition and die within a few days. about the lips and face. They are anemic, and in k g prolonged drouths an entire herd may become hot weather large areas of their body will be denuded Q d. Usually the toxicity is chronic in nature of hair. They cannot digest cellulose and pieces of sover a period of time cattle develop “jaw and ground hay will be found unchanged in the feces y”, e trouble.” (Dollahite and Anthony 1957). iCLINICAL SIGNS. Signs of acute poisoning include LESIONS. The carcass is emaciated and the brain 10f appetite, rapid loss of weight, nervousness, usually is congested. Hemorrhages may be seen on d~expression and bulging eyes. These animals the heart of some animals. The kidneys are small 'lly die within 2 to 4 days of the first signs of and very firm. The liver is small, firm, has a tough ‘a: The chronic form of the disease, or jaw capsule and sometimes is slate-colored. The rumen p; tongue trouble, develops more gradually, usually is filled with mesquite beans, dry grass and usually the cattle have been eating beans for two months some soil. The-re may be hemorrhages into the ore. They gradually become emaciated and may papillae. A gastroenteritis is present in about 50 50 Pefeelll 0f their Weight- These Cattle deVeIOP percent of the animals. The masseter and lin.gual of the rumen, salivate profusely and CheW muscles are flabby, light gray and may contain hueuslY» sometimes Witheut anYthing in their petechial hemorrhages. The salivary glands are often th, and will hold their head to one side as if enlarged ' g were painful. They have difficulty eating ing exeept finely-ground feed, and when re- MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. Most of the acute ‘tating feed from the rumen have diffieulty poisoning occurs in pastures where large quantities ting it in their mouth, About 25 percent of the of mesquite beans accumulate and where pack rats , ted animals have a partial paralysis of the tongue; store them. Cattle should not be allowed to consume 71. Mesquite, Prosopis glandulosa. Figure 72. Species of Prunus in fence rows and localized in pastures are potential hazards to grazing animals. large quantities of beans for more than 60-day periods. A combination stocking of cattle and sheep will reduce cattle losses, since sheep are apparently not affected by mesquite beans. Animals may be treated if the co-urse of the disease has not progressed too far. Three out of four animals recovered when treated in the following manner: 1. Injected subcutaneously with Lentin at the rate of 1 milliliter per 100 pounds body weight and repeat 3 days later. 2. Administered 1 to 2 quarts of rumen material from a cow that was eating alfalfa hay and adminis- tered again 7 days later. 3. Place on a daily ration of 1 pound o-f cotton- seed meal, 1 pound of mo-lasses, and all of the ground grain sorghum (hay and grain) that they would eat. Extensive areas infested with mesquite have been treated by both chemical and mechanical methods. Good range management must be followed with any method or combination of methods if control and forage production is to- be achieved (Hoffman and Ragsdale 1964; Fisher et al. 1959). Figure 73. Paperflower, Psilostrophe tagetinae. Prunus spp.—Wild Plum, Wild Cherry, Chokeche DESCRIPTION. Plants of the genus Prunus ar shrubs or small trees with alternate or fascicled, simpl leaves. The inflorescences are elongated, somewha; flat-top clusters or solitary in the axils of the leaves‘ The fruit is a fleshy, one-seeded drupe. There ar numerous species in this genus with a wide distrib tion. Twenty-eight species and, varieties, some escap from cultivation, have been recorded for Texas. Th genus Prunus usually is included in the rose famil (Rosaceae). DISTRIBUTION. Several species of Prunus g present in every section o-f Texas. Some grow in ope 1 areas, others constitute undergrowth in wooded sites Some of the shrubby species form motts in fields an pastures or along fence rows, Figure 72. These usually considered hazard sites for livestock grazing in’ the area. .3. PoIsoNoUs PRINCIPLE, SIGNS AND TREATMENT. Sev; eral species of Prunus are cyanogenic and develo hydrocyanic (prussic) acid under certain conditions Influences such as bruising, wilting, withering _ drying of leaves appear to contribute to the glucoside enzyme reaction. Wilted leaves, due to cutting th ~ plant, appear to be most dangerous. For further information, see “hydrocyanic acid” under specia , problems. l ' MANAGEMENT. Mechanical and chemical eradii cation are suggested if followed by removal of f“ sprouts which may develop abundantly. From theli practical viewpoint, the motts, which are the bigges problem, can be fenced o-ff and in turn will serv> as excellent sources of wildlife cover and food. Psilostrophe gnaphalodes-Cudweed Paperflower Psilostrophe tagetinae-Woolly Paperflower DESCRIPTION. The paperflowers are perenniaf composites with erect, woolly, tufted stems branchin from the base. The leaves are alternate, entire lobed. DISTRIBUTION. Psilostrophe tagetinae and gnaphalodes are common in West and Southw. Texas. In general, habit and growth of these species are similar, Figure 73. Woolly paperflow grows primarily in the Trans-Pecos area and exten into the Rolling and High Plains. From Tex-as extends south into Mexico, west into Arizona a northwest into- Colorado. Cudweed paperflower 1 frequent in the Trans-Pecos area and South Tex Plains. 5 ANIMALS POISONED. The two species of Psil” trophe are quite palatable to sheep. Limited feedi tests indicated that P. tagetinae is slightly more toxj than P. gnaphalodes (Mathews 1934) . Dry and you l plants are more toxic than mature blooming plan i‘ although losses o-f sheep have been recorded whe the plants are in full bloom. Both species a’ pected to be toxic t0 cattle. Field cases appear iii confirm this, but experimental feeding of cattle not ascertained its actual poisoning relation. tensive sheep lo-sses in the Trans-Pecos area have caused by the grazing of paperflower. CLINIGAL SIGNS. Signs of paperflower poisoning 1e stumbling, sluggishness, coughing and vomiting. ' e vomitus is generally a greenish liquid (Mathews 934). LEsioNs. Lesions are not significant, but an MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. Sheep have to eat the plant for approximately two weeks before they ' They will recover if removed from the ,plant when signs first appear; thus pasture rotation is ffective. Poisoned sheep», removed from the range p. and placed on feed, usually recover. iPteridium aquilinum var. pseudocaudatum- Bracken Fern DESCRIPTION AND DISTRIBUTION. Bracken ferns are perennial plants with subterranean rhizomes and imuch-divided leaves, Figure 74. They are found z. primarily in the eastern part of the state in wooded and timber areas, often in abundance. The species and its varieties, however, have a widespread distribu- tion in woodlands over much of the United States and also are found in Europe. POISONOUS PRINCIPLE. The poisonous nature of bracken fern and possibly other ferns and horsetails, which are related to the ferns, is due to the action of the enzyme thiaminase. Thiaminase is not a poison but destroys an essential constituent (thiamine) of ‘ the animal’s food (Pohl 1955). ANiMALs POISONED AND MANAGEMENT. Bracken fern is poisonous to cattle and horses. Most cases of poisoning in the United States have been reported Figure 74. Bracken fern, Pteridium aquilinum var. pseudocaudatum. for the variety pubescens. This variety, known as western bracken fern, is common in northwest United States. Extensive losses have been reported in the Allegheny Mountains in the eastern part of the United States. Although frequent on timber-range areas of East Texas, no records of poisoning are known defi- nitely for the Texas variety. Livestock owners should know that it is potentially poisonous. Should poison- ing occur, animals should be moved to bracken-free pastures or placed on feed. Quercus spp.—Oaks, Shin Oak, Shinnery DESCRIPTION. The oaks are shrubs or trees with alternate, entire, toothed o-r lobed, persistent or deciduous leaves. The staminate- flowers are in cat- kins; the pistillate flowers are solitary to clustered. The fruit is a one-seeded nut (acorn), partly enclosed in a saucer-shaped involucre. About 4O species of oaks with numerous varieties and hybrids have been recognized in Texas (Muller 1951). DISTRIBUTION. Species of oak are present through- out Texas and range in habitat from dry to wet situations, and fro-m sandy to limestone and clay soils. ANiMALs POISONED. Cattle, sheep, goats, rabbits and guinea pigs have been poisoned by oak. The buds, small leaves, flowers and stems are palatable and poisonous. As the leaves mature they become less palatable, and animals usually stop eating them by the time the leaves are three-fourths grown. After leaves become older, animals again will eat them, but seldom in the quantity that they eat the young growth. Acorns, when eaten in quantity, produce signs. and lesions similar to oak bud or leaf poisoning (Dolla- hite 1961) . CLiNicAL siGNs. The si ns o-f oak oisonin I O I g I I P O g include emaciation, edema, consti ation or diarrhea I p n and mucus and /or blood in the feces. The animals appear drawn, have a rough hair coat and a dry nose. They are depress-ed and show evidence of discomfort. LEsioNs. Gastroenteritis with degeneration of the epithelial lining and edema of the intestinal walls may occur. The kidneys are inflamed and often con- tain petechial hemorrhages. There may be sub- cutaneous edema and fluid in the abdominal cavity. POISONOUS PRINCIPLE. Pigeon et al. (1962) report the isolation of a gallotannin from shin oak which produces pathological lesions in rabbits similar to lesions observe-d in livestock poisoned by this plant. The tannin of shin oak is‘ the toxic principle or a contributory factor. The tannin content of the leaves (dry weight) from havardii, Figure 75, for the months of April, May, August and October was 15.13, 8.68, 7.67, and 4.19 percent, respectively. MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. Due to the sever- ity of the losses from shin oak poisoning, many cattle are penned and fed for 3 to 4 weeks when the oak first buds in the spring. Even so, some of them later 39 Figure 75. Shin oak, Quercus havardii. will eat sufficient oak to be poisoned. Many feed supplements have been used on the range, and may reduce losses, but on ranges where sand shin oak (Quercus havardii) grows, feed supplement alone fails to prevent losses. Calcium hydroxide (hydrated lime) is an efficient antidote to prevent poisoning by tannic acid and oak tannins in. rabbits (Dollahite and Camp- 1962). Sup- plemental feed containing 9 percent hydrated lime have reduced losses in cattle in experimental feeding trials (Dollahite eat al. 1963). Feeds containing 10 percent hydrated lime are being tested to reduce or prevent oak poisoning in cattle on the range. A satisfactory grazing management practice is complete control of the oak on an acreage estimate-d to carry the entire ranch stock until the oak leaves are fully developed. The area is the-n deferred until the next oak bud season. Sand shin oak may be effectively controlled with low-volatile esters of 2,4,5-T or silvex at l/Z pound per acre in an emulsion of 1 gallon of diesel oil and water to give 4 gallons of solution per acre applied aerially. Applications should be made for 3 consecu- tive years to obtain maximum control. Shin oak on limestone soil does not respond readily to aerial spray applications of herbicides, but two consecutive treat- ments of 1 pound of 2,4,5-T in an emulsion of 1 gallon diesel oil and water to make 4 gallons of solution per acre have produced effective control. Shin oak in tree form may be controlled by trunk base applica- tions of 16 pounds of 2,4,5-T of low-volatile ester in 100 gallons of diesel oil (Robison 1963). Post and blackjack oaks- may be controlled by basal bark application of 16 pounds of 2,4,5-T esters in 100 gallons of diesel oil and/or by aerial spray application. of 2 pounds per acre of 2,4,5-T esters or silvex in an emulsion of 1 gallon of diesel oil and water to make 4 gallons of solution per acre. Repeating the application with 1% pounds of 2,4,5-T 4U or silvex the following year obtains maximum cont . (Darrow and McCully 1959). .1 Ricinus communis-Castorbean l DESCRIPTION. Castorbeans are tall glabrous her cultivated as a source of oil for industrial a medicinal uses. They are planted as ornamenta * become established as escapes Zrin some areas a commonly reseed in gardens and fields if left mature fruit. Castorbeans were introduced from Old World Tropics. POISONOUS PRINCIPLE, ANIMALS POISONED AND The castorbean fruit contains ricin which is toxic humans and all livestock. The other parts of plant contain ricin in lesser amount. Poison”, animals develop nausea and violent purging. The is often blood in the feces. Muscular tremors, gene weakness and emaciation develop in cases of p p longed illness (West and Emmel 1952). Child a) are reported to be especially susceptible to castorbe 9,, poisoning and Kingsbury (1963) states that one w}. two castorbeans may be lethal to adults. l Senecio longilobus-Threadleaf Groundsel, Woolly Groundsel DESCRIPTION. Threadleaf groundsel is a manf g stemmed, perennial composite. It is evergreen vjj’ Texas ranges. The leaves usually are pinnate divided into three to seven segments and may be ha' or nearly smooth. The stems are herbaceous exce at the base and also have variable hairiness. Yell) flowers are produced throughout mild winters a the blooms are abundant following summer rai Figure 76. Q DISTRIBUTION. Threadleaf groundsel is inf 1 quent to abundant in grassland areas over most i, the western half of Texas, Figure 77. It ranges sou into Mexico, north into Nebraska and Wyoming pg‘ Figure 76. Threadleaf groundsel, Senecio longilobus. Figure 77. Threadleaf groundsel, Senecio longilobus. west into Arizona. Threadleaf groundsel is a native forb or half-shrub, usually growing in associatio-n with grama and buffalograss. It extends into short-grass gdesert scrub areas and increases with disturbance and ‘iffovergrazin.g. ANIMALs POISONED. Senecio is poisonous to cattle, horses, sheep and goats. 0n Texas ranges, cattle are year, especially when the range forage is dry and during ice and snow storms, but stock losses are eaviest in the late spring and the summer months. _ CLINICAL SIGNS. There is usually a time lapse ibctween eating the plant and the appearance of the first signs of intoxication. The advanced stage of the sease is characterized by continuous walking, the dden appearance of nervous disturbances» and fre- IIIEIII voiding of small amounts of liquid, bile-stained _ces. The voiding of feces is usually accompanied prolonged painful straining. In the advanced e, the poisoned animals are likely to attack any oving object that may be near. Death soon follows appearance of the advanced stage of the disease athews 1933). MLEsIoNs. Lesions of Senecio poisoning are jaun- ascites which impregnate the peritoneal covering the intestines, hardening of the liver and distention Q the gall bladder, frequently to an enormous size. POISONOUS PRINCIPLE. The toxic principle of adleaf groundsel iprobably the alkaloid longi- (Manske 1931, 1950). The leaves are more 'c than the stems and the young leaves are more ic than older growth. MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. Animals eating lundsel should be removed from the herd or, if imost commonly poisoned. It is eaten throughout the practical, the herd should be moved to a pasture free of groundsel. Supplemental feeding, if pastures are in poor condition, is a good management practice. Mathews (1934) demonstrated that sheep and goats are less susceptible to groundsel poisoning than are cattle. Even though sheep and goats may be poisoned experimentally by large quantities of groundsel, this occurs infrequently on the range. Sheep, when grazed with cattle, usually control the groundsel plants. This practice significantly reduces the total loss from groundsel poisoning. Threadleaf groundsel is highly susceptible to ZA-D and good kill has been obtained by spraying with the low-volatile fonnulation at 1 pound per acre. Spraying from April through June is best with either ground or aerial equipment. Senecio spartioides, (S. riddeIIizQ-Riddell Groundsel, Broom Groundsel DEscRIPTIoN. Riddell groundsel is a herbaceous perennial. Several stems grow from a woody base. These produce lateral branches, at least terminally. The leaves are pinnatifid, green and without hairs. Yellow flowers are produced in somewhat flattish inflorescences during late summer and early fall, Figure 78. This species differs from threadleaf groundsel by being bright green, having less diffuse branching and dying back to the ground after frost. DISTRIBUTION. Riddell groundsel is frequent to abundant in the western half of Texas, with records from several counties along the Gulf Coast south of the Guadalupe River, Figure 79. This species occurs in grasslands, foothills and sandhills, and extends from West Texas and New Mexico north into Colo- rado, Wyoming and Nebraska. It is often abundant in disturbed and overgrazed areas, gravelly washes, flooded areas and along roads and trails. POISONOUS PRINCIPLE, ANIMALS POISONED, SIGNS, LESIONS, MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. Except for chemical control, refer to Senecio longilobus. Satis- factory control of Riddell groundsel has been obtained Figure 78. Riddell groundsel, Senecio spartioides. Figure 79. Riddell groundsel, Senecio spartioides. by sp-raying with the L.V. ester of ZA-D at the rate of l pound per acre during the summer and fall after effective rainfall. Sesbania drummondii-Drummond Sesbane, Poison Bean DESCRIPTION. Drummond sesbane is a perennial shrub of the legume family. The pinnately com- pound leaves are alternate and have 12-60 oblong, pointed leaflets, Figure 80. The scarlet to bright yellow flowers are in racemes. The indehiscent fruit (legume) is four-winged with cross partitions between the seeds. ‘DISTRIBUTION. Drummond sesbane occurs from Florida to Texas and south into Mexico. It grows Figure 80. Drummond sesbane, Sesbania drummondii. Figure 81. Bagpod sesbane, Sesbania vesicaria. in the Gulf Coast area and extends into the statéi along sluggish waterways and around wet sites. The plants are often found growing in shallow water. l ANIMALS POISONED. The seed of sesbane are poisonous to sheep, goats and cattle. Marsh (1929 states that about an ounce of seed will kill a shee and less than two ounces will kill larger animals. CLINICAL SIGNS. The primary signs of cases light poisoning by sesbane are depression, diarrhe and rapid pulse. In fatal cases, weakness and labored breathing precede death. Signs ordinarily appearf about a day after eating sesbane (Marsh 1920). " MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. The major prob; lem in Drummond sesbane-infested areas is to kee, animals from browsing the plant and consuming the fruit during winter. Ample supplemental feed at th time usually keep animals from consuming toxic; quantities. Laxatives help poisoned animals elimi-j nate the toxic material. The removal of plants is a; good precaution. Hazard sites also may be fenced t__ prevent browsing. Young plants can be controlle, by spraying with 1 pound of ZA-D in l5 to 2O gallo f. of water per acre. Treated areas should be deferr a month or more following spraying to allow spraying, plants to dry completely. Sesbania vesicaria-Bagpod Sesbane DESCRIPTION. Bagpod sesbane is a smoo L’ stemmed annual legume with compound leaves. T = racemes are. four to eight-flowered. The one-celled" usually two-seeded fruit has a loose-fitting out“ . portion and a thin white inner membrane, Figure DISTRIBUTION. Bagpod sesbane extends from tli Gulf States into Texas. It is frequently abundant a old fields, overgrazed pastures and in disturbed an‘ A waste places. ' IMALS POISONED, SIGNS, MANAGEMENT AND TREAT- ‘. See Sesbania drummondii. Areas to be grazed be mowed if the plant is abundant. , m carolinense-Horsenettle, Treadsalve ESCRIPTION. Horsenettle is a herbaceous peren- 10f the nightshade family (Solanaceae). The are mostly ovate, lobed or toothed with stellate i The flowers are blue and the globose fruit is '-like. Prickles are present on the stems and , Figure 82. fTDIsTRIBUTIQN. Horsenettle may be abundant in . 5 ‘.- f; azed pastures, overflow areas, cultivated fields giwaste places. It extends from Massachusetts to ska, south to Texas and Florida and in some states. iANIMALs PolsoNEn, SIGNS, LESIONS, MANAGEMENT TREATMENT. See silverleaf nightshade. um elaeagnifolium-Silverleaf Nightshade DESCRIPTION. Silverleaf nightshade is a perennial p! long, creeping rootstocks. The leaves are oblong iii-linear, undulate to deeply sinuate, silvery-white stellate canescent. The flowers are violet and igw or bluish. The plants usually are prickly, if 'ng in degrees from sparse to heavily-covered, ’ re 88. DISTRIBUTION. This species is widely distributed ‘fields, pastures and roadsides. It is found from I Q ico. ANIMALs POISONED. Horses, cattle, sheep, goats, chickens, ducks, rabbits and men have been by eating Solanum spp». CLINICAL SIGNS. The signs vary with the species jSolanum but usually include labored breathing, in an expiratory grunt, salivation and nasal dis- "Y re 82. Horsenettle, Solanum carolinense. ouri to Texas and California and south into Figure 83. Silverleaf Nightshade, Solanum elaeagnifolium. charge. The temperature may be normal to slightly above normal. In subacute cases a yellow discolora- tion of the skin may be observed in lightly pigmented areas. Other signs observed are weakness and in- coordination, trembling of the muscles of the hind legs, anemia and accelerated heart rate. The animals may bloat. Often they are found dead with evidence of excessive salivation (Dollahite and Allen 1960). LESIONS. The lungs are congested and emphy- sematous, the liver and kidneys are congested and the heart, intestinal mucosa and spleen are hemor- rhagic and congested. In Hereford cattle, the fat frequently is yellow and contains a gelatinous infil- tration. The gall bladder may be distended with dark green bile. The plant may be identified in the rumen of animals that die suddenly from eating green plant material. In. cases of poisoning from eating the ripe fruit, the small, tomato-like seed will usually be found in large quantities between the folds of the omasum. and in lesser numbers in the aboma- sum. PoIsoNoUs PRINCIPLE. The leaves and fruit of the toxic species of Solanum contain alkaloids, especially solanine. Of the species included, silver- leaf nightshade is the most poisonous in Texas and frequently causes extensive losses in cattle. Cattle will eat the green plant when there is an inadequate supply of other green feed. They will also eat the ripe fruit, which is as toxic as the green fruit. In addition to the four species described, other plants in the nightshade family (Solanaceae) are known to be poisonous. The foliage of tomato and potato 43 have survived for 24 hours after eating silverleaf; nightshade will recover if they are placed in the shade; fed, watered and kept quiet. 3 Solanum nigrum-Black Nightshade DEsGRIPTIoN. Black nightshade is an herbaceousé annual with alternate, wavy-toothed 0r nearly entire; leaves. The white flowers are in umble-like drooping; clusters. The globose fruit is purple or black, Figure}; 84. DISTRIBUTION. Black nightshade grows on dis-f turbed areas of fields and pastures and in somewhap moist, open woodlands on loamy or gravelly soils. Rf is widespread throughout the United States and southern Canada. _ PoIsoNous PRINCIPLE, ANIMALS Po1soNED, siGNs, LESIONS, MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. See silverleaf Figure 84. Black Nightshade, Solarium nigrum. nightshade, Solanum elaeagnifolium. . Solanum rostratum-Buffalobur plants and silage made from potato plants have poisoned animals. When the potato tuber is exposed _ DnSFRIPTION- Bnnalnbnr is a PricklY annual Witnf to light it turns green. The green portion contains Plnnanfld leaves- Tn‘? nnwerf 3Y6 Ynnnw and the Zj the poisonous principle and should not be eaten nnnn 15 enclosed bX a Clnsnntnng’ Pnckll’ Calyx (Konig 1953y creating the “bur,” Figure 85. 5 DISTRIBUTION. It is a weed in old fields, over- grazed pastures and along roadsides. It is foundf growing from North Dakota to Texas, westward and south into Mexico. MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. Hungry animals should not be allowed to graze areas where there is an abundance of silverleaf nightshade. Animals should not be fed from the ground in areas where i. there is a large quantity of the ripe fruit of silverleaf a ANiMALs Po1soNED, siGNs, LESIONS, MANAGEMENT " nightshade or horsenettle. Most of the cattle that AND TREATMENT. See silverleaf nightshade, Solanumig Figure 85. Buffalobur, Solanum rostratum. 44 86. Mescalbean, Sophora secundiflora. gnifolium. In addition t0 the toxic substances ,.| plant, the p-rickles cause internal irriation i grazed. Mowing in the early growth stage is ‘f- v control measure. i’ I a secundiflora-Mescalbean, éiiMountain Laurel, Frijolito DEsGRIPTIQN. Mescalbean is a shrub or small f of the legume family, Figure 86. The odd- R.- leaves are evergreen, leather-like, dark green 1e and light green below. The showy bluish rs smell sweet and the fruit is a several-seeded, l pod, Figure 87. The seed are bright orange . rlet-red and have a very hard seedcoat. Edwards Plateau and Trans-Pecos areas with 37o from Duval, Live Oak and Kleberg counties southern part of the state, Figure 88. This extends into New Mexico on the west and lico on the south. It is found on hills, rock ledges canyons and may become abundant following land mechanical brush control. EANIMALS POISONED. Cattle, shee and oats have _ _ P 8 pf; polsoned by eat1ng the leaves or seeds of mescal- Cattle are very susceptible to poisoning from ileaves, but goats and sheep are more tolerant. Eseeds are uite oisonous if crushed, but due to q P _ hardness they usually are swallowed without broken. They are expelled unchanged during rocess of rumination or are assed unchan ed f P g €C€S. LINICAL SIGNS. When animals poisoned by bean are exercised, they have an increased pulse fa stiffening of the hind legs. Muscular trembling ially noticeable over the shoulders and rump. fall and usually become comatose. Sheep 1f ly recover after a" rest period, but cattle often éGoats were not poisoned by experimental feed- (Boughton and Hardy 1935) . §Po1soNous PRINCIPLE. Mescalbean is highly poi- and contains the narcotic alkaloid cytisine or gporine. Feeding tests of leaves have demonstrated if-DISTRIBUTION. Mescalbean is most frequent on. Figure 87. Fruiting branch of Mescalbean. their toxicity to sheep, cattle and goats (Boughton and Hardy 1935). Cattle are very susceptible to the poison, while go-ats and sheep are less susceptible. The poison is not cumulative. MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. When other forage is scarce, animals should be provided supple- mental feed so that they will not consume poisonous amounts of mescalbean. Affected animals should be confined and fed a good ration until they recover. Control experiments with herbicides obtained satisfactory control by basal application of l6 pounds of the ester formulations of 2,4,5-T mixed in 100 gallons of diesel oil when applied during the late spring and summer following effective rainfall (Sperry 1964} Figure 88. Mescalbean, Sophora secundiflora. 45 Sophora sericea-Silky Sophora DESCRIPTION. Silky sophora is a herbaceous, low- growing legume with alternate, pinnately-compound leaves, Figure 89. This species is common over much of West Texas and extends north to South Dakota and Wyoming, and west to Utah and Arizona. POISONOUS PRINCIPLE AND ANIMALS POISONED. The seed, as with other species of Sophora, contain a toxic alkaloid. If eaten in large quantities, poisoning may result. Cattle losses in extreme West Texas have been attributed to- this plant. Sorghum halepense-Johnsongrass Sorghum vulgare-Sorghums Sorghum almum-Sorghum Almum DESCRIPTION AND DISTRIBUTION. A large number of sorghum varieties and strains are under cultivation or growing as escapes. Sorghums generally are coarse grasses with large, terminal panicles. They are grown for grain, hay, silage and pasturage and are widely distributed. Johnsongrass was introduced into South Carolina from Turkey about 1830. Ten years later Col. William Johnson obtained seed and planted it in the Alabama River bottom near Selma, Alabama. Since then, johnsongrass has spread throughout the South. Johnsongrass is used primarily for hay, and grazing is secondary. Sudangrass, Sorghum vulgare var. sudanese, was introduced into the United States from the African Sudan in 1909 and was first grown. at the Chillicothe Experiment Station. The strains of Sudangrass in- clude common, sweet, tift, piper, lahoma and green- _,__ Figure 89. Silky sophora, Sophora sericea. leaf. Sudangrasses are used for hay and grazing a the strains generally are classed as annuals, thou, some are weak perennials. ~ Sorghum almum. was introduced into the Unit. States from Argentina, South Africa, Australi} Nigeria and Algeria in 1949 and first grown t Georgia. It is also known as‘ Columbusgrass. originated. in. Argentina andqis; a. hybrid betw johnsongrass and a sorghum. It is a weak perenni but should be managed as an annual. f A ANIMALS POISONED. Cattle and horses are if susceptible to poisoning by sorghums. CLINICAL SIGNS, LESIONS AND TREATMENT. “Hydrocyanic Acid” under special problems. POISONOUS PRINCIPLE. Under certain conditio Johnsongrass an.d the sorghums produce a glycoci’ which yields several toxic substances during digestio A deadly poison which may be formed is hydrocyan (prussic) acid. MANAGEMENT. Sorghums used for grazing shouz, be 18 to 24 inches tall before livestock is allowed t consume them. Grazing during a younger apparently increases the danger of poisoning. Matu forage that is not grazed should be mowed to anon new growth. To maintain Johnsongrass in a heal state, it is necesary to allow it to mature, seed a restore food reserve in the rhizomes. Plowing esta lished stands at fo-ur year intervals stimulates grow ' The hay sorghums should be cut during the no‘; stage of growth for best yield and quality. Crimpi A freshly mowed forage hastens drying and maintai high quality. Grazing the sorghums in small bl in rotation allows highest yield and ease of manai ment. Sorghums used for silage should be cut at ti‘ stage of growth that produces the largest yield. A Stillingia treculiana-Trecul Queensdelight DESCRIPTION. Plants of queensdelight are mo cious, many-stemmed herbs with a large central The stems may be somewhat woody toward the b The smooth leaves usually are alternate, entire toothed. The staminate flowers usually are termi pistillate flowers are at the base of the spike, Fi 90. The capsules are three-lobed. In addition Trecul queensdelight, Texas queensdelight, S. texa and the more common species, S. sylvatica, are corded for Texas. DISTRIBUTION. Certain species are present every area of Texas. S. sylvatica is most widely w; tributed in the state, Texas queesdelight is in i?‘ Cross Timbers, prairies and Edwards Plateau. Tr queensdelight ranges from the Gulf Prairies to if Trans-Pecos area. ANIMALS POISONED. Numerous sheep losses ha n been attributed to queensdelight in the Edwa _. Plateau area. Sheep- fed experimentally have u-f killed with hydrocyanic acid poisoning, (Hardy AOISONOUS PRINCIPLE. The analysis of dry plant ial of S. treculiana sho-wed that it contained S, (Hardy 1954). A ANAGEMENT. Since both lambs and mature é have been 10st on po-o-r-condition pastures d with queensdelight, supplemental feeding or of animals is advocated. us terrestris-Puncturevine, Goathead ‘ESCRIPTION. Puncturevine is an annual weed caltrop family (Zygophyllaceae). The pros- ‘jstems radiate from a tap root. The opposite are pinnate. The flattened fruit breaks into utlets, with two strong spines. ISTRIBUTION. Puncturevine is a weed natural- i» Europe. It is widely distributed in waste I along trails, roadsides and may become abun- fiin overgrazed pastures. (OISONOUS PRINCIPLE. Puncturevine contains a _ynan1ic agent and causes photo-sensitization, ly called big head or swell head, of sheep. The wering, flowering and fruiting plants are toxic 1952). TLINICAL SIGNS, LEsloNs, MANAGEMENT AND TREAT- Qi See Pho-tosensitization. Puncturevine in fields controlled by cultivation. Effective control l sites in noncultivated areas is possible by f g or spraying young plants with herbicides. bearing seed, if cut off with a hoe or shovel, i i be dried and burned to destroy the seed. f ,9 ‘um spp-Cocklebur _ i, CRIPTION. Cockleburs are coarse, rough annual with alternate, toothed or lobed leaves. The it: are inconspicuous and imperfect, the pistilate developing into a bur-like fruit, Figure 91. it is usually two-beaked, covered with many and has two compartments, each containing a Xanthium is a genus of the composite family. Texas Queensdelight, Stillingia texana. Figure 91. Cocklebur, Xanthium spp. DISTRIBUTION. Over 40 species of Xanthium are widely distributed, six o-f them in Texas. One species, X. spinosum, has triple spines in the axils of the leaves. Cockleburs are most frequent in disturbed and flooded areas of fields, pastures and roadways. They may be present in bar ditches, around earthen tanks, barnyard lots, old lake beds and river bottoms. In many low areas where water flows or stands after a rain, the cocklebur plants are among the first green plants to appear. ANIMALS POISONED. Swine, cattle, sheep, chickens and horses are poisoned by cocklebur plants. Swine are most frequently poisoned, but poisoning is quite frequent in cattle. The burs are seldom. eaten. Most poisoning is caused by eating o-f plants in the cotyle- don stage (Marsh 1929). CLINICAL SIGNS. As little as 0.75 percent of an animal’s weight of young seedlings will produce signs of illness in a few hours and death within 24 to 48 hours. Animals poisoned by cockleburs have low temperatures and show signs of depression and gen- eral weakness. They have a rapid and weak pulse, labored breathing, nausea, vomiting and spasmodic contraction of leg and neck muscles. Pigs may squeal and have convulsions. LEsIoNs. There usually is gastroenteritis with thickening of the walls of the inflamed tissues. The liver is congested, the bile is viscid and there is a slight icterus. Ascites may be seen. PoIsoNous PRINCIPLE. Cockleburs are mechan- ically injurious when consumed and also contain a toxic glucoside. MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. Animals should not be allowed to graze areas where there are abun- dant young cockleb-ur plants unless there is adequate green forage. Poisoned animals should be kept warm and large doses of mineral oil or milk should be given by mouth with heart and respiratory stimulants ad- ministered. Hubert and Oehme (1961) recom- mended physostigmine (5-30 mg.) injected intra- muscularly and repeated at 1/2 to 1 hour intervals for pigs. Cockleburs, in addition to being poisonous, are obnoxious when burs get in the wool, hair and tails of animals. Young plants are highly susceptible to herbicides and can be controlled by broadcast spray- ing with 2,4-D at the rate of 1/2 to 1 pound per acre. Xanthocephalum microcephalum (Gutierrezia microcephalm-Threadleaf Broomweed, Perennial Broomweed, Turpentineweed, Slinkweed DEsCRIPTIoN. Threadleaf broomweed is a many- branched, perennial, herbaceous composite. The numerous yellow-flowered heads are narrow turbinate (top-shaped). Each head has from one to three disk and from four to five ray flowers. The leaves are alternate and filiform, Figure 92. There are five Figure 92. Threadleaf Broomweed, Xanthocephalum micro- cephalum. additional perennial species classified under Xant cephalum in the Texas flora. 1 DISTRIBUTION. The most abundant stands threadleaf broomweed are in the Trans-Pecos ar It extends from Central and West Texas south in Mexico and west to Nevada. ANIMALs POISONED. Threadleaf broomweed: poisonous to cattle, sheep, goatsj-swine, rabbits, gui i. pigs and young chickens. The most common probl with this plant is abortion in cattle. This probl becomes much more serious when broomweed P on sandy soil; often 6O percent of the cows at delivering dead or small weak calves. Abortion been produced experimentally in cows, sheep, r; and rabbits. Swine grazing broomweed may 00-‘ and breeding has been delayed by experimental ing (Dollahite and Allen 1959). CLINICAL SIGNS. Acute poisoning by broomw produces different clinical signs from those usua seen in cows prior to abortion. They develo-p peri I; mucopurulent nasal discharge, the skin of the mu j becomes crusted and sloughs and buccal ulcers t; be present. The cattle lose their appetite, lose weil have a listless attitude and develop a rough Occasionally they have dark brown 0r reddish urii Animals urinate frequently and twist as if urinati causes pain. Diarrhea, observed in early . changes to constipation and large amounts of mu is are found in the foul-smelling feces. Pregnant pf" often have periodic vulvar swelling and an earlii than-normal udder development. Hereford col which usually do not have large udders, often devel painful engorgement of the udder before abortii The placenta usually is retained following abort' and secondary infection causes some deaths (Dolla and Anthony 1957). ‘ LEsIoNs. Although there is no clinical evide of icterus, the subcutaneous fat and connective ti is light yellow to golden-orange. The liver is and friable, the capsule peels easily and there q. often pinpoint hemorrhages under the capsule. _ gallbladder shows inflammation o-f the mucous a; brane which is stained yellow by the thick yell bile. The kidneys and spleen are congested and pulp of the spleen is darker and softer than no u, There is a mild to severe gastroenteritis. The " membranes usually are edematous. PolsoNous PRINCIPLE. Dollahite et al. (1962) if ported the isolation of a saponin from Xanthocep lum spp. which will induce abortion when inje intravenously. Shaver et al. (1964) have demonstrai that the saponin will induce abortion when admi tered orally to rabbits. The isolated saponin g shown to stimulate contractions in isolated rat Q; rabbit uteri. Qualitative tests indicate that saponin is of the triterpenoid type. ’ MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. Heaviest occur when broomweed leaves grow rapidly. Figure 93. Perennial Broomweed, Xantlzocephalum sarothrae. tions were produced in experimental cows with smaller quantities of the plant at this stage of growth. Rapid leaf growth may occur occasionally in October and November, but usually occurs in late winter and early spring. Cattle eat broomweed readily at this stage of growth when other green feed is scarce. Cattle should be moved from sandy soils to loam soils during danger periods. In areas where poisoning occurs on other soil types, cattle should be moved to pastures that are free from broomweed. Cows poi- soned by broomweed should be placed in pens and fed nutritious feed until they recover. Cows with retained placentas should be treated by a veterinarian. Calves that are born alive, but small and weak, should be placed in the shade and helped to nurse until they Y ' are strong enough to care for themselves. Experimental control with herbicides has shown threadleaf broomweed to be susceptible to ZA-D. See Xanthocephalztm sarothrae for more detail. Xanthocephalum sarothrae (Gutierrezia sarothrae)- Perennial Broomweed, Broom Snakeweed, Turpentineweed, Slinkweed DESCRIPTION. This species of Xanthocephalum _ is similar in growth habit to X. microcephalum. The flower heads are slightly thicker and have from three fto eight ray flowers and from three to eight disk flowers, Figure 93. DISTRIBUTION. It is found in greatest abundance , on the Edwards Plateau, the High and Rolling Plains .fand___the Cross Timbers and Prairies. Collections also o, have been made in the Gulf Prairies and Trans-Pecos area. K POISONOUS PRINCIPLE, ANIMALS POISONED, SIGNS, LESIONS, MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. Experimental feeding and control i‘ studies have involved both X. microceplzalum and X. sarothrae. See discussions under X. microcephalztm. Since X. sarothrae is more widely distributed than X. microcephalum, most of the control experi- ments have been with the fomier. Sperry and Robi- son (1963) reported the progress of control experi- ments in which 2,4-D has obtained the best results to date. Spraying must be done under optimum growth and moisture conditions and it is indicated that two successive years of treatment may be neces- sary to get satisfactory control. Zygadenus nuttallii-Nuttall Deathcamas DESCRIPTION. Nuttall deathcamas, a member of the lily family (Liliaceae) , is one of several poisonous species of the genus Zygadenus. It has long, some- what curved leaves, an underground bulb and flower stalks l to 2 feet tall. The white flowers are borne in a dense terminal cluster, Figure 94; The fruit is a dry many-seeded capsule. Deathcamas plants are related to, and may be confused with, wild onions, especially before flowering. DISTRIBUTION. This species is most prevalent in Texas on the eastern portion of the Edwards Plateau, in the central and northern prairies and in post oak areas. It grows northward into Kansas and eastward into Tennessee. Other species have been reported for Tex-as but are not frequent enough to be listed. Nuttall deathcamas grows mostly in grasslands and open woodlands. PoisoNous PRINCIPLE. The toxicity of deathcamas is thought to be due to an alkaloid. Considerable Figure 94. Deathcamas, Zygadenus nuttallii. work has been done ‘on range species, which vary in their poisonous properties (Marsh and Clawson 1929). AN1MALs POISONED. Nuttall deathcamas is poi- sonous to sheep, cattle and horses. This species is reported to be more poisonous than deathcamas in the western states. All parts of the plant are poison- ous, even when dry (Marsh 1929). CLINICAL SIGNS. Signs of deathcamas poisoning are salivation, nausea, vomiting, depression, weakness, low temperature, a weak and irregular pulse and irregular, difficult breathing. Death is usually-pre- ceded by coma. LESIONS. Lesions are minimal, but there is usually congestion of the kidneys, and there may be conges- tion of the lungs and other organs. MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. Livestock should be kept away from heavily infested areas of death- camas, especially in the spring. Supplementary feed- ing will help prevent losses. Although there is no effective treatment, many poisoned animals will re- cover if kept quiet and fed. Since nuttall deathcamas are conspicuous when in flower and usually occur as scattered plants, it is practical to dig out and destroy them. The bulb may be from a few inches to a foot or more below the surface. Special Problems ERGOT Claviceps cinerea, Tobosagrass Ergot Claviceps paspalum, Dallisgrass Ergot Claviceps purpurea, Ergot of Rye or Other Cereal Grasses ANIMALS POISONED. Most cases of ergot poisoning in Texas occur in cattle. Under favorable climatic conditions, enough of the ergot sclerotia may develop to cause poisoning. Ergot may be associated with other fungi, complicating toxic conditions. Some of these fungi cause a. “honey-dew” to form on the sclerotia making them palatable to livestock. CLINICAL SIGNS. Ergotism is divided into two different disease syndromes: acute, usually is charac- terized by nervous signs, and chronic, characterized by gangrene. Acute or nervous ergotism in cattle caused by dallisgrass ergot is the more common prob- lem in Texas. Ergot growing on tobosagrass in western Texas causes a similar nervous condition (Dollahite 1963). Signs of nervous ergotism are ex- treme nervousness, increased heart rate, muscular trembling and frequent urination. There may be a loss of the special senses followed by ataxia, pros- tration, convulsions and death. Gangrenous ergotism is more often caused by Claviceps purpurea growing on some of the cereal grasses. Gangrene affects parts of the body having poorest blood supply: feet, legs, tail and ears, any or all of which may drop off. 50 Frequently cattle are able to walk without hoov apparently without pain. Abortion is thought to E a sign of chronic ergotism. Although research wort ers usually have failed to produce abortion wi. ergot, abortions are frequently associated with ga grenous ergotism in the field. Gangrene and wggi tions have been observed in herds following outbrea of the nervous form of abortion; i? MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. Grass containi ergot should be mowed, or cattle should be movi Animals with gangrene often have to- be destroy, for humane reasons. Animals with nervous ergoti usually will recover if removed from the ergot-infes pasture, given good feed, water and not und _ disturbed. HYDROCYANIC OR PRUSSIC ACID PQIsoNIN Some plants are capable, under certain co tions, of producing hydrocyanic (prussic) acid, highly poisonous substance. They are known y cyanogenetic plants. The acid forms when. an enz i, or rumen bacteria act on a glycoside. Neither p. glycoside nor the enzyme is individually poisono and under normal conditions they do not come ; y contact. Poisoning usually follows plant damage s as wilting, freezing, drouth, cutting, crushing, Young growing plants usually contain more of i glycoside than mature plants. Drying of p-lants usuqg; reduces the toxicity, but animals occasionally ti] poisoned by eating hay from cyanogenetic plants. Of the plants that grow in Texas, the Sorgh- species are the ones that most frequently prod cyanide poisoning. This includes all of the ; sorghums, Johnsongrasfs and Sudangrass. Other plai that produce cyanide poisoning are cherries, plui velvetgrass (Holcus lanatus), Mountain (Cercocarpus brevifolius), flax (Linunr spp.), que‘ delight, elder (Sambucus spp.), American flower (Centaurea americana), eastern manna (Glyceria septentrionalis) and sticky palefoxia "A; foxia tripteris). ANIMALS POISONED. All domestic animals susceptible to hydrocyanic acid poisoning but ca’ are most susceptible. SIGNS OF ILLNESS. Hydrocyanic acid is one of most rapid acting poisons. Signs of illness may 5i within 5 minutes of the time the animal starts ea s‘) the plant. Death may occur within 15 minutes,{ the animal may live for several hours. Salivation. labo-red breathing are usually the first signs, foll by muscle tremors, incoordination, bloating, te s muscle contractions, convulsions and death d116,? respiratory failure. The heart may continue to for some time after breathing stops. LESIONS. The blood is usually bright red A there is congestion of the lungs and other int organs. There may be hemorrhages on the surface of the digestive tract. YMANAGEINIENT AND TREATMENT. Animals should yr allowed to eatwilted cherry and plum leaves xoot sprouts. Second growth sorghums should be Z with caution. When any of the cyanogenetic have been subject to drouth, freezing or other i-ge, they should not be grazed unless tested for yanic acid. l ium nitrite and sodium thiosulfate are specific tes for hydrocyanic acid poisoning. Solutions be given intravenously because the poison acts y. Most veterinarians carry solutions ready to ister at all times. Methylene blue given intra- ly is another antidote. - TE POISONING itrate poisoning in animals. usually is caused eir consuming fertilizers, water, feed or forage ' containing poiso-nous nitrogen compounds such j assium nitrate. Potassium nitrite is much more (than potassium nitrate. Moisture and heat may i; the nitrate to nitrite, but most of this change in thegastro-intestinal tract, and is thought i r in rumen of ruminants. The condition is terized by abortion, reduction of milk flow, of vitamin A deficiency and sudden death. non-protein nitrogen is excessive in the plant, ‘y combine with other elements to produce that add to the complexity of the nitrate ing. One of these compounds is nitrogen di- l“, a brown or yellowish-red gas heavier than air may form in silos. - ,9 itrogen is an indispensable constituent of the a molecule, which in turn is a vital part of the . Ilasm of plants. Some plants may accumulate 3' to a toxic level. The enzyme, nitrate reduc- important in this building process and requires i0 function. Most investigators have associated poisoning with plants that are grown in soils y); a high nitrogen content, such as in areas that ere livestock pens or where the soil has been fertilized. Gilbert et al. (1946) showed that Citrate in the soil will increase the amount of in growing plants. They also showed that ifnitrogen alone is applied to soil the nitrogen nts is higher than when nitrogen is applied osphorus. Plants usually accumulate nitrate yunder stress, such as growing in the shade or tain soil types (Gilbert et al. 1946); suffering "L; ck of moisture (Dollahite and Camp 1956); or ing from physical damage, such as being ed or blown down during a storm (Dollahite Q the Rocky Mountain States, oat is most com- i responsible for nitrate poisoning, and the has been known as “oat poisoning.” Other u ops that have been known to cause nitrate ‘ng are barley, wheat, rye, sorghum, corn, a alfalfa, millet, soybean, rape and fescue. Corn has been reported to have as much as 25 percent nitrate on a dry weight basis (Gilbert, et al. 1946). Some grasses and many weeds accumulating nitrates are amaranths, sunflower, lambsquarter, Russian thistle, ragweed, witchgrass, nightshade, white cockle, velvetweed, smartweed, burdock, hounds-tongue, fiddleneck, Canada thistle, bull thistle, bindweed, sourdock, stinging nettle, elderberry, goldenrod, sweet- potato vines and blue-green algae. Vegetables ac- cumulating large quantities of nitrate are beets, turnips, kale, radishes, mangels, swiss chard, lettuce, celery, squash, parsnips, cucumbers and spinach. Humans. usually are not poisoned by these vegetables because they seldom eat them exclusively, but when fed to animals inquantity they often cause nitrate poisoning. The poisonous effects of nitrate vary with different species of animals, and with the ration that the animal is eating. Because of these varying condi- tions, the amount of nitrate reported by different workers to produce poisoning varies widely. Under most conditions, 1.5 percent of the ration in nitrate on a dry weight basis produces acute poisoning and death, while lesser amounts will produce abortion. One-half percent of the ration over an extended period will cause lower milk production and lower weight gains. Nitrate is thought to interfere with the conversion of carotene to vitamin A (Pugh et al. 1962). ANIMALs POISONED. Cattle, sheep, goats, swine, horses, dogs and birds are susceptible to nitrate poisoning. Cattle are m.ore frequently poisoned than other animals. CLINICAL SIGNS. In acute nitrate poisoning, animals are often found dead with no previous history of illness. Numerous abortions may occur in the herd a few days after the deaths, or there may be abortions and no deaths. Poisoned cattle have signs of nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, bloating, fast pulse, pros- tration and dyspnea. The blood is usually dark brown, but may be cherry re-d. Sheep exhibit the same signs as cattle, an-d in addition have frequent urination and convulsions. Fowl stop eating, develop a watery diarrhea. with green flakes, cyanosis and depression. The damage is caused by vasodilation as a result of the nitrate and the lower oxygen carry- ing capacity of the blood due to methemoglobin (brown blood) formation. LEsroNs. Lesions of nitrate poisoning are lung congestion, hemorrhages on-the heart, brownish liver, chocolate-brown. blood, irritation of the stomach and intestines and sometimes, hemorrhage in the urinary bladder. The brown color of the blood disappears 3 or 4 hours after death. Microscopically, there is degeneration of the vascular tissues of the lungs, heart, liver, kidneys, testes and brain. MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. Rations high in carbohydrates will reduce and sometimes prevent 51 losses from nitrate poisoning. Water for human or animal consumptio-n, if in question, should be checked for nitrates and nitrites. Weed control may prevent nitrate poisoning. If there is any reason to suspect that plants contain an excess of nitrates, they should be tested before animals are allowed to- eat them. Poisoned animals should be handled quietly and methylene blue should be administered intravenously. It is usually administered in a 1-4 percent solution which also contains 5 percent dextrose at the rate of 1 gram of methylene blue for each 250 pounds of‘ animal weight. Due to the vasodilation effect of the nitrate, vasoconstrictor drugs such as adrenalin should be administered. In chronic poisoning, vitamin A should be given. ' PHOTOSENSITIZATION Photosensitivity is that condition in animals characterized by hyper-reaction to- sunlight. Photo- sensitizatio-n is the syndrome which develops when an animal in a state o-f photosensitivity is exposed to sunlight (Clare 1952). It has been classified by Runnels et al. (1960) into three types: TYPE I. In primary photosensitivity the photo- dynamic agent is absorbed directly from the digestive tract. It does not depend on functional or metabolic disturbances of the body organs. Plants that cause this type of photosensitivity are Polygonum persicaria (ladies-thumb), Hypericzzm perforatum (St. ]ohn’s wort) and species of Eriogonzzm (wild-buckwheat). TYPE n. Photosensitivity due to abnormal pig- ment synthesis is due to a hereditary defect in porphyrin metabolism and occurs in some breeds of cattle and in Southdown sheep. TYPE m. Hepatogenous photosensitivity is due to the accumulation of phyllo-erythrin in the periph- eral circulation. Hepatic or biliary injury is the p-rimary lesion, which interferes with excretion of phylloerythrin and produces photosensitivity. Plant and chemical hepatotoxins, certain infectious diseases and mechanical obstruction of the bile ducts are capable: of producing enough damage to interfere with excretion of phylloerythrin. Most photosensi- tivity diseases are o-f this type. Plants. that cause hepatoge-nous photosensitivity are puncturevine, lechuguilla, sacahuista and species of Lippia and Lantana. The fungus Pithomyces chartarum, growing on rye grass, produces a he-patotoxin, sporidesmin, which causes facial eczema, a photosensitive disease important in New Ze-alan-d. Several annual grasses in certain states and stages of growth are apparently responsible for hepatogen- ous sensitivity (Sperry et al. 1955) . The etiology of the photosensitivity of some syndromes is» not well understood and cannot be classified in the above groups. They usually occur in animals grazing on luxuriant pastures of oat, wheat, rye, Sudangrass, Johnsongrass or clovers. Early work- 52 ers placed these plants with those in Type I. Evidj of hepatic damage usually is not observed under conditions, but there are many exceptions wheret is a pronounced icterus. A Photosensitization has been reported from j areas as- a result of eating common forage plants A as. Bermudagrass and clover infected with Alfalfa and clo-ver hay which; éontain molds f also caused photosensitization. These outbr usually follow heavy rains and climatic condi that are conducive to growth of molds. Ce _ additional plants, not considered photodynamic/ quently produce hepatic damage with marked ict when infested with molds. ANIMALS POISONED. Cattle, horses, sheep, and swine are susceptible to photosensitization. ' 'CLINICAL SIGNS. The first signs of photose i zation usually are conjunctivitis and reddenin light colored skin. Thin-skinned areas and. g having no hair or thin hair, such as the m _g udder and scrotum, are also affected. Occasio dark-pigmented skin is affected but less severely. inflammation of the skin is followed by swel serous exudate, blisters and usually sloughing of skin. Bacterial and screwworm infections may fol The animals are sensitive to sunlight and seek A Evidence of itching is exhibited by scratching, ing, rubbing against objects and biting the aff parts. The skin of dark animals does not blister slough, but usually becomes thickened and the if crusted with exudate. Animals may develop laminitis (founder) j swelling of the coronary band. Animals with pri ti p-hotosensitizatio-n seldom die, but animals with s of icterus often die. MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. When the p, causing photosensitizatio-n is known, preventive t’ ures may be taken (Hoffman et al. I962). It ma!‘ completely avoided or the amount consumed ma reduced by furnishing supplementary feed. Q climatic conditions occur that may lead to p A; sensitization, pasture rotation and supplementary may help prevent trouble. When the first cas photosensitization occur, the animals should be mT to new pasture if possible. The sick animals sh be placed in the shade with feed and water. Pla in screened barns to prevent. exposure to flii advisable. Painting or spraying the affected with methylene blue solution or some other nont dye is beneficial. Applications of grease, oils or ta acid should be avoided. ‘T WHEAT PASTURE POISONING (Grass Grass Tetany, Green Oat Tetany) ANIMALS POISONED. Cattle, and sometimes f) are poisoned after grazing wheat, oats and some grasses. Although lactating or pregnant cows ‘l usually affected, dry cows, steers and calves have g Q fsoned. Most cases in cows develop between month of pregnancy and the time the calf a old. The cows usually have been grazing _: tween 60 and 150 days (Sims and Crookshank a 1cm. SIGNS. Wheat pasture poisoning signs }'th nervousness, incoordination and loss of Viciousness, staggering, falling and muscu- 3:» of the extremities develop. The animals éeir teeth, have an anxious expression and "lprofusely. The third eyelid protrudes or d general tetanic contractions of the muscle ntil the animal becomes prostrate. A reflex 'i~.will occur if the animal is touched or if it f: sudden noise. Labored breathing and a ,_,¢'v ‘ ‘s? pounding heart develop followed by coma within 6 to l0 hours from the appearance of the first signs. If left untreated, animals will have convulsions and die. MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. Supplemental feeding ‘with hay and various trace minerals may delay but not necessarily prevent wheat poisoning. Treatment by intravenous or intraperitoneal injec- tions of calcium gluconate solution fortified with magnesium and phosphorus is usually successful if started before coma develops. Recovery is more rapid and more certain if the animal is removed from the pasture for a few days. Animals that recover enough to stay on their feetfor 24 hours usually do not have the disease again. 53 Plants Growing in Texas Known to Have Caused Animal Losses Agrostemma githago Allium spp. Amanita spp. Argemone mexicana Arisaema triphyllum Baptisia spp. Berberis repens Batis maritima Buxus spp. Cannabis sativa Celastrus scandens Chenopodium spp. Croton spp. Crotalaria spp. Cyanophyta genera Cypripedium calceolus Equisetum spp. Festuca elatio-r Gelsemium semperuirens Gossypium heirbaceum Gymnocladus dio-ica Hedera helix Hydrangea macrophylla Ilex spp. Iris spp. the Continental Corncockle Onion Mushrooms Yellow poppy Jack-in-the-pulpit False indigo Creeping barberry Maritime saltwort Boxwood Indian hemp (marihuana) American bittersweet Lambsquarter, goosefoot Croton, doveweed Crotolaria, rattleweed Blue-green algae Yellow ladyslipper Horsetail, scouring-rush Tall fescue Yellow jasmine Cotton Kentucky coffee tree English Ivy Bigleaf hydrangea Holly Iris United States Lactuca spp. Leucaena glauca Ligustrum lucidum Lolium temulentum Lyonia ligustrina Maclura pomifem Melanthium virginicum Onoclea sensibilis Papaver somniferum Phalaris tuberosa Phoradendron spp. Physalis spp. Pinus spp. Podophyllum peltatum Psoralea tenuiflora Ranuculus spp. Rhododendron spp. Rhus spp. Robinia pseudo-acacia Rumex spp. Salvia coccinea Sanguinaria canadensis Saponaria officinalis Sartwellia flaveriae Solidago spp. Spigelia marylandica Acknowledgments While much of the information presented in this publication has come directly from the research of the authors, reports and publications of numerous investigators have been consulted. Many of these have been cited and included as references while various manuals, poisonous-plant publications, books and bulletins have been used in some degree and when cited or assumed, the authors wish to acknowl- edge and express appreciation for information con- cerned. 54 Assistance given by field technicians, v’ narians, ranchmen and personnel of the Texas University System is gratefully acknowledged. The designation of vegetational areas in for plant distribution follows the- outline of v' tional areas of Texas by Gould et al. (1960). A names, both scientific and common, have follow‘ most instances, The Check List of Texas Plan Gould (1962) . in Other Parts of Wild lettuce White popinac Glossiy privot Darnhl He-huckleberry Osage-orange, bois d’ d’ Bunchflower Sensitivefern Opium poppy Hardinggrass Mistletoe Ground-cherry Pine Mayapple Scurfpea Buttercup Rhododendron Poison ivy, poison oak; Black locust Dock Tropical sage Bloodroot Bouncingbet Sartwellia Goldenrod Pinkfoot Wayne. 1961. U.S.D.A. News release, Aug. 1. lW. L. and K. W. Parker. 1936. Toxicity tests on African i . New Mexico Agri. Expt. Sta. Bul. 240. 14 pp. 2}‘- I. B. 1936. Letter to F. P. Mathews. I .... .. 1941. Unpublished research. p, ........ .. and W. T. Hardy. 1935. Mescalbean (Sophora _- ndiflora) . Texas Agri. Expt. Sta. Bul. 519. 18 pp. it ........ .. and W. T. Hardy. 1939. Feeding trials of A ~- ted plants. Texas Agri. Expt. Sta. Ann. Report. -B.J. 1963. Unpublished research. Y and Carl M. Lyman. 1956. The Isolation of Methyl-B-Phenylethylamine from Acacia berlandieri. Jour. I . Pharm. Assoc. Sci. Ed. 45:719-721. . .... .. R. Adams and J. W. Dollahite. 1964. The Chem- of the toxic constituents of Acacia berlandieri. Ann. jY. Acad. Sci. 1l1:744-750. i‘ . A., E. R. Miller and G. R. Johnstone. 1924. Poisonous A ts of Alabama. Alabama Polytechnic Institute Ext. . Cir. 71. 42 pp. T. 1952. Photosensitization in diseases of domestic ‘u... ls. Commonwealth Agri. Bureaux, Farnham Royal, , England. L. 1949. African rue (Peganum harmala) in the ‘ted States. Field and Laboratory 17 (1) :20-23. J. F. 1927. Poisonous constituents of richweed or white p eroot. Jour. Agri. Res. 35:547-576. ....... .. 1929. Tremetol, the compound that produces tumbles" (milksickness) . Amer. Chem. Soc. Jour. 51:3617- I19. .... .. 1930. The toxic constituent of rayless goldenrod lopappus heterophyllus). Jour. Agri. Res. 40:649-658. f ........ -1933. Trembles (or milksickness). U.S.D.A. Cir. _ 11 pp. hi, R. A. and W. G. McCully. 1959. Brush control and g improvement. Texas Agri. Expt. Bul. 942. 16 pp. , L. A. and E. K. Ferrell. 1955. Chemical control of t" plants. South Dakota Agri. Expt. Sta. Cir. 144. i- ings. 12 pp. ‘If , J. W. 1955. Unpublished research. i’ ..... .. 1955, 1956, 1958, 1959, 1963. Unpublished research. 5.. ..... .. 1959. Toxicity of Drymaria arenarioides for cattle, y , and goats. Jour. Amer. Vet. Med. Assn. 1352125-127. f ..... .. 1960. Desert baileya poisoning in sheep, goats, j‘; rabbits. Texas Agri. Expt. Sta. P. R. 2149. 4 pp. . -» , i ....... .. 1960a. Unpublished research. _ ..... .. 1961. Shin oak (Quercus havardii) poisoning in Y e. Southwestern __Veterinarian. XIV (3) :198-201. . I i ..... .. 1963. Ergofivism produced by feeding Claviceps ea growing on tobosagrass (Hilaria mutica) and galleta- it (Hilaria jamesii). Southwestern Veterinarian. XVI (4) : ...... .. 1963a. Unpublished research. I ...... .. 1963b. Unpublished research. 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Unpublished. . and F. W. Pond. 1957. Buckeye-—Its distribution jtrol. Texas Agri. Expt. Sta. M. P. 188. 7 pp. . and E. D. Robison. 1963. Chemical control of " 1 broomweed. Texas Agri. Expt. Sta. P. R. 2273. ' C0. ., D. E. Ryerson and H. A. Pearson. 1962. Distri- and chemical control of coyotillo. Texas Agri. Expt. PP. 594. l0 pp. ...................... .. and G. W. Sultemeier. 1965. Bitterweed—its con- trol in relation to soil moisture. Sheep and Goat Raiser 4.">(6);14-17. ...................... .., R. D. Turk, G. O. Hoffman and F. B. Stroud. 1955. Photosensitization of cattle in Texas. Texas Agri. Expt. Sta. Bul. 812. 8 pp. ...................... P. H. Vardiman and R. G. Gray. 1952. Peavine- a poisonous range plant in Texas. Texas Agri. Expt. Sta. P. R. 1474. 4 pp. ...................... .. and A. H. Walker. 1957. Alfombrillo causing heavy losses to livestock in Chihuahua, Mexico. The Cattle- man. XLIII (12) 236,60. Tehon, L. R., C. C. Merrill and R. Graham. 1946. Illinois plants poisonous to livestock. Illinois Agri. Ext. Serv. Cir. 599. 103 pp. Tunnicliff, E. A. and v. L. Cory. 1950. Broad-leafed milkweed (Asclepias latifolia) poisonous for sheep and goats. Jour. Amer. Vet. Med. Assn. 77 (2) :165-168. Vines, R. A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and vines of the Southwest. University of Texas press. Wall, M. E., M. M. Krider, C. F. Krewson, C. R. Eddy, J. ]. Willaman, D. S. Corell, and H. S. Gentry. 1954. Steroidal sapogenins, VII. Survey of plants for steroidal sapogenins and other constituents. jour. Amer. Pharm. Assoc. Sci. Ed. XLIII:1. West, Erdman and M. W. Emmel. 1952. Some poisonous plants in Florida. Florida Agri. Expt. Sta. Bul. 468. 47 pp. Wolf, F. A., R. S. Curtis and B. F. Kaupp. 1918. A monograph on trembles or milksickness and white snakeroot. North Carolina Agri. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bul. 15. 74 pp. 57 A Abnormal leafflower .............................. .. 36 Acacia berlandieri .................................. .. 5 Aesculus glabra var. arguta .................. .. 6 Aesculus pavia .......................................... .. 6 African rue .............................................. .. 35 Agave lecheguilla .................................... _. 7 Agrostemma githago .............................. .. 54 Alfombrilla A 20 Algae, blue-green .............................. .. 51, 54 Alkaliweed 27 Alkaloid 5 Allium spp. 54 Aloysia lycioides ...................................... .. 8 Amanita spp. 54 Amaranth 8 Amaranthus spp. .................................... .. 8 American bittersweet ............................ .. 54 Aplopappus heterophyllus .................... ._ 27 Apocynum cannabinum ........................ .. 9 Argernone mexicana .............................. .. 54 Arisaema triphyllum .............................. .. 54 Asclepias latifolia .................................... .. 9 Asclepias subverticillata ........................ .. 10 Asclepias verticillata .............................. .. ll Astragalus emoryarzus ............................ .. 12 Astragalus mollissimus var. coryi ........ .. 13 Astragalus mollissimus var. earlei 13 Astragalus mollissimus var. mollissimus .................................. .. 14 Astragalus nuttallianus ........................ .. 12 Astragalus wootoni ................................ .. 15 B Bagpod sesbane ...................................... .. 42 Baileya multiradiata .............................. .. 16 Baptisia spp. 54 Batis maritima ........................................ .. 54 Beebrush 8 Berberis repens ........................................ .. 54 Berlandier lobelia .................................. .. 31 1' Berlandier nettlespurge ........................ .. 28 Bitter sneezeweed .................................... .. 24 Bitterweed 25 Blackbrush ' 24 Black locust 54 Black nightshade .................................... .. 44 Bloodroot 54 Blue-green algae ................................ .. 51, 54 Blue panicum ....................................... 34 Bois d’ arc 54 Bouncingbet ........................................... .. 54 Boxwood 54 Bracken fern ' 39_ Broad-leafed milkweed .......................... _. 9 Broom snakeweed .................................. .. 49 Broomweed ........................................ .. 48, 49 Buffalobur 44 Bunchflower 54 Buttercup 54 Buttonbush 18 Buxus spp. 54 C Cannabis sativa ........................................ .. 54 Carelessweed 8 Cassia occidentalis .................................. .. 17 Castorbean 40 Celastrus scandcns .................................. .. 54 Centaurium beyrichii ............................ .. 17 Centaurium calycosum .......................... .. 17 Centaury 17 Cephalanthus occidentalis .................... .. 18 Chenopodium spp. .................................. _. 54 Chinaberry 31 Chokecherry 38 Cicuta maculata ...................................... .. 18 Claviceps spp. .......................................... .. 50 Cocklebur 47 Coffeesenna 17 Colubrina texensis ................................ .. 18 Conium maculatum ................................ .. 19 Conyza coulteri ........................................ .. 19 Corncockle 54 Corydalis aurea ........................................ .. 19 Cotton 54 Coyotilla 29 Crazyweed 34 Creeping barberry .................................. .. 54 Crotalaria spp. ........................................ .. 54 Croton spp. 54 Cudweed paperflower ............................ .. 38 Cyanophyta genera ................................ .. 54 Cypripedium calceolus .......................... __ 54 D Darnel 54 Datum spp. 2O Deathcamas " 49 Delphinium virescens ............................ ,_ 20 Desert baileya .......................................... ._ 16 Dock 54 Dogbane 9 Doveweed 54 Drummond sesbane ................................ __ 42 Drymaria arenarioides __________________________ __ 20 Drymaria pavhyphylla .......................... .. 21 E Earle loco 13 Emory loco 12 English ivy 54 Equisetum spp. ....................................... .. 54 Ergot 50 Eu-patoriunz rugosum ............................ __ 22 Euphorbia spp. ........................................ .. 23 F False indigo 54 Festuca elatior ........................................ __ 54 Flourensia cernua .................................. __ 24 Frijolito 45 G Garbancillo 15 Gelsemium semperuirens ...................... .. 54 Glossy privot » 54 Glycoside 5 Goathead 47 Golden corydalis .................................... .. 19 Goldenrod .......................................... .. 51, 54 Goosefoot Gossypium herbaceum ........................ Grass staggers ........................................ ..L Grass tetany .......................................... Green oat tetanyg ................................. .. Ground cherrys 1.5. ................................... .. Guajillo . Gutierrezia microcephala ................ Gutierrezia sarothrae ......................... .. Gymnocladus dioica ............................ H Hairy caltrop ...................................... .. f’ Hardinggrass ........................................ .. f Hedera helix ................................... .. He-huckleberry ..................................... .. '_ Helenium amarum ............................. .. ; Helenium microcephalum ................ .. ‘ Helenium tenuiflorum ...................... .. f’ Hogplum Holly A Horsenettle .......................................... .. ’ Horsetail Horsetail milkweed ............................ ..f Hydrangea macrophylla .................. .. ‘ Hydrocyanic acid ................................ Hymenoxys odorata ....................... .. U Hymenoxys richardsonii ..................... . I Ilex spp. _ Indian hemp ......................................... Inkweed " Iris spp. y Isocoma wrightii ................................. ._ ‘5 J Jack-in-the-pulpit ............................. .. _ jatropha cathartica ....................... ._ i“ jatropha dioica ............................... .. jatropha spathulata .................. Jimmy fern ..................................... .. a Jimmyweed ......................................... .. ~ Jimsonweeds ...................................... .. a Johnsongrass ...................................... __ l" K Q Kallstroemia hirsutissima ................ .. j» Kallstroemia parviflora .................. .. Karwinskia humboldtiana .............. .. Kentucky coffee tree ........................ .. Kochia scoparia ................................ ., L Lactuca spp. ........................................ .. c: Lambert-loco ..................................... .. -j Lambsquarter .................................. .. A Lantana camara ............................... ..v Largeleaf lantana ............................ .. 1 Leatherstem ....................................... .. ' Lechuguilla ....................................... .. f Leucaena glauca .............................. ._ Ligustrum lucidum ......................... .. f Lobelia bcrlandieri .................... 3 Loco i INDEX ulentum .............................. .. 54 trina .................................... .. 54 M “mifera .................................. .. 54 '1 flltwort .................................. .. 54 ‘ 54 virginicum ........................ .. 54 rach ...................................... .. 31 ab“ __________________________________________ ._ s1 fficinalis ................................ .. 31 45 ~ s6 ckeye ------------------------------------ -- 6 54 laurel .................................... .. 45 pink ........................................ .. 17 k 54 i N i under .................................... .. 32 1311mm ------------------------------------ _- 82 ning ____________________________________ __ 51 .......................................... .. 32 '8 sinuata .................................... ._ 33 thcamas .................................. .. 49 O 39 32 ibilis .................................... ._ 54 = 54 1P)’ ------------------------------------------ -- 54 'ds .......................................... .. 5 ............................................ .. 54 llambertii ................................ .. s4 P tidotale ................................ .. 34 i“ niferum .............................. .. 54 38 < 12 armala .................................. .. 35 hoomweed ...................... .. 48, 49 erosa .................................... .. 54 inspp. .................................. .. 54 ‘Ly tion .................................. .. 52 '\_ abnormis ............................ ._ 36 4- ............................................ ._ 54 Fe americana ............................ .. 36 ' 5 26 8 54 54 - v, ‘ 54 _ _ ur ................... .................. .. 20 peltatum .......................... .. 54 a 34 Poison bean 42 Poison hemlock ........................................ .. 19 Poison ivy 54 Poison oak 54 Poison parsley ........................................ .. l9 Pokeweed 36 Prosopis glandulosa .............................. .. 36 Prunus spp. 38 Prussic acid .............................................. .. 50 Psilostrophe gnaphalodes ...................... .. 38 Psilostrophe tagetinae .......................... .. 38 Psoralea tenuiflora .................................. .. 54 Pteridium aquilinum var. pseudocaudatum ........................ .. 39 Puncturevine 47 Q Queensdelight .......................................... .. 46 Quercus spp. 39 R Ranunculus spp. .................................... .. 54 Rattleweed ................................................ .. 54 Rattle-weed loco .................................... .. 15 Rayless goldenrod .................................... .. 27 Red buckeye 6 Red-stemmed peavine ............................ .. 12 Rhododendron spp. ................................ .. 54 Rhus spp. 54 Richweed 22 Ricinus communis .................................. .. 40 Riddell groundsel .................................. .. 41 Robina pseudo-acacia ............................ .. 54 Rumex spp. 54 S Sacahuista 32 Salvia coccinea ........................................ .. 54 Sanguinaria canadensis .......................... .. 54 Saponaria officinalis .............................. .. 54 Sartwellia flaveriae .................................. .. 54 Scouring-rush .......................................... .. 54 Scurfpea 54 Senecio longilobus .................................. .- 40 Senecio spartioides .................................. .. 41 Sensitivefern 54 Sesbane 42 Sesbania drummondii ............................ .. 42 Sesbania vesicaria .................................. .. 42 Shinnery 39 Shin oak 39 Silky sophora 46 Silverleaf nightshade .............................. _. 43 Slinkweed 48, 49 Smallhead sneezeweed ............................ .. 25 Snakeweed 49 Solanum carolinense .............................. .. 43 Solanurn elaeagnifolium ........................ ._ 43 Solanum nigrum ...................................... .. 44 Solanum rostratum ................................ .. 44 Solidago spp. 54 Sophora secundiflora .............................. .. 45 Sophora sericea ........................................ .. 46 Sorghum almum ...................................... .. 46 Sorghum halepense ................................ .. 46 Sorghum vulgare .................................... .. 46 Spigelia marylandica .............................. .. 54 Spotted waterhemlock ............................ .. 18 Spurges y 23 Stillingia treculiana ................................ .. 46 Stypicweed 17 Sudangrass 50 Summercypress ........................................ .. 30 Sweetclovers 31 T Tall fescue 54 Tarbush 24 Texas buckeye .......................................... .. 6 Thickleaf drymary .................................. .. 21 Thornapples 20 Threadleaf broomweed ........................ .. 48 Threadleaf groundsel ............................ .. 40 Treadsalve 43 Trecul queensdelight ............................ .. 46 Tree tobacco ............................................ .. 32 Tribulus terrestris .................................. .. 47 Tropical sage 54 Turpentineweed ................................ .. 48, 49 W Warty caltrop .......................................... .. 28 Wheat pasture poisoning ...................... .. 52 Whitebrush 8 White popinac ........................................ .. 54 White snakeroot ...................................... .. 22 White sweetclover .................................. .. 31 Whorled milkweed .................................. .. ll Wild cherry 38 Wild lettuce 54 WVild plum 38 Woolly groundsel .................................... .. 40 Woolly loco 14 Woolly paperflower ................................ .. 38 X Xanthium spp. ........................................ .. 47 Xanthocephalum microcephalum ...... .. 48 Xanthocephalum sarothrae .................. .. 49 Y Yellow-flowered loco .............................. .. l3 Yellow jasmine ........................................ .. 54 Yellow ladyslipper .................................. .. 54 Yellow poppy .......................................... .. 54 Yellow sweetclover .................................. .. 31 Z Zygadenus nuttallii ................................ .. 49 Tcxm Agricultural Expcritncnt Station, R. E. Patterson, Dirt-run", (Tollcgt- Station, 1 0x11’; ’lfl.\i—l2~li4