iMtWl® mmw Iw mm '■mmmmmmm Vi WM flii ■ %mm Ml Mate 11W, v«i?;a ' ’ t •++*** ii l \ . H i V 1 mmttmThe Gift of Beatrix Farrand to the General Library University of California, B erkeley Ex Libris BEATRIX JONES irANDseAPH ARCHITECTURE REEF POINT GARDENS LIBRARY911/O L yj- x , t* ill?THE GARDENER’S ASSISTANT: PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC. fV vSSi /* ' - $ ■*-' m r& *& t l lit * l?l.A< K1I‘. \ ^'"N NIji‘N. I'l.A- G('W. ll'lNlUiKiiH 1 L IT'IIN ✓ THE PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC. A GUIDE TO THE FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT OF THE KITCHEN, FRUIT, AND FLOWER GARDENS, AND THE CULTIVATION OF CONSERVATOR! GREENHOUSE, AND STOVE PLANTS; WITH A COPIOUS CALENDAR OF GARDENING OPERATIONS, AND SELECT LISTS OF PLANTS, FRUITS, AND VEGETABLES. ' BY ROBERT ^THOMPSON, OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY’S GARDENS, CHISWICK; CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE MASSACHUSETTS HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY, AND OF THE ROYAL COMMISSION OF POMOLOGY OF BELGIUM. NEW EDITION, REVISED AND EXTENDED, BY THOMAS MOORE, F.L.S., CURATOR OF THE CHELSEA BOTANIC GARDEN, CO-EDITOR OF THE “ GARDENERS* CHRONICLE,’’ AND EDITOR OF THE “FLORIST AND POMOLOGIST.” ASSISTED BY EMINENT PRACTICAL GARDENERS. ILLUSTRATED BY NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS AND COLOURED PLATES. BLACKIE LONDON, GLASGOW, & SON, Limited, EDINBURGH, AND DUBLIN. 1890.Add to Lib# LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURERARE Ts I&90 PREFACE. LANDSCAPE ARCH. LIBRARY The object of this Work, as set forth by the Author in the preface to the original edition, was to describe fully and the principal Operations which have to be performed in order to insure suopSfi^tn the management of a garden, and to point out how to fill it to the best advantage. In other timing,“to show what w and to plant amongst the many sdfejeete How claiming attention; and ffi&jfow to make the theory and practice of the gardener’s art blend together HO asd^f- yield the best results. The Editor of this new and revised edition has kept the sameobgeolS wfc»Quly before him. In those matters which related© the science of Gardening, and tOwl practical operations of the Vegetable land Fruit Gardens-“-subjects which had been fully treated by the Author himself, and which, before his death, fee had in part revised—no further alterations feave been made than those ttsftdered necessary by the lapse of time, and then* chiefly affecting the selections of Vegetables and of Fruit, though as the varieties of the latter Are of a more permanent character than those of the EscuIcBb, they were found fee be leas affected by tire introduction of meritorious novelties, and ©onflOquently required less change.' It fef in the section demoted to the Flo w$jf Garden, which had! befell unduly compressed rfor want of space in the original edition, that the greatest change lias been made; and in this division of the Work the aubjnH^M now treated with the fulness which'its importance requires. Whffll Mr. Thompson’s name and reputation Were sufficient to gafl weight and authority to his teachings in respect to the Fruit Garden, the’jGtchsffl Garden, and the Forcing Garden, as well as to his comprehensive summary of the principles of gardening,-tand of the collateral topics each as soils, manures, &c., the Editor refers to the names*trf the several writers who have contribut^I*M 'the Flower Garden department, with confidence that that section will now be found to be as amply, as judiciously and reliably treated as the rest of the Work. The quantity of new matter in this edition amounts t*Ooting Nursery. Succulents have been treated on by Mr. J. Gwmcherjlpi^x), gardener at Sudbury Hoj^jc, Hammersmith, who has charge of one of the best existing Ipollections of these singular plants. The principles upon which Conservatories should be designed and erected with a view to their cultural requirements, and the manner in which they should be planted, have been lucidly set forth by Mr. G. Westland (g. w.), gardener at Witley Court, Stourport; and some valuable practicajj directions on the important subject of Flower-forcing are supplied by Mr. G. Baker (a b.), of Coombe, Surrey. Finally, the tasteful subjects of Bouquet-making and Table Decoration, and indeed of Floral Decorations gene rail h ave been taken up by Mr. W. Thomson (w. T.), of the City of London Club, who is an acknowledged authority on these matters. The additional figures of Noxious Insects, forming Plates xxxi. and xxxn., have been drawn under the direction of, and the descriptive notes on them have been prepared by Mr. Andrew Murray (a. m,), of Bedford Gardens, Kensington, who has made this department of entomology a special study. All other bracketed passages are either editorial, or indicate where some of the author’s original observations have been retained in chapters which have received amplification from other hands. London, September, 1877.CONTENTS Descriptive Notes on the Plates, . Calendar of Garden Operations— Preliminary Remarks, January, ..... February, ...... March, ............... April,..................... May...................... June, ...... July,.................... August, ...... September, ..... October, ...... November, ..... December,...... CHAPTER I. The Principal Organs of Plants:— Sect. I.—Elementary Organs—Organizable Matter—The Cellular Membrane—Kinds of Vegetable Tissue:.—Cellular—Fibrous— V ascular—Laticiferous — Spiral, Annular and Dotted Vessels—The Epidermis, . 1 Sect. II.—The Root—Its various Forms, . 4 Sect. III.—The Stem—Three Principal Sorts: Exogenous Stems—Endogenous Stems— Acrogenous Stems, ..... 5 Sect. I V.—Buds, ..... 8 Sect. V.—Leaves—Parts of a Leaf—The Petiole—The Blade—Forms of Leaves— Simple and Compound Leaves—Stipules— Functions of I .eaves, .... 8 Sect. VI.—The Flower—Parts of a Flower— The Calyx, Corolla, Stamens, Pistil—Hermaphrodite, Male, and Female Flowers-r— Monoecious and Dioecious Flowers, . . 10 Sect. VII.—The Fruit—Parts of a Fruit— Pericarp, Epicarp, Sarcocarp, and Endocarp —The Seed, Testa, Albumen, and Embryo, 11 CHAPTER II. Germination:— Circumstances essential to Germination—Moisture, Air, and Heat — Chemical Changes which take place in Germination, . . 12 CHAPTER III. The Food of Plants:— Chemical Elements composing Plants and PAGE serving for theirNourishment—Tables showing the Composition of the Ashes of Plants, 15 CHAPTER IV. Assimilation of Plant Food:— Mode of Absorption: Endosmose and Exosmose—Ascent of the Sap—Changes which the Sap undergoes—Descent of the Sap, . 22 CHAPTER V. Soils, their Constitution and Formation:— Sect. I.—Classification of Soils—-Argillaceous, Loamy, Sandy Loams, Loamy Sands, Sandy, Marly, Calcareous, Humus Soils or Vegetable Moulds—Analyses of Fertile and Infertile Vegetable Moulds, ... 26 Sect. II.-—On Determining the Nature of Soils, 34 Sect. III.—Subsoil, ..... 39 Sect. IV.—Improvement of Soils—Various Methods, ....... 40 CHAPTER VI. Manures :— Sect. I.—Organic Manures—Properties of various Vegetable and Animal Substances, 44 Sect. II.—Inorganic Manures—Various Descriptions*—Properties of Coal, Peat, and Wood Ashes—Charcoal—Gas Waste—Lime —Chalk—Soda—Kelp, &c., ... 54 CHAPTER VII. Tools, Instruments, Machines, &c., used in Gardens:— Sect. I.—Tools—Spades, Picks, Rakes, Shovels, Hoes, &c., ...... 64 Sect. II.—Cutting Instruments, ... 69 Sect. III.— Instruments used in Laying-out Ground Lines, . . . . . 74 Sect. IV.—Machines—Barrows, Fumigators, Mowing Machines, Syringes, Watering Engines, &c., . . . . . .78 Sect. V.—Utensils—Pots, Plant Boxes, Baskets, &c., . . . . ... 82 Sect. VI. — Meteorological Instruments — Thermometers, Hygrometers, Barometers, Rain Gauges, Vanes, .... 87 Sect. VII.—Miscellaneous Articles, . . 97 PAGE 13 li vii xi xv xix xxiii xxvi XXX xxxiv xxxviii xlii ad vii10 CONTENTS. CHAPTER VIII. PAGE Formation of the Fruit and Kitchen Garden:— Sect. I.—Situation,.....................100 Sect. II.—Soil,.........................101 Sect. III.—Form, Aspect, and Extent, . 103 Sect. IV.—Shelter,......................108 CHAPTER IX. Formation of the Fruit and Kitchen Garden:— Continued, Sect, ij—Levelling the Ground, . . .110 Sect. II. — Draining — Principles regulating the Operation of Draining—-Draining Tools — Various kinds of Drains—Open and Covered Drains—Different forms of Covered Drains—Stone and Tile Drains—Depth of Drains— Distance at which they should be asunder—Direction of Drains, . . 117 Sect. III.—Borders for Fruit-trees—Width of Fruit-tree Borders—Depth of Fruit-tree Borders—General Remarks on their Form- ation and Management, . . . .128 Sect. IV.—Soil for Fruit-tree Borders, . 135 Sect. V.—Preparation of the Ground, . . 138 Sect. VI.—Laying-out and Formation of Walks,...............................140 CHAPTER X. Cultivation of Kitchen-garden Plants:— Description of the various Plants and Vegetables, their modes of Cultivation, with Lists of Varieties—Insects and Diseases affecting Kitchen-garden Plants, . . . . . 144 CHAPTER XI. Cropping the Kitchen Garden:— Succession of Crops—Quantities of Seed required—English,French, and GermanNames of Culinary Vegetables, arranged alphabetically, ....... 281 CHAPTER XII. Propagation :— Sect. I.—Propagation by Seed—Perfection and Maturity of Seeds—Preserving Seeds —Time of Sowing—Preparation of Seeds for Sowing—Modes of Sowing—Experiments on the Vegetation of Seeds, . 288 Sect. II.—Propagation by Bulbs, Corms, and Tubers, ....... 291 Sect. III.—Propagation by Division, . 291 Sect. IV.—Propagation by Runners, . . 292 Sect. V. — Propagation by Suckers—Root Suckers and Stem Suckers, . . . 292 Sect. VI. — Propagation by Layers — Its Various Modes, ...... 293 Sect. VII.—Propagation by Cuttings—Selection of Cuttings—Time of taking off Cuttings—Preparation of Cuttings—Substances PAGE in which Cuttings are struck—Insertion of Cuttings—Temperature—Moisture—Light —Bell-glasses—Pots, .... 297 Sect. VIII.—Propagation by Leaves, . . 303 Sect. IX.—Propagation by Roots, . . 303 Sect. X.— Propagation by Grafting—Modes of Grafting — Whip, Splice or Tongue, Saddle, Cleft, Crown or Rind, Side, Herbaceous, and Root Grafting—Grafting-clay —Grafting-wax, . . . . .304 Sect. XI.—Propagation by Budding—Shield or T, Inverted T, Square Shield, Flute, Ring, and American Shield Budding, . 313 Sect. XII.—Propagation by Inarching, . 316 CHAPTER XIII. Transplanting :— Age and Time for Transplanting—Preparation "of the Ground—Directions for Conducting the Operation—Transplanting Trees and Shrubs of Large Size—Machines used in Transplanting, . . . . . .317 CHAPTER XIV. Pruning:— General Effects and Principal Objects of Pruning—Production of Straight and Knee’d Timber—Proper Time for Pruning—Modes of Operating—Evils of Unskilful Pruning — Pruning Forest Trees and Evergreens— Ringing—Root-pruning, .... 330 CHAPTER XV. Training :— Objects and Principles of Training—Principal Modes Described and Illustrated—Fan, Horizontal, Oblique, Upright, Wavy or Curvilinear, Seymour’s, Horizontal with Double Stem, Fan and Horizontal Combined, Stellate F an, Chandelier, Single-stem, Pendulous, Pyramid, Balloon, Vase Training, &e., . 340 CHAPTER XVI. Cultivation of Fruits, with Classified Descriptive Lists of the Principal Varieties, Methods of Propagation, Soil and Situation, Planting, Pruning, Training, Gathering, Diseases and Insects, &c.:— Apple..................................350 Pear,..................................384 Quince,................................416 Medlar,................................418 CHAPTER XVII. Cultivation of Fruits, &c.—Continued. Plum, . 419 Cherry, 427 Apricot . 434 Peach and Nectarine, 439 Almond, . 458CONTENTS. 11 CHAPTER XVIII. PAGE Cultivation of Fruits, &c.—Continued. Gooseberry, . 459 Currants, ....... 465 Raspberry, ..... . 468 Strawberry, ...... 471 Elder, . 477 Mulberry, . 477 Cranberry, ...... . 479 Bilberry or Blaeberry, . . . . 479 Berberry, ...... . 479 Bramble 480 CHAPTER XIX. Cultivation op Fruits, &c.—Continued. Nut, 480 Walnut, . 483 Sweet or Spanish Chestnut, . 486 CHAPTER XX. The Orchard-house:— Form of House—Heated or not Heated—Pot Trees—Planted-out Trees—General Treatment—Insects, .....................486 CHAPTER XXI. Garden Structures:— Sect. I.—Walls—Colour—Height—Thickness — F oundations—Solidity ■— Construction— Hollow and Concrete Walls—Copings— Flued Walls, ...... 489 Sect. II.—Structures for the Growth of Plants —Angle of Elevation—Principal Forms of Plant Structures—Lean-to Roofed—Span Roofed — Unequal Span Roofed — Ridge-and-furrow Roofed—Curvilinear Roofed— Frames — Pits—Protecting Pits—Cucumber, Melon, and Pine Pits—Propagating Pits — Vineries—Peach - houses — Cherry-houses—Fig - houses—Strawberry - houses—-Greenhouses and Conservatories—Orangery —Stoves—Wall-frames—Glass-walls, . 494 Sect. III.—Heating—By Flue System—By Hot-water — Furnaces— Boilers — Pipes— Lime - kiln System—High - pressure Hot-water Apparatus—The Tank System—By Steam-—By Hot-air Stoves—By Gas, . 516 Sect. IV,—Miscellaneous Structures—Fruit-room—Ice-house, ..... 531 CHAPTER XXII. Forcing:— Sect. I.—Vegetable FoRCiNGHDirections for Forcing the various descriptions of Vegetables, alphabetically arranged, . . 535 Sect. II.—Fruit Forcing — Directions for Forcing the various sorts of Fruit, alphabetically arranged, ..... 559 CHAPTER XXIII. PAGE Flower-garden and Pleasure-grounds:— Sect, u—Flower-garden — Extent, Aspect, Preparation of the Ground, Drainage, &c. — Water — Style — Formation of Beds— Planting — Reserve Garden — Subtropical Garden—Hardy Perennial Garden—Rock- work—Decorations, .... 608 Sect. II.—Pleasure-grounds—Approach Road — Walks — Shrubberies — Rose - garden — American-garden—Decorations, . . . 621 Sect. III.—Lawns, Bowling-greens, &c., . 628 Sect. IV.—Ornamental Water, . . . 633 CHAPTER XXIV. Hardy Arboreal and Shrubby Plants, with Classified and Descriptive Lists:— Sect. I.—Miscellaneous Trees and Shrubs — Hardy Deciduous Trees—Hardy Evergreen Trees—Hardy Deciduous Shrubs—Hardy Evergreen Shrubs, . . . . .634 Sect. II.—Hardy Woody Climbers, &c., . 659 Sect. III.—Hardy Conifers, .... 663 Sect. IV.—The American Garden, . . 668 Sect. V.—The Rose-garden, Summer and Autumnal Roses, . . . . . 675 CHAPTER XXV. Hardy Herbaceous Plants, with Classified and Descriptive Lists:— Sect. I,—Herbaceous Perennials—Formation of Herbaceous Border, . . . . 688 Sect. II.—Hardy Alpine or Rock Plants, . 705 Sect. III.—Bulbs and Tuberous-rooted Plants, 714 Sect. IV.—Hardy Aquatics, . . . 718 Sect. V.—-Hardy and Half-hardy Annuals and Biennials, . . . . . .721 Sect. VI.-—Hardy Ferns, . . . . 731 CHAPTER XXVI. Hardy Popular and Florists’ Flowers, with Selections of Choice Varieties:— Sect. I.—Fibrous-rooted Plants, alphabetically arranged, as Auriculas, Carnations, Chrysanthemums, Delphiniums, Pentstemons, Sweet-williams, &c., . . . . .737 Sect. II.— Bulbous and Tuberous - rooted Plants, alphabetically arranged, as Anemones, Dahlias, Gladioli, Hyacinths, Tulips, &c.,...............................761 CHAPTER XXVII. Bedding and Subtropical Plants, with Classified and Descriptive Lists:— Sect. I.—Spring and Summer Bedding, . 777 Sect. II.—Subtropical Gardening, . .783 Sect. III.—Carpet Bidding, or Mosaiculture, 79012 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXVIII. PAGE Sea-side and Town Plants, with Classified and Descriptive Lists■ Sect, t—Sea-side Plants, . . . .795 Sect. II.—Trees and Shrubs for Exposed Inland Situations, . . . . . 799 Sect. III.—Trees for Chalk Soils, . 800 Sect. IV.—-Trees for Towns, . . . 802 Sect. V.—Window-gardening, . . . 804 CHAPTER XXIX. Conservatory and Greenhouse Plants, with Classified and Descriptive Lists:— Sect. I.—The Conservatory—Construction— Management, Arrangement and Selection of Plants, ...... Sect. II.—The Greenhouse—Construction— Arrangement and Detailed Management, . Sect. III.—Select Greenhouse Plants, as Camellias, Cape Heaths, Indian Azaleas, Pelargoniums, Oranges, Cinerarias, Cyclamens, &c. — Hard - wooded Greenhouse Plants—Greenhouse Climbers—Ornamental leaved Greenhouse Plants — Soft - wooded Greenhouse Plants, .... Sect. IV.—Succulent Plants, Sect. V.—Greenhouse Ferns, CHAPTER XXX. The Stove and Forcing House:— Sect. I.—The Plant Stove —Construction and Heating — Selection and Treatment of Plants—Achiinenes, Gloxinias, Poinsettias, Eucharis, Begonias, Bouvardias, Hippeas-trums, Caladiums, Dracaenas—Miscellaneous Stove Plants — Ornamental - leaved Stove Plants—General Culture of Stove Plants, . Sect. II.—Tropical Orchids—Management of the Orchid House—Selection of the best Orchids for General Cultivation, with Descriptions, ...... Sect. III.—Stove Ferns—Selection of the best Ferns for General Cultivation— Management, ...... Sect. IV.—Ornamental Palms—Selection of those best suited for General Cultivation— Pinnate-leaved Palms — Palmate or Fanleaved Palms, ..... Sect. V.—Forcing-house for Flowers—Preparation of the Plants, &c.—Selection and Treatment of the most suitable Flowers, . CHAPTER XXXI. Floral Decorations :— Sect. I.—Preparation of Flowers:—Cutting and Selection—Gum and Gumming—Wires and Wiring, ...... Sect. II.—Personal Decorations:—Bouquets— Bouquet-holders—Coat-flowers and Buttonhole Bouquets—Floral Head-dresses,. Sect. III.—Domestic Decorations:—Forms of Vasqs—Arrangement of Flowers in Vases —Arrangement of Fruit in Dishes—Arrangement of Fruit and Flowers in one Vase—Decoration of Dinner-tables, . INDEX,................................ 809 813 820 854 857 PAG8 864 886 893 904 913 918 921 924 929DESCRIPTIVE NOTES ON THE PLATES. Plate I. H. P. ROSE STAR OF WALTHAM. Ord. Rosacese. One of the finest of English-raised varieties of the Hybrid Perpetual group, sent out in 1875; large and richly-coloured, and vigorous in constitution. Mr. W. Paul, by whom it was raised, describes it as a “deep crimson, very rich and effective; a magnificent flower of immense size, very double, and for form, substance, and smoothness of petal unequalled,” and we do not regard this description as at all exaggerated. Plate II. CHOICE HARDY LILIES. Fig. 1, Lilium pardalinum. Ord. Liliacece. A Northwest American species, with beautiful orange-coloured flowers spotted irregularly with crimson, and borne freely on tall branching stems, during the months of July and August. Both this and the following are of recent introduction. Fig. 2. Lilium Leichtlinii. Ord. Liliaceoe. A fine Japanese lily, with yellow flowers, spotted all over with reddish-brown oblong dots, and produced on rather slender stems, clothed with alternate linear-lanceolate leaves. It is a summer-blooming plant. Plate III. CYCLAMEN PERSICUM (varieties). Ord. Primulacese. The plate represents a group of very fine varieties of this now popular flower, from the unequalled collection of Henry Little, Esq., of Hillingdon. These varieties give a very fail* illustration of the great advance in size and quality, as well as in richness and diversity of colour, which has been brought about in the cyclamen by a few metropolitan cultivators within the last few years. Plate IY. LAPAGERIA (varieties). Fig. 1. Lapageria rosea. Fig. 2. Lapageria rosea albiflora. Ord. Philesiacese. Two of the most beautiful and charming of cool greenhouse evergreen climbers. They are natives of Chili, and very nearly hardy in this country. They require a deep peaty soil, moist and cool but not stagnant, and bloom for a long time in succession, the plants being especially adapted for training on the pillars and roof of a cool conservatory or glazed corridor. There are many seedling forms of L. rosea differing in the richness of the colouring and marking of the flowers. L. rosea albifiora is one of the most chaste and vrax-like of natural flowers. They require to get wall established, and the young stems need to be carefully protected against snails and slugs. Plate Y. ANTHURIUM SCHERZERIANUM. Ord. Orontiacese. One of the best and most highly ornamental stove plants of recent introduction. It is a native of Costa Rica, and was introduced in 1862. The long-stalked lanceolate - oblong leaves are leathery in texture; and the orange scarlet spathe—which is the more showy part of the plant—is broad oblong or ovate and fleshy, while the spadix is thin and vermiform. The long-stalked bright-coloured spathes have gained for this orontiad the popular name of Flamingo plant. Plate VI. ODONTOGLOSSUM ALEXANDRA. Ord. Orchidaceae. Our figure represents a very finely spotted variety of this highly decorative species (which is also called 0. crispum) from the collection of Baron Rothschild. Thousands of this choice orchid are cultivated for decorative uses, and amongst them the variety is almost infinite, scarcely two being alike in every particular. They vary in the ground-colour, which is iwhiffl or flushed with rose; in the spotting, vThich is scanty or crowded, and of different forms and hues; and in the outline of the lip, which is more or less deeply fringed; but all the forms are handsome and exceedingly effective. Plate VII. COOL-STOVE RHODODENDRONS. Fig. 1. Rhododendron Princess Royal. Ord. Ericaceae. One of the earlier hybrids obtained by crossing the white R. jasmiaijlorum with an unnamed scarlet species. These hybrids are most valuable plants for decorative purposes, and require only the heat of an intermediate house, in which they grow on successionally and furnish an abundance of flowers at various seasons. The rosy-pink flowers are wax-like in texture, and especially valuable for cutting. Fig. 2. Rhododendron Princess Alexandra. Ord. Ericaceae. This is another of the same class of hybrids, equally free-blooming with the last, and equally ornamental, but the flowers are white instead of pink. They were raised by Messrs. Veitch & Sons, who have gone on with further crosses, and have now a considerable number of varieties with flowers somewhat larger, and of many distinct colours, as scarlet, crimson, yellow, deep rose, fawn-colour, and buff, all likely to be valuable plants for decorative purposes. Plate YIII. CLEMATIS PATENS var. STELLA. Ord. Ranunculacese. This is one of the early-flowering varieties of clematis belonging to the race which hasn DESCRIPTIVE NOTES ON THE PLATES. sprung from C. patens, and which are exceedingly ornamental plants for flowering about April and May under glass. They are hardy and free-growing, but blooming thus early they are better adapted for decorating cool corridors, or for conservatory ornamentation, than for planting out doors. They may be grown as large pot plants, or planted out and trained over the pillars and roof of the conservatory. They require that the summer shoots should be encouraged to grow to their full extent, and "be well ripened, to secure a full display of flowers. C. Stella was raised by Mr. 6. Jackman, to whom cultivators are indebted for the splendid autumn-blooming C. Jaekmanni. Plate IX. EXAMPLES OF CARPET BEDDING. Upper jig. Circular bed as planted in Victoria Park, London, in 1875. Lower jig. Portion of border as planted in Victoria Park, London, in 1S75. In Plates 9 to 12 the names of the plants made use of in filling the designs will be found in the legend printed below each figure. Plate X. EXAMPLES OF CARPET BEDDING. Upper jig. Circular bed as planted in Victoria Park, London, in 1875. Lower jig. Design for border. Plate XI. EXAMPLES OF CARPET BEDDING. Upper jig. Circular bed as planted in Hyde Park, London, in 1875, modified. Lower jig. Design for a panel or rectangular bed. Plate XII. EXAMPLES OF CARPET BEDDING. Butterfly design supported on each side by a rectilinear or panel bed as planted in the gardens of the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, in 1875. Plate XIII. HARDY EVERGREEN TREES. Left-hand fig. Pinus excelsa. The Bhotan pine. Ord. Conifer®. A grand Indian tree, remarkable for its plumy branches and its bluish-green colour. It grows to a height of 60-150 feet, and is perfectly hardy in this country, and a rapid grower, forming a handsome slender tree. Right-hand fig. Picea Nordmanniana. Nordmann’s silver fir. Ord. Conifene. One of the finest and hardiest of the silver firs. A native of the Crimea and other countries bordering on the Black Sea, and now abundant in this country. It grows 80-100 feet high, and is very regular and symmetrical in outline, the branches clothed with dark glossy green leaves, silvery beneath. Plate XIV. HARDY EVERGREEN TREES. Left-hand fig. Libocedrus decurrens. Ord. Conifer®. This fine evergreen belongs to the arbor vit® group, and is very distinct in habit and aspect. It forms a dense mass of columnar outline, consisting of deep green flattened branchlets made up of scale-like leaves. It has long borne in nurseries the erroneous name of Thuja gigantea. In the mountains of northern California it grows 50-110 feet high. Right-hand fig. Thuja Lobbii. Ord. Conifer®. This is the true Thuja gigantea, a fine arbor vit®, of more open habit than the Libocedrus, and the branches more fern-like in outline. They also consist of flattened branchlets composed of scale-like leaves, and are of a fine deep green colour. The tree ultimately attains 50-150 feet in height. It comes from the north-west coast of America and California. Plate XV. HARDY FLOWERING PLANTS. Left-hand fig. Yucca recurvifolia. Ord. Liliace®. This North American species is one of the most ornamental of the yuccas. In the younger stages of growth the tips of the outer leaves are very gracefully recurved, and when it reaches a flowering age its noble panicle of showy creamy-white flowers, reaching to 6 or 8 feet high, is very effective. Right-hand fig. Gynerium ARGENTEUM. Ord. Grami-nace®. The Pampas grass, one of the most noble of the hardy members of its race. It forms a magnificent tussock of arching leaves, and towards autumn is crowned by a profusion of feathery floral panicles, which are erect and silvery white in the female plants, and drooping and of a reddish-purple tinge in the male plants. In either state it is remarkably ornamental; but it should have good deep soil in order to give it vigour to throw its plumy inflorescence well above the foliage. Plate XVI. SUBTROPICAL-GARDEN PLANTS. Left-hand fig. Montagnaa heracleifolia. Ord. Composit®. This Mexican plant, which is also known as Polymnia grandis, is one of the noblest of the subjects introduced into the subtropical garden. It is of erect dignified habit, and shows off to the best advantage when confined to a single stem, developed from a young plant put out in the early summer. The opposite elegantly-lobed leaves are often 2 to 3 feet long, and when seen in luxuriant growth it is very effective. Right-hand fig. Ferdinanda eminens. Ord. Composit®. A plant of remarkably noble habit, introduced from Mexico, and like the last seen to best advantage when planted out young, and induced to grow luxuriantly. It then reaches 10 to 12 feet high, and is thickly furnished with its opposite broad angularly-lobed leaves. Plate XVII. SUBTROPICAL-GARDEN PLANTS. Left-hand fig. Wigandia caracasana. Ord. Hydro-phyllace®. A magnificent plant long since introduced from South America, and formerly grown in the hothouse. It is, however, found that young plants turned out in well-enriched soil about the beginning of June grow away with remarkable rigour, and their broad ample bluntly oblong rugose dark green leaves tier above tier, produce a noble appearance in the garden.DESCRIPTIVE NOTES ON THE PLATES. 15 Right-hand fig. Solanum robustum. Ord. Solanaceae. A very effective plant, introduced from Brazil, and chiefly remarkable for the rust-coloured down on all its younger surfaces. The plant should be confined to a single stem, planted out in the early summer, and induced to grow freely, when it produces broad oval-elliptic angularly-lobed leaves, the rich brown colour of which, derived from the numerous rusty hairs, is very effective. The stem, midrib, and principal veins are provided with prominent sharp spines. Plate XVIII. SUBTROPICAL-GARDEN PLANTS. Left-hand fig. Ficus Chauvieri. Ord. Moracese. A noble evergreen species, with the general aspect of F. eladka. Its oval obtuse leaves are of a dark glossy green, more or less undulated at the edge, and with the principal veins pale yellow. Right-hand fig. B ambus a aurea. Ord. Graminacese. A noble hardy species of bamboo introduced from China. It grows 8 to 10 feet high, and the lance-shaped leaves are of a light green colour changing to a yellowish hue when fully grown: hence the name of golden bamboo. Plate XIX. SUBTROPICAL-GARDEN PLANTS. Left-hand fig. P and anus utilis. Ord. Pandanaceee. This is one of the larger-growing of the screw pines, and when of considerable size is an effective plant for plunging out in sheltered parts of the garden in summer. Its spiny-edged leaves are set on in a spiral fashion, which gives rise to the name of screw pine. It comes from Madagascar. Right-hand fig. Alsophila australis. Ord. Filices. This is one of the fine tree-ferns of Australia, thoroughly -established and freely-developed plants of which are well adapted for sheltered shady nooks, where their much-divided fronds produce a very elegant effect. The plants should be grown in large pots or tubs, and plunged in the open air during the summer season. Plate XX. SUBTROPICAL-GARDEN PALMS. Left-hand fig. Livistona chinensis. Ord. Palmse. This fine fan-leaved palm is better known under the false name of L^atania borbonica. It is a bold hardy free-growing plant, with leaves 5 feet or more in width, on long spiny-edged stalks, the narrow marginal leaf-segments gracefully drooping. It is suitable for plunging out-doors in summer. Right-hand fig. Thrinax RADIata. Ord. Palmse. A fan-leaved palm of a more slender and elegant habit than the LAvistona, and adapted for plunging out in sheltered nooks adapted to its size. Plate XXI. SUBTROPICAL-GARDEN PALMS. Left-hand fig. Attalea speciosa. Ord. Palmas. This is an erect-leaved pinnate palm from Brazil, and may be plunged out during summer with very good effect in suitable positions, especially when placed in contrast with plants of the fan-leaved species. Right-hand fig. Calamus Imperatrice Marie. Ord. Palmae. A very elegant pinnate-leaved palm, but differing from that already noticed by its recurved or drooping leaves and its spiny leaf-stalks. All plants of this character require to be grown and well established in pots or tubs, when they may safely be plunged out for effect during the warmer part of the summer. Plate XXII. SUBTROPICAL-GARDEN PLANTS. Left-hand fig. Cycas circinalis. Ord. Cycadacese. The cycads are bold palm-like plants, which, when of sufficient age, have stout erect stems, and a bold head of pinnate leaves remarkable for the thick leathery texture of their segments. They are fine subjects for the con-I servatory, and may with advantage be plunged out during summer in the subtropical garden, to which they help to impart an exotic character. Right-hand fig. Tornelia fragrans—syn. Monstera delidosa. Ord. Orontiacese. A Mexican plant of bold and remarkable aspect, which, though thriving best in a hot-house, yet stands well in warm sheltered situations in the open garden during summer. It has a stout climbing rooting stem, and very large bluntly-ovate leaves cut in from the edge and marked by a series of apertures or perforations near the midrib. The thick boat-like spathe is very peculiar, and is succeeded by an oblong compound fruit of delicious flavour. Plate XXIII. GREENHOUSE AGAVES. Fig. 1. Agave Richardsii. Ord. Amaryllidacese. A small-growing species introduced from Mexico, of ornamental character, and forming an almost globose mass of terete grayish-green firm-textured leaves standing out porcupine-like in all directions, and each terminated by a sharp black spine. It is a veiy neat and pretty plant of its class. Fig. 2. Agave Bessereriana. Ord. Amaryllidacese. This is also a comparatively small-growing species, introduced from Mexico, and forming a close rosette of grayish-green leaves flattened on the upper side and roundish below, the margin furnished with scattered small dark brown spines, and the tips furnished with a long stout spine of the same colour. Their peculiar features will be best understood by the illustrations. Plate XXIV. STOVE FLOWERING PLANTS. Left-hand fig. Imantophyllum miniatum. Ord. Amaryllidacese. One of the finest of cool stove flowering plants, and especially attractive when grown on into a mass producing numerous heads of flowers. The leaves are ligulate and bluntish, and the rich orange-red or flame-coloured flowers form dense umbels supported on stoutish flattened stems. It is a Caffrarian plant. Right-hand fig. Vallota purpurea. Ord. Amaryllidacese. A very ornamental bulbous plant from the Cape of Good Hope. It produces scarlet flowers of a remarkably showy character, the flowering scape growing up from the crown of the bulb before the leaves are developed. The plants, though requiring rest, should not be wholly dried off at the root at any season.16 DESCRIPTIVE NOTES ON THE PLATES. Plate XXV. HORTICULTURAL BUILDINGS. Fig. 1. Interior of a span-roofed vinery erected for J. Firth, Esq., at Heckmondwike, Yorkshire, who has since gained great renown for his grape-growing, by Messrs. J. Weeks & Co., Chelsea. The same form of house has also been erected at several other places. The building has a pathway down the centre, and a door at each end. Besides this, its chief features are its low side sashes, its I roof, which is unusually high pitched so as to gain greater length of rafter, and its system of ventilation, which is very perfect. The air is admitted into the building by means of a series of ventilators, a a a, under the side sashes. In the view, in order to admit of the ventilators being seen, the hot-water pipes bbb are shown as if they rested on the ground, but in reality they are on the same level as the ventilators, so that the fresh air as it enters has to pass over and between the pipes, and is thus warmed before diffusing itself over the building. Not only is the air wanned in this manner, but it is also prevented from rushing into the house too violently, and made to enter in a gentle stream by means of perforated zinc, in which the pipes are inclosed, as shown on Plate XXIX. fig. 3, and fully explained in connection therewith. The exhausted air passes out through the roof lights, which lift (as shown by the dotted lines C C) in sections by machinery. Fig. 2. Interior of one of three span-roofed plant houses erected for A. Grant, Esq., at Kensington House, Kensington, by Messrs. J. Weeks& Co., Chelsea. It has a narrow stage round the sides, under which are placed the hot-water pipes, and a stepped stage in the middle. The side sashes and the roof lights push out in section by machinery. (See Plate XXVII. figs. 1 and 2.) Plate XXVI. HORTICULTURAL BUILDINGS. Fig. 1. Interior of a span-roofed pine stove erected for the Right Hon. Lord Boyne, at Brancepeth Castle, by Messrs. J. Weeks & Co., Chelsea. The house is fitted with a slate and iron stage round the sides (similar to that shown on Plate XXIX. fig. 3), the centre being occupied by a pit. The house is ventilated by means of lights in roof a A, lifted in sections by machinery, and by ventilators bb under the sashes, so that the air passes over the hot-water pipes CC, and thus becomes warmed as it enters the house. In order to supply the amount of moisture necessary for the growth of pines a water-tight tank D is constructed down the centre of the pit, and extending its whole length; this is filled with water, through which run a series of hot-water pipes E. The tank is covered with narrow strips of wood F, a little distance apart; upon these is placed a layer of turf, followed by twigs of trees, gravel, &c., after which the compost is filled in. Through these layers the moisture caused by tho action of the hot-water pipes upon the water in the tank readily rises and moistens the atmosphere of the house. Fig. 2 shows another and more ornamental form of span-roof pine stove, with a pathway down the centre, and ventilating lantern a in the roof, with ornamental iron columns and two shelves, B, for strawberries, French beans, he. This was designed for the Most Noble the Marquis of Bute, Cardiff Castle, by Messrs. J. Weeks & Co., Chelsea. The ventilation and heating of the house and pit are effected in the same manner as described for the house represented by fig. 1. Plate XXVII. HORTICULTURAL BUILDINGS. Figs. 1 and 2 show the machinery by which Messrs. J. Weeks & Co. of Chelsea open the sashes of horticultural structures in sections. A lateral iron rod a runs along the front of the house a short distance from the front framing and just above the stage. This rod is supported in its position by means of iron stanchions, pierced with holes, through which the rod passes, and which permit of the rod revolving. These stanchions are screwed on to the framing at intervals. Directly opposite the centre of each sash is a double-jointed arm B, having one of its ends firmly secured to the lateral iron rod, and the other end provided with an eye fitted into another eye on the bottom rail of its respective sash. When the sash is shut this arm takes the position shown by fig. 2. The effect of turning the lateral rod round is to cause the arm to take the position shown by fig. 1, thus pushing out all the sashes connected with the lateral rod in the manner described. By means of the two cogwheels cc, and the iron rod D at right angles to the lateral rod A, the sashes may be opened without disturbing the pots by simply turning the handle k. The handle is fitted with a catch, so that the sashes can be kept open to the extent of 15 inches, or as much less as may be desired. Fig. 3. Interior view of a lean-to greenhouse erected for the Right Hon. the Earl of Onslow, Clandon Park, Guildford, by Messrs. J. Weeks & Co., Chelsea. It has a narrow stage along the front, under which are the liot-water pipes, and a stepped stage along the back. The sashes and roof lights open by machinery in sections. Plate XXVIII. HORTICULTURAL BUILDINGS. Fig. 1. Interior of a form of house introduced about ten years since by Messrs. J. Weeks & Co. of Chelsea with much success. They have erected many in different parts of the country. The Hew is taken from the one erected for the Right Hon. Stephen Cave, at Cleve Hill, Downend, Bristol. For early forcing this is one of the best houses ever introduced. The top shelf a is generally used for strawberries ; the stage B for plants; plunge bed c for cucumbers, melons, vines in pots; and the pit wall D for French beans. Tho wire trellis E is movable, being made in panels extending only from rafter to rafter, from which it is suspended by strong hooks. The front sashes open by machinery, the rod for working which reaches across the bed, and is worked from the path as explained in connection with Plate XXYII. figs. 1 and 2. The roof lights f also lift by machinery, as shown by dotted lines, and in some cases the back lights G also; but frequently these latter are all allowed to remain fixtures—openings towards the north being somewhat objectionable. The tank J in pit is constructed similarly to that described in connection with Plate XXVI. fig. 1. The top pipe H is furnished with Weeks’ improved evaporating trough. This trough is formed of two halves securely bolted to the pipe, but without a bottom, thus bringing the water in immediateDESCRIPTIVE NOTES ON THE PLATES. 17 contact with the hot-water pipe, it having been found by experience that troughs having a bottom, and merely set upon the pipes, do not yield sufficient evaporation. This form of house is sometimes fitted with the hydro-caloric ventilation, as shown at K, and fully described in connection with Plate XXIX. lig. 1. Fig. 2. A novel form of stage recently erected by Messrs. J. Weeks k Co. of Chelsea, for W. Philpott, Esq., at Stone House, Canterbury. It consists of a top step of slate a, having a moulded front of slate B, enamelled black and brought to a highly polished surface, which contrasts admirably with foliage. About 6 or 8 inches lower is a wood shelf c, supported on ornamental iron brackets. To the front of this step is fixed a sort of semicircular channel of wire-work D, on the front and back of which are wired pieces of cork E. This channel is then tilled in with light earth, and planted with lyco-pods and other low plants of a similar nature. The space between the wood shelf and the black enamelled slate moulding is filled in with ornamental iron grating F, thus shutting out from view the hot-water pipes G, the appearance of which is often objected to as being unsightly. Fig. 3.—Patent Divisional Hot-water Apparatus, introduced by the late Mr. H. Ormson of Chelsea. By means of valves placed at one end of the stacks of piping, each pair of pipes, consisting of a flow and return, can be shut off whenever a less amount of heat than that supplied by the complete apparatus is required. The flows and returns are so arranged that the hot water in any two adjoining pipes can be cut off from the circulation by turning the valve handles shown at the end of the stack. Plate XXIX. HORTICULTURAL BUILDINGS. Fig. 1. A section of Weeks’ hydrocaloric ventilator, the advantages of which are that by working a lever or regulators the same ventilators will supply cold fresh air, warm fresh air dry, or warm fresh air moist. It will also serve as an evaporizer and an auxiliary hot-water apparatus. In construction it may be described as a copper vessel about 3 feet in length, 1 foot in height, and 8 inches wide, encased in a wood frame, and to be built in the front wall of any horticultural structure. From end to end are apertures aaaa, through which the air is made to pass. The ventilator is attached to the hot-water apparatus, and can be made hot in connection with or without the apparatus at pleasure. Upon the face at B an index is inscribed, indicating what part of the apparatus is at work—that is to say, whether it is being used as an introducer of cold air or warm air, or as a hot-water apparatus, c is a hit-and-miss slide, worked by the lever in connection with the flap D. When the flap D is at the angle shown in the diagram the slide c is open, and the ventilator being hot the air of the house is passing through, and it is serving as a hot-water apparatus. When the flap D is horizontal, as indicated by the dotted lines E F, the slide closes, and the air enters as by an ordinary ventilator, and is of the external temperature. When the flap D is at the angle indicated by the dotted lines GH, external air is made to enter and pass through slide C into the ventilator, and after being warmed to about 90° is discharged at J into the house. K is an evaporating trough, the water of which is rendered hot by means of the circulation of the hot water through the ventilator; and by keeping this either charged or otherwise, hot air either moist or dry is obtained at pleasure. By the bringing of one 2-inch pipe direct from the main the ventilators can be rendered perfectly efficient while the apparatus remains cold. Fig. 2. Weeks’ iron drip bar, which prevents the condensation water which collects on the inner surface of the glass from running down and disfiguring the internal cornice or framing. B is the gutter of the house; c is one of the circular iron bars of roof; D is the iron drip bar to which the bars of roof are secured, and which catches the condensation water as it runs down the inner surface of the glass and the bars, and conveys it through the small aperture at a into the gutter. Fig. 3 represents a grooved form of slate shelf which saves shingle, and is cleaner and more durable than the old form. To prevent a rush of cold air through the ventilators a into the house, the hot-water pipes are inclosed in perforated sheet zinc B, which being made hot by its proximity to the pipes, causes the air which passes through it to enter the house in a warm and gentle flow. A stream of hot air passes up at the back of stage at c, thus preventing the plants at the back of the stage from suffering from their close proximity to the cold glass. The ventilator A is of the ordinary description. Plate XXX. HORTICULTURAL BUILDINGS. Figs. 1-5. Range of vineries, plant-houses, &c., erected for the Rt. Hon. Viscount Powerscourt, at Powerscour: Castle, Enniskerry, by the late Mr. H. Ormson of Chelsea. Fig. 1, perspective view of the range. Fig. 2, ground plan of the same: a, plant-stove; B, conservatory, c, greenhouse, with central step stage for pot-plants; D D, vineries and peach-houses. Fig. 3, section through lean-to vineries and peach-houses: a a, pathways; b, bed of earth in centre; c, stage for pot-plants. Fig. 4, section through house a, designed as a plant-stove: a a, pathways; b, pit for bottomheat; cc, side stages for plants. Fig. 5, section through central plant-house, which is arranged as a conservatory : a a, pathways, with ornamental iron gratings over hot-water pipes; b, central bed of earth for plants; cc, small side stage for pot-plants. The dimensions of each house are marked on the several figures. Plate XXXI. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO PLANTS. [Fig. 1. Tetranychus telarius (Linn.). Red Spider. Ord. Arachnoidea Acaridse (Mites). Sketch of mature insect magnified. The relationship of the mites to the spiders is well shown in the group of mites to which this species belongs. They possess the power of spinning a web in the same way as the spider. The threads of the web, however, are so slender that we can scarcely see them even with the aid of a magnifying glass until after they are woven into a web. The mite spins its web on leaves, especially on the under side; and thus sheltered, a colony consisting of many of both sexes, in maturity and young in all their ages, feed and multiply with rapidity. In the young stage they have only six legs. In the perfect all mites have eight. They subsist upon the juices of the plants they attack, and under the influence of their presence the plant soon shows a sickly yellow hue: not only is the sap sucked by myriad B18 DESCRIPTIVE NOTES ON THE PLATES. insect mouths from the vessels of the leaf, but the pores of the loaf are choked by excremental fluids, and the gardener mourns the inefflcacy of his remedies and the loss of his cherished flowers. The mode in which they feed is by their making a hole in the leaf with their nipping mandibles, and having thus got access, as it were, by their plunging in their barbed sucker and sucking the juice. The remedies that have been found by horticulturists most useful against the red spider are various preparations of soap, sulphur, and quassia water—sulphur being the chief active principle and most efficient agent. Gishurst Compound, Veitch’s Chelsea Blight Composition, Frettingham’s Liquid Compound, are all good. Sulphur in any form seems potent. Laying flour of sulphur upon the pipes in the greenhouse or hot-house is one means. Mixed with soap, as is done in Gishurst Compound, and applied in infusion to the leaves by the syringe, is another. Even plain soap and water is said to be an effectual remedy if it reaches the insect. A quarter of a pound of soft soap whisked until it has become dissolved is to be applied with the syringe, so as thoroughly to wet the leaves; and in watering and bathing the leaves we must remember that if we content ourselves with watering the upper side of the leaves we have done nothing, because the mites remain very quiet during the operation and in perfect security on the under side. To secure success it is necessary to use a bent syringe, so as to send the water upwards, and to wet the under side of the leaves well with the decoction used. Care and attention in not allowing them to establish a footing is, however, the best protection against this and similar pests. Figs. 2-13. Scale Insects—Ord. Hemiptera Homop-tera: fam. Coccidse. For practical purposes it will be sufficient to divide the Coccidce into three great sections:-— (1) Diaspidce, which are all of the nature of flat scales adhering to the part of the plant on which they are fixed. They are of many different forms, but all stationary, and none of them having a slit or division at the posterior end of the scale. (2) Lecanidce, which are also fixed, but have a notch or slit at the posterior end of the scale. Many of them also have usually a cottony . excretion, which proceeds from and projects at the posterior end or along the sides of the under part of the body, giving them a woolly or fluffy appearance. This is a character which is not found in the Diaspidce, but may or may not be present in the (3) Coccidce, these being distinguished from the others by not being fixed, and walking about in all their stages. It must be borne in mind that in none of the sections does the character drawn from their being stationary apply to the first day or two after their exclusion from the egg. At that time the species of all the three sections move about freely, but in a couple of days the Diaspidce and Lecanidce fix themselves to the plant by their sucker, and never afterwards move during the remainder of their lives. Figs. 2,3. Diaspis osthe.ekormis (Curtis). § Diaspidae. Fig. 2, sketch of twig with scales upon it, nat. size; fig. 3, sketch of scale seen from above, magnified. The species of the genus Diaspis have the shield of the female with its margin irregularly rounded and bearing the moulted skin or skins of the early stages, visible at the centre or towards the side. D. ostreceformis appears in scurfy scales on the bark of pear and apple trees, so exactly the colour of the bark that they escape notice even at a short distance. The scales themselves are flat like the shell of an oyster or anomia, dark ashy gray, very slightly convex, and slightly wrinkled parallel to the margin, which is membranous and whitish, and between it and the centre is a raised transparent spot of an ochreous colour, which is the cast skin of the first moult. It properly belongs to the pear-tree, but it sometimes wanders to the apple-tree, as the apple-tree scale to the pear; but the two species are quite distinct, as will be seen from figs. 4, 5, and 6, which represent the apple-tree species (Mytilaspis pomorum). It is chiefly when the trees are mixed, as espaliers, that both species are found on one tree. If the trees are grown separately each is confined to its proper habitat. When it once establishes itself in an orchard it is almost impossible to get rid of it except by cutting down the trees. The trees are not only rendered unproductive, but actually destroyed by its abundance. Figs. 4-6. Mytilaspis pomorum (Bouche). § Diaspidae. Fig. 4, sketch of apple twig covered by scales, nat. size; fig. 5, female scale as seen from above, magnified; fig. 6, female scale seen from below, showing the eggs on the under side, magnified. This is the species that used to be known under the name Mytilaspis conchiformis, also Diaspis linearis and Coccus arbonvm - linearis; but Dr. Signoret, who has recently published an important work on the Coccidce, has shown that according to the rules of systematic nomenclature the name which is entitled to precedence is Mytilaspis pomorum. All the species of the genus are brown, and have the appearance of miniature mussel-shells. The present species is very like one common on the rinds of oranges imported from the Azores and Canaries (M. anguinus). The male is still unknown. This species sometimes occurs in immense numbers, covering and crowding over the bark from the root to the ends of the twigs, often lying over one another, and sometimes extending even to the leaves and fruit. The scale is attached firmly to the bark, having the margins thin and closely applied, and when dislodged the space it had covered appears white. When a tree has been infested with this scale for some years the fruit does not ripen, and the tree dwindles away and finally digs. It appears to be a native both of Europe and America. At all events a wild species, which seems scarcely distinguishable from that of Europe, occurs in America, and it cannot be doubted that whether it be native to both countries or originally introduced from one to the other, it is now thoroughly established in both, being no doubt constantly imported back and forwards between the two countries on young plants transmitted by nurserymen on either side. We have no better advice to give as to its extirpation than for the preceding species. Figs. 7,8. Pulvinaria vitis (Linn.)—Vine Scale. § Le-canidna. Fig. 7, sketch of adult female scale on vine cane, nat. size; fig. 8, adult female before fecundation, magnified. Nearly a dozen genera or sub-genera have been proposed by Dr. Signoret for the Lecanida’. Several, however, of these are rare, and not likely to come in the way of the horticulturist. For practical purposes it may be sufficient to divide them into three chief groups: 1, those which have the adult female scale covered by a waxy matter secreted by the iqsect (genus Ccro-plasfes); 2, those that exude a quantity of cottony matter which often entirely covers the insect (genus Pidcinaria);DESCRIPTIVE NOTES ON THE PLATES. 10 and, 3, those which have the adult female scale naked and not covered with anything (genus Lecanium)'. which again may be divided into species that have the margin smooth or the margin fimbriated, the insect with or without an ten me, inclosed in a case or without a case, Hat or swollen, and so on. The Pulvinaria vitis is found in great numbers on the Continent, especially in the South, but it has also been imported into Britain, and is to be found in many vineries. Its large size, cottony exudation, and food plant render it impossible to be mistaken. On the Continent, if any badly exposed espalier vines are examined several individuals are almost certain to be found. At times they are very abundant, and obtrude their presence on the eye by their patches of cottony matter, which are sometimes persistent for several years if the vines are sheltered from the rain. If the cottony mass be removed it will bo seen that it lies over a brown scale more or less oblong, wrinkled, and raised in the middle. It is the dried-up body of the mother, and the cotton, if it is the product of the year, will, in winter, be seen to be full of eggs which will be hatched in the first fine days in spring. The large individuals are the insects in the adult stage. Other bodies more elongated and somewhat brown are the males. The adult females are deep yellow with blackish striations. The antenme are filiform. In summer the males are to be found on the under side of the leaf, or even of the branches. Their scales are twice as long as broad, and when they are ready to come out from under the shield two long silky hairs are to be seen projecting from the terminal extremity. Figs. -K 10. Lecanium hibernaculorum (Auct.).— Brown Scale. § Lecanidce. Fig. 9, sketch of twig with brown scale on it, nat. size; fig. 10, adult female scale, magnified. As the name indicates, this is, par excellence, the brown scale of our hot-houses. There are a good many other species confounded with it which have a similarly rounded tumid scale, but most of them can be recognized by the plants on which they are found. Thus we have Lecanium filicum on ferns, L. hemisphevri-cunt on dracrenas, L. rotundum on the peach, &c. The present species, however, ranges over many plants, such as Jji'ixia, A rdisia, Phajus, &c. It is reddish-brown, globular, and its form even more inflated than a hemisphere. It may be distinguished from most other species by having a regular design on its tegument formed of uval pits with a clear central point. It must be understood, however, that this is only to be seen with a powerful microscope and after the scale has been macerated in diluted caustic potash. Ftp. 11. Lecanium hksperidum (Auct.). § Lecanidte. Sketch of adult female scale, nat. size and magnified. This species is as common in our hot-houses as the preceding, and is well known in France and the south of Europe as the orange-tree bug or orange-tree louse. It is one of the flat species, and from the facility with which it spreads to plants of totally different kinds it has been described under various different names. When they arc abundant they occasion a great loss of sap, which exhausts the trees, especially those which from any cause may be already languishing. Boisduval mentions having seen tubs containing orange-trees in which the earth was actually wet from the sap, which fell like dew upon the surface. This varnishes the leaves with a honeyed sticky substance which attracts the ants. In that state the leaves which are not fully developed become sickly and predisposed to the attack of a black Muccclo, the fumagine or morphea of the Italians—a fungoid growth which resembles spots produced by soot. It is said that this black mould is never observed but on plants that have been injured by some coccid or other. Figs. 12,13. Dactylopius adonidum (Linn.).—Mealy Bug. § Coccidce proper. Fig. 12, sketch of portion of a leaf with mealy bug on it, nat. size; fig. 13, sketch of adult female, nat. size and magnified. This section of Coccidce, which may be called the Coccidce proper, has been divided into three sections, which, although sufficiently distinct in appearance, are distinguished only by very trifling characters. One of these is the presence of hairs (called digi-tules) on the tarsi, bearing a dilatation or knob at their extremity. The number of these hairs, which varies from none to four on each tarsus, has been made a generic character, and it is from it that the name of the genus Dcic-tylopius has been taken. We shall not enter into the particulars of such minute characters, and only now allude to this because the reader will find presently that it is a character which reappears in the Phylloxera, a genus intermediate between the Coccidce and the aphides, and whose true relations have been the subject of difference of opinion. The much-dreaded mealy bug of our hothouses, although not a native of this country, has now made itself so much at home that it is almost as impossible to keep it out as difficult to get rid of it when it has once effected an entrance. There are several varieties, supposed by some to be species from their having been found on different plants, but it is probable that it will be found that several of these are not specifically distinct from the D. adonidum, which seems to wander with indifference over all the plants in the conservatory or hot-house. The mealy secretion which is excreted by this insect, and to which it owes its name of mealy bug, is exuded all over the body and even attaches itself to the long hairs, which are seen to be studded with it. Figs. 14-16. Phylloxera vastatrix (Planch.). § Phyl-j loxeridce. Fig. 14, sketch of a vine root attacked by phylloxera, nat. size; fig. 15, subterranean form of female, nat. size and magnified; fig. 16, portion of leaf of vine, showing the galls formed on the leaf by the phylloxera, as seen both on upper and under side. The establishment of a separate section under the name of Phylloxeridce, although as yet it only contains three species—two on the oak and one on the vine—has been found necessary for the species of Phylloxera, which, as we have above said, are intermediate between the Coccidce and aphides; they have the clubbed digitules on the tarsi which are present in the Coccidce and wanting in the aphides, and in their younger stages are more allied to the Coccidce, while in their winged and more perfect state they are more nearly allied to the aphides. Within the last ten years or so a sore malady has fallen upon the vines both in France and America, and also on the vines in the hot-houses in this country; and although it is not yet admitted by all naturalists to be due to the attacks of this insect, few entertain any doubt on the subject. The French government certainly has entertained none, for it has offered a prize of 20,000 francs for any remedy or preventive against its attacks. This has given rise to a flood of specifics of all kinds. The number of so-called remediesDESCRIPTIVE NOTES ON THE PLATES. 20 that have been offered with a view to getting this £800 is said to have exceeded 1000 in number, the examination of which alone has entailed on the French officials an unheard-of amount of trouble, especially as every remedy required to be tested on a fair and sufficient scale and more than once. All this trouble and expense, however, has as yet been fruitless: no remedy has been found. In the earlier part of its cycle (for it has a cycle, as we shall presently explain) it appears under two distinct forms, both wingless, which differ not materially but sufficiently from each other, the one having tubercles on the back, as shown in fig. 15, and the other being almost without them. The former is found exclusively upon the roots, the latter exclusively upon the leaves; but they have been traced going from one to the other. They are so small that they can hardly be detected by the naked eye, but under a lens are seen to be of a fleshy texture and light yellowish - brown in colour. Under this form both larvae and females are found. If we examine the root and try to trace the insect, its course of life seems to be this:—The female fixes itself, like the ('occidce, to the root by inserting its sucker or beak into the bark of the root, and when once fixed remains so for the rest of its life. While thus fixed she lays around her in little groups a quantity of elliptical eggs, which are at first of a fine sulphur-yellow colour, but afterwards take by degrees a smoky-gray or blackish hue, a point in which it corresponds rather with the aphides than the Coccidiv. After about eight days a larva comes out of the egg, which resembles, except in size, the mother that laid it, but is of a greenish-yellow colour. The larva thus hatched is at first restless and agile, but at the end of three or four days it has chosen its place, and fixed itself by its sucker, and remains on the spot. It undergoes three moults, separated from each other by from three to five days. After about twenty days the female larva becomes adult and lays about thirty eggs, and the number of generations in a year is estimated at eight, which would give a posterity of from 25,000,000 to 30,000,000 during a season for each individual. That is the course of life of the great majority of individuals of Phylloxera, but a few undergo five moults instead of three, which brings them to the superior state of insects endowed with flight. In this stage they have four wings, of which the anterior pair are transparent, but darkened as if with smoke at the end. The winged female lays its eggs in the down of the young leaves and buds, and the eggs that it lays are larger and fewer in number than those of the apterous females on the roots, and they are of two sizes, of which the largest are female eggs and the smaller males. But the insects which issue from them are remarkable in more respects than one. From the female eggs are produced females without wings, and equally males without wings from the male eggs. They are incapable of feeding, for neither has a sucker. From these males and females proceed a fresh laying of eggs, or rather of egg, for the female only lays one solitary egg, which is not yellow, but more or less of a sombre green, and is very difficult to perceive on the bark, where it is fixed by a small hook. It passes the winter thus, and in spring a wingless individual is hatched exactly resembling those on the roots, but with a very long sucker. This vernal individual is very fertile, containing from twenty to twenty-four ovaries or reservoirs full of eggs. Its de- scendants produce eggs without the intervention of males, some of them fixing themselves on the leaves and producing galls, the others reaching the roots and renewing the subterranean race. How long the race may be propagated in this way, without the intervention of the sexual males and females above spoken of, is not known. But as the continual renewal of the race proceeds each brood becomes loss and less fertile, by a reduction in the number of the egg-bearing tubes or ovarian reservoirs. The winged female, fertile without the intervention of a male, only lays a small number of eggs—from four to ten. At last the progress ends by the sexual female having no more than a single ovarian reservoir and a single egg, which will be sterile if there is no male to fertilize it, although why it should be so, more than any of the preceding eggs, is not explained. In this way the single egg which terminates tho phylloxerian cycle is reached. The above is the account now given by Professor Balbiani and Professor Maurice Girard of the evolution of the Phylloxera. Whether their views are well founded or not remains to be seen. They are the authors who have paid most attention to the subject, and to whose opinion much weight is attached. Their solution of the problem how to destroy the Phylloxera is to kill the winter egg deposited on the cane by smearing the cane with coal-tar or any other suitable means, since it is that egg that renews the generations that attack the roots. It may not be so easy to do so in the open air in France, but in our vineries we ought to be able to do something (always supposing their hypothesis to prove well founded), first by examining anatomically and microscopically the specimens found, and seeing from the number of their ovarian tubes whether the broods of young are far advanced in the cycle, and likely soon to be reduced to the single egg that renews it; and if so to take special precautions against it, which ought to be the more easy to do as it is said always to be laid on the cane, and never on the bud or the leaves. In England, as yet, the only effectual means of contending against the Phylloxera has been that of stamping it out, by taking up all the vines from the vinery, removing the earth, thoroughly cleaning the interior, and then restocking it with fresh vines and fresh earth. Flys. 17-19. Eriosoma lanigera (Auct.).—Apple-tree or American Blight. § Aphides. Fig. 17, sketch of apple branch attacked by the blight, nat. size; fig. 18, wingless larva, nat. size and magnified; fig. 19, winged female, magnified . The aphides resemble the preceding insects in their extreme prolificness, and also in their parthenogenesis or power of perpetuating the species for many generations without the intervention of a male; but it remains to be ascertained whether the facts supposed to have been settled by Balbiani, in regard to the gradual diminution of the ovarian apparatus in successive broods of Phylloxera, equally applies to the aphides. They differ from the Phylloxera in not always producing their young from eggs. A large proportion of the species produce their young alive, the egg being hatched in the body of the mother, but this is only in the summer time; when autumn comes on the mothers then deposit eggs, which remain exposed to the weather during the winter, and are hatched in spring. It is said that the same individuals are never both oviparous and viviparous; that the individuals that lay eggs in autumn are not the same individuals that brought forth living young in summer.DESCRIPTIVE NOTES ON THE PLATES. 21 There are, however, some genera (Adelges, &c.) which are always oviparous; there are others, chiefly subterranean species, that are exclusively viviparous. This pest is called the American blight, and is supposed to have been imported from America. Americans, on the other hand, deny this, and say it has been introduced into America from England. Whichever be the truth, or whether it has been aboriginal in both countries, need not concern us as horticulturists; it is now sufficiently naturalized in both. The insect is of a claret colour, and the larva is covered with a great quantity of bluish-white cottony material which exudes from it, and not only covers it, but fills up the scars in the branches which have been produced by its attacks. The generic character is taken from the venation of the wings, one of the oblique nervures of which may be seen to be atrophied Indore it reaches the main horizontal nervure. It attacks not only the branches but the roots of the tree, which adds much to the difficulty of getting rid of it. In fact when an orchard once becomes thoroughly infested by it, perhaps the best thing that can be done is to root it up and burn the trees root and branch, and not to plant it again until a year or two has passed, and the race has had time to become extinct. Figs. 20-22. Siphonophora ros^ (Reaum). § Aphides. Fig. 20, sketch of young larva newly hatched, nat. size and magnified; fig. 21, sketch of larva at a more advanced stage, magnified; fig. 22, sketch of winged male, nat. size and magnified. A genus has been made for those aphides which, in addition to bearing projecting honey tubes (cornicles) behind, have very long antennae and legs, the fore wings with four oblique veins and the cubital vein twice forked. To this belongs the present species: but so far as is yet known the males are winged and the females apterous. Every gardener is familiar with this horticultural pest, which does so much to disfigure the buds and young shoots of the roses with unsightly crowds of its individuals clinging together. The larvae are greenish, or sometimes of a reddish hue; the male green, spotted with black. This is not the only green-fly that attacks the rose; several others have been described, such as Aphis rosarum, A. dirhoda, A. trirhoda, &c. Washing with sulphur-soap, Gishurst Compound, &c., will keep the roses tolerably clean, if accompanied with careful handpicking.—a. M.| Plate XXXII. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO PLANTS. [Figs. 1,2. Thrips minutissima(Curt.). Ord.Hemip-tcra Homoptera. Fig. 1, sketch of larva, magnified; fig. 2, sketch of perfect insect, magnified. If any one in the summer season looks into the petals of a rose, or almost any other fiower, he will probably find some very minute slender black insects moving about in them. These are species of Thrips, which no doubt considerably waste the energies of the plant by sucking its juices, although from their extremely minute size one could scarcely expect they would do much mischief. It is especially, however, in our hot-houses that the mischief done by this little creature is seriously felt. There its attacks upon orchids (which seem particularly to suffer from it) and various tender-leaved plants are very noticeable. The leaf where punctured by the insect becomes discoloured, and by frequent repetition the injured part gets larger and spreads almost over the w'hole leaf, alike destroying its beauty and interfering with its functions. Although they look all very much alike, there are many different species. A special order has been proposed for them under the name of Thysanoptera, but they undoubtedly belong to the Hemiptera Homoptera. Figs. 3-6. Anthomyia Ceparum (Meig.). Onion-fly. Ord. Diptera. Fig. 3, sketch of onion root laid open to show larva of onion-fly at work; fig. 4, sketch of perfect fly, magnified twice; fig. 5, sketch of larva, magnified; fig. 6, sketch of pupa, magnified. This fly belongs to the general group of Muscidce, to which our comnom house-fly also belongs. In the end of May the eggs are deposited on the leaves in small clusters from two to seven in number. They are oblong, white and waxy in colour, and from i*o of an inch to 1 line in length. At first they are quiet enough, but after a few days, when the larva inside the egg is about ready to be hatched, they seem almost as if endowed with vitality, and on the slightest touch to give a sort of spring off the plant, and of course fall or roll down to the ground alongside of the bulb. On reaching the ground the larvae soon make their way out of the egg, and make straight for the onion bulb. They penetrate it where it is level with the earth, and make their way into the interior, where their gnawing stops the growth of the bulb, and causes an offensive smell, the bulb decaying and putrefying. The leaves above soon become yellow or sickly, and flag. The larvte are broad at one end and pointed at the other, and to any ordinary eye are undistinguishable from those of the turnip and cabbage flies, and many other species of Anthomyia. They attain their full size in fourteen days, when they leave the onion and descend into the ground to undergo their metamorphosis. Their hardened skin turns into an oval chestnut-coloured pupa-case, in which they pass about a fortnight in summer, and then the fly comes out. These produce a fresh generation, and so it goes on until autumn, when the pupa, instead of coming out after a fortnight or so, passes the whole winter underground in that state, and the fly does not come out till the next April or May. The perfect insect is smaller and narrower than the house-fly, and of a gray ash colour, with blackish marks down the back. The best remedy for this insect would be ceasing to grow the onion for a single year over a considerable extent of country. The next best would be for the inhabitants of any particular district to combine among themselves to pluck up and burn every sickly onion plant that appears in the garden. If this were done there would be no fresh brood to propagate the species, unless it should come from a distance. Figs. 7-10. Tephritis onopordinis (Fab.)—syn. Try-peta onopordinis. Celery-fly. Ord. Diptera. Fig. 7, sketch of leaf mined by celery-fly, showing larva in and perfect insect on leaf, nat. size; fig. 8, sketch of larva, magnified; fig. 9, sketch of pupa, magnified; fig. 10, sketch of perfect fly, magnified. There is a group of flies distinguished by the beauty of their wings, which are banded or spotted. To them belongs the genus Tephritis or Try peta, and one of its species is the fly here figured. It is known as the celery-fly, and mines the leaves of the celery and parsnip. It usually makes its appearance about the end of May, though sometimes earlier. The female pierces the leaf and deposits an egg in the parenchyma between the upper and under side, and takes care not to place them tooOp DESCRIPTIVE NOTES ON THE PLATES. near, so as to avoid interference with each other. These hatch and produce pale yellowish-green maggots, which feed upon the parenchyma, and as they arrive at maturity pass into the pupa state in the leaf. By going over the leaves and pinching those that are attacked they may be held in check. Their presence is easily detected, for their mining causes unsightly blotches on the leaf, and the place where the larva is can be easily seen from without. The numbers of this insect seem to have multiplied very much latterly in the neighbourhood of London, no doubt owing to the increased number of market-gardens in which celery is grown. Figs. 11,12. Cossus ligniperda (Linn.). Goat-moth. Ord. Lepidoptera. Fig. 11, sketch of larva in a boring of wood, nat. size; fig. 12, sketch of the perfect moth, nat. size. The goat-moth feeds on the solid and sound wood of various kinds of growing trees, preferring the different kinds of willow and poplar, and next to them the elm, but it by no means restricts itself to them. It is also found in the lime, the alder, beech, walnut, and different fruit-trees; and it is even met with in the hardest of all our wroods, the oak. It is common all round London; and trees affected by it may easily be detected by the disagreeable odour (like that of a he-goat) diffused around them by this destructive caterpillar. The caterpillar takes three years to attain maturity, and lies in the pupa state for another year, so that the natural term of the life of the insect is four years. As soon as it is hatched the caterpillar begins to feed on the inner and tender part of the bark and cambium; it then passes on to the liber, beyond which in its first year it does not go. In the second year it goes deeper, but still confines itself to the soft outer layers of wood. Each winter it hibernates in a cocoon or chamber made of chips of wood glued together. The third year it has become so strong and powerful that it pushes its way even into the heart of the tree. It arrives at its full size in summer, when it usually makes for itself in the timber of the tree a cocoon of the saw-dust or debris glued together by silken matter. This cocoon is usually built in one of the galleries, close to a sufficient opening. Sometimes, however, the caterpillar comes out of the tree and makes its cocoon in crevices in the stem near the root of the tree or in the earth at its base. The moth comes out between the latter part of June and the end of July. It is of a marbled brown and smoke colour, with lighter portions. The antennre are pectinate both in male and female. Figs. 13,14- Emphytus cinctus (Linn.). Rose Saw-fly. Ord. Hymenoptcra. Fig. 13, sketch of a rose-twig containing larva, with insect at rest, both nat. size; fig. 14, perfect female insect, magnified. The selection from the order of llgnienoptera given in the plate is confined to the saw-flies (Tenthredinidie), which contain more insects injurious to the horticulturist than any other family of the llgnienoptera. As shown in fig. 14, the female of Emphytus cinctus has a white line across the abdomen, and the male is entirely black. It is common enough in Britain, where it is generally understood to injure the roses by boring in their stems. This, however, would appear to be an error. The full-grown larva and pupa indeed are found in the empty hearts of twigs that have been cut across the previous year; but according to good authorities they only go there as into a safe retreat in which to undergo their metamorphosis, which takes place in the following spring. The figures that are given by authors of the grubs feeding in the heart of succulent young growing shoots belong not to this species but to another one named Monophaduus hipunc-tata (Klug), which lays its eggs on the tips of the young shoots, down which the larva afterwards bores through the pith. The Emphytus cinctus, on the contrary, only feeds on the leaves, eating holes in them and bits out of the margin. Fig. 15. Tenthredo adumbrata (Fab.). Pear-tree Slug. Ord. Hymenoptcra. Sketch of leaf with larva upon it, nat. size. In the autumn months we may often see fixed and motionless on the leaves of pear-trees a little black larva, gluey and slimy, and not unlike a small leech or slug; that is the larva of T. adumbrata. It browses off the parenchyma from the upper surface of the leaf, leaving the anastomosis of the smallest nervures and the epidermis on the opposite side untouched, so that the leaves that it has attacked resemble a very fine piece of lace. It does not, however, treat the whole leaf in this way, but begins in patches in the middle and leaves the margins uninjured or nearly so. If it is deprived of its gluey covering it is found to be a dark-green grub with twenty feet. After having changed its skin four times it becomes of an orange-yellow, and descends from the tree to undergo its metamorphosis in the ground in a little cocoon made of grains of earth glued together. The perfect insect is entirely shining black, except the knees and anterior tibim, which are rusty-brown. When it is in numbers the larva, by destroying the leaves, causes the vegetation to cease or diminish, and the pears first cease to enlarge and then fall. The name of another species, Selandria a’thiops, has been confounded with this, but the true S. athiops is a species in nowise resembling it. Figs. 16-21. Polygramma decemlineata (C'liev.)—syn. Doryphora decemlineata (Say); Chrysomela decemlineata (Say)', Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Staal). Colorado Beetle. Ord. Coleoptera. Fig. 16, potato leaves with eggs on the under and larvae on the upper side, diminished; fig. 17, sketch of larva, natural size; fig. 18, sketch of larva, magnified; fig. 19, sketch of pupa, natural size; fig. 20, sketch of perfect insect, natural size; fig. 21, perfect insect, magnified. The native country of the Colorado beetle is the prairies stretching eastward from the Rocky Mountains. It feeds upon a prickly species of potato plant named Solanum rostratum. Not only the leaf but the calyx is covered with long prickles, and there is no reason to doubt that the range of this plant must have been extended by its seed-vessels adhering to the coats of any animals that were feeding amongst them. So long as the prairies were only inhabited by buffaloes the distribution thus occasioned would be chiefly in a north and south direction, for that was the course of their migration; but when cattle were introduced a trade in them sprung up extending across the prairies from Texas and the states east of the Mississippi to the settlements in Colorado and the Rocky Mountains, and the distribution of this plant by means of cattle would thus be changed to an east and west direction. What might thence have been expected has actually taken place, and the Solanum rostratum is now pretty generally distributed over at least the western portion of the prairies, and the range of the beetle that feeds upon it seems to have kept pace with it and extendedDESCRIPTIVE NOTES ON THE PLATES. 23 to the same degree. In 1858 it had reached within a hundred miles of Omaha, and there came in contact with the potato patches of the settlers along the Missouri. Like other animals the Colorado beetle no doubt prefers its natural food plant to any other, but when in its progress eastward it reached the limits of the Sohumia rostmfum, it had to be content with the cultivated potato, via hum tuberosum; and as it is endowed with prodigious fertility and powers of adaptation to almost every condition and climate, it seems to have rapidly reconciled itself to its new food, and in a very short period of years to have spread over the whole of North America, and now seems likely to extend its ravages to Europe. It lays its eggs about the end of the month of May on the under side of the leaves and on the stems of the young potato haulms. The eggs are reddish and oval. The larva comes out in about a week; it is of fleshy texture, and a reddish-orange hue something of the colour of a rusty red gooseberry, and is marked along the outer margins with black spots. It takes from a fortnight to three weeks to become full fed, and this is the only stage at which the insect can be attacked with any chance of success; in every other it is protected by its position or by the hardness of its envelope. It next burrows underground to pass through the pupa state, making its way down several inches or even a foot or more deep. The pupa is yellowish, and has no black marks like those on the perfect beetle. In about ten days the perfect beetle, which is yellow with ten black lines on the elytra and some black spots on the thorax, comes out, and in four or five days is ready to begin a new generation. There may thus be three broods in the same season; but as the females go on laying continuously there are broods of all ages constantly going on at the same time. For the destruction of this beetle Paris green, an arsenite of copper, mixed with flour and dusted over the plants in which the larva) are feeding, is the most effectual means; of course supplemented by hand picking and any other subsidiary means that may occur to the cultivator. In stamping out a first appearance the burning of the whole field by means of petroleum and saw-dust has lately been tried in Germany, but with only partial success.—A. M.]Plate 2. V. rTal Uff * -5 art & IL»?r yJV /> LILTJT31. 1, Parrlatiuum . 2, Leirhtlmii. BLACXIE Sc. SON, LONDON. GLASGOW, EDINBURGH &. DUBLIN.,*W9v?' mm \ f  X  T. LA A K PI ate.7 HHODODEXimO.X (JASMINJJ /.OIU M UYB.) I, f'ruh es.s h'aual. A. Antuy.ss Alexnm/jxi. BLA- SON. LONTi.N. GLASGOW, "E I< T N BTJ R.Q R Sc. DUBLIN I D ] _ S TEL L IJPlate C A R PET BEDDING. S>. 7. — NO? °*r «£© <5® ©« WJ»S> * ^ (ft65-. 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Altemanthera amoena. 4. -4n<6/ina/*ia fome?if© ISL,®J©'g?® Ip ©®®©©,®.©t©© $ 9«ATr4«AT>1|A©T<* <■» *© % »■» .<*> or* ©"a* 5«*aOT«V~ '°• * ^®©^-« ft ‘51 ^Siwl ©-3 © z?2&S 1. ■ &6' 6 © © r'^pSpV sw rSt &ao»S®4a '$'j$kv * ■’•Ik ?}&%v%4* *$&& 3%f«« ^ J&o^Og L©° a^©» a®® ©® --*“ **■“ --1 *■ -i> * 9 a-»rUf»0^o^e®.g®: ’i?555:& * ^Va*®* *&oV® ® © # ■ ? *aO®-“* e e-op •# ©*®§5^ aom o®<\>i* -t- &AS.* O© - W' °©r €9, .© ^©2 ?©“®o®-'-' II* ©*** 0 SW® - « © © *** 6? a>-J£ .**, vo:os 6. 1. Cerastium tomentosum. 2. Altemanthera amoena. 3. Pyretln'um Qolden Feather. 4. Mesembryanthemum cordifolium variegatum. 5. Altemanthera magnifica. 6. Echeveria secunda glauca. 3. I %l«k d dO» 5. « 4- 1. 2. ’%Wk « ^ o5?.v 3. - “A O 0 “©Ip ■ v. .°0® :® _«o© ,«o 8. i?<5w4>/ I®/' 3. *'?£ ■^Q©_ MIA 8- N 8. i© *&.%) vO ft .a> 9«6 6pQ 3. ^V© a © 2. 8. C. 8. dd® a&&' *5©C. o »• <& O 1. 1. Scmpervivum calcareurn. 2. Lobelia pumila grandijlora. 3. Cerastium arvense. 4. Altemanthera. arncena. 5. Pyrethrum Golden Feather, 6. Sedum glaucum. 7. Cerastium tomentosum. 8. Sempervivum canariense. JCARPET bedding mate 11 1. Echeveria metallica glauca. 2. Coleus Verscliaffcltii. 3. Cineraria maritima compacta. 4. AUemaiUhera paronychioides major. 5. Pyrethrum Golden Feather. 6. Alternanthei’a amcena. 7. Lobelia pumila grandiflora. 8. Antennaria tomentosa. 9. 1. Coleus Verschajf'eltii. 5. Sedum glaucum. 2. Lobelia pumila grandiflora. 3. Alternanthei'a amabilis. 4. Cerastium arvense. 10. Cerostium tomentosum. 6. Mesembryanthemum cordi/olium variegatum. 7. Altemo.nthera paronychioides. 8. Sempervivum montanum. 9. Sempervivum subtabulctformc. BLACK!E .Si SON. LONDON -LA;' >OW. TiL'iME’lR 3H A POPLIN6. 1. Coleus Verschaffeltii. 2. Pyrethrum Golden Feather. 3. Lobelia Blue King. 4. A ItemantJiera paronychioides. 5. Echeveria secunda glauca. 6. Mesembryanthemum cordifolium variegatum. 7. Sedum cor si cum, or S. glaucum. 11. Cerastfwro tomentosum. 8. Altemanthera versicolor. 9. Altemanthera amcena. 10. Lobelia pumila magnifica. ►d cf d> H 10 3LACKIE nditioii for the seeds. Brussels Sprouts.—Sow the main crop about the middle of the month, or in cold localities to form a succession to the August sowing. Burnet.—Sow in drills. Cahbage.jJ-Sow about the end of the month the Early York, or Atkins’ Matchless, and Early Bat-; tersea, for summer and autumn supply. Cabbage fluJled). — Plant out thffee sown in autumn at the beginning of the month, and about the same time another sowing should be made for a later supply. Caraway.—Sow. Ca)'doonS.r—Sow a few in the last fortnight for an earl}’ crop. CarrotL^-— If not already done, sow some of the Early Horn and Long Horn in the beginning of the month, if the weather isx favourable. The | main crop of these and other Sort.-whould be I sown about the middle of the month, or as after as the wither and state of the ground will permit. Cauliflowers.—Sow in the last fortnight for a late summer crop. Plant out a few from under hand-glasses. Celeriac.—Sow in slight heat, or under handglasses. on a warm border. CelerfMU not done in February, the first principal sowing should be made in the first week on gentle heat, and at the end of the month the second main crop should be sown under a frame or handglasses. sown.Xll CALENDAR OF GARDEN OPERATIONS. Chamomile.—Divide the roots, and plant them in patches 9 inches apart. Chervil.—Sow broadcast, or in shallow drills 6 to 8 inches apart. Chives. — Plant offsets, or divisions of the patches of the roots. Clary may be sown if required. Coriander.—Sow, if not done last month or in autumn. Corn Salad. — Sow broadcast, or in drills 8 inches apart. Cress.—Sow weekly, in a warm situation. Dill. — Sow broadcast, or in shallow drills 9 inches apart. Fennel.—Sow in drills, or divide the roots. Garlic. M- Plant the cloves 6 inches apart, in shallow drills 1 foot from each other. Hops.—Propagate. Horse-radish. — Plant pieces of the roots, or the crowns, 1 foot apart, in the bottom of trenches 15 inches deep, or make holes in well-trenched ground to that depth, and drop in the pieces. Hyssop.—Renew by dividing and planting in fresh soil. Jerusalem Artichokes.—Plant in rows 3 feet apart, and 1 foot in the row. Lavender.—Plant slips 1 foot apart. Leeks.—Sow the main crop about the middle of the month. Lettuce.-—Plant out on borders from frames. Sow both Cabbage and Cos lettuces in the beginning of the month on a south border. Liquorice. — Plant cuttings of the roots 18 inches apart. Marigold.—Sow about the end of the month. Marjoram {Pot).—Divide the roots and plant in warm soil. Mint.—Divide the roots and plant new beds. Mustard.—Sow every week or ten days in a warm situation. Nasturtiums.—Sow towards the end of the month. Onions.—Sow the main crop as early in the month as the ground and the state of the weather will permit in very shallow drills 6 inches apart. Sow Spanish, Silver-skinned, and Nocera for pickling. The ground should be rather poor, firmly trodden, and the seed covered very lightly. Transplant some of those sown in autumn. Orach.—Sow in drills 2 feet apart. Parsley.—Sow Hamburgh and other kinds, if not already done. The Curled sorts make a neat edging. Parsnips.'—Sow the main crop in drills 1^ inch deep and 18 inches apart. The Hollow-crowned is considered the best. Pease.—Sow main crops of Prussian, Imperial, and Marrow kinds, varying their frequency according to the extent of the garden and other circumstances. Pennyroyal. — Divide the roots and plant towards the end of the month in a moist border. Potatoes.-*-Plant main crops. Radishes.—Sow for succession. Rhubarb.—k-hike fresh plantations. Sow for a supply of young plants. Rocambole.—Plant the cloves. Rue.—Propagate by slips, or seed may be sown. Sage.—Plant slips. Salsafy.—A little may be sown in drills 8 ot 10 inches asunder, but not the main crop. Savory (Winter).—Propagate by dividing the plant. Savoys.—Sow in the middle of the month for autumn use. For a very early supply, the Early Ulm may be sown in the beginning of the month. Scorzonera.-—In cold localities sow the main crop in the third week. Sea Kale.—Remove pots as the crop is taken, and place them over other plants to blanch a succession. Sow for a supply of young plants to rear for forcing or for new plantations. Take up those sown in the previous March and plant 2 feet apart. Shallots.—Plant early in the month, if not already done. Skirretr—Sow in drills on rich, light, and rather sandy soil. Spinach.— Sow Round-leaved; this may be done between the widest rows of pease. Tansy.—Propagate by dividing the roots. Tarragon.-—Propagate by dividing. A fresh plantation should be made every spring, as the plants are apt to die off. Turnips.—Sow Early White Dutch, or any other early variety in the last fortnight. II.—HARDY FRUIT DEPARTMENT. Finish pruning, in the first place, those kinds of j fruit-trees in which vegetation is most forward, if any such are still unpruned. In this respect the apricot, peach, nectarine, cherry, and plum should receive the earliest attention, and the pruning of all other kinds, with the exception of the fig, should be completed as soon as possible. Planting should also be finished without delay, and after planting, a mulching of some kind will prove very beneficial, more especially to those trees planted at this season when drying winds usually prevail. Train and nail trees. Graft the cherry, plum, pear, apple, chestnut, quince, and medlar. Protect wall-trees by nets, thin canvas, strawCALENDAR OF GARDEN OPERATIONS. Xlll screens, spruce branches, fern, or by other means that may be at command. Plantations of strawberries may be made, but as early in the month as the state of the ground will permit. . III.—FORCING DEPARTMENT. Asparagus.—Keep up a succession in pits. A little heat from fermenting materials put in the trenches will now readily cause shoots to push for a supply from beds in the open ground. Capsicums.—Sow, if not done last month. Pot off the plants when fit, and replace in heat. Cauliflowers.-SExpose freely; protect only from frost and hail. Weak plants that are not progressing kindly should be removed from amongst the more thriving. Transplant the latter as they become fit, under hand-glasses. Sow; for a succession. Celery.—Sow in pans in rather brisk heat; but as soon as the seeds have germinated remove to gentle heat. Prick out those previously sown. Egg Plant.—Shift as soon as the plants require larger pots. Kidney Beans.—Continue to force in succession. The plants will require a liberal supply of water at the roots and by the syringe on the; foliage; but if chilled by cold water they will become unhealthy in consequence, and a still more favourite prey of the red spider. Lettuce.—Those in frames should be exposed day and night, unless the weather is severe. Plant out at intervals. Marjoram (Sweet).—For early use some may be sown on a slight liot-bed, either to remain where sown or to be planted out. Mushrooms.—Maintain a temperature of about (>()° in the beds, and the same in the air of the house, which should also be kept humid. Mustard and Cress.—Keep up sucaessions. Kcw Zealand Spinach.—Sow on a gentle hotbed. Onions.—Those raised in boxes for transplanting should be gradually exposed to the air to harden them off. Pease.- -Th ose forwarded in pots should now be all planted out. I'otatoes.—The soil where the roots extend should not be allowed to get too dry; but that employed for earthing up, and in which the tubers are formed, should be dry and light. Give plenty of air when the weather is favourable. Plant- for succession those forwarded in pots or otherwitife, Rhubarb.—^Fresh roots may be introduced into the mushroom-house or any other dark place having a suitable temperature. Sea Kale.—Keep up a succession. Tomatoes may yet be sown. Pot off and shift. Cucumbers.—Let the bottom heat be kept up to about 80°, and the temperature of the air in the pit or frame to between 75™mJ 80°, or with sun-heat 85'* In dull weather, when the absence of sun-light occasions paleness in the folifflHand great weakness of shoots, a temperature 4° or 5° lower is advisable. By much heat, with but little light, long shoots and broad foliagHwill be produced; but the greater the heat, with insufficient light, the more lax will be the tflue of the shoots and foliage. It is therefore better to grow the plants more slowly in dull than in bright Weather. Give air as the heat of the day increases, and reduoe the amount as it declines® TheRashes may even be {dosed in the afternoon with a rather high temperature from sun-lieat; but when they are covered for the night a little air should then be allowed. Water with tepid water of a temperature between 75° and 80°. Apply manure water when the plants are 0bnnnencing to bear. Thin Superabundant shocfe before they produce confusion, and 90 frequently as to have but few to remove at any one time. Melons.-HSow for the general crop. The temperature of 80° bottom heat, and 751 as the average temp&titure of tlifHair of the frame, should be kept up. The latter may bSas low aF70° at night, and it may rise to 85° by sun-heat. Give air remain for the suij^^H krona amoiyeit thtae a year older, and slfflvinH fruit, souiejdf the jtreaigeA should befi'lecteHfor Hdusl planted out of tl^pots into tEj bed of tkHfruit-ing-house, Thjjjjjjj not turned out of the pots should be pkuqjad in a prepared bedBf di^Hand leaves, affording a bot-tom-lieat of 84* The plants should be shaded, and little jjjiiwivmi till they have taken freslj (root, which will goon be the case with an atmospheric temperature of from 80° to 84°. The pines cultivated according to the ordinary modes are generally shifted in this month.XIV CALENDAR OF GARDEN OPERATIONS. Vines.—Attend to the succession-house as before directed. Tie in shoots before they get into confusion; there should be no crowding of branches, shoots, or foliage. Thin the berries, taking care not to prick those intended to remain. If the points of the bunches are taken olf, the berries will swell better. Tie up the shoulders of bunches and remove tendrils. Keep the air of the houses moist at night. Syringe frequently, but not directly upwards against the berries, for that spoils the bloom; but water coming in a downward direction does not. Figs.—If any suckers make their appearance let them be immediately removed, otherwise the sap will flow into them in preference to the fruitbearing portion, the young fruit on which would consequently drop. The same will be likely to occur if in any part over-vigorous shoots start up; therefore such must be kept in check by pinching. Take care that the roots are regularly supplied with water. Keep the foliage clean by syringing and sprinkling with sulphur. Peaches and Nectarines.—Continue to regulate the shoots, removing all that are superfluous. If any trained in for bearing have failed to produce, and are not required to prolong the branch, let them be cut back to the lower young shoot if there is one at the base; and if there is not, cut at about ^ inch from the base of the shoot. From this portion a young shoot to be trained for succession will likely spring. Thin the fruit partially at an early stage of its growth, leaving one to about a square foot as soon as it can be ascertained which fruits are taking the lead in swelling, these of course being left in preference. Syringe morning and afternoon and shut up early, but always allowing a little air at night. Cherries.—When the fruit is set, the temperature may be increased to 55° at night and 65° in the day, or as high as 75° by sun-heat; but plenty of air must then be admitted. 'When the fruit is colouring, gradually increase to 60“ at night find 70° in the day, or 80“ by sun-heat. Great care is necessary to insure just sufficient moisture to the roots. Syringe the foliage, and fumigate in case of the least appearance of aphides. Strawberries.—Introduce a succession, and attend to former directions. IV.—FLOWER GARDEN AND PLEASURE GROUNDS. Finish the pruning of trees and shrubs. 'Trim holly hedges. The planting of deciduous trees and | shrubs should be completed as early as possible, and if the weather be moist in the end of the month evergreens may then be planted. Ground that has been rough-dug should be hoed and raked when moderately dry; but the borders of the shrubbery next the walk, where flowers are to be planted out, or where annuals are to be sown, should be nicely worked and pointed over with the spade. In short, when the ground is in good working condition, the earliest opportunity should be taken to dress beds and borders for the reception of the respective plants intended to be put into them. Many hardy annuals, biennials, and perennials may be sown in the beginning of the month, provided the ground is dry; but otherwise the sowing had better be deferred till a later period, for some kinds are apt to perish in cold wet soil. Half hardy annuals may be sown in the end of the month. Plant carnations, heartsease, hollyhocks, dahlias, gladiolus, and ranunculus roots, if not before done. V.—PITS AND FRAMES. Auriculas. — Protect from frost and cutting | winds; but let them be freely exposed when the weather is fine. Calceolarias.—Remove all decaying foliage, and keep the plants free from insects. Shift any that require it. Carnations and Picotees.—Seed may be sown in pans, covered lightly, and placed in a frame. Shift into their blooming pots. Chrysanthemums.—Repot the November cuttings as soon as the pots are full of roots, placing them in 4-incli or 5-inch pots. Take off cuttings, place in 3-inch pots, plunge in a slight bottom-heat, and when struck harden off and remove to a cold frr«me. For specimen blooms strong suckers may be planted in 5-inch pots. Cinerarias.—Sow for autumn flowering. Prepare pots or pans by well draining them and filling to within half an inch of the rim with a compost of loam, leaf-mould, and silver sand. Water gently, scatter the seeds thinly and evenly, and just cover them with fine soil or silver sand. After a gentle watering through a fine rose, place in a cold pit or frame, and shade from the sun. Dahlias.—If only a small number of plants is required, place the tubers on a hot-bed, and when the shoots have pushed about 3 inches divide the tubers into as many pieces as there are shoots. Take off’ cuttings as recommended hist month. Sow seeds in heat. Fuchsias.—Continue to put in cuttings in gentle bottom-heat as recommended last month, and pot off those struck, preserving a small ball to each. Hollyhocks.—Plant out seedlings as soon as the weather permits. Hyacinths.—Those potted in October or November will now afford a fine display, and shouldCALENDAR OF GARDEN OPERATIONS. xv be removed to the conservatory, or wherever required. To prolong their bloom, attend well to watering; let them have plenty of air, but do not expose them to cold draughts, nor bright sunshine. Pelargoniums.-**Keep the foliage clean by syringing, and expose it as much as possible to light. The temperature at night should not fall below 45°; an abundance of air should be given during the day. Roses in pots for June flowering may be introduced into slight heat and treated as recommended in January. As the plants come into flower, remove them to a cool green-house or conservatory. VI. -GREEN-HOUSE. In clear weather the sun’s rays in this month become powerful, and a corresponding amount of ventilation is therefore necessary; but at this season the nights immediately succeeding the brightest days are often frosty, so that there are two extremes to be guarded against. It will be necessary to give abundant ventilation, and in some cases shading, when the sun-heat would otherwise raise the temperature of the internal air too high, and when frost is apprehended the house should be shut up rather early and closely so as to render little fire-heat necessary. The air is generally very dry in this month, and when such is the case means must be taken to maintain sufficient moisture in the air of the house. The paths and the surface of the soil in the pots must be kept moist, and the plants should be frequently syringed. They will also require more water for their roots than in the previous months; and some kinds of soft-wooded plants requiring to be invigorated for producing large flowers should be occasionally supplied with clear manure water. Continue to shift plants in order that they may make fresh roots before they are placed out of doom for the summer. Top-dress those that may not require shifting, but see that none are pot-bound. Prune to produce handsomely formed specimens. Branches occupying similar positions on the same plant should possess equal vigour. If this is not the case, the weaker must be encouraged by repressing the stronger. In some cases the latter may be bent down, in others it will be necessary to use the knife. Remove as far as possible all shoots that are affected by damp, or that are otherwise unhealthy. VII. —^PLANT STOVE. With an increased amount of light in this month, the temperature should be increased. The house should be shut up, or at all events the air greatly reduced early in the afternoon whilst the temperature is between 85° and 90°; and it may be allowed to fall not lower than between 65“ and 70° at night. Shift orchids and other plants as they commence to make fresh growth. After being shifted the plants require to be kept closer and warmer than usual, till they make fresh roots, and till then water should be sparingly given; they should also be shaded from the rays of the sun. Take care that no plants are grown more rapidly than is consistent with the amount of light necessary to produce a sound tissue, and a foliage of the healthiest natural hull Endeavour to maintain a moist atmosphere at night; but let the foliage be dry for an hour or two every day, by means of air gradually admitted. APRIL. 1.—KITCHEN GARDEN DEPARTMENT, The weather in this month is generally showery; but sometimes dry easterly winds prevail with cold nights. Under these circumstances the watering of crops should be done in the mornings, and then only when absolutely neoessary. Stir the surface of the ground among crops whenever it can be done. Weed beds, and hoe and rake the alleys, so that the whole may exhibit a neat appearance. Anise.—Sow early in the month. Artichokes.—Dress beds, and make fresh plantations, if not already done. Asparagiis.^zpDrMi beds; after forking, rake the surface fine, and gather off' stones. Sow not later than the first or second week. Plant in mild weather, when the ground is in good condition. A(t///j.fS-Divide the roots. Jlasil.■Sow. This plant, however, is generally better raised on a slight liot-bed. Beans.—Sow successions; draw earth to those already up. Beet.—Sow the main crop from the middle to the end of the month. In dry weather tliAeed should be steeped a day before sowiiit^H Borage.—Sow a little for a succession. Borecole.—Sow the main crop in the first week. Broccoli.—Make principal sowings of the late kinds from the first to the third week of the month; sow also the Sprouting for early use, and at the end of the month a succession of Snow’s. Protect the heads which have formed by bending one or turn leaves over tjisem. Burnet.—Sow, or divide the roots and plant.XVI CALENDAR OF GARDEN OPERATIONS. Cabbage.—If not done in March, sow in the I first week the Early Battersea, and similar kinds for autumn use. Sow the Utrecht Small Dark j Red in the first or second week. Caraway.—Sow, if not done in autumn. Thin the plants to 8 inches apart. Cardoons. — Sow, about the middle of the month, in patches of three seeds, 18 inches from patch to patch, in well-manured trenches 4 feet apart. Carrots.—Sow in succession, and hoe between the rows of early-sown crops. Cauliflowers.—Sow in the first fortnight for a late summer crop. As the plants from former sowing's become fit, they should be planted out; if the weather should afterwards prove unfavourable, protect by inverting fiower-pots over the plants at night. Celeriac.—For succession, sow under a handglass on a warm border of rich soil. Celery.—Sow in the second week for late crops. Prick out, and give plenty of water. Chamomile may be propagated by dividing the roots. Chervil.—Sow in shallow drills. Chicory.—Sow thinly, in rows 8 inches apart, for plants to blanch in winter. Clary.—Sow, if not done last month. Com Salad.—Sow for succession. Cress. — Keep up a succession, by sowing weekly in a warm situation. Dill may be soaa-ii. Endive.—A small quantity of the French Small Green Curled may be sown, to come in early. Fennel.—Soaa-, or plant slips, if not done last month. Garlic.—Stir the soil betAveen the rows. Hyssop.—Soav; or it may be propagated by rooted slips, or eAren cutting's. Kidney Beans.—In the beginning of the month soAAr a feAV in a Avann soil and situation; also some in pots under protection, in case of the former failing. A fuller crop, for a succession, should be sown about the end of the month. Kohl Rabi.—A little of the Early "White Vienna may be soavii at the end of the month, for use Avhen young, instead of turnips, if these should fail in very hot dry Aveather. Lavender.—Soav, or propagate by cuttings and slips. Leeks.—If the main crop Avas not soAvn last month, it should hoav be done. A late crop may also be soavh at the end of the month. Lettuce.—Soaa* successions, especially of White Paris Cos and Neapolitan Cabbage lettuce. Plant out from frames. Tie up the plants Avhich are of sufficient size. Marigold.—Soav in shallow drills. Marjoram (Sweet).—Soav, in the beginning of the month, on a Avarm border. (Pot) DiAude. Mint.—Propagate by d Vision. Mustard.—Keep up a succession, by soAving frequently. Nasturtiums.—Soav in iws, in a compartment, or in a single Tent' in front of a paling. The latter mode is preferable. Onions.—If the main crop Avas not soavii last month, the sooner it is done the better. Hoe and thin the autumn-soAvn ones. Parsley.—Hamburgh Parsley, Avliicli is culti-vated for its roots, should be soavii in the beginning of the month. Soav the curled A'arieties for garnishing. Parsnips.—Soav early in the month, if not already done. Pease. — Continue to soav in succession, including good breadths of Yeiteli’s Perfection and other Marrows. In large gardens Knight’s Tall MarroAA’ should be soavii, as it produces abundantly and in succession. The ground for this should be Avell manured, and the i'oavs not less than (i feet apart. Pennyroyal.—Plant slips. Potatoes.—Diuav earth to the plants as they appear aboA'e ground. Purslane.—Soaa1- on a warm border broadcast, or in shalloAV drills 9 inches apart. Radishes.—Soav successions once a fortnight, | or more frequently if necessary. Rhubarb.—Soav seed in light rich soil. Re-I moAre the floAver stems Avhen seed is not to be | saA'ed. Rocambole.—Plant, if not before done. Rosemary.—Soav, or propagate by rooted slips. Rue.—Soav seeds, or propagate by cuttings. Sage.—Propagate by slips in a shady border, and coA'er AA'ith a hand-glass. Salsafy. —Soav, in the end of the month, in an inch deep and a foot apart. Samphire.—Soaa- seeds, or divide the roots. Savory (Summer), -r-Soav early in the month on a Avarm [border. It inter Savory may also then be soaa'11, or it may be propagated by diA’iding the plant, or by cutting's of the young shoots. Savoys.—Soaa' in the middle of the month for late supply. Scor:onera,~^So\\ the principal crop in the end of the month. Scurvy Grass.—Soav on a cool border. Sea Kale..—In the beginning of the month soav seeds, or propagate by cuttings of the roots, if neAv plantations are required. Shallots.—Hoe and loosen the soil about the plants.CALENDAR OF GARDEN OPERATIONS. xvn Skirret.—Sow on rich light soil, and afterwards thin to 6 inches apart. Sorrel.— Sow, or propagate by dividing the roots. Spinach.-^■'Sow successions of the Roundleaved. Tansy.—-Divide the roots, if a new plantation be required. Tarragon.^-Propagate by rooted slips; avoid planting in heavy, damp soil. Thyme.—Sow in light soil, or propagate by dividing the plant. Turnips.— Sow successions. Hoe and thin crops already up. II.—HARDY FRUIT DEPARTMENT. It is presumed that the planting and pruning of fruit-trees, as formerly recommended, are now finished, unless delayed in consequence of bad weather, or other unavoidable causes. The fig may be pruned in the beginning of the month. Apple and pear trees may yet be grafted. Apricots should be thinned. Continue to protect peaches and nectarines; but see that the coverings are not producing, by their warmth, tender foliage, that would afterwards suffer from exposure. If such is likely to take place, the protecting materials must be reduced. Disbud when any of the shoots have pushed so far as to require removal; but let this be done sparingly at first, and always gradually. If cold weather check, in a great measure, the flow of the sap, desist from checking it still more by disbudding, till the circulation again becomes more active. Attend to newly grafted trees, and replace the clay if it has dropped off. In case of parching winds, some grafts may require to have moss tied over the clay, and to be kept moist. See that apricots and other wall-trees are not too dry at the roots. Weed strawberry plantations, and water them plentifully, in order to wash down the nutritive principles of the mulching to the extremities of the roots. III.H-FORCING DEPARTMENT. Capsicums.—Shift into larger pots; place near the light in some forcing-house. Carrots. *■— Expose freely in fine weather. Water so that the extremities of the roots may find sufficient moisture. Keep the foliage clean by syringing. Cauli/loicers. —Moisten well the soil in the frames two days before planting out. Celery.—Prick out 4 inches apart, on a layer of rotten dung mixed with old cucumber mould, or melon loam, laid about 4 inches thick on hard ground. Attend well to the watering of the plants, and shelter if the weather be unfavourable. Egg Plant.—Train with one stem, pinch it in order that it may form two branches, which should afterwards be likewise pinched to form others. Keep the plants near the light, and give an increased quantity of air as the season advances. Syringe frequently. These plants soon evaporate the water supplied to the roots. Endive.—Sow in a heat of from 75° to 80“, for if germinated slowly the plants are apt to run quickly to flower. Harden off gradually before planting out. Gourds.—Sow in heat in the beginning of the month. Kidney Beans.—Sow for succession. Lettuce.—Expose freely, day and night, in favourable weather. Mushroo»i.s.g3-Col 1 ect horse-droppings, and keep them in a thin layer in a dry place till wanted for new beds. Maintain a moist atmosphere in the musliroom-liouse, with a temperature of between 60° and 65°. Onions.-STransplant, after previous free exposure, those raised in heat. Potatoes.—Those requiring to be earthed up should be effectually watered, and after this, when the surface is dry, the earth should be added. Radishes.^ Those forwarded in frames should now be freely exposed. Cucumbers.—Maintain the heat previously recommended. If cold north or east winds iirevail, take great care not to admit an unbroken current of air. This object may be attained by drawing screens of gauS over the openings, which will require to be limited according to the briskness and coldness of the wind. Water or syringe the foliage through a fine rose before*!)utting up, which should be early in the afternoon. It is easy to see if the surface of the soil is already moist enough; but it is highly m^^pary to ascertain itHcondition as far down as the roots extend, and, if too dry, use water within a degree or so of the temperature of the soil, or about 80°. "With water of this temperature the bed may be thoroughly soaked, except near the stems of the plants. Train, stop, and regulate the shoots frequently. Sow for ridging out. Melons.—Attend to giving air and water as directed for cucumbers. Train so that no more shoots are allowed to grow than can have the foliage they produce fully exposed to light. Fertilize the female blossoms when the plants are strong enough to bring forward the fruit. Sow for a succession. Pine Apples.—Newly shifted plants should bCALENDAR OF GARDEN OPERATIONS. xvm have but little water at the roots till fresh ones begin to be emitted; when this is the case, and as the season advances, more air and water will be required. Plants ripening off their fruit should have a dry atmosphere, with a temperature of 84°, and by sun-heat 95°. Vines.—Attend to stopping and regulating the shoots, as before directed. Maintain a gradually increasing temperature as the berries increase in size. The vine will bear a much wider range of daily temperature than tropical plants will; but at the same time the average temperature to which it is subjected must progress. If it remain uniform for several weeks, the fruit will not attain the highest perfection; and if the temperature should be, on the average, uniformly j lower than it ought to be for a week or two, and lower than it had previously been, the berries will be apt to shrivel, and will never become sugary. Figs.—As the fruit swells increase the heat, and of course the moisture; but the latter must be limited when the fruit is ripening. Peaches and Nectarines.—Tie in the shoots as they advance in growth, and in the first place those which would otherwise become too luxuriant. They may be laid in closely to the naked j parts of branches, but those springing nearest the bases of the bearing shoots, or elsewhere, and eligible for succession shoots, ought not to be crowded. Keep the foliage clean by frequent syringing, and the border should be duly watered. Give air in the morning, and reduce it when the temperature from sun-heat begins to decline. Cherfies.—As the fruit begins to colour, the temperature may be allowed to rise as high as 85° by sun-heat, and at night it may range from 55° to 60°. The fruit should be ripened oil in a dry atmosphere. Strawberries.—Clear manure water may be given alternately with pure water, unless the plants are inclined to grow too much to leaf. Clip off the upper part of the scape, as before directed, when a sufficient number of fruit is set below. IV.—FLOWER GARDEN AND PLEASURE GROUNDS. As evergreens may now be planted, alterations and new works should be completed as early as possible. The borders and beds can then be kept neatly hoed and raked, the grass well rolled and mown. The walks should be kept free from weeds, and rendered firm and smooth by rolling. Spring flowers should be in sufficient abundance to give a varied colouring, and so that, either near or at distant points of view, flowers may be seen even at this early season. Examine the stock of bedding-out plants, in order to ascertain the quantity of each kind available for planting out. This being done, the plan can be laid for completely furnishing the respective beds and borders throughout the season. Plant perennials and bedding-out plants, according to the state of the weather; in short, all kinds of herbaceous plants that are not too tender, or too far advanced in growth. Sow annual, biennial, and perennial flower seeds. Some of the former may be sown in the beginning, and the same sorts again in the end of the month for a succession. Prune evergreens; remove suckers from rose trees. Water all newly planted trees when necessary. V.—PITS AND FRAMES. Harden off bedding-out plants by free exposure to air and light. If the weather is mild many of these may be planted out, and others may be placed under temporary protections, in a warm sheltered situation, in order that the frames may be occupied with other plants. Auriculas.—These will now require plenty of water, but not on the foliage. Shade from too strong sun when in flower. Balsams.—Shift into very rich compost, and always before the roots get crowded. Calceolarias.—Shift finally, and continue to fumigate if necessary, taking care in so doing not to injure the foliage. Carnatiom.—Sow in gentle heat. Shift finally, and plant out in the borders or beds. Chrysanthemums.—Repot November and December struck cuttings. A quantity may also be taken off and treated as recommended last month. Stop the plants when 6 inches high. Cinerarias.—Sow for autumn flowering as directed last month. Dahlias.—Pot off cuttings that have rooted; keep them growing in gentle heat, but harden off preparatory to planting out next month. Continue to propagate by cuttings; seeds may also be sown. Fuchsias.—Take off cuttings; pot and repot those struck as required. Heartsease.—Sow seed in a cold frame, and plant out seedlings. Hollyhocks.—Plant out some for early blooming, and pot off seedlings. Hyacinths.—When their bloom is over these may either be kept in their pots and placed out of doors till the leaves die down, or turned out at once in the borders without disturbing the roots. They will sometimes bloom tolerably wellCALENDAR OF GARDEN OPERATIONS. xix the second year, but for in-door cultivation are useless. Pelargoniums.—Those not in bloom may be slightly syringed three or four times a week, before shutting up. Fumigate in case of green tly. Give air on all favourable opportunities, and attend to training and regulating the plants. Pei watas.-"“Harden off preparatory to planting out. Roses in pots. Attend to watering, and give occasional supplies of manure water. VI.—GREENHOUSE. The sun will generally afford sufficient heat for the plants in this structure, and sometimes even shading will be necessary. Abundance of air must be given, and, in proportion to its heat and dryness, an increased supply of water will be necessary. But this must not be given indiscriminately, for plants that are making but little growth will require a much less supply than those that are vigorous. Syringe the plants over-head several times a wreek. Thin out shoots, and stop those which would otherwise not branch so as to form compact heads. Early flowering shrubby plants may be more or less pruned soon after the flowering is over. Repot those that are growing rapidly before their roots are too crowded, unless in cases where a moderate check is intended, in Older to dispose the plants to flower. The propagation of most kinds of greenhouse plants may now be effected. VII.—PLANT STOVE. The external rise of temperature of this month being considerable, less fire-heat will be required to maintain a higher temperature than was advisable in the previous one; at the same time more air may be admitted. Water and syringe more freely. Shading, particularly for orchids, will be absolutely necessary, but it should be removed as early as possible in the afternoon. The house may be shut up, or nearly so, with a temperature from sun-heat of 85°. Continue to shift, propagate, and train, as circumstances require. Rot off seedling plants. MAY. I.-—(KITCHEN GARDEN DEPARTMENT. Kxamine all seed-beds, in order to detect failures, and, if there are any, sow again immediately. The hoe should now be employed among rising Bops. Weeding should be attended to wherever there is the least occasion, and thinning should take place before the plants encroach upon each other, either in the seed-beds or in the permanently sown crops in the borders and quarters. Water only when absolutely necessary; but when watering is performed it should be done effectually. When the nights are cold, and the days hot and dry, this operation should be commenced as soon in the afternoon as the sun-heat is on the decline. After such plentiful watering let the surface of the ground become dry, then hoe and pulverize it, and, if this state be maintained, watering will not require to be so soon repeated. American Cress.—Sow. Angelica.—Cut down the stems; for, if allowed to run to seed, the plant will die off soon afterwards. A sparagus.—'YAie shoots should be regularly cut as they become fit; none should be left to grow up until the season when cutting should be entirely discontinued. Take care not to injure the crown of the plants, nor shoots below the surface, with the knife. This is a good time to make fresh plantations. Basil.—Plant out with balls in rich warm soil; shade and water till re-established. Beans.—Sow successions; earth up and top crops sufficiently advanced. /j'eeiH-In warm localities sow the main crop in the beginning of the month. Thin early sown crops. Borage.—Sow a little for a succession. Borecole.—According to the situation, sow from the first to the third vRk for succfflfion. Broccoli.—Sow the principal cropH of early kinds from the first to the third week, and a succession of Snow’s Superb Winter White, if not done at the end of the previous month; also sucffis-sions of the late kinds. Brussels Sprouts.—Plant out some for early use. Cabbage.—Sow Early York, or allied kinds, for hearting early in winter. Plant out for principal summer crops as soon as the plants in the seed-beds are fit, taking advantRe of cloudy weather, if such occur. It is better to plant when the weather is likely to change from dry to wet, than at the end of a wet period. Caps('e ?«« es.-MS o m e may be planted out in a warm situation, protecting them at night. t'«/Y/oo/i,s,HBow at the beginning of the month, if not done previously. Carrots.—Sow some in the first fortnight for drawing young. Thin as soon as the strongest plants can be distinguished. Weed and hoe between the rows of those already up. Caul (flowers, —Those forwarded under glass should be planted out when the ground is moist.XX CALENDAR OF GARDEN OPERATIONS. The crop for autumn use should be sown before the 24tli. Water the plants copiously when they require it, and protect formed heads from the sun by breaking leaves over them, otherwise the curd will not be pure white. Celery.—Prepare trenches, for an early crop, or 4 feet apart, 1 spit deep, and 18 inches ? wide, laying the earth with a good slope, in order to catch the rain. Abundance of manure, consisting of a mixture of cow-dung and rotten stable-dung, should be dug in the bottom of the trenches. Carefully remove all suckers from the plants; then plant them about 9 inches apart, and water immediately. Chervil.—Sow for succession. Chicory.—Sow for blanching. Corn Salad.—Make successional sowings. Cress. ■— Make successional sowings. Plant Water Cress. Cucumbers.—Prepare ridges for gherkins, for pickling. The seeds may be sown on the ridges under hand-glasses; or plants, reared in pots for the purpose, may be planted out, if the weather be sufficiently mild. They should be protected at night. Egg Plants.—Towards the end of the month some of these may be planted out on a rich warm border, at the foot of a south Avail. Endive.-—Small soAvings of the Green Curled, for early use, may be mad^ at the beginning and end of the month. Gourds.—Plant out into the open ground, in the end of the month, protecting at night; or soav in the last Aveek, in a Avana situation. Kidney Beams.—Plant out from under glass. Soav the main crop in the first AAreek. Kohl Ilabi.—Soav for succession. Leeds.—Soav for a late crop, and transplant the earlier soavii ones. Lettuce.—Soav successions of the White Paris Cos, also Malta and Neapolitan Cabbage lettuces; transplant from seed-beds; tie up for blanching such plants as require this to be done. Marjoram (Sweet).—Plant out on a south border. Mustard.—Soav successions. New Zealand Spinach.—Plant out in the end of the month. Onions.-r-So'w in the beginning of the month for taking up in autumn, and replanting in February. The smallest may be used, if required, for pickling. Hoe, thin, and weed. Parsley.—If not done last month, make a successional soAving. Parsn ips.—IIoe, and thin out to 8 inches or 1 foot apart. Pease.—Top the early sorts Avhen they come into bloom; dniAv a little earth to those just above ground. Soa\’ successions, and some of Knight’s Dwarf MarroAv, at the end of the month, for a late crop. Potatoes.— Hoe betAveen the i’oavs, and earth up such as are above ground. Purslane.—A little more may be soavii. Radishes.—Make successional SoAvings in a shady situation. Rampioit.-^Soav about the end of the month, on a shady border of rich earth. Rhubarb.—PemoA'e floAver stalks as they ap- pear. Sage may be propagated by slips. Salsafy.—Make a small successional soAving toAA'ards the end of the month. Savoys.—Soav for the latest crops. Scarlet Ruiuiers.Sow in the first Aveek for the earliest Crop; if injured by cold Aveatlier, soav again at the end of the month. Scorzonera.—Soav a little more in the course of the month, lest the first soAving should run to seed. Spinach.—Soav successions. Thin out advanced crops, and clear ground of Avinter crops. Tomatoes.—Plant out against a Avail in the end of the month. Turnips.—Soav for summer use. Thin out crops sufficiently advanced. II.—HARDY FRUIT DEPARTMENT. Wall-trees must doav be carefully inspected, as the shoots Avill indicate, by their respective degrees of A'igour in pushing, the parts of the tree to Avliich a superabundant flow of sap is tending. There is little danger of this in the horizontally inclined bianclies of fan-trained trees; but Avitli respect to those that are A'ertically situated, early attention is necessary. The shoots on these, I if not checked, Avill soon monopolize an undue share of sap; an equal distribution of it should be aimed at, if Ave Avisli to maintain the regularity, health, and productiveness of the trees. The more shoots and leaves there are on any branch, the more abundant will be the floAv of sap through that branch toAvards them, and that at the expense of the less favourably situated branches. Therefore all shoots not Avanted in the more A-ig-orous parts of the tree should be early removed; those on the Aveaker parts should be sparingly dealt Avitli, for, Avhilst they can be left, they tend to establish a stronger floAv of sap in the direction most desirable. Shoots that must be left on strong parts, and likely to become OATer-Arigorous, should be stopped AA'hen about 6 inches in length, in order to form tAvo shoots of moderate strength. Train and nail shoots as their groAvtli requires.CALENDAR OF GARDEN OPERATIONS. xxi Thin apricots, if not previously done sufficiently; also peaches and nectarines. Syringe the trees frequently, early in the morning if the nights are cold, but otherwise commence about four in the afternoon. Use means, previously recommended, to keep the trees clear of insects. Apply sulphur for mildew. Pick off all curled and blistered leaves. Examine the state of the border, ami see that it is sufficiently moist for the roots. Remove suckers. Weed and water strawberry plantations. Syringe grafts with a fine rose. Secure the shoots of budded trees. III.—FORCING DEPARTMENT. Basil*—-Plant out in the end of the month. Egg /Ya«t.—Those sown in March should now be shifted into larger pots for fruiting under glasS. mr planted out in a warm situation at the end of the month. Endive is apt to run early to seed if it linger in vegetating; therefore, if the ground be cold out of doors, sow in a tolerably brisk heat, but give plenty of air when the plants appear above ground. Gourds>—Harden off, and plant out. Kidney Beans.—Harden off, for planting out, as soon as the weather is favourable. Mushrooms.-—Maintain a steady temperature, and keep the air of the house moist, so that little water may be necessary. Tomatoes should be almost fully exposed, in order to harden ofi' for planting out towards the end of the month. They should be protected for some time after planting out, if cold nights ensue. Cucumbers.—Maintain a steady bottom heat, and take care that the air in the frames does not at any time get too cold, more especially when cold weather sets in after a series of warm days and nights; for in this case the plants will more readily exhibit the effects of the change. Unless these effects are counteracted by additional covering, fruits that are making rapid growth will be checked, after which they will not become handsome, although their growth may be resumed under favourable circumstances. Inspect every shoot, and consider what will be the consequence of leaving it, as regards space, in the frame; and if it is foreseen that there will not be room for it, remove it at an early stage. By so doing, regularity will be easily and advantageously maintained. Stop, as before recommended. Sow, in the beginning of the month, for planting out under hand-idasses. Melons.—Continue to stop laterals, and set blossoms. Remove all sickly leaves, and see that there be no excess of dryness, either in the soil or in the air of the frame. If red spider appear, no time should be lost in adopting means to prevent its increase. If moisture is raised when the air of the frame is at & lower temperature than the soil in which the roots afe, the moisture will soon evaporate, and leave the plants dry, because they will be warmer than the vapour. O11 the Other hand, if vapour be raised when the air of the frames is of a higher temperature than the bottom heat, the moisture will remain condensed on the plants, so that the insects cannot thrive. When the fruit is swelled, and commencing to ripen, water must be almost entirely withheld, otherwise the flavour would beg deteriorated. The fiant should b|Jpla will flow to them rather than to the fruiting branches. Peaches and Nectarines.—When the crop is gathered, the border should be examined to see that it has not become too dry; and if it has, it should be moderately watered. The trees should be regularly syringed, and air freely admitted, in order to ripen the wood. If the weather is favourable, the lights may be entirely taken off. Strawberries.—Shift into larger pots those that were layered for forcing. IV.—FLOWER GARDEN AND PLEASURE GROUNDS. The lawns, walks, and borders should be kept in high order, as before directed. Clip hedged and in so doing recollect that the narrower they are kept at top the less naked they will be at bottom. If they bound or intersect a place laid out in the geometrical Style, it may be desirable to cut their sides perpendicularly, or so little narrower at top than at bottom as not to be perceptible; but there can be no necessity for having hedges in the smallest degree wider at top than at bottom. Cut in this manner they are decidedly unsightly, and the more care that is taken to trim neatly on this bad principle, the more Unsightly do they appear. Clip box edgings, choosing cloudy weather. Cut in laurels and other shrubs that are overgrowing adjoining plants. Cut out decaying stalks of herbaceous plants from amongst the fresh foliage at bottom, but the latter should not be shorn off at the same time, as is sometimes done. Various rock plants will require to be kept from overrunning their proper bounds, and thus in a great measure, effacing all variety of plants and surface. Continue to tie up flower-stems that require support. Gather seeds of choice flowers as they ripen. Train climberM Roses on walls should be nailed first at the top, if it be not desirable to have the lower part of the wall almost naked. Bud roses, and loosen the ties of those previously budded. PropRate bedding pelargoniums in as large numbei’s asBan be wintered. They now strikS freely out of doors. Take off and pot layers when sufficiently rooted; layer where not already done. V.—riTS AND FRAMES. The cuttings of any plants which it is desirable to propagate should be put in as soon as possible, in order that they may get well iffi)ted before winter. Pot off such as are already sufficiently rooted. Prick out seedling jilantH"' Sow choice annuals for flowering in the greenhouse RelHiing such kinds as will give variety of colour, either among themselves, or along with the grefflhouse plants that will be in flower when these auxiliaries are introduced. Anagallis.—Propagate by cuttings. Auriculas,-—The general repotting should be completed by the middle of this month; place the ] Hits in a frame facing the north, and keep close for some days. Calceolarias.^Ywt in cuttings, and sow seed as it ripens. Camellias.—Propagate the Single Red by cuttings, for stocks. Cinerarias. —Sow for summer flowering. Heartsease.—Sow in pans, and place in a cold frame. Cuttings may still be put in.XXXIV CALENDAR, OF GARDEN OPERATIONS. Mignonette.—Sow in pots for winter flowering. Place in a frame, blit give abundance of air. Pelargoniums.—When the first cut down plants have pushed sufficiently, take them out of the pots, and shake the old soil from the roots; shorten the straggling shoots, and repot in smaller pots. Keep close until the plants take fresh root, till which time water will scarcely be required, but the tops may be slightly dewed over occasionally with a fine rose. Propagate by cuttings; and seeds may be sown. Petunias. — Propagate by cuttings for next year. Pinks.—Rooted pipings should be protected from too hot sun, but otherwise they should be freely exposed, night and day, preparatory to planting them out. Pot for forcing. Posts.—Cuttings may be put in frames, or in a warm border under a shaded hand-glass. Stocks.—Sow ten-week, for winter flowering. Verbenas.—Propagate by cuttings. Violets.—Plant the Neapolitan on a prepared bed adapted for being covered with a frame in winter. Pot for forcing. VI. —GREENHOUSE. Shift plants that are growing vigorously, and have filled their pots with roots. In doing this, more care is requisite than when the plants are in a less active state of growth. Shade and keep the plants rather close till they take fresh root. Keep the pots free from moss, and refresh the soil by top-dressings. Continue to prune, stop, and train, as before directed. Remove decayed leaves and flowers. Shade plants in flower, and likewise others when the sun is strong. Bud oranges and lemons. Take in succulent plants,1 if much wet prevail; and also camellias, if they have formed their flower-buds. Attend well to the watering of all plants in dry weather, and particularly to those growing in peat, such as epa-crises, &c. Manure water may be given to various plants after they have set for bloom. VII. -PLANT STOVE. The temperature should be maintained, so as to admit of more air to ripen the growth made in the course of the summer, but the house should be shut up early. AVhere it is desirable that plants should not make much growth late in the season, the water afforded them should be somewhat limited. Continue to stop irregular shoots. Attend frequently to the training of creepers, for by so doing the operation can be much more easily and better performed than when the shoots get much entangled. Bring in succulents from frames. Shift such plants as require it, and especially those for flowering in winter and spring. Orchids should have a temperature of 75“ by night, and 80“ to 90' by sun-lieat. Close up early in the afternoon. SEPTEMBER. I.—KITCHEN GARDEN DEPARTMENT. In dry weather the ground should be kept well hoed, so that not a vestige of weeds may be seen when wet sets in. There will then be less occasion to tread and puddle the ground in attempting to destroy weeds when the state of the weather is unfavour:tide. Cabbage.—Plant out, from the principal autumn sowing, 2 feet apart each way, to remain for hearting; and plants may be inserted intermediately for use as coleworts. Cardoons. — Band, and earth up full-grown plants to blanch. Cauliflowers.— Plant out the August sowing where the plants can be protected by handglasses, or other means. If the weather is mild, another small sowing may be made about the middle of the month on a warm border. Celery.—Earth up for winter use, performing the operation when the soil is dry. Chervil.—A small sowing may be made for winter supply. Sow Tuberous-rooted. Coriander.—Sow thinly. Corn Salad.—Sow for winter and spring use. Cress.—Continue to sow the Common; at the beginning of the month sow also Golden, American, and the Curled or Normandy, at the foot of a south aspect wall, to afford a winter and spring supply. Cucumbers.—Gather for pickling. Endive.—Plant out successions of Green Curled and Batavian, and tie up for blanching those sufficiently advanced. Lavender.—Plant slips a foot apart. Leeks.—Draw a little earth to the roots. Lettuce.—Plant out successions in sheltered situations, and tie up plants as they become fit. Another sowing of the sorts recommended last month may be made towards the middle of this. Mustard.—Keep up a succession. Cbno/is.—-Take up any that may not have been fit last month. House those which are sufficiently dry. Parsley.— Cut down, in order that young leaves may be formed before winter.CALENDAR OF GARDEN OPERATIONS. xxxv Pease.—-Water the late crop, if the weather is dry. Pennyroyal may be divided. 7'otafoes.—-Take up and store. lladishes.—A small sowing may be made for late supply. Spinach.—Hoe and thin. If not already done, the winter crop should be sown early in the month. Turnips.—Hoe and thin. II.™-HARDY FRUIT DEPARTMENT. In this month the protection of ripening fruit, and the gathering of it when it is fit, require the most urgent attention. Peaches and nectarines attract thousands of enemies, consisting of wasps, earwigs, flies, and ants; and in moist weather snails even will set upon the nectarines. The various insects attack in preference the best and fairest fruits. The greatest connoisseur could not better select the finest flavoured. Every available means should therefore be taken to prevent the depredations which would otherwise be made. Earwigs must be trapped in bean-stalks, as previously directed, and wasps enticed by some sweet beverage into bottles. Wood-lice and ants will be inclined to emigrate if their haunts and hiding-places are daily broken in upon by the hoe and rake; of the latter implement it can also be affirmed that where it has been recently plied along the bottom of the wall, and on the border, certain bipeds do not like to tread. The leaves that shade peaches and nectarines should be turned aside, that the fruit may be ex-pofll to the direct rays of the sun. When the fruit of a poach or nectarine tree are all gathered, the succjjteion shoots should be looked to, and, if any of them are crowded, the shoots that have borne fruit should be cut back close to the base of the succession shoot. This being done, let the trees lie frequently syringed. The shoots of pear trees on walls will have pushed again; let these secondary growths be cut back to within 2 inches of their origin. Prepare ground for strawberry plantations, and plant in dull weather; or the runners may be planted 6 inches apart in nursery beds. III.**-FORCIXG DEPARTMENT. Kidney Beans.-— Sow in pots or boxes for use in November. Let the pots be only half-filled with soil to allow of earthing up the young steins. Mushrooms.—In this month the spawn naturally vegetates more freely than in any other, and it is found to be the most proper time for making beds for a supply from November till spring. Spawn may be introduced when the heat of the bed is 70°, and a little air should be given. When the heat of the beds declines sometime after Spawning, cover them over with a layer of straw; but care must be taken that this do not cause them to become too hot. If this is likely to be the case, the covering must be made lighter. Between 55° and 60" is a good temperature for beds in bearing. CuCWmbers.—Plant in pits, or rear in boxes, the plants raised from Seed sown last month for winter bearing. Sow again at the end of the month. Keep up the heat to those that are in bearing. Melons.■—In this month the temperature naturally declines to a considerable extent; but fruit, as it approaches maturity, should have an increased rather than a diminished temperature; therefore more artificial hBt must beHiven for this purpose; the linings must be turned,Hnd if necessary more fermentinjp materials should be added. When the heat is well kept up, more air i can be given than would otherwise be the case, j and, consequently, the fruit will be better flavoured. Attend frequently to stopping laterals, so that there may be few to cut out at any one time. Little water should be given, but in fine weather the folia® may be refreshed by sprinkling it in the morningywith a fine Pine Apples.—Shift all that require m^Hspace for their roots. Continue to plant Bickers and crowns immediately the moisture iHlried at the ends. When planted or potted, water will not be required till they begin tjnpush roots yhnd till these are formed, the leaveOsliould not I^Sxposed to sun, nor to the dryinH effects of ^Kircula-tion of air, but, on tliabontrary, tlieyBiould be kept shaded, and in a warm mc^El atnmsphere. When rooted, air should be moiHfreely admitted, in order that the plants may not grow too slenBr, and they should then be plaffid near the light. Fruits that are swelling should liavHi high and nither moist temperature, with® bottom-heat of j 84"; the top-heat for tliSe may be 75" at iii®t, and from 80° to 90° by day. If the tan has iSn taken away from the sides of the pKs on account of too great heat, let it be repl^H. as Hon as the temperature of the bed falls to 84". Gradually reduce the supply of moisture aHtlH fruit approaches maturity. Give manure watH to succession plants, and more of it in clear weather than in dull, for in the latter they could not so well digest it. Syringe with water of the temperature of 80s. A little air should be Eiven in the morning, but the house should be shut up early in the afternoon. Vines.—The wood in the earliest vinery oughtXXXVI CALENDAR OF GARDEN OPERATIONS. now to be thoroughly matured. The house should be thrown open night and day, in order to keep the temperature low. Vegetation being thus rendered inactive, the vines should be pruned. In doing this, according to the spur method, any of them that are too long should be cut nearly close to the branch from which they proceed. In vineries where the grapes have only just been gathered, and the foliage is not yet decayed, attention must be paid to the ripening of the wood, by admitting plenty of air and sun; and a little fire-heat will be necessary when the weather is dull, air being given at the same time. When the fruit is commencing to colour in the latest house, plenty of air must be given dui’ing the day, and a moderate quantity at night. This free circulation of air will require fire-heat at night, and occasionally a little through the day. Remove superfluous shoots and laterals, and syringe the foliage, so as to keep it always clean and healthy. Vines in pots may now be started. Figs.—Attend to former directions as regards a regular and plentiful supply of water, and if the plants are not over-vigorous, manure water may be given to those on which the fruit is swelling. As the fruit ripens, the supply of water must be limited; but still, in this case, the quantity, though less, must be judiciously administered, and so that at no period the tissue of the plants shall get too much dried up. Peaches and Nectarines.—When the leaves begin to lose their hold, take a fine-twigged broom, and draw it lightly in a direction from the base to the extremities of the shoots, so as not to injure the buds. Repeat this operation at intervals, till the whole are removed. Let all the leaves be picked up from the floor of the house after each brooming. Expose the trees to sun and air. The house should be cleaned, and painted if necessary, and likewise the sashes. IV.—FLOWER GARDEN AND PLEASURE GROUNDS. Continue to hoe and rake borders, and to weed and roll walks. Sweep, roll, and mow lawns; and where worm-casts abound on these, they should be raked over with an iron rake, having short, curved, and thickly-set teeth. After wet it would be well to roll the margins of walks. This will press them a little beyond their proper limits; then stretch the line, and with the edging-iron cut the edging afresh, so as to give the walk its proper breadth. Turf may now be laid; and if the weather is dull, and the nights mild and dewy, as is generally the case in this month, the grass will soon take fresh root, and will become well established before winter; as will likewise box, and other edgings, if now laid. Dig, trench, or otherwise prepare ground for bulbous roots, various kinds of which, taken up after blooming, may be planted such as lilies, narcissus, some of the smaller bulbs of tulips, but not the principal ones, snowdrops, hyacinths, crocuses, anemones, and ranunculuses. Plant perennials that have been cut back after flowering; also pinks, carnations, polyanthus, and seedling heartsease. Remove and plant evergreens towards the end of the month. Fill up vacancies with reserve flowering plants, so as to maintain a varied display of colour in the beds and borders. Propagate, if required, evergreens, by cuttings and layers. Sow mignonette, ten-week stocks, and various annuals, to flower early next summer. Continue to remove decaying stalks of all herbaceous plants after flowering. Prune and nail creepers. Tie up dahlias, and other plants; also shade the dowel’s of such as require it. Gather seeds of all choice plants as they ripen. V.—riTS AND FRAMES. Continue to pot off cuttings as they become sufficiently rooted. These, and plants that are shifted, should be kept in a close frame, shaded from strong sun, till they strike fresh root. Water when the plants require it, but rather in the mornings than at night. Bulbs that have nearly completed their growth should have the supply of water gradually diminished. Air should be freely given, to render the growth of plants more firm, so that they may the better stand the winter. Pinch off the tops of any shoots that are growing too long and straggling. Thin annuals sown in pots. Propagate half-hardy plants by cuttings. Pot bulbs in sandy peat and loam, for forcing. Sow annuals, such as rhodanthe, scliizantlius, col-linsia, ten-week stocks, &c. Calceolarias.—Repot seedlings; keep clear from green fly. Carnations.—In the end of the month, pot those that are to be wintered in frames, and place the plants near the glass, but shade from too strong sun. When lay el's are taken off from the stools, the latter may be potted for forcing. Chrysanthemums.—Water with liquid manure. Thin the buds where particularly fine specimens of dowel’s are desired. Fuchsias.—The plants in flower should be kept rather cool, and have but little water. Hyacinths.—Pot bulbs in the first fortnight for flowering about Christmas. Prepare a compost of two parts turfy loam, and one part well-decayed leaf-mould, with a plentiful admixture of silver sand. Instead of leaf-mould, old hot-bed manure, decayed cow-dung, or cocoa-nut fibre refuse may be employed. The last-named substance greatly encourages the plentiful production of roots, in-CALENDAR OF GARDEN OPERATIONS. xxxvn deed hyacinths will flower well when grown in it with but a very small addition of soil. For the earliest potting, some cocoa-fibre refuse in the compost is very desirable, as to have early and good spikes of bloom it is important to get the pots quickly and well filled with roots. Use 5 or 6 inch pots, placing a large crock at the bottom, and two or three small ones over it; then partially fill the pots with soil, press it a little, sprinkle a little silver sand in the centre, place the bulb, and then fill up with soil so as to leave fully one-fourth of the bulb above the surface. When all are potted, water to settle the soil; place the pots on a hard bottom out of doors, or in a cool frame, and cover them 6 inches deep with leaf-mould, cocoa-fibre, sand, or coal-ashes. A dark cellar, with an even temperature, will answer very well; but the soil must be examined from time to time, to see that it do not become too dry. Some varieties are naturally earlier flowering than others, and by growing these, as well as kinds which are slower in flowering, a better succession can be kept up than by growing either alone. Mignonette.—Sow in pots for succession. When the plants come up, thin them properly before the roots or tops affect each other. Attend carefully to give moderate watering. Pelargoniums.—Those standing out of doors should be taken in, sooner or later, according as the state of the weather may render necessary. Tub earlier in the month the better, if it is wet and cold. Pinks.—Some of these may be potted, to be preserved in frames for flowering in pots, or for planting out where vacancies may occur. Roses (in pots).—Prune for forcing. Those required to bloom the earliest should not be much •shortened, as the buds near the base of the shoots do not push so quickly as those near the extremities. Propagate China roses by cuttings. Verbenas.—Pot off singly in small pots, as the cuttings become rooted. VI.—G REEXHOUSE. I’reparations must now be made for bringing into the greenhouse the plants that were turned out. Complete, in the first place, all necessary repairs in the house. If heated by a flue, this should be examined, and cleaned if requisite; but, at all events, straw should be burned in the furnace, so as to produce a large volume of smoke, for the purpose of ascertaining whether there may be any cracks in the flue, by which gases could escape. Any large specimens left in the house should be taken through hand and thoroughly cleaned, as this can be done more readily before the other plants are introduced. According to the state of the weather, the plants must be taken in earlier or later in the month. Commence by bringing in the more tender sorts; and succulents ought not to be left exposed to continued damp or soaking rains. But, before any plants are taken in, see that they are in a good healthy condition, and that their drainage is perfect; if in any case it is not, then repot. Let the surface of the soil in all the pots be taken off, and replaced with fresh. The pots should be washed clean, and no moss should be allowed to appear. Plants in pots, on damp soil, will draw moisture from the latter, but, when deprived of this moisture by being placed on a dry stage, they are apt to suffer, if not well attended to with water. Give abundance of air to ripen the wood. Most plants will now bear the sun’s rays, so that little shading will be required. VII.1*—PLANT STOVE. The best time for encouraging the growth of stove exotics, is when the least artificial meaiffl I are required, when the heat of summer renders fires almost unneceiBary, and when the amount of light is greatest. That seasonjb nearly over; and it now becomes nec€®ary to prepare for the approach of winter, by endeavouriuja to give firmness to the growths already madeH rather than to encourage further luxuriance. Plenty of ■ air must therefore be given; the plants must be kept drier both at root and top; watjaashould be given in the mornings, so that it may evaporate before the house is shut up. Fire-heat, more or lesSMinav have to be applied at night, but the temperature should then be lower than in the previous months, when moisture was not necessarily withheld. Although drynafflis refflm-mended, it must not be carried too far; in other words, it must be understood, relatively, as a state of much less moisture than that maintained in former months, and it should be gradually brought on. If, in consequence of this drier condition, red spider, or other insects, make their appearance, the house must be occasionally shut up moist. Various plants may be removed to hot pits, to make room for others that will now have to be returned to the stove from the greenhouse, on the latter being filled with its proper inmates. Let these have their foliage and pots well cleaned before they are taken to their fresh quartern. By maintaining the heat in the orcliid-house throughout the day, and allowing a tolerably free circulation of air, the pseudo-bulbs will become firm and less apt to shrivel. The temperature at night should now be lowered to 70°.XXXV111 CALENDAR OF GARDEN OPERATIONS. OCTOBER. I.—KITCHEN GARDEN DEPARTMENT. Prepare vacant ground for future crops. Remove all fallen and decaying leaves; and continue to lioe, weed, and stir tlie ground occupied by crops. Dress the herb borders. Draw earth to the stems of the cabbage tribe. Beet.—Take up and store. Cabbage.—Finish planting out for spring use, and for coleworts. Cardoons.—Continue to band and earth up for blanching. Carrots.—Take up part of the crop and store in sand. Clean and thin young crops sown for use early in spring. Cauliflowers.—Prick out where the plants can be protected in winter, either by frames, handglasses, or hoops and mats. Celery.—Continue to earth up. Prepare thatched hurdles, or other materials, for protecting the plants from frost. Chervil may be sown for spring use. Chives.—Plant divisions of the roots in patches 6 inches apart. Corn Salad.—Make the last sowings for winter and spring use. Cress.—Make the last out-door sowings. In the middle of the month sow a succession of the Golden and Normandy. Cress ( Water).—Plant. Endive.-—Continue to blanch as it is required for use. The Curled may be blanched by laying tiles over it. Garlic.—Towards the end of the month plant the cloves, 6 inches apart, in shallow drills 1 foot asunder. Reserve part for another plantation in the spring; if the soil is damp the whole had better be deferred till that season. Lettuce.—The bed prepared at the end of July or beginning of August for the first main crop out of doors should be covered with frames, putting in 6 or 7 inches deep of light rich soil, so as to bring the surface to within 5 inches of the sashes. About the 11th of the month sow the White Pai'is Cos, or varieties of the same type, a little of the Green Paris Cos, and Neapolitan Cabbage Lettuce. Keep the sashes close and shaded till the seeds germinate, then give plenty of air. If a bed was not prepared beforehand one should be made up as early in the month as possible, or an old liot-bed with the frame filled up with soil will answer the purpose. Transplant under hand-glasses on a sloping bed with a southern aspect, or in frames, some of the Brown Cos, Green Paris Cos, and Hardy Hammersmith ; the main portion of the autumn sowings should be planted out on ridges, on sheltered borders, and at the foot of walls. Nasturtiums.—Gather for pickling. Onions.—In wet days look over those stored up, and remove any that may be spoiled. Potatoes.—Take up and store in narrow ridges. Expose the tubers to light as short a time as possible. Those intended for sets may, on the contrary, be greened in the sun. Radishes.—A small sowing may be made at the end of the month on a south border, to be protected in winter. Shallots.—The same remarks apply to this as to garlic. Tomatoes.—Gather fruit and hang up in a warm place, or lay them on a hurdle, or on wicker-work, in a frame or vinery. They will there ripen very well even if green when gathered. II.—HARDY FRUIT DEPARTMENT. Most kinds of apples and pears will be fit for gathering in the course of this month. As a general rule, they should be taken when the fruit readily parts from the spur on being lifted by the hand to a horizontal position. In that case the stalk does not break, but separates at its junction with the spur. But if it does not thus separate, and requires pulling or twisting to break, the fruit is, with some exceptions, not fit for gathering. Care should be taken not to bruise the fruit; it is covered with a sort of bloom or waxy matter which ought not to be rubbed off. Some, very properly, do not even touch very choice pears, but gather them by taking hold of the stalks. The late-keeping sorts; should be stored in a compartment where the exhalations from the early ripening kinds will not reach them. Admit air chiefly when the external tem-perature is equal to that inside the room, or nearly so. The surface of the fruit becomes wet when air of much higher temperature is brought in contact with it, the moisture of the air being condensed by the relatively colder fruit. Some kinds of plums, such as Coe’s Golden Drop, and Ickworth Impcratrice may be laid in a dry place for a week, and then wrapped in tissue paper and placed in shallow boxes, in a dry room, till required for use in winter. Gather filberts, medlars, quinces, and walnuts. Dry filberts on hurdles, for packing in jars, with their husks. Protect the fruit of late peaches on walls from cold at night. When the leaves of peach and nectarine trees begin to fall, take a fine-twigged birch broom and lightly touch the leaves, movingCALENDAR OF GARDEN OPERATIONS. xxxix the broom from the base of the branches towards their extremities. The leaves that are thus very easily removed are of no use as regards the vegetation of the tree; and by dispensing with them, more sun and air will be admitted for the better ripening of the wood of the young shoots. Collect soil for fruit-tree borders that require to be renewed, or for partial renewal, where trees require to be replaced. Planting may be commenced as soon as the leaves have dropped, but not before, otherwise they evaporate more moisture than the roots are prepared to supply, and consequently the shoots become shrivelled. Pro) i,agate gooseberries and currants by cuttings, taking care to pick out the eyes from the lower part of the cutting, and as high up as 3 inches above the depth to which it will be inserted in the soil. Make fresh plantations of raspberries and strawberries. III.—-FORCING DEPARTMENT. Chicory,—Take up and plant in pots or boxes for forcing. Endive.—Plant under hand-glasses, or in frames. Kidney Beans.—Earth up and place near the glass. Give water as they require it, which will be more frequently as the plants advance in growth. JAes/iroo ms.-■‘-Maintain a moist atmosphere by sprinkling the paths and other surfaces within the house; but water must not be applied directly to the beds. Where fire-heat is at command, or if the house is heated with pipes, a dense steam can easily be raised. The temperature of the air of the house should be about 60°. Admit a little fiesh air for a short time every day. Cucumbers.—Seed may be sown for winter produce, or plants propagated by cuttings. If seed be sown on the 1st the plants will be fit to transplant into the fruiting pit about the end of the month. It is highly essential that the young plants should be kept as near the glass as possible, without touching it. Without plenty of light they cannot make good roots. Jdelons may yet be fruited; but the sun’s rays, by which their flavour is chiefly influenced, have now much declined. Keep the plants warm and dry, giving as much air as the state of the weather will permit. Pine Apples.—If the bottom-heat is likely to decline below 84°, preparations to renew the bed must be made where tan and dung are used. In doing this, a portion of the old tan should be well mixed with the new, and some of the oldest will have to be dispensed with. It is, however, of essential importance that the plants should be raised as near the glass aS possible; and therefore the quantity removed must be regulated accordingly. If leaves are the heating material, Some hot tan should be worked in near the pots till the leaves can be collected. The fruiting plants should be put into a house by themselves, or if such accommodation cannot be afforded, they should be placed at the warmest end of the house. These plants should have manure water Occasionally till the fruit is swelled; but when this is the case, all watering should be j withheld, and it is desirable, on account of flavour, that they should be kept in a dry, hot, yet venti-| lated atmospherH of 70° at night, but with sun-I heat as high as 85° or 90° in the day. The.tem-i perature for succession plants should be gradually lowered in the course of the month to 60° at night, and should not exceed 70° by day. This temperature will not much excite their vegetation, and they will afterwards succeed better than if completely checked in their growth by the very low temperature to which they are ffimetimes artificially subjected. I nics.-Bl'lie latest vinery should have a temperature of (10° at night and 70° by day, or 80° by sun-lieat. Give plenty of air to carry olf exhalations, which would otherwise provH injuriouH more especially at this season of the year. Presuming that the shoots in the earliest house are perfectly matured, the vines should be pruned and all the rough loose bark stripped off. The house should be thoroughly clean edS-the raftesH ! sashes, and all the wood-work with soft Bap, taking care, ho\®ver, that the latter ra washed off the glass. The viuraShould then be washed with warm soapHuds, and afterward^^Hted with a mixture of soft^Hip andHulpliur. The walls should bSwhite-washed with linH and sulphur ; the flues may be brushed over with cement water quickly applied. This being done Halier or later in the month, f^fflrding as the demand may be for very early grapes, the sasheSshoukl be put on and a moist atmosphere maintained. A higher temperature will be required to start the vines at this season than in January or February. Coffir the border with a good thickness of materials that will prevent the escape of heat, such as leaves, fern, straw, or long litter. TherHshould be a good tliickneffl laid an, and in Hmanner that will throw off the cold winter rains. Figs.—A temperature of 60° to 65° will be required to ripen off the late crop; and 10° higher by sun-heat may be allowed with plenty of air. As the external temperature declines, a little more fire-heat should be given. Keep the floor and air of the house dry. Water only at the root, and that very sparingly.xl CALENDAR OF GARDEN OPERATIONS. Peaches and Nectarines.—If the shoots still continue to vegetate, fire-heat must he given, with abundance of air, and the house should be kept dry. When all the leaves are completely cleared off, the trees may be pruned. IV.—FLOWER GARDEN AND PLEASURE GROUNDS. With cold nights and a general decline of tern-perature, the green colour of the leaves of many trees gives place to varied tints of yellow, brown, red, and purple; but rich as these hues appear, the gardener must look upon them as the forerunnel’s of stormy blasts, with cold and heavy rain, or otherwise of frosty nights. He must therefore be in readiness to take up such plants as would suffer from inclement weather, such as pelargoniums, fuchsias, salvias, dahlias, &c. The lawns should be kept well rolled and closely mown, for if this is not done before winter, they can neither be so easily nor so smoothly cut in spring; besides, as it will now be frequently necessary to remove fallen leaves, the latter can be much more easily swept up when the grass is smooth and cut short, than when it is otherwise. The walks should be kept well rolled, and their edgings neatly cut. When walks, edgings, and lawns are in high keeping, the garden, though not now so gay with flowers as in summer, will, nevertheless, have a pleasing effect, from contrast with the wreck of vegetation elsewhere. Take up dahlia tubers as soon as the tops ai’e blackened by frost; and before severe frost occurs take up and place in pots or boxes any bedding pelargoniums which it may be desired to preserve. Plant hyacinths for a spring display during this month, or early in the next. They will succeed well in any good garden soil, such as that in which bedding plants have been grown; but if it is naturally heavy, add sand, well-decayed leaf-mould, old hot-bed soil, or sandy peat, with some well-decomposed manure. Where the ground is so unsuitable that a bed has to be specially prepared, the soil should be taken out a foot or 18 inches deep, sometime previous to planting, and replaced with turfy loam and sand, mixed with old cow-dung, raising the surface to allow for settling. Plant the bulbs about 8 inches apart; cover their crowns 4 inches, placing a little sand beneath each bulb. After planting, cover the ground with 2 or 3 inches of loose manure, to protect from frost; but where the bed is exposed to view, cocoa-nut fibre presents a neater appearance. Early-flowering tulips, such as the Due Van Thol, Keizerskroon, Vermilion Brillant, Pottebakker, Hex Rubrorum, and Tournesol, make a brilliant display of colour in spring, their flowers being scarlet, yellow, white, or mixtures of these, while other varieties present shades of rose, purple, and violet. Bulbs of such varieties can be obtained by the hundred at a very cheap rate, and will flower well if planted this month in common garden soil. From the middle to the end of the month plant anemones, when the soil is in good order. Make drills 2 inches deep, 5 or 6 inches apart, and plant the roots 5 inches from each other in the row. Plant Turban ranunculuses; but planting the Persian kinds had better be deferred till spring. Plant crocuses, if not already done; also snowdrops. When tiger lilies have done growing they may be taken up, parted, and replanted. Plant heartsease, wallflowers, stocks, sweet-williams, and other biennial and perennial flowering plants raised in the course of the season from seeds or cuttings. Seeds of hardy annuals may be sown where they are intended to flower. Evergreens maybe planted any time this month; and all deciduous trees and shrubs immediately after their leaves have fallen. V.—PITS AND FRAMES. Additional artificial heat will now be required for the warmest division of these, in which cuttings are being struck, or where bulhs and various other plants are to be introduced for forcing, in order that a supply of flowers may be kept up during the winter. This may be kept at a temperature of 75°. Another pit heated only to 55° or (10° will be very useful for bringing forward many things that would otherwise not succeed so well, if at once introduced to the higher temperature, to which they may afterwards be properly subjected. This is a safe arrangement for all hardy or half-hardy plants intended to be forced. Give plenty of air to rooted cuttings, and to bedding-out plants. Remove all dead leaves, and keep the glass clean. Auriculas.—Those standing out should now be taken into a frame with a southern aspect. Give plenty of air, and water sparingly. Calceolarias.—Repot in rich soil, mixed with silver sand. Carnations and Picotees.-—Before the end of the month those in pots should be placed on coal ashes in frames. Chrysanthemums for blooming in the greenhouse or conservatory may now be placed in a cold pit, whence they may be removed when in flower. Heartsease.—Pot a considerable portion, in case those in the open ground should be injured in winter.CALENDAR OF GARDEN OPERATIONS. xli Hollyhocks.—Choice sorts may be propagated by cuttings at any time when these can be ob- j tained. Hyacinths.—Pot some bulbs to form a succession, and towards the end of the month or beginning of November make the principal potting for spring flowering, chiefly 6-inch pots, and proceed as directed last month, but place the pots in a cold frame. When the bulbs potted in September have been in the dark for five or six weeks, and have pushed their spikes, clean the pots and remove them to a cool frame, where they should be gradually exposed to the light. Afterwards a portion may be transferred to a house with a temperature of 45° to 50°, where they should be kept near the glass, and be frequently watered. As growth proceeds the temperature may be increased a few degrees to hasten flowering; but, to have good sturdy spikes and healthy foliage, the more slowly they are grown the better. Those left in the cool frame may be brought on more gradually, and placed in heat at a later date to afford a succession. Early in the month place bulbs in glasses for room or window decoration. Fill the glasses with rain water, put in a few pieces of charcoal, and let the water come close to the base of the bulb, but without touching it. Afterwards set the glasses in a dark cool place, fill up with water, change it if necessary, and at the end of a month gradually inure them to the light. Keep them as cool as possible and fully exposed to the light. The single kiiuls nearly all succeed well in glass®®, and for that purpose are preferred to the double varieties. Of the latter the following are nine of the best and cheapest for this pui’pose, viz. Lord Wellington, Grootvorst, Regina Victoria, Noble par Merite, Waterloo. 11 h ite: La Tourd’Auvergne, Prince of Waterloo. Blue: Bloksberg, Prince of Saxe Weimar. Narcissus and early-flowering tulips may be potted in the same way as hyacinths, but covering the bulbs, and may afterwards receive the same treatment, but they will bear more forcing. Mice are very fond both of tulips and crocuses, and if they get at them will leave scarcely a vestige of the bulbs behind. Hyacinths they will not touch. Lily of the Valley.—Pot for forcing; introduce to slight heat, and keep shaded till fresh roots are formed. Lobelias.—Divide, and pot in small pots. Mii/iionette.—Introduce to gentle heat for flowering. Prepare to shelter the stock in case of early frosts. Polyanth us.—See A uriculas. Roses.—Those in pots for forcing may now be shifted and pruned. The compost used should consist of fresh loam, enriched with rotten dung. Be sparing of water till growth commences. If some are introduced to gentle heat, they will probably be in flower about Christmas. Verbenas.—Keep the young stock near the glass, giving plenty of air. Be now careful in watering, especially if any of the pots are not well filled with roots to act as drainage. VI. —GREENHOUSE. The more hardy kinds of greenhouse plants that may have been left out, or have had temporary shelter, should be taken in before frosty nights occur, or greater Cold generally prevails than is usual in their native countries. Plants introduced in a flowering state from pits to the greenhouse, and now getting out of flower, must therefore be removed to make room for those above referred to. In arranging these, endeavour to keep the hard and soft wooded kinds as much apart as possible; placing broad-leaved plants of an herbaceous nature in proximity to narrow-leaved, hard-wooded plants has not a pleasing effect, and it is injurious, for the hard-wooded plants suffer from the shade and exhalations of the other kinds. Heaths, and other plants liable to sutler from damp, should be placed where the air in finHwea-tlier can freely circulate amongst them. Remove all dead leaves, decayed flowers, and everything that would cause mouldiness. Give air day and night when the weather is favourable. A little fire-heat, with air at top at theHdmfe time, may be necessary to expel damp. Water sparingly, as a general rule, but with discrimination as re-gards the greater or less activity of growth in | the vigorous growing subjects. Chrysanthemums, and other plants advancing to flower, will require a liberal supply of water, and occasionally manure water should be given. Pelargoniums for flowering in May should now be finally shifted, and likewise such of the young (stock as have tilled the pots with roots. They must be watered very sparingly, but care .should be taken that they do not suffer from want of the tsmall quantity they absolutely do require. VII. .—iJLAXT STOVE. The mean temperature may now be 70° at night, and air slioidd be given when the thermometer reaches 80° by sun-heat. Syringe occasionally to clean the foliage; but, generally speaking, the house should be kept rather dry. Water should therefore be given chiefly in fine days, and in the forenoon, in order that with a little air the damp may be sufficiently dried up before the ventilators are closed, which should beCALENDAR OF GARDEN OPERATIONS. early in the afternoon. Gesneras, sinningias, gloxinias, &c., should he kept dry. Place small plants near the light. Endeavour to keep all plants clear of insects. Creepers that lose their leaves should be cleaned and pruned. Orchids should have a night temperature of from 65° to 70°, and 80° by day; the Mexican kinds, 60° by night, and 70° by day. Shut up at two p.m., or soon after, according to the state of the weather. Any kinds that are beginning to grow should be placed in the warmest part of the house, and near the light. NOVEMBER. I.—KITCHEN GARDEN DEPARTMENT. It is now advisable to plan for next year’s crops, so that as ground becomes cleared it may be properly treated for the kind of crop with which it is to be next planted or sown. Most crops ought to have manure, and some a great deal more than others. Trenching is generally advantageous, and stiff soils in particular should be ridge-trenched. Collect leaves and refuse for manure and other purposes. Prepaid protection for such things as endive, lettuces, and celery. Artichokes.—Towards the end of the month, or before frost sets in, cut off the long leaves to within 1 foot of the ground. Dig the latter, but so as not to cut the roots. Mulch with litter, fern, or leaves to protect from frost, packing the protecting materials close to the plants all round, but not over their hearts. Asparagus.—Cwt down the stems, and clean the beds from weeds. Beans.—A small sowing of the Early Maza-gan, or Marshall’s Dwarf Prolific, may be made. Sow in a warm border, in rows 2 feet apart. Cabbage.—Hoe and clean between the rows; or loosen the soil with small three-pronged drags. Remove all decaying leaves. Plant fop Cole-worts. Cardoons.—Continue to earth up and protect. Cauliflowers.—Those that have formed nearly full-sized heads should have a leaf or two broken, so as to bend over to protect from slight frosts. Celery.—Continue to earth up, and protect from early frosts, which are frequently succeeded by heavy rains, causing the plants to rot, if previously allowed to be injured by frost. Cress ( Water) may be planted for spring use. Endive.—Continue to tie up for blanching. Remove some from borders, and plant on a dry slope. Protect from frost. Garlic.—Plant, as directed for the end of last month, if not then done. Horse Radish may be planted. Lettuce.—In the first week make a successional sowing in frames for planting out in spring. Pease.—Sow Dillistone’s Early and Sangster’s No. 1 on a south border or other warm sheltered situation. Beck’s Gem is an excellent sort for the same purpose, and being very dwarf is suitable for wall borders. Set traps for mice, or adopt any other available means to prevent their attacking the pease. Potatoes may be planted; the sets should be placed 7 or 8 inches deep in case of severe frost. Sea Kale.—Remove decayed leaves. Put some earth over the crowns, and cover with litter, preparatory to placing pots over the plants. Shallots.—Plant like garlic. II.—HARDY FRUIT DEPARTMENT. The hardy fruit-trees generally cultivated are deciduous, and all such trees are best planted when the leaves have fallen; for these evaporate more or less in proportion to the nature and extent of their surface, the heat of the weather, and dryness of the air. The weather at this time is generally cool and moist; yet in dry and sunny intervals the leaves must evaporate, and whilst they have any living connection with the tree, they will drain more moisture from it than the removed, partially mutilated, and unestab-lislied roots can supply—even some of the juices which maintained the plumpness of the shoots are abstracted, and the bark shrivels. This is not the case, under the same circumstances of weather, when the tree is planted without leaves. But as soon as the leaves have fallen planting should be immediately performed, or, if only a few leaves remain, they may be cut or pinched off. In favourable soils and situations, most fruit-trees may be planted sooner or later in the month, as they become in fit condition, as above explained. In some cases where the trees have made late growths that retain green foliage after the earlier formed leaves are quite mature, those late productions may be pruned off; for this, in all probability, would have to be done at last, owing to their being recently formed and too immature to be retained in a transplanted tree. Prepare holes for the reception of the trees, and let them be as wide at bottom as at top, and rather deeper at the sides than in the middle— that is to say, the bottom of the hole should be convex instead of concave, as is too frequently the case. In taking up trees, endeavour to preserve the roots as much as possible. If the tree is large, let a wide and deep opening be made, so that itCALENDAR OF GARDEN OPERATIONS. xliii may be undermined with greater freedom. When taken up, let all bruised rootlets be cut clean off with a sharp knife. Plant as soon as possible after taking up, and as deep as the trees were in the ground before removal. Spread out the fibres, and introduce the soil carefully among them. Do not allow it to be thrown against them, so as to reverse the position they ought to occupy. Water, in order to wash the soil into the cavities among the roots. Standard trees should be staked when planted; and if all newly-planted trees can be mulched before winter, so much the better. This is the best time for removing and replanting pear, apple, plum, and cherry trees, with the view of bringing them soon into a bearing state. In good soil, where these are apt to grow too much to wood, this is a very beneficial proceeding; and ill bad subsoils it affords an opportunity of placing the roots which are disposed to penetrate such in a more horizontal direction in the better top soil. In planting wall-trees, let the stems be 6 or 8 inches from the wall, otherwise in growing they will press against it. If the soil, from heavy rains, is in bad condition for planting, it may be expedient to defer the operation till next month; or if circumstances should then be unfavourable, it is better to embrace the earliest opportunity in spring. Soon after the fall of the leaf, pruning may be commenced as regards the apricot, peach, nectarine, vine, plum, cherry, pear, and apple. Prune gooseberries, currants, and raspberries, if not pruned last month. After wall-trees are pruned, the wall should be washed, and the trees likewise, taking care, however, that the buds are not injured in any way by the operation. Remove all decayed leaves of wall-trees from the borders, and bury them as manure in other pai'ts of the garden that are being trenched. When the trees are pruned, and all cleaned up at the bottom of the wall, nailing may be proceeded with. Unnail fig-trees, and tie them in bundles, ready for being protected by spruce branches, fern, or straw, on the appearance of frost. Attend to airing the fruit-room, and remove from it all fruit exhibiting the least symptom of decay. III.—FORCING DEPARTMENT. Asparagus.—This may be forced in two ways: the plants may either be taken up and planted on a hot-bed prepared for the purpose; or, without removal, a frame may be placed over the plants, and heating materials applied to force them in the beds in the open ground where they have grown. The first produces smaller shoots, but they may be had in greater number from under the same extent of glass. The plants must be taken up carefully, with all the roots pis^sible, and planted closely together on the beds amongst light rich earth or vegetable mould. The temperature at starting should be from 50° to 60“, afterwards increasing to between 60° and 70° both for top and bottom heat. The lights should be kept close till the asparagus begins to appear, and then a little air should be admitted, to give the natural green colour to the tops. In the other mode, the frames should be placed on the beds, and a covering of light rich Soil or vegetable mould put over the crowns; then the frame is filled up with soil, if light enough, from the trenches; the latter are filled with hot dung to the top of the frames. The sashes are then put on, and kept close. Cauliflowers.^Those in frames should be kept hardy by exposure at all times, except in frosty nights, or during heavy rains. 6V«co?v/.H-Introduce some of that in pots or boxes to gentle heat, in a dark place, to grow and blanch. Endive.—Take up plants from the open ground, and plant in dry light soil in frames for blanching. A turf pit filled with good light soil, laid sloping, may be planted with endive, which cRld be protected with thatched hurdl® in severe weather. Kidney Beans.—Sow in succession. When the plants come up, remove them as nHtr the light as possible. Fill up the pots as the plants advance. Lettuce. — Prepareja slight liot-becl, which should have a temperature of about 55H Cover it with vegetable mould or rich light soil. Plant with Cabbage LettueeH Be careful not to water after planting till the plants have made frcKL roots; and at all times give no more than isHbso-lutely necessary. Remove decaying leavH from these and other lettuce plants. Transplant Cos Lettuces, under bell-glasses, in frames where a very slight bottom-heat remains. d/bff.-BPlant iioine roots in pots or boxes; the former are the more convenient for moving into any spare corner of a warm place. Jhushwosns.-—Prepare beds for suc^^Qn; cover with loamy soil a portion of those formerly made up. The layer should be about 3 indies thick, and firmly pressed. Attend to sprinkling the fioor, and to maintaining a proper degree of moisture in the atmosphere. Mustard and Cress.-— Sow in succession. Radishes.—Sow in frames or in the open air, in a bed hooped over, ready to support a covering in case of frost or other inclement weather. Rhubarb.-—Moots may now be taken up and forced in any warm place that may be found con-xliv CALENDAR OF GARDEN OPERATIONS. venient, whether in frames, mushroom-houses, or near a flue in a vinery. Sea Kale.—Take up old roots, or, in preference, two or three year old plants raised on purpose, and plant in light soil in large deep pots; give no water when planted, otherwise the roots would be liable to rot. Place in a warm frame, mushroom-house, or elsewhere, in a heat of about 60°. Cucumbers.—Those sown in the end of September will now require to be planted in the frames where they are to bear. Keep the glass of the sashes clean, so as to admit as much light as possible. Maintain a bottom-heat of 75°, and the top-heat about the same; but this may rise to 80° with sun-heat, air being admitted at the same time. Water in the early part of the day, taking care that the temperature of the water is about 75°, or nearly that of the air in the frames. Pine Apples.—A low temperature is recommended for pines during the winter months when light is deficient, and in a relative sense this is very proper. But serious errors have been committed in estimating what is really a low temperature for the pine apple. Assuming that it will grow and ripen at a temperature of 80°, and that wheat will also grow and ripen at 60°, would not the constitution of the latter be injured by a mean temperature of 25° lower, or down to 35° ? And if 25° below a fair growing temperature be injurious to wheat, must it not be supposed that 25° lower than the growing temperature of the pine apple, or down to 55°, will be injurious to its constitution, although from the strong fibre of its leaves they may not so immediately show the bad effects of such treatment as wheat would do ? The roots must be kept in activity, otherwise they will decay. Maintain, therefore, a bottom-heat of 7 5°, and a top-heat of 60° to 65°. If the weather is sunless and cold, so that air cannot be given, the temperature in that case must be somewhat lowered, in order that the plants may not be drawn up. Fruiting plants will require a higher temperature, say 75“; and having more heat, take care that they have just sufficient moisture at the roots. The air of the house should also be kept tolerably moist whilst the fruit is swelling, by sprinkling and gentle steaming. Vines.—The mean temperature of this month is, on the average, little above 40°; and the air is generally saturated with moisture. When this is the case, moisture will be deposited on all substances exposed to the air, if they are not warmer than it is. Grapes that are ripe should therefore be kept warmer than the air, otherwise they will be liable to damp. The application of fire-heat would effect this; but if it were applied suddenly, and without air being given at the same time, the heated air would deposit moisture upon the berries; for although these would ultimately acquire the same temperature as that of the air surrounding them, yet for a time they would be colder, and so long as this is the case they would act as condensers of the moisture in the warmer air in contact with them. The more rapidly the air is heated, the greater for a time will be the difference between the temperature of the fruit and that of the air, and, of course, the slower the heating, the less at any time will be the difference. Give, therefore, in damp weather a little fire-lieat in the morning, and admit air. If the nights are cold, the temperature of the house should not be allowed to fall lower than 45°. The house in which forcing is to be commenced for the earliest crop, or to have fruit ripe in April, should be shut up in the beginning of the month. As a higher temperature will be required to start vegetation in the vines at this season than in spring, the temperature may be, when the house is first shut up, from 45“ to 50° at night, and 55° to 60° by day; and by the end of the month it should be gradually raised 5° higher, or to 50° or 55° at night, and G0° or 05° in the day. This may either be attained by heating materials, such as tan, or a mixture of dung and leaves on the floor of the house, or by a little fire-heat. Syringe the vines twice a day, and sprinkle the paths and flues occasionally, so as to maintain a moist atmosphere. If vines in pots have started for some very early fruit, the shoots should be stopped when they have grown 1 foot in length. After the leading shoot is stopped, the lateral will push from the joint to which the shoot was stopped. This lateral, if allowed to grow, would form a leader, but it would be a weakly growth compared to the original shoot. Close to the base of the lateral, a bud will, however, be observed, which is the principal one, but it would not break till next season if the lateral were allowed to go on; therefore the latter must be pinched off almost close to its base, and then the principal bud will start. Figs.—After the crop is gathered, the plants should be gradually subjected to a lower temperature, and then shifted if necessary; or at all events the top soil should be taken off and replaced with fresh. The pots should then be placed in an airy house or shed, where the temperature can be prevented from ever falling below 40°. Of course, water will scarcely be required under these circumstances, but the roots must not be allowed to get too dry. Peaches ancl Nectarines.—The trees should beCALENDAR OF GARDEN OPERATIONS. xlv freely exposed to the air. The sashes may even be taken off in the early part of the month, and this will afford an opportunity for repairing and painting them. Cherries. — Examine the trees, and shift all those requiring more room for their roots into larger pots or tubs. Top-dress the others. Plunge in leaves, or otherwise mulch, so as to protect the roots from frost. Strawberries.—The pots should be protected from frost, and also from heavy rains, which would wash the nutritive principles out of the soil, unless the rain pass through a mulching of leaves or long dung. The pots may therefore be placed under a roof, or piled horizontally, or placed in a frame. IV.—FLOWER GARDEN AND PLEASURE GROUNDS. The general appearance of this department cannot now be so gay as it was in the previous months, when a rich display of flowers in the beds and borders contrasted with the smooth green lawn, and clean, well-rolled gravel walks. But the beauty of the lawn and walks may still be continued, provided they are well kept according to the usual routine, and are frequently cleared of fallen leaves. The expense of removing the latter is partly compensated by their value as manure, or for heating and protecting. The beds and borders should likewise be cleared of annuals done flowering, and of all decayed portions of herbaceous plants. Where no material alterations are intended, all the borders and beds should be kept raked; but if alterations are to be made, now is the time to proceed with them—the earlier in the month the better, provided the ground is in working condition; for this is the most favourable season for planting most kinds of ornamental trees and shrubs. Plants that grow in peat soil, such as rhododendrons, azaleas, kalmias, &c., are however more safely planted in spring. Unless the ground be wet, roses and all deciduous shrubs are best planted in the present month. Stake newly-planted trees that ■would be in danger of having their roots disturbed in consequence of wind. Prune and nail climbers. Deciduous trees and shrubs are generally best pruned as soon as their leaves have fallen. Any movement of sap that does take place is then wholly directed towards the buds that are left, instead of being distributed among these and others along the entire shoot; the former, consequently, break with greater vigour in spring, and produce stronger shoots. Although an early frost may have somewhat blackened the foliage of dahlias, the plants may still remain in the ground; for the longer they can do so with safety, the better. When the weather renders it absolutely necessary, they should be taken up. Choose a dry day; cut the stems to within 6 or 8 inches of the ground; dig up the roots, and place them with the stem downwards, So that the water which drains from it may not lodge upon the tubers. Finally, place these in a dry cool place, yet secure from frost. Take up any other plants that may be too tender to remain in the ground all winter, such as fuchsias, calceolarias, &c. In some local itiS the Fuchsia globosa, and others of like habit, may be left in the ground, if protected with leaves or long dung. Many newly-planted shrubs that are not very hardy, should have a mulching put over their roots. Some kinds should be protected by mats or straw coverings; or if these be thought unsightly, wicker cases lined with straw will perhaps be less objectionable as regards appearance, and will answer the purpose equally well. Although rustic, they may have, notwithstanding, a certain regularity of genei'al outline. Plant hyacinths, tulips, anemon® ranunculus®, snowdrops, jonquils, scillas, narcissuses, liliH, and other hardy bulbs. Protect the beds of finer sorts from rain till the bulbs have struck root. Fibrous-rooted perennials and biennials may also be planted now, and they generally have larger flowers than if their removal were delayed till spring; but the planting of anyRarce Hirt had better be deferred till that period, in c^fflof accidents during winter. ClSr offSffik^Hand plant such kinds ra it may be desirable to propagate. Thin annuals, and transplant patch® of them where vacancies occur. V.—PITS AND FRAMES. At this season, when light i^^^Hrce, the glass should be kept as clean^ffi possible by washing or syringing. Cover up well at night the pits that are not heated. Water in the early part of the forenoon, and as sparinglyjRs jx^ssible. Introdu® bulbs, rhododendrons, rof®, Persian lilacs, and other plants for forcing. A Mrira/asH-Give plenty of air on all favourable occasions. Water very moderately, but take care that the ball of earth do not get dry in the centre. Calceolarias.—Seedlings that have filled their pots with roots should be shifted. Carnations and Picotees,—Take off the lights in fine weather; give air also in mild w^t weather, but so that the plants may not be exjffied to rain. Cut off decayed leaves. Cinerarias. --Give plenty of air and space, andxlvi CALENDAR OF GARDEN OPERATIONS. keep the plants near the glass. Green fly must he destroyed if it appear. Chrysanthemums.—For fine specimen plants, take off cuttings, place them in 3-inch pots, and set them in a cold frame. Hyacinths.—If not before done, pot the main portion of the bulbs for spring flowering. Remove others into heat, as may be required. This is a good time to place bulbs in glasses. If it is desired to hasten the flowering of those placed in glasses early last month, they may have a little more heat; the temperature ought not to exceed 50° now, increasing 5" or 6° next month. Roses in pots, for forcing for early bloom, should be pruned, watered, and placed in a gentle bottom-heat, with an atmospheric temperature of 40° by night and 50° by day, keeping them near the glass. Verbenas. — Remove sickly plants from the general stock, likewise any that are affected with mildew or green fly; dust these with sulphur, and fumigate. Water with great care at this usually damp period of the season. VI.—GREENHOUSE. Frost at night may now have to be guarded against, but more so the effects of a constantly saturated atmosphere, for if these are not counteracted, the whole stock of plants will be more or legs injured by damp. The floor should be kept dry, and occasionally fires should be lighted in the mornings, when the weather is likely to be such as to admit of plenty of air being given as the heating apparatus gets warm. All dead leaves and shoots should be removed; in short, no decaying substance that would contaminate the air of the house should be allowed to remain in it. When the leaves of camellias, oranges, ^c., require to be cleaned, the plants should be taken out if not very large, and sponged and syringed in a shed, replacing them in the greenhouse when they are dry. In order to prevent the plants from being injuriously affected by damp, they should not be crowded so that the air cannot freely circulate amongst them. During the season when all the plants are in active growth, the whole of them could with propriety be watered indiscriminately at the root, and all equally syringed; but now watering must be restricted to such plants as are seen to be absolutely in want of it, and any general application of water must be avoided. Let the sides of the pots be cleaned when mouldiness appears upon them, and top-dress when the surface of the soil in the pots has not a fresh appearance. The flower-buds of chrysanthemums should be thinned, if too numerous; a somewhat liberal supply of water should be given, and an occasional application of weak liquid manure will be attended with beneficial effects. If a sufficiency of the modern sorts are cultivated, the house will begin to present a gay appearance. Pelargoniums requiring shifting, if not attended to last month, must be repotted immediately into the next size of pot. They do not require heat that would stimulate them into growth, but the air of the house should be kept several degrees above the general temperature of the external air. A temperature of from 40° to 45° would be desirable ; but the weather may be mild and damp, Avith the external temperature above 45°, in which case fire-heat, though not required on account of temperature, should nevertheless be applied moderately during the day, with air to dispel damp. Water sparingly, and if the soil in any of the pots has become saturated, the circumstance may be detected by tapping on the outside of the pot; it has a more solid sound Avlien the soil it contains is saturated than when it is otherwise. Should it continue in the former condition for some time, although no Avater be given, the foliage Avill acquire a yelloAvisli hue, and the roots Avill get into a bad condition; but before this takes place it trill be advisable to shift the plant, using rather dry soil. VII.—PLANT STOVE. This being usually a sunless month, the temperature should be loAvered to correspond with the limited amount of light, as far as is consistent with the conditions of temperature to A\rhich the plants are exposed in their native countries. This, however, is difficult to determine; for a collection of plants, originally from Avitliin the tropics, may neATertlieless come from localities A'alying greatly in temperature, according to elevation aboA’e the liwel of the sea. For example, at Pondicherry, lat. 11° 5(j', the mean temperature of the month is about 81°; Avhilst at Ootacamund, lat. 11° 25', it is only 5G“, a difference of 25°, OAvingto elevation, Ootacamund being between 7000 and 8000 feet higher than Pondicherry. So that, although both places are Avitliin the tropics, and almost equally near the equator, yet plants from the one place Avould require a stoA7e, and those from the other only pi’otection from frost, in a greenhouse during AA7inter. In the tropics, therefore, betAveen the level of the sea and that elevation from Avhicli plants are nearly hardy, there are many gradations of climate, the plants from Avhicli Avould require differently heated compartments, but they luive generally to be diA7ided betAveen the stove and greenhouse. In the former, plants from the hottest tropical regions mustCALENDAR OE GARDEN OPERATIONS. xlvii be accommodated, and also some requiring less heat, but for which the greenhouse would prove too cold. These should, of course, be placed at the cooler end of the stove. A temperature of between 50° and 60° would be sufficient for them; but on account of those plants for which a temperature of between 70° and 80“ is natural in this month, 10° below that, or a mean of 65°, is as much reduction as can well be allowed, however desirable it may be to proportion the amount of heat to that of light. If by sun-heat the temperature should l’ise to 75°, air should be admitted, taking care to reduce the quantity, or to shut up when the thermometer begins to fall below that point. The minimum at night should be 60°. In order that less fire-lieat may be necessary to keep up the required temperature, it would be desirable to put a covering of frigi-domo on the house at night. This would save fuel, and prevent the air of the house from becoming too dry, and consequently the health of the plants would be better maintained than would otherwise be the case when much heat from fire is employed, and much dissipated at the same time by radiation from an exposed surface of glass. Water sparingly. Plants that are nearly dormant will scarcely require any. If the weather is clear, take the opportunity to syringe the plants in the morning. Wash the glass occasionally to admit all the light possible. Destroy insects by sponging, fumigation, or other means. DECEMBER. 1.—KITCHEN GARDEN DEPARTMENT. rn this month there are usually frosts severe enough to harden the ground, so that it will bear 1o be wheeled upon, at least in the mornings. Advantage should be taken of that condition to put manure on quarters where it is wanted, for it can then bp idone not only with greater facility, but without puddling the ground, which should at all times be avoided. Such opportunities should also be taken to wheel out soil that lias to be removed in taking out openings for trenching. Frost in these respects is beneficial; but, on the other hand, its eil’ects must be guarded against as regards various things liable to be injured by it. Collect all decaying substances in heaps for manure, and these may be turned when the ground, either from frost or wet, is not in a condition to be worked. These substances ought to be brought, by turning and mixing, into a state of fermentation before they are put on the ground; and, after all, it is advisable to put such manure in the bottom of trenches where root crops are to be grown, rather than use it for crops that require manure nearer the surface. In wet weather diligently forward all work that can be done indoors, so that it may not be to do when the weather is fine. Pea sticks cut before the sajj rises are stronger, and not so apt to rot, as those cut after it begins to move. They should therefore be now brought in and prepared, sorting them into lengths to suit the respective heights to which the different kinds of pease grow. Then tie them up in bundles that can be conveniently carried, and place them under cover, but where air may freely circulate, till they are required for use. In bad weather tallies should be prepared for painting, to be afterwards written with the names of seeds sown, or crops planted. Beans.—Draw earth to the stems of those a little above ground to protect them from being tossed about by the wind. See that there is no cavity formed that would hold water about the stem. A small sowing may be made in case of accident to those put in last month. Celery.—Finally earth-up in dry days; but if the soil is of a heavy nature, some that is light and dry should be put next to the plants, placing it against them with the hand. ProteB from frost with straw, or by means of hoopomd matsl or a thatched roof that may be raised or lowered according as the weather is fine or the contrary. Endive.—Continue to blanch in succession. Protect with flower-pots or otherwise; likewise take up some and plant in sheds or frames. Jerusalem Artichokes.—Tli® maybe taken up as required fresh out of the ground; but, in case of frost, the latter should be covered over with litter- Onions.—Pick over those that are hou®l in wet weather. Keep them cool, but protect from frost. Potato Onions may be planted. Pardey.— In case of frost, a portion® the best should have a frame or other protffltion placed over it. Pecwefi-Draw some earth to thosBa little above ground. Sow a succession. Guard the attacks of mice. These may be caught in traps sometimes; when they are, give them, at intervals, to a cat on the spot. Radishes.—Sow in light soil on a sheltered border, and cover with straw or litter, turning it off in the day and replacing it at night. II.*—HARDY FRUIT DEPARTMENT. The planting of all sorts of fruit-trees recommended to be done last month, but not completed, should be proceeded with as early as possible inxlviii CALENDAR OF GARDEN OPERATIONS. this, provided the soil is in proper condition— I that is to say, neither too wet nor frozen. Pieces of frozen crust, thrown in with the soil in planting, condense moisture, owing to their coldness, and form wet, chilling masses, even after being thawed. This kind of moisture, in contact with the roots, is unquestionably worse for them than that from drenching rains. Continue to trench and prepare ground for planting, and to make new borders where such are required, or renew old ones. It is also a good time to trench in advance of the roots of wall-trees that have commenced bearing, introducing at the same time some new soil or compost formed of fresh loam and manure; for this is better for fruit-trees than manure alone. Mulch over the roots of newly planted trees, and stake such of these as would otherwise be shaken out of their position by the wind. Continue to prune all sorts of fruit-trees, except figs and nuts. If the shoots of peaches and nectarines on an east or west aspect are green and immature, the pruning of them may be deferred till early in spring. Old trees, intended to be re-grafted, should now be headed back. Their branches should be sawn off almost close to the place where each can be most eligibly grafted. When gooseberry and currant trees are pruned, and the cuttings raked off, manure should be wheeled between the rows, and dug in; but in doing this the surface should be drawn clean away from near the stems, and buried in the middle of the space between the rows. Clean trees from moss. After wet weather their stems and the naked parts of branches can be easily scraped, scrubbed, and washed clean. Nail wall-trees in favourable weather. See that no more nails are used than are absolutely required, and that they are driven not into the faces of the bricks, but into the mortar, and no further into it than is necessary to insure sufficient hold. Nails, whether new or old, should be heated, and plunged when under a red heat in linseed-oil. Old shreds that have been picked out as being again fit to be used, should be boiled, to kill insects, then thoroughly dried, and laid aside till wanted. The fruit-room should be kept close at night, and also during the warmest period of any day that happens to be so much warmer than usual as to cause condensation. Remove all specked and decaying fruit, but in so doing disturb as little as possible that which is sound. III.—FORCING DEPARTMENT. Asparagus.—Continue to maintain a bottom-heat of from 60° to 70°; and when the buds have started the soil may be watered according as it may be necessary; but the water should not be cold, as in that state it would check the growth. It should be brought to a temperature of about 65°. Add some more light dry soil, and when the shoots appear admit air and light, the latter being necessary, that the shoots may acquire the natural green. Asparagus that is being forced on established beds should have the linings turned when the heat is likely to fall below the degree above mentioned; and before the shoots advance so far as to be in danger of injury, the soil in the frame should be forked over and finally broken. Water will not likely be required; but if it should, to gently moisten the surface, attend to the directions for its application to asparagus in frames. Prepare for forcing a succession. Cauliflowers.—Protect from severe cold so as to keep the plants from being checked; but, on the other hand, take care not to render them tender by not giving abundance of air. Chicory.—Take up roots, and plant for succession, as before directed. Cress.—Keep up a supply by sowing in boxes placed in heat. Endive.—Introduce plants nearly full grown into a warm frame or pit to blanch. Give plenty of air to those growing in protecting frames. Kidney Beans.—Sow in succession. Lettuce.—Keep the glass clean, in order that it may transmit the more light to the plants. Give air freely in all favourable weather. Some may be planted in rich soil, in pots, and placed in a frame. They may come forward and prove useful, in case others planted in the beds should damp off'. Mint.—Plant in pots or boxes for forcing. Mushrooms.—Attend to former directions as regards a moist atmosphere in the house. Any in ridges out of doors will require to be thickly covered with litter and mats. Mustard.—Sow, and place in heat. Radishes.—Prepare a slight hot-bed. Cover it with several inches of rich compost, over which lay 5 or 6 inches of light soil, and in tliii when the bed is at a proper temperature, 60° to 70°, sow some of the Red and White Turnip Radishes, and some of the Oblong Rose-coloured. The frame should be so far made up with the dung and soil as to have the surface of the latter near the glass. Give air when the plants come up, and take care that they are thinned in time. Rhubarb.—Roots should be taken up every fortnight or three weeks, and put in heat for a succession, or hot dung may be used for forcing plants in the ground under a large inverted flower-pot.CALENDAR OF GARDEN OPERATIONS. xlix Sea Kale.—The same remarks as for rhubarb are applicable to this. Sorrel.—Pot French and Broad-leaved for forcing. Cucumbers.—A bottom-heat of 75° was recommended last month for those planted out in pits or frames, and a top-heat about the same, or as much as 80° with sun-heat and air. As the plants advance let these temperatures be fully maintained, especially if the days are clear. In this case the heat may be increased 5°; but it would be desirable that once every day the top-heat should be higher than the bottom-heat, and if this can be effected by sun-lieat, with air at the same time, it will be far preferable to obtaining the same amount of temperature by closing the sashes. Air should be carefully admitted at all times, except when very cold and cutting winds occur; then enough will be insinuated beneath ordinary fitting sashes, although these may be untilted. In calm frosty nights very little indeed should be given. The plants should be as near the glass as possible, and it should be kept warm by a good covering, either of straw mats or a layer of hay under common mats. Attend to stopping and training. If the foliage is allowed to get crowded, a portion of the leaves will acquire a yellowish tinge, and will soon become worse than useless. Be careful, therefore, to prevent this. Ascertain that the water supplied is of the proper temperature, 75°, or not higher than 80°. Cucumbers in boxes should have occasionally diluted manure water, also warmed. A seedbed, adapted for a one-light box, may be prepared. It will be useful for raising cucumber plants and other things where beds have not been set to ® . i work nor hot-water apparatus in uses. Pine Apples.—The temperature recommended for last month should be generally continued. A bottom-heat of from 70° to 75° will maintain the roots of young stock in a slight degree of activity, sufficient to keep them alive, and the top-heat for these should not fall below 55° nor exceed 65°. Cover at night so that less fire-lieat may be required; for the less of it the better, provided the proper temperature is insured, allowance being also made for affording a little air on favourable occasions. Plants in dung frames will require to have the linings turned; and towards the end of the month these should be substantially made up, so as to be in condition to counteract the great degree of cold which usually occurs in January. That the heat may be steady a good bulk of materials will have to be employed; and that it may not be too violent the dung should be mixed with leaves, those of oak, beech, and others of firm texture being prefen- able. The linings should be covered from cold drenching rain and snow; or if this cannot be done, long litter should be laid on So as to throw off the wet. If it is desired to start some plants early, they should be placed in a bottom-heat of 85°, and it may be raised to 90°. This, with a top-lieat of 84°, and the soil and air rather dry than otherwise, will likely cause them to show for fruit. Plants that are swelling fruit should have water in proportion to the demand which a comparatively high temperature will occasion. Syringe, and shut up with a hot and moist atmosphere. Vines.—The temperature of the house commenced to be forced last month should be kept gradually on the increase. That of 60° to 65° by day, and from 50° to 55° by night, was the temperature recommended at the end of November. The day temperature may now be increased by 2° a week, and the night temperature 1° a week till the end of the month. Fire-lieat will require to be applied. The pipes or flues and pathways must be frequently sprinkled to producer moist atmosphere, and the stems should be syringed with water of the same temperature as the air of the house. If the vines have bl|n planted outside take care that the portion of thewtcm is well protected from cold; but dung should liofHbe allowed to come in “intact with the stem, and whilst care is taken to protect the outside portion from cold, that which is inside must be guarded from too much heat from the pipes or fliHs over which it may be situated. A screen of some material tliat is a slow Conductor of heat should therefore be placed betwHbn it and the flue. Very little air will be required till tbPbuds begin to break, but it must then be given at eveiH favourable opportunity; and if any of tliflvinl lHve been bent down, with the view of inducing them to break near the bottom, they must be raised near the light. Figs.-—A few of those in pots may be plunged in moderate bottom-laJSt, or they may be placed on fermenting materials if such hav^^Ha intro-duoed on tike floor of the early vinery. The plants to be thus forwarded at this season need not be large; for the fig can be fruited although kept in small compass, provided the extent of foliage has been kept in sucli limited proportion as to corre-sjiond with the space allowed for its roots. Peaches and Kectarine$£-TlH temperature of the earliest house should be kept so as to induce a gradually progressive vegetation in the trees; for these will not bear to be rapidly forced in the early stage of the process. It should be recollected that they blossom in the open air at an early period of the season, when the temperature is consequently not high, and if they are subjected d1 CALENDAR OF GARDEN OPERATIONS. to much fire-heat the blossoms will drop. The temperature at night should be from 45° to 50°, and 55° to 60° during the day, and it may be allowed to rise to 65° by the aid of sun-heat; but abundance of air must be given. Sprinkle the trees with water as warm as the air of the house, in the mornings and afternoons, and continue this till the flower-buds begin to open. Cherries.-—The trees should be taken in and the house shut up, but the temperature must be kept very moderate. About 45° at night will be sufficient in the first instance, and 55° by day or 60° by sun-heat, plenty of air being then admitted. The pots should be placed in leaves that will afford a mild bottom-heat of about 55°. Strawberries.—Protect the pots from frost. Some may be introduced into the peach-house. IV.—FLOWER GARDEN AND PLEASURE GROUNDS. If the planting recommended to be done last month has not been completed, it should be proceeded with in the beginning of this, weather and state of the soil permitting. In some years the temperature is mild for several days together at this season, and if the soil can be worked without puddling, the opportunity should be taken to forward all planting and transplanting that may have to be done, instead of deferring the work till the early months of the year, when severe frost or snow may prevent its being carried on till other operations demand attention. Even should continued frost not occur then, it is unwise to put off planting longer than can be avoided, as vegetation may in this case become so far advanced that the trees and shrubs removed would take a long time to recover. After planting see that the subjects are securely staked, if requiring support, and in such a manner that the bark may not be injured by rubbing against the stake. A mulching over the roots will prove beneficial, especially if frost or drying winds occur after planting; in the former case by keeping the ground warm, or rather preventing its cooling, in the latter by preventing the evaporation of moisture by drying winds. The same attention should be paid to preparing the holes, preserving and spreading out the roots, as recommended for fruit trees. Any intended alterations should also be forwarded, and for these frosty weather may, in some cases, be advantageous, by allowing the wheeling of soil and manure without cutting up the walks; but where wheeling has to be practised at other times planks should if possible be used. Where deciduous shrubs have overgrown their bounds and become crowded or straggling, they should be cut back or thinned out as cir- cumstances may render advisable, or some of them may be removed to other positions. Those trained against walls and fences should likewise be pruned and nailed, taking care, at the same time, to thin out all superfluous shoots. The leaves of deciduous trees having fallen, none should be left to blow about with the wind. Those lurking in the shrubberies should be dug in. The walks should be kept well rolled, and their edgings nicely cut, and likewise those of the beds and clumps. The latter should be rough dug where empty, and they will have a better appearance than if they were now hoed and raked. If in some places rough digging should be objectionable, as where the figures or beds are small, these may be neatly dug, but not raked. There is an object in having the soil more or less rough at this season, that it may be mellowed by the weather; but there is no reason why the edges should not be kept quite as neat in winter as in summer. Flower beds which are to remain vacant until the summer bedding plants are planted out should be deeply dug or trenched, and if necessary enriched with well-decomposed manure, leaf-soil, or old hot-bed mould; but in doing this take care not to make the soil so rich as to encourage leaf-growth at the expense of flowers. Zonal Pelargoniums, especially in moist seasons, when planted in rich soil are apt to produce thick watery shoots, a great expanse of foliage, and but few flowers; where the soil is poorer they will flower more freely, and their growth will be more compact and better ripened, but care must be exercised to have the beds rich enough, to prevent the plants being stunted, and producing only starved blooms from ! want of nourishment. Where the object is fine foliage, as in the case of Solanums, Cannas, and similar plants, now so extensively employed, the soil should be well manured to promote rapid and luxuriant growth; it should likewise be deeply trenched, so as to render the plants more independent of artificial waterings, which involve much labour and tend to cool the soil. Prune hardy roses. Those pruned now will push more vigorously than if left till the sap is rising in spring; but if any are required to flower later than others of the same sort, their pruning ought to be deferred till the upper part of the shoots has pushed a little in spring; for the sap will flow towards the extremities without exciting much the buds situated near the base; but if the shoots were now shortened, the sap would be wholly directed to the development of the buds left below, and they would consequently push much earlier. This remark applies to trees and shrubs generally. Hedges of hawthorn, and others that are deciduous, should now be pruned orCALENDAR OF GARDEN OPERATIONS. li trimmed, and in doing so take care that the hedge is formed nai’rower at top than at bottom. It should, in fact, be tapered to single shoots, and in young hedges the line of shoots should be cut first to a uniform height, and then every other one should be cut lower. Lateral shoots break out most abundantly just below the places to which the leading shoots are cut back, and if these were all shortened to the same level the hedge would be more crowded at that particular place than elsewhere. It is, therefore, better to cut so that a portion of the lateral shoots may be produced lower down. Prepare composts by turning and mixing. In some cases exposure to frost is beneficial. Prepare number sticks, tallies, shreds, &c., in bad weather. Sweep off as clean as possible the snow from walks in order that they may be comparatively dry when the sun shines or when a thaw takes place. Never sprinkle salt on walks or stone work with the view of melting the snow; salt, with snow in various proportions, produces a frigorific liquid many degrees below freezing. It was by mixing salt with snow that Fahrenheit obtained the zero point of his thermometric scale, supposing it to be the greatest cold that could be produced; and in a mixture of the two the thermometer will fall several degrees below that point. Besides, the salt decomposes the surface of the stone, and renders gravel walks what is commonly called rotten, and it will be long | before they again become dry and solid, owing j to the affinity of salt for moisture. If snow lodge ] heavily on trees and shrubs, so that they are in danger of being broken down, let them be relieved of their load. See that all plants liable to be injured by frost are duly protected. V.—PITS AND FRAMES. As a general rule, all half-hardy plants quartered in these structures should have abundance of air during the day when the weather is not too severe. But when frost sets in, this merely sheltering portion of the pits should lie well protected by good covering; for not only will the plants be thereby secured from a degree of cold which would injure them more in confinement than tli(> same degree would their fellows in the open air, but the interior of the pit will lie kept warmer than would otherwise lie the case; so that, when a thaw comes, less condensation of moisture will take place within them, and, consequently, there will be less damping of the plants than is the case when an great disparity of temperature exists between the substances within the pit and the external air. With regard to thosfc pits which have fire-heat afforded, the proper degree of heat can be maintained, whilst air can be admitted to dispel damp. The danger is, that the air at night may get too dry for the plants. It will be lessened by employing a warm covering at night, so that less artificial heat will be necessary. The forcing pits, or those in which the highest temperature as regards both top and bottom heat is obtained will require great attention in the regulation of these, so that they may bear a due proportion to each other. The mean of the bottom-heat should exceed that of the top-heat by a few degrees. The bottom-heat may be 80°, or nearly so, whilst the top-heat may range from 68“ at night to 75° in the day, or by sun-lieat 80°, with air at the Same time. In these, a succession of flowering plants should be brought forward, such as various kinds of bulbs, rhododendrons, azaleas, .roses, &c.; but it is always advisable to introduce plants that are not tropical to a more temperatfl place for some time previouoto plunging them in the forcing pit. Auriculas.—Protect from rain, but admit plenty of air when the weather is atffltll favourable. Severe frosts must be guarded against by covering at night. Calceolarias.^Some of the more forward of theffl will probably, on examination, require to be shifted. Water moderately, but take care of damp. A little fire-heat and ventilation will dispel it. Carnations and 1'icotces.— TlnBe in frames should be kept clean and diy. Water will i < aiBly be required, but abundancH of air must bc«f-forded. Cinerarias. — Pinch the tops where brand^H are wanted to form a spreading head. 9me of the more forward may be introdittd into a warm pit for early flowering. Ili/aeinths.—Pot before the end of the month for blooming in the latter part of March, and during April. Place those potted at the end of October, or in November, in a cod frame. Those in flower should lie taken into the conservatory or greenhouse. Attend well to watering. Pelargoniums.—Towards the end of the month, stop all the shoots of those intended fur flowering in .June. Train out the shoots, so that the leaves mav receive as much light as possible. Roses (in pots).—Introduce a laige succession into heat, and as those started last mouth begin to pus® increase the temperature^ This is the beet time to begin forcing for the general bloom. Violets.- - Protect from frosts, heavy rain, and snow; but let them 1*6 entirely uncovered when the weather is at all favourable.lii CALENDAR OF GARDEN OPERATIONS. VI.—GREENHOUSE. It is desirable that this house should be kept as gay as possible at this dull season of the year, when little of floral beauty can be seen out-of-doors. Pits and frames are, or ought to be, very useful contributors of flowering plants to the greenhouse; but the plants so furnished, having been forwarded in more or less heat, are not well adapted for the cool temperature that would be suitable at this season for various hard-wooded greenhouse plants. Many of these would require no artificial heat, provided the air of the house did not fall lower than within a few degrees of freezing; but, on account of the introduction of plants requiring more heat, as above alluded to, the temperature at night should be about 45°, although, in severe weather, rather than employ much fire-heat, the temperature may fall to 40°, but certainly not lower, and it may rise to 50° or 55° in the day. A covering of frigi-domO will prevent the escape of heat to a great extent, and fire-heat to that extent may consequently be well dispensed with. Endeavour to maintain a moderately dry atmosphere during the damp weather winch is usually prevalent at this season. When fire-lieat is but little required, watering will seldom be necessary, and it must be given only when afciSt&utely wanted, more, of course, to the growing plants than to those which are comparatively dormant. Heaths and New Holland plants must be watered very sparingly. Give air at every favourable opportunity in the early part of the day, shutting up as soon as the temperature out-of-dpons begins to fall in the afternoon. Clean the foliage from dust, and the pots from moss. Destroy insects on their first appearance. Remove plants that have done flowering, and replace, from the pits, with others coming into bloom. VII.—PLANT STOVE. The temperature should be kept comparatively low, as was recommended for last month. Nothing should be done to excite vegetation; but, at the same time, its powers should not be so much lowered or paralyzed by cold, as to render the plants incapable of resuming a vigorous action at the proper season. The temperature should therefore range not lower than 60“ at night, and it should be kept down to 65° by day, or by sun-lieat to not higher than 70°. When it reaches 65“, air should be given, however little may be necessary, and it should not be admitted in currents. If the temperature rise to 70“ after two p.m., the house may be shut up, that less fire-heat may be necessary, and much of its parching effects avoided. Although the house should be kept rather dry, yet the air must not be allowed to become too dry, which is apt to be the case, especially at night, when much firPheat becomes necessary. A warm covering, such as frigi-domo, will be of great advantage; for it not only renders less fire-heat necessary, but, by keeping the glass warm, it prevents its depriving the air of the house of moisture, by rendering it less capable of acting as a condenser. Plants that are making a somewhat active growth will inquire more water than those which are naturally inclined to rest. Bulbs that have lost their leaves should be kept dry. See that the foliage of all plants is kept clean and free from insects; and that it may have as much light as possible, let the glass be washed from soot or other substances affecting its transparency.THE GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. CHAPTER I. THE PRINCIPAL ORGANS OF PLANTS. I.—ELEMENTARY ORGANS. Organizable Matter, Formative Tissue, or Cambium, is a viscid secretion present in all the living parts of plants, and from it all their organs are formed. It is most readily observed between the bark and wood of exogenous trees in spring. From this substance a cell is formed, and the earliest condition of a plant is a single cell, formed of what is called cellular membrane, a very thin substance, but which shows no perceptible openings, except under the most powerful microscope. The configuration of the cell varies according to circumstances; if it is freely developed it assumes a roundish or oval form, Figs. 1, 2, 3. It contains, first, a transparent watery liquid called cellular juice; second, a mucilaginous or gummy liquid, more or less opaque, which affords substance for the thickening layers of the sides of the cells, and for the development of new ones; Fig. L Ffg. 2. Fig. 3. Cells with and without a Nucleus. third, a small lentil-shaped body called the »w-ctens, or kernel; this is sometimes free in the cellular cavity, as in Fig. 1, but is more frequently placed contiguous to the sides, as in Fig, 2. 'Idle cellular membrane is composed of a substance ealhal cellulose, in which are found the elements of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; and afterwards in the thickening layers nitrogen and other substances are recognized. As growth proceeds, other cells are rapidly developed, in contact with each other, of a globose or spheroidal shape; but when pressed closely together in their growth, they, in many case*. Fig. 4. Elder—Cellular Tissue of Pith. assume a dodecahedral or other many-sided form, as represented in Fig. 4. When the cells are not compressed in their development, intervals exist between them, which are called intercellular spaces ; but these are frequently occupied with organizable matter. From an assemblage of cells vegetable tissufslis formed (tissue, from tella, a web, net-work, or lace-work). There are several kinds, which are distinguished as cellular tissue, fibro&s tissue, and vascular tissue. Cellular Tissue consists entirely of cells. Itl forms the soft parts of plants, such as the fleshy portions of leaves, the pulp of fruits, the substance of mushrooms, &c. It is represented in Fig. 4. Fibrous Tissue is composed of fibres A single® fibre, Fig. 5, a and b, is elongated, tapering at the ends. When short, fibiR < have been nuaid-Fig. 5. , - I ered by some as elongated cells; but whether long or short, they taper at the ends, so that they can, when united by theip sides, form gplioes with those aligve and below, and thus constitute a compact fibrous tissue, Fig. ja (Covrs Elementaire d’Arboriculture.) The forms of roots are various: when the root is branching, and divided into a number of long slender fibres (as in Fig. 23), it is called fibrous; when the main root is fleshy, elongated, and tapering to the extremity, it is called a tap-root; when the root is fleshy and composed of lobes, as in the dahlia (Fig. 24), they are called tubercides, and the root tuberous. Boots are distinguished by the absence of buds from different forms of the under-ground stem, such as corms, tubers, and rhizomes, which are still called roots by mostORGANS OF PLANTS. 5 people. But some plants, as the plum, white thorn, moutan pasony, and others, have the power Fig. 23. Fig. 24. Meadow-grass—Fibrous Root. Dahlia—Tuberous Root. of developing adventitious buds upon the roots, which may then be advantageously employed in propagation. III?^-THE STEM. The stem is the axis that develops itself in an upward and opposite direction to that taken by the root. To the naked eye, it at first appears simply a conical projection, but when magnified it is found to consist of several small lobes (p, Fig. 20), surrounding a growing point. These lobes afterwards expand into leaves; but in the centre of these leaves there is still a growing point, and as this pushes upwards, the rudiments of more leaves are formed and become successively developed. There are three principal sorts of stems— namely, Exogenous, Endogenous, and Acrogenous. Stems are called exogenous when they increase by the addition of layers to the outside of the wood, as in the apple, pear, and oak; endogenous, when they increase by additions at the centre, as in palms; and acrogenous, when they are formed by the union of the bases of leaves, and by additions to the point of the axis, as in tree-ferns. Exogenous Stems.—In the centre of the tender shoot or axis of these is the pith or medulla, which is entirely composed of cellular tissue. It is surrounded by a sheath of vascular and woody tissue, called the medullary sheath, and from this all leaves, buds, and branches take their rise. A branch of a tree may be of large dimensions, and very ponderous, but its origin may be traced to the tender herbaceous substance which has just been mentioned, and of which the branch is merely a prolongation. The icood (a h, Fig. 25) is the part of the stem which is situated between the medullary sheath Fig. 25. and the bark. It is composed of concentric layers, •each resulting from one year’s growth, and of the medullary rays connecting the bark and the pith. By Counting these annual layeiH the age of trees can, in most cases»be determined with a considerable degree of accuracy. The stems of exogens increasing by the addition of layer’s to tin outside of the wood, it is evident that the external one is the youngest; and this is called the alburnum. The alburnum, b, is always softer than the hearticood, a, or that which is oldest and nearest the centre of the tree; its colour, also, is generally lighter. It is principally through the alburnum that the ascending sap is conveyed to the-leaves, and more especially through the youngest* layers of it; that is, those next to c, or nearest the inner bark. The heartwood performs no important fund? tions, except by constituting the columns on wdiich the whole weight of the branches ami other parts of the tree is supported. Indeed, as in the case of hollow trees, it is frequently altogether absent. The bark, c d, is the external coating of the stem. In a very early stage of growth, it is scarcely distinguishable from the wood; but, somewhat later, on making a horizontal section of the young growth in spring, a thin layer of organizable matter, called the cambium, forms a circle, separating the two. This layer is the future alburnum. It is called by the French oouche ou zone generatrice, the generating zone or layer. By means of the elaborated sap received from the leaves it forms the additional new parts which6 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. are united to other new parts. The bark is found to consist of two principal parts—the outer bark, or cortical integument, and the inner bark, or liber. The liber, c, is next the cambium; it consists of cellular, laticiferous, and woody tissues, aud is composed of numerous thin layers, the youngest being always nearest the alburnum. The principal office of the liber is to carry downwards the sap, after it has been elaborated in the leaves. The outer bark, d, is a tough substance which serves to protect the internal tissues. It consists of several layers^ and, up to a certain age, it expands as the stem increases; but as new layers are formed, the old die, becoming dry, aud often corky, forming those rugged fissures which we observe on the surface of old trees. Sometimes th®old bark separates from the younger portion, and falls off. The nssMllary rays, Commonly known as the silver-grain of wood, form thin plates, which radiate from the centre towards th^bark. They consist of cellular tissue, and form a connection between the flintre aud the circumference, con-elaborated sap to the interior of the stem. veynu -Longitudinal Section of Stem. Fi" y h y h h Vertical Section of a Young Branch of a Vine. ci-b, bark; b-c, wood; c-d, pith: <>, vascular bundles contained in the bark; /, medullary rays; g, elongated cellular tissue, or fibres constituting the solid part of wood; 7j, porous or split vessels; i, double spiral vessels; A:, gaps in the pith; Z, cells with porous divisions. Fig 26 represents the different kinds of tissue as exhibited in the vertical section of a vine shoot; in this the double spiral vessels, tJ are seen very distinctly. Endogenous Stems.— Such are those of palms, the sugar-cane, bamboo, asparagus, wheat, grasses, &c. Stems of this sort (Fig. 27) have no distinct concentric layers or medullary rays. The youngest formation takes place towards the centre, instead of at the circumference, as in exogens, and the pith, p, does not occupy the centre, but is interposed between bundles of woody and vascular tissue, f. These de-Ii°' scend from the leaves, and, curving inwards, pass down near the middle of the stem for some distance, as in Fig. 28, and then taking an outward direction, terminate at the circumference. The older formations, being thus continually pressed outwards, become harder and more compact than those in the interior. The stems of endo-gens have no true bark, but are covered with a cortical integument, similar to that of exogens. Acrogenous Stems.““-These do not attain any considerable dimensions except in tree-ferns. In these they are formed by the union of the petioles of leaves arranged round a common axis, and are of nearly equal diameter throughout their length, often 50 or 60 feet, bearing at their summit a tuft of leaves. The surface is covered with a hal’d rind, formed of the bases of the leaves, and marked by scars, caused by the falling off of these as the growth proceeds. Internally the stem consists of cellular tissue (c, Fig. 29), occupying the whole of the centre of the trunk; and of hard sinuous plates of elongated tissue, p, disposed towards the circumference, either so as to form a tube, or with openings between are filled with continuous them, which Palm- Horizontal Section of Stem. cellular tissue, connecting that in the centre with a zone of the same tissue lying between the wood and the rind r. In the interior of these woody plates annular and dotted vessels are found. The thickening of the bases of the stems of tree-ferns arises from the development of adventitious roots. Acrogens have no visible flowers, but are repro- Fern {Cmthea)—'Transverse Section of Stem.ORGANS OF PLANTS. 7 duced by cellular bodies, called spores, which | form on the leaves. Subsequent remarks only apply to endogens and exogens. Stems often exist underground in the form of bulbs, corms, tubers, and rhizomes; and above ground, as runners and suckers. The bulb (Figs. 30 and 31) is formed upon or beneath the surface of the ground. It is com- Fig. 30. Fig. 81. posed of fleshy scales surrounding a stem, and roots proceed from its base. The scales are either imbricated, as til the lily (Fig 30), when the bulb is called scaly; or they form continuous coatings, one within the other, as in the leek (Fig. 31), when it is called tunicated. In some bulbs, as the garlic and shallot, others ai'e formed in the axils of the scales of the original bulb, the substance of which is thus eventually called cloves. Bulbs differ but little from leaf-buds ; indeed the latter in some cases, as in Lilium bulbiferum (Fig. 32), become metamorphosed into true bulbs. The conn is a solid, fleshy mass, bearing a Bulb bearing Lily—Portion of Stem. exhausted. These are hud upon its surface, and having much of the general appearance of the bulb, with which it is frequently confounded. The so-called bulbs of the crocus and colchicum (Fig. 33) are corms. The tuber is an enlargement of an underground Fig. 34. shoot, bearing buds upon its surface by means of which the plant may be propagated, and generally containing a large amount of starch. The Pig. iio. potato and Jerusalem artichoke afford familar examples of tubers. The rhizome (Figs. 34 and 35) is a stem, creep-8 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. ing upon or beneath the surface of the ground, emitting roots from its under side, and bearing one or several buds upon its surface. These, on becoming stems, may either effect the further prolongation of the original rhizome, or they may be separated from the parent plant, and constitute fresh individuals. These, in their turn, may give rise to other rhizomes, and consequently to a still further increase in the number of plants, which may thus be situated at a considerable distance from their common parent. The iris (Fig. 34), carex (Fig. 35), and the couch-grass (Triticum repens)> afford examples of rhizomes. The runner is a stem proceeding along the surface of the soil, and emitting roots and leaves at its extremity, where it forms a plant, from which other runners take their origin. The strawberry is a well-known example of a plant producing runners. The sucker is a branch proceeding from the stem at or beneath the surface of the ground, into which it soon puts forth adventitious roots. iv.—BUDS. Buds are developed at the extremity of a shoot, and in the angle between the leaf and the stem or ehoot, that is to say, in what is called the axil of the leaf. They are round, oval, or conical, and Fig. 36. Fig. 37 are composed of imbricated scales. The outermost of these are hardest and thickest; sometimes they are covered with a gummy or resinous substance, and their inside is generally downy. They inclose a minute growing point, which is in connection with the wood and tissue of the stem. It usually elongates and forms a shoot having leaves, in whose axils other buds are formed; but sometimes it hardens and forms a spine, as in Prunus spinosa ('Fig. 36), and is either naked or occasionally furnished with buds near the base; and which, under certain circumstances, become developed into shoots or fruit-spurs. Spines occur on the pear, plum, gooseberry, and berberry; they must not, however, be confounded with prickles, such as those of the rose (Fig. 37), which are merely composed of hardened cellular tissue, and have no connection with the medullary sheath. The scales of buds are leaves in an impei’fect state. The outside ones generally die off; those nearer the centre remain comparatively green; and those next the rudimentary leaves, which surround the growing point, are in many cases scarcely distinguishable from these leaves. v.—LEAVES. Leaves consist of cellular tissue, interposed among a network of fibro-vascular tissue; originating in exogens from the medullary sheath and liber, and in endogens from the fibro-vascular tissue in the interior of the stem. The vessels on the upper side of the leaf are in connection with the alburnum, from which the ascending sap flows into them; and the vessels on the under side communicate with those of the liber ami convey to it the descending elaborated sap. Leaves are covered with a cuticle and an epidermis, in which the stomates are particularly numerous, and which varies in thickness according to the locality in which the species naturally grows. Plants inhabiting moist shady places, where evaporation takes place with difficulty, have a thin epidermis, with numerous or large stomates, to allow of perspiration being carried on with greater freedom; those wddch, on the contrary, grow in hot dry situations, have a thick epidermis, and small or few stomates, in order to prevent too rapid evaporation from the surface of the leaves. A leaf is composed, in most cases, of two principal parts, the lamina {l, Fig. 38), or that wddch is usually called the blade; and the petiole or leaf-stalk, p. Sometimes, in addition to these, are attached to the base of the petiole appendages called stipules. The petiole is that portion of the leaf which forms a connection between the blade and the stem. It is composed of fibro-vascular bundles and cellular tissue, and results from the former remaining undivided for some distance before expanding to form the blade. Sometimes these bundles ramify at the point where they issueORGANS OF PLANTS. 9 from the stem, and consequently there is no petiole; the leaf is then called sessile. In form the petiole is sometimes perfectly cylindrical, frequently flattened or channelled on its upper side; and it occasionally forms a sheath, surrounding more or less completely the shoot from which it spi-ings. The Blade.—In some leaves, such as those of pinus, the bundle of fibro-vascular tissue remains undivided throughout its length, so that the Fig. 38. Fig. 3!). Horse-chestnut—Compound Leaf. Fig. 40. Robinia—Compound Leaf. whole leaf preserves the form of a petiole. Generally, however, the bundle becomes divided into several ramifications termed ribs or nervures, forming at the end of the petiole a flat expansion, which is called the blade. The nervures vary greatly in the direction which they take in the leaves of different species of plants. In many cases the petiole continues in a direct line to the end or apex of the leaf, constituting one large nervure, called the midrib (1, Fig. 38), and dividing as it goes into several other nervures, termed secondary nervures (2), which extend towards the margin of the leaf, and divide in their course into others called tertiary nervures (3); and these again subdivide into numerous small veins, which anastomose and form a fine network, the intervals of which are filled up with cellular tissue. In other cases several nervures proceed from the end of the petiole like the radii of a circle. In endogens, however, the secondary nervures do not usually divide, but run either parallel with the midrib, as in grasses, or at right angles to it, as in the banana. Leaves exhibit numerous modifications of form, according to which they are characterized as roundish, oval, lanceolate, heart-shaped, &c. The blade may consist of only one piece, as in the plum and cherry, when the leaf is called simple; or it maybe composed of several distinct portions borne on a common petiole, in which case the leaf is said to be compound, and the portions of which it is composed are termed leaflets. The horse- chestnut TEscvlus IlippooaManum, Fig. 39), and the locust-tree {/lobmia Pseudacacia, Fig. 40), afford familiar examples of compound leaves. Both simple leaves, and the leaflets of those which are compound, are frequently divided more or lees deeply. In some leavesHas in Fig. 41)] these divisions do not exists and the leaf is (fien jSfiid to be entixe; but in others the margin exhibits toothings of various kinds; and in others again there are deeper divisions, or lobes, extending to a Fis- 4-- small appendages, situated on each side of the base of the petiole; and similar appendages also occur, in many cases, at the bases of the leaflets in com-| pound leaves, in which case they are called stipels.10 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. They vary greatly in appearance; sometimes they look like small leaves, and are of the same colour as the leaves themselves; sometimes they are like scales; and sometimes they have the appearance of a thin, colourless, nearly transparent membrane. Frequently, as in the rose, they are united to the petiole at one side, and nearly throughout their length; occasionally they form a sort of sheath round the stem, remaining separate Wunitiug by their margins; and often they are only united to the petiole by their base. Stipules are, to a certain extent, capable of performing the functions of leaves, but their precise use is uncertain. Like leaves, they in some cases develop buds in their axils. Acted upon by heat and light, leaves draw nourishment from the soil by the roots. The sap so obtained, after ascending through the stem, chiefly by the alburnum, passes into the upper side of the leaf, there undergoes the action of light, partWwith a portion of its moisture, and becomes otherwise greatly changed in its nature. It then desfflndMBy the under sidtPjof the leaf into the liber, and continuing its downward course to the very extremities of the roots, is appropriated, as it goes, for the nourishment and growth of the plant. Moreover, leaves have the power of absorbing gases, and perhaps moisture, from the atmosphere; and of exhaling, in_ii gaseous form, substances not required by the plant. Thus leaves at once perform the functions. iJf digestion and respiration, and are to the plant what the lungs and stomach are to animals, and scarcely less essential to life. “ In the course of time a leaf becomes incapable of performing its functions; its passages and surface are choked up by the deposit of impurities; there is no longer a free communication between its parenchyma and that of the rind, or between its veins and the wood and liber; or the air and its interior. It changes colour, ceases to decompose carbonic acid, absorbs oxygen instead, gets into a morbid condition, and dies—it is then thrown off.”—(Lindley’s Theory and Practice of Horticulture, p. 79.) VI.—THE FLOWER. The flower is defined as being “a terminal bud, inclosing the organs of reproduction by seed. By the ancients, the term flower was restricted to what is now called the corolla; but Linnaeus wisely extended its application to the union of all the organs which contribute to the process of fecundation. The flower, therefore, as now understood, comprehends the calyx, the corolla, the stamens, and the pistil, of which the last two only are in- dispensable. The calyx and corolla may be wanting, and a flower will nevertheless exist; but, if neither stamens nor pistil, nor their rudiments, are to be found, no assemblage of leaves, whatever may be their form or colour, or how much soever they may resemble the calyx and corolla, can constitute a flower.”—-(Lindley’s Introduction to Botany.) As the flower is at first a bud, it proceeds from the axils of leaves. It is supported by a stalk, called a peduncle; but this stalk is frequently ramified, and in that case the subdivisions in immediate connection with the flower are termed pedicels. Of the parts above-mentioned, the calyx and corolla constitute what are called the floral envelopes, which surround the reproductive organs. j(f“The Calyx is the external integument of the flower, consisting of several verticillate leaves, either united by their margins or distinct, usually of a green colour, and of a ruder and less delicate texture than the coVolla.” B3(lntrod. to Botany.) The divisions of the calyx (s s s, Fig. 43) are called sepals. AVhen it is not divided, it is termed monopliyllous, the sepals in this case uniting, so as to form a cup or tube. The calyx is generally green, partaking much of the character of leaves; but occasionally it is coloured, and scarcely distinguishable from the petals, as in tulips, in which the three sepals are arranged and brilliantly coloured, like the petals. The Corolla—pThis is situated within the calyx, and forms the envelope next to the stamens. Its divisions are called petals (p p p, Fig. 43), and these alternate with the divisions of the calyx. The divisions of the corolla are sometimes united by their margins, in the same manner as those of the calyx; they then form a tube, as in Fig. 44, and the corolla is called monope-talous. The colour of the corolla is rarely green. “The corolla, and all other parts of the flower not coloured green by the influence of light, absorb oxygen and exhale carbonic acid. The presence of a mass of flowers Fig. 43. Fig. 44.ORGANS OF PLANTS. 11 Gillyflower—©tamen. more or less brilliantly coloured has, therefore, an action on the atmosphere quite the reverse of the salutary one exercised by a mass of green leaves. This effect is frequently complicated by the exhalation of tlieJ&SSteu-tial oils and other odoriferous principles, so often concentrated in this part of a plant.”—(A. De Jussieu.) The Stamens (Fig. 45), or male organs of the flower, are situated within the corolla. Their number is variable. A stamen consists of three parts, the filament, the anther, and the pollen. The filament, F, is that part of the stamen which supports the anther. It is similar in structure to the petiole of a leaf, and is the only part of the stamen which is not essential. When it is altogether absent, the anther is called sessile. The anther, a, is attached to the extremity of the filament. It is in general composed of two lobes, l l, united together by a continuation of the filament, called the connective, c. These lobes contain a fine dust, which is the pollen. The pollen, p, is contained iu the lobes of the anther, and consists of a number of fine hollow grains of various shapes—spherical, oblong, triangular, or polygonal. Their size is also variable. The grains of pollen contain minute globules of oil and starch; other bodies have also been found in them. The Pistil (Fig. 46) is the female organ of the flower, iu the centre of which it is always situated. It is composed of three parts — the ovary, the style, and the stigma. The ovary, o, is a hollow case, varying in form, but generally spheroidal or ovate. It is situated at the base of the pistil, contains one or more cells, and incloses the ovules, which, after impregnation, become the seeds, itself forming the fruit. The sty!e.tBetween the ovary and the stigma there is usually a slender column supporting the latter, and which is called the style. This part, s, is not absolutely essential; it is frequently absent, in which case the stigma is immediately attached to the ovary. The style is generally smooth, but is sometimes provided with hairs, apparently for the purpose of collecting the pollen, and which are therefore called collectors. Fig. 46. The stigma, st, is generally situated at the upper extremity of the style. Its surface is destitute of epidermis, and is, in consequence, humid or papillose. The centre consists of lax tissue, so that the particles of pollen coming in contact with the moist surface of the stigma, can fertilize the ovules through the medium of the conducting O O tissue of the style. The otMle, which term signifies a small egg, is the rudiment of the seed. One or many of these ovules are formed within the ovary or seed-veSSel. Without the influence of the pollen the ovules sometimes grow to a considerable size, assuming the aplpSSr-ance of a perfetd; seed; but if fertilization has not taken place, it cannot iu reality be a seed, for in that case it contains no reproductive principle. Most flowers contain both the male and female organs above described, in which case they are called hermaphrodite; but there are others in which the stamens or male organs only are present, these are called male flme\H/ others again have only the pistil or female organ, the^e are called female flovxrs. In some plants both the male and the femaffi flowers occur on the same individual. Such plants are called monoecious; among these are the filbert (Fig. 47), in which $ is the male, and ? the female flower; the oak, and the melon. In other plants the male and female flowers are on different individuals. Such plants are called dioecious; and amongst them are included willows and poplars, spinach, and the hop. Hazel Nut—Monoecious Flower. VII.—THE FRUIT. After fertilization has taken place, the floral envelopes and the sexual organs usually drop off, the ovary alone remaining; this sv7ells, and, when matured, becomes the fruit, containing the seed. It consists of tvTo principal parts—the yieiiwsfflM and the seed. The Pericarp is the external part of tl® fruit; and whatever does not constitute a part of the seed is a part of the pericarp. It is the edible] portion of most kinds of fruits. Its textuiH however, varies much; in apples, pears, &c., it is fleshy; in nuts, it is hard and woody, constituting the shell; and in peas and beans it is coriaceous,12 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Apricot—Ripe Fruit, vertical section. and constitutes the husk, the edible part in these cases being the seed. The pericarp consists of three parts—the epi-carp, sarcocarp, and endocarp. Fis-4S- The epicarp [ep, Fig. 48) is the external covering, and is what is usually called the skin of the fruit. The sarcocarp (sar) lies between the epicarp and the endocarp, and is the fleshy portion of such fruits as the apple, pear, and peach. The endocarp (e?i) forms the inner coating. It is sometimes membranous, Sometimes hard and bony, as in the stone of'a peach. In a cherry, peach, or apricot, the skin is the epicarp; the flesh or edible portion, the sarcocarp; and the stone, the endocarp. Again, in the apple, the skin is the epicarp; the flesh, the sarcocarp; and the horny substance immediately surrounding the seed^pthe endocarp. The Seed generally consists of three principal parts-H-the testa, the albiWmfti, and the emibryo. The testa is formed of two or more integuments closely united. The outer one is of various colours in different plant® and even in varieties of the same Sp®iesj for e^niplePin the kidney-bean it is in some varieties^entirely white, in others jet black or spffikled. ItsRurfacSS is either smooth or rcaighjand its consistence is either membranous, coriaceous, crustaceous, fleshy, or woody. . T1 le albumen is situated between the testa and the embryo. It is destined to feed the germinating embryo until the latter can develop organs to draw nourishment from external sources. The embryo is the most essential part of the Fig. 49. the plumide p, and one or two cotyledons c c. The radicle is the origin of the root; the plumule gives rise to the stem; and the cotyledons contribute to the growth of the germinating plant, and perform, to some extent, the office of leaves, till such time as these can be developed from newly formed tissue at the apex, or growing point, of the plumule. CHAPTER II. GERMINATION. seed, for it is the rudiment of the future plant. It consists of three parts: the radicle (r, Fig 49), A seed contains, when perfect, the rudiments of a future plant, as has been already stated. This, in many cases, may continue dormant for one or many years, unless brought under circumstances favourable to its vegetation. These circumstances are essentially heat and moisture— stimulated by these, growth commences, and its first process is termed germination. The seed being swelled by moisture, and its integuments softened by the same agency, the radicle is enabled to push out, and it strikes downwai’ds; whilst the plumule takes an upward direction, and the cotyledons begin to expand. These sometimes remain underground, as in the common bean; or they rise above it, as in the turnip, radish, and most plants. By exposure to the light they acquire a green colour, and perform the functions of leaves. They supply the young plant with nourishment from their substance till roots and leaves are formed, and till the plant can feed itself. The cotyledons then drop, and germination is complete. A seed cannot germinate without a certain amount of moisture, air, and heat. Moisture softens the integuments of the seed, and relaxes the tissue of the embryo itself; atmospheric air supplies oxygen, wherewith carbonic acid may be generated by the seed, and also nitrogen, which is found experimentally to disappear in all cases of germination; while a temperature above 32° excites the vitality of the embryo, and enables it to take advantage of the agents in contact with it. The amount of moisture which a seed can bear when germinating depends upon its specific nature. When plants naturally live in water, it seems that total immersion is requisite, in order to furnish the seed with the amount of water it requires. Thus, all attempts at introducing the Canadian rice - plant (Zizania aquatica) failed until the seeds were plunged in vials of water; and our own Glyceria fluitans exhibits another example of the same fact. But to land-plantsGERMINATION. 13 immersion in water is mischievous, if not fatal; for with them, if the act of germination should take place under water, the seeds almost immediately afterwards die and rot. It is in the state of vapour that water is most safely applied, and hence dampness is what their seeds require, rather than wet; and it is found by experience that even a saturated atmosphere is unsuited to germination, unless the vitality of seeds is extremely active. Gardeners therefore take care, in raising old and feeble seeds, to trust wholly to the vapour suspended in a damp atmosphere, and to avoid the moisture that may be entangled among soil. Moisture in some form is, however, absolutely necessary. De Candolle states that seeds generally absorb more than their own weight of water. According to Dr. Lindley, “ free access to the atmosphere is a condition in the absence of which germination becomes impossible; for although there is reason to believe that, in a suitable temperature, seeds can decompose the water with which they are in contact, and so supply themselves with oxygen, yet the earliest act of growth must first be excited, and for that nitrogen seems indispensable; nor can their power of decomposing water be afterwards maintained, unless there is still present that nitrogen which they have no means of obtaining under ordinary circumsfcemceS, except from the atmosphere. This explains the reason why seeds buried in stiff clay, or at considerable depths below the surface, although damp, refuse to germinate until they are accidentally brought into contact with air; and it furnishes a solution of the singular but well-known fact, of certain crops suddenly appearing where they had not been previously known to exist, provided the soil is wholly broken up to a considerable depth; as, for instance, when wild mustard covers the face of recent railway cuttings. The true principle of seed-sowing is, therefore, never to bury seeds deeper than is indispensable to the preservation of dampness round them, or to their protection from vermin. Exposure to light is generally regarded as injurious to germinating seeds; and it is a common opinion that they are covered as much with a view to keeping them in darkness as for any other reason. But experiments by no means confirm these statements; on the contrary, if seeds are deposited upon damp soil, and are then covered with a plate of glass closely pressed down upon them, they germinate as well as if in darkness, though perhaps not so quickly. The covering of seeds with earth is, therefore, to be regarded rather as a method for preserving around them the necessary moisture, than as a means of guarding them from light. “ The temperature at which air and moisture will act upon the vitality of an embryo varies extremely. The only fixed rule upon the subject is, that for all cultivable plants it must be somewhere between 32° and below 100°. Below 32° none will germinate; above 100°, if that temperature is prolonged, all perish. Several cases, indeed, are upon record of seeds having been exposed for a few minutes to the heat of boiling water without sustaining injury; but they could not have supported such a temperature much longer; and those which can bear it at all are invariably furnished with hard bony coats. Perhaps 40° to 50° may be taken as a favourable temperature for the germination of ordimuy agricul-tuval crops; 60° to 70° for the more tender kinds, such as maize; and 80° for tropical annuals, like tobacco. As a general rule, it may be said that all seeds will germinate more readily in a temperature above what they are accustomed to than below it.” Seeds in a dry state will bear a very low temperature; dry grain did not appear to suffer from being exposed to 39° or 40° below zero, the freezing point of mercury. Plants will bear upwards of 20° more heat in dry air than in moist air, or heat from steam; hence this or the heat from fermenting materials should be guarded against, especially in the case of young and tender vegetation. As regards the vegetation of tropical plants, it will not be injuriously affected by a temperature of 84°; and whilst germinating, the seeds of some hardy plants require®, temperature nearly as high. With respect to the chemical changes which take place in germination, we extract tlH following from an excellent article in Morton’s Cyclopedia of Agriculture, by Professor Way:— “Confining our attention now to the chemical character of the seeds, and to the chemical cliangffl which they undergo during germination, we learn, first, that they consist of one or more azotized or nitrogenous bodies, of the nature of albumen or caseine, of starch, gum, and sugar, and oily and fatty matters, together with a certain quantity of alkaline and earthy salts. “The relative proportion of all these ingredients is as variable as the different varietiesyof seeds are numerous but they are more or less to be discovered in every seed. It i# natural to suppose that during the physiological changes occurring in germination, important inodificatRis of a chemical nature should also result. If a few grains of wheat, or any other seed, are moistened and left in a warm place, we soon observe a remarkable change. The seed swells considerably, and at last the surrounding envelope is burst, and the rudiments of the roots and stem of the14 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. future plant make their appearance. Supposing, now, that we had taken the trouble to weigh a certain number of the original seeds after carefully drying them, and, further, when the germination had proceeded to some length, we had also dried and weighed the sprouted seed, it would be found that the latter weighed considerably less than before the experiment; in other words, that, during germination, solid matters other than water had been removed from the seed. “ To the investigations of M. De Saussure on the chemistry of vegetation, we are indebted for the larger part of our informatio.n on this as on other similar subjects. Following out the observation previously made by Rollo, he ascertained, by careful experiments, that this loss of weight is principally due to the separation of carbon, in the form of carbonic acid. Saussure placed seeds, properly moistened, in a portion of air confined in a glass jar, over mercury, and expSled to the necessary degree of warmth. No change of the volume of confined air was observed, but upon examination it was found that a portion of its oxygen had disappeared, and had been replaced by carbonic-acid gas, which, by a well-known chemical law, necessarily occupied the same space. H$ found also that a Ji§fd would germinate readily in pure oxygen gas, but not in nitrogen, hydrogen, or carbonic-acid gases. “It is clear, therefore, that germination is, to a certain extent, a process of combustion, requiring for its exhibition a supply of oxygen, which in natural circumstancef*is obtained from the air. “The quantity of oxygen required for the germinating process ie not the same with all seeds, which probably accounts for the fact that some seeds are found to vegetate at greater depths in the soil than others. The necessity of air for the sprouting of seeds explains also the curious circumstance, often brought under th£ noticjef of the practical farmer, that a more than usually deep ploughing, or the turning up of the subsoil in trenching or cutting of drains, will often produce a luxuriant crop of weeds, which, to all appearance, had been extirpated by his previous efforts. The seeds of these plants, lying d$ep in the soil, and out of reach of the aerating influences of the plough and other implements, may remain inert for a series of years, only to be called into life upon the approach of the necessary conditions of air and moisture. “In retentive soils the depth to which the air can penetrate is evidently less than in porous open lands; and drainage of such stiff soils must, by inducing permeability to air, of course deepen the effective seed-bed. The loss of carbon, in the form of carbonic acid, is not, however, the only change which the seed undergoes during germination—hydrogen and nitrogen are also separated ; the former partly by combination with oxygen, as water, and partly in the form of ammonia by uniting with the nitrogen. As before said, the nitrogen of the air seems to have no part in these transformations, and the action is limited to the changes occurring either amongst the elements of the seed itself, or these and the oxygen of the air. In addition to the changes before specified, we find, in the sprouting of a seed, the production of a vegetable acid (either the acetic or lactic acid), and a modification of the albuminous matters, which enables it subsequently to convert the starch of the seed into sugar. The formation of this modified albuminous substance (diastase) is the great object aimed at in the process of malting. “There are some seeds which germinate under water, and it might be thought that this circumstance was opposed to the theory of the necessity of air; but, in fact, no natural water is free from atmospheric air, and the seeds of aquatic plants germinate just as fish live in water, even when it is covered with ice, by virtue of the oxygen dissolved in it. Saussure boiled water for a sufficiently long time to expel the air, and could not succeed subsequently in causing seeds to germinate in it. “It is difficult to see the precise object of some | of the chemical changes accompanying germination. The formation of carbonic acid is attended, of courl®, with the production of a certain amount of heat, so that the requisite temperature for the commencement of the process having been attained, it is carried on and completed, in a great measure, by internal causes. It may be that nature, in this way, has guarded against any interruption to the vegetative forces from local and accidental changes of temperature. The separation of nitrogen, in the form of ammonia or otherwise, may be merely incidental, and connected only with the necessary modifications of the albuminous matters of the seed, giving rise to the substance which has received the name of diastase. “The materials which are accumulated in the seeds are evidently designed, as was before stated, to furnish the first food to the young plant; in many seeds starch forms the staple and most important ingredient of this food; but starch is insoluble in cold water, and could not, without aid, acquire the necessary degree of mobility to be transferred from the seed to the growing part of the vegetable. Modified albuminous matter, however, or diastase, has the property of converting insoluble starch into soluble sugar, and thus the difficulty is successfully overcome.FOOD OF PLANTS. 15 “The description now given of the changes occurring during germination only applies to its earliest stages; so soon as the green parts of the plant are formed above ground the whole state of things is reversed ; instead of giving off carbonic acid, the plant now needs this gas for its sustenance, and is endowed with the extraordinary power, in the presence of light, of decomposing it and appropriating its carbon; and ammonia, in the same way, becomes necessary to its wellbeing. “ From what we have lately learned of the absorptive properties of the soil for both these gases, it is possible that their production during germination, and consequent retention at short distances from the seed, is an express provision of nature for a supply of food, so soon as the roots shall have made their first growth. “ The action of light in germination has been a matter of much difference of opinion; on the one hand, it has been contended that the practice of burying the seed was an evidence of the injurious tendency of light; on the other, that the absence of all light is the reason that.Jseeds placed at a great depth in the soil fail to vegetate. For the latter of these facts we have already offered a, sufficient explanation; and without entering, in this place, further into the subject, it may be stated that, in all probability, the only influence which light exercises on germination is of an incidental and unnecessary kind. “The degree of warmth requisite for the commencement of vegetation, on different seeds, has not been satisfactorily ascertained. In northern countries, and even in our own temperate climate, the seeds of plants exhibit vitality at a temperature very little above the freezing point of water, below 32° Fall., however, it would *eem that germination cannot take place, no doubt because the necessary circulation of the fluids is at that temperature physically impossible. It has already been mentioned that germination cannot take place in nitrogen, hydrogen, or carbonic-acid gases. It would not appear that the two former of these gases are actually prejudicial to the vegetative process, but that it fails to occur in them from the absence of oxygen. M. De Saussnre, however, found that carbonic acid, which is itself a product of the germinating process, exercises a positively antagonistic influence; and the rapidity of germination is sensibly accelerated by anything that will remove this gas as it is formed. Thus, slacked lime, placed in the neighbourhood of a seeil vegetating in a limited quantity of air, hastens the process considerably. We have reason to believe that this effect is produced as perfectly as it could be in a properly cultivated soil, in part by the absorptive property of the soil for the gas in question, and still more by its constant diffusion into the air, with which the pores of the soil are filled. Ammonia and its carbonate, when in too concentrated a form in the soil, are also capable of arresting or entirely destroying the vegetative power of seedfe This explains the injurious results which are experienced when the seeds of wheat or turnips are placed too near to guano.” CHAPTER III. THE FOOD OF FLANTS. The elements which, on analysis, are found in plants must be the constituents of their food. Those which have been so found are the following:—Organic elements—Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. Inorganic elements—PotMfl sium, sodium, magnesium, calcium, pltosphorus, sulphur, silicon, iron, chlorine, iodine, manganese, aluminum, and bromine. The principal elements in the composition and food of plants are, however, the four organic ones. The first three form cellulose or cellular fibre, which ie composed of starch, gwm, and sugar, Cub-stances which constitute by far the greatest portion of all vegetables. It may be remarked that hydrogen and oxyg'en are prHcnt in all in the exact proportions necessary for the formation of water. With nitrogen, the same elements form vegetable fibrine, vegetable albumen, and vegetable caseine. It is principally by the roots that rHurishment is obtained, and, as theB cannot absorb solids, it follow's that the substances on which plants feed must exist in a liquid or gaseous state before they can be taken up by the roots; and it is exclusively in these two states that all the food of plants is absorbed. The food of plants is prHented to the roots in a liquid state by the agency of water, which has the property of holding most solidaub-j stances in solutiou, and of absorbinSi greater or less portion of all gases which are brought iu contact with it. Water at GO3 and 30 bar. will, according to .Dalton and Henry, absorb its own volume of carbonic acid and sulpha jet ted hydrogen, and, according to Thomson, 7S0 times its own bulk of ammonia. Carbon, which exists pure in the diamond, and in the form of charcoal, is familiar to every one. Carbon, together with water, constitutes the principal bulk of vegetables; but it can only be assimilated bv plants wdien it is combined with16 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. oxygdi; or, in other words, before it can become the food of plants it must be turned into carbonic acid. With reference to this subject Sir Humphrey Davy tried an experiment, which he details in his Agricultural Chemistry:—“Some impalpable powdered charcoal, procured by washing gunpowder, and dissipating the sulphur by heat, was placed in a vial containing pure water, in which a plant of peppermint was growing; the roots of the plant were pretty generally in contact with the charcoal. The experiment was made in May, 1805; the growth of the plant was very vigorous during a fortnight, when it was taken out of the vial. The roots were then cut through in different parts, but no carbonaceous matter could be discovered in them, nor were the smallest fibrils blackened by the charcoal, though this must have been the case had the charcoal been absorbed in the solid form.” Charcoal, which is frequently used ft a manure, does not 'act as such by changing into carbonic acid, for it is one of the most indjratructible substances known. Its effects are Solely owiug to the property which it IieE of retaining large quantities of various gases in its pores. Saussure found that freshly-burned charcoal absorbed of Ammonia,..............90 times its own volume. Hydrochloric acid,....85 ,, ,, Sulpliurfflted hydrogen, ..81 ,, ,, Carbonh^BdrS..........35 ,, ,, Oxygen,............... 9’25 ,, ,, Nitrogen,.............. 7 '5 ,, . Hydrogen,.............. T75 ,, ,J Carbonic Acid.—As carbon constitutes with water the principal mass of vegetables, and cannot become their food except in the fflluble form of carbonic acid, it follows that this gas must be of the greatest importance with rejspaat.to the nourishment of plants. Carbonic acid consists of one equivalent of carbon united with two equivalents of oxygen. It is a colourless gas, with an acidulous taste, and heavier than atmospheric air, its sp. gr. being T524. It prevents combustion and respiration, proving fatal to animal life, even when present in moderate quantity. Water, when recently boiled, dissolves its own volume of carbonic acid at 60° and 30 bar., but under a greater pressure much more will be absorbed. This gas is always present in the atmosphere (in London to the extent of 0-044 per centRand in spring water. Carbonic acid is given off in large quantities by volcanoes, and is always produced bv the combustion and decay of substances containing carbon, and by the respiration of all animals. Combined with alkaline substances it gives rise to a class of salts called carbonates; one of which, carbonate of lime, or chalk, is very plentiful, and forms the principal portion of some soils. It is only under the influence of light that plants can decompose carbonic acid, fixing its carbon, and setting free its oxygen. During the night, on the contrary, they undergo a kind of slow combustion, oxygen being absorbed, and carbonic acid formed. But the balance in this curious alternation is vastly in favour of the process by which oxygen is sent into the atmosphere—for the whole carbon of a forest, for example, being derived from carbonic acid, an equivalent quantity of oxygen must have been liberated; and this consideration alone enables us to explain the fact, that, notwithstanding the enormous amount of oxygen withdrawn from the atmosphere by the respiration of animals, by combustion, by putrefaction, and by the action of vegetables during the night—in all of which processes the oxygen [ is converted into carbonic acid of equal volume— the proportion of oxygen in the atmosphere does not diminish, and that of carbonic acid does not ' increase. From these considerations it appeal’s, that there | must always exist a balance or fixed proportion between the existing amount of animal and that of vegetable life. Where animals abound, and where men carry on the usual operations of civi-! lized life, there carbonic acid must be largely j formed; but this carbonic acid, in yielding its carbon to vegetation, yields also its oxygen to re-' store the purity of the air, and support again the respiration of men and animals. Again, the decay and putrefaction of both animals and vegetables yield carbonic acid and ammonia—the very substances which form the food of a new race of vegetables; and these again contribute to the nouiTjhment of new animals; so that, in this unceasing round of chemical changes, the death of one generation supplies the means of life to that which is to follow. Oxygen is always gaseous when uncombined, and without colour, taste, or smell; it is heavier I than atmospheric air, its sp. gr. being 1T026. It forms 21 per cent, of the pure atmosphere, and enters largely into the composition of all plants. It has a powerful tendency to combine with most elementary substances, forming either oxides or i acids. The act of combining with it is termed oxidation. ! Combustion is nothing but rapid oxidation; . respiration the same thing, taking place with a I less degree of intensity. Neither plants nor animals can live in an atmosphere deprived of oxygen. Oxygen is absorbed in germination, and car-FOOD OF PLANTS. 17 bonic acid is given off; but when the plants begin to feed themselves, the reverse takes place; the carbonic acid taken up by the roots is decomposed by the action of light in the leaves, the carbon is appropriated by the plant, and the oxygen, or a part of it, is returned to the atmosphere. Plants liberate oxygen by the decomposition of water and carbonic acid; and the excess of oxygen thus obtained beyond the requirements of vegetation is returned to the atmosphere. Hydrogen is the lightest body in nature, its sp. gr. being 0'06896. It is colourless, tasteless, and inodorous, and will not support combustion or respiration; but an atmosphere composed of oxygen and hydrogen may be breathed. When hydrogen is mixed with oxygen, and the mixture set on fire, a violent explosion takes place, and water is generated; and the same result takes place, though more slowly and without an explosion, when the two gases are mixed and exposed to light. Hydrogen is found in plants in a much less quantity than oxygen. The supply of this gas is obtained by the decomposition of water and also of ammonia. The fatty and volatile oils, so frequent in certain parts of plants, are always rich in hydrogen. Nitrogen is a colourless, tasteless, inodorous gas, which enters into the composition of the atmosphere to the extent of 80 per cent, by volume. It is lighter than atmospheric air, its sp. gr. being 0'9722, and, like hydrogeu, it will not support respiration or combustion. Plants derive their nitrogen exclusively from ammonia and nitric acid; and though it has been supposed that they obtain nitrogen from the atmosphere, yet it is now generally admitted that the nitrogen of plants is assimilated from the two sources above mentioned. “Estimated by its proportional weight, nitrogen forms only a very small part of plants; but it is never entirely absent from any part of them. Even when it does not absolutely enter into the composition of a particular part or organ, it is always to be found in the fluids which pervade it.3’ —-{Liebig.) Ammonia is a colourless gas with a strong pungent smell, and composed of one equivalent of nitrogen and three equivalents of hydrogen. It has all the properties of an alkali, combining with acids, and completely neutralizing them. Ammonia is produced by the decay of all organic substances, and is present in the atmosphere in varying though small quantities. Recent researches have proved that it exists in much larger proportion in the air of towns than in that of the country; and the proportion varies likewise in different parts of the same town, according to the density of population, the number of manufactories, and the presence of other sources of impurities, being generally accompanied in such cases with a greater amount of carbonic acid than is found under other circumstances. Ammonia, however, both in its gaseous form and volatile compounds, being, as Liebig remarks, extremely soluble in water, it “cannot remain long in the atmosphere, as every shower of rain must effect its condensation, and convey it to the surface of the earth. Hence also rainwater at all times contains ammonia, though not always in equal quantity. It must contain more in summer than in spring or in winter, because the intervals of time between the showers are in summer greater; and when several wet days occur, the rain of the first must contain more of it than that of the second. The rain of a thunderstorm after a long protracted drought ought for this reason to contain the greatest quantity conveyed to the earth at oue time.” Ammonia is the principal source from which plants derive their nitrogen, and is therefore of great importance. It has been already stated, that ammonia is absorbed in large quantity bv water. The same property is also possessed by the soil, which abstracts it to some extent from the atmosphere. The action of an important class of manures is attributable to this substance being contained in them, or to its gi’adual formation during the process of decay. It has been questioned whether plants do not derive nitroHm from the air, either directly, or by its nitrogen forming ammonia there; but Liebig Bnsiders there is no evidence of either being the c®^B We must thei'efore look upon the ammonia present in the atmcsphere and soil, and nitric acid, as the only sources of nitrogen in plants. In general a dried plant may be said to contain about one-half of its weight of carbon, about two-fifths of oxygen and hydrogen, and the proportion of nitrogen seldom exceeds 21 per cent., and in most plants is much less. Having now noticed the four great components of the food of plants, we shall proceed as briefly as possible with the other substances which enter into their composition, and which areBHu'cely less necessary to their growth. When a plant is burned, the mineral substances which it has taken up from the soil remain as ashes. The composition of these varies in different species of plants, and even in different parts of the same plant. The following table exhibits the results of the chemical analyses of the ashes of plants:— 2Table—Shoioing the Composition of the Ashes of Grasses, Tobacco9 IIops} Veg Name of Plants, or or their Parts. Ash in 100 parts. Ash in plant artificially dried. Potash. Soda. cj m m n to a S Lime. Phosphoric Acid. Sulphuric Acid. Silica. White mustard (seeds) 415 __ 9-80 9-18 11*0 20 81 36*60 5*29 3*29 Black mustard ('seeds) 431 — 12-01 4*63 13-64 16-47 35*46 6-79 2-63 Madia (Madia sativa) seed — — 9*53 11*24 15*42 7*74 54*99 — — Ryegrass 3eed 6*85 — 4-97 1-43 5*51 19-24 1959 3 24 43*85 Meadow hay, mean of 4 analyses — 8*06 21-73 4-85 4-91 13-93 9-85 3-15 29*77 Lucerne R. .. — 9*55 14 03 6-44 3 64 50-57 1368 4-23 3'46 Red clover — 1117 1(5-10 40-71 8*28 21-91 4-12 1-06 2-60 Clover — 7-7 35*47 0-67 8*40 32-80 8-40 3-33 7-06 Ryegrass — 5-89 8*03 2T7 4-01 6*50 12*51 — 64*57 Common reed (Arundo Phragmites) 1*62 4*80 — 0*24 6*06 31*19 5*49 78*91 Esparsette, or Sainfoin — — 6*75 20-33 8’57 31-01 26*10 1-68 1-10 Asparagus — — 28-07 3 96 4-44 18 04 13-74 7-84 13-69 Sugar cane (stalks) — — 32-93 — 3-93 2-34 7'37 7*97 17*64 ,, (whole plant) — — 16-03 0-35 16*24 1010 6-14 8-30 44*17 it m — — 14-20 1*18 3*51 5-12 6-53 7-22 47-20 ,, (young and transparent).... — — 9-56 0 27 5*51 12 21 798 3*53 51-84 Tobacco leaf — — 29-08 2-26 7*22 30*35 2-74 3-75 — a — — 3067 — 8*57 27T2 1-88 3-27 — >> — — 27*88 7-31 33 84 1-99 3-75 — tt — — 18-20 15-73 32-06 2-12 5-91 — a — — 8-20 — 13-93 46-08 1-90 4*65 — it — — 19*55 0-27 11-07 48-68 3-66 3*29 — a — — 9-68 — 14-58 52"06 1-62 3*90 — a — — 9*36 — 15-59 52*00 2*10 3-58 — a — — 10-37 — 15-04 43*45 2*36 5-50 — . a Mean of 10 analyses of tobacco — — 11-21 — 12-77 49-16 1-97 2-98 — — — 17-42 0-25 12-18 41-80 2-23 4-06 — Hops — — 19-41 0-70 5-34 14-15 14-64 8-28 17*88 ,, (whole plant) — 9-87 25-18 5-77 15-98 12-13 5-41 21-50 ,, (leaves) — 13-6 14-95 0-39 239 49-67 3-52 5-04 12T4 „ (bine) 3*74 24-35 4*10 38-73 6*92 3-44 6*07 Vine 2 52 — 34*13 7*59 6*55 30 28 16*35 2-66 1-45 a 2 25 — 24-93 7-00 8*79 35-94 19-55 2-35 0-62 M • •••••••••• 2*85 — 37-48 1-33 1-05 43-88 9*20 3*61 0-72 it 2*83 — 17*55 26*76 9-17 30-33 2*85 2-01 1-61 yy ........... 2*69 — 25*31 2-14 7-48 40*87 17-94 2-88 — Mean of 5 analyses of vine 2-62 — 27-88 8-96 6*61 36'26 13T8 2-70 0 88 Apple tree (Pyrus Malus), wood — — 19-24 0-45 7-46 63-60 4-90 0-93 1-31 Cherry tree (Cerasus communis), wood .. 0*28 — 20-78 8-40 9-19 28*69 7-73 3-29 2*06 ,, ,, bark .. 10-37 — 7-46 14-53 5-10 41-95 3-26 0-80 19-98 Quince seeds (Pyrus Cydonia) — — 27-09 3*01 13-01 7*69 42-02 2-67 0"75 Lemon seeds (Citrus medico) — — 33-89 3*56 8-67 1287 34*81 3-30 0*35 Orange tree — Aurantium)troot.... 4*48 — 15-43 4 52 6-91 49-89 13-47 5*78 1-75 ,, i stem... 2 74 — 11-69 3 07 6 34 55*13 17-00 4-64 122 ,, ,, leaves. . 13-73 — 1651 1*68 5*72 56*38 3-27 4-43 4-83 ,, ,, fruit... 3-94 — 36-42 11-42 8-06 24 52 11-07 3-74 0 44 ,, ,, *eed.... 3*30 — 40-28 0-92 8-74 18*97 23-24 5*10 1-13 Turnip bulbs, mean of 10 analyses 078 5-48 36*98 6*76 3-61 11*14 9*74 12-43 3*43 ,, tops r- n 17*0 28-65 5*41 3*09 23-27 9-29 12-52 0*86 i ibles, Forest and Fruit Trees9 and Various Marine and Land Weeds. Peroxide of Iron. Chloride of Sodium. Chloride of Potassium. Locality of Plant. 1*43 0*33 __ Giessen. 1*06 2-15 — >> 1-08 — y f 2-17 — — Scotland. 1-52 8-86 — — 0 63 Cl. 3*3 — Germany. 0-46 4-73 — 11 0-40 5-8 — France. 0*36 — — Scotland. 0 93 0*3 . 2-28 2*18 — Besan. 5-78 Cl. 4-4 — — 17*12 1007 Demerara. — 3*76 4-91 Trinidad. — 5-04 — Berbice. — 3*47 5*63 J amaica. 6*04 0*91 — Debreczyn. 4-15 5-95 — 4-40 9-34 4-90 y y 4-68 11-41 3-92 Banat. 4-17 3 22 8'53 Funfkirchen. 2-99 3*54 — 3*57 4*61 444 4-62 3-20 3-27 5-20 6-39 2-99 4-33 2 58 2-97 J 441 5-11 3-10 2-71 3-0 — England. 512 7-24 1-67 1 2-41 9-49 — 0*28 6 47 6 94 0*16 0-83 — Styria. 0-24 0 58 — 1 1-0S 1-61 — Misnia. 6*63 3 05 — Worms. ' i 2-49 0-87 — Weinslieim. i J 212 1-39 — — 1 '66 0*45 — Giessen. 0-07 — — - It 0*20 0*62 — ” 1-19 2-57 — Misnia. 0-24 2-31 — 1 1-02 1-18 — St. Michael. 0-57 0-25 — „ 0*52 6*66 — „ 0-46 3 87 — „ 0-80 0*82 — „ 1-09 7*85 0*59 0*86 Cl.16-05 — Analyst. James. >» Souchay. Thomson. Sprengel. Horsford. Boussingault. Thomson. Fromberg. Buch. Levi. Stenhouse. a it a Will and Fresenius. Watts. Nesbit. Hruscliauer. Crasso. Levi. Will and Fresenius. Engelmann. Souchay. Kowney and How. J ohnston. ) Remakes. Carbonic acid, 11*01. f In this analysis, the carbonic acid seems to have j been abstracted.and the result calculated after [ j the deduction. GO GARDENER’S ASSISTANT,xi'itvo vj x ixiroofi—^couluiucuJ. J g® V..W ^ s M = B r/i d "s c3 0 c . H a O 0 . 0 . « 3 C p > M tOp 4*12 18*2 7*12 10-97 2*92 32-64 1-67 0-20 4*56 2-40 13-67 — — Carbonic acid, 17*83. Potato tubers (mean of analyses), ear-) bonic acid being deducted J — 392 55'75 1-86 5-28 2-07 12-57 13-01 4 23 0-52 7*1 — — ( Boussingault and ( Fromberg. i Potato tubers (mean of analyses), as ob-) tained by incineration j 1-03 46-80 0 28 940 3-44 13-55 4-34 5*25 5*1 2-56 2-5 Oxford. Daubeny. •< The vegetable acids are by incineration converted ( into carbonic acid. Potato top — 14-96 28-02 16-26 7-09 16-96 7-02 6'88 3'85 1-05 Cl. 12*33 — Scotland. Thomas. 11 *70 IMP 20-07 12-37 4*08 ‘>1 ‘AS n-7^ 0’60 jp 1 Pine apple, whole fruit — 49'42 8-80 12-15 trace. 4-02 *2-93 17-01 0-8S > a * This column, in all Dr. > i top — — 19*06 — 0'81 21-28 — 5 ”20 6-09 7*35 2*42 31*11 Richardson's series, re- Asparagus 0 47 03-27 O'Ol 34-21 3 03 4-39 18-51 4-13 13-47 3-31 1294 — i fers to the phosphate, Onion, bulb 0-46 H 32 35 8-04 2-70 12-66 15-09 8-34 3 04 12*29 4-49 — not the peroxide of iron. ,, stalk 0-84 93-33 13-98 14-43 trace. 25-10 — 10-50 19-77 10 H trace. — Fig, whole fruit — ! 28-36 24-14 9-21 18*91 — 6'73 5-93 2'76 4*02 — Walnut, kernel 31-11 2-25 13-03 8-59 42-53 trace. 2-49 trace. — „ shell 23-10 2-74 4-13 30'57 — 14-96 14-43 10-07 — — Cucumber HA 97-78 47-42 — 4-26 6-31 14-97 4'60 7-12 2-06 9-06 4-19 ! Broccoli, heart Hi 87*96 47-16 — 3*93 4'70 24-83 10*35 0-69 2-12 trace. 6‘22 i ,, leaves 1-70 87-42 j 22*10 7*55 3-43 26-44 16‘02 16*10 1-83 6-21 — Cauliflower, heart 0 71 92-48 34-39 14-79 2*38 2 *90 25-84 11-10 1 -92 3-07 2'7S — Radish, root 6'43 03-10 2P16 — 3-53. 8"78 40-09 7-71 8*17 219 7'07 1-29 M tOp 2'7tj 88 10 5-05 11-09 7'08 27-90 6-07 9-04 8”22 16-45 8-50 — Chestnut, whole fruit 0 99 34 01 39-30 19-18 7*84 7'84 7-33 3-88 2 "3 2 1-95 4-82 — • • • • Oxide of manganese, 5*48. Strawberries, whole fruit.. 0-41 90'22 2P07 27-01 trace. 14-21 8-59 3-15 12-05 11-12 2-78 — Oranges, whole fruit — — 38-72 7-64 0"55 22‘09 14-17 2-95 5”24 1-74 trace. — Rhubarb, stalk.... HU 93-92 59-59 0 40 — 10'04 12-83 1-89 2-77 2*77 8 84 — Spinach P23 2-03 83-90 90-53 14-47 9-09 31-77 34-90 5-59 5-29 3-95 13-a 30-04 7-S9 9-52 9*30 IMBMMm Z .Jo 3*1 6 2-33 8‘07 trace. 7 93 — >• England. Dr. Thomas Richardson. Kidney beans ... 0 08 87*12 30-83 18-40 6-33 7'75 14-60 3'96 4‘09 5-24 2-80 Pea pod 9 90-30 22-31 17*09 9-54 31 -08 10-59 0-90 0-29 1 10 trace. Green Gages, whole fruit.. . 0'40 83*77 59-21 0-54 5-46 10-04 1226 3-83 2-36 6-04 trace. — Orleans plum, skin 0'89 08-05 58-86 3 "52 9-29 8'25 9-85 1-96 0*81 7-45 trace. — ,, pulp 0-31 90-25 1 54*59 8*72 4*09 4 '86 15-44 3‘23 3-15 4*80 0-02 ,, kernel 104 61 ’56 20'52 1 94 10-17 8-49 33-05 711 2-38 3-83 0-49 — ,, shell 0-24 20*04 21-69 1 3*77 28'06 25-24 EH 2-57 4-37 trace. — Cherry, whole fruit 0-43 82-48 51-85 1 12 5 ’46 7-47 1421 5-09 9-04 0 Ism 0 / 4 2-02 — 2'37 54*00 83'55 j 42-00 ' 54-69 0-17 8-52 2-71 5 22 22-26 7-98 14-89 14-28 2-98 5'09 2*59 2*39 Pear, whole fruit 0-41 1-49 1-90 trace. Apples, whole fruit O'27 84-01 1 35-08 20-09 8-75 4-08 12*34 6-09 4-32 2*65 — — Artichoke 1-17 81-08 j 24-04 5-52 414 9'50 36-23 5-18 7-02 4 74 3‘57 — 1 jcttuce 0-87 93-90 40'01 1 * *1;) 2-17 0-05 8*52 3-89 20*23 trace. 7-82 — JCndive 1-37 93 '48 37-87 12-12 1-77 12-03 5'21 24-02 0*30 trace. — Gooseberry 0'39 93-26 1 38 05 9-27 5*85 12-20 15*58 5*89 2-58 8'05 1-23 — Celery T07 91 -50 j 22'07 — 5-82 13 11 11-58 5 58 3 85 2'00 — 33-41 .... Oxide of manganese, 1*92. Carrot 0-79 81 -25 j [217 5-00 5-73 12-::4 10-39 0. mm -<> 4-78 3-02 9-62 — .... ,, ,, trace. Parsnip 1-4H 75*86 j 30-12 3-11 9-91 11 *43 18'60 0-50 4*10 3-71 5 54 — / „ „ 089. Coffee beans . . 3-19 ” 1 4211 11-07 9-01 3 58 11-24 — 2'95 0-55 1 67 — — Levi. FOOD OF PLANTS.Table—Showing the Composition of the Ashes of Plants—(continued). CO i . I c3 o o 3 0-81 0-81 Levi. Sabine wood 0*85 0-83 3-29 2 97 77-32 2-42 0-39 0-39 1 -36 — — Kochlin. Madder root 8*25 — 20-39 / *37 2-60 24*00 313 1-45 3*63 ■ 10-04 — Alsace. i 8*42 15*50 2-50 19-84 13-44 2-28 13-10 6*04 0'91 — ) Moss {Sphagnum palustre) — 3*70 | 3-78 4-81 9-77 — 2-83 61*76 13-8 — — Germany. Wiegman. Common Land Weeds. Hemlock (Conium rnaculutum).... — ‘ 12-80 21-69 9-64 8*39 24*96 3-43 2-62 2-40 16-61 — Giessen. Wrightson. Foxg 1 ove (Digitalu purpurea) — — i 10-89 43-53 3-70 6-53 15*65 3-91 12-78 3-19 9-03 — Poppy Popaver R/aras)... . — — 1 6*85 33-11 — 5*06 23-37 2-26 1 -41 1-21 — 3-40 M Corn-cockle (Ayrostemnia Githago).. — — 13-20 22-86 — 0-14 29*27 2*39 2-39 1-21 — 7-55 Common Blue bottle C> utaarea, Cyanus) — — 1 7 32 3654 — 4 '56 15'49 2*69 3-29 1-61 — 11-88 Ruhling. Common Chamomile i Anlhemis nobilis) — — , 9*66 30*58 3-(57 16-01 4 60 6-80 3-28 — 7-15 Wild do. ( Matricaria Chamomilla)... — — 9-69 32-39 4-79 16-42 4-34 1 53 1-65 — 14-26 Sweet V\n\*{Acoru8 Cab , 6-90 32-93 7'70 11'48 5-06 2'39 1-91 2-84 14*66 > Datura Stramonium, seeds — — 20-22 14-24 17*56 4-11 34-72 — 5 21 3-94 — — t > Wrightson. Iodide of sodium, 0*34. Ska Weeds. „ „ 0-32. 0 49 Fucus digitutus 20*40 20-66 7 65 6-86 10-94 2'36 12-33 1-44 0-57 26-18 — — ) ,, vesiculosus.... — 10-39 13-01 9-54 6-12 8‘36 1-16 24-06 115 0-28 21-45 — — >• Godechens. ,, ,, **^. 1*18 ,, nodosus.. — 1(5-19 9-13 14-33 9-91 11 -60 1-38 24-20 1-09 0-26 18 2S — — 15-03 3-98 18*67 10-29 14*41 3*89 1S-59 0-38 0 30 16*56 — Laminaria latifolia.. — 13*62 — — 0-78 1 *61 0-81 1-45 0-08 2'24 4-24 Hoffmannsgan. ,, digitata — — 4-24 — 2-50 0*79 5 05 Oil 7‘90 — Heligoland. Ecklonia buceinalis... 14-27 2-67 0-94 0-73 3-11 0-43 1-84 0-48 215 — Cape of Good Hope. West Indies. Padina pavonia.... 34-75 or,-90 3 93 4-46 — Durvilla-a util is... 2-46 1*30 017 2*87 0-55 4*04 6*8 — Chili. The analyses of Forcham- Fucus vesiculosus.... 0-98 0-80 1-19 2-82 0'58 2'86 1-20 0-38 — Taarbeck. mer refer to the ashes - 10-22 2-64 2 64 1-10 1 "09 116 0-82 206 3-81 — Denmark. contained in 100 parts Ilalidrys siliquosa.. — 15’65 22*58 5*00 1-02 0-81 4- 39 5- 69 0*45 0-38 3*44 3'61 i i — 4-70 7*09 — Greenland. Forcliammer. •< of the plants, while the previous analyses of seaweed are made on 100 ,, cocci ferum 11-62 0*09 0-68 2-22 0-19 ___ — Bay of Cam peachy. Furcellaria fastigiata — 18-92 3-83 4-44 1-98 1 -10 0-39 5-85 — — — — Atlantic. parts of the ashes them- Chondrus orisons 20*61 3*8(5 2-34 1-48 0-08 8-50 — Kattegat. selves. ,, plicatus — 11-23 0-7(5 0-91 0*70 1 '38 0-44 1 -64 __ 1-98 — Iridaia edulis.... 9 86 1-19 0*78 1*05 0'65 1-28 008 — Iloffmannsgan. Kattegat. I)e lessen a sanguinea .. 13-17 1 *73 2‘69 0*75 0*51 U’CO 0'27 0’20 5*13 __ n 2‘3*> 4‘63 0-48 9-00 Iloffmannsgan. GARDENER’S ASSISTANT.FOOD OF PLANTS. 21 It appears from the foregoing table that the substances found in plants are not very numerous. There are the four organic elements—carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen; and besides, ill the ashes, potash, soda, magnesia, lime, silica, alumina, phosphorus, sulphur, chlorine, oxide of iron, oxide of manganese, iodine, and bromine. Alumina will be familiarly known as the essential substance of clay; magnesia forms epsom-salts; silica, flint and sand; chlorine, bleaching-powder; oxide of iron and oxide of manganese are the rusts of these metals. Potash is a compound of potassium and oxygen. It is a solid white substance, very corrosive when it is pure. It is found in the ashes of nearly all plants, and sometimes in large proportions; those of potato tubers contain upwards of half their weight of it, while in broad beans it amounts to 42 per cent. It is found in nearly all soils and in all ordinary manures. The potash thus found in the Etshes of plants is not pure, being generally united with carbonic acid, and it then constitutes what is called carbonate of potash. Soda is a compound of sodium and oxygen, and generally occurs in the ashes of plants together with potash, but in a much Le** proportion; it is found more abundantly however in plants that grow near the sea, and more especially in their leaves. Soda with chlorine forms chloride of sodium, which exists as a mineral under the name of rock-salt, and is the chief ingredient of p£a-water. From these sources are derived the different varieties of common salt, such as rock, bay, agricultural or horticultural, &c. The rock and bay salts are the purest. Magnesia, or oxide of magnesium, is found in the ashes of most plants; it may therefore be considered an essential element in their nutrition. It is a white powdery substance, which is found, accompanied with lime, in plants, but generally in small proportions. It appears to be most abundant in the ashes of wheat, in which as much as 16 per cent, of their weight has been found; in those of the seeds of pease and haricots from 10 to 12 per cent. Lime., or the oxide of calcium, occurs in plants in combination with phosphoric, sulphuric, and carbonic acids, and in the form of organic salts. ( hie of its compounds, protoxide of calcium, lime, or quicklime, is well known. All plants hitherto analyzed contain lime more or less. In the ashes of the vine from 30 to 40 per cent, of their weight was found; in tobacco from 30 to 50 per cent.; in the ashes of cabbage leaves 20 per cent.; in the fruit of strawberries 14, and in oranges 22 per cent. It is more especially abundant in the straw of corn and grasses. The ashes of lucerne contain 48 per cent, of lime, and clover 25 to 30 per cent. Hence the beneficial effects of lime applied to lawns and grass crops where this element is deficient. Cold water dissolves about 7-577 part of its weight of lime, that is to say, if 1 lb, of lime is put into 750 lbs. Vowu'nej*^This was found by Bellard in minute quantities in marine plants growing on the shores of the Mediterranean. It seems, however, to be of little importance in a horticultural point of view. CHAPTER IV. ASSIMILATION OF THE FOOD. Mode of Absorption.—Having treated on the principal organs of plants, and on the substances which form their food, we shall now endeavour to explain the mode in which the food is taken up and appropriated by the plant. Plauts feed almost exclusively by the roots, and chiefly by the young extremities of these, called the spongioles, from their property of imbibing fluids like a sponge. These spongioles are composed of a delicate tissue through which no solid substance can pass. Water in its liquid state, and also in that of vapour, is readily absorbed, provided the plant is at the time in want of a supply of moisture. If a plant is dry and the leaves are flagging, by immersing its spongioles entirely in water the leaves will resume their natural position, and they will do so to a considerable extent if the spongioles are placed in an atmosphere completely saturated with the vapour of water. Thus, moisture, either in the fluid or gaseous state, can be taken up; and so can other substances, eveu some that are solid when reduced to a soluble state, provided the solution is not too dense. Water, however, cannot be taken up bv the loots and carried to the tops of the highest trees, and there evaporated by the leaves, in many cases to the amount of tons in the course of a summer, without a force, or an aggregation of forces, equal to the weight raised. The tubes in the vegetable structure, being exceedingly tine, have doubtless a capillary action; but this alone could not be sufficient to force the sap through the cut stem of a vine so as to burst a strong fastening placed over the section of the stem, as is known to have been the case. The mode in which fluids pass through mem-ASSIMILATION OF FOOD. 23 branous tissue was, we believe, first pointed out by M. Dutrocbet, and called endosmose. By tliis discovery, not only the absorption by the roots, and that which takes place from cell to cell, is clearly accounted for, but also a part of the circulation of plants which had previously been considered inexplicable. “ If a small bladder, either of animal or vegetable membrane, containing a liquid denser than water, such as a mixture of sugar and water, is plunged in pure water, the two liquids will tend to become of the same density, and to establish through the membrane two currents, one of pure water passing from without inwards towards the sugar and water (called endosmose), and another of sugar and water passing from the inside to the outside and towards the pure water (this current is called exosmose). But the two liquids do not filter through the membranes with equal facility or rapidity. The less dense passes through the quickest; the sugared water, therefore, gains more in quantity than it loses, the pure water loses more than it gains. Hence, a difference of level takes place between the two liquids, that in the bladder rising highest, and continuing to do so till the two liquids have acquired, by this interchange, an equal degree of density. If we insert a graduated upright glass tube into the mouth of the bladder, tying the latter tightly, so that the fluid in ascending can only pass up the tube, we can thereby ascertain the rapidity of the ascent and its force. If we substitute a bent tube for the straight one, and fill the lower part of the bend with mercury, the latter will stand at the same level in both legs of the tube; but when pressed by the fluid, the mercury will be forced down the one leg and up the other, and the difference between the height of the two columns shows the force exerted by the endosmose action. It lias been ascertained by such experiments that the rapidity and force of the endosmose are considerable, and that its action will continue for a long time. A solution of 1 part of sugar to 2 parts of water raised, in two days, the column of mercury as much as 40 inches, equal to the pressure of about 19i lbs. on the square inch. At the end of the two days the solution was only reduced to 3 parts of water to 1 of sugar. “ A1 isorption by the roots can be now easily explained. The cells which form their tissue are filled with fluids denser than the water in the soil; and this water, by the effect of endosmose, filters through the membranes of the tissue into the outside cells, diminishing the density of the fluids it there meets with, and passes from these into the interior cells. From this it is evident I that if we imagine we shall favour the nourishment of the plant by furnishing it with food already prepared—by bringing its roots, for example, in contact with a solution of sugar—we shall thereby prevent the endosmose action, and consequently the absorption, and thus, instead of gaining the object, we should, on the contrary, frustrate it.”—(A. l)e Jussieu.) Ascent of the Sap.—The flow of sap is not, however, governed entirely by tlie forces which enable fluids to pass readily through the tissues, and to ascend to a considerable height above the level of the source from which these fluids are deriyisd. These forces must diminish with elevation, and endosmose would almost neutralize itself when it had infiltered as much watery fluid as would render the contents of the tissues of nearly the same density as water. The flow of sap is induced by beat, supplied by endosmose, aided by capillary attraction, and promoted by evaporation and motion. In winter the sap is almost at rest. Buds of most trees swell but little, those at the termina-tionof the shoots destined to elongate the branches do not extend, till acted upon by heat. In proof of this, let a tree be planted outside a forcing-house, and let a portion of it, say one branch, be introduced into the inside in heat in winter whilst the rest of the tree remains in the cold ; sujjposing the branch so introduced to be that of a vine, it will begin to push its buds and leaves, and will form young sboots, white the branches on the portion outside will remain in a leafless condition ; their buds will not swell, provided the weather continuSiold, and in this case they may be cut without the sap oozing from the wound, therefore it must be concluded that there is no flow taking place in that part of the viue. But such cannot be the case with the branch introduced into heat; for, if it be cut after its buds begin to swell, the sap will flow copiously. It is therefore evident that the flow of sap is primarily and chiefly induced by heat. The introduction into heat of plants that are in a dormant state, in order to start them, is a common expression among gardeners, and briefly signifies that the plant is to be introduced to a temperature sufficiently high to set the sap in motion; for this is the first effect of the beat, and that bv which the plant is started into growth. The ascent of the sap takes place chiefly through the more recently formed woody tissue of the stem. If a young branch be cut across, the sap will be seen to flow from the whole surface of the section; but in an old stem or branch the flow is chiefly through the youngest layer of wood, that next the outside, and partly through the24 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. layers next and interior to this, but very little or none through the old heart-wood. The sap, flowing chiefly through the outer layer of woody tissue, continues its course through the same kind of tissue into the bud, young shoot, and upper surface of the leaves. In these its general upward movement from the root terminates; it is there exposed to light and air; various changes are effected by these, and in an altered form it retrogrades, receiving then the names of descending, returning, or elaborated sap, and also that of proper juice. Changes which the Sap undergoes.—Having explained the mode in which the sap is absorbed by the roots and conveyed through the stem, chiefly by the veSroels of the alburnum, into the young shoots and leaveS we shall now endeavour to point out some of the more important changes which it undergoes? and the agencies by which these changes are effected. As the ves&els through which the sap ascends contain various organic and inorganic substances, some chemical sWtion prob;0>ly takes place tvhen these substance® are broWnt in contact with others held in Elution by the Sending gfo/p. In order to BBfcjlfy chemical affinitj^P portions of som«ubstai^R may be taken from the sap; and, on th^Hntrary, it may*obtain other ingredients from the deposits in the ®lls through which it pa^^^H Although the sap appears to be changed to some extent in its passage through the stem, yet the principal alterations of its nature take place in the leaves. In these it parts with a large amount of water by evaporation or perspiration, carbonic acid is decomposed, and other chemical changes take place. Dr. Hales, in his Treatise on Vegetable Statics, gives an account of some excellent experiments with regard to the evaporation of fluids by plants. In July or August he cut off several branches of apple, pear, apricot, and cherry trees, two of a sort. They were from 3 to 6 feet long, with lateral branched and about 1 inch in diameter where cut off. He then stripped off the leaves from one branch of each sort, and put each of the branches, with leaves and without leaves, in separate glasses, pouring in known quantities of water. The boughs with leaves on them imbibed, in twelve hours of the day, from 15 to 30 oz., more or less in proportion to the quantity of leaves they had, and when he weighed them at night they were lighter than in the morning. Those without leaves imbibed but 1 oz., and were heavier in the evening than in the morning, they having perspired little. The quantity imbibed by those with leaves de- creased very much every day, and usually in four or five days the leaves faded and withered much. At the above rate the average quantity evaporated by each branch would amount to 1 gallon in a week; and, if the tree consisted of fifty such portions of branches and foliage, the amount of its evaporation would be 50 gallons, or equal to nearly a quarter of a ton of water. Dr. Hales also found that the evaporation from a middle-sized cabbage plant amounted in twelve hours of one day in summer to 19 oz.; and that its average evaporation on nine several days was 15 oz. in the day of twelve hours. This was at the rate of fully 29 lbs. of water per month. Although evaporation is effected chiefly by the leaves, yet it also takes place, to a greater or less extent, from all parts of the surface of plants exposed to air not actually saturated with moisture. If a shoot is cut off before the leaves expand, and if the cut be waxed over so that no moisture can exhale from that part, yet evaporation will proceed through the bark till the whole shoot becomes dried up. This, however, would not be the c&fee so soon as if the shoot were in leaf: for example, if two similarRhoots are cut from the Rime treeHsay for budding in July, when the sap is in full flow, and if the leaves be all cut off from the one shoot, and none of them from the other, it will be found that the one with leaves will soon become exhausted of its sap, and unfit for budding, whilst the one deprived of leaves may be successfully worked several days after the other has become too dry. Evaporation takes place in much greater quantity from some plants, than from others having an equal extent of evaporating surface. Some, with succulent fleshy leaves, may be exposed to great drought without being dried up; whilst such plants as have broad hairy leaves would be quite withered by exposure to the same degree of dryness. Evaporation from the surface of leaves is well known to be, from equal areas, exceedingly variable. Whether much or little is evaporated, depends chiefly on the porosity of the surface. The pores differ in size and number; and a leaf, of which the outline incloses an area of 6 square inches, may thus have a much greater evaporating surface than another of equal area, from not being perfectly even. How-ever, from exact experiments, and from the quantities of water which plants in pots require, some twice as much as others under the same circumstances, it is certain that evaporation takes place from most plants to a great extent, and from some more than others. The process cannot be carried on when the air surrounding the plant is already charged with moisture to saturation; butASSIMILATION OF FOOD. 25 when the surrounding air is not saturated, evaporation from plants will go on; and if the dryness of the air be excessive, so will be the evaporation. It appears that the moisture in the living plant is as much subject to evaporation as it would be in any substance not alive. If a wet sponge is exposed to dry air, the latter, as it comes in contact with the moisture, will successively absorb it till the sponge becomes quite dry; and this is precisely what takes place with plants—dry air coming in contact with the moisture in the pores of the leaves or bark, carries it off, and the more rapidly if the air is moving quickly. If we take a shallow metal box, say two inches square, nearly fill it with water, and fit a lid very exactly so that it may rest on the surface of the water, from which it effectually prevents the access of air; it is evident, in this case, that, although exposed to dry air, no evaporation of the water could take place. If we now remove the metallic lid, and substitute two inches square of blotting paper, placing it on the surface of the water, and exposing it to dry air, we shall find the water will be evaporated, so that, ultimately, even the blotting paper itself will remain dry at the bottom of the box. The blotting paper is porous, and so is the surface of leaves; and any porous substance in contact with moisture on the one side, and with dry air on the other, permits the moisture to escape by evaporation, under circumstances favourable for this taking place. As evaporation cannot go on in a saturated atmosphere, and as some plants naturally grow in countries where the air is generally dry and clear for considerable periods in the intervals of heavy rains, and as a great amount of evaporation must be effected during these periods, it cannot be supposed that a healthy substantial growth will result from keeping such plants in a house or pit where the air is constantly damp. On the other hand, there are plants which grow in shady, moist situation^ and like a humid atmosphere, either continually, or during a certain stage of their growth; for these a dry atmosphere, day and night, with tire-heat, must be destructive. It may be here remarked, that even in dry climates there is a cessation of evaporation during the night, dew being then usually formed, and the air saturated with moisture, so that evaporation is checked. Hales found that the evaporation from a plant of the sunflower was 30 oz. in a dry warm day, and it was nothing at night when there was a slight dew. Whilst a large portion of the sap which enters into the tissues of the leaves is disposed of simply by evaporation, changes are effected on the remaining portion by the action of light. The most important and uniform of these is the decomposition of carbonic acid, the oxygen of which is, in a great measure, restored to the atmosphere, and the carbon retained and appropriated in various ways by the plant. That carbonic acid is dCCOmfKJfeed in the green parts of plants by the action of light, has been conclusively proved by De Candolle and others. * If,” says De Candolle, “ two plants are exposed, one to darkness and the other to the sun, in close veJSels, and in an atntbsphere containing a known quantity of carbonic Sfeid, and at'<5 removed at the end of twelve hours, we shall find that the first has diminish^ 1 Wither the quantity of oxygen nor of carbonic acid; and that in the second, on the contrary, the quantity of carPmic acid has diminished, while the quantity of free oxygen has increased in the game proportion. Or if we place two similar plants in closed vessels in the sun, the one in a vessel pentaining no Sr-bonic acid, and the other in air winch contains a known quantity of it, w6 stiall find that tAR air in the first vessel has undergone no change, while that in the second will indicate an increJsHof oxygen proportioned to the quantity of carbonic acid which has disappeared; and if the experiment is conducted with sullicSent care, we shall disoover that the plant in question has gained a proportionable quantity of carbon. Therefore, the carbonic add wliicb lifts disappeared has given its oxygen to the air and its carbon to the plant, and this has been produced solely by tlH acfflm of solar light.” By means of the decomposition of carbonic acid by plants, oxygen is restored to the atmosphere, which is being continually robbed of that element by the respiration of animals, combustion, and other means. Although oxygen is withdrawn from the air by plants at night, yet this loss a](pears to be more than compensated bv the amount restored during the day. We may therefore conclude, that this is a provision of nature for the maintenance of the elements of the atmosphere !in their proper proportions. And as the food of animals is always derived directly or indirectly from vegetables, it is evident, thaflis the number of the former increases, so ought that of the latter, to supply the"greater demand for food; and that if a greater amount of oxygen is withdrawn from the air by animal life, the means of compensating for that loss is also greater in consequence of a larger amount of vegetable matter being required for food. But besides the decomposition of carbonic acid, many other chemical changes are effected on the constituents of the sap in the leaves, and by which they acquire peculiar properties, such as26 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. they cannot obtain in the absence of light. For example, celery grown in the light has a strong flavour, but when grown in the dark, or blanched, it is rendered agreeable to the taste. The modifications by which the juices are rendered in some leaves sweet, in others bitter, acrid, insipid, acid, or perfumed, &c., are induced or influenced by the agency of light. Whilst the leaf is in a young state, it appropriates, for its own growth, the principal part of the sap it elaborates; but as it gets older it affords a supply for the growth and nourishment of the other parts of the plant. Descent of the Sap.*—'The elaborated sap returns from the leaf by a different set of vessels from that through which the crude ascending sap is conveyed and introduced into it. The general flow of sap from the roots takes place chiefly through the vessels of the alburnum or young layer of wood, whilst the elaborated sap returns by the liber or inner bark. In its progress downwards it deposits secretions, and in extjgens it forms a fresh layer of wood, sometime* of considerable thickness, in the course of a season, as may be seeu by the concentric layers which indicate each season’s growth. Part of the elaborated sap reaches the extremities of the roots, adding fresh organized tissue to the existing spongioles, and forming new ones; and thus, whilst the siaaZjf the plant increases above ground, means are provided for supplying it with an additional quantity of nourishment. Roots cannot be formed without leaves or pubstaucS which have been elaborated by leaves. A plant may be cut down near the ground, and, under favourable circumstances, its roots will grow for a time; but, if no leaves are permitted to push, the roots must ultimately perish. On th^other hand, leaves may be produced without the agency of roots, as may be observed on fresh shoots springing from the trunks of felled trees; but these shoots are supported by the sap contained in the trunk, and which has been elaborated by the leaves. This supply must, however, ultimately become exhausted, and then growth must cease. We are therefore led to the conclusion that the action of leaves and roots is reciprocal, so that, if we reduce the former, we shall thereby diminish proportionally the growth of the latter, and vice versa. We have supposed that plants feed almost exclusively by their roots; but many contend that much of their nourishment is directly derived from the substances constituting the air, or contained in it, such as oxygen, nitrogen, carbonic acid, and ammonia. Attempts have, accordingly, been made to feed plants by their foliage with the two latter, but with no appreciable result; whereas, by supplying these substances in a properly diluted form to the roots, the effects are most decidedly beneficial. CHAPTER Y. SOILS. Soils are constituted of various elementary substances, mineral and saline; and subsequently these have acquired a greater or less amount of organic substances. The mineral or inorganic substances of the soil are derived from the degradation or decomposition of rocks. If we turn up a fine, soft working soil, which may be composed of sand and clay, forming a fine loam, we have no reason to suppose that it always existed in that finely divided state, for in an adjoining spot we may find the soil consists ofieoarse sand and gravel, interspersed with large stones; or rocks, and resting upon rock. On examining soil more minutely, it is found that it is composed of essentially the same elements as those which form the more solid parts of the crust of the globe. The mineral bases from which the greater bulk of this is formed are not numerous; they consist of silicon, aluminium, and calcium or lime. These bases are only found pure in small quantities, and are separated with difficulty; yet, when united •with oxygen, it is estimated that they form more than half the crust of the terrestrial globe. Although the same substances as are found in the soil are to be found in the rocks, it is not to be supposed that the latter could be formed from the soil; whereas there is every probability that J soil has been derived from the rocks. The primary rocks, the most constant of any in their character, yield soils of very different properties, under the different conditions to which they may be subjected. Thus, the rocks which in the mountains of Argyleshire are so barren, yield in the Channel Islands a soil of great fertility; and in Normandy the finest soils of the department are derived from the primary and transition rocks. The old red sandstone presents soils from the most barren to the most fertile; but nearly all are capable of improvement. The nature of rocks being so intimately connected with that of the soil, it is certainly worth while to give some attention to them, and the elements which enter into their constitution; for knowing this, we can more easily comprehend how cultivated soil can be derived from them. We therefore give the following— O OSOILS. Table of the Elementary Composition of various Rocks, as recently determined by eminent Analysts* cg o GG be m ^ *“ | •— so ° I 1 Quartz, 100 ... 2 Felspar, 02 83 17 02 13 00 3-00 ... ! i-oo ... 3 Mica, 47-00 20-00 14 50 ... 15-50 1-75 4 Hornblende, 54-80 i.i-oh 6 83 9*39 7-29 0-75 | 4 03 0-11 1-70 5 Granite, 72-80 15-30 6’40 1-40 0*99 070 0'80 ... (i ,, Gneiss, 70-0(1 15-03 7-92 1'00 0 37 ... 2-97 0-20 7 »» Syenites & Syenitic Porphyry, 71-92 15 20 4 37 3*31 1-70 0-25 0"36 2 76 0"26 8 62 50 15-50 2-90 3-20 3*50 3-00 8-40 9 Felspar& Felspathic Porphyry, 73-50 14-50 4-00 2-80 OHO 0'80 2-50 10 Greenstone or Whinstone, 53 20 16-00 1-30 2 20 6'00 0*30 14-00 11 Albite Soda Felspar, 70-48 18-45 10 50 0-55 12 Mica Slate, 73'07 13 -08 6-06 2-49 0T7 0-54 4-08 0-30 13 Talc Mica 47-00 20-00 14 50 ... 15 50, 1 ’75 14 Trap, ... 60-50 17-00 6 50 6-30 i-io 1-59 5 20 15 Basalt, 48-00 13 80 i 1-50 3-00 ( 6-50 10-20, 13-80 10 Limestone, 56 '00 j ... 44 00 17 Gypsum, 33 00,46-00 ... ; Water *21 * Isos. 5, 8, 9, 10, 14, 15 are given on the authority of the Academic des Sciences. From the above it will be seen that rocks are chiefly composed of silica, alumina, the alkalies potash and soda, maguesia, and lime. These form the earthy bases which constitute the bulk of rocks. Lime, with carbonic acid, forms limestone, marble, &c., and with sulphuric acid, gypsum. In addition to these, sometimes the oxides of iron and of manganese, with a little fluoric acid, and phosphoric acid, the latter of which is very important, but its quantity in rocks iis diflicult to ascertain exactly, owing to its being so volatile and inflammable. The enumeration of the substances found in rocks may also stand for that of the inorganic elements of which soils are composed; and these elements are likewise found in plants. Silica is the most widely diffused substance of which rocks and soil are formed. Either pure or combined as an acid with metallic bases, silica has been estimated to form almost one-half of the solid crust of the globe. ( Iranite usually consists of three ingredients— quartz, felspar, and mica; or quartz, felspar, and hornblende. These, on analysis, have given:— (fiarts.—Silica 100 per cent. Felspar.—Silica 62 to 65, alumina 17 to IS, potash 111 to 16, lime 3, oxide of iron 1 per cent. Mica.—The composition of this varies considerably according to the variety, containing from 40 to 47 per cent, of silica, and from 13 to 31 per cent, of alumina, with oxide of iron and potash. Hornblende consists of silica 42 to 54 per cent., alumina 14 or 15, lime, magnesia, aud oxide of iron, in proportions varying according as it is basaltic or syenitic. It will be observed that in all these compositions silica fornts by far the greatest percentage. Hard and compact as these rocks are, they are capable of disintegration to form soils, as will appear from the following: — “ Quartz is not a silicate, but pure silicic acid; carbonic acid Cannot, therefore, act upon quartz so as to cause its disintegration. Mica confflsts of silicate of alumina, persilicate of iron, and silicate of potash. Carbonic acid, being capable of combining with the potash, decomposes the latter salt, forming with its potash carbonate of potash, and liberating silicic acid. This decomposition of one of itsRonstituents is, of course, attended with the disintegration of thSmica. Lastly, felspar is a double salt, composed of Plicate of alumina and silicate of potash. This ingredient of the granite is far more readily disintegrated than mica; it separates intQ$$ioffle of alumina, persilicic acid, and carbonate^>f pOtfflh. The two latter substanoetidissolve, and are carried away by water, whilst the■eilicatHof alumina iH mains undissolved, and, according to its degreel of purity, receives the name of common clay, or porcelain clay. “ It must be obvious that in the process where two of the constituents of the granite are dComposed and disintegrated, the w 1 mass of the granite must, in a like manner, suffer degradation.”—{Lectures to Farmers on Ayriestltural Chemistry, by Alexander Petzholdt.) The same author remarks, “ that carbonic acid decomposes only those silicates with the bases of which it will combine and form carbonates, while it leaves untouched the silicates, with the bases of which it is incapable of combining. The28 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. former, therefore, only can be disintegrated by the action of carbonic acid. Now, those silicates which occur as constant constituents of all mountain masses, are exclusively combinations of silicic acid with alumina, peroxide of iron, potash, soda, lime, magnesia, protoxide of iron, and protoxide of manganese. With the exception of alumina and peroxide of iron, all these bases are capable of combining with carbonic acid. All the minerals we are speaking of are double salts, and every one of them contains at least one silicate, the base of which has a tendency to combine with carbonic acid,” forming a carbonate, the silicic acid being set free. This is at first soluble in a large quantity of water, from which it gradually separates, becomes insoluble, and is ultimately converted into solid flint. The action of oxygen likewise contributes to the disintegration of rocks. These generally contain more or less of some oxide of iron containing less oxygen than that which forms the peroxide. If moisture is present, these oxides absorb oxygen from the water till they are converted into peroxide of iron. Now, any oxide of iron requires more space than the pure metal, and the peroxide still more than when the metal is in a less oxidized state, and the consequence is a breaking up of the mineral. If pieces of iron be employed to bat stones in buildings, the iron, if water has access to it, is apt to split the stones from the greater bulk which it acquires in rusting. In some old buildings, portions of the stone may be seen completely wedged otf by the iron. Thus oxygen acts chemically on the iron, and by the combination of the two substances the stone is mechanically broken. By the action of carbonic acid, water, and oxygen, a fertile soil can be produced from one of the most abundant and strongest rocks in nature—granite. In it are associated, as previously stated, three distinct minerals—quartz, mica, and felspar. On the disintegration or degradation of these by the agencies above-mentioned, the basis of a fertile soil is formed, consisting of the following ingredients: derived from the quartz, flint, sand, or silicious earth; from the mica, siliciite of alumina or fine clay, lime, oxide of iron; from the felspar, silicate of alumina, silicate of potash, lime, oxide of iron. In addition to these there are phosphates in the granite of some localities. Tims, the essential inorganic constituents of the soil are derivable from the substances in one kind of primitive rock, and other kinds of rocks are liable to be broken up or decomposed by the same agencies so as to form soils. From what has been stated it appears that the hardest rocks are subject to the powerful attacks of chemical action. We may be permitted to say that they are by no means secure from the attacks of vegetation, for we have distinctly observed some of its effects even on granite. On a low moor covered with heath, we have observed stones partly embedded and partly above ground, but overgrown with lichens and mosses of various kinds. On some of these the covering was scanty, consisting only of lichens closely attached, others had accumulated a thick coating of moss, forming a cap or scalp which could be removed, with hundreds of crystals loosely attached on its under side. These were of seemingly pure quartz, which could never have been singly removed from their native rock had not the cryptogamic vegetation assisted in were embedded, and left the quartz isolated, a mass of loose crystals like coarse gravel. Such cubical coarse gravel can be seen in the track of mountain torrents, the angles not having been much worn off by attrition, which takes place chiefly when they are subject to the ceaseless rolling of the ocean. It is evident to any one who has observed the nature and disposition of soils, that vast quantities of them have been removed from the localities in which they have been originally formed. It is certain that violent eruptions of nature have disturbed the solid masses, scattering, at the same time, the disintegrated portions that may have been previously reduced to the state of soils. Light sandy soils, in some localities, are even now being drifted from place to place by the winds. But the effects of water, with regard to the transportation of soils, are much more powerful and universal than those resulting from the action of wind. The mechanical effects of water can be traced almost everywhere in a greater or less degree. From the quantities of marine shells that are found inland, and at considerable elevations, it would appear that the sea had at some remote period rolled over the low-lying parts of Britain, and had swept before it different substances and kinds of soil. The land may have sunk, for some time, considerably below the level of the sea, or the latter may have risen above the surface of the land; in either case, the soil and the looser portions of rocks would be moved by the overwhelming force of the mass of water. An irregular mixture of these would take place in the first instance, and, unless the submerged surface had been previously level, and its materials of uniform density, the flow of water could not have been uniformly onward, and hence circuitous motions, partaking of the nature of whirlpools, must have been communicated. ToSOILS. 29 this, or some very analogous cause, must be attributed the formation of those numerous apparently water-formed eminences, which diversify the general level of the low part of the country, and present aspects more or less inclined to the sun, and consequently better adapted for the growth of a greater variety of vegetable productions than a level plain, where in some latitudes wheat, for instance, would not ripen; but it might do so perfectly if favoured with a southern slope and well sheltered from the north by rising ground. The irregularities of surface are on the whole an advantage. It is true, if we have the warmness of a southern aspect, we have at the same time the coldness of a northern one. Such we have likewise in a walled garden, where we must put up with the coldness of a north-aspect wall in order to have peaches, &c., on the opposite or southern one. Were it not for the soil being thrown into a diversified surface we should not in our latitude have a country so capable of drainage and improvement, nor half so productive as it can be made. By the reaction of the water, depositions of the portions of soil capable of acquiring a muddy consistence would be formed, and through these rivers would trace their course. The beds of many of these are far above the bottoms of the original valleys; the latter appear to have been previously filled up to a great extent by different transition strata. The mechanical effects of water are now generally confined to the gradual washing down of the soluble and finer portions of soil from the higher to the lower grounds, or into rivers, to be either deposited where these overflow, or to be carried into the sea. It should, therefore, be an object in good cultivation to prevent, as much as possible, the soil from being carried down from the higher ground, where it is most wanted, to the lower, where it is least required, and where its depth, in many cases, is already more than sufficient. Formation of organic soife.wThe organic portions-of the soil are, of course, subsequent acquisitions to the inorganic constituents, inasmuch as the former are derived from the decay of plants and animals; and as the decay of these could not precede their existence, they must have lived originally on soils destitute of organic remains. Decayed vegetable matter assumes a dark brown or black colour, and is termed lmmus or mould. This is formed by the gradual deeay of vegetable and animal matter under the influence of water, air, and heat. Liebig defines it as woodv fibre in a state of decay, and states that it is formed by the oxygen of the air slowly uniting with woody fibre. This process he terms eremacausis, a species of tardy combustion, which goes on till the woody fibre is converted into humus. It was once the prevailing opinion that humus was the source from which plants derived their carbon; but this has been disproved by Liebig, who has shown that there is no evidence whatever that humus is directly absorbed by plants, and that it could not be formed unless plants had some other source from which they could derive carbon; for the first vegetables which grew on the earth could not have obtained their carbon from humus, which, being formed by the decay of vegetables, could not then exist. Nevertheless, it cannot be doubted, that liuinus performs an important pai't in the nutrition of plants. By its slow decomposition it affords a constant supply of carbonic acid to the roots. It also, probably, supplies ammonia, which it absorbs from the atmosphere. I.—CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS. From what has been stated it will appear that the inorganic bases of soils consist of substances derived from various kinds of rocks. The bulk of these substances consists of silica^ clay, and lime. Being mechanically mixed in no definite proportion, these, together with organic remains, humus, afford an infinite diversity of -soils, independently of the few or many saline matters which they may also contain in greater or less quantity. As the varieties of soils are so numerous, and merge one into the other, possessing no natural lines of demarcation, it is evident that some system of classification must be adopted in order that we may know with sufficient exactness what is meant by the term used to designate any particular variety of soil. Accordingly, many systems of classification have been proposed; but the following one appears to be the most complete, and would, if generally adopted, prevent in a great measure the confusion which so frequently arises from the indefinite use of the terms sandy, clayey, calcareous, &c., as applied to soils; and also that of local terms, to which different meanings are attached in different parts of the country. This system is founded on the principle that soils generally consist of a mixture of clay, lime, humus, and silica, as above stated; and the divisions and subdivisions are formed according to the proportions in which the above constituents are present. Various examples of soils distinguished for remarkable peculiarities in different countries are added, and of these soils complete analyses are given. It is presumed that on the whole a practically useful idea of the nature of soils will be afforded, which may lead to their great improvement.30 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Schubler’s Classification of Soils as recommended by Dr. Daubeny. (From the Journal of Vie Royal Agricultural Society of England, vol. iii. p. 156.) Names of Different Descriptions of Soil. Proportion of Ingredients 100 Parts. IN EVERY Classes. Orders. Species. Clay. Lime. Himus. Sand. I. Argillaceous Soils. Above 50 per cent, of Clay. Not more than 5 per cent, j of Lime. Without Lime •/ Poor Intermediate... Rich Above 50 „ 50 „ 50 | 0 j O' to 0'5 0 : 0'5 to 1'5 0 1'5 to 5'0 The Remainder. 95 With Lime Poor Intermediate... Rich Above 50 „ 50 | 50 j 0'5 to 5'0 1 O' to 0'5 I 0'5 to 5'0 0'5 to 1'5 0'5 to 5'0 i 1'5 to 5'0 55 II. Loamy Soils. Not more than 50, nor less than 30 per cent, of Clay. 1 Not more than 5 of Lime. ^ ( Poor Without Lime < Intermediate... ( Rich 30 to 501 I 30 to 50 30 to 50 0 O' to 0'5 0 | 0'5 to 1'5 0 1*5 to 5'0 59 55 55 With Lime -j Poor Intermediate... Rich 30 to 50 1 30 to 50 30 to 50 0'5 to 5'0 O' to 0'5 0'5 to 5'0 0'5 to 1'5 O'5 to 5 0 1'5 to 5'0 55 III. Sandy Loams. Not more than 30, nor less J than 20 per cent, of Clay, j Not more than 5 of Lime. ! 1 Without Lime •< Toor Intermediate... Rich 20 to 30 | 20 to 30 20 to 30 0 O' to 0'5 0 0'5 to 1'5 0 1'5 to 5'0 9 5 5 9 With Lime E Poor Intermediate... Rich 20 to 30 20 to 30 20 to 30 0'5 to 5 0 O' to 0'5 0 5 to 5 0 0'5 to 1'5 0'5 to 5'0 ; 1 '5 to 5'0 55 55 IV. Loamy Sands. Not more than 20, nor less than 10 per cent, of Clay. -Less than 5 per cent, of Lime. Without Lime | Poor Intermediate... Rich 10 to 20 10 to 20 10 to 20 0 | O' to 0'5 0 ! 0*8 to 1'5 0 1'5 to 5'0 55 55 ■ With Lime * (” Toor Intermediate... [ Rich 10 to 20 10 to 20 10 to 20 0'5 to 5'0 j O' to 0'5 0*8 to 5'0 0'5 to 1 '5 0'5 to 5 0 1 1'5 to 5'0 59 99 V. Sandy Soils. Not more than 10 per cent, of Clay. Less than 5 per cent, of Lime. Without Lime -■ | Poor Intermediate... [ Rich O' to 10 O' to 10 0- to 10 0 j O' to 0'5 0 0'5 to 1'5 0 1'5 to 5'0 ”, 59 _ With Lime j ( Poor , Intermediate... [ Rich O’ to 10 O' to 10 O' to 10 0'5 to 5'0 | O' to 0'5 0'5 to 5'0 0'5 to 1*8 0'5 to 5 0 1'5 to 5 0 5 5 59 ! VI. Marly Soils. More than 5, not more than 20 per cent, of Lime. r Argillaceous. Loamy. ("Poor 1 Intermediate... ( Rich Above 50 i 50 ,, 50 5 to 20 I O' to 0'5 j ,, 5 to 20 0'5 to 1 '5 ,, 5 to 20 11*8 to 5'0 1 ,, 1 Poor \ Intermediate... ( Rich 30 to 50 30 to 50 30 to 50 5 to 20 I 0’ to 0’5 1 ,, 5 to 20 0*5 to 1’5 ,, 5 to 20 ! 1*5 to 5*0 ,, Belonging to the Sandy Loams. Belonging to the Loamy Sands. Humus. ( Poor s Intermediate.. ( Rich 20 to 30 20 to 30 20 to 30 | 5 to 20 O' to 0'5 5 to 20 j 0'5 to 1 '5 5 to 20 1'5 to 5'0 9 9 55 i Poor s Intermediate.. (, Rich 10 to 20 10 to 20 10 to 20 5 to 20 O' to 0'5 5 to 20 0'5 to 1 '5 5 to 20 1'5 to 5'0 ( Clavey Above 50 30 to 50 5 to 20 Above 5'0 j 5 to 20 ,, 5'0 E < T.oamv ( Sandy 20 to 30 5 to 20 ,, 5'0 f ( Poor \bove 50 Above 20 O' to 0'5 Argillaceous. < Intermediate.. „ 50 ,, 20 0'5 to 1'5 35? '\ IT. Calcareous Soils. ( Rich „ 50 ,, 20 1*3 to 5'0 cent, of Lime. 1 ( Poor 30 to 50 Above 20 ! O' to 0'5 Loamy. s Intermediate.. 30 to 50 ,, 20 1 0'5 to 1'5 99 t { Rich 30 to 50 ,, 20 i 15 to 5^ H 59SOILS. 31 Schiibler’s Classification of Soils—Continued. Names of Different Descriptions of Soil. Classes. Orders. Species. Clay. Lime. i Humus. Sand. ' Belonging to the Sandy < Loams. 20 to 30 Above 20 ,, 20 „ 20 0- to 0-5 0'5 to 1'5 ! 1'5 to 5'0 The j Remainder. Intermediate... [ Rich 20 to 30 20 to 30 >> Belonging to the Loamy -Sands. ( Poor 10 to 20 : Above 20 „ 20 | „ 20 O' to 0'5 0'5 to 1'5 I 1*5 to 5'0 Intermediate... 10 to 20 20 to 30 5 J ” VII. Calcareous Soils.— , Continued. Poor Above 20 „ 20 „ 20 j O' to 0'5 0'5 to 1'5 j 1 '5 to 5 '0 Any portion less than 80 per cent. Sandy. - Intermediate... Oto 10 Oto 10 Poor 0 Above 99 „ 98 „ 94 O' to 0'5 0'5 to 1'5 1'5 to 5'0 'None. 5 9 Pure. < Intermediate... Rich 0 0 Clayey Above 20 „ 20 Above 5'0 „ 5'0 » 5'0 The Remainder. Humus. < Sandy 20 to 30 „ 20 Soluble mild Humus. Clayey Loamy Above 50 30 to 50 "With or without Above 5 0 „ 5'0 20 to 30 Lime. ,, 5'0 VIII. Hoics Soils. Clayey With Containing more than 5 percent. of Humus. acid Humus. 1 Sandy 20 to 30 Lime. „ Insoluble | fibrous vege- < table matter. 1 Bog and Peat Earth. With Lime. Without Lime. Above 5'0 „ 5 0 »> 5) Proportion of Ingredients in every 100 Parts. II Argillaceous Soils, commonly called clay soils, contain above 50 per cent, of clay, and not more than 5 per cent, of lime. Before treating of this class of soils it will be necessary to explain what is meant by the term clay. This substance is a combination of silica with alumina; the proportions of these vary in different sorts of clay; thus, in one clay there may be 40 per cent, of alumina, the remaining 00 per cent, being silica together with some other substances; whilst in another sort of clay there may be only 30 per cent, oi alumina, and nearly 70 per cent, of silica. Clay is chiefly characterized by its plasticity and softness to the touch. According to Schiibler, pure clay does not effervesce with acids; diffuses, when breathed upon in a dry state, a strong earthy odour; adheres to the tongue; quickly absorbs water, oils, and fatty substances; it remains, for a certain time, lightly suspended in water, which it renders muddy, but from which it perfectly separates again, by subsidence when at rest. Of this water it retains, in its finer state, from 70 to 71 per cent., without allowing it to drop away from it; in a compact and moderately moistened state, water penetrates but slowly into its interstices; it dries up slowly, and in so doing shrinks into a smaller space, leaving many cracks and fissures throughout its substance; it readily takes up humus and humic acid in considerable quantities; these seem to combine with it, partly in a chemical manner, and partly through adhesion in a physical one, in consequence of which it remains for a long time fertile, after it has once been properly penetrated by humus-particles and other earths, which communicate to it the requisite lightness for cultivation. Besides the above constituents, various other substances incidentally occur in clay. These principally consist of oxide of iron, sand, free silica, and often of lime, magnesia, oxide of manganese, potash, and soda. Clay which has been dried in the sun always contains a certain amount of combined water, varying from 5 to 15 per cent., and which can only be driven off at a red heat. The colours which the varieties of clay assume are generally owing to the presence of iron in different states of oxidation. Thus, the brown colour results from the protoxide of iron, the red from the peroxide, and the greenish and blue from the hydrated protoxide. Clay soils are unfitted for the generality of garden productions till improved by draining, liming, trenching, long dung, ashes, or sand.32 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. When so improved, if rendered sufficiently porous, they become very productive, and are not liable to be so soon exhausted as other kinds of soils. Analyses of Olay Soils near Cirencester, by Dr. Voelcker. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. Water, driven off at 212° Fall. 5'539 Organic matter and water of 1 combination, ) 3 621 3'38 611 Oxides of iron, 1 Alumina, j 3070 8'82 6'67 | 8 34 Carbonate of lime, Lime, •740 |*44 ’ ;41 Magnesia, •605 •92 1'49 l’otash, •269 1-48 *G5 •220 1-08 Phosphoric acid, '386 •51 •04 Soluble silica, 1'450 } 72-83 80'69 Insoluble silicates (line clay),. 84100 Chlorine and sulphuric acid, . traces. traces. traces. Carbonic acid and loss, 2'87 2-27 100 000 100'00 100-00 II. Loamy Soils.—These contain not more than 50, nor less than 30 per cent, of clay: of lime and humus there may be less, but not more than 5 per cent, of each, and the remainder sand and other matters. The above would constitute a strong loam, which, properly drained, deeply trenched, and manured where the quantity of humus is found to ne deficient, would form a good soil for orchards; and when soils of this kind approach to the sandy loams, they may be converted into excellent garden soil. III. Sandy Loams.—These contain not more than 30, nor less than 20 per cent, of clay; and not more than 5 per cent, of lime or of humus. Sandy loams, in general, form excellent garden soils, producing, when properly manured, heavy crops of vegetables, and earlier than the strong loamy soils. Fruit-trees do well in this kind of soil, provided it is not too much impregnated with oxide of iron. The sandy loams are a very profitable class of soils for market gardens, or indeed wherever quick production is an object; and they can be worked even when soils of a heavier nature do not admit of it. IV. Loamy Sands contain not more than 20, nor less than 10 per cent, of clay, and not more than 5 per cent, of lime or of humus. They are too light for fruit-trees, although, when deep and on a good subsoil, these may be made to succeed by adding compost, and by taking care that the roots are duly supplied with water. Such kitchen-garden crops as potatoes, carrots, and turnips, succeed well in these soils. They are desirable for early crops. The following is an analysis of the soil in the valley of the Nile, which has had a reputation for its fertility for ages:— Silica................................... 54-27 Alumina, or clay......................... 10 77 Lime,.................................... 2 86 Carbonate of lime,....................... 6-33 Magnesia and carbonate of magnesia,...... 4 09 Sulphate of lime,........................ 0’37 Chlorine,................................ 007 Oxide of iron............................ 13'1S Organic matters soluble in water,........ 0‘35 Organic matters insoluble in water,...... 4'46 Water,................................... 3 25 100-00 V. Sandy Soils.—These contain at least 80 per cent, of silicious sand. They are extremely porous, and afford a ready passage to air and water, as well as to the roots of plants. Their colour is variable, being white, yellow, brown, or red, according to the quantity of oxide of iron which they contain. When they consist of sand and gravel, with little or no humus, alumina, or lime, they are extremely barren; but with as much as from 3 to 5 per cent, of humus, they are very suitable for the growth of some crops, such as potatoes, turnips, and carrots. By the addition of clay or marl, soils of this class are rendered more compact, and permanently improved. When so treated, they are enabled to retain moistui’e for a longer period, and the manuring principles are prevented from being too readily washed away or evaporated. Analyses of Sandy Soils, by Dr. Sprengel. No. 1. ' No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 5. No. 6. Silica and quartz ^ sand, j Alumina Oxides of iron, . .. 96 000 ■500 2-000 92 014 90-221 2-652 2-106 3*199! 3'9S1 98'S •6 •3 96-7 ■4 "5 94-7 1-6 2-0 Oxide of manganese, 1 ) trace *001 •4S0 -960 •243 '539 *1 trace 1-0 Magnesia, trace ■700 j -730 •1 ■i trace Potash .. ’125 '0 66 trace I * Soda, •026 -010 ,, Phosphoric acid, ►Sulphuric acid,. Chlorine *0781 ‘307 trace j trace *010 ft •1 trace Organic matter (humus), 1 > 1 -499 ’•490! 1-040 0*9 '5 100-000 lOO'OOO lOO'OOO j 99-9 1000 lOO'O No. 1.—Barren sandy soil, near Wattingen, in Luneburg. No. 2.—Sandy soil, near Drakenburg, on the Weser, producing very bad red clover. No. 3. - Near Gandersheim, in Brunswick, growing luxuriant crops of pulse. No. 4.—Very barren drift-sand, near Meppen. No. 5.—Barren sandy soil, near Auricli, East Friesland. No. G.—Fertile sandy soil, near Brunswick, producing luxuriant crops of lucerne, sainfoin, lupins, poppies, kc. YI. Marly Soils.-—These contain more than 5, but not more than 20 per cent, of lime. According as they partake of the constituents of other soils, they are termed clay marls, loamySOILS. 33 marls, and sandy marls. Marly soils are intermediate between calcareous and clay soils; they are not so retentive of moisture as the latter, neither are they so porous as the generality of the former. Clay marls, containing more than 50 per cent, of clay, are too stiff for gardens. Loamy marl, if rich in humus, is an excellent soil, suitable for fruit-trees, and capable of bearing heavy crops. Sandy marls are good for early crops, especially if darkened in colour by humus. Analysis of a Marly Soil, from the neighbourhood of Cirencester, by Dr. A. Voelcker. Organic matter and water of combination, ... 10'50 Oxide of iron and alumina, ................ 11'92 Carbonate of lime, ........................ 19'92 Carbonate of magnesia,...................... "25 Potash, .................................... ‘62 Soda,....................................... '09 Phosphoric acid,............................ '38 Sulphuric acid,............................. '04 Soluble silica, ...........................13'45 Insoluble silicates and sand,..............42'07 Loss........................................ '75 100'00 VII. Calcareous Soils.—These contain more than 20 per cent, of lime, and, according to the amount of clay or sand which they contain, they are called calcareous clays, calcareous loams, and calcareous sands. Soils in this class vary much in their nature and productiveness, according to the proportions of their constituents; and when a considerable quantity of clay and sand enters into their composition, they are generally fertile. Calcareous soils, when light coloured, do not readily become heated by the sun’s rays, in consequence of the latter being reflected, and therefore they are not so well adapted for very early crops. This defect is remedied by the addition of such soils and manures as tend to darken the colour. On the other hand, it may be observed, that, when once heated, they do not so readily cool as soils of a darker hue, because heat is radiated with less rapidity from light than from dark surfaces. Analysis of a Calcareous Soil, from Southrop, Gloucestershire, by Dr. A. Voelcker. Lime,...................................52'33 Magnesia................................ '31 Oxide of iron and alumina,............. 2 '86 Phosphoric acid,......................traces. Sulphuric acid,........................ ,, Silica,.................................. "26 Carbonic acid, ........................44'70 100 46 VIII. Humus Soils or Vegetable Moulds.—All soils containing more than 5 per cent, of humus, no matter what their other composition may be, are termed vegetable moulds. From this it results, that soils of very opposite natures are comprised in this class, to which the rich and productive garden moulds, and the poor and barren peat or bog, alike belong. Vegetable moulds are called clayey, loamy, or sandy, according to the amount of clay or sand they contain; and when the vegetable matter has been converted into the substance known as peat, the soil is termed peaty or boggy. As peat is extensively employed in gardens for the growth of American and other plants, it will be necessary to give some account of its nature and formation. “The matter of the soils of this class is dark in its colour, spongy in its texture, either entire or in a state of partial decay. It is generally tough and elastic; and, when dried, it loses much of its weight and becomes inflammable. These, the most observable characteristics of the soils termed peaty, will distinguish them in their I natui’al state from every other; and even when they shall have been greatly improved by culture, enough of their original characters will remain to make them known. “Peat consists of vegetable matter which has undergone a peculiar change. Under a degree of temperature not sufficiently great to decompose the plants that have sprung up upon the surface, I these plants accumulate; and, aided by a certain degree of humidity, are converted into peat, which j is either found in strata upon the surface of plains, or accumulated in great beds on the tops and acclivities of mountains, or in valleys, hollows, and ravines, successive layers of plants being added to the mass, under circumstances favourable to its production. Water is a necessary agent in its formation; and we may believe, too, a I peculiar temperature, since it is only in the cold and temperate, and not in the warmer regions of the earth, that true peat is found to be produced. The plants which form it have not entirely decayed, but still retain their fibrous texture; and, from the action of certain natural agents, have acquired properties altogether distinct from those they possessed in their former condition. They have now formed a spongy, elastic, inflammable body; and so different from the common matter of vegetables, as to be highly antiseptic. “ The plants whose progress towards decomposition has been thus arrested are very various. Over the greater part of the surface of the primary and transition districts of colder countries the peat is chiefly formed of heaths, mixed with the mosses and cryptogamic plants which had grown 334 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. along with them. Sometimes the peat has been formed in swamps and lakes, and, at other times, the humidity of the climate has been sufficient to form it into a continued bed, covering the whole surface of the country. “ But vegetable matter which accumulates on the surface undergoes various degrees of change, and hence peat differs in its properties according to the temperature and moisture of the climate. Sometimes the vegetable matter on the surface forms a stratum of dry turf, elastic and inflammable, but less truly peaty than that which is formed where there is abundance of water. Such is the peat formed on the silicious sand and poorer chalks of some parts of England, and on the heathy sands of the north of Germany. Under other conditions of climate, again, the vegetable matter which accumulates on the surface proceeds through further degrees of decomposition, and forms a mass eminently suited to the growth of plants. Such is the vegetable soil formed in the woods of America by the falling of leaves. This substance is wholly different from the true peat, which resists decomposition, and which covers so great a part of the surface of Scotland and Ireland.” — (Low’s Elements of Practical Agriculture.) Many kinds of vegetables, such as potatoes, turnips, carrots, cabbages, and celery, will grow very well on peaty soils, when improved, as will also quinces, medlars, black currants, mulberries, strawberries, and raspberries. Peaty soils are not, however, eligible for gardens, except for the growth of certain plants, such as rhododendrons, azaleas, and kalmias, for which peat is almost indispensable. Analyses of Fertile and Infertile Vegetable Moulds. Mulder. Dr. Sprengel. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 5. No. 6. Organic matter'J and combined 12-000 12-502 10-90 16-70 37-00 90-44 water (humus), j P.rtash, 1-0*20 1-430 \ -01 •06 trace •01 Soda 1 1972 2*009 *000 *078 trace Lime, 4-1)02 5*090 1-00 •13 ”32 *130 *140 •20 03 •31 •08 •12 Peroxide of iron, . Protoxide of iron, 9-039 *350 10-305 *503 j- 6-30 •64 •50 Protoxide of ) manganese, ... ) 1 304 9-30 •13 *78 *45 •63 Phosphoric acid,.. *400 *324 •ii trace 02 Sulphuric ticid,... *S90 1104 ■17 •02 , •19 Carbonic acid, ... 6-085 6940 1 210 1 -382 01 trace trace Soluble silica,.... 2-340 2-496 > 71'S0 j Insoluble sili- ) cates (clay),.... ) 57646 51-700 SI -50 61*57 7'96 Loss, 1-000 •935 •19 •02 noo-ooo 100 000 j 100-00 100-00 100-17 100-00 Nos. 1 and 2.—Fertile soils of a tract of land in North Holland (between Nieuve-sluis and Aertswonde), gained by embankment from the sea. No. 3.—Rich vegetable mould, near "VVayer, on the Weser, in Germany, flooded by the river. No. 4.—Poor sandy mould, near Brunswick. No. 5. Very infertile peaty soil, near Aurich, in East Friesland. No. G.—Boggy, very sterile land, near Giffhorn, in Germany. II.—ON DETERMINING THE NATURE OF SOILS. The nature of soils may be determined by ascertaining their chemical composition and their physical properties, and by observing the vegetable productions which grow upon them. By chemical analysis the composition of a soil can be ascertained; but, as the analysis of a soil is an operation of great nicety, and which can only be performed by an experienced chemist, it is better in all cases to send a sample of the soil to such a person to be properly analyzed. Nevertheless, a pretty good idea of the quality of a soil may be formed by knowing the proportion in which clay, lime, sand, and organic matter exist in it. By this knowledge, also, soils may be referred to the particular class to which they belong; and, as the analysis requisite for this purpose may be made by any one possessed of moderate abilities, we extract the following simple mode of proceeding from an excellent little work, by Mr. Martindale (The Farmer s and Gardener's Guide to the Analysis of ,Soils and Manures, and to the Practical Application of Agricultural Chemistry), with which a further acquaintance would prove highly beneficial to any who may wish to pursue investigations of this nature:— “ In order to assign a soil to its peculiar class, proceed as follows:—First, take care to select a fair sample from the field, not rejecting any small stones that may be in it; next expose it freely to the air, till it becomes dry at ordinary temperatures. Process 1st—Weigh out a quantity of this air-dried soil— say 200 grains—and introduce it into a short test-tube or suitable vessel, and heat in a saline or oil bath, at 300° Fah., till it cease to lose weight. The loss of weight is then carefully ascertained. This, although not involved in the classification, is, in itself, an interesting point. The percentage of water being known of a portion of air-dried soil, corresponding to 100 or 1000 parts of thorough-dried soil, can be used in any subsequent operation. Process 2d—Take 200 grains of dried soil, and mix it in a Florence flask with 4 or 5 oz. of water, and boil. Then allow the contents of the flask to remain quiet for about ten minutes. If any sandy matter subsides, then pour oft’ the supernatant fluid, and add moreSOILS. 35 water, until nothing but sand seems left: dry, and weigh it. Half this weight is equal to the percentage of sand in the moist soil. Process 3d —In order to determine the amount of organic matter, take 400 grains of the thorough-dried soil (freed of water after the manner just stated), and transfer it into a porcelain or platinum capsule or crucible, and heat it to redness in the furnace, or over a spirit-lamp; allow it to remain red-hot for about ten minutes, then let it cool. Determine the loss of weight by weighing the soil remaining in the capsule. The loss since the first weighing is organic matter: divide the loss by 4, and the quotient is equal to the percentage of organic matter. Suppose the loss to be 40 grains, then 40 — 4 = 10 grains, or 10 per cent, of organic matter. Process 4th—Take that portion of soil which remains after ignition and transfer it into an evaporating dish or precipitating jar, and mix it with 5 fluid oz. of hydrochloric acid; stir the whole mixture well, and allow it to remain for two or three hours. Bring the contents of the dish or jar on to a weighed filter; and, when the liquid portion has passed through, wash the filter several times with pure water; dry the filter and its contents at 300° Pali.; weigh the contents, and the loss of weight reckon as lime. If the loss in this process amount to 46 grains, then = 11'5, or 1 H grains, or 111- per cent, of lime. Process 5th—Take the contents of the filter-paper and carefully brush them off into a tall narrow test-jar; then carefully mix them with a convenient quantity of water, say 4 oz.; stir the whole well, till the soil is completely mixed and diffused through the water. After this is done, allow it to settle till the sand or coarser parts have completely subsided; which, in a general way, will take place in a minute or two. The portion still held in suspension pour off into another vessel, and filter it afterwards. Pour a second portion of water on the part subsided, stir the whole well up, and again allow the coarser parts to settle; after which pour off the suspended part for filtration. Continue this process until only sand and matters incapable of remaining suspended in water for a short time remain. Collect the suspended matter on a weighed filter, dry it at 300° Fah.; weigh the contents thereof, and regard the weight as clay. Suppose the weight to be 130, then if0- = 32'5, or 32£ grains; hence the soil contains 32^ per cent, of clay.” By means of chemical analysis we may ascertain what substances entering into the food of plants are present or not in the soil; and we may so be enabled to find out the cause of infertility, and the way in which this may be remedied. Nevertheless an analysis may show that a certain soil contains all the substances required by plants for food, and yet that soil may be barren, either in consequence of its constituents being so combined as to be incapable of being taken up by the roots of plants, or from some other cause, such as the soil being saturated with water, and the free action of the air thereby prevented. We may therefore conclude, that, although chemical analysis may be and is of great assistance in determining the nature of soils, yet it is not safe to trust to it entirely, without taking into consider- great importance. The physical properties of soils to which our attention should be principally directed, are the state of division of the soil, its density, its power of absorbing and retaining moisture and gases, and its power of absorbing heat. The following methods of examining these properties are from the article “Analysis,” in Morton’s Cyclopedia of Agriculture:— In order to ascertain the state of subdivision of a soil, “One or two lbs. of the soil should be collected from two or three parts of the field— provided that it be all of the same character— the separate portions should be well mixed, and then slightly dried. Two or three lbs. of the mixture (of which the lumps are gently broken up) are thrown upon a sieve, which will allow portions smaller than a pea to pass through its meshes; the relation in weight between the separated portions is then ascertained. The finer portion is now again gently broken down, either by a common rolling pin, on a deal table, or in a Wedge wood mortar. It is then sifted through a very fine wire gauze sieve; the portion which does not pass is gently rubbed a second time, and returned to the sieve; the relation in weight of these portions is thus found. By these manipulations the soil is separated into three distinct portions, which may be thus designated:— “ 1. Stones and pebble. “2. Coarse sand and gravel. “3. Fine soil." Nos. 1 and 2 should then be tested with hydrochloric acid, when, if they contain lime, they will effervesce. In the subsequent operations only the fine soil is used. To ascertain the density of a soil, both the specific gravity and the weight of a certain measure of the soil should be found. “ The specific gravity or relative weight of soils is perhaps of some importance; but we must confess that it would seem to us of little practical application. It is not a datum capable of elucidating the chemical composition of the soil, although it really depends on that constitution;36 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. whilst it does not indicate the physical condition of the soil, inasmuch as it takes no account of the interstices upon which depends its porosity. The absolute weight of a soil is, however, some in* dication of its permeability to air and moisture, when the weight of a given measure is obtained as well. “ The specific gravity of a soil may be roughly estimated thus:—A delicate glass bottle, with a long neck, is filled with water to a scratch made upon the neck with a file; the bottle with the water in it is then weighed, the water is thrown out, and 200 grains of soil are introduced into the bottle, which is again filled up to the mark with water, and agitated to disengage bubbles of air which may be contained in the soil. On being now weighed it will be found much heavier than when the bottle was filled with water; the difference is the amount by which the soil used exceeds in weight the water it has displaced. Thus, suppose the bottle containing the soil and water, to contain 100 grains more than the bottle when filled with water only, then the 200 grains of soil have occupied the place of 100 grains of water, or the former is twice as heavy as the latter; the specific gravity is then said to be 2‘, or 2000: water being the standard of comparison, and being considered as l-, or 1000. ‘•In conjunction with the specific gravity, it is well to ascertain the weight of a given measure (say an imperial half-pint) of the soil; which, with the former quality, affords more information as to its physical properties than either determination alone.” The variation in the weight of a cubic foot of different sorts of soil is exhibited in the following table:— One cubic foot of dry silicious or calcareous ) q j, sand, weighs about ..................... ) Half sand and half clay, weighs about...... 95 ,, Of common arable soil, weighs from.....80 to 90 ,, Of pure agricultural clay, weighs about.... 75 ,, Of garden mould, weighs about.............. 70 ,, Of peaty soil, weighs from.............30 to 50 ,, The property of absorbing moisture from the atmosphere, either in the state of dew or that of aqueous vapour, is an important property, without which, in hot dry weather, plants would perish. This power is, however, possessed by some soils to a much greater extent than by others, and in the most fertile soils it is always found to be greatest. Sir Humphrey Davy found, that when dried at 212°, and exposed for an hour to an atmosphere saturated with moisture, and at the temperature of 62°, 1000 parts of a Celebrated soil from Ormistown, East Lothian, 1 18 • j ( SI S- gained..................................) Very fertile soil from the banks of the river 1 Parret, in Somersetshire, gained........f ” Soil from Mersea, in Essex, worth 45s. an acre,) gained..................................1 ” Fine sandy soil from Essex, worth 28s. an acre, 1 ,, gained. .................................. I1' ” Coarse sand, worth 15s. an acre, gained.... 8 ,, Soil of Bagshot Heath, gained.............. 3 ,, The eminent authority above named states, that the soils most efficient in supplying the plant with water by atmospheric absorption, are those in which there is a due mixture of sand, finely divided clay, and carbonate of lime with some animal or vegetable matter; and which are so loose and light as to be freely permeable to the atmosphere. With respect to this quality, carbonate of lime and animal and vegetable matter are of great use; they give absorbent power to the soil, without giving it likewise tenacity. Sand, which also destroys tenacity, gives, on the contrary, little absorbent power. The power of absorbing water is ascertained by exposing a weighed portion of the soil, previously dried at 300°, to the air for a certain number of hours; when again weighed it will be found heavier. This excess of weight, if compared with that of other Soils treated in the same way, and under the same circumstances of atmospheric moisture, will exhibit the comparative power which the soil has of attracting moisture from the air. The power of absorbing gases from the atmosphere is, in general, possessed in the greatest degree by those soils which absorb the greatest quantity of moisture. This property is one of very great importance, more especially as regards carbonic acid and ammonia, which play such important parts in the nutrition of plants. Though the absorption of these bodies appears to be in some measure owing to the porosity of the soil, yet it is almost entirely due to chemical action. In connection with this subject we shall here revert to some researches on the absorptive powers of soils, undertaken by Professor Way, who has succeeded in bringing to light facts of the greatest importance. Mr. Thompson, of Kirby Hall, near York, having discovered, by experiment, that soils possess the faculty of separating ammonia from its solutions; and Mr. Huxtable having found that liquid manure was decolorized and deprived of its smell on being passed through a bed of loamy soil, Professor Way was induced to engage in a series of experiments on the power which the soil has of absorbing manuring substances. TheSOILS. 37 last-named gentleman found, that when weak solutions of caustic ammonia were passed through a bed of soil, the solutions were deprived of their ammonia; that the quantity of ammonia thus absorbed varied according to the strength of the solution employed; and that some soils had the property of absorbing a much greater quantity of this substance than others. Thus, 1000 grains of a soil from the Dorsetshire downs gained from a solution of caustic ammonia, in one experiment, 3 083 grs. of ammonia; in another, 3'921 grs.; in a third, 3'504 grs.; and in a fourth, 3'438 grs. The difference in the amount absorbed in the above experiments was owing to solutions of different strengths having been used; and Professor Way found that the same soil always absorbs the same quantity of ammonia and other substances, when solutions of the same strength are employed. One thousand grains of a light red soil from Berkshire absorbed only 1'57() grains. Prom this and numerous other experiments, it is established that the power of absorption is greater in some soils than in others. It was likewise found that potash and other bases were also absorbed; 1000 grains of a very tenacious white clay absorbed 1'050 grains of potash from a solution containing 1 per cent, of caustic potash; the alkaline solution being merely left in contact with the clay for twelve hours, and not filtered through it. From this and other experiments, it appears that the property of absorbing alkalies is not due to filtration, but to chemical combination. But another most important fact has been elicited; for it was found, that when solutions of the salts of ammonia, and of other alkaline bases, pass through a bed of soil, the salt is decomposed, and the base retained by the soil; whilst the acid combines with lime, or some other base, and passes through with the water. For instance, when solutions of sulphate of ammonia were passed through a layer of soil, the ammonia alone was retained, the sulphuric acid, in most cases combined with lime, passing through with the water. Similar changes took place when the muriate, nitrate, and other salts of ammonia, as well as those of potash, magnesia, &c., were employed, the alkali, in every case, being retained by the soil, whilst the acid passed away in combination. That these changes are produced by chemical decomposition is proved by the fact, that the quantity of lime, or other base, combined with the acid, and passing through with the water, exactly corresponds with the amount of ammonia, potash, or magnesia retained in the soil. In the case of solutions of alkaline salts, it was also found that some soils possessed greater powers of absorption than others. Thus, 1000 grains of the light red soil from Berkshire absorbed from the muriate of ammonia, 1-966 grains of ammonia; 1000 grains of subsoil clay from Cornwall (coloured red by oxide of iron) absorbed from the muriate of ammonia, ‘818 of a grain of ammonia; and 1000 grains of a tenacious white clay absorbed from tlie muriate of ammonia, 2'847 grains of ammonia. The power which soils have of absorbing various bases is referred by Professor Way, not to any physical cause, but to the action of a class of salts called double silicates. Before entering further into this subject, it will be necessary to explain what is meant by a double silicate. Now, it is known that silica, or silicic acid, chemically combines with potash, lime, alumina, &c., forming what are called the silicates of these substances; but these simple silicates have the power of uniting one with another, forming double silicates. For instance, silicate of alumina, or clay, is frequently united with silicate of lime, thus forming a double silicate. It has been found by Professor Way, that one of the bases contained in the double silicates may be replaced by another base, with which the silica unites in preference; thus, when the double silicate of alumina and soda is digested with a solution of a salt of lime, the compound becomes - the double silicate of alumina and lime, the soda uniting with the acid of the salt of lime. The order in which the different bases replace each other in the double silicates, has been determined by Professor Way to be as follows—Soda, lime, magnesia, potash, ammonia. For the more perfect comprehension of this we shall give an instance. In the double silicate of alumina and soda, the soda may be replaced by lime; the compound will then become the double silicate of alumina and lime. Again, the lime in this may be replaced by magnesia, the magnesia by potash, and the potash by ammonia. From this it will be evident, that each base has the power of replacing, in the double silicates, the bases which stand before it in the list; and that this power is possessed by ammonia in the highest degree. It is by means of the property which the bases have of replacing each other in the class of compounds called double silicates, that ammonia and other alkaline bases are absorbed by the soil; and it must be evident to every one, how much this power of absorption, possessed by different soils in different degrees, must affect their productiveness, and the benefits which they are capable of deriving from manures38 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. To discover the power which a soil has of retaining water, “the soil,” dried as before, “is placed upon a double filter in a funnel, and water is gently poured upon it until it will take up no more. The superfluous water is allowed to drain off, and the whole is then weighed; the increase of weight is the water which the soil can take up or retain.” This property is important; for soils which, as in the case of stiff clays, retain much water and part with it slowly, are cold, in consequence of a large amount of heat being expended in its evaporation. Besides this, when the soil is saturated with moisture, the free access of air is prevented, and consequently neither germination nor decomposition can be carried on. Other soils again, which allow water to pass too quickly through them, are dried up in hot dry weather, whilst in wet weather their most soluble and nutritious principles are washed away. It must therefore be evident, that a fertile soil should neither retain too much nor too little water; and that, in a dry climate, the soil should be capable of retaining more water than in a moist one, such as that of Ireland and the western side of this island. It is also useful to ascertain the rapidity with which the soil parts with water; in order to do this, “a weighed quantity of the wet soil is placed in an open place for a given time—say two or three hours; at the end of this time it is again weighed. The amount which has evaporated is thus learned. The result is only of value if made upOXi other soils at the same time: the comparison should be made with a heavy stiff clay, and a light almost pure sand; and it must be repeated for every soil that is examined, since the rate of evaporation is dependent upon the temperature and the moisture in the air, which differ at each observation.” The power which the soil has of absorbing heat, when placed in the sun’s rays, is of the highest importance. To determine this property, the dry soil should be exposed to the sun, and a delicate thermometer buried in it. Some soils, when thus treated, absorb a much greater amount of heat than others, and this depends, to a great extent, on the colour of the soil, as will be presently seen. “In general, soils that consist principally of a stiff white clay are with difficulty heated; and being usually very moist, they retain their heat only for a short time. Chalks are similar in one respect, that they are difficult to heat; but being drier, they retain their heat louger, less being consumed in causing the evaporation of their moisture. “A black soil, containing much soft vegetable matter, is most heated by the sun and air; and the coloured soils, and the soils containing much carbonaceous matter, or ferruginous matter, exposed under equal circumstances to sun, acquire a much higher temperature than pale-coloured soils. “When soils ai’e perfectly dry, those that most readily become heated by the solar rays, likewise cool most rapidly; but I have ascertained by experiment, that the darkest coloured dry soil (that which contains abundance of animal or vegetable matter; substances which most facilitate diminution of temperature), when heated to the same degree, provided it be within the common limits of the effect of solar heat, will cool more slowly than a wet pale soil entirely composed of earthy matter. “1 found that a rich black mould, which contained nearly one-fourth of the vegetable matter, had its temperature increased in au hour from 65° to 88°, by exposure to sunshine; whilst a chalk soil was heated only to 69° under the same circumstances. But the mould, removed into the shade, where the temperature was 62', lost, in half an hour, 15°; whereas the chalk, under the same circumstances, had lost only 4°. “A brown fertile soil, and a cold barren clay, were each artificially heated to 88°, having been previously dried; they were then exposed in a temperature of 57°; in half an hour the dark soil was found to have lost 9° of heat; the clay had lost only 6°. An equal portion of the clay containing moisture, after being heated to 88°, was exposed in a temperature of 55°; in less than a quarter of an hour it was found to have gained the temperature of the room. The soils, in all these experiments, were placed in small tin-plate trays, 2 inches square and i inch in depth; and the temperature ascertained by a delicate thermometer.”— (Davy’s Elements of Agricultural Chemistry.) The nature and quality of the soil may frequently be determined, with a considerable degree of accuracy, by the vegetation which it naturally produces; and this should not be overlooked ah though a good analysis may also have been made. The following plants have been observed to grow naturally on differently constituted soils: — A rgillaceous.—Tussilngo Farfara, Poteivtilla anserina, Potentilla argentea, Orobus tuberoses, Lotus major. Calcareous.—Veronica spicata, Campanula glomerata, Onobrycliis sativa, Litliospermum officinale, Nepeta major. Silicious.—Silene anglica, Arcnaria rubra, Veronica verna. Peaty.—Vaccinium Myrtillus, Vacc.inium uliginosum, Oxycoceus palustris, Calluna vulgaris, Erica cinerea,SOILS. 39 Erica Tetralix, Spergula subulata, Tormentilla erecta, Empetrum nigrum, Eriophorum vaginatum, poly-stachyon, and angustifolium, Sphagnum obtusifolium, Sphagnum acutifolium; and Rumex Acetosella indicates a peaty irony soil. Very dry soil.—Galium verum, Galium saxatile, Aira prsecox, Aira caryopliyllea, Aira cristata, Hieracium Pilosella, Arenaria rubra, Thymus Serpyllum, Trifolium arvense. Wet infertile soil.—Juncus squarrosus, Juncus acuti-florus, Cnicus palustris, Pinguicula vulgaris, Triglochin palustre, various species of Carex, Hippuris vulgaris, Epilobium tetragonum, Lythrum Salicaria, Ranunculus Lingua, Ranunculus Flammula, Ranunculus acris, Ranunculus bulbosus, Rumex Acetosa, Rumex crispus. Wet, but not necessarily infertile, soil.—Poa aquatica, Alopecurus geniculatus, Veronica Beccabunga, Juncus conglomeratus. Fertility.—Cnicus lanceolatus, Urtica dioiea, Stellaria media, Dactylis glomerata, Poa trivialis. And where trees such as the elm, oak, lime, beech, and walnut grow vigorously, we may be assured the soil is good. Cold subsoil.—Of this, Equisetum arvense is peculiarly indicative. The vegetation supported by the surface layer of soil is not always to be taken as completely indicative of the degree of fertility which the land possesses. There are instances where the surface soil affords only a poor vegetation, and yet deeply-rooting forest-trees thrive remarkably well. This has been observed to be the case where a thin layer of soil rests on a pan of a compact, retentive, clayey substance, under which is a considerable depth of strong rich loam. Into this the strong roots of trees can penetrate and find abundant nourishment; whilst those of herbaceous plants cannot do so, and therefore only such of them appear as can exist in the poor thin top-stratum. As gardens are generally formed where the ground has been under cultivation, and where either trees or hedges are frequently on the site, the growth of these should be observed. If the oak or elm thrives well, there is every probability that the soil is capable of being adapted for a garden; and where the common hawthorn makes vigorous shoots, there fruit-trees, such as the apple, pear, plum, and cherry, will also succeed, and indeed, we may say, all other fruit-trees likewise, so far as the soil is concerned. in.—SUBSOIL. The bed on which the upper layer of soil rests is called the subsoil, and the nature of this is of great importance as regards cultivation; for however good the upper soil may be, if a bad subsoil be within reach of the roots of plants, they will be injured in consequence. Therefore, a know- ledge of subsoils becomes necessary, in order that a good one may be chosen where gardens are to be formed; or, if circumstances determine their site to be where a bad subsoil exists, the latter must either be removed to some extent, or ameliorated as much as possible. The subsoil may consist of rock, entire or in a broken state, of soil differing more or less in its nature from the surface layer, or it may be a mixture of stones and different kinds of earth. Hence, subsoils are found to be exceedingly variable in their elementary composition. They vary, likewise, in their distance from the surface, according as the layer of soil above them is of greater or less thickness. Sometimes within a certain area the surfaces of the soil and subsoil form parallel planes, in other cases the upper surface is even, but that of the subsoil irregular; and, on the other hand, the surface may be uneven, whilst the subsoil is nearly a uniform plane. It is desirable that, supposing the soil of a garden were entirely removed, the subsoil should not exhibit an undulating surface, especially where such subsoil is retentive of moisture; for, in that case, water, instead of passing off with regularity, is liable to drain too quickly from the higher parts, and to be retained longer in the hollows than is favourable to vegetation. In some cases the stratum of subsoil differs but little from the soil above it. For example, the subsoil may consist of a fine yellow sandy loam; the soil above may be the same kind of sandy loam, but less compact from its position, and from cultivation and exposure to the weather, whilst its colour is rendered dark by decayed vegetable matter. Here the dark colour of the top soil and mixture with humus distinguishes it from the subsoil. The composition of the subsoil is generally more inorganic than that of the upper layer of soil. The stratum of subsoil is, in many cases, of such a nature, that more or less of it may be trenched to add permanently to the depth of the soil. Sometimes a subsoil forms a hard pan, almost impenetrable to water and to the roots of plants. Under this, however, there is occasionally even a rich loam or marl. In this case it is evident that the intermediate pan should be broken up; or if, independent of its hardness, its composition is essentially bad, it should be removed if circumstances will permit. A good subsoil should be free from any injurious quantity of metallic oxides, or other matters deleterious to plants; for if it contain such, and if they cannot be corrected, fruit-trees will become unhealthy when their roots come in contact with these substances. The subsoil should, therefore, be tested40 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. chemically before a garden is formed upon it. I This, in fact, should be the first proceeding in determining whether a subsoil, with reference to the formation of a garden, is eligible or not. Assuming that the subsoil is free from any substance of a character specifically deleterious, it may,notwithstanding,be objectionable on account of its mechanical properties. It may be too compact, or, on the contrary, too loose. When it is so compact that water cannot pass through it, the soil above it is, in consequence, saturated at times with water, a condition highly injurious to the roots of most plants. On the other hand, the subsoil may be too porous, so that the rainwater soon passes downwards out of the reach of the roots of plants, carrying with it, at the same time, a large proportion of the nutritive principles of the soil and manures. It may here be observed, that a subsoil too porous for a locality in which little rain falls, may be that which is just proper for a wet district. In some places a loamy stratum lies under the black soil. Where such occurs in localities having only an average of about 24 inches deep of rain in the year, fruit and other trees are apt to evaporate the moisture in the loam, rendering it so dry that the roots become deprived of sufficient moisture for the support of the tree and its fruit. From the above, it is evident that the nature of the subsoil ought to be well ascertained as regards its good or bad qualities in the first instance; then its property of retaining moisture; .and, finally, its position with reference to the surface level, or inclination, as the case may be. With regard to the first of these investigations, if the subsoil is of a deleterious nature, it will be advisable to avoid forming a garden over it if there is any choice; for a subsoil which is radically bad cannot be effectually remedied. But the compactness of the stratum can be increased or diminished as may be found necessary, by breaking up and admixture; and the level of the subsoil can be regulated to correspond with any required plane by mechanical means. IV.—IMPROVEMENT OF SOILS. Most soils require improvement in order to adapt them for gardens. The means by which this may be effected, are— 1st. Draining. 2d. Alteration of the subsoil. 3d. Increasing the depth of the soil. 4th. Alteration of its texture and constituent parts. The first consideration should be the condition of the soil as regards moisture, for infertility may be solely owing to superabundance of water. The remedy for this is draining; and that being accomplished, other improvements can then be determined on with more precision; for some soils after draining are friable, whilst others harden, and require to be divided by mechanical operations, or by these together with corrective admixtures. When the soil is so circumstanced with regard to moisture as to be generally saturated, few garden plants can thrive in it. Those only of an aquatic nature can endure to have their roots in soil which is always completely soaked with water. But it is here necessary to mention some properties of water which render draining of vast importance as regards increasing the temperature of the soil. They are the well-known properties that water at about 40° is heavier than at any other temperature; that from this point it becomes lighter and lighter as its temperature ascends, and also as it descends, until it assume the form of ice; hence warm water, as well as ice, will float on cold. Even boiling water may be gently poured on cold water without the latter being heated, excepting a very little at the surface. Now, if the soil be saturated with water colder than that of the summer rains, these rains cannot descend to warm the ground where the roots of plants ought to penetrate. But when the cold water is drawn off below, by proper drainage, the warmer can percolate downwards and communicate its heat to the soil, rendering it congenial to vegetation. In proof of this we may adduce the following observations made by us, and published in the Journal of the Horticultural Society of London:— “ It has been ascertained that the specific gravity of water is greatest at a temperature between 39° and 40° Fab., therefore, in any quantity of water not of uniform temperature, that which is 39° or 40°, or, if hotter or colder, that which is nearest to the above, will always be at the bottom; it will not be displaced by the addition of a quantity of the temperature of 60°, nor will the two mix so as to acquire a common temperature without mechauical force. Hence, if a retentive soil is saturated with snow-water, or that from rain of about 40°, such water will not be displaced by lighter, warmer rains. The water derived from the latter must run off by the surface, or stand exposed to the cooling effects of evaporation : in either case its heat is lost without benefiting the soil. The only remedy is to drain deeply; the coldest water, because the heaviest, will then be the first to move, and the pores of the soil, which it previously occupied, will be filled with air, except when the latter is partially displaced by the descent of rain-water,SOILS. 41 which can then pass freely through spaces no longer exclusively occupied by colder, denser water. “ It is shown by Mr. Parkes, in his Essay on the Philosophy of Drainage, that in draining the Red Moss, near Bolton-le-Moors,the thermometer in the drained land rose, in June, 1837, to 66° at 7 inches below the surface, while in the neighbouring water-logged land it never rose above 47° at any time throughout the year. Prom within 7 inches of the surface, to the depth of 30 feet, the bog in its natural state maintained, in winter and in summer, an invariable temperature of 47°. This, it may be remarked, is about the mean atmospheric temperature of the year in that locality, and the difference between the hottest and coldest months is there 24° or 25°; but it must be inferred from the uniformity of temperature in the saturated undrained land, that summer rains are ineffectual as regards the communication of heat downwards, and that on such land the intensity of the sun’s rays is lost. troduced; and the following are the indications of the two thermometers at the respective inter- Fig. 50. “The fact that heat cannot be transmitted downwards through water is well known; but that it is as impossible to heat saturated soil downwards should be also familiar to every one engaged in either horticultural or agricultural pursuits. From some experiments made in the garden of the Royal Horticultural Society, it was proved that a mixture of peat and water, constituting an artificial bog, could not be heated at a foot below its surface by pouring a quantity of boiling water upon it. I have recently made a similar experiment with saturated yellow loam; and as some may wish to repeat these experiments for their own satisfaction, I shall here state the mode of proceeding and the results. “ Experiment No. 1.—A square box was made of the form represented by the annexed diagram (Fig. 50), 18 inches deep, 11 inches wide at top, and 6 inches wide at bottom. It was filled with peat saturated with water to c, forming to that depth (12£ inches) a sort of artificial bog. The box was then filled with water to d. A thermometer, a, was plunged, so that its bulb was within 1 i inch of the bottom. The temperature of the whole mass of peat and water was found to be 39|° Fah. A gallon of boiling water was then added; it raised the surface of the water to e. In five minutes the thermometer a rose to 44°, owing to conduction of heat by the thermometer tube and its guard. At ten minutes from the introduction of the hot water the thermometer a rose to 46°, and it subsequently rose no higher. Another thermometer, b, dipping under the surface of the water at e, was then in- vals, reckoning from the time the hot water was supplied:— Tlier. b. Ther. a, 20 m ... 150° 40° 1 h. 30 m. ... ... 101° 45° 2 h. 30 m 80.1° 42° 12 h. 40 m 45° 40° The mean temperature of the external air to which the box was exposed during the above period wras 42°, the maximum being 47°, and the minimum 37°. “ Experiment No. 2.—With the same arrangement as in the preceding case, a gallon of boiling water was introduced above the peat and water, when the thermometer a was at 36*, in ten minutes it rose to 40°; another gallon of boiling water was poured over it, and in 3 minutes the thermometer a rose to 77° 5 „ „ fell to 76 la ,, ,, n d 20 ,, ,, remained at 70.I" 1 h. 50 „ „ „ 70r “ In these two experiments the thermometer at the bottom of the box suddenly rose a few degrees immediately after the hot water was added; and hence it might be inferred that heat was carried downward by the water; but, in reality, the rise was owing to the action of the hot water on the thermometer, and not to its action upon the cold water. To prove this, the perpendicular thermometers were removed; the box was filled with peat and water to within 3 inches of the top, a horizontal thermometer (a,f) having been pre-42 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. viously secured through a hole made in the side of the box by means of a tight-fitting cork, in which the naked stem of the thermometer was grooved. A gallon of boiling water was then added, but the thermometer, a very delicate one, made by Newman, was not in the least affected by the boiling water in the top of the box. “ Experiment Xo. 3.—Silver-sand was put into the bottom of the box, so as to be a little above the bulb of the thermometer, a, f, with the view of protecting it when introduced; the box was then filled with yellow loam as far as c. The loam was then saturated with water from the rose of a watering-pot. Numerous air-bubbles rose when saturation had been nearly effected, the whole surface of the soil being just covered with water: the latter subsided as the air found its way out. The thermometer, a, f, was then introduced, and it soon acquired the temperature of the mass, 45°. A handful of straw was squeezed together, and laid on the top of the soil, to break the force of the hot water, a gallon of which, when boiling, was poured on. The hot water cooled by evaporation, but produced not the least effect on the delicate thermometer a,f, near the bottom of the box; the mass was then drained, and another gallon of boiling water was added, when the first had cooled down to 100°; but the thermometer, a, f, still indicated 45°. “The results of these experiments plainly show that hot water will float on colder without the warmer communicating its heat to the colder, for whilst the thermometer having its bulb just under the surface of the water was 150°, the one at a, near the bottom, did not rise higher than 46°. “ On this principle mainly depends the beneficial effects of drainage, and therefore we should especially bear in mind, first, that warm water, being lightest, will float upon, but will not displace nor sink through that which is colder and heavier; and second, that when the colder and heavier is drained off, the warmer and lighter will readily descend, carrying its heat along with it. “ Water expels air and other gases, the food of plants, from the vicinity of the roots; and all agree that, in this respect, it must be considered injurious. It prevents heat from being carried down to the roots; and, when these are chilled, they cannot support a healthy vegetation. Finally, it is more stagnant in summer than in winter. The retentive nature of the soil, where saturation exists, prevents water of any temperature from moving downwards; but the colder will displace the warmer. For example, water at 47°, having possession of a retentive soil in spring, will not change its position in consequence of the fall of warm rains during summer. Unless carried off by evaporation, it will remain stagnant during the warm season, and will only give place to winter rains, or those that may supply colder and heavier water than itself. Stagnant water is known to be very pernicious to the health of plants, excepting to that of some species naturally adapted for growing in it. As proof that the roots excrete, it could be told in many cases from the smell of the soil what plant had been growing in it; and, if roots are long in stagnant water, it becomes impure. Want of drainage, therefore, deprives the roots of proper nourishment, subjects them to a chilling temperature, and forces them to absorb a vitiated fluid.”—(Ilort. Soc. Journal, vol. v. p. 117.) Well-drained ground may be saturated for a short time after a heavy fall of rain, so that all the interstices are occupied wfitli water; but as this descends, it is of course replaced by air; for, where water finds a passage, air can always follow; and warm air, like that of summer, circulating among the particles of soil, likewise contributes heat. Many instances could be adduced of the striking effects of drainage in raising the temperature of the soil. In some cases a rise of as much as 15° in summer is stated to have been produced. As previously remarked, Mr. Parkes found that the temperature of the undrained portion of the Red Moss, near Bolton-le-Moors, never rose above 47°, whilst in another portion of the same bog which had been drained the temperature was found, on a mean of thirty-five observations, to have been raised 10°; on one occasion the thermometer rose to 66°. Hence it appears, that by draining we not only free the soil from superfluous moisture, but, at the same time, we greatly raise its temperature. The temperature of undrained land is more uniform than that of drained, for it is nearly the same winter and summer, and approximates to that of the mean annual temperature of the air in the locality. The heat of summer and the cold of winter affect it but a little wray below the surface. Drained land, on the contrary, is more accessible to the cold of winter and to the heat of summer, so that the temperature of the soil corresponds with that of the air, or nearly so, throughout the respective seasons. This is a most important matter; for, however warm and genial the atmosphere may be for vegetation, yet plants cannot thrive if the soil into which their roots penetrate is much colder than the air durum the STowing season. When the soil is drained, rain-water and air have alternately free access to the various substances in the soil. These substances are actedSOILS. 43 upon by the carbonic acid contained in the rainwater, aud by the oxygen of the air, as well as by that dissolved in the water. The carbonic acid seizes upon the lime, potash, and other alkaline matters; and many substances in a low state of oxidation become more perfectly oxidized, and do not act so injuriously on vegetation. Besides the above, many other important chemical changes take place in the soil after it has been freed of superfluous moisture by draining. When the subsoil is irregular, impervious, or, on the contrary, too loose, it admits of various alterations conducive to the improvement of the soil. If the subsoil is irregular, it is evident that, when the surface soil is levelled, unequal depths of the latter will be the consequence. Some parts are then liable to have too little depth for the roots of plants, whilst others may have more than is necessary; and, if the subsoil be impervious, the water will lodge in the hollows, to the injury of the soil that is likewise there. The surface level, or its inclination, as the case may be, should therefore be ascertained; and with such the upper part of the subsoil should run parallel, or with a gentle slope towards the drains.’ In changing the position of the subsoil by levelling it trench by trench, attention should be paid to its state of looseness. It should not be left hard in one place and loose in another. The whole should be rendered as nearly uniform in this respect as possible. If some parts of the subsoil are found to be of a nature easily convertible into good soil by working, exposure to the air, and the addition of manure, it may be taken advantage of, and turned up, to add to the thickness of the soil. The portion so dug out may be replaced up to the determined level by subsoil of inferior quality. By these means the soil, in many instances, may be greatly increased in depth, and thus afford more range for the roots of plants. Besides, if the surface soil has been previously manured for a long time, so that it contains too much inert organic matter, the judicious admixture of fresh ingredients is a permanent improvement. Such additions may be made by degrees; for, if too much inorganic matter were brought at once to the surface, various garden crops would not thrive in the first instance, nor till such time as a sufficient quantity of vegetable matter has been thoroughly incorporated with the recently turned up subsoil. When this, however, has been effected, a fresh portion of subsoil may be trenched up, and ameliorated in a similar manner. In the formation of a new garden, and presuming that the supply of manure is not limited, it is best to trench the ground at once to the proper depth, introducing a large quantity of manure as the operation goes on. The soil may be too shallow, but, in other respects, not objectionable for that of a garden. Frequently in the vicinity of shallow soils alluvial deposits are to be found. If these can be raised, and laid on the higher thin land till a sufficient depth is obtained, a good soil for a garden may be formed; and, although this must be done at greater expense than making the garden where the alluvial deposits naturally lay, yet it affords the permanent advantage of having a dry basis, aud of being more Suitable for early crops and for fruit-trees. When the soil raised from alluvial beds is taken from a depth so far below the surface as not to have been previously exposed to the air, it would be improved by being thrown up in heaps, and turned over in dry weather. The depth of the soil may also be increased by trenching, and by the addition of bulky manures* If the soil is too sandy, the obvious remedy is clay or marl. It would not, however, be advisable to introduce for garden soil a stiff clay, or one that contains objectionable ingredients, such as iron. It should be capable of mixing with sand, so as to form a friable sandy loam, instead of an obstinate mass. By taking a certain quantity of the sandy soil requiring to be improved—for example, a cubic yard, and adding clay from a measured quantity, till a sandy loam of proper tenacity is obtained, the requisite proportions of clay soil can be ascertained. In the same way strong clays can be corrected by the addition of sand. The tenacity of strong clays need not, however, be reduced by sand till they become of the texture of a sandy loam, as was recommended in the case of too sandy soil. It will suffice if, by admixture of sand, the clay is brought to the state of a clayey loam, because each successive application of manure will tend to render it lighter than before. Clay soils may also be improved by burning. Important mechanical and chemical effects result from burning clay, or at least from subjecting it to a certain amount of heat. The mechanical effects are to render the clay more porous and less tenacious, so that it will readily crumble after exposure to the action of the weather. From its greater porosity, it affords access to air and moisture, and more free passage for the roots of plants. The chemical changes produced by the burning of clay are greater solubility of its constituents in water and acids; clay slightly burned has been found to contain more than three times the quantity of soluble potash that it does in its natural state. Felspar is an ingredient of clay soils, and it is composed of silicate of potash or soda, aud silicate44 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. of alumina. By the action of fire the particles of felspar are decomposed, and the potash, existing previously in an insoluble state in the felspar, is set free, and likewise rendered soluble and fit for the nourishment of plants. Many different opinions, however, are entertained on the changes which take place in clay by burning. When clay is burned, the heat should not be too great; and the burning should be effected by a smouldering process, somewhat resembling that in making charcoal. The clay should never be so far baked as to be reduced to a hard red brick substance; but, on the contrary, the lumps of burned clay should crumble readily. Calcareous soils are improved by the addition of clay, or of clay and sand, and the proportions may be so regulated as to form a calcareous loam. Soils in which too much humus exists may be substantially improved by the addition of sand, clay, or lime; but more especially by all three. Such soils also derive temporary improvement from burning, but it is only temporary. We have seen peat soil so inert that no crop would grow. By burning, one luxuriant crop was produced, sometimes a tolerably good second crop, and then the peat soil relapsed into its previously inert, infertile state. Recourse was again had to burning; and a repetition of this system was carried on till the surface of the soil, at first high enough above drainage, was reduced so as to be almost below the available fall. If clay, marl, semirings of ditches, sand, and, in short, any earthy substance different from peat, had been spread upon the surface, instead of burning the latter, the basis of a good, dry, rich soil would have been formed, excellent, with proper manure, for root crops, such as carrots, turnips, potatoes, &c. Peat generally rests on clay, and when this is the case, on a source of fertility which, if not too deep, may readily be taken advantage of. If the clay become friable from mixture with the peat and exposure to the weather, the basis of a fertile soil is at once established. If it remain too adhesive, it can be easily burned along with some of the peat which rested immediately above it; or without burning, the tenacity of the clay may be reduced with sand. Admitting that some of the peat may be burned with advantage, as in the above case, or perhaps in others, yet we do not approve of that systematic burning of the surface formerly so much in use. Lime is also of great utility in reclaiming peat, as it aids in decomposing the fibre; and it neutralizes the acids which occur in peat. The texture of the soil is permanently altered by all the preceding modes of improvement; and, for a time, by pulverization. By this the requisite degree of friability is secured; air and water can then readily penetrate into the soil, to the benefit of the plants grown upon it. Besides, the roots of most plants cannot penetrate into the hard compact mass, such as the soil usually becomes when unstirred for any considerable time. By pulverization, also, the temperature of the ground is brought nearer to an equality with that of the atmosphere, by reason of air and water penetrating among the particles of the soil, and communicating their heat to it. The means by which pulverization is effected—namely, digging, trenching, forking, and hoeing—will be reverted to hereafter. Another mode of changing the texture of the soil is by consolidating it by mechanical means, such as rolling and treading. This mode of improvement is only applicable to very light soils, or in particular cases, such as seedsowing, &c. CHAPTER VI. MANURES. All substances which, when added to the soil, increase its fertility, may be considered as manures. These may act either directly, by supplying food to plants; or indirectly, by rendering the substances already contained in the soil available for the nourishment of plants. The necessity of the application of manures is evident; for as plants withdraw certain elements from the soil, the latter would, in course of time, become exhausted if no restoration of these were made. Manures may be divided into two classes j 1. Organic manures, or those of vegetable and animal origin. 2. Inorganic manures, or those of mineral origin. I.—ORGANIC MANURES. In this class are included all substances of vegetable and animal origin wThich have the property of enriching the soil, or of rendering to it substances required by plants for food. All vegetable and animal substances used as manure must undergo decomposition before they become the food of plants, for the roots of these only absorb liquids and gases. This change is generally effected to a certain extent before they are applied to the soil; but in the case of green manures, it takes place entirely in the soil. The results of the decomposition of organic manures are the formation of carbonic acid, ammonia, sulphuretted hydrogen, and many other compounds, which areMANURES. 45 retained in the soil, from which they are taken up by the roots of plants. Leaves, when thoroughly decayed and reduced to the state of mould, form a sort of manure, which, alone or mixed with soil or other substances, is eminently suited for the growth of most plants. Leaf-mould, as it is called, is, however, generally in too great request for the cultivation of pot plants to be much used for ordinary crops, particularly as the leaves which would form it, if allowed to decay, are, when kept dry, so useful for making hot-beds. Dry leaves, when used as litter, absorb perhaps less urine than straw, but as they contain much more nitrogen they increase greatly the quality of the manure. Since mildews have been so destructive in their attacks, and as sulphur is the best known preventive, and is at the same time cheap, and not injurious to the growth of plants, except the cryptogamic class, some of this substance might be mixed with the leaves, taking care that none of it be used in any composition employed for mushrooms. Tan.—Old tan is sometimes employed as a manure; but it exercises an injurious action on the roots of plants, and also tends to promote the growth of various sorts of fungi. For these reasons the advantage of using it appears to be very questionable; and it is a much safer course to dispense with it entirely as a manure. Peat.—This may be said to be an accumulation of humus, produced by the decay of plants that have been submerged; and it would then seem to be derived from that which forms the first food of vegetation. But in the formation of peat highly antiseptic properties have been imparted, which must be neutralized before growing plants can avail themselves of the peaty substance for nourishment. Much of this substance has been derived from the debris of heath, which contains much of the tannin principle; and there is some resin derived from the fir-wood, which had been very abundant, as the trunks and roots of the fir tribe still remain to testify, and so completely preserved that even the small fibres can be drawn out entire, whilst the trunks are so sound that axles for mill-wheels have been made from them. Not only plants, but deer and other animals, have been found in peat, which must have been embedded for many centuries, so completely does peat prevent decomposition and putrefaction. But bog earth and boggy swamps are capable of being rendered extremely fertile; the peat marshes of La Vendee are the most fertile soil in the country; the neighbourhood of Amiens produces excellent vegetables; and the name of marais, or morass, which the market gardens of Paris still bear, indicates sufficiently the original state of the soil. To render peat fertile it is necessary in the first place to drain it, for until the water is removed the air cannot enter among particles of the peat, and in the absence of oxygen its elements remain without change. When dry, and then exposed to the action of air, moisture, and frost, it is readily pulverized, and loses, in a great measure, its astringent principle: the cor-X'ection of this is greatly aided by the addition of lime, gypsum, or calcareous marls. For forming it into a manuring compost M. Puvis recommends mixing the peat with alternate layers of a sixth or eighth part of lime. When dry it may be employed as litter for sheep, and when saturated another layer may be spread over. By penning sheep on dry peat or turf large quantities of excellent manure for garden crops may be obtained. Peat may otherwise be economized in two very important respects—1st, as a deodorizer; 2d, as a vehicle for manure. We can speak of it from experience in both these respects. When accumulations of night-soil are removed, the emanations are alike injurious to health and offensive to the sense of smell; and where such accumulations exist near mansions, their removal is deferred as long as possible, for when it is effected the smell lingers in the neighbourhood for days. But if the workmen sprinkled as they proceeded some of the charcoal made from peat, and a quantity over the heap when finished, no smell could be detected next day, owing to the property which charcoal of any kind, but especially the finely powdered peat-charcoal, possesses of condensing many times its own volume of gases, and notably ammonia, sulphuretted hydrogen, and carbonic acid, all of which are prejudicial to health. Not only is smell prevented by using the charcoal, but the escape of one of the most valuable constituents of the night-soil—the ammonia—is guarded against. Thus the manure obtained, while deodorized, is rendered even more valuable than it otherwise would be, the peat-charcoal acting as an economizer of manure rather than as a manure itself; for it seems to be owing to its power of absorbing gases that the roots of plants are found clinging around its particles wherever it is mixed with the soil. It is not, however, as a deodorizer of night-soil only that peat-charcoal may be employed with advantage, but to sewage as well. For this object it was brought prominently into notice some years ago, and tried on a small scale it certainly answers well, rendering the sewage inoffensive when applied directly to the ground; and where, from46 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. the expense of carriage, this cannot be done, it affords a means of collecting the most valuable part of the sewage in a portable form; while the liquid, deprived of its offensive odour, may be allowed to pass away. In like manner peat-charcoal may be used as a vehicle for manure where it is not desirable to drench the ground with so much liquid as a good dose of sewage would involve. It may be useful here to add a caution against allowing the liquid from sewage, however inodorous, however pure it may appear to be, from entering sources from which water for drinking purposes is supplied ; for it is certain that no ordinary amount of artificial filtration will entirely deprive it of its noxious properties, whether charcoal or sand be the medium employed. Sawdust is not of much value as a manure; it contains only traces of nitrogen, and when mixed with the soil, it does not readily decompose; it should therefore be thoroughly rotted before it is applied. By the addition of liquid manure, of which it will absorb a large quantity, its value is greatly increased, and it is then much more easily decomposed. Rape-dust.-—The refuse of rape-seed, after the oil has been expressed, is formed into cakes, which are reduced to a powder, forming the manure called rape-dust. Dissolved in urine, rape-dust is much employed in Flanders, and when so treated it forms an excellent liquid manure. In this country rape-dust is generally applied as a top-dressing; but it is much more advantageous to dig it in, either unmixed, or together with rotten dung. In dry seasons it is less efficacious than in wet ones; also in dry soils its application is not attended with such beneficial effects as in those which retain a considerable amount of moisture. For turnips, and other root crops, rape-dust is an excellent manure. Malt-dust principally consists of the radicle and young shoots of barley which has germinated, and which are separated from the malt during the process of drying on the kiln, or subsequently by treading and screening. The dust obtained from the kiln is distinguished as kiln-dust, and is not so pure as the other, being mixed with ashes. Malt-dust contains about 4 per cent, of nitrogen; and Professor Johnston found that its ashes contained 36 per cent, of potash and soda, and rather more than 24 per cent, of phosphoric acid. From this it is apparent that malt-dust formas a very good manure. It is frequently used as a top-dressing; but it is more advantageous to dig it in after it has been slightly fermented by the addition of urine to the heap, or to form it into a compost. When the two first methods are employed, it may be applied at the rate of 30 or 40 bushels to the acre. The beneficial effects of malt-dust are chiefly owing to the formation of ammonia; they are also, to some extent, due to the phosphoric acid, potash, and soda which it contains. It is rapid in its action, and its good effects become quickly perceptible; but it does not form a manure of much permanence. It is a valuable top-dressing for fruit-trees in pots. Cotton-seeds. — One load of the pressings of these contains as much nitrogen as is contained in 6^ loads of common dung. Sea-weeds, of various kinds, are largely employed as a manure on the coast. This manure is usually applied to the land in a fresh state, as a top-dressing; but it is preferable to dig it in at once. Mixed with earth and dung, it forms an excellent compost. The good effects of sea-weed are of short duration, seldom extending beyond the crop to which it is applied. As it usually contains about 80 per cent, of water, its conveyance to a distance is expensive, and for this reason it is never used far inland. Sea-weeds are frequently burned, and the ashes employed as a manure, for which purpose they are highly esteemed in Jersey, Guernsey, Normandy, and Brittany. Nevertheless, as the organic matter j is destroyed by burning, and consequently much of the fertilizing constituents lost, this practice is j not to be recommended, although a saving in the expense of carriage is thereby effected. Green Manures.—Plants are sometimes grown j specially for the purpose of being dug into the soil, when they are in a green and succulent state, j as a manure. This practice is seldom, however, adopted in gardens, or, indeed, wherever the ground is in a high state of cultivation. A much more advantageous plan is to apply the greeu crop to the feeding of animals, in which way, not only is manure produced, but food as well. The plants usually grown for the purpose of being dug into the soil are those which grow quickly, such as buckwheat and rape. These, when full of juices, are dug in as soon as the flowers com-! mence to appear; for at this stage of their growth j the plants soon decompose, and become available for the nourishment of the succeeding crop, j There is, however, a class of green manures which are more extensively employed in gardens. These consist of potato haulm, turnip tops, the dressings of cabbages, rhubarb leaves, and all superfluous or decaying vegetables, such as are not required , for carrying on the growth of the plants, and which are occasionally dug in when in a fresh state; in general, however, it is much better to make them up into a compost, and decompose I them, previous to applying them to the soil.MANURES. 47 Ferns abound in potash, and may therefore be very beneficially applied to soils deficient in that element, or to crops which require much of it. Reeds are very commonly employed in the south of France as manure in a green state. Cut when in flower they very soon become decomposed. In the vineyards on the right banks of the Rhine reeds are very advantageously employed as manure for the vine. It is there, in fact, the only manure supplied to it. They dig long trenches about 20 yards apart; in these they extend the dry reeds, and cover them with soil. In the following season another 6 feet trench is dug, and filled with reeds to rot, and so on till the whole of the ground is gone over. To this practice the renown of the vines of St. George is attributed. Soot principally consists of charcoal; but its efficiency as a manure is chiefly attributable to its containing ammonia, the amount of which varies in different samples from 1 to 5 per cent. The following is an analysis, by Dr. Voelcker:— Moisture,............................. 10 '620 Organic matter,....................... 44'736 Chloride of ammonium (sal ammoniac), '933 Sulphate of ammonia,.................. 3 '580 Chloride of sodium,..................... '231 Chloride of potassium,.................. '503 Oxides of iron and alumina, .......... 15'691 Sulphate of lime,..................... 11'051 Phosphate of lime,...................... '530 Carbonate of lime,..................... 1'129 Lime in a state of silicate,. ........ 2 '290 Magnesia in a state of silicate,........ '389 Soluble silica (partly combined with ) 4-014 lime and magnesia),............. ) Insoluble silicious matter (chiefly sand), 4 "159 99 856 Soot should be kept dry till required for use. It is generally applied as a top-dressing; and it may be scattered at the rate of 20 or 30 bushels or more to the acre; but it is best to apply it as a liquid manure. When used in the latter way it may be mixed in the proportion of 1 peck to 30 gallons of water, and should be allowed to stand till the liquid is clear. It may thus be given once or twice a week with great benefit to growing plants. As a preventive to the attacks of insects, half a peck of soot aud a quarter of a peck of lime, mixed well and allowed to stand till clear, form a useful wash. As a top-dressing to grass, soot is very beneficial; and, deposited together with the Seeds of turnips, it quickly forces the young plants into the rough leaf, an object of great importance, inasmuch as when this is the case the ravages of the fly are in a great measure prevented. This manure has likewise been employed for potatoes with good j results, especially when mixed with salt. It is also used for onions, partly as a manure, but more especially for the purpose of preventing the attacks of the onion-grub. Mr. Robertson of Kilkenny states, that “on meadows he had used soot with great advantage in substance, aud though sown by the hand, one dressing always gave him heavy crops of hay for two successive seasons; but this is a wasteful mode of applying it—a great proportion of its ammonia, one of its most active ingredients, being volatilized and dissipated in the atmosphere. When dissolved in water there is no waste—it is all available for horticultural purposes. He had mostly used it in that state, mixing it up in the proportion of about 6 quarts of soot to a hogshead of water. Asparagus, pease, and a variety of other vegetables, he manured with it, with as much effect as if he had used solid dung; but to plants in pots, particularly pines, he found it admirably well adapted; when watered with it they assume a deep healthy green, and grow strong aud luxuriantly.”—-{Gardeners Magazine, vol. ii. p. 19.) Blood is a powerful manure, not only on account of its nitrogen, but also on that of the numerous salts which it contains. The organic matter of dry ox-blood, according to Playfair, consists of 54-35 per cent, of carbon, 7'50 of hydrogen, 15'76 of nitrogen, and 22'39 of oxygen. The saline matters in the ashes of blood are exhibited in the following analyses of Enderlin:— Ox. Calf. Sheep. Phosphate of soda, 1677 3018 13 30 Chloride of sodium (common salt), 59'34 1 66'57 Chloride of potassium, 6'12 f Sulphate of soda, 3’85 2'94 5'38 Phosphate of lime and magnesia,... 4-19 3'49 113-92 Oxide and phosphate of iron, 8-28 9'28 Sulphate of lime (gypsum) and loss, 1-45 1-46 0-83 100' 100' 100' Blood may be applied to the soil in a liquid state, when dried, or mixed with earth or other substances, so as to form a compost. Fish form a very powerful manure, rich in nitrogen and phosphoric acid. Large quantities of various kinds of fish are used in Kent, Sussex, Essex, Cornwall, Lincolnshire, Cambridgeshire, and in Scotland. The best mode of using fish in gardens is to make them up into a compost with earth, turf, and other matters; in this way the manure can be more equally distributed, and plants will not then be liable to injury from the roots coming in contact with large quantities of unmixed and highly nutritious manure. Blubber when applied in its crude state proves injurious to vegetation; but, formed into a corn-48 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. post with earth, in the proportion of one load of blubber to nine or ten of earth, and turned several times, it has been found to produce very satisfactory results on beaus, potatoes, and other root crops. Graves, or tallow-chandler’s refuse, is frequently employed as a manure. It is first bruised, and then dug in. It may be applied at the rate of 8 or 10 cwts. per acre. Another very good plan is to make it up into a compost with earth; but no lime should be employed, as ammonia is thereby driven tiff. Woollen Rags.—Considerable quantities of these are employed for manure in Kent, Berkshire, and Oxfordshire. For this purpose the I’ags should be chopped up into small pieces, and buried in the soil. They form an excellent manure, which decomposes slowly, and its effects extend over two or three years. Horns and Hoofs.—On account of their use in the arts, they are only procurable in small quantity, and in the shape of shavings or other refuse. In the impure state in which they are used, they contain about 12 or 13 per cent, of nitrogen, and, as they decompose slowly, at least when the fragments are large, they form a good manure for fruit-trees. Bones, which are so extensively employed in agriculture as a manure for turnips, are also valuable for garden purpioses. The composition of bones varies according to the sort of animal to which they belong. It also differs in the same animal at different ages. The bones of the ox, according to Berzelius, consist of— Cartilage,......................... .33 '30 Phosphate of lime,................. 55'35 Fluoride of calcium,............... 3’GO Carbonate of lime,.................. 3'85 Phosphate of magnesia,.............. 2'05 Soda, with a little common salt,... 2‘45 100-00 The modes in which bones are applied to the soil are various; they are used broken into fragments of greater or less size, more finely divided in the state of dust; dissolved in sulphuric or muriatic acid; also, mixed with guano or other fertilizers. When applied in the broken state the effect of this manure is not so speedy, but more lasting, on account of the bones not being so quickly decomposed; but, when the dust is applied, the eifect of the application is sooner ap-pax-ent. When broken into vei-y small pieces, or when applied in the state of dust, a less quantity of bones is necessary to produce an effect, in consequence of their being quickly decomposed. The quantity of half-inch bones, or of bone-dust, which forms an effectual application, is from 12 to 16 bushels to the acre, according to the nature of the soil, a larger quantity being required on poor soils than on rich ones to produce the same effect. With regard to the sort of bones which it is most advantageous to apply, experience has shown that fi-esli or unboiled bones possess a more beneficial action than boiled ones, on account of the ox-ganic matter not being extracted by boiling, as in the case of the latter; but that, on the contrary, when the soil is already rich in organic matter, the boiled bones form an application of equal efficiency with the unboiled. For turnips bone manure is invaluable; and it has the great advantage of quickly forcing the plants into the rough leaf, and so enabling them to withstand the attacks of the fly. Its use has likewise been attended with success in the case of carrots, beet, and potatoes. Bones have also been applied with decided advantage to grass-land, trees, shrubs, and to vine borders; and bone-dust is used with great success in the flower-garden. Although the beneficial action of bone manure is, to some extent, owing to the animal matter in the bones, yet there is no doubt that it is principally due to the phosphates which they contain. The soils on which bones produce the best effect are dry ones, and more especially such of these as are deficient in phosphate of lime; wet soils are considered as being uusuited for this manure. Bones are sometimes mixed with earth, ashes, dung, &c., and allowed to ferment, in order to effect their decomposition more speedily thau would be the case if they were applied to the soil without such preparation. This plan has worked very satisfactorily, and has produced excellent effects. A better method, however, of rendering bones soluble is to dissolve them in an acid, generally sulphuric. When this acid is poured upon the bones, several chemical changes take place. According to Professor Johnston, the phosphate of lime, which exists in bones in a nearly insoluble state, is converted into the soluble biphosphate, or superphosphate, as it is commonly termed, in consequence of the sulphuric acid seizing on a part of the lime contained in the phosphate of lime. The phosphate of magnesia is likewise converted into a more soluble compound. The carbonate of lime in the bones is converted into the sulphate of lime, or gypsum, carbonic acid being driven off, and the salts of soda are converted into sulphates, or into a mixture of sulphate and phosphate of soda. The organic matter in the bones is likewise changed into more soluble compounds. Thus, by the action of sulphuric acid, all, or nearly all, the constituents of bones are converted into soluble com-MANURES. 49 pounds, and are at once fitted to become the food of plants. The quantity of acid used in dissolving bones is variable; usually, however, the weight of the acid employed is equal to one-half the weight of the bones; but, when the weight of acid is only one-third of that of the bones, the proportion has been found to answer nearly as well. The finer the state of division in which the bones are, and the stronger the acid employed, the more speedy and perfect is their decomposition. Dissolved bones are usually applied to the soil, either mixed with earth or ashes, which is the form generally adopted, or diluted with a large quantity of water as a liquid manure. The quantity of water with which bones dissolved in acid are diluted is about fifty times the weight of the acid employed, a gallon of water weighing 10 lbs. As bones dissolved in acid are immediate in their effects, a much less quantity is requisite, from 4 to 8 bushels of bones, and acid in proportion, being the usual quantity applied to the acre. Night-soil is a valuable and extremely powerful manure, richer in nitrogen than horse or cow dung. Its composition, which, however, varies much in different specimens, is exhibited in the following analysis by Berzelius:— Water,.................................... 73'300 Insoluble animal and vegetable remains.... 7'000 Mucus, fatty, and other animal products,... 14"000 Bile,....................................... -900 Albumen,.................................... ’900 Peculiar extractive matter, ............... 2’700 Chloride of sodium,......................... "309 Sulphate of soda, .......................... ‘155 Carbonate of soda,.......................... '271 Phosphate of magnesia, ..................... -155 Phosphate of lime,.......................... *310 100 000 On account of its smell, night-soil should be deodorized before it is employed. This can be effectually done by mixing it with charcoal, charred peat, or sulphate of iron. The use of charcoal for the purpose of deodorizing night-soil appears to be attended with peculiar advantages, for it is not only one of the most powerful deodorizers known, but is itself possessed of great virtue as an auxiliary manure, as will afterwards be shown. The use of sulphate of iron is also attended with advantages, on account of its fixing the ammonia, and deodorizing at the same time; but it is not always advisable to introduce any considerable quantity of the salts of iron into the soil. Gypsum, also, has the property of removing, to some extent, the disagreeable odour, and is likewise of great utility in fixing ammonia. Dry earth and I sifted ashes are most efficient deodorizers, and have lately been extensively and very successfully employed for sanitary purposes; added to which they prevent the loss of the most valuable constituents of the night-soil, which loss is continually taking place when the surface of the manure is exposed to the air. Quicklime is often used for deodorizing night-soil; but, though it destroys the smell, yet, as it also dispels the greater portion of the ammonia, it should never be employed for this purpose. This manure is usually applied to the soil mixed with mould, peat, coal-ashes, turf, marl, &c. It is also used in a liquid state; but the former method is superior in point of cleanliness. Night-soil forms an excellent manure for potatoes, turnips, and indeed for most crops, though it is not so much employed as it deserves to be, perhaps on account of its being erroneously supposed to communicate a bad taste to the crop. Night-soil is procurable in this country at a very email cost—in many cases for little more than the expense of carriage; and, considering its price, and the richness of its composition, it may safely be said to be one of the cheapest, if not the cheapest manure known. Such being the case, it is surprising that it is not more extensively used, and that it is not preserved with greater care, more especially as it can be rendered perfectly inodorous at a very trifling expense. In Belgium, France, and indeed nearly all over the Continent, the night-soil is carefully preserved, and is highly valued as a manure. In China, also, that densely peopled empire, where nothing that can be turned to account is wasted, the value of this manure is fully appreciated. It is there mixed with a sort of marl, and made into cakes, which are sold to the cultivators, and by them mixed with water and applied to the soil. It is also collected, together with other vegetable and animal refuse, in tubs or pits lined with plaster; these are covered with straw to prevent loss by evaporation. The manure is then diluted with water, and allowed to putrefy, after which it is applied to the ground. We in this country might well take a lesson from the Chinese in respect to covering our manure heaps, to prevent the most valuable pai’ts of the manure from being carried off by the action of the sun, wind, and rain. Besides this, the Chinese are too good economists to allow the most soluble and richest parts of the manure to drain away by the sides or bottoms of their pits. Night-soil is prepared, by drying and mixing with various substances, into what is called poudrette, desiccated or disinfected night-soil. 450 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. The value of this preparation as a fertilizer, of course, depends on the substances with which the night-soil is mixed, and the mode of drying. In the preparation of poiulrette, quicklime is frequently added, and to the injurious action of this, by driving off ammonia, we have already adverted. (Juana.—This manure, the value of which is now universally known, is the dung of sea-birds, which has been deposited in the course of hundreds of years, in some places to the thickness of 100 feet. Guano is principally obtained from the small islands off the coast of Peru, and from various places on the coast of that country; the best is got from the Chineha Islands, three in number, whence immense quantities are annually imported into this country. Guano has also been obtained from other sources, such as Ichaboe and Saldanha Bay, on the southwest coast of Africa, from the Ivooria Mooria Islands in the Arabian Gulf, from the coasts of Chili, Bolivia, Patagonia, &c.; but, as some of these have been exhausted, and the guano from the remainder is much inferior in quality, we are almost entirely dependent on the deposits on the coast of South America for our supply. Considerable uneasiness has been caused in this country lest the beds of guano become exhausted, and this must sooner or later be the case, by reason of the large quantities which are imported by this and other nations. Excellent substitutes, however, are found in those artificial manures now manufactured, which are rich in phosphate of lime and ammoniacal salts, consequently very similar to guano. With reference to the extent of the Peruvian guano deposits, a paper published at Lima in 1352, estimated the total quantity in the deposits of the country, so far as known, at 27,000,000 tons, of which 18,250,000 tons was on the Chineha Islands. Since then a large diminution lias taken place, and a government survey in 1862 represented the quantity remaining as amounting to about 16,000,000 tons. As the quantity exported from the country yearly averages 450,000, the above supply would suffice for thirty-five years, not allowing for any increase in the consumption. Additional deposits will most probably be yet discovered. Guano was first brought to England in 1840, and as its value was soon recognized from the excellent results obtained by its employment, the imports soon increased. In the five years ending with 1868, the average quantity imported from all quarters was 175,820 tons, bv far the greater part of it being from Peru. The value of this import is about .£2,000,000. Genuine Peruvian guano is a light brown or fawn-coloured powder; its chemical composition is exhibited in the following elaborate analyses by Bertels, Oellacher, and Volkel:— Bertels. Oellacher. , VOlkel. Urate of ammonia, 3-244 12-20 9-0 Oxalate of ammonia, 13351 | 17-73 10-6 Phosphate of ammonia, (1-250 6-90 6‘0 Phosphate of ammonia 1 and magnesia, j 4T96 1 11-63 2 6 1 lydroehlorateof ammonia, G" 500 2-25 4-2 Carbonate of ammonia, 0-80 If innate of ammonia, ••• 1-06 (ixalate of lime, 16-360 1-30 7 0 Phosphate of lime, 9 940 2016 14 3 ('arbonate of lime, 1 -65 Chloride of sodium, o-ioo 040 8ulphate of soda, Phosphate of soda, 1-119 4’92 3-8 5‘291 Sulphate of potash, 4-227 4-00 5*5 Sand, 5-800 1-68 Alumina, 0-104 Clay and sand, 4-7 Waxy and resinous matter, 0-600 0-75 Water and volatile am- 1 ! monia, undefined or- y ganic matter, and loss, j 22-918 12-57 32-3 100-000 100-00 100 0 The composition of guano is, however, subject to some variation. The variation and average composition of thirty-two specimens of Peruvian guano are exhibited in the following table, prepared by Professor Way for the Loyal Agricul- tural Society of England: :— Lowest, i Highest. Average. Water, 888 22'68 13-09 Organic matter and salts ) of ammonia, J Sand, 37'78 117 1 58-82 2'95 53-61 1-54 Earthy phosphates, 19-46 1 34-45 24-12 Ammonia, yielded by 100 1 parts, J 15-98 18-94 17-41 The value of guano is now so well known, that it is unnecessary for us to descant on its virtues; suffice it to say, that it has been applied to almost every crop, whether fruit or vegetables, with the greatest success; to flowers, also, its application proves highly beneficial. Guano should always be mixed with six or eight times its weight of tine earth or loam, or with ashes or charcoal dust, or with charred peat, previous to being applied to the soil; for if used in its unmixed state, it is likely, from its causticity, to kill the plant*, or at least prove injurious to them. But mixed in this way it may be used at the rate of 4 or 5 cwts. per acre. Guano is also employed with great advantage in a liquid form; especial care should, however, be taken not to use too concentrated a solution. The proportion of guano, mixed with water, that I may be applied with safety, varies according ttMANURES. 51 the sort of plant, the greater or less vigour of the individual, and. the richness of the soil. Many plauts grow luxuriantly when watered with a solution strong enough to cause the death of others. Half an ounce of guano to a gallon of water is, however, generally considered to be a safe proportion for all plauts; and it will be a safer course to repeat the dose of this solution rather than to increase its strength. Urine forms an exceedingly powerful manure, containing various principles which, during putrefaction, yield large quantities of ammonia. Urine likewise contains many valuable mineral ingredients of the food of plauts. The composition of urine varies in different kinds of animals, and in individuals of the same species, being affected by the age and food of the individual. Human urine is, however, by far the most valuable. The following analysis, by Berzelius, exhibits the composition of human urine:— Water,................................. 933'00 Urea, ................................. 30'10 Uric acid,............................ l'OO Lactic acid, lactate of ammonia, and ani-) 17-14 mal matter not separable from them, J Mucus of the bladder, ................ 0'32 Sulphate of potash,................... 3‘71 Sulphate of soda,..................... 3'16 Phosphate of soda, ................... 2'94 Phosphate of ammonia,................. 1'65 Chloride of sodium, .................. 4 '45 Hydrochlorate of ammonia,............... 1'50 riiospliates of lime and magnesia,.... l'OO Silicious earth,...................... 0 '03 1000'00 According to Mr. Brande, 1000 parts of the urine of the cow contains the following sub- stances :— Water,................................. 968 Urea,.................................. 4 Carbonate of potash and ammonia,.......... 4 llvdrochlorate of potash and ammonia,__ 15 Sulphate of potash,....................... 6 Phosphate of lime,........................ 3 1000 MM. Fourcroy and Vauquelin found that 1000 parts of the urine of the horse contain:— Water, .................................... 940 U rea,....................................... 7 Ilippurate of soda,......................... 24 Chloride of potassium,....................... 9 ('arbonate of lime,......................... 11 Carbonate of soda,........................... 9 1000 By the putrefaction of urine the urea and uric acid which it contains are decomposed, and a large amount of ammonia is formed, and unless means be taken to prevent its escape, much of the most valuable portion of the manure will be lost. Gypsum, sulphuric acid, or sulphate of iron, should therefore be employed for this purpose; and by their use we convert the volatile carbonate of ammonia into the non-volatile sulphate. Urine, before being applied to plants, should be allowed to putrefy; it should then be largely diluted with water, or mixed with soil or other matters, so as to form a compost; for when used in an unmixed state, it is very injurious to plants. To fruit-trees, kitchen-garden crops, and lawns, the application of urine proves highly beneficial. From the facility with which it can be applied to growing plants, without disturbing their roots, as well as on account of its rich manuring properties, urine is an excellent manure for garden purposes. On account of its offensive smell, it is advisable to deodorize it by some of the numerous means at our command. Liquid Manure.—Almost every manure may be applied to the soil in a liquid state, consequently, all such might be included under this heading; nevertheless, as when speaking of each manure, the circumstance'of its being used in a liquid state has been mentioned, we shall confine ourselves to the common acceptation of the term liquid manure. Liquid manure is generally considered to imply the drainings of dung-heaps, stables, and cowhouses; and it chiefly consists of urine, together with more or less of the excrements of the animals dissolved by it, or by rain. Collected from such Various sources, it is evident that the composition and value of liquid manure must vary considerably according to the kind of animal from which it is derived, the amount of solid matters it contains, the mode of preserving it, and other circumstances. Liquid manure is very useful in gardening; for, as it contains the fertilizing principles in a liquid state, they are consequently in a condition to be more readily taken up by the spongioles of plants, than if the same principles had been afforded in a solid form. Hung, in many cases, can only be applied to the soil before the crop is planted or sown, as it could not afterwards be dug in without disturbing the roots. But, so far as these are concerned, liquid manure can be applied at any period of the growth of plants. Dung may be too strong at first; and as the advancing crop requires progressively more and more support, the dung may become much exhausted. Liquid manure has, however, the advantage; for it can be applied strong or weak at first, and its application can be followed up in a stronger or weaker52 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. degree, as the growth of the plants may require. When the strength of solid manure becomes insufficient, liquid manure affords a ready mode of supplying the defect. The above observations equally apply to all sorts of manure in a liquid state. Liquid manure is used with excellent effect for pine apples, cucumbers, fruit-trees of all kinds in pots, and, in short, for all plants in pots that require to be stimulated. When it can be had in sufficient quantity, it is beneficially applied to vine and peach borders, and to kitchen garden crops. In using it, however, care should be taken that the soil be not over saturated with it, for in that case it is worse for the spongioles than saturation with pure water. It is a safe plan to water with manure water and pure water alternately. “ The Chinese, who are remarkably skilful in the management of manure, are particularly careful not to waste the smallest portions; and, according to Sir George Staunton, they prefer the dung of birds to that of all others, and next to that night-soil, which they apply in a liquid state. ‘Their first care,’ says our author, ‘is to construct large cisterns, free from absorption, to contain, beside this manure and soil of every kind, all sorts of vegetable matter, as leaves, or roots, or stems of plants; with all these they mix as much animal water as can be collected, or common water to dilute the whole; and in this state, generally in the act of putrid fermentation, apply it to the ploughed or broken earth.’ The Chinese husbandmen, we learn from the same authority, always steep their seed wheat in liquid manure, until it swells and germinates, which, they say, hastens the growth of the plants, and at the same time defends them from the attacks of insects; they also apply liquid manure to the roots of plants and fruit-trees. And how grateful liquid manure is to vines, &c., is well known to most English gardeners. The immense produce of .grapes by the great Hampton Court vine, has been supposed to be mainly owing to its roots having penetrated to an adjoining sewer belonging to the palace; .and the roots of the neaidy equally celebrated vine at Valentines, in Essex, are known to reach an adjoining stagnant canal.” — (Johnson on Fertilizers.) The ammonia of liquid manure shoidd be fixed by the same agents as previously recommended for urine. Horse-dung.—The solid excrementsof the horse consist of 2CF67 per cent, of organic matter, 4-02 per cent, of inorganic matter, and 75’31 per cent, of water. Horse-dung is most beneficially applied to cold, stiff soils; and in order that its mechanical action may be turned to advantage, the dung should not be much decomposed, care being taken, however, that the litter is sufficiently moist for decomposition, without becoming musty in the ground, as it does sometimes in dry weather when it is not previously well soaked. Of equal weights of horse-dung and cow-dung, the former is the more fertilizing; but taking bulk for bulk of each, it is inferior to cow-dung. Where horse-dung is not applied particularly for the purpose of keeping the ground open, but merely for its manuring properties, it should be previously turned, and during the process it should be well moistened, preferably with the drainings of the farm-yard or other liquid manure; but if such is not at command, water must be used. Fermentation is apt to become excessive in the heap of horse-dung, and then it is injurious, for the ammonia is driven off, and the littery portion in the centre is apt to become dried up and rendered inert. Means should therefore be adopted to prevent the heat from becoming too great; the heap should be turned, spread out, or watered, before it becomes too hot; and the ammonia, that woidd otherwise escape, may be absorbed by a covering of soil or turf, or any substance, in short, that is found to prevent the heap from exhaling ellluvia. Horse-dung is well adapted for producing immediate action on crops; hence, for such of these as are required to be produced as early as possible, it is well to manure with the droppings shaken from the litter. Coiv-dung.—According to Boussingault 100 parts of fiesh cow-dung contain 8'27 parts of organic matter, 1*|3 parts of inorganic matter, and 90’GO parts of water. Cow-dung contains more water than horse-dung, and a smaller proportion of nitrogen. Its fertilizing properties are inferior to those possessed by horse-dung, and from its not readily fermenting, it is colder than that manure, it is slower in its action than horse-dung, but its effects are much more lasting; it is, therefore, better adapted for trees, or any crop that requires the manure to continue for years. For hot dry soils it is better adapted than horse-dung; but, on the contrary, it is not proper for cold and wet soils, and to such, more especially, it should not be applied in spring, or, at all events, it should not then be employed in its crude wet state. Mixed with horse-dung, or with litter, and the whole slightly fermented, it answers better for damp heavy soils. Some have used large quantities of cow-dung in forming borders for vines and for other fruit-trees, but experience has proved, that after two or three years, the mass of cow-dung becomes inert, and retains too much moisture in winter. For fruit-trees generally, a compost of cow-dung and good turfy loam is found preferable to cow-dung alone.MANURES. 53 There is perhaps no kind of manure that retains moisture so well as cow-dung. It is, therefore, excellent for dry hot soils, and for mulching over the roots of trees; yet in a fresh unfermented state it will injure the roots of many plants if they come in contact with it where it may happen to be unmixed with soil. By fermentation it is rendered safe for vegetation. Pig's-dung.—Fresh pig’s-dung, consisting of the excrements and urine, contains, according to Professor Solly, 93 parts of dry organic matter, 87 parts of inorganic matter, and 820 parts of water. This manure contains more nitrogen than horse-dung, and is considered equally as powerful as night-soil. In an unmixed state it is too strong for vegetation; but when mixed with litter and as much earth as will moderate fermentation, it becomes an excellent manure. By throwing in weeds where the pigs can search them over, and which they will not fail to do very assiduously, the portion which they reject is formed into manure of considerable strength. But when weeds enter thus into the composition of manure, it is absolutely necessary that the whole should be thoroughly fermented, otherwise the seeds will germinate, and render the ground manured very foul. If the seeds of a single plant are conveyed in a living state to the quarters along with manure, they will, in many cases, produce thousands of vigorous weeds. When seeds are exposed to moisture, and a degree of heat equal to that which is required for inducing vegetation, they must either grow or rot; they will attempt to vegetate, but, stimulated by heat and moisture, and, at the same time, deprived of air and light, they must soon die. At and near the outside of the heap, seeds may exist cool and free from excitement, and consequently their vegetative powers will be preserved, to produce in due time a crop of weeds, after being transferred, along with the manure, to the ground. It is, therefore, advisable that the manure should in' turned after fermentation has gone on so far as to kill all seeds in the interior of the heap. The outside or other cool portions should then be carefully turned inwards, where they will be most subject to the effects of fermentation. By adopting this plan, weeds may be turned to account by partly feeding the animals, and by forming a bulk of manure of that which they refuse to eat. The strength of the manure will, of course, be lessened in proportion to the quantity of weeds and adherent earthy matter introduced; hut if no more of these be thrown to the pigs than they can thoroughly moisten, the resulting manure will be strong enough for ordinary garden crops. Pig’s-dung, free from litter or other matters, is employed with very beneficial results in forming with turfy loam a compost for pine apples. Pigeon's-dung, and the dung of domestic fowls, are excellent manures, approaching guano in strength. They ■should be mixed with earth before being used, otherwise they will prove too strong for vegetation. In a liquid form, they have been successfully applied to flowers, producing highly beneficial effects on both hard and soft wooded plants. Great care should, however, be exercised not to make this liquid manure too strong. Farm-yard Manure.—By this is generally understood the manure produced by hors^S, cows, or other cattle kept on the farm. It may be that of one kind of these animals, or it may be composed of a mixture of the excrements of several. When the excrements of the several kinds of animals are kept separate, their properties Can be ascertained by referring to what has been stated respecting the dung of each, and therefore they need not be here further noticed. But, unless for particular purposes, which may render it desirable to use the dung of one kind of animal in preference, it is in general better that the dung of horses and that of horned cattle, &c., should be mixed. When this is the case, plants can obtain with greater certainty the various elements which they require for their nourishment. The best farm-yard manure is accordingly formed by mixing together the excrements, both solid and liquid, of the different animals. The liquid portion cannot be better nor more economically employed than by being soaked up by the litter, so that the latter may have, in consequence, moisture enough to allow of its decomposition by a slight fermentation, instead of being dried up and for some crops rendered worse than useless. With many it has been, and is still a question, whether farm-yard manure should be applied to the soil without the least previous fermentation. But we are convinced that manure is rendered a much readier and better source of food for plants by being judiciously fermented before it is applied to the soil. At the same time we admit, and would strongly urge, the necessity of guarding, as much as possible, against the dissipation of its volatile fertilizing principles by violent fermentation. When manure is slightly fermented, it produces a more immediate effect than when it is applied fresh. Vegetable fibre, which constitutes a large proportion of the bulk of farmyard manure, decomposes but slowly when introduced without previous fermentation into the soil, and, until such time as it does become decomposed, it affords no nourishment to plants.54 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Its presence in that insoluble state may do good in certain soils that require to be kept ojjen, especially at a particular period of the season. Moderately fermented farm-yard manure, composed of the dung of various kinds of animals, and which likewise contains as much as possible of the urine, is most proper for garden soil that has been duly jn'epared and reduced to a proper texture. Composts are mixtures of various earths or manures. Their number may be said to be infinite, and they are of the greatest utility in horticulture. Many different sorts of conq>osts have been already mentioned, and others suited for the growth of particular plants will be noticed ivlien the plants for which they are prepared are spoken of. In general, the best way of economizing all sorts of refuse is to form it into a compost. At the same time, care must be taken not to introduce matters likely to prove antagonistic in their effects. For instance, lime should never be introduced into composts with substances containing ammonia, or jn’oducing it in their decomposition. Many manures, of which only small quantities are necessary, require to be mixed with other substances, in order to insure their even distribution ; others, again, are so powerful, that in an unmixed state, instead of proving beneficial to vegetation, they would be actually destructive to it; all such are advantageously formed into composts. Lime should never be used in composts with animal matters in the decomposition of which large quantities of ammonia are formed. With weeds, and the roots, leaves, and stems of plants, excellent composts may be formed, and the use of lime in this case is not objectionable, more especially as it rapidly destroys vitality. Another excellent mode of economizing all such vegetable refuse is to thoroughly rot it in liquid manure, and this can hardly be applied to a better purpose. Flesh, hair, feathers, the refuse of sugar-refineries, pond-mud, ditch-scourings,and numerous other kinds of animal and vegetable refuse, the names of which alone it would be tedious to enumerate, may all be advantageously employed as mauure. In general it is most economical and convenient to make such substances up into composts with earth, urine, and other matters. II.—INORGANIC MANURES. Coal Ashes are useful as manure, and are found to encourage the growth of pease and beans. When mixed with bones, night-soil, guano, blood, or other substances rich in nitrogen, they form a good manure. It is more especially upon stiff clays that coal ashes are found beneficial, and on such they tend to loosen the soil. The value of coal ashes is almost entirely due to the sulphate of lime or gypsum which they contain in variable quantities. Peat Ashes are very variable In their composition, according to the localities from which they are brought. In some cases these ashes are principally composed of carbonate of lime; whilst in others they contain a considerable amount of the phosphate and sulphate of lime, and are of considerable value, as in the case of Dutch ashes, which are much esteemed in Holland as a manure for turnips and clover. Feat ashes are usually applied as a top-dressing, at the rate of 20 or 30 bushels to the acre. Wood Ashes form a valuable manure, always containing potash and soda, besides other inorganic elements of the food of plants, as will be seen on referring to the table of the composition of ashes, at pp. 18-20. Wood ashes are exceedingly well adapted for mixing with guano or dung. They are also an excellent manure when applied by themselves. Of course they will not supply the want of organic manure. The roots of plants, weeds, &c., are frequently burned, and their ashes applied to the soil; but as all the organic matter is lost by this means, the practice is not to lx; recommended. It is far more economical to form them into a compost with earth and quick-iime, or other substances, to destroy their vitality. After they have been thoroughly decomposed and brought to the state of vegetable mould, they are excellent for horticultural purposes. Charcoal forms a valuable auxiliary to manures, and indeed, w hen applied to the soil without the admixture of manuring substances, it has great fertilizing properties. Its action, in either case, is almost entirely due to its well-known property of absorbing ammonia, carbonic acid, and other gases, and again giving up these substances for the nourishment of plants; for, as far as the carbon of the charcoal is concerned, that yields no food to plants There is no doubt, however, that the mineral matters contained in charcoal, as usually prepared, contribute in some measure to its fertilizing effects. It also renders the soil to which it is applied in any considerable quantity, lighter and more friable. Another circumstance worthy of remark is, that charcoal, by darkening the colour of the soil, increases the power of the latter to absorb heat—a point of no small importance. Charcoal forms an excellent mixture with guano and other artificial manures, in order to secure their more even distribution.MANURES. 55 When so employed, it not only answers this purpose, but, from its power of absorption, prevents the escape of the ammonia when more of this is liberated than can at once be absorbed by the soil, or by the roots of plants. By reason of this property, it forms an excellent covering for manure heaps, and prevents all bad smell. When applied by itself it has been found to produce very beneficial effects on turnips and carrots. Mr. Cuthill also speaks highly of the effects of Irish peat charcoal, when mixed with the soil, on cucumbers, melons, strawberries, and potatoes. As/tes of Burned Clay.—Burned clay is extensively used in the heavy lands of Essex, Suffolk, and other parts of England, and the practice is attended with great success. The beneficial action of burned clay is chiefly due to its altering the texture of the soil, rendering this less compact, and consequently more permeable to air, water, and the roots of plants, and to the burned clay containing a much greater proportion of soluble alkalies, more especially of potash and soda, than the unburned clay, a considerable portion of the alkaline substances contained in the latter being rendered soluble in the process'of burning. Burned clay, by improving the texture of the soil, and by supplying a greater amount of alkalies to plants, must prove beneficial to all crops; but it is more especially on turnips, carrots, and potatoes, or on plants requiring a large amount of potash, that the beneficial effects of this manure are most conspicuous. The state to which the clay is reduced by burning is of great importance; for if exposed to too great a heat, it will become of the nature of brick, and its alkaline ingredients will be less soluble than if burning had not been resorted to. The clay should only be slightly burned, and so that it may readily crumble down. Mr. Mechi thus describes the mode he adopts in burning clay:—“ The mode of raising and burning is this: —A strip of land is broken up in very dry weather with Ransome’s Y. L. plough, drawn by three strong horses abreast a Scotch equilibrium whipple-tree. So great is the resistance, that it requires two men to hold the handles of the plough to counteract the leverage of the horses. The earth is thus broken, pr I may say torn up in immense rough masses or clods, as much as a man can carry, which are admirably adapted to form walls and supports for the mass of fire. By this means heaps of nearly 200 solid yards may he readily burned. The earth being ploughed up, the fires are formed on the spot, the workmen placing a certain quantity of dried stumps of wood of sufficient solidity to maintain a body of heat, and inclosing the mass with large clods. These are carried by hand: subsequently, as they get more distant from the fire, a barrow is used, and beyond that a one-horse cart. “ It is important to have the sides of the heap as upright as possible—not conical, because the heat always makes for the highest place. An important point in burning is to supply the fire sufficiently fast to prevent its burning through, and yet avoid overlaying it, which might exclude all air and put it out. Practice will indicate the medium. When the fire shows a tendency to break through, the outside of the burning mass is raked down and more earth added. “ If the ground is very dry, and no rain falls, the men are obliged to feed the fire almost continually night and day; but when there is moisture, it may be left for five or six hours, but seldom longer. Something depends on the current of air. A strong wind would blow the fire fx’onx one side and oxxt at the other. This is guai’ded against by placing hurdles ixxtei'laced with straw as xx guard to winchvard. The size of a heap is limited by the height to which a man can throw up the soil, and of coux'se the diameter must be px'oportioned to the height to prevent its slipping down. It is generally lighted so as to burn oxxt by Satixrday, and not l’eqxxii-e Sunday attendance.” Gas ITaste.-—The ammoniacal liquor obtained in making gas is employed as a manui'e, and with good effects. It consists of a solution of the carbonate, hydx’osulphate of ammonia, and other salts of the same base. All its value is dxxe to the ammonia which it contains; the amount of this is subject to considei’able variation, bxxt rai’ely exceeds 2 per cent. On account of its caustic natux-e, gas water should alw ays be applied with caixtion, and it should be diluted with five or six times its bulk of watex-, otherwise it is cex'tain to burn up whatever crops it is applied to. To prevent the escape of ammonia, solphui’ic acid, or some of the other substances previously recommended for that purpose, shoxxld be employed. Accoi’ding to Solly, the average quantity of sti’ong sulphuric acid reqxxisite for this purpose is fi’om 20 to 25 lbs. for every 100 gallons of gas liquor; a little excess of acid, he observes, hai’dly ever does any harm, as it immediately becomes xxeutralized by lime, &c., in the soil. Gas water is chiefly applied to grass, and may be used at the rate of from 100 to 200 gallons per acre; but for the reasoxx previously given, it must be diluted with w7ater. This, of course, involves a considei'able amouxxt of laboui'; and it may be observed, that on retentive soils this excessive drenching with water cannot bxxt prove injurious. Gas lime is the lime which has been employed56 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. in purifying the gas, and it always contains a large quantity of the sulphuret of lime, the action of which on vegetation is unquestionably injurious. For this reason, the use of gas lime in a fresh state as a manure is not to be recommended. After long exposure to the action of the air and water, the hydrosulphuret of lime is converted into sulphate of lime or gypsum, and its injurious action ceases. Gas lime is then merely a mixture of gypsum and lime, which may or may not be free of injurious compounds, and a manure which it is safer to dispense with than to use, at least in the garden. Gas tar consists almost entirely of carbon and hydrogen, and is of little or no value as a manure, though it has been occasionally used as such. Lime has long been employed as a manure, and its application to the soil has been attended with great success, especially when preceded by drainage. ^ Lime is an oxide of the metal calcium. It does not occur in nature in a free state, but united with carbonic acid, forming carbonate of lime, it is found in abundance. There are many varieties of carbonate of lime, but the most common are limestone and chalk. Pure carbonate of lime consists of 56*3 per cent, of lime, and 43’7 per cent, of carbonic acid. On being exposed to a strong red heat, carbonate of lime loses its carbonic acid, and protoxide of calcium, or quicklime, is produced. This substance has a powerful affinity for water, absorbing it rapidly when brought in contact with it, and more gradually when exposed to the atmosphere; in both cases, a compound of the hydrate of lime, consisting of 28'5 parts or 1 equivalent of lime, and 9 parts or 1 equivalent of water, is produced. The pi’ocess by which the hydrate is formed is called slaking, and it is always attended with a great increase of temperature. The hydrate itself is termed slaked lime. After long exposure to the air, the hydrate of lime parts with its water, absorbs carbonic acid, and again becomes carbonate of lime. So good mortar in the course of years absorbs carbonic acid till it becomes as hard as limestone. Quicklime is extremely caustic, decomposing all animal and vegetable matters with which it comes in contact, and causing the formation of carbonic acid, ammonia, and other compounds; hence it is of great utility in fertilizing peats, and all soils abounding in roots and inert vegetable matter, by decomposing the vegetable fibre, and reducing it to a more soluble state. Respecting the chemical action of lime in the soil, much uncertainty pi-evails. There is no doubt that lime, by decomposing vegetable matter, contributes to the food of plants by supplying them with carbonic acid, ammonia, &c. Liebig ascribes the beneficial action of lime chiefly to its affording a supply of potash and soda, by decomposing minerals which contain these substances. Lime is itself a necessary element of the food of plants, and its application may in some cases prove beneficial by furnishing plants with an indispensable element of their food; but it would only be in soils extremely deficient in lime, and of such there are few, that this would be the case. We may therefore conclude, that lime acts more by bringing other substances into a proper condition for being absorbed by the roots of plants, than by affording nourishment of itself. Some soils, especially such as are peaty, become what is called acid or sour, owing to the presence of vegetable acids; on such soils lime acts as a corrective, by uniting with and neutralizing the vegetable acids. Lime in its hot or caustic state is applied with great advantage to soils containing an excess of inert vegetable matter, such as peaty soils and recently broken up grass-land. The roots, fibres, &c., in these cases would long remain in the soil in an undecomposed state, and one in which they could yield no nourishment to plants; but lime, by decomposing and rendering soluble this vegetable matter, reduces it to a state in which it can be taken up by the roots of plants, and assimilated. The addition of lime to clay soils is not only followed by the usual chemical effects produced by the application of lime, but the texture of the soil is also improved. The effects of lime on clays, however, greatly depend on the amount of organic matter which these contain. If the soil is deficient in this respect, lime will chiefly prove advantageous by liberating the alkalies potash and soda. The quantity of lime that should be applied to an acre of ground varies from 30 to 200 bushels. Where the soil contains much vegetable matter, as in the case of grass-land which has been recently broken up, tlie larger quantity may be advantageously employed for a first liming. Clay soils generally require more than light loams or sands; and whenever there is only a small amount of vegetable matter in the soil, lime should be used only in small quantities, otherwise exhaustion will be the result. In all cases, it should be remembered that lime will not supply the place of organic manure, and that it merely renders this available for the nourishment of plants. Where the ground has been long manured with farm-yard manure, the use of small doses of lime proves very advantage-MANURES. 57 ous in hastening the decomposition of the vegetable matter. Ill applying lime to the soil, it should be used as a top-dressing, or forked in so as to mix it well with the soil. From the tendency which lime has of sinking deeper and deeper into the earth, it frequently accumulates in the subsoil. If the nature of the latter will permit, the lime may be recovered by trenching it up, and this, in most cases, is preferable to liming afresh. Lime is very advantageously employed in forming composts with ditcli-scourings, earth, weeds, &c., as it hastens the decomposition of the vegetable matter, liberates alkalies, destroys the vitality of seeds, roots, &c., and kills vermin, besides itself contributing to the fertilizing effects of the mixture. Lime made from magnesian limestone, and containing caustic magnesia, has been found to act injuriously on many soils. This action has been investigated by Sir Humphrey Davy, who makes the following interesting remarks on the subject:— “ Magnesia has a much weaker attraction for carbonic acid than lime, and will remain in the state of caustic or calcined magnesia for many months, though exposed to the Idr. And as long as any caustic lime remains, the magnesia cannot be combined with carbonic acid, for lime instantly attracts carbonic acid from magnesia. “ When a magnesian limestone is burned, the magnesia is deprived of carbonic acid much sooner than the lime; and if there is not much vegetable or animal matter in the soil to supply, by its de- j composition, carbonic acid, the magnesia will remain for a long while in the caustic state; and in this state acts as a poison to certain vegetables. And that more magnesian lime may be used upon rich soils, seems to be owing to the circumstance, that the decomposition of the manure in them supplies carbonic acid. And magnesia in its mild state, that is, fully combined with carbonic acid, seems to be always a useful constituent of soils. I have thrown carbonate of magnesia upon grass, and upon growing wheat and barley, so as to render the surface white; but the vegetation was not injured in the slightest degree. And one of the most fertile parts of Cornwall, the Lizard, is a district in which the soil contains mild magnesian earth. That the theory which I have ventured to give of the operation of magnesian lime is not unfounded, is shown by an experiment which I made expressly for the purpose of determining the true nature of the operation of this substance. I took four portions of the same soil; with one I mixed one-twentieth of its weight of caustic magnesia, with another I mixed the same quantity of magnesia and a proportion of fat decomposing peat, equal to one-fourth of the weight of the soil. One portion of soil remained in its natural state; and another was mixed with peat without magnesia. The mixtures were made iu December, 1806; and in April, 1807, barley was sown in all of them. It grew very well in the pure soil; but better in the soil containing the magnesia and peat; and nearly as well in the soil containing peat alone; but in the soil containing the magnesia alone it rose very feeble, and looked yellow and sickly. “I repeated this experiment in the summer of 1810, with similar results; and I found that the maguesia in the soil mixed with peat became strongly effervescent; whilst the portion in the unmixed soil gave carbonic acid in much smaller quantities. In the one case the magnesia had assisted in the formation of a manure, and had become mild; in the other case it had acted as a poison. “It is obvious, from what has been said, that lime from the magnesian limestone may be applied in large quantities to peats; and that where lands have been injured by the application of too large a quantity of magnesian lime, peat will be a proper and efficient remedy. “I mentioned that magnesian limestones effervesced little when plunged into an acid. A simple test of magnesia in a limestone is this circumstance, and its rendering diluted nitric acid or aquafortis milky.” Chalk is a variety of carbonate of lime; besides this substance, it usually contains 4 or 5 per cent, of other matters, which generally consist of clay, sand, potash, soda, oxides of iron, phosphoric and sulphuric acids. Chalk acts both mechanically and chemically when applied to the soil. The principal mechanical effects produced by chalk are the alteration which it produces in the texture of the soil, rendering soils which are light and incapable of retaining a sufficient quantity of moisture more compact and retentive; at the same time, by this change in the texture of the soil, rain is prevented from washing away the soluble substances necessary for the support of plants. All plants contain lime, and it may be concluded that chalk, which is sparingly soluble in water containing carbonic acid, acts partly by supplying this necessary element. It has been stated that chalk generally contains other substances besides carbonate of lime. Of these, phosphoric acid, potash, soda, and sulphur, are all necessary to vegetation; and in practice it has been found that the richer chalk is in these, the more beneficial are its effects.58 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. The soils to which chalk may be applied with the greatest advantage are such as are light and sandy, and those containing too small a proportion of lime. Gypsum, or sulphate of lime, is a combination of one equivalent of sulphuric acid with one equivalent of lime. In its natural state it always contains a considerable proportion of water, which may be expelled by exposing it to a temperature of 270°; it then becomes plaster of Paris. One hundred parts of gypsum consist of 32-5 parts of lime, 46'5 of sulphuric acid, and 21 of water. Gypsum is sparingly soluble in water, requiring for solution 500 times its weight of cold, or 450 of boiling water. Many different opinions are entertained respecting the action of gypsum as a manure. Some chemists consider that it acts by supplying direct nourishment to plants, affording them sulphate of lime, which is found in their ashes. This was the opinion of Sir Humphrey Davy. Liebig, again, ascribes its action partly to its supplying plants with sulphate of lime, and also sulphur; and partly to its presenting them with ammonia, by converting the carbonate of ammonia into the sulphate, and thus preventing the escape of the former volatile salt from the soil. On the other hand, this view of the question is contested by M. Boussiugault, who shows that, under ordinary conditions of moisture in the soil, the carbonate of ammonia is not converted into the sulphate by gypsum; and he supposes that gypsum merely acts as a source of lime. He states that he is led to this conclusion by the results obtained from the analysis of the ashes of plants, and by gypsum only acting in such soils as are deficient in carbonate of lime. Whatever be the true theory of the action of gypsum, there appears to be no doubt that it becomes, at least to some extent, a portion of plants’ food; but whether this is sufficient to account for all its fertilizing effects is very doubtful, and it is not a little remarkable that some plants containing a comparatively small proportion of sulphate of lime, receive more benefit from its application than others which contain it in greater amount. Gypsum has been applied with considerable success to grass, and more especially to lucerne, sainfoin, and clover. Good results are also stated to have followed its application in the case of turnips and potatoes. It is used as a top-dressing, and at the rate of 2 or 3 cwts. per acre, sometimes less, sometimes more. It is found to produce the best effects when sown in wet weather; and in America they are very particular to use it after a shower of rain. The soils to which it is considered best adapted are light or sandy ones; though it has also been successfully used on heavy soils. The reason why gypsum produces no benefit in many soils, is doubtless owing to its already existing in them in sufficient quantity. Gypsum is but little employed in this country; but in the United States its application has been attended with great success. The power of fixing ammonia, which gypsum possesses, has already been mentioned; but it is necessary to observe, that it will only prove effectual for this purpose when water is present in sufficient quantity. Accordingly, it is most advantageously used in the case of liquid manures; but for fixing the ammonia of solid manures, it does not answer nearly so well. Phosphate of Lime is found native in Spain. It likewise exists in large quantities in coprolites, and in bones, the fertilizing effects of which are principally due to the presence of this substance. All organic manures, and some kinds of chalk and marl, contain phosphate of lime, though in less quantities than in the first-mentioned cases. Phosphate of lime is found in nearly all plants; and on account of its supplying phosphoric acid, constitutes a valuable addition to all soils. Coprolites, or the fossil excrements of animals, aye found in most geological strata; but more especially in the green-sand, lias, and Suffolk crag. They occur in rounded nodules, generally of small size, which have a stony appearance and brown colour. They consist principally of phos-jffiate of lime, phosphate of magnesia, and carbonate of lime. Some coprolites have been found to contain as much as 70 pay cent, of phosphate of lime; but in general the proportion of this substance rarely exceeds 55 per cent. On account of the phosphates of lime and magnesia which they contain, coprolites are a valuable manure. They are used either in a ground state, or submitted to the action of sulphuric acid, when they are converted into superphosphate of lime and gypsum. Marl.—This term is employed to designate various earthy substances, principally consisting of clay or sand, but all containing more or less calcareous matter. The use of marl as a manure dates from a very early period. It is mentioned by Pliny as being found in Britain, and employed for improving the soil; and there is no doubt that marl was commonly used for this purpose at a much earlier period. Marls may be divided into six principal varieties, namely—1. clay-marl; 2. sandy marl; 3. chalk-marl; 4. slaty or stony marl; 5. shell-marl; 6. peaty marl.MANURES. 59 1. Clay-marls are applied with great advantage to all loose and sandy soils, the texture of which they greatly improve by communicating to them the requisite degree of tenacity. Peaty soils are likewise benefited by the application of clay-marl, the lime in which neutralizes the vegetable acids in the peat. The beneficial action of clay-marls is not solely attributable to the alteration which they effect in the texture of the soil to which they are applied, for it is partly due to the carbonate of lime which they contain, and likewise to their frequently affording a supply of phosphoric acid, potash, and soda, which are often found in small quantities iu clay-marls. 2. Sandy marls consist principally of sand, of which they often contain as much as 70 or 80 per cent. The amount of lime which is present in these marls is also variable. In some it occurs to the extent of 30 per cent.; iu others, it is less than 10 per cent. Sandy marls greatly improve stiff and retentive clays, the friability of which they much increase. 3. Chalk-marls consist principally of carbonate of lime, and may be applied with advantage to all soils deficient in calcareous matter, and where-ever the use of chalk is attended with good effects. Some chalk-marls are rich in phosphate of lime. When this is the case, they are applied with advantage to nearly all soils, even to those which already contain a considerable amount of carbonate of lime. 4. Slaty or stony marls. Of these, some have a gravelly appearance; others, that of indurated clay; some contain a considerable amount of carbonate of lime, whilst others consist principally of sand, with but a small quantity of lime. These marls, when exposed to the action of air, water, ami frost, soon become powdery, and readily mix with the soil. When phosphate of lime is present in marls of this sort, their value is greatly increased; but some of them contain a considerable amount of oxide of iron; and when this is the case, they should be employed with caution, otherwise bad results may arise from their use. 5. Shell-marls consist of the remains of infusorial animals, and of the shells of shell-fish, mixed with sand, clay, and some organic matter, the whole in a finely divided state. These marls are rich in carbonate of lime; and the organic matter and phosphate of lime which they contain add materially to their value. Shell-marls may be beneficially applied to all soils deficient in calcareous matter; likewise to sour peaty soils. 6. Peaty marls. Marls are occasionally found which contain a considerable amount of peat; these form a valuable addition to soils deficient in organic matter. As they are very wet when first dug up, and retain moistiu’e for a long time, they ought not to be applied in a fresh state. On this account they should either be made up into a compost, or burned; but if the latter method be adopted, the organic matter will be lost, and the marl will merely be valuable for the lime and other inorganic substances which it may contain. The quantity of marl which should be applied to the acre is entirely dependent on the nature of the soil, and the composition of the marl itself. Limestone Gravel occurs chiefly in Ireland; it is of the same appearance as common gravel, only of a blue colour, and effervesces briskly with hydrochloric acid. This gravel is sometimes very fine, approaching to marl in its nature. It is used with great advantage on bogs and strong clays; it produces on the latter all the effects of a dressing of marl, greatly increasing their friability. Calcareous Sands are much employed in some parts of the country, not only for improving the texture of the soil, but also for the sake of the carbonate of lime, which some of them contain to the extent of 60 per cent, and more. In Devonshire and Cornwall, immense quantities of shell-sand—a calcareous sand, consisting chiefly of sand and the remains of shells, together with a little organic matter—are carried many miles inland, for the purpose of applying it to the land. Deposits of shell-sand are likewise found on the west coast of Scotland, and in the Hebrid es; also, on the north, south, and southwest coasts of Ireland. Coral-sand, closely resembling shell-sand in its composition and effects, is found on the south coast of Ireland. Calcareous sands are of great benefit to all soils deficient in lime; they are also advantageously employed in improving heavy retentive soils, to which they not only supply calcareous matter, but also improve their texture. Calcareous sands are likewise applied with excellent results to peaty soils, the vegetable acid of which they neutralize. Some of these sands contain a considerable amount of phosphoric acid and organic matter; when such is the case, they are most valuable fertilizers. Soapers’ Ashes consist principally of carbonate, sulphuret, and sulphite of lime, a minute quantity of potash, and other saline matters; together with sand, cinders, and some other impurities. By exposure to the action of the air, sulphuret and sulphite of lime are converted into sulphate of lime; and the whole is then merely a mixture of sulphate and carbonate of lime, with a triflingGO GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. amount of potash and soda. Soapers’ ashes are of little value as a manure. They certainly may be used as a substitute for carbonate of lime and gypsum; but in all cases, previous to being applied, they should be exposed to the action of the weather for a long time, in order to insure the perfect oxidation of the sulphur compounds, otherwise bad effects are likely to result from their use. Magnesia is found in the ashes of plants. In its caustic state it appears to be injurious to vegetation; but one of its salts—sulphate of magnesia, or Epsom salt, a compound of sulphuric acid with magnesia—has been used with some success as a manure for potatoes and turnips. The fertilizing action of sulphate of magnesia is no doubt due, in a great measure, to its supplying sulphuric acid, as well as magnesia, to plants. As this salt is very soluble in water, it should never be applied in large quantities, otherwise it is likely to prove injurious to plants, in consequence of the roots of these absorbing it in greater amount than is necessary for the nourishment of the plant. In some experiments made by Professor Solly, in the garden of the Horticultural Society at Chiswick, sulphate of magnesia was applied as a manure for potatoes, at the rate of 3 cwts. per acre, and with satisfactory results; but its effects were inferior to those produced by many other manures. On account of its high price and its small effects, sulphate of magnesia is never likely to be much employed as a fertilizer. Phosphate of magnesia is found in bones and other organic manures. The use of these is, doubtless, the cheapest and most advantageous way of supplying magnesia, when we take into Consideration the other important and highly fertilizing principles which such manure contains. Ammonia, from its being the great source from which plants derive their nitrogen, is one of the most important components of manures. To its presence, or formation, guano, the excrements of animals, flesh, blood, &c., owe much of their value as fertilizers. All manures containing ready-formed ammonia exercise a peculiar stimulating | action on vegetation, producing a luxuriant and j rich dark green foliage, together with a great in- | crease in the crop. Ammonia is supplied to plants by the decomposition of organic matter in the soil, by which, when thus generated, it is retained. It is likewise mbtipUaUv formed in the air by the decay of organized bodies, of both animal and vegetable origin. The ammonia existing in the atmosphere, in the state of a carbonate or nitrate, which stilts are very soluble in water, is soon carried down to the earth by rain and snow, the water of which always contains ammonia. In this way a considerable amount of ammonia is supplied to plants. But the soil, subjected to a continued course of cropping, soon becomes exhausted of the organic matter capable of forming ammonia; and plants would only have to depend on the ammonia brought down by rain. Now, though this quantity of ammonia would be sufficient to supply the necessary amount of nitrogen to plants growing in a state of nature, yet it would prove totally inadequate to meet the greatly increased demand induced by cultivation, and to compensate for the large quantity of nitrogen carried away in the crop. To maintain fertility ammonia must therefore be artificially restored to the soil. The beneficial effects of the practice of allowing land to lie for a considerable time before it was again cropped were, without doubt, partly due to the gradual restoration of ammonia to the soil by means of rain, and absorption from the air by the soil. For the reasons before mentioned, ammonia must be supplied to the soil; this is effected either by the use of organic manures, rich in nitrogen, or ready-formed ammonia; or by employing some of the salts of ammonia. The salts of ammonia which are used for this purpose are the sulphate, muriate, or sal-ammoniac, as it is commonly called, and the phosphate. All these are extremely powerful in their action, and immediate in their effects, requiring at the same time to be employed with great caution. Any of these salts may be applied at the rate of 2 or 3 cwts. per acre with perfect safety. They should be used as a top-dressing, and in moist weather, or the ground may be copiously watered after their application. They may likewise be very advantageously employed dissolved in water, as a liquid manure; and in this way they are peculiarly beneficial to growing plants, whether in pots or in the open ground; especial care should, however, be taken not to use a solution of too great strength. Potash is an important part of the food of plants, and is found in large quantities in then-ashes; yet, in most soils, it is only found in small quantities in a soluble state; it is consequently a valuable constituent of manures. Its salts are found in small quantities in the excrements of various animals, and in most organic manures. Much of the value of wood ashes, as a manure, is due to the carbonate and other salts of potash which they contain; and this is confirmed in practice by the beneficial effects which wood ashes produce on beans, pease, potatoes, and turnips, which are all plants that contain much potash.MANURES. 61 The fertilizing effects produced by the application of burned clay are partly due to the greater solubility of the potash which it contains, and the beneficial action of lime is likewise partly attributable to its liberating potash and soda in the soil. The salts of potash which occur in manures are the carbonate, sulphate, nitrate, silicate, and phosphate of potash, and the chloride of potassium, or muriate of potash. The only salts of potash that have been used to any extent, as a direct application to the soil, are the nitrate and silicate; the others occurring in dung, urine, wood ashes, and other manures, are all used indirectly. Nitrate of Potash, commonly called nitre or saltpetre, is a compound of one equivalent of potash with one of nitric acid. Its composition per cent, is—potash 46’54, and nitric acid 53-46. It is prepared artificially, in some parts of the Continent, from a mixture of common mould and calcareous earth with animal and vegetable remains containing nitrogen. When a heap of | these matters is preserved moist in a shaded situation, and moderately exposed to the air, nitric acid is slowly generated; and this combining with the potash and other bases in the mixture, nitrate of potash and other nitrates are formed. Many composts, doubtless, contain nitrate of potash formed in this manner, which we use as a manure, though unaware of its presence. “A great many rich and fertile soils are found to contain a small quantity of nitrate of potash, soda, or lime, which appears to produce nearly the same effect as the salts of ammonia, rendering vegetation vigorous and dark coloured. The way in which these salts are formed will be easily understood when we remember, that whenever substances containing nitrogen decay in the neighbourhood of lime or alkaline salts, a portion of nitric acid is formed. Under these circumstances, the ammonia which would otherwise be produced, is oxidized, and nitric acid and water are formed in place of ammonia; the acid combines with the alkali, and nitrate of potash or soda results. These salts are frequently found in mixtures of decomposing organic manures; they are formed in the same way in the soil itself. “ The effects produced on different plants by alkaline nitrates are very various, some being far more beneficial than others. Some plants, such as the sunflower, tobacco, lettuce, and many others, always contain more or less of these salts. Others do not contain them; but when supplied with nitrates, are subsequently found to contain the base without the acid. The soda, potash, or lime is combined with some organic acid, whilst the nitric acid has disappeared. It is probable that in these cases the nitrogen of the acid is assimilated by the plant, or that it assists in the formation of gluten and albumen. “Nitrates can have but very little value as manures on the soils which naturally contain salts of nitric acid, or which, in consequence of the substances they contain, are constantly forming nitrates. On soils neither containing nitrates nor other alkaline salts, they appear to produce very beneficial results. It has been found that wheat manured with alkaline nitrates contains more gluten and albumen than that grown on land not so manured. “ These remarks apply equally to nitrate of soda and nitrate of potash; at least similar effects are produced by the two salts, as far as regards the increased formation of gluten and albumen.” —(Solly’s Rural Chemistry.') Mr. Johnson, in his book On Pel'tilizers, states, that his experiments with saltpetre were principally confined to grass both on a gravelly and chalky soil, in which the growth of the crop was always materially increased. He also remarked, that when spread at the rate of 2 cwts. per acre on horse-radish beds, the growth of this root was considerably improved. Mr. Johnson further states that he was first led to try the effect of saltpetre on the horse-radish from having experienced considerable difficulty in making it grow luxuriantly, and from observing that, like the nettle, sunflower, &c., it always flourished best in rich patches near to old walls, stable-yards, &c., in which soil saltpetre is invariably to be found. Silicate of Potash and Soda.—If finely powdered silica be mixed with the carbonate of potash or soda, and exposed to a strong heat, they melt and form glass. Though common glass is insoluble in water, yet if the proportion of alkali be increased, a perfectly soluble compound may be produced, which is a silicate of potash or soda, according to the alkali employed. On account of the silica in the silicates of potash and soda existing in a soluble state, it was supposed that they would prove particularly beneficial to corn and grass crops by supplying them with silica. The results of various experiments, made by M r. Lawes and others, do not justify these expectations. In some cases an increase of produce has taken place; but it is probable that this was more owing to the alkali contained in the silicates than to the silica itself. Soda.—This is usually found in the ashes of plants in less quantities than potash, and in most soils and manures the salts of soda are found in sufficient amount to supply the wants of vegeta-62 GARDENER'S ASSISTANT. tiou. Hence the salts of soda are of much less value as manures than the salts of potash. In places distant from the sea, the amount of soda in the soil is in some eases so far diminished as to be insufficient to satisfy the demands of plants; the application of soda in some form accordingly becomes necessary. Soda is supplied to the soil by animal and vegetable manures, kelp, and wood ashes, and by means of various of its salts. The principal salts used for this purpose are the sulphate, nitrate, and silicate of soda, and chloride of sodium or common salt. Sulphate of Soda, or Glauber's Salt, as it is commonly called, has been successfully used in many cases, at the rate of 2 cwts. per acre, as a manure; whilst in others its effects have proved unsatisfactory, probably because the soil already contained a sufficient amount of soda. Sulphate of soda may prove beneficial by supplying plants with sulphur as well as soda. Nitrate of Soda, commonly called cubic petre, or cubic nitre, is found native in large quantities in South America, and is used to a considerable extent as a manure. The similarity in the effects of this and other nitrates, to those produced by ammonia, has been already alluded to, as well as the action of nitrates in general. Nitrate of soda has been successfully applied at the rate of 1 cwt. per acre as a top-dressing to grass. In some experiments made by Professor Solly in the garden of the Horticultural Society at Chiswick, nitrate of soda was applied as a topdressing at the rate of 3 cwts. per acre to potatoes, and the effects were only inferior to those produced by muriate of ammonia. The respective results are exhibited in the following table:— Manure. Whole produce. Tubers. Large Tubers. Whole llaulm. tons. cwts. lbs. tons. cwts. lbs. cwts. lbs. None 11 7 109 10 4 105 0 89 Phosphate of ammonia, IS 2 6 11 16 78 9 0 Sulphate of ammonia,. 14 9 105 13 6 101 8 27 Common salt 15 2 72 13 IS o ii 85 Nitrate of soda 15 9 89 14 1 22 10 36 Muriate of ammonia,.. 17 1 75 16 15 7 15 77 The plants in the beds manured with nitrate of soda ami ammoniacal salts were alike characterized throughout by their more vigorous growth and rich dark green foliage; and this is always a result from the use of ammoniacal manures, of which the effects can be readily seen at a distance. In another experiment on pease, in which ten other manures were employed, nitrate of soda produced the least effect, muriate of ammonia the greatest. The produce of ripe seed and straw per aci'e was as follows;— Manure. Seed. Straw. tons. cwts. lbs. cwts. lbs. Nitrate of soda, 0 16 54 13 57 No manure, 1 1 104 16 54 Muriate of ammonia, 1 2 61 17 98 Nitrate of soda has been found particularly beneficial to grain crops; in some cases the produce has been nearly doubled after its use; in others, the results have been less successful. It is probable that the beneficial effects produced by nitrate of soda are more to be attributed to the nitrogen than the soda which it affords. Common Salt.—Chloride of sodium, or muriate of soda, as it is sometimes, though incorrectly, called, is a compound of one equivalent of chlorine united with one of sodium. When pure, 100 parts of salt contain 3t)(>0 parts of sodium, and G0‘34 parts of chlorine. Commercial salt, however, generally contains a considerable amount of impurities, the principal of which are sulphate of lime, the chlorides of calcium and magnesium, and sulphate of magnesia. Common salt has been long applied as a manure; ami in moderate quantities, and on certain soils and situations, its use has been attended with very beneficial effects. It is well known that salt, when used in large quantities, proves destructive to vegetation; accordingly, strong solu tions of salt are frequently employed for the purpose of destroying weeds. But it is also known that the application of a quantity of salt, which proves beneficial to one kind of plant, will be injurious to another. After the inundation of Friesland by the sea in 1825, the oak, mulberry, pear, peach, ami other deep-rooting trees, were not injured, neither were asparagus, onions, and celery; but apricots, apples, cherries, poplars, anil willows merely pushed out a few leaves, and soon afterwards perished. A series of experiments was made by Dr. Voelcker as to the amount of salt which various plants will bear without injury; the summary of the results of these experiments we quote from an article by that gentleman in Morton’s Cyclopedia of Agriculture:— “ 1. Salt solutions, containing 3 grs. of salt per imperial pint, or 6 grs., 12 grs., and even 24 grs. of salt per pint, produced no injurious effects on cabbages, field beans, onions, lentils, duckweed (Stellaria media), groundsel (Senecio vulgaris), thistle (Cardims pratensis), annual meadow-grass (Port annua), and radishes, which were regularly watered with these solutions during two months. “ Plants of Antho.vanthum odoratum (sweet-scented vernal), were killed by a solution containing 24 grains of salt per pint, after the lapse of one month.MANURES. 63 “ 2. Such weak solutions appeared to benefit most plants experimented upon, especially cabbages, ratfishes, and lentils. All had a fresher and more luxuriant appearance than those watered with rain-water only. The lentils which were watered with a salt solution containing 24 grains per pint, were nearly one-half larger in size than those wittered with 6 grains of salt to the pint, and these again appeared more vigorous than the lentils which received no salt at all. “3. Salt solutions, containing 48 grains of salt, exercised a prejudicial effect in the course of a month on lentils, chickweed, groundsel, and the a mi ual meadow-grass. “They had no injurious effects on cabbages, field beans, onions, radishes, and thistles. “ 4. Salt solutions, containing 96 grains of salt per pint, exercised an injurious effect upon cabbages and field beans; but did not injure onions, radishes, and thistles, regularly watered with such solutions during twro months. “ 5. Cabbages will continue to grow, though sickly, wdien watered regularly during a month with a salt solution, containing 192 grains of salt per pint, and even when watered with a solution containing 384 grains of salt per pint. “6. A solution of salt containing 192 grains per pint proved now prejudicial to onions regularly watered with it during one month. “7. A solution containing 24 grains of salt to the pint decidedly benefited radishes, onions, lentils, and cabbages. “ 8. Grasses are affected by salt more readily than any other of the plants experimented upon. “ 9. Bulbous plants, and plants with succulent leaves, are especially benefited by the application of salt. “ Many of the plants, in these experiments, had taken up so large a quantity of salt, that they tasted quite saline; but, notwithstanding this, they grew healthily. This evidently shows that salt, in a moderately diluted solution, can be taken up by many plauts without exercising a pernicious effect.” In the garden, salt is advantageously employed to prevent worm-casts on lawns; for this purpose it may be used at the rate of from 6 to 10 bushels per acre. Strong solutions of salt are likewise commonly used for the destruction of weeds on walks. As a manure for onions, turnips, carrots, beans, lettuce, cabbage, parsnips, potatoes, and beet, salt has been successfully employed. Asparagus, which grows naturally near the sea, is greatly benefited by the application of salt, and as much as 20 lbs. to the rod have been used without the slightest injury to the plants. Indeed, salt is a necessary addition to the soil wherever marine plants, or such as naturally grow near the sea, are cultivated. In very small quantities, salt has been applied with good effects to hyacinths and other bidbs, also to carnations. The soils to which the application of salt proves most beneficial are those which contain it only in small quantities, or which are at a considerable distance from the sea. Soils in which natural deposits of salt exist, and land situated near the sea, and which is exposed to sea-breezes, always contain a sufficient quantity of salt, and to such soils its further addition will not only prove useless, but positively injurious. In consequence of the evaporation from the sea, the clouds formed above it always contain more or less salt; and these clouds passing a long distance inland, condense, and the salt is brought down with the rain. On this account, in islands and countries situated near the sea, salt is always of less value as a fertilizer than elsewhere. The quantity of salt per acre that may be used with safety must necessarily vary according to the soil and the kind of plant which is to be grown on it; but, in general, from 5 to 10 bushels may be considered a safe application, always provided, however, that the soil does not already contain it in sufficient quantity. Salt is generally used as a top-dressing, and sown by hand, in which way its more even distribution is insured; it may also be advantageously mixed with earth and lime, or with soot or other manures. When salt is mixed with moist earth and lime, a considerable quantity of carbonate of soda and chloride of calcium is produced, owing to the salt being partially decomposed, the chlorine of a part of the salt uniting with the lime, whilst carbonic acid supplies its place, forming carbonate of soda. This having the property of combining with silica, and rendering it soluble, may prove beneficial to plants, by supplying them with that essential article of their food. It is probable that the beneficial effects resulting from the application of salt may be in some measure due to this decomposition taking place in the Boil, and to the consequent formation of a soluble compound of silica, namely, one of the silicates of soda. Salt, likewise, is found as such in nearly all plants: part of its fertilizing action is therefore to be attributed to its supplying plants with this article of their food. Besides this, salt acts as a source of soda, and probably also of chlorine Kelp is the ash obtained by burning sea-weeds, and contains a large quantity of potash and soda; hence it was formerly the source from which carbonate of soda was obtained; but this is now64 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. extracted from common salt, which has superseded kelp for the purpose. The composition of kelp from Rona aud Ileisker is exhibited in the following analyses by Dr. Ure:— Rona. Heisker. Carbonate of soda,.......... 1 gg gg Sulphuret of sodium,........ ' Sulphate of soda,............... 190 80 Chlorides of sodium and pot-1 g^g gg- assium,....................) Carbonate of lime,.............. 100 240 Sulphate of lime,................ 95 Alumina aud oxide of iron,.... 100 90 Silica,........................... — 80 Sulphur aud loss,................ 85 60 1000 1000 —(Solly’s Rural Chemistry.) From the above analyses it appears that kelp contains many of the inorganic substances required by plants for their food. The beneficial action of kelp is chiefly due to the supply of potash, soda, and sulphuric acid which it affords. Some sorts of kelp contain a small amount of phosphoric acid; when this is the case, their fertilizing effects must be greatly increased. Kelp is generally applied to the greatest advantage together with organic manure; and where circumstances will permit, it is better to use sea-weed in its fresh state, than to make it into kelp, for in that process the valuable organic matter is destroyed. CHAPTER VII. TOOLS, INSTRUMENTS, MACHINES, &c., USED IN GARDENS. Many of the tools used in gardens are so familiar to almost every one, that a mere enumeration of them might be considered sufficient; yet the difference between a good and a bad one, both being employed for the same purpose, is of great importance. The spade is one of the most commonly used implements, and it is not perhaps too much to say, that with one of the modern improved kinds, a man could do, with the same exertion, 10 per cent, more work than he could with the comparatively dull-working kinds formerly in use. But besides the advantage from more work being performed, it is always the case, that with a well adapted tool of a superior description, the work is also better done. O11 this account, tools that are very common are, never- theless, noticed, in order to point out the good properties which they ought to possess. 1.—TOOLS. Fig. 51. Spades.—Of all tools employed in gardening, the spade is the most essential. With it alone most kitchen garden crops could be obtained, and plantations of fruit and forest trees could be formed. If a gardener were limited to the choice of only one implement, that which he would retain as the most useful would be the spade. The English spade has long been justly considered as the best in the world; anti it was thought that the utmost perfection in its manufacture had been attained. Great improvements luive, however, been effected of late years. In Lyndon’s patent (Fig. 51), the face of the spade consists of a thin and exceedingly hard layer of steel, the back is comparatively soft; and as it wears from the steel facing, the latter forms a sharp edge. Shovels. — These being broader and lighter than the spade, and having the edges turned up, are better adapted for moving loose soil, gravel, or sand. The handle should have an upward bend, less stooping being then required in using the tool. Lyndon’s Spade. Picks.—There are several varieties of these, some having pointed, others cutting ends. As they are used for penetrating and loosening hard soils or gravel, or for cutting roots among sandy or stony particles, these implements require to have their ends well steeled and tempered. The Common Pick has both ends pointed, and is curved, the curve nearly corresponding with the segment of a circle, of which the radius is somewhat greater than that of the curve described by the pick in making a stroke. The Pickaxe is pointed at one end like the common pick; but the other end is wedge-shaped, and sharpened so as to cut roots of trees, &c., like an axe. The cutting edge is in the direction of the handle. Another form of pick, sometimes called a Mattock or planter's mattock, has one eud pointed, and the other flattened, the edge being transverse, or at right angles to the direction of the handle. The length of the head may be from 24 to 30 inches, that of the handle about 3 feet, and the breadth of the flattened eud from 3 to 4 inches;TOOLS, INSTRUMENTS, AND MACHINES. 65 or by relaying, it may easily be made wider, if the work to which it may be applied render such desirable. This kind of pick is perhaps the most useful, and if only one sort were allowed, this should be preferi'ed. Mattock or Grubbing Axe.-—This is brought to a thin wedge shape at both ends; but one edge is in the direction of the handle, and the other transverse to it; so that it combines the two previously described implements as regards the direction of the edges, but has not the pointed end which they each possess for penetrating among hard compact substances. It is, however, well adapted for grubbing up trees; with the flat end facing the operator, the roots may be uncovered, undermined, and sometimes more conveniently cut, than with the opposite end. When well made it is a most efficient tool for cutting and splitting, and may be used for many purposes. The Hoe-axe, also called a grubbing axe or mattock, is somewhat similar in its structure and application to that of the transversely flattened end of the preceding implement. It is like a long narrow hoe, but strongly made, and is fixed on a longer handle than that of the pick, and may be employed for cutting up bushes, &c. The Pickfork (Fig. 52), also known as the Canterbury hoe, is useful for looseniug the soil when it has become hardened from the effects of rain and sun. By means of the fork end the surface may be broken up, and when this is too hard, or when clods have to be broken, the mattock end may beemployed; it is also useful for loosening the subsoil to the proper level, where it would otherwise form hard banks over which the water could not pass with a regular slope, and would consequently lodge injuriously in the softer parts. Drags are small three-pronged implements, like the lower paid of Fig. 52, but much lighter. They are used instead of hoes for loosening the soil among vegetable crops in the market gardens near London, and they answer well for this purpose. Drags of a larger size, with two or three prongs, and louger, called dung drags, are employed for hauling out dung from carts and heaps. The prongs are round or flattish, according to the substance they are intended to penetrate or clutch. Rakes.—A set of iron-headed rakes of different sizes are required. The length of the head may be about 16 inches for ground that is either un- cropped, or occupied with plants widely apart. The sizes may diminish by 2 inches in the length of the heads, so that the latter may be respectively 14, 12, 10, 8, 6, 4. The last will be convenient for raking between crops sown in rows, and for using between plants in flower gardens. In the latter case, raking by drawing the teeth along the surface between the plants is frequently not so much required as a kind of chopping, so that the teeth may break down the clods. It is a great mistake to use a rake that merely passes between the plants; for when this is the case, the implement cannot be freely plied, and consequently the work can neither be so well nor so quickly performed. When the teeth of iron rakes are driven into the head-bar through merely a square punched hole, and then clenched above, they are apt to break off level with the under side of the bar. The liability to this is, however, greatly diminished by forming a shoulder on the tooth to fit a slight counter-sink made in the under side. Rakes are sometimes secured to the handle by a prong which is driven into the iron-ferruled end of the handle. The soil, however, is apt to adhere about the lower end of the handle. It is therefore better that the handle should taper into a neat socket, the upper side of which is formed into a strap. Rakes with cylindrical wooden heads, into which iron teeth are driven, are occasionally used for smoothing the surface of beds for seeds. Wooden rakes, the same as the common hay-rake, are required for raking off grass and leaves. Others, of a similar description, but made with greater care, and with teeth of tough hard wood, may be sometimes employed with advantage in light soils, instead of iron rakes. Being much larger but lighter than the latter, they can be more easily drawn over a surface of greater extent. Wooden rakes, with short close teeth, may be made to take off short grass from lawns so cleanly as sometimes to render sweeping unnecessary. The Daisy-rake (Fig. 53) has broad teeth, sharp Fig. 53. Daisy-rake. on both edges; it is employed for removing the flowers of daisies and other plants from lawns. Forks are employed in gardens for stirring the 56G GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. soil, turning dung and tan, and for various other purposes. Parkes’ steel digging forks (Figs. 54 and 55) are superior to all others for stirring the soil; and this they do so effectually, that they are in many cases substituted for the spade. These forks may also be used for turning tan, and for taking up certain crops. The prongs are made of steel, they are elastic, and taper to a point; and the whole weight of the fork part does not exceed 5 lbs. It is made with three, foui’, or five prongs, and of various sizes. The dung-fork has three prongs; it is necessary for turning and removing dung and litter, and for shifting and turning dung lill- Parked Steel Digging Forks. o o fork, the large size of the tines tearing them asunder. We consider this fork to be superior to any other for collecting leaves, and it deserves to be better known and more generally adopted. Hoes.—Of these there is a great variety of forms and sizes adapted for introduction among plants requiring to be grown at greater or less distances; also for light and heavy soils, for drawing furrows or drills, thinning crops, stirring the soil between the plants, and for earthing up, &c. Some of these are draw-hoes, others thrust, and a form combining both modes of operation has been used. Draw-hoes have generally been made with a short neck and circular eye, through which the handle is fixed; but the latter is now preferably inserted in a socket, which is connected witli the blade by a solid neck more or less curved, as in Fig. 57. Fig. 54. Fig. 55. A small short-handled fork with three prongs (Fig. 56) is employed in pits and frames; it may also be used for taking up roots, and in weeding. A fork for leaves, which is very useful wherever any great quan- FiS- 5*>-tity of these is to be collected, as from extensive shrubberies, was invented by Mr. Toward, when gardener to her Majesty at Osborne. Mr. Toward states that one person with this implement will take up with greater facility more leaves, than two persons could do with any other tool that he has seen used for the purpose. Mr. Toward describes Tan-fork, it as being a large four-tined fork, made of wood shod with iron; the tines are 18 inches long, and are mortised into a head about 17 inches long and li inch by 2J inches thick. The tines are 1 inch in width and 1^ inch in deptli at the head, gradually tapering to a point, with a curve or bend upwards. The wood of which they are formed ought to be hard and tough, either oak or ash will do; but the Robinia Pseud-acacia, or locust-tree, is preferable to either. The head should be made of ash, with a T-handle of the same, and should be 2 feet 4 inches long. Its recommendations are its size and lightness; the leaves also do not hang upon it as on a common Fig. 57. This is a great impi-ovement; for the soil does not clog the iron neck as it does the wood, the latter .affording a larger surface; and, besides, soil of an adhesive nature is compacted in the angle between the blade and the handle; but where there is no such angle, as is the case with the crane-neck, the soil cannot hold on. The blades of hoes should be made of steel plates, which can now be shut, that is, welded on iron necks, a process formerly reckoned difficult, if not impossible. The length of the plates for the largest need not exceed 9 inches; hoes for onions, &c., are required as small as 2 inches, and the Spanish or Vernon hoe (Fig. 58) is pointed. Some have the upper corners slightly rounded; others are made semicircular, or nearly so, and are called half-moon shaped. The less, however, the line of draught by the handle is raised above the edge, the steadier will be the cut, and the less easily will the implement be turned aside. Therefore, it is better that the plate should be a segment less than a semicircle. Hoes of a triangular form are used for drawing drills, andTOOLS, INSTRUMENTS, AND MACHINES. 67 sometimes for tliis purpose the implement is made like a hollow trowel, the convex side being towards the handle. An improvement in these consists in the convex side having an edge turned horizontally forward so as to cut without the soil filling up the groove as the implement is drawn along. The Dutch or thrust hoes are useful for cutting down weeds, and for very shallow work on an even surface; but they are not so good as the draw-hoe when the ground is stiff and lumpy. The Dutch hoe can also be used to a considerable extent without going out of the alleys, so that the ground is not trodden as it is in using the draw-hoe. But for light work, and in flower-gardens, these hoes are most useful. They should be kept very sharp, and then seed weeds can be clean cut over. A hoe combining the actions of the thrust and draw hoes has been used; the plate has a cutting edge back and front. The handle is placed so that when raised by the man to the most convenient height for operating, the plate lies flat on the ground. Above this height the handle must, however, be raised when the implement has to be pushed forward, in order that the fore-edge may enter below the surface. After being pushed forward, the handle must be depressed below the most advantageous position for working a draw-lme, in order that the back edge may get hold of the soil. This alternate raising and lowering of the handle not only occasions a loss of time, but also a loss of power, in consequence of the handle being moved out of the position most advantageous for the workman, when making either a thrust or draw. Turf-spades may be much more advantageously used for cutting turf than the common spade. The sort which appears to answer the purpose | best lias a heart-shaped blade and a bent handle. , Before using this tool, however, the turf must be | cut into strips by a turf-raser. Some turf-spades [ have one edge of the blade turned up, and made | quite sharp, so that the turf may be cut and raised j at the same time. Turf-raser.—A very simple form of this is j found to answer exceedingly well in the hands of those who cut turf for lawns in the neighbourhood of London. It is merely a stick bent at the end, where a straight knife blade or cutter is inserted. The bent part forms a sole, which is pushed along the surface by a line, whilst the j blade cuts the turf to a uniform depth. Wheel ! verge-cutters are also used for cutting turf into strips, and this they do with great rapidity. Edging-irons or Verge-cutters.—A good simple form of these (Fig. 59) consists of a crescent- Fig. 51). shaped steel blade fixed by a socket to a wooden handle. This sort of verge-cutter is better adapted for the outlines of small figures than any other, as its action is more immediately guided by the hand. Where there are many segments of circles to be cut out, and intricate curves, it will often be the surest and most expeditious pi tin to cut out the figures in thin board, and then trace them with powdered chalk on the smoothed surface of the ground. The wheel verge-cutter consists of a circular blade of steel, with a very sharp edge, and turning upon an axle fixed in a handle. When blunted, the blade, however, is very difficult to sharpen. Turf-scraper.—In lawns where ants abound, and where their hills or where worm-casts require to be taken off’, a long light scraper of wood or iron, such as that used for roads, may be usefully employed. Dibbers.—These are generally made of the upper part of old spade handles. Being made of hard wood, they are sometimes used without beiug shod; but where these implements are extensively used, the whole of the cylindrical part is sheathed in steel. This maintains a more polished surface than iron, and therefore perforates with less friction. Formerly a little at the point only was shod, and in some conditions of the soil this is preferable. For example, when the soil is adhesive, the metal leaves u polish on the sides of the hole, which, if dry weather set in, prevents the roots from penetrating so freely as they would when the wood leaves the sides of the hole rougher or more porous. A piece of wood knee’d or bent at right angles at the top, to form a handle, is sometimes used. For inserting cuttings, small rounded tapering pieces of wood are employed. Dibbling, though an advantageous mode of transplanting in point of expedition, is open to some objections. In it the roots are all crowded together in a narrow hole, instead of being spread out in the directions which they naturally take; when thrust in, they are often reversed or made to turn upwards; the mere act of inserting the dibber renders the soil at the sides of the hole more compact than it is elsewhere, and when the soil is heavy, or not in good working order, this is unfavourable to the spreading of the roots.68 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. The Potato-dibber is adapted for making a hole sufficiently large for allowing the set to drop to a proper depth. It has a cross handle at top, which can be grasped with both hands, and a projecting piece of iron or wood, serving as a tread for the foot to press the dibber into the ground. The tread might be made so that it could be shifted, and fixed higher or lower, ac* cording as the hole requires to be made of greater or less depth. Garden Trowel.—The common garden trowel below the handle and neck is like the curved portion of the section of a cone. It is now made of steel, united to a curved iron neck. It is used for many purposes, but chiefly for taking up plants and replanting them, with balls of earth adhering. It is superior to the dibber, for by the latter the roots are crowded and pressed together; but by tlie trowel a hole can be made to admit of the roots being spread out. The Turf-beetle is a flat oblong piece of wood, used for levelling and consolidating newly laid turf. It may be formed of a portion of 3-inch deal, secured from splitting by two iron plates, and having a handle inserted in the upper side. But this is often done in a manner very disadvantageous for the workman, and for effect on the turf. This is chiefly owing to the handle being fixed too upright, so that when raised up and brought down, it strikes on its heel or the edge nearest the workman, instead of pressing equally on the turf with its whole under surface. The handle should therefore be fixed at a sufficiently acute angle with the sole of the beetle, to admit of the latter being1 easily brought down flat. Rammers are frequently required for ramming the earth about posts, tree-guards, &c., and for consolidating turf and gravel. They are generally made of wood, in the form of the base part of a cone, and have an upright stem, into which two handles are inserted for lifting. Rammers with cast-iron heads are also sometimes fern ployed. Rollers.—A heavy cast-iron roller is required for broad walks, gravel areas, and for lawns. In flower-gardens, or where the walks are narrow, or their turnings intricate, a narrow roller must be employed. Iron rollers are now frequently made with the cylinder in two parts, revolving separately on the axis, to facilitate turning without disfiguring the walk, which rollers in one piece are more apt to do when it is necessary to take a fresh direction, especially one at a l ight angle, or less, to that previously traversed. A light wooden roller is used in the kitchen garden for rolling the ground when sown with onions, &c. Brooms.—Those used for sweeping lawns, walks, &c., are generally made of birch twigs. They are tougher and last much longer when the birch is cut early in winter, or before the sap rises. They should therefore be made, or procured from the makers, before this takes place, and should be kept in a moderately dry, airy place, wdiere they will not be liable to mould. Transplanters are sometimes used instead of the trowel or spade, in removing plants of small size with a ball. Two semi-cylindrical plates of iron with handles, and fastened together, so that they may be separated at pleasure, may be employed for the purpose. The mode of using this instrument is very simple. The plant to be raised is inclosed by the cylinder, which is formed by the two pieces; this cylinder is then pressed or worked into the soil, and bn being pulled up by the handle, it brings up the plant together with the earth surrounding it. The transplanter is placed in the hole prepared for the plant, the fastenings are removed, and the sides withdrawn, the soil being pressed round the ball at the same time to prevent its breaking. In this way a plant may be removed at any period of its growth without injury resulting to it from the operation. There are various other transplanters, mostly modifications of the preceding; some consist of a cylinder for raising the plant, fitting into a bottom, to prevein the earth from falling awav; others have blades, which, after having been forced into the ground, may be tightly closed by means of handles upon the soil surrounding the plant. The above transplanters are only adapted for lifting plants of small size. They are not much used in gardens, the trowel and spade being generally substituted for them. The contrivances employed in removing plants of large size will be adverted to in the chapter on transplanting. Suckerina Iron.—One that answers well for removing suckers from gooseberries, currants, or other trees, is represented in Fig. 60. It consists of a chisel-like steeled blade, 6 inches long, inches broad at the edge, and ljj inch at the shoulder, where it t&pers to a straight round iron shank, the upper part of which forms a socket for the insertion of a wooden handle. The length from the edge of the tool to the top of the socket is 34 inches, and from that to the top of the wooden handle 10 inches, the whole length being 3 feet 8 inches. The edge is usually straight, and Fig. 60. \ / 1 Suckeriug Iron.TOOLS, INSTRUMENTS, AND MACHINES. 69 is apt to slip past the sucker; but the figure represents an improvement made by Mr. Thornton, of Turnham Green, the edge being concave. The Dock-weeder is employed for taking up such deep tap-rooted weeds as docks; it consists of an iron blade, with two prongs fixed in a handle, like that of a spade; a curved piece of iron on the back serves as a fulcrum; and in some forms of the implement a projecting knob answers the same purpose. Crowbar.—The usual form of this is a round straight bar of iron, with a pommel top; the bar is thickened a little towards the lower end, near which it is square, and then tapers to a point. It is useful for making holes for stakes; and being sometimes made flattish and wedge-shaped at the end, it is occasionally employed as a lever for loosening the soil below trees that are to be removed. For large stakes the lower part of the bar is formed like a short inverted pyramid, and the whole implement is not longer than admits of its being struck on the top with a sledgehammer or heavy mall. Hammer.—The principal use of a hammer is ! gardening is for nailing wall-trees. For this purpose the head should be rounded to serve as a fulcrum in drawing nails, and in this operation the claws should hold the nails without slipping, a property which too many of the hammers used i for the purpose only possess in a slight degree, j The head also should not be too long, otherwise, in drawing nails, it is apt to bruise adjoining branches, where these happen to be close together. Mallet.—This is necessary when branches are to be cut off by the chisel, or where that instrument is employed to smooth the place where branches have been cut off by the saw. Different sizes are required for driving stakes and other purposes. Large ones ought to be secured by an iron hoop round each end. Pincers are requisite for drawing nails, and other purposes. When the lid of a packing-box is taken off, the nails can be readily taken out by means of the pincers and hammer, without breaking off the points of the nails, or bending them so that they cannot be drawn without tearing the wood. If the nail projecting through the under side of the lid be firmly grasped with the pincers, say half-way between the point of the I nail and the under side of the board, and the opposite side of the board near the head of the nail be struck with the hammer, the former will be driven up so that the pincers can lay hold of it. All the nails being successivel y drawn in this manner, the board or lid will be fit for being again nailed on when required. Pliers are occasionally required for drawing and twisting wire, and for this the blades, where they approach each other, should be flat. Cutting pliers are very convenient, being adapted not only for drawing and twisting, but also for cutting wire. The Screw-driver is necessary in a garden, chiefly for screwing down and unscrewing the lids of boxes; and it is indispensable wherever screws are employed for other occasional purposes. The Implement-cleaner is a small wooden spatula, used for cleaning spades and other implements. It is indispensable in working adhesive soils, where the tools become clogged. It may be formed out of a bit of thin deal by the workman, and of any form that he may prefer. II.—CUTTING INSTRUMENTS. Knives of various kinds are required in gardens, for pruning, budding, grafting, and other purposes. The Pruning Knife is the best instrument that can be employed for pruning trees and shrubs; besides which, it may be used for a variety of other purposes. Pruning-knives are made of various forms; the blade in some kinds is made with a joint, so as to fold in; and in others it is fixed immovably in the handle, and kept in a pasteboard sheath when not in use. Knives with folding blades possess the advantage of being more portable, and are therefore more convenient for occasional use; whilst, on the other hand, those with fixed blades are more steady in their action; and when constant pruning is carried on, are preferable. The handle should be made of buck’s-horn, the rough surface of which prevents the hand from slipping^ With regard to the shape of the blade, some prefer blades with straight edges; others those the edges of which are more or less curved. For removing small shoots a straight-edged blade is preferred, for a cleaner cut is produced; but where branches are to be cut off, a curved blade can be used with greater effect. A pruning-knife, like the one represented in Fig 61, which has been selected from a great variety of patterns, manufactured by Messrs. Saynor and Prunimr Knife.70 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Cooke, of Sheffield, we consider preferable to all others for general pruning and other purposes. It has a slightly curved blade of well-tempered steel, and a considerable portion of the edge is straight, being only a little curved near the point. This is an advantage; for in drawing the cut, the pressure against the wood diminishes as the cutting part is moved further from the handle, and this is in a great measure compensated by the curve near the extremity of the blade. The Grafting Knife (Fig. 62) has a thinner and narrower blade than the pruning knife, which, however, may frequently be substituted for it. The Budding Knife is made in various forms. The blade is generally either straight-edged or curved backwards towards the point. The handle, Kg. 62. Fig. 63. which is made of ivory, is usually rounded and thinned off at the end, in order that it may be used for raising up the bark. The end of the handle is sometimes made heart-shaped, and this form admits of the bark being raised with greater facility. Instead of the handle being thinned at the end, some knives have a common handle, and a small piece of ivory which folds in for the same purpose. Figs. 63 and 64 represent good forms of budding knives. The Vegetable Knife has a larger and more curved blade than the pruning knife. It is chiefly employed for cutting vegetables and dressing off their rough leaves. Shears are required in gardens for clipping grass edgings, hedges, and for pruning. Hedge Shears. — A good form of these is represented in Fig. 65. The dimensions are as follows:-—The length of the blades, from the pivot to their extremities, is 10^ inches; the breadth of each is 2 inches. The length of the handles is 12 inches; and when the blades are placed level, the under part of the extremity of the handle is 3 inches above that level. About lj inch of the edge Hedge Shear#. next the pivot is formed circular and convex in the one blade, and correspondingly concave in the other. This admits of branches being grasped and easily cut from being near the fulcrum, and is therefore very convenient for cutting snags, or branches that may be occasionally met with, and which prove too thick for being otherwise laid hold of, except at too great a distance from the fulcrum or pivot to have a sufficient purchase, J'arrot-bill Shears are employed for grasping and cutting stronger branches than can be done with the ordinary hedge shears. They are made Fig. 65.TOOLS, INSTRUMENTS, AND MACHINES. 71 with or without a slide space at the pivot, as seen in Figs. 66 and 67. They should be fixed into strong wooden handles about 3 feet in length, and broadly ferruled where the prongs are inserted. Grass-edging Shears.—-Some kinds of these are furnished with a small wheel to run along close by the edge of the grass; but the form represented in Fig. 68 is less complicated, and is, on the whole, probably best adapted for general use. This kind of shears was formerly made with the handles at right angles to the blades; but the handles should form with the edges of the blades an angle of 110°, being 20° wider than a right angle; or the top of the handle, nearly 3 feet in length, will be about 11 inches back from the perpendicular. The axis or pin on which the blades turn should have a smoothly rounded head next the edging, that is on the left-hand side. The other end of the axis should have a screw and nut with a washer; or there may be two thin nuts worked hard against each other, to prevent their being turned by the movement of the blades. It is necessary that the end of the screw should be on the right-hand side, otherwise it would catch against the edging. Pruning Shears.—There are various sizes of these, according to the greater or less thickness of the shoots or small branches to be cut off. The pruning shears shown in Figs. 69 and 70 are employed for the removal of the shoots of fruit-trees; and the centres being movable, they produce a draw cut like a knife, instead of a crashing cut like that of the common shears. The shears represented in Fig. 71 are useful for pruning gooseberries, currants, roses, and Fig. 09. Fig. 70. other plants. They are very strong and effective; and being made without a slide, are not liable to get out of order. The Averruncator (Fig. 72) is used for the purpose of pruning standard trees, the branches of which are mostly situated at a considerable elevation. There are several forms of this instrument, differing sligh tly from the ] preceding; but they all consist of two bladi es, one of which is fixed to i i handle, and the other is moved by a level ■, to which a cor d, passing over a pulley is attached. By meal is of an aver runcator, branches more1 than an inch in diameter, and at the height of 12 or 15 feet from the ground, may be cut off72 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. without using either a ladder or steps; and if these are employed, branches at a much greater height may be removed. The Secateur (Fig. 73) is an installment much used in France for removing superfiu- Fig. 74. ous shoots, and even branches of some size. It is much more expeditious than the pruning- Bill-liooks. Sgcm tours. knife, well adapted for summer pruning, and extremely useful for shortening one-year old shoots. There are various forms of the secateur. In some the pivot is fixed; in others, it slides. One of the latest modifications of the instrument is shown in Fig. 74. Both blades are flat, sharp, and straight-edged, so that the extremities of shoots nailed to a wall may easily be cut off without bruising the bark or taking out the nails. In another form a coiled spring is used, and in one is a notch at the back of the blade, forming there a kind of par- Fis- ^5. rot-bill, for cutting wire. 6'rape Scissors (Fig. 75) are used for thinning out the berries of the bunches of grapes. They should have small tapering points; but not too sharp, otherwise it is impossible to introduce them among the grapes without pricking some of the berries not to be removed. The Axe.—One of a convenient size is useful for many garden purposes, such as sharpening stakes; and a large one, with a handle long enough to be used with both hands, Grape Scissors, is required for felling trees. The Hedge Bill or Pruning Bill. — This instrument is employed for dressing the sides of Hedges. It is a slightly curved blade, attached to a handle about 4 feet long. Whilst the blade is applied in a direction corresponding with that of the side of the Fig- 76. Fig. 77. hedge, the handle deviates so far as to permit the operator to stand clear of the hedge. The Bill-hoolc (Figs. 76 and 77) is used instead of the axe for cutting hedges and lopping branches, sharpening stakes, fagoting, and wherever the wood to be cut is of small diameter. Chisels.—These are used for various horticultural purposes, for which different kinds are adapted. Some are similar to the carpenter’s chisel, and are used for cutting off branches too strong for the knife, and situated where the saw could not work; and also for smoothing the cuts made by the saw or other instrument. Chisels, with handles 10, 20, or even 30 feet in length, are occasionally employed for pruning; some are of the usual form, others have one or two reflexed ears for cutting, by pulling downwards any torn strip of wood or bark. When the handle is very long it requires to be made of sufficient thickness to prevent it from bending. It has therefore a considerable weight, and consequently its inertia offers much resistance to the blow, and would almost entirely counteract even a smart blow from a small mallet; one as large as can be properly wielded will be found most effective in this case. Long-handled chisels are very useful in pruning, especially for removing one of two competing leaders, in trees that are intended to be grown with single straight stems. The Grafting Chisel is not flat on one side, and bevelled to an edge on the other, like the carpenter’s chisel, but tapers on both sides, like a wedge. It is, in fact, used as a sharp wedge for splitting the stems or branches of trees, so as to admit of the graft being inserted—a mode of grafting by no means to be recommended; for the old wood, when once separated, never heals. Scythe.—The usual form of scythe-blade answers for lawns, provided the neck is set with the handle to take in a wider sweep, and it should also be turned up so that the under side of the blade may be nearly flat with the surface of the ground. When worked by a person in the easiest position for making the sweep, the back should be close on the ground, whilst the edge should be slightlyTOOLS, INSTRUMENTS, AND MACHINES. 73 elevated. The common bent handles are as good as any, if not the best. Much depends on the placing of the two projecting handles for the grasp; their distance from the heel, and from each other, should be so regulated, that the blade, when lifted up clear off the ground, will balance parallel to the surface. Boyd’s Self-adjusting Scythe has a piece of iron, 4 or 5 inches in length, attached lengthwise to the under side of the handle. To the end of this another piece of iron is jointed, so that it may be moved out or in horizontally, and be secured at any required angle by a nut and screw. The heel of the scythe is made with an eye, and is secured to the end of the piece of iron last mentioned, so that the edge of the scythe can be set higher or lower without the assistance of the blacksmith. The two joints are equivalent to a universal joint, and, in short, this is the principle of the invention. There was some difficulty in securing the screw at the heel so as not to permit shifting. A ratchet and key was therefore added, to prevent the scythe from moving outwards on the joint. The facility with which this kind of scythe can be adjusted renders it very convenient, and more especially so for those who do not understand the setting of a scythe by the ring and wedge. In sharpening a scythe, the stone should be drawn almost flatly along the under side, so that the edge may not be turned up; the upper side should be more bevelled. The Asparagus Knife (Fig. 78) has a serrated blade, with a long iron shank fixed in a wooden Fig. 78. Asparagus Knife. handle. The blade should be made of hard-tem-tempered steel. In using it, a little soil is removed with the blade from the side of the shoot, in order to discover the direction of the latter; the blade is then pushed down somewhat slanting, and the shoot is cut, or rather sawed off, near its base. In doing this, care must be taken not to injure the crown of the plant, nor other shoots that may be coming up. Saws are required for various purposes in gardens and plantations; and accordingly several kinds are necessary. A cross-cut saw is required for cutting down trees; and for large limbs the saws used by carpenters will answer, only the teeth may require to be wider set if the wood is soft and full of sap. Pruning saws are most required for ordinary pruning; they are employed for cutting off smaller branches than the preced- ing, and not being so broad, are better adapted for cutting close to the fork of branches, or where a broader plate could not be introduced. The kind called turning saivs (Fig. 79), such as are Fig. 79. used for cutting out circular spaces in boards, answer exceedingly well, and being made of the clippings taken off in cutting out other saws, they are not expensive. In some cases, pruning saws with the teeth set with their cutting edges in the direction of the handle, so as to cut by drawing, instead of by pushing forward, are of use, for these can be attached to a long pole handle, in order to reach high branches. In such cases, a saw with the teeth set in the usual way would be apt to warp or break at every thrust; but one adapted to cut by drawing is not liable to this inconvenience. Before saws used in pruning are laid aside, they should, in the first place, be perfectly cleaned from all juice, or other adhesive substance, that may collect upon their surface. They should then be well dried and oiled. They will also work more easily, and cut more expeditiously, and with less danger of breaking, if cleaned and oiled occasionally when in use. Fruit and Floioer Gatherers.—Of these there are several kinds. For gathering fruit situated at a considerable height, the averruncator, with a netattached, may be employed. The grape gatherer (Fig. 80) is useful for gathering grapeB and other fruit, as well as flowers which are situated beyond the reach of the arm. It consists of a pair of scissors constructed on the principle of the wire-worker’s pliers, so as to cut and hold at the same time. The scissors are kept open by a spring, and attached to a light handle. Previously to usiug the instrument, the collar is pushed up to the knob, and the spring causes the cutting part to open. By pulling the collar down by means of the cord attached to it, the blades are closed, the stalk is cut through, and the part cut off is held securely.74 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. There are several other kinds of fruit gatherers adapted for gathering peaches, pears, and other fruits; but the hand is the most expeditious fruit gatherer we have, and it does not bruise the fruit if due care be taken. HI.—INSTRUMENTS USED IN LAYING OUT GROUND LINES. Garden Line and Reel.—A garden line should be made of good materials, otherwise it soon gives way in stretching; but however good at first, a line will soon decay if rolled closely up when wet. It should therefore be wound on a reel, which not only permits the line to dry more speedily than when closely rolled up, but also facilitates its being readily extended and recoiled. The reel has usually an upright pin, near one end of the upper cross-bar, for turning the reel; but this projection should turn within a handle, and not be fixed in it. When taken up or let out by turning the reel, the line, in either case, is neither twisted nor untwisted in the operation; but if wound by hand on the reel, the line will be twisted either more or less than it was before; so that the strands of which the line is composed are alternately opened and closed, and it consequently loses on each occasion much of its original compactness and strength. If a line be tightly stretched when dry, and allowed to get wet without being slackened, it will either snap, owing to the contraction which takes place in twisted fibi’e when wetted, or it will be injured from the overstrain. When a line rests on the ground, its weight does not affect the straight-ness of the tracing; but when stretched and supported only between two points, with the intention of indicating a straight line between them, the line should combine strength with lightness, as, for instance, small whip-cord. The Chain is indispensable where land, walks, or roads have to be measured, and it is always desirable that there should be one in a garden, at least if it is of considerable extent. The one commonly employed, and which is used by surveyors, is called Gunter’s chain. It consists of 100 links, each of which is 7’92 inches in length, consequently the whole length of the chain is 06 feet, = 22 yards, or 4 poles. The long links should be connected by short oval ones, for these are not so apt to stretch as round links. If an oval link should be compressed, its length will still be much the same; but if a ring be at all compressed so as to alter its form, it must assume an oval shape, and consequently the chain will be too long. Chains should be verified, and all bent links made straight with a wooden mallet. One great advantage of using the chain consists in the facility with which areas calculated in links may be reduced to acres; for as there are 100,000 square links in an acre, we have only to point off five figures to the right, and the equivalent area in acres and decimals of an acre is obtained; thus, if the area be 118,960 links, by pointing off the five last figures we have IT8960 acre. Accompanying the chain are ten small arrows, about 15 inches in length, the use of which is to mark the termination of each chain’s length. A staff having been set up to show the direction of the line to be measured, a person, called the leader, takes one end of the chain, holding at the same time the ten arrows in his hand, and proceeds in a straight line towards the staff. The other end of the chain is held by the surveyor, who directs the leader till the chain is stretched in a straight line in the direction of the staff. When this is done, the leader fixes an arrow in the ground at the end of the chain, and again starts off till another chain’s length is measured, the chain is then directed and stretched, and an arrow fixed in the ground as before. The surveyor picks up the first arrow, which he retains, and continues picking up the arrows as the measurement progresses: when the surveyor holds ten arrows, they are returned to the leader, and the circumstance noted. The leader then starts afresh, and the measurement is continued in the same way till the whole distance has been measured. Each change is then counted as 1000 links, every arrow the surveyor holds in his hand as 100 links, and to this are added any links that there may be over; the sum will be the length of the line in links. Thus, if there have been two changes, and the surveyor hold five arrows, and there be 13 links more, the length of the line measured will be 2513 links. Measuring-rods.—Without measures of some sort, there could be no regularity in gardens; walks and borders could not be lined off to their proper width; the ground could not be portioned out for the different crops; nor could trees, &c., be planted at proper distances, without some metrical instrument. Two thin rods, such as are used by surveyors, would be useful for very particular dimensions; but for common use in the open ground, they would be liable to be broken in carrying along with other implements. A 10-feet rod, of clean, well-seasoned deal, about lj inch square in the middle, but tapered at each end to less than an inch square, may, for common purposes, be substituted. A copper fastening should be put round each end, to prevent splitting and wearing. When tapered so that the ends are lightened, theTOOLS, INSTRUMENTS, AND MACHINES. 75 rod will neither bend nor readily break; but it cannot be used as a straight-edge, which is sometimes required. A rod may therefore be made l J, inch broad, with parallel straight edges, and | inch thick in the middle, but thinner at each end. It is often necessary to measure ground work and garden allotments by the pole or perch. For this purpose, a measuring-rod, 16'i~ feet in length, divided into 100 parts, will be found exceedingly convenient; for the length in rods and parts set down as decimals, has only to be multiplied by the breadth set down in a like manner, and the area is at once obtained in rods and decimals of a rod. Stakes. — For marking out lines for walks, boundaries, and divisions, stakes are necessary, and may be reckoned amongst the first requisites for the laying out of gardens. They are, in fact, necessary on many occasions, as when plantations, edgings, and lines have to be made out afresh. Stakes for these purposes should be made of clean, well-seasoned deal; they should be 6 feet in length, 1 inch square, quite straight, and the lower end regularly pointed. When not in use, they should be kept in a dry place, strapped together in bundles, ready to take out whenever they are wanted. If thus taken care of, a set will last for a great number of years, and the first cost will be little compared with the loss of time in searching after and preparing such as can be hastily obtained on every occasion that stakes are indispensable. The above description of stake will be found useful where ground has to be levelled, as both the original and intended surface lines can be relatively marked on them. But before the ground work is commenced, a shorter and stouter description of stake should be employed, so that it will bear to be driven in so firmly as not to be easily moved whilst the work is going on. Borning-rods,-*-These usually consist of three straight rods of equal length, each with a crosspiece at right angles across the top. They are used for determining points that shall be either in a horizontal or uniformly inclined plane. For example, supposing the edging of a walk is required to run straight between two fixed points; then, if we place a borning-rod on each of these points, and another anywhere between, by looking over the top of one at either end, we may direct the person holding the intermediate rod to raise or lower it, as the case may be, till it is seen to be in a line with that at the further end. For ordinary purposes, the above construction of rods will answer tolerably well; but in using them, an imperfection is experienced, which may, how- ever, be easily remedied. In looking over their tops, a fringing of the rays of light on the edges prevents the latter from being exactly seen. The following construction is therefore recommended. Instead of the three cross-pieces being of the same width and height, one of them should be about an inch broader and higher than the others, j If two have their upper edges, say 4 feet from | the bottom of the rod, the upper edge of the ! other may be 4 feet 1 inch; but a line should be j drawn exactly at 4 feet. A very small hole should be pierced through the cross-piece, to form j a sight; the sides of the hole should be smooth and blackened, as should likewise be the crosspiece, but not varnished. The hole should not be wider than would admit a small pin. On looking through it, the top of the intermediate rod can be easily and much more correctly placed in line with the top of the further rod, than by looking over the tops of the three. Usually three persons are employed in striking either a level line or regular slope between two points, or one person for each rod. The one between the two extremities is directed by one of the others to raise or lower the ground till his rod is seen to be in line. A number of intermediate points have usually to be determined in the same way. Instead, however, of three men being occupied, one will be sufficient with the above improvement! after an intermediate ]>oint has been ascertained. At that point a stake or rod should be placed with a card fixed across, with its upper edge in line with those at the extremities. Having obtained three fixed points, a workman can then raise or lower a rod till he find it in line with two of those pi’eviously ascertained. By using the rod with the sight hole, he will also be able to work with greater exactness. Ground Compasses.—These may be occasionally used very conveniently in making geometrical flower gardens. They are constructed on the same principle as the common compasses, with the segment gauge used by mechanics. The lege are made of hard wood, 5 or 6 feet in length, and shod with iron. Instead of a segment, a straight plate of sheet-iron, about li inch broad, may be used, with a space cut out along the middle, through which the end of a fixed screw on each leg may pass; then by means of two thumbscrews, the legs can be secured at any required distance apart. In many cases where the above may be employed to describe circles, or circular parts, a sort of beam compasses may be substituted. Such may be formed of a piece of inch thick deal board, 2^ inches wide, and 10 feet in76 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. length, with a slit along the middle to within about 6 inches of each end, to admit of a screw i inch in diameter passing through and along. There should be two screws, their lower ends being pointed. The length of each screw may be 18 inches, and each should be furnished with two nuts and two washers. Supposing it may be required to have the beam raised about 6 inches above the points, in order to clear any inequalities of surface which it may have to pass over, screw up the nuts, so that the under side of the beam may rest upon them at the above height; then screw down the nuts on the upper side of the beam, but only one of them tightly, until the other screw is moved along the slit, so that the points may be at the required distance apart; and when this is ascertained to be the case, let the other nut be likewise screwed down, in order that a line may be traced without the points being moved from the true distance in the course of the operation. As this instrument can be adjusted so that the points may be securely fixed at any width, within certain limits, and as the beam can be raised more or less, it may be used as a gauge for the breadth of walks, or other distances between two points. The Plummet may be very usefully employed in placing objects correctly upright, such as posts, stakes, and trees. The plummet should be formed with a conical point, and this point should be exactly in the line of suspension, so that when the coixl suspending the plummet is held in line with a row of stakes, for instance, the point will touch or indicate the spot where another stake should be driven. The common straight-edge and plummet used by builders will seldom be required by gardeners, for whom a plummet and line will generally be sufficient. With such it is easy to determine whether a tree or other object is placed upright or not, for this can readily be done by suspending the plummet at nearly arm’s length, and observing whether the object coincides with the plummet line. If it do, then the object is perpendicular as regards that point of View, By moving so as to view the object from a different point, if in a direction at right angles to the former, so much the better, and again observing the object vdth reference to the perpendicular line, it will be seen whether it is upright, and if not so, in what direction, and how far, it will be requisite to move it. In planting trees with stems more or less crooked, they should be placed so that equal portions may be seen on each side of the plummet line. Levels.—Wherever walks, roads, or drains are to be made, or indeed whenever grounds are to be laid out, a level is indispensable. Though the surface of the ground may, to all appearance, be quite level, yet it will often be found, when the level is used, to slope considerably. We know of a case where a person, deceived by an apparently level surface, made a drain of considerable length and dimensions, affording, as he thought, a sufficient fall for the water. No level was used. The drain, of brick-work, was completed and covered in; but in a short time it was found that it would notact: it was not level—in fact, the fall was in the wrong direction, and the water of course would not run up hill. The consequence was, that the drain had to be taken up, its bottom sloped in the right direction, and the whole work to be done over again. This, of course, was at a great additional expense, which might have been saved had a level been employed. Again, in gardens—not in those made a hundred years ago only—it is not unusual to see walks intended to be level, or to be of a uniform slope, high in one part of their length and low in another. This not only looks bad, but in wet weather the water collects in the hollows, and frequently renders such walks unfit for being walked upon. Where walks run near the bases of walls, or other buildings, where there are long horizontal lines, nothing can look more unsightly than an uneven walk; for all its irregularities are made more apparent by the horizontal lines of the building. Walks so situated sliotdd never be made without the aid of a level. There are many different kinds of levels. The common level (Fig. 81), used by bricklayers and carpenters, is well known; it merely consists of a straight bar of wood, with another bar placed at right angles to it, and from the centre of which is suspended a plumb-bob and line. The level seen in Fig. 82 is used not only for forming a horizontal surface, but also for ascertaining whether an object is trulyTOOLS, INSTRUMENTS, AND MACHINES. Foot Level. perpendicular or not. The artillery foot-level (Fig. 83) has a line and plummet, and a scale of 90° between the two legs. When F‘S-S3- the plummet hangs in the middle of the scale, the feet rest on a level surface, otherwise one foot must be raised, and the degree of acclivity or of descent will be shown on the scale by the line. The above kinds of level are very useful in the garden whenever any building operations are carried on, or in laying down paving, &c.; and even for ground work, when it is of small extent, or when it is to be left to the execution of those who cannot use the spirit-level. But wherever long horizontal, or uniformly sloping lines, are to be formed, the spirit-level is by far the best and most expeditious. The spirit-level, in its most simple form, merely consists of a glass tube filled with spirits of wine, except a small space which is occupied with air. The bubble of air being lighter than the spirit rises to the highest part of the tube, and when the latter is in a horizontal position, the bubble of air will be in the middle, if the tube is a true cylinder. These tubes, not mounted in any way, may be had for one shilling each. The usual form of mounting in brass, or in wood faced with brass, except over the tube, is well known. They are now frequently bedded in a straight-edge board, several feet in length, and are thus used by builders and others, instead of the more cumbersome plumb-level. A straight-edge board, say 5 or 6 feet in length, 4 niches broad, and 1 inch thick, with a spirit-tube bedded in the upper edge, will be found very useful in gardens. For example, in making walks, and having one edging level, the other side can be readily brought to a corresponding level by levelling across. For taking extensive and important levels, to a high degree of accuracy, the theodolite, or other expensive instruments, combining in their construction the action of the spirit-level, are required. An instrument of the following construction will, however, answer all ordinary purposes, and may be constructed at a small expense. For this a tripod stand is necessary; it may be formed of a piece of hard wood, 2 inches thick; on the face of this describe a circle 8 inches in diameter, cut away the wood on the outside of the circle, except as much as will form three projections, each 1 inch broad, and 1^ inch long; and three smaller semicircular ones in the intervals I of the larger. The legs should be cleft or sawed I to about half-way down, where they should be j well secured from further division by a ferrule. I Each of the clefts is then fitted to grasp one of the larger projections, and pins are passed through and screwed, to connect the legs with the top; J but so that the former may be easily moved. A cup-sliaped cavity should be formed in the centre of the under side of the top, to fit which a ball should be screwed upon the end of a rod; this rod will form a vertical axis, and must pass j through a hole in the top sufficiently large to allow it to play a little from side to side. The screw-thread should be continued nearly to a shoulder, formed about 2 inches above the surface of the top of the stand. Against this shoulder a circular board, | inch thick, plated with iron or brass, should be screwed up tightly with a nut. The top of the axis above this shoulder should be conical, and care should be taken that it be perpendicular to the plane of the board last-mentioned. Three screws should ]>ass through the circular projections intermediate with those to which the legs are attached; and their conical poiuts should act against the under side of the circle, so that by screwing up one, and at the same time slackening another, the circle-board can be put in a horizontal position, and consequently the axis will be perpendicular. Another circle should be made of the same diameter as the preceding; and in its centre a hollow cone should fit the conical top of the axis, so that the j upper circle may be turned round horizontally, and a tube fixed upon it cau be directed to any ! particular point. This tube may be about 18 inches long, and about the thickness of a gun-barrel. One end should have small cross wires; the other should be closed with a piece of black j metal, with a very small hole in the centre to ! form a sight. A horizontal axis should be made perfectly cylindrical at the ends, but formed in the middle like a hoop, within which the tube, at about half way from each end, should be secured. By means of two uprights fixed on the upper board, at equal distances from its centra,' with their tops formed for the ends of the axis j to turn in, the tube may be directed higher or lower. The spirit-tube being attached, will indicate the level; and that the sight-tube with the cross wires may be nicely adjusted, so as to bring the bubble in the middle of the spirit-tube, -two screws should be attached to the former, the end of one resting on the plane of the circle near I one edge, and that of the other near the opposite edge. By turning these screws, the tube may be : raised or depressed at pleasure. The upper circle78 GARDENER'S ASSISTANT. bearing the tube, and turning on the upper end of the vertical axis, should be clamped to the fixed board under it, when the instrument is about to be removed. A level of the above description may be made by any one possessed of a little ingenuity, at a very trifling cost; and it will be found to answer perfectly well for all garden purposes, when the great nicety of the more expensive instruments used by surveyors is not required. IV.—MACHINES. Barrows are amongst the first requisites in every garden. The common garden barrow is too well known to need description. A barrow of a different shape (Fig. 84) is used in the market gardens about London. The sides and handles Eig. 84. Whet^-hirrow. are each formed of one piece of board, generally elm, 4)? feet in length, and 1 foot broad, except where it is cut away on the under side to form a handle, and a little rounded off the upper corner in front. The sides are about 17 inches apart at bottom, and 21 inches at top; the ends 14 inches apart at bottom, and 27 at top, where the edges of the sides intersect. The back and front ends project 2 or 3 inches above the sides, into which they are mortised. The front projects forward 10 inches from the square, and the end next the handles 3 inches backwards. A barrow of this construction has rather a primitive appearance; but the wheel being near the handles, it can be turned in small compass. This, and its narrow form, adapt it for being used between the rows of gooseberries, currants, &c., where also its contents may easily be emptied over the sloping front. The navigator’s barrow is best adapted for excavating, or other work where planks are required. The wheel is narrow, and made entirely of cast-iron. This being the case, little soil adheres to it. In wet weather, and with clayey soil, wheeling on planks with a broad wheel would be almost impracticable; but the narrow wheel of the navigator’s barrow, whilst it has less surface for adhesive substances to stick to, readily cuts its way through them to the plank. From its wide shallow form, it can be much more easily loaded and emptied than barrows with deeper and more upright sides. The Water-barrow (Fig. 85) has handles which ^0 Fis-85- Water barrow. are continuations of the two sides: their extreme length is 5 feet 3 inches; they are 5 feet from the holes through which the axle passes to their other extremity. The breadth from outside to outside is 20 inches at the wheel, and 24 inches at the handle. The wheel is 18 inches in diameter, and the legs are of such a length as to admit of the barrow standing level. The sides are connected by four cross-bars, the edge next the wheel of the first being 11 inches from the centre of the axle, and the edge of the fourth, or that next the handles, 37 inches from the same centre. A shouldered upright rod from each side supports the head bar, part of which forms a segment of a circle to fit the side of the cask; and two round wooden stays extend each from near the middle of the head to the sides, into the upper side of which they are inserted. These may be iron instead of wood. The first and third bars, reckoning from the iron uprights, are level with the sides, and are plated with iron, as is likewise the intermediate upper part of each side. The second and fourth bars are not plated, and are a little below the level of the others. The handles curve upwards from the fourth bar to the extent of 3^ inches from that bar. The legs are attached at between 30 and 33 inches from the axle; they are shod with iron, extended to form stays attached to the under part of each side. The length of this barrow is greater than may seem necessary, seeing that the base of a tub or barrel that will hold as much as a man can wheel, does not occupy much of that length. It can, however, be proved that a barrow for wheeling water should be long; supposing that the tub is quite filled, and in moving it, as it rests level on the barrow, the handles be lifted up say 8 inches, the tub will then be on an inclined plane of 8 inches in 5 feet, aud a certain quantity of theTOOLS, INSTRUMENTS, AND MACHINES. 79 water would consequently run over. But if the tub were to be wheeled on a barrow with the handles only 2-Jr feet from the axle, and let these be raised only to the same height, 8 inches, as before, yet the inclination would be doubled, and so likewise the overflow of water. The level of the water in the tub is affected by every inequality of surface over which the wheel passes; but it is less disturbed when the handles are long than when they are short. To prevent the water from being jerked over in wheeling, a wicker float is frequently employed, and it is found to answer better than a piece of board. When not employed in wheeling tubs of water, a barrow of this kind may be used for vegetables, litter, baskets, or anything that will not fall through the spaces between the cross-bars of the bottom. Fig. 8t> represents a long barrow employed in the market gardens near London, for wheeling vegetables from the grounds to the packing-yard; also baskets with fruit, for which it is well adapted, for twelve or more of those termed half-sieves can be conveyed on one of this description. Hand-barroics.-—A simple form may consist of two bearers, with a flat boarding; but for many garden purposes one of the following description will be found very suitable. The length of its sides, tapered at the ends to form handles, is 7 feet 4 inches, the length of the box part is 39 inches, the depth 2 inches, the width at bottom 23 inches, at top 24 inches, the sides are thinned a little towards the upper edge on the inside; where this is not the case their thickness is 1| inch; their whole breadth is 5 inches. The bottom boards extend lengthwise, and are left a little apart, to admit of water passing through; they are f inch thick, and are supported on three bars mortised into the sides. The legs, extending from the upper edge of the sides, are 15 inches in length; they are bolted to the sides by an iron rod, passing from side to side, immediately under the bottom, and higher up each is secured to the end board by a nutted screw, which is flattened after passing through the leg and side, so as to form a strap, which, extending about 6 inches along the end inside, is secured to that part. The corners may also be clamped or strapped with irou. This hand-barrow is well adapted for carrying heavy pots with plants. Hand-barrow for Carrying Fruit.—Very choice fruits of apples and pears' Should not be heaped above each other in taking them from the trees to the fruit-room. It is therefore desirable to have a barrow that will hold a considerable quantity in a single layer. One of the following construction (Fig. 87) has been found very suitable Fig. 87. Fruit Hand-barrow. for the purpose. The box part is 4 feet 7 inches long, by 2 feet 2 inches, inside measure; or outside, the length of this part is equal to twice the width; the bottom for the fruit has therefore an area of 10 square feet. The depth is 4 inches; the length, from one extremity of the handles to the other, is 7jr feet. The handles are continuations of the same piece of wood which forms the respective sides. The bottom is supported by two bars of wood, dove-tailed and screwed into the under edge of the sides, which extend the thickness of these bars, or about lj; inch, below the bottom. These bars are 17 inches apart. There is also at each end an iron rod, which passes close under the bottom for its support, through the sides and legs, which it lightly connects at that part. Higher up, the sides are screwed to the ends; the screw passes through the side to catch the nut; but its other end is flattened into a strap, which is secured by screws to the end. The legs, from the top of the sides to the ground, are about 15 inches long. The bottom of such a barrow, when fruit is to be carried in it, should be lined with straw and a mat; two or more layers of the less choice sorts of fruit may be carried safely enough, provided a double mat be interposed between each. Fumigators are used for fumigating plants infested by green-fly and other aphides. If in houses or pits these should be shut up. If a single plant in a house, or one growing out of doors, is to be freed from insects by fumigation, it should be covered with a cloth, well wetted, to prevent the escape of the smoke. The tobacco having been ignited, the mouth of the apparatus is introduced through an opening in the cloth for the purpose. After allowing the house to be shut up for the night, the plants should be well80 GARDENEll’S ASSISTANT. syringed next morning, in order to cleanse the leaves of the acrid substance deposited by the condensation of the smoke, and to remove such of the insects as have only been stupified. If the plants have not been completely freed of the insects by the operation, it must be repeated. There are several kinds of fumigators, some of which may also be used for dusting plants with lime or snuff. Dean's Fumigator (Fig. 88) is one of the best, and is found very efficient where large houses Fig. SS. have to be fumigated. The tobacco or other fumigating material is placed in a hopper connected by a tube with a chamber in which are fanners, and these, being worked by a wheel and band, drive out a large volume of smoke in a short time. Broicn's Fumigator is worked by cog-wheels, and also answers well. With either a house may be fumigated from the outside. A common mode of fumigating is to make a hole in the side of a flower pot, near the bottom, so that the nozzle of a pair of bellows can be introduced. A little live coal is put into the bottom of the pot, then the tobacco, and over this some damp moss. By this arrangement, and gently blowing, slow combustion is produced; for if tobacco is burned rapidly by too free access of air, the narcotic principle is in a great measure destroyed. x\ppleby's Fumigator, consisting of an iron pan with a perforated lid, and intended for use with tobacco paper, is as simple as the ilower pot, cheap, and more convenient. Sulphurator.—Since the attacks of mildew on the vine and other plants have become so prevalent, and as flowers of sulphur is the best known remedy, sulphurators have become very necessary. Accordingly, various kinds have been invented, some working with a wheel, on the principle of a fan, others like the bellows. Fig. 89 represents one which answers exceedingly well. The boards forming the sides of the bellows are 7 inches in diameter, forming two-thirds of a circle round the flap opening, then tapering to the place where the nozzle is fixed on the wood. The upper board is cut across, the leather covering over the cut forming the hinge for allowing the board to move up and down. On the upper side of the tube is a circular tin box, 3 inches in diameter, and 2?,- inches deep, for holding sulphur', which, on being introduced, and the lid fitted on, passes through holes in the bottom of the box and upper side of the tube, from the interior of which it is expelled by the action of the bellows. On the under side will be observed a thin spring strap, bearing at its further extremity a piece of iron which strikes against the tin tube as the bellows is worked, and shakes the sulphur into the tube when it would otherwise not pass through the holes. The boards are made of thiu hard wood about T40-inch thick. The leather is also very Fig. SO. thin and exceedingly pliable, and to this must be ascribed the superiority in extent of blast which this small apparatus possesses over those of larger dimensions, but with thicker leather. The above is a cheap, convenient, and easily worked apparatus. It also economizes the sulphur, by finely distributing the particles; and, on the whole, is greatly to be preferred to those machines which throw out the sulphur in irregular volumes, and which cannot be controlled to give a well distributed slight dose when such is required. The wheel machines are not so manageable for garden purposes, for which reason they need not be further noticed. Mowing Machines are now in most places employed instead of the scythe, except where the surface is very uneven. The different kinds of lawn-mowers will be noticed in treating on the flower-garden and pleasure grounds. Syringes are essentially necessary in most gardens; they are indispensable where there are glass structures for plants and forcing; and in small gardens they may be substituted to some extent for the garden engine, as regards fruit-trees. There are now many kinds of syringes, generally of good construction. The simple form was a straight tube with a piston, by which, however, the water could only be drawn up through the rose on the end, and consequently, when the perforations were fine, the cylinder could not be speedily filled This, though cheaper than the improved ones in the first instance, is not so economical in the long run, owing to the loss of time in charging.TOOLS, INSTRUMENTS, AND MACHINES. 81 Read's Patent Syringe, Fig. 90, is a great improvement; for, ho-\vever fine may be the rose used, the water can be readily drawn up. This is owing to the water being chiefly admitted Fig. 90. Head’s Syringe. through a nozzle, in the neck of which a ball valve is caged. When the piston is drawn up, the ball is raised sufficiently to admit plenty of water; and when the piston is pressed down, the ball is driven forward and closes the nozzle, so that the water can only pass out though the perforations of the rose. In short the water is chiefly drawn in through the nozzle by an opening about T4,7 inch diameter, and is expelled by as many as thirty openings, each of which, in a rather finely perforated rose, would only admit a small pin. By steadily drawing up the piston it will be closely followed by the water, from the latter having free ingress, and on this account more water can be thrown out in the same time, than in the case of the simple form, in which the ingress is limited. Read’s syringe has another good principle, which tends greatly to easy working, and the prevention of the escape of water. In the centre of the top which screws on the cylinder, there is a stuffing-box through which the piston-rod works, but with this arrangement air could not escape when the piston-rod is drawn up; nevertheless, it being necessary that it should do so, there is a hole near the top, and in some of the newest instruments a small tube attached and turned downwards, by means of which a free communication for the egress of air when the piston is drawn up, and for ingress when it is pushed down, is maintained. The syringe is furnished with roses of different degrees of fineness, as seen in Fig. 90, A and b, or with a single tube when it is requisite to force out the water in one unbroken stream. By means of an angle branch, which may be attached to the syringe, the stream of water may be delivered in any direction, so that the under sides of leaves, &c., may be washed. In using syringes, great care should be taken not to indent their sides by dashing them against the edge of the watering-pot, or by placing them where they are apt to roll off, and fall upon a hard substance. It should be remembered, that a single indentation renders the cylinder no longer a true one, and then the piston cannot fit accurately. To prevent injuries so apt to occur to the cylinder, unless great care be taken, syringes have been made with an outside cylinder, leaving a small cavity between it and the inner one; if this outside case should be accidentally indented, it is immaterial to the working of the apparatus, so long as the inner one remains unaffected. There are various other kinds of syringes, but we consider Read’s to be the best, and the cheapest in the long run. Watering Engines.—Of these there are several kinds used in gardens, some being hand-engines, and others barrow-engines. They are now made to act on the principle of the force-pump, that is, | a cylinder or pump barrel is fitted with a piston; on this being drawn up a vacuum is produced, and the water in which the lower end of the cylinder is immersed, is pressed upon by the atmosphere and driven up into the cylinder, which is thus filled with water as far as the piston is raised. A valve at the bottom of the pump barrel prevents the water from returning into the tank. A communication with a side vessel is closed by a valve at its base, and the side vessel ia closed air-tight round a tube reaching nearly to its bottom. On the piston being pressed down the water forces open the valve of the adjoining vessel, in which it consequently rises by every downward stroke of the piston, and covens the lower end of the tube. When this takes place, the free egress of the air in the top of the vessel is cut off, and it is compressed as the water is forced in from the barrel through the valve below. But the water itself is equally pressed upon by the elasticity of the compressed air, which acts like a spring till it regains its natural spaoe; and so long as this is not attained, the water will be constantly forced up into the tube, and be dig-charged in a continuous stream, or streams, according as it is allowed to escape at to]) through a single pipe, or through the perforations of a rose. We have thought it necessary to endeavour to explain the principle of these pneumatic engines, and it may be well to give some idea of the force which may be exerted by’ means of the above arrangement; for, in ignorance of this, certain parts are often torn to pieces. By means of the leverage afforded by the handle, a man pressing upon the latter with a weight equal to 10 lbs., may communicate to the piston a pressure of 100 lbs. on the inch, and this pressure will be communicated to every square inch of the interior of the pipe, should any obstruction prevent the discharge of the water. On a portion of a pipe 1 inch in diameter and 12 inches in length, the pressure would therefore amount to 3770 lbs. This shows that the machinist should make the tubes very strong, and that the person who uses82 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. the engine should not urge the piston too much, when he has cause to suspect that some obstruction has taken place. Hannay and Dietrichsen’s garden engine (Fig. 91) has several important advantages over some Fig. 91. others. It is easily worked, not liable to get out of order, and with one wheel, it is very portable, and can be readily turned in small space. The air-vessel is a hollow cast-iron sphere, through the centre of which the piston barrel is fixed, and also the upright part of the discharge pipe. The piston has a double action. There are three ball valves, by means of which water is admitted in moving the piston either up or down; so that with a short stroke, as much water is pumped in as would otherwise be the case with twice the length of stroke. A cast-iron bridge is surmounted by the fulcrum for the leverage of the handle, and this fulcrum is an axle working in brass collars, the handle being fixed on a square in the middle of the axis. This works very smoothly, and is .a great improvement on the former mode of leverage, according to which the fulcrum was attached at the front of the engine, and the lever to the piston-road at a point between the fulcrum and the hand, by iron pins; these soon got worn and acquired too much room, making a clacking noise at every movement of the handle up or down. The tank of the engine in question is made of copper, or of galvanized iron; or it may be made of wood, which is better than the galvanized ii'on. If the latter, or copper, form the cistern, the bottom of it is bolted by screws to inch-and-quarter board below. The cistern is supported by the legs, and by the irons which extend so as to form bearings for the ends of the axle. The manufacture of this engine is said to have been discontinued, but it should not be, for we have known one in constant use for upwards of twenty years. v.—UTENSILS. Pots.—These are generally made of clay, a certain quantity of which is called a cast. This is formed into from one to eighty pots, according to their size. The dimensions of the pots made in London and its vicinity are as follows:— Name. Number to the cast. Diameter at top. Depth. Twos, or 18-inch, 2 Inches. 18 Indies. 14 Fours, or 15-inch, 4 15 13 Sixes, or 13-inch, 6 13 12 Eights, or 12-inch, 8 12 11 Twelves, or 11-inch, 12 111 10 Sixteens, or 9-inch, 1G 9 1 9 Twenty-fours, or 8-inch, 24 8 h 8 Thhrty-twos, or 0-inch,... 32 6 6 Forty-eights, or 5-inch,.. 48 4A 5 Sixties, or 3-inch, 60 3 3.' Eighties, or thumbs, 80 2A 2? The dimensions of pots vary, however, considerably, according to the locality and the particular pottery in which the pots are made. The various sizes of garden pots have one prevailing characteristic in their form, which is that of being wider at top than at bottom. This is necessary on account of shifting the plants grown in them; for if the sides were perpendicular, the ball of earth could not be turned out without breaking the pot. Sandy soil, even without roots growing in it, could not by any means be pressed out of an earthenware cylinder, unless a very short one. Hence, it is evident that pots must be made widest at top. Whilst this is admitted, yet the less they taper, so as shifting can be effected, the better; for the pot will then contain more soil for feeding the roots. It may be said, that the same quantity of soil could be insured by making the pot deeper; but in that case the ball of earth must assume a conical shape, and as it shrinks when dry, it would act like a wedge downwards. Then, when saturated, the ball cannot raise itself up, and must consequently be compressed. When again dry, it shrinks and wedges lower, to be again compressed when saturated. Long tapering pots are therefore not to be recommended. Generally, pots of large size are wider than they are deep; and on the contrary, the depth of small-sized pots equals or exceeds their width. It has been a question, whether glazed or unglazed pots are best for plants. The glazed pots have a clean appearance; they do not evaporate so much water as the porous earthenware; and the ball can be more easily turned out in shifting, from the smooth glazed surface than from a rough one. In these respects the glazed potsTOOLS, INSTRUMENTS, AND MACHINES. 83 have some advantages; but these are more than counter-balanced by the higher price. There is also a greater compression of the ball of soil, and consequently a greater cavity between the sides and ball of earth, than in the case of common pots. The price may not be a matter of great importance with some, although in extensive cultivation it would be a consideration. But the glazed surface is objectionable as regards the growth of the plants. In the common pot there is somewhat less cohesion between the soil and the sides of the pot, than there is between the particles of the soil itself. But if this be the case to some extent with soil in contact with the rough material of the common pot, there will be still less cohesion when the soil is in contact with a glazed surface, affording scarcely any hold for the soil. If a substance could be made, to which the soil would have a degree of adherence equal to that which exists amongst its own particles, common rich garden soil might be used in pots, without becoming a hardened mass, as it almost invariably does when employed in that way. Probably no substance capable of being manufactured possesses so much the property of adhesiveness to the soil, as the common pot; whilst the glazed pot possesses the least; and therefore its use cannot be generally recommended. Where the nature of the plant admits of a very fibrous soil, or peat, glazed pots may be used, for in such soil cohesion of the particles is prevented by the fibre. Drainage for the roots of plants being essential, it is usually provided for by one hole in the bottom, or by several smaller ones in that part, and in the side near the base. For large plants, however, pots are now made with one hole in the bottom large enough to admit the end of an upright post, and over this is laid a stout movable bottom without holes. When the plant is to be shifted, the pot is kept upright and placed on the top of the post, and thus the pot is pushed down whilst the ball is not, but remains on the top of the post with the flat circular bottom under it. Besides the common forms, pots are made with double sides, with raised bottoms, also with projecting bases. The double-sided pot has a small opening at top by which the space between the two sides can be filled with water, and thus the withdrawal of moisture from the soil by evaporation from the sides of the pot is prevented. But the same object is usually effected by placing one pot within another of a size or two larger, and stuffing the space between them with moss. The pot with a bottom raised like that of a champagne bottle, is the suggestion of Mr. Rendle, of Plymouth, and is considered useful for propagating. The hollow, cone serves as a hot-air chamber, imparting a genial warmth to the soil in the pot, and so stimulating the vegetative powers of the cuttings placed in it. Draining materials are introduced between the sides of the pot and the cone, in which there are holes to permit the escape of the water. In some particular cases where pots have to be placed where they are apt to be turned over by wind, a projection may be formed so as to increase the base, and proportionally the stability of the pot. This projection may either be of a tripod form, or continuous like the base of a vase. Shallow pots and pans, the latter either square or round, of various sizes, are used in propagating. Earthenware Saucers or Flats are made of different sizes, to suit those of the pots which are placed in them. Glazed saucers for plants in rooms are sometimes made, and are prefei’able because they do not allow the water to pass through and cause damp on whatever they may be set. Some are also made with a short column projecting from the centre, on the top of which a plant in a pot may be placed; the base of this column being surrounded with water, the plant so situated will be safe from all enemies that cannot travel by water or air. A common saucer, in which is placed an inverted flower-pot, or a saucer of a smaller size, bottom upwards, will answer the same purpose as the contrivance just mentioned, and being cheaper, and, when not required, more easily stowed away, it is generally substituted for it. The Blanching Pot is used for blanching sea-kale, rhubarb, &c.; it is an earthenware pot which is made in various shapes, and has a top which may be removed, so that the fitness of the vegetable for use may be ascertained without lifting the whole pot. Frequently, common garden pots, with the hole in the bottom covered with a piece of slate or flat tile, are substituted for blanching pots, and answer the purpose very well. Plant Boxes are used for growing orange-trees and other plants of large size. They should be constructed with movable sides, so that the roots may be examined and the soil renewed when necessary. Wood is the material usually employed in their construction, but slate is also sometimes used. Slate boxes possess the advantages of great durability, and of being easily kept clean and free from insects, to which they do not afford so many lurking places as the wooden ones. The orange-tree boxes used at Versailles are cubical and made of oak; the bottoms are pierced with holes to allow the water to pass away; two84 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. of the sides are fixed, the others are movable; and each of the movable sides is kept in its place by iron bars, one end of which turns on a bolt, whilst the other lies in a hasp, and may be lifted up when the side is to be taken out. These boxes last for fifteen or twenty years, and in them are growing trees 30 feet in height, and 39 inches in circumference, some of which are upwards of three hundred years old. M°Intosli,s plant box (Fig. 92) has a neater Fig. 92. appearance than the preceding; and all its sides being movable, it offers greater facilities for removing the trees, examining their roots, replacing old soil with fresh, &c. Two of the sides being hinged to the bottom, may be opened down by lifting up the iron bars; the others, which are not hinged but lift up, may then be easily removed. Wooden Tubs are used for the same purposes as plant boxes, the latter, however, when they have movable sides are preferable; for the roots of plants grown in tubs can neither be examined, nor the soil renewed, without knocking off the hoops and removing the staves, to replace which the aid of the cooper becomes necessary. Sieves and Screens are useful in gardens for sifting earth and for screening gravel, mould, &c. Sieves with very small meshes are also used for cleaning seeds. Lime Duster.—It is often necessary to scatter newly slaked lime on trees, &c., for the destruction of insects; and as lime in this state is too caustic to be applied directly with the hand, a lime duster is occasionally employed. It is made of tinned iron. Its general form is that of a bottle with a wide neck. The length, exclusive of the handle, is about a foot, and it is about 7 inches in diameter at bottom, which is somewhat convex, and pierced with holes to permit the particles of lime to pass out by shaking. The handle is about 2 inches in diameter and 5 or 6 inches in length, with a cap which is fitted on after the lime has been introduced; or instead of the cap being put on, the end of a long wooden handle may be inserted for the purpose of dusting high trees. Grindstone.—The utility of a grindstone is such, that it is said to be an accompaniment of civilization into the most remote parts of the world. It is almost indispensable in a garden, for when cutting tools are not kept properly sharpened, they can only be used with great disadvantage. In many cases, only half the amount of work can be performed with a blunt tool that can be done more perfectly with a sharp one in the same time and with less exertion. It would be well to have a large stone for spades, hoes, &c., and a smaller one of closer grit for fine-edged tools. Watering-pots are generally made of tinned iron, sometimes of zinc or of copper. When made of copper, they possess the advantage of great durability, but are more expensive in the first instance, and heavier, than those made of tinned iron; besides which they are liable under certain circumstances to communicate poisonous qualities to the water. Zinc is cheap, but not durable. On the whole, stout tinned iron, kept well ]minted, is most to be recommended. For general use in gardens, they are usually painted red, red lead being more durable on metal than perhaps any other paint. Watering-pots are sometimes painted green, or other colours; but the inside should nevertheless be painted red, as well as the outside of the bottom, and its surrounding ledge. When watering-pots require to be fresh painted, the old paint can be entirely removed, and the tinning renewed if it then be seen anywhere corroded; when well washed and thoroughly dried in a temperature above 212°, a fresh coat of paint should be applied. According to the sort of plants to be watered, roses pierced with holes of greater or less size are employed. For plants growing out of doors, the common watering-pot with roses, also of tinned iron, pierced with comparatively large holes, is used. For tender plants, watering-pots of smaller size, with very fine holes, are necessary. These roses should be made of brass or copper, and to screw on and off, so that roses of two or three different degrees of fineness may be used with the same watering-pot. A pot with a long spout, which is bent where the rose is fixed, at right angles, or nearly so. is used for watering plants in pits, or on shelves, at a distance from the operator; this spout may either be fixed or movable; and fitting it, there should be two or three roses pierced with holes of different degrees of fineness.TOOLS, INSTRUMENTS, AND MACHINES. 85 Money's Inverted Rose Watering-pot has a fixed spout, with which is employed a rose delivering the water upwards, so as to let it fall in a gentle shower; there is, in addition, a tube which may be screwed on to the spout, and used with a smaller rose that delivers the water downwards, exactly over the object to be watered. Watering-pots of the above description are well adapted for the use of amateurs, and for watering seedlings and delicate plants. There are several kinds of watering-pots, in which the escape of the water can be prevented at pleasure by the shutting of a valve by means of a spring or some other contrivance; these are generally, howTever, of too complicated a nature for common use. The common form of the watering-pot with a straight rose, for open ground work, and smaller pots, with straight tubes of different lengths, but adapted for having roses either straight or bentnecked fixed upon them, will answer every purpose required of these utensils. By the straightnecked rose, the water can be directed forward; and upwards, downwards, or more or less to either side, by the rose with a bent neck capable of turning round. It is too frequently the case, that the brass screws by which the fine roses are fixed, have the threads too small and shallow, and are consequently liable to be overhauled. The maker should recollect that the screws have to be worked by rougher hands than those accustomed to the use of delicate apparatus. Ladders.—Various kinds of these are required in gardens and orchards. For wall-trees, a step-ladder, with boards for steps, is far preferable to one with rounds. The sides and steps should be made of clean well-seasoned deal, and at the top two iron spurs should be attached to the sides, for the steps to rest on when they are placed against the wall, that the trees may not be injured. The spurs, as well as the steps, should be fixed at an angle of about 85° with the sides, so that when the ladder is inclined against the wall, the i steps and spurs may be horizontal. For pruning standard trees, and for gathering fruit from such, the ladder should have the sides from 2 to 2^ feet apart at the bottom, in order that it may have a good footing sideways, for this is more necessary in ladders, the tops of which have to be placed against the bending branches of trees, than in those that are placed against solid walls. An iron round near the lower end, another in the middle, and one near the top, are very useful for keeping the sides from shifting out or in; the iron rounds should be shouldered against the inner part of the sides, and secured with a screw- nut on the outside. The iron round at top is sometimes made to project on each side, in order to receive the eyed ends of poles, which may be thereto attached, and secured with a pin, to form support independent of the tree. But these projections cause obstructions when the top of the ladder has to be pushed up amongst the branches. It is, therefore, better to dispense with the projecting ends, and have the poles forked at top to catch the iron round. Two forked poles are generally used in Herefordshire as supports to a fruit-gathering ladder. They are readily placed, and more easily carried from place to place when they are separate from the ladder, than if attached to it. Folding-steps are occasionally useful in gardens and hot-houses. Two pairs of them, with a plank between, may be used as a stage in summer-dressing wall-trees. Jointed ladders are required for curvilinear roofs. A piece of board is fixed across the top, to rest upon the bars, and another lower down, if necessary. Ladders have been made for orchard work with two strong supports, connected by iron stays from one support to the other, and from the supports to each side of the ladder; it is thus rendered self-supporting. On the upper sides of this ladder irons are fixed and curved, so as to admit of a second ladder being pushed up between them and the rounds of the one below. The second ladder is secured by a stout iron strap, resembling an S in shape, in one end of which a round of the upper ladder is placed, and the other end of the strap is hooked upon the round next above of the fixed ladder. This contrivance may be usefully employed in some cases; for example, it may be placed near a tree, and without leaning against any of the branches, the upper ladder can be pushed up into the centre of the tree. It is, however, not so easily moved as a common ladder. Baskets.—Several kinds of these are required for carrying vegetables and fruit, and for various other purposes. They are generally made < f willows, and in the finer kinds the willows are peeled. The bark, however, tends to rot the wood, and to occasion mouldiness; so that, in most cases, it would be economical to take it off, even though it occasions more labour in the first instance. Baskets used in England for carrying vegetables are generally those well-known white or peeled willow-baskets, sometimes called cross-handled baskets. In Scotland, baskets for the above purpose have the rim, handle, and ribs made of ash, hazel, or other flexible wood, and these are worked with peeled or unpeeled willows. They are contracted in the middle, and this allows the weight to conxe nearer the centre of86 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. support, so that a load can be more easily carried than in those of an oval form, in which the weight is thrown farther from the arm and side of the bearer, and consequently has a greater leverage. The gathering basket is about 121? inches in diameter at top, at bottom, and 11 inches dee]), inside measure; and it contains about one-third of a heaped bushel. It has a cross-handle, to which a hooked stick is attached by a cord; this serves to hook the basket on a branch, or on a round of the ladder, when gathering orchard fruit; and when employed for the purpose, the basket should be lined with some soft material to prevent the fruit from bruising. On this account a shallow basket would be preferable; but the one described is more convenient for passing between the branches. Baskets in use for fruit and vegetables for the London markets are of various kinds. That called a half-sieve, is a cylindrical basket, from 12 to 12^ inches in diameter, and 6 inches deep. A rim tapering inwards is sometimes added to the top of this sieve, and over this willow caps are fixed, in some cases. The whole resembles a cylinder surmounted by a cone. The half-sieve, when heaped, contains about imperial gallons. A willow basket, called a barge, is used for packing half-sieves in. Its bottom and top are of the same size, the sides are parallel, the ends rounded to fit the curve of the half-sieve basket; its dimensions admit of two of these being placed in the bottom, two above these, and two with caps make a third tier, or in all six half-sieves. The two upper ones are lashed down by a cord passing through handles at the sides and ends of the barge. The packing of the fruit in the half-sieves in the first instance, and again these in the barge, occasions much labour, and on this account baskets called sieves are made to hold as much as two of the half-sieves; others contain a bushel; these not being heaped are placed above each other in a spring van or waggon. Bushel baskets are also made like the inverted frustum of a cone, and about 14^ inches in diameter at top, 10 inches at bottom, and 17 inches deep. Large round baskets, for the carriage of choice fruit, are made of peeled willows, and are somewhat wider at top than at bottom. In order to keep the layers of fruit from pressing upon each other, a ledge is worked with willows about halfway up; when a layer of fruit is packed in the bottom, a flat willow basket-worked partition is placed over it, and this resting on the ledge, admits of another layer of fruit being placed upon it, without pressing upon the fruit below. The lid for covering the top of the basket in question should be convex, and fitted with an oilcloth cover, in order that wet may be thrown off. Deep oval baskets or hampers, more coarsely made than the preceding, are frequently used for the carriage of vegetables. The lids should be convex, for in this form they have greater strength than when flat; besides they admit of the substances being heaped likewise in a convex form above the edge of the hamper, so that when thatched over with some broad kind of leaves, or with grass, the rain will descend towards the outside, instead of lodging among the contents of the basket. Hampers of smaller size are used for packing small plants in pots, and occasionally parcels of fruit. For the latter purpose, the ends of the willows should be carefully trimmed off, otherwise they would injure the fruit; nor should the form of the hamper be long and narrow; for when this is the case, after the sides are lined, there is comparatively little space for holding fruit. The less difference there is between the length, breadth, and depth of any box or basket, the greater will be its contents, in proportion to the area of its surface. Accordingly it will be found that a hamper, say 36 inches long, 10 inches wide, and 6 inches deep, will have 1272 square inches of surface. Another, 17 inches long, 15 inches wide, and 11 inches deep, will have a surface of 1214 I square inches, or somewhat less than the preceding. Although the longer hamper would require more willows to make it, from its greater surface, yet its capacity is only 2160 cubic inches, scarcely a bushel; whilst that of the other, approaching more nearly to a cube in form, contains 2805 cubic inches, or more than lj bushel. This may be usefully borne in mind where capacity is the chief consideration, and where the substances to be packed may be placed above each other without injury. Fruit hampers, 20 inches long, 12 wide, and 8 deep, are found to be a very con veuient form. Punnets ai’e round shallow baskets, made of deal, split very thin. They are much used about London for holding strawberries, plums, peaches, or other fruits, also salading. The deal is first split like laths, the pieces art then steeped in water to give toughness and pliability, when they are again split for working. In doing this, the knife must be entered not in the direction of the annual layers, but at right angles to these, or in the direction of the medullary rays or silver grain, otherwise the wood will not split well. Some thin splints taken off in this way, and about an inch broad, are cut in lengths equal to the intended width of the punnet, and twice its depth.TOOLS, INSTRUMENTS, AND MACHINES. 87 These are laid across each other, so that their extremities may radiate at equal distances. Thinner, narrower, and very pliable strips are then woven in, till a circle, the width of the bottom, is formed. The straight pieces are then bent upwards to form the sides; in some these are quite upright, in others they spread outwards or inwards, when the bottom of one punnet is intended to rest on the top of another. The size, form, and relative dimensions vary according to the purposes for which they ai’e employed. They should always be lined with leaves, paper, or other substances that will prevent the sharp edges of the wood from injuring the fruit, which they are apt to do if it is packed without due precaution being taken. Although so very common about London, this basket has been thus noticed, because it is not known in many parts of the country. Pottles.—These are occasionally made to hold the measure of a pottle, hence their name. Generally, however, they are much smaller, and are chiefly used for holding strawberries and raspberries; but they are certainly not well adapted for the purpose, and are now less employed than formerly. They are made of thin split deal, and of a long tapering form, narrow at bottom, and furnished with a handle over the mouth. Being widest at top, they cannot stand without support, but may be packed in a head-load basket to the number of thirty-six; and in this way chiefly strawberries were taken to the London market previously to the general use of spring-vans for that purpose. VI.—METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS. The Thermometer is constructed on the principle that all bodies expand under the influence | of heat, and contract by cold. To this general law, water below 40° is, however, an exception. Any body might be employed for the purpose of measuring the intensity of heat; but the expansion of solids is too small, whilst that of gases is too great, for ordinary purposes—liquids, the expansion of which is greater than that of solids and less than that of gases, must therefore be employed. Mercury is the one most used, and which is best adapted for this purpose; for its expansion is more uniform, and the difference between its freezing and boiling points is greater than in other liquids. The common thermometer consists of a tube of very small bore, which should be of equal diameter throughout, and on one end of which a bulb is formed. Into this mercury is introduced, by rarefying the air in the inside of the ball, and then dipping the open end of the tube into mercury recently boiled, in order to expel air and moisture. As the air in the bulb and tube cools and contracts, the mercury is forced up into the bulb by the pressure of the atmosphere. When the bulb and tube have been filled with a sufficient quantity of mercury, this is boiled once, or oftener, if a very accurate instrument is to be made. The open extremity of the tube is then hermetically sealed, the mercury being driven up the tube by heating the bulb, in order completely to expel the air. A scale has then to be graduated. To do this, two points must be obtained, namely, the freezing and boiling points of water; the height at which the mercury in the tube stands at these temperatures being marked, the intermediate space is divided into degrees, the number of which unfortunately varies in different countries. In Britain and North America, Fahrenheit’s scale is used; in France, and nearly all over the Continent, the Centigrade is employed; whilst in some countries Reaumur’s scale is still used. The freezing point of water on Fahrenheit’s scale is placed at 32°; and the interval between this and the boiling point is divided into 180°. On the Centigrade scale, and that of Reaumur, the freezing point, or 32° Fall., is 0°; and the interval between the freezing and boiling points is divided into 100° on the Centigrade, and 80° on that of Reaumur (Fig. 93). Knowing the relation that exists between the degrees of the different scales, a temperature expressed in degrees of one scale may be easily reduced to the corresponding temperature of another; but as the necessary calculations are very troublesome when they have frequently to be made, it is better to procure comparative tables, by the use of which the result may be obtained by inspection. The largeness of the divisions on Reaumur’s and the Centigrade scales renders the use of fractional parts of a degree frequently necessary; but another objection is, that whenever the thermometer stands below freezing, the use of minus (—) degrees is necessary, and these in every series of observations are inconvenient. Still, to secure a mode of measuring temperature which would be readily understood both on the Continent and in this country, we would recommend a scale which might be called the Bi-centigrade,having 200 divisions between the freezing and the boiling point of water, counting upwards, and which divisions might be called grads. Two of these would be equal to a degree Centigrade, and nine degrees of Fahrenheit would make ten divisions of the new scale. This would obviate the great objection to the use of the Centigrade scale in respect to the largeness of the degrees, but from freezing point we should still have to count downwards.,88 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Self-registering thermometers are so contrived as to mark the extremes of temperatm’e; and on this account they are valuable for meteorological purposes, and likewise for placing in hot-houses. Several kinds of self-registering thermometers , have been invented; but those of Six and Rutherford are the ones generally used. Of the former of these instruments, the following excellent account has been given by Professor Traill:— Six’s Register Thermometer (Fig. 94) is a spirit- of-wine thermometer, with a long cylindrical bulb, and a tube bent in the form of a siphon, with parallel legs, and terminating in a small cavity. A portion of the two legs of the siphon, from a to b, is tilled with mercury; the bulb and the remainder of both legs of the siphon, as well as a small portion of the cavity, are tilled with highly rectitied alcohol. The double column of mercury is intended to give motion to the two indices c, d. Each index consists of a bit of iron ' wire inclosed in a glass tube, which is capped at each extremity by a button of enamel. Their dimensions are such, that they would move freely in the tube, were it not for a thread of glass drawn from the upper cap of each, and inclined so as to press against one side of the tube, forming a delicate spring of sufficient power to retain the attached index at any part l aJ of the tube to which it is raised | r—-------I by the column of mercury. The action of the instrument will now, we believe, be readily understood. When an increase of temperature expands the spirit in the bulb, it depresses the mercury in the limb a, and proportionally raises it in the limb b of the siphon; the mercurial column in the latter raises the index d before it; and when the mercury sinks in that leg, the bottom of the index d, retained at that height bv the glass spring, will indicate how high the mercury had risen. When the spirit in the bulb contracts by cold the mercury in the limb b descends, and the consequence is a proportional ascent of the column in the side a; which, likewise carrying the index c before it, leaves its lower extremity at the point to which the column of that side had risen. In this manner, the max- s Self Registering Tliermonieter. Thermometrical Seales. Fahrenheit’s, Keaunmr's, ami Centigrade. imum and minimum temperatures are seen at anyTOOLS, INSTRUMENTS, AND MACHINES. 89 desired interval of time; and all that is necessary to prepare the instrument for a fresh observation is to bring down both indices to the surface of their respective columns by means of a magnet, which will act on the bit of iron wire included in the body of each index. From the above description, it is obvious that there must be an ascending scale to measure the degrees of expansion in b, and a descending scale applied to a, to mark the contraction of the spirit. Owing to the ease with which the glass-spi-ing of the index may be broken off, many instrument makers [ substitute a slender bristle, tied to the upper I part of the index, and lapped round its body. This renders the spring less easily spoiled by the careless shifting of the index; but the hair, by j being long steeped in spirit, is liable to have its elasticity destroyed, and a slender silver or platina wire would be preferable. The chief defect of Six’s thermometer arises, as in most other contrivances of this sort, from ! the unequal expansion of the spirit, and the introduction of two liquids of very different expansibility in the instrument; while, from the construction, it would be difficult to apply auy i general correction to its indications. It does not indicate the expansion of the spirit only, but j also that of the mercurial column; which, where nice observation is required, would be of some moment; and the necessary friction of the indices will also tend to diminish the effect of expansion. Rutherfords Dag and ^Sight Thermometers (Fig. 95) have now almost entirely superseded Six’s instrument, being cheaper, more accurate, and not so liable to get out of order. The day-thermometer is a mercurial one, with a steel index, which is pushed forward by the mercury; but as the latter recedes with the cold, Fig. 95. to)______________________________________ DAY t? »° ( o •so 0 REAU? 10 3 10 25 30 50 60 70 SO <« » ^-',,0FAHR1 t !.'»£—11 Professor Phillips’ Registering Maximum Thermometer. is no metallic index to get entangled with the mercury. It is a mercurial thermometer in which there is a small speck of air, which acts as an index, and in order to set the instrument for a new observation it is only necessary to shake the mercury towards the bulb, till the column nearly joins, which it will do, all but a small space about a degree or so. Self-registering thermometers, when used for indicating the extremes of temperature of the external air, should be placed so that they may neither be affected by the direct rays of the sun, nor by those reflected from water, buildings, rocks, &c. The bulbs should be sheltered from rain by a cover of oil-cloth, or similar material, placed at some distance above the instruments. The thermometers should be fixed, and not hung; but, when Rutherford’s are employed, so that one end may be lifted up to allow of the indices sliding back to the end of the fluid columns. In reading all thermometers] care should be taken not to breathe upon or touch the instrument, or otherwise communicate heat to it; and iii night observations, not to affect it by the too close approximation of the light. Rothnies Electric Thermometer is an ingenious contrivance for indicating irregularities of temperature in plant-houses. It consists of a tube doubled round a wooden scale of degrees, and nicely balanced on pivots; the upper portion of the tube is filled with spirit, the lower with mercury, and the expansion of the spirit from heat, or its contraction from cold, disjdaces the mercury and causes the tube to overbalance. Fig. 97' The effect of this is to bring a metal point on the lower part of the tube into contact with a similar point connected with a galvanic battery, and the electric current thus established rings a bell. By means of a slide on the tube the instrument can be adjusted to the desired temperature. To the important influence exercised on vegetation by the temperature of the ground, it has been and will be frequently necessary to allude. And it is highly desirable that regular observations of temperature at certain depths below the surface of the ground, to which the roots of plants usually penetrate, may be undertaken. (1 cothermometers, or ground thermometers, for ascertaining the temperature of the earth. For this purpose Various contrivances have been adopted. One of these is the bark-bed thermometer (Fig. 97), which is used for. ascertaining the temperatures of hotbeds, vinery-borders, &c. It consists of a thermometer having a tube from 2 to 3 feet In length. The tube and bulb of this thermometer are placed within a copper tube, and into the top of the copper tube is inserted a hollow wooden cylinder, through which passes the Upper portion of the glass thermometer tube. Attached to the cylinder, or engraved upon it, is a short scale of degrees. A door permits of the indications of the long-tubed thermometer being observed, and contains a small thermometer for indicating the temperature of the air. But for correct indications of ground temperature, a thermometer should be emploved, the tube of which is sufli-ciently long that the whole of the scale may be seen above ground, when the bulb is plunged in the soil to the depth at which observations are to be taken. The glass tube and upper port of the bulb should be inclosed in a copper tube, and the intermediate space stuffed with powdered charcoal, cotton, or other non-conducting material, to prevent the communication of heat or cold from the air, and from the soil surrounding the tube. As the bulbs of geothermometers are usually made very thin, and are consequently very easily broken, the lower portion of the bulb should be protected by a copper guard. The instrument must be fixed in a perfectly upright position, with the centre of the bulb at the exact depth, and the copper tube should be closely packed round with earth. * Fig. 97.—Bark-bed Thermometer.TOOLS, INSTRUMENTS, AND MACHINES. 91 The Hygrometer is an extremely useful instrument in the garden. By it the gardener may ascertain the hygrometrical state of the air in green-houses, conservatories, &c.; and knowing this, he can maintain the degree of humidity best adapted for the growth of any particular plant or plants. Without such an instrument it is very difficult to do this, and the consequence in many cases is the injury or death of valuable plants, either from being parched up, or from being kept in too moist an atmosphere. Besides being valuable for the above purpose, the indications of a hygrometer placed in the open air, combined with observations of the barometer, afford a better criterion of the weather and the probability of rain, than can be obtained by the use of either instrument alone. Many different sorts of hygrometers have been invented by Saussure, De Luc, and others; but the best are Darnell’s, and the dry and wet bulb hygrometer. DanielVs Hygrometer (Fig. 98), which is more delicate than any other, was the invention of the late talented Prof. Daniell, Fig. 9S. who gives the following description of the instrument, and the mode of using it:—a and b are two thin glass balls of 1^ inch diameter, connected together by a tube, having a bore about one-eighth of an inch. The tube is bent at right angles over the two and the b c con-a small balls, arm tains thermometer d, whose bulb, which should be of lengthened form, descends into the ball b. This ball having been about two-thirds filled with ether, is heated over a lamp till the fluid boils, and the vapour issues from the capillary tube, which terminates the ball a. The vapour having expelled the air from both balls, the capillary tube is hermetically closed by the flame of a lamp. This process is familiar to those who are accustomed to blow glass, and may be known to have succeeded after the tube has become cool, by re- versing the instrument and taking one of the balls in the hand, the heat of which will drive all the ether into the other ball, and cause it to boil rapidly. The other ball, a, is now to be covered with a piece of muslin. The stand is of brass, and the transverse socket is made to hold the glass tube in the manner of a spring, allowing it to turn and be taken out with little difficulty. A small thermometer is inserted into the pillar of the stand. The manner of using the instrument is this: after having driven all the ether into the ball b, by the heat of the hand, it is to be placed at an open window, or out of doors, with the ball b so situated that the surface of the liquid may be upon a level with the eye of the observer. A little ether is then to be dropped upon the covered ball. Evaporation immediately takes place, which, producing cold upon the ball a, causes a rapid and continuous condensation of the ethereal vapour in the interior of the instrument. The consequent evaporation from the included ether produces a depression of temperature in the ball b, the degree of which is measured by the thermometer d. This action is almost instantaneous, and the thermometer begins to fall in two seconds after the ether has been dropped. A depression of 30° or 40° is easily produced, and I have Been the ether boil, and the thermometer driven below 0a of Fahrenheit’s scale. The ai'tificial cold thus produced causes a condensation of the atmospheric vapour upon the ball b, which first makes its appearance in a thin ring of dew, coincident with the surface of the ether. The degree at which this takes place is to be carefully noted. A little practice may be necessary to seize the exact moment of the first deposition; but certainty is very soon acquired. It is advisable, when the instrument has been constructed with a transparent ball, to have some dark object behind it, such as a house or a tree; as the cloud is not so readily perceived against the open horizon. The depression of temperature is first produced at the surface of the liquid, where evaporation takes place; and the currents, which immediately ensue to effect an equilibrium, are very perceptible. The bulb of the thermometer, c, is not quite immersed in the ether, that the line of greatest cold may pass through it. In very damp or windy weather the ether should be very slowly dropped upon the ball, otherwise the descent of the thermometer will be so rapid as to render it extremely difficult to be certain of the degree. In dry weather, on the contrary, the ball requires to be well wetted more than once to produce the requisite degree of cold. Care should be taken not to permit the breath to affect the glass.—(Daniell’s Meteorological Essays.)92 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Sulphuric ether is the sort employed, and it is necessary to observe that the ether should be of the best quality, otherwise great difficulty will be experienced, and much ether wasted, even in lowering the temperature a few degrees. Strong ether, though it cost more at first, is the cheapest in the end, for a much less quantity will be required. The Dry and 1 Yet Bidb Hygrometer consists of two thermometers, the readings of which, when both bulbs are uncovered, should be identical. One of the bulbs is uncovered, the other is covered with thin muslin, to which is attached a conducting thread of cotton lamp-wick, the other end of which is immersed in water. The evaporation from the water thus conveyed to the covered bulb produces cold, and the difference in the indications of the two thermometers is the degree of dryness as measured by this instrument. The instrument is represented in Fig. 99, where a is the dry bulb thermometer fixed to its scale; b, the wet bulb thermometer, fixed to its scale; c, the bulb of the dry thermometer, which is uncovered; d, the bulb of the wet thermometer, covered with thin muslin; and e, the conducting thread passing from the bulb d to the water-vessel. Directions for the use of this instrument, together with a set of hygrometrical tables, which should be procured by every one using it, have been published by Mr. Glaisher, of the Greenwich Observatory.* The Barometer is an instrument constructed for the purpose of ascertaining the pressure of the atmosphere. It is frequently called a weatherglass, frotu its indications affording a means by which the probability of changes in the weather may be predicted. It is also employed for measuring heights. The principle upon which the construction of all barometers depends is, that the atmosphere Fig. 99. Dry and Wet Bulb Hygrometer. * Hi/gronutrical Tables, by James Glaisher, Esq. Published by Taylor and Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street, London. presses equally in every direction with a weight amounting to about 14f lbs. on each square inch at the level of the sea. This pressure is, however, subject to considerable variations; and it is to measure these that the barometer is employed. The mode in which this instrument is constructed is very simple. Let a glass tube of 34 inches in length, clean and perfectly dry, be completely filled with mercury; close the open end with the finger, and inverting the tube, plunge it into a cistern of mercury; on withdrawing the finger, the mercury in the tube will sink to some point between 28 and 31 inches above the level of the mercury in the cistern. If a scale, the graduation of which commences at the level of the mercury in the cistern, be attached to the tube, the apparatus will become a barometer, and one of the simplest construction. The space between the top of the mercurial column and that of the tube will neither be occupied by air, nor any other body, if the experiment has been properly conducted; for it will be a vacuum, the mode of forming which was discovered by Torricelli, the inventor of the barometer, hence it is called the Torricellian vacuum. In accordance with a fundamental principle of hydrostatics, if a fluid is at rest in any vessel, every part of the surface of that fluid will be on the same level, no matter what may be the form of the vessel containing it. Hence, if water or any other fluid be poured into vessels communicating with each other, it will rise to the same level in both. But if in one vessel a greater pressure were exerted on its surface than in the other, the fluid would rise to a greater height, and in proportion to that pressure, in the vessel in which the least pressure was exerted on its surface. If two tubes, open at top, but closed and communicating with each other at bottom, and of the respective lengths of 40 and 80 inches, be placed in an upright position, and mercury be poured in, it will stand at the same height in both tubes. Let mercury now be poured in till both tubes are filled to the height of about 40 inches. This having been done, let two pistons of equal weight be fitted closely, one into each tube, the mercury will still stand at the same level in both tubes; but if the piston of the shoi't tube be loaded with a weight equal to 30 lbs. on each square inch of its surface, and the piston of the long tube be loaded with only 15 lbs. to the square inch, the mercury in the latter will rise until a sufficient quantity be elevated to balance, by its weight, the difference in the pressure on the surface of the mercury in the two tubes, namely, 15 lbs. on the square inch, and the mer-TOOLS, INSTRUMENTS, AND MACHINES. 93 Banal column in the long tube would be about 30i inches higher than in the short one. If any other unequal weights were used, a quantity of mercury would always be elevated in the one tube, the weight of which would be sufficient to balance the extra pressure iti the other. From the preceding, the reason of the elevation of the mercury in the tube of the barometer above that in the cistern will be easily understood; for the mercury in the former is subjected to no pressure, whilst in the latter it is pressed upon by the weight of the atmosphere, about 14f lbs. on the square inch. Accordingly, mercury is elevated in the tube until, by its weight, it balance the pressure of the atmosphere on the surface of the mercury in the cistern. As the weight of the atmosphere varies at different times, so must the pressure on the surface of the mercury in the cistern; when this is less, a less weight of mercury will be required to balance it, and when more, a greater weight ; accordingly, the mercury in the tube rises as the pressure of the atmosphere increases, and falls as it diminishes. When the mercury is high, the atmosphere is heavy; when low, the atmosphere is light. If a hole were bored in the top of the barometer tube, and air admitted, the mercury, being subjected to equal or nearly equal pressure, both in the tube and in the cistern, would stand at the same level in both; and this is another proof that it is by the pressure of the atmosphere that the mercury is elevated in the tube. Having now explained the principle upon which the action of the barometer depends, it only remains to describe the usual form of the instrument, and the mode in which its indications are read. Though any liquid might be employed in the construction of barometers, yet mercury is the one commonly used; for not only is it more uniform than other fluids in its expansion, but on account of its being the heaviest fluid known at common temperatures, a much shorter tube is necessary to contain the same weight than would be the case if any other liquid were employed. Besides these advantages, it is not liable to waste from evaporation, and may be rendered entirely free from air and moisture, which, if present, would materially interfere with the action of the instrument. Water, however, may be employed; but as mercury is rather more than thirteen and a half times heavier than water, a column of the latter, nearly 34 feet in height, would be required to produce the same effect as one of mercury 30 inches in height; so that, allowing for range and expansion, a tube not less than 38 feet in length would be necessary; and this would not I only be very inconvenient, but would place portability out of the question. A water barometer, the tube of which was 40 feet long, was erected I in the apartments of the Royal Society at Somer-] set House. A barometer filled with linseed oil was also constructed by Howard. There are several forms of the mercurial barometer, and though the principle of all is the same, the}' vary considerably in the accuracy of their indications. We shall confine ourselves to the standard barometer, Casella’s cottage, and the common wheel instrument. The Standard Barometer.—Wherever accurate observations have to be made this instrument should be employed. One of its best forms is ! represented in Fig. 100, its description being j as follows:—-a a, the mahogany board to affix I against the wall: b b, brackets which support the barometer, between which it is capable of being I revolved, so as to observe the light on the sur-! face of the mercury: c, vase, which unscrews to allow of the socket d being removed to receive j the upper end of the barometer: e, the adjusting screws for shifting the lower centre, by which the barometer is to be brought exactly perpendicular—to accomplish this, the ivory point is to be adjusted to the surface of the mercury, the barometer gently turned between the two brackets; ] and if in any position the point should be elevated from the surface, or depressed into the | mercury, the screws must be altered accordingly, until the point coincides in every position: /, the key by which the ivory point is adjusted—the i ivory point being a termination of the brass scale marked off at tlie temperature of 32°, and which is adjusted by means of a tangent screw: g, the glass part of the cistern, through which the surface of the mercury and ivory point are teen: h, the cistern: i, the screw which is to be loosened when the barometer is fixed, to admit the atmos-I plieric pressure: k, the movable part of the cistern, on which the index f is engraved: l, the key by which the vernier is adjusted: m, the thermometer dipping into the cistern, showing the temperature of the mercury in the instrument. With regard to the placing of the barometer, the Report of the Committee of the Royal Society _ contains the following instructions:—“The barometer should be placed in an apartment subject to as little variation of temperature as possible, and in a good light; and to facilitate night observations, an arrangement should be made for placing behind it a light, screened by a sheet of white paper, or other diaphanous substance. I Great care should be taken to fix it in a perpen-' dicular position by the plumb-line. Its height94 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. must be carefully ascertained above some permanent and easily recoverable mark, either in following is the mode in which its indications are read:—The ivory point terminating the brass scale must be very carefully brought down to the surface of the mercury in the cistern, by means of the screw for that purpose, and the two are known to be exactly in contact when the ivory point and its reflection appear just to touch one another. The vernier must next be adjusted to the surface of the mercui’y in the tube. This is done by bringing down or raising up the vernier till its back and front form a tangent to the surface of the mercury so as just to exclude the light. The index will then point out on the scale the height at which the mercury stands. The inches are lead on the first column of the scale; the tenths on the second; and the hundredths are found by looking at the third column of the scale, which is divided into half-tenths. If the index point above one of these divisions, the hundredths are more than five in number; then looking at the divisions of the first column of the vernier, a line will be found that coincides with one of the divisions of the scale above this, and on the second column of the scale of the vernier will be found a number, and this will be the ■ number of hundredths. But if the index point above one of the half-tenth divisions on the third column of the fixed scale, the half-tenth, that is five hundredths, must be added to the number already found; by counting the divisions on the first column of the vernier between the numbered degree last found, and where the two lines coincide, the number of five-hun-Fig. 101. dredth parts will be ascertained, and this being written as a decimal, must be doubled, and will then count as thousandths. Thus, the height of the mercury may be measured to the five-hundredth part of an inch with ease and accuracy, and without the assistance of a lens. To render the above description of the method of reading the vernier clear, an example is necessary. Fig. 101 represents the vernier adjusted to the surface of the mercury; we see at once that the index points above 29 inches. Then, inspecting the second column of the scale, it is apparent that there are eight-Vernier. tenths in addition; the reading thus far is thei’efore 29’8. On looking at the third column, we find that there is a half-tenth, making 29'85; but the index is still the building in which it is situated, or in some more permanent building, or rock, in its immediate vicinity; and no pains should be spared to ascertain the relation which such mark may bear to the level of high and of low water at spring-tides, and ultimately to the mean level of the sea.” The instrument being fixed in its position^ the i above this point, we must therefore look in theTOOLS, INSTRUMENTS, AND MACHINES. 95 first column on the veraier for two lines which coincide; this is the case between the divisions 3 and 4, three-hundredths must therefore be added to the five already found, making the reading 29'88; counting the small divisions on the first column of the vernier, we find that between the divisions marked 3 and the place where the two lines coincide, there are three of the small divisions or five - hundredths, each of these counting as two one-thousandths, we have six one-thousandths, and the reading is therefore 29'886. In making the adjustments, and also in reading, a magnifying glass is of great assistance to the eye. Although the height of the mercurial column is correctly measured in the above manner, yet several corrections are necessary before the true height of a column of mercury at 32° is found. These corrections are for capillary action and temperature; and in barometers the scales of which are fixed, and cannot be adjusted to the surface of the mercury in the cistern, a correction for capacity must likewise be applied. The effect of the capillary action of the barometer tube, is to cause a depression of the surface of the mercury In the tube. The amount of this depression is greatest in tubes of small diameter; likewise in those not boiled after filling. In an unboiled tube, of j inch in diameter, the correction on account of capillary action only amounts to O’OOVth inch, and in a boiled one of the same width to 0'0G3 inch. The amount of correction for capillary action has always to be added to the indications, and it is ascertained by experiments during the construction of the instrument, and marked upon it. The next correction is that for temperature. In consequence of the expansion or contraction of the mercury, either more or less than the true height of a column of mercury at 32° would be indicated, according as the temperature of the mercury might be above or below that point The instrument is therefore furnished with a thermometer, the bulb of which dips into the mercury in the cistern, indicating the temperature of the mercury, which must be ascertained at each observation, and registered together the uncorrected observation. The correction for capacity, as previously stated, is necessary in instruments the scales of which cannot be brought down to the level of the mercury in the cistern. At the time these scales are fixed, they are adjusted to the level of the mercury in the cistern, and the height at which the mercury then stands in the tube is called the neutral point. Now, it must be evident, that whenever the mercury in the tube | stands above the neutral point, the level of the mercury in the cistern must sink below the zero of the scale, in consequence of a part of the fluid passing into the tube; and that when the mercury falls below the neutral point, it must rise above the zero by reason of mercury being discharged into the cistern. It will be evident that the quantity of mercury withdrawn from the cistern, or discharged into it, in consequence of the mercury in the tube rising above or falling below the neutral point, will be in proportion to that rise or fall, and to the relation which the capacity of the tube bears to that of the cistern. For instance, if the capacity of the cistern be fifty times that of the tube, and the mercury in the latter rise 1 inch above the neutral point, the mercury in the cistern will be lowered beneath the zero of the scale Arth of an inch, and that amount must therefore be added to the observed height; but if, on the other hand, it fall the same distance below the neutral point, a corresponding amount must be subtracted on account of the mercury in the cistern rising above the zero of the scale. The correction for capacity must therefore be made by dividing the difference between the observed height of the mercury and the neutral point, by the relation which the capacity of the tube bears to that of the cistern, and adding the product if the observed height is above the neutral point, and subtracting it when it is below. The neutral point and correction for capacity should always be marked on the instrument. In the Report of the'Committee of the Royal Society on Physics, including Meteorology,* will be found excellent tables of the corrections to be applied to barometers on account of temperature, capillary action, and capacity, as well as much useful information respecting the making and registering of meteorological observations. The Wheel Barometer consists of a tube bent in the form of a U> one leg of which is about 34 inches longer than the other. As file pressure of the air increases or diminishes, the level of the mercury in the short leg will be lowered qr raised accordingly; and the difference between pressure of the atmosphere. In the short leg is a float having a string attached, from the other end of which is suspended a weight, nearly balancing the weight of the float. The string passes over a pulley, which it moves when the float rises or falls, and this pulley is connected * London: Taylor and Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street. with I the levels of the mercury in the two legs will be the height of a column of mercury balancing the9G GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. with hands, which, playing upon a graduated dial, indicate the pressure of the atmosphere. Wheel barometers, though they may answer tolerably well as weatherglasses, are quite unfitted for meteorological observations, for their indications are only approximations to the truth, requiring corrections of a very complicated nature, which are never made. For gardeners, farmers, and others, we would recommend such an instrument as Fig. 102. Though not equal to the standard barometers, it is preferable as regards accuracy to the wheel barometer, and it is not so expensive. The Rain-gauge is an instrument which ought to find a place in every gardeu. To the gardener its indications afford much assistance in judging of the quantity of water which in dry weather must be artificially supplied to trees and other plants. The former frequently suffer from dryness at the root long before the effects of this deficiency of moisture become visible. This may in most cases be obviated, by observing the amount of rain which has fallen ; and if it is known to be less than is requisite for the maintenance of trees in a healthy and vigorous state, the deficiency must be made up artificially. Again, in draining, the capacity of the main channels must be regulated according to the quantity of rain which falls on a certain extent of ground in the locality; and to ascertain this, the rain-gauge becomes necessary. Casella's Rain-gauge (Fig. 103) is made of stout copper, and accompanied with a glass measure Fig. 103. (Jasella’ft Rain gauge. graduated to of an inch, by which the depth of rain collected in the receiving bottle can be correctly measured. In some rain-gauges, one of which is represented by Fig. 104, a float is used, which, by its rising, indicates the amount of rain which has fallen. These instruments consist of a funnel, the top of which may be rectangular or circular, joined to a rim, the edge of which must be made perfectly true. A small rod with a loop in the middle to admit the index-rod, which is attached to a float, extends from side to side across the funnel. The tapering end of the funnel is inserted into a copper cylinder made as true as possible, and furnished with a cock at bottom. The float is also made of copper, and should fit the cylinder closely, no more room being allowed than is sufficient to permit the float to rise and fall freely, and the water to de-Rain-gauge. scend into the lower part of the cylinder. If the funnel were circular, and the cylinder made of exactly the same diameter throughout, the length of the divisions on the index-rod could be easily calculated; for, as the areas of circles are to each other as the* squares of their diameters, the square of the diameter of the funnel divided by the square of the diameter of the cylinder, would be the , length in inches of a division on the index-rod, corresponding to a fall of rain to the depth of | 1 inch on the horizontal surface presented by theTOOLS, INSTRUMENTS, AND MACHINES. 97 funnel. Nevertheless, the practice of the best makers of these instruments, is to graduate the scale by means of water, in the same way as in the preceding sort of rain-gauge, because it is extremely difficult to form a true cylinder of sheet-copper. In frosty weather, the float should be suspended out of contact with the water, and only let down when an observation is to be taken, otherwise it will be injured. llain-gauges of the above description possess the advantage of not being subject to any appreciable loss of water by evaporation, this being almost entirely prevented by the float, especially when the latter fits the cylinder so as to leave no more clear space than is absolutely necessary. Rain-gauges of various other kinds are employed. One form consistsof a cylinderof metal with a funnel top, and connected with a glass tube, in which the height of the water can be observed, but the glass tube is very liable to be broken, especially during frosty weather. In gauges of this kind the water is emptied by a tap at the bottom of the cylinder. A convenient and cheap form of gauge, in which, if the measure be broken, it can easily be reproduced, has a receiving funnel 4'697 inches in diameter, equal to an area of 17'33 square inches, and as the fluid ounce contains 1'733 cubic inches, each fluid ounce will represent a tenth of an inch of rain. The rain-gauge should always be placed so that the edge of the funnel may be perfectly horizontal; it must also be at a distance from houses, trees, or other natural objects, which may interfere with rain falling in an oblique direction. The Vane.—For the purpose of ascertaining the direction of the wind, a vane is necessary. This instrument is made of various shapes and sizes; but it is frequently constructed badly, and fixed in an improper position. On this subject, Mr. Howard, in his Climate of London, makes the following excellent remarks:— “As to form, it should be simple, to insure durability; and such as that the resisting surf ace may be as nearly as possible confined to one side of the spindle. It is curious to observe how this principle is commonly violated on our public edifices. Either some inelegant caprice takes possession of the architect or artificer, or it is taken for granted that a new vane must be unlike any old one in existence. The shortest way to convince the workman on this point, will be to propose to him to solve the probable effect as to resistance of making a vane alike on both sides: as he will soon see that such a vane would be continually taken on its broad side by the wind; and, consequently, that every approach towards this equality of resistance must both diminish steadiness, and increase the strain on the spindle. “As to suspension, a spindle of hard iron, tapering to a point not finer than that of a crayon, should enter into a tube stopped bv a harder substance. A flint, having a smooth concave face on one side, will answer for this; and it may be fixed in a socket as much larger than the tube itself as is necessary, and so joined to the tube. The spindle is likewise to pass through guides inserted in the tube, and to be sufficiently long to allow for subsidence by wear at top. On it the moving part should rest in equilibrium. The counterpoise is best made by a loaded ball, carried out to the proper distance, which may be found by trial before fixing it, on a slender, single, or double branch of iron. The whole is to be kept down on the spindle by means of a second and larger, moderately loaded ball, mounted on the centre of the vane, and turning with it. “ There are vanes to be had ready-made in London, which fulfil pretty nearly these conditions, that of great durability excepted. This is best insured where expense is not an object, by using copper well gilt for the material. “ As to position, it is obvious that this instrument ought to be clear of deflections and eddies, from objects on the same or a higher level. That it may the more easily be so placed, the spindle may end in a taper shaft, capable of receiving a fir pole; the latter should be well painted before fixing, and the vane put on and adjusted after it is fixed. “ In this stage of the business, the workman will require a compass, if letters are as usual attached to the vane; and he must oliserve that when the needle, by moving the compass round, is made to point to the variation north, the north on the card will be the point for the north of the vane.” VII.—MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES. Tallies.—No mode of numbering plants can excel that in which the Arabic figures are employed; for these being the most universally known, can be more easily read, and with less risk of mistake, than any other. But in many cases, painting numbers in a manner not liable to be soon effaced by exposure to the weather, would occupy too much time, and would prove too expensive. Accordingly, marks to represent numbers are cut on wood, and these cuts remain visible till the wood gets into a state of complete decay; for although the surface of the tally must waste more or less, according to the nature of the wood, by the action of the weather, yet, as 798 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. the face wastes, the notches cut in it deepen from the same cause in an equal or even greater degree. The Arabic figures, with the exception of Fig. 105. 12 3 1 5 6 7 8 r> o Seton’s Tally. No. 1, cannot be quickly and well cut on wood with a knife. Nos. 4 and 7 require each a combination of three cuts, and all the others are circular in their formation, and too difficult to imitate. Unquestionably the best method is that by which the numbers are represented with the fewest cuts, and those most easily made. In these respects Seton’s method has the advantage of various others that have been proposed. The digits are represented in Fig. 105. It will be observed that none of the units require for their formation more than two strokes, and that the whole series, from 0 to 9 inclusive, is formed by thirteen stiuight cuts and three notches. This cannot be done by any other known method, with so few; and, whilst this is the case, Seton’s method must be considered the simplest and best. The numbers read exactly like those of the Arabic system, each additional figure increasing the previous value of the series tenfold, besides adding its own. They should be cut and read from the end of the tally placed in the ground. Painted tallies for temporary use, are slightly rubbed with white paint, and written upon with a black-lead pencil whilst wet. Some composition pencils, of which the marks on paper cannot be effectually rubbed out by india-rubber, are preferable to those of genuine plumbago. Red chalk is found to withstand the weather, and to remain legible for many years. It is more durable than black-lead. Cast-iron Tallies, about 1 foot in length, with an oval top surrounded by a rim, with which the numbers are raised in the casting, are very durable if dipped in boiling linseed oil. This will almost entirely prevent rusting, at least above ground, for more than twenty years. When rust appears, they may be put in the fire, cleaned, ami re-dipped. An Iron Tally coated with zinc (Fig. 106), with sides projecting so as to admit of a piece of glass being puttied over the name, answers well. The metallic face is painted white, and on this ground, when dry, the name is painted black. Afterwards, when perfectly dry, the tally is glazed. When being glazed, the tally should be warmer than the air of the place in which the operation is performed. Putty that has been kept moist by immersion in water should not be used. Some very excellent kinds of tallies are made of earthenware, on which numbers are stamped in, previous to burning, or names are burned in. Those made of terra cotta are very neat and durable. Bricks set endwise in the ground, with a name or number painted upon them, or stamped in, are also frequently employed. Labels made of lead, and having the number or names stamped in, are very durable, provided they be securely fixed, as when nailed against walls; but unless of small size, they are objectionable when suspended, because the wires cut their way out. For labelling plants or cuttings for travelling, tapering slips of sheet-lead answer very well. The number is stamped on the broad end, and the slip then rolled tightly on the branch or stem of the plant. Small lead labels, just sufficiently large for a number to be stamped on them, are ig-10 40-403 27 50-953 62-487 37 7 5 '.'155 42 90-040 3 5-241 i s 14-054 13 23-087 18 32-492 42-447 28 53-170 33 64 941 38 78128 43 93-252 4 6-992 9 15-838 14 24 '932 19 34432 24 44-522 29 55-431 14 67 -451 39 80-978 44 96-570 5 8748 10 17 "633 15 26-795 20 36 "397 25 46'630 30 57 735 | 38 70(121 40 83-910 45 100-000 The form of the garden is to some extent determined by the direction required to be given to the walls. We have seen that, according to circumstances of climate, it should either have a rectangular form or that of a rhombus or rhomboid. It has also been explained that it is always desirable that the opposite walls should be parallel. The space most eligible for a garden, as regards soil ami other circumstances, may not admit of the forms we have recommended; nevertheless, the best form should in all cases be approximated as much as possible. If length from north to south can be obtained, but not from east to west, then the requisite extent of south aspect may be secured by a cross wall running through the centre. In hot summers, certain fruits will ripen on a direct east or west aspect; but they will only do so imperfectly in ordinary seasons. We should not, however, be guided by exceptions. It is much better to have one good aspect than two that are indifferent. The form of the garden must now be considered with regard to the extent of wall, and the area inclosed thereby; for some forms require a much greater length to inclose a given area than others. Within any given extent of outline, the circle contains the greatest area; next to it regular polygons; these figures, however, are but little adopted in gardens, more especially in fruit and kitchen gardens. For such, rectilinear four-sided figures are the most convenient; and of all these, the square contains the greatest area in proportion to the extent of outline. This form is therefore the one to be adopted, when it is an object to inclose by four sides as much ground as possible within the least extent of wall. The more any four-sided figure deviates from a square, either as regards the similarity of the angles or the equality of the sides, the less will be the area inclosed, compared with the extent of the inclosure. For example, if two acres be inclosed in the form of a square, the length of the boundary will be about 11801 feet, and the length of each side about 295 feet. With the same length of sides, but thrown a little out of the square so as to form a rhombus, as in Fig. 110, the area would be nearly 7i rodsFRUIT AND KITCHEN GARDEN. 107 short of 2 acres. The total length of wall that would be required to inclose a square of 2 acres, would not inclose so much by 20 rods, if the figure were a parallelogram, of which the length is to the breadth as five to three. For 2 acres this form would require to be in length 381 feet, and in breadth 2284 feet; consequently the total length of inclosure would be 1219 feet. It may here be observed that the extent, and consequently the expense, of inclosing a garden is greater, in proportion to the quantity of ground inclosed, for a small garden than for a large one. Thus, the total length of iuclosure for— 1 acre, in the form of a square, would be 835 feet 2 acres, 3 „ »» 4 „ ?> 5 ,, 6 ,, „ 1,180 , „ 1,446 , „ 1,670 , „ 1,866 , „ 2,045 , From the above, it appears that whilst 4 acres require 1670 feet, one-fourth of this extent of wall will not inclose one-fourth of the area; for 1 acre requires just half as much walling as 4 acres. Of course, a large garden must require more to inclose it than a small one; but, at the same time, the larger the garden the less will be the expense per acre inclosed. Supposing the walls to be 12 feet above ground, with a foundation 3 feet deep, in all 15 feet from base to top, estimating the brick-work at £12 per rod, the expense of inclosing— 1 acre would be about.............. £552 2 acres ,, 780 3 „ „ 957 4 Z » 1,104 5 „ „ 1,235 6 „ „ 1,350 From this it appears that the inclosure of a single acre, according to the above estimate, costs £552; but when 6 acres are inclosed together, the amount is ,£1350, or at the rate of only £225 for each acre inclosed. It will be evident, from what has been stated, that where it is an object to inclose a certain area with the least extent of wall, the garden, presuming that it is to be four-sided, must be in the form of a square. If, on the contrary, the object is to have a large extent of wall in proportion to the area inclosed, then the garden must deviate accordingly from the square, and be made to assume the form of a rhombus, the sides being equal; of a rhomboid, an oblong figure with the ends oblique; or of a parallelogram. The southern aspect is so advantageous for the ripening of fruit, that it ought to be kept chiefly in view in forming a garden. In bad seasons, other aspects may fail in bringing fruits to perfection ; in such seasons, well-ripened fruit is more especially valuable, and the best chance of obtaining it then is from a southern aspect. On this account, it would be desirable that the garden should be of a form which would afford a greater extent of wall with this than any other aspect. The form may therefore be that of a parallelogram, of which the length is as five to three. Fig. 113 is very nearly in this proportion, and Fig. 113. Sca/e of Feet. represents a small garden, 272} feet from east to west, and 160 feet from north to south; consequently it contains exactly an acre. On referring to the figure, it will be observed, that it admits of nearly double the number of trees on the south aspect, as compared with each of the others; and it allows a greater extent of espaliers to face the south, which is also important, as the fruit is more fully exposed to the sun throughout the hottest period of the day, than it is in espaliers running north and south. Moreover, the figure admits of being divided into eight principal compartments, each of which forms nearly a square, after allowing for the space occupied by espaliers. Although it is not absolutely necessary to adopt exactly the above proportion of five in length to three in breadth, yet it will be found well suited for the convenient working of the ground, and for the ripening of fruits on walls and espaliers. The main area of the royal gardens at Frogmore is nearly in the above proportions, being 760 feet from east to west, and 440 feet from north to south. Where there is scope for laying out a fruit and kitchen garden in any way that may be thought proper, the best form, in our opinion, for the reasons previously stated, is an oblong, which may either have the ends square or inclined so as to present aspects facing between south-west and west, according to climate. But if circumstances render it necessary to limit the garden to a square,108 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. or nearly so, then a good aspect for the eastern and western walls is more especially necessary, owing to the comparatively limited extent of south wall, and the rhombus form should therefore be adopted, if possible. Various other forms differing from the above have been recommended, as well as a different direction of the walls. Most authors, however, agree that a square or parallelogram is the most convenient; but they differ as regards the direction of the walls, and as to whether the length of the garden should be east and west, or north and south. Some recommend the walls on the eastern and western sides to face directly east, or between east and south-east, in order to have sun for a longer period during the early part of the day; we have already stated our reasons for differing from this. Others make the length of the garden run north and south, in order to have comparatively little extent of north aspect. As already explained, we however prefer to have a considerable extent of aspect decidedly good, rather than a small extent possessing this character, together with a large proportion indifferent in that respect. Taking all things into consideration, perhaps on the w’hole a parallelogram such as Fig. 113 is the best form that can be generally recommended. It may not have the fullest effect of the sun’s rays, but it has the advantage of being rectangular, and of a compact form for being regularly worked; and whilst it presents a large proportion of decidedly very good aspect wall, it presents very little decidedly bad. The extent depends on various circumstances. It should be in proportion to the capacity of the mansion, so as to afford sufficient fruit and vegetables for the number of inhabitants which this is adapted to contain. A garden, even on a small scale, in the country, should not be less than an acre. This is calculated to afford a moderate supply for sixteen persons; but much depends on the nature of the soil, and on the kinds of vegetables in demand. In many cases, such things as turnips, potatoes, main crops of pease and beans, are now grown in fields for family use, so that the garden does not require to be so large as where it has to afford the whole supply. Again, the slips outside the garden may be of considerable extent; or, on account of boundaries, or of arrangements connected with pleasure grounds, the slips may be necessarily limited on one or more sides. These circumstances will accordingly require to be taken into consideration when determining the extent of area to be inclosed by walls. In the colder parts of the country, and especially where the situation is rather high and exposed to cold winds, the garden ought to be larger, shelter being, under these circumstances, required for many productions, which in milder climates could be grown outside. If there be an orchard to supply the hardier fruits, the garden may be much less than where fruits will scarcely grow except on walls. By a system of close and simultaneous cropping, a large quantity of vegetables may be grown in a comparatively small space. Vegetables, however, when so raised, are not generally so good as when the different crops have plenty of room. Abundance of space is better than too little; for if, at any time, the whole should not be required for kitchen crops, the spare ground may be cropped with potatoes, turnips, mangold-wurzel, or any other crop that may be found most profitable; or a portion may be occasionally laid down in grass, which will refresh it for the growth of vegetables again. At all events, the ground need not be lost, however much more it may be than is absolutely necessary for a supply. Where ground is at command, the question of size depends greatly on the expenditure that can be allowed for walls, a tolerably correct idea of the expense of which may be formed from the relative amounts which we have already given for inclosing from 1 to 6 acres. Less than 1 acre would be inclosed at a very great expense for wrall in proportion to the ground, 6 acres is as much as will be required for a very large establishment; and in general, a fruit and kitchen garden of 4 acres will be sufficient to supply all ordinary demands. IV.-SHELTER. In treating of the most desirable site for a garden, that affording natural shelter was recommended to be taken advantage of, where it could be done consistently with other arrangements also necessary to be kept in view. But where the natural disposition of the surface affords little or no shelter, recourse must be had to artificial means of supplying it. Walls, it is true, afford a certain amount of shelter for the interior of the garden, and by receiving heat from the sun’s rays, and radiating it again, a warmer atmosphere is generated within the garden than that without. But it is often the case, especially in our unsettled springs, that, after the sun has heated the interior of the garden during a comparatively calm period of the day, and when the motion of the sap has been stimulated in consequence, strong gusts of cold wind sweep through the garden, and by their mechanical force easily displace the warmer and lighter air. Walls afford good shelter so long as there is but little wind,FRUIT AND KITCHEN GARDEN. 109 and that steady; but when it is otherwise, it eddies round the inside of the walls, and if cold, it produces far more injurious effects on the vegetation which it there meets, than it does on that which is entirely in the open ground, and not subjected to temporary excitements. It is therefore of great importance that the progress which vegetation makes in a garden should be as much protected as possible from sudden checks; and this protection must consist in moderating the sudden effects of cold winds. This must be done artificially, and chiefly by means of plantations. These must be made on the north, north-west, and north-east sides; for the winds from these quarters are the coldest. The shelter to the north and north-east of the garden should approach it the neai-est; for of all others these winds are the most to be dreaded. The nearer the sheltering objects are to vegetation, the greater will be the obscured portion of the sky, and the less the amount of light which the plants will receive. But what is grown on the north and north-east aspects is of little importance compared with the subjects on the other aspects; so that the shelter of the latter is more to be considered than the partial loss of light to the former. But the trees for shelter on the west and east sides should be farther removed from the garden walls. Along the north side the screen may be as near as 60 feet, depending partly on the kind of trees employed; and about the same distance the screen may turn round the north-east and north-west corners, but should- then gradually recede, leaving the garden quite open to the south-east, south, and south-west. After turning the north-west and north-east angles, the latter being especially guarded, the shelter, instead of being a continuous belt or avenue, may consist of clumps at considerable intervals, having on one side a general direction to the south-east, and on the other to the south-west, with other clumps farther off, and opposite the intervals. The trees employed for shelter should, of course, be tall and quick - growing sorts. In these respects perhaps none excels the black Italian poplar (Populus monilifera). It will attain the height of 40 feet in a few years, especially if the ground is well trenched and manured previous to planting, and afterwards kept hoed and loosened on the surface when the trees are young. The larch and sycamore are also quick growers, the same may be said of the lime (Tilia europcea), and it may be pruned and trained so as to form a close screen from the ground upwards. The elm and beech ultimately become lofty, but their growth is slower than that of the others above-named; and where the soil is suit- able, the Norway spruce (Abies excelsa), the Scotch fir (Pinus sylvestris), and the Corsican pine (Pinus Laricio), will also answer the purpose exceedingly well. Spruce forms a very effectual break of the wind from a garden; and it would be worth while to be at the pains to make a proper depth of soil for the Wellingtonia. It may be considered perfectly hardy for any place where a garden would be formed in Britain, and it is of rapid growth and a noble evergreen. A single row would break the force of the most severe northern blast. The trees may be planted so as to form an avenue; and if this has a double row of trees on each side, the force of the wind will be more effectually broken. In case an avenue should not be required, a belt not less than 50 feet wide may be planted with two sorts of trees suitable for the purpose. The poplar may be one of the sorts, and it should be planted near the side of the belt next the garden, and some slower-growing kind of tree behind it, elm or beech for instance, according to the nature of the soil. The poplar will afford shelter by its rapid growth in the first place, and if its appearance is not liked, the trees may be cut down when the other kinds are high enough to afford shelter. If some outposts in the shape of oval clumps were established, the force of the wind would be considerably broken before it reached the belt or avenue above recommended. The ovals would be most effective if arranged, with their longest side towards the garden, in two series, and they may be at the distance of 200 or 300 yards. The clear distance between the ovals in each series should be equal to their length, and the intervals so formed should be covered by the ovals in the second rank or series. In passing through these oval clumps, the velocity of one portion of the wind will tend to neutralize that of another; for a portion of the air sweeping round an end of one of the outer ovals, will be partly checked by another portion sweeping round an end of the adjacent oval. If their forces should coalesce to a considerable extent, and the wind proceed in a direct course after squeezing through between the exterior clumps, it will again have to encounter the body of the clumps placed on the inside opposite the intervals of the others, and afterwards, with a generally broken-up, indirect, and diminished force, the wind has to encounter the regular belt or avenue. In the time of the great war large magazines of gunpowder were necessarily kept in various places. A space surrounded by a moat was so occupied near Hounslow, planned by military engineers, so as not to sweep the surroundingno GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. country in the case of an explosion. A wall was not built, for that would have been quickly demolished; but mounds were raised on three oval bases, and in the centre of eacli of the three a magazine was placed. Thus one portion of the explosive force would act against the other, and neutralize it in rushing for egress from between the mounds. In like manner, air rushing inwards from without would be neutralized, and its force weakened, by the obstruction of clumps disposed as above described; and thus a garden would be greatly protected from an inward rush of air from the exterior. As a means of preventing the wind from sweeping along the external surfaces of the walls, diagonal projections at each corner have been recommended; and there is an example of such in the gardens of the Earl of Rosberry at Dalmeny Park. Supposing the walls of the garden to run from east to west and from north to south, it is evident that a piece of diagonal wall extending, say in a north-west direction, will protect the western wall and border, when the wind is blowing from the north; but if the wind should be from the point north-west by west, it will strike at an acute angle against the diagonal projection, and will consequently act with collected force in the angle, and will then commence to sweep along the west aspect. When the wind from the north, or from any point between that and north-west, is prevented by a diagonal projection from acting against the western aspect, it will in that case be diverted with greater force against the northern aspect. Similar objections apply to a diagonal wall extending in a northeast direction. Instead of a diagonal projection at each corner, it would be better to extend the wall on the north side of the garden beyond the eastern and western walls as far as the breadth of the respective borders, or even to the outside of the slip. By this means, also, an additional length of wall with a southern aspect will be secured. If the walls cannot be so extended, a good close hedge may be reared. CHAPTER IX. FORMATION OF THE FRUIT AND KITCHEN GARDEN—Continued. I.—LEVELLING THE GROUND. After the situation and outline of the fruit and kitchen garden have been decided upon, the next step is to determine the level of the ground, or the slope thereof, as the case may be. Walls cannot be built to any required height above the surface of the soil until the height of that surface is known. If the ground is apparently level, still it is necessary to determine whether it is really so or not; and if found irregular, the height of the plane which it will present, when the irregularities of surface shall have been levelled, is necessary to be ascertained. If this be done with sufficient accuracy, a proper starting-point for the elevation of walls or other structures, the height of the surface of walks, the depth of drains, &c., will have been obtained. Here, it is evident that some knowledge of levelling is necessary; and as much expense has been too frequently incurred for want of such knowledge, some plain practical directions on the subject, as connected with gardening operations, may prove useful, and lead to better results, with less expense than is usually the case when the operation of levelling the ground is commenced at random, and carried on almost by chance. Supposing a plumb-line to be suspended from p (Fig. 114), it is evident that it would hang in the direction of the line p c, or towards the centre Fig. 114. of the earth. Any line crossing this at right angles, as d d. is generally termed a horizontal or level line, the line of sight, or the apparent level. But supposing the line t k a to represent the half of the globe, then the circular line k a k, parallel to the circumference, would be the true level, and so would a g, the straight line a d being only the apparent level, or horizontal line of sight. The surface of still water is considered to be a perfect level; it appears so to the eye, nevertheless it corresponds with the curve of the earth. If a canal were cut from a to g, the surface of the water with which it might be tilled would form a curve like that connecting these two points. In short, if the point c represent the centre of the earth, and n a point on the surface, the circumference of the circle described by a c as a radius would coincide with the true level, whilst the straight line d d would be the tangent to it, and would represent the apparent level. For aFRUIT AND KITCHEN GARDEN. Ill short distance, the difference between the true and apparent levels is inappreciable; but it goes on increasing in proportion to the square of the distance; for it is equal to the square of the distance between the station where the instrument is placed and the spot where the rod stands, against which the horizontal line of sight is directed, divided by the diameter of the earth. Thus, if the instrument is placed at a, and the distance from a to h be 1000 yards, a b will be the horizontal line of sight, or apparent level, and b h the difference between it and the true level, which difference can be found as follows:—First, squaring the distance we have 1000 x 1000 = 1,000,000; this, divided by the diameter of the earth, which is about 13,924,000 yards, gives as a quotient ’0718 yard, or '2154 foot, which is about 2-58 inches, or a little more than 2$ inches; and this is the difference of level on a distance of 1000 yards. Therefore, if we multiply the square of the distance in yards by 2-58, and divide by 1,000,000, or, what is the same, multiply by 258 and point off eight places on the right, the difference of level will be represented in inches by the figures on the left, whilst those on the right will be decimals of an inch. Although it will very rarely be necessary to apply the correction for garden purposes, yet cases may occur where it would be of essential importance. For instance, if two reservoirs were to be built, one in the garden, and another at a mile distant to supply the former; and if both were carried up to the same apparent level, the garden one would either not be filled to within 8 inches of its coping, or it would require to be built 8 inches higher to prevent its overflowing, according as the apparent level had been taken from the supplying reservoir, or the contrary. The following table shows the height of the apparent above the true level for every 100 yards, and also for every mile:— Yards. Inches. Miles. Feet. Inches.' 50 0'00006 01 0 01 1 100 0026 01 0 2 200 0-103 Of 0 41 300 0-232 1 0 8 400 0-413 2 2 8 500 0-645 Q o 6 0 600 0-928 4 10 8 700 1-264 5 16 8 800 1-651 6 24 0 900 2-089 7 32 8 1000 2-584 8 42 8 i 1100 3-121 9 54 0 f 1200 3-715 10 66 8 1300 1 4-360 11 80 8 ! 1400 5-056 12 96 0 1500 1 5-805 13 112 9 1600 6-604 14 130 9 1700 7-446 15 149 11 From the above table it will be seen that the difference at the distance of 50 yards is almost nothing; therefore, if the levelling staves are placed 100 yards apart, and the instrument halfway between them, no correction will be required. It is scarcely to be supposed that a gardener can command an instrument so nicely adjusted that the line of sight will be perfectly horizontal when the bubble is in the middle of the tube. Its line of sight may direct to a point too high or too low, but by placing the instrument exactly in the middle, as at p (Fig. 114), any error arising from the above cause may be avoided. If the instrument at p, when the bubble is in the middle of the spirit-tube, has its sights directed to /, say on the right, it is evident that that point is below the horizontal line; and when the instrument is turned roand, it will point as much below the horizontal line at l on the left. These two points 11 are both in the same horizontal line, although not in that of the instrument; for the distance being equal, the error is equal on both sides. It increases in proportion to the distance; therefore, if the instrument were not placed exactly in the middle, the two points 11 would not be equidistant from m m, and consequently the straight line between the two former would not be parallel to the horizontal line of sight. In all cases, therefore, where the instrument is not of the most perfect description, and particularly well adjusted, it should be placed half-way between the staves, on which points in a horizontal line are to be marked. It may be observed, that on viewing from l to l, the error of the instrument will be seen to be p n; by measuring that distance from l to m, and then adjusting the sights of the instrument so that they will direct to m whilst the bubble is in the middle of the spirit-tube, a level may then be taken for a short distance without risk of any material error, even although the instrument should not be placed midway, which it may not be possible to do in some cases. To level a line, as, for example, that intended for the edging of a walk. Prepare a lozenge-shaped piece of wood (Fig. 115) about 6 inches broad; paint it white, with the exception of an inch all round the margin, which should be black; also, a strong black line across from angle to angle. A square hole cut on the upper side of the cross line admits of anything against which Fig. 115.112 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. it is placed being marked exactly at the height I of that line. If the length of the edging intended to be levelled do not exceed GOO feet, let a rod be placed at each end, and the instrument halfway between these. Let an assistant hold the lozenge-shaped mark against the rod at one extremity of the line, whilst the person at the instrument directs him to slide it up or down, till the line across its centre coincides with the line of sight from the instrument when the bubble is in the middle of the spirit-tube. Mark the rod at the height of the cross-line; and in the same way the rod at the other end of the walk. The two points so marked on the rods at each extremity are in the same horizontal line, like the points mm, or l l, in Fig. 114. The instrument may now be removed, and a rod put in its place. By placing the cross-line of the lozenge-slide on one of the points to which the level was directed, aud then viewing from the point at the other extremity, the rod placed in the middle can be marked at a point which will be in a horizontal line with the other two. There will then be three ascertained points on the same level; and by viewing between any two, as many more may be marked along the line as may be found necessary. Thus, on the rods placed between the two extremities, a series of points may be marked, all of which shall be in the same horizontal line. By measuring down a uniform distance from each of these points, the horizontal line which they marked may be transferred to the ground, or to the height to which the edging is to be worked. If this height be determined at any place, then it is only necessary to measure down to it from the level point originally marked on the rod, and to the same distance below each of the level points the whole edging should be formed. Instead of a lozenge-shaped mark, a square board, divided into four parts, two of which are white, and the others black or red, may be used. This shows the centre very distinctly, from the portions being painted alternately, and may be used preferably to the borning-rods, so much employed in designing ami draining operations, mentioned at p. 75. It should be adapted for sliding up and down a rod, aud being fixed at any particular height. But instead of being level, the walk may be required to have a uniform slope, so that one end shall be, say 2 feet lower than the other. In this and similar cases, find the horizontal level points at each end as before; then mark a foot higher than the level point at the one end, and a foot lower at the other, and thus there will be a difference of 2 feet between these new points, and a straight line from one to the other will have the required uniform slope. If a border were to be made level across a piece of uneven ground, and so that neither more nor less soil shall be employed than that which is found within its limits, the following mode of proceeding may be adopted:—Place a rod at each end, and intermediately a number of rods at equal distances from each other. Place the instrument in the middle of the length of the border, but not exactly in the direct line between the rods placed at the extremities, in order that these maybe seen without obstruction from the other rods. Mark on the end rods two points on the same level, as before directed; and likewise points on the same level on the other rods along the line. Now, as the ground was stated to be uneven, the level points will be at unequal heights above the surface, and the question is, to what uniform distance below them the surface, when levelled, will reach without having soil to wheel away as super-fiuous, or anjT to bring in to make up deficiencies. We shall suppose the number of rods placed along the line to be ten. Measure down from the level points to the surface of the ground. Then, from these perpendiculars, find the mean depth of the space between the horizontal line and the surface of the ground. This is not unfrequeutly supposed to be done by dividing the sum of the perpendiculars by their number; but this is not quite correct; therefore the following mode should be adopted:—To half the sum of the first and last perpendiculars add all the others, and divide the sum by their number, less 1; the quotient will be the mean depth of the space between the ground and horizontal line; and a line traced at that depth below the horizontal line will be the ground level to which, if the high parts are taken down, the soil from them will exactly fill the hollows. Suppose the distances from the ground to the level points marked on the ten rods as follows:— Ft. Ins. Rod 1, ........................ 4 6 ,, 2, ............................................ 3 G „ 3, ............................................ 3 0 „ 4, ............................................ 2 G ,, 5, ............................................ 3 0 ,, G, ............................................ 4 G „ 7, ............................................ 5 0 8, ......................................... 4 3 „ 0, ............................................ 4 0 „ 10, .................................. 2 G Sum of first and last divided by 2... 3 G Sum of tlie other depths, ......... 20 9 Number of depths, less 1=9,......... 33 3 3 |4 The sum of all the depths divided by theirFRUIT AND KITCHEN GARDEN. 113 number would give an average of 3 feet 7b inches, which is not far from the truth, because a considerable number of depths were taken. But supposing the number of perpendiculars had been only five, and that their lengths were respectively 4 feet 6 inches, 3 feet 6 inches, 4 feet, 2 feet 6 inches, 5 feet 6 inches; then their whole sum, 20 feet, divided by 5, their number, gives 4 feet; whereas, the correct mean depth of the space is only 3 feet 9 inches, the error being 3 inches; but this would amount to an excess of 50 loads of earth in a border 300 feet in length by 20 feet in breadth. But cases may occur where the ground is so irregular that the rods at each extremity cannot be seen from the middle, and it may be required to find^1^ 1. The difference of level between the points where the rod is placed at a and that at g. 2. The height of a horizontal line, according to which the ground may be made perfectly level with its own soil. 3. The direction of a line, according to which the surface will form a uniform slope, with the least possible movement of soil. 1. To find the difference of level between the two extremities.—Place the rods a, b, c, &c. (Pig. 116), at convenient distances, and so that the surface Fig. 116. of the ground will be straight, or nearly so, between every two. The operation may be commenced at either end; here we shall proceed from A. Place the instrument half-way between A and b, mark the level points on these two rods, and enter their heights from the ground in columns as under. Thus, after directing the instrument back to rod a, the line of sight is found to intersect that rod at 3 feet from the ground; write that height in the column headed Back-sight. Then turning the sights of the instrument, and viewing forward to rod b, mark the level, and enter its height from the ground, 5 feet, in the column headed Fore-sight. Move the instrument to station 2. Take there the back-sight level to b, and the fore-sight one to c, and enter the heights of these level points in the proper columns. Proceed thus till the levels are taken at all the stations: then sum up both columns; their difference is the difference of level. If the sum of the heights in the back-sight column be greater than that in the fore-sight one, the ground is rising; if the sum in the fore-sight column be the greater, the ground is falling, as is the case in the present instance. Station. Back-sight. Fore-sight. Distance of surface below horizontal line or datum, at Ft. Ins. Ft. Ins. Ft. A, 3 Ins. 0 i, A, 3 0 B, 5 0 B, 5 0 9 B, 2 0 C, 5 6 C, 8 6 3, C, 3 6 D, 3 6 D, 8 6 4, D, 4 c E, 3 0 E, 7 0 5, E, 4 0 F, 4 6 F, 7 6 6, F, 2 6 G, 5 6 G, 10 6 19 C 27 0 19 6 Difference of level,... 7 6 From the above it appears that the sum of the back-sight column is 19 feet 6 inches, whilst that of the fore-sight one is 27 feet; and that their difference, 7 feet 6 inches, is the difference of level between the surface of the ground at a and that at g. On looking at the figure, it will be observed that the surface of the ground is undulating; but it falls more than it rises. By inspecting the entries in the back and fore sight columns it is found that, with the exception of the one at station 4, they are either equal, or those in the fore-siglit oolumn are greatest, and that the sum of the latter exceeds that of the back-sight column by 7 feet 6 inches; and, accordingly, it is found, as above explained, that the ground at g is that much lower than at a. If the work had been commenced at G, then the sum of the fore-sight column would have been least; and when this is the case, it should be recollected that the ground is rising. The difference of level between the surface of the ground at a, and that at any of the rods, may be ascertained in a similar manner to that by which the difference between A and g has been found. For example, if the difference of level between a and e is required, the sums of the columns as far as E are respectively 17 feet and 13 feet; the fore-sight column exceeds the other by 4 feet, and so much the surface of the ground at e is below that at a. It will frequently be necessary, in practice, to know at any particular point the distance of the surface from the horizontal line adopted as a datum, such as the line a g. That distance, taken 8114 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. at each of the rods, should be entered in a column ruled for the purpose. It may be ascertained as follows:—For example, at e: at this rod we have just ascertained that the ground is 4 feet lower than it is at a; and the ground at a is 3 feet below the horizontal line A g; therefore, at e the surface is 4 + 3 = 7 feet below the horizontal line. The distance from this line may .also be readily found by summing up both columns, as far as the entry, inclusive of the fore-sight on the rod where the height is required, omitting the initial height of the first back-sight. The difference of the sums is the distance of the ground from the horizontal line. Thus, at c the fore-sight column amounts to 10 feet G inches—the other, omitting the initial 3, is 2 feet; the difference, 8 feet 6 inches, is the distance of the ground from the horizontal line at c. 2. To find the height of a horizontal line h 1 (Fig. 116), according to which the ground mag he made level with its oion soil. Find the area of the perpendicular space between the surface of the ground and the horizontal line a g. Divide that area by the length of the horizontal line, and the quotient will be the distance from the line a g to a parallel horizontal line h l, according to which the ground will be level; for there will be as much of the solid ground above it as there are vacant spaces below it; so that when the heights are taken down to that line and turned into the hollows, the whole will be level. Supposing the rods are placed at the distance of 50 feet from each other, the areas of the spaces between each rod from the ground to the horizontal line a g should be found, in order to ascertain the area of the whole space. This can be done as follows:— Perpendi- f A, S B, 5'0 C, 8'5 D, 8'5 E, 7*0 F, 7’5 culars, ) 13, 5 (J, S*5 1), S'5 E, 7*0 F, 7*5 G, 10*5 S 13*5 17*0 15*5 14*5 18*0 Base,....... 50 50 50 50 50 50 — 2)4 00____(575______850_______775______725________900 Areas,......200 337*5 425 3S7*5 36*2*5 450 The total of these areas is 2162*5 square feet. Now the object is, to find where a horizontal line can be drawn that will leave as much space or hollow below it as there will be of ground above it, or that will form the end of a parallelogram, the length of which is A G = 300 feet, and which shall contain an area equal to that of the whole space above ground, up to the line a g, or 2162’5 square feet. If it do the one it will certainly do the other; for a line that will include all the clear space above it, must exactly leave that which is, or ought to be made, solid ground below it. We may therefore divide the area of the space by the length, and it will give the breadth of the parallelogram, or average perpendicular distance from the datum line to the surface of the ground. The total area of the irregular space is, as above found, 2162'5 square feet, which, divided by 300, the length, gives 7'208 feet, or about 7 feet 2h inches, and this distance, measured down from the datum horizontal line a g, will determine the position of the required horizontal ground line h l. In the above example, the rods are at equal distances, and this being the case, the mean distance from the datum line to the ground could be found by merely adding to the half sum of the first and last perpendiculars all the others, and dividing this sum by the number of perpendiculars, less one; thus— 3 + 10*5 + 5 + 8'5 + 8-5 + 7 + 7'5 = 43‘25, 2 which, divided by G, the number of perpendiculars, less 1, gives 7-208, or 7 feet 2^ inches, as before. But cases may occur where the rods, to give the correct area, must be placed at unequal distances, so as to be at the extremities of the different slopes, and then the mean perpendicular distance cannot be obtained by averaging the respective heights, but must be calculated by multiplying the sum of each pair of perpendiculars by the distance between them, and taking half the product for the area; or the sum of any pair of perpendiculars multiplied by half the distance, or half the sum of the perpendiculars by the whole distance between them, will, in either case, give the area of space included between the two perpendiculars. The rods,as before remarked, should be placed so as the surface of the ground will deviate little from a straight line between every two, or, in other words, at the highest and lowest parts of the surface. Thus, however irregular the surface may be, levels can be taken on the rods, so that the distance from the ground to a horizontal datum line can be found at any point, and consequently the area of the whole space or section between that line and the ground can be ascertained. This area, divided by the whole base or distance between the rods placed at the extremities, will give the distance of the level ground line from the horizontal datum line. Here, it may be observed, that the centre of this ground level remains at the same height, although the ground may be laid to any slope. A border the length of the above line, 300 feet, may be perfectly level; and if three stakes, one at each end, and one exactly in the middle, are driven in till their tops are level with the ground, as where the lines intersect the rod d, the ground may be laidFRUIT AND KITCHEN GARDEN. 115 sloping, by lowering one end below the level, and raising the other as much above it, so that the top of the stake at one end shall then be, say 1 foot above the ground, and the other 1 foot below it; still the top of the middle stake will be, as formerly, level with the surface, just as a plank supported at its middle between two fixed points may be placed horizontally, or more or less sloping, but the point at the centre will always retain the same position. 3. To find the direction of a line according to ichich the surface icill form a regularly inclined plane or uniform slope, with the least possible movement of soil. Instead of the ground being made perfectly level by the line h l (Fig. 116), let it be laid sloping with its own soil by a line i p. Place a rod at each extremity, a g, and one exactly in the middle, at d. Find a line that will correspond with the horizontal level of the ground between a and d, and another for the space between d and g. These lines may be found in a similar manner to that by which the line h l was found. Here the total area of the spaces between a and d is 200 + 337'5 + 425 = 962'5 square feet. This, divided by the length of base between a and d, 150 feet, gives about 6 feet 5 inches to be measured down from the datum line a g for the horizontal level of the upper half of the ground. The areas of the spaces between D and G are 387'5, 362’5, 450; and their sum, 1200, divided by 150, gives 8, the number of feet to be measured down from the line A G for the horizontal level of the lower half of the ground. This is 1 foot 7 inches below the level of the other half. The mean between these levels gives the position of the horizontal line h l of the whole piece. Now, it has been explained that, whether the surface is reduced to a horizontal level, or whether it is laid sloping, the point in the middle of the horizontal ground line always retains the same position, the same distance from the datum line a g, and it is always at the surface of the ground, whether this be level, or formed with a uniform slope. Now the mean level of both the upper and the lower half of the ground has been ascertained, also the general level of the ground h l, and the central point at the intersection of the rod d, which point, it is certain, as above explained, must always be in the surface plane, whatever the inclination of this may be. On this point as a centre, the line h l may have one end elevated to any required extent, whilst the other is equally depressed; and still the ground will suffice to level itself to that slope. But the question is, how to determine tlie amount of slope, so as to have the least possible quantity of soil to move. This can be done by a line drawn through the centre of the mean higher and lower levels, and such line will also pass through the centre of the general level. The same will be effected by setting up the difference of height between the higher and lower levels from l and down from h, marking the points i p, a straight line between which will give the direction of an inclined plane, requiring less moving of soil to form it than would be the case with any other; and at the same time, the ground will not have to be moved to so great a depth in certain places as if a horizontal plane were formed. These are important objects; for with reference to Fig. 116, supposing the ground were to be reduced to a level, and that the portion of bank between a and b extended 200 feet, in that case 2670 cubic yards would have to be moved, partly into the adjoining hollow, and partly to the distance of upwards of 200 feet to the hollow between f and g. But by the slope ascertained to be best, the removal of as much as 487 cubic yards is saved, as well as the distant carriage. If the ground were required to be taken down to the level, the depth to be cut down from the surface to l would be 4 feet 2-Jr inches. At that depth solid rock might be met with; but by adopting a slope, the cutting would be reduced to 2 feet 7^ inches. Where the subsoil is as easily penetrated in one place as another, and where the surface has to be made of one uniform slope at the least expense, proceed in the following manner:—Find the mean levels of the upper and lower halves, as a b and c d (Fig 117), and the difference of their heights, a d, say 4 feet. Half the difference Fig. 117. mai'ks the position of h l, indicating the mean level of the whole piece. Measure up 4 feet from l to p, and down from h to i; the line ip will correspond with a slope requiring a less amount of labour than any other to reduce the undulating surface, represented by the dotted line, to a uniform inclined plane. It will be observed that the rising ground opposite a has only to be turned into the hollow at b, and the projection at c will suffice to make up the adjoining deficiencies near d; and with these two simple operations the116 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. work is completed. If a steeper slope were to be adopted, it is evident that a quantity of soil would have to be moved up-hill from near i towards p. If, on the contrary, the slope were to be made less than that represented in the figure, more than the minimum quantity of soil must be moved, although easier, of course, than in the other case, because down-hill. Hitherto the directions have been given for levelling a line, such as the edging of a walk, or a strip like a border, which, although sloping irregularly in the direction of its length, was supposed to be all along horizontal across. If those directions are well understood, there will be less difficulty in comprehending a more complicated part of the subject, which must now be entered into. If the ground undulates with a general slope in one direction, say from north to south, and if it does so regularly across the whole area, the instructions already given will be sufficient; but it may also slope irregularly in other directions, so that neither the perfect level, nor the general uniform slope of the least expensive formation, can be so easily determined. The substratum should be so regulated as to be a certain distance below the surface, namely, the estimated average thickness of the top-soil. The soil and subsoil may be worked accordingly, but both too high. By inducing the surface to the proper level, the depth of good soil, so far as the reduction goes, will be less than it ought to be, unless the substratum be also lowered. In order that such unsatisfactory and expensive labour may be saved, due care should be taken to ascertain the proper average level of the whole ground. In oi'der to do this, it is necessary to find at some convenient height a number of points in the same horizontal plane, so that from these the average depth of the space between that plane and the surface of the ground can be ascertained. Place a rod at each corner, as a, b, c, d (Fig. 118), and, taking care to place the instrument half-way between the rods, in case of error from the line of sight not being exactly parallel with the axis of the spirit-tube, mark level points on the rods, say a and b, move the instrument to one of the adjacent sides, as between b and d, and mark similar points on each of them. Now, it will rarely happen that the marks on the rods taken from station f will correspond with those taken at station g. The difference, however, whether higher or lower, will be seen on the rod b. If it be, say 10 inches lower, then mark 10 inches above the Fig. 118. level point on the rod d, and this mark will correspond with the levels first taken between a and b. Proceed in the same manner with the levels between d c and c a, and thus four points, one at each corner of the ground, will be obtained in the same horizontal plane. If the ground is not very irregular, place rods at equal distances in line from end to end, and across, so as to form the whole into squares, and by viewing from the level points at the corners, as from a to b, mark others on the rods placed intermediately along that line, and likewise on the rods on the opposite side, between c and d\ and by viewing between each pair of opposite rods on these sides, the whole of the rods can be marked to the same level. Then, by the preceding rules, find the mean perpendicular of the space between the ground and the horizontal line on the side a b. Mark this down; and in a similar manner, the mean of the next parallel line of stakes, and of all the other lines running in the same direction. Add the mean height of the line a b to that of c d, and to half the sum add the means of the heights of all the intermediate ones; divide the sum by the total number of rows of stakes, less 1, and the quotient will be the distance to be measured down from the level mark on each rod for the mean level of the ground. After due consideration of the foregoing directions and examples, with a little practice, any one may understand how to level sufficiently well for garden purposes. It may be objected by some, that they have no instrument at command by which the levels may be taken as we have directed. To this it may be replied, that a mason’s common plummet level can always be obtained, and the levels can be carried on with it, from rod to rod, correctly enough, if proper care be taken, although not so expeditiously as by other means. But it is better that some time should be occupied, even by this tedious process with a plummet level, than to commence operations at random, judging merely by the eye; for this, where the ground is very irregular, often ■proves very deceptive. Workmen may be set to lower the parts that are obviously too high, and of course make up those which are evidently too low; but in doing this they cannot know how much the one part should be taken down, or how much the other should be raised. They may, however, contrive to bring a height and its adjoining hollow to a tolerably fair level; by successive lowerings the height is at last reduced, and a uniform surface appears instead of the original height and hollow. After due pains have been taken to smooth this portion, the next height and hollow can be treated in a similar manner; but when this is done, in allFRUIT AND KITCHEN GARDEN. 117 probability the two portions thus levelled will not agree; means must therefore be employed to make them do so. The carefully smoothed surface of the highest portion must be broken up; third and fourth portions can then be brought to a level with the two first; still it may be questionable whether all may not have to be altered, in order to agree with the remaining portions of the ground. This is as likely as not, for it is all chance work. One cannot go to work by chance with confidence; he is always in danger of going too deep or too shallow, and of having to undo what he has done. He cannot tell, in fact, when or at what cost the work will be accomplished. It is very different when levels have been taken; the workman, in taking down a portion that is too high, knows by the marks on the adjoining rods how deep to go in lowering, and how high in making up, and he can then work freely without hesitation or fear of going wrong. If ground be only worked roughly to the level marks in the first instance, still it will be found that a digging will render the whole surface perfectly satisfactory. In short, it will be found that without knowing how to level, neither draining, trenching, nor other ground work can be well, and at the same time economically, performed.—Having eudeavoured to explain this subject so that there need be no difficulty, we may now enter upon that of draining. II.—DRAINING. We have treated at considerable length on the subject of levelling, because its importance, in many garden operations, renders a knowledge of it very desirable. We may now proceed with draining, an operation which should precede that of trenching and other ground work, but which ought not to be commenced until the level of the ground has been determined. The beneficial effects of draining having been noticed under the improvement of soils, matters more immediately connected with its practical details have now to be taken into consideration. The necessity of draining is naturally the first question; for it would only be a waste of money to drain a garden that is either naturally too dry, or one that, on examination, is found to possess no superfluous moisture. It is generally not difficult to decide at any time in the case of ground being too dry. Occasionally, however, the soil may be of a dry open nature, and yet prove in certain seasons too wet below for the roots of fruit-trees. In this case the subsoil is usually of a very impervious nature, and lower than the high -water level of the channel which receives the drainage water of the site of the garden and its vicinity. The height to which the water channels rise after heavy rains can be ascertained either from actual observation or from water-worn marks; and by taking the level from these to the garden, the height to which the temporary stagnant water will rise can be known. If the water only rise too high occasionally after heavy rains—if the rise is only the exception and not the rule—the trees will thrive very well. But if it stand too high for a great part of the year, then it ought to be drained if possible. The site of a garden may be perfectly level, and at the same time naturally well drained. Where there is a good top-soil on a loamy subsoil, and this again on gravel conducting to a considerably lower channel, no artificial drainage is requisite; for the worms perforate the stratum of loam, even if it should be 2 feet deep, to the gravel, and by this means the surface water readily passes down — sometimes, indeed, too readily; for under these circumstances, and where the mean temperature of the year is about 50°, and the annual amount of rain only 24 inches, fruit-trees frequently suffer from dryness at the root; therefore, ground so situated does not require drainage. Ground lying on a slope, but free from springs, may be too wet in certain parts, for where the slope is not regular, water is likely to collect in the hollows. But when the subsoil is reduced to a regular slope, these inequalities being removed, the rain-water will not lodge in one place more than in another, and in all probability there will be no necessity for drainage. In short, where the subsoil has, either naturally or artificially, a regular slope, and where no water reaches it except that derived from the rain which falls on the area, draining will not be requisite except in climates where more than 30 inches of rain falls in the course of the year. With a uniform, and, it may be, only a slight descent to a lower level, a moderately porous soil, even in a wet climate, may not be in want of artificial drainage; and on the other hand, ground may be so circumstanced as to be absolutely unfit for crops until it be drained, although the annual quantity of rain may be comparatively little, i Whether, therefore, a soil requires draining or not, depends, it would appear, not so much upon the quantity of rain which falls on the spot as on various other circumstances. The great and constant source of moisture for the soil is the ocean. This supplies the land with an amount equal to that of all the water which the rivers discharge into the sea. By the action of the sun’s rays, the water is raised from the ocean | in the form of vapour, which is condensed, and118 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. falls in the shape of rain, or is deposited as dew on cold surfaces. It has, however, to find its way, directly or indirectly, back to that ocean from which it was raised by evaporation. Water, it is true, is raised from the surface of the earth as well as from the ocean; but it is evident, that whatever is evaporated from the soil will be again absorbed by it. If from a certain portion of ground that on an average contains 100 gallons of water, nearly that quantity is evaporated during a period of drought, so as to leave the soil almost completely dry, it is certain that the same portion will absorb 100 gallons when rain falls in sufficient quantity. If a country had no supply of rain from any source of evaporation except that from its own surface, one of two things must happen—either it can have no rivers, or if it have any, the country must get every year drier and drier so long as these rivers continue to run; and as the ground becomes progressively drier, so the quantity of rain must become less and less every year, from the drier surface affording less evaporation. Now, in Britain, rivers have flowed to the sea for thousands of years, and the ground is not thereby reduced to an arid state; therefore, the rain which supplies these rivers must be derived from evaporation from the ocean, whilst, as previously stated, all the rain from local or land evaporation must, on the average, be re-absorbed by the soil. These islands have, then, a supply of moisture or rain from the ocean equal to the quantity of water discharged by all the rivers in the kingdom; and a quantity of moisture equal to the amount of evaporation from all surfaces affording it must be alternately in the state of aqueous vapour in the air and of moisture in the soil. With the exception of the comparatively small portion of surface presented by lakes, rivers, streams, or rivulets, all the water which flows to the ocean must either percolate through the soil or run over its surface; and, in addition to this, a portion of the rain, equal to that derived from the evaporation from the land surfaces, will partly rest on these surfaces, and partly enter the soil, till again evaporated. In this way, a certain amount of moisture may pass and repass several times through the soil in the course of a year. But where the ground is either level, or forms a uniform slope, no drainage has to be provided for this moisture, as it is no more than can be evaporated or will pass away. From what has been stated it is apparent that the total drainage of a country, natural and artificial, is equal to the quantity of water discharged into the sea. If we were to suppose that the soil, instead of being disposed in mountains and valleys, were laid on a uniformly sloping, impervious stratum, what, it may be asked, would be the consequence of such an arrangement? The whole of the moisture, except that kept up by evaporation, would drain regularly towards the sea; and if no river channels were formed, the soil of a large extent, comprising the lower part of the slope, would be continually in a state of saturation; for there would have to pass through it all the rain-water locally due to it, also that from the whole of the ground above it. The greater part would be unfit for cultivation until artificial channels, adequate to drain off the superfluous water, were formed. The general direction of these channels ought to be that of the slope, as is the case with natural rivers, which have, however, to wind amongst the irregularities of the ground, from having to find the lowest bed. But this winding would not be necessary in the case of a uniform slope and the subsoil which we have supposed; and the most economical way to drain it, would be parallel channels in the direction of the slope, with lateral or branch channels diverging upwards from them at angles of 45°. Their number could be regulated, so as to leave the ground neither too wet nor too dry for vegetation. Natural slopes are not unfrequently to be met with which might be drained on the above principle. The ground in this country being very irregular, the superfluous water is conveyed, as already observed, by rivers and streams. In some cases, these natural channels may require deepening, but in general they can be looked upon as affording sufficient fall for the drainage of the adjoining ground ; and they accordingly answer the purpose of the parallel straight main channels in the supposed uniform slope of country, although not so speedily, from the circuitous route which they have to take. In the supposed case of the regular slope and uniformly impervious subsoil, a main channel would receive from each of its tributary ones a quantity of water equal to the amount of rain, less evaporation, which would fall on each intersected portion of the area. Presuming that the total quantity of rain was equally distributed over the whole surface, the branch channels, at equal distances and of equal lengths, would each receive the same quantity of water; but it must not be supposed from this, that in reality drains of equal length will all contribute equal quantities of water to the natural channels or rivulets. In the same locality, perhaps in the same field, on which the fall of rain on one part cannot differ much from that on another, a drain may be cut of a certain length and draw but little water, perhaps a little after very heavy rains, orFRUIT AND KITCHEN GARDEN. 119 there may be none even then, if the soil is so deep as to absorb and retain the rain-water till it is evaporated. Another drain, similar to the preceding in every respect, may discharge ten times as much as the fall of rain on the portion of surface within range of its draught; and this it may do although the field be so situated as to derive no supply of water from the rain which falls on any part of the ground immediately surrounding it. It has been explained that all superfluous water must be derived from rain, raised as vapour by the sun’s rays; but in the case we have supposed, similar, in fact, to many which are actually to be found, it may be asked whence so much more water than could be supplied by the fall of rain on the field is discharged by one drain, whilst so little falls to the share of the adjoining one ? As the excess could not be obtained from rain falling on the surface of the field itself, or conveyed to it by the surface of any adjoining slope, it evidently must have been derived from rain that has fallen on some distant part, whence it must have found its way to the drain in question by underground channels, such as strata of porous materials through which water can penetrate. Strata of this description are frequently to be met with, and generally form more or less inclined planes, sometimes of considerable extent. This will be readily understood by reference to the following diagram, in which the dark portions represent clay or other impervious strata, and the lighter gravel, sand, or chalk, permitting a passage to melted snow falling at a great distance from it, as in the part of the country between b and d. Moreover, it will be understood that if a drain be cut in the pervious stratum, it will discharge Fig. 120. water. The narrow band a, f, b, c, d (Fig. 119), represents the surface layer. The rain which falls between b and d must flow towards c, where, in sinking through the surface soil, it reaches the impervious stratum e, which arrests the passage of the water in a perpendicular direction, and it therefore passes along the pervious stratum, and crops out at A, where it either forms open springs and rivulets, or a swamp, or at all events it keeps the surface soil saturated for the whole or greater part of the year. In this way, a part of a district at a may be injuriously affected by rain or a large quantity of water compared with one that may happen to be cut, it may be said improperly, into the impervious one. Fig. 120 will serve to illustrate this. Let the light lines represent thin porous layers through which water can percolate: if a drain be cut, as at a, into the impervious stratum, it will reach none of the watery channels; whereas the drain c reaches a part of them as it proceeds towards the surface at D; whereas a drain cut from d to e intersects the whole, and furnishes an outlet to them at a lower level. Fig. 121 represents a tractof undulating ground, a large portion of which rests on a porous subsoil, as from b to c, whilst from a to b and c to D are marshy, from the rain which falls on these portions not escaping; and it will be observed, that the portion from a to b receives also the water which drains through the subsoil between b and c. Occasionally the strata are disposed in the form of a basin, as in Fig. 122. The rain which falls at A and b percolates towards the centre, and the water may force its way through the thinner part of the mass of clay, as at d ; by boring at c, an artesian well would be obtained. Fig. 123 also120 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. represents porous subsoil, in which the water is confined by layers of clay, except when it forces passages, or springs from its pressure through the upper layer, as at a, b, c. In some clay soils, a bed of sand or gravel, completely saturated with water, occurs at the depth Jliij h • ; / ' PorousGnnuitf Fig. 123. rpprrLevrl ofthe\\’atrr S-IrK: ft* Graw7 or Sana cuntuimmi Sprint/# , uL '• •• i., . -a of a few feet below the surface, with which it has corresponding undulations; but in places where its water is subjected to the greatest pressure, and the stratum of clay above it offers the least resistance, springs from it appear at the surface, or it saturates the soil so as to render it only fit for subaquatic vegetation. Fig. 124 exhibits this arrangement of strata: where a represents the surface soil; b, the impervious clayey subsoil; c, the watery stratum of sandy clay or gravel; and D, the lower bed of clay resting upon the rocky strata; e and f springs. Supposing the lowest portion of the stratum c, or that between e and Fig. 126. Fig. 121. iimi t; r*£ • - Igptr W'- "nut1 f, to be 4 feet lower than the highest part of the curve on each side of it, then when the whole is completely saturated, the upward pressure between e and F will be equal to 250 lbs. on the square foot. Some rocky strata, impervious to water, are interrupted by fissures, as represented at a b Fig. 12 ill,: &*>**'• * vm[^ wBUBm '3V%: (Fig. 125), which are called faults by miners. Some of these fissures are occupied by substances which obstruct the passage of water, others with those of a porous nature. Let a represent a sandy stratum, b a clay one, and c and D porous strata charged with water; on reaching the fault at B, the water will collect, and rising upwards so as to form a spring at the surface, it will render the soil between b and a too wet. The water, however, on reaching the sandy fault at A, will pass down through it to the porous strata, which, before the disruptions at a and b, had been continuations of the strata c, d. From the preceding diagrams it will be observed that the strata are sometimes as irregular as the surface, but this is not generally the case. On the contrary, they mostly form inclined planes, so that when we once get trace of a watery stratum, and can ascertain the ratio of its slope, its depth from the surface at any point so far as it extends, and the place where it crops out to the surface, can be pretty well determined. We must endeavour, in the first place, to find, as nearly as possible, the direction of the greatest slope or inclination of the stratum. This may be done by digging down to it in three places, as at a, b, d (Fig. 126), their position being such as to form two sides of a square. Then find the relative levels of watery strata at these three points. If d be the lowest, and a and b be on the same level, the slope of the stratum is direct from a b to c d. If b is the highest, and A and d equally lower, the greatest slope will be from b to c, crossing the diagonal at right angles in o. If B is the highest, a the next lower, and d the lowest, then the line of greatest slope will be through some point between o and d. To find this point, divide the line a d, in proportion to the slopes of a b and B d. Let that of the former be 8 inches, and that of the latter 20 inches. The line a d, 226y feet, or nearly so, in length, divided in the proportion of 8 to 20, gives 64 feet 7 inches as the less, and 161 feet 7 inches as the greater portion. It is evident that the greatest fall will be nearer d than a ; therefore the greater proportion set off from a to d, or the less from d to P a, will mark the point through which the line of greatest slope, b f, intersects the line a D. Or, as the difference of level between b and d is to the distance between these points, so is the difference of level between a and b to the distance from B towards D, where the stratum will be at the same level as at a. Stretch a line from a to the point thus ascertained between b and d, and a line across it anywhere at right angles will indicate the direction of the greatest inclination of the stratum. Suppose that from b to a the slope is 8 inches, and from b to d 20 inches, and that the side ofFRUIT AND KITCHEN GARDEN. 121 the square from b to d is 160 feet; then as 20 In.: 8 in. : : 160 ft. : 64 ft. At the distance, then, of 64 feet, from B to E, the stratum will have declined 8 inches, or as much as from b to A; consequently, a and b will be on exactly the same level, and a line drawn between them will be at right angles to the line of greatest declivity. Accordingly, a line b f, stretched from B and across a e at right angles, will indicate the greatest inclination along this line. The depth of the strata below b should be ascertained at two or three places, say 50, 100, 200 feet or yards apart, noting at each place the depth of the stratum below that at b, in order to know the ratio- of its slope per 100 ft. or yards. If it slope, for instance, (i in. in 100 ft., it is easy to find the amount for 1000, or any other number, so that at any point the depth below the starting-point, as b in this case, cau be calculated. To ascertain the depth of the stratum at any point, say 800 ft. from b:—Find the depth of the stratum at that distance, which, presuming that it slopes 6 inches in 100 ft., would be 4 ft.; also, how much the surface at that distance is higher or lower than the surface at b; and let it be supposed that at the latter it is 3 feet above the stratum. If at the distance of 800 feet, the surface is found to be 4 feet lower than at b, then it will have sloped just as much as the stratum, and of course will be, as at the origin of the investigation, 3 feet above it. If on the same level as at b, then the stratum having in the interval sloped 4 feet, will be 7 feet from the surface; and if the latter is 2 feet higher than at b, it will be 9 feet from the stratum. If, on the contrary, the surface of the ground fall as much as 7 feet, it will meet the course of the stratum, which will then, as it is termed, crop out, as is the case with the porous stratum c (Fig. 119), after passing under the elevated ground which intervenes between c and A. Spring water, conveyed to a distance through such porous channels as those to which we have endeavoured to direct attention, cannot be too much guarded against. Secluded from the influence of the sun’s rays, or of warm air, it acquires in the earth the temperature of the latter, which at a certain distance from the surface differs little from the mean of the climate, from 46° to 49° in these latitudes. This temperature it communicates to the soil, rendering the latter not only wet, but too cold in summer for most kinds of garden plants. A slope may face the south, and the sun’s rays may exert their influence in warming vegetation above the surface; but this will be to little purpose, whilst the roots are constantly chilled with an unfailing supply of cold spring water. In spring, the temperature of well-drained land, in some situations, is probably not higher than that of spring water; but as the season advances, and the atmospheric temperature rises, so, in a nearly equal ratio, does that of the soil. But where affected by springs, the temperature of the soil does not rise in accordance with the increasing summer heat, and consequently, in such soils, a great discrepancy must take place between the temperature to which the roots of plants are subjected, and that to which their tops are exposed; and under such conditions vegetation cannot prosper. Referring again to Fig. 119, the rain, in descending the slope from f towards a, will probably be colder in winter; but when the plants are in active vegetation in summer, and requiring the most warmth at the roots, the moisture along the surface from f, being immediately derived from summer rains, and passiug over or percolating through the heated surface-soil, will, as regards heat, prove highly favourable to vegetation. It is therefore the chilling effects of cold spring water, derived from distant sources through porous underground channels, that ought to be most especially guarded against; and the most effectual means should be taken to render the soil and subsoil of the garden free from them. It is with this view that we have been more minute in details respecting the direction of strata, than some may consider necessary in treating of gardening operations. Before entering upon the formation of drains, it will be necessary to describe the different kinds of tools required for the purpose. Spades of different widths are required, such Fig. 12». as are represented in Figs. 127, 128, 129: the latter, and also 130, are called bottoming tools.122 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. In tenacious soils, tolerably free from stones, the curved form, Fig. 131, is preferred to those that Fig. 131. Fig. 132. Fig. 133. are flat; but for subsoils with stones imbedded, the straight form, Fig. 133, is the best adapted. A shovel much bent at the neck, and pointed (Fig. 132), is useful for finishing the bottoms of some kinds of drains. A spade (Fig. 134), with the handle considerably bent, is also convenient in many cases; but a bent-handled spade is not so well adapted for penetrating a hard subsoil, as one in which both blade and handle are nearly straight. All these tools should be made of the best materials, and the iron straps from the sockets of the blades should be continued up to near the cross handles. Long-handled scoops of various widths, and rounded or flattened in the soles (Figs. 135, 136, 137, 138, 140), are also employed. These are used for finishing the bottom for the reception of stones, flat tiles as a sole, or pipes. Such tools can be emjfloyed to reduce any slight irregularities, where the larger tools could not be introduced; and the more evenly the drain is cut out, and the smoother the bottom, the longer it will keep clear, and the better it will act. Where very hard strata have to be penetrated, a planter’s mattock (Fig. 141) will be necessary. The mattock or grubbing axe (Fig. 142) will also be useful for cutting through roots of trees and similar obstructions. The foot-pick (Fig. 143) has the advantage, | ground, instead of treading on the portions that in using it the workman is on the firm | loosened by the implement. For laying pipesFRUIT AND KITCHEN GARDEN. 123 in narrow and deep-cut drains in which a man cannot stand, ail instrument called a pipe-layer (Fig. 139) is found very convenient. As guides for the workmen, drain-gauges made to show the depth and width of the drain, as in Fig. 144, or merely the depth, as in Fig. 145, are necessary. The former is made for stone-drains, the latter for tile-drains. In all cases, it is desirable that the fall should be regular; but the greatest care is necessary w lie re very little fall can be afforded; the workmen should therefore be provided with a level of the simplest form, such as they best understand, so that there may be the less chance of their not using it properly. This, most probably, is the mason’s oi’dinary level, only it will be most convenient to have the stem high enough to admit of the plumb-line being seen above the level of the ground, whilst the base of the level is placed in the bottom of the drain. This instrument is however rather cumbersome, and might be superseded by a straight-edge, with a spirit-level inserted, in the case of drains in which a man can stand to see the spirit bubble; or otherwise the foot-level (Fig. 84), constructed so as to span 10 feet, might be used, a thickness equal to the fall of the drain in that distance being added below one of the feet of the instrument. Various kinds of drains are formed, to suit different circumstances; they are usually divided into two classes, open and covered drains. Open Drains.*— The open drain, or ditch, is doubtless the original mode of draining off superfluous moisture; but it is now mostly superseded by covered drains; for these do not occasion waste of ground for crops, or obstructions on the surface; and they are ultimately the cheapest, open drains being apt to break down at the sides, and fill up with weeds, so that much expense for frequent scouring is incurred. In their usual form, moreover, open drains or ditches in or near gardens are unsightly. If they are in any case admitted, they should be made in the form of ornamental water-courses, their sides being constructed with that view; and their bottoms should be built channels, no larger than will at all times be amply sufficient for the quantity of water which may pass along them. The slope for the sides of open drains in garden soil ought not to be less than 45°. In this case, the width at top is equal to twice the depth, added to the width at bottom. Fig. 146 represents an Fig. 146. open ditch, with the sides sloping at an angle of 45°, the width being 7 feet at top, 1 foot at bottom, and the depth 3 feet. On a slope of this amount, grass can be laid, and kept mowed ; but whether turfed or not, it would be a great improvement on the usual form of the open ditch, if a built channel were constructed either square124 GARDENER'S ASSISTANT. or semicircular, but in such a way that there may be at least a foot of level turfed margin on each side of the channel. Covered Drains.—Some of these are formed by cutting out a narrow trench, and making the bottom still more narrow, so that when a thick turf is put in, a cavity for the water is left; others are filled up with fagots. It is needless, however, to notice these particularly, as stone or tile drains are so much superior to them. Stones are plentiful enough in some places, and may very well be used for the purpose of draining; and draining tiles can easily be obtained of any form, and at a reasonable rate, owing to the great improvements in the machinery employed for their manufacture. In many cases it is desirable to construct stone-drains, in order to get rid of stones taken out of the ground in trenching to the proper depth. They can be made to act very well; but they may, like most kinds of drains, get stopped; and when this occurs, they cannot be so easily taken up and relaid as tile-drains, owing to the wedging of the materials, and their greater weight as compared with that of tiles. There are three kinds of stone-drains: the box-drain, the couple-drain, and the small-stone or rubble drain. The box-drain (Fig. 147) is chiefly formed with flat stones. Drains of this kind are best made with a paved sole, for which the largest stones should be selected, and those best adapted for covers should be reserved. At the same time great care should be taken to lay the soles flat, so that no part of the bottom stand so much as an inch above its general run, which can be ascer- tained by placing a straight-edge along the bottom. This being so far correct, the sides are built to the required height, packing in some smaller stones to keep the others steady; the covers are then laid over, taking care to place their flattest sides downwards, so that there may be no projections into the cavity. Small stones are then put over the covers. A layer of heath, fibrous turf, or other tough substance, should be placed over the stones, in order to prevent the soil from mixing with them; and if some coal-ashes were then scattered over this layer, they would tend to prevent the worms from affecting the drainage. The coupled drain (Fig. 148) is formed by putting flat stones in the bottom for a sole, and upon this two other stones are placed, with their upper edges leaning against each other, so as to form a triangular cavity. The spaces between the sides of the drain and those of the cut trench may be filled up with smaller stones, and precautions similar to those employed in the preceding case are necessary to prevent the soil from closing up the drainage. Figs. 149 and 150 represent sections of small- Fig. 149. Fig. 150. stone or rubble drains. They are 7 inches wide at bottom, and 9 inches wide at the top of the stones, the depth of the latter being 15 inches. These are reckoned to be good proportions. The stones should be broken to the size of road-metal; and it is a good plan to put a layer of very small stones, several inches thick, over the others, as represented in Fig. 150; for by so doing, the earth is prevented from passing down so readily among the lower portions of the drainage. Rubble-drains are not so well adapted for gardens as box-drains; for rich soil, such as that of gardens, usually abounds in earth-worms, by the workings of which the drains are apt to be compactly cemented. They may, however, be adopted with advantage in some cases; for example, an orchard may require a certain amount of drainage when the trees are first planted; but when they get large, it is frequently the case that they require all the moisture they can get; so that if the rubble-drains cease to act after the lapse of some years, the want of drainage will not be felt. Tile-drains.—Experience has proved these toFRUIT AND KITCHEN GARDEN. 125 be, in general, the best and cheapest drains, and consequently they are the most in use. There are several kinds of them. Fig. 151 represents the liorse-shoe tile and its sole. The latter is sometimes dispensed with; but it is considered bad Fig. 151. economy; for in most subsoils the bottom of the drain becomes soft, and allows the horse-shoe tiles to sink, diminishing the opening not only by the amount of sinking, but likewise rendering it liable to be completely choked up; for if one should sink, and the other should not, there will be an opening at top between the two, through which soil will get in. This cannot take place to any extent where tile-soles are used, especially if care be taken to place the horse-shoe tiles so as to break bond, that is, to rest on two adjoining soles, as they are represented in the figure. The sole-tile should be carefully bedded, so that when pressed it may be quite flat. Some fibrous materials should be placed over the tiles previously to the earth being filled in. Fig. 152 represents a section of the finished drains. Pipe-tiles.—These are made of different shapes, but chiefly cylindrical, as in Fig. 153. The cylin- Fig. 153. drical form is found, on the whole, to be the best. It can be laid with the greatest facility, and it retains its position better than the oval form, especially when the trench is properly cut out by means of the bottoming tools (Figs. 129, 130, 131). The width of the trenches should be just sufficient for a man to work them out. If the top soil is of a loose nature, as much slope should be allowed as may be found necessary to prevent the soil from crumbling in whilst the drain is being laid. In clay soils, when the trench is cut out to within 9 inches or a foot of the intended depth, the bottoming tools should be employed to cut out a groove merely wide enough for the recep- tion of the pipe, as in Fig. 154. Iu gravelly or stony subsoils, it may only be possible to cut a narrow groove so deep as 9 or 12 inches; but a depth equal to the diameter of the pipe should be grooved out, so that the pipes may bed in the Fig. 154. Fig. 155. solid ground as accurately as possible. In Fig. 155 a section of the finished drain is represented. Pipe-tiles are sometimes furnished with collars, as represented in Fig. 156. These collars should Fig. 156. be employed in draining gardens, as they not only tend to keep the pipes from shifting, and thus interrupting the continuous flow of the water, but also to prevent roots from insinuating themselves into the drains. The size of the pipes, or width of their bore, depends on the quantity of water which ought to be carried off. What this may be it is difficult to ascertain. It may be only that from the rain which falls in the locality, or the accession of springs, and the length of the drains themselves, may also have to be taken into account. Where the subsoil is properly regulated in the formation of the garden, and where the fall of rain does not much exceed 24 inches per annum, little or no drainage is required on that account. The quantity of superfluous water from the accession of springs is the main consideration, and must be estimated from trial, by cutting. With regard to the length of the drain, it is easily understood that if pipes of a certain capacity are necessary for a certain length of drain, and if that length be increased, the capacity of the pipes, or at least of those towards the lower end, must also be increased. In all cases, however, it is well to make sure of ample capacity for drawing off all superfluous water that may at auy time Fig. 152.126 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. collect. Mr. Parkes, in his Philosophy of Land Drainage, gives some data resulting from experiments made with regard to the quantity of water discharged by 1-inch drain-pipes. He states that “ the drains were 24 feet asunder, and each pipe 1 foot in length, so that each lineal foot had to receive the water falling on 24 square feet of surface, equal to 60 lbs., or 6 gallons; and as the time which this quantity occupied in descending through the soil and disappearing was about forty-eight hours, it results that lj lb., or 1 pint per hour, entered the drain through the crevice existing between each pair of pipes. Every one knows, without having recourse to strict experiment, how very small a hole will let a pint of water pass through it in an hour, being only one-third of an ounce per minute, or about twice the contents of a lady’s thimble. “ The weight of rain per acre which fell during the twelve hours, amounted to 108,900 lbs., or 4S-5 tons, which, on the whole piece of 9 acres, is equal to 437'4 tons; and each drain discharged 19 tons, equal to about four-tenths of a ton per hour, on the mean of forty-eight hours; but when the flow was at the greatest, I find that each drain must have discharged at the rate of five times this quantity per hour, which affords proof of the faculty of the pipes to receive and carry off a fall of rain equal to 2^ inches in twelve hours, instead of ^ inch—a fall quite unknown in this climate.” An inch deep of rain in twelve hours is a heavy fall; it is equal to 22,622 gallons per acre, or 226,225 lbs., or •within 15 lbs. of 101 tons. This is more than twice the quantity which Mr. Parkes actually found the 1-inch drains at 24 feet apart discharged in the course of forty-eight hours; but, as he observes, that when the flow was greatest, the drains must have discharged at the rate of five times the quantity he mentions, or as much as would be derived from 2^ inches of rain, it may be concluded that pipes of an inch bore in drains 24 feet asunder will be more than adequate to discharge in forty-eight hours the superfluous water produced by the heaviest rains which occur in this country, provided no stoppage take place in the pipes. In Mr. Parkes’ experiment, it may be presumed that the pipes were all in good working order; but after a time it must be expected that obstacles to the free passage of water through the pipes will arise, in consequence of which many of them will have the bore partially, and some of them entirely, filled up. It is therefore advisable in gardens, where there is generally a difficulty in relaying the pipes, in consequence of trees, to use either a horse-shoe tile and sole, or pipe-tiles of not less than 2 inches in diameter. Where springs abound, even 3-inch pipes may be necessary. Figs. 157, 158, 159, 160, and 161, represent various modes of forming main drains, one or other of which may be adopted according to circumstances. Fig. 157 is a combination of two horse-shoe tiles, with a tile-sole or slate between them. In many cases the lower half of a drain may be so formed, whilst the single tile (Fig. 158) may be sufficient for the upper half. Fig. 161 is well adapted for allowing a large quantity of water to pass; the same may be said of the arrangement seen in Fig. 160, which affords a chance that if roots get into one or even two of the openings, still the third may be clear to act. Depth of Drains.—In some cases the depth of drains is limited by the outlet. Where this allows of sufficient fall, the top of the materials forming the drain should not be less than 3 feet below the surface, in order that they may not interfere with occasional deep trenching, and that they may be further removed from the danger of getting choked by the roots of plants. If circumstances will permit, it is desirable that the drain should be cut to the depth of 4 feet. In order, however, to accommodate the drain to porous strata, a greater depth may be necessary, or, for the same reason, a less depth than 4 feet may be advisable,FRUIT AND KITCHEN GARDEN. 127 notwithstanding some inconveniences arising from proximity to the surface. Instead of a very deep cutting to reach a watery stratum confined beneath an impervious layer, a drain may be cut 4 feet deep, and then small wells sunk and filled with stones, as represented in Fig. 162. The con- Fig. 162. duit is formed on one side, on a sole, and small stones are filled in about a foot above it. Frequency of Brains, or the Distance they should be Asunder.—The distance at which drains should be formed depends on various circumstances; chiefly upon the porosity of the soil or subsoil. Some kinds of subsoil are so porous that drains will draw water a great distance through it; in adhesive soils, on the contrary, they draw comparatively a little way. Smith recommends from 10 to 15 feet from drain to drain in adhesive soils, and in lighter and more porous soils from 18 to 24 feet. Parkes, in his Philosophy and Art of Drainage, recommends the deep and distant drain system. His practice was to make drains from 4 to 6 feet deep according to soil and outfall, and from 24 to 66 feet apart. Morton (Cyclopedia of Agriculture, vol. i. p. 701) says: “We have found a distance of 24 feet, with a depth of from 3^ to 4 feet, produce very perfect results on soils of considerable tenacity, in districts subject to more than the average fall of rain in the British islands. These will be found safe examples to follow under similar circumstances; and, where there is nothing in the formation of the subsoil calling for a particular arrangement to meet it, these intervals and depths will generally be found perfectly successful.” Direction of the Drains.—In level ground the direction of the drain is, of course, determined by the outlet, or by a main drain communicating with some place of outfall. Where there are no springs, and only the superfluous water resulting from a wet climate has to be drawn off, the drains should run in the direction of the slope of the ground, with perhaps a few diagonal or branch drains. If a watery stratum, causing springs, is to be intercepted by a deep drain, such ought to be more or less oblique to the direction of the stratum; for it is certain, that by crossing the slope of the stratum at right angles, the drain will be level; or, if cut so as to have a fall, part of its extent will be under the stratum. “ In many subsoils there are thin partings, or layers of porous materials, interposed between the strata, which, although not of sufficient capacity to give rise to actual springs, yet exude sufficient water to indicate their presence. These partings occasionally crop out, and give rise to those damp spots which ai’e to be seen diversifying the surface of fields, when the drying breezes of spring have begun to act upon them.” See Fig. 120, in which the light lines represent such partings. “ Now, it will be evident, in draining such land, that if the drains be disposed in a direction transverse or oblique to the slope, it will often happen that the drains, no matter how skilfully planned, will not reach the partings at all, as at a. In this case the water will continue to flow on in its accustomed channel, and discharge itself at b. But again, even though it does reach these partings, as at c, a considerable portion of water will escape from the drain itself, and flow to the lower level of its old point of discharge at d. Whereas, a drain cut in the line of the slope, as from d to E, intersects all these partings, and furnishes an outlet to them at a lower level than their old ones.” —(Morton’s Cyclopedia of Agriculture, vol. i. p. 701.) In commencing the operation of cutting the drains, the place of outfall previously determined by levelling should be cleared. If it be an open channel, irregular in width and depth, means should be taken to regulate it in these respects, so that after heavy rains the water may flow on without rising so high as it would otherwise do if its course were obstructed by contractions and irregular bends. A few pieces of rock, or a portion of some hard stratum across the bed of a rivulet, render tracts of ground liable to be flooded a long way back. The narrow crooked channel may be regulated; but overflowing will still occur whilst obstructions of the nature alluded to are allowed to remain. If, from exam-128 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. ination and trial by levelling, it is found that there are obstructions, near or remote, that can possibly influence the level of the water at the outfall of the drains, means should be taken to remove such obstructions. The outlets of the main drain should be, if the declivity will permit, several inches above the surface level of the water in the channel of outfall. Drains on different sides of the same channel of outfall should not enter it exactly opposite each other, nor should any drain be led into the outfall, or into another drain at right angles. Although the general direction of drains will often be at right angles to the channel into which their water is discharged, yet on approaching it they should form a gentle curve in the direction of the stream or main drain, so as to enter at an acute angle. In this way the forces of the two streams, instead of acting against each other, will unite to clear away the mud that would otherwise accumulate at the mouth of the drain. If possible the smaller drains should have as much as 3 inches of a fall into the larger or main drains; and more than this, for the general outfall, would be desirable. It is a bad plan to terminate the minor drains in an open ditch, as they are apt to get choked when their discharge is too weak to clear themselves. They should therefore be made to fall into main drains, from which the collected water will be discharged with greater force, and thus keep their outlets clear. The main drains should be cut first. The others should be laid as soon as they are cut out, commencing the laying at the top of the drain, or the place farthest from the outfall, and terminating in the main drain, with which each junction should be carefully made. If the main consist of tile-pipes, there should be branched ones for the junctions; or if not, a hole should be cut out in the side of a main pipe, into which the terminating pipe of the minor drain ought to be neatly fitted. When the first drain is laid into the main, the latter should be laid as far as the entrance of the next minor drain, and thus the work should proceed till the whole is completed to the place of outfall. Drainage greatly depends for its beneficial effects on a law of nature, which horticulturists should particularly bear in mind, and by which it is known that the greatest density of water takes place when it is about the temperature of 40° Falir., and consequently in any body of water the portion nearest that temperature will sink, whilst the rest will rise and float upon it; the heaviest will occupy the lowest position, and, unless mechanically disturbed, will maintain it to the exclusion of the warmer and lighter portion; and the main art and use of drainage is to withdraw this cold and heavy portion, so that the warm summer rains may sink down and occupy the place of heavy stagnant water from cold winter rains or melted snow, which chills the soil and its vegetation. That warm water will float on that which is colder is proved at page 41, Fig. 50, nor will it sink through soil that is saturated with cold water till the latter is drawn off. III.—BORDERS FOR FRUIT-TREES. In some cases the soil intended for a fruit and kitchen garden is so good that the borders require nothing beyond trenching and manuring, in common with the rest of the ground. But frequently other means have to be employed to render borders suitable for fruit-trees. If the soil is bad, it may have to be removed, and a better description substituted. Both soil and subsoil may have to be moved, and this should be done before the rest of the ground is trenched, for otherwise the conveyance of materials would be rendered difficult, in consequence of their having to be taken over the loosened ground, to the injury of the latter. For these reasons, the formation of the borders should precede the trenching of the rest of the ground. Width of Fruit-tree Borders.—The width of the borders is the fii'st consideration. It was formerly recommended by various authors, to make the width of the borders equal to the height of the walls; but this rule should not be implicitly followed in every case. The walls of the royal gardens at Frogmore are all 12 feet high, but some of the borders are 15 feet, others 18 feet wide, a greater width being allowed for borders appropriated to the growth of pears than to those for peaches and nectarines, because the roots of the former extend farther than those of the latter kind of fruit-trees. The principal consideration in determining the width of the border is the extent necessary for affording the roots sufficient nourishment. This partly depends on the nature of the soil, subsoil, and warmth of the situation. If the soil is naturally rich, or artificially made so, it will contain more nourishment in less compass than where the soil is of a poorer nature. If the subsoil is bad, and the situation cold, then the borders should be made comparatively shallow, in order to keep the roots near the surface; and as these are thus necessarily prevented from penetrating far downwards, they should have the more space allowed them to extend outwards. As borders can be cropped, it may be urged that there can be no loss of produceFRUIT AND KITCHEN GARDEN. 129 by making them broader than the trees may absolutely require. For the growth of certain vegetables—many of the smaller kinds, for instance, that require a warm soil and sheltered situation, and that do not root deeply—borders are preferable; but there are others that require the ground to be trenched occasionally, and this cannot be done when the border becomes occupied with the roots of the trees. If the borders of a garden containing an acre were 18 feet wide, they would occupy more than one-third of the area remaining for cultivation, after deducting space for walks. In gardens of still less extent, if the breadth of the borders be the same as in the above, their area will of course bear a greater proportion to the rest of the ground; consequently, some kinds of vegetables which are taller and deeper rooted than would be desirable for borders, would have to be grown on them. Rather than do this, it will be advisable, in such cases, to limit the width as much as can well be done, consistently with the actual requirements of the trees. A fruit and kitchen garden of the extent of 1 acre, or less, may have the borders 12 feet wide from the wall to the edge of the gravel walk; but the ground below the latter should be made good, if it is not so naturally, in order that the roots may extend and feed under it. If the garden contain between 1 and 2 acres, the borders may be 15 feet; and if it is more than 2 acres in extent, they should be 18 feet wide; and this we consider to be the greatest width that any fruit-tree border need be formed under any circumstances. Whilst some would allow as much as 18 feet for the border in front of the south-aspect wall, yet they prefer a width of 12 or 15 feet for those in front of the east and west aspect walls. It is true the south-aspect border is the most important, and the most useful for producing early crops, nevertheless, it must be borne in mind, that espalier trees, that may be planted on the opposite side of the walk, tend to shade the trees on the wall, not perhaps from the direct rays of the sun, but from a certain portion of the sky illuminated by those rays. When the border is 18 feet, instead of 15 or less, there is so much more clear space for the play of light on the trees; and it is well known that these, whether on an eastern or western aspect, require all the light they can possibly receive; therefore, it is advisable that a wide border should intervene between them and the espalier trees. From what has been stated, we may conclude that where the soil is good and the garden not large, 12 feet may be taken for the breadth of the borders. If the soil is necessarily shallow, it would be desirable to add 2 or 3 feet more to the width. Lastly, in large gardens, where there is plenty of ground for the strong-growing crops, the borders should all be 18 feet wide. Depth of Fruit-tree Borders.—There is much difference of opinion with respect to the depth of borders. Some authors recommend them to be as deep as 3 feet, some as shallow as 15 inches, and these may be considered as extremes, between which various depths, as 18, 21, 24, and 30 inches, are recommended. Shallow borders are advocated on account of their maintaining the roots near the surface, and consequently more within the heating influence of the sun’s rays. Provided the border is well drained, and the subsoil completely freed from stagnant water and the chilling effects of water springs, there is less to be feared from cold in a border made of the depth of 3 feet than is generally supposed. This will be seen by the following table, which exhibits the mean monthly temperature of the soil at the depths of 1 foot, 2 feet, and 3 feet below the surface, in ground naturally well drained:— Months. Average Temperature of the Soil at— 1 foot deep. 2 feet deep. 3 feet deep. February, 401° 39-7° 42-4° March, 39-1 38-9 41-1 April, 44-5 43-5 44'8 May, 514 493 50-7 June, 56-7 541 550 July, 65 '5 62-8 62-8 August, 62-3 60-5 62-0 September, 57-6 56 '8 594 From the above it appears that the soil at 3 feet deep is, on the average, quite as warm as it is at 1 foot, and even warmer than at 2 feet deep. In winter the ground at 3 feet deep is warmer than at 2 feet. Twice a year, towards the end of April and the end of August, the temperature of the ground at 1 foot and 3 feet deep is equal. In winter, then, the roots in a deep border are warmer than those in a shallow one; but in summer the roots in shallow borders have the advantage of a temperature 2 or 3 degrees higher, but as the difference scarcely averages 2 degrees during the months of May, June, and July, it may not be of such importance as many have supposed. The effects of 2 or 3 degrees of heat are certainly not to be overlooked; but the absence of that amount cannot be supposed to produce the great difference stated to have been experienced, in some cases, between the results obtained from trees planted in shallow and in deep borders. Instances have been recorded of the good effects which have resulted 9130 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. from talcing up the trees, and replanting them after making the borders more shallow; but it should be borne in mind that the removal and replanting of the trees, even in the same depth of soil, would of itself be the means of rendering them more productive. The only fault of the trees was perhaps their over-luxuriance, arising from the very favourable condition in which the roots were placed—a condition requiring no change, provided the trees could have been once brought into a bearing state, and this can, in many cases, be done merely by good management in summer pruning. When they have to support a heavy crop, over-luxuriance in wood and leaves is sufficiently checked, and then there is no cause for complaint of the depth of the soil affording too much nourishment. Trees may bear abundance of large fruit, which, in a good climate and favourable aspect, may ripen perfectly. The fruit may also be large and abundant under less favourable circumstances of climate and aspect, but the flavour may be deficient. In this case, the amount of nourishment is evidently too much for the climate, and it becomes a question how this amount is to be reduced; whether by allowing a less quantity of the same rich kind of soil, or the same quantity but poorer in quality; in other words, whether the border should be made shallow and rich, or deep, but composed of materials that can only afford a limited supply of food. A deep but very poor soil we consider to be objectionable; and equally so, on the other hand, one that is very shallow, but exceedingly rich. We believe that the best conditions for a border, under such circumstances, will be intermediate as regards these extremes. Near London, in ordinary seasons, excellent crops of peaches and nectarines are produced, although the trees in some gardens are grown in borders which, in many cases, have received no artificial making, except merely trenching to the depth of 2, 2i, or 3 feet, some manure being given at the same time. The subsoil is a yellow, compact, sandy loam, adhesive when wet, and when turned up hardening with drought after being soaked with rain, but falling tender, like slaked lime, on again acquiring moisture. It rests on a bed of gravel, and is in consequence naturally well drained; the temperature averages quite as high at 3 feet as at 1 foot below the surface. Trees in such soil thrive well for several years, although the soil be trenched only 18 inches deep, or down to the loam; but this they readily penetrate when it is soft and moist, and in a dry hot summer they grow amazingly. In one, two, or three years more, however, the trees draw all available moisture out of the stratum of loam, which is then a compact dry mass, and such it generally remains, even after a very wet season. The roots so abundantly formed in it, when it was in a moist state, find themselves completely deprived of the moisture by which they were enticed downwards, and having nothing to draw from, they must fail in supplying the same quantity of sap as they formerly did. The trees soon exhibit signs of this privation, and sometimes never recover from its effects. Whether the border be trenched or not, the roots will penetrate quite to the depth above mentioned; but when the stratum of loam is broken up, the consequences of their doing so are far from being so disastrous, for the loosened soil can at any time be more readily moistened than the dry loam; and rain, or water otherwise supplied, will have more free access among the loose particles, than among those of the more compact mass of dry maiden loam. In a favourable climate, therefore, and when the soil is good, with a loamy subsoil, a depth of 3 feet is necessary for fruit-tree borders, in order to break up the loamy substratum, which, although easily permeable to the roots when it is moist, yet to moisture it is not so when it has once become dry, if allowed to retain its original compact state. There is no danger of the natural soil being too rich, provided it be friable and the border well drained. The excellent soil of the fruit-tree borders of the royal gardens at Frogmore is a proof of this. The trees produce vigorous wood, but with good management are not over-luxuriant, and they make substantial growth early in the season. In a strong clay soil, on a badly drained subsoil, the vegetation of the trees is more backward, and they generally commence an excessively vigorous growth after midsummer, so that, if the strong shoots developed after that period be stopped, the resulting laterals have not time to become thoroughly matured before winter. It may be concluded from the foregoing considerations and facts, that a depth of 3 feet may be allowed for borders in a good climate, other circumstances of soil and subsoil being likewise favourable. The above depth may, however, be considered the maximum ; and we now come to examine those conditions under which a less depth should be adopted. Where the climate is not so good as to ripen fruit of large size, such as borders affording much nourishment are calculated to produce, the supply of food must be diminished in order to produce shoots that will not be more vigorous than can be well matured, and fruit not larger than the amount of sun-heat is adequate to thoroughlyFRUIT AND KITCHEN GARDEN. 131 ripen. Presuming that the soil is a good loam, but the climate not so good as that for which a depth of 3 feet was recommended, that of 2-Js feet will be advisable; and in a climate still less favourable, the depth may be reduced to 2 feet; or, if the subsoil as well as the climate is cold, 18 inches may be proper, but this is the least depth we would recommend. As borders are usually formed with a slope from the wall to the edge of the walk, and as this slope is generally greater than that of the bottom of the border, it follows that the depth of soil will be greater at the wall than at the side of the border next the walk. The several depths above mentioned are to be understood as mean depths; thus, where the depth of soil is recommended to be 30 inches, that depth applies half-way between the wall and the side of the border next the walk. If the surface slopes 12 inches, and the bottom only 4 inches, and the mean depth be 30 inches, then the depth of soil next the wall will be 34, and at the walk 26 inches. But whatever the respective depths at the wall and front of the border may be, their mean is that to which we refer in speaking of the depth of borders. The bottom of fruit-tree borders should have a regular slope from the wall towards the walk, where drainage should be provided. Some recommend a fall of 6 inches from the wall to the latter; but the amount should depend on the width of the border. In general, a uniform fall of 1 inch in 3 feet will be quite sufficient. This amounts to 4 inches for a border 12 feet wide; 5 inches for 15, and 6 inches for 18 feet wide. It is equal to a fall of fully 120 feet in a mile; and a stream flowing in a channel having this gradient would certainly be the reverse of sluggish. So far then as a descent for stagnant water is concerned, the above may be considered, in any case, quite sufficient. In naturally dry subsoils, the slope may be less; yet we think that it should not be altogether dispensed with, because the fruit-trees usually planted against walls naturally thrive well on slopes. The roots of a tree planted against a wall extend outwards, and consequently in the direction of the slope. This being the case, their extremities, which are the principal absorbents, are situated the lowest, just where they have the best chance of receiving moisture as it descends to them. If, however, the bottom were quite level, the extremities would have no more chance of moisture than the comparatively naked roots near the stem, which less require it. From this it appears evident that a little slope, even in dry soils, is beneficial. The amount of slope to be calculated for the surface of the borders is more dependent on cir- cumstances than that of the bottom. In localities where the climate is good, and where the average quantity of rain does not exceed 24 inches, the surface of the border may lie nearly level; for trees in such places require, against a south wall at least, all the rain that falls on the border, and frequently more. On the other hand, where the climate is cold and wet, a good slope is advantageous, not only for throwing off superabundant moisture, but also that the surface of the border may receive greater heat from the sun’s rays, by being more perpendicular to them. In such a case the slope may be as much as 1 in 12, or an inch in every foot; so that a border 12 feet wide would be a foot higher at the wall than at the side next the walk; and if 18 feet wide, 18 inches higher; and so on in proportion. This slope may be allowed in cold wet situations; but under ordinary circumstances, a slope of 1 in 18, equal to 8 inches on a 12-feet border, or 12 inches on one 18 feet wide, will be sufficient. The average depth of the border, the elope of its bottom, and that of its surface, having been decided upon, there yet remains for consideration the general level of the border relatively to that of the rest of the ground. Before the importance of subsoil drainage was so well understood as it is now, borders were sometimes made deep by excavating below the subsoil level of the rest of the ground. If the bottom were covered to some depth with draining materials, the excavation would only form a sort of rubble-drain from the higher subsoil, without an outlet, filled with water which of course must be stagnant. The trees having their roots in this damp medium could not thrive; deep borders were blamed, the trees were taken up, the border made shallow, and they succeeded. The fact of their doing so was proof condemnatory of deep borders; but in many such cases we doubt not if the whole depth of the border could have been elevated so as to rest as much above as it was below the natural level of the adjoining subsoil, the trees would have succeeded equally well. The evil, in our opinion, lay not in the thickness of the soil, but in the sunken position which it was made to occupy. No cultivated plant thrives well with its roots below the surrounding subsoil. Even celery, though it naturally grows in ditches, will not thrive well when planted in very deep trenches in a garden; it need not, therefore, be a matter of surprise that fruit-trees do not succeed when placed in a similar condition. If the bottom of the border is lower than the adjoining subsoil, and the two are not separated by a drain, we may easily suppose that water will tend to gink into the bottom of the border, where it will be132 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. stagnant. It is not, however, so easy to conceive how the border could be affected if cut off from the rest of the ground by a drain. Let the accompanying figure (163) represent such, and let a be the subsoil level, below which 9 complete saturation occasionally takes place. This being the case, \ f-—d moisture will, in some soils, rise to a- —\ /..h the same level at b, maintaining V-------------c the bottom of the border damp, notwithstanding that the latter is above the bottom of the drain. From what has been above stated, and from experience, it is evident that the bottom of a fruit-tree border should not be lower than the general level of the subsoil a, which would be the case if it were dug out down to c, that even at b it is liable to be damp, and therefore it is desirable that it should be formed at some elevation above the line a b, as at d. The height of the bottom d above a b should not be less than 3 inches, and were it not for diminishing by so much the height of the wall, it might even be a foot. This would involve the additional expense of four more courses of bricks; but if that could be afforded, it would be compensated by the advantages arising from the roots of the trees being perfectly secure from an excess of moisture, and both foliage and fruit would be more exposed to air and light. In low danqo situations these advantages are of great importance; therefore, in order to obtain them, whether the soil of the border be made deep or shallow, or whether it slope much or little, the bottom of the border should be made on a higher level than that of the subsoil of the rest of the ground. By so doing, however, the surface of the boi’der will likewise be raised above the general level, unless the border have a less depth of soil than the rest of the garden. It becomes a question, whether the level of the walks should be made to correspond with the general level of the ground, or with that of the border. Some approve of the former, and in cases where it is advisable to raise the border considerably, they recommend that a ; low parapet wall should be built along the front of the border. This, however, will be best taken into consideration when we come to treat of laying out the walks; and we shall therefore only remark at present, that the borders should be formed irrespective of the walks, according to the principles best calculated for the success of the trees. It is a question whether fruit-tree borders should be paved in the bottom, laid with concrete, or otherwise rendered impenetrable to the roots of trees. Mr. Keane states that “the soil of the most productive part of Kent is locally called hassock or stonei-shatter; the surface of this is a mixture of sandy loam, largely intermixed with small pieces of light-coloured Kentish ragstone; it is from 6 inches to 2 feet deep on solid stone rock. This land produces great quantities of hops, apples, cherries, filberts, and likewise good turnips, potatoes, seeds, and corn; also much excellent hay on old grass lands. Fruit-ti’ees of all sorts flourish and produce abundantly; even peach and pear trees of the most delicate kinds grow with the greatest luxuriance, and are free from disease. To what are we to attribute such results 1 not to the climate, for localities enjoying a higher degree of temperature than the neighbourhood of Maidstone do not produce such fruit. The answer, then, resolves itself into the fact, that the quantity and superior quality of the fruits are due to the soil being naturally in that state best suited for their healthy growth.” Mr. Keane further observes, that fruit-trees, growing in such soil, produce short-jointed wood; they grow slowly, and their tissues become perfectly organized as growth proceeds. Here we have a naturally hard bottom producing a healthy vegetation. Mr. Fleming concreted the fruit-tree borders at Trentham, as a means of preventing the injurious effects of the dampness of the soil and situation. This proceeding has produced very satisfactory results. We may therefore conclude, that paving with stones, tiles, bricks, slates, or concreting the bottoms of fruit-tree borders, is to be recommended, in all damp situations, as highly conducive to the success of the trees; and also where the subsoil contains substances which act injuriously on vegetation. In such cases there can be no question as to the utility of the process of close paving; and therefore, where expense is no object, it should be carried out. When, however, the subsoil is good and not overmoist, paving is superfluous, except it be resorted to with the view of limiting the supply of nourishment where this is so abundant as to produce a more luxuriant growth than the climate can render perfect. On this subject Mr. Fleming makes some very judicious remarks in the Gardeners' Chronicle, 1849, p. 68; alluding to the gardens at Trentham, he says—“As the situation of these gardens is very low' and damp, I find it an advantage to concrete the floor of the border, as well as its surface; for it is necessary to prevent the roots from descending into the subsoil, which is a wet stiff clay, and owes its superabundant moisture to the close proximity of a river. Wherever the same natural disadvantages have to be contended with, this double concreting will be found useful; but in medium soils, where the substratum can be effectually drained, the lowerFRUIT AND KITCHEN GARDEN. 133 concrete is unnecessary, and in many instances would be worse than injurious, as the border would be liable to get too dry in summer. Where-ever the soil is open, and the substratum naturally dry, concreting is altogether unnecessary. The utility of practice will, of course, depend upon the peculiarities of the climate, soil, and situation, concerning which every one must be guided by his own judgment; but I can safely affirm that here concreting has been of immense advantage.” Concrete, which signifies to coalesce in one mass, is usually composed of a mixture of lime, gravel, and sand. It is now much used for the foundations of walls, and in many situations the whole of the basements of houses are laid with it. A composition that will answer in these cases will likewise be suitable for fruit-tree borders. A writer in the Gardeners' Chronicle, 1842, p. 571, says, “The best mode of forming what is now called concrete foundations is a question on which there exists much difference of opinion; nor is this difference likely to be very soon settled, for this reason—that any mode in which there is the commonest attention to the known principles of calcareous cements will do sufficiently well.” He then proposes to use a layer or layers of such stones as are fit for macadamizing a road, either larger, smaller, or mixed, and then to fill up the interstices of these stones with a cement of sharp sand and good stone lime, the latter having been ground hot, and not slaked in the usual way. “One part of lime and two or three of clean sand, well beaten up together, will make a very good mixture for this purpose. The great difference of opinion arises out of the mode in which the lime and sand shall be mixed with the stones, and the whole made compact in the trench. One mode, it is obvious, would have been to pour the lime and sand in a fluid state upon each stratum of broken stones as they were laid in the trench, first ramming down the stones as much as was thought necessary, then pouring on the cement, and afterwards not disturbing that layer. This plan has by some been recommended, and is in inv judgment the best mode. The ordinary process is to mix the stones, sand, and lime with enough of water, and to throw the whole into the foundations from a great height; the object of the fall being to give compactness, which is not, I think, to be so obtained. The fall produces a scattering action in the mass, which appears to me unfavourable to compactness.” Practically, however, it is found that concrete dropped from a height acquires the greatest solidity, and this is the mode adopted in and near London. “With these general principles,” continues the writer above quoted, “any one can form and use concrete effectually. Hard clean stones, clean sand mixed with as little clay as possible, and no humus, well-burned stone lime, or good chalk lime, and if slaked instead of being ground, it will not matter much; these materials packed closely in a trench, and disturbed as little as may be after the lime has begun to set, will make a good concrete foundation. Where good clean gravel, or gravel from which the clay has been washed, can be obtained, that will at once furnish both the stones and the sand, requiring merely the admixture of about one-eighth of lime; the mixture may be laid in the trenches in layers of 3 or 4 inches, and rapidly trodden down; or it may be thrown in from a height, according to the London practice, if that be preferred.” “The essential quality of concrete seems to be, that the materials used should be of small dimensions, so that the cementing medium may act in every direction round them, and that the latter should on no account be more in quantity than is necessary for that purpose. Architects and engineers have much varied the proportions of lime and sand used. If the lime, which should be fresh and ground to powder, be good stone lime, such as that from Dorking, used in the neighbourhood of London, it will bear three or four times its measure, by bulk, of sand. These, and the ballast or gallots, as the stone-chippings are called, should be thoroughly turned over and mixed together. It is then filled into the barrows, and run on to be dropped from a stage into the foundations. This latter operation should be performed at as great a height as possible above the level of the trench, in order that the whole of the different particles of the composition may be compressed together, so as to occupy the least possible space. The stones employed should not exceed the size of a common hen’s egg; the mass very quickly sets and becomes extremely hard.” —(Braude’s Dictionary of Scimce.') “The proportion of hot lime to the gravel is about one-eightli part only. Others use lime in the proportion of one to five of loamy gravel. In countries where gravel is not common, dry brick rubbish, broken stone, Hints, or any material that will bind into one mass, will answer.”—(Loudon’s Encyclopedia of Cottage, Farm, and Villa Architecture .) Mr. Fleming used one part by measure of lime and eight parts of gravel. Others approve of five parts of stones, one of sand, and one of lime; and we consider these to be very good proportions; but whether a greater or less quantity of lime be used, the stones and sand employed in the composition for border floors should be asGARDENER’S ASSISTANT. 134 clean as possible, for if there were loamy substances or patches of garden soil amongst the concrete, the roots of the trees would take to such, and might penetrate into the substratum. The thickness of the bed of concrete may be about 4 inches. Presuming that this is the case, and that lime constitutes one-seventh of the whole mass, the quantity of lime required for concreting a border 18 feet in breadth will be about 53 bushels for every 100 feet run. The cost of the lime would not be great, and in many cases gravel will be found near the spot; so that the principal expense is the labour. A concrete formed as above will be strong; but if stones fit for the purpose are not plentiful in the locality, sand and lime in the proportion to form a mortar —say one part lime to tln-ee or four of sand— will resist the roots of trees; and if laid on a bottom of as nearly uniform solidity as possible, it will not readily break with ordinary care. This may be found cheaper, or at all events there will be less weight of materials required than in concreting. Whatever mode be adopted, we may feel assured, that in all cases where the borders do not naturally possess a good bottom, the expense will be amply repaid by superior crops. The first expense of the process is the only one, but on the other hand the advantages are permanent. The border may be made of the best materials at great expense, but this would be in a manner thrown away if the soil were laid on a bad substratum. In proceeding to lay down the concrete, great care should be taken to prepare for it an even floor of uniform solidity. The breadth of the border should be marked off into three divisions, or into two if the border is narrow; the soil of the one next the wall should be cleared out to the proper depth, throwing it so as to form a high ridge between the excavation and the walk. The bottom of the excavated portion should next be made level, rammed equally all over, and any inequalities resulting from this operation should be regulated. The whole should then be trodden, raked, and well rolled. If the concrete materials were mixed on this, the even sui'face would be destroyed, and the soil, notwithstanding the greatest care, would be occasionally shovelled up amongst the other materials. It would therefore be preferable to have a movable wooden floor, on which a load or cubic yard of sand and gravel could be thoroughly mixed with the lime. The quantity of lime to be added to each cubic yard of the other materials, so as to constitute one-seventh of the entire mass, will be about 2f bushels. Planks should be placed over the excavation, and at a height of at least 6 feet above the floor others should be laid, so that when the materials are thoroughly mixed, they may be immediately wheeled up and dropped from the above height. A board should be placed on edge next the unremoved soil, in order that the concrete may there have a straight square edge. As the filling in of the concrete proceeds, it should be immediately gauged to the proper depth with a straight-edge, in order that it may have an even surface, which should afterwards be made smooth by 1 seating it evenly with the back of a spade or shovel. This should be done before the concrete has had time to set, for after it does so it ought not to be disturbed. After allowing the concrete to be fairly set, the soil of the next division of the border should be cleared out by turning it upon the concreted portion next the wall; the bottom should be levelled to the proper slope as before. When this has been done, the edging boards should be removed to admit of the complete junction of the concrete about to be laid with that previously done; and after placing them next the soil, the floor of this portion will be ready for the reception of the concrete. When this has been introduced and set, the soil can be levelled in, and that of the third or outside division of the border may be thrown partly on the border and partly on the site of the walk. In finishing this portion the edge of the concrete should not be made square, but rounded off, so as not to be so readily broken. Instead of concreting the border in portions lengthwise, it may be done in sections right across, provided time is allowed for each to set before being covered with the soil of another. By following the preceding directions a very substantial floor will be the result. It will be impervious to the roots of trees, but it must not be supposed that it will be much warmer than the natural subsoil on which it rests. If this be undrained, and in summer comparatively cold, from the presence of spring water, that cold will be communicated to the concrete or other substance with which such water comes in contact. Where the subsoil is not drained, the concrete rests on a bed of substances, the interstices of which are occupied by water; but drain off the latter, and these interstices immediately fill with air. The temperature of the latter is governed by that of the atmosphere with which it is in connection, and the mean temperature of the two will nearly correspond; whereas the water of the undrained substratum maintains nearly the temperature of the springs which constitute its source; so that it is but little affected by the atmospheric changes of temperature. In short, the temperature of the air in a drained substratum rises in summer nearlyFRUIT AND KITCHEN GARDEN. 135 in a corresponding degree with that of the atmosphere in which the tree makes its growth above ground, so that both roots and branches are nearly in the same condition as regards mean temperature. There is, however, no such correspondence when spring water occupies the interstices of the substratum. On the contrary, when the atmospheric heat is such as to stimulate vegetation, the water of the subsoil participates but little in the rise of temperature, and a great discrepancy between the temperatures to which the upper and lower portions of the tree are subjected is the consequence; and such discrepancy cannot fail to produce most injurious effects on the health of the trees. These effects will, however, be sufficiently guarded against if the floor of the border is formed on a drained substratum, from which stagnant water is completely removed, so that air may occupy the interstices. IV.—SOIL FOR FRUIT-TREE BORDERS. The soil best adapted for fruit-tree borders in general is a good substantial loam. For pears and apples it may be rather strong, inclining to clayey loam; but for stone-fruits, such as plums, cherries, peaches, nectarines, and apricots, a fine loam, inclining to the sandy, is preferable. Under particular circumstances of climate and locality, various compositions have, however, been recommended and employed with success. Where the soil is naturally a good fresh loam, trenching will be nearly all that the border will require, under ordinary circumstances, to fit it for the reception of the trees. If, however, first-rate borders are to be formed where the soil is naturally either too poor and sandy, or is, on the other hand, a very sti’ong tenacious clay, the original, in either case, should be removed, and fresh materials introduced. The question is, what these should be ? Where the climate will mature shoots of vigorous growth, nothing could be better than turfy maiden loam, as free from iron as possible, such as is used for potting plants. This, however, might not be attainable in many cases, except at a very great expense. Recourse may therefore be had to fibrous turf from a good loamy pasture. In some places, banks of loam occur, which, although dug to a considerable depth, become friable by exposure to the weather; and such, mixed with some of a fibrous nature, may be used. Some persons would be disposed to give the borders a good coat of manure; but this is worse than useless, for in a new and well-made border, the trees are generally complained of as being too luxuriant and unmanageable, and dung only increases the difficulty of keeping them in proper order. Instead of applying the manure to the border to do harm, it will be better to give it to the field whence the turf may have been taken, for by so doing the field will be in a great measure compensated for the loss of the turf, especially if the latter be taken and left in alternate strips. One of the best fruit-growers in this country, Mr. Snow, gardener at Swinton Park, Yorkshire, was greatly in favour of turf for fruit-tree borders, and certainly his opinion of it was well supported by the splendid productions he obtained. He states (Gardeners' Chronicle, 1846, p. 499), that “ in using turf, the first outlay is certainly the only one incurred; the turf is cut, carted home, chopped in pieces, put into the border, the trees planted, and all is completed; but in making use of an artificial soil, though you go to work most carefully, who shall say where the expense will end ?—the labour consumed in the mixings, turnings, &c., that are requisite, besides the expenditure for such components as I conceive would be required to place it on an equality with turf. If it be objected that the plan of paring a pasture is detrimental, I reply that a man’s labour for a day with a plough or spade (according to the quantity), and a few good grass-seeds, will speedily make up for the turf, and is not un-frequently the means of re-invigorating and improving the pasture. And now a few words as to the advantages I believe turf to possess over mixed material. “ I do not mean to assert that fruit-trees will not grow in other materials than turf. I have tried various soils and compounds, and some with fair success; but I never by such methods produced crops equal to those grown from turfy matter, either in quantity, size, or flavour. I believe turf procured from a pasture to contain properties adapted to the wants of trees, which artificial substitutes do not possess; and I have always found, that in turf, the trees ‘fibre’ more, ramifying through in all directions. More moderate sized and fruitful wood is also formed. But in borders formed of different materials, the roots are found to be much stronger, but fewer, pushing farther from home, and very often downwards, though perhaps into a cold clay. Trees in this state will be seen to make tremendously strong wood, and to be very unwilling to bear fruit. “ The durability of a turf border should also, I think, be a weighty argument in its favour; if properly formed, it will not need renewal for twenty or thirty years. I am aware that many are of opinion that injury is done to a pasture by paring off the turf; but I am of belief that it is mostly to the eye, and that only temporarily; and surely nobody who takes a delight in a gar-136 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. den would (even admitting that some slight harm I was done) consider it worthy of notice, or think anything too good which was essential, more ] especially when counterbalanced by the produc- ; tion of good-flavoured fruit, which, whether growing or placed on the table, is a source of pride and pleasure to all parties; but reverse the picture, and with fruit not fit to be eaten or looked j at, observe the painful feelings of all—the gardener the great sufferer, although the fault lies beyond his control. To produce good fruit, good means and good materials must be employed; and for fruit-borders, my conviction is that nothing is better than green turf.” We do not suppose that green turf is superior to that which is dried. Indeed we should not prefer turf with much length of grass upon it, unless the latter were in a withered state at the time; for if green grass ferment near the roots of trees it will kill them. In very many cases, borders cannot be made entirely of fresh soil on account of the expense. Attempts should, however, be made to improve the natural soil as much as possible with the means at command. If the ground is poor and sandy, manure alone will not produce the permanent improvement which the trees require. A compost of dung and turf, or dung and.loam, is preferable; and that this com-])ost may be where it will prove most useful, it should be placed not at the surface, where the roots could not be preserved in cropping; nor at the bottom, where it is not desirable that the roots should be enticed; but about half-way between the top and bottom. If the soil be naturally a too heavy clay, it should be burned and corrected by such means as have been pointed out in treating of soils. In situations where the climate is not sufficiently warm to ripen the wood which would be produced by trees in borders formed in the manner above directed, great advantages have resulted from mingling stones with the soil of the border. This has been well explained by Mr. Gregor Drummond, gardener to Sir Robert Preston, of Valleyfield, in a memoir, of which an abstract was communicated by the Caledonian Horticultural Society to the Horticultural Society of London. A site, near Valleyfield, where glass-works formerly existed, was made that of a cottage and flower garden, and Mr. Drummond states, in his excellent memoir, that “when the ground was levelled for the garden, it consisted almost entirely of coal-ashes, brick-bats, and lime-rubbish, to which was added about 15 inches of fresh soil, to prepare it for the flowers and shrubs. As it was proposed to plant French pear trees in the borders next to the walls, the fresh soil was there trenched down about 18 inches, and mingled with the rubbish. Another foot of fresh soil was then laid over the whole surface of the border, and the trees planted. “ It was predicted that a border so formed would never answer, but would assuredly canker the roots of the trees; this, however, has not happened. On the contrary, the Crassane, St. Germain, Chaumontel, Colinar, Brown Beurre, Ber-gamotte de Pftques, and Jargonelle, have all produced fruit the third year after they were planted, and have continued to yield excellent crops ever since, far greater than similar trees planted in the deep rich borders of the other gardens. Of these latter trees, many had been planted twelve years before they produced any fruit; they grew, however, vigorously, ran greatly to breast-wood, and continued to grow so late in the season that the flower-buds were frequently but ill-formed, and the young wood imperfectly ripened. The fruit, also, which they produced was borne chiefly at the ends of the branches, and was frequently hard and gritty at the core. On the other hand, the trees in the cottage-garden seem to have acquired a different habit; they did not, indeed, grow so vigorously, and they produced little breast-wood; but they ripened their young wood earlier in the autumn, and fruited more regularly over the whole surface of the tree.” In preparing another border, “as much of the rubbish of old buildings as would form a layer of about 14 inches in thickness was spread over the whole border. On this was laid a stratum of rich manure, about 6 inches thick, and the whole was then trenched and turned over in such a way as to mingle the rubbish with the soil of the border, but not going so deep as to encroach on the subsoil. The whole being thus mixed together and made level, was then covered with about a foot of light soil.” In the border thus formed, different sorts of pear-trees, one year grafted, were planted, and “ all these trees showed fruit in the third year, and bore a beautiful crop in the fourth year after they were planted, and the crops produced every year since have been astonishing. The surface of this border every winter gets a dressing of cow-dung, which is dug in about 8 inches below the surface. “Another border was similarly prepared by mixing up the rubbish of an old wall with the soil of an old border, to which no dung was added, lest it might make the soil too rich; but this Mr. Drummond has since regretted, as he finds that where stones and rubbish are mixed with the soil, there is no danger in making a free use of manure. The trees in this border came as earlyFRUIT AND KITCHEN GARDEN. 137 into bearing, and continued to be as productive as the trees at the cottage garden. “ By thus mixing stones and rubbish with the soil of the border, and forming the border above the subsoil, we are able to bring French pear-trees into a bearing state at a much earlier period of their growth, and to render some varieties of these trees, hitherto considered as shy bearers, not less productive than those of the more common kinds.” Mr. Drummond found that the roots of trees raised from borders where the soil was mingled with stones and rubbish, presented a dense mass of fibrous rootlets, whilst others, which had grown in deep and rich borders, without such admixture of stony substances, exhibited only long naked roots, more or less destitute of fibrous appendages. “ In the rubbish borders, the fibrous rootlets might be seen to seize, as it were, on some substances of the soil in preference to others; pieces of lime-plaster, or mortar, were generally preferred, being often found enveloped in a m&ss of such rootlets; next to these, pieces of whinstone and brick were selected by the rootlets; coarse gritty sandstone they seemed to reject, but to like the fine white sandstone which the roots of heaths are fond of.” “ In connection with this search after stony bodies, Mr. Drummond mentions some curious facts respecting the directions which roots take in borders formed in part of paving-stones. If such stones be laid at the bottom of the border, with the view of preventing the roots striking into the subsoil, the trees will soon send down their roots until they come in contact with the pavement, over the surface of which they will then spread themselves in every direction. Should their extremities not be able to penetrate the mortar or clay in which the stones are embedded, they will, after a time, push out beyond them, and then, dipping down, take an inverted position, and extend beneath the pavement. On the other hand, if the stones be laid on the surface of the border, instead of its bottom, the roots then seem to strike upwards, and spread along under the surface of the stones. In both the stones seem to attract and retain moisture, and, during the vegetating season, the roots strike towards them in order to obtain it; but with this difference in the ultimate result—when the stones are laid at the bottom of the border, the principal roots are detained there, and their fibrous rootlets are more or less destroyed during the winter by the too great moisture to which they are exposed. In such circumstances the trees grow vigorously, but produce comparatively little fruit, and that of inferior quality; but when the stones are laid on the surface, the principal roots are also formed there, and their fibrous rootlets are thus preserved in a healthy state during the winter. Such trees grow less vigorously than in the former ease, but they produce excellent crops of fruit, and that of superior quality. “ As the result of his inquiries and experience, Mr. Drummond recommeuds the following mode of forming a border, as suitable for every variety of fruit-tree which we are in the custom of raising against walls. He would make the border at least 20 feet wide; it should be composed of 2£ feet in depth of good soil, rather light, with 1 foot of broken whinstone and lime rubbish, and 1 foot of cow and stable dung. These several ingredients should be thoroughly mixed together, and when the whole has been levelled, another foot of fine mould should be spread over the whole surface. The walk he would lay down on the surface of the border at the distance of 10 or 12 feet from the wall; and this should be done in such a manner as that the surface of the border may have a gentle elope from the wall to the walk, and the slope then be continued from the walk to the natural surface of the ground. On no account must the subsoil be disturbed. “Those who are advocates for the shallow planting of fruit-trees may suppose the border, recommended as above, too deep, and also too rich, and that it will promote too great luxuriance of growth; but, provided the materials employed favour the production of fibrous rootlets, we can hardly ever make the border too rich. Encouraging such rootlets seems to produce that fertile habit in the tree at an early stage of its growth, which checks any tendency to over-luxuriance afterwards, and to turn the powers of the tree to the formation of flower-buds, and consequent production of fruit. Wall-trees are exposed to a higher temperature and greater evaporation than standards, and require therefore a larger body of soil and a more copious supply of moisture for their roots than standards do.”— (.Horticultural Trans. 2d series, vol. ii. p. 49.) The kind of hard materials to be mixed with the soil is not unimportant; for, as Mr. Drummond observes, the roots take to some in preference toothers, and to such substances as old mortar or plaster more especially. This is most probably owing to these substances being slower conductors of heat than those that are of a silicious nature. From some experiments made by Dr. Tyndall, with reference to the conduction of heat, and which are detailed in the Philosophical Mag. 4th series, vol. vi. p. 121, it appears that the conductive power of rock-crystal (pure silica) was 90°, and that of gypsum 19°, or, in other words,138 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. that silica conducts nearly five times quicker than gypsum. Impure silica, as it exists in flint, sand, or silicious rock, will probably not conduct so rapidly as the pure crystal; but if in these states the power of conducting heat should be only three or four times that of gypsum, still the difference is remarkably in favour of the steadiness of temperature which gypsum maintains, compared with silicious substances. Its conductive power, Dr. Tyndall remarks, is scarcely superior to that of wood, while there is the strongest experimental grounds for the belief that silica possesses a higher conductive power than some of the metals. As a general rule, it is admitted that sudden changes of temperature are prejudicial to animal and vegetable health, and hence the roots of plants prefer contact with those substauces which maintain the most uniform temperature. Gypsum, as appears from what has been stated, being one of those substances possessing that property in a high degree, should be introduced in borders where the climate is cold and variable. Old plaster, for example, can in some cases be had in abundance: it of course will best answer the purpose if broken scarcely so small as stones for rubble-drains. Lime compounds are slow conductors, therefore pieces of old mortar and chalk lumps may be used. Charcoal, which acts likewise as a manure, is one of the best non-conductors, hence it answers well for the drainage of pot-plants, but would be too expensive for borders. Coal-ashes and scoria are much of the same nature in this respect; but their sharp angular surfaces are too cutting for the roots, and are apt to induce canker. Brick-bats, especially from bricks made near London, consist of a considerable quantity of carbonaceous matter, derived from the small coal mixed with the clay, and although exposed in a cold day, with flint stones, till they ultimately acquire the same temperature as the latter, yet they do not feel by any means so cold to the touch, because they acquire and give out heat but slowly. They are therefore ranked among what are termed warm materials, and are very suitable for mixing with the soil of a border requiring to be formed of such materials. We have now endeavoured to point out the principles, and to detail the modes, of making fruit-tree borders according to different circumstances of soil, subsoil, and climate. Where all these are favourable, proper trenching and levelling are only necessary. If the subsoil is bad, or cold and wet, its contact with the roots should be cut off by an impervious and somewhat elevated floor; if the soil is indifferent, it should be ameliorated as much as possible; if bad, it should be entirely removed, and better substituted. Where the climate is at fault, it is advisable to use rather light soil, mixed with stones and other hard substances. There are, however, without doubt, very many cases where borders could not, on account of expense, be made so effectually as we have recommended. In these cases the borders should not be deeply trenched, if, by so doing, the principal roots would be encouraged to occupy a position unfavourable to the health of the trees. It will be better to depend on keeping the roots near the surface, and there feeding them by means of a well-prepared compost of dung, and the most suitable kinds of soil that can be obtained, as will be explained when we come to treat of the planting and subsequent management of the respective kinds of fruit-trees. V.—PREPARATION OF THE GROUND. The formation of the borders having been completed, the preparation of the rest of the ground may be proceeded with. Where the surface is level or of the proper slope, and the soil naturally good and of the sufficient depth, merely trenching it over in the usual way renders it fit for laying out and cropping. Where the ground is, on the contrary, irregular, and the undulations of the subsoil, not corresponding with those of the surface, render the soil of unequal depth—or where soil has to be wheeled or carted from one part of the ground to another, or introduced from the outside—the operations become complicated, and various preliminary considerations are necessary in order that the work may be commenced at the proper place, carried on with regularity, and in the best and most economical way. It is presumed that the level or slope of the ground has been previously determined, as recommended in the section on levelling. The depth of soil should also be ascertained. By digging down to the subsoil at a number of points, adding together the depths, and dividing by their number, the mean depth of the soil will be found. At the same time, the depth at which the subsoil lies below the proposed surface level, at the different points, should be marked on a plan. By these means we come to the knowledge of the present position of the subsoil, and also that which it should be made to occupy. If the surface is to be made level, and if the soil is to be of uniform depth, then the substratum must also be made level, or preferably with a slight declivity towards drainage. If the surface is intended to have a regular slope, the substratum ought to have a corresponding one. In either case it is evident thatFRUIT AND KITCHEN GARDEN. 139 attention should be first directed to the levelling of the bottom. When a trench is turned out to the depth of all the good soil, its bottom most probably will be very irregular; it may be altogether too high or too low, or portions only may be too high, whilst others are the contrary; but before the soil of the next trench is moved, the bottom of the preceding should be made up or taken down, as the case may be, to the proper level. In order to do this with the least amount of labour, the trenches ought to run across where the subsoil is in one part of their extent too low, and in another part too high, so that in taking down the latter, we may at the same time use the materials to make up the portion of the trench that is too low. It may not be convenient or possible in all cases to run the trenches so that the high portion will be exactly sufficient to fill up that which is too low; but this should be kept in view as much as possible. It should be a rule, that before a too high part is moved, a trench should be opened where the ground is too low. The work should be commenced in the lowest part of the ground, taking care, however, to leave roadways for carting materials if necessary. In trenching ground that naturally lies on the desired level or slope, the ordinary mode of turning over trench after trench, each about 3 feet wide, may be adopted. In this case the ground should be divided into convenient portions, one of which is represented by abed, Fig. 164. If Fig. 164. a.________________________________________3 a 34 h c d the first trench were opened out the whole breadth of the piece, as from b to d, the soil taken out of it would have to be wheeled to a c; but instead of doing so, it is better to divide the ground equally by a line from e to/. Then take out the opening across the end of one of the halves, as from b to /, and lay the soil on the adjacent end of the other half, as from / to d. If the soil can be laid outside the limits of the piece marked out, so much the better. When the operation reaches a e, there will be an open trench there, which is to be filled by the soil taken out of the first trench of the other half, as from e to c. The work is continued till the whole of the second half is trenched over, the last trench at f d being filled by the soil placed there from the first trench b f. It will be observed, on referring to the figure, that the first trench b f is marked off 3i feet wide, whilst the others are only 3 feet wide. This is in order to allow for the slope necessary to prevent the loose soil from falling back into the bottom of the trenches; for these should be fully 3 feet wide at bottom, to make sure that no ridges are left unturned between the trenches, and this being the case, each open trench must be more than 3 feet wide at top, or both its sides must be perpendicular; that next the solid ground may, and indeed should, be as perpendicular as possible, but the loose soil on the opposite side must have a slope, for the reason above stated. The trench at e c should be equal in width to the one first opened at b f Where the ground is very uneven, and where the bottom has to be raised or lowered to a considerable extent in certain parts, the trenches should be more than 3 feet wide. According to the amount of elevation or depression required, the width of the trenches may be 4, 5, or even 6 feet. The latter is not too much in cases where the subsoil may have to be made up as high as the original surface level of the ground, or my 3 feet. Where deep hollows have to be made up, it may be advisable to do so according to circumstances, in portions from 6 to 12 feet wide. Hitherto we have chiefly directed attention to bringing the substratum to the proper level, and if this be done, the good soil will rest on an even bottom. As already observed, the depth of the soil will probably vary, but if its mean depth in each trench correspond with that of the whole piece, then in trenching it can be taken from where it is deeper than the average, and wheeled along the firm side to where it is too shallow. In general it will, however, be found best to throw up the soil at the place where an extra depth occurs, and then to regulate the surface after the whole of the ground, including even the site of the walks, shall have been trenched. We shall then have an even surface, and an equal depth of soil, on an evenly formed substratum. If additional soil be required, and can be afforded, it may be introduced as the trenching proceeds; and the same may be said as regards manure. The latter should be put down about half way between the top and bottom, and a good layer of dungHO GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. should also be uTfff or ridged in near the surface of the ground, after the latter has been levelled, especially if much fresh loam has been turned up. Although it is desirable to obtain a depth of 3 feet of soil for a kitchen garden, and although the ground should be loosened to that depth, yet it may not, in some cases, be advisable to turn the lower part of the trench uppermost. If there be 18 inches deep of black soil, and as much of good loam beneath, the whole may be turned upside down; but if the black soil is shallow, or if the bottom part of the trench is a clayey loam, it will be advisable merely to loosen a spade’s depth of the bottom of the trench, and so leave it to be gradually brought up, a little at a time, at subsequent trenchings. vi.—WALKS. There is much diversity of opinion with regard to the laying out of walks in pleasure-grounds; their number, divergence, and curves, are all matters of taste. In the fruit and kitchen garden, however, utility ought to be the leading principle; but without interfering too much with this, regularity should be kept in view as much as possible. With regard to the number and direction of the walks in a kitchen garden, the necessity of one all round, so as to leave a border of greater or less breadth between it and the walls is universally admitted; and two intersecting each other in the centre of the garden are found convenient. This arrangement of surrounding walks consisting of two side and two end ones, and two cross ones, is very generally adopted. Besides these six principal walks, two or more subordinate ones, as represented in Fig. 113, may be necessary; but the number and direction depend upon the extent and form of the ground. The walks should of course run parallel to the walls. Their distance from the latter must be determined according to circumstances. It was formerly a rule to make the walks at a distance from the wall equal to the height of the latter, so that if the wall should be 8 feet high, the border between it and the walk would only be 8 feet wide; but after deducting say 3 feet for a path and small border close to the foot of the wall, there is only 5 feet left, which is a very narrow sti’ip for vegetables; and yet to prepare and crop it would require nearly as much time as a broader one would. Supposing that the walls are 12 feet high, and that the inclosed area consists of 2 acres or more, the distance of the walks from the walls may be 18 feet. If the wall on the south side is lower than elsewhere, as is frequently the case, the walk next it may be 12 feet distant. Where the area is between 1 and 2 acres, the walk in front of the south-aspect wall may be still 18 feet distant, and that by the north-aspect wall 12 feet; but the others on the east and west sides, 15 feet. In gardens of about 1 acre, the distance of the walk from the south-aspect wall may be 15 feet, and from all the other walls the distance of the walks may be only 12 feet, in order that the ground to be laid out in quarters may not be too much reduced. For the same reason, in very small gardens the walks may run within 3 or 4 feet of the east, west, and north aspects; but still retaining, if possible, a width of not less than 12 feet for the south-aspect border, partly on account of the trees on that aspect, and partly because the border, from its south exposure, is so useful for various early crops. The width of the walks should likewise bear some proportion to the extent of the garden. In pleasure-grounds, we are aware that the breadth of walks should be regulated by their length, or at least by the portion of it that comes within view at onetime; but this principle cannot be so strictly followed in gardens where utility is the main consideration. The space occupied by the walks cannot, however, be considered as lost, except for the purpose of walking on, for there is no objection to the walks being made within the limits of the prepared border, and when this is done, the roots of trees will feed as well beneath them as elsewhere. Indeed, if there were no walks, a row of fruit-trees would require a clear space on each side of them equal, or nearly so, to that which we should recommend for a walk. For small gardens we should say that the surrounding walks should not be less than 5 feet, and the cross walks 6 feet wide. The reason for the latter being wider than the others is, in order that there may be a more free circulation, and that the rows of espalier-trees, which it is presumed will be planted on each side of these cross walks, may be farther separated. If the walled-in area is between 1 and 2 acres, the surrounding walks should not be less than 6 feet wide, and the cross walks 7 feet. In gardens of the extent of 2 or 3 acres, the surrounding walks should, we think, be 7 feet wide; and to admit of manure, &c., being conveniently carted along the cross walks, it would be well to make them 8 or 9 feet wide, with a circle, where they intersect, large enough to admit of a horse and cart turning round it. In gardens of more than 3 acres, the cross walks might be at least 10 feet wide, the others 8 feet. The above wridths are greater than usually recommended, but if the ground is not very limited, walks, which by some persons would be considered too broad, are preferable to thoseFRUIT AND KITCHEN GARDEN. 141 that, for the sake of occupying but little ground, are made decidedly too narrow for admitting of a free circulation of air. The width of the walk having been determined on, the next step is to fix upon its level with reference to the general level of the ground. If the level of the borders correspond with this, or nearly so, the edges of the walks may be made a little lower, but so that the middle or crown of the walk maybe a little higher than that level. Where the borders have been raised considerably, the edges of the walk may be raised as high as the general level of the ground. The lines of the edgings having been marked by small stakes driven at each end of them, so that the tops of the stakes shall also mark the proposed height of the edging, the soil should be well trodden or otherwise made compact, then, by means of levelling rods, a number of points should be made on the same level, or inclined plane, as the tops of the stakes at each end. The ground between the different points having been made even, a line should be stretched about an inch from the line of edging towards the walk, and along this line a cut should be made with the spade, as a guide for the excavation of the soil to be removed, in order to admit of the bottoming materials. When the soil is taken out to the proper depth, the line should be again stretched so as to mark exactly the line of edging, and the inch of soil cut off straight by the line. Box, which is the best kind of live edging, may then be laid. The depth of the excavation should be such as to hold enough of materials to constitute a walk substantial enough for wheeling upon. Except the garden be very small, the cross walks should be made to bear carting; and in large gardens all the walks should be strong enough for any traffic of that kind that may occasionally he required. The excavation for materials to bear carting should be about 9 inches deep from the level of the edging, and where the heaviest traffic is wheeling, 6 inches will be sufficient. It is a question whether the bottom of the walk should be dug out level, convex, or concave. Some recommend the bottom to be made deepest in the middle, the hard materials forming there a sort of rubble-drain; others lay a drain-pipe; but in either case, the worms are apt to stop the drainage. The moisture collected encourages the worms to work completely under the walk, as indeed is the case where the bottom is made level. The best plan is to give the bottom a curved form like that of the surface of the walks, in order that the water may fall to both sides, where the well-drained trenched ground will always be in condition to receive it. In wet climates, drains in the middle or at each side of the walk may be necessary, but in localities where the annual fall of rain does not exceed 28 inches, all the water that sinks from the walk into the adjoining soil will prove highly beneficial to the trees, and in many cases will save the labour of watering. From the consideration of these circumstances, we would recommend the bottom of walks to be curved, well beaten, and rolled firm. Various materials may be used for the bottoming of walks, such as stones, flints, brick-bats, clinkers, lumps of hard lime rubbish burned clay, &c.—in short, any hard substance that contains nothing pernicious to vegetation may be employed. Granite, broken like that for macadamized roads, is perhaps of all others the most substantial. Nine inches thick of this, with 2 inches of rather coarse, and 1 of fine binding gravel at top, will form an excellent walk, such as cannot probably be surpassed for a kitchen gai’den. Indeed, 6 inches of broken granite and 3 inches of gravel, will make a good substantial walk. Fine binding gravel for the surface is not easily obtained in some parts, and accordingly various substitutes have been more or less successfully tried. Sand, by proper management, may be made to answer very well. A very thin layer of it should be put on, and it will gradually mix with substances that will render it tolerably adhesive. Another layer may then be sprinkled or sifted upon the previous one. Road-sand loosens exceedingly after frost, so as to render walks made with it unfit either for walking or wheeling upon for a considerable time. Decomposed sandstone answers tolerably well. Coal-tar and sand is very unsightly, and if not very thick is liable to break when wheeled upon in cold weather; the tar melts, and has a very disagreeable smell, in hot weather; and it is, moreover, dangerous for the roots of trees. Its use for garden walks should therefore be avoided. When we take into consideration the cost of gravel walks in the first instance, and the subsequent expense of rolling, weeding, turning, and occasional renewing, it is questionable whether stone-paving would not prove cheaper than gravel in the long run. A quantity of rough and fine gravel equal to a cubic yard or load may cost about 8s. Allowing that the materials were laid on 9 inches thick, the load would make 4 square yards of walk, costing thus 2s. per superficial yard. Paving may be done for 6d. per square foot, or 4s. 6d. per yard. It is therefore little more than double the price of gravel, and of the paving it may be said, that the first expense is the last. This, however, is not the case with gravel. In the course of a few years small weeds, such as Sagina procum-142 GARDENER'S ASSISTANT. bens, and mosses, generally take such possession of the surface, that the expense of many days’ labour is every year incurred in endeavouring to eradicate them. It is impossible to say how much this tedious process may cost, but it requires to be done at a period of the year when such fruitless labour can ill be spared. Although we are by no means favourable to the use of coal-tar compositions for garden walks, yet there are others, in which lime is the cementing substance, that may be advantageously employed. One of these appears to be well deserving of notice. The method of forming it is stated by Mr. E. Meehan, St. Clare, Isle of Wight, to be as follows:— “To about 3 bushels of coal-ashes, previously passed through a coarse sieve, or fine screen, are added one of gray lime, and one of fine gravel. Water is applied till the whole is of the consistency of mortar. This composition is then spread 3 inches thick over the walks prepared for it, and made smooth and even with a flat piece of board or a trowel. In a few days it will become hard. The walks are prepared with rough gravel —the coarse screening of that used with the coal-ashes. To this I might add that the only necessary precautions to obtain a hard and dry walk, are to break the lime small before it is mixed, and to raise the centre of the walk an inch or so above the sides.”—(Gardeners' Chronicle, 1S48, p. C85.) The depth and nature of the materials are usually suggested with respect to drainage. They may answer that purpose for a few years, but we do not suppose that even broken granite would long continue porous in a garden ■walk. The spaces between the stones must soon get filled up by the earthy matters introduced partly by worms, and partly by particles of soil carried down by the rain from the surface, however clean this may be kept. Probably the best mode of maintaining the porosity of the bottoming of the walk, would be to fill the interstices of the coarser materials as closely as possible with sand, which would prevent, to a considerable extent, the introduction of other matters of an unctuous, muddy, or adhesive nature. But ultimately sand-filters—and such the above arrangement would be—get clogged, and do not act; and we find that after a walk has been used for some time, and has, by good keeping and frequent rolling, acquired a smooth compact surface, the rain chiefly, or almost entirely, runs off by the surface. The porosity of the drainage is useful until such time as the walk C:U1 lje brought to this smooth compact state; but afterwards it is of little or no consequence, the hard materials are then only useful for solidity, a sufficient degree of which is essential for a walk, in order that it may bear heavy traffic without yielding, or exhibiting inequalities of surface. On this account we have recommended a good depth of hard materials— more perhaps than can well be afforded in some cases. To meet limited means, we may state that a very fair walk may be made with a considerably less quantity of materials than would be required to form a walk in the manner above recommended. Let the bottom of the walk be taken out to the depth of only a few inches; but let it be curved, beaten, and rolled, so as to appear as regular as the surface ought to be, and it should form a similar curve. The surface may be regular; but if the bottom be irregular, the former will, in consequence, become uneven. In places where the bottom is too high, the coating of gravel will be thin, and where this is the case, a sinking of the surface will take place. A walk with a uniform thickness of, say 3 inches of gravel, will retain a more even surface than one with the gi’avel 3 inches deep in some places and 6 inches deep in others. Therefore, it is neces-sary that great care should be taken to make the bottom very regular, otherwise expense is incurred for materials which are worse than useless. When the bottom is prepared, a layer of lime rubbish, or any other hard materials that can be most readily obtained at the least expense, should be spread very equally over the bottom, and well rolled. If there be any hollows, they should be made up and the roller again passed over, after which it is presumed that the surface will appear nearly as even as that of a finished walk. A coat of gravel should then be laid on to the thickness of 2 or 3 inches, treading, raking, and rolling it before it gets dry. Stones collected from among the gravel by the rake, should not be buried in patches immediately below the surface. They should either be distributed equally and beaten into the bed on which the top gravel is laid, or entirely removed, in order to be laid quite at the bottom with the other rough materials. If thus carefully made in the first instance, and afterwards well kept, a good walk for not very heavy traffic may be formed, with a few inches thick of gravel. If there should occasionally be much wheeling upon it, planks could be used. By rolling into the surface a very thin coating of fine gravel every two years or so, the walk will become more and more solid. Walks are sometimes objectionable from the surface consisting of gravel too sandy, and hence loose and shifting under foot, not possessing binding qualities; sometimes, on the contrary, the gravel is too loamy, and binds very firmly inFRUIT AND KITCHEN GARDEN. 143 dry weather, but becomes very soft and cloggy iu wet. This could be remedied by screening the gravel, and at the same time washing away the superabundant loam which it contains, so that it will not adhere to the feet. Curve of Walks.—That gravel walks have not a good appeai’ance when they have too great a rise in the middle, and that such walks are inconvenient for walking upon, will be readily admitted. What the proper rise should be, is a question upon which authorities widely differ. Some recommend the middle to be 1 inch, others 2, 3, or more inches, higher than the sides. But iu stating the rise, the width of the walk ought to be taken into account, otherwise great mistakes may be made. For example, a walk 10 feet wide may have a rise of 2 inches from the sides to the middle, and this we think is one that will prove satisfactory; but in the case of walks only 4 feet wide, a rise of 2 inches would make the surface more like a ridge than most people would suppose. After careful observations on walks, and from experience of those with high, and of others with low curves, in various situations, we venture to recommend that the rise of the middle above the sides should be 2 inches for a walk 10 feet wide, and so on in proportion for other widths. This ratio is, in our opinion, the best. Iu the following table the height of the middle of the walk above the sides is calculated at the rate of Ttjths of an inch rise for every foot, reckoning from the middle of the walk to the side. Thus, in a 10-feet walk, the distance from the middle to the edge being 5 feet, fu inch per foot ou that distance amounts to 2 inches, or ^th part of the whole breadth of the walk. Elevation of Middle eadth of Walk. above the Sides. 4 feet. s TTT inches. 5 )) * * * 1 11 6 » • • • ... lyL 11 7 55 •** ... 1TV 11 8 >5 ... ... 1* 11 9 55 ... 99 10 5) ••• 2 19 11 19 **• 9 2 ... - I0 11 12 11 ••• 2t4^ ,, 13 11 2 TXT 19 14 11 •®6 9 8 19 15 11 3 19 16 11 ••• 3 TU 11 The centre of the walk may be of the proper height above the edges; but if the gravel be laid on so as not to form a regular curve between the two edgings, the work is imperfect. It is frequently made too full for some distance on each side of the middle, and then sloping rapidly to the edges. In this case the middle of the walk must be nearly flat, and instead of one curve, the surface is formed almost into a flat and two slopes. In order that the water falling on the walk may have a regular descent, the curve of the surface should correspond with the arc of a circle. To insure this, the best plan is to take a board and cut out the curve, according to that which may be adopted. With this curve the walk, when finished, should exactly correspond. In fact, unless it do so, it cannot be considered perfectly finished, either as regards appearance or utility. With respect to appearance, the eye will detect irregularities and interruptions in a curve which evidently ought to be a uniform one; and with regard to utility, the more correct the curve, the greater will be the facility with which water will flow over it, and consequently the sooner the walks will be again dry after rain. It is better to have a moderate rise with a regular curve, than a great one with an irregular curve, flat, or almost flat, in some places, and too steep iu others. We have seen walks having no greater curve than that above recommended, perhaps not so much, until within a foot or so of their edging, where they form a slope that no human being could walk upon with any degree of comfort. From what has been stated, we think it will be readily admitted, that for the sake of appearance, utility, and comfort, care should be taken to give walks a correct curve. This may easily be done in the way we have pointed out, and at no additional expense; consequently, there is no reason why the surface of walks should be formed on a bad principle, or on no principle whatever, when important advantages resulting from the contrary may be secured by a little trouble, and by attention to the preceding directions. Edgings for Fruit and Kitchen Garden Walks. —The principal use of an edging is to mark the limits of the walk; for no walk, however well formed, has a good appearance if it merge into the ground on each side. Some line of distinction is therefore necessary. Amongst the various plants which have been proposed for edgings, the box, so long employed for the purpose, still unquestionably maintains the pre-eminence. In small gardens, such things as parsley, thyme, strawberries, &c., are sometimes employed; but none of them forms a neat compact edging, like the box, nor can they be made to show like it a line no stronger than merely to appear distinctly from end to end of the walk. Live edgings are all more or less objectionable on account of their harbouring slugs and vermin. A box edging, however, can be kept within such small limits144 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. that it affords but little shelter for anything hurtful to vegetation. Various plants may be very appropriately used for edgings in flower gardens and pleasure-grounds; but for edgings in the fruit and kitchen garden, no plant is so well adapted as the box. It will thrive in most situations where the soil is drained, as that of a garden ought to be. If the situation be damp, and the soil naturally heavy, lime rubbish should be put in the bottom of the walk, so that the roots of the box may reach it. Care should be taken to keep the edging clear from the leaves of vegetables, and especially from decaying leaves. Sometimes, in order to avoid the trouble and expense of clipping and relaying box or other live edgings, and sometimes as a matter of taste, various hard materials, such as stone, brick, tile, slate, cement, wood, or iron, are employed for edgings. The materials, forms, and comparative merits of such edgings, will, however, be more conveniently considered at another place. From what has been stated, it appears that the walks in a fruit and kitchen garden should run in straight lines; that they should be of equal breadth throughout their length; that they should be made so as to bear the greatest weight that may be brought upon them in ordiuary circumstances ; that their surface, from end to end, should be perfectly level or uniformly sloping; that the elevation of the middle above the sides should be sufficiently great to insure dryness, but no greater than will allow of comfort in walking; and, lastly, that the limits of the walk Fungi, D C. *Fungales, Lind. Morel. Mushroom. Truffle. Liliace.e, D C. Liliace.e, Lind. Asparagus. Chive. Garlic. Leek. Onion. Rocambole. Shallot. Dioscore.e, D C. Dioscoreace.e, Lind. Dioscorea Batatas. Urtice.e, D C. Cannabinace.e, Lind. Hop. I’OLYGONE.E, D C. POLYGONACE.E, Lilld. Patience. Rhubarb. Sorrel. * Alliance. and the soil should be marked by means of an edging. CHAPTER X. CULTIVATION OF KITCHEN-GARDEN PLANTS. Having shown how the ground selected for the fruit and kitchen garden should be prepared for the reception of the plants to be grown in it, we shall now give the cultivation of these. In doing so we shall adopt the alphabetical arrangement, because it is simple, and the most convenient for reference. We are aware that in adopting this arrangement, we depart from the practice of most of our predecessors, they having generally sought a classification founded on the uses of the plants, or on the part made use of. But whichever of these circumstances be adopted as the basis of a classification, difficulties have to be encountered; for the same plant may be used for different purposes, and several parts of a plant are not unfrequently made use of; consequently, in such cases, a vegetable may belong to two or three different classes. Again, some have arranged kitchen-garden plants by their natural orders. For the convenience of those who prefer this mode of arrangement, we subjoin a list of the plants treated of in this chapter, arranged according to the natural orders of Lindley and De Candolle:— CHENOPOnE.E, D C. CiienopodlacejE, Lind. Beet. Orach. Quinoa. Spinach. Plantagine.e, D C. Plantaginace.e, Lind. Buckshorn Plantain. Labiate, d C. Lamiacke, Lind. Balm. Basil. Clary. Horeliound. Hyssop. Lavender. Marjoram. Mint. Rosemary. Sage. Savory. Thyme. Solane.e, D C. Solanace.e, Lind. Capsicum. Egg-plant. Potato. Tobacco. ■ Tomato. Boragine.e, D C. Boraginaceje, Lind. Borage. Campanulace.e, D C. Campanulacea, Lind. Rampion. Composite, D C. Asterace.e, Lind. Artichoke. Cardoon. Chamomile. Chicory. Costmary. Dandelion. Elecampane. Endive. Jerusalem Artichoke. Lettuce. Marigold. Picridium vulgare. Salsafy. Scorzonera.KITCHEN GARDEN. 145 Tansy. Tarragon. "Wormwood. Valeriane.-e, D C. Valerianace.e, Lind. Corn Salad. Fedia Cornucopia. Umbellifer.-e, D C. Apiace.e, Lind. Alexanders. Angelica. Aniseed. Caraway. Carrot. Celery. Chervil. Coriander. Dill. Fennel. Parsley. Parsnip. Samphire. Skirret. Sweet Cicely. Ranunculace/E, D C. Raxunculace.-e, Lind. Nigella sativa. ALECOST. See Costmary. ALEXANDERS (Smyrnium Olusatrum, L.— Pentandria Digynia, L.; Umbelliferse, D C.), a biennial plant, a native of Britain, was formerly cultivated for its leaf-stalks, which, having a pleasant aromatic flavour, were blanched and used instead of celery. The leaves were likewise employed in flavouring soups. If now cultivated anywhere, it is only for curiosity, celery having taken its place. ANGELICA (Archangelica officinalis, Hofim. Fig. 165; Angelica Archangelica, L.—Pentandria Digynia, L.; Umbelliferse, D C.)is abiennial plant, a native of England and the north of Europe. The tender stems, stalks, and midribs of the leaves are used in confectionery candied with sugar, for which purpose considerable quantities of this plant are grown near London. The seeds are occasionally used in flavouring spirituous liquors; and in some parts of the north of Europe, according to Bose, the leaves and stalks are used as a vegetable, and eaten either raw or cooked together with fish or flesh. Angelica grows well in any good soil, but succeeds best in cool moist situations, such as the banks of ditches. It is raised from seed, which should be sown in August, or as soon as it is ripe, covering lightly with mould. It may likewise be sown in March. The seed-bed should be frequently watered, as also the young plants when they come up. These RUTACEA!, D C. Rutace.e, Lind. Rue. PORTULACEA!, D C. PORTULACEiE, Lind. Purslane. FlCOIDEiE, D C. Tetiiagoniace/E, Lind. New Zealand Spinach. CUCURBITACEA:, D C. CUCURBITACEA!, Lind. Cucumber. Gourd. Onagrariea;, D C. Onagrace.e, Lind. Tree-primrose. Rosacea:, D C. Sanguisorbacea:, Lind. Burnet. Leguminosje, D C. Fabacea:, Lind. Bean. Chickpea. Kidney-bean. Lentil. Liquorice. Pea. are allowed to remain in the seed-bed till September or the following March, by which time Fig. 165. they will have attained sufficient strength for being transplanted. Crucifera:, D C. Brassicacea:, Lind. Borecole. Broccoli. Brussels Sprouts. Cabbage. Cauliflower. Cress, American. Cress, Common. Cress, Water. Horse-radish. Mustard. Radish. Rape. Savoy. Scurvy Grass. Sea-kale. Turnip. Oxalidea:, D C. Oxalidacea:, Lind. Oxalis Deppei. Oxalis crenata. Wood Sorrel. Trop.eole.e, D C. Trop.eolace.e, Lind. Nasturtium, or Indian Cress. Tropseolum tuberosum. 10146 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. The plants may be planted 2 feet apart each way; afterwards the ground should be occasionally hoed, and in dry weather plenty of water should be given. The stalks will be fit for use in May or June of the following year, when the stems should be cut down, and a second crop will be produced the same season. This should be repeated every year about that time, in order to prevent the plants from running to seed, for if allowed to do so, their roots would soon afterwards perish; whereas if cut down annually before flowering, angelica, though a biennial, will then live for three years. ANISE, or Aniseed (Pimpinella Anisum, L.— Pentandria Digynia, L.; Umbelliferse, D C.), is an annual plant, a native of Egypt. It is cultivated in the Levant and in Spain for the seeds, which are employed in confectionery, in distillation, and for the manufacture of a well-known cordial. The summers of this country are seldom sufficiently warm to ripen the seeds perfectly, but the plant is sometimes grown for its leaves, which are used for garnishing, and occasionally as a seasoning. It requires a light soil and warm situation, where it may be sown in the beginning of April, in drills 6 inches apart. Thin the young plants to about 3 inches apart, water in dry weather, and keep the ground clean. The seeds ripen in August or September, if the season is warm. ARTICHOKE (Cy tiara Scolymus, L.—Synge-Cesia Polygamia H£qualis, L.; Composite, D C.) —This is a hardy perennial plant, a native of Barbary and the south of Europe. It is cultivated for the immature flower-heads, of which the fleshy receptacle, commonly called the bottom, and the base of the involucral scales, are the parts used. Sometimes, also, the central leaves of plants in old plantations about to be destroyed are blanched, and the chard, as it is then called, is used like cardoons. The varieties cultivated in this country are:— 1. Globe Artichoke. 2. Green, Common, or French Artichoke. 3. Tcrple Artichoke. The Globe, or Large Round-headed Artichoke, has dull purplish heads, with scales turned in at the top. It is the sort most esteemed for cultivation in this country. The second sort has a conical or ovate head, with scales pointed and turned outwards. The Purple Artichoke, syn. Violet, has a medium-sized head; the scales are pointed, green at the base, but tinged with purplish red on the outside towards the extremities. It is earlier than the preceding sorts. In France it is considered excellent a la poivrade, but not so good cooked. Several other varieties are described by French authors. The one most esteemed and most cultivated at Paris, is the Large Green or Laon Artichoke (Artichaut gros vert, or De Laon). It grows larger than the Common Green. The Gros Camus de Bretagne has a large, rather flat head, of a pale green colour, and is somewhat earlier than the preceding, but is not so fleshy. The Rouge and the Sucre de Genes, cultivated in the south of France, do not prove suitable for the climate of Paris; and that being the case, their introduction into this country would probably be attended with little or no advantage. The artichoke prefers a deep free soil, such as a sandy loam, and an open situation. The ground in which it is intended to be grown should be well manured with stable-dung, and trenched 2 feet deep. Sea-weed is also an excellent manure for artichokes, and the application of salt is likewise very beneficial. The plant is propagated by suckers, of which from six to twelve are usually produced by each stool. In the month of April, or as soon as the leaves are 8 or 10 inches in length, the old stools are uncovered to the origin of the suckers, which are then slipped off with a heel, two or three of the finest being allowed to remain on the parent plant. The strongest of those taken off, and such as have already formed some roots, are chosen for the new plantation; and they are prepared for planting by cutting off any rugged parts at the heel, and removing withered leaves. The suckers may then be planted 8 or 9 inches apart, in clumps of three, placed 2 feet from each other, in rows 4 feet asunder. The sets should be planted about 4 inches deep, in holes made by a dibble or trowel, and the soil pressed round them. Water should be given at planting, and subsequently in dry weather till the plants begin to shoot. Afterwards the ground ought to be loosened with the hoe, and this operation must be repeated several times in the course of the summer and autumn. Where the ground is stiff, it is found to be a good plan to dig a trench 18 inches deep, and fill it with a mixture of dung and mould, and in spring to plant out on this mixture. In the autumn of the year of planting, some heads fit for use will be produced. Instead of taking off and planting the offsets in spring, the gardeners at Amiens do so in autumn, and it is said they obtain by this means an earlier and better produce. When the suckers are taken off in spring, according to Courtois Gerard, an excellent hor-ticultui'ist, they may be put in small pots and plunged in a hot-bed under glass, and planted out, when rooted, about the middle of April. By this mode the plants succeed better, and produce earlier in the season than those from suckers planted out immediately where they are to remain. If the heads are required for pickling, they should be gathered when about 2 inches in dia-KITCHEN GARDEN. 147 meter; if for the bottoms, when they are nearly full-grown and before the opening of the scales. As soon as the crop from each of the flower-stems is gathered they should be cut down; and all dead leaves should be removed at the same time. Any heads, remaining in November may be preserved for a long time, by cutting them off with the whole of the stalk attached, planting the latter in moist sand in a shed or cellar, secure from frost, and cutting off, every three or four days, a small portion from the lower part of the stalk. Towards the end of November, or before frost sets in, the extremities of the longest leaves must be cut off; the ground should then be forked over, but in doing this care must be taken not to injure the roots. After the ground has been forked, a good thickness of dry litter, fern-leaves, or other protecting materials, should be packed closely round the plants, but not over their heads. Before severe weather sets in the plants should be well covered overhead, but the covering must be removed whenever the weather is mild, and again replaced at the approach of frost. Towards the end of March, or as soon as all danger of severe frost is over, the protecting materials may be entirely removed; but if any of the plants have been partially blanched, as is not uufrequently the case, they should only be gradually uncovered, and exposed to the light. Afterwards, when the leaves are 8 or 10 inches in length, the stools should be uncovered; and all the suckers, with the exception of two or three of the most vigorous, having been removed, but so as not to injure the roots of these, the earth should be again replaced round the plants. This having been done, the ground may be forked over, and, with the exception of keeping it free of weeds, nothing further is required till the plants come into bearing, which will be the case in June or July. In the south of France, and particularly in the neighbourhood of Montpellier, when the heads have attained about a third of their full size, the flower-stalk is split through at about 6 inches below the head, and a piece of wood passed through from side to side, so as to keep the two halves of the stalk separate. By this means a considerable increase in the size of the fleshy portion of the head is said to be obtained. We have tried this practice, but very little, if an}' increase in size was perceptible. Every year, as the crop is gathered, the flower-stems should be cut down, as previously indicated; and the same treatment with respect to protection from frost, removing suckers, forking the ground, &c., should be pursued. After the second year, however, a quantity of well-decomposed dung or sea-weed ought to be forked in before winter. Notwith- standing the care taken in protecting the plants in winter, they are sometimes injured by fx-ost. It is stated in the Bon Jardinier, that to guard against this, in some parts of France the practice of taking up the plants before frost, and planting them in a dry cellar or shed, secure from frost, has been adopted, and that this plan has the double advantage of preventing injury to the plants, and inducing an earlier production of heads. Some plants thus wintered are stated to have borne their fruit a month before the usual time. Artichokes seldom continue in good bearing longer than four or five years; therefore, a fresh plantation should be made every third or fourth year. As the plants in fresh plantations bear later in the season than those in old ones, some persons make a small plantation every year, with the view of prolonging the production. If chards are required, when old plantations are to be destroyed, the plants should be cut over a little above the ground as soon as the principal part of the crop has been gathered; and when the leaves are about 2 feet high, they may be tied up and blanched like cardoons. In Italy, besides the head and chard, another product is obtained from the artichoke; the stem is bent down at right angles, the leaf-stalks collected together, and the whole covered up to blanch. The result is a lump called gobbo, or hunchback, which is tender, and said to be very good when eaten raw with salt. It is used in autumn and winter, and is substituted for radishes. Except in very warm seasons the artichoke does not ripen its seeds in this country. If, notwithstanding this, an attempt to save seed be made, the heads should be sheltered from rain, either by gradually bending them down so as to throw off the wet, or by some other means. The seed keeps five or six years; but even when it can be saved it is seldom worth the trouble, for no dependence can be placed upon the plants raised from it, many of them producing only small and totally worthless heads, whilst others may produce very good ones. ASPARAGUS (Asparagus officinalit, L.—Hex-andria Monogynia, L.; Liliaceae, D C.) is a hardy perennial, a native of the sea-coasts of various countries in Europe and Asia. According to Loudon it is found in abundance on the sandy steppes in the interior of Russia. He also states that it grows near Bristol, in the Isle of Portland, and sparingly on Seaton Links, near Edinburgh. That growing in the fens of Lincolnshire is considered by Miller to be undoubtedly the same as the cultivated species; it is also indigen-148 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. ous to Cornwall, and there is an island near the Lizard Point called Asparagus Island, where the plants grow naturally, and where in heavy gales the sea breaks over the part of the island on which the asparagus grows. Gerrard says the manured or garden asparagus is the same as the wild, but, like other vegetables, was made larger by cultivation; that it grows wild in Essex and in Lincolnshire, and in great plenty near Harwich. It is stated in the Flora Batava that it grows naturally on the coast of Holland, in the sandy valleys and on the downs, at Alkmaar, Bloemendale, Haarlem, and many other places. It is very abundant in the southern parts of Russia and Poland, and is there eaten by horses and cows. Phillips’ History of Cultivated Vegetables says:—It is well known how much the asparagus is improved in size since Gerrard’s time (1597), and it might be still farther improved if our gardeners were to import roots of this plant from the borders of the Euphrates, where it grows to an extraordinary thickness. Pliny states (book xix. chap. 4) that asparagus, which formerly grew wild, was in his time carefully cultivated in gardens, particularly at Ravenna, where it was grown so fair and large that three shoots would weigh a pound. Royle (Natural History of the Himalayas) mentions various species of asparagus, but states that the officinalis is only found in these regions from cultivated plants, adding, however, that it is probably indigenous in Persia, as it is the halyoon of the Arabs, and nak-doon of the Persians. It is becoming naturalized in America, near the coast, most probably from seeds which have escaped from garden plants. The asparagus plant consists of a cluster of fleshy roots connected by the stem, where a quantity of buds are formed, from which shoots annually push, and which in their young and tender state form the edible part. Although circumstances of soil, climate, situation, and cultivation may occasion different appearances, there is but one sort. In some places it can be grown under the same system to a much larger size than in others, and hence different names have been given to essentially the same variety. Thus there were sold the Battersea asparagus, the Deptford, Gravesend, Reading, Mortlake, Grayson’s Giant, &c.; and on the Continent the names of places noted for the growth of asparagus are similarly applied. Some consider the Red-topped or Hutch asparagus and the Green-topped as two permanently distinct varieties, and that the former is the larger, but the latter the better flavoured. We have found, however, that colour depends greatly on the nature and texture of the soil; and with regard to size we may mention that in one part of Mr. Grayson’s extensive plantations on the south side of the Thames the so-called Giant variety was produced, and in another part the common sort; but when both were made to change places, the common acquired the dimensions of the Giant, whilst the latter diminished to the ordinary size. Soil and Situation.—A rich sandy alluvial soil, impregnated with saline matters, is naturally best adapted for the growth of asparagus, and in such soil its cultivation is an easy matter. Soils of a different texture may be made rich enough with manure; but whilst the soil retains too great a degree of stiffness, the results of cultivation will not prove satisfactory, nor will the produce bear comparison with that from soil naturally well adapted for the growth of the plant. The large asparagus from Argenteuil is chiefly grown on a sandy loam, and by a peculiar mode of culture, which will be presently described, and the cultivators think that on soil of this character the shoots attain a greater size than on very light sandy ground, but are produced on the latter more abundantly. The situation for asparagus should be open to the sun, and it is also desirable that it should be sheltered from the quarter from which strong winds prevail, in order that injury from breaking the stems in summer may be prevented. Propagation. — Asparagus is propagated by seed, which may either be sown broadcast on the ground prepared for the plantation, and the plants thinned out to the proper distance, or preferably in drills in nnrsery-beds, where the plants can remain for one or two years, when they may be finally planted out. The soil for the nursery-bed should be light, rich, and sandy. The seeds should be sown in shallow drills, covering them with about half an inch of fine soil. They may either be sown when ripe, in October, or in March, if the ground be not then too cold; but if so, the sowing had better be deferred till April. When the seedlings are 2 inches high, they should be thinned out to the requisite number of plants in the rows, and in thinning the weakest should be removed. Preparation of the Ground for the Plantation. —The effectual drainage of the soil should be the first consideration; for although the plant grows naturally in salt marshes, and therefore cannot be said to dislike moisture, yet moisture, to be beneficial, must be accompanied with heat. If cold rains occur in spring, after the beds are warmed by the sun, and are in full cutting, growth and production will be arrested; but warm rains later in the season are, on the contrary, favourable in both respects. The plant requires warmthKITCHEN GAKDEN. 149 in the soil, and undrained soil retains the coldness of winter; for the colder and heavier moisture cannot be displaced by the specifically lighter and warmer water which falls in spring, and unless the cold water is drained away from the subsoil the roots cannot act. If the ground has been drained, trenched, or made good to the depth of 3 feet, as directed for the kitchen-garden generally, that depth will suffice for the growth of asparagus. It should, however, be trenched over, and a large quantity of manure introduced; also, near the top, plenty of sandy mud, the scourings of ditches made into a compost, sea-weed where it can be obtained, decayed leaves or leaf-mould, good peat, decayed hot-bed dung, which are all excellent. It may not be practicable to make all the soil so light as some would recommend, but excellent and heavy crops of asparagus are grown where the bottom is a yellow, rather heavy loam, the top, however, being sufficiently light from long working and plentiful manuring. In trenching this for asparagus, of course the heavy subsoil is neither turned up nor mixed with the humus soil, as might be advisable for some crops; on the contrary, the lightest soil is kept uppermost, and made still more open by the addition of sandy mud as manure. Where the soil is not so deep, and the subsoil coarse and rather gravelly, the ground is trenched only one spade deep and a shovelling, the bottom of the trench being then merely dug over. Above this, however, a large quantity of manure is applied, and by this, together with good after management, chiefly consisting in making the soil fine and light for the shoots to push through, good crops are produced, but with greater care and expense than are requisite where the soil is naturally well adapted for the growth of the plants, that is, where it is loose and sandy. Mr. Errington prepares the ground for asparagus by cropping it with pease, and when that crop is cleared off, celery-beds about 4 or 5 feet wide are marked out and excavated to the depth of a foot, the soil being thrown out right and left, then 6 or 8 inches of half-decayed leaves and dung, chiefly the former, and which had been used as linings to pits or frames, is trenched in, at least a foot deep in the excavation. The surface is now covered once more with 3 inches of the best rotten manure, which, when spread, is forked in and duly mixed. The bed is now planted with celery, and when this is taken up for use, the operation, with a little care, levels and leaves the bed right for planting asparagus when the period arrives in the following May. Mr. Behrens, of Travemunde, near Lubeck, in the account of the mode in which asparagus is cultivated in his neighbourhood, says:—“It is never planted otherwise than in a deep, light, and sandy soil, which has been trenched to a depth of 3 feet, well drained, and well manured. A thick layer of liorse-dung is put in the bottom of the trench, and mixed with the soil. Strong loamy or clayey soil is decidedly disadvantageous to the growth of this vegetable. It will not thrive in it, does not become tender, and will very often become brown-spotted, which the common people here call iron-mould (cipumela), especially if drainage has been neglected.” Artificial Manures.—The effect of these on the growth of asparagus is exceedingly variable, and is greatly influenced by the greater or less dryness of the season. This was proved by some experiments made in the garden of the Horticultural Society, and of which an account is given in the Society’s Journal, vol. i. p. 264. The substances were applied to separate beds, the sui'face of each being equal to 100 square feet, or about 11 square yards, and the resulting growth was estimated by the weight of haulm produced, as compared with that from a bed to which no manure was given. The following were the principal sorts of manures applied, their respective quantities, and the modes of application :— Guano and Salt, guano 10 oz., salt 12 oz., in 16 gallons of water, applied once a week, for 17 weeks. Total—guano, 10 lbs. 10 oz.; salt, 12 lbs. 12 oz. Sulphate oj Magnesia, applied at once, spread over the bed in the middle of June. Total, 20 lbs. Sulphate of Magnesia, applied in 16 gallons of water, once a fortnight, commencing in the second week of July. Total, 18 lbs. Guano, applied like the preceding. Total, 18 lbs. Salt, applied at once in the middle of June, like the sulphate of magnesia. Total, 20 lbs. Nitrate of Soda, applied at once, like the preceding. Total, 20 lbs. The following table exhibits the increase or decrease per cent, in the weight of haulm produced by the beds experimented on in the years 1843 and 1844; the comparison being made with the bed that had no manure:— 1843. 1844. Increase. Decrease. Increase. Decrease. No manure, Guano and salt, si Sulphate of magnesia, applied at once, Ditto, once a fortnight, }44 43 44 37 Guano, 42 6 Salt, 22 Nitrate of Soda, 18 84 221 133 37150 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. It will be seen from this table, that the increase in produce of the manured beds, over that to which nothing was applied, was, on the whole, much less in 1844 than it was in 1843; the latter was a wet season, whilst the former was very dry up to the end of the growing season—a circumstance which will doubtless account for the difference between the results obtained in the two years. Sulphate of magnesia, applied at once, gave the steadiest results, being an increase of 43 or 44 per cent, in both years. Taking the average of the two years— Nitrate of soda gave an increase of,.... 51 per cent. Sulphate of magnesia, applied at once, 43i ,, Guano and salt,...................... 25 ,, Guano,............................... 24 ,, Salt,................................ 11 From the above it appears that common salt was inferior as a manure to the other substances employed. Of these nitrate of soda is at the head of the list, whilst salt ranks the lowest, the difference between the two being 40 per cent. It follows, according to the above experiments, that nitrate of soda should be employed in preference to salt. The latter, however, can always be readily obtained, and being of all artificial manures the one most frequently employed for asparagus, it is necessary to say a few words respecting its application. It may be applied at the rate of 2 lbs. per square yard. This we consider a good dressing. Less than this will do good, and much more will not do any harm, upwards of 12 lbs. per square yard having in some cases been applied, and with decidedly beneficial effects. In our opinion, the best time for salting asparagus beds is in spring, before active vegetation takes place. It should be scattered over the bed, and allowed to wash gradually into the soil with rain, or by occasional watering through the rose of a watering-pot. Thus applied, it has the effect of ameliorating and rendering the soil more friable, so that the shoots can push through with facility. We have seen it more advantageously applied in this way than in repeated waterings with solutions. If weeds are troublesome, solutions, strong enough to kill them, may also be occasionally employed in summer. For this purpose, independent of its manuring properties, salt is very useful; and it is also particularly so for the destruction of the wireworm, and other insects which injure the roots of asparagus, and ultimately kill the plant. Salt should not be applied to plants recently removed, for all such, however carefully transplanted, must have wounded roots; and it is doubtless to its application under these circumstances, that the injurious results which have in some cases followed its use are to be ascribed. Again, salt should never be applied when the roots are in a dormant state, as late in autumn and in winter, for at that period the plants cannot avail themselves of the nourishment it affords; besides which we know that in many cases the roots have been destroyed by its application at that period of the year. This result may be caused by the formation of a frigorific mixture* of the salt with snow or ice, by the moisture which the salt attracts rotting the roots, or by both these causes combined. Planting.—According to the season, planting should be performed late in spring or early in summer. It should not be done whilst the ground is too cold, or, in other words, not before the plants begin to push. If possible, advantage should be taken of mild cloudy weather, when the air is moist; and the planting should only be carried on when the ground is in good working order, not when it is too wet, for in that case it would become puddled in the process. Planting was formerly done in March, but May is found to be preferable; and some even recommend the plantation to be made in June. Mr. Errington invariably plants in May, when the asparagus is what the market-gardeners term “in feather,” that is, when the plants are about 6 inches high; and he states that from many years’ experience he has found this the best time. It is stated by Mr. Fleming, as an instance of the success of late planting, that after having made a new plantation with the greatest possible care, about the middle of March, he found that many of the plants had perished after planting. It was June before he could take any decided step to remedy the evil; he then procured several thousands of two-year-old plants, took up those that had not died, and, beginning entirely anew, had the | ground dug over again, and replanted with the fresh plants, and although they had tops 8 or 10 inches high, scarcely one failed. “Many of the tops, indeed, withered and turned brown, but were in all cases succeeded by a fresh growth. The plants were taken up carefully, the roots were immediately covered with moss, and kept moist till the moment of planting. In the course of the season the beds received several copious waterings with salt-water; and in the following spring, before the shoots made their appearance, the beds were sprinkled with salt sufficiently * On th j mixture of equal parts of salt and snow or pounded ice, these substances become liquid, and intense cold is produced, a thermometer placed in the mixture sinking to zero, or 32° below the freezing-point. In fact, Fahrenheit determined the commencement of his scale by this very means. Placed in a mixture of one part by weight of sea-salt and two of snow, the thermometer sinks from any temperature to 5° below zero.KITCHEN GARDEN. 151 thick to make them appear white; the waterings with salt-water were repeated several times through the summer season, and by September the shoots were 5 feet high. Since the 15th of April we have gathered daily a good supply of fine asparagus from these beds. It may appear that asparagus planted in March, and having the whole season to grow in, must have a better chance of doing well than that which is transplanted in the middle of its growth; but I conceive that whatever advantages may arise from early planting are counterbalanced by the ground being cold and wet, and the roots of the plants being so tender that many of them perish before the vegetative principle is excited; while at a later period the case is different, as the juices of the plant are in motion at the time, and the soil being in a warm and genial state, is prepared to encourage immediate growth.” In the asparagus plantations near London the beds were formerly in general 3 feet, and the alleys 2 feet wide. At the present time, however, many beds 5 feet wide with 2-feet alleys are laid down. These widths we consider the best, and would recommend that in making a new plantation some of the beds should be 3 feet and others 5 feet wide. The reason for having some of the beds so much narrower than the others is, that the narrow ones are sooner heated by the sun’s rays, and consequently an earlier production is induced. The distance between the rows may be regulated as follows:—Where the beds are 3 feet wide, two rows may be planted along them, each row being a foot from the edge of the bed; the rows will consequently be a foot apart. In beds that are 5 feet wide three rows should be planted, one along the middle, and one on each side, a foot from the edge of the bed, the distance between the middle row and those on each side of it will consequently be 18 inches. The distance from plant to plant in the rows should not be less than a foot; at this distance good-sized heads are produced, but if very large heads are desired, the plants may be 15 or even 18 inches apart in the rows. The 3-feet beds should be traced out to run east and west, or so as to present the side of the bed to the direct action of the sun’s rays when they are most powerful. In this way they have greater effect than when the end of the bed is presented to their influence; and the consequence is that the asparagus in beds so formed pushes earlier in the season than it does in beds running north and south. For all, except the earliest beds, the direction is immaterial, and they may run east and west, or north and south, as may be most convenient. In proceeding to plant, the beds and alleys should be marked off at the required distance. A stout peg or small stake should be driven in at each corner of the beds, and from these the distances for the rows should be measured. Some good cultivators near the Thames, where the soil is loose, sandy, and so light that it will blow with the wind, make the beds 6 feet wide, and instead of being level on the top, and trenches or alleys being cut down between them perpendicularly, or nearly so, the tops of the beds are rounded. Indeed, the looseness of the soil would render it impossible to maintain so straight-cut sides to the beds as is done where the soil is more adhesive. Others have the beds 4 or 5 feet wide, with only one row of asparagus and a row of dwarf kidney beans, about 6 inches from each edge of the bed. Mr. Errington sets out the beds for two rows each; the rows 2 feet apart, with an alley of 4 feet between them. By this arrangement each bed occupies 6 feet. There are thus 2 feet between the rows, then a foot on each side of these, making 4 feet for the beds; leaving 2 feet for an alley and for soil for earthing up. There are various ways of planting; some stretch a line and cut out a trench, as if for laying box, only deep enough to allow the roots to be laid out without doubling, and they are spread out like a fan against the cut, the crown of the plant being kept 2 inches below the surface. Some dig out a trench, and at the proper distances form little hillocks of fine soil, over which the roots are spread. Others make a ridge, on the top of which they set the plants, spreading their roots on each side of the ridge; and, again, some take off a portion of the soil of the bed, and after the surface has been raked smooth, the roots of the plants are spread out on the level. The position given to the roots by this method is not natural, therefore we cannot recommend it; but any of the other modes may be adopted; in extensive plantations the first is generally practised, as it is the most expeditious, and answers very well; but whatever method be preferred, the crowns of the plants should all be on the same level, otherwise those that are too high would be liable to be injured by the knife in cutting. Good plants one year old are generally preferred, but some employ two-year-old plants. They should be carefully taken up with a fork, and the roots preserved as entire as possible. Mr. Errington stretches the line precisely where the asparagus is to be; a slanting cut is made sloping from the line, about 9 inches deep; a similar cut is made on the opposite side of the line, leaving a sharp and angular ridge, across which the plants are set astride; the operator152 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. taking half of the roots in the one hand, and half in the other, divides them across the ridge, at the distance of 10 inches between plant and plant. After-management.—During the summer and autumn the ground should be kept free of weeds and stirred, but without disturbing the roots; and when the stalks are completely withered in autumn, they should be cut down and burned. The surface of the beds should be lightly stirred, and about three inches thick of manure and soil spread over the beds. In the following February, if the weather permit, the beds should be forked over carefully, so as not to injure the crowns; and the soil should be left rough, in order that the rain may not run off by the surface, but soak into the beds. The alleys should also be forked over. Before the asparagus begins to push, the soil should be again stirred, but this time it should be broken fine with the fork, and raked. The beds should then be lined off afresh, and some soil from the alleys laid on them, and after exposure to the weather for some time, it should also be broken fine, the beds made level to their full width, and the alleys straight. In autumn, when the stalks are cut down, the surface of the beds should be hoed off into the alleys; and both beds and alleys should be forked over, lowering a little the surface of the former at the same time, and leaving the whole rough for the winter. In spring, the forking, rendering the soil fine, and making up the beds before the buds begin to push, as performed the previous spring, should be repeated. The thickness of soil to be laid on the beds from the alleys depends on whether blanched or green asparagus is preferred. In the third year the beds will admit of some asparagus being cut, but this should only be done sparingly, in order that the growth of the plants may not be checked. For, as the increase of roots depends on the quantity of foliage, there must be shoots enough left to bear it. In the fourth year, however, the beds will be in full bearing. Other Modes of Cultivation.—Having described a mode of cultivation by which excellent asparagus can be produced in the generality of gardens, we shall now give other methods that have been practised with great success; and, in the first place, that by which the French asparagus, celebrated both for its size and quality, is obtained. It must, however, be observed that a greater amount of edible produce would be insured by exposing more of the shoots to the light, but thick perfectly blanched shoots are those most in demand in the markets. By deferring cutting for four or five days green asparagus is obtained. Asparagus is extensively grown at Argenteuil, near Paris, for the markets of that city, and the cultivators have during the last twenty years become famed for the great size and excellent quality of the produce which they obtain. It must be remembered that in general their object is to grow large stout shoots perfectly blanched, with the exception of the tops, which should be rose-coloured, red, or violet; but by allowing the shoots to remain longer uncut, or to have more exposure to the light, a greater amount of edible shoot can be secured. The system which they adopt is in one respect directly the reverse of that usually followed in England—the asparagus is planted in trenches instead of on beds. It is also frequently planted at wide intervals among the vines in vineyards. Lherault, an extensive grower, recommends giving the ground intended for a plantation a good dressing of well-decomposed horse or sheep dung. At the beginning of winter the ground is dug 16 inches deep, and in February the ridges and trenches are lined off, if possible so as to run north and south. The first triangular ridge is only half the size of the rest, being 14 inches wide at the base, and 6 inches high. Two feet from the inner side of the base of this ridge a line is stretched, and a second line at 2 feet 4 inches from it, giving the base of the first full-sized ridge. This is to be a foot high. The whole of the ground is thus marked out in 2-feet trenches and 28-iuch wide ridges alternately, the soil from the trenches being of course used to raise the ridges. The soil thrown up is intended to cover the shoots in the third year, previous to the first cutting, and the same thing being repeated in the succeeding year, at the end of the fifth season the ground will be nearly level. Planting is done in March or April. Holes 8 inches in diameter and 4^ deep are made a yard apart along the middle of each trench, the earth in the centre of the hole being formed into a hillock 2 inches high on which the roots of the plants are spread out equally in all directions, laving them down with the back of the hand. They are covered with T4sths inch of soil, then with two handfuls of well-decomposed manure, and finally with an inch deep of soil, making a little hillock an inch high over each stool, and putting in a stick at an angle of 45°, so as to mark the place of the plants, and prevent injury to the roots in hoeing. In October the stalks are cut off in dry weather at 6 inches from the surface, the surface lightly cleaned, the ridges dug a foot deep and put in shape, and the plants manured. The roots having been carefully uncovered with a hoe over a circle 8 inches in diameter, one or two handfuls of well-decayed dung are placed over every crown, and covered with about 3 inches of light soil, raising a hillock 2 inchesKITCHEN GAKDEN. 153 high over each, and marking any plants that have failed by patting in a small stick. In the second year the failures are replaced in March or April, using strong one-year-old plants, and stakes 3 ft. 3 in. long are pushed in slantwise at an angle of 45° near each plant. The ground is hoed at the beginning of April, and as soon as the shoots are large enough they are tied to the stakes to prevent breakage by wind. In October the withered stalks are cut off 8 inches above the ground, the ridges manured and dug over, and the stakes removed. The crowns are uncovered down to the manure, the soil about them loosened by the hand, and two inches of soil put on, always forming it into a conical mound. In the third year, about the middle of March, mounds from 6 to 8 inches high are formed over each crown, according to its strength, but the plants used to fill up blanks are only covered 4 inches deep, and are afterwards left alone. In taking the shoots for use they are removed with the fingers so as to avoid injuring the stool, an asparagus knife only being used, if at all, to remove the earth and trace out the base of the shoot. The shoots are taken when 2 inches above ground, by passing one finger behind their base, and, by pressing the shoot aside, it is easily detached. The soil is then returned. At most oidy 3 or 4 shoots are taken from each stool. In April, stakes 4 feet 3 inches long are put in, aud the stalks tied to them, and in October, the withered stems are cut over 10 inches above the surface, and cleared entirely away, the ground cleaned, and a good dressing of manure given. In doing this the soil of the trenches is entirely cleared out to the depth of 4 inches, casting it on the ridges; it is replaced with half that depth of well- ' rotted dung, the withered stems are shortened, i except one, which is left to show the position of the stool, and, after digging the ridges, the manure is covered with about inch of soil, at the same time raising a mound of 3 inches high over each crown, and marking with a stick any that are weak. In the fourth year, mounds 10 or 12 inches high are formed over each plant, but the weak stools marked in the previous autumn are only covered half those depths, and their shoots are allowed to grow. Those of the rest of the plants are taken off for a month ; in May, when the ridges are hoed, some earth is drawn into the trenches, and stakes 4 feet 9 inches high are put in. In October, the stems are cut over at 14 inches above the ground, the ridges are manured and dug, the mounds in the trenches levelled, the soil in the trenches thrown out as in the previous year, some handfuls of well-decayed manure placed over the crowns, and mounds 3 inches high raised over them. In the fifth year, the mounds are raised in March to about 14 inches high. The whole of the shoots of the strong stools are taken for use, but only a few from those which are weak. The shoots are removed for about two months, daily, every second day, or every third day at most, according to the temperature, and when showing about 2 inches above ground, and of a red or violet colour. The plants are staked and securely tied as soon as necessary, and in October the stems are cut over, the soil of the mounds thrown on the ridges, the trenches manured as in the third year, the ridges dug, and the manure covered. In the sixth year the asparagus will be in full production; it is mounded up 14 inches high from the crown, and the autumn treatment is the same as in the fourth year. Mr. Beaton says:—“ By fur the best way of growing asparagus is in single rows, 3 feet apart, and 9 inches plant from plant; but if the ground is not deeper than 2 feet or 30 inches, or if room is scarce, the rows need not be more than 30 inches asunder. I have grown asparagus this way for the last fifteen years, and give them no dung in winter, merely clearing off the stalks and weeds in October, and pointing over the surface about 2 inches deep with a fork, and leaving it as rough as possible. Early in March, when the surface is quite dry, it is raked down, and about 2 inches of soil drawn over the crowns from each side of the rows, which gives the ground some* thing of the appearance of a plot of pease earthed up for the first time; when the gathering isj nearly over, the ground is stirred again to loosen the tramping made in gathering the crop. The hollow between the little ridges is then filled up with a powerful compost, consisting of equal portions of sandy soil, leaf-mould, and pigeons’ dung; the whole is then drenched with liquid manure from the stables, cow-houses, or laundry, and the foreman of the kitchen-garden gets canfe blanche to water the asparagus any day through the growing season when he can best spare his men, or at all events every fortnight, and always with liquid manure if possible; as to the quantity of water, the only instruction he gets is that he cannot drown them.”—(Gardeners' Chronicle.) Mr. Behrens, of Travemiinde, says;—“We take plants of two or three years’ growth, according to their vigour, and plant them in furrows made at 2 feet distance, and from 1| to 1^ foot deep. The distance between the plants is likewise 2 feet. In these furrows the plants are permitted to grow uncovered from the month of154 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. March or April, the usual and best time for planting, till the beginning or middle of November, at all events till severe frost is coming on. The soil, which has been taken out of the furrows and heaped up at the sides, is then put in, and the beds are completely levelled. The plants have had time during summer to establish themselves sufficiently. “Next spring the young shoots will make their appearance above ground ; and if everything has been duly attended to—if strong and healthy plants have been selected, and if, besides, water has been given during a dry season—not a single one ought to fail. Some people begin to cut the strongest shoots in the third year, but a better result will be obtained by leaving them undisturbed till the fourth summer, only giving them every spring, in February or March, a good dressing of cow-dung. Manure is the most essential requisite for growing fine and tender asparagus. The shoots are cut at sunrise and late in the evening, at a length of not more than 9 inches, cutting them with a long knife under ground as soon as the top of the shoot is lifting the soil. Asparagus will always have the finest taste if eaten immediately after having been gathered, but ought never to be kept longer than one day, and should be covered meanwhile with light earth, sand, or some other material of this description. It is a very bad practice, lately in use with our market-gardeners, to immerge the asparagus immediately after cutting in a tub of water, leaving it in the water till they bring it to market. By this practice the finer flavour is altogether lost; and the cooks should be warned against doing the same. “Wherever manure is not a very expensive article, the culture of asparagus pays well, since the lightest and the most sandy land, where nothing else can be grown with advantage, can be easily adapted to its culture, and will yield a rent for a long series of years. Living myself some hundred steps from the Baltic, and having read different accounts of the famous asparagus culture at the sea-coast near San Sebastian, in Spain, I last year made the experiment of growing it in pure sea-sand, containing no humus or vegetable matter whatever. It only received a moderate supply of manure, and has even not been watered during the last hot summer; nevertheless, it is growing this year so well, that I might have cut a tolerable quantity of shoots, as big as a lady’s finger, had I been foolish enough to have done so.” Cutting.—In doingthisa little of the soil is taken from beside the shoot with the asparagus knife, which is then pushed down, but so as not to endanger the crown, or other shoots Giat may be pushing up, then turning the edge of the knife towards the shoot, the latter is cut, or rather sawed off. It is the practice near London to cut off all the shoots as they appear, up to the period when it is thought proper to leave off cutting altogether ; the period for doing this depends on the climate, season, nature of the soil, and strength of the plants. Where the climate is good, or when the season is an early one, cutting must commence early ; and of course, in that case, it ought not to be continued late, otherwise the plants will be weakened. When green pease can be had, asparagus is less required; so that, in the southern parts of the kingdom, the cutting may cease towards the middle of June, and in the northern parts by the end of that month. If the plants are weak, they ought to be allowed to grow up as early as possible to make foliage, and consequently fresh roots, and thus to acquire more vigour for the ensuing year. It is also advisable to leave off, at an early period, the cutting some of the best of the beds formed for early produce, iu order that the shoots may be well matured early in autumn; and consequently that the buds may be prepared to push vigorously early in spring. Mr. Errington’s mode of cutting is similar to the market-gardeners’, excepting that after cutting about twice in the spring, he leaves one stout shoot to each stool, with the intention of promoting the fibrous action of the root. As for the rest, he cuts all that are of any size until about the end of May, and then ceases cutting a bed or beds of the prime, suffering them to gi'ow for the earliest cut in the following spring, continuing to cut from the rest until about the end of J une. Duration of the Plantation.—Asparagus beds in favourable soil will continue to bear well for many years if properly managed, especially as regards cutting ; but if too severely cut they will soon become unproductive, however well they may have been originally formed, or however good their treatment in other respects. By continually cutting off all the shoots throughout the season, as they appeared, the plants would be completely destroyed, just as the most obstinate weeds would ultimately be if so treated. If a strong asparagus root were allowed to mature all the shoots it produced, these of course would return organized matter for the production of a proportionate quantity of fresh roots. But if all the shoots are cut off as they appear, except one, perhaps, late in the season, sap cannot be elaborated for the proper maintenance of the whole of the roots, and consequently a portion of those least iu connection with the shoot which is leftKITCHEN GARDEN. 155 will perish. Pursue the same severe process of cutting ou this plant the following season, and after that expect to find a blank in the part of the bed which the plant once occupied, and which it would have continued to have done if it had been under a more merciful treatment. When blanks begin to appear in beds, the latter should in future be more sparingly dealt with. There is only one case in which severe cutting is excusable, and that is, when a piece of asparagus is about to be thrown up, then market-gardeners and others cut as long as the produce pays for the trouble of cutting. From the above considerations, and from actual observations, we have no hesitation in stating that the duration of asparagus beds mainly depends on the more or less judicious manner in which cutting is conducted. If carefully attended to in this respect, the beds may continue in good bearing for fifteen or twenty years, and even longer; but it is better to calculate on ten or twelve years’ duration. It should, however, be recollected, that to have fresh beds in bearing condition to supply the place of those past good yielding, four or five years must elapse from the time of sowing, and therefore it will be necessary to be prepared with seed for that purpose. To save Seed.—Some of the finest shoots which push in the early part of the season, and on the south sides of the beds, should be allowed to run up for seed. As the stems grow up, some of the most promising may be tied to stakes to prevent breakage by the wind; but in doing this care should be taken not to crowd the branches, in order that the foliage may be as freely and equally exposed to the light as possible. With the growth of plants so reserved, that of others adjoining should not be allowed to interfere. When at maturity the largest berries, of the finest red, should be selected. After lying a week or two they may either be squeezed between the hands, and the seeds washed from the pulp, or the berries may be dried, in which case the seeds will keep the longest. Insects, &c.—Considerable damage is sometimes done to asparagus plantations by the larvae of the asparagus beetle (Crioceris asparagi), which feed upon the leaves, perforate the buds, and even gnaw the rind of the stems. The larvae, beetles, and eggs are found from June to the end of September; picking off the larvae and beetles, or shaking them into a net, appear to be the only means of freeing the plants from this insect. BALM (Melissa officinalis, L. — Didynamia Gymnospermia, L.; Labiatae, D. C.) is a hardy perennial, a native of the south of Europe. It is chiefly used for making balm-tea and balm-wine, though its young shoots are sometimes employed in salads instead of parsley. It prefers a light warm soil, and is propagated by parting the roots in October, or early in spring, three or four buds being preserved on each piece; or by slips in spring. The divisions or slips should be planted about a foot apart. The subsequent cultui’e is confined to keeping the ground free of weeds, and stirring it occasionally, and the stems should be cut down when frost sets in; by these means the plants will remain vigorous for many years. When coming into flower some stalks should be gathered and dried for winter use. BASIL (Ocymum, L.—Didynamia Gymnospermia, L.; Labiate, D.C.)—The aromatic leaves and tops of this plant are used in soups, stews, sauces, and some other dishes, occasionally also in salad; but the strong flavour of cloves which they possess is disagreeable to many persons. Sometimes the leaves and tops, cut when coming into flower, are dried and reduced to a powder for winter use. Two species are cultivated:— 1. Common Sweet Basil (O. Basilicum, L.) 2. Bush Basil (O. minimum, L.) These are both annuals, and natives of the East Indies ; the second sort is smaller and rather more hardy than the first. They are both raised from seed. Basil should be sown on a gentle hot-bed in the beginning of March, and when the young plants come up, they should be thinned out where too close, otherwise they will draw up weak. The thinnings may be planted on another hot-bed, or in pots or boxes, in a pit or vinery. Plenty of air and frequent waterings should be given in mild weather. Having been hardened off, the young plants should be lifted with balls in May, or as soon as all danger of frost is over, and planted out in a light rich warm border. The larger sort may be planted 6 or 8 inches from plant to plant, in rows a foot apart, and the smaller one 5 or 6 inches apart, in rows 9 inches asunder. The plants should be shaded, and occasionally watered till they take root afresh ; afterwards they only require to be watered in dry weather, and to be kept free of weeds. The seed, being seldom ripened in the open air in this country, is imported from the Continent. BEAN (Faba vulgaris, Moencli.; Vicia Faba, L. — Diadelphia Decandria, L.; Leguminospe, D.C.; Fabacese, Lind.)—is a hardy annual, a native of the East, of what part is uncertain, but Persia is usually considered to be its native country. [The most desirable of the varieties cultivated in gardens are the following, which are arranged in the order in which they come into use:—156 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. 1. Seville Longpod—syn. Feve de Seville.—Stems 2 to 2.^ feet high, moderately robust, and sparingly branched; pods very long, often 7 to 9 inches, containing about six beans of the size of those of the Longpod, and of excellent quality; the pods are rather sparingly produced, and hang down so that the lowest nearly touch the ground. At Chiswick in 1874 it proved to be the earliest and longest-podded garden bean, having been fit to gather three days before the Longpod. 2. Marshall’s Early Dwarf Prolific—syn. Marshall’s Prolific.—Stems lg foot high, branching close to the stem; very prolific, producing, in clusters, pods containing larger beans than Mazagan, and much earlier. 3. Longpod—syn. Common Longpod, Early Longpod, Large Longpod, Sword Longpod, "Windsor Longpod, Turkey Longpod, Moon, Wrench’s Early Moon, Lisbon, Early Lisbou, Sandwich, Feve a longues Cosses. —Stems 2 to 3 ft. or more in height, of a free habit of growth, branching at the ground and producing from 3 to 5 stems; pods 7 in. long, containing from 3 to 5 mediumsized beaus of good quality. It is prolific aud early. 4. Hangdown Longpod—syn. Matchless Longpod, Monarch Longpod, Feve de Marais grosse Ordinaire.— Somewhat taller growing than No. 3, and having the full-grown pods inclined downwards. 5. Carter’s Mammoth Longpod.—Stems 3 to 3J feet high; a superior variety of the Longpod type, producing very large and well-filled pods, containing about six beans of good quality; very productive. 6. Green Longpod—syn. Green Nonpareil, Green Genoa, Feve verte, Feve toujours verte.—Stems 3 to 4 feet high; pods 4 to 5 inches long, mostly erect, generally containing about four oblong beans, which when fit for use are bright green. They are much valued by some for their green colour at table. The ripe seeds are dull green. It is a good bearer, succeeding the Longpod. 7. Beck’s Dwarf Green Gem.—Stems 1 to 1^ foot high, much branched, robust, but neat and compact in growth; pods small, abundant, produced on erect clusters, 3 inches long, containing about three small fine green beans, the ripe seed being also green. It is a most prolific variety, a little later than the Longpod, and very desirable for small gardens. 8. White Fan—syn. Royal Dwarf Fan.—Stems li foot high, robust, much branched; pods abundant, produced in erect clusters from the very surface of the ground; 3 to 4 inches long, and containing about four fair-sized oblong beaus. An excellent and most prolific variety, coming into use two days after the Longpod. 9. Violet—syn. Feve Violette grosse.—Stems robust; pods 6 inches long, containing from three to four fairsized oblong beans, which are of a pale red colour, the ripe seeds being dull violet. It is an excellent bean, coming into use three days later than the Longpod, but the colour of the skin is objectionable. 10. Hardy’s Pedigree Windsor.—Stems 2 to 3 feet high, of robust habit; pods 5 to C inches long, containing about three large flat beaus, produced abundantly and generally curved downwards like the Longpods, between which and the Broad Windsor it seems to be intermediate. It is an excellent sort and very productive. 11. Windsor—syn. Broad Windsor, Kentish Windsor, Westbury Prize, Taylor’s Windsor, Taylor’s Large Windsor, Taylor's Improved New Windsor, Wrench’s Improved Windsor, Mumford, Feve de Windsor.—Stems 3 to 4 feet high, branched, of full and robust growth; pods 4 to 6 inches long, and about 11 inch broad at the lower end, containing two or three very large roundish flattened beans; the pods, which are produced abundantly, are much curved downwards. It is an excellent sort, highly esteemed as the best for a summer crop, remaining longer fit for use than most others. The Harling-ton Windsor is a well-selected form of this variety. 12. Green Windsor - syn. Feve de Windsor verte.— This has the habit of the Windsor, from which it is distinguished by the beans being of a green colour. "YVhat is known as the Early Mazagan was the latest of all the sorts proved at Chiswick. The Red-blossomed, White-blossomed, and Crimson-seeded, are curiosities. The best for early crops are Seville Longpod, Marshall’s Early Prolific, Longpod, and Beck’s Dwarf Green Gem; and for later crops Carter’s Mammoth Longpod, Hardy’s Pedigree Windsor, and Windsor. Soil.—The bean has a long tapering root, extending downwards in a perpendicular direction to a considerable depth. Shallow soils are therefore not well adapted for it. That which is most suitable for the main crop is a deep, well-drained, rather strong loam; but for the first crops a light warm soil should be chosen. It may be inferred that the soil which contains the substances which are peculiarly abundant in the composition of the plant will be most suitable for its growth. These are exhibited in the following table, which is the mean of six analyses by Messrs. Way and Ogden:— Beans. Bean-straw. Silica, 0‘88 3 "86 Phosphoric acid, 31'87 7*35 Sulphuric aciil, 4’50 3-21 Carbonic acid, 1-94 22-73 Lime, 8 "65 21-29 Magnesia, 6*55 4'88 Peroxide of iron, 0'36 0-90 Potash, 42 T3 21-26 Soda, 0-90 4 56 Chloride of sodium, 1-90 9 05 Chloride of potassium, 0-34 0-90 100-02 99-99 From the above it appeal’s that lime, potash, and magnesia occur in large quantities, and that a large proportion of phosphoric acid is also present, together with a considerable quantity of sulphuric acid. Aluminous soils usually contain large quantities of potash, soda, phosphoric ami sulphuric acids, and accordingly it is found that excellent crops of beans are obtained from such soils, provided they are at the same time rich enough iu organic matter. It has been found by analysis that the bean contains a large amount of nitrogen; hence, in addition to the inorganicKITCHEN GAKDEN. 157 substances above-mentioned, a soil rich in decaying animal or vegetable matter is required. Manure. — As beans in garden culture are gathered young, it is obvious that any manure which it may be thought necessary to apply ought to be given so as to be available to the plants at an early stage of their growth. Manure may, however, be applied at the proper time, and it may cause a luxuriant growth; still it may not be the best kind that could possibly be selected, for a luxuriant growth is frequently in some respects imperfect or unsound, and when this is the case the produce must be more or less vitiated. Produce of the highest excellence, whether fruit or vegetable, or farinaceous substance, can only be obtained from plants so circumstanced as to be enabled to make a healthy growth. Manure will generally promote a luxuriant growth in plants in most soils, but if in these soils elements essential to the growth of the plant should be deficient, and at the same time do not exist in the manure, then the growth of the plant must be so far defective; for, though a plant can appropriate certain substances necessary for its growth when they are present in the soil, yet it cannot create them, however necessary they may be for its perfect organization. The aim should be to supply, as far as possible, elements that are deficient; and the first step towards this is to ascertain what they are. Old garden soil, long cultivated and manured with organic manures, is in many instances reduced to a mass chiefly consisting of inert humus, the mineral constituents of plants being deficient to a great extent. Lime, marl, gypsum, superphosphate of lime, bone-dust, wood-ashes, and burned clay will prove highly beneficial to the bean crop on such soils. As lime and gypsum require a considerable time for solution, they should be applied in the autumn previous to sowing, and the other manures in spring. Where the soil is deficient in the inorganic substances required by the bean, the application of one or all of these manures will produce healthier plants than dung alone would do. Although farm-yard manure may in general be the best manure for beans, yet in cases where the ground is already rich in organic matter, but deficient in the inorganic substances required by the crop, it is evident that its application will not be attended with such good results as would follow the use of mineral manures, such as lime, potash, magnesia, and soda. On the other hand, when the soil is deficient in vegetable matter, but abounds in mineral substances, the application of such will not be so beneficial as that of organic manures. Cultivation.—When seeds are committed to the earth they are understood to be sown, but when large seeds, such as those of the bean, are placed in the soil singly by the hand, the process is by many termed planting. Beaus are generally sown in drills; these are drawn about 2^ feet apart for the smallest sorts, and 3 feet for the larger. In light soil, and for the larger kinds, the depth of the drills should be about 3 inches; in stronger soils, and for smaller sorts, 2-j inches deep will be sufficient. The beans should be placed about 4 inches apart in the drills, and then covered by returning the soil drawn out of the drill, previously breaking it if too rough. The rows should then be well trodden, rolled, or beaten with the back of the spade, if the ground is not too wet; but if this be the case, it must neither be trodden nor afterwards pressed. Instead of drills, holes may be made at proper distances with a blunt-euded dibber, and the seed dropped, pressing it close to the bottom of the hole with the dibber. When the plants appear, and have pushed about 6 inches, some earth should be drawn to the stems, taking care, however, not to cover the surface of the leaves. The ground between the rows must be kept well stirred and clean. When the plants have formed pods on the lower part of the stem, the latter should be topped, about 3 inches of the top being cut oflf; this checks the upward growth, and diverts the flow of sap more to the sides where the beans are being formed. This operation is likewise beneficial in greatly relieving the plants from the destructive ravages of the Aphis fo^ice, black dolphin-fly, which infests the top part more especially. The tops when cut off should therefore be carried away, and deeply enough buried, or burned. It is even advisable to top the early sorts as soon as the first pods can be well distinguished. Instead of placing the seeds at equal distances in a line, some plaut them in patches a foot apart, and three or four beans in each patch. In this way, by tying a strip of matting round the plants forming each patch, the stems are not so liable to be broken by the wind as they are when standing in rows. In exposed situations, those in rows are sometimes supported by twine stretched from end to end of the row. The preceding is the simple routine for a general crop; but some other particulars have to be noticed, also the modes of obtaining early and late crops. For the former, some of the early sorts above described, such as Marshall’s Early Dwarf Prolific, or the Early Mazagan, should of course be selected. For these, a warm border in front of a south wall should be chosen, or advantage may even be taken of a border in front158 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. of a very close well-cut hedge. If very early produce be required, small sowings of these sorts may be made in the end of October, or beginning of November, and another in December for succession, or in case of accident to the previous sowing. If the winter is mild, the plants will require little or no protection; but if likely to be severe, a coat of litter or leaves, or a mixture of both, should be put between the rows to keep the ground from freezing. As beans, however, transplant well, their safety through the winter may be insured by sowing or dibbling, in November or December, an early sort, about 2 inches .apart, in rows from 4 to 6 inches asunder, in some rather light soil and warm situation, where they can be easily protected in severe weather by means of frames, hand-glasses, straw-screens, mats and hoops, or similar contrivances. In protecting, care must be taken that the plants do not suffer from want of air and light. They will be fit for transplanting into a warm border in February, when they may be planted out if the weather is sufficiently mild, or as soon afterwards as possible. The plants may be planted in rows, not more than 2 feet asunder, as, in order not to crowd their roots in transplanting, they require to be further apart in the rows than is recommended for the seeds. The plants should be placed fully as deep in the soil as they were before removal, and they should be afterwards managed by drawing a little earth to the stems, and topping, as previously directed, for the main crop. For succession, some of the Early Mazagan, or Marshall’s Early Dwarf Prolific, and Long Pod, should be sown in January, and again in February, if the ground is clear from frost; Windsor and Green Windsor, with some Long Pods, in March for the principal crop, and again in April and May for succession. For a late crop, the Long Pod and Dutch Long Pod should be sown in June or the beginning of July. To obtain a very late crop, after gathering the summer produce of the Long Pod in a young state, let the soil be well watered, if dry, and in two or three days after the watering let the stems be cut down to within a few inches of the ground. Fresh shoots will soon push, and a better very late crop will be produced than if seeds had been sown late for the purpose. If a late crop is a very special object, then the plants intended to produce it should be cut down when in flower. Steeping the seeds of beans accelerates their vegetation, and may be performed with advantage for the main crops. Those sown before or in winter, will acquire enough of moisture for their vegetation. By some experiments on seed-steeping, made by Professor Solly in the garden of the Horticultural Society, it was found that beans steeped in water not only came up more quickly than those not steeped, but that the plants from steeped seeds maintained to the last their superiority over thosefrom seeds not steeped, all other circumstances being precisely the same. The season in which the experiments were made was a dry one. A quantity of beans of the same sort was selected as equally as possible, and divided into parcels of 150 each; one of these parcels was not steeped, the others were soaked in water and different solutions. For the experiment, saturated solutions of pure nitrate of soda, chloride of calcium, sulphate of magnesia, muriate of ammonia, phosphate of ammonia, and common salt, were made, aud diluted with nine times as much water. The following is the result, as regards the number of plants which appeared above ground at the end of a fortnight, out of 150 seeds steeped in solutions of the above substances:— Nitrate of soda,................... 0 Chloride of calcium,............... 0 Sulphate of magnesia,............. 13 Muriate of ammonia,................ 0 Phosphate of ammonia,.............. 1 Common salt,....................... 0 Water,........................... 5l> Not steeped,....................... 2 From the above it appears that water had a good effect, and next to it, sulphate of magnesia; the other solutions appear to have produced no good effect, but the contrary. The seeds may be kept in steep for twelve hours or longer, accoi'd-ing to their state of dryness. Gathering.—Some prefer the beans when very young, or when the seeds have attained only one-fourth of their natural size. They should at all events be gathered before they appear black-eyed, that is, black at the hilutn, or point of attachment to the pod. A portion, however, should be allowed to get older, ill case they should be wanted for soups. To save Seed.—The sorts of which seeds are intended to be saved should be sown in the end of February; and as the best seeds are those in the first-formed pods, none of these should be gathered for cooking green, although those produced afterwards near the top may be taken with advantage to those which are left below to ripen. When the leaves become withered and blackish, the stems should be pulled up, tied in small bundles, and set upright, where they will dry by exposure to the sun and air. The seeds will keep good for two years, after which time they are not to be depended on, though some will retain their vegetative powers for five years orKITCHEN GARDEN. 159 more. Seeds that have been long successively saved from plants grown in the same soil and situation are liable to degenerate. It is therefore advisable to obtain seed occasionally from a different soil and climate—from France, for example. Insects, &c.—The bean is subject to the attacks of many enemies. Mice eat the seeds deposited in the ground in autumn and winter, but they may be trapped, or prevented from doing much mischief, by covering the drills with rough sand, or by sowing chopped furze along with the seed in the drills. But the most destructive agent is the “ blight,” caused by the .attacks of the dolphin-fly or collier (Aphis fabce, Fig. 166), which attacks the leaves when the beans are beginning to swell in the pods. Commencing at the top, this insect Fig. 166. Dolphin-fly or Collier—Aphis fabce. 1. Wiugless female, mag. 2. Wingless colony on bean tops. 3. Winged specimen, of a dull black colour. The cross lines indicate the natur>ol size. works downwards, till at last nothing remains but black stalks and pods arrested in their development. The only effectual remedy consists in cutting off the tops of the plants, as soou as the insect makes its appearance, and burning them at once as the operator proceeds, so that the insects may not crawl from the cut tops to the growing plants. The seeds are also sometimes attacked in the ground by the snake-millipedes (Juli), which bore into them, and cause them to rot; and the leaves are eaten by the curculios, or weevils (Sitona lineata and Otiorhynchus picipes), as well as by the caterpillars of the Y-moth. Humble-bees pierce the blossoms, frequently rendering the pods abortive; and the beetles of Bruchus granurius and If. Jlavimanus lay their eggs in the flowers, and the larvae which are produced attack the seeds, which may, however, be freed from them by steeping in brine. BEET {Beta, L. — Pentandria Digynia, L.; Chenopodeae, D.C.)—Of this, varieties of two species, namely, Beta vulgaris and Beta Cicla, are cultivated; the sea-beet {Beta maritima) is also sometimes grown for its leaves, which form a good substitute for spinach. I. Beet Boot {Beta vulgaris, L.) is a hardy biennial, a native of the sea-coast of the south of Europe. From it numerous varieties have originated, and infinite shades of difference may be found among seedlings annually raised from those in cultivation; hence, new designations are given to sorts so closely allied as to be scarcely worth distinguishing. According to Mr. Barr’s observations the purple-fleslied sorts are the richest in flavour, the crimson - fleshed sorts being also good, and those with scarlet flesh the least saccharine. The principal garden varieties are:— I. Flesh Red. 1. Red Castelnaudary—syn. Betterave rouge de Castelnaudary, La petite rouge de Castelnaudary.—• This variety, which is much esteemed in France for its superior flavour, compared to that of a nut, was originally produced at a town of the same name, in the province of Languedoc, in France, where the soil is particularly adapted to the growth of these vegetables. Leaves thickly clustered round the crown, spreading on the ground, the longest of the foot-stalks not exceeding 3 inches; these and the veins of the leaves are quite purple, whilst the leaves themselves are green, having only a slight stain of purple proceeding from the borders of the veins; root formed within the earth, little more than 2 inches in diameter at the top, tapering gradually to the length of 9 inches; flesh deep purple, exhibiting dark rings; being also very tender and sweet, preserving its fine colour when boiled. This is certainly more distinct, as a variety, than any of the others; it is smaller in habit, and as it occupies much less space in the ground, may be sown closer than the others usually are. The above are the true characters of this excellent variety, from which have doubtless originated most of the finer dwarf kinds of beet. 2. Short’s Pine-apple—syn. Pine-apple Dwarf Red, Henderson’s Pine-apple, Short’s Compact - topped.— Leaves 6 to 7 inches high, dark purple, the stalks tinged with dull orange; roots 6 to 8 inches in circumference, the surface bluntly furrowed, the crown conical; flesh deep crimson, when cooked tender, sugary, and well-flavoured. This beet, which was raised by Mr. Short, of Langley Park, Norwich, is remarkable for its dwarf compact habit, and its uniformity of character. 3. Nutting’s Dwarf Red.—Leaves 9 to 12 inches high, dark blood red; roots chiefly developed under ground, 9 inches in circumference, with a conical crown; flesh purplish, when cooked sweet, the flavour excellent. 4. Chelsea.—Leaves dull greenish purple, spreading out flat or nearly so; roots G to 8 inches in circumference, very handsomely shaped, with a conical crown; flesh rich purplish red, when cooked tender, saccharine, of an excellent flavour and finely coloured. It was selected from the Pine-apple variety, some years ago, by Mr. Moore, at the Chelsea Botanic Garden. 5. Paul’s Superb Crimson—syn. Cutbush’s Crimson.—Leaves about a foot long, blood-red, much wrinkled;ICO GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. root 8 inches in circumference, with a broad flattish j crown; flesh crimson, when cooked sweet, mild, tender, and free from earthiness. (I. Carter's Perfection of Beets.—Leaves of a shining dark crimson colour, and dwarf arched habit; roots medium sized, handsomely formed; flesh rich crimson lake, of excellent flavour, and highly approved when exhibited before the Royal Horticultural Society. 7. Dell’s Crimson—syn. Osborn’s Select Red.— Leaves rich dark glossy crimson, of uniform medium height, compact and slightly arched; roots 8 to 9 inches in circumference; flesh purple; a first-rate table kind, being of excellent quality when cooked. 8. Clayton’s Selected Red.—Leaves small, bright bronzy red, very distinct; roots small, tapered; flesh purple, finely flavoured. 9. Turnip-rooted Red—syn. Betterave rouge ronde precoce.—Leaves not numerous, the foot-stalks 5 or 6 inches long, pale, tinged with purple; root chiefly below ground, but the upper part exposed and brownish; flesh purplish red, with irregular rings of a lighter colour, pink when boiled; though coarse in appearance, it is tender and free from fibres, and early in the season is better flavoured than the other kinds. 10. Bassano.—This is very like the preceding in form, being flat and round, but it differs in being white internally; skin reddish; flesh white, with concentric bright rose-coloured zones or rings. M. Audot states, that “the Bassano beet appeared to be the same as that which he met with in the month of June, in all the markets in the north of Italy, from Venice to Genoa; it was then from 2 to 2J inches in diameter, young and tender, and preserved its rose-coloured zones after it had been cooked.” At Venice it is called Betterave de Chioggia. This sort is not well adapted for winter use, but is very good in summer and autumn. II. Flesh Yellow. 11. Small Yellow—syn. Yellow Castelnaudary, Betterave jaune de Castelnaudary.—Root produced entirely in the ground; leaves spreading on the surface, the outside ones being on foot-stalks about 4 inches long, the inner ones are shorter, numerous, dark green, rather waved; foot-stalks green rather than yellow; root nearly 3 inches diameter at the top, and extending about 8 inches into the ground, very similar to the other yellow kind, except in size, and being consequently less coarse; when cooked it is tender, yet firm and very sweet. Unquestionably the best variety that can be grown for the table, though its colour is not so agreeable to the eye. 12. Large Yellow—syn. Betterave jaune grosse, Betterave jaune a, sucre.—This grows mostly above ground. Leaves dark lurid green, without any admixture of red, the foot-stalks and veins with a bright yellow tinge; root pale orange, lemon coloured inside; flesh very sweet, but rather coarse, and on this account much inferior to the preceding. This was the sort from which the French principally manufactured their sugar during the war in the beginning of the present century. III. Flesh White or Pale Green. 13. White Silesian—syn. White Silesian Sugar, Betterave blanche de Prusse.—Root very large, a little elongated, growing mostly below the ground surface; skin white or greenish white; flesh white. This variety is employed almost exclusively for the extraction of sugar, of which it contains from 5 to 12 per cent. The average proportion of sugar may be assumed at 10 per cent., but the actual quantity obtained in the factories seldom exceeds 5 per cent. The composition of two varieties of beet has been ascertained by Mr. Cameron to be as follows:— HE Long Red. Short Red. Water, 85-18 84-68 Gum, 0-67 0-50 Sugar, 979 11-96 Caseine, 0-39 0-26 Albumen [?], 0-09 0-18 Fibre, pectin, and pectic acid,.. 3-08 3 31 99-20 100-89 The following is the composition of the ashes, as ascertained by Messrs. Way and Ogden:— Yellow Globe. Long Red. Bulb. Leaf. Bulb. Leaf. Potash, 23 54 8-34 29-05 27-53 Soda, 19-08 12-21 19-05 5-83 Lime, 1-78 8-72 2-17 9-06 Magnesia, 1*75 9-84 2-79 9-10 Oxide of iron, 074 1-46 0"56 0-48 Carbonic acid, 18-14 6-92 21-61 611 Phosphoric acid, 4-49 5-89 3-11 4-39 Sulphuric acid, 3-68 6-54 3-31 6-26 Chloride of sodium, 24-54 37 "66 14-18 29-85 Silica, 2*22 2-35 411 1-35 99-96 99-93 99-94 99-96 Percentage of ash, 1-02 1-40 1-00 1-91 Beet requires a situation fully exposed to the light, for, however good the soil may be, the plants will not thrive well if in any way shaded by trees. A tolerably rich open loam, or a sandy loam, produces the cleanest roots and the best crops. Ground that has been manured for a previous crop will not require to be again manured for beet. It should, however, be trenched in winter two spades deep, throwing the soil in ridges in order to expose it to the action of the weather. Advantage should be taken of dry weather to level down the ridges, and dig the whole regularly over just before sowing. If manure is necessary, it should be applied in trenching, putting it down a foot or so below the surface. It appears, from the above analyses, that beet contains a very large percentage of chloride of sodium, or common salt, and it may therefore be concluded that salt will prove very beneficial as a manure for this plant, especially in inland situations. It is accordingly found that salt has a decided effect in promoting the growth of beet; but it should only be applied in moderate quantities, as both it and ammoniacalKITCHEN GARDEN. 161 manures, when too liberally given, have the effect of increasing the bulk of the produce at the expense of its quality. Some manures produce a marked effect even on those kinds of beet-root which do not naturally grow to a large size. In some experiments made in the garden of the Horticultural Society, with various manures applied to ground sown with Castelnaudary beet, Potter’s guano produced the heaviest crop. This compound was applied at the rate of 4 cwts. 5 lbs. per acre, or little more than 2f lbs. per rod; it was mixed with about seven parts of fine soil, and scattered along the bottoms of the drills previous to sowing. The rows were 15 inches apart, and the plants were thinned out to 9 inches apart in the rows. The weight of roots produced was at the rate of fully 28 tons per acre, whilst the produce from rows that had no manure was at the rate of 15 tons 15 cwts. The same quantity of the best Peruvian guano, applied in the same way, produced 22 tons 13 cwts. of roots. In most localities the main crop may be sown ill the third week of April. The precise time, however, depends on the soil and situation. In some soils the plants are apt to run to seed in the same season; therefore, where this is found to be the case, the sowing should be made later than in soils where the plants are not subject to run. The market-gardeners near London sow their beet in the first week of May; for if sown as early as some recommend, the roots become too full of fibre, and are not so tender as those sown later. On the other hand, it may be sown too late to acquire its proper size and flavour. The medium between these extremes is the proper time for sowing the principal crop, and this, wTe presume, will generally be found to correspond wdtli the period above recommended. In gardens where early crops must be raised, it will be advisable to sow some early kind at the end of February, or in the first week of March; or at this time plants for transplanting may be raised in a frame, where the heat is very slight. For succession, a few more rows, according to the demand, may be sown at the end of March. Previous to sowing, the seed should be steeped for about twelve hours in water of a temperature between 50° and 60°. The seeds having been taken out of steep, and allowed to drain so as not to stick to each other, should be sown whilst their surface is still damp. Beetroot is best sown in drills about inch deep; these for the smaller kinds, such as the Castelnaudary, should be about 16 inches apart; and the plants should be thinned out to 9 inches apart in the row. The large sorts may have 18 inches between the rows, but still not more than 9 inches from plant to plant in the row. If we desired to grow beetroot to a large size, we might have the rows 18 inches or 2 feet apart, and the plants as much as 12 or 15 inches distant from each other in the rows; but large roots are not desirable for table, and it is better to have two of medium size grown at 9 inches apart, than one of perhaps double the size from twice the space. As a square foot of ground should afford plenty of nourishment to produce a root large enough for table, we may therefore limit the area for each plant to that extent. If we make the rows 16 inches apart, and thin the plants to 9 inches apart in the row, each plant will have a space equal to a square foot. Sufchl of course, would also be the case if the rows were 12 inches apart, and the plants the same distance from each other in the row; but it is preferable to allow a greater space between the rows, than between the plants in the row; for by this arrangement the leaves have better soope to grow to each side, and the plants so situated grow better than those which have an equal but rather limited space in all directions, whilst the ground can also be more easily stirred and kept clean. When the plants are about 2 inches in height, they should be singled out where two come up close together; and when they have made six leaves, they should be finally thinned to the proper distance. At this age they should be transplanted into any blanks that may be found in the rows. It is a good plan to sow a small bed for the purpose of making up deficiencies; or in some cases the entire crop may have to be transplanted. Great care should be taken not to break the roots in removal, and the principal one should be inserted at full length, and without doubling. Transplantation should of course bfl performed in cloudy weather, and when the ground is moist, either naturally, or by means of watering,but not wet. The ground should be frequently stirred during the summer, watering only when absolutely necessary. The crop will continue to grow till checked by frost or cold weather. Part of it should be taken up in the end of October or beginning of November. A few days previous to the taking up of the roots, the leaves should be trimmed off several inches above their bases. In taking up, a trench must be dug out along the first row to be taken up, to the full depth of the roots; from these the earth should be carefully removed, in order not to break the fibres, for loss of colour will result from their being broken. The roots may then be housed, by laying them slanting among moderately dry soil, so that the herbaceous part only of the crown may be exposed. Some being taken jmp in case of severe frost, means should be 11162 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. adopted to protect those remaining in the open ground; for those preserved in this way have a much fresher flavour than those which are housed. The beet will stand a sharp frost tolerably well, provided the ground is not allowed to get frozen, and this should be prevented by leaves, fern, litter, or other means at command. To save Seed.—Sow in an open situation a row, or part of a row, according to the quantity required, and thin out the plants to a foot apart, preserving only those which appear the finest and true to the variety. Give protection from frost in winter, and secure their stems in the following season from breaking by the wind. Instead of sowing to raise plants for bearing seeds, a few roots of the finest of the main crop may be taken up and replanted in spring. Seed should never be saved from any plants which run to flower in the year of sowing. II. Leaf-beet [Beta Cicla, L.) is a hardy biennial, a native of the sea-coasts of Spain and ; Portugal. It is cultivated for the leaves and 1 leaf-stalks, but chiefly for the latter; for, as regards the roots, they are hard, much divided, and unfit for cooking. The thin part of the leaves is sometimes put into soups, together with sorrel, the acidity of which it corrects; the stalks and midribs, when peeled, are usually boiled and served up in the same way as asparagus or sea-kale, and they are sometimes stewed with sauce. The varieties are:— 1. Green or Common Leaf-beet. 2. White or Silver Leaf-beet. Poiree a carde blanche. 3. Yellow-stalked Leaf-beet. Poiree a carde jaune. 4. Red-stalked Leaf-beet. Poiree it carde rouge. 5. Curled Leaf-beet. Poiree a carde frisee. Of the above sorts, the Red-stalked and Yellow-stalked are very beautiful, owing to their bright colours; but the White or Silver Leaf-beet is esteemed the best. The leaves of the fifth sort are curled like those of a savoy, and have broad white midribs. Any good garden soil will suit the leaf-beet. The seed should be steeped previous to sowing, like those of the other beets; and it may be sown iu drills 18 inches apart and about 1^ inch deep; in March for autumn and winter use, and again in August for a spring supply. When the plants are a few inches high, so that those likely to make the best growth can be distinguished, they should be thinned out to 9 inches or a foot apart, according to the richness of the soil, more room being allowed in rich ground. Some, however, should be left at half that distance, to make up any vacancies that may occur. The ground should be kept clean, and occasionally stirred between the rows, taking care not to injure the roots. In dry weather plenty of water should be given to promote the succulence of the leaves. When sown in autumn, the plants should be protected with litter during very severe weather. The outside leaves should be the first cut for use; the others will come in for succession. Insects.—The roots of young plants sometimes suffer greatly from the grubs of the dart-moths [Agrotis segetum, Fig. 167, A. exclamationis, Fig. The Common Dart moth—Agrotis segetum. 1. Moth fl>'iug. 2. Caterpillar. 168) and the crane-flies or daddy-long-legs (Tipula oleracea, T. paludosa, Fig. 169). Hand-picking is the only way of getting rid of these. According to Fig. 16S. The Heart-aiul-durt Motli—Agrotis exclamationis. 1. Moth at rest. 2. Caterpillar. 3. Earthen case surrounding chrysalis. 4. Chrysalis. Curtis the two species of Tipula [oleracea and paludosa) resemble each other so closely in habits, size, and colour, that they are often confounded. In Fig. 169, 1, 2, and 3 belong to T. oleracea; 4 is the female of the T. paludosa. The only important difference between the two in the perfect state is the longer wings of the female oleracea. Both infest the beet crops. The crane-flies have of late years proved destructive to the grass in the parks near London to an alarming extent, notwithstanding the efforts of the rooks to destroyKITCHEN GARDEN. 163 the grubs. The grass was reduced to withered rootless tufts, and patches were laid bare of Fig. 160. 1. Eggs. 2. Maggot. 3. Pupa-case vacated by the gnat of Tipula oleracea. 4. Female of Tipula paludosa. vegetation by the rooks in quest of the insects. In France and Ireland, but never in England, according to Curtis, whole crops are destroyed by the larvae of the beet carrion-beetle (Silpha opaca), which devour the young leaves; these are also I attacked by the turnip-fly (Altica nemorum), by the larval of Cassida nebidosa, and Anthomyia betce. BORAGE (Boracjo officinalis, L.—Pentandria Monogynia, L.; Boragineae, D. C.) is an annual plant, a native of England, or naturalized in it. Its pretty white, reddish, or blue flowers, are employed for garnishing salads, and in cool-tankards; the young leaves are used as a salad, sometimes as a pot-herb; they are also pickled, and it is sometimes sown for bees. It grows in almost any soil, but prefers a dry one. The seed may be sown at any time in the spring, summer, or autumn. A sowing should be made in March, and if a constant succession is required, a small quantity maybe sown monthly from that time till September. The seeds should be sown where the plants are to remain, either broad-cast and raked in, or in drills 6 or 8 inches apart, only a light covering of earth being given. In dry weather the seed-bed should be frequently watered, and when well established the young plants should be thinned out to 8 inches apart.— Seed is easily saved by cutting off the flower-stalks a little before the seed is so ripe as to drop in handling, and drying them on a cloth; if the seed is allowed to ripen on the plant it will sow itself. BORECOLE, or Kale (Brassica oleracea ace-phala, D. Cj—Tetradynamia Siliquosa, L.; Cru- cifers, D. C.; Brassicacese, Lind.)—The borecoles constitute one of the hardiest divisions of the Brassica tribe, and on this account they are very important for northern climates, for in such they yield the principal supply of winter greens to the generality of the inhabitants. Being so universally cultivated in most European countries, many of the sorts have acquired a multiplicity of names, as will be seen from the following list, which comprises the principal sorts and their synonymes:— 1. Dwarf Green Curled—syn. Dwarf Curled Kale, Very Dwarf Green Curled, Dwarf Winter Curled, Scotch Kale, Green Scotch Kale, Dwarf Curlies, French Dwarf Curled, Canada Dwarf Curled, Labrador Kale, Green Borecole, Dwarf Green Borecole, Chou frise vert si pied court, Chou frise a pied court.—By one or other of the above names this is known to every one. The Canada Dwarf Curled was found to represent exactly the finest Dwarf Curlies grown many years ago in some parts of Scotland, the plants being very dwarf and closely curled. This sort of borecole is very hardy, and the plants from their dwarf habit are liable to be completely covered with snow, and thus protected they are often preserved quite fresh, when the taller kinds, having their tops above the snow, are either completely destroyed by frost, or rendered so tough as to be unfit for use. 2. Tall Green Curled—syn. Tall German Greens, Tall Scotch Kale, Tall Green Borecole, Tall Greens, German Tall Curled Greens, Green Winter Greens, Chou frise vert du Nord, Chou frise vert du Nord grand, Chou frise, Chou frange du Nord, Chou frise non pomme, Chou frise d’Allemagne, Grosser Griinkohl, Krausser Griinkohl, Nordischer Griinkohl.—Height usually from 2 to 3 feet; but 2 feet is the preferable growth. The plants are capable of enduring a considerable degree of frost, and, like the preceding, it affords the best greens from the time that the first frost has mellowed its flavour to the middle of February. The quality of these greens is improved by a moderate degree of frost, but deteriorated by dry frosty winds. 3. Imperial Hearting or Cabbaging Kale.—This is a variety which very much resembles the Dwarf Green Curled in the nature, colour, and general appearance of the leaves; the heart-leaves, however, fold over each other, somewhat like those of a cabbage, but owing to the curls of the margin, of course, not so compactly. The quality is excellent. 4. Egyptian Kale.—This is very dwarf, the stem not exceeding G inches in height, and in spring it produces numerous succulent shoots a foot or more long, which may be blanched and used as a substitute for Sea Kale and Asparagus : hence it is frequently called Asparagus Kale, a name, however, which is also applied to the Buda Kale as well as to the Portugal Cabbage, or Couve Tronchuda. It is a very hardy and excellent sort. 5. Jerusalem Kale—syn. Delaware Kale, Delaware Greens.—Closely resembles the preceding in its leading characters, but has the margins of the leaves curled instead of plaited, as well as tinged with purple, when young. Like the Egyptian Kale it may be blanched and used in the same way, and like it is also called Asparagus Kale, but to what variety this name properly belongs is uncertain. G. Purple Borecole—syn. Red Borecole, Purple164 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Kale, Tall Purple Kale, Purple Winter Greens, Brown Kale, Curled Brown Kale, Curled Red Kale, Braunkohl of tlie Germans.—This in its formation and habit differs little from the Tall Green Curled, but the colour is deep purple; as the leaves enlarge they have an inclination to become green, but the veins still retain the purple hue. Very productive. The Purple borecole is very hardy; and the Germans esteem it much, probably from its being adapted to withstand the severity of their winters. They dress it with a rich sauce, and sometimes mix chestnuts with it, stewing them together. 7. Dwarf Purple Borecole— syn. Chou frise rouge a pied court, Dwarf Y ariegated.—These are merely sub-varie-ties of the two preceding, distinguished by their dwarfer habit of growth. 8. Variegated Borecole — syn. Variegated Kale, Variegated riumage Kale, Chou Plume, Chou frise panache, Aigrette, Chou frise vert et rouge, Bun-ten Plumage Kohl, Federkohl.~—A sub-variety of the Purple borecole, having the leaves beautifully variegated; sometimes green and yellowish white, green and purple, bright red, purple, or green. It is occasionally employed for garnishing ; but it is very good cooked after frost. It is not quite so hardy as the Purple borecole. 9. Melville’s Variegated Kale, Melville’s New Triple Curled Variegated Kale.—Many varieties of Variegated Kale have been raised by Mr. Melville, Dalmeny Park; variously curled and fringed with green, red, or purple; in others the margins are white, whilst the rest of the leaf is variegated with green, red, or purple. They are hardy and excellent for garnishing in winter, and when cooked they are an improvement on the Purple borecole. 10. Woburn Perennial Kale is a tall variety of the Purple borecole, with foliage very finely divided or fringed. The plant lasts many years, and may be propagated by cuttings, as it neither flowers readily nor perfects well its seeds. Its produce at Woburn is stated to have been more than four times greater than that of either the Green or the Purple borecole, on the same extent of ground. The weight of produce from 10 square yards was 144 lbs. 10 oz.; but some of the large kinds of cabbages and savoys will exceed this considerably, and prove of better quality. The Woburn Perennial kale can therefore only be recommended where the climate is too severe for the more tender kinds of the cabbage tribe. 11. Cottagers’ Kale.—Stem about 2 feet high. Leaves plain or curled; some green, others purplish green. The plants throw out an abundance of shoots in spring, and furnish a large supply of greens. 12. Flanders Kale, or Caulet de Flandre, is a tall-growing kind, distinguished from the Tree Cabbage by its purplish foliage. 13. Tree Cabbage (Fig. 170)—svn. Great Cow Cabbage, Caesarean Borecole, Caesarean Cabbage, Waterloo Cresarean Cabbage, Jersey Kale, Chou en arbre, Grand Chou a vache, Chou cavalier, Chou a chevre, Grand Chou vert,Chou vert de Tourraine, Baum-kohl, Grosser Kuh-kohl.—This grows to the height of 6 feet, and in La Vendee and Jersey it is said to attain the height of 12 feet or upwards. The leaves are large, smooth, or but slightly curled; its sprouts are said to be good when cooked, and cottagers might grow it with advantage in some cases, as it affords a supply for cattle. Its merits, however, appear to have been greatly overrated, for, when tried in this country against other varieties of cabbages, its produce was nothing extraordinary. 14. Thousandheaded Cabbage— Chou a mille tetes, Chou a mille tetes du Poitou, Chou brancliu du Poitou —is allied to the preceding, but does not grow so tall; it sends out numerous side-shoots. On the whole it is preferable to the Tree cabbage. 15. Buda Kale—syn. Prussian Kale, Buda Greens. Russiau Kale, Hamburgh Kale, Anjou Kale, Manchester Kale, Camberwell Kale, Asparagus Kale of some.—Stein 18 inches to 2 feet high, producing numerous side shoots iu spring, and these may be blanched like Sea kale, and are tender and of good quality. Leaves purplish, somewhat glaucous, smooth, bluntly-toothed. A very hardy variety. 10. Chou de Milan.—Stem 2 feet high; leaves bluish green, rugose, forming an open crown. In February and March a number of open sprouts are thrown out along the stem, and these when cooked are of rich and delicate flavour. A late, tall sort, closely allied to the preceding and Cottagers’ Kale. 17. Ragged Jack.—Dwarf, resembling the Egyptian and Jerusalem in its habit of growth; the leaves glau- Tree Cabbage or J ersey Kale.KITCHEN GARDEN. 165 cous, deeply cut, often curled, but when young not hairy as with the Jerusalem kale. Of good quality, extremely hardy, and very productive. Borecole, it is well known, will grow in any garden soil; of course, like all tlie cabbage tribe, it likes plenty of manure. It will do very well on a north border, and such is frequently occupied with this crop; but for that situation, and perhaps we may say for all others in a garden, the Dwarf Curled is the most suitable. Nothing is more unsightly than tall borecoles, hiding perhaps 3 feet or more of the wall, and rendering it so far useless for trees. The main crop of the first sort should be sown in the first week of April, or, iu the northern parts of the kingdom, in the third week of March; and some for a succession should be sown in the first week of May. Another sowing may be made in August, to be planted in spring. A sowing of the Buda kale for late spring use should be made in the last week of August, and transplanted in the end of September. The Tree cabbage, Thousand-headed cabbage, and the Flanders kale, if required, should be sown early in spring, or, preferably, iu the north in the first week in August. The plants should not be allowed to get overcrowded in the seed-bed, as is often the case in cottage gardens, if not occasionally in others. Ground may not be in readiness to receive the plants when they are fit for transplanting, in consequence of its being occupied by some other erop; if so, there can be no great difficulty in relieving the over-stocked seed-bed, by pricking out a portion in some spare corner where they will enjoy lighjt and air, and moisture should be duly supplied till they can be finally planted out. By these means a healthy stock, capable of producing more succulent greens than could be expected from a plantation formed of lingering ill-conditioned plants, will be insured. The distance of planting depends partly on the variety and partly on the nature of the soil, the large growing sorts, of course, requiring more space than the smaller ones, and the whole of the sorts more in rich soil than in that which is comparatively poor. In general, however, the first six sorts may be planted in rows 2 feet apart, and 18 inches from plant to plant in the rows. Tree cabbage and the Thousand-headed cabbage require to be planted 3 or 4 feet apart each way. The subsequent culture consists in watering till the plants strike root if the weather proves dry, hoeing and stirring the soil between the rows, and as the tall sorts advance in growth some earth may be drawn to their stems. Caterpillars should be shaken or picked off and destroyed. In gathering, the heads of the Dwarf and Tall borecole should be cut for use, and the remaining stem will push fresh sprouts. The cut should be slanting iu order to throw off the rain. To save Seed.—This is an easy matter; but to save the varieties true to the kind is frequently difficult, notwithstanding the greatest care, the different varieties of the Brassica tribe being so liable to cross iu consequence of the pollen being carried from one variety to another by bees, flies, or other insects, or even by the wind. It is therefore not sufficient to net the seed-plants, so that bees cannot reach the flowers; it is even questionable whether the reverse of what is intended is not occasioned by so doing, for the bees in hovering above the netting will lose some of the pollen brought on their hairs from flowers of other plants of the cabbage tribe, and that falling amongst the plants frequently effects a cross. It has been well ascertained, that if a single plant of borecole is left for seed the flowers are much more liable to be impregnated with the pollen than when there are several; and when a large number are planted together the seeds obtained from them are generally true, for then the bees come direct for their load, without stopping here and there. By selecting plants of the best characters, and planting a dozen or so together, we have known a very fine Dwarf Curled borecole saved perfectly true for many years. The plants for seed should be taken up early in spring, and planted rather deeply iu a spot well exposed to the sun, and rather sandy than stiff. They should be watered moderately so as to keep them in a healthy state, and the stems should be supported to prevent breakage by the wind. When the seeds are ripe, they should be rubbed out, cleaned, and dried, after which they may be put into canvas bags, and hung up in a dry place. BROCCOLI (Brassica oleracea var. Botrytis cy-mosa, D. C.— Tetradynamia Siliquosa, L.; Cru-ciferce, D. C.; Brassicaceae, Lind.) is a hardy biennial, though not so hardy as many others of the Brassica tribe; a native of Italy, and elsewhere on the shores of the Mediterranean. Some think that the broccoli has been derived from the tall open cabbages or greens, but from these it differs in many respects, especially in the glaucous colour of the leaves. The difference between some of the white broccolis and the cauliflower is scarcely perceptible. Miller indeed supposes, in his Gardener's Dictionary, that the broccolis known iu his time were derived from the cauliflower, which he states was imported from the island of Cyprus. I.—Heads Purple and Green. 1. Early Purple Cape—syn. Early Sprouting Purple, Purple Sicilian, Purple Silesian, Grange’s Early Cape,166 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Blue Cape, Yiolet nain hfttif, Thomson’s Superb Purple. —This grows from 1 foot to 18 inches high. Leaves nearly entire, erect, waved; veins and midrib stained with purple. Heads middle-sized, compact, purplish green, the whole becoming green when boiled. Sow first and third week in May, for use in September and October. A longer succession—-namely, till January— may be obtained, if required, from a sowing in the second week in June. 2. Dancer's Late Fink Cape.—A very fine late broccoli. Heads large, with a close surface. In use in March. 3. Green Cape—syn. Autumnal Cape, Improved Cape, Maher’s Hardy Cape.—Leaves long, narrow, veins and midribs green. Head greenish, generally covered by the leaves; comes into use in October and November, from sowings in the middle of May, and in December if sown in the second week in J une. 4. Sprouting — syn. Asparagus Broccoli, Italian Sprouting, Grange’s Early Purple Sprouting, Autumn Sprouting, Early Branching, North’s Early Purple.—A strong-growing hardy sort, from 2 to 3 feet high. Leaves spreading, much indented, of a purplish green. The head is of a deep purple; the first one close, others smaller sprout from the axils of the upper leaves. If sown in April it produces heads or sprouts fit for use in November. After the first head is cut out a succession of sprouts is produced through the winter. The principal sowing is, however, made in the first or second week of May; but if the ground intended to be planted is not likely to be cleared of the previous crop in time to receive the broccoli plants sown in the beginning of May, before they get too old in the bed, the sowing must be deferred till the end of May or beginning of June; and from these late sowings, heads or tlower-sprouts will come in for use in April. 5. Green Close-headed—syn. Green Close-headed Winter, Late Green, Late Hardy Green, Siberian, Late Green Siberian, Dwarf Roman.—The plants are dwarf and hardy, leaves large, waved, veins white. Heads middle-sized, growing exposed, of a greenish colour. Sown in the third week of May, it produces a succession of compact heads from November till the end of February. 6. Late Dwarf Purple—syn. Dwarf Danish Purple, Dwarf Swedish, Dwarf Hardy Siberian, Dwarf Closeheaded Purple, Late Purple, Italian Purple, Cockscomb. —Very dwarf and hardy. Leaves short, dark green, deeply indented. Heads small, conical, deep purple, becoming fit for use in May. Sow in the third week in May. 7. Danish or Late Green—syn. Dwarf Danish, Late Danish, Latest Green or Siberian.—Leaves long, narrow, much undulated. Heads tolerably large, compact, exposed, and of a greenish colour; fit for use in April and May. The hardiest and best for withstanding severe winters. Sow in the second week in May. II.—Heads Cream-coloured and Sulphur. 8. Chappell’s Large Cream-coloured—syn. Chappell's New Cream-coloured.—A very large sort, which comes in earlier than the Portsmouth, and continues to produce throughout the winter. Sow about the middle of April and first week in May. 9. Portsmouth — syn. Sulphur, Tamworth. Cream-coloured, Southampton, Belvidere, Mailer’s New Dwarf. —Leaves large, broad, with white veins, spreading, but the centre ones partially cover the flower or head, which is very large, and of a buff or cream colour. It is fit for use in March and April. A hardy sort for its size, and requires to be sown in the first or second week in May. III.—Heads White. 10. Grange’s Early Cauliflower Broccoli—syn. Grange’s Early White, Grange’s Impregnated, Hop-wood’s Early White, Marshall’s Early White, White, Invisible White, Bath White, Italian White, Blanc d’ltalie.—This was the earliest of the white kinds, forming a succession to the late crop of cauliflowers. Sown in the first and third weeks of May, beautiful heads were produced in October, November, and December. It appears, however, of late years to have entirely lost its original character, like many other varieties of broccoli, having greatly deteriorated in point of earliness. 11. Walcheren. See Cauliflower, p. 183. 12. Mitchinson’s Penzance—syn. Mitcliinson’s Early White, Early White Cornish.—Leaves much undulated on the margin; heads large, compact, pure white. This isextensively grown in Cornwall for the London markets, and comes into use in April. 13. Snow’s Superb White Winter.—Dwarf habit; leaves broad, with short petioles. Heads large, very compact, well protected with leaves, white, and equal in quality to those of the cauliflower. Sown early in March, first week in May, and middle of June, the produce will be fit for use in November, December, January, and March. If sown in the middle of August, protected if the weather should be severe, and planted out early in spring, they will come in to succeed the spring cauliflowers. 14. Knight’s Protecting—S3rn. Invisible, Hampton Court, Frogmore Protecting, Early Gem, Lake’s Gem, Waterloo Late White, Dillistoue’s Late White.—Amongst the hardiest of the white sorts, and excellent when it can be obtained true; but it is apt to degenerate. The leaf-stalks are peculiarly twisted, so as to encompass and protect the head, which is very large and white. Sow in the third week in April and second week in May. This is the parent of many late white varieties, having the protecting character of twisted leaf-stalks. 15. Veitch’s Protecting.—This is a valuable midwinter variety, and one which should be largely grown. It produces firm close compact white heads, of delicious flavour, and is very hardy and robust in constitution. The protective covering of leaves is very strongly developed. 16. Willcove—syn. Late Willcove.—This is a good, Very late, dwarf, and comparatively hardy variety, affording a supply till cauliflowers come in. It derives its name from a small village near Devonport, noted for the last half century for producing the latest broccoli, and where this variety is said to be grown in great perfection. 17. Ward’s SurERB Late White.—Very much resembles Knight’s Protecting, but it comes in for use about three weeks later. Doubtless originated from it, like many others of the better late white sorts. This is one of the finest late varieties. 18. Lauder’s Goshen Late White.—An excellent late sort, with very large white heads, is supplied to the Edinburgh and Glasgow markets up to June. Being self-protecting, it is very hardy. 19. Miller's Late White—syn. Miller’s Dwarf,KITCHEN GARDEN. 167 White Russian.—This is an old variety; but is considered by some to be the best late sort if it can be obtained true. It is hardy, and requires to be planted early. Sow middle of April. The general times for sowing have been indicated in noticing the different varieties. Near London the principal crops of the early kinds are sown about the 10th of May, and the late kinds in the second or third week of April. Broccolis closely approaching to the cauliflower, and having like it the disposition to come early into flower, as is the case with many of the autumn kinds, do not require to be sown early. Such are Grange’s Early Cauliflower broccoli, and similar early kinds. On the other hand, the spring kinds should be sown in the middle or end of April. The seed-beds should be composed of rich light earth, and not such as has been worn out by crops of the Brassica tribe, at least not such as has previously produced unhealthy or clubbed plants. Some fresh maiden loam, well mixed in digging with the soil of the beds, is very beneficial. If dry, the soil should be watered the day before sowing. If the seed has been proved to be good, it should be thinly sown, and it should be lightly covered with some soil from the alleys, made fine, and then evenly raked, and pressed with a light roller or the back of the spade. In some cases, after sowing, it may be advisable to cover the beds with mats, but these must be removed immediately the seeds begin to appear. When the plants come up they should be thinned where too close, and the ground should be stirred with an inch hoe. When they are about 3 inches high, they may be transplanted where they are to remain, if the ground can be cleared from other crops; if not, the plants may remain a week or two longer, taking care to thin if crowding be likely to take place. Should it, however, be found that circumstances will not admit of the ground being cleared before a later period, the plants must be carefully transplanted, to about 4 inches apart, into nursery beds. Early sorts, however, should not be transplanted except when the plants are very young, and then it should be done with great care, so as not to check their growth, for this might have the effect of starting them prematurely into flower. Before taking up the plants, either for temporary or permanent plantations, the seed-beds ought to be well watered, moistening the soil to the full depth of the roots. The plants should be removed by loosening the soil with a fork when it is moist, yet not in a wet state. Each plant on removal should be examined, to see that it is not blind, that is, without a heart, central bud, or growing point; for it frequently happens, that after several leaves have been formed, the central bud is stopped and completely overgrown by the base of the uppermost petiole, so that no more heart-leaves nor any flower-heads can be formed. All that are found to be in this condition should of course be rejected, and likewise those which have any small knobs on the roots that would probably lead to clubbing. Broccoli succeeds best in a good substantial, fresh, loamy soil. In such it may not grow so large as in that which is very rich and highly manured; but the quality is finer, and the plants are not so liable to be attacked by the maggot which causes the club, as in old richly mamu’ed garden soil. Where this disease is prevalent, the ground should be well trenched, taking care that the upper portion of the soil is turned to the bottom of the trenches. In this case manure will generally be required. For autumn (torts the ground may, in all cases, be highly manured; but if made too rich for winter and spring sorts, the plants will in consequence be succulent and tender, so that they will be more liable to be injured by frost than those less stimulated by manure. In many cases there is but little choice as regards situation; but where there is, it ought to be considered. It has been ascertained that in severe winters broccoli plants growing in the open field have been nearly all saved; whilst those of the same sort planted in well-sheltered gardens have been nearly all killed. With regard to manure, farm-yard manure is probably the best; but in some cases other substances may be applied with advantage. In gardens that have been long cropped with vegetables, marl will be an excellent application for this crop. Lime may also be employed with advantage, as well as a manure as for killing insects. It may be mixed with the soil in digging, or applied occasionally, and when newly slaked, to the surface of the ground; but not after the heads begin to form. Flowers of sulphur dusted on the roots at transplanting will tend to prevent mildew; common salt and nitrate of soda may be used with advantage in killing worms or grubs which attack the stem and roots. Guano is a powerful stimulant, but it produces a rank growth; and though the produce may be large, the quality is not so fine as that obtained where marl is applied. The distance at which any sort should be planted out, depends on whether it is a large-growing sort or not, and also on the quality of the soil. Some of the largest sorts may be 3 feet between the rows, and the plants 2^ feet apart in the row. Moderately large growers may be planted 2 feet asunder each way; and smaller sorts 2 feet between the rows, and 18 inches from plant to plant1G8 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. in the row. If the ground be too dry, it would be advisable to water it before planting. Where extensive tracts are cropped, as in some market gardens, this may not be practicable; but in private gardens, where water is generally at hand, there can be no great difficulty. It is not a good plan to pour some water at the side of the plant, leaving the surrounding ground still dry; for in this case the roots, pushing through the moist earth, soon find themselves in contact with dry soil, and thus their action and progress is, for want of moisture, suddenly checked. It would be well to render moist the whole of the soil as deep as the extremities of the roots; or if this cannot be done, shallow and rather broad drills should be drawn at the distances intended for the rows, and the whole extent of each watered through a wide-pierced rose. In this way the roots can extend unchecked among the moist soil in the direction of the rows, till rain fall and moisten the soil in all directions. After the drills have been thoroughly watered, planting should not be attempted till next day, or till such time as the soil will not puddle by working. When planted, a moderate and regular watering should be given, and nothing more will be required till the surface become dry, and then it should be stirred. If dry weather continue, occasional waterings may be required. The surface of the ground should be kept stirred, and some earth drawn to the stems. When the heads of white broccoli are exposed to light, and especially to the direct solar rays, the colour is soon changed to a dingy or yellowish hue. It is tlierefoi'e necessary to guard against this as much as possible, by frequently going over, and where any heads are not naturally hid, one of the adjoining side leaves should be bent over the flower-head, so as to shade it from the light, and likewise from rain. This can be done by half breaking the stalk of the leaf, or its midrib. Some kinds are almost self-protecting; whilst in others the leaves spread, and consequently more care is required in shading the heads of these sorts. Protecting and Preserving Broccoli in Winter. —Although most of the varieties of broccoli are hardy enough to resist the cold of tolerably mild winters, and some kinds even withstand frosts that are rather severe, yet we occasionally experience winters that cut off nearly every kind. It is therefore advisable to adopt such means as will insure at least a portion of the crop. This can be done most effectually by taking up, on the approach of frost, those which have either formed or are just beginning to form a head, and placing them side by side on the floor of a cellar. They should be taken up on a dry day. The temperature of an underground cellar is usually between 45° and 50°, and this will be sufficient to push the plants into flower-heads, the substance for the growth of which is derived from the stem. In this way broccoli is secure from frost, but the flavour is not so fine as that of plants grown in the open air. Another mode of protection is to dig a trench at the end of a row, and then incline the plants one after the other, so that the soil may come close up to the bases of the lower leaves; or a trench adapted to the size of a transplanter may be dug along the side of a row, and the plants taken up and dropped in, so that their necks may be a few inches above the level of the quarter. When thus transplanted, the soil should be drawn up and pressed close to the necks of the plants, thus forming a slight ridge to throw off the rain. Another mode consists in taking the plants carefully up with balls, and replanting them tolerably close together, with their heads inclined towards the north. All these transplantations should be done in October, or in the end of September in the north, and whilst there is still heat enough in the ground to encourage fresh roots. Means may also be adopted for protecting the plants without removing them. To do this, in planting, mark off two rows 18 inches apart; then a space of 4 feet; and again other two rows 18 inches apart, and so on. Having a 4-feet space between every pair of rows, the plants may be only 15 or 18 inches apart in the rows, according as the sort is large or small, and according to the richness of the soil. In these rows, winter and spring sorts should be planted; but along the middle of each 4-feet space a row of early broccoli may be planted, such as will be cleared off before protection is required for the winter kind; or, till that time, it may be found convenient to occupy the space with some other crop. Before frost becomes severe, each pair of rows can be hooped over and protected by mats, straw-covers, or any other protecting materials that can be easily removed, either partially or entirely, during the day, and replaced at night, according to the state of the weather. But now that glass is cheap, boxes could be made so as to include rows, and with sloping glazed lids that could be readily opened and shut, and a protection of this kind would doubtless prove cheaper in the long run than some other modes less effective, and requiring more labour. Tal'ing the Crop.—Broccoli, for some tables, is required to be cut when not larger than a tea-cup; for others it is allowed to be full-grown; but in no case should it be allowed to remain till the compactness of the head is broken. It should always be cut whilst the curd, as the floweringKITCHEN GARDEN. 169 mass is termed, is entire, or before bristling leafy points make their appearance through it. In trimming the head a portion of the stalk is left, and a few of the leaves immediately surrounding the head, their extremities being cut off a little below the top of the latter. To save Seed.—Select those plants that in leaf and flower are most characteristic of the variety. Some allow them to remain where they have grown; others prefer transplanting them carefully, supplying them regularly with water during the summer. In selecting for seed, those plants which have a disposition to produce larger and coarser leaves than the others should be avoided, as they are most likely to produce a degenerate offspring. For early sorts, the smallest plants with the least undulated leaves may be selected and planted out late in the season, and afterwards removed and replanted in fresh soil, in order to retard their flowering till next spring. Insects, &c.—See Cabbage. BRUSSELS SPROUTS (Brassica oleracea bul-lata gemmifera, D. C.—Tetradynamia Siliquosa, L.; Cruciferce, D. C.)—Although buds or their rudiments exist at the axils of all the leaves of the cabbage tribe, yet in many cases they do not push, especially in the first year of their growth. In the second year after sowing it will be observed that the stems of the common borecole become covered with open leafy sprouts; but in the first season buds push all along the stems of Brussels sprouts from every point whence a leaf had proceeded. These buds, about the size of a walnut, are arranged spirally on the stem, which is often completely covered by them. They are firm like little cabbages, or rather like hearted savoys in miniature. A small head, resembling an open savoy, surmounts the stem, and maintains a circulation of sap to its extremity. Most of the original side-leaves drop off as the buds enlarge. The stem sometimes attains the height of 4 feet; but dwarf stems produce sprouts more tender and succulent when cooked than those obtained from very tall stems. Brussels sprouts are in fact much allied to the savoys, some of which, the Early Ulm savoy, for instance, throw out sprouts from the axils of the leaves below the ] head, which are very similar to the Brussels sprouts, only larger and not so compact. This vegetable has long been cultivated near Brussels, the place from which it derives its name. Dr. Van Mons, of Louvain, says: “We have no information as to the origin of this vegetable; but it has been a very old inhabitant of our gardens, for it is mentioned in the year 1213 in our regulations for holding the market, under the name of spruyten (sprouts), which it bears to this day.” — {Horticultural Transactions, vol. iii. p. 198.) The plant is, however, very apt to degenerate, owing to what cause it is difficult to say. “Much has been said,” remarks Dr. Van Mons, “of the disposition of this plant to degenerate. In the soil of Brussels it remains true, and I have lately observed it to do the same in Louvain; but at Malines, which is the same distance from Brussels as Louvain, and where the greatest attention is paid to the growth of vegetables, it deviates from its proper character after the first sowing; yet it does not seem that any particular soil or aspect is essential to the plant, for it grows equally well and true at Brussels, in the gardens of the town, where the soil is sandy and mixed with a black moist loam, a* in the fields, where a compact white clay predominates.” Having been long grown true at Brussels, and their degeneracy from seed saved elsewhere being so frequent, it has been supposed that from Brussels only could genuine seed be obtained; but Mr. Judd, of Altliorp Gardens, Northampton, since of Hawkestone, and Mr. Lauder, of Goshen, near Edinburgh, and others, have proVed that excellent sprouts, quite equal to those from seed obtained from Brussels, may be produced from seed saved year after year in this country. Mr. Judd has exhibited stems of Brussels sproufiSj raised from seed saved successively in this country for upwards of twenty years. These stems were more than three feet high, and studded throughout their length with close firm sprouts. This vegetable was supposed to be too tender for our winters. It proves, however, to be more hardy than the Savoy, or almost as hardy as the borecole, and it is possessed of much greater excellence than either. When well grown, the amount of its edible produce is more than equal to that of the borecole. The cultivation of Brussels sprouts ought, therefore, to be more extensively adopted. Indeed, it is being so not only in this country but also in France. In many parts of the country they are only to be found in the gardens of the rich; but they might be advantageously cultivated in those allotted even to cottagers. With regard to soil, Brussels sprouts will grow in any garden soil or cultivated field. Mr. Judd, who, as above mentioned, produced them in perfection, states, that one part of the garden is rather light and sandy, upon a substratum of old red sandstone; that another part is a stiff heavy soil, upon a substratum of blue clay; but that this vegetable grows equally well on both of these soils. This statement as to Brussels sprouts succeeding well in soils very different in their170 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. nature, is corroborated by that of Dr. Van Mons, and by the observations of practical men. In poor soils manure may be given; but its application in large quantities is not in any case advisable, for it stimulates the plants into great luxuriance, and thus tends to make them produce larger, but not such compact sprouts. Albert Sprouts.—This was raised by Mr. Melville at Dalmeny Park, near Edinburgh, and is the result of a cross between the Drumhead savoy and Brussels sprouts. It is hardy and late in running to seed. Dalmeny Sprouts.—This was also obtained by the same raiser as the preceding, by crossing a dwarf cabbage with the Brussels sprouts. Its stem is 6 or 8 inches high, with a compactly cabbaged head of moderate size, and thickly set with cabbage-like sprouts. Sowing.—For the principal winter crop, sow about the middle of March, and first or second week in April; and for a succession for late spring use, a small sowing should be made in the first or second week iii May. For an early crop, sow, as they do at Brussels, in slight bottom-heat in February, and plant out in a warm situation in April. In Scotland, and in cold situations in England, sow in August, and transplant the seedlings in spring; for succession sow again in March, and a small sowing may be made in April. From late-sown plants less produce is obtained than from those sown early, but the quality is more tender. Planting.—In strong rich soils, where the plants grow tall, the main crop may be planted in rows 2 feet asunder, and the plants 18 inches apart in the rows. In general, 2 feet between the rows, and 15 inches from plant to plant in the rows, may be considered to be proper distances. The latest sowings may even be planted at 2 feet from row to row, and a foot apart in the rows. After planting, the usual routine of watering, stirring the soil, and keeping it clear of weeds, should be persevered in. A little earth may also be drawn to the stems, except when these are furnished with sprouts too low to admit of such being done. As the side-leaves get old, or begin to fade, they should be gradually removed, commencing with the lowest. The tops may, however, be cut off", as they do at Brussels; that is, about ten or fifteen days before it is intended to gather from the stems. The tops may also be used as greens. In spring, when the sprouts are disposed to run to seed, the plants should be taken up and planted in a shady place, to retard their growth. BUCKSHORN PLANTAIN, or Star of the Earth (Plantago Coronopus, L.—TetraudriaMon-ogynia, L.; Plantagineae, D. C.), is a hardy annual, a native of Britain. It was formerly culti- vated in this country for the leaves, which were gathered when tender, and used in salads: the French still continue to grow it for the same purpose. It prefers a light soil, and is propagated by seeds, which should be sown thinly, broadcast, and raked in, in March. When the young plants are about an inch high they may be thinned out to about 4 inches apart. BURNET (Poterium Sanguisorba, L. Fig. 171 —Moncecia Polyandria, L.; Bosacese, D. C.; San- guisorbacem, Lind.) is a hardy perennial, a native of Britain, where it is commonly found growingKITCHEN GARDEN. 171 in chalky soils. The young and tender leaves, which taste and smell like cucumbers, are put into salads, soups, and cool-tankards, and it is also good for sheep. It will grow in any soil, but succeeds best on a light dry one. Sow in March and April, or in autumn, when the seeds ripen, in drills 8 inches apart, and thin out, when the plants are 2 or 3 inches high, to 6 inches asunder in the row. Or propagate by parting the roots in February, planting the divisions in rows at the above distances. All the culture necessary is to hoe the ground occasionally, to water in dry weather, and to cut off the flower-stems when seed is not to be saved. CABBAGE {Brassica oleracea capitata, D. C. —Tetradynamia Siliquosa, L.; Cruciferm, D. C.; Brassicaceae, Lind.) is a hardy biennial, derived from the Brassica oleracea, which is found wild in Yorkshire, near Dover, in Cornwall, and in Wales. It is also found wild on the coasts of France, and of many other countries of Europe. De Candolle, in his excellent memoir on the different species of the genus Brassica, in the fifth volume of the Transactions of the Horticultural Society, states that this race of cabbages was known to the ancient Gauls by the name of chou capu; the Italians call it capuccia; both names derived from caput, a head: whence has proceeded that of chou cabus, and doubtless from the latter the name of cabbage has arisen. The principal sorts of cabbage are:— I. White Cabbage. 1. Early Battersea—syn. Dwarf Battersea, Early Dwarf Battersea, Vanack, Early Yanack, Early Russian, Blenheim, Cartels Early. Carter’s Matchless, Early Imperial, Fulham, Early Fulham, Cattell’s Reliance, Cox’s Early London, Early Champion, Early Emperor, Early Paradise. Early Paragon, Early Lancashire, East Ham, Heale’s Imperial, Jacob’s Early, King of the Cabbages, May’s Paragon, Mitchell’s Prince Albert, Myatt’s Eclipse, Pearson’s Early Conqueror, Prince of Wales, Sealey’s Victoria, Sheppard’s Marrow, Shilling’s Queen, Supertine Early Dwarf, Sutton’s Imperial, Wheeler’s Imperial, Enfield Market, Early Wellington, West Ham.—It has been proved that Cattell’s Reliance, Early Champion, Early Wellington, and Jacob’s Early are fine stocks of the Early Battersea, as are likewise the King of the Cabbages, Mitchell’s Prince Albert, and Superfine Early Dwarf. The type of the Early Battersea is very old. About the year 1776 some cabbage plants were received, without a name, from near London, by Mr. Torbron, gardener to the Earl of Egremont, at Petworth. He considered it to be the same sort as one he had previously known, called the Vanack; and he continued to cultivate it under this name for upwards of fifty years. When fully grown, the four outside or lower leaves are about 1G inches in diameter—when taken off and spread out, their general outline is nearly circular. The stem is very dwarf, and the leaf-stalks come out quite close to each other; so that scarcely any portion of the stem is to be seen between them. The whole cabbage measures about 3 feet in circumference. The heart is shortly conical, with a broad base, near which it is about 26 inches in circumference, after the outside leaves are taken off, so as to leave only what is fit for use. The ribs boil tender. It is the best sort for the general crop of early cabbages, is not liable to crack, and if cut close to the base, four nice cabbages may be obtained in the course of the summer from each stem; thus affording a supply till the ground requires to be cleared for other crops. The Early Battersea is the variety principally grown for the London market, and its many names are no doubt partly attributable to differences in selecting stock for seed and local conditions. 2. Nonpareil—syn. Barnes’ Early Dwarf, Nonpareil Imirroved, Prince’s Nonpareil.—This is allied to the Early Battersea, but is smaller. It comes in rather earlier, and the quality is very good. 3. Early York — syn. Early Dwarf York.—An old and much esteemed sort, very generally cultivated for the earliest crop. The stem is short; head small, oval; leaves dark green, fleshy; ribs less prominent than in any other variety. 4. Atkins’ Matchless — syn. Matchless Dwarf, Tiley’s Early Marrow, Early Hope, Little Pixie, Sutton’s Dwarf Coombe.—A very good small early variety, partaking very much of the nature of the Early York, and like it, has dark green fleshy leaves, very succulent; but the plants soon run to seed in hot dry weather. 5. Joannet—syn. Chou Joannet, St. John s Day.—■ A very good early flat-headed sort, very firm, and remarkably dwarf. It may be planted 1 foot by 15 inches apart; and consequently it is well adapted for small gardens. 6. Chou de Schweinfurth.—This sort was thus described by M. Vilmorin in 1868:—The largest of all the cabbages; very early comparatively with the other large sorts. It ranks for earliness immediately after the Chou Joannet; its size is enormous, rather flat, not very firm; stem very short. 7. Cocoa-nut.—This is a new and very early variety, distinct in character; it forms a very close head of the shape of a cocoa-nut, and has a sweet mild flavour. It should be sown in March and July, and planted 18 inches apart. 8. Little Pixie—syn. Tom Thumb.—This is another small-growing variety adapted for small gardens; it is of excellent quality, and very early. 0. Early Cornish—syn. Cornish Paington, Penton. -—This sort is cultivated in Cornwall, Devonshire, and other parts of the west of England, where the mildness of the climate suits its rather tender habit. It has long tall leaves, of a pale and somewhat yellowish green, forming a heart, but not a compact one. When boiled it is tender and somewhat resembles the Dwarf Portugal cabbage, but is not so good, neither is it equal in quality and earliness to such sorts as the Early Battersea, and others mentioned above. 10. Portugal—syn. Large-ribbed, Braganza, Couve Tronchuda, Chou a grosses cotes blondes.—This is much cultivated at Braganza, in the province of Tras-os-Montes, and in other parts of the north of Portugal. It was introduced into this country in 1821. It grows fully 2 feet high; the mid-rib is very thick, nearly white, and branching into veins of the same colour. Divested of the green part, and well boiled, the ribs make a dish resembling sea-kale.172 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. 11. Dwarf Portugal—syn. Dwarf Couve Tronchuda, Murciana.—This is a dwarf sort earlier than the preceding, with a roundish tolerably compact head. It is exceedingly tender when boiled, and of much finer quality than the other, to which it is to be preferred when the heart is to be cooked in the usual way. Not being adapted for withstanding severe winters, it should not be depended on except for summer and autumn crops. 12. White-ribbed Aviles—syn. Chou it cotes blanches d’Aviles.—This is described by Professor Morren in the Jowna! d’Horticulture de Gand for January, 1848, and appears to be closely allied to the Dwarf Portugal, if not identical with it. It has white ribs, and forms a close heart. Professor Lesoinne, of Liege, who introduced it into Belgium from the vicinity of Aviles, on the coast of the Bay of Biscay, gives the following mode of cooking this cabbage:—It is first boiled whole, slices of soaked bread are then laid in the bottom of a baking dish: next a layer of the boiled cabbage; over this some Parmesan cheese, well dried and grated, or high-flavoured Dutch, may be substituted; other layers of soaked bread, cabbage, and cheese, are put in till the dish is full, taking care to finish with the cheese. The whole seasoned with salt, pepper, and other aromatics, is sprinkled with boiling water, and then put into the oven till it acquires the requisite degree of tenderness: it is served up hot. 13. Pomeranian—syn. Chou conique de Pomeranie. —A hardy sort, tall, with a remarkably sharp-pointed, long, tapering, conical head, which becomes very firm. On the Continent the plants are taken up when full grown, and laid sloping towards the south, nearly close together, and so deep as to admit of the soil being brought close to the neck of the cabbage. Sow in March for summer use, and in May for winter. It requires to be planted 2 feet apart every way. 14. Winnigstadt—syn. Chou pointu de Winnig-stadt.— Stem dwarf; head large, broad at the base, sharply conical; heart compact, boiling tender. The leaves, till blanched by hearting, are of a glaucous hue, like those of the cauliflower or broccoli. A good late cabbage. Sow in March for summer use, and in May for autumn and winter supply. II. Red Cabbage. Red Cabbage (Brassica oleracea capitata rubra, D.C.)—Of this, which is principally used for pickling, there are several varieties, differing in the size of their heads, and in the depth of colour. The principal are :— 15. Red Dutch—syn. Drumhead, Large Red, Large Blood-red.—Head large, round, or flattened; the sort chiefly grown in market-gardens. 10. Dwarf Red.—This has a small firm head, and is of finer quality than the preceding. 17. Utrecht Red—syn. Chou noiratre d’Utrecht.— A small but very fine dark red cabbage. It may be sown in the first week of April and in the end of July. 18. Suferfine Black.—Small like the preceding, but of a still darker red. When pickled, however, the dark colouring matter is greatly discharged, so that the substance is left paler than that of others originally not so dark. It is therefore not so good for pickling as other sorts which retain their colour and brightness. Soil—A very rich soil, plentifully manured, is essential for the production of tender and succulent cabbages. Near London this vegetable is grown in perfection, in ground that is of a good substantial nature, and likewise in that which has become light by the application of enormous quantities of dung during a long period of years. The ground, however, is trenched, or undergoes double dipping; that is to say, it is dug two spades’ depth. By so doing, the lower portion is turned up to the action of the weather, and substances in the soil previously inert, are thus subjected to a fresh decomposing action, which renders them available for the nourishment of the plants. On the other hand, by turning down the top-soil to the above depth, the eggs and larvie of many insects are destroyed; hence, in ground so managed, the plants are not so liable to be attacked by the club, as in ground that is merely dug over. Cabbages will grow on soil that is too adhesive for turnips, but the manure applied to such a soil should be of an opening nature, and all the better if not much decomposed. Stable-dung, or farm-yard manure, in a fresh state, will be most proper in this case, and it should be buried to the depth of one spit below the surface. They also grow well on peat soil; but to such, a dressing of lime, marl, gypsum, or even burned clay, will be advantageous. Guano, superphosphate of lime, lime rubbish, wood-ashes, and marl have been applied with advantage; and other artificial manures maybe given occasionally; yet they have not the mechanical advantages possessed by farm yard manure, for the latter, by keeping the soil open, acts as a kind of drainage, in consequence of which the plants are enabled to grow better during wet weather in winter and spring, than would be the case if the ground were saturated with moisture. The following analysis of the ash of the leaves of the cabbage shows the inorganic substances withdrawn from the soil by this vegetable, and may assist in determining the nature of the manure required for the crop. The leaves, in an undried state, contain from 0'8 to 1 ‘5 per cent, of ash, which, according to Fromberg, consists of— Potash,...................... 11'70 Soda,........................ 20'42 Lime,........................ 20'97 Magnesia,.................... 5'94 Oxide of iron,................. O'GO Phosphoric acid,............. 12'37 Sulphuric acid,.............. 21'48 Chlorine,...................... 5*77 Silica,........................ 0'75 100'00 From the above it will be seen that lime, soda,KITCHEN GARDEN. 173 and sulphuric acid, occurring in nearly equal amounts, form the principal inorganic constituents of the plant; whilst the proportion of potash is small compared to that contained in most other vegetables. Sowings.—The first sowing should be made about the end of February or beginning of March. It should chiefly consist of the Early Battersea. A few, however, of the Early York or allied kinds may likewise be sown at the same time. From this sowing a supply will be obtained for use in July and August, and will thus form a succession to the autumn-sown crops. A second sowing, which may be considered the principal spring one, consisting chiefly of the Early Battersea and similar kinds, should be made in the last week of March, or first week in April. This will come in for use from August till November. A third sowing, to consist chiefly of the Early York, Atkins’ Matchless, or similar kinds that heart quickly, may be made in May for young-hearted cabbages in the early part of winter, or to be used as coleworts, if severe weather prevent their hearting. The fourth, or autumn sowing, as it is occasionally termed, is the most important, as it furnishes the plants which afford the principal supply of cabbages for spring and early summer use. The proper time for this sowing cannot be precisely stated. It varies from the middle of July to the middle of August, according to the soil, climate, and variety employed; a cold soil and climate requiring the earlier period, whilst the later period is the most suitable where the contrary is the case. The Early Battersea and allied sorts, not being apt to run to seed, may be sown earlier than the Early York, and others similar to it, which often start into flower without previously forming a heart. In warm soils and situations, it is found, from long experience, that the best time for sowing such kinds as the Early Battersea is about the 25th of July. Many of the market-gardeners near London always sow on that day, if circumstances will permit, and if not, as soon afterwards as possible. In cold situations, and generally in Scotland, the last-mentioned sort should be sown ten days or a fortnight earlier, or from the 10th to the 15th of July. The Early York, and others of a similar nature, would run to seed if sown in July; such kinds, therefore, ought not to be sown till the second week of August in the north, and not till the end of that month in the warm parts of the south. Those sown in July will be ready to plant out in the beginning of September; and those sown in August, in the end of September, or beginning of October, when ground occupied by pease, beans, &c., can be cleared for their reception. Red cabbages should be sown in the end of July and in March; and a few of some small sort may be sown in a frame in the end of January or beginning of February, as they may be wanted for pickling before those sown in March are fit. Solving for Coleworts.—The cultivation of an open, hardy Dorsetshire kale, as winter greens, has long been discontinued. These greens were known under the name of coleworts. This name, or others evidently derived from it, as collard and collet, is now applied to young uuhearted cabbages, which are pulled up by the roots, and tied in bunches for the market. The Early Battersea and allied sorts answer well for this purpHe. These kinds are sown for coleworts about the third week in June. Atkins’ Matchtesfc, being more apt to run to seed, may be town with the same object about the middle of July, and suc-cessional plantations, for filling up spare ground, may be made from the principal autumn wowing of cabbages in J uly. Additional Sowings.—Sowings at the periods named will generally be sufficient for a supply throughout the year; but in case of any deficiency in the autumn-sown crop, it will be advisable to sow some of the early kinds, and also a few small red cabbages, on a warm border, about the end of January or beginning of February; or, preferably, in a frame, taking care, however, that the plants are kept thin, exposed as much aiy possible to the light, plenty of air being given at all times, and covering only when the severity of the weather renders it absolutely necessary. Mode of Sowing and Cultivation.—The soil for the seed-beds should be rather light, moderately rich, and well pulverized. On a large scale, Kie ground is raked tolerably smooth, sown broadcast, raked, and rolled. Or, after sowing, 1-foot alleys are marked off, so as to leave 4-feet beds; a slight covering of soil from the alleys is scattered over these, and the beds are then raked and rolled. In private gardens, where extensive sowings are not required, they can be made with greater care. After the beds are prepared for sowing, it is a good plan to lay a rod acrosjLthe bed, and then press it down, and draw it a little backwards and forwards, so as to make a shallow groove, making others about 4 inches apart, in the same way. Sow in these, cover thinly with fine soil, and then finish by passing a light roller over the bed,' or by beating it lightly with the back of the spade. After sowing, water; and if the weather is very hot and dry, cover with a mat, in order to keep the surface moist till theGARDENER’S ASSISTANT. 174 plants begin to make their appearance. Being in rows, the plants can be easily and regularly thinned, and the spaces between them should be kept stirred with a small hoe. By these means healthy plants will be reai’ed, and not being allowed to become crowded, their foliage will be enabled to form good roots without pricking out into nursery beds, as is sometimes done in order to encourage the production of more fibres. This object may also be effected by thoroughly watering the beds, about a week before transplanting, and then raising up a little both soil and plants with a fork. In consequence of this moving, fresh roots are emitted, and the plants suffer less when they come to be finally transplanted. The distances at which different sorts require to be planted, depend on the size which they usually attain, and on the richness of the soil. The smallest sorts may be planted a foot apart each way; the Early York, and others of a like size, may be 12 inches apart in the rows, and 15 inches from row to row; but a somewhat greater distance may be allowed in very rich soil. Near London, the Early Battersea is planted for spring cabbages at 2 feet apart each way; but then the rows are backed, as it is termed, with plants sown a week or ten days earlier. A plant is inserted between every two in the rows already planted, to be afterwards drawn as coleworts; and, for the same purpose, an intermediate row is planted a foot apart between the permanent rows. The ground is then occupied with plants at a foot apart each way, but all are removed for use as coleworts in the course of the winter, except those planted at 2 feet apart for hearting in spring. If coleworts are not to be grown intermediately, the distance between the plants is reduced to 22 inches each way. In soil that is not very rich, the Early Battersea, and similar sorts, may be planted at 20 or even 18 inches apart each way. The large sorts of red cabbage should have 2^ feet between the rows, and 2 feet between the plants in the row; the Large Drumhead, 2 feet apart in the row, and 3 feet between the rows. The ground having been well prepared, and the distances for the rows accurately marked off on both sides, the line is stretched and pressed by stepping upon it all along, so that its mark may be left on the surface. All the rows having been thus marked in one direction, say lengthwise, they are then marked across in a similar way, and the plants are inserted exactly at the intersection of the lines. It may here be observed, that great care is often taken to plant in line both lengthwise and across, notwithstanding which, the planter is surprised by the crooked unsightly appearance which his work exhibits in every point of view except those above-mentioned. In general this is solely to be attributed to inaccuracy in measuring the distances from line to line, for if these are not equal, although they may run straight both lengthwise and across, yet the plantation will show crooked lines diagonally. If it be intended that the lines should be one way 24 inches apart, all lines in that direction should be exactly 24 inches apart; and whatever distance between the transverse lines may be determined on, it should be equally carried out, and then regularity will be apparent in all directions, or from every point of view. Coleworts, as previously mentioned, are frequently planted between plants intended to remain for hearting; in which case the distances between the rows of the latter may be said to determine the distance between the coleworts. These, when planted by themselves, may be about 7 or 8 inches apart, in rows a foot asunder, and every alternate plant in the row should be taken as required for use; the additional space thus giveu will soon be occupied by the remaining plants. In planting out cabbages, advantage should be taken, if possible, of cloudy moist weather; but in long-continued drought the plants in the seedbeds may get so large as to render it absolutely necessary to plant them out at all hazards. The surface of the ground for the intended plantation should be well pulverized, and drills similar to those made for pease should be drawn for the rows, and well watered a day previous to planting. If there are dry clods and dust on the surface, the consequence is this—when the dibber is thrust in and withdrawn, a portion of the dry clods and dust falls into the hole, and with this the roots of the plants are placed in contact—a condition very unfavourable for their striking root. The seed-beds should also be well soaked, in order that the plants may be moved with little injury to the roots, which should be raised with a fork, and exposed to the air as little as possible. The plants should be planted towards night, as in that case they can be immediately watered without their sustaining injury from the sun’s rays. The drills in which the cabbages have been planted should be kept only moist, and not what would be termed wet, till the plants have struck root, when, if the surface of the ground be kept stirred, watering will scarcely be required. Except in dry weather, furrows or drills for the plants are not required. Grounds which supply the best cabbages for the London market are planted on the level, and no mould is drawn to the stems, which, in fact, do not require it; forKITCHEN GARDEN. 175 the best growers do not cultivate what are termed long-legged sorts, neither do they force their plants to become such by bad treatment, such as overcrowding in the seed-bed. These cultivators find it advantageous to stir the whole surface of the soil, and close to the roots of the plants; this they prefer to forming a ridge, which prevents the beneficial stirring of the soil near the plants, and affords a secure lurking-place for slugs and other enemies to the crop. Propagation by Cuttings.-—Cabbages are best raised from seed; nevertheless they may be advantageously propagated by cuttings in some cases—for instance, in warm climates, where it is difficult to save seed; and in this country it might be adopted in order to preserve any particular variety true; for by cuttings we can always depend on perpetuating the identical sort, but by seed this is uncertain. Supposing that it were desirable to preserve some much-prized sort, Beed may be saved, and cuttings struck as well. If plants from seed come true, so much the better; but if they do not, having the plants from cuttings, we are still iu possession of the true variety, and of the means of again raising seeds from it. The mode of propagating by cuttings is very simple. The sprouts are taken off, and exposed to the air till their juices are so far exhausted as not to exude from the wounded ends, and thus tend to rot the cuttings. It is also advisable to dip the cut end in newly slaked lime, dry wood-ashes, or powdered charcoal. The cuttings may then be planted out, either in the open ground, or, better, in a frame, where they can be properly shaded, not from diffused light, but from the sun’s rays, till roots are formed. They may then be fully exposed till fit for planting out. To save Seed.—The finest specimens should be selected for this purpose, and the more of them there are, the greater will be the chance of the sort being saved true. The plants may either be allowed to run to seed where they have grown, or they may be taken up early in spring, and planted up to the neck in some place where they can be protected from birds when the seed is ripening. Insects and Diseases.—The cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, and savoy are attacked by numerous insect enemies. The leaves are devoured by the caterpillars of the white-cabbage, turnip, and rape-seed butterflies (Pontia brassicce, Fig. 172, P. napi, and P. raped), all of which are very abundant and destructive. The caterpillars of the cabbage-moth (Mamestra brassicce, Fig. 173) do great mischief by eating the hearts of cabbages and cauliflowers, rendering them totally unfit for use; nor do they refuse the leaves of any of the cabbage tribe. Hand-picking and dusting the plants with newly slaked lime are the only means known by which Fig. 172. 1. Female. 2. Eggs. 3. Caterpillar. 4. Chrysalis. 5 and 6. Parasitic Fly—Pteromalu* puparum (natural size and magnified). these destructive insects can be kept in check. Another insect injurious to the leaves, and es- pecially so to those of cabbage and broccoli, is a minute fly, called Aleyrodes proletella. It is very abundant from midsummer to the end of autumn, and from going through all its changes in less than a month, its numbers increase with alarming rapidity. Cutting off and burning the infected leaves is the only way of arresting its progress. Besides the above, the cabbage-leaf plant-louse {Aphis brassicce, Fig. 174) proves very injurious to cabbages, and particularly so to broccoli and savoys; the blue cabbage-flea (Altica consobrina) perforates the leaves, which are also much injured by the caterpillars of the garden pebble-mioth (Scopula forficalis). The maggots of Anthomyia brassicce do great mischief by eating passages in the roots and base of the stem, causing these176 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. parts to rot in consequence; and the caterpillars of the heart-and-dart moth (Agrotisexclamationis), Fi» 174. Cabbage-leaf Plant-louse—Aphis brasskee. 1. Male ; 2. Magnified. 3. Female ; 4. Magnified. of the common dart-moth (A. segetum), as well as those of the great yellow-underwing moth (Tri-phcena pronuba, Fig. 175), rapidly destroy the plants by eating through the tap-roots at a little below the surface. Hand-picking is the best means of diminishing the numbers of these destructive grubs. The larvae of the crane-fly, or daddy-long- Fig. 175. Great Yellow-uiidonving Moth—Triphana pronuba. 1. Moth. 2. Caterpillar. 3. Chrysalis. Fig. 176. usually termed clubbing (Fig, 176), is the most destructive disease to which the cabbage tribe is subject. It is ascribed to one or more species of insects, maggots being generally found in the tubercles. Lime, wrood-ashes, soot, nitrate of soda, and common salt are considered to be useful applications tc the soil in which cabbages, &c., are to be grown, and marl unquestionably is so. It is also a good plan to dip the roots of plants about to be planted in a mixture of soot and water made of the consistency of thick paint; to this some recommend the addition of saltpetre, in the proportion of 1 lb. to every gallon of soot. The seed-beds Clubbing—Different Forms of Diseased Roots. legs (Tipula oleracea), likewise attack the roots, in which also the snake-millipedes are sometimes found in great numbers. Snails and slugs attack all the cabbage tribe, and frequently prove very destructive: the best mode of destroying them consists in dusting the plants and the ground about them with newly slaked lime. Small excrescences are frequently seen in winter and spring, near the surface of the ground, on the roots and stems of cabbages. These are caused by the deposition of the eggs of a small weevil (Ceutorhynchus sulcicollis, Gyllenhal, Ceutorhynchus pleurostigmus, Curtis), the larvae of which are hatched and attain their full growth in the galls. The formation of protuberances on the roots, should be frequently inspected, and if any symptoms of clubbing are discovered, the plants should be immediately transplanted into nursery beds of a different kind of soil from that of the seed-beds. In transplanting, all plants in any way clubbed should be thrown away, or, if this cannot be afforded, the tubercles should be cut off with a sharp knife. Cabbages are also attacked by various species of fungi, for which the best known remedy is sulphur, which is more especially efficacious when applied at the earliest stage of the attack. It cannot, however, be adopted on a large scale after planting out, but it can be very advantageously applied to the plants in the seed-bed, and at little expense. Applied early, sulphur acts as a pre-KITCHEN GARDEN. 177 ventive, and that prevention is better than cure can in no case be said more truly than in that of the mildew. CAPSICUM. See Forcing. CARAWAY (Carum Carui, L.—Pentandria Digynia, L.; Umbellif., D.C; Apiaceie, Lind.) is a Fig. 177. biennial plant, a native of the Continent, though it is said to be found wild in this country. The seed is much used in confectionery, and for flavouring spirits and perfuming soap; it yields an oil, which is employed medicinally as a carminative. Considerable quantities are grown in Essex and Kent for these purposes. Sow in drills 10 inches apart, in light warm soil, in autumn, when the seed is ripe, or in March or Api’il. When the plants are 2 or 3 inches high, they should be thinned out to 8 inches apart, and the ground must afterwards be kept free from weeds, and stirred by an occasional hoeing. The seed will ripen in the following year, in July or August. CARDOON (Cynara Carclimculus, L. — Syn-genesia Polygamia ^Equalis, L.; Compositse, D.C.) -The cardoon is a perennial plant, a native of Candia and Barbary. The stalks of the leaves, or ribs, as they are usually termed, are blanched, and, when properly cooked, constitute a tender and excellent vegetable, much esteemed on the Continent, but seldom used in this country, except by French cooks. The flowers, like those of the artichoke, have the property of curdling milk. The varieties are:— 1. Common Cardoon. Cardon plein inerme. Cardon plein et sans epines. 2. Spanish Cardoon. Cardon d’Espagne. 3. Tours Cardoon. Cardon piquant. Cardon de Tours. 4. Red-stemmed Cardoon. Cardon a cotes rouges. 5. Puvis Cardoon. Cardon Puvis. The common cardoon has spineless leaves, leafstalks solid, but not so thick nor so tender when cooked as those of the other varieties; it is also apt to run to seed. The Spanish cardoon has spineless leaves with large nearly solid ribs. Like the preceding, it is apt to run to seed. The leaves of the Tours cardoon are excessively spiny, so much so, that great care is requisite in working among the plants, for the spines are long and very sharp. Notwithstanding this drawback, the variety is much cultivated in France on account of its large, thick, solid, tender ribs. The plants are not so liable to run to seed as those of the preceding varieties. The red-stemmed cardoon is an excellent variety recently obtained from Marseilles. Leaves nearly smooth; ribs tinged with red, very large and solid, not apt to run to seed; but scarcely so hardy as the Tours cardoon. The Puvis cardoon is remarkable for its strong growth, the large size it attains, and the thickness of its ribs, which are almost solid. The leaves are thick, not prickly, or only very slightly so. It is a fine variety, of more tender substance than the Cardon de Tours. 12178 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. This plant prefers a light, warm, moderately rich soil, and an open situation. All the sorts are raised from seed, which may either be sown where the plants .are to remain, or in pots under a frame for transplanting. A small quantity to come in early may be sown on a slight hot-bed about the end of March; but the main crop should not, in general, be sown till the middle of April; and where the climate is warm, it is advisable to defer sowing it till the end of the month. A late crop for a succession may also be sown in the end of June. Previous to sowing, trenches 1 foot deep, 18 inches wide, and not less than 4 feet apart from centre to centre, should be prepared. In the bottoms of these, from 6 to 9 inches of well-decomposed dung should be dug in; the seeds may then be sown in the centre of the trench, in patches of three or four, and covered with earth to the depth of about 1 inch. The distance between the patches may be 18 inches. When the plants are 2 or 3 inches high, they should be thinned out, only the strongest plant in each patch being allowed to remain. Mr. Fleming, of Trentliam, chooses for the cardoon a piece of ground that requires well pulverizing, and a rest from heavy cropping; as for growing them on the plan he follows, it matters not how poor or stiff the soil, so that the bottom be dry. The exposure must be an open one, as they will require a free circulation of air, and all the sun possible. Having marked off the spaces for the trenches and ridges, allowing 6 feet for each, those spaces marked out for the ridges are manured well and dug; for he keeps in view the improving of the pieces of ground for other crops, as well as providing for the cardoon. The trenches are next dug out 1 foot deep, laying the soil right and left on the ridges, and breaking the lumps well as the work proceeds. The sides of the ridges should be well sloped off and beaten smooth with the back of the spade. The trenches being ready, there is wheeled into them, to the depth of 4 to 6 inches, a previously prepared compost, consisting of chopped turfy soil, good solid lialf-rotted manure, and road-drift or line ashes, and, if to be had, some burned clay, in about the proportion of equal parts of each kind. This is forked into the trench in such a manner as to keep the compost merely covered, while the ground below is loosened to the depth of 1 foot at least, and this finishes the trench, which ought to lie uncropped until the season for planting out the cardoons, by which time the ground will be in fine order to receive them. He sows two rows of dwarf pease upon the ridges, and a row of spinach between; these will be off before the cardoons require earthing up. In the first week in May he sows the seeds in thumb-pots, placing two sound seeds at opposite sides of the pot, and plunges the pots in a cold frame, which is kept close until the plants appear, when plenty of air is admitted to prevent them drawing up weakly. In a fortnight after the plants are up, they will be strong enough to plant out in this order: one row up the centre of each trench, 18 inches apart, and a row 2 feet from it in quincunx fashion on each side. Planting two plants together is to guard against losses by insects, and when all danger from this is over, the weakest can be destroyed. Raising them in pots, instead of sowing them in the ground, is to prevent gaps in the rows, and to give the opportunity of having all the plants in the ridge of equal size, so that when earthed up, the plants being alike in strength, the same quantity of soil will be required for all. The weakest plants may be kept in the cold frame ten days longer, which, with a second sowing, will give a succession. Water the newly turned out plants, and loosen up the soil between them, which finishes the planting part of the business. If dry weather succeed this operation, the plants will require watering once or twice, until they get established, after which they will only require to be kept clear of weeds till October. This will be most advantageously done by forking among them occasionally, which will keep the weeds in check, and promote the growth of the plants, better than the use of the hoe. In the beginning of October the most forward trench of plants will have attained their full growth, and a sufficient number of well-twisted hay-bands must be provided for winding round them. Take advantage of a fine dry day, and commence by carefully bringing all the leaves into an upright position, in which they should be held by one person, while another fastens the hay-band round the bottom of the plant, and winds away until the whole of the stalk is bound round, and the end of the rope secured. The stalks should be brought closely together, but not too much compressed. Proceed in this way until the trench is completed, and then earth up till the bands are covered with the soil, which should be pressed very tightly round the plant at the top, to exclude air and moisture as effectually as possible. Proceed in the same manner with the remaining trenches when fit, until the whole are finished. Blanching was also tried by fastening the leaves closely together with string or matting, and putting an earthen drain-pipe over the plants, and filling up with sand. This plan answered admirably; the whole of the leaf-stalks were perfectly blanched, quiteKITCHEN GARDEN. 179 crisp, and fit for use. The adoption of this plan would prevent the loss of room occupied by the ridges, as no soil would be wanted for earthing; but it takes a pipe 7 or 8 inches in diameter for a well-grown plant, and these, if many are required, are expensive. We have heard many gentlemen complain that their cooks did not know what to do with ear-doons; and we have known finely grown specimens of this vegetable completely lost in consequence of this ignorance. Mr. Fleming, writing from Trentham, says, “The cook here, who is one of the first in his profession, gives me the following recipe for cooking and serving: — ‘After the cardoons have been trimmed and washed, and their outside leaves removed, cut them into pieces about 4 inches long. Put the pieces into a pan of cold water; when boiled, take them out, and with a cloth rub the outer skin until it can be easily removed. After this is done, let them be well washed, then boiled in good stock or broth. Serve them very hot with brown sauce made with good gravy. It is an improvement in serving the cardoon to put some marrow round it if you have any.’”—(Gardener's Chronicle.) The cardoons will be fit for use in about three weeks after tying up. At the approach of severe frost it is advisable to protect the plants with litter. In France, before severe frost sets in, the plants having been tied up for about a fortnight, are taken up with balls in a dry day, and replanted close together in a cellar, where the process of blanching is completed. Kept in this way they are said to remain good till March. Those who have no room to spare, open, in a piece of dry ground, a trench 4 feet wide and 3 feet deep. They line the sides with a good thickness of straw, against which one or two rows of cardoons are placed, the extremities of the leaves being left above ground. They then introduce another layer of straw, and another row of plants, and so on till the trench is filled. The plants are next sheltered completely from rain, and protected from frost by long litter, which is always removed in mild weather. Seed may be saved by planting some seedlings expressly for the purpose, or by allowing some plants to remain unblanched; in either case, they must be protected from frost during the winter. The seed ripens in September, and will keep for five or six years, and even longer. The same plants will yield seed for several years in succession. CARROT (Daucus Carota, L. — Pentandria Digyuia, L.; Apiacese, Lindley), is a hardy biennial, a native of Britain, where it is found wild very commonly by road-sides and on dry banks, especially near the sea. The roots of the wild carrot are small, hard, and frequently much forked; but that it is the parent of our cultivated varieties has been proved by M. Vilmorin, who, by sowing late, and saving seed from selected plants, succeeded in obtaining, in three generations, roots of considerable size. M. Vilmorin (Bon Jardinier) states that some of the roots so obtained were as large as garden carrots of the largest size, and their appearance was exactly the same; the flesh, however, was more compact and the flavour milder. By most of the persons who tasted them they were considered to be superior to our old varieties. The principal varieties of carrot cultivated in gardens are:— 1. Eakly Red Short Horn— syn. Early Scarlet Horn, French Horn, Early Short Red, Carotte rouge courte hative.—Leaves few and dwarf; root short, nearly cylindrical, terminating abruptly, with a slender tap-root. Flesh orange-red. heart reddish-yellow when young, becoming pale yellow when older. This is the earliest sort of carrot, and the one best adapted for forcing. 2. Common Early Horn—syn. Dutch Carrot, Dutch Horn.—Larger than the preceding, as regards both top I and root; the latter tapers slightly, yet ends abruptly, and is terminated with a long fibrous tap-root. Flesh reddish, heart yellow. This is the kind chiefly grown for early use by the market-gardeners round London. For that purpose it is sown in November, in frames and hooped beds, protected by mats. 3. Long Horn—syn. Long Red Horn, Long Red Dutch, James’ Orange, Rouge Longue de Brunswick, -td Leaves few, moderately long, and slender. Root long, cylindrical, ending abruptly, like all the Horn carrots; surface rather uneven and wrinkled. Flesh reddish orange, tender, very juicy, and of excellent flavour; heart small and nearly of the same colour as the flesh. An excellent sort for summer use. 4. Long Red—syn. Surrey, Long Surrey, Long Red Surrey, Chertsey, Studley, Carotte rouge longue.— Leaves of moderate length; roots long, tapering regularly to their extremity. Flesh reddish, heart yellow. This and the Altrincham are the best two for the general crop. 5. Altrincham—syn. Altringham, Scarlet Altrincham, Green-topped Superb.—Leaves long; root largo, tapering slightly, but ending rather abruptly in a small tap-root; the surface is rather uneven and wrinkled. Flesh bright reddish orange, very sweet and crisp, like that of the Horn carrots; heart small, dark yellow. One of the very best sorts for garden culture. It is becoming a favourite in the Paris market. They give it, in France, the preference for colouring butter. It derives > its name from the town of Altrincham, in Cheshire, j where it is supposed to have originated. In seedmen’s lists it is frequently but erroneously called the Altringham. 6. Long Orange—syn. Sandwich, Carotte rouge p&le de Flandre.—Leaves long; root thick at the shoulder, thence tapering regularly to its extremity. Flesh orange; heart pale yellow. This sort was formerly more gene-180 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. rally cultivated than any of the others, and it is still | much grown; hut its quality is inferior to that of the Long Red. 7. White Belgian—syn. Green-topped White, Carrotte blanche a collet vert.—This is the largest and I most vigorous sort known, and will succeed in soils too strong for the finer varieties. It is better adapted for the field than for gardens; some of it may, however, be advantageously grown in cottage gardens. The leaves are strong and tall; roots very thick, a considerable portion rising above the surface of the ground acquiring 1 a greenish tinge in consequence of exposure to the light. It cooks tender, but its colour is objectionable. 8. Purple—syn. Carrotte violette.—Leaves tall, ! dark green; root of medium size, thick at the top, whence it tapers quickly. Flesh deep purple next the j outside, light yellow near the heart; the latter is dark yellow, but sometimes the very centre is pale yellow. | It is very sweet, but not fine flavoured, and its appear- I ance is not generally liked. It is apt to run to seed in j the first season of its growth, and therefore requires to be sown later than other kinds. There are some other varieties named in seed-lists, &c., but the above comprise the principal sorts in cultivation, to one or other of which new varieties, or those reputed as such, can be referred as identical, or nearly allied, as the case may be. Soil.—A deep sandy loam is best for carrots; sandy alluvial soil, properly drained, will suit them, and heavy crops have been obtained on some peat soils. It is essential that the soil should be of a soft pervious nature, to permit the tap-root to descend perpendicularly, which it will sometimes do to the depth of 3, 4, or even 5 feet under favourable circumstances. Cold stiff clay soils, and others that are too compact, should be avoided, for in such the tap-root cannot penetrate in its natural direction, and the carrots become forked, as will likewise be the case in stony land. The Short Horn varieties may be grown on rather thin soil; but the long-rooted sorts ought to have a depth of 2 or 3 feet. Manures.—Lime, potash, soda, and chloride of sodium, or common salt, are found abundantly in the ashes of the plant, and accordingly these substances may be applied with advantage as manures. Farm-yard manure laid on the surface and dug in is apt to make the roots fork. The best way of applying it is to trench the ground, and, in so doing, to let the manure be placed not nearer the surface than 18 inches. In this way, even fresh stable manure may be applied. Carrots are, however, generally sown without manure in soil that has been well manured for the preceding crop. Preparation of the Ground.—The ground, if not trenched, should at least be double dug, and it should also be thoroughly worked, so that it may be as nearly as possible of uniform consistence, and not richer at the surface than it is from 1 to 2 feet lower down. If the soil is of a uniformly soft and permeable nature, the tap-root will strike down quite perpendicularly, that being its natural disposition. It will neither diverge to the right nor to the left, if there be no impediment or temptation to the contrary; but if it have rich soil near the top, and meet with hard poor soil below, the root will be apt to branch out, or fork into the good soil, and a deformed produce will be the consequence. The short-rooted sorts form exceptions to the above remarks. The Early Short Horn, for example, may be grown in a depth of about 6 inches of good or prepared compost, laid on the top of a natural soil of inferior quality. It will frequently be the case, that none of the soil of a garden is of the best description for the production of carrots. It may be too heavy; if so, it probably can be mixed with a large quantity of sand, or sand and mud, the latter being of a light nature when dry; or clay and heavy soil may be burned and incorporated with the mass, and if sand can be added so much the better. Peat may also be employed in lightening the soil. If circumstances do not permit of these means being resorted to, it will be necessary to trench and ridge up the ground before winter, taking the opportunity of dry weather in spring to break down the ridges, and pulverize the soil by all possible means. Or holes 18 inches deep may be made with a large dibber, about 3 inches in diameter, and filled with prepared sandy compost. A few seeds may then be sown in each of the holes, and when the young plants come up, only the best one should be allowed to remain. Fine large carrots have been produced by this mode where the soil was naturally unfavourable to their growth. Scarings.—Near Paris the first sowing of the Early Horn is made in September, in the open ground, covering with litter in frosty weather; and from this sowing carrots are obtained fit for use in May. There is no reason why this plan should not prove successful in this country, for the frosts are generally more severe in winter at Paris than at London. A small quantity of the Early Horn should be sown on a warm border in January, or in the first week of February. Another sowing of the same sort, together with some of the Long Horn, may be made in the last week of that month, or in the first week of March. The main crop of the Long Horn, Altrincham, and other large sorts for winter use, should be sown between the middle of March and the middle of April. If the weather and state of the ground be favourable, the earlier period will beKITCHEN GARDEN. 181 proper in the northern parts of the kingdom. In warm soils, in the southern part, the middle of April will be early enough for the main crop. Small successional sowings of the Horn kinds may be made in June and July; and, finally, in the first or second week in August, a sowing of the Early Horn for spring use may be made, in a situation where some protection can be conveniently given during severe weather. Carrots are either sown broadcast on beds, usually about 4 feet wide, or in drills; but sowing in drills is preferable, as less seed will suffice, and the plants can be thinned more regularly. The drills should be very shallow. The distances may be, for the Early Horn and other small sorts, 8 inches between the rows, and the plants should be thinned to 4 inches apart in the rows. Altrincham, and others of similar growth, may be 10 or 12 inches from row to row, and the plants 6 inches apart in the rows. For larger sorts the rows may be from 12 to 15 inches apart, and the plants may be thinned to 8 or 10 inches asunder in the rows. In soil where the carrot attains a large size, more space should be allowed than where smaller roots and tops are produced. In general, 12 inches between the rows, and 6 inches from plant to plant in the row, will be about a proper average distance. The seeds of the carrot are hispid on the margin with forked hairs, by which they so adhere to each other, as to render it impossible to separate them till the hairs are broken by rubbing, and they cannot be regularly sown until they undergo this process, which can be effected between the hands, and which will be facilitated by mixing the seeds with some fine dry sand; with this addition they can also be more equally distributed in sowing. The seeds of the carrot, like most others that give out a strong aroma, are apt to lose their germinative powers; it is therefore advisable to try their goodness before sowing. When well mixed, take out a small portion, and spread out thinly; then select, or rather take just as they come to hand, a certain number of the seeds, and sow them in a flower-pot, in gentle heat; when they come up, the proportion of good and bad seed in the lot can be ascertained. The seed, if proved to be good, should be sown very thinly along the di'ills, and only just covered with soil. The edges of the drills may be smoothed down with the back of a wooden-headed rake, or a little fine light soil may be put over the seeds, and in all cases where the ground is in good condition as regards dryness, a light roller should be passed over the whole surface of the ground. The process of sowing is then complete. Care should be taken to insert a small stick or two at each end of the rows, so that the intervals can be hoed if weeds start up before the carrots themselves appear. In cold soils, and in sunless weather, the seeds lie long in the ground without germinating, and under such circumstances it would be as well in the seed-room. But to obviate this the seed may be steeped for twenty-four hours, and then kept in a temperature of about 55°, till germination commences, when it may be sown in the open ground. This plan may be advantageously adopted in cold situations, and where, from much wet, the ground cannot be worked at the proper time for sowing. As soon as the plants can be well laid hold of, they should be thinned, and carefully singled out, whei'e two or more have come up close together. At the same time, especially as regards the Horn varieties, some should only be thinned to half the distance at which the plants are to remain for full growth: the intermediate ones will serve for drawing young, but they should be removed before their growth affects that of the plants intended to remain. It may here be remarked, that carrots are not usually transplanted; yet, as blanks are a loss of ground if left, and have an unsightly appearance if filled up with plants of a different species, transplanting may be occasionally resorted to. It is practised in France. If possible, take the opportunity of a moist time; and ■when the plants have only made two leaves, besides the cotyledons, remove them carefully with a ball, without breaking any of their fibres, and insert them in the vacancies. Some of the transplanting instruments may be advantageously employed in removing the plants. After thinning, the usual routine of weeding and hoeing must be persevered in; but the sur-face should not be deeply loosened, for this would encourage forking, instead of a prolongation of the tap-root. Talcing the Crop.—Carrots are drawn young as required in that state. The main crop is taken up at the end of October or beginning of November, a dry day being chosen for the operation. This is performed by loosening the root with a fork, pulling by the top at the same time. Some cut off the tops a little above the crown; others cut off a small portion of the latter so as to remove all the crown-buds. We prefer cutting as closely as possible to the crown, but not into the skin of the upper part of the root. The roots should then be stored in sand scarcely moist, but by no means over dry. The situation in which they are stored cannot be too cool, provided the roots are safe from frost. An underground cellar is therefore not the best place, for the tempera-182 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. ture of such approaches that of the mean of the | climate throughout the year; being colder on the average than any out-house in summer, but ■warmer in winter. Carrots should therefore be stored in an open shed, and not even in contact with the floor, for that, protected from cold by the mass of sand and carrots, would maintain nearly the annual mean temperature of the ground. The carrot-bin should therefore be elevated, so as to admit of a free circulation of air between it and the ground-floor. Or it may be in a loft with an open shed below. In either case, the roots should be covered with as much sand as will prevent them from being affected by sudden changes of temperature. Carrots may also be stored in an airy shed, by piling them in the following manner, so that the crown may be outwardsSelect the longest roots for the lowest layer; lay them shoulder to shoulder, with their crowns towards the wall of the place, but not close to it—their tapering extremities will not of course touch each other; then place another layer in the same way, but with their crowns opposite to those first laid. Proceed thus with other layers, selecting always the next longest roots to those which formed the preceding layer, and consequently finishing with the shortest roots. The whole should have a sufficient covering of well-dried straw, or preferably of dry fern. They may also be thus arranged in the open ground, if it be dry, aud then covered over with thin dry turf, leaving some openings stuffed with straw, to permit the escape of exhalations, if any should be generated. "Whatever mode of storing is adopted, no great bulk of roots should be put together, otherwise fermentation will be apt to ensue, and if it do, the flavour of the carrots will be deteriorated. In soils where maggots do not attack the roots, they may be left in the ground till towards spring, care being taken to cover them with litter in case of frost. To save Seed.—This may be done either by leaving some plants in the ground, and protect-ing them from frost; or, in taking up the crop, some of the finest specimens may be selected, their tops cut off at some distance from the crown, and preserved in sand till February or March, when they should be planted out about 18 inches apart in good soil enriched with decomposed manure. As the umbels successively ripen their seeds they should be cut off, and laid on a seed-cloth in the sun, to get thoroughly dry for rubbing out. Some recommend hanging up the stalks and rubbing out the seeds when they are wanted for sowing. Seed of more than one year old cannot be depended upon. A peculiar method of saving the seed in India is described by William Ingledew, Esq., in the Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London, vol. v. p. 516, a modification of which might be tried with advantage in this country. It is called the Hyderabad practice, and has been in use near Seringapatam from time immemorial. A composition is formed of equal parts of buffaloes’ and swine dung, as fresh as can be procured, and red maiden earth; these ingredients are mixed into a smooth paste; a little water is added so as to bring the whole to the consistence of tar, and to about every 5 quarts, 3 drachms of asafoetida, dissolved in a small quantity of hot water, is added. The carrots, radishes, or turnips are drawn when they have attained about one-third of their natural growth; the tops are cut off to within a few inches of the crown; a little of the tap-root is likewise cut off. Two incisions are made across each other entirely through the body of the vegetable, dividing it in quarters longitudinally from the lower end to within an inch of the crown. The roots are then dipped into the composition till well covered with it, both externally and internally, and they are immediately planted 15 or 16 inches apart, and 6 inches deep, so that the upper extremities only appear in sight. " Innumeiable roots are thrown out from the edges of the incisions, and they consequently receive a greater abundance of nourishment, which, occasioning their luxuriant growth, causes them to yield, not only more than an ordinary crop of seed, but also of a superior quality.” A mixture of cow-dung and rich maiden loam would pi’obably answer the purpose quite as well. It was found that cow-dung answered as well as that of the buffalo; it is also remarked by the writer of the paper above referred to, that the asafoetida may be useful in repelling destructive insects for a time. Insects.—The carrot is attacked by several insects. When the plant makes its appearance above ground, it is attacked by the carrot plant-louse (Aphis dauci), which takes up its abode in the crown, and destroys the young plants. Watering with a decoction of tobacco, or dusting with powdered tobacco in the dew of early morning, will remove it. Dusting with newly slaked lime is also a good remedy. The larvae of the carrot-fly (Psila rosce, Fig. 178) prove very destructive to this crop, by boring into the roots, causing what is called the “rust,’' and ultimately the death of the plants. A dressing of sand, saturated with spirits of tar, scattered over the ground previous to digging, at the rate of a gallon of spirits of tar to 60 or 70 square yards, prevents the attacks of this maggot; quicklime dug into the ground, after lying two or three days on theKITCHEN GARDEN. 183 surface, is also a good preventive. Much may be done by trenching the ground in the previous autumn, immediately after the former crop has been removed. When the evil does appear, the plants attacked, which are easily known by the leaves turning yellow, should be immediately Carrot-fly—Psila rosce. 1. Larva*; 2. Magnified. 3 and 4. Larvae appearing from the galleries excavated in the carrot. 5. Form of pupae; 6. Magnified. 7 and 8. The fiy (natural size and magnified). pulled up, and the grubs destroyed by immersing the roots in hot water. The maggots of the crane-fly {Tipula oleracea) likewise do great mischief to the roots, which are also attacked by the snake-millepedes, wireworms, and Polydesmus complanatus. To the seed-crop much injury is done by the caterpillars of the common, carrot-blossom, and carrot-seed flat-body moths (De-pressaria applana, Fig. 179, D. daucella, and D. Fig. 179. Common Flat-body Moth—Depressaria applana. 1. Moth. 2. Moth at rest; 3. Natural size. 4. Caterpillar. 5. Chrysalis; 6. Natural length. 7. Pupa in leaf rolled up. depressella), which devour the seeds and seed-vessels. They are easily shaken off, and may thus be collected and removed. CAULIFLOWER (Brassica oleracea var. Botry-tis cauliflora, D. C.—Tetradynamia Siliquosa, L.; Cruciferse, D.C.)—Accordingto Miller and others, the cauliflower, and likewise the broccoli, were introduced into England and the continent of Europe from Cyprus; but it is supposed that they had been brought to the latter place from some other country. It is stated in the French Gardener, 1658, and translated by Evelyn, that “they bring the seed of calejlowers to us out of Italy, and the Italians receive it from Candia and other Levantine parts; not but that we gather as good in Italy, and France also, but it does not produce so large a head, and is apt to degenerate into the bosse cabbages and navets; and therefore it were better to furnish oneself out of the Levant.” From this it appears that the cauliflower has been cultivated for ages in the island of Cyprus, and doubtless on the coasts of the Mediterranean. Unprotected, it would rarely withstand the severity of our winters. The varieties are not numerous; the principal are:— 1. Early—syn. Early London White, London Particular, Mercer’s New Pearly, Epps’ Superb, New Dwarf Late Cyprian, Early Dutch.—Under each of the above names has been obtained a large, rather tall cauliflower, with a flue white, compact curd—as the uuexpanded head is termed. It is the sort cultivated near London for the early crop. 2. Dwarf Erfurt—syn. Chou-fleur hatif d’Erfurt. —This is the earliest known variety, and grows about a foot high; leaves short, winged, tapering abruptly to the base; head compact, large, white, if protected by the leaves, which must be bent over for that purpose. The best sort for forcing. 3. Dean’s Early Snowball.—A distinct and invaluable dwarf variety, originally obtained from Norway. It is of the Erfurt type, but dwarfer and earlier, and turning in much more quickly, being ready to cut in four months from the time of sowing. Steins very short; leaves short, narrow, pointed, of a silvery green; heads white and very close. It may be highly recommended for small gardens siuoe it may be planted at 16 inches apart; also for forcing and very early crops. 4. Lenormand’s.—Stem about 15 iuches high; leaves broad, winged, toothed, and waved on the margin, exposing the head, and requiring therefore to be inclined over it; head about 9 inches across. Earlier than No. 5. 5. Walcheren—syn. Walcheren Broccoli, Early Leyden, Legge’s Walcheren Broccoli or Cauliflower. This is an excellent sort, and, under the designation of Legge’s Walcheren Broccoli, has been extensively cultivated for many years. It was originally introduced from Haarlem under the name of Early Leyden. The stem is rather dwarf; leaves broad, less pointed, and more undulated than those of the cauliflower usually are; the difference in constitution is however important, for it not only resists the cold in winter, but likewise drought in summer, much better than other cauliflowers. 6. Large Asiatic.—This was introduced into England from Holland under the above name. It is a very fine184 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. large variety, somewhat later and. taller than No. 1, and if sown at the same time it will afford a succession. 7. Veitch’s Autumn Giant.—This is an extremely valuable and perfectly distinct variety. The heads are large, firm, and compact, beautifully white, and thoroughly protected by the foliage, so that they keep well. Sown in April or May it forms a capital succession to the Waleheren, the plants from a sowing made the second week In April yielding firm solid heads by the first week in September. The Waleheren is an especially valuable sort in hot dry summers, for it has been found that when scarcely a head of the ordinary sorts could be obtained, this variety, planted under similar circumstances, formed beautiful heads, large, white, firm, and of uniform closeness. As the late Mr. Legge, gardener at Bishopsthorpe, was very successful in the cultivation of this excellent variety, some remarks of his upon the subject may prove useful:—For the supply of a family, says Mr. Legge, sow the third week in April, middle and end of May, the middle and end of June, and the middle and end of July. This attention will give a regular supply till the end of the year. I had a regular supply last 37ear till 21st January. For the purpose of saving seed I recommend to sow my Waleheren broccoli at the time that the winter cauliflower is sown, say about the 25th or 27th of August, and winter the plants under hand-glasses as cauliflowers. Give them good soil, not too light, nor leave more than three or four plants under each glass, and let them be well attended to with respect to air. Soil.—A rich, highly manured soil, such as that recommended for cabbages, will suit the cauliflower. It should in all cases be well drained, but a soil that is of too dry a nature is not well suited for the summer crop, as it stints the growth of the plants, and induces them to “button,” that is, to form a very small heart, not larger than a button, or about the size of the top of a broccoli sprout. The manures recommended for cabbage and broccoli are likewise applicable for the cauliflower. Sowings.—Where the climate is neither too cold for the cauliflower in winter, nor too hot and dry in summer, it flourishes at all seasons, and may be sown at any time without danger of not forming a head. Such is the case iu climates like those of places in the Levant, whence this vegetable is said to have been originally obtained. But it is different with us; for we cannot sow at all seasons with success, owing to the plant not being adapted to withstand the severity of our winters. The sowing may be made so late in summer that the winter will arrest the growth of the plants just before they commence to form a head; but, being too late to do that, they will at the same time be too early foi keeping over the winter. They might be protected, but from having to linger so many months in an advanced state of growth, they would not form good heads on the return of active vegetation in the spring. We shall comprise the different sowings iu three periods:— 1. The autumn sowing, to produce in May and June. 2. The winter and early spring sowing, to produce in July and August. 3. The late spring sowing, to produce in September and October, or later. From the different seasons at which these sowings are made, it will be evident that the plants resulting from each will have to be reared under different circumstances, and that they will consequently require different treatment. It will be the simplest mode to treat consecutively of the management of the plants from each sowing. 1. Autumn sowing, to produce heads in May and June. The time for this is iu general about the 20th of August. Iu the warmest parts of the kingdom it may be as late as the 25th of August; in the north of England about the 15th; and in Scotland from the 1st to the 15th, according to the nature of the soil and the climate of the locality. The seed-bed should be in an open situation, well exposed to light; the soil should be rich and friable, and if well mixed in digging with some maiden loam, with which leaf-mould has been incorporated, so much the better. Sow in drills 4 inches apart, and if the weather is hot and dry, cover the surface with a mat, or other material, till the seeds begin to push. About three weeks after the plants appear above ground, they should be pricked out in good soil, in a cold frame. The surface of the soil, when filled in, should be within about 6 inches of glass. The plants should be pricked out to 4 inches apart, in rows 6 inches asunder. A few rows may have 6 inches from plant to plant in the row7. From the time the plants are established in the frame till they are removed from it, when the weather permits in spring, the aim should be to expose them to as much light and air as can possibly be done, consistently with that amount of protection which the severity of the weather may render necessary. The sashes should be kept on for a few days after the plants are put in the frame, till they strike root. Except in case of heavy rain, they may then be left uncovered till frosts occur, when the sashes should be put on at night. In very severe weather, when frost continues night and day, the sashes must be kept close. As the seasonKITCHEN GAKDEN. 185 advances, the plants ought to he more and more exposed; and before planting out, the sashes should be again dispensed with, in order that the plants may be hardened off. During the winter all dead leaves must be picked off; and if any plant is affected with mouldiness or mildew, it had better be removed; and as a preventive, some flowers of sulphur may be scattered in the frame by means of a sulpliurator. Slugs and other enemies should be carefully looked after, and to prevent their attacks a little quicklime may be strewed along the sides of the frame; and if some be scattered all over, it will do the plants no harm. In the end of February, or as soon as the weather proves favourable, some of the plants should be taken up with good balls, and planted out in rich well-manured ground, in patches of three or four, so that they may be covered with a hand-glass. Air should be given more or less freely according to the state of the weather. When the plants get too high for the hand-glasses, the latter should be raised by placing bricks beneath the corners, or, better, by putting another hand-glass on the top of the first. Dry turfy soil may be packed round the plants up to the lower leaves; at the same time a little earth may be drawn against the lower edges of the hand-glasses, when these are raised on bricks, to prevent a draught of air. The top of the hand-glass will require to be removed when the plants become large, and ultimately the whole of it. The handglasses thus set at liberty may be employed in forwarding successional plants. Cauliflowers wintered in frames may, however, be obtained earlier by the following mode, which is practised near Paris. The cold there in February is generally greater than it is at the same period in this country; we may therefore properly adopt the plan, even in cold situations. In the beginning of February a trench, about 18 inches deep, is filled with equal parts of dung and leaves, in alternate layers, to the height of 15 inches, in order to produce a slight bottom-heat. The dung and leaves are covered to the depth of 9 or 10 inches, with a mixture of one-half decayed dung and one-half soil. Ten or twelve days after this is done, the cauliflowers are planted, 20 inches apart, and covered with cloches or bell-glasses. Under each of these, four cabbage-lettuces are also planted. Some dry litter is placed between the glasses, and in severe frost they are covered with straw-mats. In this way cauliflowers are obtained fit for use in April. Instead of wintering in frames, cauliflowers are frequently planted out in the end of October or beginning of November, in patches 3 feet apart each way, and protected through the winter by hand-glasses. Six"plants or more may be sheltered under each hand-glass during the winter; but with the exception of two or three, according to the size of the hand-glass, all should be removed as soon as the weather will permit in spring. Sometimes cauliflowers are placed in front of a wall in the following mannerA trench is taken out a foot wide, and not so deep as in any way to interfere with the roots of the trees. In this about 6 inches thick of stable-manure should be placed, and covered over with rich soil. The plants should then be put in at 6 inches apart. In spring remove two plants, and leave one alternately : those removed may be planted out elsewhere. After the cauliflowers are cut, the dung put in the bottom of the small trenches should be turned out and incorporated with the soil of the border, otherwise the roots of the trees might be induced to run in it too near the surface, and consequently be liable to be destroyed by future diggings. Near Loudon, the autumn-sown cauliflowers are pricked out 4 inches apai’t, in beds in the open ground, and protected by means of hoops and mats. In this way they are generally protected sufficiently from frost and rain; but in continued severe weather the plants are apt to suffer from the want of light, and are then disposed to damp off. The labour required for covering and uncovering is considerable, and mats are not only expensive, but are soon worn out; glass will doubtless be found a cheaper covering in the end, as well as the best adapted for the healthy growth of the plants. Mr. James Barnes, formerly gardener at Bicton, Devonshire, sows his cauliflowers for spring in the first week of October, in pans, in a little bottom-heat; and about the end of the month; or in the first wTeek in November, the plants are potted into small 60’s or 3-incli pots, and these are plunged close to the glass. The plants are kept shifted on in some old melon-bed mould until the beginning of January, when they are shifted for the last time into 7-inch pots. In the first week in February the ground is prepared, and the places for the hand-glasses marked out. If wet, a little of the soil is taken out where each hand-glass is to stand, replacing it with some dry dusty rubbish, which Mr. Barnes states is useful iu preventing the cauliflowers from getting “blacklegs,” a disease by which the stems become black and spoiled. Four plants are turned out under each hand-glass. If the weather prove# dry in March, a liquid manure, consisting of J lb. of nitrate of soda to 1 hogshead of tolerably strong cow-dung water is prepared, and a few gallons186 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. of hot water are added. This mixture well repays the trouble, for the plauts watered with it grow through the cold March winds, as in May, and tine cauliflowers are always produced early in April. Mr. Barnes, who is an excellent cultivator, states, that by shifting until the plauts are in 12-inch pots, and then placing them in a vinery just put to work, or peach-house, he has had cauliflowers early in March.—(Gardener's Magazine.) Mr. Henry Bailey, of Nuneham Park, gives a very clear account, in the Journal of the Horticultural aSoc. vol. v. p. 102, of his mode of cultivating the cauliflower. Mr. Bailey grows only the Walcheren. He makes the first sowing for the spring crop about the 25th of August, and i another for smaller successional plants a week later in the open border. As soon as the plants are large enough, they are pricked out, and after having made a few roots are again transplanted into 3-inch pots. They are then placed in any open airy situation, either in a frame, vinery, or peach-house, which is dormant, the plants simply requiring protection from severe frost. “ As they fill the pots with roots, larger ones are provided, and early in February the first crop or hand-light division is planted out in a south border; the holes for their reception having received a barrowful of rotten dung, the mould is returned, forming a little hillock on which three plants are placed, and covered with the glass till they begin to be established.” 2. Winter and early spring sowing, to produce heads in July and August. In order to obtain plants to form a succession to the crop produced by the autumn-sown plants, it is necessary to sow early in the season. As the ground at that time is generally too cold for the proper vegetation of the seeds, it is best to sow on a moderate hot-bed, and rear the plants under glass. By so doing we have it in our power to prevent the sudden checks to which they are liable out of doors. On the other hand, we must not grow them rapidly. A slow, regular, and therefore substantial growth, is what we should endeavour to promote. When circumstances are conducive to quick growth, we may not be able to control it: for instance, the weather for some weeks may be unusually mild, both day and night, for the season. All we can do in that case is to let the plants have as much air and light as possible; and if we do so, they will better resist the effects of continued severe weather which may subsequently occur. That the plants may be allowed to grow slowly, the sowing should be made about the middle of February, on a moderate hot-bed. When fit, the plants should be pricked out as directed for the autumn sowing; they may very well occupy the frames in which lettuce plants have been wintered. They should be planted out, some in the end of April, and some in May; the Walcheren and Dwarf Erfurt, 2 feet apart each way; the others, by 2 feet. If the potting system be adopted, sow the Walcheren about the middle of February; pot and shift as before directed. Where this system is not adopted for the whole succession, yet it is advisable to have some portion in pots, as, in case of emergency, recourse could be had to various means of bringing in the potted plants for use, when a failure in the supply might otherwise occur. Besides the sowing in the middle of February for a principal succession crop, a small sowing may be made in heat in the first week in January, in case of clubbing or other accident to the autumn-sown plants; and another small sowing, also on gentle heat, may be made in the beginning of March. 3. Late spring sowing, to produce heads in September, October, or later. In the first week in April a sowing should be made in the open border. The plants may be pricked out, when fit, to 6 inches apart by 4 inches, but generally they are allowed to remain in the seed-bed till required to be finally planted out in June. This sowing should include the Walcheren, as it is not so liable to form buttoned heads as the other kinds. The principal sowing for the latest crop should be made on an east or west border, about the 20th of May. The plants should either be kept very thin, or they should be pricked out 6 inches apart each way, in fresh loamy but not stiff soil. If the weather prove favourable, they may be planted out in the end of July; but much depends on the weather, for if it is hot and dry, the plants being thin, the planting had better be deferred till rain come. Sometimes plants of the latest sowing do not form heads before frosts set in: in that case they may be divested of their outside leaves, taken up with a good ball, and planted nearly close together, in a cellar; or a pit, corresponding in length and breadth to the dimensions of a frame, may be dug out to the depth of 2 feet, and filled up with the materials of old hot-beds. On this the plants having been taken up with good balls may be planted nearly close together, but they should not be watered. The frame and sashes are then put on, and the former surrounded with a lining of hot dung, which should be renewed when necessary. In this way heads, not perhaps large, but fresh and good, may be obtained throughout the winter.KITCHEN GARDEN. 187 Taking the Crop.—The heads of cauliflowers may be cut when they are 21 inches in diameter, and from that till they attain their full size, but before they lose their compactness. The flower should never be exposed to sunlight, for that completely spoils its whiteness, one of its most valuable properties. Light is not essential to the growth of the head or flower, as the part used is termed. This in reality is no flower at all; it is a sort of monstrosity, composed of cellular tissue. The true flower is regularly organized, and for the proper development of its organs light is absolutely necessary. diodes of Preserving from Frost.—When the heads of cauliflowers have once commenced to form, they will increase in size in the dark, and without the assistance of the roots, if kept in a mild temperature. It draws substances for its formation out of the succulent stem; the heads may therefore be preserved for use, for a considerable time, by any means that will secure them from frost and damp. A nearly steady temperature, between 40° and 45°, will maintain vegetation; a gentle circulation of air will be sufficient, for if too great, it would be apt to exhaust the juices of the plant, and to render the heads tough. Some recommend taking up the plant by the roots, and suspending it head downwards in a place free from damp; others take up and replant in dry sandy soil in an open shed: this is a more natural plan than the preceding. Some bury the heads in dry earth, leaving a portion of the root sticking out above the ground to lay hold of in pulling up the plant. The head may also be divested of most of the leaves, and buried in peat-earth. By these and similar means, cauliflowers may be preserved in a fit state, so far as appearance goes, and even j very good as regards flavour if no decayed leaves are allowed to remain. Peat, from its antiseptic properties, has been found to answer, but peat-charcoal would be still better. Being a powerful deodorizer, it would prevent the effluvia which , might otherwise arise from vegetation deprived of a free circulation of air. The only objection I to employing peat-charcoal arises from its dust adhering to the head; but this might be prevented by partially moistening the charcoal. Large bell-glasses, or cloches, with night-caps of frigi-domo, would answer well for protecting cauliflowers from such frosts as usually occur in November, or even till near the end of December. Glazed protections to extend along a row could now be constructed at little expense. They might be in the form of a ridge-roof, or they might be 6 feet in length, and 18 inches in breadth, with an upright glazed front 15 inches high, a wooden | back 18 inches high, and a glazed top hinged to the back sloping 3 inches to the front, and adapted for readily giving air when the weather permits. To save Seed. — Seed is best obtained from autumn-sown plants which have been wintered in a frame, and they should be well attended tc with water during the whole period of their growth. The selection should be made, and the plants marked, when the head is in perfection. Plants having short thick stems, with firm heads of a fine white colour, should be preferred. Those which exhibit a disposition to form a head before the generality should be watched, aud if with this disposition they do not quickly break the curd to run to seed, there is a chance that seed saved from them will be the best for early produce. CELERY (Apium graveolens, L.—Pentandria Digynia, L.; Umbelliferae, D.C.; Apiacese, Lind.) is a hardy biennial, a native of Britain, found wild by ditches and in marshy situations. Some of the varieties of celery have hollow or piped stalks, but these are unworthy of cultivation. The following are the best of those which have the stalks solid:-— I. White, i.e. Leaf-stalks Pale-coloured. 1. Incomparable Dwarf White—syn. Celeri court hatif, Sandringham.—Very dwarf and compact, about 2 feet high, and with an average growth of 10 inches; leaflets small, pale green; hearts solid, pure white; blanching about 10 inches; the stalks broad, thick, fleshy, crisp, and of fine quality. One of the best, as it blanches readily, is good early, and also stands the winter well. 2. Veitch’s Solid White—syn. Danesbury.—Of close habit, growing 2 feet 6 inches high, and having an average girth of 11 inches; leaflets broad, deeply toothed or serrated, very distinct; hearts firm and solid, blanching for about 12 inches, the stalks broad, thick, crisp, and tender. An excellent sort, which stands well. 3. Seymour’s White—syn. Goodwin’s White,Northumberland Champion White—Habit spreading, 3 feet high, and about 12 inches in girth; hearts solid, blanching to nearly 14 inches, the stalks broad, thick, and fleshy. One of the largest white celeries, and apt to become pithy if very strongly grown. 4. Dixon’s Mammoth White.—Of compact robust habit, about 2 feet 3 inches high, the heads large, girthing 14 inches; leaflets broad; hearts very large, blanching about 11 inches, somewhat soft, but of excellent flavour, and stands the winter well. Other good white varieties are tin Gisyve White, robust but tender; Plain Blanc, a dwarf early sort; Prizetaker, slender aud tender; and Haywood's White Queen, robust and hardy, but deficient in flavour. II. Red, i.e. Leaf stalks Coloured Red. 5. Wilcox’sDunhamRed—syn. TurmossRed, Leicester Red, Major Clarke’s Solid Red, Ramsey’s Solid Red.— Very compact, erect, and even in growth, about 3 feet high, with an average girth of 12 inches; leaflets rather small, deeply serrated, shining; hearts very solid, blanching well for about 12 inches, the stalks broad,188 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. thick, crisp, and with a fine nutty flavour. The thickened base of the heart is prolonged before the plant starts for seed. One of the best celeries for autumn and summer use, but not so hardy as some others. 6. Manchester Red—syn. Laing’s Mammoth, Radford’s Pink, Sulliam Prize Pink, Hooley’s Conqueror, Giant Red.—Of strong and vigorous habit, about 3 feet 4 inches high, and averaging 12 inches in girth; leaflets broad; hearts very solid, blanching for about 12 inches, the stalks broad, thick, and fleshy. One of the largest sorts, excellent in quality, and stands the winter well. 7. Ivery’s Nonsuch—syn. Celeri violet de Tours, Osborn’s Select Red, London Market Red.—Of strong and vigorous habit, about 3 feet high, and with an average girth of 12 inches; leaflets broad, the pinnae distant; hearts very solid, blanching for about 13 inches, the stalks broad, thick, and crisp, with a fine nutty flavour. Excellent, and stands the winter well. 8. Carter’s Incomparable Crimson—syn. Hood’s Dwarf Red.—The dwarfest of the red varieties, of compact habit, growing 2 feet 6 inches high, and girthing about 11 inches; leaflets broadish, pale green; hearts very solid, blanching for about 11 inches, the stalks thick, fleshy, and of fine quality. Kimberley's Red, Webster's No. 1, and Wright's Improved Grove Red, are other excellent red sorts. Soil.—A light rich and rather moist soil is best adapted for the growth of celery, whilst one which is heavy, wet, and adhesive is unfavourable to it. Although the plant requires plenty of water, yet it is apt to rot in winter in cold heavy soils saturated with moisture. Provided manure is at command, a poor light soil is better than one that is stiff and rich; for the growth can be made to depend chiefly on the manure supplied, and the plant grows better when its leaf-stalks are surrounded with light porous soil than when it is pressed against by that which is heavy and compact. The latter is mechanically injurious; for though the expansive power of vegetation in its natural state is very great, yet the blanched heart of a celery plant, not being in its natural state, cannot force its way against such heavy obstructions as it would do when in possession of its full vital energy; and when too much loaded or pressed by soil of a heavy nature, it must rot. Light sandy loam, well manured with cow-dung, produces good celery, provided plenty of moisture be afforded. Good peat soil, limed and manured, will also produce large heads. Sowings. — For the early crops, the sowings should be on heat; and on the open border for the latest crop. For a very early crop, which will only require to be a very small one, a sowing should be made in the end of January, or beginning of February, in a pan of rich soil, decomposed dung, or leaf-mould. The pan should be kept in moderate heat till the seeds begin to germinate, and then a very gentle heat is preferable. As soon as the young plants have made three leaves, they should be pricked out in boxes filled with old decomposed dung and leaf-mould; afterwards they should be kept near the light, and not allowed to draw up slender for want of air. If air and light cannot be duly afforded, the less artificial heat the better. The leaves that are expanded by heat, with insufficient light and air, will make little more progress after planting out; on the contrary, they then linger and die, and the plant, though apparently forwarded to a good size, is reduced to very small dimensions. Any vinery, peach-house, or frame whei’e the temperature is from 50° to 55°, will be suitable for rearing early celery plants. This temperature will be about that of the open air in May, so that when the plants are then finally planted out, they will receive no check, the temperature to which they are exposed being not lower than that to which they had previously been accustomed. These remarks are applicable to other sowings which it may be thought desirable to make on heat. The first principal sowing for autumn use should be made on gentle heat, under glass, in the last week of February, or about the first of March. When the plants have formed three leaves, they should be pricked out 2 inches apart in a compost of leaf-mould, very rotten dung, and a little rich friable loam, the whole well mixed, and laid to the depth of 4 inches on very slightly heating materials, and covered with a frame aud lights, or with hand-glasses, if the former are not at command. When the leaves begin to meet, the plants should be again transplanted into the same kind of soil as before. The roots should be kept quite moist from the instant they are taken up until they are again placed in the earth. The tap-root should be a little shortened, especially if it be long in proportion to the lateral fibres. The plants should be inserted in rows 6 inches apart, and about 4 inches from each other in the rows. Water should be given as the planting proceeds, and afterwards it should be liberally supplied when required. In fine weather the sashes should be drawn off so as to fully expose the plants during the day; indeed, they will only be required on for pi’otection from the cold at night, and from frost, snow, and hail at all times. A second principal sowing should be made in the end of March, and as the ground at that season is generally too cold, it will still be advisable to sow, either in a frame or under handglasses, or bell-glasses may be used for the purpose. Bottom-heat may be dispensed with; but the frame or glasses should be kept close aud warm until the plants begin to appear, when airKITCHEN GARDEN. 189 should be freely admitted at all times when the I state of the weather will permit. The plants should be pricked out in the same kind of soil as that recommended for the previous sowiug, and in the same manner, only not on bottom-lieat. Before these pricked-out seedlings are in the least danger of being overcrowded, a piece of ground with a hard surface should be selected for a nursery-bed, and a compost should be formed, consisting of rotten dung, leaf-mould, and about a fourth part of rich friable loam, which may contain old fibre, provided the whole be well reduced by chopping and turning. This compost must be laid on the firm surface to the depth of 6 inches, and beaten close with the back of the spade, and afterwards thoroughly watered. As soon as the water has subsided, and the compost is not too wet for working, the plants should be transplanted to 4 inches apart, in rows 6 inches asunder. Care must be taken to keep the roots moist whilst out of the ground, and to shorten a little the long tap-roots before planting. A third solving for a late crop should be made about the middle of April, on rich soil or compost, on an open border facing the south. The plants, when fit, should be pricked out, and after-wai’ds transplanted on a nursery-bed. In short, they should be treated in the same way as the plants of the preceding sowing. Finally, a small sowing for some very late celery may be required to be made in May. Preparation of the Ground for the Plantation. —Celery will bear to be flooded with water at the root when it is growing; but in winter, when it is making little or no growth, and is, moreover, in a blanched state, it is apt to rot if the roots and lower part of the stem are kept in a saturated condition. If the soil on both sides of the trench is hard, water will not readily escape from amongst the soft materials in the trench, and consequently they will be frequently too long maintained in that saturated condition which proves injurious to the plant when its vegetation is all but suspended. In order to provide against this evil, it will be advisable to trench the whole of the ground at least two spades deep. Thus loosened, the soil will permit the water to percolate downwards, and laterally, so that no stagnation will take place. Various modes of planting out have been practised and suggested. The mode generally adopted is in trenches, a single row being planted along the middle; or in broad beds, with the plants in rows across. The largest celery is grown in trenches; and in cold retentive soils it is doubtless the best mode, as the ridge can be made to throw off the water in winter—an advantage I which the flat-bed does not possess. On the other hand, the bed system affords more heads from the same space of ground. For instance, supposing a rod of ground to be planted in rows 14 inches apart, across a bed 6 feet wide, with the plants 9 inches apart in the rowS, each plant will occupy 126 square inches. Allowing half a rod to be thus occupied, and the other half to be left for earthing up, the rod of ground will contain 155 plants. Now, supposing that trenches are formed 4 feet asunder, and that the plants are 9 inches apart in the trench, about 432 square inches must be reckoned for each plant; hence a rod will only contain 90 plants. According to this, the bed system affords 72 per cent, more than is obtained from the trenches, or for every three heads obtained from the latter, five at least would be obtained from the former. It will frequently be the case, that the total weight of the three will exceed that of the five; but when, in both cases, the heads are reduced to the heart portion fit for table, the difference will generally be in favour of the beds. For winter celery, trenches are, however, to be preferred; and if larger heads than those grown in beds are not desired from the trenches, the plants in these may be put closer together, say at 6 inches apart, and the trenches may be feet apart, and then the number of heads per rod obtained from the trenches will exactly equal that from the beds. Mode of Planting out in Trenches.*—The ground having been prepared, the direction of the trenches, their distance apart, and their width, should be determined. Their direction should be north and south, as admitting the fairest exposure to light. The distance should be greater for tall than for dwarf growing sorts. It should not be less than three feet from centre to centre of the trenches, nor more than 6 feet. In small gardens very good medium-sized heads may be produced in trenches 3 feet apart. When landed up, the ridges will necessarily be thin, and will consequently be easily frozen through; but this objection may be obviated by covering the ridges with litter or other protecting material. Celery, as large as need be desired, and of better quality than that grown to a larger size, may be produced in trenches 4 feet apart. In general, this may be considered a good distanoe. Where ground is plentiful, 5 feet may be allowed; and where the object is to have very large tall celery, some make the trenches 6 feet apart. Some recommend the trenches to be a spade’s width or about 12 inches, others 18 inches, and some as much as 2 feet. We consider 12 inches too little, because the roots, when planted, will in many instances occupy 6 inches of the centre190 GARDENER'S ASSISTANT. of the trench; then they can only extend 3 inches to each side without their spongioles, the principal feeders, coming in contact with soil beyond the limits of that which was manured, and specially intended for supplying them with abundance of nourishment. The trenches should not be less than 18 inches wide at bottom, and to this width the soil should be worked out and manured. When the distance between the trenches is 4 feet or upwards, they may be formed 2 feet wide. The depth of the trenches depends, in some measure, on the quantity or depth of mauure intended to be introduced into them. It may be remarked, that the deeper and narrower the trenches, the slower will be the growth of the plants. These grow best, all other circumstances being the same, when their leaves are fully exposed to the light. The market-gardeners near Loudon dig the trenches two spades deep, fill in a foot deep of strong manure, and over that 3 or 4 iuches of soil, and in this the plants are inserted. Near Manchester, where excellent celery is produced, the trenches are taken out 18 inches wide and 1 foot deep, then 9 inches deep of compost is introduced; so that the plants are thus within 3 inches of the original surface. Where much manure is employed, as is the case near London, the depth of the trenches will require to be a little more than 1 foot; and where little manure is used, they should be more shallow; but in most cases, 1 foot may be considered a proper depth. The trenches should be cut with the sides as nearly perpendicular as the texture of the soil will permit, except near the top. They should be made, if possible, as wide at the bottom as at 9 inches above it. The other 3 inches next the surface, together with the soil taken out of the trench, should slope backwards. The object of this is to fonn a wide receiver for rain, and to expose the plants to a greater expanse of sky, and consequently to more light. If the trench were 18 inches wide, and the soil taken out of it were laid on each side, and beaten up so as to form nearly perpendicular sides towai’ds the plants, as is generally aimed at, the plants in the trench would get little more rain than would fall upon an area equal to the length of the trench by 18 inches wide. If a trench with upright sides is 32 feet in length by 18 inches in width, and if rain fall to the depth of a quarter of an inch, it will receive little more than 6i gallons; but let the earth be laid sloping, so that across the trench from the commencement of the slope on one side to that on the other is 30 inches, the quantity received will be 11 gallons, most of which will tend towards the roots of the plants. When heavy showers occur, nearly all the rain which falls within the limits of the slopes will reach the trenches; and celery, when in a vigorous growing state, cannot have too much water, and the rain-water diverted towards the plants by the above arrangement is more beneficial than if the amount were otherwise supplied by pump-water; besides, a great saving of labour is effected. The trenches having been dug out, manure should be introduced. This may consist of a mixture of horse and cow dung, or these mixed with old rotten dung, or a compost of rotten dung and fresh maiden loam, and if leaf-mould or a little peat-soil can be added, so much the better. Horse-dung should not be used in a dry littery state; it should be partially fermented, turned, and watered, till reduced to a moist consistency. The manure is usually turned over, and some soil turned up for planting in; but if the bottom is of a cold nature, it is better to use some of the top-soil for this purpose, unless indeed the trench contains a sufficient depth of compost into which the plants can be inserted. The plants should be carefully taken up with balls by means of a trowel, and placed upright side by side on a hand-barrow. Previous to planting, each should be minutely inspected, in order that every offset or side-slip may be removed ; and they should then be immediately planted; and when the plants begin to push fresh leaves, the old outer ones which have become yellow should be cut off: for they ai’e then not effective for growth, and only encumber the plants. The distance asunder at which the plants may stand in the row varies from 6 to 18 inches. These are extremes; the latter should only be adopted where large heads are to be grown for competition. When the plants are far apart, they grow too strong, fibrous, and coarse. This should be avoided by planting 8 or 9 inches apart in the rows. Mode of Planting out in Beds.—The ground should, in the first place, be marked out in 6-feet widths, commencing 3 feet from the north or south edge of the piece of ground. By this arrangement, the beds will run east and west, aud the rows, when planted across them, will of course be north and south; the sui’face of the ground in the intervals will thus be directly exposed to the heating influence of the sun’s rays at noon; whilst both sides of the row will be equally exposed to light. If, on the contrary, the rows were east and west, each would shade the ground behind it. Each alternate 6-feet space is dug out about a foot deep, and the soil laid right and left on the intermediate spaces. If the ground has not been previously trenched, the bottom, after the foot of soil has been taken out, should be deeply dug over, especially for late celery, in order thatKITCHEN GARDEN. 191 superfluous moisture may pass downwards. The directions for introducing the manure or compost into the trenches are also applicable to that proceeding as regards the beds. Near Edinburgh, where the bed system is preferred by the market-gardeners, the plants are inserted 9 inches apart, in rows 14 inches asunder. Nicol directs that the rows should be 20 inches asunder, and the plants 8 inches from each other in the row. This gives 122 plants per rod, instead of 155, as by the former distances; but the rows may be 16 inches apart, and the plants 8 inches from each other in the rows; then the rod will contain 152 plants, very nearly as many as is obtained by the present Edinburgh practice. The greater space between the rows must be an advantage in earthing up, whilst the distance of 8 inches between the plants in the row will be sufficient for the size to which celery in beds is required to be grown. Subsequent Culture.—This chiefly consists in watering, stirring the surface of the ground, keeping it clear of weeds, removing suckers or side-shoots, and blanching. After transplanting, water should be given moderately, so as merely to keep the earth moist, but not saturated, till the plants take fresh root. Afterwards, abundance of water should be given, till a little before the plants are commenced to be earthed up. If manure has notbeen plentifully supplied, manure-water may be given occasionally; but it should not be strong, otherwise a rank growth is induced, and the flavour of the crop deteriorated. Stirring the surface of the ground should be done when it is rather dry than moist, and care should be taken that the soil do not rest upon the hearts of the plants. The outside leaves possessed by the plant at the time of planting never grow to a large size; therefore, when more vigorous ones have been produced, these old and comparatively useless leaves may be removed. This should be done before earthing up takes place. When allowed to remain, they generally rot. In order to kill slugs, worms, and other vermin, the surface of the ground should be sprinkled with quicklime, and some finely powdered may be occasionally dusted thinly over the foliage. Salt may also be applied for the same purpose; when given in moderate quantities, it will not injure the plants. Blanching.—A leaf, or leaf-stalk, grown in the dark is blanched, and the parts so treated are destitute of the green colouring matter, for the production of which light is essential. But the substance as well as the colour of plants grown in the dark is different from that of plants grown in the light. For instance, a potato will push in the dark a great length of white, tender, brittle stem; whilst in the light the stems are green, strong, and woody; and if the latter were, when nearly full-grown, taken into a dark place, its leaves would become of a faded green, and its stem dingy; the woody fibre of its stem, once formed, will still retain its toughness so long as it lives, and till it absolutely decays. So it is with celery: the part of it which we do not grow in the dark cannot be blanched, as it should be, white, crisp, and tender, by any subsequent seclusion from light. This we think is sufficient proof against the practice of allowing celery to grow nearly to its full size, and then earthing it up at once. We thus obtain a large plant from the number of leaves exposed to the light during a long period of growth. The stalks of the outside or oldest leaves are firm, with strong fibres, which render these parts totally unfit for use, except in cooking; a few of them will impart a strong flavour of celery, for the longer the plant grows in the light the stronger its flavour becomes. The next inner portion of stalks is of course paler, but not yet purely blanched and crisp, as they ought to be for salad. Lastly, we come to the centre, and there we find a comparatively small portion which is really fit for table. It is that which has pushed up since the one earthing up was performed. It may be tolerably large in soil over a large quantity of manure, and which still retains a growing heat; but in cold soils the heart-growth after a single, and that a late, earthing up, must be very small. It is evident that earthing up late, and once for all, is not to be recommended; neither, on the other hand, is too early earthing up advisable, for it prevents the plant from attaining a proper size. Before it can do this it must have an extensive surface of healthy leaves exposed to light, to form roots and a thick base of stem. This cannot be the case if the foliage is either kept mostly buried in the soil, or otherwise crowded together. The plants must therefore be allowed to grow as freely exposed to light as possible for some considerable time after planting. At that stage their natural mode of growth should not be interfered with. When the earthing up is commenced, the soil should not be pressed too closely against the plants, for the heart-leaves must have room to push up; no gflil ought to touch them, neither should the outside stalks be made to surround them closely till the final earthing up. As the plauts advance in growth, the earthing up must be repeated at intervals of about ten days, or according as the weather proves favourable for the operation, which should not be performed when the leaves are wet, and the drier the soil the better. Some tie up the leaf-stalks loosely with matting, and192 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. then put the soil against the plants with the spade. The best plan, however, is to make some of the soil fine with the spade, and to put it with the latter adjoiniug to the plants on each side, but not against them. Then with both hands gather the stalks together, equally round, and as closely as may be thought advisable. When in right position, hold them with one hand, and with the other bring as much of the loosened soil against one side of the plant as may be necessary, then with the hand which did this, grasp the plant, ami with the other hand bring up the soil on the opposite side. This operation is sooner done than it can be described. The heart is kept clear of soil, and the latter by this mode can be easily placed, and its quantity and position regulated, as we would wish. Until the last earthing up, at least, the soil should not be put higher than the tops of the set of leaves next to the outside ones. The leaflets of the latter will thus be left quite free, and those interior to them should be sufficiently exposed to enable them to carry on their functions, and contribute to the growth of the stem and roots. At the earthing up previous to the final one, the soil ought to be put quite as high as the tops of the leaves next within the outside ones, and the latter should be brought 7 . ° closer together than formerly, In order that the growth which subsequently takes place in the centre may be almost dark, and it will be entirely so when more is closed in at the final earthing up. Celery, however, will keep better if the tops are left a little above ground. This can be done, and the centre be still kept deprived of light. The principles upon which the preceding directions are based, are, to grow the plant up to a certain stage with all its foliage exposed to light as much as possible; to allow the outside leaves produced after transplanting to have full advantage of the light up to the latest period of earthing up; and to confine the next inner leaves only slightly till near the period just mentioned, so that they, together with the outer ones, may contribute to the sound growth of the stem and roots, enabling these to send up a full heart, which must be crisp and well blanched, in consequence of the light having been excluded from it during the whole period of its growth. In giving these directions the trench system has been kept in view; but the earthing up of celery in beds should be conducted on the same principles. The earth is best put to the plants by hand; but it has to be thrown in between the rows from the intervals between the beds, and, unless this is done with great care, the earth will get into the hearts of the plants. It will therefore be advisable to use two boards, about 9 iuches wide, and in length equal to the width of the bed. These can be placed between the rows, so as to guard the plants on each side whilst the soil is being thrown in between. 'When a sufficient quantity is introduced, the boards are taken up and placed between the next two rows, and so on. Instead of boards, plates of stiff sheet-iron have been recommended, and in the few instances in which they have been adopted they have been found to answer the purpose very well, if kept clean and free from rust. Celery is usually blanched by means of the soil thrown out of the trenches, and that of the intervals; but other means are occasionally employed, and of these, perhaps, none more successfully than sea-sand, direct from the sea-moistened beach. The salt does not injure the plants, and either it or the sand is disliked by the grubs, worms, slugs, &c., which spoil the stalks, so that in some gardens more than half the stems dug up are found unfit for use, or at least cannot be presented at table on account of their damaged appearance. Celery blanched by sand is clean, well blanched, and glossy; and where canker and the above-mentioned enemies attack the plant, sea-sand may be advantageously employed; or. if it cannot be had, clean river-sand, or pure pit-sand of any kind, free from oxide of iron, watered with a solution of salt, may be employed instead. Iu this case the sand should be turned whilst it is watered, in order that the salt may be equally diffused throughout. In applying the sand, boards, or the sheet-iron plates, will be very convenient; they can be placed on each side of the row at a little distance from the plants, and the sand can then be introduced between the plants and the boards or plates, which can be backed u]) with soil to support the sand when they are withdrawn. Sifted coal-ashes are sometimes used for blanching, but they frequently contain substances injurious to vegetation. The French sometimes blanch by tying up the stalks, first near the base, next about the middle, and finally near the top. The whole is then closely covered with dry straw up to the top of the leaves. By this mode celery blanches, it is said, quickly and well. Semicircular drain-tiles, placed one on each side of the plant, so as to inclose it, have been tried, but not very successfully. If the whole plant is not covered in at top as well as at the sides, the blanching will be imperfect; if it be completely covered, then the leaves previously healthy in the light will become languid in the dark, and will fail to supply elaborated sap, and a good heart for blanching cannot be produced. The power to do this must be derived from 1 healthy, unblanched foliage.KITCHEN GARDEN. 193 Protection.—Although celery, being a native of Britain, is a hardy plant in its natural state, yet under artificial treatment it is apt to perish in winter. At that season its oldest leaves, like those of other herbaceous plants, naturally begin to decay, and the central portion, though young, is unfitted for resisting frost, in consequence of its having been blanched. The alternate action of frost and wet soon causes it to rot, and frequently wet alone has this effect. Melting snow and hail, descending to the centre, check the growth, and rottenness frequently results from this cause. It might, in some measure, be prevented by inclining the upper part of the plant in earthing up. In the usual way the stalks are kept upright, so that water from snow melting on the top readily passes down amongst them; but by bending the tops towards one side at the last earthing up, or even commencing to do so at the previous earthing, the rain or snow water would not have a direct downward course. For example, suppose we take a bundle of willows, and place them erect, and up to the top in a ridge of earth, the interstices between the willows would be like so many tubes through which water would quickly pass down; and so it would among the celery stalks. If we bend the tops of the willows to one side, and cover the bend over as far as its summit, it is evident that no rain can then pass down as before, neither would it pass along the course of the bend of the celery. In adopting this plan, one side of the ridge would necessarily be higher than the other. Tough dry turf, or some substance that would not wash down into the hearts of the plants, might be laid on the upper side of the bent celery tops. Various other means of protection could easily be devised. Inch-square deal rods could be driven in opposite to each other on each side of the ridge, and distant across about a foot. Gross-pieces might be nailed to these about 6 inches above the tops of the plants, and on them rods 10 or 12 feet long might be laid. Over these neat straw-mats could be made to fit, so as to be readily applied when protection against frost and snow is required. The width of each straw-mat should be 3 feet, or more, according to the length of the straw, and two of them joined together will fold over the ridge-rod, and hang down on both sides, affording sufficient protection from snow, and also frost, if it is not excessively severe. The mats should be rolled up during the day, if the temperature is not then below freezing; but when the weather is wet, and severe frost is not apprehended, the ridge-rods should be shifted towards the windward side. Then fold the mats, or otherwise place them so that they may slope over the plants, from the horizontal rod, on the side next the wind and wet, leaving the other side open to the influence of light. Thatched hurdles afford good pi'otection. Mr. Duncan uses leaves which have been previously heated, and remain in flakes of some 6 inches in thickness, and which resist alike the action of frost and moisture. This covering is removed in favourable weather, and the plants exposed to air, as they should be in all cases. Dry fern, long litter, or any other substance that will form a light covering and resist frost, may likewise be used. Some plants may also be taken up and buried in sand or light soil, uuder shelter, leaving, however, the tops of the leaves uncovered. To save Seed.—Select some of the finest plants, mark them, in order to give them but very little earthing up, and protect them in severe weather. Early in sjuing they should be carefully taken up and planted in a sunny situation. They should be well-watered, and the flower-stems supported by stakes. The seeds ripen in autumn, and keep good for three or four years; but the newest seed is the best. Insects, &c.—Celery suffers from the attacks of the celery-fly {Tep]iritis onopordinis), which lays its eggs in or upon the leaves, and the larvte produced feed upon the parenchyma of the leaves, forming large blisters. These maggots are found from June to November, and the only way of limiting their numbers is by pinching the blisters as soon as they appear, and cutting off and burning all the blistered and spotted leaves that can be removed with safety to the plant. Another insect injurious to celery is Piophila apii, the maggots of which burrow into the stems and stalks of the plant, completely spoiling their appearance, and rendering them unfit for use. Considerable mischief is also occasionally done by the mole-crickets, which dig under the plants, and eat off the roots. Snails and slugs are also destructive visitors. Celery is liable to canker in some soils, particularly in such as contain much oxide of iron. A parasitic fungus also grows upon the leaves. Celeriac—syn. Turnip-rooted Celery, Knob Celery, Celeri-rave, Celeri-navet of the French, Ivnoll-sellerie of the Germans.—This is a variety of celery, the stem of which forms, under favourable circumstances, an irregular knob, and this is the part chiefly used, either sliced, as an ingredient in salads, or cooked. It is not so delicate to eat as the other kinds of oelerv, yet it is much esteemed on the Continent, especially where the frost is usually so intense as to render it impossible to preserve the other kinds fresh during winter; in this case celeriac becomes a valuable substitute, as its roots can be taken up and stored 13194 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. out of the reach of frost. On the Continent the roots are grown to the weight of from 3 lbs. to 4 lbs., but in this country they are not so successfully cultivated. Culture of Celeriac.—This should be sown early in March, and for succession in April, in a slight heat under glass, or under a hand-glass on a warm border, and afterwards pricked out like other celery. In the beginning or middle of J une the plants should be planted out on the level ground in moderately rich and rather sandy soil, in rows 18 inches apart, and at 1 foot from each other in the rows. Before planting, all lateral shoots, and some of the outside leaves, likewise the lateral fibres on the root, must be removed. The plants ought to be planted shallow, the roots scarcely so deep in the ground as they had formerly been. Abundance of water should be supplied. Occasionally a little of the soil must be taken from around the bulb, and all lateral fibres removed. When nearly full-grown the bulb should be covered with a little soil, to render it whiter than it otherwise would be. The roots will be fit for use in September or October; aud before winter part of the crop may be taken up, divested of all the foliage except the heart-leaves, and placed amongst sand in a shed or cellar. The roots left in the ground will only require protection in very severe weather. CHAMOMILE (Anthemis nobilis, L. — Synge-nesia Polygamia Superflua, L.; Composite, D.C.) is a hardy perennial, a native of Britain, where its flowers have long been used as a stimulating tonic. A strong infusion of them also acts as an emetic when taken warm. There are two varieties, the single-flowered and double-flowered, the latter is that usually cultivated for sale, on account of the greater bulk of its flowers, which, however, are inferior in activity to those of the single-flowering sort. Chamomile prefers a dry soil, and though it may be raised from seed sown early in spring, is usually propagated by dividing the roots in March or in autumn, or by offsets. The divisions should be planted in small patches, 9 inches apart, and water should be given at planting, and subsequently till they take root; after that they soon spread and cover the ground. The flowers ought to be gathered when just opened, and successively as they are produced; and after having been gradually and thoroughly dried, they may be stored like other herbs. CHERVIL {Anthriscus cerefolium, Hoffm.; Scan-dix cerefolium, L.—Pentandria Digynia, L.; Um-belliferse, D.C.) is an annual plant, a native of the Continent, cultivated for the leaves, which when young are used in salads and to flavour soups. The varieties cultivated are:— 1. Common Chervil. 2. Curled Chervil—Cerfeuil frise of the French.— A very pretty variety; the beautifully curled leaves of which are used as a garnish, and for the same purposes as those of the common sort. It is the kind generally preferred. To keep it true, seed must be saved from plants with well-curled leaves. Chervil may be sown either broadcast and lightly raked in, or in shallow drills, 8 inches apart, covering very lightly with mould. The first sowing must be made in October for spring use; and if a constant succession of tender leaves is required, successional sowings should be made every month or three weeks from the end of February till September. In summer, it should be sown in a shady situation, and a warm position should be chosen when the weather is cooler, and when consequently the plants are not so apt to run to seed. Bulbous-rooted Chervil {Cheerophyllum bulbosum, L.) — syn. Tuberous - rooted Chervil, Turnip-rooted Chervil, Parsnip-rooted Chervil, Cerfeuil bulbeux, C. tubereux.—A hardy biennial, a native of the continent of Europe, producing fusiform roots somewhat resembling a small parsnip, or about the size of an Early Horn carrot; flesh yellowish white, farinaceous, rather sweet, with the flavour of chervil. It is said to be more farinaceous than the potato, and resembles more the sweet-chestnut. The seeds should be sown broadcast or in drills, in any good garden soil, in August, September, and October, but if later than this the seeds will not come up till the second year. As the seeds often perish in the ground in winter, it is a good plan to stratify the seeds soon after they are gathered. This operation consists in putting a layer of fine sand in a large flower-pot, then a layer of seed, then one of sand, aud so on alternately till the pot is full. It may then be plunged in any spare corner, and protected from frost; and it may thus remain till February or March, when it may be sown where intended to remain to produce the crop, covering the seed lightly with fine soil. The roots will be ready to take up in July, when the leaves become withered. They should be kept, like potatoes, in a dry dark place. The produce is from 60 to 70 lbs. per square pole or perch, or a dish from about a square yard. It is tlierefoi'e worthy of trial as a rarity, and it is doubtless capable of improvement. CHICORY, or Succory {Cichorium Intybus, L. — Syngenesia Polygamia .ZEqualis, L.; Composite, D. C.) is a hardy perennial, a native of Britain, where it is found growing by road-KITCHEN GARDEN. 195 sides and in waste places, particularly in calcareous soils. In the garden it is only grown as a salad plant, and as such it is not so generally cultivated as it deserves. The leaves, when cut quite young, constitute a rather bitter but very wholesome Fig. iso. small salad, much esteemed at Paris, but seldom used in this country. When blanched, the leaves furnish the excellent winter salad known by the name of barbe de capucin. The large fleshy roots are cultivated on an extensive scale for mixture with coffee, on the inferior sorts of which its addition effects a decided improvement. For this purpose the fresh roots are cut into small pieces, dried on a kiln, roasted, and ground- The leaves are also an excellent fodder, and are greedily eaten by cattle of all kinds. The varieties are :— 1. Common Chicory. 2. Coffee Chicory; Chicoree a cafe. 3. Improved Chicory; Chicoree sauvage amelioree. 4. Variegated Chicory; Chicoree sauvage amelioree panachee. 5. Witloof Chicory. See p. 538. The second sort has fleshy roots like those of carrots, and as long. It is the kind grown for mixture with coffee; hut the leaves may be employed in salad like those of the others. The third sort is an improved variety, the leaves being large and pressed together so as to form a sort of heart, like Batavian endive. It was raised by M. Jacquin, seedsman, of Paris, who has also found that it is tolerably good when boiled. The leaves of Variegated chicory have red veins, which change to a beautiful bright red in blanching. If chicory is grown as a small salad, it may be had all the year round by sowing every fortnight or three weeks in the open ground, or on a hot bed, according to the time of the year. In genera!. however, sowings in the open ground from the end of April to the end of October will be sufficient, as the blanched leaves are used during the interval. When grown for this purpose, the seed should be thickly sown broadcast; and in summer a cool shady situation should be chosen. Watering is all that is required till the plants are fit for cutting over, which should be done as soon as they have made the first three or four leaves. Cultivation for Blanching.—In order to obtain the blanched leaves of chicory, several modes of cultivation have been recommended; and according to circumstances and convenience for forcing, one or other of these methods may prove the most eligible. We shall therefore lay before our readers several modes of proceeding, so that they may choose the one best suited to the means at their command. Mr. Fleming, formerly of Trentliam, in the. Gardener's Chronicle, recommends the following mode of cultivation, in addition to which he makes some excellent observations on the different modes of blanching, which we also extract;— “An open border,” says Mr. Fleming, “should be chosen for this plant, and as it produces long carrot-shaped roots, the soil should be deep, rather light, and moderately rich. Fresh manure should not be applied unless the ground is very poor; and when it is really necessary, guano will be found preferable to that from the stable. If guano is used, it should be sown broadcast over the beds as soon as the plants are fairly up. The ground should be double dug and well pulverized to the full depth, in order that the long tap-roots may meet with no impediment in their downward progress. About the middle or end of June, the seed should be sown in drills, 16 inches asunder. If the seed seems good it should not be sown too thickly, for the plants must be thinned out to the distance of 8 inches from plant to plant. This is a much better method than sowing in a bed and afterwards transplanting, as they are liable to lose their tap-roots during the operation, to obviate which is an essential point in their196 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. successful cultivation. As snails are particularly fond of chicory, especially when the plants are young, it will be advisable to sprinkle a little quicklime over the beds as soon as the plants are above ground. Nothing more is necessary, except to fork between the rows before the leaves cover the ground, and afterwards to keep the beds free from weeds. By the end of November the larger leaves will have decayed, leaving only a few small ones in the hearts of the plants. At this time they should be taken up and neatly laid in at the back of a north wall, to prevent the undue excitement occasioned by warm summer weather. Care should be taken to injui’e the roots as little as possible during this operation. “About a fortnight before the blanched leaves are required for use, a sufficient quantity should be removed into a spare corner of the mushroom-house, or some similar place, where they can have a little heat. They should be planted in old tan, sand, or some other light material which contains just sufficient moisture to set the fibres in motion. In planting, the crowns should stand at least ^ inch above the surface, and any loose soil should be removed from about the leaves with a syringe, in order that the young foliage may be perfectly clean when cut. In the space of ten days the leaves will have made a vigorous growth of as many inches, and if they have grown in perfect darkness the colour will be a delicate creamy white. When the leaves are about a foot high they will be ready for use, and as soon as they are cut the roots should be removed and others brought forward to succeed them. After the earlier forced roots are removed they may be returned to the north border, and have a little old tan strewed over their crowns. Here their strength will in some measure be recruited, and they will bear forcing a second time, and will produce a second crop of leaves towards the middle or end of March. These leaves will be produced from the lateral buds around the base of the crown, if in the first cutting it has not been pared too close; they will scarcely be so fine as the first crop, but will prove vei'y useful late in the season, if the supply of roots is limited. “ An easy, and at the same time an effectual, method of blanching chicory leaves, is to have a few wooden boxes constructed, about 12 or 14 inches deep, and to invert these over the plants. Each box should be large enough to cover a sufficient number to supply a respectable salad for a week, which will vary from one to three dozen, according to the requirements of the family. By pi’oper attention to removing the old roots in rotation, and substituting fresh ones in their places, a supply of excellent salad may be ob- tained from a space large enough to hold three of these boxes. “ Any one who possesses a garden in which to grow the plants in summer, may blanch them in a cellar with equal facility, if it is kept sufficiently dark, except that it will require three weeks to produce leaves of the requisite length. If the cellar is used for this purpose, it will be the readiest way to form a stack in one corner, and lay the roots horizontally in sand as you would to preserve carrots. The roots should not be all put in at once, but a layer or course of roots should be brought in once a week, and by the time the fourth course is in the first will be ready to cut. Under this system the old roots should not be removed, but retained to produce a second cutting; and by taking advantage of this property it will not be necessary after the first four or five weeks to bring in a fresh supply of roots oftener than once in a fortnight or three weeks. The roots should be laid about 3 inches asunder iu quincunx order with those below them, and with about 3 inches of sand between the courses. I flatter myself that this hint will be particularly useful to the denizens of towns, in pointing out to them a cheap method of procuring the luxury of a first-rate winter salad. “ It is worth while to remark, that as chicory commences its growth very early, the blanched leaves may be obtained out of doors in the months of February and March, by planting the roots in a moderately dry border, and inverting a close box over them, in the same manner as directed for growing; them in the musliroom-house. By this method a somewhat longer time will be necessary to produce leaves of the requisite lengths, for which reason it will only be resorted to when other means are not convenient.”—(Gardener's Chronicle.) The French, who excel in the production of barbe de capucin, adopt the following modes of treatment, the account of which we translate from the Bon Jardinier:—“ The seed is sown thinly in April or May. In November or December one or several beds of light sandy soil, or well-decomposed dung, about 2 feet in width and 3 inches thick, are formed in a cellar. On these is placed a row of chicory roots laid on their side, with the crowns outwards; next comes another layer of earth of the same thickness as before; then another row of roots, and so on. The mild and equable temperatui’e of the cellar, and the want of light, soon occasion the production of blanched leaves, which are cut as soon as they have attained a sufficient size. Water must be given as required if the soil used is too dry. Near Paris a more expeditious method is pursued; beds of hotKITCHEN GARDEN. 197 dung are made up, and the roots of chicory, tied up in bundles, are placed in an upright position upon the beds, and watered from time to time so as to keep them moist. Another method of blanching without taking up the roots consists in sowing in drills from 6 to 8 inches asunder, and covering the chicory in February with 4 or 5 iuches thick of earth, or with double that thickness of leaves. In three weeks or a month afterwards, according to the season, it pushes, and as soon as it appears above the additional soil or leaves, it is cut over by the original level of the ground. In this way the leaves are very white and tender.” Another mode of blanching consists in boring holes in a cask with an auger in rows 3 inches asunder, and filling it up with alternate layers of sand and roots, with the crowns protruding through the holes. The cask is then placed in a dark cellar, and the sand is moistened if it becomes too dry. In this way several cuttings of blanched leaves may be obtained till the roots are exhausted. This method is sometimes adopted on board ship. In order to save seed, a few plants may be left through the winter. They will flower in July and August, and ripen their seed in autumn. CHICKPEA, or Egyptian Pea (Cicer arie-tinum, L.—Diadelphia Decandria, L.; Leguinin- Fig. Ml. osse, D. C.) is an annual plant, a native of the south of Europe, where it is much cultivated for its seeds. These, though not very digestible, are largely employed in soups, and form the basis of the puree aux croutons so highly esteemed at Paris. Three varieties are distinguished by Noisette, one having yellow, another white, and the third red seeds; the flowers of the first two are white, those of the last sort rose-coloured. Except in warm summers, the seeds do not ripen well in this country, but would do so in most parts of the United States. Sow, like pease, early in spring, in drills 3 feet apart, and gather the pods a little before the seeds are (perfectly ripe. CHIVES (Allium Schosnoprasum, L.—Hexan-dria Monogynia, L.; Liliacese, D. C.)—This is a hardy perennial plant, a native of Britain, cultivated for the leaves, which are cut over by the ground, and used in salads and soups instead of young onions. It prefers a rich warm soil, but will grow well in almost any soil or situation. It is propagated by dividing the roots in spring or autumn, and planting them in small patches, 6 inches apart, in rows from 9 to 12 inches asunder. The plants soon form large bunches of leaves, which become the more tender the more frequently they are cut. Chives will grow in the same spot for four or five years, after which the plants must be taken up, divided, and replanted in fresh soil. The ground between the rows should be hoed occasionally. Some cut the plants over at the end of autumn, and after leaving them for some time to dry, cover them with an inch or two of mould. CIBOULE. See Onion. CLARY (Salvia Sclarea, L.—Diandria Mono-gyuia, L.; Labiatse, D. C.) is a biennial plant, a j native of Italy. The leaves are occasionally used in soups. Sow in April, in drills 18 inches apart, and when the young plants are 2 or 3 inches high, thin out to 1 foot asunder iu the row. Or, sow broadcast in a bed, and transplant to the above distances. The subsequent culture is confined to keeping the ground clean, and stirring it by an occasional hoeing. The leaves will be fit for use till the following summer. The plants flower in August, and die off soon after the seed is ripe, CORIANDER (Coriandrum sativum, L.—Pen-taudria Digynia, L.; Umbelliferoe, D. C.; Apia-cese, Lind.) is an annual plant, a native of the south of Europe, though it is said to be occasionally found wild in some parts of England. Its young leaves are put into soups and salads, and the seeds are extensively employed in confectionery, for disguising the taste of medicines, and by distillers; they are also used in soups and some other made dishes.198 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. It succeeds best on a warm loamy soil, and may be sown thinly, either broadcast or in drills 1 foot apart, in September, or about the middle of February, or in March, according as the season is favourable; in some soils, however, the plants from seeds sown in spring are apt to die off at the time of flowering. If grown for the leaves, a small quantity may be sown every six weeks throughout the season. The ground must be hoed occasionally till the seed ripens in August. CORN SALAD, or Lamb’s Lettuce (Valerian-ella, Moen.—Triaudria Monogynia, L.; Yaler-ianeae, D. C.) is much esteemed in France as a small salad, and as a substitute for lettuce during the winter and spring. Three sorts, all of which are annuals, are cultivated :— 1. Common Corn Salad (Valerianella olitoria, D.C.) 2. Round Corn Salad. 3. Italian Corn Salad (Valerianella criocarpa, D.C.) The second sort, the Mdche ronde of the French, is superior to the first; its leaves are thicker and of a darker green than those of the other corn salads. The Italian corn salad, Mdche d’Italic, or Regence, of the French, is said to belong to a distinct species; its leaves are larger and of a lighter green than those of the common sort; they are occasionally used early in spring instead of spinach, for which they form a very good substitute. Corn salad is raised from seed, which should be sown on a bed or border of light rich earth, manured the preceding year. It may either be sown broadcast, and lightly raked in, or in shallow drills 5 or G inches asunder. All the culture required is confined to watering the seed-bed and young plants in dry weather, and to protecting them with long litter during severe frost. The plants will be sufficiently thinned by removing the most advanced for consumption, leaving the youngest to come in for use in succession. The first sowing may be made in the beginning or middle of August, and from that time till the end of October a small quantity may be sown evei’y week or fortnight, according to the demand. These sowings will afford a supply for autumn, winter, and early spring use. If required in the latter part of the spring, and in summer, it may be sown monthly from the beginning of March till the end of July. Seed is saved by allowing some of the plants to run, and, as it is easily shed, it must be gathered as it ripens. In doing this, a cloth is spread under the plants, which are then shaken. This having been repeated on several occasions, as the seed successively ripens, the plants are carefully pulled up and hung up in a shed to ripen the remainder of their seed. The seeds remain good for six or even eight years. COSTMARY, or Alecost (Pyrethrum Tanace-tum, D. C.; Balsamita vulgaris, Willd.—Syn-I genesia Polygamia rEqualis, L.; Composite, D. C.) is a perennial plant, a native of the south of France and Italy. The leaves were formerly put into ale, and are occasionally used in salads. It prefers rather a dry soil and a warm situation. Propagate by parting the roots in spring or autumn, and plant the divisions 2 feet apart. CRESS, American (Barbarea pnccox, D. C.— Tetradynamia Siliquosa, L.; Crucifene, D. C.)—KITCHEN GARDEN. 199 The American or Belle-isle cress is a perennial plant, a native of England, growing naturally by the sides of brooks. The leaves are used for the same purpose as those of the common cress. It prefers a light and somewhat moist soil. It is raised from seed, which should be sown thinly in shallow drills 9 inches asunder, thinning out the young plants to 4 inches apart in the row. A sowing for winter and spring use may be made in the beginning of September. To have tender leaves in winter, some plants of this sowing should be transplanted to 3 or 4 inches apart, so that they may be covered by hand-glasses in severe weather, or they may be protected by spray covered with dry litter. If required in summer, it may be sown in a warm situation in March, and in a shady spot in May and July; but if in constant demand, it should be sown monthly from March till September. All the culture it requires is to water occasionally in dry weather. In gathering, the plants may either be cut over like mustard and cress, but not too close to the ground, or the leaves may be gathered singly; in either case, fresh leaves for another gathering will be produced. CRESS, Garden (Lepidium sativum, L. — Te-tradynamia Siliculosa, L.; Cruciferae, D. C.; Bras-sicacese, Lind.)—The garden-cress is a hardy annual, supposed to be a native of Persia. It has been cultivated in this country since 1548. The varieties are:— 1. Common Cress.“—The sort most generally grown. It is sown and treated in the same way as mustard. 2. Golden or Australian Cress.—Dwarf, yellowish green, slower in growth than the preceding, and of a mild flavour. Sow thinly from March to August, and in September and October for winter and spring use. For sowings in the latter two months a sheltered situation should he chosen. 3. Broad-leaved Cress.—A coarse sort, seldom grown, except for feeding poultry. 4. Curled or Normandy Cress.—This is a very hardy and excellent sort of cress. The leaves, being finely cut, also make a good garnish. The Normandy cress was first brought into notice by Mr. M‘Intosh, who speaks highly of its merits. He considers that five sowings are enough to afford a succession throughout the year. For winter and spring use it should be sown at the foot of a south wall, in the beginning of September, and again about the middle of October. For a succession, sowings may be made in an open border in March, April, and May, choosing a shady situation for the May sowing. The seeds should be sown thinly, in rich soil, in drills 4 inches apart. In gathering, instead of cutting the plants over, the leaves should be picked; after this operation fresh leaves are soon produced. CRESS, Water (Nasturtium officinale, Br., Sisymbrium Nasturtium, L.—Tetradynamia Sili-quosa, L.; Cruciferae, D. C.; Brassicacese, Lind.) —The water-cress is a hardy perennial, a native of Britain, where it is found growing in ditches and small streams. It is considered to possess antiscorbutic properties; it is also said to contain iodine, to which probably some of its virtues may be attributable. Near Rickmansworth in Hertfordshire, at Springhead near Gravesend, and at Waltham Abbey, Essex, it is extensively cultivated for the London market, which also receives supplies of this salad from the banks of the Thames and other waters, in which the plant naturally grows. At Erfurt, and in the neighbourhood of Paris, large quantities are also grown. It is propagated by seed; but, in forming plantations, seedlings from the natural habitat of the plant, or rooted divisions, are usually employed. The best information respecting the cultivation of this plant is contained in a paper by Henry Bellenden Kcr, Esq., in the Horticultural Transactions, vol. iv. p. 540, describing the mode of cultivation adopted by Mr. Bradbery, at West Hyde, near Rickmansworth. Of this account the following is the substance:— Mr. Bradbery conceives that there are three sorts of this vegetable; the first he calls the Green-leaved, the second the Small Brown-leaved, and the third the Large Brovm-leaved. The three sorts he considers to be the same in taste, but some are more fitted than others for particular waters. The Green-leaved is the easiest of cultivation, and the Small Brown-leaved is the hardiest, whilst the Large Brown-leaved—which, on account of its appearance, and probably also from its having a less proportion of stalk to the leaf, is preferred in the market—is the only sort he cultivates, and is the only one which can be well grown in situations where shallow water is not to be obtained. At Nortlifleet, Springhead, where Mr. Bradbery first began to cultivate the watercress, it was soon perceived that the plants grew better, and had a superior flavour, when disposed in rows parallel with the course of the stream, than when left in irregular patches. When in rows, the plants are more regularly exposed to the influence of the current, and the water is not so much impeded in its course, because there are regular open channels between the rows. The cress is also more easily gathered from the rows, and more readily freed from weeds and the different matters which pass down the stream and become entangled with the plants. Mr. Bradbery, having left Nortlifleet, began to plant beds of the cress at West Hyde, near Rickmansworth. It was200 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. found necessary to vary the spaces between the rows, according to the depth of the water. When it is deep the rows are 5,6, and even 7 feet apart, whilst in shallow waters about 18 inches space between the rows is considered as sufficient. The plants are found to thrive best in shallow water, that is, when the depth is about 1^ inch, which increases to about 3 inches when the plants begin to grow, and thereby to check the current. In deep water the roots are easily drawn out of the soil, which makes it difficult to gather the vegetable freed from the roots; if, therefore, a sufficient space covered with shallow water could be obtained the deep water would not in any case be used. The shoots are cut for market, not broken off, which is the usual mode of gathering the wild cress, a practice which is found to be very injurious to the plants in the beds. After frequent cuttings the heads are found to grow small. The most expensive part of the cultivation is the necessity of clearing out and replanting the beds twice a year; as the mud quickly collects about the roots, and the duck-weed and other plants become intermixed with and choke up the cress, it is almost impossible to pick it in a fit state for market after the plantation has been made five or six months. The mode of replanting is to remove all the rows of plants, beginning at the stream-head, and then clear the bed of the stream from mud and rubbish; which however, it should be remarked, make excellent garden-manure. From the mass of plants thus taken out, the youngest and those with most roots are selected; these are placed on the gravel in rows, at the requisite distances, with a stone on each plant, to keep it in its place. The cress will not grow freely in a muddy bottom, nor will it taste well when there is mud about the roots, which should be carefully removed and replaced by gravel or chalk. It is absolutely necessary to have a constant current, as, when there is any obstruction to the stream or fiow of water, the plants cease to thrive. The times of renewing the beds are May and June, and from September to November. The planting is done in succession, so that the crops may come regularly into cuttiug. Those planted in May are fit to cut in August, and those planted in November are ready to gather in the spring. After the plants have been cut about three times they begin to stock, and then the oftener they are cut the better. In summer it is necessary to keep them very closely cut; and in water of a proper depth, and with a good soil, each bed supplies a gathering once a week. In winter the water should be rather deeper than in summer (4 or 5 inches); to obtain this the plants are left with more head, that the water may thus be impeded. It is essential that the plantations should be made in fresh or newly risen spring-water, as the plants not only thrive better in it, but in consequence of its being rarely frozen, they generally continue in vegetation, and in a good state for gathering, through the whole winter season. Water-cress may also be grown in a shady border of rich soil, covered with a thin layer of sand to keep the leaves clean, and kept constantly moist by frequent waterings; but in this way the produce is inferior in quality to that obtained from plants grown in water. It may be also grown in tubs partially filled with soil, which is covered with water. The water should be frequently drained off and replaced by fresh. The cocoons of the water-cress fly (Tipula rep-tans), as well as the eggs and larvae of various other insects, are found on the water-cress, and sometimes cause much inconvenience when eaten; the leaves should therefore be thoroughly cleaned previous to use. The most effectual mode of doing so consists in steeping the cress for some minutes in salt water, and then washing well with fresh. CUCUMBER. See Forcing. DANDELION (Taraxacum Dens Leonis—Syn-genesia Polygamia vEqualis, L.; Composite, D.C; Asteracem, Lind.)—This well-known plant, which medicinally is of some importance as an anodyne, aperient, and diuretic, is occasionally blanched and eaten as a salad, both in this country and in France; and as such it is much esteemed by many persons in both countries. It should be sown in spring, in a rather moist soil, previously well dug; or roots maybe planted. In the following spring, as soon as the plants begin to push above ground, they may be covered with a layer of sand 3 or 4 inches in thickness, or flower-pots may be placed over them; but blanching by means of sand is preferable. When the leaves begin to make their appearance above the sand, a portion of the plants may be cut over by the ground, and by casting the sand which covered them over the uncut portion, the latter will be covered to a greater depth at each cutting, and will consequently come in for use in succession. It is hardly necessary to observe that the plants should not be allowed to scatter their seeds in summer. DILL (Anethum graveolens, L. — Pentandria Digynia, L.; Umbelliferm, D. C.; Apiacem, Lind.) is a biennial plant, a native of Spain and Portugal. The leaves are used in soups, sauces, and pickles. It should be sown where it is toKITCHEN GARDEN. 201 remain, in autumn when the seed is ripe; in the end of February, or in March or April, in shallow drills 9 inches apart. When the young plants are 2 or 3 inches high, they should be thinned out to about 8 inches asunder in the row. If allowed to seed it will sow itself; but when this is not desirable, the flower-stalks should be cut off a little before the seed is completely ripe, and dried. DIOSCOREA BATATAS, Decaisne (Dioecia Hexandria, L.; Dioscoreae, D. C., Lind.) is a perennial plant, a native of China, and introduced from France in 1854. This new introduction was supposed to be capable of becoming a substitute for the potato, or even a formidable rival to that esculent. The following are some extracts from an excellent memoir by M. Decaisne, which appeared in the Bon Jardinier for 1855:— “ Dioscorea Batatas, like the black bryony, Tamus communis, of our own country, belongs to the small family of Dioscorete, and in outward appearance it greatly resembles that plant. Its stems are annual; but its roots, or more properly speaking its rhizomes, are perennial, full of starch, and somewhat milky, true subterranean stems, which, instead of extending horizontally above or beneath the surface of the ground, strike perpendicularly downwards to the depth of a yard, and sometimes more, according to the looseness of the soil. The stems, properly so called, grow to the length of from 3 to 6 feet, are cylindrical, as thick as a large quill, turning from right to left, violet, specked with white. When left to themselves they spread over the ground and readily take root. The leaves are generally opposite, a remarkable character in a monocoty-ledonous plant, they are triangularly heart-shaped, acuminate at the upper part, and have seven or nine principal nervures converging towards the apex, with a fine net-work of small veins between. Their length and breadth are nearly equal, varying from 1 to 2 inches; their surface is smooth, shining, and dark green; the petioles, which are generally half the length of the leaves, are deeply channelled on the upper side, and frequently tinged with violet at the origin of the blade. The flowers are dioecious, disposed in small racemes at the axils of the leaves; the male flowers, which are the only ones we have seen, are very small, of a pale yellow or livid hue, and scarcely T'2th of an inch in diameter; they are composed of six leaflets, the three outer ones roundish, the three inner ones shorter and roundish oval; the stamens, six in number, are likewise extremely small, but well formed; the anthers are oval, and supported by short separate filaments, which are in a group in the centre of the flower. “The rhizomes, or roots, as they are commonly called, vary in length and thickness with the vigour of the plants, and probably also with the soil, by the looseness or adhesiveness, as well as the depth of which, their form and mode of development must certainly be affected. They may in general be compared to a club, the blunt end of which is as big as the fist, but which gradually tapers upwards till it is no thicker than the finger. The skin is fawn-coloured, or of the same colour as coffee aud milk, and is covered with numerous rootlets. Under the skin is a white opaline, very friable cellular tissue, full of starch, and somewhat milky. In cooking, this tissue softens and dries till it becomes in taste so nearly the same as the potato, that a person not informed of the difference might easily mistake the one for the Fig. lss. other. The roots have one advantage which many will appreciate, namely, the shortness of the time required for cooking. Two pieoes of tubers, of the size of a hen’s egg, one the Chinese yam, the other the sweet potato of the white variety, were put into boiling water, at the same time as a Dutch potato of the same size; the first and second were done in ten minutes, the third in twenty minutes. From this it appears that the Dioscorea can be cooked in half the time requisite for the potato. “There is yet another point to which it is necessary to draw attention. It is the facility with which the roots may be preserved for a202 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. whole year, and even longer. The potato sprouts in spring when kept in cellars. The Chinese yam is wholly free from this disadvantage; it is not affected either Ly heat or cold, perhaps not even by moisture. Left in the ground its tubers remain without being injured, as I proved by leaving a root in the ground, where it remained throughout the severe winter of 1853-4, and pushed again at the return of spring. It is therefore a hardy plant in the widest acceptation of the term. “ The Chinese yam has been cultivated at Algiers with equal success; and M. Hardy, speaking of its quality, says:—‘The tubers contain a slightly viscous but tasteless juice, which entirely disappears in the cooking. Cooked by steam, or roasted, they taste like the best potatoes. The tlesh is white and floury.’ Cultivation.—“Many of the Dioscorese have the power of propagating themselves by bulbs, which drop off from the stem as soon as they arrive at maturity. The Dioscorea Batatas is one of these; at the axils of its leaves small round bulbs, which are used in China for the propagation of the plant, are very frequently formed. It is from these that the useful rhizome of the plant originates, or, to speak more correctly, the rhizome is merely a continuation of these bulbs in a downward direction.” If it be desirable to propagate the plant rapidly, the easiest way is to make cuttings of the stems. This is done in the following manner, about the month of July:—The stems are cut into as many pieces as there are leaves, and these small cuttings are planted close together, in peat or light sandy soil, and covered with a bell-glass. The piece of the stem should only be put into the ground to the depth of a quarter of an inch, and the leaf, unless altogether out of proportion to the rest of the cutting, should be left entire. At the end of five or six weeks the cuttings are rooted, and bear a little bulb, about the size of a small nut, at the axil of each leaf. These increase but little in size during the rest of the season: they are allowed to ripen by ceasing to give water; and by the following spring they furnish plants as strong as those from the pieces of the roots. In this way each plant may be made to produce several hundred others. Cuttings may also be struck, without the aid of bell-glasses, in a somewhat shady part of the garden. In this case, instead of cutting the stems into pieces, it is better to lay them horizontally in the ground, and to cover slightly with earth, so that the leaves may lie flat upon the surface. The surface should be kept constantly moist by frequently watering through a fine rose. It may also be propagated from seed, which it has ripened of late years in Algeria, and even at Paris. M. Vilmorin says (Bon Jardinier) that the mode of cultivation which has hitherto succeeded best with him, consists in taking moderately large pieces of the tubers, and preferably the crowns of such as are beginning to vegetate, and planting them in April in small pots placed on a liot-bed. When all danger of frost is over, the young plants are planted out in light rich soil. The roots having a tendency to strike perpendicularly downwards are not injured by the twisting which they experience in the pot. He even thinks that the plant might be successfully grown in large pots plunged into the ground, especially where the depth and looseness of the soil would induce the roots to strike down to the depth of a yard or more. Judging from its growth being arrested in dry weather, the plant appears to like moisture. From the small proportion which the foliage bears to the bulk of the root, he imagines that the plants may be planted pretty close together—8 or 10 plants to a square metre (about 10J square feet). At this distance, plants which were tvatered produced roots weighing, on the average, nearly 18 oz. each. When not staked the stems spread over the ground, and get entangled with each other. Short straight stakes appear to be necessary, in order to allow of the ground being cleaned, for the small amount of foliage which the Dioscorea produces does not protect it from the intrusion of weeds. From experiments made in the garden of the Horticultural Society, in 1856, the Dioscorea is found to be perfectly hardy in this country. It was grown from small axil tubers, about the size of marrow-pease; from small roots; from largesized whole roots; and from cut roots. All these were planted in the open ground, in the beginning of March, and the produce was taken up in the end of November. The greatest produce was obtained from whole roots; but sets from roots cut in sections of about an inch or an inch and a half in length, planted 3 inches deep, gave a fair average. Mr. Sibbon, of Trent Park, East Barnet, also cultivated it very successfully, by employing cuttings of roots raised in the previous year from small stem or axil tubers. The cuttings of the roots were somewhat forwarded in pots under glass, and planted out a foot apart, in June, in a raised bed of half-decayed leaves, covered over with common garden-mould. The crop was taken up in November, and the weight from 24 square yards was 424 lbs. The largest tuber was 39 inches long and 7 inches in circumference, and weighed 14 lb.KITCHEN GARDEN. 203 The Dioscorea will succeed in any good garden soil; and will force its roots into compact loam, yet there can be no doubt that the ground should be trenched at least 3 feet deep, and all stones removed. By forwarding the plants in spring, so as to have a longer season of growth, a larger produce will be obtained. In short, the tubers can only be formed by the action of light on the leaves; and it is evident that the greater the amount of foliage, and that of the light to which it is exposed, the larger the tubers will be. Means should therefore be taken to grow the plant early, so as to have a considerable extent of foliage to be acted upon whilst the days are long. The roots are taken up as late in the season as possible, for the chief increase in their size takes place in autumn. The upper and slender part of the root may be reserved for propagation, and the lower or fleshy portion may be made use of after having been allowed to dry for a few days. The roots may be stored like potatoes, and they will keep good for six months or longei\ If left in the ground for two years they will attain a very large size, but their substance will not be so flue and tender. EGG PLANT. See Forcing. ELECAMPANE (Inula Helenium, L. — Syn-genesia Polygamia Superflua, L.; Composite, D. C.) is a perennial plant, a native of Britain, where it is found growing in moist pastures. It is cultivated for its root, which is considered to be tonic, diuretic, and diaphoretic. It may be propagated by dividing the roots, leaving an eye or bud on each piece. These divisions should be planted 1 foot apart, in rows 15 inches asunder, in newly dug ground, rather moist than other-wise. It may also be raised from seed sown in September, the plants being thinned out in the following year to the above distances; the former is the mode generally adopted. Roots two years old are considered to be the best and most tender, consequently a fresh plantation must be made every year if an annual supply of roots of that age be required. ENDIVE (Cichorium Endivia, L.—Syngenesia Polygamia ^Equalis, L.; Composite, D. C.; As-teraceje, Lind.) is a hardy annual, said to be a native of the East Indies. It is considered a valuable salad at a time when few other vegetables are furnished for the table; and it also serves as an ingredient in some other culin-ary preparations. The varieties are numerous, and are divided into two classes:—I. Curledleaved ((7. E. crisp a), chicorees of the French, which includes those with narrow leaves, more or less divided, and much curled; and II. Bata- vian or Broad-leaved (C. E'. latifolia\ scaroles of the French, which includes all with broad leaves not curled. These divisions comprise the following varieties:— I.—Curled Endives. 1. Small Green Curled—syn. Green Curled, Chicoree frisee, Chicoree de Meaux, Chicoree Endive.—Leaves much cut and curled, from 6 to 7 inches long, lying flat on the ground; heart-leaves full and close. It is slow in hearting, and when sown early is apt to run. It was formerly almost the only sort cultivated in France, but for early crops the succeeding sort is now preferred; it is, however, still esteemed for the later sowings. 2. French Small Green Curled—syn. Fine Curled, Chicoree frisee fine d’ltalie, Cliicoree d’ete, Cliicoree fine d’ete. -—A small very dwarf sort; hearts closer and sooner than the preceding. Excellent for early use. It cannot be tied up, but blanches readily when covered. 3. Large Green Curled—syn. Green Curled, Cut Yellow Winter of the Germans.—Leaves longer and rather more upright than those of the Small Green Curled. It ties up well to blanch, is hardy, and not subject to rot. 4. Italian Green Curled—syn. Indivia Riccia.— Leaves narrow, divided to the very midrib, segments also much cut and curled; whole plant dark green. Ties up well. 5. Dutch Green Curled—syn. Large Green Curled of the Dutch.—Scarcely worth distinguishing from the Large Green Curled; it differs in the outer leaves being broader, deeper cut, and not so much curled. It is hardy and blanches well. 6. White Curled—syn. White Chicoree toujours blanche, Chicoree blanche.—Leaves 7 or 8 inches long, with a very open heart, growing flat on the ground. The whole plant is of a pale yellowish colour. It is best when cut very young for salads, as the French use it. When full grown, the leaves are tough, very bitter, and do not form a good heart; it should therefore only be used young. 7. Stag’s-horn—syn. Corne de cerf, Rouennaise, Chicoree de Rouen.—Leaves deep green, finely cut, but not much curled; heart full, yellow, and tender. One of the principal kinds grown for the Paris markets; and although it does not form so close a heart as No. 2, being more hardy and less liable to decay from moisture it is considered more suitable for late sowings, and for these is even preferred to the Small Green Curled. 8. Moss—syn. Triple Curled Moss, Extra Curled Moss, Chicoree mousse.—A small, very finely cut and curled sort, allied to the preceding. 9. Picpus Curled—syn. Chicoree de Picpus.—According to M. Vilmorin, this is a fine sort, intermediate between the Stag’s-horn endive and the Small Green Curled, being closer and fuller than the latter. II.—Batavian or Broad-leaved Endives. 10. Broad-leaved Batavian—syn. Broad-leaved, Double Yellow, Common Yellow of the Dutch.— Leaves long and broad, the edges somewhat ragged, the outer ones very upright. The sort of Batavian endive most commonly cultivated. It requires to be tied up for blanching. I 11. Curled Batavian—syn. Fine Curled Batavian,204 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Yellow Curled Batavian.—Leaves not so large as those of the preceding, curled at the edges, and growing flat on the ground. The heart forms of itself, is small, and lies close to the ground. 12. Small Batavian—syn. Scarole petite, Scarole courte, Scarole ronde.—Leaves pale green, broad, of moderate length, slightly ragged at the edges; inner leaves hooded at the top, naturally forming a good heart, blanching with little trouble. It is mild and sweet compared with many others. 13. Large Batavian—syn. Scarole grande, Scarole de Hollande. — This can only be considered a large variety of the preceding, scarcely hearting so readily, nevertheless it forms a large heart, well blanched, and of good flavour. Does not require to be tied up. 14. Lettuce-leaved Batavian—syn. White Batavian, New Batavian, Scarole blonde, Scarole a feuille de laitue.—Leaves large, obtuse, ragged at the edges, of a pale colour even when young. They require to be tied up for blanching. This sort should only be cultivated for early use, as it is tender as regards damp and severe weather. 15. White-flowered Batavian—syn. Scarole a fleur blanche.—A new and excellent variety, which blanches remarkably white and tender. Flowers white. This sort is highly deserving of cultivation. Grown from seed received from Fails some years ago under the above name, it blanched as white as ivory, and was so beautiful and excellent that those who saw it would regret the loss of the sort, if by neglect, or from not knowing its merits, that might occur. The best sorts for general cultivation are Nos. 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, 12, 15. A light rich soil, with a dry subsoil, is the best adapted for the growth of endive. A situation not shaded by trees should also be selected for this crop. A small sowing to be used young may be made in the beginning of May, but the plants produced will be very liable to run. In the end of May another small sowing may be made; and about the middle of June the first main crop may be sown. The principal crops for winter use require to be sown in the middle and end of July. Lastly, a small quantity to come in late may be sown towards the middle of August. The seed should be sown thinly, on a bed of rich earth raked fine, in shallow drills 4 inches apart, covering lightly with fine soil. In dry weather the seed-beds should be watered through a fine rose till the plants make their appearance. The plants, as they advance in growth, should be thinned out to 3 or 4 inches apart in the rows; and in dry weather frequent waterings should be given in order to promote a rapid growth. Wheel the plants have made four leaves, and are sufficiently strong for transplanting, they should be carefully taken up and replanted where they are to remain, the ground having been previously deeply dug. Plants of the curled-leaved varieties may be planted 1 foot apart each way; but for the Batavian endives, which generally require more room, 15 inches by 12 inches may be allowed. Water should be given at planting, and till the plants are established; subsequently, in dry weather, watering should be persevered in, with the view of encouraging the production of tender and succulent leaves. Instead of sowing in seed-beds and transplanting, some sow at once where the plants are to remain, and thin out to the proper distances. This answers well for the early crops, or such as have not to be planted on sloping banks, or in frames in winter; but when the contrary is the case, sowing in seed-beds, and planting out, is a better plan, as the production of roots is encouraged by the latter operation, and consequently the plants can be finally transplanted with a better chance of success. About three months after sowing, or as soon as the plants are nearly full-grown, blanching may be commenced. This operation can be performed in various ways. Commonly the leaves are gathered together, and tied up near the top with matting, and about a week afterwards they are again tied, this time round the middle. Tying up should only be performed when the leaves are perfectly free from moisture; afterwards, if water should be necessary, it should onlv be given at the root of the plant. Blanching is also effected by placing inverted flower-pots over the plants, covering the hole in the bottom with a piece of slate or tile; by means of inverted flower-saucers, or sea-kale pots; by laying a slate, or preferably a flat tile, over the plants; by covering with sand or coal-ashes; or by placing boards on each side of the row, leaning their upper edges against each other, so as to form a roof, and preventing the light from getting in at the ends. A mat laid over the plants also answers tolerably well for the fiat-growing kinds. The best methods however are tying up, or using a blanching-pot or saucer. According to Captaiu Churchill, endive is blanched in the following manner in the province of Guipuscoa, in the north of Spain:—The blanching is generally performed by pressing the heart of the plant gently down, on which a fragment | of tile is laid; over this a light covering of earth is sifted. The fringed edges of the exterior leaves are carefully freed from earth, and exposed to ^ light; having small bits of tile laid over that portion of the soil from whence they protrude, to render the blanching perfect, and produce what the gardeners particularly pride themselves on, namely, a plant of endive white all over, excepting the edges of the outer leaves, which I should show about two inches of green. TheKITCHEN GARDEN. 205 plants thus cultivated are but slightly bitter, crisp, and juicy. The time occupied in blanching varies from ten days to three weeks—a longer period being required for completing the process in winter than in summer, when growth is more rapid. A number of plants, sufficient to afford a supply for a week, should be set to blanch at one time, and by doing the same every week, a constant succession of blanched endive will be secured. Various modes of protecting endive during the winter are adopted. The market-gardeners near London form sloping banks facing the south, and sheltered from the north. On these they plant the endive in November, at 6 or 8 inches apart, and protect it with litter in severe weather, but leave it uncovered at all other times. A supply during winter may, however, be more certainly secured by taking up the late-sown crops before frost, and replanting in dry earth or sand, in a frame or shed, or by placing a frame over them without taking up. To save Seed.—Only the finest specimens of plants, true to their varieties, should be selected for bearing seed, otherwise a degeneration is likely to be the result. Seed may be saved either from autumn-sown plants protected through the winter, and planted out in a warm sheltered situation in March, or from plants raised from seed sown early in spring. The flower-stems should be supported by stakes or strings, to prevent injury from the wind, and the seed should be gathered as it successively ripens. After having been spread upon a cloth till it is dry, it may be rubbed out and stored. It remains good for five or six years. Plants raised from old seed are not so apt to run as those from seed newly saved. FENNEL (Feeniculum vulgare, Goertn.—Pentan-dria Digynia, L.; Umbelliferse, D.C.; Apiacese, Lind.) is a perennial aromatic plant, indigenous or naturalized in this country. The leaves are used in fish-sauces and for garnishing, the stalks are eaten in salads, and the seeds are employed in confectionery and for flavouring liquors. There are two varieties cultivated:— 1. Common oa Sweet Fennel. 2. Finochio. The Common sort may be propagated by sowing the seed in February, March, or April, on alight warm soil. It may be sown in shallow drills 15 inches apart, thinning out the young plants when 2 or 3 inches high to 1 foot apart; or the seed may be sown in a bed, and the seedlings planted out when 3 or 4 inches in height to the above distances apart. * It may also be propagated by parting the roots in March. With the ordinary cul- ture of keeping the ground free of weeds, and stirring it occasionally, a plantation will last several years. If seed is not to be saved, the plants should be topped, with the view of encouraging a growth of young and tender leaves, and to prevent the production of seed, which, if allowed to ripen, would scatter, and seedlings would spring up in all dii’ections. Finochio is a variety or perhaps species of fennel, seldom grown in this country, but much cultivated in Italy for the swelling produced by its leaf-stalks just above the ground, which is shorter and rounder than in celery, and when cut across horizontally forms an oval 4 or 5 in. long by 2 or 3 in. wide. This part is blanched like celery, and eaten raw with pepper and salt; or after having been boiled, along with fowl, meat, Parmesan cheese, or macaroni. Finochio requires a light rich soil, and should be sown in drills 1 foot apart, thinning out, when the young plants are well established, to 8 inches asunder in the row. The ground should be stirred and frequently watered, in order that they may grow rapidly and swell their stems, which should be earthed up about three weeks before they are to be used. A sowing should be made about the middle or end of March, according to the season ; monthly from that time till the end of July or beginning of August, if a constant succession is required. The plants from the first sowing will be fit for use in July, and the others will come in for use in succession till December. At the approach of frost, the plants should be protected with fern or litter. GARLIC (AUivra sativum, L.—Hexandria Mo-nogynia, L.; Liliacete, D.C. and Lind.) is a hardy perennial, a native of Sicily and the south of France. It is cultivated for the bulbs, which are used in soups, stews, and other dishes; but not so much in Britain as in Italy, Spain, Germany, and the south of France—its strong flavour, and the offensive smell which it com®unicate& to the breath, causing it to be sparingly used in our cooker}'. Garlic succeeds best in a light, rich, and rather dry soil, and a warm situation. It is propagated by separating the cloves of the bulbs, and planting them in February or March, 6 inches apart, in shallow drills 1 foot asunder, and covering with earth to the depth of about 2 inches. A small quantity may also be planted in the end of October or beginning of November, to come in earlier than the spring planting. All the culture necessary is confined to keeping the ground free of weeds. When the leaves turn yellow, the plants may be taken up, and having been dried in the sun, they should be tied up in20G GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. bunches by the stalks, and hung up in a dry airy room for use. Some bulbs from the autumn planting may be taken up in May or June for immediate use. GOURD (Cucurbita, L. — Moncecia Monadel-pliia, L.; Cucurbitaceoe, D. C.; Cucurbitacete, Lind.)—The species and varieties of gourd are very numerous. They are tender or half-hardy annuals, natives of the warm parts of both hemispheres, and particularly India. They are hardier than their allied genera, the cucumber and melon, and succeed very well in the open ground in ordinary summers in the southern parts of Britain. The varieties cross readily with each other, so that it is difficult to keep any one distinct if other sorts are growing in the neighbourhood and flowering at the same time. This circumstance has led to the suspicion that many of the reputed species are mei’e varieties; and recent investigations by M. Naudin have resulted in his referring all the edible varieties to three species; viz.: 1. Cucurbita maxima, with stout unfurrowed stalks, leaves broader than they are long, with the lobes rounded and not deep. To this belong the Large Yellow, Ohio, and Turk’s Cap gourds, and the Potirons of the French. 2. C. Pepo, with slender stalks, deeply furrowed, leaves deeply lobed; hairs very stiff. This comprises the Vegetable Marrows, the Custard Marrows or Patis-sons of the French, the Crook-neck, and the little Orange and Egg gourds. 3. C. mosciiata. — Stalks slightly furrowed and much enlarged near the fruit; leaves deeply lobed, scented, often marbled; seeds rough. To this belongs the Naples or Portemanteau gourd, which has been ripened in England, but all the varieties require a warmer climate to come to perfection. The following are some of the sorts best deserving of cultivation: 1. Large Yellow Gourd (Cucurbita maxima.)—syn. Mammoth Pumpkin, American Gourd; Potiron jaune of the French.—This is the largest-fruited variety known. In a very rich compost above a large quantity of manure, and under favourable conditions of climate, it grows to an enormous size; fruit weighing 120 lbs. is by no means uncommon. In America it has weighed 22(> lbs.; and at Sutcombe, in Devonshire, one weighing 245 lbs. was produced. This, we believe, is the heaviest fruit on record. The leaves are very large, and the stems thick, running along the ground to the distance of 20 or 30 feet, if not stopped, and readily striking root at the joints. The fruit is round or oblate, sometimes flattened on the under side, owing to its great weight, sometimes obtusely ribbed, yellowish, or pale buff, frequently covered to a considerable extent with a gray netting. Flesh very deep yellow. It is only used in a full-grown or ripe state, in which it will keep for several months, and even during the winter, if preserved in a dry airy place, where it may be suspended in a strong net. The flesh is used in soups and stews, mashed like potatoes, or baked in pies. Harrison’s Pumpkin is a very productive variety of the preceding, according to Kenrick, who states that it has produced upwards of 50,000 lbs. per acre. 2. Vegetable Marrow—syn. Succade Gourd, Courge la moelle of the French.—Fruit about 9 inches long, and of an elliptic shape; but it is sometimes grown to twice that length, and of an oblong form. Surface slightly uneven, by irregular longitudinal obtuse ribs, which terminate in a projecting apex at the extremity of the fruit. When mature, it is of a uniform pale yellow or straw colour; the skin or shell is very hard when the fruit is perfectly ripened. Flesh white, tender, and succulent, even till the seeds are ripe. It may be used in every stage of its growth. Some prefer it when the flower is still at the extremity of the fruit; others like it older. When well ripened, it will keep well throughout the winter, if stored in a perfectly diy place, out of the reach of frost, and not exposed to great changes of temperature. To have vegetable marrows large and fine for winter, the young fruit should be regularly taken off for use, and when the plant has acquired strength, a moderate quantity ought to be allowed to set for maturity; sufficient for this purpose being reserved, the young fruit that may be subsequently formed should be removed for use in a very young state. The vines or shoots may be allowed to run along the surface of the ground, directing them towards the south; or they may be trained against a wall, if on such there be any va cancy, against palings, or on trellises. 3. Italian Vegetable Marrow—syn. Courged’ltalie, Courge Coucourzclle.—This forms a dwarf bush with short reclining stems and upright leaves, which are deeply five-lobed. The fruits are used when the flowers are about to drop from their ends; they are then from 4 to 5 inches long, and 1A to 2A inches in diameter. When ripe, the fruit is from 15 to 18 inches in length, and about 6 inches in diameter. It is of a pale yellow, striped with green. It should, however, be used in the young green state, for when mature it is not so good as many of the other gourds. It bears very abundantly, and as it does not run, maybe grown in smaller compass than the true vegetable marrow. 4. Egg-shared Gourd—syn. Reeves’ Gourd.—Fruit large, weighing from 15 to 20 lbs.; but in rich highly-manured soil, and with only a few on each plant, it may be grown to upwards of 50 lbs. weight; it is short, ovate, sometimes tapering abruptly. Skin or shell hard, of a reddish colour. Flesh firm, red, excellent in a ripe state cooked as a vegetable, or in any other way in which gourds are prepared. The stems run to a very great length, and bear all along most abundantly. Altogether it is a sort highly deserving of cultivation. It was brought into notice by the late John Reeves, Esq., who has contributed to the horticulture of this country many valuable plants from China, where he resided many years, and from other parts. 5. Crook-neck—syn. Early Bush, Summer Crook-neck, Courge crocliue.—Obtained from America, where it is much cultivated, and esteemed the best sort for summer. It is a bush variety, very early and productive. Fruit small, crook-necked, with numerous warty excrescences on the surface; colour bright yellow; shell very hard wlieu ripe. As it does not run, it may be planted 3 feet apart.KITCHEN GARDEN. 207 6. Fall or Winter Crook-neck.—The kind most generally cultivated in New England for autumn and winter use. Necks long, curved, and solid, of a pale yellow; but the deeper the colour the better. An abundant bearer, excellent for pies. Being a runner, it should be planted 6 feet apart. Canada Crook-neck.—This is also a runner, and is a small variety of the preceding, to which it is preferred by some. Kenrick says, “The Canada Crook-neck is without doubt far superior to any and all others for the late or main crop. It is fine-grained, mealy, and of a sweet excellent flavour. By being kept in a dry and suitable temperature [not below 38°] the fruit may be preserved till the following summer.” 7. Green-striped Bergen.—A bush variety of strong growth, requiring to be planted 4 feet apart. Fruit small, bell-shaped, striped with dark green and white. It is used both in the green and ripe state. It is cultivated to a considerable extent for the New York market; and, although it is not so productive as some, yet it is said to be comparatively hardy, ripening well even in the coldest seasons. 8. Crown Gourd—Bonnet d’Electeur and Patisson of the French, Scollop Gourd, Pattypan of the Americans.—The plant forms a round bush, and does not run. The fruit, which is produced very close to the stem, is flat and scolloped on the edge. In America two sub-varieties are cultivated: the Early Yellow Busli Scollop, and the Early White Bush Scollop; both used when young and tender for boiling, and at maturity for making pies. 9. Egg or Apple Squash—syn. Orange Gourd.—In size, form, and colour this resembles an orange; hence its name. It bears abundantly; and trained on a pole, is very ornamental. It may be used in a young state, but in quality is not equal to the vegetable marrow. This is different from the Orange gourd of the East Indies, which is poisonous. 10. Spanish Gourd—syn. Spanish Pumpkin; Potiron d’Espagne.—Fruit middle-sized, very flat; skin smooth and hard, usually green. Flesh firm, and of excellent flavour. 11. Turk’s Cap—syn. Turban Pumpkin, Giraumon Turban.—Fruit middle-sized, flat, with a rounded margin and elevated centre, which is deep green; the rest is yellow or pale green. Flesh firm. This variety is chiefly grown for ornament in this country, as are also various others, some of which are poisonous: such are the Bottle gourd, or false calabash, and the Orange gourd of the East Indies. These are Lagenarias, and have white flowers. Indeed, great caution should be exercised in eating the fruits of Cucurbitacese, for many of them are strong cathartics, inducing choleraic symptoms. All the sorts require a rich soil; in fact, they grow best on a dung-heap. The seeds should be sown in heat, in April, and forwarded under glass; but after the plants are above ground they should only be kept in very gentle heat. They must be shifted into larger pots, as may be necessary, and kept growing moderately, gradually exposing them to the open air previous to planting out, which should be done when the weather becomes sufficiently mild in May, sooner or later, according to season and climate. After planting out, they should be protected by handglasses, or at all events they must by some means be protected from cold or frost at night. If heat is not at command, the seeds may be sown early in May in pots under a hand-glass; or, after the middle of May, they may be sown in the open ground. HERB PATIENCE. See Patience. HOP (Humulus Lupulus, L.—Dicecia Pentan-dria, L.; Urticese, D.C.; Cannabinacete, Lind.) is a perennial plant, indigenous to this country. The use of its flowers in brewing is well known. In gardens it is principally grown as a screen to hide unsightly objects. Its young shoots, cut when about 4 inches in length, are occasionally used in spring, when they appear above ground, instead of asparagus; they are not however held in much esteem. The hop is a dioecious plant; that is, the male and female flowers are borne on separate individuals. The kind producing the female flowers is the one cultivated in the hop plantations, though the male kind is grown for the purpose of impregnating the female flowers. Several varieties of the hop are distinguished by hop-growers; but it will be unnecessary to enter into these distinctions as far as the cultivation of the plant in gardens is concerned. It prefers a rich deep loam, and the ground should be deeply dug, and manured, if necessary, with icell-rotted stable clung, mixed with the earth. It is propagated by parting the roots in spring or autumn, or by cuttings of the shoots of the preceding year taken off from the crown of the plant in March. If the plants are intended for the production of tops, they may be planted a foot apart, in rows 3 feet asunder; or in a single row near any object which it maybe desirable to hide. Poles or sticks should be placed for the bine to climb upon, and the ground should be kept free of weeds, and stirred in spring and autumn. Insects, &c.—The roots of the hop are attacked by wireworms and by the caterpillars of the otter or ghost moth (llepialus humuli, Fig. 184); the best cure is to open the soil an inch or two deep, and remove them by hand-picking. The young shoots are eaten off in spring as fast as they appear by the hop-flea (Altica concinna). They should be covered with 4 or 5 inches of fine mould for several days till the bines have acquired more strength. The bine is devoured by the caterpillars of Pyrails rostralis, Laria puclibunda, Vanessa C-album, and V. Io; hand-picking is the only cure known. The leaves are perforated and their juices exhausted by the hop frog-fly (Am-blycephalus interruptus), and by the hop-fly {Aphis208 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. humuli, Fig. 185), the great scourge of the hop plantations. The best remedy perhaps is the Fig. 184. 0 tter -moth—Hepialus humuli. 1 and 2. Eggs {natural size and magnified). 3. Caterpillar. 4. Chrysalis. 5 aud 6. Moths, male and female. Natural size. application of tobacco, either infused in water and syringed over the infected parts, or burned 1 and 2. Female (natural size and magnified). 3 and 4. Nits” (natural size and magnified). in a suitable apparatus so that the plants are submitted to its fumes. The hop is liable to be attacked by a fatal disease known as the mould, which appears to be a species of Oidium. It originates amongst the cellular tissue of the leaves, spreads with astonishing rapidity, exhausting the plant, and arresting its growth, so that in hop-grounds the entire destruction of the crop is sometimes the consequence. Damp, and a deficiency of air and light, are favourable to the development of this disease. The application of sulphur to each individual plant, and even separate part of that plant, is the only remedy that can be recommended. HOREHOUND (Marrubium vulgare, L.—Di-dynamia Gymnospennia, L.; Labiate, D. C.) is a perennial plant, a native of Britain. Its leaves and tops have long been a popular remedy for coughs. Dr. Kittoe states, in the Chemist, that he has for many years been in the habit of employing horehound in cases of troublesome chronic cough, particularly in that species which is found so frequently after attacks of influenza and other severe forms of cold; and that he invariably found that it restored the tone of the stomach, and subdued irritation, when other and more valued remedies had been employed in vain. It may be propagated by dividing the plant in spring; by sowing the seeds in February, March, or April; or by cuttings, planted in a shady border in April. Plant 18 inches apart, in a dry warm situation. All the care necessary is to keep the ground clean, and the plants will last for many years. HORSE-RADISH (Cochlearia Armorada, L.— Tetradynamia Siliculosa, L.; Cruciferse, D. C.)— The horse-radish is a hardy perennial, indigenous to or naturalized in Britain. It is cultivated for its long roots, or more properly underground stems, the use of which, scraped into shreds along with roast beef, or grated with soups, is well known. It is antiscorbutic, and therefore important for a maritime nation, for the roots may be kept during a long voyage by merely burying them in sand. It grows almost anywhere; but the best and most tender roots are produced in a deep, rich, and rather moist soil; a sandy loam ■Gy sufficiently moist is suited for its Ry growth, and it succeeds well in rich sandy alluvial soil. It is pro-\ pagated by planting pieces of the roots, any portion of which will grow even if deeply buried in the earth. The ground should be made level before trenching; then a trench should be opened 3^ feet wide, and 2 feet, 2^, or 3 feet deep; we shall call this the first trench. This done, another trench 3 feet wide should be lined off, which call the second trench, and we shall suppose the depth of 1\ feet is that adopted. Then let 15 inches of the top of the second trench be turned into the bottom of the first one, and let it be there made level; on this spread a good layer of cow-dung, and dig it over, mixing it well with the soil. Turn upon this the 15 inches yet remaining to be taken up from the bottom of the second trench. There will thus be the first trench made up, and the second one open. Line off another 3-feet trench, and turn down 15 inches from the top of it into the bottom of the second, level and manure as before, and tuni up the bottom. Two trenches will thus be made up, and the third one open.KITCHEN GARDEN. 209 Proceed thus till the whole is completed. A section of the ground should then present the following composition. The portion next the top would consist of 15 inches of soil, without manure, thrown up from the bottom of the trenches, and immediately below this, at 15 inches from the surface, the manure mixed with the trenched-down upper portion of the ground. The ground being raked level, and ready for planting, sets must be prepared; these are made from cuttings of the upper part of the roots, about 3 or 4 inches in length. The crown portion is preferred; but about a quarter of an inch is pared off, so as to get rid of the mass of buds which would otherwise push from that part. By this means one thick stick will be produced instead of a number of slender roots, that would scarcely bear scraping; only this one shoot should be encouraged during the summer, and if any others appear they should be at once destroyed. The plantation should be hoed and kept clear of weeds throughout the summer. The roots planted in spring are sometimes taken up in the autumn and winter of the same year. If left, however, to grow another year the roots become very much thicker, but at the same time they are not so tender as when taken younger. In taking up, dig down by the side of the row, and clear away the soil from the row to a little below the top of the set, and there cut the root, and remove it for use, leaving the portion below as a set to push again. The original set will thus be made a little shorter every season. Large quantities of horse-radish are imported from Holland, where the soil is favourable for producing it; but that grown by the market-gardeners near London, on a similar plan to the one above described, fetches a much higher price in the market. Before severe frost, a quantity should be taken up, and placed in sand or earth in a shed or root-cellar, to insure a supply when the ground is frozen hard, but it is best taken up shortly previous to use. Fresh plantations should be made every three or four years. HYSSOP (IJys&opus officinalis, L.—Didynamia Gymnospermia, L.; Labiatae, D. C.) is an aromatic evergreen under-shrub, a native of the south of Europe. An infusion of the tops and flower-spikes is sometimes employed as an expectorant. Three varieties are cultivated:— 1. Common oe Blue-flowered Hyssop. 2. Red-flowered Hyssop. 3. White-flowered Hyssop, Hyssop succeeds best in a light dry soil, with a warm aspect. It may be propagated by seed sown in April; by dividing the plant in February, March, or in autumn; or by cuttings made in April or May, and planted in a shaded situation, and watered until they take root. The plants raised from seed, and those from cuttings, may be planted out where they are to remain in June or July, at 1 foot apart each way, watering till they take fresh root. This plant is Sometim® planted or sowm as an edging, in which case it must be taken up and replanted every two or three years, in spring or autumn, otherwise it will become straggling. All the care the plants require is an occasional trimming. INDIAN CRESS. See Nasturtium. JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE {Helianthus tu-berosus, L.—Syngenesia Polygamia Frustranea, L.; Composite, D. C.; Asteraeese, Lind.)—-The Jerusalem artichoke is a hardy tuberous-rooted perennial, a native of Brazil. It must not be supposed that this plant is an artichoke, for it is only so called in consequence of resembling that vegetable in flavour, and not because it belongs to the same family; neither does it come from Jerusalem, that word in this case being merely a corruption of the Italian name girasole. The tubers are baked, roasted, or boiled, and are served up with milk or butter, and in various other ways. They are much liked by some persons, and their flavour, when properly cooked, is agreeable. The plant is also sometimes grown near preserves, for the winter-feeding of pheasants, which are very fond of the tubers. The Jerusalem artichoke was one of the many plants recommended as a substitute for the potato, and it is probably the best that has as yet been proposed. It is much more hardy than the potato, as easily cultivated, thrives in the poorest soil and in the worst situations; and the nutritive value of the tubers is very considerable. Their composition was ascertained by Braconnot to be as follows;— Grape-sugar,.................14'800 Inuliue...................... 3-000 Gum,......................... 1'220 Albumen,..................... 0-900 Fat.......................... 0-090 Citrate of potash,........... 1"070 Phosphate of potash,......... 0'060 Sulphate of potash,.......... 0’120 Phosphate of lime,............ 0T40 Citrate of lime,............. 0’080 Chloride of potassium,....... 0'080 Malate of potash............. 0"030 Tartrate of lime,............ 0"015 Woody fibre.................. 1'220 Silica,...................... 0'025 Water,.......................77 "150 100-000 The following summary of the average composition of the tubers of the Jerusalem artichoke, 14210 GARDENER'S ASSISTANT. and those of the potato, will serve to show the comparative nutritive value of the two vegetables : — Boussingault. Hokspord and Krockkr. Jerusalem Artichoke. White Potatoes grown at Giessen. Blue Potatoes grown at Giessen. Natural State. Dry. Natural State. Dry. Natural State. Dry. Nitrogenized, or flesh-form* - 2-38 10-00 2-49 9-94 2-37 7-63 iiig constituents, Substances not containing nitrogen, and fitted to sup- J-19‘99 84-00 port respiration, or to produce fat,.. a, Starch, > * 18-00 7186 23-00 74-05 sugar, 9 "65 8718 formation of fat, Ashes, / 1-00 5-57 Water, 82-05 100-00 100-00 The composition of the ash has been ascertained by Dr. Richardson to be in 100 parts— Potasli,...................... 36 T2 Soda,......................... 3'll Magnesia,..................... 9'94 Lime,......................... 11'43 Phosphoric acid,.............. 18'66 Sulphuric acid,............... 6'50 Silicic acid,.................. 4'10 Phosphate of iron,............ 3'71 Chloride of sodium,............ 5'54 Charcoal and loss,.............. '89 The varieties of parsnip are:— 1. Common—syn. Swelling, Large Swelling.—The roots of this are from 3 to 4 inches in diameter at the shoulder, thence tapering regularly to the depth of 20 or 30 inches. Crown generally below the surface of the ground. 2. Guernsey—syn. Jersey, Panais long of the French, Panais coquin of Guernsey.—An improvement on the preceding. The roots, which are long Fig. 191. and tapering, sometimes attaining the length of 3 feet in this country, and 4 feet in Guernsey, are nearly the same in quality as those of the common parsnip. 3. Hollow-Crowned — syn. Hollowheaded, Panais LisboDnais of Guernsey.— The leaves of this are shorter than those of the common parsnip; the roots are about 18 inches long, 4 or 5 inches in diameter at the thickest part, and end somewhat abruptly in a small tap-root. The crown is hollow round the insertion of the footstalks, and is generally below the surface of the ground. When well-grown they sometimes weigh as much as 5 lb., and in quality they are excellent, being tender and of fine flavour. It is the best variety for general cultivation. The Student and Carter’s New Maltese are modern varieties of some repute. Parsnip or The former has been recently selected from Koot Fork, the wild stock. 4. Turnip-rooted—syn. Round, Panais rond, Panais royal, Panais de Metz.—Leaves not numerous; roots resembling a round turnip in shape, from 4 to 6 inches in diameter, and terminating in a strong taproot. It is the earliest sort, and from the root growing principally above ground, it succeeds well in ground too shallow for the other kinds. Besides the above there is another variety, the Panais Batard, or Panais de Siam, which is said to be more tender and richer in flavour than the other sorts. It is mentioned by Dr. Neill in the Encyclopedia Britannica, and is described by M. Noisette in his Manuel complet du Jardinier as being yellowish in colour, and in form intermediate between the Guernsey and Turnip-rooted parsnips; he also states that it is the most esteemed. It does not however appear to be known at the present day in this country. The parsnip succeeds best in a rich deep soil, not too stiff, and an open situation; a free sandy loam is well adapted for its growth. The ground where it is intended to be grown should be trenched and manured if necessary in the autumn, as the addition of fresh manure just before sowing causes the roots to fork. The seed should be sown thinly, in the middle of March, in shallow drills 18 inches apart. When the plants are about 2 inches high they may be thinned out where too close, but not finally, till they are further advanced, when they may be thinned out to 1 foot apart, or to 15 inches if very large roots are desired. With the exception of hoeing the ground, nothing further will be required till the leaves begin to decay in the end of October or beginning of November, when a portion of the roots may be taken up and stored in dry sand for use in frosty weather; but as they are always best whenKITCHEN GARDEN. 239 newly dug up, the principal portion should he allowed to remain in the ground, to be taken up for use as required. The remainder may be takeu up in February before they begin to shoot, and stored for use. These will keep till April or May in a dry cool place. The parsnip-fork (Fig. 191) will be found very useful for taking up parsnips, carrots, and other roots. If seed is to be saved, some of the best roots should be carefully taken up and replanted, 2 feet apart in a sheltered situation, where they will flower in July and ripen seed in the end of August. Seed more than one year old seldom germinates. Insects.—Several insects attack the parsnip; the celery-fly (Tephritis onopordinis) lays its eggs in Fig. 192. 1. Moth. 2. Moth at rest; 3. natural size. 4. Caterpillar. 5. Pupa; 6. natural length. 7. Pupa rolled up in leaf, natural length. the leaves, and the larvae which result live upon the parenchyma, producing large blisters. The best mode of preventing further inroads is to pinch the blisters and burn all leaves that are much infested. The maggots of the carrot-fly (Psila rosce), as well as those of Psila nigricornis, eat passages in the roots; and the caterpillars of Depressaria applana, D. cicutella (Fig. 192), D. Daucella, and D. depressella, feed upon the flowers and seeds. PATIENCE, Patience Dock, or Herb Patience (Rumex Patientia, L.—Hexandria Trigynia, L.; Polygonem, D. C.; Polygonaeese, Lind.) is a hardy perennial, a native of Italy. The leaves were formerly much used in this country as spinach, and are still in some parts of France, where they are also employed in the early part of the season as a substitute for sorrel, being produced several days sooner than the leaves of that plant. The leaves should be gathered when tender, and if used instead of spinach, should be mixed with a fourth part of sorrel. The plant will grow well in almost any soil, but best in one that is rich and rather moist. It may easily be raised from seed sown in spring in drills 18 inches asunder, afterwards thinning out the young plants to 1 foot apart in the rows. It may also be sown broadcast in a seed-bed, and planted out. Or the roots may be divided and planted at the above distances. The stems naturally grow to the height of from 4 to 6 feet, but should be cut over several times in the course of the summer, to induce them to throw out young leaves in succession, and to prevent seed from being ripened and scattered about in all directions, for when this takes place the plant becomes a troublesome weed. PEA (Pisum sativum, L.—Diadelphia Decan-dria, L.; Leguminosas, D. C.; Fabaceae, Lind.)— The pea is a hardy annual, most probably a native of the Levant, where the common gray field-pea, supposed to be the parent of the garden varieties, is found wild. The uses of the seeds are so well known as not to require mention here. As an article of food, pease, whether in a green or in a ripe state, are very nutritious. According to Dr. Voelcker, the average proximate composition of ripe pease, as calculated from the analyses of Horsford, Krocker, Einliof, Braconnot, and Bous-singault, is as follows:— Air-dry. "When quite dry. Legumin, 23-4 27-24 Starch, 37 0 43-07 Fatty matters 2-0 2-33 Grape-sugar, 2-0 2-33 Vegetable fibre, io-o 11-64 Pectic acid, 4-0 4 "65 Gum, 5'0 5 "82 Inorganic matters (ash),.. 2'S 2'92 Water, 14-1 100-0 100-00 Pease, according to this average analysis, thus contain:— Air-dry. Quite dry. Nitrogenized or flesh-forming 1 23‘4 27-24 constituents, I Substances free from nitrogen, fitted to support respiration and to lay on fat:— a, Starch, sugar, fat, &c.,.. 50-0 58-20 6, Vegetable fibre, Ash, used to supply the materials for the formation of io-o 11-64 l 2-5 292 bones, &c., Water, J 14-1 ioo-o 100-00240 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. The average composition of the ashes of pease, I as derived from several analyses, may be stated as follows:— Potash,....................... 36 '67 Soda,......................... 7’32 Lime,......................... 5'39 Magnesia,..................... 8 "62 Oxide of iron,................. l'OO Phosphoric acid,.............. 33'88 Sulphuric acid,............... 4'43 Chloride of sodium,........... 2 17 Silicic acid, ................. 0'52 lOO'OO It is a generally admitted fact, that the varieties of pease are far too numerous, and yet reputed new ones are eagerly sought for. Whilst this is the case, new names will doubtless annually appear in the seed lists, though the varieties to which such names are applied may not be permanently distinct from some already known. An Early Frame, for instance, may be saved under particular circumstances of soil and situation, and it may in consequence be somewhat altered in character. In a few years, however, its generations may return to their original type; but until this is the case, some distinguishing designation may be allowed to the sort. Many very useful cross-bred new pease have been raised by Dr. Maclean, Mr. Laxton, and others during the past few years. The following are the principal varieties now in favour amongst cultivators; and the following mode of classification will prove an easy means of distinguishing the several groups under which they are arranged :— I. Pods with a parchment-like lining. A. Dry seeds, round or roundish, smooth or nearly so. I. Frames.—Seeds small, round, white; skin thin. II. PRUSSIANS.—Seeds small, round, blue; skin thin. III. Imperials.—Seeds large, blue, irregular; skin thick. IV. Marrows.—Seeds large, white, irregular; skin thick. V. Green Marrows.—Seeds mixed, white and olive. B. Dry seeds compressed and xorinkled. VI. Wrinkled White Marrows.—Seeds white. VII. Wrinkled Green Marrows.—Seeds green. VIII. Wrinkled Blue Marrows.—Seeds blue. II. Pods without a tough lining. IX. Sugars (Pois sans parchemin of the French). I. Frames. 1. Dillistoxe’s Early—syn. Sutton’s Ringleader, Carter’s First Crop, Veitch’s Early.—Height 2 to 2.1 feet, of slender habit, producing from seven to nine straight cylindrical pods, generally singly, each containing six or seven peas. This is the earliest variety of pea, coming into use a week or more before Sangster’s No. 1, and having the peculiarity of blooming all at one time, podding at one time, and becoming fit for use all at one time. In the Chiswick trials of 1872, sown on Feb. 23d, in was in use June 9th. 2. Sangster’s No. 1—syn. Daniel O’Rourke, Dickson’s First and Best, Dunnett’s First Early, Early Washington, Carter’s Earliest, Sutton’s Champion, Islierwood’s Railway, Hooper’s Early Rival, Carter’s Improved Emperor; and Taber’s Perfection is scarcely different.—Height 2J to 3 feet, of rather slender habit, producing generally singly from eight to ten straight pods, each containing seven or eight peas. It is one of the earliest and best sub-varieties of the Early Frame. Sown on Feb. 23d, it was fit for use June 12th. 3. Beck’s Gem or Tom Thumb—syn. Improved Early Dwarf, Royal Dwarf, Nain h&tif extra.—About 1 foot high, of stout branching habit, exceedingly prolific, in straight, nearly round pods, which are generally produced in pairs, and contain about six tolerably large peas. Sown Feb. 23d, it was fit for use on June 17th. It is very early, and an excellent variety for sowing in frames, and for early crops on warm borders, where, from being so dwarf, and requiring no sticks, it does not shade the adjoining crops or the wall trees. It may be sown in rows 18 inches apart, or between the rows of tall peas, for it is more advantageous thus to occupy the wide intervals than to have the tall peas too close together, as is often the case where ground is scarce. 4. Warner’s Early Emperor—syn. Warner’s Early Conqueror, Early Bedalean, Early Railway, Stevenson’s Railway, Early Wonder, Beck’s Morning Star, Early Sebastopol, Washington, Rising Sun,—Height about 3 feet, of rather slender habit, pods and peas larger than those of the Early Frame. Sown Feb. 23d, it was fit for use on June 19th. A good productive sub-variety of the Early Frame. 5. Early Frame—syn. Earliest Frame, Early Dwarf Frame, Early Double-blossomed Frame, Single blossomed Frame, Mason’s Double-blossomed, Perkin’s Early Frame, Best Early, Superfine Early, Young’s Very Early, Early May, Early Wilson, Early Nicholas, Early Nana, Early French, Early One-eyed, Early Warwick, Early Racehorse, Early Hotspur, Golden Hotspur, Dwarf Albany, Batts’ Early Dwarf Nimble, Essex Champion, Pois le plus h&tif, Micliaux de Hollande, Pois Baron, Pois Laurent, Pois de Paris, Marshall’s Double-blossomed Frame, London Conqueror.—Stems to 4 feet high, and rather slender. Pods small, round, generally containing six peas of excellent quality, which, when dry, are small, very round, and white. Sown Feb. 23d, it was fit for use June 15th. The flowers sometimes come single and sometimes double, the stalk from the same axil branching into two, hence the names of single-blossomed and double-blossomed have both been occasionally applied to this variety. 6. Early Charlton—syn. Golden Charlton, Hotspur, Early Hotspur, Double Dwarf Hotspur, Wrench’s Hotspur, Early Nicholas Hotspur, Nimble Taylor, Paddington, Essex, Reading, Russell’s Early-blossomed, White Boiling, Early Sugar Frame, Michaux, Micliaux ordinaire, De Ruelle, Domine, Petit Pois de Paris.—About 5 feet high, and of vigorous growth. Leaves large, with short petioles; tendrils small. Pods broad, containing six or seven peas of excellent quality. They are rather larger than those of the Early Frame, with which this is often confounded. The Early Charlton may however be distinguished by its stronger habit of growth, its pods being flat instead of round, its larger seeds, and itsKITCHEN GARDEN. 241 becoming fit for use about a fortnight later than the Early Frame; so that when sown at the same time it forms a succession. [The true Charlton is probably not in cultivation, spurious Early Frames being generally substituted for it; neither is it now required.] 7. Auvergne—syn. White Sabre, White Scimitar, 1‘ois serpette.—About 5 feet high, and an abundant I bearer. Pods very long, nearly round, curved at the [ extremity, containing frequently ten and sometimes j eleven round white peas, the quality of which is excel- 1 lent. Sown February 23, it was fit for use June 21. 8. Bishop’s Long-podded.—About 2 feet high; early, j bearing abundantly and in succession. Pods nearly straight, almost cylindrical, containing six or seven 1 rather large peas of excellent quality. A fine-looking pea, and a great cropper. Sown February 23, it was j fit for use June 24. [9. Early Rixgwood—syn. Riugwood Marrow, Beck’s j Marrow, Flanagan’s Early, Essex Rival. —Moderately \ vigorous, from 3.j to 4 feet high, unbranched except in wet seasons. Pods 3 to 3.V inches long, slightly j curved, containing six or seven large roundish peas; j white when ripe. A most abundant bearer, but the pods are whitish, and appear over ripe when they are really not so, for it retains its tender marrowy qualities | longer than many other sorts. Sown February 23, it 1 was fit for use June 17. II. Prussians. 19. Laxton’s Harbinger. —Habit of Dillistone’s Early. About 2h to 3 feet high, unbranched. Pods from seven to eight, produced singly, small, rounded, slightly curved, very tightly filled, light green, containing six \ fair-sized peas of a fine colour and good flavour Ripe j seeds small, round, blue. The earliest pea in the Chiswick trial of 1872; a cross between Dillistone’s Early and Alpha. Sown February 23, it was fit for use June 6.] 11. Blue Prussian—syn. Dwarf Blue Prussian, Royal Prussian Blue, Prussian Prolific, Green Prussian, Blue Union, Early Green, Early Dutch Green, Fine Long-podded Dwarf, Nain Royal.—Generally from 3 to 4 feet high, of a hardy constitution, very prolific. Pods mostly in pairs, from 3 to 3A inches long, roundish, containing seven or eight peas, of middling size and excellent quality; when dry of a light blue colour. Sown February 23, it was fit for use June 30. An old variety, but still highly deserving of cultivation for summer use i and also for field culture on account of its great fertility. 12. Batt’s Wonder.—Height 3 feet, of a strong habit of growth, with broad dark green foliage. Pods 3A inches long, curved somewhat like the Scimitar, containing from eight to eleven good-sized peas, of a dull bluish- | green when fit. Ripe seed dark bluish-green. A useful sort on account of its hanging long fit for use, and therefore desirable for those who cannot make frequent successional sowings; it also withstands dry weather better than perhaps any other variety. 13. Woodford Marrow.—About 3 to 31 feet high, vigorous, generally branching at about half its height, dark bluish-green. Pods very slightly curved, about 31 inches long, containing six to eight large peas, with a tender but rather thick skin, which retains the greenish hue longer than most varieties generally do. Ripe seed dark olive-green. Sown February 23, it was j fit for use June 27. It has a tendency to return towards the type of the Blue Prussian, from which it has most probably been raised, and therefore requires to be carefully selected when grown for seed. III. Imperials. [14. Carter’s Blue Peter.—An improved form of Tom Thumb. It grows from 1 to 1^ foot high, with the habit and growth of Tom Thumb. Tods large, broad, of a fine green, from eight to ten on a stem, each containing generally five or six large peas. Sown February 23, it was fit for use June 18.] 15. Fairbeard’s Surprise—syn. Fairbeard’s Early Surprise, Blue Surprise, Carter’s Surprise. —About 5 feet high, simple-stemmed, of free but not vigorous growth, and an abundant bearer. Pods thick, roundish, slightly curved, containing from seven to nine good-sized peas of a pale blue colour, roundish, and of excellent quality. Sown February 23, it was fit for use June 24. This and Fairbeard's Champion of England, both excellent peas, were taken out of the same pod—the former being a round pea, and the latter wrinkled. 16. Burbidge’s Eclipse—syn. Stub Vs Dwarf.—A vigorous but dwarf sort, from 1A to 2 feet high, with dark green slightly blotched foliage. Pods straight, upwards of 3 inches in length, and well filled, containing five or six large peas, slightly uneven in the dry state, and of a bluish colour. Sown February 23, it was fit for use June 25. One of the dwarfest of the blue pease, and an excellent bearer. 17. Flack’s Imperial—syn. Flack’s Victory, Flack's Victoria.—About 3 feet high, robust, and usually branched. Pods 3£ inches long, from twelve to eighteen on each plant, generally In pairs, roundish, slightly curved, and usually containing about seven or eight large blue peas of good quality. Ripe seeds dark blue. Sown February 23, it was fit for use June 25. [18. Laxton’s Fillbasket—About 3 feet high, of robust vigorous growth, with branched stems and large pale green foliage. Pods twelve to fourteen on a stem, generally in pairs, very long, rounded, curved, closely filled with from seven to nine good sized fine green peas. Ripe seed light green. Sown February 23, it was fit for use June 26. A large handsome prolific variety.] 19. Blue Scimitar—syn. Sabre, Blue Sabre, Dwarf Sabre, Scimitar, Beck’s Eclipse.—About 3 feet high, of strong sturdy growth. Pods generally in pairs, well filled, long, roundish, gradually curved from the calyx to the point, or scimitar-shaped. Sown February 23, it was fit for use June 30. Ripe seed green. It bears abundantly, but not in succession, and on this account it suits the market-gardeners; for all the pods becoming fit for gathering nearly at the same time, an opportunity of at once clearing the ground for some other crop is afforded. IV. Marrows. 20. Paradise Marrow—syn. Excelsior, Excelsior Marrow, Knight’s Excelsior, Stuart’s Paradise, Essex Rival Marrow, Champion of Paris. --From 5 to G feet high, strong, vigorous, and branching; pods about 4 inches long, broadish, containing about eight large succulent fleshy peas. Ripe seed white, somewhat flat- 16242 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. tened. Sown Eeb. 23, it was fit for use June 24. An excellent early Marrow. 21. Victoria Marrow—syn. Gibbs’ Defiance, Royal Victoria, Wellington, Giant Marrow, Waterloo Marrow, Tall Marrow.—From G to 7 feet liigb, with vigorous simple stems; an abundant bearer. Pods nearly 4 inches in length, generally in pairs, straight, roundish, well filled, containing from five to eight very large peas of good quality. Sown Feb. 23, it was fit for use June 29. This variety bears some resemblance to Knight’s Tall Marrow, but is less sugary. Those who have a fancy for very large pease will find this perhaps the largest. V. Green Marrows. [22. William I.—The earliest of the Marrow pease, and only two days later than Sangster’s No 1. From 4^ to 5 feet high, slender, unbranched. Pods from fourteen to sixteen, frequently in pairs, long and curved, deep green, with a thick bloom, containing seven to eight good-sized deep green peas. Kipe seed mixed white and olive. A most useful early Marrow raised by Mr. Laxton, and likely to be useful for market purposes.] 23. Prize-taker—syn. Prize-taker Green Marrow, Rising Sun, Bellamy’s Early Green Marrow, Noble’s Early Green Marrow, Leicester Defiance, Carter’s Hundredfold.—Of vigorous growth, 4 to 5 feet high, and well furnished with pods, which are usually in pairs, nearly 3t inches long, sliglitly curved, of a deep bluish-green covered with a thick bloom, each containing six or seven large peas of a dark bluish-green. Ripe seeds mixed white and green. Sown Feb. 23, it was fit for use June 23. An excellent variety. 24. Matchless Marrow—syn. Aikman’s Matchless Marrow, Milford Marrow, Stradsett Marrow, Heale’s Matchless Marrow.—About 5 feet high, of strong robust growth, and au excellent bearer; the pods tipwards of 3 inches long, slightly curved, containing six or seven large peas of good quality. Ripe seed white and olive. A few days later than Prize-taker. VI. Wrinkled White Marrows.1 [25. Pioneer.—From 3 to 31 feet high, with slender, usually unbranched, stems, and pale green foliage. Pods nine or ten on a stem, nearly straight, pale green, containing from five to six rather small peas. One of Mr. Laxton’s seedlings, and the earliest white wrinkled Marrow yet obtained, being only one day later than Dillistone’s Early. Sown Feb. 22, it was fit for use June 13. 2G. Nutting’s No. 1—syn. Carter’s White Gem.— From 2 to 2,t feet high, with a robust branching stem and pale green leaves. Pods eight to twelve, produced in pairs, slightly curved, blunt, pale green, well-filled with six to seven large peas, remarkabty sweet and excellent in flavour. Very prolific. Sown Feb. 23, it was fit for use June 18.] 27. British Queen—syn. Carter’s Victoria, Great Britain, Rollisson’s Victoria, Thorn’s lloyal Britain, Shanley Marrow, Wonder of the World, Hooper’s Incomparable, Imperial Wonder, Carter’s Leviathan, M'Millan's Queen of the Marrows, Queen of the Marrows, i Knight s Tall and Dwarf Marrows, of each of which there are white, blue, and green-seeded forms, are the types of the modern wrinkled pease, wInch have been evolved from them. Emperor of the Marrows.—About G feet high, of vigorous growth, and an abundant bearer. Pods 4 inches long, nearly straight, containing generally about seven very large peas, nearly the size of small beans, larger than in Knight’s Marrow, but not so sugary; it is, nevertheless an excellent pea. Sown Feb. 23, it was fit for use June 30. It continues bearing till late in the season, even till near Christmas, if the weather is mild and the plants have not suffered from drought. Hay’s Mammoth—syn. Champion of Scotland, Ward’s Incomparable, Will Watch—is similar to this, an abundant cropper, with a delicious flavour, and a very late bearer. [28. Maclean’S Premier.—About 31, feet high, robust and prolific, with deep green leaves. Pods sixteen to eighteen on a stem, borne in pairs, large, broad, containing seven to nine peas of excellent quality. Ripe seed white and green mixed. Sown Feb. 23, it was fit for use June 30. It is of the Veitcli’s Perfection type, but hardier and earlier. 29. James’s Prolific.— About 3 feet high, robust, with succulent, sometimes branching stems, and pale green leaves. Pods usually in pairs, nearly all fit for use at one time, very large, broad, nearly straight, blunt, light green, containing from six to eight very large pale green peas, of first-rate quality. Sown March 1, it was fit for use July 14. 30. Laxton’s Marvel.—About 3 feet high, robust, branching. Pods very abundantly produced, generally in pairs, large, full, rounded, much curved and pointed, light green, containing from nine to eleven very large peas, of tine quality, Excellent, handsome, and very productive. Sown March 21, it was fit for use July 2 ] VII. Wrinkled Green Marrows. [31. Dr. Hogg.—This might be designated a dwarf early Ne Plus Ultra. From 31 to 4 feet, with simple stems, each bearing singly or in pairs, from ten to twelve pods, which are long, narrow, much curved and pointed, well filled, deep green, containing from seven to nine mediumsized deep green peas, of sweet and excellent quality. Sown Feb. 23, it was fit for use June 1G. It is the earliest green wrinkled marrow. 32. Laxton’s Omega—This also might be called a dwarf Ne Plus Ultra.—About 21 feet high, with a firm and robust growth, branching stems, and large deep green leaves. Pods twenty to twenty-four on a plant, long, nearly straight, rounded, very closely filled, deep grass green, containing about eight very large dark green peas of excellent quality. Sown Feb. 23, it was fit for use June 30. It is a very useful and handsome sort, and very prolific.] 33. Ne Plus Ultra—syn. Jeyes’ Conqueror, Payne's Conqueror, Cullingford’s Champion ; Edwards’ Invincible and Champion of the World, are inferior stocks; and Munsted Marrow, a broad short-podded form.— From G to 7 feet high, with a strong robust branching stem. Pods from twelve to eighteen on a stem, almost always in pain, olive-green, glaucous, slightly curved, blunt, very plump and full, containing from seven to nine very large peas, of first-rate quality. Sown Feb. 23, it was fit for use June 29. AVhen true this is one of the very best and most productive of all pease. 34. General 'Wyxdham— syn. Buckley’s General ’Wyndliam, Boyes’ Masterpiece.—Robust habit, from G to 7 feet high, frequently branched, with dark greenKITCHEN GARDEN. 243 leaves. Puds straight, blunt, upwards of 4 inches in length, ten to fourteen on a stem, containing about eight very large peas of a deep dull green colour. Ripe seeds, mixed olive and white; the pease when cooked are of a fine bright green. Sown March 16, it was fit for use July 1. It continues producing till very late in the season, and is a valuable sort on this account. [35. Laxton’s Sturdy.—About 3 feet high, robust, much branched, bloomiug successionally. Pods in pairs, from twenty to twenty-four on a stem, long, nearly straight, blunt, dark green, containing from six to eight large dark green peas of the finest quality. It is the latest pea yet raised. Sown Feb. 23, it was fit to gather July 9, and from its growing and flowering successionally it produces a supply of pods for a week or ten days.] VIII. "Wrinkled Blue Marrows. [36. Laxton’s No. 1.—From 3 to 3i feet high, with weak simple stems, and light green leaves. Pods seven to nine on a plant, long, rounded, straight and bluntisli, of fine quality. Sown Feb. 23, it was fit for use June 12. The earliest of the blue wrinkled marrows, coming in at the same time as Dillistone’s Early. 37. Laxton’s Alpha.—From 3 to 3-J feet high, with straggling weak simple stems much like those of Sang-ster’s No. 1, the leaves pale green. Pods produced singly, seven to nine on a stem, long, narrow, much curved and pointed, pale green, containing from seven to nine good sized peas, of excellent quality. Sown Feb. 23, it was fit to use June 14. A very early and excellent sort. 38. Maclean’s Little Gem.—Of very dwarf but robust and vigorous growth, with branching stems twelve to eighteen inches high, and dark green leaves. Pods in pairs, seven to eight on a stem, nearly straight, broadisli, very full, containing six to seven fair-sized peas of excellent flavour. A valuable sort for forcing or growing in pots, on account of its very dwarf and prolific habit and its earliness. Sown Feb. 23, it was fit for use June 16—only four days later than Sangster’s No. 1. Laxton’s Gem is said to be more prolific than Maclean’s, and equally dwarf and early. 39. Maclean’s Advancer.—About 2 feet high, a free grower, of robust habit, the stem sometimes branched, and the leaves dark green. Pods twelve to eighteen, generally in pairs, slightly curved, blunt, well-filled, containing eight very large compressed peas, which are delicious when cooked. Sown Feb. 23, it was fit for use June 21. 40. G. F. "Wilson.—About 4 feet high, robust, with the general character of Veitch’s Perfection, of which it is an earlier form. Pods ten to fourteen on a stem, produced in pairs, large, light green, nearly straight, somewhat narrowed at the point, containing from seven to eight large green finely-flavoured peas. Sown Feb. 23, it was fit for use June 27.] 41. Veitch’s Perfection.-^About 3 feet high, robust in habit, with dark green foliage. Pods ten to fourteen on a stem, usually in pairs, large, straight, bluntisli, containing seven or eight large compressed peas, which are of the very finest quality and flavour. Sown Feb. 23, it was fit for use July 4. It is esteemed one of the finest varieties in cultivation. 42. Champion of England—syn. Fairbeard’s Champion of England.—From 6 to 7 feet high, with a strong luxuriant habit of growth, the stems frequently branched, | and an abundant bearer. Pods long, somewhat curved, slightly flattened, containing seven to nine large sugary peas, and of a pale bluish colour when young, green, and closely packed and compressed in the pod. Sown Feb. 23, it was fit for use June 25. This variety, which is one of great excellence, originated in the same pod as Fairbeards Surprise. IX. Sugars. 43. Dwarf Dutch—syn. Dwarf Crooked Sugar, Dwarf Sugar de Grace, Nain li&tif de Hollande, Nain de Ilollande.—About 2J feet high; rather late. Pods small and crooked. 44. Tamarind—syn. Late Dwarf Sugar.—About 4 feet high, an abundant bearer, and the latest variety of this class. Pods large, curved, from 4 to 6 inches long; seeds large and white. 45. Large Crooked Sugar—syn. Broadsword, Six-inch Pod Sugar pea, Sans-parchemin blanc a grandes cosses, Cornes de holier.—About 6 feet high, and rather late. Pods very large, broad, flat, crooked, something like a ram’s horn; tender when young, iso that they can be snapped in two like the young pod of a kidney bean, and are then fit for use. 46. Geant sans Parchemin.—Tall, with larger pods than those of any other variety of this class. It is the sort most cultivated for the Taris markets. The sorts above described are much more numerous than any one individual could wish to cultivate; but tastes and circumstances are so different, that it is necessary to afford a good selection. No one will affirm that early and late varieties are not required; and it will be admitted that tall and dwarf sorts must be supplied. Again, some prefer small pease, others large; some white, others blue or green. There can be no harm in sowing before winter, early in spring, or at both these seasons, Beck’s Gem, Dillistone’s Early, and Sangster’s No. 1. On the contrary, as there is some difference in these as regards the time of their becoming fit for use, the supply will be better; for these early sorts do not bear long in succession; and, if the whole sowing were to consist of any one of the above, a continuous supply would not be so well insured as would be the case by the several sorts producing in succession. If dwarf sorts are, from circumstances, most convenient for an early sowing, Bishop’s Longpod will be the most to be depended on, although some gatherings from the Advancer may be obtained still earlier. To the above, the Auvergne and Dicksons Favourite wall form a © succession of fine white pease. If larger pease are preferred, then the succession may consist of Champion of Paris and Fairbeard s Surprise. Varieties of the Blue Prussian and Imperial classes are good for summer crops as they remain longer fit for use than the early white sorts. The Blue Scimitar yields a crop which can be mostly gathered at once, and on this account it isGARDENER’S ASSISTANT. 244 desirable in some cases. The Tall Green and the Victoria Marrow will supply late summer pease of the largest size. In Class V. we have Knight’s Dwarf and Tall Marrows, which should be sown in large proportion. Fairbeard’s Champion of England and Veitch’s Perfection, as regards height, are intermediate between these; and for very large pease and late sorts there are, besides Knight’s Tall Marrow, the Ne Plus Ultra, General Wyudham, and the Tall Green Mammoth. Class VI. is composed of the Sugar pease, the sans parchemins or mange-tout of the French. These are destitute of the tough film of skin with which the inside of the pod is lined in pease belonging to the other classes; the pods readily snap over like those of kidney-beans. On the Continent they are cooked so as to form an excellent dish, which is probably a more wholesome one than that supplied either by the French bean or scarlet runner. Soil.—A rich calcareous friable loam is best for the main crops of pease, in the composition of which lime is a principal ingredient; and if the soil do not naturally contain a sufficiency of calcareous matter, the latter should be added to it in the shape of lime, chalk, gypsum, &c. It should be deep, so that the roots may easily penetrate downwards to obtain moisture in time of drought, otherwise the foliage will be liable to be attacked with mildew. When this is the case, or if the plants get ouce too dry after they have commenced to blossom, the pods never till well. For early crops, and especially for the very earliest, a warm, rather sandy loam is desirable, because earliness rather than abundance is the desideratum. The ground in all cases should be well drained, and the surface should be kept so that the rain-water may not run off by it, but pass through the soil. Manure should be applied in greater or less quantity, according as the soil is more or less poor. In general, pease are sown in ground that has been manured for a previous crop; but for the latest crop it is a good plan to trench the ground, putting a layer of rotten dung about 1 foot below the surface. For early crops horse-dung is preferable, and in moist situations it may be employed ill a littery state when only partially decomposed, so that it may act mechanically as drainage. AVhen soil has not been enriched for a previous crop, and is too poor for pease, good farm-yard manure can always be depended on. With regard to artificial manures, the natural composition of the soil should be ascertained, and if possible substances of which it is deficient should be supplied. In calcareous districts it would of course be worse than useless to add lime, chalk, or gypsum; but these substances will, on the contrary, be highly beneficial in all soils where they only exist in very limited quantity. Some artificial manures act injuriously when they are in immediate contact with the germinating seed, and the seed itself doubtless affords the best nourishment that can be given, and till that is exhausted, or nearly so, stimulants of any kind must be either superfluous or injurious. Guano, however, has been found to answer well when mixed with the soil in the bottom of the drill, and then covered with 1^ or 2 inches of soil. When at this distance from the pushing embryo the latter cannot be injured by the manure, and the radicle, when it approaches it, is strong enough to assimilate the nourishment thus afforded. Excellent crops have been obtained with guano applied in a similar maimer, and the haulm was shorter and stronger than where no guano was employed; but on Marrow pease, which are naturally inclined to grow too luxuriant, the effect as regards produce was not so good. Culture.—The ground having been prepared, the first thing to be done is to mark the distances for the rows, and this will depend on the height of the variety, which again ought to be selected according to circumstances. Where the space is limited, or where tall sorts would injuriously shade other things, it may be advisable to select dwarf kinds, or at all events not very tall ones. It has been well ascertained, that rows standing far apart yield the best and most abundant produce. Hence, some have them 20 or 30 feet apart or more, the inter mediate space being occupied by other crops. The usual plan, however, is to make the rows from 3 to 6 feet asunder. The very dwarf sorts, not requiring sticks, such as Bishop’s New Long-pod, Burbidge’s Eclipse, Advancer, &e., may be sown in rows 2 feet apart; the Early Frame and its sub-varieties, 3 or 4 feet apart; and, as a general rule, the distance between the rows may be made equal to the height to which the variety usually grows. The vigorous-growing dwarf Marrows should, however, be made exceptions, as from their broad foliage they require more space than the slender-growing kinds, such as the Early Frame. Knight's Tall Marrow, British Queen, Tall Green Marrow, ami General Wyudham should not be less than 6 feet between the rows, unless where space is very limited, and then the distance may be somewhat less, taking care, however, to top the plants when 54 or not more than G feet high. Some recommend two rows to be sown 9 inches or 1 foot apart, and then to insert a row of sticks between for both rows of pease to lay hold of, the sameKITCHEN GARDEN. 245 distance being allowed between the pairs of double rows as between single ones. For early pease, the best direction for the rows is east and west. This would be lengthwise along a south border; but it is generally more convenient to sow across the border, and if it be done obliquely from south-east to north-west, the ridge of soil drawn to the roots of the plants will have the sun’s rays nearly direct on its broadside when they are hottest. For the main crops in the open quarters, it is considered best to draw the rows from north to south. The average depth of the drills should be about 2-| or 3 ins. for small sorts, and 3* ins. for the large kinds. This depth may, however, be exceeded in the case of November and winter sown pease. Instead of drawing the drills so as to form a triangular furrow, it is found ] (referable to make them wide and flat at bottom, say 7 inches wide, or at all events not less than 6 inches; the roots will thus have room to grow without being crowded, and without robbing each other of nourishment and moisture. The seeds are often sown too thickly; and, on the other hand, some direct them to be placed as much as 3 inches apart. This, however, is not advisable as regards quantity of produce from a certain extent of ground, and can only be recommended when the object is to have as much increase as possible from some particular sort of pea, which it may be desirable to multiply. The seed should be tried previous to sowing, and allowance made for the proportion of it that either does not come up at all, or so weakly as not to be reckoned upon. Early sorts may be sown with seeds of a fair sample, at the rate of a pint for 45 or 50 feet of row, or 60 feet for medium-growing sorts; and in the case of late strong kinds, such as the Tall Marrows, the same quantity may be allowed for 70 or 80 feet. When the seeds have been sown, the soil raised in forming the drill should be chopped, if lumpy, with the back and teeth of the rake, and then returned on the pease, and it may be trodden lightly, or rolled, if it be not wet. As soon as the plants are a few inches above ground, a little earth should be drawn towards the lower part of the stem, but so as to press very little against the foliage. As the plants advance, some more soil should be drawn towards them. They should then be immediately sticked, if that be at all intended, for it is most injurious to the pea crop to allow the plants to grow till the haulm bends. Once this is the case they will never take up well. By the time the tendrils appear, the sticks should be in readiness for them to lay hold of, and then they will keep the haulm straight, which is more than can be effected by any propping up after it has been knee’d. When pease are not intended to be sticked, the earth should be drawn more against one side of the row than the other. This will incline all the haulm to the opposite side. Were this not done, some plants would incline one way and some the other, and get into confusion with those in the adjoining rows. It is better to incline the plants when young, than allow them to grow upwards to some considerable height, and let them be bent all at once' by the force of the wind. Earliest Crops.—It was formerly an aim in pea culture to have the first gathering as early as the 4th of June, the birth-day of George III. But by various modes of forwarding and protecting, green pease are obtained much earlier in ordinary seasons. To have them, however, in the first week in June, is as early as some can attempt, when means are limited. There may be a south border at disposal, sheltered either by a wall, hedge, or other fence. Taking advantage of such, the first sowing, for an early crop may be made about the middle of November,jchoosing of course the earliest sort of pea, or several of the earliest varieties; but enough of each to afford a dish, by taking the one or two most forward pods on each plant. To protect from mice, the seed should be covered with a greater depth of soil than is usual for summer crops; but the nature of the covering should be lighter. The pea will spring through a considerable depth of soil without injury. The seeds when sown may be just covered with some good soil, and then with several inches of sand. The sand would be easily enough worked by mice, but it forms too unstable a roof for their burrows, and by falling in renders their mining operations in vain. Chopped furze has been employed, but it is not quite effectual; for mice live snugly enough under furze bushes where old fallen prickles abound. Powdered rosin, or red lead, rubbed over the seeds, is said to be a preventive, so is a covering of about 1 inch deep of sifted coal-ashes. Before the pease reach the surface of tlieground, the latter should be stirred and made fine, taking care in doing so not to injure the tops of the young plants. When they are a little above ground, earth should be drawn to them, and they ought to be sheltered by sticks, stronger, and placed closer together, on the north than on the south side. On the latter, indeed, the sticks should be as thinly set as is consistent with preventing the plants from falling, till their tendrils can lay hold of the more substantial sticks, intended for both shelter and support. In quarters, and sometimes in borders, the ground for early sown pease is thrown up in ridges, the bases of which24G GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. are equal to the distance which the sort of pea would require between the rows, if sown on level ground. Their height may be 2 feet above the bottom; the latter should be made lower at one end than the other, in order that water may not collect in it. In this way the roots of the plants will be free from stagnant water; whilst the pease, being sown about half-way up the slope, will be sheltered by the upper part of the ridge. If the weather and state of the ground permit, another sowing should be made in January, still choosing warm sheltered situations. Mr. Hardy recommends the first crop to be sown, part on a southern border and part on a northern aspect, both at the same time:'—-This insures success either in inclement or mild winters, and sometimes both crops are preserved. Iu open Compartments, let the ground be ridged 1 yard wide; sow both on the southern and northern sides of the ridges. In case of long frost and snow, there are ten chances to one that those on the cold side will be protected, whilst those on the sunny side, deprived of snow, will be destroyed by frost. In mild weather, dredge soot between them in order to ward off slugs, &c. Sink a pot or pitcher, greased with good lard, and half-filled with water, into the earth up to the brim as soon as the pease are sown; this will trap all mice. Early dwarf pease are occasionally sown along the bottoms of walls; but it is better not to do so if any other means can be adopted, because they interfere with the performance of operations necessary for the trees. The wooden pales of any iuclosure, not immediately connected with the garden, may be taken advantage of, and various other means of shelter may be devised, according to the means and materials at command. In case of severe frost it is a good plan to mulch near the pease with litter, leaves, or other substances that will prevent the ground from being frozen. Sowing in Pots.—Pots, where they can be spared for the purpose, afford a very convenient means of forwarding an early crop, as they can be easily moved from place to place, and exposed to air and light. Various modes of sowing in pots have been recommended. Some dispose the pease in a circle by the side of the pot, and on planting out the ball is opened so as to allow of the circle of pease being extended along the drill. In this way a ring of pease in an 8-inch pot would occupy nearly 2 feet of row. We, however, prefer pots about 3 or 4 inches in diameter. In these the seeds should be sown equally, but not too thickly, and reared in a house or frame, but in all cases near the light, till the state of the weather admit of their being planted out in the open ground. A mild time should be chosen for this operation, and it would be desirable that the wind should be in the south-west, for in that case there would be little danger of frost at night. If turned out of the pots, and planted by means of a trowel, with the balls entire, and about I foot apart, and the plants immediately sticked, the latter will fan so as to till the rows better even than if the balls were broken and extended so as to meet each other in the drill. After the sticks are inserted, some spruce branches may be stuck in on the northern side for additional shelter. The plants should be earthed up in the usual way, and stopped above the third or fourth flower. The Parisian market-gardeners, according to Courtois-Gerard, sow in the beginning of November, in frames, placed on a border with a good aspect. They allow about If pint of seed to 52 square feet, and this produces plants sufficient for six or eight frames of that area. The seeds are covered very slightly; the sashes are put on, and when the pease have begun to push they are covered with a thin layer of fine earth. In the course of December, the frames into which the young plants are to be transplanted are placed, and the ground inside is dug out so as to be 18 or 20 inches below the sashes, the earth removed being placed against the outside of the frames. After this the ground on the inside is dug, levelled, and raked, and 4 drills 3 inches deep are drawn lengthwise in each frame at equal distances; but a greater space should be given between the first row and the front of the frame than that allowed between the rows themselves, because that part is naturally the dampest. The frames having been prepared, the young plants, as soon as they are 3 or 4 inches high, are taken up, but without breaking the roots, and planted in patches of tln’ee or four, placed 8 inches asunder in the row. During frost the sashes are covered at night with straw-mats, and air is given whenever the weather is sufficiently mild. When the pease are 8 or 10 inches high, all the stems are inclined towards the back of the frame, and to keejx them in this position a little earth is drawn to their base. When the plants come into blossom they are pinched above the third or fourth flower in order to make them bear the sooner. Whenever the sun has sufficiently warmed the ground gentle wateringsare given; butthisshould only be done very sparingly till the pease begin to pod, otherwise a too vigorous growth, which would be detrimental to the crop, might be the result. Usually the pease thus treated produce pods fit for gathering in the first fortnight in April. When pots cannot be had in sufficient quantity for raising plants for an early supply,KITCHEN GARDEN. 247 the above method maybe advantageously adopted. Although every possible care may have been taken to protect winter-sown pease from accidents, and the ravages of mice, birds, and other enemies, it frequently happens that the rows have many blanks, and as pease transplant very well, especially when not above 4 inches high, it is a good plan to sow some in a frame for the purpose of filling up vacancies. By this means the ground where, from various causes, only stragglers linger, can be properly furnished with well-conditioned plants. In the climate of Britain there are few instances in which the temperature is not above freezing during some period of the twenty-four hours; and pease, when the plants are young, will bear several degrees of frost without injury. They may, therefore, be forwarded in any place where they can be protected at night, and that will be sufficient. They may be exposed to the open air and light every day for a sufficient length of time to maintain the foliage in a green state, and with few exceptions they will daily advance more or less in growth. If frames are not at command, turf-pits could in many cases be formed with rods or slender poles laid to support thick straw-covers, fitted so as to be easily rolled up or unrolled. Or the pease may be sown in large pots, a branched twiggy stick, as tall as the plants are intended to be grown, being at the same time firmly inserted in the centre of the pot. Instead of a branchy stick, Mr. Wilson employed moderately strong willows, inserted at the sides of the pot, with courses of small twine run round the willows, and at 6 inches apart. The advantage of this mode is, that the plants can be kept in the pots till the produce is obtained, and previous to that they can be moved to where there is light, and a sufficient amount of heat. Pease, when young, will not bear forcing. Mr. Wilson tried to force them in pits, and in various ways, but found that they do not bear forcing till they are out of bloom and the pods set; then they will bear it and be forwarded admirably. Main Crops.—The sowings for the main crops should be made in March, April, and May, at intervals which must vary according to the variety employed and other circumstances. Many sow for succession when the previous sowing appears above ground; but this rule should not be made absolute. For example, a sowing made when the weather is very favourable for vegetation, and on the first appearance of the previous sowing, will almost overtake it, and thus form too close a succession. If sorts are employed that do not naturally form a succession, the sowings will require to be made at intervals of a fortnight or three weeks. The periods which the respective varieties require from the time of sowing till they come into bearing varies of course in different seasons and localities, so that the only way by which a correct knowledge as to those which will naturally form a succession can be acquired is to try the different kinds, and note the order in which they become fit for use, and then it will be easy to regulate the sowings so as to keep up a succession. Late Pease.—-By selecting proper sorts, and adopting a suitable mode of cultivation, pease may be obtained late in autumn if the weather be tolerably mild. It is necessary that the ground should be well and deeply trenched, and if dry it should be thoroughly moistened, particularly the lower portion of it, otherwise the crop is apt to mildew. The ground being so far prepared, shallow trenches should be dug out as for celery, and some good rotten dung laid in the bottom. Part of the soil turned out of the trench ought to be scattered over the dung, then a layer of dung and soil mixed; finally, a layer of soil without manure, and in that the seed should be sown. The best sorts for a late crop are the Wrinkled Marrows, of which some prefer the dwarf, others the tall kinds. In warm soils and situations, these may be sown in the second or third week of June; but in the northern parts of the kingdom the first week will be as late as they will blossom and form pods in any quantity. The tall sorts for late produce should be topped when 4 ft. high, and again when they attain the height of 6 ft. The Early Charlton and the Auvergne may be sown as late as the middle of July, and may afford a late supply, as they form pods in a shorter period from the time of sowing than the Marrow kinds. The plants raised from these sowings should be earthed up and sticked in the usual way, and great care should be taken that the extremities of the roots are well supplied with moisture. If the air be hot and dry, the drain of moisture from the soil by the roots will be very great, so that befoi'e one is aware their extremities drain the soil to too great an extent, and then the whole plant must suffer. If once too dry, the evil cannot be effectually remedied, but it may be easily prevented by timely and effectual watering. If the weather continue dry, a good mulching to the distance of 1 foot on each side of the row will be very beneficial. It is not natural, however, for the pea to vegetate from seed in the hottest period of the season, and then have consequently to form its seeds under a great decline of temperature. It succeeds best when sown so that it may progress towards maturity with a rising temperature. Therefore248 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. it is probable that the best plan to obtain good late pease with the greatest certainty would be to sow in pots in July, and keep the plants in a l ather cool place till they had nearly advanced to a flowering state, and then remove them to a warmer situation, such as that in front of a south I wall. In this way they would be kept comparatively cool during the early period of their growth; and although the heat would decline as they advanced to flowering, yet to them the effects would be in a great measure counteracted by a removal from a cool to a warm aspect, where the plants would be exposed even to an increase of temper-ture compared with that in which they had been reared. To save Seed.—In order to have well-matured seeds, the crop should be sown at the most favourable period for the uniformly progressive growth of the plant. If sown too early, the plants suffer from a too lingering vegetation; and, on the other hand, if sown in the heat of summer, they suffer still more from being stimulated to make too rapid growth, or from drought. The best time to sow for a seed-crop is intermediate between these extremes, namely, in March. The very early sorts are more apt to be attacked by certain insects than later kinds, which are supposed to escape on account of their not coming into flower till the insect has changed. On this account it may be advisable where early sorts are liable to be attacked to sow them later, so that they may not come into flower when the insects are abundant. Insects, do.—Pease are attacked by numerous enemies—mice, birds, and the snake-millipedes eat the seeds deposited in the ground. The young plants, a.4 soon as they appear above it, are cut off by snails, slugs, and by the pea-weevils, ,Sitona Fig. 193. Spotted and Striped Tea-weevils—Sitona crinita and S. lineata. I. Spotted pea-weevil, natural size; 2. magnified. 3. Striped pea-weevil, natural size; 4. magnified. 5. Leaf notched by weevils. crinita, S. lineata (Fig. 193), and Otiorhynchus picipes. For the slugs and snails the only remedy is hand-picking; for the weevils either of two plans may be adopted. If strips of canvas be thickly tarred or painted, and stretched along each side of the rows of pease early in the morning, and two or three hours later the plants be shaken over them, the weevils will fall off and be held fast by the adhesive surface. Soot, wood-ashes, or lime, dusted over the leaves, render them unpalatable to these enemies, and send them off for forage elsewhere. The caterpillars of the Y-moth (Plusia gamma) feed upon the leaves, which are also mined by the maggots of a minute fly, Phytomyza nigricornis. Birds and the pea-maggots, which are the offspring of a Pea-moth—Tortrix piscina. 1. Caterpillar oil pea, which it lias eaten out. 2. Caterpillar magnified. 3 and 4. Moth, natural size and magnified. moth called Tortrix pisana (Fig. 194), attack the pease in the pods. Lastly, the interior of the seed-pease are eaten out by the maggots of the bean-grain beetle (Bruchus granarius), and in North America the pea-beetle {Bruchuspisi) proves very destructive in the same way. Pease are also subject to be attacked by the mildew {Erysiphe com-I munis), which appears to be induced by a defective supply of moisture. This disease may be prevented by copious waterings, and kept under by dusting with sulphur. PENNYROYAL. See Mint. PICRIDIUM VULGARE (Desf.—Syngenesia Polygamia LEqualis, L.; Composite, D. C.; As-teracese, Lind.)—is an annual plant, a native of the south of France, which has been introduced into the French kitchen-gardens through the exertions of M. Vilmorin. The leaves, cut when young and tender, furnish a salad much esteemed in Italy, and which is said to be mild and good, I partaking slightly of the flavour of a leg of mutton. It is sown in a warm situation in March or April, and in succession throughout the summer and autumn. In summer it should be sown in a shady situation,and watered frequently. The leaves from each sowing may be cut several times, as fresh ones are produced after cutting. POTATO (Solatium tuberosum, L.—Pentandria Monogynia, L.; Solaneag D. C.; Solanacene, Lind.)KITCHEN GARDEN. 249 —The potato is a perennial plant, with a tuberous subterranean stem, a native of Chili and Peru, where it is found wild under widely different conditions of soil and climate—on dry sterile mountains, and in damp forests near the sea. It is generally supposed to have been introduced into England, from Virginia, by Sir Walter Raleigh, in 1586. According to Sir Joseph Banks, it also appears to have been brought to Spain from South America in the early part of the same century, and from that country it was carried into Italy and Germany. It was only towards the end of the eighteenth century that the potato began to be extensively cultivated in Britain, and from that period it rapidly advanced in favour till it became an important article of food to all classes of the community, and the principal support of the people of Ireland; and even since the appearance of the destructive disease with which the plant has of late years been attacked, it still is, and probably ever will continue to be, a crop of the greatest importance to the people of that island. The composition of the potato varies considerably, according to the variety cultivated, the soil in which it is grown, and various other circumstances; but the average composition, as deduced from numerous analyses by Fresenius, is as follows:— In Natural State. In Dry State. Albumen, 2'43 841 Starch, 15-00 51'89 Gum and organic acids,.. 3*30 11-42 Fatty matters, 0T0 0 35 Fibre, 7'00 24-22 Asparagine, 0T0 0 35 Ashes, 0'97 3*36 Water, 71T0 100-00 100-00 The proportion of nitrogenized and non-nitro-genized substances, ashes, and water, has been determined by Horsford and Krocker with the following results:-— White Potatoes grown at Giessen. Blue Potatoes grown at Giessen. State. Dry. State. Dry. Nitrogenized or flesh-forming constituents,. 1 2-49 9 94 2-37 7*63 Substances not contain- ing nitrogen, and fitted to support respiration, or to lay on fat:— a, Starch, sugar, &c., 18-00 71-86 23-00 74-05 b, Fibre, 3-6G 14-G1 4'05 14-97 Ashes, 0-90 3 59 1-04 3-35 Water, 74-95 68-94 100-00 100-00 |l00*00 100-00 The composition of the ash, as calculated from the analyses of five different varieties made by Mr. T. Herapath, is as follows:— Potash,....................... 54'401 Soda,........................traces. Chloride of sodium,.......... 0'41!) Carbonate of lime.... ....... 2 '030 Carbonate of magnesia,....... 1"G39 Sulphate of lime,............. 0'025 Phosphate of lime,........... 3‘222 Phosphate of magnesia, ....... 8'052 Phosphate of iron,............ 0'012 Phosphate of alumina,....... traces. Phosphoric acid,............. 7'301 Sulphuric acid,.............. 4'748 Silicic acid,................ 0 025 Carbonic acid,............... 18'124 100'000 Percentage of ash,...... 1 '1221 From the above analyses it appears that the potato supplies nearly all the substances x-equired for the nourishment of the human fi’ame, and that 1 it is a good supporter of l'espiration, and well fitted for the pi-oduction of fat; but greatly in-| ferior to pease, beans, and all sorts of corn as ■ food. The comparatively small amount of nitro-genized matter which it contains lenders it of I little value for the fonnation of muscle, and incapable of supporting px-olonged muscular exei’-tion, unless consumed in gi’eater quantity than can be digested by ordinary men. It is to this circumstance that the disinclination to labour, re-marked in those who live almost exclusively on a potato diet, is probably in great measui'e to j be ascribed. In confirmation of this view, it may | be remarked that the Irish laboui’er in England, I where he obtains food containing a lai'ge pi-opor-tion of flesh-forming mattei', easily performs woi'k of the most laborious description. Another cii'cumstance worthy of remark is, that milk, in which the flesh-forming or nitrogenized mattei’s pi’edominate, is frequently used along with the potato, and this would seem as if nature taught the rude peasant how to supply the deficiency of these highly important elements of nutrition. Besides the value of the potato as an article of food, its constituents are turned to useful account I in vai’ious other ways. Potato starch, according to Dr. Smee, may be converted into dextrine, or British gum, by merely heating it. And this substance he informs us is now largely used as a substitute for gum-arabic, and that the postage-stamps are gummed with potato dextrine. Potato starch is often sold under the name of English arrowroot, and is probably often sold for the true arrowroot, being applicable to the same purposes. To exti’aet the starch, the potatoes should250 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. be grated fine in water, and then strained through a sieve ; when settled, the starch by its superior weight will sink to the bottom. The water above it should then be poured off; and the starch should be Wished by mixing it successively with water till the latter becomes quite tasteless. The starch should then be dried in a warm room, and thus prepared it will keep for a long period, and when required it may be employed for various purposes. After the starch is extracted from the pulp, the remainder becomes as hard as horn, and various articles, such as snuff-boxes, &c., are made from it. If it should prove perfectly insoluble in water it might be useful as a protecting material for some horticultural purposes. The potato plant also contains a principle called solanine. It is composed, according to Blanchet, of— Carbon. Hydrogen. Nitrogen. Oxygen. 0211 8-92 1-64 27-33 It exists principally in the leaves and stem, and perhaps in the tubers to a very small extent, but when the latter become green they are about to return to the state of leaves, and it is then certainly present. It neutralizes acids, forming crystallizable salts, which have an acrid taste. It is very poisonous. The varieties of the potato were exceedingly numerous previous to the outbreak of the disease which universally attacked them. Their characters till then were generally permanent, but the disease appears to have completely destroyed a large portion of these varieties; whilst the characters of others which have escaped total destruction seem to have been greatly altered. We shall only name a few of those which are most approved of for garden culture at the present day:— Early: Kidney—Ashleaf, Kentish Ashleaf, Myatt’s Aslileaf, Mona’s Pride, Fenn’s Early White Kidney. Half-long—Peake’s First Early, Giant King, Snowflake. Round—Early Union, Fenn’s Early Market. Second Early: Kidney—Cattell’s Eclipse, Dawe’s Matchless, Excelsior Kidney, Lapstone (including Haigh's Seedling and Yorkshire Hero), American Late Rose. Ilalf-long—Bresee’s Climax. Round—Dalrnahoy, Forty-fold, Regent (including Early Oxford, Rintoul’s White Don, Gryffe Castle, &c.), Vermont Beauty. Late: Kidney—Fluke, Model. Half-long—Paterson’s Victoria. Round—Red-skinned Flourball, WelheckRed. Of the above sorts, the Ash-leaved Kidney is the one generally employed for forcing, and for the earliest boi’der crops; and in England the early Kidney varieties are preferred to the round sorts, although in Scotland it is said to be the contrary. It is preferred on account of its form, appearance, and earliness, to any of the round varieties. Rivers’ Royal Ashleaf is an excellent handsome variety for forcing and early crops out of doors, but later than the old Ash-leaved. Mona’s Pride, a large, handsome, and productive kind for out-door. Of the early round kinds, Ilogg’s Coldstream is the best for first crops. The Cornish Kidney is well adapted for a particular mode of treatment, by which, previous to the disease at least, a tolerably good substitute for forced potatoes during winter was obtained from late-grown tubers packed in earth. Soil.—The best soil for the potato is a naturally good friable loam, rather light than ofner-wise, and free from stagnant water. In such soil the produce is abundant and the quality good. Thin sandy soils also produce well-flavoured potatoes; but of course to obtain quantity of produce the assistance of manure is necessary. The worst soils for the potato are those which are naturally wet and heavy, and those which have long been cropped and heavily manured; hence, garden ground in most cases does not produce tubers of so good quality as those obtained from the fields. It is therefore not advisable to occupy the garden with any but early kinds, if the general supply can be obtained from the fields. Manure.—In good garden soil the less manure that is used the better flavoured will be the produce, and it will also be much less affected by the disease. Therefore whilst the malady prevails, or symptoms of it still remain, it is not advisable to apply much manure. It is to be hoped, however, that the disease will soon disappear, and that the plant will return to its former state of health, and in that case it would be desirable to know what kinds of manure have proved beneficial. Amongst the manures that have been employed for the potato may be enumerated stable-yard manure, horse, cow, and pig dung, leaves, leaf-mould, peat-ashes, wood-ashes, peat-charcoal, and other carbonaceous substances, lime, gypsum, bone-dust, superphosphate of lime, sulphate of ammonia, sulphate of magnesia, sulphate of soda, nitrate of soda, and common salt. Farm-yard manure spread along the bottom of the furrows, and the sets placed upon the manure, is a very common practice. Many prefer planting the sets, and then laying the dung over them. Where dung is scarce, and the soil poor, these modes of application may be advantageously pursued; but in ground so rich as that of most gardens the manure may be dug in equally, and in this way the crop is considered to be better flavoured than when the dung is more immediately applied to the roots. Long dung is good for moist loamy soils, and fresh littery stable-dung is suitable for early crops. Farm-yard manure, together with wood-ashes, has been found to answer well as regards quantity of produce, whilst theKITCHEN GARDEN. 251 ashes lessen the tendency to disease. Cow-dung is a more lasting manure than horse-dung, and is considered better for late sorts in warm, dry, sandy soils, as it retains more moisture. It should be well mixed with litter, and be placed below the sets, so. as not to be in contact with the young tubers, otherwise it is apt to make them scab. The same remark applies to pigs’-dung, which should be either well mixed with the soil, or preferably formed into a compost with earth previous to planting. Leaves make a good manure, and where the soil is damp and heavy they are of advantage In keeping the ground open when used in an undecomposed state. They may be placed under or over the sets, or both, or distributed equally throughout the soil in digging; but they should be turned over and thoroughly wetted before they are dug in; for if turned into the soil in cakes, they are apt to remain in that state and become musty. Wood-ashes are useful for supplying potash and other inorganic substances required by the plant; and they may be advantageously applied where the soil contains a large amount of decayed vegetable matter. The same remark will apply to lime, which is also useful in killing slugs and other vermin which attack the tubers. Gypsum, bone-dust, and superphosphate of lime are best for humid soils; they induce earliness, and where this is an object, as it must be whilst the disease continues, they may be applied with considerable advantage. From experiments made in the garden of the Horticultural Society of London with thirty different substances as manures for the potato, the following results were obtained:— o Manure. ; Whole Produce per Acre. Increase Acre. per | Lar- Tubers. Increase Acre. per Whole 1 Haulm. increase per Acre. None ' tons. 11 cuts. 7 lbs. 109 tons. cuts. lbs. i tons. 10 cwts. 4 lbs. 105 tons. cwts. lbs. cuts 0 lbs. 39 cuts. lbs. Phosphate of ammonia,.. 13 2 6 1 14 9 11 16 78 1 11 83 ! 9 0 2 73 Sulphate of soda, 13 0 111 1 19 8 1 12 4 74 1 19 81 8 4 1 77 Sulphate of magnesia, 13 19 94 9 11 97 13 0 61 2 15 08 ; 8 71 9 32 Sulphate of ammonia 14 9 105 3 1 108 13 6 101 3 1 108 I 8 27 1 100 Muriate of potash, Common salt, 15 0 55 3 12 58 14 1 22 3 16 29 10 69 4 30 15 2 72 3 14 75 13 18 2 O O 13 9 11 35 4 108 Nitrate of soda, 15 9 89 4 1 92 : 14 1 22 3 16 29 10 36 6 109 Muriate of ammonia, 17 1 75 5 13 78 1 16 15 7 6 10 14 15 77 9 38 The potatoes were of the Bread-fruit variety, the sets were as nearly as possible of the same size, and were planted on the 20th of March, and on the 12th of May, when most of the young plant! were from 2 to 4 inches above ground, the manures were sprinkled as uniformly as possible on each side of the row of young plants to a distance of about 6 inches. The crop was taken up in the middle of September. In the year 1844 experiments as to the effects of various manures on the potato crop were again undertaken. The potatoes, which were of the Bread-fruit variety, were cut into sets and planted on the 3d of May, in rows 2\ feet asunder, about 7 inches apart in the row, and 6 inches deep. After having been mixed with about 7 parts of fine soil, the guano manures were scattered along the bottoms of the trenches, and theu watered from the rose of a watering-pot. The crop was taken up and weighed on the 21st of October. Many of the tubers were injured by slugs, and on that account the relative amount of total produce will afford the best criterion by which the comparative value of the manures experimented upon can be judged, as far at least as can be done from the results of a single trial:— Substances applied as Manures. Rate per Acre. Approximate Cost per Acre. Produce per Acre. Total Produce per Acre. Large. Small or Damaged. cwts. lbs. £ s. d. tons. cwts. lbs. tons. cwts. lbs. tons. cuts. lbs. 1. Guano F, Gibbs’ 4 5 9 4 6 12 10 80 5 3 91 17 14 5 j 2. Potter’s artificial guano, 4 5 2 10 0 15 2 0 2 0 50 17 2 50 i 3. Charcoal dust, 75 bushels. 6 0 0 10 14 104 5 18 72 10 3 04 cuts. lbs. i 4. Sulphate of magnesia, 10 20 7 10 0 10 10 36 5 7 90 15 18 20 5. Bone-dust, 10 20 9 0 0 8 9 98 5 18 72 14 8 58 0. Bone-dust, 10 88 6 0 0 I 7 2 102 6 14 14 13 17 4 7. Sulphate of magnesia, 10 88 5 0 0 10 4 104 2 19 36 13 4 28 8. No manure, 10 15 80 1 0 108 12 2 76 It appears from the above that guano, marked I turn after allowing for the cost of the manure, F, from Gibbs, afforded the most profitable re- I and next to it Potter’s artificial guano.252 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. The proper selection of manures must depend on the nature of the soil, the climate, and the variety cultivated. In soils where the haulm grows too luxuriantly no manure, or at all events none that would materially increase that luxuriance, should be applied, especially if the climate is moist. Superphosphate of lime would probably be the best application under such circumstances. Varieties naturally dwarf will bear ammoniacal manures better than those that are naturally tall. Propagation.—Potatoes are easily propagated by seeds, cuttings of the stem or branches, by planting whole tubers, or by those cut into sets. The seed should be sown early in spring, in pans filled with rich light soil, placed in moderate heat. Before the young plants get crowded, they should be pricked out into small pots, and shifted as they require it, or they may be planted in rich soil under a frame with very slight heat, giving them plenty of air in fine weather, and more or less at all times when there is no danger of frost. The plants should be fully exposed before planting out, which had better be deferred till fine weather in May. They ought to be planted in a rich warm border, putting a little leaf-mould below them, if it can be afforded, to assist their rooting. Afterwards they should be earthed up according to their strength. Only small tubers will be produced the same year; but these, planted in the following spring, will produce good-sized tubers. Seeds from the same individual will produce very different varieties, and hundreds of such have been raised since the prevalence of the disease. If neither glass nor artificial heat is at command, the seeds may be sown on a warm border. Propagation by cuttings may be successfully resorted to for increasing any particular variety. For example, the original tuber may be cut into sets, planted early in spring, in heat, and the shoots cut off near their bases when they have reached a finger’s length, and planted deeply in rich soil. Fresh shoots will push again and again from the original sets, and may be treated in the same way. Propagation by planting the tuber, or parts of it furnished with eyes, is, however, the mode usually employed. With many it is a doubtful question whether whole or cut tubers yield the greater return. From experiments made in the garden of the Horticultural Society at Chiswick, it was found, on the mean of two plantations, one made in March and the other in April, that the produce from cut sets exceeded that from whole tubers by nearly 1 ton per acre. In the April planting the produce from whole tubers was somewhat greater than that from single eyes; but in the March plantation the cut sets gave nearly 2 tons per acre more produce than the whole tubers, the weight of potatoes planted being deducted in every case. Another important consideration is, whether small tubers or large ones should be employed for making sets; for, if by using the former an equally good crop could be obtained, a considerable saving in the expense of sets would be effected. Large tubers, however, are preferable, for the following reason i-—In all plants large buds tend to produce large shoots, and small or weak buds the reverse. Now, the eyes of potatoes are true buds, and in small tubers they are comparatively weak; they consequently produce weak shoots, and the crop from such is inferior to that obtained from plants originating from lai'ger tubers, furnished with stronger eyes; and this conclusion has been justified by the results of actual experiments. The part of the potato employed for sets is not a matter of indifference. It was found by an experiment made in the garden of the Horticultural Society, that sets taken from the points of the tubers, and planted in March, yielded at the rate of upwards of 3 tons per acre more produce than was obtained from employing the base of the tubers. In a plantation made in April the difference was much less, but still in favour of sets from the points or top ends of the potatoes. Cottagers may therefore use with advantage, sav two-thirds of the base of the tuber, and put aside the toj) for sets. Mode of Cutting the Potato for Pets.—The potato should be held with the top end upwards. The eyes at the base are few as compared with those at the top, and they are also sometimes blind, or so weak that they do not push. Tin y should therefore be closely inspected; aud in cases where the development of an eye is suspected, it will be advisable to cut the set so that it may have two eyes. Sorts similar to the Breadfruit, which have the eyes almost level with the general surface, are most apt to be blind. As the base of the eye slants downwards towards the centre of the tuber, the knife should be entered above the eye, and the cut should slant downwards towards the centre, and parallel to the direction of the base of the eye. In this way the portion of tuber containing the lowest good eve must be detached; then turning the potato round, the knife should be entered above the next higher eye, and with it a similar portion should be taken off. Proceed thus till near the top, where the eyes are so numerous that if each were cut into a set, the latter would be too small; but this may be done in cases wdiere it is desir-KITCHEN GARDEN. 253 able to multiply some particular sort as speedily as possible; or, in other words, to obtain a numerous return, irrespective of size or weight. A small portiou containing a number of these top-eyes is therefore usually pared off and thrown aside, so as to leave only one or two eyes to a moderate portion of tuber. In times of scarcity, recourse has been had to merely scooping out the eyes for sets, or stamping them out with a hollow punch, the bulk of the potato in either case being left for food. By early planting in well-prepared soil, good plants can be reared by this mode, especially if the early part of the season prove favourable. It appears from experiments recorded in the Transactions of the Horticultural Society, that cut sets planted in March prod need a better crop than similar sets planted in April, although the produce from whole tubers planted at these periods was the reverse. From this it may be inferred, that when only small portions of the tuber accompany the bud, the planting should be performed as early in spring as the state of the weather will permit. If the weather or state of the ground be unfavourable, the small pieces for sets may be placed with the buds upwards in soil under cover till they can be planted out in the open ground. Potatoes intended for sets are considered better if exposed to the light, when taken up, until they become green throughout; they are then stored in a dry place till the time of planting. It is thought that this proceeding has the effect of increasing their powers of vegetation, and renders the plants less subject to disease. Others cut the sets and dry them before planting, but this does not appear to be of any advantage ; on the contrary, many of the dried sets do not push at all, and others but weakly. A change of sets is advantageous. Instead of using tubers produced for many years successively in the same soil, and in the same locality, it is found advantageous to obtain sets grown in a different soil, or in a different part of the country, or both. Mr. Ewing, of Crieff, Perthshire, states that in his part of the country “ it has been the general practice, for a good number of years back, to get seeds [sets] from the higher districts of the county, confirming the opinion that the less ripe potatoes are, the better seed do they make.” That it is profitable to procure sets from a higher part of the country is highly probable; indeed, if it were not so, it is not likely that it would have been made a general practice for a number of years. We do not, however, concur in the opinion, that it is in consequence of the potatoes grown on high ground being less ripe that they prove better for sets. The potato cannot produce good tubers unless its foliage be well exposed to light; for it is by the agency of light that all the secretions are formed. The superiority that sets of potatoes have which are grown in elevated situations is therefore probably to be attributed to the plants being well exposed to light, rather than to the imperfect ripening of the tubers. The potato may suffer in its vegetative powers from either too much or too little moisture; but as regards light, it does unquestionably suffer from too little of that agent —certainly not from too much. Tubers grown in shaded situations are of bad quality as compared with those pi-oduced in the open fields, all other circumstances being the same. On elevated ground the plant is exposed to light from almosl an entire hemisphere. In such a situation the plant is most favourably circumstanced, as far as the agency of light is concerned. The question is, whether, in a low but warm situation, where the plant makes a rapid growth of long straggling stems, from not being fully exposed to light, the tissues are as perfectly formed as in plants grown in an elevated situation, in a lower temperature, but more exposed to light, under the influence, of which the plants form strong sterna capable of maintaining themselves erect. In the latter case, the buds on the stem above ground produce substantial shoots; and, that being the case, there is every reason to believe that the buds on the tubers below ground will also produce vigorous shoots when circumstances admit of their development. We therefore conclude, that sets are best from tubers grown in elevated situations, not because the}’’ may happen to be more watery than those grown in low ground, but from the plants having had the advantage of a greater share of light, in consequence of which their organization is more perfect; and K it is admitted that a change of sets is beneficial, that change should be from high opeu situations to such as are lower. Time and Manner of Planting,—The usual time of planting is spring, and the earlier the better, provided the ground is in proper working order, If this be the case in the end of February, so much the better; but at all events the planting should be done by the 1st of March, or as early I in that month as circumstances will permit. The late Thomas Andrew Knight paid much attention to the cultivation of the potato, and with | great success. With regard to the period of | planting, he says, I have uniformly found that to obtain crops of potatoes of great weight and excellence, the period of planting should never be later than the beginning of March. Autumn planting has been recommended as a I preventive of the disease; but, if the potatoes254 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. are kept in contact with soil of nearly the same temperature as the ground, they will be in much the same circumstances as if they were planted, only more secure from the injurious effects of frost and saturation. Besides, the ground when dug and planted before winter, and afterwards drenched and beaten by the winter rains, cannot be in such good condition for the progress of the roots as that which is newly prepared at the time of planting in spring. Distance between the Rows.—The distance apart at which the sets should be placed depends on the richness of the soil, the habit of growth of the sort planted, and on the situation as regards exposure to light. The richer the soil, the taller the variety, and the less exposed the situation is to light, the greater should be the distance between the rows. According to these circumstances, the rows ought to be from 15 to 30 inches apart. Mr. Knight was of opinion that the distance of the rows from each other should be equal to the height of the stems. Hence, those which grow only 6 inches high, would be (i inches apart, and those which attain the height of 3 feet should be accordingly 3 feet apart. As regards exposure to light, this is a good rule; but rows only 6 inches or even 1 foot apart do not admit of being properly earthed up, and this consideration must not be overlooked. If soil be taken from between the rows to form the ridge in eai’thing up, it can scarcely be done properly if the rows are only 1 foot apart. Sufficient earth could be introduced between the rows from alleys or adjoining spaces left for the purpose, but it is better to make the rows not less than 15 inches apart, even for dwarf early sorts. Those which are somewhat stronger growing, and later, may be allowed 18 inches between the rows, or 21 inches if the soil is rich, and the situation not fully exposed to light. In light soil 2 feet for second early crops may be considered sufficient. For the general crop, 27 inches between the rows has been found a good distance, and one which admits of the plants being earthed up on a good principle. In rich garden soils, the kinds of potato which have tall luxuriant stems, requiring a wider distance than that above-mentioned, should not be employed; such varieties are better adapted for cultivation in the open tields. Distance between the Sets in the Rows.—The distance between the sets in the rows should be regulated by the nature of the soil and the vigour of the variety. In rich soil, of course, more space should be allowed than in poor; and considerably more for vigorous-growing sorts than for those with small dwarf steins. In con- sideration of these circumstances, the distance between the sets in the rows may vary from 6 to 12 inches. The less distance will be proper for the dwarf sorts, the greater for the strong-growing ones. In general, 8 inches from centre to centre of the sets will be found a very good distance for garden crops. In the case of very strong-growing kinds, it cannot be denied that cpiite as much produce may be obtained at 12 or 15 inches apart in the rows as at 8 inches; but, when the plants have much space, they are apt to produce tubers varying greatly in size, some of the first formation being too large, while those of a later production are too small. In neither case are the tubers so good as "when there is a more equal and middle-sized crop; and it should therefore be the aim to obtain a crop of this description. If a sort is naturally inclined to grow too large, it is well to plant it rather closely in the row; and it is better to do this than to limit the distance between the rows. It is much better to have the rows 27 inches apart, and the sets 8 inches asunder, than to have the rows 21 inches apart, and the sets 9 inches from each other; and this, again, is preferable to rows 18 inches asunder, and sets 12 inches from each other. In either of these ways, the same number of sets will be required to plant a rod of ground; but there is, in the greater distance between the rows, and the less distance between the sets, a double advantage: first, as regards the labour in planting, and, secondly, in a greater space for earthing up being afforded. When planted at the distance of 27 inches from row to row, the number of trenches required to be cut out is one-third less than when the rows are 18 inches apart; and when planting by the dibber is adopted, one-third more ground has to be traversed. The advantages in earthing up will be noticed when that operation comes to be considered. Depth of the Sets.-—In general, about 6 inches is a proper depth for the sets. In strong, rather heavy soils, that depth ought not to be exceeded; but in light sandv soils, good sets may be placed 7 inches deep. The following experiment was made in the garden of the Horticultural Society of London, to try the effects of different depths of planting:—A quarter was divided into four equal parts, and planted with sets in the second week in April, at the respective depths of 3, 4, 6, and 9 inches. The results computed for an acre are as follows: — Depth. Produce. Ins. tons. cwts. lbs. 3 ...................... 13 0 14 4 ...................... 14 1 18 6........................ 14 11 4 9........................ 13 0 111KITCHEN GARDEN. 255 The greatest produce was from the plantation G inches deep; and next to it, from that at 4 inches. Those planted only 3 inches deep gave the least return. Many of the sets buried 9 inches did not vegetate, or at least failed in reaching the surface. This was also found to be the case by Hasler Hollist, Esq., in 1835, when he adopted the mode of deep planting. The results of his experiments are detailed in the following note:— ‘‘I have this year renewed my experiments on the potatoes you sent me in 1833 from Mr. Knight’s collection. I planted in the latter end of March, and at intervals during the whole month of April, but I am satisfied I was, contrary to the received opinion, too early in some instances. “ I also planted at various depths, 9 inches, 7 inches, and from 5 to 6. In nearly every instance the shallow planting has succeeded, but in none the deepest, and in the latter case many of the sets have not vegetated at all; many more have not reached the surface.” As a precaution against frost, autumn-planted potatoes should be planted fully 7 inches deep; or if more shallow, the rows should be covered with leaves, fern, litter, or other protecting material. Mode of Planting,—Potatoes are planted in various ways; but the modes usually adopted in gardens are in trenches cut out by the spade, or in holes made by a blunt dibber. The former mode is, in our opinion, the preferable one; the soil for potatoes cannot be too loose, and the trench mode has, in this respect, a great advantage over that in which the dibber is employed. In planting in trenches, if the ground requires no manure, let an opening be taken out along one side of the quarter in the direction of north and south, or nearly so;next dig a breadth equal to rather more than half the distance between the rows, then stretch the line at the half distance from the edge of the quarter, and cut down by the line to the depth of 6 inches, or to whatever other depth the sets are to be put. Level the bottom of the trench so that its depth may be tolerably uniform, and then place the sets, with the eyes or buds upwards, in a line along the bottom, at the proper distance asunder, and cover them with some well-broken soil. After this, dig another breadth, levelling the surface at the same time, and stretching the line at the distance which is to be allowed between the rows; cut out another trench, plant the sets as before; and so proceed till the whole is completed. If dung is to be used, the trenches must be cut a little deeper than where no manure is employed. In digging, a good wide opening should be main- tained, and in cutting off by the line, the workman should draw the soil well forward, so that the bottom of the trench may be wide; if 1 foot wide so much the better, but it should be as wide as the breadth of the spade. It is preferable to have dung spread on this breadth, instead of confining it within a narrow triangular trench, thereby crowding too great a depth of manure immediately under the roots of the plants, which is objectionable, as the potatoes produced when this is the case are not so clean. In order that too much manure should not be in any one place, some prefer distributing it as equally as possible throughout the soil; but in that case much of it will come in contact with the newly formed tubers. These do not require it; on the contrary, the poorer the soil the cleaner they grow. On this account it is considered better to place the dung under the sets than over them, as some recommend. Besides, the fibres of the roots tend downwards after nourishment, and if the manure is placed below the sets, they will soon find it; the tubers do not seek after nourishment, they cannot feed themselves, but are fed 1 >3' the roots through the medium of the stem and leaves. After the dung is spread along the bottom of the trench, it is advisable to throw some soil over it previous to placing the sets, for these are liable to be injured by being placed in contact with manure, from which they can derive no benefit. All that the sets can effect is to yield up their own substance to support the vegetation of the young shoot till the latter is able to obtain nourishment from other sources. By the time the sets are exhausted, the fibres of the roots will have reached the manure, which will then afford the necessary supply. Planting by means of a dibber is extensively practised, and is perhaps the most expeditious that could be adopted, except where the plough can be employed. The mode of proceeding is very simple. A blunt dibber, having a cross tread rather further from the end than the depth at which the sets are intended to be planted, is used by one person to make holes, whilst another drops in the eets, so that the eyes of the latter may be uppermost. The holes are afterwards filled up with earth drawn by the hoe. Expedition, however, is the only advantage which can be claimed for dibber-planting over that by the spade, as already described. P>y the latter mode, the ground when the operation is finished is left untrodden, and of equal looseness, a great advantage, especially in moist ground. In a trench made by the spade the sets can also be placed at an equal depth. In planting by the dibber, moist soils are rendered too compact by theGARDENER’S ASSISTANT. 256 treading in performing the operation; and, if the soil be dry and light, the earth falls more or less into the holes, and the sets are consequently at unequal depths. For these reasons we consider that planting by the spade is preferable to that by the dibber for garden crops of potatoes; and it will be found that the advantages with which the former method is attended will more than compensate for the saving of time effected by adopting the latter. In some parts of the country, and particularly in Lancashire, the ground for early crops is thrown up in ridges before winter; in spring a portion of the pulverized soil from the surface of the ridges is collected in the bottom of the furrows; a little manure is placed over this, and the sets are planted upon it, and covered with i 2 inches of soil. When the young plants appear, another 2 inches of soil is added, and 2 inches more when they again make their appearance. Subsequent Culture.—This consists in stirring the surface of the ground, keeping it clear of weeds, and earthing up the Splits, The ground cannot be too loose; the more it is pulverized the better. It is a good plan to hoe it over, when not too moist, before the shoots reach the surface; and again before earthing up, if it is not naturally friable. As regards the growth of the plant, and bulk of produce, this operation is altogether unnecessary in deep, light soils; for the roots are, in general, found below the level of the original surface of the ground, so that they do not derive any benefit from the operation; and in dry seasons and in dry soils, the crops from plants earthed up have been lighter than where they have not been earthed up, probably owing to the earth being drawn to a sharp ridge, by which the rain is thrown oil* beyond the roots. When properly done, however, earthing up is advantageous, and even necessary, for the kinds of potatoes which have a tendency to throw their tubers above the surface. , About ten days or a fortnight after the plants have appeared above ground, a little earth should be drawn towards the stems, but not so as to cover the foliage, or interfere with its free exposure to light. If the soil is not very moist, and the season dry, this earthing up should be highest at the outsides, so that in consequence of the sloop towards the plants the rain may penetrate to the roots; and the earth should not be drawn so as to leave the interval deepest in the middle, otherwise the rainwater would run there, instead of to the roots. On the other hand, where there is too much moisture, the earth should be made to slope from the plants. As these advance in growth, the intervals between the rows should be stirred, and made fine, to render the soil suitable for the second and final earthing up. The principal use of this is to form a covering for the tubers, so that with their increase in size they may not be exposed to light, which would soon render them unfit for human food, though good for sets. The soil should therefore be drawn not so as to form a triangular ridge, with straight sloping sides, through which the tubers would be apt to protrude, but, on the contrary, broad-shouldered ridges, as wide at top as they can well be made. Their height will partly depend! on the distance between the rows and partly on the depth of the roots. If the former is limited, no great amount of earth can be obtained; and such is also the case if the roots are near the surface. Some recommend the flowers to be removed previous to the formation of the berries; others contend that the operation is injurious. Mr. Knight was in favour of the practice, and considered that by adopting it as much as 1 ton per acre more produce would be obtained. On the other hand the results of several experiments—not very conclusive, it is true—are adduced as evidence against the proceeding. There is no doubt however that the berries are formed at the expense of organizable matter, which would otherwise have been employed in increasing the size of the tubers; and it may therefore be concluded that the removal of the flowers is beneficial, at all events no harm can result from the operation. To forward Early Crops.—This may be done in various ways, even by those who cannot spare frames for regular forcing. The tubers can be placed in a warm place! in January, and kept there till they push. They may then be planted in some sheltered situation, where they can be protected with litter, fern, or other substance that will Serve as a protection. Dwarf early sorts may be forwarded in pots In any warm place, and when above ground they should be exposed to light and sun when there is no danger of frost. In March they may be planted out in front of a wall or paling, where they can be protected in case of severe weather. They may also be planted in some warm spot, in beds with dry turf sides, about 1 foot or 15 inches high, over which thatched hurdles can be placed at night, or as the state of the weather may render necessary. To have Young Potatoes in ]V inter.— Select a middling early sort, such as the Cornish Kidney, and let the tubers be kept in a cool dry place, on a hard bottom, and frequently turned, so as to check the vegetation as much as possible till the end of July or beginning of August. If then planted, tubers will be formed before winter, which should be taken up and packed in dry soil,KITCHEN GARDEN. 257 closely beaten. Kept in tliis way they will form in winter a pretty good substitute for forced potatoes. The following is another method:—Tubers of the preceding year’s growth are kept in a cool place till autumn; care is taken to prevent vegetation as much as possible, and all sprouts are taken off as they appear. About three months before a supply is required, the old tubers are piled up in alternate layers with light garden soil, laid to the thickness of 5 or 6 inches, in a cellar or in boxes placed in any spot where there is a temperature of 50° or 60°. By tliis process, although no leaves are produced, small tubers are formed out of the substance of the larger ones; but as might be expected, the pi'oduce is vastly inferior in quality to forced potatoes. Taking up and Storing the Crop.—Early crops, of course, are taken up as soon as they are fit for use. Before the disease attacked the potato, the main crop for storing was allowed to remain till the stems and foliage withered from natural decay. After this had taken place, and before there was any danger from frost, was considered the best period for taking up. Such it still would be if there were no attack of disease to arrest prematurely the vegetation of the plants, and render it necessary to remove earlier than usual the tainted crop of tubers. Dry weather is of course the most favourable for the operation; but as for the necessity of drying potatoes that are to be pitted in the soil, there is none; for we have seen potatoes as wet as possible when pitted, that nevertheless came out dry enough. It is true the pits "were not large, as should never be the case, and their bases were higher than the level of any water which could collect around them: such being carried away by a track made for the purpose. on-exposure to Light.— If the weather is cloudy so much the better, for the tubers should be exposed to light as little as possible, and more especially not to bright sunshine. It is well known that all the green parts of the potato are more or less poisonous, and so the finest white floury potatoes become, if greened by exposure to light. Potatoes may be white, black, or purple, externally, and their flesh, notwithstanding, be very white and good; but expose them to the light for a longer or shorter period, according to its intensity, and the flesh of all will become green and unwholesome. Some persons dig up their potatoes, and leave them exposed intentionally to the sun’s rays to dry previous to storing; but this is a bad practice, for three days of bright autumn sun will green newly taken up potatoes to a very injurious extent; and this being the case, the tubers should not be exposed to the sunshine even for a single day. In noticing the chemical elements and composition of the potato, it was stated that the deleterious principle solanine exists chiefly in the leaves and stem. Now the tubers are a species of underground stems. They are furnished with buds, which push into shoots and leaves like those from buds on parts above ground, and when exposed to light the tubers themselves, though of a white colour, ultimately become green, both externally and internally, and with this change by the action of light the solanine principle is developed. When cooked, sorts that if kept in the dark are white, floury, and well-flavoured, are of a yellowish tinge, and the palate detects in them a disagreeable peculiarly bitter taste of more or less intensity, according to their greater or less exposure to the action of light. It should always be borne in mind, as a general principle in the management of potatoes, that from the time they are taken out of the ground till they are to be cooked, they should be exposed to light as little as possible. If, after having been dug up, they must lie on the ground in heaps for but one day, or even less, they should be completely covered from light till they are pitted. If stored in a shed, loft, cellar, or any other place, light should be entirely excluded; if in a building, to the interior of which light must be admitted, it should nevertheless be prevented from reaching the tubers by some close covering. In towns large quantities of potatoes for sale are too commonly seen exposed to the injurious effects of light; and in London, more formerly than at present, washed potatoes are so exposed by many of the retail dealers. Now a few days’ exposure will have the effect of tinging the flesh of unwashed potatoes; but when, their surface is washed, aud thus deprived of the partial shade which the particles of soil afford, the action of light will be still more injurious. The purchasers, who suffer by the practice more than the generality of them are aware, have the power of remedying the evil; for the vendors would not take the trouble to wash the tubers if they found the unwashed preferred, neither would they expose the potatoes much to the light if their customers objected to the practice. From what has been stated, it will be understood that potatoes should be stored so as to be in the dark. The next consideration is, how to protect them beat from frost, and at the same time to preserve them from being contaminated by gases arising from fermentation and from rotting. In choosing materials for protecting from frost, care should be taken to avoid using such as will, on contact, taint the flavour of the potatoes. It has been ascertained 17258 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. that potatoes keep best in small quantities; for, ■when in large heaps, they sometimes ferment. The form of a ridge is more convenient than that of a cone, because when portions are taken out for use the breach in the end of the ridge can be more easily closed than one in the side of a conical heap. The ridges should run in the direction of north and south, so that if it be necessary to open them in frosty weather, tlutt may be done at the south end, when the sun’s rays at noon will prevent that part from being frozen. The ridge may be about 3 feet, or not more than 4 feet wide at the base, and as high as the potatoes can be conveniently piled up. The ridges should not be formed on wet heavy ground; that which is poor, dry, and on a slope is to be preferred. In throwing up the soil for covering, a trench will be formed round the base of the ridge, and this trench should be made deepest at one end, from which a track should be cut, so that water may not collect in the trench, which ought in all cases to be lower than the base of the ridge. Xu dry soil the latter may be sunk a few inches, but if otherwise the potatoes should be laid quite on the surface of the ground. As already observed, soil is best next the tubers, and the poorer it is the better. Straw admits of the potatoes being taken out comparatively free from earth; but as it decays from contact with the soil, it injuriously affects their flavour. Dry turf may be laid next the potatoes to prevent loose soil from mixing with them, or fresh turf laid with its green side outwards may be used for the same purpose; but as regards the flavour of the potatoes these appliances are unnecessary, if not worse than useless. The spaces between the tubers are of course tilled with air, and if much decay take place the whole of the potatoes will be in contact with a contaminated atmosphere; but if the interstices are idled with soil, the gases arising from a decaying tuber will be in a great measure absorbed by the surrounding earth. After covering with 8 or 9 inches thick of soil, it is a good plan to thatch the ridges with straw, fern, heath, or any other material calculated to keep out frost and wet. Potatoes intended to be kept till the following summer should be placed ina shaded situation where the sun’s rays cannot affect the ridges. If the soil of these should happen to be frozen in spring to the depth of a few inches, then by covering thickly with straw the potatoes may be kept from poshing much longer than would otherwise be the case. To save Seed.—The ripest potato-apples should be selected and exposed to the sun’s rays till they begin to shrivel. They should afterwards be thrown into water, and remain in it till they again become plump. The seeds can then be easily squeezed out, washed, and laid on a paper to dry. Insects and Diseases.—“Potatoes are assailed by a host of insects, but in a healthy state the wireworms are the most injurious. Aphis rapcr is found on the potato as well as the turnip. Thrips minutissima and Smyntkurus solani also live beneath the leaves; and the plant-bugs, Lygus solani, contaminatus, bipunctatus, and umbella-tarum, pierce the leaves and imbibe the sap, as well as the frog-flies, Eupteryx solani and picta. Altica exolcta riddles the leaves, and the caterpillars of Sphinx atropos live upon them. Those of A gratis segetum and exclamation is, called surface-grubs, and the maggots of crane-flies, Tipula oleracca, paludosa, and maculosa, infest the roots, together with the wireworms of Agriotes lineatus, obscurus, and sputator, as well as snake-millipedes, Jidus londincnsis. terrestris, pulchellus, and Poly-desmus comjdanatus, with centipedes and scolo-pendroe, named Lithobius forcipatus, and Geo-philus longicornis or clectricus; whilst the destruction of the rotting tubers is accelerated by multitudes of the maggots of flies, rove-beetles, worms, and aoari.”—(Curtis, in Morton’s Cyclopedia of Agriculture.) Potatoes are sometimes attacked by a disease called the curl, which towards the close of the eighteenth century excited considerable alarm, particularly ill the northern parts of the kingdom, but has now nearly disappeared. In this disease the shoots become curled when young, and their growth is arrested ; the leaves are curled and crumpled, and no tubers, or only small and worthless ones, are produced. Various conjectures have been formed as to the cause of the disease, but the most probable is that it arises from an excessive supply of nourishment; and this view seems to be confirmed by the circumstance that potatoes from imperfectly ripened sets, or from sets raised in poor ground, are not so liable to be attacked as those grown in rich soil, and originating from well-matured tubers. The scab is a disease in which ulcers are formed upon the surface of the tubers. Though not very destructive it is very prevalent, most crops being more or less affected. The cause of its appearance has not been satisfactorily determined, but the disease is said to be brought on by coal-ashes, lime rubbish, or dung being added in excessive quantities to the soil, or not properly mixed with it. But the most fatal disease by which the potato is attacked is that known as the potato murrain, or potato disease, which broke out with such fearful violence in 1845. It appeal's to be causedKITCHEN GARDEN. 259 byafungus, called Peronospora infestans (Fig. 195), which first attacks the haulm, and afterwards descends to the tubers, which from its effects soon become a putrid mass. Though numerous experiments have been made with a view to dis- cover a remedy, all have terminated unsuccessfully, and no effectual means either of prevention or cure are known. Recent investigations have, however, thrown new light on the life history of this fungus, for which it may be hoped that in consequence a remedy may at last be found. PURSLANE (Portulaca oleracea, L. — Dode-candria Monogynia, L.; Portulaceae, D. C.; Por-tulacese, Lind.) is an annual plant, a native of South America and of both Indies. The leaves and young shoots possess cooling and antiscorbutic properties, and when young are used in salads; when rather older they are employed as a pot-herb; they are also sometimes pickled with vinegar. There are three sorts:— 1. Common or Green Purslane. 2. Golden Purslane. 3. Large-leaved Golden Purslane (Pourpier dore & tris large feuille). The second sort is more esteemed than the common. The third is a new and improved French variety. Purslane requires a light rich soil and a warm situation. It should be sown in shallow drills 9 inches apart, or thinly broadcast, and very lightly covered with earth. As this plant is cut off even by a slight frost, it cannot be sown out of doors until the middle of April or beginning of May, according to the state of the weather. Prior to this time it is sown under glass, if an early supply is required. The first sowing may be made on a south border at the above period, and a small quantity may be sown for succession in May, June, July, and August; after which time it ceases to be required. Both the seed-bed and plants should be frequently watered through a fine rose. This greatly contributes to the succulence of the shoots and leaves, and encourages their speedy reproduction after cutting. Seed should be saved from the most vigorous plants of the first sowing; and, as soon as the capsules begin to open, the plants should be carefully cut over, and spread upon a cloth in the sun, fully to ripen their seeds, which can afterwards be easily separated from the seed-vessels by rubbing with the hands and sifting. QUINOA (Chenopodium Quinoa, Willd.—Pentandria Digyuia, L.; Chenopodese, D. C.; Clieno-podiacete, Lind.)—The quinoa is an annual plant, growing from 4 to 6 feet high, a native of Peru. In the high table-lands of the Cordilleras it was, at the time of the conquest by the Spaniards, almost the only farinaceous seed used as food; and it still forms, together with the potato, the common food of the poorer inhabitants of those regions. The seeds are used in soups or made into a sort of bread, and are said to be easy of digestion, and in no way prejudicial to the health. By fermenting them together with millet, a sort of beer is made. They also constitute an excellent food for poultry; and the leaves gathered when tender form a very good substitute for spinach in summer. They are produced in great abundance, and are said to be very good for cows. There are several varieties of the quinoa; some having green or variously-coloured leaves, and black, red, or white seeds; the last is the one grown for seeds to be used as food. It requires a rich soil, rather light than otherwise, and a warm situation to ripen the seeds. It may either be sown on a gentle hot-bed in March, for planting out in April or May; or out of doors in April, in drills 2 feet asunder. When the plants are 4 or 5 inches high, they may be thinned out to 18 inches apart in the rows, anil the thinnings may be planted in rows at the same distances apart; by this mode the plants may be easily propagated. In dry weather water should be given; and if the plants are grown for spinach, Peronospora iuftstans. a, Young plants, with spores proceeding from stomata. &, Section of potato-leaf, showing the mode in which the mycelium creeps amongst the loose tissue of the leaf.260 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. the stems should be topped at the first gathering, to induce them to branch. The leaves may be Fig. 196. gathered in succession throughout the summer. The seeds ripen in September. RADISH (llaphanus sativus, L.—Tetradynamia Siliquosa, L.; Cruciform, D. C.) The radish is an annual plant, a native of China, and was grown in this country before 1548, It is chiefly cultivated for the roots; but the seed-pods, pulled when green, are occasionally pickled, and the seed-leaves are sometimes used as a small salad. The principal varieties may be classed as follows :— § 1. Long-rooted Spring and Summer Radishes. 1. Long Scarlet—syn. Salmon Radish, Transparent Radish, Rave rose, Rave couleurde rose, Rave saumonee. —Roots long, a considerable portion growing above ground; outside of a deep pink colour. Flesh white, transparent, crisp, and of good flavour. It is much cultivated for the London market, and is greatly esteemed for its bright colour. There are several sub-varieties of this, differing in size and earliness, and distinguished as the Scarlet Short-top, Early Frame Scarlet, and Wood’s Early Frame. The last is the best for forcing. 2. Purple—syn. Rave rouge longue, Rave de corail. —Root long, a large portion growing above ground; outside deep purple; flesh white, and of good flavour. The seed-leaves, which are large, are used as a small salad. An early sort, good for forcing. 3. Long White — syn. White Transparent, White Italian, Naples Radish, Rave blanche of the French.— Root long, small; outside white, where exposed to the light it is tinged with green. Flesh white and mild. § 2. Turnip-rooted Spring and Summer Radishes. 4. Scarlet Turnip-rooted—syn. Crimson Turnip-rooted, Radis rouge, Radis rose rond.—Root turbinate; outside deep scarlet. Flesh white, sometimes stained with red, and of mild flavour. An excellent variety, much cultivated for the London market. The early Scarlet Turnip-rooted, or Radis rose rond hatif, the flesh of which is rose-coloured, appears to be a sub-variety. 5. Purple Turnip-rooted—syn. Radis violet rond.--1 tesembles the preceding in form, size, and flavour, only the outside is purple. (i. Oblong Rose-coloured—syn. Scarlet Olive-shaped, Radis rose demi-long.—Root oblong, or somewhat oval; outside bright crimson ; flesh tender, rose-coloured, and excellent. In point of quality it is admitted to excel all others. It is early, well adapted for forcing, and for the general crops. The French Breakfast Radish, or White-tipped Scarlet Olive shaped, Radis rose demi-long a bout blanc, differs in having the lower part of the root white. On this account it is much grown for the London and Paris markets. 7. Oblong AVhite—syn. White Olive-shaped, Radis demi-long blauc. This is of the same shape and qualities as the Oblong Rose-coloured, but white. 8. AVhite Turnip-rooted—syn. Radis blanc rond, Radis blanc ordinaire.—Root round, terminating in a small fibrous root; outside white. Flesh white, transparent, and of mild flavour. 9. Early AVhite Turnip-rooted—syn. Radis blanc li&tif, Radis blanc hfitif de Hollands.—Root resembling the preceding in form and colour, only of smaller size. An early aud excellent variety, very generally cultivated. § 3. Autumn Radishes. 10. Long-leaved AVhite Chinese — Radis blanc de Chine a feuillc longue of the French.—Root inversely turbinate; the outside white. Flesh tender, excellent, and milder in flavour than that of the Spanish radishes. The leaves arc long, nearly entire, aud very unlike those of the other varieties. 11. Rose-coloured Chinese—Radis d’hiver de Chine of the French.—Root somewhat conical, of a bright rose-colour. Flesh solid, of fine texture, rather hot. Radishes cult ivated for their Pods for Pickling. —Any of the summer kinds may be allowed to run up and form pods, which, whilst young and tender, may be employed for the purpose; but the two specially grown for use in that way are—KITCHEN GARDEN. 261 12. Madras Radish.—Pods large, elongated more than those of the common radish. They answer very well for pickling when full-grown, but still tender. 13. Rat-tailed Radish (Ra})hanus caudatus).—Pods from 2 to 3 feet in length, broad, and curved. They may be used in salad, cooked like asparagus, or pickled, and should be taken when about half their full length. § 4. Winter Radishes. 14. Black Spanish—Radis noir d’hiver, Raifort of the French.—Bulb of large size, oval or pear-shaped, | terminating in a long slender tap-root; outside rough j and black. Flesh white, hard, and hot. The Purple Spanish, or Large Purple Winter radish, is a sub-variety. 15. White Spanish—Radis gros blanc d’Augsbourg ' of the French.—Bulb oval, attaining a large size; out- j side white, tinged with green. Flesh white, solid, and hot; milder, however, than that of the preceding. The radish will succeed well in any good garden soil, not over moist or too heavy. For early and late crops a warm sheltered situation should i be chosen; whilst for those sown in the heat of , summer a rather shady spot must be selected. The ground where the Bowing is to be made should be deeply dug, and raked fine. The seed is generally sown thinly broadcast, in beds from 4 to 5 feet wide, with 1-foot alleys between, the soil from the latter being used to cover the seeds, but only lightly. The surface is then raked smooth, and in light soils pressed with the back of the spade. Winter radishes, however, are I best sown in drills 6 inches asunder; but if roots i of large size are desired, as much as 9 inches may be allowed. After sowing, the beds should be f netted over to protect from birds, which are very fond of the seeds. Where radishes are not forced, a sowing may be made in the middle of December, if the weather is mild; and immediately after having been sown the seed-beds should be covered with about 4 inches thick of litter, which should not be removed till the plants come up, and then only in the day-time when the temperature is above 32°. The crop, if not destroyed by frost, will be fit for use about the beginning of March; but this greatly depends upon the weather. A sowing, to be treated in a similar manner, may be made in the course of January, weather permitting; and another may take place in the first fortnight in February. With the Parisian market-gardeners this is the first crop of radishes they raise out of doors. For this sowing they form a sort of hot-bed, by digging a trench 18 or 20 inches deep, and filling it up with from 14 to 16 inches of dung, which is covered with 4 inches thick of vegetable mould. On this the seed is o sown; and if the weather is frosty at night the bed is protected with straw-mats. Another sowing, also in a warm situation, may be made in the second fortnight of February, and from that time till the middle of October a small quantity may be sown, in any open situation, every fortnight in spring, and every ten days in the heat of summer. Lastly, in the end of October, and again in the middle of November, a small sowing may be made on a south border, or on a sloping bank. The plants from these sowings must be protected in severe weather with litter, or straw-mats, which should be removed at every favourable opportunity. After sowing, with the exception of thinning out the plants where too close to about 3 inches apart, weeding, and frequent watering, no further attention is necessary. The winter radishes may be sown in the beginning of July, and again in August, in shallow drills from 6 to 9 inches asunder, and the plants where too close may be thinned out or drawn for use in a young state, so as to leave those which are intended to attain a large size at 5 or 6 inches from each other in the row. The roots are fit for use towards the end of autumn. Those required for winter consumption should be taken up in November or December, before severe frost sets in, and stored in dry sand like carrots. To save Seed.—Only the finest plants, true to their variety, should be selected from one of the spring sowings for producing seed. The plants should be taken up in April or May, and planted 2 feet apart in well-dug ground, water being given at planting, and subsequently till they take fresh root. The seed ripens in September, and must be gathered successively as it comes to maturity. It should then be dried in the sun, rubbed out of the pods, and stored. It keeps good for four or five years. Seed of the winter radishes is saved from full-grown roots, transplanted in March. RAMPION (Campanula Rapunculus, L.—Pen-tandria Monogynia, L.; Campanulacese, D.(J.; Campanulaceae, Lind.) is a biennial plant, a native of Britain. It is cultivated for its fusiform, white, and fleshy root, which is generally eaten raw, but sometimes in a boiled state in salads; the leaves as well as the roots are occasionally used in winter salads. It prefers a rich, free, and rather light soil; and a shady situation. It is raised from seed, which may be sown any time between March and July; but if sown earlier than the end of May the plants are apt to run to flower the same year, and when this is the case the roots become tough and unfit for use. The ground should be well dug, and raked as fine as possible; the seed may then be sown either broadcast, or in drills 6 inches apart and about \ inch deep, formed by2G2 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. pressing the angle of a measuring rod upon the ground. As the seeds are very small it is advisable to mix them with fifteen or twenty times their bulk of fine sand, in order to insure their even distribution in the drills, and to prevent the plants from coming up too closely. The seed should only be very slightly covered with line earth, and the seed-bed ought to be frequently watered with a line-rosed watering-pot till the plants come up, which will be in about a fortnight. When the young plants are about 1 inch high they should be thinned out to about 4 inches apart; after this no further care is necessary than to water frequently, and to keep the ground free of weeds. Small sowings may be made in the end of June and July, in case the plants from the May sowing should run. The roots will be lit for use from November till April or May; and they may either be pulled up as wanted, or taken up at once and stored in sand. The plants send up flower-stalks about 2 feet high, which bear small blue or white flowers in July and August. The-seeds ripen in autumn. RAPE (Brassica A’apus var. oleifera, D.C.— Tetradynanxia Siliquosa, L.; Cruciferte, D.C.) is a biennial plant, a native of Britain. It is only grown in gardens as a small salad; it is sown at the same times, and ti’eated in exactly the same (banner, as mustard and cress. RHUBARB (Rheum, L.—Enneandria Trigy-nia, L.; Polygonem, D.C.; Polygonaceax, Lind.) is cultivated for the leaf-stalks, which, both in a natural and blanched state, form an excellent substitute for fruit in tarts and pies. They likewise make a delicious pi'eserve. A wine is also obtained from them, but it is very unwholesome. For these pui’poses several species and varieties of Rheum are cultivated. Amongst the best ai'e the following Tobolsk.—Early, ami good for forcing. Elford, raised by Mr, W. Buck, of Elfoi’d, Staffordshire, an early sort, well adapted for forcing. The stalks are rather slender, covered with a thin skin of a bright scarlet colour, and their substance throughout is of a fine red, which they retain when cooked, if not peeled, a process which, owing to the thinness of the skin, is not considered necessary. Even when grown in the dark the stalks still preserve the crimson tinge. Mitchell’s Royal Albert.—Very early; stalks large, led, and of excellent flavour. Dancer’s Early Scarlet.—Suitable for market-gar-deners. Myatt’s Lixnasus.—A very good early sort of fine quality. Myatt’s Victoria.—About a fortnight later than the preceding; stalks very large and thick; of good quality. Guava.—A variety of excellent quality, raised by Dr. Maclean. The leaf-stalks of Rheum australe, Don. (Rheum Emodi, Wallich), attain an immense size, but are unfit for use in consequence of their strongly purgative properties; but the leaves, which are frequently a yard in diameter, are very useful for covering baskets containing vegetables or fruit, and it is only on this account that the species is mentioned here. It requii'es to be planted 4 feet apart in rows 6 feet asunder. Rhubarb succeeds best in a rich deep soil, rather light than otherwise, and in a situation well exposed to light. It may be raised from seed sown in spring; but the mode of propagation generally adopted is by dividing the roots, a bud, of which there are several on the crown, being preserved to each piece. The ground having been deeply trenched, and well manured with rotten dung, the divisions of the roots may be planted with the bud about 2 inches below the surface, 3 feet apart, in rows from 3 to 4 feet asunder, according to the variety planted, and the quantity of gi’ound at disposal. The plantation should be made as early in spring as the weather and state of the ground will permit. After planting, with the exception of keeping the gi’ound clean, stirring the sui’face occasionally, and digging or forking it over early in spring, no further culture is required. No leaves should be removed the first year, but in the following spring an ample supply may be obtained. In gathering for use, the leaf-stalks should be bent down, and pulled, not cut off. The flower-stems, if seed is not requii’ed, should be cut off soon after they make their appearance. In other respects, the culture in this, and every succeeding year, is the same as befoi'e. Some well-decomposed dung may, however, be dug in when the ground is stirred. Plantations will continue in good production for several years; but it is advisable to make a new one every fourth or fifth year, otherwise the px'oduce is inferior in size and quality to that obtained from ground I more recently planted. Some sorts of rhubarb will, however, continue in good bearing for twelve I years, and even longer, when properly supplied with manure. Rhubarb is sometimes blanched; this may be partially effected without removing the plants by means of sea-kale pots, or earthenware cylinders I left uncovered at top; or more perfectly by taking up the roots and placing them in some dai'k place with a temperature of 55° or 60°, where they should be slightly covered with soil to prevent them from drying. ROCAMBOLE (Allium Scorodoprasum, L. -Hexandria Monogynia, L.; Liliacese, D. C.) is a hardy perennial, a native of Denmark. It is cultivated for its bulbs, which are smaller andKITCHEN GARDEN. 263 milder tlmu those of garlic, and are used for the same purposes. The bulbs are chiefly produced at the roots, and consist of several cloves; but the stem, which rises to the height of about 2 feet, also produces a cluster of small bulbs. It may be propagated either by separating the cloves of the radical bulbs, or by planting those produced on the stem. The former mode is the preferable one, and that generally adopted; for plants raised by the second method do not yield bulbs fit for use till the second year. The cloves should be planted in well-dug ground, in the end of February or in March; or after the leaves have died down in autumn. They ought to be planted 2 inches deep, in rows 8 inches apart, and 6 inches asunder in the row. All the culture necessary is to keep the ground clean. When the leaves begin to decay, the bulbs should be taken up, dried in the sun, and stored for use. Some may also be drawn for use before they have attained complete maturity. ROSEMARY (Rosmarinus officinalis, L.—Di-andria Monogynia, L.; Labiatse, D. C.) is a hardy evergreen undershrub, a native of the south of Europe. Though not employed in cookery, this plant is grown in every kitchen-garden. A decoction of the foliage is employed to relieve headaches, and is very efficacious in promoting the growth of the hair and in curing baldness. It is likewise used in the manufacture of Hungary water and eau-de-Cologne. The sprigs are sometimes used as a garnish. Three varieties are cultivated: — 1. Common or Green-leaved Rosemary. 2. Silver-striped Rosemary. 3. Gold-striped Rosemary. The last two varieties being rather more tender than the common sort, require protection in winter; they are chiefly cultivated for ornament. Rosemary requires a light dry soil, and a warm sheltered situation. It is propagated by cuttings or rooted slips, taken off in April or May, or by layers. The rooted slips may be planted at once where they are to remain. The cuttings, which ought to be 5 or 6 inches in length, should first be planted 3 or 4 inches deep in a rather shady situation, where they may remain till the beginning of September, by which time they will have taken good root. They may then, or in the following spring, be finally planted 2 feet apart. Cuttings may also be struck in gentle heat, with greater expedition. The second and third sorts should be planted under the shelter of a wall or paling, and protected in frosty weather with mats, otherwise they are liable to be killed. All the culture required is to trim the plants occa- sionally, to keep the ground free of weeds, and to stir it occasionally. RUE (Ruta graveolens, L.—Decandria Monogynia, L.; Rutaee®, D. C.) is an evergreen under- Fig. 197. shrub, a native of the south of Europe. The leaves have a nauseous smell, and a hot, bitter taste. They are sometimes employed as a garnish, and are administered to poultry affected with the roup. It is still much used in popular medicine, being considered to be emmenagogue, antispasmodic, stimulant, and sudorific, and its efficacy as an anthelmintic is unquestionable; but danger attends its incautious use. This plant grows well in any soil, but is not so liable to be injured by frost in poor dry soil, as in a rich garden mould. It may be propagated in March or April by seeds, cuttings, and slips; the last is the method generally adopted. The seed may be sown broadcast, and raked in; and when the young plants are 3 or 4 inches high they may be planted out where they are to remain. The cuttings, or slips, should be put in deeply in a shady border till they have taken root, after which they may be planted out in rows 18 inches apart, and 8 inches asunder in the row. All the plants will require is an occasional trimming. It is also advantageous to cut down a portion of the plantation every third year, to cause a production of young shoots. SAGE (Salvia officinalis, L.—Diandria Monogynia, L.; Labial®, D. 0.) is a hardy evergreen264 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. under-shrub, a native of the south of Europe. The leaves are much used in stuffings and sauces, and were formerly in great demand for sage-tea. The varieties cultivated are:— 1. Common or Red Sage 2. Green Sage. 3. Narrow-leaved Green Sage, or Sage of Virtue. 4. Broad-leaved Green or Balsamic Sage. The first and second sorts are those most esteemed for culinary purposes, the Red sage being generally preferred; the others are used for medicinal purposes. Sage grows well in most soils and situations, but succeeds best in a light, warm, and rather dry soil. It may be raised from seed sown on a gentle liot-bed in spring, and wThen the young plants are well-rooted they should be hardened off, taken up with balls, and planted 1 foot apart, in rows 18 inches asunder. Sage is, however, seldom raised from seed, being generally propagated by cuttings or slips of the young shoots taken off in April, May, or June. The lower leaves should be cut off, the cuttings inserted in a shady border, and a hand-glass placed over them, or they may be planted at once in any vacant frame. Water must be given at planting if the soil is not sufficiently moist, and occasionally till they strike. After this harden off, and when well-rooted plant out at the distances previously indicated. It is a good practice to pinch off the extremities of the shoots to prevent the plants from flowering, and to induce them to throw out laterals and become compact bushes. The plants require an occasional trimming to make them grow close and bushy. The ground should be kept free of weeds, and stirred in spring and autumn. Sage will continue a long time in the same place; but as the plants become naked and straggling with age, a fresh plantation ought to be made every three or four years. In gathering, the young side and top shoots should be taken, and a quantity of these should be cut just before coming into flower and dried for winter use. SALSAFY (Tragopogon porrifolius, L.—Syn-genesia Polygarnia yEqualis, L.; Composite, D. 0.) is a hardy biennial plant, a native of England. It is cultivated for its long, tapering, fleshy root, which is white both outside and inside, larger than that of scorzonera, and not so liable to fork. The roots are scraped, cut into pieces, and steeped for awhile in vinegar; they are then boiled in water like parsnips, and served up with melted butter, white sauce, and in various other ways. They are also fried in butter after boiling, and served with parsley. The stalks are sometimes cut when 4 or 5 inches long, and dressed as asparagus, and in this way they are said to be excellent. It requires a free rich soil which has not been newly manured, and an open situation. The ground where it is to be grown should be trenched 2 feet deep in the end of autumn, or at least dug two spades deep in order that the long roots may freely strike downwards. It is raised from seed, which should be sown on the ground trenched in autumn, and further prepared by digging previous to sowing, in drills 1 inch deep, and 1 foot apart. A first crop may be sown in March, the main one towards the end of April, and small sowings may be made towards the end of May to come in a little later, and to supply the place of the others in case the plants of the former sowings should run to seed the same year. In dry weather the seed-beds should be copiously watered to induce germination. When the young plants are 2 or 3 inches high, they may be thinned out to 8 inches apart in the row. The ground should be hoed occasionally and kept free of weeds. In October and November roots may be drawn for use, and at the approach of frost some may be taken up and stored in sand for a supply during its continuance. The roots left in the ground will be fit for use throughout the spring till they run to seed, when they become tough, woody, and useless. The flowers appear in May and June, and seed is ripened in autumn. SAMPHIRE (Crithmum maritimum, L.—Pen-tandria Digynia, L.; Umbelliferse, D. C.) is a hardy perennial, a native of Britain, growing naturally on rocks near the sea. The stem rises to the height of about 1 foot or rather more; the leaves are lanceolate and fleshy; the flowers, which are yellow, appear from July to September. The leaves, pickled in vinegar, are used in salads and as a seasoning. It is rather difficult to cultivate in gardens, and the produce is never so good as that obtained from the places where it naturally grows. It may either be propagated by dividing the plant, or by sowing the seed in April, or in autumn soon after it is ripe; the latter period is preferable, for if kept till spring the seed does not germinate so well. It succeeds best in a light sandy or gravelly soil, kept constantly moist, and sprinkled occasionally with a little sea-salt, or barilla, or watered with a solution of these substances in order to supply the plant with soda, which is a necessary element of its food. It will grow still better if planted or sown among stones at the foot of walls, with a south or east aspect; this, and an occasional watering with a solution of sea-salt, will give conditions nearly the same as those under which the plants naturally grow. As it is rather delicate and liable to be injured by frost, it should be protected with dry litter or leaves during theKITCHEN GARDEN. 265 winter. Towards the end of summer leaves may be cut for pickling. The seeds resemble those of fennel, but are larger; they ripen in autumn, and do not usually germinate after the following spring is past. Golden Samphire (Inula crithmifolia, L.— Syngenesia Polygamia Superflua, L.; Composite, D. C.) is a hardy perennial, a native of England, where it is found growing in salt-marshes. The leaves are fleshy and succulent, and the young branches are sometimes sold for the true samphire, to which they are much inferior. They are used in the same way. It will grow if planted in a shady border and watered frequently; if salt be occasionally dissolved in the water, the plant will thrive the better. SAVORY (Satureja, L.—Didynamia Gymno-spermia, L.; Labiatie, D. C.)—The aromatic tops of savory are put into salads and soups; they are also boiled along with pease and beans. Two species are cultivated—Summer Savory and Winter Savory. Summer Savory (Satureja hortensis, L.) is a hardy annual, a native of Italy and the south of France. It is raised from seed, which should be sown on a warm border in April in shallow drills 1 foot apart, thinning out the young plants when 2 or 3 inches high to 6 inches asunder in the rows: the thinnings may be planted at the above pis- ; tances, and watered at planting, and till they take fresh root. When just coming into flower, a quantity should be pulled up, dried in the shade, and tied up in packets for winter use. Winter Savory (Satureja Montana, L.) is a hardy evergreen under-slirub, a native of the south of France and Italy. It may be raised from seed sown in April; but is generally propagated by dividing the plant in March or April, or by cuttings of the young shoots taken off in April and May. The cuttings should be planted on a shady border, and watered till they take root. When well established, they may be planted out 1 foot apart, In rows 15 inches asunder. Some may also be planted as an edging. The plants should be trimmed every year in autumn, and the ground between the rows ought to be occasionally stirred; but in doing this care must be taken not to injure the roots. Fresh plantations should be made before the plants grow old and cease to produce a sufficient supply of leaves. SAVOY (Brassica ohracea bullata major, D. 0.—Tetradynamia Siliquosa, L.; Crucifene, D. 0.)—The savoy differs from other cabbages in having blistered leaves, which form one large head instead of several, as in the case of the Brussels sprouts, the small heads of which are merely miniature savoys. The principal sorts are:— 1. Early Ulm—syn. Early Green Curled, New Early, Chou de Milan tres h&tif d’Ulm.—Head small, round; outer leaves rather plain, forming a sort of cup, with the edges rolled a little outwards, of a deep green colour. It heads very quickly, is of excellent quality, and the earliest sort known. It may be planted much closer together than the larger kinds; in good soil 15 inches apart, and in poor ground 15 inches by 12 will be sufficient. 2. Marcelin.—A new sort allied to the Early Ulm, but growing somewhat larger. Though not so early, it is next to it in point of earliness, and if both sorts are sown at the same time, the Marcelin will form a succession. It is dwarf; the leaves dark green, finely wrinkled and curled. The head is round, comjjact, and of excellent quality. When cut above the lower course of leaves, about four small heads, almost equal in delicacy to Brussels sprouts, are generally formed. This sort is exceedingly hardy, and on the whole it must be considered a valuable acquisition. It may be planted 18 inches by 12 inches apart. 3. Early Dwarf Green Curled—syn. Dwarf, Dwarf Green, Milan liatif.—Similar in quality to the preceding, but dwarfer. 4. Early* Flat Green Curled—syn. Chou de Milan court, nain, or trapu.—Middle-sized, very dwarf and flat-lieaded; deep green, tender, and very good. 5. Dwarf Green Curled—syn. Small Dwarf Green Curled, Pancalier de Tourraine.—Stem dwarf; leaves deep green, very rugose, much curled at the margin; hearts well, and is very good, especially when mellowed by the first frosts in autumn. It is hardier than the preceding sorts, and forms a succession to them. 6. Large Late Green Curled—syn. Large Green, Late Green, Large Late Green, Globe, Milan ordinaire, Gros Chou de Milan.—Larger than the preceding, and lighter green; very rugose and hardy. 7. Large Green German—syn. Drumhead, Cape, Large Late Green, Milan des Vertus, Gros Chou pommt-frise d’Allemagne.—This is the largest kind of Savoy, and the best among the large. The leaves are plainer than in the other varieties; the head roundish, a little flattened, like a Drumhead cabbage, which it also approaches in size. It is hardy, withstanding the frosts of ordinary winters very well. 8. Conical—syn. Milan a tete longue.—Bather small, pointed, green, hardy, of very good quality, but affording a less weight of produce than several of the preceding sorts. 9. Early Yellow—syn. Yellow Globe.—Middle-sized, roundish, yellow; hearts early, of tender substance when cooked, and very good, but some object to the colour. 10. Early Long Yellow, or Milan dore a tete longue. —This also is an early variety, but it does not heart firmly. 11. Yellow Curled—syn. Yellow, Large Late Yellow, White Savoy, Bloemendale, New Bloemendalers, Milan dore or de Savoie.—Dwarf, middle-sized, round; leaves pale green at first, but quite yellow in winter. The heart is not so compact as some, but it is of tender quality, and by many it is preferred, being considered much sweeter than the other kinds. It is later and hardier than the other yellow Savoys.266 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. The Savoy succeeds best in a moderately rich soil, neither very stiff nor too highly manured, and in an open situation. For a supply in the end of autumn, and throughout the winter, three sowings will generally be sufficient; namely, one towards the close of February for an early crop, another about the middle of March, and a third in the middle of April for late production. In early soils the third weeks of March and April will be soon enough. Sometimes also a small quantity is sown in the beginning of August to come in for use early next autumn; but sowing some early sort, such as the Early Ulttt, in spring is preferable. The grouml for the seed-bed having been prepared, the seed is sown thinly broadcast, and raked in, and in light soils the surface is pressed with the back of the spade. When the young plants have made two or three rough leaves, they should be pricked out 3 inches apart into nursery-beds. In May some of the most forward plants of the early sowing may be planted out for use in September if this vegetable is required so early; the remainder may be transplanted in the course of the month of June- The main crop and latest sowing may be planted out in July and August, when rain is likely to fall. In all cases the strongest plants of the respective sowings should be planted out. On taking up the plants, their roots should be examined in order to ascertain whether they are clubbed or not, and all that exhibit any signs of that disease should be rejected. The distances at which the plants mav be put in Varies with the sort and nature of the soil; in poor ground less space being required than in rich soil. Small kinds, like the Early Ulm, may be planted 12 inches apart, in rows 15 inches asunder; whilst for the Large Green and similar sorts the distance should be increased to 2 feet each way. Sorts of medium growth may have the above distance between the rows, whilst 18 inches may be allowed between the plants in the rows. After planting, if the weather be dry, the plants should be watered, and this ought to be continued till they are again established; afterwards all the culture required is confined to hoeing the ground occasionally. Except in very severe winters, Savoys do not require protection from frost; sometimes, however, the plants are inclined towards the north, and the earth taken from that side placed over the roots on the opposite side. The late crop remains tit for use till the end of February or later. Seed is saved in the same way as practised with the cabbage; it ripeus in the months of July and August. SCORZONERA (Scorzonera hispanica, L. — Syngenesia Polygamia 2Equalis, L.; Composite, | D. C.) is a hardy perennial, a native of Spain. The root, for which the plant is cultivated, is tapering and shaped like that of a carrot; its skin is black; the flesh on the inside white. The roots are cooked in the same way as those of salsafy. It succeeds best in a light, deep, free soil, and an open situation; and the ground for its reception should be trenched. It is raised from seed, which may be sown in drills 1 foot apart, covering the seed with soil to the depth of \ inch. As it is apt to run to seed the same year in which it is sown, and consequently to become tough and woody, it is better not to sow the general crop till the end of April in the hotter parts of the kingdom; elsewhere it may be sown in the end of March, or from that time to the middle of April. A second sowing may be made in May, as a precautionary measure, in case the plants of the first sowing should run. The young plants, when 3 or 4 inches high, should be thinned out to 8 inches asunder in the rows. In September, some of the roots will have attained sufficient size to be drawn for immediate use; others will come in for use in October and November. In the latter month they will be in perfection, and before frost sets in, a quantity may be taken up and stored in sand for a supply during its continuance. At other times, the roots remaining in the ground will afford a supply throughout the winter and spring; and will continue fit for use till April or May, about which time the plants begin to run to flower. Before this takes place any roots remaining in the ground should be taken up and placed in sand. The seed ripens in autumn, and is best when saved from plauts two years old. SEA-KALE (Crambe maritimci, L.— Tetrady-namia Silieulosa, L.; Crucifene, 1). C.; Bras-sicaceae, Lind.) is a hardy perennial, and a native of the shores of Britain, which has been cultivated for more than a century, but most extensively within the last fifty years. Formerly the green leaves were used boiled as greens; but now the young blanched shoots are the parts used, and the chief aim in its cultivation is to produce these large, crisp, and well blanched. Soil and Situation.—The situation for a plantation of sea-kale should be open to the sun, and not under the drip of trees. The best soil is a rich, deep, sandy loam, but the plant will succeed in any good garden ground that is not stiff. The kinds of manure that were recommended for asparagus will also be suitable for sea-kale. The ground should be trenched to the depth of from 2 to 2^ feet, and according as it is poor or rich,KITCHEN GARDEN. 267 more or less farm-yard or other manure should he "well incorporated with it. Cultivation.—Sow in rich soil in March, or as early in April as possible, in rows 1 foot asunder, and thin the plants to 6 inches apart in the rows. Stir the ground, and keep the plants clear of weeds during the season. Towards midsummer, a sprinkling of salt or of nitrate of soda may be applied with beneficial effects. Either of these salts may be sown over the leaves of the plants as well as on the ground, and no injury will result. In the following March, the ground being trenched and duly prepared, commence at feet from the side of the quarter, and mark three rows at 2jr feet apart. Then a 3-feet space should be allowed; and again three rows should be marked off at 2-1- feet apart, and so on. If ground is scarce, it will nevertheless be advisable to retain the distance of 3 feet between every third and fourth row; but between the others an interval of only 2 feet may be allowed. This distance will also be proper for a plantation which is to be forced, only the plants should be 2 feet apart in the row, in order to admit of blanching pots being placed over them. When the plants are taken up, the top of each with all the crown-buds should be pared off. If this precaution be not taken, the plants would be apt to run to seed in the first summer after planting; but when the crown is cut off, several buds will push which will not have this tendency. A trench about 1 foot deep should then be made by the side of a line, and the plants inserted so that their crowns may be about 2 inches below the surface. Watering after planting is not required, at least till the plants have struck fresh root. After planting, the growth of the plant should be promoted as much as possible, and with this view a mulching of rotten dung may be applied, or liquid manure may be occasionally given. The flower-stems, if any push, should be cut off as they appear. Buds will be formed in the axils of each leaf, and in the spring of the second year of planting, they will form a sprout which becomes fit for use when blanched, and of course the larger and more vigorous it is the better. Its strength greatly depends on that of the bud, and this again on the size of the leaf in the previous autumn; efforts should therefore be made to grow only large leaves. In order to do this, it is advisable to make an early removal of some of the weaker ones, so that a limited number may have more light and air. If some very large sprouts are intended to be grown, the plants should be kept far apart. In the autumn the leaves should be removed as they decay, and, when all are cleared off, the ground should be forked over, and a covering of leaves 6 or 8 in. thick placed over the plants, and on this some litter should be put, to prevent the leave* from being blown away. If leaves are not at command, the plants may be covered with 6 or 8 in. thick of light soil, and by this means they will be blanched, though not forced. Instead of sowing in a nursery bed, and transplanting the year-old seedlings, some prefer sowing the seed in patches, at the proper distances, where the plants are to remain for produce. This is certainly the more natural mode, and well-established plants can be obtained by it; the only objection is the loss of the ground for a year. The plants should be allowed to follow their natural mode of growth during the first summer; but after the winter is over, the crowns of every plant should be pared off, as was recommended in transplanting, to prevent the formation of flowering stems. In the second spring after sowing a portion may be blanched if required. Plantations may also be made from cuttings of the roots, for any part of these will push shoots, and form a plant. The extremities of the roots of plants taken up for forcing in November, or subsequently, answer very well. Being the younger portions of the roots, they ultimately make better plants than would result from transplanting the older and thicker parts. These thongs, or extremities of the roots, should be cut in lengths of about 4 inches, and laid in a heap intermixed with sand, till the time of planting in spring. Cuttings should not be taken from any but very healthy plants, a few of which will afford enough to make a moderate plantation. Taking the Crop.—The blanched sprouts should be cut when they are from 3 to 6 inches in length, and whilst crisp, stiff, and compact; they should not be left till they are drawn up so as to bend or hang down. The soil or other material used for excluding the light should be carefully removed so as to expose the stem of the sprout, and the latter should be cut a little below the base of the petioles, and just enough to keep these attached. To save Seed.—Select some strong plants, and allow them to take their natural growth, without cutting oil' the crowns, or blanching. When the seed is ripe, collect the pods, dry them, and put them into open canvas bags. The seeds keep best in the pods. SHALLOT (Allium ascalonicum, L.—Ilexau-dria Monogynia, L.; Liliacese, I). C.)—The shallot is a hardy perennial, a native of Palestine, found near Ascalon; lienee the specific name. The268 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. bulbs, which are milder in flavour, and do not possess such an offensive odour as those of garlic, are used in a raw state for flavouring steaks and chops; and boiled in soups, stews, and some other dishes. They are also excellent when pickled. The varieties are:— 1. Common.—Leaves small, in close tufts, about a foot in length. Bulbs long-oval or conical, reddisli-yellow. Early and long-keeping. It seldom runs to seed. 2. Jersey or Russian.“-Leaves short, very glaucous. Bulbs much rounder than those of the preceding, small-necked, yellowish red. The earliest kind, but apt to run to seed when planted in autumn. This and the following are considered by Vilmorin and others either to belong to a different species from the true Shallot, or to be some form of the Onion. 3. Grosse Echalotte D’ALENgoN.—Bulbs of the same shape and colour as those of the Jersey Shallot, but larger and later in forming; the leaves are longer and more glaucous. The largest kind, but it does not keep well. The shallot requires the same conditions of soil and situation as garlic, and to be planted at the same distances. In recently manured and damp ground it is liable to be attacked by the maggot and a kind of mould; and in any case, it is well in planting to leave the points of the bulbs a little above the surface. A small plantation mav be made from the middle of October to the middle of November, in order to produce bulbs in June and July, but the principal crop should not be planted till February or the beginning of March. When the roots have taken good hold of the ground, it is a good practice to remove the earth from about the bulbs, so as to leave them wholly out of the ground. In July or August, when the leaves turn yellow, the bulbs should be taken up, and, after having been dried in the sun for several days, they should be placed in nets, or tied up in ropes like onions, and hung up in a dry airy room from which frost is excluded. SKIRRET (Shim Sisarum, L. — Pentandria Digynia, L.; Umbelliferre, D.C.) is a perennial plant, a native of China and Japan. The roots, which are the part used, are composed of several prongs about the thickness of a finger, joined together at top. The plant is little cultivated. The roots are boiled, and afterward served in the same wav as those of salsafy and scorzonera. It succeeds best in a free, rich, deep soil, and in an open situation. It is generally raised from seed, but may also be propagated by slipping off the side shoots in spring before they begin to shoot. It should be sown about the end of March or in April, in drills 1 foot apart. In dry weather the bed should be watered, and when the young plants are about 2 inches high, they may be thinned out to (5 inches asunder. The ground should be slightly stirred, and frequent waterings given in dry weather. This will greatly tend to increase the size and tenderness of the roots. Some of these may be taken up young in September, and they will be in perfection in November, and continue so till the plants begin to exhibit signs of pushing up flower-stems, when they should be taken up and stored in sand. The flowers are white, and appear in July and August. The seed ripens in autumn. It should only be saved from the plants which flower the second year, for that produced by those which run the first season is generally worthless. SORREL (Rumex, L. — Ilexandria Trigynia, L.; Polygoneie, D. C.; Polygonacere, Lind.)—The leaves of sorrel are used in soups, salads, and sauces, especially on the Continent, where they are also used as spinach. Three species and several varieties are cultivated:— I. Common Sorrf.L (/?. Acetom, L.), a perennial, a native of Britain, where it grows naturally in meadows and pastures. The flowers of this species are dioecious. The varieties are:— 1. Common Garden Sorrel. 2. Belleville Sorrel (Oscille de Belleville). 3. Blistered - leaved Sorrel (Oscille a feuillcs doquees). The second sort is the best; its leaves are larger than those of the common sort, and not so acid. It is the kind generally cultivated near Paris. The third sort has also large leaves, the surface of which is blistered; it is slow in running to seed. II. French Sorrel, also called Roman or Roundleaved Sorrel (IS. scutatus, L.), is a hardy perennial, a native of France and Switzerland. Its stem is trailing, and rises from 12 to 18 inches high; the leaves are roundish, heart-shaped, entire, glaucous, and smooth; the flowers are hermaphrodite. The leaves are more acid than those of the preceding species, on which account they are preferred by many persons. III. Mountain Sorrel (It. montanus, H.P.), a hardy perennial, a native of the same countries as the preceding, is dioecious. There are two varieties of this species;— 1. Mountain Sorrel (Oscille rierc/c). 2. Green Mountain Sorrel (Oscille viercjcrerte lisse). These are both of French origin. The leaves of the first sort are slightly blistered, larger than those of the common sorrel, of a paler green, and not so acid. It is an excellent sort, and does not run quickly to flower. The leaves of the Green Mountain sorrel possess much acidity, are of darker green, larger, more abundant, and earlier in spring than those of the preceding sort. It is the latest in running to flower, and is considered to be preferable to any of the other sorrels. The male individuals of B. montanus are mentioned in the Bon Jar-dinicr as well adapted for being planted as an edging iu the kitchen garden, because, from their not bearing seed, plants are not produced except where wanted. Sorrel grows well in almost any soil, but succeeds best in one that is rich, deep, and ratherKITCHEN GARDEN. 269 moist. All the sorts may be propagated by dividing the roots in March or April, and this method is that "which must be adopted in propagating the dioecious kinds when male plants are required. It may also be raised from seed, sown at the same time, or in autumn. The best plants are obtained from seed, but the varieties when sown are apt to return to their original type. The seed may be sown either broadcast or in drills, on well-dug ground, raked fine, and it should be covered with fine earth to the depth of 7? inch. The distance between the drills may be 15 inches for the small-leaved sorts and 18 inches for the large-leaved kinds. When the young plants are 2 or 3 inches high, they should be thinned out to 1 foot apart in the row, and the thinnings may be planted at the above distances, water being given at planting, and afterwards till they take root. About two months after sowing, some of the leaves may be gathered. In doing this, the plants are generally cut over: but the market-gardeners near Paris prefer gathering the leaves singly, always taking those which are full grown, leaving the younger to increase in size; and this is the best plan. As the acidity of the leaves is increased in the heat of summer, a small quantity to come in for use at that season should be sown or planted in a shady and rather moist border. All the care necessary is to hoe the ground between the rows occasionally, to fork it in spring or autumn, and to take up the plants, divide, and replant them every three or four years, or less frequently if they are growing vigorously and produce full-sized leaves. SPINACH (*$'pinacia oleracea, L.—DioeciaPen-tandria, L.; Clhenopodeae, D. C.; Cheuopodiacese, Lind.) is an annual plant, supposed by some to be a native of Northern Asia, but its native country is not certainly known. The varieties, which are few, maybe divided into two classes :—I. Smooth-seeded. II. Prickly-seeded. I. Smooth-seeded. 1. Summer Spinach—syn. Round Spinach, Spring Spinach, Thick-leaved Round Spinach, Epinard de Hol-lande, Epinard rond. — Leaves large, roundish, and thick. This sort is adapted for summer use; all the others for winter supply. In consequence of its soon running to seed, it requires to be sown frequently. 2. Flanders Spinach — syn. Epinard de Flandre, Kpinard de Flandre a ties larges feuilles.—Leaves large, hastate, from 6 to 8 inches in breadth. It is a hardy and good winter spinach. 3. Lettuce-leaved Spinach — syn. Epinard d’Es-quermes, Epinard a feuilles de laitue.—Leaves very large, rounder than those of the preceding sort, of thick substance, and of a dark green colour. It is not perhaps quite so hardy as the Flanders spinach, but on account of its superior quality at least half of the ground allotted for the winter crop should be occupied by it. A variety called the Epinard Gaudry appears to be the same as this sort; at least it is very similar to it. II. Prickly-seeded. 4. Prickly-seeded—syn. Winter Spinach, Bordeaux, Epinard commun of the French.—Readily distinguished by its seeds being prickly. Leaves smaller and thinner than those of the Flanders and Lettuce-leaved, to which varieties it is inferior in everything but hardiness. The soil for spinach should be deep and rich, neither very stiff nor very light. The ground for the summer sowings should be rather moist, otherwise frequent waterings will be necessary; whilst for the winter crops a dry warm spot must be selected. In all cases the ground should be deeply dug, and if necessary manured with stable-dung. Blood, guano, and other nitrogenous manures, are also used with advantage. The first sowing of the Summer spinach may be made in the middle of February, and from that time a small quantity should be sown every three weeks till the beginning of May, afterwards a small sowing may be made every ten days till August if a constant supply is required, for the summer crops soon run to seed. In the first week in August, and again in the third week of that month, the principal crop of Flanders and Lettuceleaved spinach for winter use should be sown; and lastly, another sowing of the same kinds may take place in the beginning of September. The sowings for summer use should be made in a somewhat shady situation, with the view of preventing the plants from running to seed so soon as they otherwise would. Frequently the summer crops are sown in a single drill between rows of pease or beans; in this way they do very well, and in rich soil do not injure the plants between which they are grown. The ground having been deeply dug, the seed should be sown in drills about 1 inch deep, 12 inches apart for the Summer spinach; but for the Flanders and Lettuce-leaved varieties from 15 to 18 inches between the rows may be allowed. The winter crops are also frequently sown broadcast, in 4 or 5 feet beds, with 1-foot alleys between. Previous to sowing, if the ground is dry, the drill should be well watered; it is also advantageous to steep the seeds before sowing for five or six hours, when their speedy germination is desired; but in this case they must not afterwards be allowed to get dry, nor suffer from want of water. After sowing, the seed-bed should be frequently watered in dry weather. When the young plants have made three or four leaves, they should be thinned out to about 2 inches apart; afterwards,270 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. when rather further advanced, they may he thinned out to 6 inches apart in the rows for the Summer spinach; but the other kinds should be allowed 9 inches between the plants. Some, before thinning the summer crops a second time, make a first gathering, and then cut out every alternate plant. After thinning, the culture is confined to keeping the ground clean, stirring occasionally, and watering frequently and copiously in dry weather. In gathering for use, the largest leaves should be taken oft' first, either V cutting or picking, the others being left to produce in succession; but during the heat of summer the plants may be cut over. To save Seed.—Seed of the Summer spinach may be saved from plants of the early spring sowings; and to obtain that of the winter kinds, a portion may be transplanted in spring. After fertilization has taken place, all the male plants may be at once removed. The seed remains good for two or three years. SUCCORY. See Chicory. SWEET CICELY (Myrrhis odorata, Scop.— Pentandria Digynia, L.; Umbellifene, D C.) is a hardy perennial, a native of Britain. In this country the leaves were formerly put into salads, but the strong flavour of aniseed, which the whole plant possesses, renders them disagreeable to most persons. It is no longer cultivated in Britain, but the leaves and roots are still used in France; the former for the same purposes as those of chervil; the latter in soups, to which they are said to communicate an agreeable taste. The plant will grow in any situation, and may be raised from seed, which is best sown in autumn. TANSY (Tanacetum vulgare, L.—Syngenesia Polygamia Superflu a, L.; Composite, D. C.; Asteracese, Lind.) is a hardy perennial, a native of Britain. The young aromatic leaves are employed in colouring and flavouring puddings, &c. Two varieties are cultivated: — 1. Common Tansy. 2. Curi.ed Tansy. The second sort is the most esteemed, and the one generally cultivated. Tansy may be raised from seed sown in spring, but is usually propagated by dividing the roots in February or March, or in autumn. The divisions should be planted 1 foot apart, in rows 18 inches asunder. The ground between the rows should be hoed and loosened occasionally; no other culture is necessary. By topping the plants before they come into flower, the production of young leaves will be encouraged. The plants will continue many years in the same place; but in a few seasons they exhaust the soil, so that the leaves are not so tender; therefore a new plantation should be frequently made in fresh soil. TARRAGON (Artemisia Dracunculus, L. — Syngenesia Polygamia Superflua, L.; Compositae, D. C.) is a perennial plant, a native of Siberia. The aromatic leaves and tops are used in salads and soups, are pickled with gherkins, and an infusion of them in vinegar formsthemuch esteemed tarragon vinegar. It requires a free, light, and somewhat dry soil, and a warm situation. It is propagated by dividing the roots in March or April, planting them in deeply dug ground, 8 inches apart, in rows from 12 to 15 inches asunder, covering the roots with soil to the depth of 2 or 3 inches. It may also be propagated by cuttings of the shoots, taken off in July or August, planted under a hand-glass, and transplanted when they have made good I’oots, water being given at planting and until they are established. As the plants are liable to be injured by severe frost, it is a good plan to cut them down at the approach of winter, and to cover the crowns with a little mould and then with litter. In spring the ground should be slightly stirred, but not so deeply as to injure the roots. A fresh plantation should be made every year; for tarragon, though a perennial, is apt to die off in this climate, seldom lasting good for more than two or three years. Where not forced in winter, a quantity should be cut and dried for use in that season. TETRAGONIA EXPANSA. See New Zealand Spinach. THYME (Thymus, L.—Didynamia Gynmo-spermia, L.; Labiatce, 1). C.; Lamiaceoe, Lind.) —The leaves and tops of thyme are extensively used in soups and stuffings, for which purposes two species are cultivated, namely, Common Thyme and Lemon Thyme. I. Common Thyme (Thyvius vulgaris, L.) is an evergreen under-shrub, a native of the south of Europe. Of this there are three varieties:— 1. Narrow-leaved Common Thyme. 2. Broad-leaved Common Thyme. 3. Variegated Common Thymr, The first two sorts are those cultivated for culinary purposes, the other being chiefly grown for ornament. II. Lemon Thyme (Thymus cilriodorus, Ters.) is a low evergreen shrub, of a trailing habit, and rarely exceeding 4 inches in height. Its native country is not known. Its smell is exceedingly pleasant, and on account of the flavour it is preferred to the common sort for some dishes. Thyme is always most aromatic, and thrives best, when planted in a light, rich, and ratherKITCHEN GAEDEN. 271 dry soil, and in a warm situation. It may be propagated by seed, by dividing the plant, or by rooted branches; the last is the mode in which Lemon thyme may be most readily propagated. The best plants are raised from seeds. These should be sown in April, on a bed of light earth raked fine. They may be sown broadcast, in shallow drills 8 inches apart, or in a single drill to form an edging; in all cases covering lightly with earth. The seed-bed and the young plants, when they come up, should be watered occasionally In dry weather. They may be thinned out in June or July to 4 inches apart; or, if sown in drills, to about 3 inches apart in the row. The thinnings may also be planted, water being given at planting, and subsequently till they take root. Old plants may be divided in March or April, and rooted branches may be taken off and planted at the same period, in both cases watering at planting. Branches may be induced to take root by bending them down and covering the lower portion with earth, when they will soon take root. Thyme is frequently planted or sown as an edging, and answers the purpose very well; but after the lapse of three or four years, or when the edging commences to exhibit gaps, the plants should be taken up. When coming into flower a quantity should be cut, or pulled up, and dried for winter use. TOBACCO (iVicotiana Tabacum, L.—Pentan-dria Monogynia, L.; Solanese, D. C.; Solanaceae, Lind.)—The tobacco is an annual plant, a native of South America, now cultivated in all the warmer regions of the globe. Its cultivation in this country for sale is not only absolutely prohibited, but even if it were allowed it could not be profitably carried out on account of the inferior I quality of the produce in our climate, the exhausting nature of the crop, and high rent of the land. Leaves, however, can be produced in this country of a quality which is found to answer exceedingly well for the destruction of insects, ° * . . # 7 | and its cultivation in gardens for this purpose is desirable. Many varieties are distinguished; two of the I best are the Broad-leaved Virginian and the Guatemala Tobacco. The leaves of both these are very similar; but the former has pink, the latter white flowers. Tobacco is raised from seed, which should be sown on a moderate hot-bed about the middle of March, and covered lightly with fine earth. When the plants come up, and have acquired sufficient strength, they should be pricked out into shallow pans about 2 inches apart; then gradually inured to the open air on fine days, and planted out in the middle of May [June], at 3 ft. apart, in rich ground. They may be shaded with flower-pots, and occasionally watered, till they take root. No more attention is necessary, except keeping the ground clean, until their lateral shoots begin to show themselves, and these should be constantly pinched off as they appear, for if suffered to remain, they would have the effect of very much reducing the supply of sap from the useful leaves of the plants. When sixteen or eighteen leaves have been formed, the tops of the stems are cut off. The tobacco acquires maturity of growth in the beginning of September; this is indicated by the leaves becoming mottled with yellow spots, those at the bottom more so than at the top of the plant; they are also more glossy and shining than before. The following mode of curing was tried in the garden of the Horticultural Society at Chiswick, and found to answer exceedingly well for tobacco to be used for destroying insects:— “The mushroom-house, being at this time disengaged, was thought an eligible place for the curing process. The plants were taken up quite dry, with a few of their roots; but no particular attention was paid to saving many of the latter, as the object was only to avoid breaking the bottom leaves (which might have been the case by cutting the stems); the plants were carried immediately to the house, and liuug on nails in the walls, and on ropes in the middle of it. When all had been brought into the house it was shut up quite close, the fire lighted, and the temperature kept to 70°, until the leaves got completely yellow, which they did in four or five days. The heat was then raised to 75°, and in about a week the leaves, with the exception of the midribs, were cured, and of a fine brown colour. The heat was then increased to between 80° and 90°, and in five days the midribs were so completely killed that the thick ends of them would have broken immediately on attempting to bend them. The leaves were now very much curled, and dry as fire could make them, and if subjected to any pressure would have crumbled to snuff. Fire was discontinued, and the floor of the house well watered; this was repeated as it evaporated; and in twenty-four hours the leaves were as soft and pliable as could be desired:. they could now be handled without breaking or wasting them. When stripped off the stalks they were stretched out singly, and laid above one another, then well pressed to give them form and keep them smooth; they were then tied in hands of about half-a-dozen leaves in each, and packed into a tub, being well pressed as they were put in. In this way they remained a fortnight, when they began272 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. to mould slightly at the midribs, in consequence of the weather being moist and warm; they were then rehung in the house, and very gradually dried by fire heat; were afterwards brought to a moist state in the manner above described, and finally repacked in the tub. The important points in the above mode of curing are to carry the plants to the house whenever they are taken tip; for if the sun be bright, the leaves would sunburn in a short time; the leaves require to be yellow before the heat is increased, otherwise the tobacco would cure too light-coloured; and the midribs must be completely killed before the leaves are taken off the stalks; for if not once made very dry, they would never keep. “The number of leaves that each plant ought to be allowed to produce should be determined by the quality of the ground, the earliness or lateness of the season, &c.; where these combine to the advantage of the plants, they are able to perfect proportionally more leaves.” In curing, merely drying the leaves is not sufficient, for according to Liebig the addition of water is necessary for the formation of nicotine; and a slight fermentation is also said to assist in producing the same effect. Water may be supplied by means of sprinkling through a very fine rose; or, as the plant is very hygrometric, it may be allowed to absorb moisture from evaporation, as in the process above described. It is to the presence of nicotine that tobacco owes its poisonous properties; hence where due attention has not been paid to the formation of this organic base, the tobacco is not uufrequently rendered totally unfit for fumigation, proving more injurious to the plants themselves than to the insects which it is intended to destroy. TOMATO, or Love Apple (Lycopersicum es-culentu?n, Dunal; Solanum Lycopersicum, L.— Pentandria Monogynia, L.; Solanece, D.C.; So-1 a name, Lind.) is a tender annual, a native of South America, and some say of Mexico as well. It is cultivated for its fruit, which forms the principal ingredient of various sauces; and it is also used in soups, and made into a pickle when in a green state. The best varieties are:— 1. Lakge Red—syu. Large Red Italian, Orangefield, Tomate grosse rouge.—This lias very large, broad, ribbed fruit, sometimes weighing as much as 12 oz. each. It is very dwarf, and a single plant lias produced from 20 to 40 lbs. of fruit. One of the best and earliest. 2. Large Yellow.—Resembles the Large Red, but has yellow fruit. 3. Large Early Red—syn. Grosse rouge li&tive.— A free-bearing early variety, having large corrugated fruit, of a fine deep red colour. In France it is preferred for forcing. Earley’s Defiance is a fine selection of this, having the fruits but little corrugated; it is both early and prolific. [4. Hathaway’s Excelsior.—A strong robust variety, with moderately cut leaves, free-bearing and early. The fruits are large, of a fine red, and of excellent flavour, round, generally smooth, becoming corrugated only when very vigorous. One of the best. 5. Trophy.—A late sort with fruit of extraordinary size, roundish, depressed, much corrugated, deep red, larger than in most other varieties. 6. Carter’s Green Gage.—A handsome and prolific variety, with the smooth roundish citron-coloured fruit in clusters; agreeably subacid and refreshing in the raw state, and of a superior flavour when cooked.] 7. Upright—syn. Tomate de Laye, Tree Tomato, Tomate rouge a tige raide, Grenier. —This variety has a stout erect stem, not requiring support, small leaves, and large roundish slightly corrugated fruit. It is late and rather tender. 8. Pear-shaped.—An ornamental and productive variety, the fruit red, in shape resembling a small pear, and produced in clusters. 9. Cherry—syn. Red Cherry, Tomate cerise.—Fruit round, red, about the size of a cherry, produced in clusters in great abundance. The earliest variety. 10. Yellow Cherry—syn. Small Yellow.—Like the preceding, but bearing yellow fruit. 11. Red Currant (Lycopersicum racemigerum) — A very ornamental kind, the fruit small, resembling red currants, produced in clusters, and in great abundance. The tomato is raised from seed, which should be sown in February or early in March, either in pots placed iu gentle heat, or ou a moderate hotbed; in either case the plants should be potted off singly into small pots as soon as they have made their second leaves. As the plants increase in size they should be shifted into larger pots, and plenty of air and water ought to be given. An occasional application of liquid manure will also be found beneficial. As the weather gets warmer they must be more and more exposed to the air till the end of May, when, if the season is favourable, they may be planted out against a wall or paling, with an east, west, or south aspect; the latter, however, is indispensable in cold localities both in England and Scotland. If neither of these be at command, they may be planted in warm situations iu the open ground: or, better, at the foot of a bank sloping to the south, with an inclination of about 45°. In planting, holes 1 foot in depth should be made, and in them should be put a quantity of rotten dung, which must be covered with 4 or 5 inches of earth. Water ought to be given at planting, and subsequently in dry weather. As the branches increase in length they should be nailed rather widely apart to the wall or fence, the object being to expose the fruit as much as possible to the sun’s rays, without at the same | time depriving the plant of its due proportion ofKITCHEN GARDEN. 273 foliage; or if the plants are grown on a sloping bank, they may be pegged down. Shoots where too close together, or likely to cause confusion, should be thinned out before overcrowding takes place; and foresight should be exercised to prevent such taking place, for by observing the habit of growth of the plant, it may be known what shoots may be allowed to grow to bear with freedom, and what if allowed to proceed in growth would cause overcrowding, and would of necessity have to be cut away on that account, with all their foliage, to the detriment of the vigour of the plant and its produce; but much foliage should not be removed at one time. Some almost entirely strip the plant in order that the sun may colour the fruit, but it should be recollected that this colouring without the action of the leaves does not constitute perfect ripening. When as much fruit is set as is likely to ripen, and it is only those earliest formed that will do so in this country, the plants should be stopped by pinching. This operation must also be performed above the fruit on each of the secondary branches; and laterals should be removed, but not all at one time. Afterwards all leaves that tend to shade the fruit from the sun should be taken off or pushed aside. The fruit ripens in August, September, and October; it should be gathered as it successively comes to maturity, and when perfectly dry; if hung up in a dry place it will keep till November. Before frost sets in all fruit not perfectly ripe should be gathered and placed in a vinery or peach-house, to complete its maturity; but fruit so ripened, though useful, is never so good as that fully matured on the plant. Although the tomato is generally raised from seed, it may also be propagated by cuttings, a plan which, from the following statement of a correspondent of the Gardeners’ Chrotiicle, appears to be attended with some advantages. He says:— “ Living not very far distant from Manchester, I cannot boast of having the largest share of sunny days, but for fog and smoke I believe we can vie with any district in the kingdom. Nevertheless, I generally succeed in getting a good supply of tomatoes, well ripened, before autumn frosts set in. I propagate by cuttings, putting them in about the beginning of September. I need scarcely state that the lateral shoots are preferable to the leading ones. They strike readily, either singly in small pots, or two or three together in larger ones; but I prefer the former method, as their roots are not so liable to get injured in potting. As soon as the plants are well rooted they are shifted into 5-inch pots, in which they remain till about the beginning of February, when they are repotted, giving them a decent shift. Nothing more is required except attention, &c., till planting-out time. The tops may at this time be taken off and struck; they make excellent plants, fully the best, by the middle of May. The only objection to this system is the difficulty of keeping them over winter; but if one half of the plants only live, the certainty of a crop) will amply repay the trouble. Not only do plants raised in this way bear and ripen sooner than those produced from seed, but the fruit is both larger, and there is moi’e of it.” The above is a good plan to adopt in cold situations. But in these there is always much uncertainty as regards perfect ripening; and where there is the means, it is better to grow the plants in a pit or in pots, which may be moved into any house where there is sufficient heat and light. In ripening off they will bear the heat of a pine-stove. TREE PRIMROSE ((Enothera biennis, L.— Octandria Monogynia, L.; Onagrarije, I). C.)—-This is a hardy biennial plant, a native of Virginia, but naturalized in many parts of Europe. It is cultivated in Germany for its long fusiform roots, which are cooked in various ways. The following details respecting the method in which it is cultivated and used in that country are translated from the Bon Jardinier:—■ It is sown and when the young plants have made a few leaves they are planted in quincunx order, at from 12 to 20 inches apart, in ground manured the previous autumn. During the summer the ground is kept clean, and the plants watered when necessary; in the autumn the roots are takeu up, deprived of all the leaves, with the exception of the heart-leaves, and stored in a cellar, or they are left in the ground and taken up as required, for the plant is perfectly hardy. The roots are eaten boiled, either cut into slices and put in salad, or served up with white sauce like the roots of salsafy. They are also put into soups. This vegetable is recommended for weak stomachs, being easy of digestion, and nourishing at the same time. It is not used after Easter, aa the roots by that time become hard and woody.” TROPiEOLUM TUBEROSUM (Octandria Monogynia, L.; Tropseolese, D. C.; Tropaeolacea.% Lind.) is a perennial plant, a native of Peril, which is deserving of mention as a little-known esculent. It produces an abundauoe of pretty yellow and red tubers, about the size of small pears, the taste of which is not however very agreeable. On this account a particular mode of preparation is adopted in Bolivia, where, according to M. Decaisne, they are treated in the following manner: — 18274 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. “ The tubers of the Tropceolum tuberosum, designated ysano at La Paz, require to be prepared before they become edible. Indeed, when they were prepared in Europe like potatoes, and immediately after being taken up, their taste was very disagreeable. But a mode of making them palatable was discovered in Bolivia, and the ysano has there become, if not a common vegetable, at least one which is quite edible. The means of making them so consists in freezing them after they have been cooked, and they are eaten when frozen. In this state M. Weddell affirms that they constitute an agreeable dish, and that scarcely a day passes at La Paz without two lines of dealers being engaged in selling the ysano, which they protect from the action of the sun by enveloping it in a woollen cloth and straw. “ The ladies of La Paz are all very fond of the ysano; and in the season of the ta'iachas large quantities are sopped in molasses, and taken as refreshment during the heat of the day.”—(Journal of Horticultural Society, vol. ix. p. 59.) This plant may be propagated by pieces of the tubers in the same manner as potatoes, an eye being preserved on each piece. The sets should be planted in April, about 4 feet apart, in light rich soil. The stems may either be allowed to for their support; in dry soils and seasons the former method should be adopted; in those which are moist the latter. The tubers are taken up in October or November, when the leaves begin to decay, and stored in sand. TRUFFLE.—(Cryptogamia Fungi, L.; Fungi, j D. C.)—The common truffle (Tuber cestivum) is nearly spherical in shape, and has been known to attain a weight of 3 or 4 lbs., and measure Fig.198. 4 inches in diameter. The surface is rough, warty, and black. The flesh is grayish or white when young, black veined with white when old. The Truffle, smell is powerful, but by no means unpleasant. It grows from 2 to 10 inches under the surface of the ground, and the spots where it is to be found are discovered by means of dogs trained for the purpose. It is abundant in some parts of Britain, particularly in Wiltshire, Kent, and Hampshire, but never occurs in any but calcareous soils, where it grows under the shade of trees, generally the oak and beech. In warm moist years it may be found throughout the year, but most abundantly from August to October. Truffles constitute a much esteemed luxury, seldom indulged in by any but the rich. They are used in sauces, gravies, and in a great variety of dishes; indeed, it is an axiom with first-rate French cooks that the truffle improves all that it touches. There is, however, no doubt that they are indigestible, and injurious to the health when eaten in large quantities. Besides the common species, there are other and more esteemed sorts, not found in this country, which are imported from the Continent, and always command a very high price in our markets. The most celebrated of these is the Piedmontese truffle (Tuber magnatum), which is smooth, with pink-tinged flesh. It occurs in the mountains of Piedmont, and probably nowhere else. The truffle of the Paris markets (Tuber melanosporum) is richly scented, and also greatly superior in flavour to the common sort. Although much has been written on the cultivation of the truffle, yet all attempts to grow it anywhere but in the localities where it naturally occurs have terminated unsuccessfully. Some account of the methods proposed may, however, afford useful hints to our readers. The first person in this country who called attention to the possibility of cultivating it appears to have who has the following observations on the subject, in a work entitled New Improvements of Planting and Gardening, both Philosophical and Practical:— “The truffle may be easily cultivated where there are woods or coppices of oak or hazel, and where the soil is not too stiff or inclining to chalk. The soil where they are most found is a reddish sandy loam. This will then be the best for our purpose, especially if it has lain long uncultivated. When we are thus provided with the proper soil we must be sure to let it lie undisturbed till we are ready to plant, which will be in the mouths of October, November, and December, if the weather be open; for then the truffles are to be found in their full ripeness, and then likewise one may find them in a state of putrefaction, which is the time when the seeds are prepared for vegetation ; it is in the last state that one ought to gather truffles for planting, or at least they should be in perfect ripeness. “ The proper soil and these rotten truffles being found, we may begin our work as follows: — Open a spot of ground of a convenient space, and take out the earth about 8 inches deep, and screen it, that it may be as fine as possible; then lay about 2 or 3 inches thick of this fine earth at the bottom of the trench or open ground, and upon it lay some of the over-ripe truffles, about 14 foot dis- trail along the ground, or pea-sticks may be placed | been Bradley,KITCHEN GARDEN. 275 prepare a thin mud, made of the screened earth and water, well mixed together, and pour it on the truffles till the opened ground is quite filled up. By this means, in a few hours, the ground will be as close settled about the truffles as if it laid never been dug or disturbed at all, and you may expect a good crop iu due time. You must, however, take care to choose your spots of ground in woods or coppices, or such places as are shaded with trees.” The method proposed by Bradley does not appear to have been successful; that of the Comte de Borch, whose work upon the subject appeared at Milan in 1780, is said to have been attended with a better result. “The Comte de Borch, previously to commencing his researches into the mode of propagating truffles, took an opportunity of examining the growth of the singular conglomerations of clay and fungus-spawn, which are known in Italy bv the name of pietra fonghosa. These are not only objects of curiosity in consequence of their producing, when properly watered, a crop of fungi, but the fungi so produced form an excellent article of food. They are not often brought over to this country; but I have seen in an herbarium a specimen produced from one of these fungus-stones in England. The comte first removed a lump of the spawn from the surrounding earth, and contented himself with simply watering it, and under these circumstances it produced a pileus, which, however, withered when it had attained a certain height. He then as closely as possible imitated the soil of which the agglomerations were composed, and placed one of them in the centre of it, and after repeatedly sprinkling it with water, in which some fungi of the same species had been washed, he had then an excellent crop, which were distributed to many of his friends. He determined to keep this in view in his experiments on truffles. “ His attention was directed chiefly to the nature of the soil in which the particular species of truffle on which he experimented grew. He found that it was a light soil, mixed with particles of imperfectly decomposed vegetable substances, with a slight admixture of clay, and that a moist but not wet condition of it was most favourable to their development. He therefore prepared an artificial soil of such a description as that in which he found the truffles most abundant. It was composed of seven parts of good garden earth, two of light argillaceous soil, and one of oak sawdust; this was intimately mixed together, and abundantly sprinkled with rain-water. It was then exposed to the full sun till the moisture was absorbed to the degree he wished, and in the soil thus prepared he placed four truffles of the best quality, but without any favourable result, as they all gradually became mouldy. “ He then paid close attention to the structure of the truffle itself, and he was led to suspect the existence of reproductive bodies in the veins, and having carefully collected a quantity, he had the satisfaction of finding, after forty-five days, a number of minute truffles. “Having now ascertained that truffles were really propagated by seed, he thought that it would be more convenient to try the effect of planting whole truffles, and this plan proved successful. Having prepared an entirely artificial bed—or if the natural soil were preferable, taking care, after first trenching it to the depth of 2 feet and removing all large stones, to make such additions to it as should bring it as nearly as possible to the requisite condition, especially that of a due proportion of oak sawdust, and if the clay were at all too stiff, about one-tenth of pounded snail-shells, and choosing an aspect rather exposed to the north than the south, and where no reflected rays could fall upon it, with every precaution to insure its being thoroughly drained—he first watered it thoroughly with pure rain-water, and after waiting a day or two till it was in a proper state of moisture, he made rows 5 foot deep, and in these, at 6 inches’ distance, he placed good and sound truffles, each of them being surrounded with two or three handfuls of oak sawdust, taking care to mark the rows accurately. Ridges were then made over each row to prevent the truffles being injured by too abundant moisture; the bed was then left till the following autumn with no other precaution than in dry weather to take care that it did not become too dry. The result, we are informed, was an abundant harvest every year from October to January.”—(Rev. M. J. Berkeley, in Gardener£ Chronicle.) With reference to the preceding method, it is necessary to observe that the experiment was confined to the Piedmontese species. A treatise on the cultivation of the truffle, by Alexander von Bondiolz, was published at Qued-linburg and Leipzig, in 1825; and a translation of it appeared in the Gardener's Magazine, vol. xiii., to which we would refer such of our readers as may be desirous of entering minutely into the details of the system proposed, of which the following is a short account:— M. von Bornholz states, that v’hether a truffle plantation be made in a wood or in a garden, a somewhat moist soil and a low situation should be chosen; at the same time the soil should be mellow, fertile, and by no means boggy. As truffles ai'e finest and most abundant iu a light,276 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. ferruginous, calcareous soil, such should be selected for the plantation; and if a soil of this description does not naturally occur in the neighbourhood, it must be artificially formed. A pit from 2)r to 3 feet deep should then be dug, and the sides and bottom lined with unburned calcareous stone, to prevent the burrowing of mice and other vermin; but where the subsoil is compact, the bottom should not be so lined. The pit is next to be filled to the depth of 1 foot with ferruginous calcareous soil, and the remainder of the space filled up with a compost of completely decomposed cow-dung, oak or hornbeam leaves, and wood soil, the whole of the ingredients having been thoroughly mixed. In this, young truffles are planted from 2 to 6 inches deep, and the whole covered with oak-leaves, above which some branches of the oak or hornbeam should be placed, and some young plants of these trees inserted. If truffles are to be raised in gardens, a low, moist spot, shaded by trees, should be chosen, and a hole prepared and filled as before; but the compost used must contain a larger proportion of oak-leaves, pounded bark, and spent tanners’ bark. After planting, the bed should be covered every autumn with a layer of fallen oak-leaves 1 foot in thickness. It is very probable that the above method was merely theoretical. At all events there is no evidence to prove that successful results were ever obtained. In a review (Gardeners' Chronicle, 1852, p. 518) of M. Tulasne’s History and Monography of Truffles, a beautiful but scarce work, it is stated that the production of truffles “ can easily be effected in certain calcareous soils, even w'here they may not have been observed before. The plan consists simply in sowing acorns on the soil, and when the oaks have attained the age of ten or twelve years truffles begin to appear. The extensive truffle-layers of Loudon, in Vienne, were actually produced in this manner. They consisted a few years since of naked uncultivated plains, where truffles were unknown. The plantations must not be too thick; they are cut down for the first time when they are about twelve years’ growth, and then at intervals of from seven to nine years. They continue fertile for about twenty-five or thirty years, when at length scarcely any truffles are produced.” Notwithstanding the failure of all the attempts which have been made to subject the truffle to cultivation, there is still much reason to suppose that further experiments may terminate successfully. By ascertaining the chemical composition of the truffle itself, by the careful analysis of the soils in which it grows, by ascertaining their cohesion, their power of absorbing and retaining moisture, their temperature at various depths, the amount of moisture they receive, and by observing any other peculiarity of soil and situation, the conditions which it naturally enjoys may be discovered. Then by systematic experiments the conditions essentially necessary to its growth may be found, and a proper mode of cultivation arrived at. In conclusion, it may be observed that though experiments may be carried on with the common species, yet success once obtained with that, attention should be immediately directed to the naturalization and cultivation of the more valuable foreign sorts. TURNIP (Brassica Rapa, L.—Tetradynamia Siliquosa, L.; Cruciferse, D. C.; Brassicacere, Lind.)—The turnip is a hardy biennial, a native of Britain, as well as of many other parts of Europe. It has been cultivated for its roots from time immemorial, and the leaves are also frequently used as greens, or sometimes blanched as a substitute for sea-kale. The French turnip, a fleshy-rooted variety of Brassica JYapus, which is sweeter and of better flavour than the common turnip, but inferior to it in size, is likewise cultivated for the same purposes; and the Swedish turnip (Brassica campes-tris Rutabaga, D. C.) is sometimes, on account of its extreme hardiness, grown in gardens in very cold situations where other kinds are liable to be injured by frost. The principal garden varieties are:— 1. Early "White Dutch—syn. Turnep liatif de Hol-lande, Rave de Limousin.—Bulb roundisli-oblate or flattened, skin white; flesh white and very tender, but must be used in a young state, for after the bulb has attained its full size its quality becomes much deteriorated; from 2 to 2.) inches in diameter is a good size for use. This sort has been long in cultivation, and is still the one principally employed for the earliest crops. 2. Early Flat White—syn. Navet Wane plat liatif. —Bulb small, much flattened; flesh white and tender. A very early sort. 3. Entire-leaved Early Flat White—syn. Navet blanc plat liatif a feuille entire.—This is a variety of the preceding. The leaves are not cut on the margins, and the bulb is round, handsomely formed, early, and of good quality. 4. Early White Strap-leaf.—An excellent early variety, with small round bulbs, the flesh of which is white and tender. The top is small, consisting of a few long, narrow, or strap-shaped leaves. 5. Early Six-weeks—syn. Early Dwrarf, Early Ball. —Bulbs globular, and growing chiefly above ground. Skin greenish white; flesh white, tender, and of good flavour. Very early, and only adapted for use in a young state in summer and autumn. 6. White Stone.—Bulbs round, somewhat flattened, larger than those of the Early White Dutch. Skin white, tinged with green; flesh white, of fine quality,KITCHEN GARDEN. 277 and firmer than that of the sort just mentioned. It is ■well adapted for late sowings, and is soon fit for use; but when sown in spring it is apt; to run quickly to seed. 7. Vert us—syn. French tender, Navet tendre des Vertus.—Oblong; flesh very white, and of good quality. In this country, however, the round form is generally preferred to the oblong. 8. Red American Stone.—Bulb small, oblate, growing chiefly above ground. Skin violet where exposed to the light, white elsewhere; flesh white and tender, but not so sweet as that of many other sorts. 9. Chivas’ Orange Jelly—syn. Golden Ball.—Of a handsome round form, with a small top. The skin is pale orange, the flesh yellow, juicy, sweet, and tender. It has very little fibre, so that when boiled it almost acquires the consistence of a jelly. 10. Yellow Malta—syn. Maltese, Yellow Maltese, Golden Maltese.—Bulbs about 2 inches in diameter, round, flattened above, and rather concave below, with a small tap-root proceeding from the centre of the hollow. Flesh yellow and tender. An excellent sort. 11. Yellow Finland—syD. Early Finland, Navet jaune de Finlande.—Bulb small, round above, concave below, with a very small tap-root. Top small. Skin smooth and yellow; flesh yellow and very sweet. An excellent sort, which keeps long, and is somewhat earlier than the Yellow Malta, to which it bears considerable resemblance. It should be sown in June and July. 12. Scotch Yellow—syn. Aberdeen Yellow.—Bulb small or middle-sized, roundish, growing about half above ground. Skin yellow; flesh yellow, firm, and very sweet. An exceedingly hardy sort, standing a severe winter better than any other garden variety. In the south it should be sown for winter use about the middle of July, and in the north in the beginning of that month. 13. Teltow—syn. Teltau, Navet petit de Berlin, Markiselie Teltower.—Very small, with a tapering root, and a top not larger than that of a radish. The flesh is firm, very hot, but the rind is more especially so; this part however is not peeled off, as in it the piquant flavour is principally contained. It is employed in ragouts, and for seasoning in various ways. It should be sown in light sandy soil. In rich ground its flavour is deteriorated. In the neighbourhood of Teltow, in Brandenburg, it is sown in April, and again in August; but for the second sowing in this country July is late enough. Soil and Manure.—The turnip succeeds best in light sandy soils, and loams containing a large proportion of sand. Stiff retentive soils, on the contrary, are ill adapted for the growth of good crops of well-flavoured bulbs, and on such also early crops are more apt to run to seed. In light dry soils well-decomposed farm-yard dung is one of the best applications that can be made, as it not only affords nourishment but moisture to start the young plants into the rough leaf. For heavy land, littery dung, not much decomposed, may be advantageously employed. Bone-dust, superphosphate of lime, or guano, applied either separately or together with farm-yard manure, exercise a highly beneficial effect on the turnip crop, especially in old garden soils containing an excess of organic matter, forcing the plants into the rough leaf, and encouraging the development of the bulbs. Culture.—Turnips are usually sown broadcast in gardens, and as they are not required to be grown to a large size, this mode answers very well in light soils. Where the soil, however, is more tenacious than could be wished for this crop, it is a good plan to draw drills with a hoe at about 15 inches apart, fill them with well-rotted manure, which may be watered with I guano-water, and then cover with about 2 inches of soil. Ridges will thus be formed, and their tops should be levelled by passing a light roller along them. A small groove ought next to be opened along the centre of the ridges, and in it | the seeds should be sown as regularly as possible, ; then slightly covered with fine soil, which should | afterwards be rolled. By this mode the plants 1 will receive abundance of nourishment from the 1 manure immediately below them, as soon as they : require it; at the same time, whether the weather prove dry or wet, the soil in the ridge, although naturally tenacious, will always be looser than the same kind of soil laid flat. The times and frequency of the sowings depend on whether very young turnips are much in request or not. If such be the case, some of the Early White Dutch may be sown in a warm border in the end of January or in February, and protected. A larger sowing should be made in March, two sowings in April. In May one sowing will suffice, but it would be advisable that i part of it should be made in a cool situation; also that two or three varieties should be employed, for it often happens that one sort succeeds whilst another fails. The risk of failure is greatly decreased, however, by employing two or more varieties. The principal autumn and winter crops should, in northern and cold districts, be sown for garden purposes in the last week of June, and in southern parts of the kingdom in the first fortnight of July. A small sowing may be made in the first or second week of August, and even in the last week of that month, for supplying young turnips occasionally in winter, and for standing later in spring than the main crop. In most situations, a sowing once a month from March to July inclusive, will be sufficient, especially if, j from experience, the most suitable varieties can be chosen. After sowing, the first attention should be directed to the protection of the plants from the ravages of the flea. In some states of the weather this is very difficult, and the whole sowing may either be destroyed, or the plants be so crippled278 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. that they never recover, nor form a succulent bulb. Just before the plants make their appearance, the ground should be well moistened if the weather is dry; and when the seed-leaves appear the whole of the ground should be dusted over with lime. A very light frame-work mounted on wheels, and covered with canvas, daubed with tar or other sticky substance, has been employed with considerable success in catching the flea. Several persons may drive the flea from a quarter of young turnips as follows:—In the first place, let a supply of water be brought close to hand, or say to each end of the quarter; then let one person move steadily along one side of the piece of ground from one end to the other, delivering the water through a rose as he proceeds. The fleas will jump forward as the water approaches them, and a second person following the first will keep them on the hop forward, whilst a third will drive them still further, and so on till the whole are driven off the ground. This process occasionally repeated will permit the plants to acquire their rough leaves, and the crop, which would otherwise have been destroyed or greatly injured, will probably be saved. The subsequent culture essentially consists in watering, thinning, and keeping the ground stirred and free from weeds. A moist season, or one in which warm cloudy weather prevails, is most suitable for turnips. In continued dry weather the growth of the plants is checked, and although genial weather should ensue, and start them into an overgrowth, still the bulbs are never so tender and succulent as if growth had taken place at a uniform rate. Watering should therefore be attended to in dry weather. Cold spring water must not, however, be used, as such would tend to check the growth, in hot weather more especially. The soil, by means of moistening and stirring, should be kept as loose as possible, and as a matter of course free of weeds. Partial thinning should be commenced as soon as the plants are fairly above ground, or at all events as soon as they have acquired their first rough leaves. The distance left between the plants must be regulated according to the size of the variety. In rows or drills the small sorts may be left at 4 inches apart, and the larger at 5 or 6 inches. In broadcast sowings, 6 inches may be allowed each way for summer crops, and 8 inches for those intended to stand the winter. Taking and Storing the Crop. — Crops for summer and autumn use are, of course, drawn as soon as they become fit for use—the largest bulbs being taken first. With respect to the crops for winter supply, the greater portion may generally be left in the ground, to be taken up as wanted; but a small quantity of bulbs should be taken up, topped, tailed, but not very closely, and stored in sand for use in frosty weather. In cold situations, if the more tender sorts are grown, it is advisable to take up the whole crop, and store it in ridges like potatoes, and similar precautions should be taken as with them to secure it from frost and damp. The tops should be removed, but the roots or tails should be left, as the bulbs keep better when this is the case. To save Seed.—It is rather a difficult matter to obtain the seed of turnips true in gardens, on account of the tendency which all plants of the brassica tribe have to cross with one another. For this reason no other plant of that genus should be allowed to flower at the same time in the neighbourhood of the sort the seed of which is to be saved. Only the best-formed bulbs ought to be selected for bearing seed, and they should be taken up in autumn, and planted 2 feet apart in an open situation. When the seed is perfectly ripe, it may be beaten out, and after having been well dried, hung up in a canvas-bag in a cool, dry airy place. It preserves its germinative power for four or five years, and sometimes longer. Insects and Diseases.—“ Turnips often fall a sacrifice to the inroads of insects; indeed this invaluable vegetable is attacked by a greater variety of species than probably any other crop. At first the ants run off with vast numbers of the seeds; and no sooner have the seed-leaves appeared above ground than the flea, fly, or beetle (Altica nemorum, Fig. 199), alights upon the field Fig. 199. The Turnip Fly or Beetle—Altica nemorum. 1 and 2. Insect (natural size and magnified). 3. Insect feeding. •* and 5. Eggs on under side of leaf. 6 and 7. Maggot advancing in growth. 8 and 9. Maggot full grown (natural size and magnified). 10 and 11. Pupa (natural size and magnified). to devour the succulent leaves, and the plant dies. The allied species, named Altica consobrina, ob-scurella, and concinna, as well as a weevil (Cento-rhgnchus contractus), assist in defoliating the turnips. At a more advanced stage of growth the nigger-caterpillars, the offspring of AthaliaKITCHEN GAKDEN. 279 spinarum, make skeletons of the foliage, which is also an acceptable food to the caterpillars of the white butterflies (Pontia brassicce, uopqand rapce), the white diamond-back moth (Cerostoma xylo-stella, Chrysomela or Phcedon betulce), and the Y-moth (Plusia gamma)', whilst the fields swarm with voracious slugs and snails. The green leaves ! are mined by the larva; of flies named Phy- j tomyza nigricornis and Drosophila /lava; and in the autumn they are deprived of all nourishment , by the plant-lice (dp/tis brassicce and rupee). The I seed crops are diminished by the A phis Jloris- \ rapce, the rose-chafer (Cetonia aurita), and a minute beetle (JIcligcthes ceneus)-, and the seeds are not secure in their pods from the larva; of a weevil (Ceutorhynchus assimilis). Another species ' (C. pleurostigma, Fig. 200) causes galls upon the bulbs, which are eroded and injured by the surface-grubs produced by the moths named Agrotis segetum and e.vclamationis, and Triphcena pronuba, \ as well as by the maggots of flies (Anthomyia \ guava and radicum), whilst wireworms from the click-beetles (Agriotes obscurus, lineatus, and spu- | tutor, and possibly Athous ruficaudis), snake-millipedes (Jidus terrestris and pulchellus, with Polyclesmzis complanatus), centipedes, and scolo-pendrae, complete their destruction, leaving the decomposing bulbs to generate rove-beetles {Oxy-telus rugosus and sculpturatus), the winter-gnat (Tricliocera hiemalis), and a minute fly (Sciara fucata), whose larva; live in putrid vegetable “ Numbers of parasitic insects accompany these pests to keep them down, whilst rooks, starlings, gulls, lapwings, pheasants, partridges, and a number of smaller birds, live at certain periods entirely upon them.” The remedies proposed to destroy the turnip insects are very numerous, and can only be alluded to here. Burning, hoeing, and rolling are recommended to banish the turnip beetle or fly. Draw- ing nets and painted boards over the ground will reduce their numbers; and dusting the young crops with powdered lime will drive away the beetles, and tend to recover the crop. As it is only while the plants are young and weak that the attack of the fly is dangerous, a little manure within reach of the young plants will tend to secure the crop. The black caterpillar or nigger is best got rid of by ducks and poultry; but drawing a cart-rope, a bushed hurdle, or green furze over the rows, will wound and kill large quantities, and those which are moulting at the time must die. Hand-picking is not to be neglected. The plant-lice can only be checked by cutting off the infested leaves and burning them. Lime-dust, also lime and tobacco-water, will kill them. The other caterpillars defoliating the leaves, as well as those at the roots, together with the wire-worms, can only be conquered by persevering in hand-picking.—(Curtis, in Morton’s Cyclopedia. of Agriculture.) The principal disease by which turnips are liable to be attacked is that known as anbury, or fingers-and-toes (Fig. 201), in which the roots become forked or fingered, and ultimately rot. The anbury has been attributed to the agency of insects, but these are now generally considered to be a consequence, and not the cause, of the substances. i Turnip gall Weevil—Ceviorlomchns plturoslir/hia. 1. Turnip injured by the Turnip-gall Weevil. 2. Excrescences or galls. 3. Ditto opened. 4. Grubs (natural size and magnified) found in them. 5. Weevil (natural size and magnified).280 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. malformation—the rotting mass merely affording them a suitable place in which to deposit their eggs, and the larvae produced from these assist in completing the destruction of the root. The disease occurs most frequently in ill-drained land, old garden ground, black or moory soils, and in such as have been worn out by turnip crops following each other too closely. The application of lime, bone-dust, and other manures of a calcareous nature, has been attended with some success in soils where anbury is frequent; and its recurrence is likewise wholly or partially prevented by allowing several years to elapse before the ground is again cropped with turnips. The true cause of the disease is not as yet fully understood; but it appears to us that anbury is to be ascribed to a deficient supply of one or more of the inorganic constituents of the food of the plant. Where too much manure has been given, the leaves of turnips are sometimes attacked by a fungus called Botrytis parasitica. A species of oidiuin also makes its appearance upon the leaves, particularly when the plants have been suffering Botrytis parasitica. a, Plant with mycelium magnified. 6, Extremity of branch with spores more highly magnitied. t\ Separate spore. from a deficient supply of moisture. In both cases, more or less injury to the crop of roots is the result. VALERIANA (FEDIA) CORNUCOPIA, L. (Triandria Monogynia, L.; Yaleriane;e, D C.; Valerianacere, Lind.)—An annual, native of Barbary, and said to furnish an excellent salad, superior to corn salad. We are not aware whether the plant has as yet been grown for this purpose in Britain; but it appeal's to be worthy of a trial. It should be sown on a light warm border; and by successive sowings from April till the end of July, a supply may be obtained throughout the summer and autumn. WOOD SORREL (Oxalis Acetosella, L. — De-candria Pentagynia, L.; Oxalidese, D. C.; Oxa-lidacea, Lind.) is a hard}' perennial, a native of Britain, where it grows wild in woods. The leaves are occasionally used in salads, to which they are by many considered to be a gi-ateful addition. In common with other plants of the same natural order, they contain a considerable amount of oxalic acid. This plant is seldom cultivated in gardens; but if required, a few plants may be transplanted in spring from the places where they naturally grow, into a moist shady border, the soil of which should be mixed with leaf-mould. By cuttiug over the plants in April or May, before they come into flower, a fresh growth of young leaves will be induced, and the trouble arising from seed being shed will be prevented. WORMWOOD (Artemisia, L.— S}-ngenesia Po- lvgamia Supertlua, L.; Composite, D. C.; As-teracete, Lind.) Of this three species are cultivated:— 1. Common Wormwood (A. Absinthium, L.), a native of Britain. 2. Roman Wormwood (A. pontica, L.), a native of Austria ami Hungary. 3. SeaWorm wooD(A. »iarift»ia,L.),a native of Britain.KITCHEN GARDEN. 281 They are all hardy perennials, aromatic, and intensely bitter. An infusion of the leaves and tops is used as a vermifuge, tonic, and stomachic; and the leaves are found to be beneficial to poultry. The second sort, not being so nauseous as the others, is the one generally preferred. Wormwood grows well in any soil, but is most aromatic when planted in a poor and rather dry soil, with a warm aspect. The common sort may easily be raised from seed sown in spring, but both this and the other kinds are generally propagated by dividing the plants in spring, or by cuttings. It may be planted 1 foot apart in rows 15 inches asunder, and will stand for many years in the same place, no other culture being required than to hoe the ground occasionally. Some shoots may be cut when coming into flower, and dried for winter use. CHAPTER XI. CROPPING THE KITCHEN GARDEN. It is a well-known fact, that the same kind of crop cannot be successfully grown on the same ground for several consecutive years. A striking distance of this is found in agriculture. Farmers know that if land be too frequently cropped with clover, it becomes what is termed clover-sick, and refuses to produce that crop till a considerable space of time has elapsed. So much is this the case, that in some districts two rotations intervene before the ground is again sown with clover. Various theories have been formed as to the causes which render the rotation or alternation of crops necessary. De Candolle, supported by the experiments of Brugmans and Macaire, supposed that the roots had the power of excreting or throwing off substances unnecessary or injurious to the plants to which they belong. Hence it was concluded that the soil eventually became poisoued by the excrementitious matters of the plants grown on it, and was in consequence rendered unfit for the growth of plants of the same kind until these substances were decomposed. The experiments upon which these conclusions were founded having been considered inconclusive, others were undertaken, and from them it has been found that excretion from the roots only takes place when these are wounded. This theory has therefore fallen to the ground. The next theory which claims attention is founded on the exhaustion of the mineral substances contained in the soil. It has already been shown, that inorganic substances are essen- tial to the growth of plants, and that without mineral food plants cannot live. It has also been shown that these substances are obtained from the soil. If, then, they are not present in sufficient quantity, or do not exist in such a state fill at they can be taken up by the roots, it is evident that the plant must suffer in consequence. It cannot be denied that by the successive removal of crops of the same nature from the soil, the amount of mineral substances contained in it, in a state available for the food of plants, is decreased. Now, it is known that some plants contain a greater amount of certain mineral substances than others; for instance, some plants require much potash or soda, others much phosphoric acid, some much lime, others a large quantity of silica. This being the case, it is evident that it would be beneficial to cause one crop requiring only a small quantity of any particular inorganic substance, to succeed another requiring that substance in large amount. Such is the explanation of the beneficial results attendant on the rotation of crops given by this theoiy—a theory which, though more satisfactory than the preceding, is still far from being conclusive, inasmuch as in practice results at variance with its conclusions are obtained. Crops requiring a large amount of a certain mineral substance are found to succeed well after other crops requiring the same article in nearly equal quantities. Moreover, experience tells us, that by merely restoring the inorganic matters abstracted from the soil by any crop, we do not fit it for the immediate production of other crops of the same kind, and that the same will be the case even if the inorganic constituents be returned in much greater quantity, and in such a state that they can be readily taken up by the roots of plants. The part which those important constituents of the food of plants, the carbonic acid and ammonia contained in the soil, may have in the beneficial effects of a proper rotation, appeal's to have been underrated. May not the exhaustion of these substances, likewise, and not solely that of the inorganic food, be the true cause of the necessity of a rotation of crops l On this basis the contradictory results previously referred to might be easily explained. The necessity of a change of crops, whatever be the cause, being evident, it remains to point out what are the general rules which are found the best in practice. These are as follows:— 1. Plants of the same natural order should not succeed each other. 2. Crops which occupy the ground for several years should be succeeded by others of short duration; thus asparagus or strawberries may be followed by cabbages or lettuces.282 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. 3. Plants grown for their roots or bulbs should not be succeeded by others grown for the same purpose; neither should plants grown for their seeds follow each other. The above rules apply to all systems of rotation, but it is impossible to recommend any particular course of cropping as the best, for this must entirely depend upon the richness of the soil, the amount of manure at command, the size of the garden, the products required, and the relative proportion of each. The nnu’ket-gardeners round London, who may justly be considered our best kitchen-gardeners, adopt no particular system of rotation. They manure highly, trench frequently, and plant any crop that is fit for planting out when the ground becomes vacant. In doing so, however, they follow, as much as possible, the rules just given. Two modes of cropping are adopted in gardens. The first may be termed separate cropping, the second simultaneous cropping. In the former, the ground is only occupied by one crop at a time; iu the latter, by several. For instance, summer spinach may be sown between the rows of pease and beans, radishes along with carrots, or lettuces together with onions, or planted between the rows of celery, &c. With regard to the comparative merits of these two modes of cropping, there is much difference of opinion. The finest productions are undoubtedly obtained by the separate sj'stein; whilst a greater weight of produce of all sorts, but generally of inferior quality, is obtained by the simultaneous mode. To carry out the latter properly, the soil must be rich and frequently manured; whilst by the other mode, good vegetables may be grown without so much artificial enrichment. Upon the whole, we consider that the separate mode of cultivation is the best adapted for large gardens; that simultaneous cropping may be advantageously adopted in those of small extent; and that in gardens of medium size, from which a great variety of productions are required in considerable quantity, both systems may, to a certain extent, be combined. Thus succession crops of spinach, lettuce, likewise coleworts and borecole, may occupy the ground between other crops. It is impossible to detail systems of cropping that would bo applicable in all cases. Circumstances render the demand for any particular article exceedingly variable, so that no exact limit can be assigned to the quantity of ground necessary to be allotted to each. Again, the garden may be large enough to admit of several quarters being cropped with potatoes; and in that case it would be proper to direct that the crops of coleworts and cabbages should be planted where the potato crop has been cleared. But, should the garden be small, so as to render it advisable to grow only a few early potatoes on some of the borders, other places must be found for the cabbage crops above mentioned. Although directions cannot be given to meet all circumstances, yet it may be useful to point out such crops as may not inappropriately follow each other, either in the same season or in the one next ensuing. In the following observations the principal crops are brought under notice; and in most cases an ample choice will be found, so that either as regards cropping the ground, or producing successional supplies, no great difficulty need be experienced. Beans may follow borecole, broccoli, cabbages, parsnips, carrots, or potatoes; between the rows may be planted borecole or Brussels sprouts. Beans may be succeeded by celery, leeks, lettuce, turnips, and any of the cabbage tribe, especially when the ground in the previous year has not been cropped with any of these. Beet may follow the cabbage tribe, and any other crop, except spinach, turnips, parsnips, carrots, salsafy, and scorzonera. Between the rows nothing. May be succeeded by pease, beans, cabbages, cauliflowers, lettuces, or any other spring-sown crop, except spinach, turnips, parsnips, and carrots. Borecole may follow pease, beans, lettuces, and potatoes. Between the rows beans. May be succeeded in the following spring by pease, beans, beet, carrots, parsnips, onions, potatoes, kidney-beans, or any but cruciferous plants. Broccoli may follow, in the same season, pease, beans, or kidney-beans. Between the rows nothing. May be succeeded by any crop requiring to be sown or planted when it is cleared off, cruciferous plants excepted. Brussels Strouts. Same as Borecole. Garbages may follow, in the same season, pease, beans, kidney-beans, potatoes, lettuces, onions, and any other crop not belonging to the same natural order as themselves. Between the rows coleworts. May be followed by pease, beans, kidney-beans, potatoes, lettuces, cai’rots, parsnips, beet, salsafy, scorzonera, celery, or any but cruciferous plants. Carrots may follow any but root crops and umbelliferous plants, as parsnips, celery, and parsley. Between the rows nothing. May be succeeded by any except root crops and umbelliferous plants. Cauliflowers may follow pease, beans, potatoes, celery, kidney-beans, onions, carrots, lettuces, beet. Between the rows lettuces, spinach,KITCHEN GAKDEN. 283 endive. May be succeeded by any of the pre- I ceding. Celery may follow any crop which may be 1 cleared off the ground, except perhaps parsnips, carrots, parsley; but even as regards these it is I not of much consequence, as the celery is chiefly dependent for nourishment on the manure introduced in the trenches. Between the rows lettuces may be planted. May be succeeded by pease, beans, kidney-beans, potatoes, turnips, or any of i the cabbage tribe. Endive may follow potatoes, pease, beans, the I brassica tribe; but not lettuces, scorzonera, or | other composite; and with these exceptions may be succeeded by any crop suitable for borders or other situations where endive is grown. Kidney-beans. The same as Pease. Leeks may follow any crop but onions, garlic, shallots, rocambole, or chives. Lettuces may follow pease, beans, potatoes, the brassica tribe, and any other crop, with the exception of endive, chicory, salsafy, scorzonera, artichoke, cardoon, and other composite. Onions may follow the brassica tribe, celery, potatoes, pease, beans, kidney-beans, and even onions, where the ground has been highly enriched by suitable manure, and where the produce is obtaiued free from canker. May be succeeded by cabbages or coleworts. Parsnips may follow any crop except carrots, celery, parsley, or other umbelliferous plants, and beet, potatoes, salsafy, and scorzonera; and, with these exceptions, may be succeeded by any crop. Pease may follow potatoes, carrots, parsnips, turnips, broccoli, or any brassicaceovis plants. Exception need only be made to the plants of the same order, such as beans, kidney-beans, or scarlet runners. Between the rows may be sown radishes or summer spinach. Borecole or Brussels sprouts may be planted between the rows of dwarf sorts; and if wide enough apart, other crops may be sown or planted in the intermediate spaces. They may be succeeded by broccoli, cabbages, spinach, turnips, late celery, &c. Potatoes may follow any crop except carrots, parsnips, beet, salsafy, or scorzonera. Between the rows Brussels sprouts, borecole, or broccoli may be planted; or late celery, if certain rows are left somewhat wider than usual to admit of a trench being dug between them. They may be succeeded by any crop requiring a loose, clean, well-worked soil. Sea-kale may follow potatoes, or any species of an annual or biennial nature, except cruciferm. May be succeeded by potatoes, pease, beans, and others not included in the above exceptions. Shallots may follow pease, beans, potatoes, cabbages, and the like, also lettuce, endive, spinach. May be succeeded by any crop not of an alliaceous nature. SriNACH may follow pease, beans, kidney-beans, cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce, or any other crop, beet excepted. Winter spinach may be succeeded by any spring crop, spinaceous plants excepted. Turnips may follow potatoes, spinach, pease, beans, lettuce, or any other crop not consisting of cruciferous plants; and, with the above exception, may be succeeded by any crop. It may happen that some crops may have to be sown or planted not in accordance with the above observations, in other words, a crop may have to follow another of the same nature; such may be the case owing to limited space, or a backward season may render certain crops too late for being gathered in proper time for allowing the ground to be occupied by the usual succession. But when this is the case, the ground should either be trenched or dug two spades deep and manured. Quantities of Seed required for Cropping the Kitchen Garden.—A correct seed estimate can only be made from experience of the relative amount of each kind of vegetable required. The extent of ground to be cropped may be taken into consideration in connection with the greater or less demand for certain articles. In some families certaiu kinds of vegetables are in great demand, even to the total exclusion of various others. The estimate must be framed accordingly. The following quantities have been calculated as an approximation to the quantity of seed generally required to crop an acre. According to circumstances they may be found too little in some instances, somewhat in excess in others. A few deficiencies may easily be made up in good time; whilst a slight excess is in most cases desirable, and even advantageous. Many kinds of seeds keep good for several years, and of these it is well to have a surplus; for if they prove true to their variety, a sowing can be made in the following season that can be depended on.—The quantity of seeds required in general to crop an acre of garden may be estimated as follows:— Pease, ,.12qts. Cress, | 1 qt. Beans, .. 4qts. Endive, 1A OZ. Kidney-beans, .... .. 2 qts. Leek, r oz. Swlet-runners, .. .. lqt. Lettuce, 3 oz. Borecole, .. 2 oz. Mustard, i pt. Brussels sprouts,. .. 2 oz. Onion, 8 oz. .. 2 oz. Parsley, oz. Cabbage, . . 4 OZ. ! Parsnip, 6 oz. Ked cabbage, .. 1 oz. Badisk, U pt. .Savoy, .. 1 05. Spinach (summer), 1 qt. Cauliflower, .. L oz. ,, (winter),.. 1 pt. .. 2 oz. Salsafy, h oz. Carrot, .. 8 oz. j Scorzonera, l oz. Celery, Turnips, 6 oz.NAMES OF CULINARY VEGETABLES IN ENGLISH, FRENCH, AND GERMAN. An acquaintance with the French and German names of culinary vegetables is of English, French, and German names are arranged in alphabetical order in the follow-great utility to gardeners in many situations. Without this the French cook may be ing tables, so that if any vegetable is mentioned, its name in any of these languages supplied with a very different article from that which he wanted, and in many other can be immediately found, instead of having to search over many pages, which would ways this knowledge proves extremely useful. For the sake of easy reference, the | bo the case if the foreign names were only given when treating of the article:— English. French. German. English. French German. Alexanders, . . . Maceron, Smyrnerkraut. Chive, .... . Ciboulette, Give, Civette, Angelica Angfilique, Angelika, Engelwurz. Appetit, Schnittlauch. Anise Anis, Boucage, .... Anis. Clary, .... . Sauge sclaree, Orvale, Artichoke,.... Artichaut, Artischocke. Toute-bonne, .... Scharlachkraut, Scharlachsalbei. Asparagus, . . . Asperge, Spargel. Coriander, . . . Coriandre, Coriander, Koriander. Balm, Basil, Bean, Beet, Leaf, Beet-root, .... Borage, Borecole, . . . Broccoli, .... Melisse, Citronnelle, . . Basilic, Fevo de maraud .... Bette, Poiree (White),. . Bettorave, Bourraclie, Chou vert, Brocoli Citronenmelisse, Melisse. Basilionkraut. Puffbohne, Grosse Bohne. Beete, Mangoldkraut. Znckerriibe, Rothe Rube (Red). Borretsch. Griinkohl, Braunkohl. Broccoli, Brbckelkohl,Spargelkohl. Corn Salad, . Costmary, . . Cress, American, Cress, Common, Cress, Water, Cucumber, . Maclie, DouceLte, Blanchette, Boursette, . . . . Menthe-c q, Tanaisie- baume, Cresson d’Arndrique, . Cresson alCnois, .... Cresson de fontaine, . Concombre Ackersalat, Feldsalat. Frauemniinze, Frauensalbei. Amerikanische Ivresse. Gartenkresse. Brunnenkresse. Gurke. Brussels Sprouts, Chou do Bruxelles or h jets, Sprosscnkohl, Briisseler Kohl, Dandelion, . . Dent de lion, Pissenlit, Lbwenzahn. Briisseler Sprossen, Rosenkohl. Dill, .... . Aneth, Dill. Buckshorn Plantain, Plantain corne de cerf, Krahenfuss. Burnet, . . . . 1 ’imprenelle, Petite Pim- i Pimpernelle, Garten bibernelle, Ecrsr Plant, . . . Melongbne, Aubergine, Me- prenelle, ) Becherblume. rangene, Mayenne, . Eierpflanze. Cabbage, .... Capsicum, .... Chou cabus, Chou pomme, Piment, Kopfkohl. Spanischer Guinea-pfeffer, Beiss- Elecampane,. Endive, Endive, Batavian, . Aun6e, . Chicoree blanche or frisde, . Scariole, Scarole, .... Alant. j- Endivie. bcere. Caraway Carvi, Kiimmel. Fennel, . Fenouil, Fenchel. Cardoon Cardon, Carrot, Carotte, Mbhre, Carotte. Garlic, . Ail, Knoblauch. Cauliflower, Chou-fleur, Blumcnkohl. Gourd, . Courge, Potiron, .... Kurbiss. C'eleriac CVleri-rave, Knollensellerie. Celery, Cdleri, . Sellerie. Hop, .... . Houblon, Hopfen. Chamomile, . . . Camomille Kamille. Tlorehound, . . Marrube blanc, .... Andorn. Chervil, . Ccrfcuil. Kerbel, Korbel. IT orse-radisli, Raifort sauvage, Grand Rai- Chicory Clfcoree sauvage, Cichorie. fort, Cranson rustiquo, . Meerrcttig, GARDENER’S ASSISTANT.English. French. German. Hyssop, .... llysope, Lsop. J orusalcm Artichoke, Topinambour, Poire de terro, Knolligo Sonnenblumo, Erdbimc, Erdapfel. Kidney-bean,. Haricot, Schminkboline, Phaseole, Fisolc. Lavender, .... Lavande, Lavcndel, Spieke. Leek, Poircau, Porrcau, Laucli, Porrcc. Lentil, Lentille, Linse. Lettuce, .... Laitue, Salat, Lattich. Liquorice, .... R<5glisse, Sussholz. Marigold, .... Souci dcs jardins, Eingelblume. Marjoram,.... Marjolaine, Majoran, Meiran. Mint, Menthc, Miinze, Minze. Mint, Pennyroyal, . Pouliot, Poleimunzc. Mint, Pepper, . . Menthc poivr€o, .... Pfeffermunzc. Morel, M orille, Morchel. Mushroom, Champignon, Champignon, Essbarer Blatter-schwamm. Mustard, .... Moutarde, Sent. Nasturtium, . . . Capucine, Kapuzinerblume, Kapuzinerkresse Indianische Kresse. New Zealand Spinach, T^tragonie 6tal6e or cornue, Neuseeliindischer Spinat. Onion, Oignon, Zwicbel, Zipolle. Orach, Arroche - dpinard, Belle Dame, Bonne Dame, Gartenmelde, Melde. Parsley, .... Persil, Petersilie. Parsnip, .... Panais, Pastinak. Patience, .... Oseille-<5pinard, Patience, Epinard immortcl, . . Englischer Spinat. Pea, Pois, Erbse. Pennyroyal, . Pouliot, Poleimiinze. Potato, Pommc dc terre,... Kartoffel. Purslane, .... Pourpier, Portulak. Radish, .... Radis, Raifort Rettig, Radies. Rampion, .... Raiponce, Rapunzel. English. French. German. Rape, . . . . . Navette, Raps, Reps, Kohlraps. Rhubarb, . . Rhubarbe, Rhabarbcr. Rocambole, Rocambole, Ail d’Espagne, Rockenbolle, Rocambolle, Schlan-genknoblauch. Rosemary, . Romarin, Rosmarin. Rue, . . . . Rue, Raute, Weinraute. Sage, . . . . . Sauge, Salbei. Salsafy, . . . . Salsifis, Cercifis, .... Bocksbart, Haferwurzel. Samphire, . Perce-pierre, Herbe Saint-Pierre, Bacile, Cr6te marine, Christo marine, Meerfenchel, Seefenchel, Bacil-lienkraut, Strand-bazille. Savory, . . . . Sarrictte, Savoree, Savouree, Bohnenkraut, Pfefferkraut, Kolle. Savoy, . . . . . Chou de Milan, Chou pommd frise, .... Savoyerkohl, Wirsing, Wursing. Scorzonera, . . . Scorsonere, Salsifis d’Es- pagne, Salsifis noir, . Scorzoncre, Scorzonerwurzel, Schwarz wurzel. Scurvy Grass, . . Cochlearia, Herbe aux cuillers, Lfiffelkraut. Sea-kale, . . . Chou marin, Meerkohl, Seekohl. Shallot, Echalote, Schalotte. Skirret, . . Chervis, Chirouis, Cherui, Girole, Giroule, . Zuckervvurzel, Zuckermerk. Sorrel, . . . . . Oseille, Ampfer, Sauerampfer. Spinach, Epinard, Spinat. Tansy, . . . . Tanaisie, Rainfarn. Tarragon, . . . . Estragon, Estragon, Dragun. Thyme, . . . . Thym, Thymian. Tobacco, . . . Tabac, Tabak. Tomato, . . Tomate, Pomme d’amour, Liebesapfel. Tree Primrose, . . Herbe aux Anes, Jambon des jardiniers, Gemeine Nachtkerze, Rapontica, Rapunzelsellerie. Truffle, . . . Truffle, Truffel. Turnip, . . Navet, Rave, Riibe, Weisse Riibe, Futterriibe. Wood Sorrel, . Alleluia, Surelle, Surette, Petite Oseille, .... Sauerklee. Wormwood, . . Absinthe, Wermuth. KITCHEN GARDEN. 285286 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. French. English. French. English. French. English. Absinthe, . Wormwood. Cranson, . . Horse-radish. Orvale, Clary. Ail, Garlic. Cranson rustique, Horse-radish. Oseille, . . . Sorrel. Ail d’Espagne, Rocambole. Cresson aldnois, Common Cress. Oseille-dpinard, . Patience. Alldluia, . . . Aneth, .... Wood Sorrel. Dill. Cresson d’Amd-rique, American Cress. Panais, . . . Parsnip. Angdliquc, Angelica. Cresson de fon- Patience, . . . Patience. Anis, .... Anise. taine, Water Cress. Perce-pierre, Samphire. Appdtit, . . . Chive. Crdte marine, . Samphire, Persil, .... Parsley. Arroche-dpinard, Artichaut, . Orach. Artichoke. Dent de lion, Dandelion. Petite Oseille, . Petite Pimpre- Wood Sorrel. Asperge, . . . Asparagus. Doucette, Com Salad. nolle, .... Burnet. Aubergine, Egg-plant. Piment, . . . Capsicum. Aunde, .... Elecampane. Echalote, Shallot. Pimprenelle, . Burnet. Bacile, .... Samphire. Epinard, . Epinard immor- Spinach. Pissenlit, . Poireau, . . . Dandelion. Leek. Basilic, .... Basil. tel, .... Patience. Poire de terre, . Jerusalem Arti- Belle Dame, . . Orach. Estragon, . . Tarragon. choke. Bette, .... Betterave, . Leaf-beet. Beet-root. Fenouil, . Fennel. Poiree, Pois, .... Leaf-beet. Pea. Blanchette, Corn Salad. Fdve de marais, Bean. Potiron, Gourd. Bonne Dame, . Boucage, . . . Orach. Anise. Girole, . . . Skirret. Pomme d’amour, Pomme de terre, Tomato. Potato. Bourrache, . . Borage. Grand Raifort, . Horse-radish. Porreau, . . . Leek. Boursette, . Corn Salad. Gross® Lentille, Lentil. Pouliot, . . . Pennyroyal Mint. Brocoli, .... Broccoli. Haricot, . Herbe aux cui- Kidney Bean. Pourpier, . Purslane. Camomille, Chamomile. Radis, .... Radish. ! Capucine, . Nasturtium. llers, .... Scurvy Grass. Raifort, . . . Radish. Cardon, .... Cardoon. Herbe Saint- Raifort sauvage, Horse-radish. 1 Carotte, . . . Carrot. Pierre, . . . Samphire. Raiponce, Rampion. 1 Carvi, .... Caraway. Floublon, . Hop. Reo-hs.se, . . Liquorice. Cdleri, .... Celery. Hysope, . . . Hyssop. Khubarbe, Rhubarb. 1 Cdleri-rave, Celeriac. Jambon des jar- llocambole, . Rocambole. | Cercifis, . . Salsafy. Tree Primrose. Romarin, Rosemary. Cerfeuil, Chervil. diniers, . . Rue, .... Rue. Champignon, . Mushroom. Laitue, Lettuce. Salsifls, . . . Salsafy. Cherui, .... Skirret. Lavande, . Lavender. Salsifis d’Espagne, Scorzonera. Chervis, . . . Skirret. Lentille blonde, Lentil. Salsifls noir, Scorzonera. Cliicorde blanche, Endive. Lentille com- Sarriette, Savory. Cliicorde sauvage, Chicory. mime, Lentil. Saugo, . . . Sage. Chirouis, Chou cabus, Skirret. Cabbage. Maceron, . Alexanders. Sauge sclar£e, . Savoree, . Clary. Savory. Chou do Bruxelles, Brussels Sprouts, Mlche, Corn Salad. Savourde, Savory. Chou de Milan, . Savoy. Marjolaine, . Marjoram. Scariole, Scarole, Batavian Endive. Chou-fleur, Cauliflower. Marrube blanc, . Horehound. Scorsonere, . Scorzonera. Chou marin, . Sea-kale. Mayenne, . . . Egg Plant. Souci des jardins, Marigold. I Chou pommd, Cabbage. Melisse, Balm. Surelle, . Wood Sorrel 1 Chou pommd frise, Chou vert, Savoy. Borecole. Mclongene, . Menthe, . . Egg Plant. Spear Mint. Tabac, Tobacco. Christo marine, . Samphire. Menthe-coq, . Costmary. Tanaisie, . . . Tansy. Ciboulette, Chive. Menthe poivrde, Peppermint. Tanaisie-baume, Costmary. Citronnelle, Balm. Merangene, . Egg Plant. Tctragome dtalde Cive, .... Chive. Morille,* . Morel. or cornue, . New Zealand Civette, Chive. Moutarde, Mustard. Spinach. | Cochlearia, . . ! Concombre, . Scurvy Grass. Cucumber. Navet, . Turnip. Thym,.... Tomate, . . . Tli june. Tomato. Coriandro, Coriander. Navette, . . Rape. Toute-bonne, Clary. Cornc de cerf 1 (Plantain), i Bucksliorn Plantain. Oignon, Onion. Topinambour, . Jerusalem Artichoke. i Courge, . . 1 Gourd. Onagre, . . . Tree Primrose. Tmffe, . . . Truffle. * This must not be confounded, as it sometimes is, with the Mordle, which is the French name of Solanum nigrum, a plant which, if not poisonous, belongs to a very suspicious family.KITCHEN GARDEN. 287 German. English. German. English. German. English. j Ackersalat, . I Alant, . . I Amerikanische Kresse, . . I Andorn, . . Angelika, Anis, . . . Artischocke, I Bacillienkraut, Basilienkraut, Becherblume, | Beete, . . . Beissbeere, . Blumenkokl, ' Bocksbart, . : Bohnenkraut, j Borretsch, Braunkohl, . Broccoli, . . Brbckelkolil, ; Brunnenkresse, | Briisseler Kohl, Briisseler Spros Corn Salad. Elecampane. American Cress. Horekound. Angelica. Anise. Artichoke. Samphire. Basil. Burnet. Beet. Capsicum. Cauliflower. Salsafy. Savory. Borage. Borecole. Broccoli. Broccoli. Water Cress. Brussels Sprouts. sen, .... Brussels Spj Carotte, . . . Carrot. Champignon, Mushroom. Cichorie, . . . Chicory. Citronenmelisse, Balm. Coriander, Coriander. Dill, .... Dill. Dragun, . Tarragon. Eierpflanze, . . Egg Plant. Endivie, . Endive. Engelwurz, . Angelica. Englischer Spinat, Patience. Erbse, .... Pea. Erdapfel, Erd- ) Jerusalem bime, E.ssbarer Blatter / choke. Indianische Kresse,. . . Isop, .... Kamille, . . . Kapuzinerblume, Kapuzinerkr esse, Kardone,. Kartoffel, Kerbel, . Knoblauclp Knollensellerie, Knollige Son-nenblume. Kolilraps, Kblle,. Kopf kohl, Ivorbel, . Koriander, Kriihenfuss, Kiimmel, . Kiirbiss, . Lattich, . Lauch, Lavendel, Liebesapfel, Linse, . Lbffelkraut, Lbwenzahn, Majoran, . Mangold,. Meerfenchel, Meerkohl, Meerretti; Meiran, Melde, Melisse, Minze, Mohre, Nasturtium. Hyssop. Chamomile. Nasturtium. Nasturtium. Cardoon. Potato. Chervil. Garlic. Ccleriac. Jerusalem Artichoke. Rape. Savory. Cabbage. Chervil. Coriander. Buckshorn Plantain. Caraway. Gourd. Lettuce. Leek. Lavender. Tomato. Lentil. Scurvy Grass. Dandelion. Marjoram. Beet. Samphire. Sea-kale. Horse-radish. Marjoram. Orach. Balm. Mint. Carrot. Rainfarn, . Rapontica, . Raps, . Rapunzel, Rapunzelsellerie Raute,. . . Reps, . Rottig, . . Rhabarber, . Ringelblume, Rocambolle, Roekenbolle, Rosenkohl, . Rosmarin, Rotlie Rube, Rube, . . . Salat, . . . Salbei,. . . Sauerampfer, Sauerklee, Savoyerkohl, Schalotte, Scliarlachkraut, Soharlachsalbei, Schlangenknob-laucli, . . . Schminkbohne, Schnittlauch, Scliwarzwurzel, Scorzonere, . Scorzonerwurzel Seefencliel, . Seekohl, . . Sellerie, . Scnf, . . . Smyrnerkraut. Spanische Karde, Spanisclier Guinea-pfeffer, . Spargel, . . Tansy. Tree Primrose. Rape. Rampion. Tree Primrose. Rue. Rape. Radish. Rhubarb. Marigold. Rocambole. Rocambole. Brussels Sprouts. Rosemary. Red Beet. Turnip. Lettuce. Sage. Sorrel. Wood Sorrel. Savoy. Shallot. Clary. Clary. Rocambole. Kidney-bean. Chive. Scorzonera. Scorzonera. Scorzonera. Samphire. Sea-kale. Celery. Mustard. Alexanders. Cardoon. schwamm, . Mushroom. Morchel, . . Morel. — ^ 0 j - : Spieke, Lavender. Estragon,. Tarragon. Miinze, . Mint. I Spinat, Spinach. Sprossenkohl, Brussels Sprouts. Feldsalat,. Corn Salad. JN euseeiandischer Siissliolz, . . Liquorice. Fenchel, . Fennel. bpmat, . . JN ew Zealand Fisole, .... Kidney-bean. Spinach. | Tabak, Tobacco. FrauenmLinze, . Costmary. | Thymian, . . Thyme. Frauensalbei, Costmary. Pastinak,. Parsnip. . TrUffel, . . Truffle. Futtcrriibe, . Turnip. Petersilie, Parsley. Pfefferkraut, Savory. ! Wcinraute, . Rue. 1 Garten bibernelle, Burnet. Pfeffermunze, Peppermint. Wermutli, Wormwood. Gartenkresse, Common Cress. Phaseole,. Kidney-bean. Wirsing, . Savoy. j Gartenmelde, . Orach. Pimpernelle, Burnet. ; Wursing,. . . Savoy. Grosso Bonne, . Bean. Pol eimiinze, . Pennyroyal Mint. 1 Griinkohl, Borecole. Porree, Leek* i Zipolle, Onion. Gurke, Cucumber. Portulak,. Purslane. I Zuckermerk, Skirret. Puffbohne, . Bean. Zuckerrube, . Beet-root. Haferwurzel, Salsafy. Zuckenvurzel, . Skirret. Hopfen, . Hop. Radies, . Radish. j Zwiebel, . Onion. Capsicum. Asparagus. Broccoli.^88 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. CHAPTER XII. PROPAGATION. Plants are propagated by seeds for new individuals, and by bulbs, tubers, runners, offsets, suckers, slips, layers, cuttings, sometimes by leaves, and by grafting, inarching, and budding, for the multiplication of those individual species or varieties that have been raised from seed. I.—PROPAGATION BY SEED. This is the most natural mode, and the one which is common to all plants in their natural state. It is from seed that the most healthy and vigorous plants are produced, and generally speaking it is the most advantageous mode of propagation, except where the exact counterpart of a plant is required. In that case other modes, such as budding, grafting, &c., must be resorted to where practicable. The way in which nature effects the dissemination of plants is worthy of notice, for if carefully observed, useful lessons may be learned from it. Some seeds are round and heavy, but others are furnished with wings or other light appendages, by which they can be carried to a distance by the wind, so that instead of a number of new individuals being crowded together in a limited space around the parent plant, to the injury of the latter as well as of each other, they are scattered far and wide. In our climate seeds generally ripen in autumn, but in most cases germination does not take place till spring; jret they mostly fall from the plant in autumn, for were they to hang on most of them would be injured by being alternately wet and dry, and by exposure to frost. “By an admirable provision of nature,” remarks Professor Du Breuil, in his Cours Elementaire Tlieorique et Pratique d'Arboriculture, “the seeds of our largest trees, as the oak, beech, and chestnut, drop before the fall of the leaves, which then cover them to the depth of some inches. The leaves decay in the course of the winter, and form towards spring a light covering of leaf-mould, highly favourable to vegetation. Small seeds, such as those of the lime and ash, do not begin to drop till after the leaves have commenced to fall, and are thus placed at a less depth.” From this it may be concluded that seeds have naturally a light covering previous to germination. Although the oak thrives well in strong deep loam, yet self-sown, the acorns are placed amongst leaf-mould. Hence it may be inferred, that the soil best adapted for the growth of a plant is not always that which should be selected for the seeds to germinate amongst, and it may be adopted as a general rule that seeds are best sown in a fine, light, rich soil. This, in many cases, cannot be afforded; nevertheless, where seeds must necessarily be sown in the natural soil, the latter should be ameliorated as much as possible by pulverization and other means. It should be made as fine as possible, unless by so doing there is danger of rendering the surface too compact and crusted. This is apt to be the case when aluminous soils, after having been reduced to a fine powder, are soaked and beaten by rains, and afterwards baked by heat and drought. They then form a uniformly compact crust, through which the tender plumule cannot readily make its way, and when it does appear above the surface, it has a crippled appearance. From what has been stated, in accordance with what is observed in nature, and from experience, it may be laid down as a general principle that seeds should be sown in rich soil, easily permeable to the young roots as Will as to the plumule. Also, that whilst large seeds should not be buried much below the surface, small seeds ought to be sown very shallow; in fact, merely covered, say one-tenth of an inch deep, and that the depth of covering should be increased somewhat in proportion to the size of the seeds. Those of the bean and oak maybe 2 inches deep, the walnut and chestnut 3 inches. For successful propagation by seeds several conditions are necessary:—1. That the seeds have been perfectly ripened. 2. That they have been properly kept till the period of sowing. 3. That they be sown at the proper time. 4. That the sowing be performed in the proper manner. 1. Perfection and Maturity of Seeds.—The perfection and maturity of seeds can be generally determined by their external and internal appearance, and in many cases by their specific gravity, their sinking or swimming in water being frequently a good test. If the seeds have a plump appearance and clear colour, it may be presumed that they are good. If, in a fair sample, the section present a substance of the natural colour, and the rudiments of the radicle be perfect, there is every probability that the stock will germinate under favourable circumstances. Seeds of a plant that sink in water when good are of very doubtful quality when they swim, although in some cases they may grow, and especially when they float at first, but after having been moistened some time, either sink to the bottom, or only below the surface. The microscope in skilful hands will detect perfections and imperfections imperceptible to the naked eye. But of all others, the surest test is to sow a smallPROPAGATION. 289 quantity under favourable circumstances, and the proportion which the number of the seeds which germinate bears to the number sown, will aiford the most positive proof of the quality of the seed. A quick mode of accelerating the vegetation of seeds, for the purpose of trial, is to sow in a pot, cover them with nearly i inch of soil, and plunge the pot in hot stable-dung. The covering of soil is made thicker than necessary for the seed when sown for a crop, in order to protect it from the direct action of the steam from the dung. 2. Preserving Seeds. Seeds may be perfect, but if badly stored of course their germinative powers become impaired or totally destroyed before the period at which they can be sown arrives. Canvas bags, of greater or less thickness and fineness, are found to keep many kinds of seeds exceedingly well; as all the brassica tribe, pease, beans, and in short most kitchen-garden seeds. For some, however, which are highly aromatic, paper is considered to be preferable, as it is closer and does not so readily permit the essential qualities of the seeds to escape by exhalation, llrowu paper which has been made from old ships’ ropes is good for preventing the attacks of insects, owing to the tar, which can still be smelled after the fibrous materials have undergone the process of manufacture. The place in which seeds are kept should be so situated and constructed as to be as little as possible affected by changes of temperature. A cool temperature is best for not exciting the vegetative principle in seeds, and consequently the best for their preservation; yet it should not be below freezing— in fact near, but not lower than 40° is probably that which is most desirable, for at that temperature the water which the seeds contain is at its greatest density; lower or higher it expands, and by expansion the organs of the seed must be more or less disturbed. It should be possible to exclude the air when too cold and too warm; and if the internal air be too damp, the first opportunity should be taken to induce a free circulation of air when it is in a dr}- state. The floor of the seed-room should be boarded and dry underneath; or if it be large, Portland stone cement may be employed. Some tree seeds, such as acorns and chestnuts, soon lose their vitality if kept dry. The best mode of preserving it is to pack them in slightly moist sand, or in tolerably dry loam, and keep them in a cool place till spring; but when about to be sown, care must be taken to cover them immediately, so that they may not be exposed to the effects of the sun’s rays, or to drought. Seeds of this description are sometimes packed in slightly damp, well-beaten moss. This substance, growing abundantly in many woods, doubtless forms a natural protection to seeds that drop amongst it, for it retains a certain degree of moisture without being saturated, whilst it resists the vicissitudes of heat and cold, and is not apt to go into a state of fermentation. Seeds closely packed in dry soil, and consequently almost excluded from the air, retain their powers of vegetation much better than those that are hermetically sealed in glass bottles or jars. In the latter case, the air in the jar or bottle must become contaminated by the exhalations from the seeds, and more or less saturated with the moisture they contain. The consequence is, that the seeds are then in an impure, damp, close atmosphere, and in most cases become completely spoiled. 3. Time of Sowing.—The most favourable time for sowing all seeds indigenous to any country is when they naturally drop from the plants, excej it some, such as haws, which hang till they are swallowed by birds, and vegetate after undergoing the digestive process. This rule, however, is not of general application as regards seeds of plants that are natives of a country having a very different climate from that of this, or any other part of the world where they are to be sown. Favoured by mild weather, seeds of exotics may vegetate in autumn, and grow slowly yet safely through the winter; but in many cases the same kinds of plants, if raised in autumn in a climate like that of Britain, would perish during the winter; whereas, if the seeds are well kept, and not sown till spring, the young plants can progress as the weather becomes more and more favourable to their growth. The time when seeds are self-sown is doubtless the most proper for propagating the species with the greatest certainty in the absence of cultivation, and if no other object were in view, the cultivator might closely imitate nature as to the period of sowing, but he lias ether motives which reader it necessary to deviate from the natural mode. lie has to cultivate the plant, not solely for reproduction, but also for its use or for ornament; and in either case he has to afford a supply to suit the demand, sometimes throughout the year, often for a considerable portion of it. These remarks chiefly apply to such plants as are of an herbaceous nature, and mom especially to annuals and biennials. With regard to trees and shrubs, it is, generally speaking, well to adopt the natural period of sowing if circumstances will permit. At the same time it is highly desirable that the seedlings should only make their appearance at a period of the season which is favourable to their growth. Accordingly some seeds that do not keep well dry are committed to the soil, or mixed with it, in autumn; but their 19290 GARDENER'S ASSISTANT. vegetation is not encouraged till spring. This is done by the process called stratification. This consists in placing a layer of seeds on the surface of the ground, then a layer of sand or light soil from 1 to 2 inches in thickness, then another layer of seeds, and so on, the whole being laid so as to form a cone, over which a covering of soil is spread for protection from wet and frost, or, with the view of doing so more effectually, the cone is sometimes thatched. Care must, however, be taken to guard against the attacks of mice and I other animals. Small quantities of seeds requiring this mode of preparation may be stratified in boxes, jars, or flower-pots, and placed in a cool situation till spring. It is immaterial whether the seeds are placed in alternate layers, or simply mixed with the soil. The only advantage of the former mode is, that should the seeds or a part of them happen to vegetate before sowing, each layer can be uncovered and taken up for planting without so much danger of breaking the radicle as if they were mixed promiscuously with the soil. Some seeds, like those of the hawthorn, require to be in the soil for more than a twelve-month before they vegetate, and those of the holly two years. When stratified or mixed with the soil, they occupy but little space, and when vegetation does take place, whether in the first, second, or third spring, the ground should be prepared, and the vegetating seeds taken out and sown along with the substance in which they have lain; or when they are large it is sometimes advisable to plant them in drills at proper distances. The seeds for which this process is usually employed are the crattegus, juniperus, taxus, cotoneaster, &c. These sometimes do not make their appearance till the second year after sowing, and their vitality is better preserved in the long intervals when stratified than otherwise. Temperature has much to do with the period which seeds require to vegetate and appear above ground. The seeds of pears if sown without any previous preparation do not rise till the second year; but if previously washed in order to remove a sort of mucilage which surrounds them, and seems to be impenetrable to the action of the air ami moisture, they then rise very well in the first year. In the same wa v many seeds that do not rise till the second year, if steeped for twenty-four hours, then rubbed slightly, and sown on heat, will rise the same year. The seeds of pears thus treated have been raised in seventeen days, and the seed of grapes in a month. Preparation of Seeds for Sowing'.—Some seeds, like those of the carrot, which adhere to each other, require to be rubbed between the hands along with dry sand in order to insure a more equal distribution than would otherwise be the case. Others that are encased in a hard substance, as the seeds of the beet, should be steeped in water till their coating is softened to a considerable extent. Very small seeds are in some cases mixed with sand, or finely sifted soil, in order that they may be more easily distributed over a huge extent of ground. 4. Modes of Sowing.—There are two principal modes of sowing—broadcast, or in drills or rows. I Broadcast sowing is merely scattering the seeds over the surface, and is doubtless the most original. But the drill system lias of late been much practised, both in the garden and in the field. It has the advantage of admitting of the ground being more expeditiously cleaned and stirred in the intervals, inasmuch as the hoe, or other implement, can be freely worked; whilst in the case of broadcast sowing, no full stroke can be made; for even supposing the plants were to be generally 1 foot apart, every draw or stroke of the hoe must be limited to less than 1 foot along the surface. On the other hand, small plants with spreading roots are doubtless best disposed promiscuously over the surface, unless the rows are made very little distant from each other, or not further than the roots of the plants extend. With regard to tap-rooted plants—carrots. for instance—the distance between the rows should be regulated, not so much by the horizontal extension of the roots, as by the space which the tops require, in order to have sufficient light and air. Seeds will vegetate with due supplies of heat and moisture; but a fertile soil is essential for further progress: thus, the seeds of many plants do not vegetate well in strong loam, although the plants afterwards flourish in soil of that description. In a natural state of the ground, seeds rarely fall upon bare loam, but for the most pari among the decayed or decaying vegetable matter with which it is covered; in this the seeds vegetate, and the young plants are nourished by it, until they acquire strength to enable them to penetrate the loam. Mr. Pepys, well known for his chemical researches, made some experiments on the vegetation and growth of plants in the pure earths, and also in these with the aid of stimulants and manures. The earths employed were— Silex, or white sand,.................... 75 Alumina, or pipe-clay,................... 15 Carbonate of lime, or whitening,........ 10 100 These earths were put in glass pots, consisting of an inverted wine-bottle with the bottomPROPAGATION. 291 ground off. In the first experiment three lupine I seeds were planted ^ inch deep on the 26th of April. The earths were kept moist by distilled water and exposed to the atmosphere. On the 5th of June a small but very weak plume appeared; on the 10th of July the plant had six leaf-stalks of six leaves each, and on the 1st of August eleven. Being then very weak, and exhibiting no sign of bloom, it was removed. “In one of the same glass pots, filled with | peat and loam, three lupine seeds of the same weight were planted, and watered with cistern water each day, and on the twentieth day from planting broke ground; only one was suffered to grow, which was strong and healthy, and on the fortieth day from its breaking ground had twelve | leaf-stalks, with six to seven leaves each. Twenty days after it showed for flower, and being taken up weighed 192xrifr grains. “April 28, 1843.—Planted three lupine seeds, 2 grains weight each, in the pure earths; watered them with a solution of guano (1 oz. to 20 oz. water); continued the watering to the 14th of June, without any appearance of the plants; ex- j amined the earths and found the shells of the lupine seeds, the whole of the pulp in the interior having disappeared.”—(Journal of the Horticultural Society of London, vol. iv. p. 58.) Here it might have been supposed that the pure earths, with the addition of one of the richest of artificial manures, would have answered as well as a compost of peat and loam, but the result proved quite the contrary. In another experiment, four out of twenty mustard seeds vegetated in the pure earths, and were watered with distilled water; the plants decayed in a few days. Seeds of lupines planted in the pure earths, and watered with a solution of sub-carbonate of ammonia, b oz. to a quart of water, did not vegetate. A similar solution of muriate of ammonia gave a like unfavourable result, as was also the case with nitrate of potash and with nitrate of ammonia mixed with the soil. In these experiments, soot mixed with the pure earths answered better than any other substance employed along with them. In April, 1844, three lupine seeds, each weighing 2 grains, were planted in the pure earths, well mixed with 30 grains of soot, and watered up to the 14th of April, when all three broke ground and grew -well. On the lOth of June, 20 grains more of soot were applied as a top-dressing, and though the soot remained without apparently mixing with the earths, yet the plants thus treated improved, and on the 25th of July showed for flower. After the earth had been removed from the roots the three plants weighed 215 grains. It thus appears that though seeds may germinate when sown in the pure earths, and duly sup* plied with pure water, yet to insure success in the after-growth the soil must possess certain fertile properties. Now, it may be considered fully proved, that the peat and loam in the above experiments constituted the fertile soil favourable to germination and growth, whilst the composition of the three pure earths was quite the reverse. Fine, light, and rich soil, or compost containing peat or leaf-mould, is favourable to the vegetation of most seeds, and on this account rich compost might be employed with great advantage even in extensive cropping. The following remarks on the use of compost, with the view of promoting vegetation, are made by “Falcon,” a correspondent of the Gardener.< Chronicle, who says:— “ I have no difficulty in bringing up my seeds during this unusually dry weather, by pursuing the following system:—Dig and pulverize the earth well, soak it with water (not immediately from a spring—it should be exposed for some time to the air), fine the top, sow the seed in shallow trenches, which is far preferable to broadcast, and then sift over the bed a coating of rich compost; in a few days the appearance of green leaves will reward your trouble. In this way I coax parsley above the ground in three weeks.” II.—PROPAGATION BY BULBS, COP.MS, AND TUBERS. Propagation by bulbs is easily effected. The new bulbs may be separated when the leaves of the old plant decay. Those of the garlic, shallot, onion, hyacinth, &c., are usually kept in a moderately dry airy place for some time before planting. This is done in order that the bulbs may commence to vegetate at the most convenient Beason, and besides, the bulbs are considered to grow better in consequence of their moisture being to some extent evaporated. By similar treatment corms, such as the crocus, are found to produce better plants and stronger flower's than if suffered to remain without removal. Tubers also admit of being taken up when mature, and being kept till the most convenient season for replanting. They may in general be cut into a number of pieces, from which as many plants may be raised, provided there is a perfect eye or bud in each piece. The Chinese yam has not visible buds like the potato, but a number of small wrinkles disposed horizontally appear on its surface, and if the tuber be cut in slices and planted, buds will push from the wrinkles. III.—PROPAGATION BY DIVISION. Strictly speaking, propagation in every way292 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. except by seed is effected by division. Jf we propagate by cuttings, suckers, grafts, or buds, we must, in either case, divide the plant to obtain them. Propagation by division is, however, usually understood to imply the parting of such plants as the daisy, aster, sorrel, marjoram, &c. Every one knows that a patch of the daisy can be taken up and separated into a number of plants with roots to each. The aster, and herbaceous perennials that have annual stalks, can be divided with a spade or trowel; and such plants as thyme, hyssop, or box can be dug up and split into slips with some portion of root to each. This is frequently termed propagating by slips. In some cases, the number of plants which can be obtained by division may be greatly increased by introducing a quantity of fine soil among them, in order that the lower bx’anclies may strike root in it; or the plants may be taken up and replanted deeper than before. Thus, an overgrown box-edging may be taken up in spring, partially divided, and then laid in so that the soil may cover the bases of the twigs or shoots; most of them will strike root in the course of the season, and the whole may afterwards be separated into as many plants as there were shoots in the edging. On the same principle other plants of a shrubby nature may be propagated. There are some, however, which cannot be divided till after they have flowered; these are such as do not push growing shoots, but only flower-stalks in spring which die back after flowering, but push young shoots from their bases which may be separated and readily propagated. IV.—PROPAGATION BY RUNNERS. Like the strawberry, many plants emit runners, which proceed along the surface of the ground, deriving nourishment from the parent plant, and develop, at a greater or less distance from it, a bud on the upper side, whilst small projections form on the opposite or under side. These are young spongioles, the rudiments of roots, which, under favourable circumstances, strike into the soil, and assist in nourishing the young plant immediately above them. The growing point of the runner proceeds, and another plant is formed at the next joint or bud, and so on. It will have been observed, that runners cannot well take root in dry weather; but when in contact with moist soil the roots penetrate quickly. To facilitate the rooting, the joint is sometimes pegged down, or a small stone is placed over it. The stone not only keeps the joint close to the soil, but also attracts moisture, yet care should be taken not to place the stone so as to check the growth of the young plant. It should not be placed, for instance, on the bud, but a little behind it. In propagating by runners, if the object be to obtain as many plants as possible, the old plants should be prevented from bearing flowers and fruit, by cutting off all flower-stalks as they appear. If particularly strong plants are required, the runner should be stopped after it has made one or two joints. By so doing the whole flow of sap conveyed from the old plant by the runner will be appropriated by one or two plants, instead of proceeding onward to supply a number. It is like shortening a shoot to a few eyes near the base, 'which then push strongly; whilst, if the shoot is left entire, the flow of sap is divided amongst a number of buds, and it then frequently happens that the lower ones do not push at all. V.—PROPAGATION BY SUCKERS. Two kinds of suckers may be distinguished, namely, root-suckers and stem-suckers, sometimes called slips. A root-sucker proceeds from the underground part of a plant, sometimes close to the stem, as in the gooseberry and currant, frequently at a considerable distance from it, as iu the plum, robinia, and poplar. When the roots have taken Up a large quantity of sap, and when from some cause the leaves do not perform their functions, or when they are diseased, or mostly destroyed by insects, tubercles are formed on the roots from an exuberance of sap not otherwise expended, and from these adventitious buds are produced, which push above ground, fed by the roots from which they spring, and in some cases they also form young roots in connection with themselves. When this takes place the sucker is more imle-! pendent of the parent plant, and may be removed I and replanted with the greatest chance of success. By suckers are propagated the filbert, raspberry, rose, lilac, poplar, and elm, sometimes the gooseberry and fig, and occasionally the apple, pear, and plum for stocks. With all these the mode of proceeding is very simple: it merely consists in removing the suckers with all the roots that properly belong to them, and planting them. This should be done at the time that would be most proper for transplanting the plant from which they are taken. Whilst it is desirable that suckers intended for propagation should be taken up with plenty of roots attached, yet, in doing this, care should be taken to injure the roots of the parent plant as little as possible. If the suckers spring from a thick root, the soil should be removed, and instead of severing the large root, a slice of it can be detached with thePROPAGATION. 293 sucker. In general plants propagated from suckers occasion inconvenience, from having a greater disposition to produce suckers again than those propagated by other means. The best way of preventing this, when no increase is desired, is to be vigilant, and when a sucker makes its first appearance, instantly to check it. This being attended to, and the plant at the same time well managed, its foliage being kept clean and healthy, so as to elaborate the full flow of sap, the disposition to produce a superabundance of suckers will be greatly diminished. Stem-suckers proceed from the base of the stem, when this part is under the surface, as when soil is raised higher than the collar of the plant, or when a cutting, such as that of a gooseberry or currant, is inserted 8 or 9 inches in the ground. The growth and increase of these suckers is made at the expense of the part of the plant above them. When the old stem gets dry and hard, with sap-vessels much contracted as compared with those of the young wood of the suckers, the sap tends to flow into the latter, and they accordingly exhibit great vigour; whilst the old plant surrounded by them gets more and more stunted in its growth. A vigorous sucker, in proportion to the breadth of foliage which it exposes to the light, contributes in a like ratio to the formation of roots. All those which have derived their existence from a sucker are more in connection with it than with any other part of the plant. The juices which any particular portion of the roots imbibe have a tendency to flow towards the part which bore the leaves through the agency of which that portion of roots was formed, and simultaneously with it a set of buds. The leaves ultimately drop, but the buds remain, and are in direct communication with the recently formed roots. It is therefore natural to suppose that the fluids absorbed by the roots will flow in the most direct channels towards the buds more immediately in connection with them, that is, to those formed on the sucker to which the roots belong. If the communication with most of these buds were interrupted, as would be the case if the sucker were cut off nearly close to the ground, still the sap would tend to flow in the same direction, and act in the first place with great force on such buds as still remain. If there be any latent buds they will be stimulated; and in many cases adventitious buds become, under these circumstances, developed into shoots. These shoots originating close to the ground frequently strike root and form rooted suckers. When they do not naturally strike root, they may be encouraged to do so by earthing them up with some good mould, which should be kept moist by mulching when necessary. If the plant is one of those of which the suckers readily strike, and make sufficient roots in the course of a season to supply them, when taken up as distinct plants, the principal stem may be cut over by the surface of the ground, provided it is of less consequence to preserve it than to obtain a number of .young plants by the production of suckers, which the cutting down of the old stem would encourage. But before this proceeding is adopted, some precautions should be taken in case the cutting down of the stem should not have the desired effect. If suckers have already made their appearance, there is no danger; but if there are no symptoms of them, it must be considered whether the plant is one that infallibly produces suckers when cut down. Again, if the suckers require more than one year to root properly, and if the amount of foliage which they bear is but little compared with that of the old plant, it will not be advisable to cut down the latter till after the first season, because, if done too soon, the roots would be deprived for two seasons of the action of a proportionate amount of foliage, and although, from their previous vigour, they may act tolerably well for one season, yet in a second season their action will be greatly limited, owing to the scanty formation of fresh spongioles, in consequence of the little foliage produced in the previous summer. When the suckers are taken from the parent stock, they may be considered plants, and treated as such. In many instances, however, it is likely that the quantity of roots will be small in proportion to the rest of the plant; and this also will probably be the case when the sucker has received a large share of nourishment from the roots of the mother plaut, as well as from those of its own formation. Greater care will then be advisable to reduce the plant somewhat in proportion to its roots, to plant it out for nursing in rich soil, to water it moderately, and to mulch the surface of the ground. After growing in the nursery for a season or two, both roots and top will be in due proportion to each other, and the plant will be fit for transplanting to the place where it is to remain. VI.—-PROPAGATION BY LAYERS. A layer is a branch or shoot, part of which is introduced into the soil, and strikes root whilst fed by the parent plant, with which, however, its communication is partially interrupted to induce the returning sap to form roots where checked instead of returning to the parent stock. When treating of the flow of sap it was stated that when absorbed by the roots it passes upwards294 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. through the alburnum and the youngest layers of I wood to the leaves, and that having been exposed ! in the tissue of these to the influence of light, it returns by the inner bark, forming woody matter, and depositing secretions in its progress, a portion extending to the roots, to which it supplies organized matter for the growth of spongioles, or in other words, for the production of young roots. .Now as the upward flow of the sap is by the young wood, it is evident 'that we may cut off from a branch a ring of bark, including the liber or inner bark, without stopping the flow of tap by the alburnum. The returning sap will, however, be deprived of its regular channel when it reaches the place where the bark and inner bark were removed by ringing. If this part is in dry air, the obstructed sap forms a swelling on the upper edge of the ringed space, or if it protrude a little in the form of cellular tissue, it soon dries, exhibiting a margin of irregular excrescences. But when the ringed portion is placed in the soil, the cellular tissue, protected from the drying influence of the air, forms granulations, which by degrees elongate and assume the form and oflice of spongioles. It is upon these principles that the operation of layering is founded. The shoot or branch is kept alive by the flow of sap from the mother plant, and various means are adopted to check its return, and induce the formation of roots on the layered branch where it is placed in the soil. When these have formed in sufficient quantity for the entire support of the layer, it may be severed from the parent plant, and removed at the proper season for transplanting the species. According to circumstances, various modes of layering are adopted: the principal are simply bending in the earth, twisting, incision, tongue-ing, slitting or heeling, strangulation or wiring, ringing, piercing, serpentine arching, insertion of the growing point, and circumposition. These having been detailed, and the principles upon which they are founded understood, the modes of operation can be varied still more. 1. Simply Bending in the Earth.—This is represented in Fig. 204, where a represents the branch to be layered; b, a hooked peg to keep it from springing up; c, a stick to maintain the extremity of the shoot in an upright position. It will be seen that this is a very simple operation, consisting in making a slit, into which the shoot is bent, secured, and covered with soil. The extremity of the shoot may, in most cases, be more or less shortened, so that the buds left may have the more sap to enable them to push vigorously. When a straight stem is required, the terminal bud may be preserved, and the end above ground kept upright by a stick. Or the shoot may be cut down to two buds above the surface, and when they push the strongest may be selected to be trained upright for the future stem, and the other rubbed or cut off. If in the course of the | season buds should push into shoots on the part of the layered branch between where it is laid in the ground and the parent stock, they should be checked, otherwise from their Upright position the sap would flow into them rather than along I the more depressed part towards the extremity where it is wanted to produce leaves; for on the i elaborated sap returned from these the formation of roots depends. 2. Twisting,—This is performed in the same I way as file preceding, except that the branch is ! twisted, in order to check the returning sap, and Consequently favour (he emission of roots. 15. Incision by Splitting.—Small branches are sometimes split by thrusting a sharp-pointed knife through the middle of the branch at the part which is to be laid in the earth, and then ! splitting it longitudinally to the extent of 2 inches I or so, more or less, according to the size of the branch. The parts are kept separate by a piece of wood or stone. The split of course occasions an obstruction of the sap, and allows of the emis-I sion of roots bv the edges of the cleft. 4. Tongue!ng or Heeling.—This is represented j by Fig. 205, where a represents the branch cut half way through at c, by entering the knife about the lowest part of the bend below the bud b, and cutting upwards; the branch being then placed at the proper depth in the groove made for its reception, is kept from springing up by the hooked peg d. In placing it, care must be taken to keep separate the divided portions at c, for if in contact they would unite, and the object of making the cleft would be defeated. A piece of stone or wood is sometimes employed to keep them apart.PROPAGATION. 295 It is also necessary to observe that all buds, including that at b, should be rubbed off or cut out before the shoot is laid down. Now it will be seen that the sap can ascend by the upper side into the buds 1 and 2; but when these expand into shoots and leaves, and when the latter are able to return elaborated sap, a portion will return to the stem, whilst another portion will go towards b, and accumulating there, it must break out in the shape of roots. The bud 1 will have the flow of sap more direct, because the vessels on that side are entire; but it will also And its way to bud 2. The sap from the leaves produced by the latter will, however, tend to return towards b, in consequence of that part being on the same side. The future shoot and foliage on that side, being most in connection with the part from which roots proceed, should be encouraged. The reason of cutting below the bud at b is, that when a shoot is cut a little above a joint or bud, the divided part is apt to die up to the next joint; but when cut immediately below the joint, the heel usually keeps alive to the joint situated at its extremity. Instead of the tongue or heel being formed on the under side of the branch, it is sometimes made on the upper side. The branch is then twisted, so that the tongue may be placed in a perpendicular position, and in a downward direction. In other eases it is cut on either side of the branch, but in general it is preferable to make an incision on the under side, unless the shoot is of a brittle nature, and may bend when cut on the upper side with less danger of breaking. Some, after raising the tongue, have split it up the middle, and in some cases it is said with advantage. 5. Strangulation or Wiring.^- If a wire is twisted tightly round a branch, the ascending sap will flow along the vessels of the alburnum, but the returning sap, descending by the inner bark; will be checked. Woody layers continue to be formed so long as the outside bark admits of being compressed; but by degrees the portion of it within the ring becomes hard and so compact as to prevent the return of the sap below the ring, and of course the further deposition of woody layers. An accumulation of the returning sap then takes place above the wire. Exposed to the drying influence of the air, roots do not readily break out in consequeuce of this accumulation ; but an increased deposition of woody matter is indicated by the swelling of the branch to a much greater thickness immediately above the wire than below it. When, however, the part around which the wire is twisted is laid in the earth, the accumulated sap tends to form roots, and to encourage their breaking out the part above the ring is sometimes pricked with a sharp instrument in various places quite through the inner bark. G. Ringing.—This mode is represented in Fig. 205, where e is a hooked peg, the use of which is obvious; f, a portion of the branch from which a ring of bark has been removed; g, a stick, to which the extremity of the shoot h is trained. The ring at f should be taken off quite through pass by it to the stem, and thus the object of ringing, to interrupt it, would be defeated. Ringing is to be preferred to strangulation or wiring, inasmuch as the granulated cellular tisgue has a clean-cut edge to issue from, and on which it can sooner accumulate in sufficient quantity to form protrusions, in the shape of spongioles, than it can when it has to overcome the resistance of sound bark, above the wiring, before it can burst out; besides, previously to its doing so, part of it is appropriated for the deposition of woody layers. 7. Piercing^-The branch, where laid in the ground, is sometimes pierced or punctured. The returning sap is thereby obstructed, and the emission of roots encouraged. But punctures are more apt to cause disease than clean cuts; therefore very small circular notches will answer the purpose better, except when the branch is of a tender succulent nature, and liable to bleed when cut. 8. Serpentine Layering.—This mode is very applicable to the vine, wistaria, clematis, and other plants that make long running shoots. It is represented by Fig. 20G. The shoot a is layered at every 2 feet, or less, according to the nature of the plant, its pliabilitjg and the situation of the buds. Each curve above ground d, d, must be furnished with a bud or buds, whilst from the portion below ground, held down by pegs b, b, b, the buds must be rubbed or cut off. The extremity c is supported by a stick, and when the shoot296 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. is sufficiently rooted at the different parts laid, it is cut as represented by the dotted lines e, e, e. When this mode of propagation is adopted in summer with a growing shoot, the latter must be layered as it proceeds in growth, and the leaves on the part above ground should be preserved and encouraged; consequently, the shoot will have to be laid shallow, and the curves to be but slight. Sometimes, pressing the shoot at its joint the depth of its thickness in the soil, and then laying small stones upon it, will be sufficient. 9. Layering by Insertion of the Growing Point. Many plants that emit few roots, and these but slowly, by the previously detailed modes, will produce them in surprising abundance by merely inserting the growing point in the soil. Take, for instance, the rubus, gooseberry, or currant, and as soon as the shoots have acquired some length and firmness, insert the growing points in well-dug soil, and before autumn a large bundle of roots will be formed, with a bud, which must be carefully preserved in transplanting, and afterwards trained to form a stem. This mode, though not in general essential for the propagation of either the gooseberry or the currant, might yet in some particular cases be advantageously adopted; for instance, when a sort is required to be ini creased as quickly as possible, a number of strongly-rooted plants may be obtained long before such could be produced by cuttings. This mode of propagation deserves notice, for it can easily be tried, and doubtless will often be found successful in the case of many kinds of plants that are difficult to propagate by other means. 10. Circuniposition is an old term for a mode of propagation employed in cases where the branch is far from the ground, or when from stillness, britlleness, or other circumstances, it cannot be bent down. Whilst the branch, for any of these reasons, retains its position, some soil or compost is carried up, and in various ways made to surround it. For holding the soil, a box, garden-pot, basket, or any other article, adapted so that the branch can be introduced into the interior, may be used. A garden-pot cut down the middle before the clay is burned will answer. The branch can be inclosed between the two halves, which close against each other, except where the hole in the bottom allows room for the branch to be introduced into the pot. The pieces, of course, require to be bound or hooped together. This, however, is rendered unnecessary by the arrangement represented in Fig. 207, where a is a slit in the side of the pot, sufficiently wide to admit the branch; b, a post to support the pot at the proper height; c, a stick to keep the branch upright. After the branch has been introduced into the pot, and placed in its proper position, the slit above and below it is closed by two slips of thin tile or slate, and the pot can then be filled with soil. From being raised in the air, the soil will be apt to dry rapidly; this should be prevented by mulching it with moss, which should be kept moist, and it will also prove advantageous to cover the whole surface of the pot with moss in order to prevent evaporation through the pores of the material. Pots or boxes made of slate, not being porous like those of earthenware, would be proper for this mode of propagation. The Chinese ring a part of a branch and then fasten round it a large ball of clay and cow-dung, well incorporated, and similar to our grafting clay, and the whole is maintained in a moist state by means of a vessel placed above it, and kept supplied with water, of which enough is allowed to escape by a small hole at the bottom. The mode was practised in Britain more than one hundred and fifty years ago. Reid, in his Scots Gardener. published in 1721, after describing the mode of propagation by circuniposition, says:—“I have effected this with clay and cow’s dung, well mixed (after part of the bark has been taken off round), and wrapped about with a double or triple swaddling of straw or hay ropes.” The vine, and various other plants, will strike root by merely surrounding the branch or shoot with grafting clay; but in general ringing, or some of the modes of incision, should be employed when layering by circuniposition is performed.PROPAGATION. 297 VII.—PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. A cutting for propagation is an entirely detached portion of a plant, usually a shoot, or part of a shoot, furnished with buds, or with buds and leaves. When properly selected, duly prepared, and placed under favourable circumstances, the cutting emits roots, and thus an individual plant may be increased to an extent corresponding to the number of parts eligible for cuttings which the plant can afford at once or in succession. If a plant be cut over bv the surface of the ground, and consequently be deprived of its nourishment from the roots, it will notwithstanding remain alive; and its buds will continue to attract the sap from the vessels with which they are connected, and will expand into leaves. These, as well as the others with which the cutting may be already furnished, will continue to perform their functions nearly as before the separation of the plant from its roots, that is to say, they will elaborate the sap till all that can be drawn from the cutting: is exhausted. As long as the leaves have a supply of sap, so long will they continue to form cellular tissue; and when this is formed, it will naturally fall into the proper channels, and pui-sue its usual course, as far as possible. It will descend from the leaf by the vessels in the petiole, and by the inner bark of the shoot, depositing secretions and forming woody tissue in its progress. But it is not usual for the tissue organized by the leaves to be wholly monopolized by the stem and its parts above ground; for, whilst a certain quantity is thus appropriated, a considerable portion passes on to the roots, and adds to their growth and extension. If a plant be 3 feet in length from a certain part of a shoot to the extremity of the roots, then the sap elaborated by the leaves on that part deposits more or less substance throughout the whole length of 3 feet. Moreover, if the soil be in a favourable condition, especially as regards temperature, an extension of the extremities of the roots or spongioles is effected. But instead of the process extending along the assumed distance of 3 feet or more, if a cutting (1 inches in length below the leaves is made, presuming these to continue their functions as usual, the cutting will receive and appropriate the share of elaborated sap due to a portion of shoot 6 inches in length; whilst the tissue, not so appropriated, and which would have extended 30 inches farther towards the extremity of the roots, accumulates where its channel of communication with the latter is cut off, that is to say, at the base of the cutting. There it forms a callosity of organized matter, which, under favourable circumstances, protrudes, and ultimately assumes the form of roots. The cutting has now become a plant. This result depends, however, upon various circumstances, to which it is necessary to advert. The cuttings require to be selected of the proper age; they should be inserted at the proper season, and in a suitable medium; and they should afterwards be kept in a well-regulated condition, as regards heat, moisture, and light. ,‘Selection. — Cuttings should be taken from healthy plants, and from parts of these which are not in a weakly state; for if the shoots or branches of a plant are not in a condition to make a fair growth with a supply of nourishment from the roots of the parent plant, they cannot, when made into cuttings, be expected to possess sufficient energy to produce a good plant. At the same time, excessively vigorous shoots, accustomed to receive a very abundant supply of nourishment, are not so well able to keep alive, when deprived of that supply, as others that have been less highly fed. Some kinds of trees, as the willow and poplar, strike from either old or young wood; but most strike more readily, and make the best plants, from well-matured shoots of the current year’s growth. In the case of hard-wooded plants difficult to strike, considerable nicety is required in selecting a portion of the shoot, the wood of which is neither too old and hard, nor too young and soft; for in the former case roots are not readily emitted, whilst in the latter the cuttings are apt to damp off. A knowledge of the proper degree of firmness which the cutting should possess can only be acquired by practice, and this differs in different plants. When not exactly known, it is well to insert cuttings of different degrees of firmness, and observe for future guidance the condition in which they succeed the best. Time of taking off Cuttingi.-W]i\\e cuttings of hardy deciduous trees and shrubs should be taken off after the fall of the leaf, and before the Bap rises in spring. The sap is then in a condensed state; as it expands, by the increased warmth of spring, the buds swell, and sap is returned to form callosities, and the more readily if placed in soil that is moist and warm. The worst time for taking cuttings from these kinds of plants is when the bap is in full flow, and when the leaves from buds formed in the previous summer are just expanding. At that period of their vegetation, they evaporate the moisture contained in the cutting with great rapidity, and at the same time return organized tissue but slowdy, so that before enough of it to produce roots is accumulated, the cutting is exhausted. As a general rule, cuttings should be taken off either when298 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. the vegetation of the plant is in a dormant state, I or when it is active and has made a new shoot, with leaves so far matured as to he in the act of I forming abundance of woody tissue. Preparation of Cuttings.—There are trees that strike root so readily, that pieces of the branch or stem may be sharpened like stakes, and then driven into the ground, when they become plants. In till south of Europe, where the ground is much warmer than in this country, branches of apple or pear trees, of the thickness of a man’s wrist, are cut into lengths of 2 or 3 feet, pointed, and driven into the ground, where they strike root, and soon form strong-stemmed plants. ! Stout willow-stakes are sometimes driven in, to 1 form a fence in watery places, or to mark a boundary in such situations, and they soon take root. In one instance, willow-stakes for this purpose had been sharpened at the smaller or top end, and driven in bottom upwards; yet they grew, although not so freely at first as if the sap had risen through vessels not so inverted. Cuttings of the gooseberry, currant, and some other plants, emit roots, not only from the callous substance at the lower end of the cutting, but also along the side. In these aud other kinds of cuttings from deciduous trees, the buds on the under-ground part of the cutting must be cut, picked, or rubbed out, otherwise they would, sooner or later, push into shoots, and produce an inconvenient number of suckers. It may be observed that, in the gooseberry and currant, the leaves have chiefly performed their office when the fruit is ripened off; and as this occurs early in the season, cuttings made at that time and planted in warm moist soil will form roots before winter, and will consequently be ready to push into vigorous growth early in the ensuing season, and before cuttings of the same sort, inserted in spring, could have formed a single root. Thus, the plants from cuttings made-early in autumn will be nearly a year in advance of those ] dan Led in spring. The gooseberry aud currant are mentioned as familiar examples of what may be observed and taken advantage of in regal’d to the propagation of other plants. In such cases, the leaves must be taken off, otherwise they would evaporate the moisture of the cutting. When plants are difficult to strike by the ordinary mode of cutting off a portion of branch or shoot, for immediate insertion, it is a good plan to ring it below a joint about midsummer. The returning sap being checked, a swelling commences above the ring, and continues to increase till active vegetation ceases in autumn. The branch should then be cut off below the ring, and laid in the soil till spring, in order that the swell- ing may be softened by the moisture of the soil, to facilitate the emission of roots. In spring the cutting is taken up, and the ringed portion cut off close by the under part of the swelling; the cutting is then again inserted in the soil to the proper depth, the top having been previously shortened to a few buds above the joint corresponding with the surface. Instead of ringing, a ligatui-e is sometimes employed to obstruct the returning sap. For this purpose a small wire is generally used, but in many cases a piece of fine twine, drawn very tightly, will answer better, as it is not liable to corrode, like metallic substances. Instead of being cut off, the portion to be propagated, consisting of a lateral shoot, is occasionally torn off with a heel, the separation presenting a somewhat oval surface, which is smoothed with a sharp knife. The section then is oblique to the direction of the fibre, and is of course larger than if it had been made right across the shoot, consequently it presents a larger surface for the absorption of moisture. Cuttings of some things strike more readily when, after having been cut across, they are split upwards about half an inch, more or less according to the size of the cutting. The shoot should be cut with a very sharp knife immediately below the joint. Some of the lower leaves should be cut or clipped off very little farther from the base than the length to which the cutting is inserted in the ground. The older leaves elaborate more sap for the formation of roots than the very young ones; and, from being near the moist surface, they absorb moisture, or at least they do not evaporate so much as when they are elevated from that source of moisture. The petioles of the leaves to be removed should be cut off as close to the stem as can be done without injuring the bark or the vessels of the stem. When much of the petiole is left, and buried in the moist soil, it is apt to rot; aud from decaying matter being thus produced in the vicinity of the cutting, and in fact connected with it, the damping or decomposition of the cutting itself is induced. With regard to the preparation of cuttings, and the importance of leaving the proper quantity of leaves, some excellent remarks are made in the Gardeners' Chronicle, 1844, p. 540, by Mr. Wood, who says, “ It is the common practice to cut through the joint and remove three or four of the lowermost leaves; but the removal of these, I am fully convinced, is of great disadvantage, as it is generally admitted that the foliage has an office to perform, viz. that of elaborating the sap or juices of the plant. The sap ascends by the minute vessels of the cuttings, aud, enter-PROPAGATION. 299 ing the leaves already formed and undergoing the elaborating process, is converted into cambium, or the proper juices of plants, by the influence of light and heat. Afterwards it descends, forming wood in its course. After it has reached the base of the cutting, it comes into immediate contact with the soil, or compost, of whatever nature that may be, and there it assumes a congealed appearance, or white warty substance, which, owing to the sap continually descending, enlarges uutil it is forced into different directions in the shape of roots. These supply the plant with food, growth commences and proceeds, and the plant elongates and soon becomes established. If we deprive a cutting of its lowermost leaves, we deprive it of a considerable portion of its power to emit roots. I have inserted a great quantity, with every leaf attached, and these retained the same healthy appearance as before they were taken off the parent plant; many of them rooted rapidly, and not one leaf died until after they had become well-established plants. It is evident that the leaves were of service to the cuttings, from their remaining so healthy. It is worthy of remark, that those cuttings having the largest leaves rooted quickest; thus showing that the descent of the sap was stronger and quicker in them than in others with smaller foliage, but which nevertheless also succeeded well. How different was the case of some tried on the old pinS of removing the leaves! Many soon became languid, some ultimately withered away; and those which did succeed were much slower in emitting roots. In removing the leaves, generally a small portion of the foot-stalk is left, which sap enters, but, on account of the leaf being absent, is not elaborated; consequently, these become dropsical, and damping off, very often kill the cutting. This would not have been the case had the leaves been left on.” The substances in which cuttings are struck are various; but silver-sand, white and pure, is that which is most in use, and on the whole found to auswer best. It is free from decaying matter, and therefore-does not induce putrefaction. It is porous, and affords a ready passage for the spon-gioles; yet, being fine, it retains moisture by capillary attraction. It contains very little nourishment, but scarcely any besides what may be dissolved in the water is required till rootlets begin to be formed. The sand, as already mentioned, should be pure and free from the oxides of iron. Many plants, such as laurels, some kinds of roses, chrysanthemums, &c., will strike in common garden soil. Various other substances, as powdered charcoal, brick-dust, burned clay, chopped moss, and water, have been employed. Charcoal has the property of absorbing gases that might otherwise prove injurious to the health of the cutting by inducing putrefaction; it likewise retains moisture within its pores. It has been successfully employed alone, or mixed with other substances. Mr. Wood, in the article already quoted, states that for salvias, petunias, fuchsias, verbenas, heliotropiums, anagallises, &c., together with several cobceas, lophospermums, and the like, charcoal is an excellent ingredient in the soil used for their propagation. He also found that Catting*of Abutilon striatum,fuchsias, and various other green-house plants, succeeded well when inserted into powdered charcoal alone; nevertheless, he prefers mixing it with a little good soil and silver-sand. Brick-dust has also been successfully used in striking cuttings by Mr. Drummond, formerly of Ilowick Hall, who says, “My first trial was with the heliotrope, for which I used common bricks that had not been over-burned, first reducing them to powder, and tilling a shallow seed-pan, fifteen inches in diameter, the coarser particles being placed at the bottom as drainage; the cuttings were then planted over the whole surface. These were firmly rooted in a shorter time than others planted amongst sand, loam and sand, or leaf-mould and sand, although receiving the same treatment, with this difference—that those in brick-dust required less water. Brick-dust, being an absorber and retainer of moisture, requires but a small quantity of it; therefor^, the larger the pan is, the more holes there should be in the bottom, and the coarser the substances used for drainage. Should the brick-dust become too damp, if may be partly remedied by placing the pan on slate, or any other black body, without abstracting Ihe heat, as a black substance absorbs heat freely, but readily parts with it to surrounding bodies. If a cutting pot or pan were blackened, it would perhaps be greatly in favour of the young plants but this experiment I have not yet tried. From the success attending the cuttings of the heliotrope, 1 ventured to try those of various plants, such it* pelargoniums, fuchsias, roses, Euphorbia jacquiu-iveflora, Jponueu Learii, and Eassijlora Loudoun, all of which rooted freely. “ When brick-dust is used, it matters not what the diameter of the pan may be; the cuttings can be planted over the whole surfaoe with little fear of their damping off. The pan should be plunged to the rim in leaf-mould, and freely exposed to the sun in a hot frame, that the brick-dust may acquire a certain degree of heat and moisture before the cuttings are put in; and300 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. when planted, they should be immediately taken back to the frame. If the hot-bed is made on the same construction as for early melons or cucumbers, rather rough leaf-mould, to the depth of 4 inches, may be spread upon the surface, and upon that 3 inches of pounded bricks; if this is rendered firm ami level, the cuttings may be planted out upon it in rows. This method is well adapted to extensive places, where a great number of plants are required in spring to decorate the flower-garden.” Brick-dust, no doubt, answers well, but silver-sand is more convenient. Burned clay is a substance nearly allied to the preceding: it is a powerful absorber of ammonia. It may therefore be advantageously employed in cases where the cutting requires other nourishment than water, and yet will not succeed in rich garden soil. Many plants will strike and grow in moss, such as sphagnum chopped; and if the plants are to be grown for some time in the pots in which they are struck, some leaf-mould, mixed with the moss, will be advantageous. Cuttings of many plants will readily strike root if their ends are put in water, provided it be of the proper temperature. Bottles, vials, or jars may be employed to hold the water; but as light is not necessary for the production of roots, which are usually and best formed in the dark, the vessel, if transparent, should be shaded. Roots growing in water are disposed to subdivide exceedingly, so that many are as fine as hairs, and when taken out of the water are too delicate to act well in the soil. It is therefore advisable to remove the cuttings struck in water at an early stage of the growth of the roots, before their length becomes too much out of proportion to their thickness. It should be observed that the soil in which plants struck in water are planted ought to be fine, and kept moist; and the plants should be carefully shaded till they strike fresh root. The following materials, which may be advantageously employed in striking the cuttings of almost any sort of plant, are recommended by a correspondent of the Gardeners* Chronicle. He says:—-“Provide either broken potsherds,pebbles, or chips of stones from a mason’s yard, and place them in the bottom of the pot. Over these put rough fibrous peat or turf; this will act as drainage, which is most essential; then prepare peat, loam, and silver-sand, in equal parts, with the addition of a little powdered charcoal; let these be well incorporated together and passed through a fine sieve; put this compost on the top of the above-mentioned drainage, and press it well down. This must be in sufficient quantity to reach within 1J inch of the top of the pot. Finish with pure silver-sand, and let the whole be well watered, to settle all down before the cuttings are put in.” The cuttings should then be inserted into the sand, and watered to settle it round them. Insertion.—Cuttings of hardy plants that strike in the open air are sometimes inserted by means of a dibber; but it is always better, when circumstances will permit, to cut off, by a line, a straight edge in the dug soil, and place the prepared cuttings against it, pressing the soil closely round them. When propagation is effected under glass, and the cuttings are small, a pointed stick proportioned to their size is employed. Some kinds do very well when planted equally over the whole surface; others do better when inserted near the sides of the pot—a circumstance which is not easily accounted for, but that such is the case is a well-known fact. The roots of a plant increase much more readily when they reach the sides of a pot than they did previously when in the soil. Stones in arable land have a similar effect, for they have been frequently observed matted with roots. This may be owing to there being a less cohesion between the soil and the stone than between the particles of the soil itself, and consequently a more free passage for roots will be afforded in the former than in the latter case. Moreover, moisture is generally to be found condensed on the sides of the pot; for if the pot shoidd be colder than the soil within it, condensation will take place on the inner surface, and if it be warmer than the soil, then it will warm the air in contact with its interior, and moisture will be condensed on the adjoining colder particles of the soil, so that in either case there will be moisture between the soil and the sides of the pot; and thus the production of roots is encouraged. Cuttings in particular cases are therefore inserted at the sides of the pot, sometimes witli their ends against its bottom, against the sides of a smaller pot within the cutting-pot, or resting on potsherds placed at the proper depth below the surface. In putting in the cuttings, the soil or sand should be pressed with the pointed stick, as in planting with the dibber; and when the pot is filled the cuttings should be watered, for this will close the sand about them better than any other process. Mr. W. P. Ayres gives, in a few words, some very good directions for propagating by cuttings. He says:—“For cutting-pots I generally use 48’s, prepared in the following manner: Over the hole at the bottom I place an inverted 60-sized pot, and round it potsherds, broken small; over these some moss, and then fill up with a compost ofPROPAGATION. 301 peat, sand, and leaf-mould, in equal quantities, leaving about half an inch at the top for white sand, which runs into the holes as the cuttings are inserted. A stock of pots thus prepared should be kept in a frame or propagating house, as nothing is so injurious to cuttings taken from plants growing in heat as to put them into cold soil. Cuttings cannot be too short, if they have the necessary buds to form a plant; neither can they be inserted too shallow, if they are made firm in the pots.”—(Gardeners' Chronicle, 1843, p. 116.) Temperature.-—If a well-rooted plant be kept in a high temperature, whilst its roots, on the contrary, are in a low one, the parts above ground will be stimulated into rapid growth, but the roots will increase very little, for the returning sap is checked when it reaches the parts colder than itself. When the soil is as warm as the air, or somewhat warmer, the growth of the roots is in proportion to that of the top; and if the soil be considerably warmer than the air, the disposition to produce roots will be greater than that to produce tops; and this is the relative condition which should be maintained between the soil and the atmosphere in striking cuttings, that is to say, the bottom-heat should exceed the average top-heat. With regard to the proper degree of these no precise data can be given, as it varies in different plants. In general the temperature should be higher than that in which the species naturally grows. For example, the hawthorn, wild pear, and many other trees indigenous to Britain, rarely if ever strike root from cuttings in the open ground, but when placed in a strong moist bottom-heat, these and most hardy trees strike readily. In regulating the temperature it is necessary in the first instance to take into consideration that in which the plant from which the cuttings are taken has been growing. Sometimes the plant is forced, in order to produce shoots for cuttings; the latter in that case must not be placed in a lower but rather in a higher temperature than that to which they were subjected on the parent plant. Cuttings taken from deciduous plants in a dormant state, and furnished only with buds, should be placed at first in a temperature very little higher than that which is sufficient to excite and swell the buds of the parent tree. As the buds of the cuttings expand, the temperature should be increased in a higher ratio than that which brings the tree naturally into leaf, or which causes it to push into shoots; and whilst the process is going on, care must be taken that the soil is warmer than the atmosphere. Tn short, if the buds are not driven out too rapidly, and if the heat is afterwards increased as much as the expanding foliage will bear without becoming weak, thin, and unsubstantial, and if the bottom-heat is always increased in a ratio higher than the mean temperature of the atmosphere in which the foliage is growiug, roots must ultimately be produced if the cutting remain healthy. If, on the contrary, too much top-lieat is given, and too little bottom-heat, the foliage will be imperfect, and unfit to elaborate properly even a limited quantity of sap; and that little will be checked on reaching the lower part of the cutting placed in the cold soil, and the formation of roots under these circumstances will not be satisfactory, if it take place at all. If both top and bottom heat are too low, vegetation must of course be languid; yet the cutting, partially excited, will waste during the long period which must elapse before roots can be formed to supply it with fresh nourishment. The heat, whatever may be the degree of it which the nature of the cutting may require, should be steady, or nearly so; for cuttings will not bear such vicissitudes as well-rooted plants will do. Tropical plants naturally experience comparatively little variation of temperature, day or night, summer or winter; and in propagating them by cuttings, the temperature should vary still less; in fact, it may be steady. A somewhat greater range may be allowed to plants indigenous to temperate or colder climates; but by no means ought this to extend to the extremes of temperature which, during even the growing season, occur in most of those climates. This remark refers to the top-heat; as for the bottom-heat, it should not be high at one time and low at another. If it be found necessary to increase the bottom-heat, it should be regularly made every day a little higher than on the one preceding; occasionally it may be the same for several days; but care should be taken to prevent its falling lower at any time than in the preceding day or night. Moisture.—The extent of surface by which a cutting can absorb moisture for supplying evaporation is small, compared with that possessed by well-rooted plants. It is therefore necessary to adopt means to limit the amount of evaporation, so that it may correspond as nearly as possible vdth that of absorption. The free air is frequently too dry for delicate cuttings, on vffiich account a sort of artificial atmosphere is formed for them bv propagating-glasses or hand-glasses. It is possible by means of these to maintain a constantly humid atmosphere; but, on the other hand, this is not congenial to the stems and foliage of some plants, and accordingly there is danger of the cuttings damping off. It would therefore be desirable that moisture should be regulated302 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. like heat; but it is more difficult to do. When the earth, sand, or other substance in which the cuttings are inserted is kept moist, and a bell-glass pressed closely down upon it, the bottom-heat will raise vapour to keep the air within the glass in a saturated state, and whilst that is the case, evaporation from the surface of the leaves | cannot take place. If the glass were raised, of course the vapour would escape, and the cuttings would be too suddenly exposed from a close to a free atmosphere. It would be desirable to reduce the amount of vapour within the glass by gentler means if possible. With this object in view it will be necessary to take into consideration how the moisture of the air within the bell-glasses can be affected by the external temperature with- < out moving them, presuming the propagation to be carried on in a frame, pit, or other glass structure. Supposing the air under the bell-glass to be completely saturated with moisture, then, 1st, When the air outside the bell-glass is colder than the air inside, the internal moisture will be condensed on the sides of the glass, and being thus abstracted from the internal air, of course the latter will be rendered so much drier. 2d. When the air outside the glass is warmer than the air inside, some condensation may take place outside, but none inside. 3d. When the temperature both outside and inside the bell-glass is the same, no condensation either on the outside or inside will appear. Now, if the atmosphere in which the cuttings are placed be too much saturated with moisture, so that the foliage, from being constantly moist, is in danger of damping off, the sashes may be so far opened as to cool the air of the house or frame to a little below the temperature of the air within the bell-glasses, or till the moisture is seen to be condensed on their insides. This will have the effect of relieving for a time the foliage of its load of moisture; and thus one of the principal causes of damping off may be removed. The moisture will remain condensed on the inside of the bell-glass, or, if abundant, part of it will trickle down the sides of the glass into the substance in which the cuttings are inserted. The water thus distilled will again moisten the air, but until the latter be saturated the leaves will be enabled to exhale as much as will tend to keep them healthy. The air by this means will not be rendered so dry as to cause the leaves to wither, nor so moist as to prevent exhalation. By the latter the gorged tissue will be enabled to discharge the superabundant moisture, and with it gases which water has the power of absorbing. Licjlit.—The importance of this agent of vegetation has been already pointed out. But as cut- tings, with their buds and foliage, the parts acted upon by light, are not in the same condition after being severed from the rooted plant as they were before, some remarks become necessary. Without light, buds cannot expand into a healthy green foliage; and without the latter, roots cannot be formed, except in some cases where they may be derived from matter stored in the vessels, and, some time or other, elaborated by the leaves, through the agency of light. It decomposes the carbonic acid held in weak solution in the crude sap, and effects other important changes, it is, therefore, an agent of great power and activity; but, as such, it is evident that it must have substance to act upon. This is afforded by the roots when they are in communication with the leaves; but when the latter are deprived of that supply, the light requires to be moderated by judicious shading, otherwise its action would have an exhausting effect. All cuttings should, however, have as much light as they can well bear, and some will bear much more than others; thus, scarlet pelargoniums will strike well if exposed to the direct rays of the sun, and so will many other plants of a succulent nature. But there are many plants that will not bear that treatment, and must either be kept entirety shaded from the solar rays, or these must be only partially admitted through a sci'een. As the cuttings become rooted, light may be more freely admitted. Bcll-glasses.—These are of various forms and sizes. The form should be such as to allow the condensed water to run down the sides, instead of dropping on the foliage of the cutting. Consistent with this, the lower they are the better, provided there is room for the cutting to grow till rooted; for there is an advantage in having the leaves near the glass. Different coloured glasses have been employed in France; according to Neumann, blue and violet coloured are preferred; but in the climate of Britain the light is ! less powerful than at Paris, and white glass is considered the best. Pots.—The usual forms of pots, well drained, are extensively employed for the purpose ol striking cuttings. Those of which the width exceeds the depth are usually preferred; and round or square pans are also well adapted for the purpose, where bell-glasses are not required. M. Neumann’s pot is much approved of by propagators; it is 2|- to 3I> inches wide, and 2j to 24 inches high. The hide in the bottom is not covered in the usual way, but a small pot is inverted over it; the bottom of this is level with the surface of the soil, or other material, in which the cuttings are inserted. The small inverted pot receives the heat which ascends through thePROPAGATION. 303 hole in the bottom of the outer pot, and thus a warmth favourable to vegetation is maintained in the materials surrounding the inverted pot, around which the cuttings are inserted. Instead of inverting an inner pot, as in the above arrangement, Mr. Forsyth employs it as a reservoir for water. The hole in the bottom being closed, it is placed on drainage within a larger pot, so that the mouths of both may be on the same level. The space between the sides of the outer and inner pot is filled with the proper soil, and the cuttings are inserted with their ends touching the side of the inner pot, which is then filled with water. The water percolates slowly through the porous earthenware material, and affords a steady supply of moisture to the cuttings, without danger of saturation. VIII.—PROPAGATION BY LEAVES. The first attempt on record to raise a tree from a leaf was made by Mandirola, an Italian horticulturist, whose mode of proceeding was published by Richard Bradley, in the beginning of the last century. This mode of propagation is now advantageously practised with such plants as the gloxinia, gesnera, eclieveria, &c. Roots and buds, it has already been stated, derive their origin and their rudimentary substance, either directly or indirectly, from the leaves. This being the case, it might be possible to propagate most plants by their leaves, provided the latter could be kept alive, after being detached from the stem such length of time as would allow of a sufficient quantity of cellular tissue, being elaborated and protruded from the petiole, or from the section of the midrib, to form granu-lated callosities for the production of spongioles and adventitious buds. The leaves of some plants, whilst not detached, return cellular tissue abundantly to the roots by the processes of digestion and continuous supply. The crude sap which leaves are capable of containing is in some quickly elaborated, and as quickly replaced; so that, although all the sap which such leaves contain at any instant may afford but a very small quantity of matter available for the formation of roots, yet, when the supply is continuous, the amount may be very considerable in the course of several weeks. If a piece of clean paper were dipped in a solution of salt and water, and then exposed to evaporation in the sun and air, the quantity of salt left on the paper would be imperceptible to the naked eye; but let a supply of the solution be repeated as evaporation proceeds, and ultimately an incrustation of salt will be formed on the paper. Somewhat similar must be the case with some kinds of leaves; they may be full of sap when detached, but this, when elaborated and returned to the section of the petiole, would not be in quantity to form a cal-losit}'. The selection of leaves intended for striking is of importance. Such as are either too young, or too old, are not proper. The eneigy of young leaves is employed towards their own growth. Mr. Knight, in his Physiological Papers, p. 34, states, that “young leaves expend, in adding to their own bulk, that which ought to be expended in the creation of shoots.” On the other hand, leaves that are too old may be considered to have performed their functions, or nearly so, and therefore on the eve of becoming ' inactive, or of entering into a state of decay. Leaves that are very nearly full-grown are to be preferred; such will generally be found in the middle part of the shoot. Some recommend the petiole to be inserted its whole length. M. Neumann cuts it off nearly close to the base of the blade. The foot-stalk, or whatever part of it is left, should be inserted, up to the base of the blade, in pure white sand, laid over sandy peat, or other compost suitable for the growth of the plant after the leaf has struck root. When the foot-stalk is cut off close to the base of the blade, the latter should be laid on its back, and the has® part slightly inserted in the sand, in which it should be kept by a small peg; or a small stone may be placed upon it. The leaves, thus placed in contact with moist sand, should be covered with a bell-glass, the edges of which ought to be well pressed into the sand. They should then be placed in a greater bottom-heat than is required for cuttings of the same kind of plant. The glasses must be shaded at first, and although the atmosphere within the bell-glass should be moist, yet it ought not to be too much so. If the leaves are in a state to absorb moisture from the sand, it will in that case prove beneficial to allow the air within the bell-gla«s to be occasionally a little below the point of saturation; or, in other words, it may at times possess a very slight degree of dryness. Instead of a bud being formed from a callus of tissue at the section of the petiole, or the midrib, &c., buds are, in some cases, emitted from the indentationsof the margin, as in Bryophylluni calycinum. IX.—PROPAGATION BY ROOTS. All plants that readily throw up suckers from the roots themselves, as the hawthorn, poplar, elm, plum, &e., may easily be propagated by cuttings of the roots. Although the normal for-mation of buds giving rise to shoots is in the304 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. axils of the leaves, yet buds frequently appear on parts where no leaf ever existed. These are termed adventitious buds. If healthy, vigorous roots of, for instance, the common hawthorn, are taken up, chopped into short pieces, scattered on the surface of a piece of raked, dug ground, and then covered with soil, they will push shoots, and strike root. Plants raised by cuttings of the i roots will form a hedge sooner, by several years, than those raised from seed. Although cuttings of the roots of the above plants will strike when ! laid horizontally, yet it is better to plant them j in an upright position, with their tops level with j the surface, or only covered with the slightest possible quantity of soil. The cuttings may be from 3 to 9 inches in length; and in planting, care should be taken that the end of the cutting which was nearest the stem be placed uppermost. Neumann remarks of the Cydonia japonica, ! that it is propagated much more slowly by layers than by cuttings of the roots. He says, that if ' the roots of this plant are cut, when as thick as a quill, into pieces of from 2 to 24 inches long, and planted upright, as many plants will be obtained in the same year as there were pieces planted. The cuttings should be planted in a peat border, in the open air. If placed vertically, they should be covered very slightly with earth; if horizontally, the covering should be about the Y®th of an inch thick. The latter method succeeds very well, but the upright mode is more | certain. The white-thorn, plum, apple, pear, j quince, rose, robiuia, poplar, elm, mulberry, and ( maclura, are some amongst the many trees which may be propagated by roots. Many herbaceous ! plants, as the horse-radish, sea-kale, Anemone japonica, &c., may also be increased in the same wav. Some coniferous plants are difficult to ! strike from branches, or if they do, are apt to retain the character of branches; but by root-cuttings, shoots that have the true character of stems are produced. It may be mentioned that a plant raised from a root-cutting bears leaves, flowers, and fruit exactly similar to those of the original tree. For instance, trees have been reared from the roots of the Eibston pippin, and they possessed all the excellent qualities of that well-known sort. X.—PROPAGATION BY GUAFTING. Grafting is an operation in which two cut surfaces of the same plant, or of different plants, are placed so as to unite and grow together. The cutting, or portion cut off, is termed the scio>i or graft, and the rooted plant on which it is placed or worked is called the stock. The art of grafting is of great antiquity, but by whom it was discovered is not known. It is spoken of by Theophrastus, Aristotle, Yarro, Pliny the naturalist, Virgil, Agricola, and other ancient authors. It would appeal-, however, from their writings that the principles were very imperfectly understood, otherwise they would not have entertained the belief that the vine could be grafted on the walnut or cherry, and the peach on the willow; or that black roses would be the result of grafting on the black currant; for these plants, having no natural affinity, can never form a vital union, however accurately they may be mechanically joined. The modes of grafting are exceedingly numerous, but they all depend upon one principle, which should be well understood. But previous to explaining that, it must be remarked that wood does not unite with wood so as to form a vital union; for, after trees have been grafted for many years, it is found on dissection, that between the portions of the wood of the scion and stock which were placed together at the time of grafting no union has ever taken place. When all the wood subsequently formed is removed, the parts previously formed can be readily separated, exhibiting two clean cut surfaces, or occasionally with a little dead cellular substance interposed; it is therefore evident, that the pieces of wood already formed do not unite, however accurately they may be joined. If a tree is cut horizontally through in autumn, or before the sap rises in spring, and if the section be covered over with grafting-clay or other material, so as to protect it from the drying effects of the air, it will be found that in the course of the season a protrusion of tissue will take place all round from between the wood and inner bark. Sap may exude from the woody part of the section, but that sap produces no organized tissue; when exposed to the air it evaporates, and its residuum, if any, is dead matter. Additional organized substance is only formed, as above stated, at the circular line which traces the limits between the wood and inner bark. There it may be frequently observed projecting above the level of the section of the stem, and thus rendering evident the seat of organization, where nascent tissues readily unite, when brought in contact with similar tissues in a young and active state. This constitutes the fundamental principle of grafting. With regard to the cutting intended for the scion, if it is cut off whilst its buds are but little expanded, and its lower end be inserted in the earth, cellular substance will protrude from that end, as the warmth of the season expands thePROPAGATION. 305 sap, stimulates the buds, and excites the vital action of the tissues. Now, if the cellular substance thrown up from the cross-cut stem, and that thrown down by the cutting, could meet each other before the air formed a sort of skin on their respective surfaces, they would coalesce and unite. Such a union, however, would be very insecure, for it is difficult to fix firmly together two pieces of any substance end to end. The scion in this case would derive no mechanical support from the stock to keep it in an upright position; and it would be very liable to be displaced before the cellular substance above mentioned could acquire a sufficiently woody nature to enable it to resist the slightest disturbing force. If in the young stem, represented by Fig. 208, the edge of a sharp knife be entered at a, and with one straight sloping cut brought out at b; and if the parts be again joined exactly, ties at c and d will hold them together so that they would not be readily displaced. The sap, interrupted by the section a b, will not accumulate at i, but will pass along by the inner bark of the section between a and b, and will there meet with the tissue descending from the upper part a b i, which may be termed the scion. Presuming that the parts are very exactly fitted, a most perfect example of grafting will be obtained ; like parts will be everywhere joined to like, and the whole will be in the best possible position for uniting; the outer barks will coincide perfectly, so will the inner barks, Grafting and every part of the wood will be brought in contact with its counterpart. It is not however on the junction of the outer barks, nor on that of the woods, however exact, that the success of the operation is attributable, but it is on the junction of the inner barks that union depends. This is the leading principle in all the modes of grafting, and they may be infinitely varied, provided that principle be kept in view. Strictly speaking, the vital union is not effected by the contact of the portions of inner bark, for it, like the outer bark, is a part already formed, whereas the union takes place in consequence of the contact of tissues that are in a forming state; such tissues are formed by the cells of the cambium, which lies between the surface of the alburnum and the inner bark; but the latter is a convenient term to use, because it is generally known; and if two portions of inner bark be joined edge to edge, the substance immediately below them will also be in contact. If we take a piece of clean-grown willow branch, when the sap is in motion, in spring, and beat it a little, an entire cylinder of bark may easily be taken from the wood, the latter exhibiting a smooth slippery surface, as if it had been rubbed wiith tallow or thin gum. The inside of the cylinder of bark will be found coated with a similar substance. If we take a piece of older wood, with bark as much as I- inch thick, dead, rugged, and corky on the outside, yet on removal the internal surface of the wood beneath it will be found smooth, and lubricated with the organizing sap. It is the place where this forms a thin semifluid layer that should be joined in grafting, and this will be the case if the inner barks are placed in contact. We have supposed Fig. 208 to represent a plant divided by the middle; but let us now suppose that the stock kde is a quince, and that the scion a b i is a pear shoot well joined. If so, all other circumstances being favourable, a union will take place, and the pear shoot will grow into a tree, fed by the roots of the quince; whilst the latter will add to its bulk by means of sap elaborated by the leaves of the pear. But whilst this takes place, whatever wood is added to the quince side of the line a b will be quince, and that on the pear side of the same line will be pear. If the bud e should be allowed to push, it would produce a quince shoot, although the stem opposite to it chiefly consists of pear wood; and, on the contrary, the bud f would give rise to a pear shoot, although backed by quince wood. The stock may modify the graft, just as different soils will modify the growth of plants that derive their nourishment from them; but the stock does not otherwise essentially alter the nature of the tree grafted upon it. There is a common communication of fluids between the vessels formed above and below the line a b, but the pear and quince form their own peculiar secretions from the same common source. Wherever there is quince bark in a healthy state, under it quince wood alone will be formed; and wherever there is pear bark, pear wood only will be produced. The elaborated sap from leaves on shoots pushed by the buds g h does not in its descent form a layer’ of pear wood from b to k over the quince, although M. Gaudicliaud and others were of opinion that wood was an assemblage of the roots of buds, extending from the latter to the extremities of the roots. A more correct view of the subject is taken in an article by M. Trecul in the Revue Ilorticole, of which a translation is given in the Gardeners’ Chronicle, 1853, p. 788. He SO306 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. says, “In discussing the experiments of M. Gaudichaud, I have given the following as some of the facts which are apparently the most favourable to the theory of radical fibres descending from the leaves. A poplar root was uncovered at the middle, and cut completely across, so that ueither the wood nor the bark of the two parts remained in .any way connected. The cut surfaces were brought together and maintained in close contact with collars; they were then surrounded witli moss, and covered over with earth. The two halves of the root united. According to the partisans of this theory, the two parts of the root unite by the radical filaments which descend from the leaves, and these, they say, having come in contact with the lower part of the root, penetrate between its wood and bark, thus continuing their downward course. According to my observations the phenomenon takes place in quite another manner. Although I have not myself made the experiment, which I am only acquainted with by means of the parts sent to me by M. Gaudichaud, yet I believe that a satisfactory explanation can be given, one founded on the principles laid down in my different memoirs, and on what occurs during the taking of the graft. A swelling of cellular tissue is produced round each of the two sections, by the cells of the cambium (couche generatricc)-, the swelling of the upper portion of the root is larger than that of the lower, but that is of no importance. When the two sections come in contact, the nascent tissues unite all round the root, or on a part only of its circumference. This union by means of the protruded tissue consolidates, by the formation of fibro-vascular elements in the interior of the aforesaid tissue. These fibro-vascular elements are developed in this tissue in the same way as they are in that which, first of all, constitutes the excrescences on the surface of the alburnum when it has been barked. In the same manner on this swelling a bark is formed, which covers the young ligneous layer. From that time vegetation goes on as usual. Still, however, more wood is produced at this point than elsewhere, because the primitive accumulation presents an obstacle to the flow of the nourishing fluids contained in the descending sap, which passes from cell to cell, and not between the wood and bark, as it was once generally supposed to do. The partial stoppage of the juices at this point also causes the fresh layer of alburnum to be thicker above than below the graft. A graft bears the same relation to its stock as an adventitious shoot to the plant on which it grows. When the parts have once united by means of the cellular tissue, and when the first fibro-vascular elements have been formed, there is perfect continuity between the wood and the cambium, or between the inner bark of the stock and those of the graft. All the other anatomical phenomena are also the same, for although the nature of the stock is not modified by the graft, the vascular filaments (called erroneously radical fibres) or vessels, for they are nothing else, do not the less appear to descend from the graft to the stock, in the same way as they seem to descend from the adventitious shoot to the stem that bears it. This is in both cases merely an appearance, because cellular multiplication is always carried on horizontally, and because it is the cellules which result from this horizontal multiplication which change, some into vessels and others into woody fibres and medullary rays. “ Like the adventitious shoot, the graft draws nutriment from the wood of the stock, it elaborates it in its leaves, and returns it principally by its inner bark to the lower part of the plant. In descending from cell to cell the juices leave part of their assimilable substance; each cellule appropriates what is best adapted to its nature. This is the reason why the nature of the stock is no more modified by the juices which descend from the graft than the latter is by the juices which it derives from the stock. The cells nourished in this manner produce, by their division in a horizontal direction, cells of the same nature as themselves, which are modified according to the functions they are called on to fulfil.” Affinity between Graft and Stock.—However well the operation of grafting may be performed, and that in accordance with the principles already explained, yet the results will be unsuccessful unless the stock and scion are nearly related, such as varieties of the same species, species of the same genus, or genera of the same natm’al order, beyond which the power does not extend. The pear will succeed on the pear, quince, hawthorn, mountain-ash, and medlar; but it can scarcely be said to do so on the apple, although it is less dissimilar in appearance than some of those above mentioned, and which have, in fact, a greater generic difference. The peach and nectarine succeed on the almond, a species of the same genus, and also on the plum, a different genus. Much as is practically known with regard to the species and varieties that will agree with each other when grafted, yet there is much which can only be learned by experience. For instance, some kinds of pears do not succeed well on the quince; and it is only after trial that such as do, and such as do not, can be distinguished. Modifying Influence of the Stock upon the Graft. —This chiefly arises from the stock supplyingPROPAGATION. 307 the graft with a greater or a less amount of nourishment than it would receive from its natural root, and consequently producing a more or less vigorous growth. It is, however, to be remarked, that if a weak-growing variety is worked on a stock that is comparatively too vigorous, a strong growtli may be induced in the first instance; but in such cases a disparity in the rate of increase in the size of the stems checks the free circulation of the sap at the point of junction, and the tree is apt ultimately to become stunted. In short, too great a disparity in the nature of the graft and stock should be avoided, if a steady growth be considered desirable. When the nature of the stock is such that its stem increases in diameter quicker than that of the scion, the latter usually grows more vigorously than on its own root; but as the swelling increases at the junction beyond certain limits, the flow of sap is checked, and a degree of vigour annually decreasing is the consequence. When, on the contrary, the stem of the stock is naturally of slower growth than that of the kind worked upon it, a dwarfing effect is the immediate result. Such, for instance, is the case when a variety of the apple is worked on the French paradise. The hardiness of the stock is of great importance ill the cultivation of trees and shrubs indigenous to southern climates, for many of such plants either perish or thrive badly on their own roots when planted in the comparatively cold soil of Britain. They are, of course, affected somewhat injuriously by the coldness of our atmosphere, but they are more than doubly so when the roots, upon which their supply of nourishment depends, are also in a colder medium than they are adapted to endure. But when grafted on a stock, the roots of which are not likely to be injured in a properly drained soil by the lowest ground temperature which occurs in this country, tender plants, that can be properly grafted on such, thrive tolerably, in consequence of being fed by roots uninjured by cold. In many cases the stock can be suited to the nature and condition of the soil and subsoil. The pear, for instance, sends down strong roots to a great depth; and in a wet subsoil, where they would be in a constantly saturated medium, they would perish. The quince roots, on the contrary, extend near the surface, and thus avoid the too wet subsoil; besides, the quince likes to be near water, and it will thrive in low situations that are liable to be occasionally flooded. Under these circumstances pears on their own roots would not thrive, and recourse must be had to grafting on the quince stock. Grafting may be employed with great advan- tage in bringing trees and shrubs sooner into a flowering and fruiting state, than would be the case on their own roots. Many kinds of trees, if in that healthy vigorous state which they ought to be, do not commence bearing till they have attained almost their natural height, and have formed a stem and branches of considerable thickness, and then from these thick branches others which bear fruit proceed. A young plant might be twenty years before it formed a stem to support limbs, and these again branches or spurs for fruit. But by taking such young plant and grafting it on a tree having a bulk of stem and branches already formed, it is at once placed in the same condition as if it had been allowed to grow to that bulk of wood itself; that, however, requiring the lapse of many years. By grafting a young shoot of a seedling tree on a part of another tree furnished with fruit-buds, the disposition of the young shoot to produce wood shoots only is modified; and it soon acquires the condition of the branch on which it is grafted, and early bearing is induced. MODES OF GRAFTING. Fisr. 269. Whip-grafting, Splice-grafting, or Tongue-grafting, is, on the whole, the best mode of grafting, and the one most extensively employed in this country. It is represented by Fig. 209, where A is the scion, n the stock. In each a cut surface is exhibited, showing the wood a a. The points at the extremities of the dotted line a and a touch the inner barks of both stock and scion, whilst the points at h touch the outer barks. It will be readily observed that the bark of the stock, because older, is thicker than that of the scion; consequently, if, as ought to be the case, equal surfaces of wood are exposed, the cut surface of the scion would not completely cover that of the stock, nor would this ever be the case, except when the barks of both stock and scion are of equal thickness. In proceeding to operate, cut the top of the stock in a sloping direction from c towards d, terminating if possible above a Whip-grafting.308 GARDENER'S ASSISTANT. bud, developed or latent, as at d. Then take the scion and cut it sloping from above c, and thin towards the end at f\ next enter the knife at h, and cut a thin tongue upwards to c. The scion is now prepared. Then, proceeding to the stock, enter the knife at c/, and cut a slice upwards to c, so that the surface of the wood shall be, as nearly as possible, a counterpart of the exposed surface of the wood of the scion. If this should happen to be the case by a single cut, so much the better, but if not, it should rather be too narrow than too wide; for, in that case, a shaving can be taken off till the cut face a of the stock equals that of the scion. Enter the knife very little below c, and cut a notch to receive the tongue of the scion; this notch should be kept open with the point of the knife whilst the tongue of the scion is being inserted; the inner bark, indicated by the points at the ends of the dotted lines a a of the scion and stock, should be placed in contact, the parts secured by tying with matting or other material, and surrounded with clay, grafting-wax, or other substances, to exclude the air and wet. In operating as above detailed, the principle to be kept in view is the coincidence of the inner bark of the stock and scion. This being understood, some explanatory remarks may now be made, to prevent mistakes that might otherwise occur. In the first place, it will be observed, that the head of the stock is cut off sloping, and that the slice is taken off for the scion on the side where the slope is lowest, as at c. This is done in order that the wood may be sound behind the graft, after allowing for a portion dying back, which is generally the case, more or less. If the scion were placed on the side d, then, after a portion of the top had died back, the graft would have little but dead wood behind it, and there would consequently be a weakness at that part. The slope is made to terminate above the eye at d, and to this it may die back, but not likely farther. Indeed, the eye will be apt to push, but if it do so, it must be checked. Some recommend the notch for the tongue to be made half way down the cut surfaces of the scion and stock, as at a, but it is better to be very near the top, as represented; for, by making the incision at a, the flow of sap would be there interrupted, and in a great measure cut off from supplying the part between a and c. Cai'e should be taken that not the least portion of the wood of the scion .at e extend below the wood of the stock at the same point; for if it do, the consequences would be as follow:—Supposing that the termination of the wood of the scion at e were placed as far down as f on the stock, then, when vegetation took place, and the returning sap of the scion reached the oblique end section of the inner bark, it could meet with no corresponding vessels to receive it; for the sliced bark of the stock, on which the sap i from the end of the scion exudes, could not unite; accordingly, a mass of cellular tissue would collect, become woody, and form a knob, which, as it increased, would raise an unsightly projection, instead of a smooth junction, at the end of the scion. It is better that the point e of the scion should scarcely extend so far as e on the stock, than that it should to any extent exceed it. It is well to have a bud at the back of the cut face of the scion, near the lower part, as at /, Fig. 208; for it sometimes happens that the scion is broken by wind, or otherwise accidentally injured, and in that case the only chance of saving the graft is by encouraging the bud f to push. In making the sloping cut on the scion, it is advisable to enter the knife below a bud; for that bud will contribute to the healing of the wound in its vicinity. The scion having been fitted as accurately as possible to the stock, keeping in view the coincidence of the inner barks, the next proceeding is to secure the parts in their proper position. A strip of matting is generally employed for this purpose. Take the strip near the end, and place it so as to catch across the lower extremity of the scion. Pass the long end of the tie from the left hand to the right, and, at the same time, the short end from the right to the left hand, making the tie cross over the short end, so as to prevent it from slipping. Continue to wind the strip of matting closely round, till it reach the top of the stock; then make one or two turns downwards, drawing the end under the last turn, in order that the tying may not unroll. The final operation is to defend the graft from the drying influence of the air by some soi’t of covering, usually grafting-clay or grafting-wax; some preferring the one, and some the other. We shall suppose that grafting-clay is to be employed. In that case, take a little of it and rub it over the matting, squeezing it on rather closely, so that it may not readily part; then take a ball of the clay, larger or smaller, according to the size of the parts grafted, and put it round, tapering the ball at top and bottom, like an oblong spheroid. Some dry sand, or sifted coal-ashes, taken between the hands and daubed over the clay, will render it easier to press the whole into form, and will tend to prevent cracking. In working stocks near the ground, the soil in many instances can be drawn up over the graft. This preserves the moisture in the clay, and conse-PROPAGATION. 309 quently prevents the scion from being dried up before it unites, so as to derive sap from the stock. In this way, success is often insured where it would otherwise be precarious. In particular cases, the clay round the graft should be covered with moss, the latter being secured with matting, and kept moist in dry weather by frequent watering through a tolerably fine rose; and although it get dry at intervals, that is immaterial, provided that water is always supplied before the ball of clay becomes completely dry. The scion usually pushes but slowly for some considerable time after it has been grafted; and whilst that is the rase, there is little danger of the ligature becoming too tight. But when fairly united, the scion frequently makes rapid growth; j and due precaution mast be taken to prevent it I from being galled in consequence of the ligature not giving way to the increasing thickness of the stock and scion. Before there is danger of this, the clay must be removed, and the tie loosened. The clay is best removed after it has been softened bv rain, and if possible the opportunity should be taken when it is in that state. If there should be no such opportunity, and if the untying cannot be delayed, the clay ought to be moistened through the rose of a watering-pot. The ball can then be readily broken off by holding a brick against the one side, whilst the opposite one is struck a smart tap with a hammer. It is frequently advisable to retie the graft rather slightly; for the tissue at the junction will scarcely be adapted for withstanding exposure, and it will not have formed woody fibre enough to i-esist the action of the wind. In particular cases, or where the union is found to be yet imperfect, it will be well to put on a little clay after retying the graft. When the ligature employed in binding the scion and stock together is fiually removed, the graft is sometimes in danger of being broken off by the wind. In order to guard against this, a rod should be made secure to the stock, opposite to the graft, and to this rod the latter should be tied. In August the heel, or slanted extremity of the stock, behind the graft, should be neatly pared off; and if the graft is vigorous, and the stock not very thick, the wound will heal over before winter. Any suckers or shoots that appear below the graft should be cut clean off. 2. Saddle-grafting.—This is represented by Fig. 210. It cannot be well performed except when the stock and scion are of nearly equal thickness. The stock a is cut sloping on both sides, like a wedge, terminating at c. The scion b is split up the centre, and each half is thinned to make it fit astride the wedge-like end of the stock. A thin narrow-bladed knife should be j Saddle-grafting employed for this purpose. The inner bark of the scion and stock having been made to coincide as nearly as possible, the parts should be secured by a ligature, and covered with some grafting composition. This mode of grafting is liable to some objections. Unless the scion is cut out without splitting, there must be a rent, as from c to d, which will never unite, and is even liable to open and form a blemish. The operation requires more time to perform than whip-grafting; and, as already observed, it cannot be well employed unless the stock is nearly of the same size as the scion; for, supposing the stock to be | inch in diameter, and the scion only j inch, the inner bark might be joined at the lower part, but could not possibly be so at the thinned edge at the top of the stock; on the contrary, ^ inch of the wood must be there uncovered by the scion. 3. Cleft-grafting (Fig. 211) is a common mode in some parts of the country, but it is nevertheless a very objectionable one. The stock is cleft with a chisel, or other instrument, at a; and the cleft is kept open till the scion is inserted. The scion is cut wedge-shaped, and inserted in the cleft, so that the inner barks may coincide. It is' then covered with one or other of the grafting compositions, generally grafting-clay when the stock is large. In preparing the scion for insertion, it is cut tapering towards the lower end, and made thin at the side intended to be placed towards the interior of the stock. There should be no bark left upon the inserted part of the scion, except that on the outside; for, if any were left on the opposite or interior part, the sap descending by the inner bark of that part would find no substance with which it could unite. When the stock is thick, and requires considerable force to keep the cleft open, it is apt to pinch and bruise the inner bark of the scion, next the Fig. 211.310 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. outside, if it is thinned with K straight slope from the back to the edge; for, in that case, the whole of the pressure would be upon the part next the bark. The section of the scion should not be like a triangle, b (Fig. 211), but like half an oval, c. Occasionally when a large stem or limb is cleft-grafted, two scions are inserted, one as represented in Fig. 211, and another opposite to it, in the end of the cleft next to a. In some cases the stock has been cleft across, and again transversely, so that four scions might be inserted. But cleft-graftin" is a bad mode. It will be observed that there is an opening which extends from the insertion of the scion to the opposite side of the stock at a. This rent in the solid wood can never heal so as to be again solid. Should there be another scion introduced at a, the two scions wonld contribute to produce new wood to heal over the top of the stock, and the chasm would be lessened, but not closed in the middle. On the Continent, in cleft-grafting with one scion, the stock is frequently cut sloping, as at a (Fig. 212), a small shoulder being left at the summit, where a cleft is made and the scion inserted. This mode does away with much of the projection which otherwise exists, as at a (Fig. 211), and renders the stem more tapering at the graft; but it is still objectionable, as it leaves a rent or blemish behind the graft. Instead of splitting the stock, it would be better to cut out a triangular groove in the side, and in that fit the scion, so that the inner barks might correspond, as in Fig. 213. 4. Crown or Rind Grafting (Fig. 214) is much to be preferred to cleft-grafting, inasmuch as the of the scion is cut sloping, as in whip-grafting; the head of the stock is cut over horizontally, and a slit a is made just through the inner bark. A piece of wood, bone, or ivory, in shape somewhat resembling the thinned end of the scion, is introduced at the top of the slit, between the alburnum and inner bark, and pushed down in order to raise the bark, so that the thinned end of the scion may be introduced without being bruised. The edges of the bark on each side are then brought close to the scion, and the whole is bound with matting, and clayed. When the stock is large, in order that its top may be soon healed over, and in case of a single graft, a, failing, two others are introduced at b and c. It is to be observed that although the scion may be pared flat on the side intended to be placed next the wood of the stock, yet, the latter being circular, the flat cut face of the scion can only be in part closely applied to it; for a perfectly flat surface can only touch the circumference of a cylinder longitudinally along one line. Therefore if the central portion of the flat cut face of the scion touch the wood of the stock or layer of cambium, the edges of the inner bark can scarcely do so, and the organizing cellular substance of the stock must ! accumulate towards the edges of the scion before it can reach its inner bark. Instead of the scion being made flat, it would better accord with the I principles of grafting if its wood were made slightly hollow, so that its inner bark might be in immediate contact with the layer of cambium from which the bark of the stock was raised. If this cannot be done, care should be taken that the scion be at least cut flat, and by no means with convexities. The raised bark is of no use beyond affording some security and protection for the scion. Part of it dies; aud by affording a lnrking-place for insects, and collecting moisture, induces decay in the tree. On the whole, crown-grafting is not so good as whip-grafting; and generally the latter proves the superior mode of the two when trieel under similar circumstances. Even when the stock is of large size, as much as 3 or 4 inches in diameter, whip-grafting answers well. 5. Side-grafting. — This is a modification of whip-grafting, and is performed in the same manner, except that the stem or branch, instead of being cut completely off, is notched to a greater or less depth, according to circumstances, as at b (Fig. 215). It is useful for supplying a branch, where one is deficient, on an upright stem, as at a; and for replacing the branches of a tree with others of a different sort, the original being allowed to remain till the grafts extend so as to nearly occupy their place. With this object in wood of the stock is not rendered unsound by cleaving. It is easily performed; the lower endPROPAGATION. 311 view, a notch is made near the stem, on the upper part of the branch, as at b, and a slice is taken off between the notch and the stem, as at c. The graft is placed there; when it pushes the shoot must be trained horizontally, and as it extends with coarse worsted. The leaf a is intended to draw the sap towards that point; whilst the leaf e, on the scion, partly absorbs the sap thus ob- any growths or spurs that are in its way, as at d, should be cleared off. In the case of fruit-trees, the original branch notched in this way bears as well as if no such operation had been performed, and sometimes even better. When the new branch has grown to a considerable ex-tent, the original should be entirely cut oft- at b. In supplying a branch, as at a, the scion must be placed with a bud pointing outwards, and the shoot proceeding from it trained in a horizontal direction towards e. 6. Herbaceous Grafting, as its name implies, is applicable to plants, or parts of plants, that are in an herbaceous state. It was brought into notice by the Baron de Tschudy, about the year 1815. It has been successfully practised in grafting the melon on the cucumber, the caulillower on the borecole, the tomato on the potato; and Dr. Maclean of Colchester grafted the white Silesian beet and the red beet on each other. Dwarf species of cactus are very commonly grafted on tall ones; and walnuts, resinous trees, and others, which are difficult to unite by the ordinary modes, may be successfully grafted by employing parts that are still in a growing and almost herbaceous state. The time for the operation is when both the stock and the tree from which the scion is taken are in full growth, and when the shoots have commenced to acquire a somewhat woody consistence at some distance below their extremities; and the place to operate is where this is found to be the case. M. Du Breuil recommends making an oblique incision, b (Fig. 216), as close as possible to the base of the petiole of the leaf a, merely saving the bud in the axil. Into this incision the scion c, of the same diameter and in the same state of growth as the stock, is fitted. The graft is then tied tained. The fifth day after the operation the central eye in the axil of the leaf a is removed. Five days later the disks of the leaves//are cut off, leaving only the midribs; the buds in the axils of these leaves are removed at the same time. About three weeks after the operation the disk of the terminal leaf a should be cut off. The successive removal of the leaves tends to throw the ascending sap into the scion, and about a month after grafting the scion will begin to grow; the tying may then be loosened, and a piece of paper wrapped round for ten days. 7. Herbaceous Grafting of Resinous Trees.— This has been extensively practised in the forest of Fontainebleau and elsewhere in France. The mode of operation, as detailed by Du Breuil (Cows eUmentaire theo-rique et pratique d’Arboriculture), is as follows:—When the terminal shoot of the stock a (Fig. 217) has attained about two-thirds of its length, it is cut back with a horizontal cut to the point where it begins to lose its herbaceous consistence and commences to become woody. The young leaves are cut oft" between a and d, a distance of between and 3 ins., leaving, however, about two pairs at the top d d, to attract the sap. Thus prepared, the stock is split down the middle to the depth of 1 inch or 14 inch. The scion b is cut wedge-shaped, and Herbaceous Grafting— Resinous Trees.312 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. introduced into the split, so that the commencement of the cuts on each side of the scion may be nearly an inch below the top of the stock. The scion should be cut at the place where its consistence is similar to the part of the stock where it is to be inserted. Its diameter ought to be as nearly as possible equal to that of the stock. The graft being placed, it is secured with coarse worsted, commencing the tying at the top and winding it down to the lower part. In the case of delicate species it is well to wrap paper round the grafted part, as a protection against the drying action of the sun and air. The shoots at c are then broken at about \ inch from their bases. Five or six weeks .after "rafting, the cuts will be completely healed; the tie may then be removed, and the two portions d furnished with leaves at the top of the stock should be cut olf, otherwise they might give rise to buds, which, in pushing, would weaken the graft. 8. Root-grafting.—Many kinds of plants may be increased by root-grafting more quickly than ] by any other means, when stocks are not in readiness. A few scions worked on the branches of a grown-up tree may soon produce hundreds of shoots; and thus the variety can, in one sense, be increased; but this increase only constitutes a single tree. If, instead of grafting the branches, the tree had been cut down and its roots grafted, j then every piece of root upon which the opera- | tion had been performed would have formed a distinct plant. Root-grafting is conducted on the same principle as the grafting of stems and branches, and that having been already explained, need not be here repeated. When vegetation is at rest the roots ought to be severed from the base of the stem; and if the latter can be entirely removed, so much the better. The cut end of the root should be raised nearly upright, if possible, so that the scion when put on may point upwards. The part of the root operated upon must then be washed, or otherwise freed from soil, in order that the wound may be clean. The graft should be tied and clayed to prevent wet from entering the wound; and the root ought then to be again covered with soil, which should also cover the grafted part, leaving only one or two buds of the scion exposed. When the gi’aft pushes the ligature must be loosened, as in the case of grafts above ground. In grafting fleshy roots and tubers, such as those of the dahlia and paeony, the stock is cut in a triangular form, and a piece of exactly the same shape is fitted in. The mode is the same as that represented in Fig. 213. Grafting-clay.—This may consist of two parts clay, or clayey loam, and one part of cow-dung, [ free from litter; but we have found from experience that some fine, tough, short hay, mixed and beaten up with the clay and cow-dung, is of great utility in preventing the clay from cracking and falling off. In fact, it answers the same purpose as hair in plaster. Some recommend horse-dung to be used instead of cow-dung, others part of both; but cow-dung is best for retaining mois-ture. It is not absolutely necessary that the above proportions should be preserved. The French grafting-clay consists of a mixture of equal parts of clay, or fresh clayey loam, and cow-dung; this they term onguent de St. Fiacre; and they employ it not only for grafting, but also for covering the wounds of trees. It is advisable to prepare grafting-clay several weeks before it is required; in doing so the clay should be well beaten, the cow-dung ought next to be mixed with it, and the hay may then be added. The whole should be moistened, turned, mixed, and beaten several times, at intervals of a day or two. It must then be formed into a round heap, and covered to prevent evaporation. A hollow made in the top of the heap, and filled with water, has the effect of keeping the mass in a moist state. G rafting-ica.v.— Various proportions of different substances are used in forming grafting-wax. Daniell Powell, Esq., recommends (Horticultural Transactions, vol. v. p. 285) the following ingredients be made use of, viz.:—Pitch, 1 lb.; rosin, 1 lb.; bees’-wax, ^ lb.; liogs’-lard, ^ lb.; and turpentine, l lb. In the above composition, however, we consider the introduction of turpentine objectionable, as it has an injurious effect upon the buds and tender bark. A French grafting-wax is composed of pitch, 5 parts by weight; rosin, 1 part; yellow wax, 1 part; tallow, 1 part; with as much fine brick-dust as will give it consistence. Du Breuil recommends black pitch, 2 parts; Burgundy pitch, 2 parts; yellow wax, 1| part; tallow, 1 part; sifted ashes, 1 part. According to Downing, excellent grafting-wax is made of 3 parts bees’-wax, 3 parts rosin, and 2 parts of tallow; but he adds that the grafting-wax most commonly used in America is made of tallow, bees’-wax, and rosin, in equal parts; or, as many prefer, with a little more tallow to render it pliable. This we prefer to compositions containing so much pitch as there is in those used by the English and French. The use of grafting-wax is to keep out air and moisture; and, provided it does that, the softer it is the better. It is a question whether grafting clay or wax is the better; some prefer the one and some the other. In grafting small and delicate plants, clayPROPAGATION. 313 cannot be well applied, and therefore it becomes necessary to use some kind of grafting-wax; but in the case of strong plants, such as fruit-trees in the open air, clay has some decided advantages. It retains moisture for the benefit of the scion, whilst no moisture can be derived from the grafting-wax; and the scion is apt to be dried up before it has time to form a union. Cold dry weather may ensue after grafting, so that little progress towards forming a union can take place. During such periods the scions are enabled to retain their vitality by absorbing moisture from the clay. Again, it is well known that the bark of trees is not liable to be injured by contact with common earthy substances; its expansion is rather promoted than otherwise, a circumstance which is favourable to the flow of sap. Of pitchy substances, on the contrary, even not specifically injurious in their ingredients, the mere mechanical effects are bad. The French cold grafting-wax called Mastic L’Homme Lefort is an extremely convenient preparation, which is easily applied without being artificially heated, soon hardens when exposed to the air, is readily removed when necessary, and has been used with the best results in the most delicate kinds of grafting. XI.—PROPAGATION BY BUDDING. Budding is an operation by which a bud, together with a portion of bark, is removed from a plant, and inserted beneath the inner bark of another plant, or beneath that of the same plant; for this is sometimes done where the natural buds do not push to form shoots at places where these are necessary. As in grafting, only nearly allied species or genera will succeed when budded on each other. The main principle of budding is the same as in grafting. The union is effected by means of the organizable matter, or cambium, which exists between the alburnum and inner bark; and the success of the operation depends upon the abundance of that matter being such as to permit of the bark being easily raised from the wood. When both the stock, and the tree from which the bud is taken, are in that condition, the union is most readily effected. There are periods when the flow of sap is arrested, and then the bark adheres firmly to the wood, and when that is the case budding should not be attempted. Calm but warm weather is the most favourable; excessively dry weather with strong sun is apt to kill the buds, and wet weather proves injurious to them, unless they can be protected from rain; for, when the latter gets into the wound, it decomposes the sap, and organization cannot proceed so as to form a union. Buds are generally inserted in July or August, in which case they remain dormant, or at least do not usually push into shoots, till the ensuing spring; this is termed by the French, budding with a dormant eye {greffe en ecusson a ceil dormant) : but occasionally buds formed in the previous year are inserted in spriug, or when they are preparing to grow; this is called budding with a pushing eye {greffe ea Settsson d ceil pous-sant). The modes of performing the operation are various; the principal are:—Shield-budding or T-buddiug, inverted T-budding, square shieldbudding, flute-budding or tube-budding, and annular or ring budding. iShield-budding, or T-budding, is represented in Fig. 218, where a represents the stock, and b b the bud in different positions. In operating, take a shoot from the tree from which buds are to be worked, and immediately cut off the leaves at half the length of the petioles. Make a transverse incision a in the stock a, and from the middle of this make a longitudinal one, a b. A bud should next be removed from the shoot, by taking the latter ill the left hand and entering the knife about ^ inch below the bud, more or less according to the size of the stock and of the shoot; with a clean sloping cut pass the knife upwards and inwards till under the bud, and then slope outwards so that the eye may be nearly in the middle of the piece or shield thus detached, or rather nearer its upper end. In doing this, the knife will necessarily cut off a portion of the wood along with the bud, this is usually removed; to do so, turn the cut surface upwards, holding the piece between the forefinger and the thumb of the left hand, enter the point of the knife between the inner bark and upper extremity of the wood at c, raise this extremity a little, so that it can be laid hold of between the point of the knife and tbe edge of the nail of the thumb, and then, with a sort of twitch, remove the wood. When this is done, see that along with the wood, the base, root, or core of the bud, as it is variously termed, is not also removed. If this come along with the wood, leaving a hole at d, the bud will not likely succeed, and another bud should be Shield-budding.314 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. taken off more shallow, so that the portion of wood to be removed may be very thin. The base of the bud at d is greenish, and of a pulpy herbaceous nature; it is, in fact, the commencement of the medullary sheath, the upper extremity of which is terminated by the growing point. If the wood comes clean out, with the exception of a few slight woody fibres connected with the lower part of the base of the bud, these need not be removed; for, in attempting to do so, the tissue on the inner bark is very liable to be bruised. The bud is now ready for insertion. With the ivory handle of the budding-knife, raise the bark of the stock a at each side of the incision a b, commencing at the corners immediately below the cross cut at a. In raising the bark, the handle of the knife should never touch the portion of cambium lying on the .alburnum, but, to avoid doing so, should be slipped along, pressing against the inner bark. In short, the handle of the knife must not be used like a wedge forced in between the wood and bark of the stock. Mr. Knight frequently dispensed with the knife-handle; in raising the bark he merely lifted it between the blade of the knife and edge of the thumb. When the bark is sufficiently raised to admit the bud, take the latter by the petiole and gently introduce it with the assistance of the ivory handle. Let the part e of the shield be at the cross cut a of the stock, and, keeping the bud steady with the thumb of the left hand, cut off the top of the shield, so that it may tit closely to the upper edge of the cut at «. The bud or shield must not be forced down like a wedge; on the contrary, it should be introduced so as to touch the cambium of the stock as little as possible, till its inner bark, and the cambium adhering to it, can be directly applied to that of the stock; these coalescing, organization proceeds, and, circumstances proving favourable, a union is soon effected. The operation, to be done well, should be done quickly, for the organizing tissue is very delicate, and soon becomes vitiated by exposure to the air; therefore the least possible delay should take place between the raising of the bark and the application of the bud. If exposed for some time to the full influence of the air, the cambium would become brown, and form a species of thin dead bark; and, although this may serve to protect fresh tissue that may be forming under it, yet it cannot unite with living tissue placed in contact with it. The bud, after having been inserted, must be bound in with tine matting or worsted; and, in doing this, care must be taken not to shift the bud in any way that would cause friction, and so injure the tissues below it. In tying, com- mence below the end of the incision at b, and pass the tie closely round as far as the bud. The shield ought here to be pressed close, in order that the base of the bud d may be close on the alburnum. This should be done with the fingers, without however injuring the bud; and whilst the shield is thus kept particularly close to the stock at that part, the tie should be brought round tolerably close to the under side of the bud, and the next turn must be wider, so as to clear the point of the bud, and allow it to peep out between the turns of the tie. Continue binding closely, and so that one of the turns may embrace under it the cross incision, the top edges of the raised bark, and the upper edge of the shield, which, as already observed, should be close to the sound bark of the stock at the cross cut a. Make one or two turns more, and draw the end of the tie under the last turn to fasteu it. The operation is now completed. In some cases it is advisable to shade the part budded for a few days from the direct rays of the sun. In the course of two or three weeks, it will generally be seen whether the buds have taken or not. If the portion of the petiole drop off, it is a sign that the bud has taken; if, on the contrary, it wither or adhere, it is an indication that the bud is either dead or dying. As soon as it is ascertained that the buds have taken, the ties should be loosened, and these indeed ought to be frequently examined, in order that they may be slackened and retied, if they are becoming too tight, in which case they would gall the budded part. This will take place quite independently of the inserted bud, and its success or failure, at least as regards buds that do not push into shoots till the following spring. The circumstance of the ligature becoming sooner or later over-tight depends in a great measure on the greater or less vigour of the stock, and the activity of its vegetation after the bud is inserted. If the stock is vigorous, with healthy foliage, and if the period after the insertion of the bud is favourable to growth, the leaves above the bud will rapidly form woody layers, and thus soon increase the thickness of the stem too much for the ligature, which, under other circumstances, might not have required loosening for a longtime. It should therefore be borne in mind that those stocks which have the greatest quantity of healthy foliage, are those which require the earliest inspection for retying. This having been attended to, nothing more is required till the following spring. In the meantime, till the end of autumn, the foliage of the stock will contribute to the increase of the stem and the production of roots, which in the following season will supply the bud with abundant nourishment.PROPAGATION. 315 la spring, before vegetation or the flow of sap becomes active, the head of the stock must be cut back to within a few inches of the bud. This stump should also be cut back close to the bud, after the latter has pushed a shoot having sufficient foliage to receive the flow of sap, but previously the stump will serve as a support to which the shoot from the bud can be secured. In some cases the head of the stock may even be cut otf before winter, but this is not advisable if the bud is so prominent that, if the winter should prove mild, it would be liable to push too much before spring, in consequence of the bud being the only point of attraction left for the movement of the sap. When there is no danger of this occurring, the stock may be headed back immediately after the fall of the leaf, and the consequence will be a stronger shoot from the bud in the following season. At any rate, the stock should be cut back before the sap commences to move actively in spring, otherwise the vigour of the whole plant will be diminished. Inverted T-budding.—In this mode (Fig. 219) the transverse cut is made at b, and the longitudinal one is commenced at a, in preference below a bud, and is continued down to the transverse cut b. The bud, having been inserted, is cut across at c, to join exactly the section b of the stock, and is afterwards treated as in shield-budding. Different opinions are held as to the comparative merits of the two modes of T-budding. In the south of France the inverted one is preferred for the propagation of the orange-tree, and is said to be more successful. Its success appears to depend on whether the bud derives its supply of nourishment from sap having an ascending or a descending movement. Let Fig. 220 represent T-budding, and Fig. 221 inverted T-budding. In the former a is the cross cut, and b a point where the base of the bud is situated; in the latter the corresponding parts are marked c and d. The parallel lines represent in both figures the downward course of the returning sap. Now, it will be seen that the direct course of the returning sap is interrupted by the incision a; and until its communication is restored over the space a b, the base of the bud b is twice as far from the continuous downward channels as the bud d. Iu Fig. 221 the two sides of the triangular space, from which the bark has been raised for Inverted T-budding the insertion of the bud, are exposed throughout their whole length to the course of the returning sap, and the latter can therefore soon flow to the Fig. 220. Fig. 221. centre of the space. This being the case, inverted T-budding may frequently be found the preferable mode of the two. Square Shield-budding consists in merely cutting out a square patch from a strong branch or stem, a (Fig. 222), and a similar piece, but furnished with an eye, from another strong branch, b. Having been exactly fitted, it may be covered with a piece of paper, pierced with a hole for the eye, or adhesive plaster will answer exceedingly well. This mode is sometimes adopted for springbudding trees having thick bark. It has the advantage of covering exactly, with the inner bark of the piece containing the bud, the whole of the alburnum laid bare; but in T-budding this is impossible, as it is indeed with any method in which the shield is introduced below the bark. Instead of cutting out the square piece entire, some make the incision across the top, and down the two sides, but not across the bottom; and the Fjl gjg bark is peeled down to this, and replaced by the shield, over which the loosened bark is brought up, a hole being made in it for the bud to push through. As this piece of bark is exactly the size of the plaoe from which it was taken, and of the shield vitjdx is made to fit that place, it is evident that it can only cover the latter, and that it cannot extend over the edges of the wound where it is most wanted ; therefore it is not so good as a bandage, which protects the edges of the wound from the weather, and keeps the whole close together. b l: jMsil nsfl 1 ii 1 I Square Shield budding316 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Flute-budding (Fig. 223) is so named from the parts being made to fit like the top of a flute. A cylinder of bark is taken ofF from an even part of the stock at A, and is replaced by another cylinder fll furnished with buds, and made to fit close to the sound bark of the stock at e. It only requires a slight bandage to cover the junction of the barks at c, and a cap of soft adhesive plaster to keep out the wet and to prevent evaporation at top. Walnuts and other thick-barked trees are propagated in France by this mode. 11 ing-buddingr Tn this a ring of bark is taken off at .any convenient part of a stock or branch, as at c (Fig. 223). From another shoot or branch, a piece, n, of the same dimensions as that removed from the stock, is traced b}' two circular incisions, and a longitudinal cut made between the two circular ones permits the piece to be taken off and applied to the stock. The piece d should be taken from a part somewhat wider than the stock, for when found too wide on application at c, the edges can be pared till they just meet when the piece is brought tightly round. A bandage, leaving an opening for the bud, is applied, and the operation is completed. It will be observed that budding by this mode can be performed without cutting off the head of the stock. Shield-budding with a portion of Wood, or American Shield-budding.—This does not differ from the common method, except that the slice of wood is not removed from the shield. The latter should be cut oil’ rather thin, with a very sharp knife, and immediately inserted and bound up in the usual way. This mode answers well for spring-budding fruit-trees, roses, &c., the shoots being taken oil’, as in the case of grafts, and eyes selected that are disposed to push and make a shoot in the course of the summer. It is also used in summer, when the bark does not easily separate from the wood, and when budding must nevertheless be proceeded with. If buds inserted at the usual time and in the ordinary mode are seen to fail, wooded shields may still be employed with a chance of success. According to Downing, this method, which he terms the American variety of shiehl-budding, is found much preferable to the common mode for the American climate, in which many trees, and especially plums and cherries, nearly mature their growth, and require to be budded, in the hottest part of summer. The operation can be performed with less skill than is required to remove the wood from the shield, is performed in much less time, and, observes that much respected author, is uniformly more successful. XII.—BROBAGATION BY INARCHING. This mode of propagation, which is also called grafting bg approach, depends on the same principles as grafting; in the latter, however, a part is entirely detached from a plant, and placed so as to grow upon another part; whilst in inarching, both parts are nourished by their own roots, and thus co-operate in forming a union. In woods and thickets branches of trees have frequently been observed to be united, but this only occurs when the barks of contiguous parts are bruised or fretted, so that the alburnums can come in contact. Inarching was formerly more employed for uniting two or more trees for picturesque effect than for the purpose of propagation. In rustic gardens, for instance, doorways were formed by planting two trees of the same kind, one on each side of the intended entrance; these were trained upright to the desired height, and then their tops were bent to form a Gothic arch, and united where brought into contact, so as to form but one head. Trees to form arbours, &c., may be so united, or the stems of several trees may be inarched to a central one, which may ultimately be rendered independent of its own stem and roots. But inarching is now chiefly employed for propagating such exotic plants as cannot be readily propagated by other means. There are various modifications of inarching, all nevertheless depending on the principle of bringing the cambium of the individuals into contact. The simplest mode is represented in Fig. 224, where a is the stock, b the plant to be inarched upon it. The two may be planted and growing in the ground, one of them may be growing in a pot, and the other in the ground, or both may be in pots, but in each case the mode of proceeding is essentially the same. At a convenient place where a and b can be brought in contact, as between a and b, cut off corresponding slices from each; then bind the parts together, and clay or otherwise protect, as in grafting. The stock may be allowed to remain at full length, or it may be cut back to c or d, and afterwards to a. When the two have formed a union, b may Fig. 223. Flute and Ring Budding.TRANSPLANTING. 317 be separated from its own roots, by cutting it Off in tlie direction of b, thus leaving it wholly dependent for support upon the roots of the plant A. Before this final separation is made, it is advisable to wean off gradually the portion b e from its original source of nourishment, by making an incision below b, deepening it from time to time, till at last there is but little communication left between b and its proper roots, when that little may be cut off without causing any material difference to the inarched part b e. Instead of diminishing the connection between the inarched part and its own roots, by gradually cutting in at or below b, it is a good plan to take off a ring of bark, as at/, when the nature of the plant will permit. This may be done by degrees as the union is effected. The sap will flow upwards, through the vessels of the alburnum, to nourish the parts above b, but the returning sap will be checked when it comes to the ringed part, and must then direct itself with greater force towards the junction, and will consequently flow down in greater quantity by the liber of the stock a. Now it cannot do so without forming a proportionally greater quantity of alburnum as it descends; and by the vessels of the alburnum so formed sap will be conveyed upwards to the source of their origin in b. If buds are retained Inarching be done by b, care should be taken to check the shoots that push from them; for if allowed to grow vigorously, they would attract the sap from the part b. On referring to the figure, it will be observed that on the separation being effected at b, there must be a heel left at that place, which will take some considerable time to heal over. Inarching is sometimes done with a tongue, but in any case it does not form so nice a junction as whip-grafting, where, in consequence of the lower end of the scion being made thin, there is scarcely any inequality. The stems of young trees are frequently inarched, so as to form a lozenge-shaped trellis-work, or an arch, as in Fig. 225. Summer shoots may also be inarched on shoots of the same age, or on a stem or branch several years older than themselves. In this way branches which have died or become diseased may be readily replaced by others, so as to preserve the regular appearance of the tree. CHAPTER XIII. TRANSPLANTING. Transplanting is the removal of a plant from the place where it has previously been growing, and placing its roots again in the soil in a new situation. The utility of this operation is obvious. Were it not for transplanting, the seeds of plants would have to be sown where they are intended to remain. Plantations of fruit and forest trees can be reared much sooner by means of transplanting, at less expense, and with a greater certainty of success, tliau they otherwise could. Plants for hundreds of acres can be sown in a nursery, and reared in a comparatively small space for several years, till fit for transplanting; and in this way they can be much better taken care of than would be the case if, instead of transplanting, seeds had to be sown where trees are intended to be produced, at perhaps 30 or 40 feet apart, and where the seedlings would be exposed to all manner of accidents in their very young state. The spongioles, by which nourishment is taken up from the soil, are extremely delicate, yet they gradually elongate and push their way among the particles of soil, if this be of a nature at all permeable. In a sound state each contributes to the general supply required for carrying on the vegetation of the tree, and under favourable circumstances the supply they afford is adequate to the demand. Much of this supply consists of water, and the carbonic acid which it holds in318 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. solution; and if all the roots of a plant could be taken up without the least mutilation, but deprived of every particle of soil, and kept quite as moist as they were in the ground, they would continue to afford support to the plant for a considerable time. Some plants spread their roots in water only, and in this case the roots suffer no injury either in their removal from the water or on their being replaced in that fluid. They are taken uninjured from their source of nourishment, and introduced in the same perfect state to where they continue their functions as before; consequently the plant experiences no derangement of its organization, and no check in its growth. To secure these conditions should be the principal aim in transplanting. In removing the roots of plants from soil, and transferring them into soil again, the spongioles, tender, as in all plants they invariably are, must be greatly injured, and in many cases the greater part of them must be totally destroyed in the taking up. Again, in replanting, when covered with a mass of soil, such of them as were previously entire cannot be in a similar position to that in which they formerly were, and where they could gently wend their way in the interstices of the hardest materials without pressing more against any obstacle than their tender tissues could bear. In their new situation, however, they are liable to be squeezed between stones and hard lumps of earth, and that too when they are perhaps in a reversed position. Injury to a greater or less extent is unavoidable; it may be slight in some cases and extensive in others, notwithstanding that the greatest amount of skill and care has been employed in conducting the mechanical operations. Such being the case, it becomes necessary to inquire under what circumstances the plant can sustain those injuries without suffering materially as regards its future success. The age of the plant, its state of vegetation, the state of the weather, and that of the soil, are the first considerations. The age at which plants may be successfully transplanted varies of course according to the species. Most plants can be transplanted when very young, and from that time till they are middle-aged, if due precautions are taken, and adequate mechanical means employed. Indeed, with such means and proper care, plants of any age can be transplanted, although, when the subjects are naturally approaching decay, they are not worth the trouble. Many tender plants, raised under glass, are transplanted from the seed-pans as soon as they can be laid hold of; or, in other words, they are pricked out, as the operation is termed in the case of very young plants, into pots or elsewhere, at such distances as will permit them to advance in growth, without being crowded, and drawn up weakly in consequence of their foliage not being fully exposed to the light. There are, besides, other advantages from this early removal. In a young state the quantity of roots is usually large in proportion to the tops, and therefore if a portion of them is broken, there are still sufficient to feed the plant, and with due precaution as regards shading and watering, the effects of transplanting are but little felt; on the contrary, the slight check to the spongioles of the rootlets tends to encourage the emission of a greater number of lateral roots, and thusthe plant is better fitted for subsequent transplantations than if such early removal had not taken place. There are many plants that require to be nursed till they have sufficient strength to bear planting out in the ojien quarters. In general, if there be any great interval between the period of their vegetating from seed, and that of their final planting out, an intermediate transplantation is beneficial. The state of the vegetation of the plant is another important consideration; for some things are best transplanted when they are in an active state of growth, others when they are comparatively dormant. Annuals do best when transplanted before they commence to form a flower-stem ; herbaceous perennials just before the growth of the season commences; deciduous trees and shrubs as soon as the greater portion of their leaves have fallen in autumn, and whilst vegetation still possesses some activity to push fresh roots before winter, the production of these being also encouraged by the temperature of the soil being higher than that of the air at that period. Next to this last stage of vegetation for the season, is that immediately preceding the commencement of active growth in spring; for although the leafless plant would not suffer from evaporation at any time during winter, yet as the wounded roots cannot heal, owing to the inactivity of vegetation, they are apt to die back to a greater or less extent, especially in wet cold soils. The transplanting of some kind of plant or other has to be performed in every month of the year, weather and state of the ground permitting. Dry weather is of course unfavourable; the operation is in most cases impracticable during severe frost, or when the ground is covered with snow; and in very wet weather the soil is apt to become puddled in working, and does not then fill in well amongst the roots, except in such cases as it may be made of a thin consistence. Mild weather, with a moist atmosphere, is the best for transplanting. The air may be exces-TRANSPLANTING. 319 sively dry, even in the shade, and a plant transplanted under these circumstances will consequently be liable to suffer, although not exposed to the sun’s rays; but, when so exposed, the drying effects are greatly increased, as may be observed when cut herbs are placed, some in the sun, and some in the shade, for an equal period. Whilst those in shade retain moisture enough to be pliable, the others will be quite dried up and fit to grind to powder. Hence may be inferred the benefit of shading plants from the sun, when newly transplanted, or until they have struck fresh root. This is more necessary when the plants have foliage than when they are without it; because in the former case the surface from which evaporation takes place is so much greater. If a shoot be f inch in circumference and 20 inches in length, the exposed surface is equal to 15 square inches; but if the same shoot is furnished with twenty leaves, averaging say about 2 square inches each, or presenting collectively an area of 40 square inches of upper and 40 of under surface, the surface from which evaporation takes place would be increased to 95 square inches, or to more than six times what it would be if no leaves existed. For deciduous trees, as already stated, the best time is before the ground becomes too cold for the broken roots to heal over partially, or to form callosities from which spongioles can readily push in spring. In some kinds of trees and shrubs, fresh roots are formed even before winter, but these often prove too tender to endure the severities of that season. It is therefore better, in cold wet soils, if fresh roots do not push till spring, when their growth can proceed with the season, without check. In warm, well-drained soils, trees may be advantageously planted so early in autumn as to insure the tree being well established with fresh roots before winter. When this is aimed at, it will be advisable not to wait till nearly all the leaves have naturally dropped. In the absence of frost, shoots produced late in autumn retain their foliage late. The greater part of such shoots, where not wanted for leaders, should be cut off, and likewise nearly all the older foliage. Transplanting deciduous trees may then be done in the last week of September, or first fortnight of October. It may be remarked that the apricot, peach, nectarine, currant, gooseberry, and such kinds of trees as push early in the spring, are best planted in autumn. When these have pushed into leaf, the apple shows little sign of active vegetation; it is therefore not so apt to suffer from spring planting. Mr. McNab, an excellent authority, considers the period between the middle of October and the middle of December as the best for transplanting evergreens; but he states that they may be removed from the middle of October till the middle of February. Mr. Glendinning says that August is a good month to begin transplanting, but that September is the safest month. We should recommend the last fortnight of September and the first fortnight of October; the temperature of the soil is then from 53° to 58° near London, or as warm as it is from the third week of May till the middle of June; therefore, certainly warm enough to encourage evergreens to make fresh roots. They will not so rapidly do so then as they would with a corresponding ground temperature in the beginning of summer, when the days are longer, and vegetation more active from the greater amount of light; nor is it necessary that they should do so, because the dryness of the air is fully one-third less in the end of September and beginning of October, than it is when the ground is equally warm, in the end of May and beginning of June, and consequently the demand on the roots to supply the loss by evaporation is so much the less. We therefore conclude that the former period is generally most proper for the transplantation of evergreens. With proper care, however, they may be safely transplanted during the period stated by Mr. McNab, provided the weather is favourable. It will doubtless frequently be the case, that the transplanting of evergreens cannot be entered upon so early as September, owing to a pressure of other garden work, and the attention necessary to be paid at that period to crops and pleasure grounds. Sometimes the weather is mild up to the end of November; and if there be little frost, and no fall of snow to melt and render the soil cold, evergreens transplanted as late as the middle of that mouth will make some roots to support a little circulation, and supply the very limited amount of evaporation which can take place at that season, the air being almost constantly saturated with moisture. It is, however, important to observe, that evergreens, as well as deciduous plants, may be transplanted at any season, if they are taken up with a good ball, just as plants in pots may be shifted at any time. The soil in general should be prepared by draining, trenching, and other means recommended for the improvement of soils. Plants strike root more readily in well-trenched ground than they do in that which is not trenched. One would suppose that if the soil is of sufficient depth for the roots to be in dug or loosened soil, it can be of no consequence, so far as regards their first starting, whether the ground below the roots of the transplanted trees be loosened or not; but we320 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. have observed it to be invariably the case, that when trees were transplanted in well-trenched ground, they succeeded better in the first instauce than those that were planted without any such preparation, other circumstances being the same. This can scarcely be accounted for, but such is the fact; we can therefore recommend trenching as a highly necessary operation preparatory to transplanting. Nor is it merely in the first instance that its beneficial effects are evident, for the tree thrives much better afterwards than if the roots had been put in a hole where the soil is loosened. When transplanting has to be performed in continued dry weather, it is a good plan to dig the ground two spades deep, and as the top one is turned down it should be thoroughly watered. This proceeding will render less watering necessary after the ground has been planted. The operation of planting varies according to the nature of the plant, and the natural disposition of its roots; for, in some, these are spindle-shaped, in others they creep along just below the surface; and in planting,the roots should generally be placed in conformity with that disposition. We say generally, because there are cases in which it is desirable that the roots should be encouraged to spread horizontally, instead of following their natural tendency downwards. The details of particular modes can be best given in treating of the cultivation of each plant; we shall therefore confine our observations to that which is applicable to the planting of the generality of young fruit and forest trees. The ground having been prepared by draining, trenching, and manuring, according as the nature of the plant and soil may render necessary, the first operation is to dig holes for the reception of the roots of the plants to be transplanted. The size of the holes depends on the size of the plants; but it is better to make them large than too small. The depth should permit the neck of the plant to be as near the surface as it was before, provided the soil is in good condition, and other circumstances are favourable. If the subsoil is bad, or wet, there is sufficient reason for planting shallow, or even on raised mounds; but it is desirable that such subsoils should be corrected, otherwise the plants, if deep-rooting, cannot thrive. We shall therefore presume that the ground is, as it ought to be, in good condition. The diameter of the holes must be sufficient to allow of the roots being extended at full length. There is a difference of opinion as to whether the holes should be made square or round. We much prefer the square form. In the first place, a larger hole can be sooner made; but there is another point of still greater importance. Although the ground may have been well dug, yet when the spongioles come to the side of the hole, they have to penetrate a firmer medium than that of the more recently loosened soil within the limits of the hole, whether this be round or square. In the former case, however, the resistance is more direct. No roots proceeding from the centre of a circle, or from the base of a root situated there, can radiate towards the side of a circular hole without having to turn at less than a right angle; whereas, in a square hole, the sides can only be directly approached from the centre at four points, and at these the roots can turn aside at not less than a right angle. At all other parts the roots meet the sides obliquely, excepting when directed towards the corners, and then they have the advantage of a long run to acquire strength before they encounter any obstruction. In digging the hole, the best soil should be laid on one side, the rest on the opposite one, leaving the other two clear for a line to be stretched. The hole ought to be made quite as wide at bottom as at top, if the nature of the soil admit of the sides being perpendicular. It should also be deeper at the sides than at the centre; in other words, the bottom ought to be convex, not concave like a basin. In dry weather the bottom may be dug, but still formed convex, as above recommended, and watered; but the water should be allowed to subside, so that the soil may be moist, but not saturated, or in a working condition at the time of planting. The hole being ready, the plant should be examined. If the top is irregular, it is advisable to reduce it to some form before planting. Cross branches, or others that are very badly placed, should be l’emoved; but, except in the most obvious cases, the removal of branches, and other pruning, should be deferred till after the tree is planted. Attention must next be directed to the roots; all that are bruised should be cut clean with a sharp knife. If, in consequence of long carriage, or other unavoidable causes, the small fibrous extremities are found in bad condition, or dead, they should be cut back to parts that are sound. Some plants will bear the cutting back of the roots better than others; some emit fibres in great abundance from where a root has been cut back; and, with regard to these, it will sometimes be advantageous to shorten the roots, or at least some of them, in order to have fresh fibres near the stem. When roots are matted with fibres, these should be disentangled as much as possible, or even thinned with the knife. Tufts of fibrous roots should not be buried together. If such cannot possibly be divided and spread out so as to be tolerably wellTRANSPLANTING. 321 separated by soil, introduced amongst them in planting, the knife may be judiciously applied. The plant being prepared, its roots should be placed on the convex surface, to ascertain whether the hole is of the proper depth. This can be judged pretty well by the eye; but it is more sure to lay a straight rod, close to the stem, across the hole, resting it on the level ground on each side. It may then be seen whether the neck of the plant is too high or too low, and the hole should be deepened, or made more shallow, as the case may require. But whatever alteration may be necessary in this respect, the hole ought to be brought to the proper form, as above directed, before the tree is planted, that is to say, it should if possible be as wide at bottom as at top, and the bottom convex. This repetition will be excused if it tend to draw attention to that on which the better success, not of a single tree only, but of many thousands, may depend. It having been ascertained that the hole is in every respect properly formed, the planting may be proceeded with. Let the stem be held in the position it ought to occupy—erect, if fora standard in a sheltered situation; but in one that is exposed, incline the tree a little towards the side from which the strongest gales may be expected, or from which trees in the vicinity are observed to lean. At the same time let the tree be held lightly till the roots, or at least the lower portion of them, can be spread nicely over the convexity or mound of soil raised in the bottom of the hole. Train out the leading roots as much as possible at equal distances, then the smaller roots and fibres. To the latter particular attention should be paid; they ought not to be bundled together and then covered with soil like faggots in a drain: they were not bo disposed when the tree was taken up. It may have been observed, in carefully taking up the tree, that the lateral fibres had taken a diverging route, and that from the point of branching off they were for the most part completely separated from each other by particles of soil. In planting this should be aimed at as much as possible, keeping them at the same time in a natural position; for although the fibres diverge in different directions, yet it should be recollected that their general tendency is forward, and away from the stem of the tree. Very inconsistent with this natural tendency is the common practice of scattering the earth with the spade against the direction of the roots; for by so doing, all the fibres that have not been earthed over by hand are liable to be turned back towards the stem by particles of soil thrown with force in that direction, and kept in a reversed position by the weight of earth. Instead of this the soil should be thrown from near the stem towards the extremities of the roots. When the roots are partly covered the tree may be moved or shaken a little, but very little; it should not be moved up and down, because by so doing the fibres will be drawn np, and when it is let down again they will be more or less doubled. If a piece of whip-cord, which maybe taken to represent a tough flexible root-fibre, be fixed to the end of a stick, laid out straight, and covered with soil, it will be seen that when the stick is drawn up, the cord will also be drawn up so much through the soil, and that when the stick is pushed down, so as to occupy its former position, the piece of cord will no.t do so, but will form a double; and so it is with the fibres of the roots. It is therefore not advisable to shake or otherwise move the tree much in planting, in order that the soil may fall into cavities among the roots. It is better to introduce it carefully by hand. Some use a taper blunt-pointed stick for the purpose; and though this may be advantageous in some cases, yet the hands are more to be trusted. When the soil is of a friable nature it may be washed in among the roots, and in some cases the soil in the bottom may be made into a puddle, and the roots immersed in it, care being taken that they are properly spread out. When the lower portion of the roots is covered, those above should be put in a proper position, and soil introduced amongst them with due care; and when all are well covered, water may be given as found necessary. If the soil and weather are moist at the time watering may be dispensed with, but otherwise care should be taken that all the soil about the roots is thoroughly moistened. In dry weather part of the soil may be reserved till a copious watering has been given; when the water has subsided the soil may be levelled round the stem, and the looser it is, and, we may add, the drier it is, the better will it resist drought. We have not alluded to treading the soil on the roots whilst the tree is being planted. This is less practised now than formerly, when it was done too indiscriminately. In general it is not necessary, though in some cases it may be done, but only in a moderate degree. Some plants grow best in loose soil, treading in this case is not necessary; others prefer firm soil, and in planting these it may be made rather compact than otherwise. Where the soil is wet at the time of planting, treading should be avoidei I; if dry and light, it may be moderately pressed. If planting is conducted according to the above directions, success will almost invariably be the result. In particular cases some after care is necessary in respect to watering, mulching, and 21•322 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. staking. The trees will soon give indications of want of water; but in guarding against dryness, too much moisture should be avoided. With the exception of water-plants, most others will make better and more substantial roots in soil that is moist, but not saturated. When it is watered it should be so thoroughly, and for the time it will of course be saturated with moisture, but it should not be maintained constantly in that condition. In well-prepared ground the superabundant water will soon subside, after which the soil will retain sufficient moisture for a longer or shorter period, according to circumstances connected with the state of the weather, nature of the soil, and extent of evaporating surface which the foliage of the plants may present; and whilst on the one hand continued saturation of the soil is to be avoided, any deficiency of moisture approaching to dryness must be carefully guarded against on the other; for it'should be recollected that newly planted trees cannot bear vicissitudes with such impunity as those which are well established. Mulching is a good means of retaining a steady degree of moisture about the roots of trees, whether recently transplanted or not, but for the reasons just given the former need it most. Besides, if the mulching consists of long dung, or other material containing nourishment iu a soluble state, it likewise proves beneficial by the substances which are washed down by rain or artificial watering. Staking is necessary when the plant is weakly, top-heavy, or planted where it would be liable to be shaken too much by wind before it can re-fix itself in the soil by fresh roots. If trees have been well reared, and transplanted at the right age, and in a proper wanner, they will rarely stand in need of stakes; nevertheless when trees, not the best that could be reared, but the best that can be had, have to be planted, and when trees of considerable size are required to be transplanted for immediate effect, or for coming sooner into a fruiting state, the support of a stake or stakes becomes in any case absolutely necessary. A single stake will be sufficient when the tree is not large. The stakes should be secured first near the ground, and again near the top. The greatest security is, however, obtained by three stakes placed so as to form an equilateral triangle at the base, and brought towards each other at the top, where they should be united by cross-pieces, inclosing the tree. Three posts or stakes are of course less expensive than four, and they are at the same time more secure. Iu supporting trees, whatever mode be adopted, great care must be taken to prevent the bark from being injured by rubbing against the support. When a single stake is employed for a young standard tree, some place it at a little distance from the stem, and then twist a thick hay or straw band once or twice round the tree. The ends of the band are next plaited two or three times round each other towards the stake, round which they are finally twisted, and tied with rope yarn or tarred twine, with which also the plaited band is likewise bound close behind the stem. If there is only a single padding of hay or straw between the stake and tree, it generally gives way, and leaves the two to act upon each other. The tree ought therefore to be surrounded with twisted hay or straw bands, and a pad of the same kind of material should be secured against the part of the stake which is to be brought in contact with the bands surrounding the tree. Before the stake and tree are bound together it will be necessary to adopt some means to prevent the cord employed for that purpose from cutting through the bands, which after a time it would most probably do. A piece of leather or stout canvas may be used, or some bits of old lath placed on the opposite side of the stem will answer the same purpose. The tree and stake may then be firmly tied together. In the case of a large tree, a triangular support formed as above should be made use of, and the stem, having been securely padded, may be bound to the side from which the strongest winds prevail ; or three short bars may be placed close against the padding of the tree, and nailed on the three bars which connect the tops of the poles, so as to keep the stem from shifting backwards and forwards. In some cases guy-ropes may be found necessary for securing trees with large branching tops, and without a tall central stem to which a triangular support of poles could be well applied. Transplanting Trees and Shrubs of a larger size than that at which they ai'e usually removed. —The preparation of the plants for transplanting chiefly concerns the roots, but trees and shrubs should have their tops regulated a season before removal, in order that the wounds may be healed whilst the I’oots are entire and the vigour of the plants unimpaired. The healing is of course better effected when this is the case, than when vegetation is checked by transplanting. Plants that have been growing in thickets and in sheltered places are apt to suffer to some extent when removed to open situations. Even deciduous trees, when they have been shaded, and most of their foliage has been produced under a limited amount of light, suffer on removal into a more open space where they are fully exposed to the direct rays of light, to which perhaps they have never previously been subjected. A sudden changeTRANSPLANTING. 323 to full light is as much as foliage grown in the shade can bear, even if the roots are not disturbed; but when plants have to suffer from that change, as well as from the effects of removal at the same time, they often give way under the double trial. It would therefore be advisable to expose the foliage as much as possible for some time before transplanting. If growing in thickets, other plants can either be removed, or they may be drawn aside from those intended to be removed. This is better than to transplant them unprepared, and then trust to shading, which must otherwise be adopted as the only alternative. It is generally the case that when a branch is shortened back, several young shoots break out below the section. If the top of a tree consist chiefly of long naked branches, and if these be shortened back considerably, a crowd of shoots usually break out from the previously naked part of the branches left. The tree is thus furnished with shoots and foliage near the stem. In a like manner, if roots that are nearly destitute of fibres for a considerable distance from the stem are shortened, the comparatively naked portions left will push out a quantity of fresh fibres either at the section or nearer the stem. These young roots will rapidly increase, especially if encouraged by fresh soil, and the tree will soon acquire as many feeders as it had before, but with this difference, that previous to the amputation the main portion of the feeders were far from the stem, but in consequence of the operation they are produced comparatively close to it. It is of course much easier to remove a tree with a sufficient quantity of fibrous roots within a short distance from the stem, than it is when the same ] quantity is for the most part far distant from it, and hence the advantage of causing the roots of a tree to push near the stem previous to its being transplanted. This can be done by digging a trench all round at a moderate distance from the stem, and cutting off all the roots that extend across the trench. When this is cleared, the cut ends of the roots left should be examined, and I any that are bruised must be cut clean with a sharp instrument. The trench should then be filled with good soil, of as light a nature as possible, in order that the ends of the roots may not be injured by exposure to the air. During the growing season, roots will generally form very abundantly, so that in autumn a trench may be dug outside the limits of the former one, the soil of which being light, can be easily separated from the young roots; and if they are preserved, the preservation of a ball is not of so much importance as would otherwise be the case. Instead of filling in the soil, some have successfully tried the plan of boarding over the trench, and placing earth over the boards, in order to exclude the air and to preserve moisture in the cavity beneath. By this mode young roots, from want of soil to travel in, are not encouraged to extend beyond the limits of the ball, but more of them will be formed in it, and consequently success in transplanting will be rendered more certain. It may, however, be remarked, that the quantity of roots, which by this mode can only break out laterally from the old roots into the firm soil, will not be so great as if they had been encouraged to strike into a trench filled with good fresh loose soil. As the production of roots in the former case must be comparatively limited, so must also be the nourishment supplied, and the reduction of the vigour of the tree must consequently be greater. In fact, there is danger of the vegetation of the tree being so reduced that, when transplanted, the power of producing fresh roots will be too much diminished; therefore we conclude that, instead of adopting this mode, it is better to en-coimage an abundance of roots by filling the trench with soil. The distance of the trench from the stem depends on various circumstances —such as the size of the tree, the mechanical means at command for its removal, and, it may be, the extent of clear space through which it may have to pass to its new situation. The less of course that is cut off from the extremities of the roots the better. If, however, it is found necessary to cut far back, it will in that case be advisable to cut partly, say one half, round in one yeai-, and not wholly round till the next. By so doing the vegetation of the tree will receive a less check than if all the roots had been shortened at once. In cutting out a part of the trench, equal to half way round, it is not meant that this should be done continuously so as to form a semicircle, as from v; to e (Fig. 226); but it should be done by alternate quadrants, as from n to e, omitting the next space from e to s, then clearing out from s to w, leaving the portion from w to n. In the course of the season, fresh roots will push into the portions n e and s w, and these will support the tree when it is deprived of the roots extending beyond n e and s w. We consider the following to be an advan- Fig. 226. n Transplanting.324 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. tageous plan to be adopted in preparing large trees for removal. Let a trench a yard wide be marked out at what may be considered a proper distance from the stem, uncover the roots which traverse the trench, then ring all of them that ai-e of any considerable thickness, and when this is done fill in the soil or substitute better for young roots to strike in. The extremities of the roots will collect nourishment, which will pass upwards through the alburnum, and will support, almost unimpaired, the vegetation of the tree; but the returning sap cannot pass the rings, and will therefore form at these parts, in the course of one or two years, a sufficient number of roots to support the tree; and this being the case, it is merely necessary to preserve them in transplanting, the other roots beyond the rings being dispensed with. Preparation for transplanting is occasionally effected by digging round the tree so as to leave a ball, which is exposed to frost till the whole becomes a compact frozen mass, so that it can be moved without danger of breaking. It is evident that this mode can only be adopted in frosty weather, and that it is only applicable to very hardy species, such as will bear the freezing of their roots without injury. There is a mode described in Downing’s Horticulturist, vol. i. p. 171, which deserves notice. It was practised by S. G. Perkins, Esq., of Brookline, near Boston, and its principle being simple may be acted upon with advantage in many cases. A blank was left in a plantation, into which a particular pear-ti'ee was omitted to be transplanted in spring. Mr. Perkins was anxious to transplant the tree into its allotted space in the end of May, although it was then in full leaf. He accordingly directed a trench to be cut round the tree as deep as the roots went into the ground, and about 3 or 4 inches wide. “ This being done,” says Mr. Perkins,,l I had the trench filled with water and covered over to prevent the earth from getting into it. In this state the tree was left between thirty and forty hours, when the ball of earth round its roots was found to be very firm and solid, so that the tree could be removed with perfect security, and it was actually done with perfect success; so much so, that the tree never stopped growing, and made considerable wood during the summer. I soon after, about June 1, removed several other pear, peach, and apricot trees with the most complete success. “ Encouraged by this success, I removed on the 18th of June, 1844, ten trees to a trellis that I had recently made — viz. four plums, four peaches, and two apricots, all of which grew rapidly that year, and so filled the trellis that I was obliged to take the peaches away this summer, 1845, in the early part of August, and place them on another trellis which I had built. “ I continued during the summer of 1844 to remove trees in full leaf, and some with the fruit on them, until the middle of September, and out of seventy-six trees removed, I lost only six, seventy having succeeded perfectly. One tree that was removed, contrary to my advice, after having been prepared only twenty-four hours, lost the earth in part from its roots, and after lingering some time died. The reason of this was, that time was not given for the superabundant water to be discharged from the ball, and it of course was not as firmly consolidated as it would have been had it been left six or eight hours longer before it was taken up. My gardener now became a convert to my system, and had what he calls a ‘turban’ made to tie round the ball before it is removed. This has been very useful; for with the aid of this cloth we can remove balls so large that they require three strong men to lift them. This year, 1845,1 have removed during the summer many fine trees with the fruit on them with perfect success; some of them were peaches, trained trees, 5 and 6 feet high, and spreading 6 and 8 feet on the trellis.” It is to be observed that although this mode was employed, as above stated, in the removal of trees in summer, yet it is also applicable in transplanting at any other period when the soil at the roots of the trees is dry. In adopting it the canal formed round the tree should be steadily filled with water, in order that the soil may not be washed out from amongst the roots; as much as a tubful should not be suddenly turned in to dash along like a small torrent. It should be quietly and repeatedly poured in till the mass of soil inclosed by it is completely soaked. This can be ascertained by pushing down an iron rod near the stem of the tree, and on withdrawing it water will collect in the hole if saturation has reached so far. We now come to the removal of the tree. In doing this, the constant aim should be to preserve both roots and branches from injury, from whatever cause, so that they may be continued in an efficient state. Bushy or spreading tops should be tied up to render them as compact as possible. If tall, the central stem ought to be firmly secured to a pole, and the ties should be made very tight, pads of straw or other material being introduced between the rope and the tree, and likewise between the latter and the pole. In the case of the removal of a large tree, the next operation is to lay bare the surface roots; by doing so, 1 foot deep of soil may often be dis-TRANSPLANTING. 325 posed of. When a tree is to be taken up with a ball, the removal of so much surface soil is of great importance; for if the mass to be removed is in the form of a square of 10 feet on the side, the tree being in the centre, and if within this square an average depth of 1 foot can be taken off from the surface, the quantity would be 100 cubic feet, less some allowance for the part occupied by the stem, and the weight to be raised would be reduced by about 5 tons. This weight alone would require a considerable amount of mechanical power to raise it; but besides that, the roots are relieved of a weight which, if not removed previous to their being undermined, is apt to break them down. Having got clear of the superincumbent mass of soil, a trench ought to be formed round the tree, and as far distant from it as the roots are intended to be saved. This trench should be ample, not merely just as wide as a man can stand in—for nothing is gained by working in a confined space—but it should be 3 feet wide. Its depth must depend on whether the roots are deep or shallow, and the bottom should be about 6 inches below the generality of the roots. The workman will then possess advantages that will compensate for the extra labour in removing so much soil as is contained in a trench of the above dimensions; he will work with much greater ease, for he will not have to work below the level on which he stands, and this he should always avoid as much as possible during the after process of undermining. By clearing the bottom of the trench as the loosened soil is drawn out, the roots can be better taken care of, than when the soil is allowed to accumulate and mix with the portions of roots previously disentangled. The tree may be taken up by carefully loosening or separating the greater portion of the roots from the soil; or it may be removed along with a ball. We shall suppose that the former mode is to be adopted. If the tree were to be undermined in the easiest and most expeditious manner, the workman would pick out a groove beneath the mass, and level with the bottom of the trench, so as to permit a quantity of the soil thus undermined to be easily tumbled down; and this having been cleared away, he will again proceed as before, till the whole is undermined. In this way, however, large lumps of soil will be suddenly precipitated, together with all the ramifications of fibrous roots which they contain. Instead of this mode of proceeding, the soil must be worked out from amongst the roots by gentler means; for instance, when the extremity of a root presents itself, it should be traced back by carefully removing the soil till a lateral is discovered, the latter should then be followed out to its extremity; the main root may then be traced back to the next lateral, which should be treated in a similar manner, and so on. A small round-pronged fork, with a short handle, adapted for being worked with one hand, whilst with the other the loosened fibres are kept out of the Way till they can be tied up in small bundles with matting, is useful for this purpose. When an inroad has been effected in the above manner at one place, and the soil which has been worked down is cleared away, the exposed fibres should be protected from sun and drought by placing a wet mat closely over them. When the greater portion of the roots are disentangled, the bundles of fibres should be tied to the stronger roots; and if there be danger of their being affected to any injurious extent by drought, they ought to be covered with mats, damp straw, or moss. To preserve them from breaking in the course of removal, it will, in some cases, be necessary to lay across the Surface some poles, planks, or battens, to which the principal roots can be secured by ropes. The tree is then ready for removal, and must be planted according to the principles already explained. Bor moving trees with balls of soil, various modes have been advocated. The difficulty is not so much as regards mechanical means, as in the preservation of the roots during the application of these means. The mass of earth and roots cannot easily be rendered sufficiently compact; it may be inclosed, as it were, in a box, but the latter must consist of very strong materials, otherwise it would be crushed by the heavy pressure, or torn to pieces by the strain to which some of its parts would be subjected; besides such materials are not easily withdrawn from under the tree after it is placed in its new situation. Bor the removal of moderate-sized and even large shrubs with balls, Mr. Pratt of Cheshunt states, in the Gardener's Magazine, vol. xi. p. 134, that he uses plates of sheet iron of various sizes— namely, 4 feet by 2 feet 6 inches, 3 feet by 1 foot 9 inches, and 2 feet 2 inches by 1 foot 3 inches, all of them rounded at the corners, and somewhat like a tray. They are strengthened by flat iron bars, carried round on the under side near the edges, and welded so as to form turned-up handles at each end. When the plant has been undermined on three sides, the iron plate or tray is slipped in below the ball, the remaining side is cut down, and the plant then falls upon the iron, and, having been adjusted in the centre, is hauled up. *■ If the plant is large and heavy, an inclined plane is dug on the most convenient side of the hole, and a rope being put into the iron handles,326 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. tlie plant is hauled out. A short strong board is In some states of the ground used for this purpose instead of the inclined plane. The plant may then, if not too heavy, be carried on a hand-barrow, which admits of the application of the strength of six men—two between the handles and the other four on the outside. Heavier plants, which are to be carried to any distance, are lifted on a truck with low wheels, made strong for the purpose; and if too heavy for this mode, as many boards as are wanted are laid down in succession, and the plant is hauled by the iron upon these boards to the place where it is to be planted. The plant is invariably hauled into the new hole on the iron, which is not removed till its proper position is ascertained; this prevents the disturbance of the ball of earth or roots. The plant is then lifted a little on one side and the iron drawn out; earth is then filled into the level of the fibres, which are uutied and laid out straight, and the plant is earthed up. The heaviest plants, Portugal and other laurels, 8 feet and 9 feet high, and 6 or 7 feet in diameter, which cannot be lifted by any strength that can be applied without injury to the roots, are thus moved with great ease and expedition, with large balls of earth, and without any disturbance of the roots; and consequently the plants invariably proceed in their growth, often without experiencing the slightest check.” There is a great advantage in using the sheet-iron plate, compared with wooden platforms. The latter may indeed be introduced below the ball, and conveyed without much difficulty to the new situation of the plant; but when set down, the thickness of the wood renders it more difficult to draw out. The friction is not only greater, but whilst the wooden platform is being withdrawn a portion of the ball must rest unsupported, thus permitting the soil to drop from the under side of the ball; but this is not the case with the iron tray, for being so thin it can be slipped out without leaving a vacaut space of any consequence behind it. The plan adopted by Mr. McNab, of the Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, does not so completely secure the soil from falling from the bottom of the ball; nevertheless, it is very good, as may be supposed, otherwise it would not have been employed by that celebrated horticulturist. A piece of cord is put loosely round the ball, and between the latter and the cord thin pieces of board, 2 or 3 inches broad, are placed upright all round, at 3 or 4 inches apart. They are then hooped, as it were, to the ball by strong ropes made tight by a rack-pin. By gently drawing the tree first to one side and then to the other, two strong boards are introduced, and beneath their ends two ropes are passed so as to cross the boards at right angles. The ends of the ropes are brought up on each side of the ball, and fastened to handspikes or bearers for carriage; or the ball, if very heavy, may be placed on a low truck. Jesse’s Tree-lifter, described and figured in Loudon’s Encyclopedia of Gardening, p. 556, is on the same principle as regards lifting as Mr. M°Nab’s, only bent irons are employed instead of ropes. It consists of two pieces of iron, 6 feet long, 3 or 4 inches broad, and rather more than 5 inch in thickness, bent as in Fig. 227, so as to reduce the distance f|] ah to 3 feet; but I larger dimensions I may be allowed if necessary. The two irons are introduced below the tree 2 feet or more apart, according to its size, and the whole is lifted by poles placed under the hooked ends of the irons. Below these poles, which are used as bearers, cross ones may be put, to allow of an additional number of men taking part in carrying the weight. Mr. Saul’s Transplanting Machine is on a very good principle, as regards the support given to the soil at the under part of the ball. It consists of two irons, as represented in Fig. 228. Each iron has a horizontal base a b, in which there are three holes; and from its centre rises a perpen- dicular piece e, with a hole near its top. These irons having been placed one on each side of the ball, three rods, d, d, d, are passed through the holes at the base into the corresponding ones on the opposite side. The tree is then ready for removal. This is effected by means of a sort of truck with a strong pole in front, and hooks attached at its hinder part. The hooks are depressed by elevating the pole till they catch in the holes in the tops of the uprights c, c; and when the pole is lowered the back of the truck is of course raised, and with it the tree. The latter having been firmly secured by ropes, is then conveyed to its destination. Mr. McIntosh has improved on the aboveTRANSPLANTING. 327 machine by having it constructed with three uprights instead of one. These afford better support to the sides of the ball, and moreover the uprights are perforated, so that iron rods may be passed through them to support the other two sides of the ball. M'Glashan’s Small Transplanter, for removing small trees and shrubs, consists of a square iron frame, one side of which is hinged at one corner, so as to open and allow of the frame being placed on the surface, round the base of the plant to be taken up. The movable side, fixed at one corner by the hinge, is then secured to the end of the opposite side. Four broad spade-like plates with wooden handles are then driven into the soil on the inside of the frame to the required depth, and an extension-rod is passed through each handle into the one on the opposite side. The handles are then drawn outwards, and kept in their new position by pins passed through holes in the extension-rods. Now, it is easily understood that if the handles are pressed out at top the spades must be pressed in at bottom, and the soil being compressed at that part does not drop away. Bearers are then hooked on to the iron frame, and the whole can be lifted and carried to the hole prepared for the plant. For any shrub or small tree that has plenty of fibres within the space inclosed by the iron frame and spades, this machine answers very well; but where most of the principal roots are beyond the limits above mentioned, it is evident that the plant would by its use be deprived to a great extent of its means of obtaining nourishment from the soil; consequently it will in such cases be advisable to adopt some other plan by which the extremities of the roots can be saved. In transplanting large trees, a considerable amount of mechanical power and strength of materials are required to raise above the surface of the ground the tree and its roots, together with the mass of earth adhering to them. In removing large trees, two principles have been chiefly acted upon. According to one, the stem of the tree, with a strong piece of timber braced to it, forms a lever; and on this being drawn down over a fulcrum, consisting generally of an axle supported on wheels, the root with its ball of earth is raised up, and the tree is conveyed, in an inclined position, to its destination. By the other principle, which is that more recently adopted, the tree with its ball is raised perpendicularly by screw power, or otherwise; and this mode is unquestionably the best where there is clear space to move the tree along in an erect position, and even in some cases where the tree must necessarily be inclined, on account of the want of head-room. The mode of removing trees by means of leverage over an axle has the disadvantage of straining the roots very much; the stem is also liable to be bruised. Sir Henry Stuart employed a machine on this principle in moving a number of large trees at Allanton; but, in the first place, he partially inclined the tree so as to introduce a quantity of soil below the raised side of the ball; this having been effected, the tree was inclined in an opposite direction, and the other side of the ball blocked up with soil in a similar manner. By continuing the same process, the ball was elevated as high as the surface of the ground, or even higher if desirable, and thus the tree was raised without employing any powerful lifting machine. It is supposed that the ancient Egyptians adopted some mode analogous to the above in raising the immense blocks of stone of which the pyramids are formed. On this subject some interesting details will be found in the Philosophical Magazine, 1844, p. 404. The general mode by which trees are raised according to the principle of a perpendicular lift is by means of two strong carriages, each mounted on a pair of wheels, and which are made to approach each other within a certain distance of the stem of the tree to be moved. The two carriages are then connected by strong beams, sufficiently high to allow of the ball and roots being suspended below them so as to be clear of the ground. The weight is then transferred by screw power to the beams resting upon the carriages. If the weight consisted of a compact solid mass, the operation of raising it would be very simple; for it would merely be necessary to attach it to screws by ropes or chains of sufficient strength, and then to elevate it by applying whatever amount of leverage might be found necessary to work up the screws. But the tree with its ball and roots does not by any means form a mass so compact; the latter two are below the bearing of the working power, but they are apt to break and give way when pressure is applied, whilst the greater part of the weight of the stem and its branches is above that bearing, and is consequently apt to overbalance. Care must therefore be taken to secure the ball and roots, and to keep the tree steady. Keeping these objects in view, the simplest and easiest mode by which the tree can be moved must be considered the best. Mr. Barron’s large tree-lifting machine consists of two carriages, which when placed at a proper distance from each other, with the tree between them, are connected with two strong oak beams 21 feet in length. An excavation about 2 feet wide is made under the ball or mass, from one end to the other, and as nearly as possible under328 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. its centre. In this cavity two strong poles are laid, and on them lengthwise a broad 3-inch plank. In order to give further support to the mass, which is somewhat oblong in form, four bevelled-edged planks are employed; one of these is made to rest across the end of the broad centre plank, another across its other end, whilst the other two are placed one on each side of the mass, and rest on the end of the first two. Cavities between the different planks and the soil and roots are firmly packed in with litter. Thus secured, the whole is raised by means of screws with chains attached to the platform. By taking great care of the extremities of the roots, and introducing the platform completely under the centre of the weight to be raised, Mr. Barron has removed large trees with very great success. Mr. Mackay, wheu gardener to the Hon. E. Strutt, Kingston Hall, Kegworth, also very successfully moved large trees on an extensive scale. The principle of his machine is essentially the same as that of Mr. Barron’s, but there is the addition of four side, or they may be termed corner chains, for there is one at each corner of the platform under the tree. These act as auxiliaries to the two main chains; for, when the screws attached to the latter are worked up, the corner chains sustain the weight till the two main screws are reversed and the chains attached to them shortened, so that the main screws can take a fresh hold, ready for being again worked up. As this is being done, the side chains become relieved of the weight; but when the main screws are worked up to their full extent, the corner chains are tightened, and the main screws are then reversed. The weight is about equally divided between the corner chains and the two main ones. By this arrangement, the weight of the tree and ball is borne with greater steadiness, supported, as it then is, at six points instead of two. Mr. M‘Glashan’s large machine is well-constructed as regards power. It differs from several others in regard to working the lifting screws. Instead of these being worked by a lever through a box-screw, fixed in the supporting beams, a box-screw, with levers attached, is turned round on an iron plate, on the upper side of the beam, to work up the screws. The lifting screw, from its not requiring to be turned round, can therefore be attached, without a swivel, to chains or ropes supporting the weight of the ball. But in some respects of great importance the machine requires improvement. In noticing the principle of Mr. M'Glashan’s small transplanter, it was observed that the extremities of the roots beyond a certain extent were entirely cut off. This is unfortun- ately the case, but to a greater extent, with his large machine. Although with a large tree 10 or 12 tons of soil, or a ball of the dimensions of 10 feet square by 3 feet deep, may be taken up, yet this would only include the roots within a distance of 5 or 6 feet from the stem of the tree, and in a large tree most of the feeders are beyond that distance, and are consequently cut off. This will readily be understood when it is explained that strong iron plates, 3 feet long and 1 foot wide, with a short round iron stem and pummel-shaped top, are driven in as far as the top of the plates, along the inside of a strong iron frame, about 10 feet square. Iron bars are then placed against the iron handles of the spades or plates, just below the pummel-tops, and these are forced outwards by means of extension-rods, whilst the plates are consequently pressed inwards. Now, on a small scale, the principle will act tolerably well. With Mr. M'Glashan’s small transplanter, for example, the soil is compressed so that scarcely any will drop from the bottom of the ball. But it is well known that beyond a certain thickness earth cannot be compressed nor affected in any way, even by the force of a cannon-ball; and we believe that if an egg were inserted 2 or 3 feet deep, at or near the centre of a mass of earth 10 feet square, and which is acted upon by the lower part of iron plates inserted 3 feet deep and 5 feet from the centre, the grasping power would be neutralized by the inertia of the mass, and no breakage would take place. The pressure exerted by the lower part of the plates would probably affect the mass of soil very little more than 1 foot inwards on each side, and certainly not so far as to prevent the soil towards the centre of the ball from dropping when the mass was lifted. This we know to be the case when the soil is of a loose nature. The principle is good as regards the raising and retaining a mass of soil of small size in a compact state; but beyond this it loses ground. Double the screw power will lift double the weight in any case; but double the grasping power, as that resulting from the action of the extension-rods may be termed, will not compress the soil towards the centre of a large mass half so much as if half the pressure were exerted on half the mass; so that the latter may be increased till the arrangement can be of no avail as regards the retention of the soil near the centre of the bottom of the ball. Two beams are laid, one on each side of the tree, at some distance from it, and so as to rest upon the frame, to which they are then secured by strong chains. Two other beams are laid across these, one on each side of the stem, and close to it. Two pieces of broad and thick bar-TRANSPLANTING iron, bent in the middle, so that when put one on each side of the tree they form a clamp, are placed very closely down upon the cross-beams, and screwed tightly round the stem of the tree, which of course should be protected at that part by several folds of matting or other soft material. Chains are put round the ends of the two lower beams, and connected with the lower ends of the screws which pass through the bearers of the machine. When the screws are worked up, the lower beams are raised, aud all that is connected with or dependent upon them—namely, the iron frame, the two cross-beams, aud the clamp surrounding the stem, which of course cannot rise without bringing the tree along with it. In fact, if the iron clamp or collar were strong enough, and made sufficiently tight, the tree must rise, whatever quantity of torn roots and soil might be left behind. When screwed up till suspended high enough to clear the surface, the machine is set in motion, aud drawn over the hole prepared for the tree; the screws are reversed, and the ball is gradually lowered till it rests upon the soil at the bottom of the hole. Mr. McIntosh suggests some very j udicious improvements in this machine. We fully agree with him in recommending the roots to be saved as much as possible by digging a trench, and undermining the ball in the usual way. He says, I “ When the ball is thus prepared, if broad ! grippers, in form like the letter L, were in- ' troduced along the sides of the ball, just as Mr. M‘Glaslian’s cutters are, but not quite so close together as to prevent the roots which extend beyond them from passing between them, the turned-iu ends of the grippers made to pass under the ball on all sides, the extension-rods attached to them, aud the T-iron placed as in his method, the ball would be kept together not only at the sides, but under the bottom likewise. The operations of lifting should be exactly as recommended by the patentee; for of all modes hitherto employed, none are so simple and effective as this. The turning in the ends of the gripper below the ball would prevent the soil from falling away from below; and the ball being prepared as in ordinary cases, this transplanter could be employed in all soils, however stony or gravelly, which at present it cannot be on account of the moral impossibility of driving in the cutters amongst stones and gravels.”—{Book of Garden, ii. 385.) This, which Mr. McIntosh designates a slight modification, we think a great improvement, which the patentee would do well to adopt. The following is a simple plan, which, it is presumed, might be advantageously adopted in transplanting large trees; and we are not aware that | 329 it has hitherto been proposed. Let Fig. 229 represent the surface of the mass to be raised with the tree in the centre. With a crowbar make holes along the centre, as at a, b, c, d, say feet dee]) and 2^ inches wide. Tlie holes may be shifted a little if strong roots are in the way; but in most cases the crowbar can be inserted without any material injury to the roots. In the holes made by the crowbar, insert strong iron rods with an oblong slit near the bottom like the eye of a needle, but large enough to admit a bar of iron edgewise. The slit may be 8 or 10 inches long, and the top of each rod may have a strong threaded screw worked down 1 foot, or it may be formed with an opening, as in the lower end, to admit a bar of iron. The mass should then be undermined on both sides, nearly to the centre, and four bars of iron introduced through the lower ends of the rods; on these bars a flooring of planks should then be laid, packing being equally introduced between the planks and the mass of soil and roots. This being done, poles ought to be laid on the surface, as at a, b, c, d, across the direction of the line of the inserted rods, and above these poles two strong beams transversely. These should be tightly pressed down by the horizontal extension of the ends of a collar or clasp, fixed round the stem of the tree, and by cross pieces of wood or iron worked down by nuts adapted to the top of the upright rods, if these are screwed, or by wedges if eyed. This will have the effect of drawing up the rods, and consequently the bars with the flooring will be brought up very close to the base of the mass. Moreover, by means of rods of iron, pieces of wood, or chains, the ends of the poles a, b, c, d, can be firmly braced to the. ends of the bars directly below them. Pieces of wood and packing can then be put along the four sides so as to render the whole a compact mass ready for lifting. This can be effected by screw power, applied according to the modes already mentioned, or otherwise, as may be found most convenient. Planting Large Treat.—Previous to removal, a hole or pit ought to be prepared for the reception of the mass of soil and roots moved with the tree. It should be made so that the tree may be nearly as deep in the soil as it was before, making allowance for sinking, and its length aud breadth must be ample. The tree may be drawn to its Fig. 229.330 GARDENER'S ASSISTANT. new situation either by horses, or more steadily by oxen, or by a windlass with ropes and pulleys. It will be advisable to lay down planks for the wheels of the vehicle wherever the ground or roadway is not so firm as to prevent the wheels from sinking; and properly supported planks should extend right across the hole, and so that the ball of the tree can be brought right above its centre. When this has been effected, the tree should be gradually lowered, which may generally be done by reversing the process of lifting. The greatest difficulty now is, the withdrawal of the planks from beneath the ball; for if the mass were allowed to settle down, planks or poles would not easily be got out. Mr. Barron adopts a very good plan for obviating this difficulty. He rests the bottom planks upon props, and then fills up the cavity below the roots with soil, which supports a great part of the weight, so that when the props are removed the planks can be drawn out. This having been effected, the side roots should be carefully spread out, and the soil worked in amongst them. When a layer of roots is covered with an inch or two of soil, water should be given from a watering-pot with a coarse rose, and if poured from a good height so much the better. If water cannot be made to act directly in this way, an engine with a flexible hose may be used. As soon as the water has subsided, more soil may be added for a fresh layer of roots, and so on till the whole is covered. The hole should then be filled with loose soil, which ought to be raised at least 6 inches above the level of the adjoining ground, and if still higher it will tend to steady the tree. The latter should, independently of this, be well secured from being shaken by the winds, otherwise fresh fibres would be liable to be broken as soon as formed. Three poles, disposed in form of a triangle, or rather a triangular pyramid, will form a most efficient support from whatever quarter the wind may blow. CHAPTER XIV. PRUNING. Pruning is the cutting off or otherwise severing some portions of the stem, branches, shoots, leaves, or roots of a plant. The object of doing so is to regulate the vegetation of the plant by removing growths that are worse than useless, or which would become such if allowed to proceed unchecked. When trees are subjected to artificial treatment, pruning, in most cases, becomes indispensable. For instance, a tree in its natural state forms a top with branches which are free to point in all directions; but, when trained against a wall, they are limited to a flat surface representing the section of a hemisphere, on which it would be impossible to dispose the branches of the naturally formed top, without overcrowding them. But when a tree is planted in good soil, and otherwise favourably circumstanced for making a luxuriant growth, as it cannot push in all directions, it will push the more vigorously where it can. If it is prevented by a wall from pushing on one side, the well-fed buds will nevertheless push and produce a superabundance of shoots towards the other side; no more indeed than the roots would be able to feed, but more than twice as many as could have their foliage duly exposed to light. To expose the foliage well to this essential agent is a most important object in cultivation, and which, in this as well as in many other cases can only be attained by pruning. The effects produced by pruning are various, and depend on the nature and condition of the subject, as well as on the time and manner of the operation. As the growth of a plant depends on the amount of foliage duly exposed to light, it is evident that any reduction of the branches or shoots which bear the leaves must tend to diminish in the first place the rate of increase in the bulk of the plant generally; but, in consequence of removing certain parts from a plant, those that are left make not only a larger, but likewise a more substantial growth, from having a greater share of sap, and from being better exposed to light, so that ultimately a larger and much stronger plant results from judicious pruning than would otherwise be the case. The immediate effect of pruning is to encourage a greater flow of sap towards the parts which are left. Thus, if a shoot is shortened as at b, Fig. 230, the sap which would otherwise flow in the part above b, will go to the increase of the other parts, and especially to the shoots a and e; and if the shoots b and c are both shortened, a still greater force of sap will be directed to the centre shoot a.PRUNING. 331 Here it may be remarked that when the shoots had grown only so far as to reach hut little above the points c and b, and when these points would consequently have had the same relative situation with reference to the growing point, as at e and d, a practised observer would have instantly seen that these shoots would he competitors with each other and with the central shoot a; and this being the case, he would not have hesitated to pinch off the extremities when these reached no higher than c and b. By so doing, the central shoot a would have been stimulated at an earlier stage of its growth, and consequently would have been taller by the end of the growing season than it would by sharing longer the flow of sap with its two powerful rivals. Whilst the greatest immediate effect of shortening the two side branches at e and d, is to throw the largest portion of the sap which can no longer pass above those points into the central stem a, yet the whole will not be diverted into the channels of that part. The leaves on the remaining part of the two branches b and c will be expanded ; more sap will be elaborated by them; the buds in their axils will swell, or some of them may even push into shoots in the same summer; and, whether this be the case or not, the buds in the axils of the leaves below b and c will be more plump than they otherwise would have been, and will be more disposed to become fruit-buds. By taking advantage of this tendency of sap when interrupted to flow with greater force into adjoining parts, shoots can be obtained almost wherever we please. For example, in Fig. 231, there are two shoots, a and b, and it is desired to have two others at the height of c d. To insure this the upright leading shoot / is pruned off in winter by a cut at e. The ves-sels below this part are naturally adapted for conveying sap to feed the buds which were above it when the shoot was entire. Pruning Interrupted by the cut at e, the force of the sap is exerted on the adjoining parts, and the three buds immediately below the section are almost sure to push into shoots, as represented by the dotted lines; the uppermost bud left, that immediately below the section, supplies the upright leader, and the two next lower furnish the two side shoots which are desired. Had these been required lower, they might have been obtained in a similar manner by cutting lower down, as at g. In the same way it is evident that if shoots were required to commence the formation of a head immediately below the point a, Fig. 232, they would be obtained by cutting off the top of the upright shoot at that point; but in that case it is presumed that a clean stem will be required from the ground up to the shoots so produced, and the question is, By what mode pf pruning will this best be obtained, seeing that there are a number of branches proceeding from the stem between b and i ? The obvious way would be to cut off at once all those branches, as has been too long prac-tised in such cases, without the slightest hesitation, either in spring, summer, or winter. That this however is not the proper mode, will appear from a consideration of the consequences. It should be borne in mind that all these shoots are in connection with the roots; that there is a reciprocal action between the growing parts above ground and those below ground; and that the roots supply nourishment, or the raw materials to be manufactured by the leaves, whilst these return substances for the extension of the roots in quest of more food. On all the branches between b and i there would be a greater aggregate breadth of foliage than between i and a; therefore, if these branches were entirely cut off in tlie growing season, the growth of the roots would be proportionably checked. If on all the shoots between b and t there should be 100 leaves, and only 25 between i and a, and if the former were at once removed, the roots of the plant would be suddenly deprived of four-fifths Pruning332 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. of their means of growth. This privation would prove too severe a check to the roots, and weaken to a very injurious extent the vegetative powers of the plant; and although the buds immediately below a may freely appropriate all the sap, yet that will be a very limited amount. Such being the case, it is evident that a different mode of proceeding from cutting off so many shoots at once must be adopted. Supposing that the plant is in a healthy growing state, we may deprive it of a small portion of foliage without injury, and in a short time the expanding foliage will make good the deficiency. As soon as that is judged to be the case another portion may be cut off, and so on. Thus, again inferring to Fig. 232, we may cut off the lower branch close to the stem, as at b, and the two next shoots may have their points pinched or cut off at e and cl. The loss of the few and imperfectly developed leaves taken off witli these points will not materially affect the roots, although, at the same time, the flow of sap previously directed towai'ds them, being checked, will tend to pass into the upright shoot and its remaining laterals, and will more rapidly expand the foliage which these bear, so that the aggregate expanse will soon be greater than it was at the time the lower shoot was cut off at b. When that is the case the two shoots stopped at e and d may be cut closely off, as at c and /. The remaining side shoots had better be allowed to grow untouched during the season, with the exception of pinching the tops of one, two, or more of them, if they appear to grow too vigorously. The action of the leaves they bear will assist in healing over the wounds at b, c, f, strengthen the lower part of the stem by the layer of alburnum which will be deposited from the sap elaborated by their foliage, and form a greater proportion of roots. At the autumn or early winter pruning, these shoots may all be cut clean off; and the buds above t will swell boldly and push vigorous shoots. If the leading shoot had been stopped at a in summer, lateral shoots would have doubtless been produced; but if the leader had been allowed to proceed with uninterrupted growth till the end of the season, and had been then cut at a, much stronger and more substantial shoots would have been the result. By the gradual and gentle process above detailed, the obnoxious side branches are removed without any shock to the general vegetation of the plant, as would certainly have been the case had they been cut off in the growing season all .at one time. It has thus been shown that although the effect of pruning is to throw more sap into the adjoining shoots, yet wdien the operation is carried to too great an extent, aud a large amount of foliage removed at one time, the vigour of the whole plaut must be greatly reduced. As by pruning a stem can be made to diverge into branches, so on the other hand when a single stem is the principal object desired, that can be insured by judicious pruning. Various kinds of trees will sometimes grow with single straight stems to the height of 50 or (50 feet or more, and afford useful timber; but they will occasionally branch out near the ground, and form, instead of a stately tree, a sort of huge bush. Probably in this case quite as much wood will be formed in a certain number of years as if the tree had grown with a single stem; but comparatively little that can be reckoned timber will be obtained from a tree which chiefly consists of ramifications. Fig. 233 represents the stem of a tree, the pruning of which has been neglected in its youth, and it has consequently subdivided into the brandies b and c, and the latter again into d e aud f g. The following dimensions are from actual measurement:— Neglected Pinning Circumference at— a-= 78 ins. &=:G1 „ c=45 „ Diameter. 24-838 ins. 19-417 ,, 14’318 ,, Area of Section. 484 sq. ins. 206 „ 1G1 „ Side of Square. 17*5 ins. 137 ,, 10‘1 „ From the above it appears that the area of the section of the two forks at cand b is nearly equal to that of the stem at a, but then there is very little useful timber. The stem is of large dimensions as regards thickness, but it is only 34 feet in length. The limbs b and c are of tolerable size, but their length is respectively 84 feet and 34 feet. After the subdivisions of these limbs at d e and f g, we have only large branches, scarcely coming under the denomination of timber. Now, when the tree was young, and the extremity of its central leader was at a, Fig. 234, that leader had a competitor at b, which should have been stopped, as at c. In the following season, the part between d and c might have been allowed to have borne foliage to strengthen the lower part of the stem and the roots; but, presuming that a clean stem was desired, that branch should soon have been removed, and therefore its vege-PRUNING. 333 Fig. 234. \h tation ought to have been kept in check, and when there was an abundance of leaves above it, or of shoots to bear such, it might have been cut off close to the stem at d, and thus a limb, such as that at b, Fig. 233, would have been prevented from growing. On again referring to Fig. 234, it will be seen that, when the upright stem had attained the height of e, it was threatened with a competitor, which should have been checked at /, otherwise, instead of a continuation of a clean stem, two limbs, such as d, e, Fig. 233, would be formed. When the upright leading shoot was as high as g, a shoot likely to prove too strong for it should have been stopped at h. Thus, by a few slight cuts, c, d,f, h, the ramifications seen in Fig. 233 would have been prevented. By following up the system of checking rivals to the leader, and by gradually reducing and clearing away successively the lower branches of the tree, a single clean stem of solid timber, like that represented in Fig. 235, will be the result. By the check at c, Fig. 234, and subsequent removal of the lower branches at d, the formation of such a 7 # Fjor O35 strong limb, as at b, Fig. 233, is prevented, and the other ramifications, d e, f g, by stopping the shoots having a tendency to form such ramifications when the tree is young, as at/aud h, Fig. 234. Although straight timber is much in request, and thick single stems are more valuable than the same bulk in the form of limbs and branches, yet for particular purposes bent or knee’d timber is required. It is true that such as is grown straight can now be bent by powerful artificial means; but it is questionable whether the wood is then so strong. There are three ways of obtaining knee’d timber;—1. By selecting a strong limb, as at b, Fig. 236, diverging naturally from the upright trunk a. 2. By pruning off the central upright leader at b, Fig. 237, so that the whole flow of sap may be directed into the shoot c. 3. By bending the central shoot, when one or two years old, and keeping it in i Pruning—Clean Stem. Fig. 236. Pruning for Knee’d Timber. Fig. 237. the position to form the required bend. From inspection of the figures, it is evident that the knee formed by the natural divergence in Fig. 236 cannot be so strong as that represented in Fig. 237, for this reason —the woody fibres of the limb b continue downwards to the root chiefly on the same side of the stem as that from which the branch proceeds, whilst the rest of the trunk is made up from fibres descending from a c. After the cross cut d has been made, if from drying, a rent should commence in the top of the cross section d, the knee’d portion might easily be separated somewhere by the dotted line.r In Fig.. 237 we have the young plant c increasing in thickness, say to the dotted lines.. The fibres of the wood are bent as they are formed, but everywhere uninterrupted ; the knee cannot split across the top of the bend as in the other case, for the cross fibres must there be cut or broken across. To obtain a knee’d piece of timber in which the woody fibre, although bent, is nevertheless continuous, and consequently insuring the greatest strength, as in Fig. 237, it is best either to bend the young one or two year old part of the stem, or to prune the upright a above a suitable diverging branch c. The small sectional wound at b is soon healed over, and the continuous course of the woody layers is but little interrupted. Perpendicular shoots will be apt to push from the Best Mode of Prunin' Knee’d Timber. for334: GARDENER'S ASSISTANT. upper side of the horizontal part of the bend; but such must be kept closely pruned off. The effects of pruning will be understood to be:— 1st. Checking the growth of certain parts where that is necessary, and promoting it in others, as shown in Fig. 230. 2d. Stimulating buds to push which otherwise would have remained dormant, as at c, d, Fig. 231, by removing a portion of a plant so that the sap may flow with greater force, and in greater abundance, into the adjoining parts. 3d. The production of a cleau straight stem, as in Fig. 235, by judiciously stopping and pruning off a number of superfluous branches, an operation which can be performed in such a manner as not to materially affect the growth of the plant. 4th. The production of knee’d timber, as in Fig. 237, by the application of the same gentle means when the tree is young. From these illustrations it is presumed that the general effects of pruning will be readily understood. We may therefore proceed to enumerate its principal objects. By pruning, trees may be made to receive a form and proportion different from that which they would assume if left to themselves. Thus trees that naturally grow with large heads elevated on tall stems can be made to form a head near the ground, as is done with the pear, apple, plum, cherry, apricot, &c. On the other hand, some plants that are naturally dwarf and bushy can be formed so as to have a moderately tall stem, as for instance the gooseberry and currant. The exposure of the foliage to light should constantly be kept in view. It is especially necessary in trees subjected to dwarf training. The more the growth of a tree is diverted from its natural form the more it is disposed to throw out a greater amount of shoots than can have a due amount of light. Pruning then becomes absolutely necessary, as in the case of wall-trees. By reducing to a certain extent the number of shoots, more nourishment is supplied to the remainder. Instead of a certain amount of nourishment being distributed sparingly amongst a number of branches or shoots, the same amount may be concentrated among a few, which will consequently be rendered much more vigorous than they would have been had the whole supply of sap been divided into many shares. On these comparatively few but well-fed shoots cleared from spray, larger leaves, buds, flowers, and fruit are obtained. The proper time for performing the operation of pruning varies according to the nature of the subject and the object in view. Most trees re- quire to be pruned in winter, and do not bear to be cut in summer or when the sap is in full flow. If felled at that time the best oak will prove unsound, and ships built of it will decay in a few years. In general, in the case of deciduous trees, pruning should not be performed when the buds are bursting, or nearly so, in spring, for then the sap is in active circulation, and if suddenly checked the plants are apt to bleed and die, or become greatly weakened. We have seen a nursery-row of vigorous apple-trees which had been grafted several years cut down nearly to the ground in autumn. These, in the following season, pushed shoots upwards of 5 feet in length. In the other part of the row no such growth was desired, some shoots, merely to preserve the sorts, being all that was wanted. With this limited view, the plants were cut down just when bursting into leaf. The consequence was, in the course of the summer, instead of vigorous shoots, like those resulting from pruning down in autumn, weakly growths were made, the shoots not exceeding 18 inches in length. These trees were of naturally strong-growing cider varieties. This shows how important it is to prune at the proper time. Supposing that the plants treated as above had been intended for standards, good stems would have been obtained from those cut back in autumn, and very bad ones from those subjected to similar treatment in spring. Bather than cut too late in spring, when vigorous growth is the object, it would be advisable to defer the operation till the following autumn, and encourage the trees to make good foliage, and consequently good roots, during the summer. A little summer pruning may be performed when by so doing better leaves can be insured, more efficient from being better exposed, fewer, but not presenting a less aggregate surface to the light. From the above instance, as well as from many others, it is a well-established fact that, by pruning in autumn or winter, before the sap has swelled the buds in the upper parts of the plant, we obtain, generally speaking, strong shoots in the course of the ensuing season; on the contrary, if we delay till the sap is in active circulation, and then cut back the plant, we certainly weaken its powers of vegetation, and in many cases induce disease. The sap is not only too suddenly checked, and its circulation deranged, but its quality becomes altered, especially at and for some distance below the wound. We may be convinced of the altered quality of the sap by cutting the branches of a vigorous apple-tree when the buds are breaking, the weather warm, and the sap in full flow. Then after a week or so take off a slice of bark belowPRUNING. 335 one of the wounds, and as deep as the alburnum, and another slice from a branch not cut back. The two will smell very differently, and it will be found that the sap of the amputated tree has become vitiated and sour, if not putrescent. The vitality of the cambium is destroyed for some distance below the wound, and a dead or cankered stump is the result. As pruning after active vegetation has ceased in autumn results in the production of vigorous shoots, and as in cultivation excessive vigour has to be modified, the question is, How is this to be best effected ? It is evident from what has been already stated, that although pruning, when the sap is in full flow, and before the leaves expand, has the effect of diminishing the general vigour of the plant, yet the constitution of the plant is at the same time injuriously affected, and therefore this mode is highly objectionable. Recourse must be had to summer pruning, which, if judiciously performed, will have the desired effect. By this means the vigour of the whole, or of any particular part, can be reduced or limited without impairing the constitution of the tree. If the branches of a y oung tree are cut back in autumn to an equal length, as at a, b, c, d, e, Fig. 238, and supposing the branches when so cut back are all of equal strength, they will, notwithstanding, grow very unequally. Most sap will naturally flow into the most upright branches. In such a case the growth resulting from either of the cuts c or d will alone equal or even exceed that of both a and b, whilst the upright shoots from the section at e will sometimes make more growth than all the others put together. The horizontal branches at a and b push each a single shoot; from c and d two shoots proceed from each, whilst the three buds immediately below the section e push into shoots which occupy the best position for receiving the principal flow of sap; and at the end of the season the superiority of growth in the central portion of the tree, as represented in the figure, will not be found to be exaggerated. If the shoots were again pruned before winter to the limit of the second dotted line, and if the excess of growth in the central part proceed in the same ratio, it is easy to perceive that a comparatively small share of sap would go to the support of the two horizontal branches proceeding in the directions a and b. In order to prevent the more upright parts from becoming too strong for the horizontal ones, summer pruning must be resorted to; for, by autumn pruning, say to the other dotted line, the sap which would have been required to supply the buds above that line will be concentrated to stimulate the buds situated immediately within it, and especially those resulting from the section at e. A rush of strong shoots from these would be the consequence. Some have said of such shoots, “Let them grow and exhaust their over-vigorous disposition;” but that will not do; for the sti’onger they grow, the more alburnum they form, and of course the more vessels for the ascent of sap. If, therefore, we could prevent the formation of alburnum in any part, we would, at the same time, diminish the flow of sap, and consequently reduce the luxuriance of that part. This can be done to a greater or leas extent by summer pruning. Let us now return to the tree x as it was cut at a, b, c,d,e; and supposing that the object is simply to check excess of vigour in the centre of the tree, the shoots pushing at e should be watched, and only one allowed to grow unchecked for the present. It may be the central one. The other two ought to be pinched when about 4 inches long; and soon after, at short intervals, first one, and '■ then the other, should be cut clean off. When the one left reaches h, it should be stopped; a lateral will then likely push, and if so, it must also be kept in check by always shortening to a few buds. The shoots from c and d should in a like manner be reduced to one from each, and ought not to be allowed to grow to a greater length than those proceeding from a and b. By timely stopping, none of the shoots pointing to the letters from n on the left to x on the right would be allowed to exist except three, namely, those in the direction of n,f, and x. The two lower branches, favoured by the checking of the others, will grow longer than represented in the figure; and whatever their length may be, the other three may be allowed to extend nearly33G GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. as far in tlie direction n, f, x. If, during the summer, all the shoots in the direction of y, n,f, x, z, have an equal quantity of foliage, and that equally efficient, the strength of the shoots at the end of the season will also be equal. We may limit the extent of the foliage by stopping or summer-pruning the young shoots. This can be done without injuring the healthiness of the foliage on the pwt of the shoot left, and that being the case, that part of the shoot must also be healthy. A great amount of vigour can therefore be repressed by means of summer pruning, without injuring the general health of the tree. Having shown how the object proposed by pruning can be accomplished, it may now be remarked, that, by the aid of training, the balance between the strength of the upper or horizontal branches can be maintained with less cutting back than is necessary when that is effected wholly by pruning. The effect of lowering and raising shoots will be explained more practically when we come to training; but till then we shall suppose that by maintaining the shoots y z in an elevated position, that is, one more favourable to growth, the other branches may be allowed more scope, but still the central force will require to be kept more or less in check. We may therefore show how this may be done, especially as the figure is well adapted for illustrating various points connected with summer pruning. The central shoot f may be cut oft’, leaving 5 and t diverging, unless an upright leader be required; then/may be cut as low as It, and s can be taken upright in the place of f. Soon after this the shoot proceeding in the direction of q may be cut off at l; ami at the same time to balance this the shoot v should be cut at ??!. The shoots n and x may be allowed to proceed, but it will be observed that w, springing from the upper side of the branch at d, and profiting by its more elevated position, has taken the lead, or, in other words, is fast gaining an ascendency over the intended leading shoot x; and the shoot o would do precisely the same thing with regard to the shoot n, but it will be observed that o is checked by being stopped or cut back, as at k; and w should have been stopped in a similar manner. In practice, shoots having the same relative position as o, 11, and v', x, will be very frequently met with. The consequence of not interfering with these will be understood by referring to W, x; whilst this is borne in mind, the mode of dealing with such cases is exemplified by the check given to the upper shoot of the two, as at l. By the end of the growing season the shoot n, from having its rival o checked at I-, will be stronger than x with its rivals unchecked. Again, the lower part of w will be stronger than that of o. The strength of each would be in proportion to the amount of foliage they respectively bore; and it will be readily observed that #, left free during the summer, would bear much more foliage than if restricted. The latter will be kept somewhat weaker than the leader n, which will be in a condition to take the lead in the following spi’ing, without danger of close competition from o, for some time at least. On the other hand, w and x are not fairly matched. If we estimate the number of leaves on x at twenty, and on w at thirty, the flow of sap will be one-third less towards x than to to. Both shoots may be pruned to an equal length at the winter pruning, say to the outer dotted line; but then the buds on the upper one would be stimulated by all the sap, which, had the shoot been unpruned, would have flowed to supply thirty buds, as originally found on that shoot; while the shoot to x would only have the proportion of sap necessary for twenty buds, the difference being as three to two in favour of the upper shoot. This should be borne in mind; for, to enable the shoot x to overcome this disparity, recourse must be had to pinching, to the pruning-knife, or to both, in the following summer. But it would have been better if the disparity had been prevented in the previous season, as is represented to have been done in the case of the shoot o. It should always be remembered that by a little timely interference, as at k, much warfare with the knife is afterwards rendered unnecessary. This is one of the most important principles of pruning, and should be applied with the greatest assiduity; for it is certain that large wounds cannot be inflicted on a tree without injuring more or less its constitution. All the branches of a tree may, it is true, be cut back, and a new and more vigorous top may be the result. But when a tree is composed of parts, some of which are far too strong, and other's much too weak, then, when the strong have to be cut out, the tree must sutler. It can neither be so healthy nor so fruitful as one that has its vigour equally distributed. All the branches of a tree may be too strong, or all of them may be too weak. Perhaps in neither of these cases is the primer to be blamed; but when we see in the same tree some branches too strong, and others too weak, then he cannot be free from blame, for pruning must either have been neglected, or it must have been injudiciously performed. The bad consequences of unskilful pruning, as regards both fruit and forest trees, are incalculable. Many of them may be avoided by attending to the explanations already given. In the337 PRUNING. case of fruit-trees trained as dwarfs, we have not only to prune so as to keep the branches thin, in order that the foliage and fruit which they bear may be duly exposed to light, but we must, at the same time, endeavour to divert the flow of sap into the lower branches, otherwise these would become too weak; for the sap will still naturally tend with greatest force to the highest branches, so long as the tree is not permitted to attain its natural height. We have shown how this disposition may be checked; and that, as it should be, by the most gentle means. With regard to forest trees, this diversion of the sap into the lower branches is not generally requisite. On the contrary, the object is in general to direct it so as to form a tall and thick central stem, in which as much wood as possible should be concentrated; and of course the less there is in the limbs and branches the better. But here we must not be led away by the idea that, in proportion as we reduce the branches, we shall increase the stem; for such an idea, if followed out, would prove most fallacious. The bulk of the stem has passed in a fluid state through the leaves, and the matter for its further increase must likewise pass through successive sets of these organs. This must be constantly kept in mind in pruning. And as we must have leaves, there must be branches to bear them. The difficulty in the operation of pruning for timber consists, therefore, in determining the proportion of branches necessary for the above purpose. For it is evident that if we deprive the stem of all branches, except perhaps a few at the top, we deprive it of the means by which are elaborated the substances for forming the stem, and not only the stem, but the roots also; and without roots we cannot obtain that nourishment, in the absence of which, even the leaves themselves cannot exist. We must therefore promote the growth of leaves as much as we possibly can, without encouraging the production of large limbs, when a clean stem only is desirable. It should be a rule never to cut off a vigorous branch without first reducing its vigour. If when a clean stem is desired, a lower branch stronger than those above it is seen, that branch should be immediately checked by the modes already explained. Whilst being reduced, the sap which it would otherwise have appropriated will find its way to the higher branches, and they will consequently grow more rapidly. When the branch is much reduced it may then be entirely dispensed with. If the lowest branches are, on the contrary, weak as compared with those above them, their loss will be but little felt; and they may be at once cleared off. If among the branches springing above the lower ones, but still from the part intended to be ultimately clear, one or more branches should exhibit signs of much stronger growth than the generality, they ought to be checked at an early stage; for then it can be easily done by one or other of the modes represented in Fig. 238. On referring to Fig. 239 we find nothing objection- able in the branches, except the one at e, but that one has evidently been allowed to become too strong. An obvious consequence is, that the tree does not taper regularly, being abruptly much smaller above the branch than below it, where it has all the increase due to the great amount of foliage which the shoots of that branch have successively borne. This irregularity of taper would have been prevented had the branches d, e, f been equal in strength to those on the other side, and to each other. Of the whole amount of sap which has flowed above a and f into the four branches seen above these, it may be fairly estimated that as much has gone to the branch e as into the other three. If that branch had been judiciously checked, so as to be on an equality in point of growth with the others, the sap would have flowed equally into all. The superabundance which went to e would have partially increased the strength of all the others represented, and part would have passed on to stimulate the central leader and other parts above c. The small branch / should be cut off immediately, for the stem below it is not required to be thickened to a still more disproportionate extent by its agency. Then the removal of e has to be encountered, and this requires some consideration. It has contributed to the formation of a great portion of the bulk of the stem; whilst it remains all the vessels and woody fibre which it has formed maintain a connection with it. If 22338 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. at once severed close by the stem, these vessels may empty themselves, but their contents supply no healing matter for covering the wounds, for that can only be furnished by the agency of the leaves. Or if the fluids do not overflow, they must remain stagnant like so much water, and are likely to ferment. The wood is in consequence discoloured, and decay frequently ensues, extending from the wound down the stem, even to the roots. Instead of closely cutting off the branch at once, it must be gradually reduced till very little (Hip move towards it. This reduction may be effected in two ways. The mode usually adopted is called foreshortening. The branch is cut off, as at g. The lateral branches below this are allowed to vegetate, but they should be checked if they are disposed to push into strong shoots, which they will be apt to do in the first instance, from the flow of sap destined for the supply of the whole branch being directed towards them. Next season a limited supply, suitable to the reduced state of the branch, will come forward, so that if the latter were previously cut off, little derangement would take place, and the timber would remain sound. If as much vegetation is permitted as will merely keep the parts alive, the base of the branch e will scarcely increase in thickness, neither will it rob the other branches of the sap to any serious extent; therefore, it need not be cut off close till the second year, and then it will heal still more soundly. But instead of by foreshortening, the same object may be attained by depriving the branch of its laterals from the base almost to its extremity, leaving just as much as will draw a little sap to maintain life in the branch. For example, the three next the base and on the lower side may be pruned clean off. As the one on the upper side is rather large, it may as well be cut back, at first only to its lowest lateral. The one immediately below g should be cut close. With the exception just mentioned, there will be left only the three terminals /(, i, /•, which can be likewise partly reduced, as may be found necessary. In autumn all may be cleared off except h, and in the autumn following the branch may be safely cut off close to the stem. In pruning forest-trees there are two modes of performing the operation. By the one mode a snag of from 3 to 15 inches is left projecting from the main stem, according to the thickness of the branch removed. By the other the branch is cut olf quite close to the main stem. The object in leaving a snag is, that should a portion die back, it may do so without injuring the main stem. In practice it is found that the snag often does die back so far that decay penetrates the main stem ; and when it does not, the remains of the snag itself are apt to cause a defect in the timber. M. le Vicomte de Courval, in his work Taillc et Conduite des Arbres Forestiers, gives the results of very extensive experience in the management of forests during forty years. lie condemns the method of leaving snags, as being pernicious and unfavourable to the production of sound timber. In pruning he makes the cut perfectly vertical, takes off the branch close to the main stem, has the surface of the cut made quite smooth, and applies immediately a coating of coal-tar. He says that the coal-tar applied at once accelerates the healing of the wound, completely prevents the escape of the juices, resists the action of heat and moisture, and being noxious to insects, prevents their eggs from being deposited, which is of itself a leading cause of decay. M. de Courval’s work contains interesting figures showing the results of the two modes of pruning in after years; more particularly drawings from sections of timber, both vertical and horizontal, cut thirty and forty years after the tree had been pruned, and showing how manifest were the defects where snags had been left, and how perfect the timber when pruned in the mode which he employs. Our own experience is also in favour of cutting off any living branch close to the stem with a smooth cut, so that the wound may heal over, instead of leaving a snag. If the branch to be removed is large, then foreshortening should be resorted to, so as to render the extent of branch to be removed, and the wound to be healed over, as small as possible ; but foreshortening must not be confounded with snag-pruning, for by the oue only living wood is left, by the other dead wood, the decay of which is very likely to extend to the living parts. By timely pruning, however, the removal of large branches should as far as possible be avoided. To exclude air and moisture Stockholm tar is used by many, and is decidedly preferable to coal-tar, which is sometimes not a safe application to growing plants. Different kinds of grafting-wax have also been employed with good results. Pruning Evergreens.—An excellent paper was written by Mr. M°Nab, in the Gardener for 1807, on the subject of cutting back Portugal laurels, laurustinus, aucubas, alaternus, phillyreas, arbutus, euonymus, sweet bays, &c. This proceeding was necessitated by the severe frosts of 18(50—01, and it was found the best plan to cut the stems in a sloping direction, some shorter than the others, ami to form the whole assemblage into an ovate pyramidal shape. After being cut back, the ground was thickly covered with a compost,PRUNING. 339 consisting of leaf-mould and the emptyings of pots. Mr. McNab says that this covering is most essential to all evergreens cut in, whether in consequence of frost or excess of growth; as the surface-roots, being very tender from long and close confinement, are liable to become frosted, or to be injured by the sun’s rays and dried up. The pruning of the deodar and other conifers Mr. McNab is decidedly of opinion should be done at a very early stage of their growth. He never saw a tree injured by judicious pruning, provided it was done at a proper season. The best time is when the trees have matured their summer growth, towards the end of August, and may be continued throughout September and October. No attempt should be made to tie up the leading shoot, which in its natural state is always bent downwards, as it will be found to erect itself in the following season. The pruning of coniferous trees is attended with peculiar advantages; for when allowed to grow without any check, they produce a large amount of growth from the lower branches, to the disparagement of that which would have otherwise gone to the top of the stem, so that the natural symmetry of the tree is thrown out of proportion. This will be observed to be the case when the bases of the branches grow to a great thickness, and are pruned off. Then the rapidity of growth in the higher portion is very remarkable. Our limits do not permit us to enlarge further on pruning, respecting which, it is presumed that enough has been said to enable any one to understand the general principles; and knowing these, it will be easy to comprehend the details into which it will be necessary to enter in treating specially of the management of the different kinds of trees usually cultivated. In connection with the subject of pruning, two operations, namely, ringing and root-pruning, may be briefly adverted to. Ringing.—This consists in cutting a ring of bark from the stem or branches of a tree. The breadth of the ring should not be wider than can be healed over, if not in the same season, at least in the one following that in which the operation is performed. The incision should be made through both the outer and inner bark, penetrating therefore as far as the alburnum. As the crude sap rises through the vessels of the wood, and mostly through the youngest layers, it will still do so, notwithstanding the removal of a portion of the bark; but after passing upwards by the vessels just mentioned, and being elaborated in the leaves, it will in its descent by the inner bark encounter an obstruction on reaching the ringed part, for its usual course will be cut off. This causes a greater accumulation of elaborated sap above the ring than would be the case if the natural channels of its descent were uninterrupted; hence the portion of the stem immediately above the incision is thicker than that below, the buds are more disposed to form blossom-buds, and the fruit is larger and more highly coloured. Similar results may be observed when a branch, through canker, has a portion of both inner and outer bark destroyed, and this offers quite as much interruption as if the portion had been entirely removed. We have observed a branch of an apple-tree live for many years with a canker extending nearly all round, and the fruit was large, and acquired a brighter colour than that on a sound branch, until the branch thus affected became enfeebled. Although ringing may be advantageously practised in some cases, yet it should be done with caution, for it weakens the tree, and will certainly kill it if carried to a great extent. We may assist and guide nature, but cannot violate her laws with impunity. Root-pruning. — This operation consists in shortening more or less the roots of a plant. Its immediate effect is a reduction of the supply of nourishment, and consequently a less rapid development of shoots; and within certain limits, the slower the growth, the greater is the disposition to form blossom-buds. We say within certain limits, for if root-pruning is practised too severely a general debility must result, and the plant, however predisposed by the operation to produoe fruit-buds, is unable to bring fruit to maturity. It is in many cases advantageous to have the principal feeders of the plant near its stem, just as it is to have the principal branches near the ground. Take for example a tree planted against a wall and in a rich border; left to nature it would grow perpendicularly, and throw out most of its branches near the top of the wall, while its roots would extend horizontally, and the principal feeders would be found near the outer limits of the border. By pruning and training, the branches can be made to furnish the lower part of the wall, but notwithstanding this the roots would still travel outwards; but by root-pruning, the portion of border next the wall can be occupied with fibrous instead of thick roots, for by cutting the latter a number of small ones is produced. Root-pruning is also usefully practised when plants have their roots injured in transplantation. It is generally better to cut lacerated or bruised roots clean off than to allow them to remain and linger, for the young roots which are encouraged to push from the sound portion by the cutting back, are greatly preferable to old unsound ones. The spongioles at the340 GARDENER'S ASSISTANT. extremities of hair-like roots are so delicate that it is almost impossible to transplant them without their tips being so far injured as to render them incapable of further extension; and when this is the case, it is frequently better to cut back to where the fibres are substantial enough to throw out spongioles of an efficient character. In practising root-pruning, with the view of checking excessive vigour and undue fruitfulness, we must endeavour not to go to any greater extent than will be just sufficient to produce the desired effect. It is injurious to cut off at once a large branch, therefore the removal should be effected by degrees; and so it is with a large root. Of the part intended to be removed, one-lialf, or rather a portion with half the total quantity of fibres, may be cut off in one year, and half in the following year. Root-pruning may be performed at various seasons; in general the safest and best season is that which is the most proper for transplanting, say, for fruit-trees, either immediately after the leaves have fallen in autumn, or just before the sap is in active flow in spring. Mr. BeattieJ however, was very successful in root-pruning pear-trees in summer. The end of July is a good time for trees that have no crop on them. Mi’. Fleming root-prunes the apricot, peach, and nectarine as soon as the fruit is gathered, and finds it beneficial in the rather cold and damp climate of Trentham. Mr. Rivers, an excellent authority in all matters relating to fruit-trees, formerly practised root-pruning very extensively, but is now favourable to taking up the trees every second year, in autumn, and replanting them. This biennial removal answers the purposes of root-pruning, and in our opinion is preferable in the case of trees not too old for being readily transplanted. It has the advantage over root-pruning as regards the spreading out of the roots. In replanting, these can all be regulated and placed in the best possible positions. In cold soils they can be raised uniformly near the surface, although most of them may have previously been too deep, and extended nearly at full length in a horizontal position. It is not so when by root-pruning the perpendicular roots are merely cut at a certain depth below the surface. CHAPTER XY. TRAINING. Training is the conducting of the stem and branches of trees or other plants in directions different from that which they would in general naturally take. Thus, instead of an upright direction, they may be made to assume one which is oblique, horizontal, or pendulous; and where they are naturally oblique, they may be raised to the perpendicular, or depressed to a horizontal or pendulous position. It is, in short, to give the stem and branches of plants certain artificial positions, in order to adapt them to artificial circumstances. For example, a tree planted against a wall would, if left to itself, form a huge irregular mass of branches and foliage; the number of branches has therefore to be regulated by pruning, and their position by training. Plants under cultivation have generally to be limited to a certain space; wall-trees, for instance, in an upright direction at least, by the height of the wall. Fruit-trees in walled gardens cannot be allowed to take their natural growth and elevation, otherwise those on the walls as well as the low crops would be too much shaded. The trees must therefore be kept within certain limits, and their branches and shoots ought to be disposed to the best advantage within those limits by training. By this we can place the branches so that all of them may have a fair share of as much light as possible. This requires regularity, so that several branches may not be crowded into the space which only one should occupy. The leaves of the branches ought not to be allowed to shade one another, when, by distancing the branches properly in training, each can have the leaves fully exposed. A fair exposure to light is one of the principal objects to be borne in mind in training. But the branches may be well regulated as regards exposure to light, without being equally so with respect to the flow of sap. For instance, they may be disposed like the radii of a circle, touching the circumference at equal distances, asTRAINING. 341 only to consider the branch on each side of the perpendicular. It has been already explained, that the sap flows with much greater force into the upright and nearly upright branches than it does into those having a horizontal position; therefore branches radiating at equal distances, like those in the figure, would soon become very unequal in point of vigour; c c would of course be strong, a a comparatively weak, whilst b b would maintain a somewhat intermediate condition. If instead of training the shoots c c in a straight direction, we depress them at d d, and bend them in the growing season, as indicated by the curved line, towards b b, we shall greatly check their over-luxuriance. On the other hand, by elevating the horizontal shoots at e e, and training them in the direction of the dotted line towards b b, those shoots will be thereby greatly invigorated. In short, by curving the upper branches downwards, and the lower ones upwards, the flow of sap is checked in the former and promoted in the latter; and the consequence is, that a a and c c are equal in vigour to the medium b b, and to each other. If we were to raise the branches a a so as to occupy the position of the straight-trained branches b b, it is evident that their growth would correspond with that which b b would make if they were allowed to remain; and such also would be the case if c c were brought down to the same position as b b. But supposing that the branches b b must occupy their present position, it cannot of course be occupied by either of the adjoining branches; yet by curving the lower and weaker ones upwards, and the upper or stronger ones downwards, the same or nearly the same effect is produced. To regulate the branches of plants with regard to light, and to elevate or depress them in reference to the flow of sap, constitute the essential principles of training, so far as a well-balanced vegetation is concerned. Where this is not taken into much account, as in some cases of ornamental training, the operation may be left to the guidance of fancy, assisted by mechanical ingenuity. The principal modes of training are the fan, the horizontal, the vertical, the oblique, and the wavy or curved. All others, however designated, must be considered as modifications of these five. Fan-training, Fig. 241, is so called from the principal branches being disposed somewhat like the ribs of a fan. This mode of training may be commenced as in Fig. 242, where the tree is supposed to have made its first three shoots. Of these b and c have been trained at a considerable | elevation, say about 45°, to favour their growth, and consequently the strength of the whole plant- Fig. 241. a At the winter pruning a is cut over above three eligibly situated buds, one to form a new upright leader, the others, d and e, to give rise to two lateral branches. Turning now to Fig. 241, we find that b and c have been lowered, and that their place is occupied by the two new shoots Fan-training. springing from d and e, Fig. 242. But these, it will be observed, are shortened above buds which give rise to the branches k, l, h, i; and the leader, cut back at the same time, produces from the buds below the section two shoots,/and g; also a new upright if necessary. The two original side-shoots b and c are further lowered to m n, and finally to o p; and as these are lowered, those above them can likewise be successively brought down. By so doing, the spaces occupied by h, i, f, g will be left vacant, but they can be filled up by again cutting back the upright shoot, as was done when f and g were produced. It is obvious that the further the branches extend the greater will be the distance between them, so that there would be room for more leading branches. When that is the case, each of the branches should be subdivided.342 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Fan-training, or some modification of it, is usually adopted for stone-fruits, such as the peach, apricot, cherry, and plum. It is necessary however to observe, that when employed for these, the branches should not diverge at or nearly at right angles from the central upright stem; for if so, the sap passes them, and they become weak in consequence, and prematurely die off. They ought therefore to be allowed to proceed from the stem according to their natural direction, and that position they should be allowed to retain near the stem. In the case of stone-fruits it would indeed be better to originate the shoots b c lower down the stem than they are represented in the figure, then allow them to follow at first their natural direction, and afterwards incline them by gentle means no lower than m n. In training the peach and nectarine, the upright shoot is dispensed with, and a modification of the fan-shape is effected by branches proceeding from two main branches, such as b, c, Fig. 242. Horizontal Training, Fig. 243, has been long employed, chiefly for the pear, ou walls and espaliers. The formation of the tree is very simple. When the young plant consists of a single upright shoot or stem, it is cut down, as at c, above three buds, one on each side, situated at the proper height for originating the two lower horizontal branches a, b, aud the third one for the upright leader. When the shoots push, the latter, of course, is trained upright, and the other two at some elevation, in order to strengthen them; for they cannot be too strong, provided they can be bent down easily when that is necessary, or towards autumn. At the next winter Fig. 243. Horizontal Training. pruning the distance between the courses of horizontal branches being determined, two buds, one on each side, a little below that distance, are to be selected, and at one bud above these the upright shoot is cut over. These three buds give rise to a second pair of horizontals and an upright shoot. By a similar mode of proceeding all the horizontal branches are successively originated. It was stated that the buds for the lower horizontals should be selected a little below the line along which they are intended to be trained, but before reaching this, they will have an upward curve. This is recommended in order to facilitate the flow of sap into these branches. At each successive stage, the distance from the origin of the branches to the horizontal line should be less and less, and towards the top they may proceed from the stem in a perfectly horizontal line. But this only applies to apple and pear trees, and not to stone-fruits; for their branches should never be trained at right angles from a perpendicular stem; they should in all cases be allowed to take an ascending direction for some distance from their origin. Instead of cutting back the cen-tral stem at each winter pruning, so as to have only one horizontal course in a year, some, favoured with a good soil and climate, will make two or more, as has been done in many instances with pear-trees in the royal gardens at Frogmore. But to do this the trees must be vigorous, and the central shoots stopped in summer, so as to throw out laterals at the proper place. Unless, however, the tree is vigorous, it is not advisable to originate branches except from mature buds, for laterals are not so substantial. Oblique Training is represented in Fig. 244. The branches are obtained at regular distances Fig. 244. in the same way as in horizontal training, the only difference being that instead of afterwards training them in a horizontal direction they areTRAINING. 343 made to start upwards. That direction of the branches is more favourable to their growtli than the horizontal, and is consequently better adapted for weak-growing varieties. The wall is sooner completely covered, with the exception of the portions a, b, at the lower part. Upright Training is represented in Fig. 245. The horizontal portion a b should be trained obliquely at first like an open Y, and lowered by degrees to the horizontal position. Shoots will push, more especially on the upper side; but they must be kept in check till the horizontal branches a and b have had their extremities advanced Fig. 245. towards c and d, and then the whole may be allowed to grow upwards, but at an equal pace. The greatest care must be taken to prevent any one from getting in advance of the others. If any show this disposition, it should be immediately checked. Wavy or Curvilinear Training.—This admits of many variations. The stem may be serpentine and the branches oblique, Fig. 246; the stem may be straight and the branches wavy; or both stem and branches may be "wavy, as in Fig. 247. The object of all these modes is to prevent the sap from flowing, according to its natural tendency, in much greater abundance towards the upper part of the tree than it does into the lower branches. It has been well ascertained that if the main stem were straight, instead of curved, as it is in Fig. 246, and the branches diverging from it in the same direction as they are represented to do in that figure, the sap, following its direct upward tendency, would not turn readily aside to give a fair supply to the lower branches, which would consequently become weak, and the more so as those on the upper part become, on each other. In starting the young tree for this mode of training, the maiden shoot of the preceding summer’s growth should be cut back before winter to three good eyes, one on each side to give rise to the branches d, e, and the other for344 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. say to the right, and then to the left, so as to form a bend where the next branch, f, is intended to be originated; and as it grows, the same leader must be again turned from left to right, thus forming another bend from where it is intended that the branch g should proceed. As the bud situated at the outward or convex part of a bend is almost sure to push, several bends may be made in the same season if the leading shoot is vigorous, but otherwise it will be a more certain course to cut back, as in horizontal training, to a bud for a leader above two others eligible for the formation of two side branches. The distance between the branches must be determined according to the kind of tree. In pears the branches may be 9 inches or 1 foot apart, in peaches 1 foot, in order that there may be room to train in bearing shoots and others from the bases of these for succession. It has been found that where the sun’s rays strike directly on the bend at about two or three o’clock p.m., the back is apt to scorch and crack, and to prevent this it is advisable to train some shoots over the stem. The stem may be straight and the branches wavy; but this, as already observed, would be no encouragement for the sap to enter the latter, but quite the contrary; therefore, on the whole, that mode cannot be recommended. In some cases it may, however, be partially adopted, as when certain branches in the upper part of a tree, and favoured by an upright position, are likely to become too luxuriant for the others. The mode represented in Fig. 247, in which both the stem and branches are wavy, was recommended by Mr. Hayward. It succeeds with careful management, but there are serious objections to its general adoption. In the first place, two naked stems are trained in the Y fashion, each to the length of about 4 feet. This takes some years. Then the upper sides of these branches, if not protected, become scorched with the sun. Again, if a branch of a fan-trained tree should die, others can be brought down to fill up the vacancy, so that the loss is not apparent; but by the mode in question, if one of the limbs should gum and die, the tree is left unsightly, with only one wing, the position of which cannot be altered to cover the bare portion of the wall. One of the two limbs of a subdivided stem is much more liable to die than a single stem. Instead of two, it would therefore be far better in wavy training to have only a single serpentine stem, as in Fig. 246, with wavy branches like those in Fig. 247. The latter, it will be seen from the figure, have an ascent on springing from the stem, then incline to a nearly horizontal position, and again curve upwards towards their | extremities. The first direction allows the sap to enter; it is a little checked in the nearly horizontal position, but it will there swell the buds for fruit, while the turned-up extremities will be in a favourable position for drawing sap to maintain sufficient vigour in the branch. The advantage, then, of this mode is, that all the principal branches are on an equality as regards inclination. One portion is not horizontal, or nearly so, whilst another is almost or quite vertical, as must be the case in fan-training. This equality tends to a regular distribution of the sap, and uniformity of growth throughout the tree is consequently induced. Should one of the branches, except the lowest, die, a shoot may be trained from the base of the one next below it to supply its place. If the lowest fail, a bud may be inserted even under the old bark in spring, or at the usual season of budding. In Hitt’s mode of training the peach, the stem is divided into two branches, which, after diverging, are carried up in a serpentine manner, as in Hayward’s; but the branches are made to proceed from the bends in a horizontal direction, and from these horizontals bearing shoots are trained perpendicularly at regular distances. The trees subjected to this mode bear very well, but are liable to the same objections as those trained in Hayward’s; that is, when one of the main limbs gives way a large portion of wall is left bare, while the remaining half of the tree presents an unsightly appearance. Seymour's Training, Fig. 248.—Among the modifications of fan-training, we must mention Seymour’s, for none presents a more elegant design or greater regularity. From a point near the base of the tree a semicircle with a radius of 10 feet is described. A nail, driven in at every 10 inches on the circumference, serves to mark the points towards which the leading shoots are dii’ected. The number of these shoots, when the tree is complete, is about 40. Bearing shoots are encouraged at every 12 inches, but only upon the upper sides of the branches, and to these they are tied down, a succession shoot being encouraged from the base of each. The whole has a very regular fan-like appearance. We have seen a tree trained in this way extending nearly 40 feet along the wall, and covering it to the height of 10 feet. But when trees so trained have attained nearly their perfect form and development, they commence to decline. As the upper branches, profiting by their more upright position, become strong, the lowTer ones, proceeding at right angles to the stem, become weak, linger, and ultimately die off. Previous to this, their junction with the stem has not a natural appearance. They haveTRAINING 345 not that shouldering which branches taking their natural direction have; and a round stick, thrust into a hole made horizontally in the side of a tree with an auger, presents a nearly similar junction. The lower branch can only increase in thickness in proportion to the quantity of leaves which that branch can bear. The stem not only thickens partly by these, but also by the leaves borne by all the branches above the lower ones,' and when these amount to the number of eighteen on each side, the increase of the stem will be eighteen times greater than that of the horizontal branches. The disproportion between these and the stem becomes every year more and moi’e apparent. The sap prefers the abundant channels, and is not inclined to turn suddenly, at right angles, from that course into the contracted channels of the lower branches, and hence these branches perish one after another. Horizontal Training with a Double Stem, Fig. Horizontal Training with a Double Stem. 249.—In the formation of this, the young tree is cut back to two good eyes, one on each side. If both push with equal vigour, they are trained like the forks of the letter Y; but if they do not do so, the stronger must be depressed and the weaker elevated till an equality is obtained, and when this is the case both should be trained at an angle of 45°. The shoots ought to be directed perpendicularly, so as to form stems about 1 foot apart. From one of these stems shoots are trained at proper distances for horizontals to the right, and from the other to the left. The only346 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. difference between this mode and common horizontal training is that, instead of the horizontal branches proceeding from each side of a single stem, they are taken from one side of two stems. This is apt to cause some inconvenience, arising from the liability of one stem to become stronger than the other. In that case there is a loss to the general growth of the tree, for the vigorous growing side must be held in check till the one of weaker growth make up for it. Fan and Horizontal Training combined.—This is represented in Fig. 250. It may be very conveniently adopted in the case of apple, and mon Fig. 250. especially pear trees, which have been trained for some time against a wall that is too low for such a mode being profitably continued. A certain portion of wall can also be much sooner covered in this way than by the horizontal method. Modification of the Common Horizontal Training.—It was explained, with reference to Fig. 243, that one or more pairs of horizontal branches were annually obtained, that in some cases only one pair could be substantially originated, and that each horizontal proceeded more or less directly from the upright stem. Presuming that the horizontals are as much as 1 foot apart, and that the wall on which they are to be trained is 10 feet high, it then takes ten years, at one course a year, to reach the top of the wall. If the wall could be covered in half the time it would cei’-tainly be most desixable; and in order to do this, the mode represented in Fig. 251 may be adopted. It essentially differs from the common mode, in having only half the number of branches proceeding immediately from the stem, but at double the distance, and in these being afterwards subdivided. Thus side-shoots are encouraged at every 2 feet, and then subdivided, so as to form horizontals 1 foot apart. The following is the mode of proceeding:—Let the maiden plant be cut down as for ordinary horizontal training, and let an upright and two horizontals, represented by the dotted lines a, b, be trained in the following summer, throughout the greater part of which they should be allowed to take the direction b c, Fig. 242, but lowering them towards the end of the growing season to the position of b c, Fig. 241. In autumn cut the upright about 2 feet above where it was cut in the previous year for a new upright and two side-shoots. Also cut the shoots a, b, Fig. 251, within about 4 inches from the Fig. 251. stem, as at c, d. In the following spring buds will push from the base part, or that which was left by the cutting back at c and d. Select two from each, and train at 1 foot apart. Thus instead of one horizontal, as a, b, there will be two on each side, as e, f g, h. Proceed in a similar manner with the other branches till the whole of the horizontals are formed. From the cutting back of the upright shoot to 2 feet from where it was previously shortened, three young shoots are annually produced and trained, one as an upright, another as a horizontal to the right, and the third as a horizontal to the left. Both of the latter ai’e cut back near the base in autumn, and from the base of each of them two shoots are trained in the following season. The advantages of this mode are, first, the covering of the wall in about half the time required for single horizontals; second, the united bases of the two branches e f must, of course, become much thicker than the base of a single horizontal, because the former derives substance from the foliage borne by two branches, the latter from that borne by one only. By the mode in question, then, it is evident that the branches are of thicker substance at their connection with the stem than would be the case by the common mode of horizontal training, and this is an advantage. The thicker the stem, and the smaller the branches that proceed from its lower part, the more liable the latter are to die off. Let us suppose a tree to have sixteen horizontal branches, or eight on each side, and each to be 1 inch in diameter. The area of the section of each would be ‘7854 inch, or rather more than |ths of a square inch; and the aggregate area of the sixteen branches would then be 12'5G64TRAINING. 347 inches. Now it has been ascertained that the area of a section of a stem is about equal to the aggregate sectional area of all the branches above it, and that being the case, the stem would be about 4 inches in diameter. Supposing that on each horizontal branch a layer of Toth of an inch thick of alburnum is deposited, their diameter would consequently be increased xgths. The sectional area of each would be 1T309, and the aggregate increase 5‘5292, or rather more than 5-i inches. The area of the stem section, increasing in proportion to that of the branches, would then be rather more than 18 inches. But this area requires a diameter of 4T80 inches. Hence it appears that whilst each of the sixteen branches increases T25ths of an inch in diameter, the stem below them increases Te0ths, or four times as much. When two horizontals spring from one base, as in Fig. 251, the sectional area of that base, being equal to that of both the horizontals, is T57 inch, and its diameter 1-414 inch. Increasing in the same ratio as the branches, its area at the end of the season would be 2-2618 inches, and its diameter T696 inch, being an increase in diameter of nearly yVths of an inch, or nearly one-third more than when the branches spring directly from the stem, as in common horizontal training. The proportion which the diameter and the circumference of the base, subdividing into the branches e,f, Fig. 251, bear to the diameter and circumference of the stem, is as 17 to 48; but supposing all other circumstances to be the same, the horizontals to be of equal strength, and each directly attached to the stem, the proportion would only be as 12 to 48. The mode represented in Fig. 251 may therefore be adopted, not only on account of its covering the wall more speedily, but also in order to give the branches a stronger connection with the stem. It may be observed that Mr. Smith of Hopetoun House invented a mode of training very similar to the above, but differing from it in the stem being divided into two upright branches, from which the horizontals were originated in precisely the same manner. Stellate Fan-training—Fig. 252.—This was formerly much employed for temporary stand- ards, intended to cover the upper part of a wall until such time as the permanent trees required the space. It is merely training the principal branches so as to radiate in all directions. Care must be taken to prevent, as much as possible, the upper part from growing too strong. Chandelier-training, with the branches oblique, is represented by Fig. 253. Two main branches are trained horizontally, nearly as far as the tree is intended to extend, and their extremities are then turned up perpendicularly. As these proceed, secondary branches, a, b, c, d, are trained obliquely inwards, at an angle of 45°. When these have extended as far as their assigned limits, Fig. 253. the branches E, f, g are allowed to grow, and are inclined at the same angle as the others; consequently each secondary branch is parallel to all the others on the same side. From this uniform inclination of the branches an equal distribution of the sap must result. It is true that the branches e, f, g are reversed; but were this not the case, or were they allowed a more erect position, they would appropriate too much of the sap, and become too strong for the others. The sap will not flow so readily into g as it will into a, for instance, because the latter diverges at a more natural angle; but if G, and likewise e, f, be allowed to grow erect for 2 or 3 inches, and are then inclined parallel to a, the flow of sap will be equalized. Oblique Single-stem Training.—This mode is sometimes employed in order to cover a wall more promptly than it could be by any other means. It consists in planting maiden plants of peaches or other kinds of fruit-trees at 2^ or 3 feet apart, and then training the stems at an angle of 45°, bearing wood being encouraged in the intervals. This and other modes of cordon training will be referred to in connection with the fruit-trees to which they are applied. Pendulous Training, Fig. 254, has been recom-348 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. mended for apple and pear trees against walls, especially when the variety is apt to produce wood rather than fruit. This mode has certainly Fig. 254. the effect of inducing fruitfulness, and trees by means of it can be kept in small space. But great care must be taken in summer to check all shoots taking an upward direction, otherwise the pendulous branches will be robbed, and will ultimately become too weak, which they are also apt to do if allowed to bear too much fruit. Pyramid-training.—There are several kinds of this, but they all present the same general appearance—that of an upright stem furnished from the top to within 15 inches of the ground with branches, of which those next the ground are longest, the next above these somewhat shorter, the next higher shorter again than those immediately below them, and so on to the top; the whole presenting the form of a pyramid or cone. This may be of greater or less height; but the form in which the height is equal to the circumference at the base is considered the most handsome. Pyramid with the branches bent dowmcards.— In rich damp soils the apple and pear, when trained in the form above described, are apt to throw out shoots instead of forming fruit-spurs. When this is the case, it is a good plan to leave the shoots at length, and train them downwards, as represented in Fig. 255. The branches are allowed to grow without shortening until the lower extend fully beyond the space which the tree is intended to occupy. A hoop is then placed on the ground to mark a circle, of which the tree is the centre. Small stakes are driven in the line marked by the hoop, and so as to stand about 10 or 12 inches above the ground, and to the tops of these the hoop is secured. Strings are then attached to the branches, and having been pulled so as to arch them downwards- are tied to the hoop. The lower branches being thus secured, the next tier is tied down to them, and so on. In proceeding, however, towards the top, the Pyramid with Pendulous Branches. curves should extend less and less from the tree, so as to preserve the conical or pyramidal outline. No branch will then be completely overhung by any one of higher origin on the stem. They thrive better when this is the case. Chandelier Pyramidal Training (Pyr amide Girandole of the French) is represented in Fig. 256. Instead of the branches being encouraged at uniform distances along the stem, as in the common pyramid, they are in this form placed in stages, with about 18 inches of clear stem betweeu each. It has the advantage of allowing a freer access of light to the foliage and fruit near the stem, and consequently favours the colouring and ripening of the fruit. Besides the above modes, pyramids are also formed by stages at the uniform distance of about 15 inches, with the branches trained horizontally. Again, the branches forming the different stages are by some so trained that the branches of one stage are not directly over those of the one beneath it, but over the intervals between them. Others, again, make five branches radiate from the stem for the lower tier, then other five exactly over the first five, and so on; thus form* [ ing, as it were, five angular recesses, separatedTRAINING. 349 by five partitions of branches. Some trees trained in this way at the Jardin des Plantes, at Paris, have an elegant appearance. Balloon-training, Pig. 257, answers tolerably well for pear and apple trees, provided the top is kept perfectly clear in summer of upright shoots, which are so apt to spring up. These should be rubbed off immediately they make their ap-pearauce. In forming the balloon, the shoots ought to be trained horizontally at first, and whilst in that position they should be subdivided, till as many shoots are obtained as may be necessary. When they have extended sufficiently to form the curve representing the top of the balloon, they should be tied down to a hoop, which is secured by small stakes driven somewhat obliquely into the ground. Vase with dwarf stem and upright branches, Pig. 258.—To form this the maiden plant is cut about 1 foot from the ground. Three shoots may be encouraged, and trained at an angle of about 45°. In the succeeding autumn these should be cut to within 3 or 4 inches of their Chandelier Pyramidal Training. origin, and in the following season two shoots can be trained from each, at the same angle as were the shoots of the previous year, till near the end of the growing season, when they may be brought nearer to the horizontal. By again shortening the shoots, the number for Fig. 257. Balloon-training. training in the ensuing season will be doubled. Although three shoots could be obtained from each one that is shortened, yet two is a preferable number, because one of the three is apt to grow too strong for the others, but two can be more easily kept on an equality. When the shoots have grown to the intended width of the vase, their points should be turned up perpendicularly at regular distances, and trained to hoops; and from the uprights bearing branches should be trained obliquely. Vase Pyramid, Fig. 259.—When the vase is completely formed, as in the preceding case, a shoot is, in this mode, allowed to grow upright from the centre, and is trained with a single stem till it is about 20 inches above the top of the vase. It is then managed so as to form a small pyramid from 2-| to 3 feet high, according as the upright branches forming the vase are more or less vigorous. According to M. Du Breuil, this pyramid affords an outlet for the superabundance of sap in the uprights of the vase; but if these should get weak from bearing, the growth of the pyramid should be kept in check. Vase with a tall stem, Fig. 260.— The only difference between this and the dwarf vase is the taller stem. There are a number of fruit-trees trained in this form in Fig. 25S. the gardens of the Luxembourg at Paris, and with very good effect. They require to be care-350 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. fully attended to as regards summer pruning and training; but, if well managed in these respects, Fig- 259. Fig. 260. they bear very well, and are preferable to common rambling-headed standards near walks in walled-in gardens. CHAPTER XVI. THE APPLE, PEAR, QUINCE, AND MEDLAR. THE APPLE (Pi/rus Malus, L.; Malm communis, D. C.—Icosandria Pentagynia, L.; Ros-acene, J.; Pomacece, Lind.), termed in its wild state the crab, is indigenous to Britain, and to most warm and temperate parts of Europe. It proves only half-hardy at St. Petersburg, but resists the cold which occurs in the extreme north of the British Isles, and some of its cultivated varieties can be there fruited in tolerable perfection. The tree forms in general a round spreading head, ami does not. aspire to the height of the pear, yet, under equal circumstances, it acquires a thicker stem. Where the soil is good, and the subsoil not retentive nor liable to become at any time too dry, it will live for hundreds of years. It will succeed in climates too cold for the pear, plum, and cherry; it also blossoms later than any of these— in May, generally a warm period of the season—and thus escapes the frosts which often ruin the crops of the above-mentioned fruit-trees, which blossom in April or earlier. The blossoms of the apple are, however, equally as tender as those of the earlier flowering sorts of fruit-trees, or even more so, if subjected to the same degree of frost. No other kind of fruit-tree is so well adapted for cultivation in the gardens of all classes, and none affords so lasting and so generally useful a supply. The fruit of some of its early varieties is fit for use in July, and that of some later ripening sorts may be kept till that time in the following season, and even later. Its usefulness for the dessert, for numerous culinary prepax’ations, in confectionery, and for the production of cider, is so well known as only to need allusion here. The varieties of the apple are exceedingly numei’ous, and we may safely state that thousands of them exist nameless, and only known as seedlings in the locality where they originated. There are hundreds of such in this country; and in America, according to all accounts, the number is much greater. Some varieties are cultivated for their rich flavour, others for their peculiar fitness for culinary purposes, and for the confectioner; some for their size and beauty, others for their late keeping, hardiness, and abundant bearing; and, finally, a numerous class is extensively cultivated for their peculiar adaptation for the manufacture of cider. When we further consider that, with regard to dessert apples, tastes vary greatly — some persons preferring brisk, and others sweet-flavoured apples—that a considerable number of sorts is required for a full succession throughout the year, and that different soils and climates require different varieties—it is evident that the number of sorts necessai’y to be retained in cixltivation xxiixst be considex’able. The varieties of which the following descrip-tions are givexx are all of great xxxei'it, and form a collection of good sorts for the dessert and for kitchen use. 1. Adams’ Pearmain — syn. Norfolk Pippin.—ShootsTHE APPLE. 351 long, rather slender, of a dark chestnut colour, thinly sprinkled with small pale dots, slightly downy. Leaves middle-sized, ovate, concave, acuminate, doubly and sharply serrated. Petioles about 1 inch in length, rather slender. Fruit rather above the medium size, Pearmain-sliaped, with a regular outline, broadest towards the base, without angles. Eye rather large, open, deeply sunk in a narrow, slightly plaited basin. Stalk generally long and slender, inclining to one side, and inserted in a shallow cavity. Skin greenish yellow, thinly covered with spots of soft brown russet on the shaded side; next the sun red, intermixed with yellow, lightly streaked with darker red, and thinly sprinkled with whitish spots, which are most numerous near the base. Flesh yellowish white, firm, crisp, rich, sugary, juicy, with an agreeable brisk acidity and high flavour. A handsome and sound - keeping dessert apple; in season from November to February. The tree is very hardy, healthy, and a good bearer. 2. Alexander — syn. Aporta, Emperor Alexander, Russian Emperor, Kaiser Alexander von Russland.— Shoots strong, brownish violet, sprinkled with small, oval, or linear specks, slightly downy. Leaves large, thin, roundish oval, acuminate, coarsely serrated. Petioles of medium length and strength. Fruit very large, shortly conical, with a regular outline. Eye large, deeply sunk in an evenly formed cavity. Stalk about 1 inch in length, slender, deeply inserted. Skin smooth, yellow, with a few broken streaks of red on the shaded side, of a deeper yellow and streaked with bright red next the sun, the whole surface covered witli a fine bloom. Flesh yellowish, soft, sweet, not very juicy, of an agreeable though not high flavour. A large but light kitchen apple of a very beautiful appearance; in season from September to December. The tree is vigorous and a good bearer. It should be planted so as to be well exposed to the light, in order that the fruit may acquire its proper colour. The variety is of Russian origin, and was introduced into this country, in 1817, by Mr. Lee of Hammersmith; but it is supposed to have been brought to Twickenham some years previously. 3. Alfriston—syn. Lord Gwydyr’s Newtown Pippin, Oldaker’s New, Shepherd’s Pippin, Shepherd’s Seedling, Baltimore and Newtown Pippin of some.—Shoots strong, chestnut red, much spotted with pale brown, slightly downy. Leaves ovate or oblong, with a long tapering apex, regularly serrated. Petioles rather long. Fruit very large, roundish, with obtuse angles on the sides. Eye nearly closed, rather deeply set in a moderately large and tolerably even cavity. Stalk short, thick, deeply inserted. Skin greenish, veined with russet next the sun, slightly mottled with grayish white where shaded. Flesh yellowish white, crisp, and very juicy. An excellent kitchen apple; in season from November till April. The tree is vigorous, hardy, and a good bearer. 4. Ashmead’s Kernel.—Fruit rather small, roundish, flattened. Skin greenish yellow and russety. Eye small. Stalk short, deeply inserted. Flesh yellowish, juicy, rich, and sugary. A first-rate late-keeping dessert apple, in season from November to May. 5. Autumn Pearmain — syn, American Pearmain, Royal Pearmain of many, Summer Pearmain of some.— Shoots moderately strong, of a brownish violet colour, thinly strewed with gray specks, moderately downy. Leaves middle-sized, ovate, somewhat acuminate, rather sharply serrated. Petioles of medium length, slender. Fruit large, Pearmain-sliaped, tapering gently towards the apex, without angles on the sides. Eye open, set in a broad, shallow, slightly plaited basin, sometimes almost level with the top. Stalk short, obliquely inserted, having on oue side a fleshy projection of the base of the fruit. Skin smooth, brownish yellow on the shaded side, yellow marbled with red and streaked with brighter red next the sun, frequently covered with russet at the base, and sprinkled with numerous specks of brown russet. Flesh yellow, firm, crisp, not very juicy, but sweet, rich, and highly aromatic. A very handsome and excellent apple for the dessert, and one which is also suitable for kitchen purposes. It is in season during September and the first fortnight of October, after which period it generally becomes mealy. The tree attains a large size, is of an upright habit, vigorous, and a good bearer. G. Barcelona Pearmain — syn. Speckled Golden Reinette, lteinette Rousse, Reinette des Cannes, Glace Rouge, Kleine Casseler Reinette.—Shoots long, moderately strong, of a dull chestnut colour, thinly sprinkled with pale brown dots, very downy. Leaves rather small, oval, terminating abruptly in a long tapering point, rather sharply serrated. Petioles rather long and slender. Flowers rather small. Petals oval, inclining to ovate, not imbricated when fully expanded. Fruit middle-sized, oval, without angles. Eye small, open, set in a rather shallow, slightly plaited basin. Stalk short, slender, inserted in a small shallow cavity, and having generally a small fleshy protuberance from the base of the fruit attached to one side. Skin pale brownish yellow where shaded, rich bright red next the sun, and marked with numerous triangular russet scars, which are brownish on the shaded side, yellowish on that exposed to the sun; the whole presenting a speckled appearance. Flesh yellowish, firm, and rich, with an agreeably sub-acid juice, and an aromatic flavour. A very good, and, when well coloured, a beautiful dessert apple; in season from November till February, The tree is vigorous, of rather dwarf habit, and an excellent bearer, either as a dwarf or standard. 7. Baxter’s Pearmain.—Shoots strong, brown, very downy towards the extremities, sprinkled near the base with distinct gray dots. Leaves large, roundish oval, somewhat acuminate, coarsely and sharply serrated. Petioles of medium length. Fruit rather large, roundish Pearmain-sliaped. Eye rather large, open, set in a shallow depression, surrounded with some obtuse folds. Stalk short, thick, placed in a wide, rather shallow cavity. Skin light green, tinged and obscurely streaked with red next the sun. Flesh yellowish, firm, moderately juicy, with a brisk rich flavour. An excellent kitchen apple, and very good for the dessert; in season from November to March. The tree is of large growth, very hardy and productive, bearing well even in unfavourable seasons. 8. Beach am well—syn. Motteux’s Seedling.—Shoots moderately strong, bright chestnut, sprinkled with small whitish spots, slightly downy. Leaves middle-sized, ovate, acuminate, obtusely crenated. Petioles rather 811014;. Flowers middle-sized. Petals oval, not imbricated when fully expanded. Fruit small, ovate, with a regular outline, somewhat flattened at the base352 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. and apex. Eye small, open, set in a shallow, evenly rounded hollow. Stalk short, moderately thick, set in a small round cavity. Skin greenish yellow, sprinkled with some brown spots. Flesh yellowish, tender, juicy, brisk, and rich. An excellent dessert apple; in season from December till March or April. The tree is of medium growth, very hardy, and a good bearer. It should find a place in every collection. 9. Beauty of Kent—syn. Kentish Pippin of some.— Shoots strong, olive brown, moderately sprinkled with pale gray specks, slightly downy. Leaves large, broad oval or ovate, acuminate, coarsely and irregularly serrated. Petioles of medium length. Fruit large, somewhat conical, flattened at the base, and slightly so at the apex. Eye small, closed, set in a narrow angular cavity. Stalk short, inserted in a large hollow. Skin on the shaded side greenish yellow, with numerous pale spots, next the sun mostly covered with broken streaks and blotches of red. Flesh yellowish white, tender, juicy, and sub-acid. A very good kitchen apple; in season from October to February. The tree is hardy, vigorous, and a good bearer; but, according to Dr. Hogg, always subject to canker when grown on the Paradise stock, and in moist and heavy soils. 10. Bedfordshire Foundling—syn. Cambridge Pippin. — Shoots remarkably vigorous, chestnut-coloured with a violet hue, partially covered with a silvery epidermis, and marked with a considerable number of pale brown spots, moderately downy. Leaves very large, broad oval, acuminate, doubly and very sharply serrated. Petiole nearly 1 inch in length. Fruit very large, roundish, broadest at the base, obtusely angular on the sides, the angles prominent, and forming plaits round the eye. Eye large, open, inserted in a broad, rather deep hollow. Stalk short, inserted in a rather large, even cavity. Skin greenish yellow on the shaded side, slightly tinged with orange and thinly speckled with slight russet next the sun. Flesh yellowish white, tender, and juicy, with a pleasant sub-acid flavour. A very large, handsome, and excellent kitchen apple; in use from November to March. The tree is a very strong grower, and a good bearer after it has .attained a considerable size. 11. Betsey.—Fruit mail, roundish or flatly conical, pale yellow, with slight russet; flesh greenish yellow, juicy, and exceedingly rich. —A very good dessert apple; in season from November to January. 12. Blenheim Pippin — syn. Blenheim, Blenheim Orange, Nortliwick Pippin, Woodstock Pippin.—Shoots strong, spreading, purplish brown, sprinkled with a few large gray dots, covered with a silvery epidermis, slightly downy, the lower portion nearly smooth. Leaves large, roundish cordate at the base, acuminate, rather sharply but not deeply serrated. Petioles very short. Fruit very large, globular, somewhat depressed, rather broader at the base than at the top. Eye large, open, set in a wide, shallow, even depression. Stalk short, thick, inserted in a cavity of medium size. Skin greenish yellow at first, deep yellow when fully ripe, streaked with dull orange red next the sun. Flesh yellow, crisp, juicy, sweet, and rich. A beautiful and regularly formed apple, of excellent quality either for kitchen or table use; in season from November to February. The tree is vigorous, and in good soil grows rapidly to a large size. Whilst young it bears rather thinly, but after it has formed a considerable quantity of wood, it commences to bear in larger quantity, and ultimately very abundantly. It was raised near Blenheim Park, at Woodstock, in Oxfordshire, where the original tree till lately existed. 13. Boston Russet—syn. Putman’s Russet, Roxburgh Russet, Sliippen’s Russet of some.—Shoots strong, of a bright chestnut colour, covered with a silvery epidermis, thinly sprinkled with whitish dots, moderately downy. Leaves middle-sized, roundish oblong, acuminate, regularly serrated. Petioles of medium length. Fruit middle-sized, roundish, sometimes obtusely conical, broadest near the base, flattened at both ends, obtusely angular on the sides. Eye rather large, closed, set in a wide, moderately deep cavity. Stalk short, of medium thickness, sometimes long and slender, inserted in a moderately deep hollow. Skin yellowish green, intermixed throughout with brownish russet, and faintly tinged with reddish brown next the sun. Flesh yellowish, crisp, sugary, and rich, with a brisk juice, partaking of the flavours of the Ribston Pippin and Old Nonpareil. A most excellent dessert apple; in use from January to April. The tree is not a strong grower, but very hardy, and a great bearer; the fruit proving good even in the most unfavourable seasons. 14. Braddick’s Nonpareil—syn. Ditton Nonpareil. —Shoots moderately vigorous, of a chestnut colour, thinly strewed with whitish spots, covered with a fine down. Leaves middle-sized, ovate, tapering to the point, doubly and deeply serrated. Petioles long and rather slender. Fruit middle-sized, depressed globular, tapering a little towards the apex. Eye rather small, set in a deep even cavity. Stalk short, not deeply inserted. Skin smooth, greenish yellow on the shaded side, brownish red next the sun, generally covered with russet round the eye, and frequently russeted slightly elsewhere. Flesh yellowish, sugary, juicy, and rich, with a somewhat aromatic flavour. A very excellent and sound-keeping dessert apple; in season from December or January to April. The tree is not a strong grower, in consequence of its being a most abundant bearer, and apt to overbear, which, if circumstances will permit, should be prevented. This variety was raised by John Braddick, Esq., of Thames-Ditton, who brought it under the notice of the Royal Horticultural Society in 1818. 15. Brickley Seedling.—Shoots rather slender, like those of the Nonpareil, of a brownish chestnut colour, thinly sprinkled with small gray dots, moderately downy. Leaves small, elliptical, acuminate, sharply serrated. Petioles rather long and slender. Fruit small, roundish, tapering a little towards the apex. Eye small, open, inserted in an evenly rounded, rather shallow depression. Stalk short, placed in a wide shallow cavity. Skin greenish yellow on the shaded side, of a rich deep brownish red next the sun, with broken streaks of red towards the junction of the two colours. Flesh yellowish, firm, with a brisk rich flavour. A dessert apple, valuable on account of its sound keeping; in season from January to April. The tree is of moderate growth, hardy, and an abundant bearer. 10. Brownlees’ Russet—syn. Brownlees’ Seedling Russet.—Fruit large, roundish-ovate. Skin green and russeted in the shade, brownisli-red next the sun. EyeTHE APPLE. 353 closed. Stalk short. Flesh greenish-white, tender, juicy, briskly flavoured and aromatic. A first-rate kitchen apple, also very good for the dessert; in season from January to April. 17. Burr Knot—syu. Burr Apple.—Shoots slender, light chestnut, marked with very few gray dots, but mostly covered with thick gray pubescence. Leaves small, ovate, somewhat cordate at the base, slightly acuminate, with obtuse, moderately deep serratures. Fruit middle-sized, shortly conical. Eye large, nearly closed, rather deeply placed. Stalk short, inserted in a wide cavity. Skin smooth, yellow, brownish-yellow next the sun. Flesh white, tender, sub-acid. A very good kitchen apple; in season from October to January, The tree is of upright growth, rather dwarf, and a moderate bearer. Numerous excrescences, like callosities of cellular tissue, form upon the branches, and if covered with earth they readily strike root. 18. Calville Blanche d’Hiver—syn. 'White Cal-ville, White Winter Calville.—Fruit large, roundish, with prominent ribs on the sides. Skin pale yellow, changing to golden yellow when ripe, sometimes slightly tinged with red. Eye small, deep set. Stalk slender. Flesh white, tender, juicy, rich, and pleasant. A handsome and good dessert apple when ripened against a wall or under glass,and much esteemed in France as a kitchen apple. In season from December to March. 19. Cambusnethax Pippin—syn. Watch Apple, Winter Red Streak. — Shoots strong, of a dark chestnut brown, sprinkled with a few small pale dots, slightly downy. Leaves large, roundish oval, somewhat acuminate, glossy above, crenated. Petioles short. Fruit rather above the middle size, oblate. Eye very large, set in a wide even cavity. Stalk moderately thick, not deeply inserted. Skin pale-green, tinged with a blush of red next the sun. Flesh white, tolerably rich and juicy. A good dessert and kitchen apple; in season from October till January. The tree is vigorous, hardy, a good bearer, and suited for northern climates. 20. Carlisle Codlin. —Shoots moderately strong, brownish-violet, sprinkled with a few roundish gray dots, slightly downy. Leaves rather large, cordate, acuminate, rather sharply but not deeply serrated. Petioles about 1 inch in length. Fruit nearly of the medium size, ovate, or conical. Eye closed, set in a small plaited cavity. Stalk slender, upwards of 1 inch in length, inserted in a small narrow cavity. Skin pale greenish yellow. Flesh white, tender, with a brisk sub-acid juice. An excellent kitchen apple; best from August to October, but continuing good till December. It may be used at a very early stage of its growth, and is then a very good sauce apple. The tree is of medium size, hardy, and a good bearer. 21. Cellini.—A handsome culinary apple, resembling the Nonesuch in appearance and flavour, and the tree seems more vigorous; in season from October to November. 22. Claygate Pearmain.—Shoots spreading, of a dark chestnut colour, covered with a silvery epidermis, which is somewhat reticulated near the base, thinly sprinkled with gray dots, moderately downy. Leaves middle-sized, oval, acuminate, sharply serrated. Petioles long and slender. Floieers large. Petals oblong-ovate, cordate at the base. Fruit middle-sized, Pearmainshaped. Skin dull yellow, slightly russeted on the shaded side, streaked with dark red next the sun. Eye large, open, rather deep. Stalk of medium length and thickness, placed in a shallow cavity. Flesh yellowish, crisp, brisk, juicy, sugary, and rich, with a high flavour, somewhat resembling that of the Ribston Pippin. A dessert apple of great excellence; in season from November till March; but if not preserved from air and light by stowing in casks or drawers, it is apt to lose its briskness towards the latter period. The tree is of medium growth, hardy, healthy, and an abundant bearer. The variety was discovered in a hedge-row at Claygate, near Thames-Ditton, by John Braddick, Esq., who first made it known to the Horticultural Society in 1822. 23. Cobh am—syn. Pope’s.—Fruit rather large, roundish. Skin greenish-yellow, mottled with red. Eye open. Stalk slender and deeply inserted. Flesh pale yellow, tender, crisp, and aromatic, with somewhat of the Ribston Pippin flavour. An excellent dessert apple; in use from September to January. 24. Cockle’s Pippin—syn. Brown Cockle Pippin, Nutmeg Pippin, Nutmeg Cockle Pippin, White Cockle Pippin.—Shoots long, rather slender, chestnut-coloured, greenish-brown near the base, sprinkled with small whitish dots, slightly downy. Leaves middle-sized, oval, inclining to ovate, acuminate, sharply serrated. ! Petioles of medium length, rather slender. Fruit middle-sized, ovate. Eye small, closed, not deeply sunk, surrounded by small plaits. Stalk short, rather slender. Skin greenish-yellow, sometimes smooth, but generally covered or freckled—especially near the base and next the sun—with light brown russet. Flesh yellowish-white, firm, crisp, juicy, rich, and sugary. An excellent sound-keeping dessert apple; in season from January till April or May. The tree is healthy and an abundant bearer, well deserving cultivation as a late dessert apple. It is extensively grown in Sussex. 25. Coe’s Golden Drop.—Shoots slender, chestnut-coloured where well exposed, elsewhere of a light olive-brown, sprinkled with small dots, slightly downy. Leaves small, ovate, acuminate, irregularly and rather sharply serrated. Petioles about 1 inch in length, slender. Fruit small, ovate, or conical. Eye small, nearly close, level witli the surface, and surrounded by small plaits. Skin smooth, yellow on the shaded side, | tinged with red, and generally marked with ferruginous specks on the side next the sun. Flesh yellowish, firm, and rich, with a brisk vinous juice. An excellent dessert apple; in season from January till May. The tree is not a strong grower, but is a good bearer, and deserving of cultivation on account of the richness of its fruit. 20. Cornish Aromatic.—Shoots long, of moderate strength, chestnut-brown, thickly strewed with distinct grayish dots, slightly downy at the extremities. Leaves middle-sized, ovate, somewhat acuminate, crenated. | Petioles of medium length. Flowers middle-sized. I Petals roundish oval, imbricated. Fruit lather large, i roundish, somewhat angular, the angles more prominent towards the eye, which is small, closed, and rather deeply sunk. Stalk generally rather long, and deeply 1 inserted. Skin on the shaded side yellow, spotted with | brown, russeted with light brown at the base, of a rich russet red next the sun. Flesh yellowish, firm, juicy, | rich, and aromatic. 23354 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. A good table apple; in season from October to January. The tree is of moderate vigour, and a tolerably good bearer. 27. Cornish Gilliflower—syn. Cornish July-flower, Pomme Regelans.—Shoots rather slender and straggling, of a dark chestnut colour, thinly strewed with small pale-gray dots, moderately downy. Leaves small, narrow, oval, acuminate, sharply serrated. Petioles slender. Flowers middle-sized. Petals oval. Fruit middle-sized or rather large, ovate, angular on the sides, the angles terminating in unequal knobby protuberances round the eye, which is deep and closed. Stalk generally rather short, slender, not deeply inserted. Skin dull yellowish-green on the shaded side, brownisli-red intermixed with russet, and streaked with red next the sun. Flesh yellowish, firm, exceedingly rich, sugary, and delicious. This is by many esteemed the best of all the dessert apples for flavour, but it is by no means handsome in appearance. It is in use from the beginning of December till May. The tree is of medium size, but a shy bearer. The fruit-buds are principally produced at the extremities of the shoots, and this circumstance should be borne in mind in pruning, otherwise a great portion of the crop may be destroyed. The variety was discovered by a gentleman, about the beginning of the century, in a cottage-garden near Truro, and was brought under the notice of the Horticultural Society of London by Sir Christopher Hawkins in 1813. 28. Court of Wick—syn. Court of Wick Pippin, Court de Wick, Fry’s Pippin, Golden Drop, Kniglitwick Pippin, Phillips’ Reinette, Rival Golden Pippin, Weeks’ Pippin, W ood’s Huntingdon, Wood’s New Transparent, Yellow.—Shoots long and moderately vigorous, of a dark chestnut colour, marked with numerous whitish dots, slightly downy. Leaves of medium size, roundish oblong or ovate, acuminate, acutely crenated. Petioles of medium length. Fruit rather small, roundish, oblate, of a very handsome regular form. Eye large, open, set in a shallow evenly rounded cavity, upon the sides of which the segments of the calyx recline. Stalk short, rather slender, deeply inserted in a wide shallow cavity, the sides of which are even and generally russety. Skin yellow on the shaded side, orange yellow, spotted with brownish russet, and sometimes faintly streaked with red next the sun. Flesh deep yellow when fully ripe, crisp, juicy, rich, brisk, and delicious. A handsome and very excellent dessert apple; in season from October to March. The tree is of medium growth, very hardy, and an abundant bearer, even in the most exposed situations. It ought to be cultivated in every garden. The variety is said to have been raised from a seed of the Golden Pippin, at Court de Wick in Somersetshire. 2!). Court-pendu Plat—syn. Court-pendii, Court-pendfl Extra, Court-pendfl Musque, Court-pcudu Plat RougeAtre, Court-pendfl Rouge Musque, Court-pendfl Rond Gros, Court - pend A Rond Tres Gros, Court-pendfl Rond RougeAtre, Court-pendfl Rose, Court-pendfl Rosat, Rode Korpendu, Rosenfarbigcr Kurz-stiel, l’othe Kurzstiel, Corianda Rose, Garnon’s Apple, Pomme de Berlin, Russian, Wollaton Pippin,—Shoots short, reddish - brown, moderately downy, thickly covered with down at the extremities. Leaves middle-sized, ovate, somewhat acuminate, their edges turned up and having small serratures. Petioles of medium length. Flowers rather small. Petals ovate. Fruit middle-sized, oblate, the transverse section somewhat resembling the figure 8 placed in a horizontal position. Eye large, open, set in a wide evenly-formed basin. Stalk very short, deeply inserted in a wide cavity, rarely projecting beyond the base of the fruit. Skin yellowish-green, streaked with deep brownish-red on the shaded side, deep red marked with russety spots next the sun. Flesh yellowish-white, firm, very juicy, brisk, rich, sugary, and delicious. One of the best late-keeping dessert apples; in season from December till April. The tree is of dwarf habit, very hardy, and an abundant bearer. The blossoms and leaves appearing at a much later period than in any other variety, the crop frequently escapes injury from late spring frosts when the blossoms of other sorts are destroyed; hence in some localities it is called the Wise Apple. It succeeds well as a dwarf, especially when grafted on the Paradise stock, and may even be kept under 3 feet high with but little pruning. It is also very eligible for cultivation in pots. It requires, however, a good climate and full exposure to the sun, otherwise the fruit does not attain full perfection as regards colour and flavour. 30. Cox’s Orange Pippin.—Fruit medium-sized, roundish, and regular in its outline. Skin greenish-yellow, streaked with red; dark red when exposed to the sun. Eye small and open. Stalk half an inch long. Flesh yellowish, very tender, juicy, and sweet, with a fine perfume and rich aromatic flavour. One of the best dessert apples; in season from October to February. It is held so much in estimation by the Yorkshire people that they are planting it in preference to their own Ribston Pippin, and this is a great deal to say; for without good grounds they would not do this. 31. Devonshire Quarrenden—syn. RedQuarrenden, Sack Apple.—Shoots moderately long, dark violet-brown, thinly sprinkled with roundish and oblong whitish 1 specks, very downy. Leaves middle-sized, oblong-ovate, somewhat acuminate, irregularly serrated. Petioles rather long, moderately thick. Floivers middle-sized, early. Petals roundish. Fruit middle-sized for a dessert apple, oblate or depressed globular, from 2 j to 21 inches in diameter transversely, and about 1A inch from the base to the apex. Eye rather large, but completely closed, level with the top, or slightly depressed, surrounded by shallow ridges or knobs. Stalk rather short and thick, not deeply inserted. Skin polished, of a uniform rich dark red, pale green where shaded. Flesh greenish-white, tender, crisp, and sweet, with an abundance of brisk very agreeable vinous juice. A beautiful and excellent early dessert apple; ripe in August, and keeping till about the end of September. The tree is of medium size, very hardy, and an abundant bearer either as a dwarf or as an orchard standard. 32. Dum flow's Seedling--syn. Dumelow’s Crab, Duke of Wellington’s, Normanton Wonder, Wellington. —Shoots vigorous, dark brown, very thickly set with whitish dots, slightly downy. leaves middle-sized, roundish-oblong, acuminate, irregularly serrated. Petioles about 1 inch in length. Fruit large, roundish, flattened at each end. Eye large, open, rather deeply inserted in an irregular hollow. Stalk short, placed in a small cavitj’. Skin smooth, pale yellow on the shaded side, tinged with a blush of light red next the sun, aud when much exposed, bright red on that side. FleshTHE APPLE. 355 yellowis^i-wliite, firm, crisp, with an abundance of brisk acid juice. One of the best long-keeping kitchen apples; in season from November to March, and not apt to shrivel or lose its briskness. The tree is vigorous, hardy, and an abundant bearer. The variety was raised by a farmer called Dummeller, of Shackerstone, near Asliby-de-la-Zouch; and was first brought into notice by Mr. "Williams, nurseryman, of Turnham Green, who in 1820 exhibited the fruit to the Horticultural Society, under the name of the Wellington Apple, the designation by which it is still best known in Covent Garden. 33. Dutch Codlin—syn. Chalmers’ Large.—Shoots very strong, brownish-chestnut, with a tinge of violet, partially covered with a silvery epidermis, and sprinkled near the base with a few pale dots, moderately downy. Leaves very large, br*oad ovate or somewhat cordate, slightly acuminate, doubly and sharply serrated. Petioles short. Fruit very large, roundish oblong, obtusely angular on the sides. Eye small, deeply sunk in an angular cavity. Stalk short, thick, inserted in a rather wide irregular cavity. Skin smooth, yellowish-green, with a bright brown tinge next the sun when well exposed. Flesh white and tender, with a pleasant subacid juice. Core large and open. An excellent kitchen apple; in season in August and September. The tree is vigorous; and although the fruit is rather thinly set, yet, owing to its large size, the crop is often heavy. 34. Dutch Migxoxne—syn. Christ’s Golden Reinette, Copmanthorpe Crab, Grosser Casseler Reinette, Paternoster Apfel, Pomme de Laak, Stettin Pippin, Reinette Doree of the Germans.—Shoots strong, erect, bright chestnut, thickly set with whitish spots. Leaves large, ovate, acuminate, regularly serrated. Petioles long, much stained with red. Flowers rather large. Petals ovate, much imbricated at their base, pale blush. Fruit middle-sized, roundish, somewhat oblate, rather broader at the base than at the apex. Eye very small, generally closed, deeply inserted in a narrow basin, the sides of which are sometimes slightly plaited. Stalk 1 inch in length, deeply inserted. Skin greenish-yellow, mottled with dull red, and marked with broken streaks of red and crimson next the sun, sprinkled all over with numerous white, green, and russet dots. Flesh greenish-yellow, firm, crisp, and rich, with an abundance of brisk sub-acid juice. An excellent apple either for the table or for culinary purposes, keeping well, and retaining its flavour from December till April. The tree is vigorous, of large growth, very hardy, and a great bearer; but to attain perfection for table use, the fruit requires a good season. 35. Early Harvest—syn. Yellow Harvest, Large Yellow Harvest, Prince’s Yellow Harvest, Prince’s Harvest, July Pippin, July Early Pippin, Large Early, Large "White Juneating, Prince’s Early Lemon, Tart Bough, Early French Reinette of the Americans, Pomme d’Ete of Canada.—Shoots slender, chestnut brown, partially covered with a grayish epidermis, and sprinkled with a few small, pale, yellowish-brown spots, slightly downy. Leaves small, roundish or roundish oval, shortly acuminate, finely serrated. Petioles of medium length. Fruit middle-sized, roundish, somewhat flattened at both ends. Eye small, closed, placed in a shallow basin. Stalk short, rather slender, inserted in a wide, rather shallow cavity. Skin pale greenish yellow when the fruit is first gathered, turning to pale yellow when it is best for eating, marked near the eye with numerous whitish dots appearing as if below the skin. Flesh white, crisp, tender, sweet, and rich, with a brisk, highly refreshing juice, and a flavour closely resembling that of a •well-ripened Newton Pippin. Hardly surpassed as a summer dessert apple; useful also for culinary purposes. It ripens about the beginning of August, and continues in use for two or three weeks. The tree forms a spreading head with straggling branches, and is not a strong grower, but healthy, and an excellent bearer. This variety is of American origin, and was introduced by the Horticultural Society. It is one of the few American apples that acquire a satisfactory degree of flavour in this country. 30. Early Nonpareil—syn. Hicks’Fancy, New Nonpareil, Stagg’s Nonpareil, Summer Nonpareil.—Shoots long and slender, upright, near the base and where shaded of a deep olive green, elsewhere of a bright chestnut colour, sprinkled with a few well-defined roundish or oval dots of a grayish colour, very slightly downy. Leaves middle-sized, roundish oval or somewhat ovate, acuminate, crenated. Petioles of medium length and rather slender. Flowers middle-sized. Petals roundish oval. Fruit below the middle size, oblate, broadest at the base. Eye slightly open, set in a narrow, evenly formed, shallow cavity. Stalk short, rather thick, deeply inserted. Skin dull greenish yellow, covered with very thin brown russet, and thinly sprinkled with gray spots. Flesh yellowish white, crisp, and tender, with an abundance of rich, brisk juice, nearly approaching to the sprightly flavour of the Old Nonpareil. A most excellent dessert apple; in season from October to December. The tree is hardy and very productive, comes soon into bearing, and succeeds well as a dwarf on the Paradise stock. The variety was raised from a seed of the Old Nonpareil, about the year 1780, by a nurseryman of the name of Stagg, at Caister, near Yarmouth. It is highly deserving of cultivation; for, besides its good bearing properties, it affords a supply of fruit witli the Nonpareil flavour at a comparatively early period of the season. 37. Early Red Margaret — syn. Margaret, Early Margaret, Margaretha, Marguerite, Red Juneating, Early Red Juneating, American Red Juneating, Striped Juneating, Early Striped Juneating, Striped June, Striped Quarrenden, Summer Traveller, Eve Apple in Ireland.—Shoots moderately strong, of a chestnut colour, sprinkled with well-defined whitish spots, downy towards the extremities. Leaves rather large, ovate, cordate at the base, acuminate, doubly serrated. Petioles rather long and strong. Flowers large, produced in thick clusters, chiefly towards the extremities of the branches. Petals roundish ovate, much imbricated, of a rich cream colour tinged with red. Fruit middle-sized, roundish ovate, tapering towards the eye, obtusely angular on the sides. Eye small, open, set in a very shallow basin, and surrounded by small plaits. Stalk short, thick, inserted in a medium-sized cavity. Skin greenish yellow, streaked with red, with sometimes a bright red cheek next the sun. Flesh white, crisp, and rich, with a brisk and very pleasant aromatic, sub-acid flavour. One of the best of the early dessert apples; ripe about356 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. the beginning of August, but becoming mealy in a.few days after gathering. It is best eaten fresh from the tree. The tree is not a strong grower, but hardy, and a good bearer. 38. Eldon TipriN.—Fruit small, roundish oblate, somewhat angular. Skin yellow, crimson next the sci. Eye closed and deeply set. Stalk very short. Flesh yellowish, very juicy and sweet, with a rich flavour and fine aroma. A very excellent dessert apple; in use from December till April. 39. Feabn’s Pippin—syn. Clifton Nonesuch, Ferris Pippin, Florence Pippin.—Shoots moderately vigorous, purplish brown, very downy. Leaves scarcely middle-sized, longisli ovate, tapering to the point, slightly serrated. Petioles long, rather slender. Fruit middle-sized, roundish oblate. Eye large, partially closed, placed in a wide, shallow, slightly plaited basin. Stalk short, not deeply inserted. Skin on the shaded side greenish yellow, changing to a fine golden colour, slightly intermixed with brownish red, when the fruit is fully ripe; next the sun dark red, marked with numerous small, whitish dots, and spots of brownish russet. Flesh whitish, firm, and rich, with an abundance of brisk, pleasant juice. A handsome and excellent dessert apple, which is also suitable for kitchen use; iu season from November to February or March. It bears a close resemblance to the Court-pendu Plat, but may be distinguished from that sort by its being of a darker red next the sun, and by the white spots which occur at that part. The tree is very hardy and a great bearer, but liable to canker in some soils. It is much cultivated for the London markets, and is well adapted for growing in orchards, the fruit not being liable to be blown down by the wind. 40. Fouge.—Fruit medium-sized, roundish, slightly ribbed. Skin golden yellow, mottled with crimson on the shaded side, streaked with dark crimson next the sun. Eye small, closed. Stalk very short. Flesh yellowish white, tender, juicy, sweet, and finely perfumed. An excellent kitchen apple; in use from October to January. It is a great bearer, and, according to Dr. Hogg, is the cottager's apple of a great part of Sussex. 41. Gloria Mdndi—syn. American Gloria Mundi, Glazenwood Gloria Mundi, New York Gloria Mundi, American Mammoth, Josephine, Ox Apple, Baltimore of some.—Shoots long, vigorous, erect, of a bright reddish chestnut colour, thickly sprinkled with very small pale yellowish brown dots, very slightly downy. Leaves large, concave, roundish oval, acuminate, slightly serrated. Petioles about 1 inch in length. Fruit very large, roundish or roundish oblong, somewhat flattened at both ends, obtusely angular on the sides. Eye large, open, set in a wide, rather deep, slightly plaited basin. Stalk short, thick, deeply inserted. Skin smooth, greenish yellow, tinged with red next the sun, and having numerous small whitish spots appearing as if beneath it. Flesh white and firm, with a rich, brisk, acid juice. A very good kitchen apple; in season from November to January, and not apt to shrivel. The tree is vigorous, a moderate bearer, and deserving of cultivation, especially where fruit of a very large size is desired. 42. Golden Harvey—syn. Brandy Apple.—Shoots very slender, erect, reddish brown, covered with an epidermis of a silvery or leaden hue, slightly downy. Leaves small, ovate, acuminate, doubly and sharply serrated. Petioles rather long, slender. Fruit small, roundish, flattened at both ends. Eye small, open, inserted in a wide, very shallow depression. Stalk short, inserted in a shallow cavity of moderate width. Skin russety yellow on the shaded side, tinged with brownish red and spotted with russet next the sun. Flesh yellowish, firm, and exceedingly rich, with a high-flavoured, very sugary juice. A dessert apple of great excellence; in season from December to May. It is also much esteemed as a cider fruit, from the very rich, saccharine quality of its juice. The tree is hardy, but not a strong grower. It is generally a shy bearer, but should be in every gentleman’s garden, on account of the fruit being rich and sound-keeping. 43. Golden Noble.—Shoots vigorous, of a chestnut colour towards the extremities, olive brown near the base, moderately sprinkled with white spots, slightly downy. ■ Leaves large, ovate, tapering to the point, doubly crenated. Petioles about 1 inch in length. Fruit large, roundish, very regularly formed. Eye small, closed, shallow. Stalk short, inserted in an evenly rounded hollow, and sometimes having a fleshy projection on one side, connecting it with the fruit. Skin of a fine golden yellow, with sometimes a few patches of thin russet. Flesh yellowish, with a pleasant acid. A first-rate kitchen apple; in season from October till February. According to Lindley, it bakes of a fine clear amber colour, and is then perfectly melting, with a rich acidity. The tree is vigorous, an excellent bearer, and highly deserving of cultivation. 44. Golden Pippin—syn. Balgone Golden Pippin, English Golden Pippin, Herefordshire Golden Tippin, London Golden Pippin, Milton Golden Pippin, Old Golden Pippin, Russet Golden Pippin, "Warter’s Golden Pippin, American Plate, Balgone Pippin, Bayfordbury Pippin, Pepin d’Or, Pomme d’Or, Koenings Pippeling, Eeinette d’Angleterre.—Shoots of moderate vigour when the tree is healthy, remarkably short-jointed, chestnut-coloured beneath a thin pubescence, and marked with pals brown spots of various forms and sizes. Leaves small, roundish oval or ovate, slightly acuminate, sharply and doubly serrated. Petioles short, about /rths of an inch in length. Stipules linear-lanceolate, I about half the length of the petioles. Fruit small, generally roundish, sometimes oblate, or, on the contrary, inclining to oblong, outline regular. Eye small, open, set in a shallow, evenly rounded cavity. Stalk short, moderately thick, not very deeply inserted. Skin, when fully ripe, of a rich golden yellow, with white specks appealing through it, generally clear, occasionally interspersed with small russet spots. Flesh yellow, firm, crisp, and rich, with an abundance of brisk, sugary juice. A dessert apple so well known to be of the highest excellence, as to need no further eulogium. It is also an esteemed cider fruit. It is in use from November to April. The tree does not succeed in many situations, but in some it does not exhibit such signs of decay as would warrant the correctness of the current opinion that the variety is exhausted from old age. That such is not the case is proved by my friend Dr. Hogg, in his excellent work on British Pomology, p. 95, where an able account of this celebrated variety is given in detail.THE APPLE. 357 The tree should be planted in a favourable situation, in good, well-trenched soil, and, when it comes into a bearing state, it ought to be assisted with some good compost, introduced within reach of the extremities of the roots. 45, Golden Reinette—syn. Kirke’s Golden Reinette, Yellow German Reinette, Reinette d’Aix, Reinette Gielen, Reinette von Orleans, Aurore, Court-peiulu Dore, Dundee, Elizabet, Englisclie Pippin, Megginch Favourite, Princesse Noble of the French, AYyger’s, AVyker Pippin.—Shoots moderately strong, of a dark chestnut colour, partially covered with a silvery epidermis, and sprinkled with white spots, moderately downy. Leaves middle-sized, ovate, acuminate, doubly and sharply serrated, of a shining dark green. Petioles of medium length. Fruit middle-sized, depressed globular, with a regular outline. Eye large, open, set in a wide, shallow basin. Stalk sometimes short and thick, frequently 1 inch in length, and of medium thickness or rather slender, inserted in a middle-sized, evenly-formed cavity, the sides of which are generally covered with russet. Skin on the shaded side greenish yellow at first, of a golden colour when fully ripe; dull light red, lightly streaked with bright red next the sun; the whole surface covered, in general, more or less thickly with triangular russet scars. Flesh yellow, crisp, and rich, with a brisk, saccharine juice. A handsome dessert apple, of the highest excellence; in season from November till January or February. The tree is healthy, and a good bearer. 40. Gooseberry.—Fruit rather large, roundish. Skin green. Eye open. Stalk short. Flesh greenish white, very tender, with a brisk, agreeably acid juice. A good late-keeping kitchen apple; in use from December till the following August. 47. Gravenstein—syn. Griifensteiner, Grave Slije, Sabine of the Flemings.—Shoots strong, spreading, dark purplish red, sprinkled with a few whitish dots, moderately downy. Leaves rather large, broad ovate, .acuminate, serrated or acutely crenated. Petioles moderately long, strong. Flowers very large. Petals roundish ovate, much imbricated. Fruit rather large, roundish, broadest at the base, generally somewhat flattened, angular on the sides, the angles forming large plaits surrounding the eye. Eye large, open, deeply inserted. Stalk short and rather thick, placed in a deep, rather wide cavity. Skin smooth, yellowish green or pale yellow on the shaded side, streaked and mottled with various shades of pale red and crimson next the sun. Flesh yellowish when the fruit is fully ripe, semi-transparent, crisp, tender, and very rich, abounding with a highly sugared juice, which, in warm seasons, is almost like a syrup. Excellent for kitchen use, and particularly valuable as a sauce apple. It is also serviceable for the dessert. It is in season from October to December. The tree is tolerably hardy, and a good bearer, but it requires a good warm soil, not too dry, and a warm season and situation, otherwise the fruit does not come to full perfection. 48. Green Apple. — Fruit middle-sized, roundish, somewhat flattened at both ends, and having a very regular outline. Eye small, close, set in a small cavity, and surrounded with knobby plaits. Stalk very short, inserted in a shallow, evenly rounded cavity. Skin green, marked with some rusty spots next the sun. Flesh greenish yellow, firm, moderately juicy, with a brisk acidity. A good kitchen apple, valuable for its long and sound keeping, fit for use from January till June. The tree is an excellent bearer, hardy, aud well adapted for northern climates. 49. Hawthornden — syn. Hawthorndean, Red Hawthornden, "White Hawthornden. — Shoots strong, of a light chestnut colour, sprinkled with white spots, rather downy. Leaves large, oval or roundish oblong, acuminate, regularly serrated. Petioles long. Flowers middle-sized. Petals roundish ovate, of a bright rose colour. Fruit in general large, sometimes very large, roundish, flattened at both ends, with sometimes a broad prominent rib extending from the base to the apex. Eye small, closed, rather deeply set in an irregular basin. Stalk very short, thick, frequently thickened at its insertion, which is in a deep but wide-spreading cavity. Skin smooth, pale greenish yellow, tinged with bright red next the sun when well exposed. Flesh white, firm, and crisp, writli an abundance of acid juice. A most excellent apple for culinary purposes; in use from October till the end of December. The tree is very hardy, vigorous, and an early and most abundant bearer. 50. Herefordshire Pearmain— syn. OldPearmean, Royal Pearmain, Parmain Royal, Royale d’Angleterre. —Shoots vigorous, olive brown, sprinkled with few but distinct whitish specks, rather downy. Leaves middle-sized, broad oval, somewhat cordate, acuminate, sharply and doubly serrated. Petioles strong, nearly 1 inch in length. Fruit large, flat, Pearmain-shaped, with a roundish outline, or but slightly angular on the sides. Eye middle-sized, open, placed in a wide, moderately deep, slightly plaited basin. Stalk short, inserted in a rather deep, evenly-formed cavity. Skin dull green at first, changing to yellowish green, brownish red, and faintly streaked with red intermixed witli russet next the sun. Flesh yellowish, firm, sugary, and rich, with a brisk, aromatic juice. An old and deservedly esteemed apple, suitable both for the kitchen and dessert; in season from November till March. The tree is of medium growth, hardy, and a tolerably good bearer. One of the best, if not the very best, of the Pearmains. 51. Hubbard’s Pearmain.—Shoots moderately strong, olive brown, partially covered with a silvery epidermis somewhat reticulated near the base, like the one-year-old bark of a hazel shoot, strewed with very few spots, slightly downy. Leaves middle-sized, oval, acuminate, sharply serrated. Petioles scarcely 1 inch in length. Fruit small, ovate, with a regular outline. Eye small, closed, set in a shallow depression. Stalk short, not deeply inserted. Skin sometimes smooth, but in general almost entirely covered with pale brown russet; where not so covered, of a yellowish green colour on the shaded side, dull brownish red next the sun. Flesh yellow, firm, very sweet, rich, and highly flavoured, though not very juicy. A dessert apple of great excellence; in season from November till April. The tree is hardy, and a great bearer. 52. Hughes’ Golden Pippin — syn. Hughes’ New Golden Pippin.—Shoots of moderate vigour, dark brown, sprinkled with whitish dots, partially covered with a silvery epidermis, rather downy. Leaves middle-sized, ovate, acuminate, doubly and sharply serrated. Petioles358 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. of medium length. Fruit rather small, globular or conical, flattened at both ends. Eye small, open, surrounded with slight plaits, and placed in a very shallow depression, or sometimes level with the top. Stalk very short, thick, set in a very shallow cavity, frequently not at all sunk, hut forming a knob-like projection from the base of the fruit. Skin russeted, yellowish green. Flesh yellow, firm, with a very rich, brisk flavour. A very excellent winter dessert apple; in season from December to February. The tree is not a strong grower, nor so productive as the Court of AVick and several other dessert kinds already mentioned; but, on account of the richness of the fruit, it is highly deserving of cultivation. 53. Irish Peach—syn. Early Crofton.—Shoots moderately strong, purplish brown, spotted with pale brown, thinly covered with white down. Leaves middle-sized, ovate, acuminate, irregularly serrated. Petioles of moderate length. Fruit middle-sized, roundish, somewhat depressed, obtusely angular on the sides. Eye small, nearly closed, set in a wide, shallow depression. Stalk short, thick, not deeply inserted. Skin yellowish green, sprinkled with numerous green or pale brown dots on the shaded side, marbled with brownish red and streaks of bright red next the sun. Flesh white, tender, crisp, rich, and sweet, with a pleasant, brisk, aromatic juice. An excellent summer dessert apple; in use during August. The tree is vigorous, and an abundant bearer. 54. Kentish Codlix.—Shoots moderately strong, erect, of a dull chestnut brown, with scarcely any dots, rather downy at the extremities. Leaves rather large, broad oval, acuminate, sharply serrated. Petioles rather long. Fruit large, conical. Eye close, placed moderately deep in a plaited cavity. Stalk very short, deeply inserted. Skin smooth, greenish yellow. Flesh white, tender, juicy, sub-acid. A good kitchen apple; in season in August and September. The tree is a good bearer. 55. Kentish Fill-basket — syn. Lady de Grey’s, Potter’s Large, Kentish Pippin of some.—Shoots vigorous, chestnut-coloured, tinged with violet, profusely spotted, slightly downy. Leaves very large, broad oval, somewhat cordate, acuminate, doubly, rather sharply but not deeply serrated. Petioles about 1 inch in length. Fruit large, roundish, somewhat irregularly shaped, obtusely angular on the sides. Eye large, closed, rather deeply placed, surrounded by plaits. Stalk very short and thick, placed in a wide cavity. Skin smooth, yellowish green on the shaded side, tinged with reddish brown, and marked with rusty spots next the sun. Flesh pale yellowish green, firm, and tender, with a brisk, sub-acid juice. An excellent kitchen apple; in season during November, December, and January. The tree is vigorous, and a good bearer. Its leaves are remarkably large. 5(i. Kerry Pippin—syn. Edmonton’s Aromatic rip-pin.—Shoots moderately strong, covered for the most part with a silvery epidermis, elsewhere of a chestnut colour, thinly set with whitish spots, downy towards the extremities. Lea re*’middle-sized, ovate, acuminate, doubly serrated. Petioles long and slender. Fruit middle-sized, oval, flattened at the eye, generally with one or more sharp ridges, extending from the base to the opposite extremity. Eye small, closed, set in a shallow plaited basin. Stalk short, sometimes thickened at its insertion, set obliquely in a confined cavity, with a protuberance of the fruit on one side. Skin very smooth and polished, of a pale straw colour; when fully ripe, streaked and tinged with red next the sun, sometimes presenting a bright red cheek, streaked and tinged with a darker shade. Flesh yellowish, very firm for an early apple, but crisp, juicy, brisk, very rich, sugary, and highly flavoured. A highly esteemed dessert apple; in season in September and October. Owing to its firm, sugary flesh, it retains its flavour longer after gathering than most early apples. The tree is hardy and a great bearer. 57. Keswick Codlin. — Shoots long and vigorous, light brown near the base, tinged with violet, towards the extremities sprinkled with numerous gray dots, moderately downy. Leaves middle-sized, oval, acuminate, finely serrated. Petioles about 1 inch in length. Fruit large, conical, obtusely angular on the sides, the angles very prominent towards the apex. Eye nearly closed, deeply sunk in an angular cavity. Stalk short, thick, obliquely inserted in a deep cavity. Skin greenish yellow on the shaded side, of a brighter yellow next the sun, sprinkled with numerous small dark green spots. Flesh yellowish white, and crisp, with an abundance of brisk rather acid juice. A very good kitchen apple, valuable on account of its earliness. It may be used in a young state as early as the middle of July, hut only in perfection in August and September. The tree is hardy and bears abundantly, and at an early age. 58. Kino oe the Pippins—syn. Hampshire Yellow, Golden Winter Pearmain.—Shoots vigorous, of a dark chestnut colour, sprinkled with a few light brown spots, very downy at the extremities. Leaves middle-sized, ovate, acuminate, doubly but not deeply serrated. Petioles short. Fruit middle-sized, of a roundish Pear-main shape. Eye large, open, deeply sunk in a regularly formed slightly plaited hollow. Stalk short, inserted in a rather shallow cavity. Skin smooth, pale orange on the shaded side, orange tinged with red, and faintly streaked with a deeper red next the sun. Flesh yellowish white, tender, very sweet and juicy, with a tolerably rich pleasant flavour. A very beautiful and much-esteemed dessert apple; in season from October till January, but in perfection during November. The tree is very hardy, vigorous, and a most abundant bearer. 50. Lamb Abbey Pearmain.—Shoots slender, of a dull chestnut colour, strewed with whitish spots, sliglitly downy. Leaves middle-sized, ovate, acuminate, sharply and doubly serrated. Petioles of medium length. Fruit rather small, oval or oblong, somewhat depressed at each end, tapering slightly towards the eye, without angles on the sides. Eye small, open, set in a wide, rather deep, slightly plaited basin. Stalk short, deeply inserted in a narrow cavity. Skin greenish yellow on the shaded side, orange yellow streaked with dull red, and sprinkled with numerous small dark-coloured dots next the sun. Flesh yellowish green, very firm, crisp, juicy, rich, and sweet. A valuable dessert apple, which keeps without shrivelling; in use from January till May, or even later. The tree is of medium size and a good bearer. GO. London Pippin—syn. Five-crown Pippin, Five-crowned Pippin, New London Pippin, 'White Pippin of York.—Shoots moderately strong, of a dull chestnutTITE APPLE. 359 colour, thinly sprinkled with pale gray spots, very downy. Leaves middle-sized, roundish oblong, somewhat acuminate, obtusely crcnated. Petioles short. Fruit middle-sized or rather large, roundish, somewhat depressed, broadest at the base, with several ribs, the five principal becoming more prominent as they approach the eye, where they terminate in an equal number of ridges. Eye large, open, inserted in a shallow cavity. Stalk moderately long, rather slender, deeply inserted. Skin smooth, shining, deep brownish red next the sun, gradually fading away towards the shaded side, which is of a fine pale lemon colour when the fruit is perfectly ripened. Flesh yellowish white, firm, crisp, with an abundance of brisk juice. Au excellent kitchen apple, which keeps well and does not shrivel. It is in use from November till April, and when mellowed by keeping may also be eaten at the dessert. The tree is a moderate bearer, somewhat inclined to canker in some soils. The Newtown Pippin, grown under favourable circumstances in this country, bears more resemblance to this fruit than to any other. Gl. Loud Suffield.—Fruit large and conical. Skin pale greenish yellow, with sometimes a slight tinge of red next the sun. Eye closed. Stalk short. Flesh white, tender, very juicy, and briskly flavoured. A first-rate kitchen apple; season, August and September. The tree is hardy and a most abundant bearer. G2. Hanks Codlin—syn. Frith Pitcher, Irish Cod-lin, Irish Pitcher, Eve Apple of Scotland.—Shoots of medium length, chestnut-coloured, tinged with violet, thickly covered with down towards the extremities, where there are scarcely any dots, and but few near the base. Leaves middle-sized or rather large, oval, somewhat cordate and acuminate, doubly, rather sharply but not deeply serrated. Petioles scarcely 1 inch in length. Fruit middle-sized, conical. Eye small, deeply set in a small plaited cavity. Stalk rather short, in general obliquely inserted, the base of the fruit projecting on one side. Skin glossy, of a fine pale yellow, set with numerous small greenish white spots, with a fine clear blush of red next the sun. Flesh white and firm, with a brisk and pleasant sub-acid juice. An excellent kitchen apple; in season from the beginning of August to October or later. The tree is hardy and a good bearer. G3. Mannington’s Pearmain.—Fruit middle-sized, short Pearmain-shaped. Skin yellow, thinly russeted, tinged with brownish red next the sun. Flesh yellow, crisp, juicy, and sugary, with a brisk rich flavour. A very good dessert apple; in season from November till March. G4. Margil—syn. Muscat Reinette, Neverfail, Small Ribston, Munche’s Pippin of some. —Shoots slender, purplish brown, sprinkled with numerous small, whitish dots, moderately downy. Leaves small, ovate-lanceolate, somewhat acuminate, regularly serrated. Petioles long, slender. Flowers middle-sized. Petals longish ovate, pale pink. Fruit small, roundish ovate, angular on the sides. Eye small, closed, surrounded by ridges formed by the terminations of the angles on the sides. Stalk short, slender, deeply inserted. Skin pale orange, with a sprinkling of thin russet, and streaked with dull red next the sun. Flesh yellow, firm, very rich, juicy, and sweet, with a flavour like that of the Ribston Pippin, only more aromatic. An excellent table apple; in season from November to , March. The tree is of very dwarf, slender habit, hardy, and an abundant bearer; so much so that, if care is not taken to thin spurs and encourage young wood, it is apt to overbear itself. It is exceedingly well-adapted for situations where trees of low growth only can be cultivated. It may also be successfully grown as an espalier. G5. Mere de Menage—syn. Haus Mutterclien, llics-cnapfel, German Spa.—Shoots vigorous, olive brown near the base, brownish violet towards the extremities, sprinkled with small round gray dots, and rather downy. Leaves large, roundish, cordate at the base, shortly and abruptly acuminate, entire at the base, slightly serrated elsewhere. Petioles short and thick. Fruit very large, irregularly round. Eye very large, open, with the segments of the calyx converging. Stalk very short, inserted in a wide cavity. Skin for the most part deep dark red, greenish brown, faintly tinged with red where shaded, the whole covered with a fine bloom like that of a plum. Flesh greenish white, and very firm, with a refreshing sub-acid juice. A first-rate kitchen apple; in use throughout the winter and spring. The tree is a very free grower and a great bearer. GG. Monstrous Leadington—syn. Green Codlin.— Shoots very vigorous, dull brown, very downy. Leaves broad oval, acuminate, coarsely serrated. Petioles of medium length, strong. Fruit very large, oblong, flattened, and nearly of equal width at both ends, ribbed on the sides. Eye very large, deeply set in a moderately wide, deep cavity, the sides of which are plaited. Stalk short, thick, not deeply inserted. Skin smooth, green, tinged witB brownish red next the sun, slightly mottled with white near the base. Flesh greenish white, soft, and rich, with a brisk acid juice. An excellent kitchen apple; in use from October to January. The tree is hardy and a tolerably good bearer. G7. Nelson Codlin—syn. Nelson Apple, Backhouse’s Lord Nelson.—Shoots long, rather slender, chestnut-brown, marked with a few small spots, rather downy. Leaves middle-sized, oval, somewhat cordate at the base, acuminate, doubly, sharply, but not deeply serrated. Petioles slender, upwards of 1 inch in length. Fruit large, conical or oblong, slightly angular on the sides. Eye small, closed, deeply placed in a confined plaited basin. Stalk very short, slender, deeply inserted in an angular cavity, beyond the mouth of which it does not protrude. Skin greenish-yellow, sprinkled with green specks on the shaded side, deep brownish-yellow next the sun. Flesh yellowish, soft, sweet, and juicy, with a pleasant slightly aromatic flavour. An excellent kitchen apple, which is also useful for the dessert; in season from September to January. The tree is hardy, a most abundant bearer, and suitable for northern climates. G8. New Rock Pippin.—Shoots long, slender, of a bright chestnut colour, thinly set with white spots, moderately downy. Ijcavcs middle-sized, oval, acuminate, serrated. Petioles short. Fruit small or middle-sized, roundish, depressed. Eye small, nearly closed, placed in a slight depression, and surrounded by small plaits. Stalk short, thick, inserted in a wide, rather shallow cavity. Skin green at first, changing to a dull yellowish-green on keeping; brownish-red next the sun, slightly russeted, and sometimes exhibiting patches of a silvery or pearl-gray epidermis. Flesh yellowish-white, firm, crisp, not very juicy, but brisk-flavoured.GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. 3G0 A very good table apple; in season from January till May. The tree is hardy, and an excellent bearer. 09. Newtown Pippin—syn. American Newtown Pippin, Green Newtown Pippin, Hunt’s Green Newtown Pippin, Large Newtown Pippin, Green Winter Pippin, Hunt’s Fine Green Pippin, Petersburg Pippin.—Shoots moderately strong, of a bright chestnut colour, set with numerous small whitish dots, slightly downy. Leaves rather small, ovate, acuminate, regularly serrated. Petioles of medium length, slender. Fruit middle-sized, roundish, somewhat flattened, with broad flat ribs on the sides, and extending to the crown, where they become very prominent, like those of the London Pippin. Eye small, open, set in a rather shallow basin. Stalk half an inch long, inserted to its full length in a wide deep cavity. Skin green at first, changing, when fully ripe, to a greenish-yellow; tinged with brown, and frequently of a light brown colour next the sun, a portion near the base and the sides of the cavity in which the stalk is inserted being covered with thin russet. Flesh yellowish-white, firm, crisp, and very juicy, with a peculiarly brisk rich flavour when fully matured. A dessert apple of the highest excellence; in season from December till April. The tree is too delicate to ripen its fruit well as a standard in most situations in Britain, and the fruit produced upon walls rarely attains the same degree of perfection as that imported from America. 70. Nonesuch.—Shoots tolerably strong, dark chestnut, sprinkled with a few small spots, moderately downy. Leaves middle-sized, oblong, somewhat cordate at the base, acuminate, slightly serrated. Petioles short. Fruit middle-sized, oblate, with a regular outline. Eye large, nearly closed, placed in a shallow even depression. Stalk short, slender, in a medium-sized evenly-rounded cavity. Skin smotli, pale green on the shaded side, yellow next the sun, marked all over with broken streaks of red. Flesh white, soft, with an abundance of pleasant sharp juice. An excellent kitchen apple, which, from falling well in cooking, is much esteemed for sauce. It is also well adapted for making apple-jelly. In season during September and October. The tree is an abundant bearer, producing fruit at an early age; but when old, apt to canker in some soils. It should nevertheless be in every collection that is not too limited. 71. Norfolk Beaufin—syn. Norfolk Beefin, Norfolk Beefing, Catshead Beaufin, Read’s Baker.—Shoots moderately vigorous, chestnut-coloured, moderately sprinkled with yellowish brown dots, rather downy. Leaves large, roundish oval, somewhat cordate at the base, acuminate, flat or convex, sharply serrated. Petioles about i’uths of an inch in length. Fruit middle-sized, oblate, obtusely angular on the sides. Eye large, open, placed in a rather deep plaited cavity. Stalk short, deeply inserted. Skin dull dark red next the sun, changing to a pale copper colour towards the shaded side, where the ground colour of green breaks through in places. Flesh greenish-white, very firm, rather dry, acid, and somewhat astringent. A good kitchen apple; in season from January to June, and considered superior to every other for drying, fl hen dried and flattened it constitutes the beetiusoi the shops. The tree is a good bearer, but requires a good warm soil, otherwise it is apt to canker. 72. Northern Greening—syn. Walnier Court, John Apple of some.—Shoots long and vigorous, of a dark chestnut colour, sprinkled with very numerous whitish dots, moderately downy. Leaves large, oval, somewhat acuminate, sharply serrated. Petioles of medium length. Fruit middle-sized or rather large, oval or ovate, with a regular outline. Eye small, closed, set in a small shallow basin, and surrounded by some small knobby plaits. Stalk short, frequently inserted obliquely, the base of the fruit forming a projecting curve on one side. Skin very smooth, green where shaded, becoming yellowish-green by keeping, tinged with brownish-red next the suu. Flesh greenish-white, crisp, and very juicy, with a sharp brisk flavour. An excellent sound-keeping kitchen apple; in season from November till April. It is one of those apples that are not apt to shrivel. The tree is vigorous, hardy, and a good bearer. Its shoots are marked with a greater number of spots than those of any other apple. 73. Old Nonpareil—syn. Due d’Arsel, English Nonpareil, Grune Reinette, Hunt’s Nonpareil, Loveden’s Pippin, Nonpareil, Nonpareil d’Angleterre, Reinette Nonpareil.—Shoots long, slender, upright, of a reddish-chestnut colour, tliiuly sprinkled with whitish dots, very slightly downy. Leaves rather small, oval, acuminate, finely serrated. Petioles rather more than one inch in length, erect, slender. Flowers of medium size. Petals ovate. Fruit rather below the middle size, roundish, flattened, and broadest at the base. Eye very small, nearly closed, set in a very slight plaited depression. Stalk about 1 inch in length, slender, inserted in a wide cavity of moderate depth. Skin greenish-yellow, intermixed with thin pale brown russet, occasionally of a deep reddish-brown where much exposed to the suu, and sometimes almost completely covered with thin russet. Flesh pale yellowish-green, firm, crisp, rich, and sugary, with an abundance of sprightly juice of a peculiar and highly aromatic flavour. One of the best of late winter and spring table apples; in season from January to May. The tree is of rather small growth, somewhat tender, and apt to canker in cold moist soils; but it thrives and bears very well in good soils and favourable situations. It succeeds well as a standard in the southern and midland counties of England; more to the north, except in warm situations, it requires and deserves a wall. It may be grown in pots when grafted on the Paradise stock. The variety is supposed to have been introduced from France by a Jesuit, in the sixteenth or seventeenth century. 74. Ord’s Apple.—Shoots moderately strong, of a dark chestnut-brown colour, strewed with a few pale gray spots, and mostly covered with gray pubescence. Leaves below the middle size, ovate, acuminate, sharply and irregularly serrated. Petioles nearly 1 inch in length, slender, erect. Fruit middle-sized, oblong, inclining to ovate, somewhat flattened at both ends, obtusely ribbed on the sides. Eye small, closed, set in a narrow, rather deep plaited basin. Stalk short, obliquely inserted in a narrow irregularly formed cavity. Skin dark green, tinged with light brownish red, and marked with numerous large rust-coloured spots on the side next the sun. Flesh greenish, firm, and crisp, with an abundance of rich brisk juice, scarcely surpassed in its refreshing qualities by that of any other apple. A most excellent dessert apple; in season from January to May, and having the valuable property of retaining its briskness when the flavour of most other applesTHE APPLE. 361 has become flat. The tree is hardy, and an excellent bearer. The variety was obtained by Mrs. Anne Simpson, in the garden of her brother-in-law, John Ord, Esq., at Purser’s Cross, near Fulham, land originated from a seedling raised by him from the pip of an imported Newtown Pippin. 75. Oslin—syn. Arbroath Pippin, Orgeline, Orjeline, Original Pippin, Summer Oslin, White Oslin.—Shoots rather slender, sliort-jointed, of upright growth, dull grayish purple, speckled with pale brown, moderately downy. Leaves middle-sized, roundish, or even of greater dimensions across than from the base to the apex, abruptly acuminate, irregularly serrated. Petioles of medium length. Fruit middle-sized, roundish oblate, without angles on the sides. Eye small, closed, nearly prominent, surrounded by a few large plaits. Stalk short, thick, inserted in a wide shallow cavity. Skin pale yellow, sprinkled with numerous greenish specks and small dark brown dots, of thick texture, and often deeply cracked. Flesh yellowish white, firm, crisp, very rich, sweet, and juicy, with a peculiar brisk and highly aromatic flavour, which chiefly resides in and near the skin. On this account the skin should be pared off as thinly as possible. A dessert apple surpassed by none in the excellence of its flavour. It is in season in August and September. The tree is of medium size, tolerably hardy, and a good bearer; but when old, planted in very rich soil, or much confined by other trees, it is very subject to canker. Grown in highly manured soil, the fruit does not acquire its aromatic flavour. The variety is supposed either to have been raised at Arbroath, or, what is more probable, to have been introduced from France by the monks of the abbey. 76. Pearson’s Plate.—Shoots long, slender, light brown, set with small whitish spots, moderately downy. Leaves middle-sized, oval, acuminate, doubly serrated. Petioles of medium length, rather slender. Fruit small, roundish oblate, with a regular outline. Eye generally open, frequently closed, set in a broad, shallow, slightly plaited basin. Stalk sometimes 1 inch in length, and slender, frequently very short and thick, seldom deeply inserted. Skin smooth, yellowish green on the shaded side, tinged and streaked with a rich bright red, and strewed with light brown spots next the sun, the whole occasionally thinly sprinkled with russet. Flesh greenish yellow, firm, juicy, very rich, sugary, brisk, and excellent. A handsome dessert apple of peculiar excellence; in season from December to March. The tree is healthy, but not a strong grower; and it is well adapted for dwarf training. 77. Pitmaston Golden Harvey .-^Shoots slender, of a light chestnut-brown, sprinkled with a few inconspicuous spots, thinly coated with gray pubescence. Leaves middle-sized, oval, of thin texture, acuminate, sharply and deeply serrated. Petioles about 1 inch in length, slender. Fruit small, but larger than that of the Golden Harvey, which it resembles in form, roundish, flattened at both ends. Eye small, close, rather deeply sunk. Stalk nearly 1 inch in length, inserted in a wide rather shallow cavity. Skin witli a ground colour of an orange tinge, scarred, and sometimes thickly coated with russet. Flesh yellowish, firm, rich, and sugary, with a brisk sub-acid juice. A very excellent dessert apple; in season from Janu- ary till May. The tree is more vigorous than the Golden Harvey, from which, fertilized with the pollen of the Yellow Siberian Crab, it sprung. It was raised by John Williams, Esq., of Pitmaston. 78. Pitmaston Nonpareil—syn. Pitmaston Russet Nonpareil.—Shoots not so long as those of the Old Nonpareil, but much stronger, dark olive-brown, covered with a silvery epidermis, strewed with a few spots, very downy near the extremities, slightly so at the base. Leaves middle-sized, ovate, concave, rather sharply serrated. Petioles about 1 inch in length. Fruit middle-sized, roundish, and depressed, tapering towards the apex. Eye small, open, set in a wide, shallow, slightly plaited cavity. Stalk short, slender, not deeply inserted. Skin pale green, tinged witli red next the sun, the whole surface almost entirely covered with russet. Flesh pale yellowish-green, moderately firm, rich, and excellent, with a brisk Nonpareil flavour. A most excellent dessert apple; in season during December, January, and February. The tree is more vigorous and hardy than the Old Nonpareil, and is also a more abundant bearer; the fruit, grown under equal circumstances, is also larger. The variety was raised by John Williams, Esq., of Pitmaston. 79. Pine Apple.—Shoots vigorous, of a bright chestnut colour, tinged with olive near the base, very slightly downy. Leaves middle-sized, oval, acuminate, sharply serrated. Petioles scarcely 1 inch in length. Fruit small, tapering a little towards the top, which is flattened. Eye small, partially open, set in a shallow depression. Stalk short, not deeply inserted. Skin of a rich orange colour, partially covered with russet. Flesh yellow, firm, very rich, sugary, and aromatic. A dessert apple of first-rate excellence; in season from December to March. This variety was also raised by Mr. Williams. 80. Pomme Royale.—Fruit middle-sized, roundish, rather broadest at the base, entirely covered with russet. Flesh yellowish, rich, and sugary. An excellent dessert apple; in season from January till March. It is an excellent table Russet, and valuable for its sound keeping; it is also suitable for culinary purposes. The tree is a good bearer. 81. Red Astiiachan.—strong, of a clear chestnut colour, thinly sprinkled with well-defined whitish dots, very slightly downy. Leaves middle-sized, roundish oblong, somewhat acuminate, obtusely serrated. Petioles of medium length and thickness. Fruit rather above the medium size, roundish, or roundish oblong. Eye small, closed, rather deeply inserted, surrounded by irregular protuberances. Stalk short, deeply inserted. Skin greenish yellow on the shaded side, of a fine deep crimson next the sun, everywhere covered with a fine white bloom. Flesh white, crisp, and sweet, with an abundance of brisk pleasant juice. A beautiful dessert apple, which ripens in August, but does not keep long. The tree is vigorous, of upright growth, hardy, and an excellent bearer. 82. Reinette de Canada—syn. R,einette du Canada blanche, Reinette du Canada a cotes, Reinette Grosse du Canada, Canada Reinette, Reinette de Caen, Reinette Grosse d’Angleterre, Wahre Reinette, Pomme de Bretagne, Pomme du Canada, Portugal Apple, St. Helena Russet, Mela Janurea of the Ionian Islands.—Shoots strong, spreading, of a dark chestnut colour, thinly strewed with small light brown spots, covered here and3G2 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. there with patches of a grayish epidermis, very woolly towards the extremities. Leaves middle-sized, cordate, acuminate, obtusely serrated. Petioles short, very thick, downy. Flowers rather large. Petals oval, cordate at the base, not much imbricated. Fruit very large, broad at the base, flatly conical, with an irregular outline, obtusely ribbed; the ribs being prominent towards the eye, diminishing as they pass downwards. Eye large, half open, inserted in a wide plaited cavity. Stalk short, generally rather thick, deeply set in a wide hollow. Skin greenish yellow, tinged with brown and sometimes red next the sun, strewed more or less with dots and scars of brown russet. Flesh yellowish white, firm, and rich, with a brisk juice of a Nonpareil flavour. A large and esteemed kitchen apple, and surpassed by none of so large a size for the dessert. It is in season from November to April. The tree is vigorous, and a good bearer. 83. Reinette Van Mons. —Fruit rather small, flattened, obscurely ribbed. Skin covered with brownish russet, greenish yellow on the shaded side, dull orange next the sun. Flesh yellowish, tender, and sweet, with a rich aromatic flavour. An excellent late-keeping dessert apple; in use from January to May. 84. Ribston Pippin—syn. Formosa Pippin, Glory of York, Travers’ Apple.—Shoots strong, spreading, light chestnut, thinly strewed with small roundish spots, of a whitish colour, very downy towards the extremities. Leaves middle-sized, broad oval, somewhat acuminate, seriated, covered beneath with a thick silvery down. Petioles of medium length and thickness. Floioers middle-sized. Petals ovate. Fruit rather above the middle size, roundish, somewhat flattened, obtusely angular on the sides. Eye large, nearly closed, slightly sunk in an irregular, plaited basin. Stalk short, of medium thickness, woolly, generally inserted to its full length in a moderately large cavity. Skin deep greenish yellow, marked with broken streaks and specks of pale crimson on the shaded side, brownish red streaked with dark crimson next the sun, frequently russety about the eye, also near the base; and there the yellow streaks appearing obscurely through the russet, give it a rich appearance. Flesh yellow, firm, and crisp, with a rich saccharine juice and highly aromatic flavour. A dessert and kitchen apple of the highest excellence; in season from November to March, but generally in greatest perfection about Christmas. The tree is generally grown on walls in the north, where its produce is more juicy and crisp than in the south; for there its flesh is liable to be deficient in moisture, especially when grown in dry soils. The soil for it should be well drained and deeply trenched to retain moisture. The variety, according to tradition, was raised from some apple-seeds brought from Rouen, about 170 years ago, and sown in the garden at Ribston Hall, near AYetherby, in Yorkshire. However this may be, the parent tree existed there till 1835, when it died. That this was the original seedling, and not a grafted tree, was thought to have been conclusively proved, from the circumstance that rooted suckers, which were planted in the garden of the Royal Horticultural Society at Chiswick, produced fruit exactly the same as that borne by the grafted trees. But Mr. May, a nurseryman at Bedale, states that the tree had been grafted on the Paradise stock, and that the rooted suckers originated above the graft after the tree had become bent to the ground on one side. 85. Rhode Island Greening.—Fruit, large, roundish, green; flesh yellowish green, crisp, juicy, brisk, and rich in a good season; and it may then be used either as a kitchen or dessert apple.—Season, December to Apiil. The tree is vigorous and a good bearer. 8G. Round "Winter Nonesuch.—Shoots strong, olive brown, with few spots, very downy. Leaves large, concave, reflexed, cordate, acuminate, irregularly serrated. Petioles remarkably short, about VLths of an inch in length. Fruit large, roundish. Eye small, not deeply sunk. Stalk short, thick, not deeply inserted. Skin yellowish green where shaded, streaked with shades of dull and deep red on the side next the sun. Flesh white, firm, juicy, and rather acid. A good kitchen apple; in season from November to March. The tree is vigorous and a great bearer. 87. Royal Russet—syn. Leatliercoat, Passe-pomme du Canada, Reinette du Canada Grise, Reinette du Canada Platte. —Shoots strong, spreading, of a reddish chestnut colour, thinly strewed with light brown dots, very downy. Leaves middle-sized, ovate, acuminate, obtusely serrated. Petioles short and thick. Flovxrs large, forming dense umbels. Petals broad, roundish, cordate at the base. Fruit large, obtusely conical, flattened at the base, obtusely angular on the sides. Eye closed, placed in a narrow, rather deep cavity, the sides of which are plaited. Stalk very short, thick, inserted in a wide, deep hollow. Skin covered with russet, which is brown on the shaded side, reddish next the sun; the whole surface strewed with small whitish and pale brown spots. Flesh greenish white, tinged with yellow, firm at first, but apt to become elastic, with a brisk, somewhat aromatic, acid juice. An excellent, long-keeping kitchen apple; in use from November till May or June. It should be preserved in dry clean sand, otherwise it is apt, like all the russets, to become tough. The tree bears abundantly, but, as Mr. Ronalds observes in his Pi/rus Mulus Brentford-iensis, it is apt to canker if not in loamy rich soil. It, however, deserves attention; for many prefer russets for kitchen use, and this in particular, on account of the large size of the fruit. The size of the flowers is a character by which this variety may be readily distinguished from other russets. 88. Rymer—syn. Caldwell, Green Cossings, New-! bold’s Admiral Duncan, Newbold’s Duke of York.— Shoots strong, short-jointed, of a chestnut colour tinged with violet, sprinkled with numerous gray specks, rather downy. Leaves large, thick, roundish oval, acuminate, doubly but not very deeply serrated. Petioles scarcely 1 inch in length. Fruit large, roundish, broad at the top. Eye very large, open, placed in a wide, deep hollow Stalk very short, scarcely, if at all, sunk at its insertion. Skin smooth, clear pale green where shaded, tinged with brownish red, and streaked with brighter red next the sun; the base marked with pearly specks appearing as if in or beneath the skin. Flesh greenish white, firm, and acid. A good kitchen apple, not apt to shrivel; in use from December till April, and even then retaining its briskness. The tree is vigorous and an extraordinary bearer. 89. Sam Young—syn. Irish Russet.—Shoots moderately strong, spreading, of a dull purplish brown, thinly strewed with pale gray dots, moderately downy. Learcs middle-sized, ovate, cordate at the base, acuminate, obtusely erenated. Petioles short, moderately thick.THE APPLE. 3G3 Fruit small, oblate. Eye large, open, set in a wide, shallow depression, the sides of which are slightly plaited. Stalk short, thick, inserted in a shallow cavity. Skin russet brown, very apt to crack. Flesh yellowish and firm, with a brisk, rich, sugary juice, and high flavour. A dessert apple of great merit, but apt to crack; in season from November to February. The tree is of medium size, and a good bearer. 90. Scarlet Nonpareil—syn. New Scarlet Nonpareil. —Shoots long, rather slender, of a bright chestnut colour, covered with a silvery epidermis, and thinly sprinkled with whitish dots, slightly downy. Leaves middle-sized, ovate, acuminate, sharply serrated. Petioles of medium length. Fruit middle-sized, roundish, a little depressed, without angles on the sides. Eye rather large, open, set iu a shallow, very slightly plaited basin. Stalk usually about 1 inch long, thickened at its insertion, sometimes merely a short fleshy knob; it is set in an evenly rounded shallow cavity. Skin yellowish green on the shaded side, deep red, slightly streaked with a darker shade, and covered with small pale brown spots, next the sun. Flesh yellowish white, firm, juicy, rich, sweet, and excellent. A much esteemed and beautiful dessert apple; in use in January, February, and March. The tree is hardy, and a great bearer. 91. Scarlet Pearmain—syn. Bell’s Scarlet, Oxford Peach.—Shoots long, rather slender, of a bright chestnut colour, marked with small brown spots, slightly downy. Leaves small, oval, acuminate, doubly serrated. Petioles long, slender. Fruit middle-sized, conical, with a regular outline. Eye middle-sized, partially open, the segments of the calyx remaining green, sunk in a rather deep, slightly plaited cavity. Stalk about 1 inch in length, slender, deeply inserted. Skin red, intermixed with yellow on the shaded side, of a rich bright crimson next the sun. Flesh yellowish white, tender, and sugary, with an abundance of rich juice. A very handsome dessert apple; in season from September to January. The tree is healthy, and a good bearer. 92. Striped Beaufin—syn. Striped Beefing.— Shoots moderately strong, of a dark chestnut colour, rather downy. Leaves large, oval, somewhat cordate at the base, doubly serrated. Petioles of medium length. Fruit very large, roundish, flattened a little at both ends, and having a tolerably regular outline. Eye large, open, set in a wide, deep, angular cavity. Stalk short, deeply inserted. Skin bright green, marked nearly all round with broken streaks of red. Flesh yellowish white, firm, with a brisk, agreeably acid juice. A valuable kitchen apple; in season from October till May. The tree is very hardy, and a good bearer. The variety was first brought into notice by Mr. George Lindley, who, in 1794, found it growing in a garden at Lakenham, near Norwich; but its extensive distribution is due to Dr. Hogg. 93. Sturmer Pippin.—Shoots vigorous, of a dark chestnut colour, sprinkled with small whitish dots, which are most numerous near the base, slightly downy at the extremities. Leaves middle-sized, ovate, acuminate, acutely crenated. Petioles of medium length. Fruit middle-sized, shortly conical, somewhat flattened at both ends. Eye small, closed, placed in a shallow, irregularly formed cavity. Stalk of medium length, inserted in a deep, evenly formed hollow. Skin yellowish green on the shaded side, of a dark brownish red next the sun. Flesh yellowish, firm, crisp, and sweet, with an abundance of brisk juice, and a slight ltibston Pippin flavour. One of the best late dessert apples known, for it is neither apt to shrivel nor lose its briskness. It is useful also for culinary purposes, and is in use from February till June. The tree is healthy, and an abundant bearer. It should be in every collection. The variety was raised at the nursery of Mr. Dillistone, at Sturmer, in Suffolk, and was obtained by impregnating the ltibston Pippin with the Old Nonpareil. 94. Summer Golden Pippin—syn. White Summer Pippin, Summer Pippin of somq.—Shoots below the average length, of moderate thickness, short-jointed, olive, sprinkled with a few not very conspicuous spots, very slightly downy. Leaves roundish oval, sometimes nearly round, shortly acuminate, slightly serrated. Petioles from h inch to f inch in length. Fruit rather small, ovate, flattened at both ends. Eye open, set in a shallow, evenly formed basin. Stalk short, inserted in a cavity of moderate size. Skin smooth, pale yellow on the shaded side, of a brighter yellow and tinged with brown next the sun. Flesh yellowish white, firm, very rich, and sugary. An excellent dessert apple; fit for use in August or the beginning of September, but not keeping in full perfection longer than a fortnight; yet it does not lose its flavour so soon as most others ripening at the same early period. The tree is of moderate vigour, and a good bearer. 95. Sweeny Nonpareil.—Shoots erect, rather slender, of a dark chestnut colour, strewed with numerous small obscure dots, slightly downy. Leaves small, oval, rather sharply but not deeply serrated. Petioles slender, 1 inch or more in length. Fruit rather above the middle size, roundish, broadest at the base. Eye small, partially closed, set in a narrow shallow cavity. Stalk short, rather slender, not deeply inserted. Skin of a deep green, always thickly set with patches of russet, and sometimes almost entirely covered with brown russet, occasionally tinged witli red next the sun. Flesh greenish and tolerably firm, with an abundance of brisk acid juice. An excellent kitchen apple; and, late in the season, with those who prefer a sharp apple, it is considered tolerably good for the dessert, but otherwise it is too acid for that purpose. It is in season from December to April or May for kitchen use, but for dessert from February till May. The tree is moderately vigorous, healthy, and a very abundant bearer. The variety was raised, in 1807, by Thomas Parker, Esq., of Sweeny, in Shropshire. 90. Syke House Kusset—syn. Syke House, Beinette des Hopitaux, Englische Spitalsreinette. —Shoots slender, of a dull chestnut brown, sprinkled with some minute spots, and thinly coated with grayish pubescence. Leaves small, oval, slightly cordate at the base, somewhat acuminate, slightly serrated. Fruit below the middle size, oblate. Eye small, set in a deep, slightly plaited cavity. Stalk generally short, moderately thick, inserted in a shallow depression. Skin on the shaded side yellowish green, sometimes entirely covered with russet, frequently with only a few russety spots and patches; deep brown next the sun. Flesh yellowish364 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. white, firm, rich, with a brisk highly-flavoured subacid juice. A sound-keeping dessert apple, of great excellence; In use from November till February. The tree is of moderate growth, hardy, and an abundant bearer. The variety takes its name from the village of Syke House in Yorkshire; but from its being closely allied to the Reinettes Grises, it is not improbable that it may have been carried there from the Continent. 97. Tower of Glammis — syn. Glammis Castle, Late Curse of Gowrie, Gowrie.—Shoots vigorous, light brown, spotted with white, moderately downy. Leaves large, roundish, cordate at the base, acuminate, acutely crenated. Petioles very short. Fruit large, conical, and having four prominent angles extending from the base to the apex, where they form large plaits surrounding the eye. Eye large, closed, deeply sunk. Stalk short, thick, inserted in a deep cavity. Skin greenish yellow on the shaded side; yellowish brown, with sometimes a tinge of red next the sun. Flesh white, solid, and crisp, with an abundance of brisk juice. A large heavy kitchen apple of first-rate excellence; in season from November till February. The tree is hardy, vigorous, and a good bearer. It is much cultivated in the Carse of Gowrie and other parts of Scotland, for which climate it is well adapted; and it also succeeds well in the southern parts of the kingdom. It therefore deserves to be recommended for general cultivation. 98. Uellner’s Gold Reinette.—Fruit small, oval, yellow where shaded, rich russet and red next the sun; flesh yellowish, firm, juicy, and sugary. An excellent dessert apple; in season from January till May. 99. Wadiiurst Pippin.—Fruit rather large, roundish oblong, and tapering a little towards the eye. Skin yellowish brown, tinged with red on the sunny side. Flesh yellowish, crisp, juicy, and brisk. An excellent kitchen apple; in season from October to February. The tree is a great bearer. 100. Waltham Abbey Seedling.— Shoots not very strong, chestnut-coloured, with few spots, slightly downy. Leaves small, ovate, tapering to the point, finely serrated. Petioles about 1 inch in length. Fruit large, roundish. Eye small, partially open, set in a small, somewhat contracted hollow. Stalk short, inserted in a small, moderately deep cavity, the sides of which are lined with russet. Skin pale yellow, thickly strewed with small pale dots, and partially sprinkled and mottled with russet. Flesh yellowish, soft, sweet, moderately juicy, and of an agreeable flavour. An excellent kitchen apple, requiring but little sugar, and particularly good for baking; in season from September to January. The tree is vigorous, attains a large size, and is a good bearer. 101. White Juneating—syn. Joanneting, Juneat-ing, Owen’s Golden Beauty, Primiting in Kent and Sussex.—Shoots moderately strong, brown, with a chestnut tinge where well exposed, sprinkled with a few light brown dots, rather downy. Leaves middle-sized, roundish oval, acuminate, not deeply serrated. Petioles about 1 inch in length. Fruit small, roundish, slightly depressed. Eye small, closed, set in a very shallow, slightly plaited cavity. Stalk short, slender, not deeply inserted. Skiu smooth, pale yellow, sometimes tinged with orange or pale red next the sun. Flesh white, crisp, and sweet, with a brisk and very pleasant juice. A handsome and very good early dessert apple, ripening in the end of July and beginning of August, but not keeping good for more than a week. The tree is of rather dwarf habit, forms excellent pyramids, and is a very abundant bearer. 102. Winter Greening-- syn. Claremont Pippin, Easter Pippin, French Crab, Ironstone Pippin, Young’s Long-keeping, Ironside in Gloucestershire.—Shoots long and strong, of a deep chestnut colour, sprinkled with very small dots, moderately downy. Leaves middle-sized, oval, concave, cordate at the base, acuminate, coarsely serrated. Petioles from six to nine tenths of an inch in length. Fruit middle-sized, roundish. Eye small, closed, scarcely sunk, surrounded by small knobs and plaits. Stalk short, placed in a shallow rounded cavity. Skin smooth, deep green, changing to greenish yellow on long keeping, tinged with dull red next the sun; the whole sprinkled with small dark spots, and occasionally with some rust-coloured specks. Flesh greenish, very firm, with a brisk pleasant acid juice. A very good kitchen apple, useful also late in the season for the dessert, and valuable for its long keeping, frequently remaining sound for more than a year. The tree is vigorous, hardy, and a good bearer. 103. Wormsley Pippin—syn. Knight’s Codlin.— Shoots very strong, of a dark brown colour, covered with a silvery epidermis, strewed with small, roundish,' pale gray spots, slightly downy. Leaves laige, ovate, cordate at the base, acuminate, sharply and doubly serrated. Petioles about 1 inch in length. Flowers middle-sized. Petals oval, somewhat cordate at the base. Fruit rather i large, roundish, obtusely angular on the sides. Eye large, open, set in a narrow, deep, irregularly formed ' cavity. Stalk short, deeply inserted. Skin pale greenish yellow, tinged with orange or brown next the sun, strewed with numerous small brownish dots. Flesh white, tender, melting, and sugary, with a brisk, high-flavoured, refreshing juice. A most excellent dessert apple, and of great merit for kitchen use, requiring but little sweetening. It is in use during September, October, and November. The tree is vigorous, attaining a large size, very hardy, and a great bearer. This variety was raised by the late T. A. Knight, Esq., and communicated by him to the Horticultural Society iu 1811. It takes its name from ’Wormsley Grange, in Herefordshire, where he at one time resided. 104. Yorkshire Greening—syn. Coates’, Yorkshire Goose-sauce, Seek-no-further of some.—Shoots strong, dark violet, tinged with olive where shaded, sprinkled with a few spots, moderately downy. Leaves rather large, roundish oval, tapering abruptly to a long point, doubly serrated. Petioles scarcely 1 inch in length, with remarkably large stipules. Fruit large, oblate, somewhat angular on the sides. Eye large, closed, set in a shallow cavity, the sides of which have projections formed by the terminations of the ribs. Stalk very short, thick, woolly, placed in a wide shallow cavity, the sides of which are usually russetted. Skin dark green, obscurely streaked witli red, interspersed with broken streaks and small patches of bright red next the sun. Flesh greenish white, firm and crisp, with an abundance of brisk acid juice. A first-rate apple for kitchen use, and esteemed byTHE APrLE. 365 cooks as an excellent sauce apple. It is in season from October till February. The tree is of a spreading habit, hardy, vigorous, and a great bearer. The following tables exhibit, in a comprehensive form, the periods during which the varieties described generally continue in use, and will afford considerable facilities in making selections of sorts to ripen in succession, or at any particular period. The asterisks indicate the months in which the fruit is in use. Table exhibiting the Months in which the Dessert Apples previously described are generally in use. Name. J uly. Aug. 1 Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Fell Mar. April. May. J une. Adams’ Pear main, * Mr * Ashmead’s Kernel, * * M * * | ••• Autumn Pearmain, * ... Barcelona Pearmain, * * * ... Baxter’s Pearmain, * * * * Beachamwell, * * * * Betsey, * * * Blenheim Pippin, * * * * Boston Russet, M * * ■if Braddick’s Nonpareil, M * * * ... ( Brickley Seedling, * * * * Brownlees’ Russet, M * * * Oalville Blanche d’Hiver, * * * * ... Cambusnethan Pippin, * * * * Claygate Pearmain, * * * * 1 Cobliam, * * * M ... Cockle’s Pippin, * * * * Coe’s Golden Drop, * * * * * Cornish Aromatic, * ■if * M ... Cornish Gilliltower, M * * * * Court of Wick, * ■if * * * * Court-pendfi Plat, * * * * •* ! ... Cox’s Orange Pippin, * * * * M • • • Devonshire Quarrenden, if Dutch Mignonne, * * * * -* 1 Early Harvest, * Early Nonpareil, * * * ... Early Red Margaret, * Eldon Pippin, * * M ■if ■if Fearn’s Pippin, * * * * G »ldeu Harvey, M * * M * * H Golden Pippin, M M M * * * Golden Reinette, ■if * * * 1 Herefordshire Pearmain, * * * M * Hubbard’s Pearmain, * * * * ■if * Hughes’ Golden Pippin, * * * ... Irish Peach Apple, * * ... | Kerry Pippin, ■if •if King of the Pippins, * * * * Lamb Abbey Pearmain M M ■if ■if ... ' Mannington’s Pearmain, * * * * •if 1 INI argil, ■if M * ■if New Rock Pippin, ... * * ■if ■if * | Newtown Pippin, ... * * * ■if * ... Old Nonpareil, M ■if •if ■if Ol d’s Apple, ... * * •if * * Oslin, M ■if ... Pearson’s Plate, * * ■if * ... Pitmaston Golden Harvey, * # if ■if ■if Pitmaston Nonpareil, M * 1 Pitmaston Pine Apple, M * ... Pomme Royale, * * 1 Red Astrachan, * • • ! Reinette de Canada, * * * * * * j Reinette Van Mous, * * * * * 1 Ribston Pippin, * * * * * Sam Young, * M * * 1 Scarlet Nonpareil, * * ■if ... Scarlet Pearmain, * # * * * ... ... | Stunner Pippin, * * * ■if * I ! Summer Golden Pippin, * * Syke House Russet, * * M * Uellner’s Gold Reinette, * * ■if ■if ^f White Juneating, * * Wormsley Pippin, 1 * * — 366 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Table exhibiting the Months in which the Kitchen Apples previously described are generally in use. Name. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. April May. June. Alexander, * * * * Alfriston, ... * * * * * * Beauty of Kent, * * Bedfordshire Eouinlling Brownlee’s Russet, Burr Knot, Carlisle Oodlin, * Cellini, Dumelow’s Seedling, Dutch Oodlin, F'X'ge, * Gloria Mundi, Golden Noble, * Gooseberry, * * * * * * * * * 1 Gravenstein, Green Apple, ... * Hawthornden, Kentish Oodlin, Kentish Pill-Basket, Keswick Oodlin, ... London Pippin, * * Lord Suffieid, Manks Oodlin, * j. Mere de Menage, Monstrous Leadington, Nelson Codlin, Nonesuch, Norfolk Beaufin, Northern Greening, Rhode Island Greening, Round Winter Nonesuch, * * Royal Russet, * * * * * Evmer * * * * Striped Beaufin, * * * * * * * * Sweeny Nonpareil, * * Tower of Glammis, Wadlnirst Pippin, Waltham Abbey Seedling Winter Greening, * * * * * \ orkshire Greening * * * * Dessert Apples which are also suit- able for Culinary purposes. Autumn Pearmain, * Baxters l earmain. i ... Blenheim Pippin, * Brownlees’ Russet, Calville Blanche d'lliver, Dutch Mignonne, * Fearn’s Pippin, Herefordshire Pearmain, Reinette de Canada, ... * * Bibston Pippin, Stunner Pippin, Wormsley Pippin, * * List of Sorts adapted for Espalier Training. DESSERT. Herefordshire Pearmain. King of the Pippins. Old Nonpareil. Pearson’s Plate. Pitinaston Nonpareil. Red Astraclian. Reinette de Canada. Reinette Van Mons. llibston Pippin. Scarlet Nonpareil. Stunner Pippin. Wormsley Pippin. KITCHEN. Alexander. Beauty of Kent. Dumelow’s Seedling. Mere de Menage. Golden Noble. Tower of Glammis. | Hawthornden. Waltham Abbey Seedling. Selection of Sorts for a Cottage Garden. DESSERT. * Raster’s Peannain. carlet Nonpareil, i *Blenheim Pippin. *Sturmer Pippin. *Eibston Pippin. *Wormsley Pippin. KITCHEN. Dumelow’s Seedling. Tower of Glammis. Mere de Menage. Waltham Abbey Seedliug Selection of Twelve Dessert and Six Kitchen Apples. DESSERT. ^Blenheim Pippin. Boston Russet. i* Those marked are also suitable for culinary purposes. Adams’ rearmaiu. Barcelona Pearmain. Blenheim Pippin. Boston Russet. Claygate Pearmain. Court of Wick. Court-pendu Plat. Cox’s Orange Pippin. Dutch Mignonne. Early Harvest. Early Nonpareil. Golden Reinette.THE APPLE. 367 Cox’s Orange Pippin. Pitmaston Nonpareil. Devonshire Quarrenden. *Ribston Pippin. Golden Reinette. Scarlet Nonpareil. Old Nonpareil. *Sturmer Pippin. Pearson’s Plate. * Wormsley Pippin. KITCHEN. Dumelow’s Seedling. Rymer. Golden Noble. Tower of Glanmiis. Hawtliornden. Waltham Abbey Seedling. Selection of Twenty Dessert and Twelve Kitchen Apples. DESSERT. Adams’ Pearmain. *Blenlieim Pippin. Boston Russet. Court-pendft Plat. Court of Wick. Cox’s Orange Pippin. Devonshire Quarrenden. Early Harvest. Early Nonpareil. Golden Harvey. Alfriston. Bedfordshire Foundling. Dumelow’s Seedling. Dutch Codlin. Golden Noble. Hawthorn den. Golden Reinette. King of the Pippins. Old Nonpareil. Pearson’s Plate. Pitmaston Nonpareil. * Reinette de Canada. *Ribston Pippin. Scarlet Nonpareil. *Sturmer Pippin. * Wormsley Pippin. Mere de Menage. Rymer. Tower of Glammis Waltham Abbey Seedling. Winter Greening. Yorkshire Greening. KITCHEN. tRibston Pippin. ^Scarlet Nonpareil. fSturmer Pippin. Summer Golden Pippin. Summer Thorle. White Astradian. White Paradise. Wormsley Pippin. Alexander. Alfriston. Bedfordshire Foundling. Carlisle Codlin. Dutch Codlin. Dumelow’s Seedling. Golden Noble. Hawtliornden. Keswick Codlin. jinks Codlin. Mere de Menage. KITCHEN. Nelson Codlin. Nonesuch. Northern Greening. Round Winter Nonesuch. Rymer. Striped Beau fin. Sweeney Nonpareil. Tower of Glammis. Waltham Abbey Seedling Winter Greening. Yorkshire Greening. List of Sorts which deserve a Wall in the northern parts of England and in Scotland. A dam s’ Pea r main. Blenheim Pippin. Boston Russet. Court of Wick. Court-pendft Plat. Early Nonpareil. Golden Harvey. Golden Pippin. Golden Reinette. Old Nonpareil. Pearson’s Plate. Pitmaston Nonpareil. Reinette de Canada. Ribston Pippin. Scarlet Nonpareil. Sturmer Pippin. SUPPLEMENTARY DESCRIPTIVE LIST. Selection of Thirty Dessert Apples. Adams’ Pearmain. Golden Harvey. Beacliamwell. Golden Reinette. *Blenheim Pippin. Boston Russet. Braddiek’s Nonpareil. Claygate Pearmain. Cockle’s Pippin. Cornish Gilliflower. Court-pendu Plat. Court of Wick. Cox’s Orange Pippin. Devonshire Quarrenden. *Dutch Mignonne. Early Harvest. Early Nonpareil. Kerry Pippin. King of the Pippins. Old Nonpareil. Ord’s Apple. Pearson’s Plate. Pitmaston Nonpareil. Pitmaston Pine-apple. *Reinette de Canada. *Ribston Pippin. Scarlet Nonpareil. *Sturmer Pippin. Summer Golden Pippin. * Wormsley Pippin. S-jrts which succeed as Standards, Dwarf Standards, or Espaliers, in north of England and Scotland. DESSERT. fAdams’ Pearmain. Baxter’s Pearmain. tBlenheim Pippin. ^Boston Russet. Braddick’s Nonpareil. Cambusnethati Pippin. Claygate Pearmain. Cockle Pippin. Cornish Aromatic. fCourt of Wick. Devonshire Quarrenden. Dutch Mignonne. Early Harvest. Early Red Margaret. +Early Nonpareil. Golden Reinette. Herefoi dshire Pearmain. Hughes’ Golden Pippin. Irish Peach. Kerry Pippin. King of the Pippins. Lamb Abbey Pearmain. Margil. Oslin. tPitmaston Nonpareil. Red Astrachan. * Those marked * are also suitable for culinary purposes, t Those marked t deserve a wall. Ill addition to the varieties already described, there are several others which are very desirable on account of their beauty, long-keeping, productiveness, high flavour, or general excellence; and of these the following are especially worthy of notice:— Api—syn. A pi Petit, Pomme d’Api, Lady Apple of the Americans.—Fruit small, oblate. Skin pale yellow where shaded, bright crimson, and shining as if polished, next the sun. Eye small, closed, set in a deep basin. Stalk short. Flesh white, juicy, and perfumed. Season from October to April. An extremely beautiful apple for the dessert, on which account it is imported for the London markets, but far inferior in flavour to most of the other dessert kinds. Bess Pool.—Fruit above the medium size, conical. Eye small, deep. Stalk very short. Skin yellowish green, splashed and streaked with bright crimson on the side next the sun, and suffused in parts with a peculiar silvery hue. Flesh whitish, firm yet juicy, brisk, and pleasant. A handsome apple of first-rate keeping qualities, suitable for either kitchen or dessert; in use from November to May. Borovitsky.—Fruit middle-sized, roundish oval. Skin pale green, streaked with bright red. Flesh white, juicy, and sugary. A handsome and good dessert apple in the sou them counties; ripe in the middle of August. Borsdorffer— syn. Garret Pippin.—Fruit small, oblate. Skin yellow on the shaded side, deep red next the sun. Flesh white, juicy, and perfumed. A good dessert apple; in use from November to March, and as much esteemed in Germany as the Golden Pippin in England.368 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Brabant Bellefleur.—Fruit large, roundish ovate, inclining to conical, slightly angular. Eye large, open. Stalk short, deeply inserted. Skin pale yellow, Hushed and streaked with red on the side next the sun. Examples of this apple differ very much from each other in their appearance; some are covered with a thick and beautiful glaucous bloom, others quite destitute of it. Flesh crisp, tender, juicy, rich, and pleasantly flavoured. A very handsome and first-class apple, suitable for cither kitchen or dessert; in use from October to April. Early Julien.—Fruit medium-sized, roundish, flattened. Eye closed. Stalk short. Skin pale yellow, with a darker tinge next the sun. Flesh yellowish white, brisk, juicy, with a nice pleasant and agreeable flavour. A very excellent early dessert apple, and suitable also for cooking. Ripe in the beginning of August. Tree very productive. Eclinville Seedling.—Fruit very large, flattened, a little angular near the eye. Eye large, deeply sunk. Stalk deeply sunk, about half an inch in length, the end just level with the base of the fruit. Skin greenish yellow, slightly flushed with crimson on the side next the suu, and having a patch of russet near the stalk. Flesh white, rather soft and light, of delicate texture, with a brisk, acid flavour. A large and handsome early kitchen apple. Tree an immense bearer in a quite young state. In use from August to November. Keddleston Pippin.—Fruit of rather small size, conical in shape, regular. Eye small, open, set in a shallow plaited basiu. Stalk slioi't. Skin uniformly pale yellow, streaked and specked with russet. Flesh yellow, crisp, juicy, rich, and sugary. An excellent dessert apple; in season from November to the end of January. Lewis’s Incomparable.—Fruit large, of conical form. Eyes small, open. Stalk short. Skin deep yellow on the shaded side, slightly streaked with red, and covered with numerous dark spots; bright vivid red on the side next the sun. Flesh yellowish, firm yet crisp and juicy, with a peculiarly pleasant aromatic acid flavour. A large and extremely handsome apple, suitable for either the kitchen or dessert. In use from October to February. Lord Bdrghley.—Fruit medium-sized, roundish conical, angular on the sides and towards the apex. Eye small, closed, set in a slightly ribbed basin. Stalk about half an inch long, frequently shorter. Skin greenish yellow on the shaded side, deep bronzy red, inclining to crimson, on the side next the sun. Flesh yellow, firm yet tender and juicy, sweet, and rich. A first-rate late dessert apple; in use from December to May, and sometimes to the end of June. Melon Apple.—Fruit above the medium size, roundish, flattened, yret becoming somewhat pointed towards the eye. Eye small, half open. Stalk half an inch long, thin and slender. Skin pale yellow on the shaded side, shading to beautiful crimson on the side next the sun. Flesh white, very tender, yet crisp and juicy, sweet and pleasant, with a delicate perfume. A handsome and excellent American dessert apple, with a peculiarly delicate texture of flesh; and it ripens well in this country. In use in December and January. Northern Spy-.—Fruit of medium size, conical, slightly angular. Eye half closed, set in a shallow cavity. Stalk nearly an inch long, slender. Skin greenish yellow on the shaded side, bright crimson on the side next the sun. Flesh yellowish white, tender, brisk, juicy, and pleasant. A very handsome American dessert apple, of the highest quality; in use from November to April. Pennington’s Seedling.—Fruit middle-sized, oblate. Skin yellowish and russeted on the shady side, covered with rich brown russet next the sun. Flesh yellow, firm, rich, and sugary. An excellent dessert apple, useful also for kitchen purposes; in season from November to March. Rosemary Russet.—Fruit medium sized, roundish ovate. Eye small, closed. Stalk long, slender. Skin greenish yellow in the shade, covered with thin pale russet and bright crimson next the sun. Flesh yellow, crisp, juicy, very rich, sugary, and spicy. One of the best dessert apples; in use from November to April. Tree vigorous and a great bearer. Small’s Admirable.—Fruit large, roundish ovate, flattened, slightly and obtusely angled on the sides. Eye small, closed, set in a rather deep basin. Stalk long, slender. Skin of a uniform pale straw colour, slightly shaded with dull brown on the side next the sun. Flesh yellowish, crisp, tender, and sweet, with an agreeable acid. A very excellent autumn kitchen apple. Tree an immense bearer. A valuable kind for market supply. Stirling Castle. —Fruit large, round, flattened, slightly angled. Eye rather small, closed, set in a deep basin. Stalk about an inch long, deeply inserted. Skin greenish yellow, flushed with dull brown and streaks of crimson on the side next the sun. Flesh whitish, tender, juicy, and pleasantly sub-acid in flavour. A first-rate Scotch early kitchen apple; in use from August to November. Tree an immense bearer, and well adapted for northern districts. Warner’s King.—Fruit very large, roundish or ovate, flattened. Eye small, closed, set in a wide shallow basin. Stalk short, but pretty deeply inserted. Skin of a uniform clear deep yellow, with here and there a patch of russet. Flesh white, tender, and juicy, with a fine, brisk, sub-acid flavour. A very large and handsome cooking apple, of first-rate quality; in use from November to March. Winter Hawtiiornden — syn. New Ilawthornden. —Fruit large, roundish ovate, a little flattened at both ends, like the old Hawtiiornden. Eye small, closed. Stalk rather long and slender. Skin greenish yellow, with a tinge of brownish red on the side next the sun. Flesh white, tender, crisp, and juicy, with a sub-acid flavour. A valuable winter cooking apple; in use from November to March. Propagation.-—The apple may be propagated by seeds, cuttings, suckers, layering, grafting, budding, and inarching. Seeds obtained from the pomace of cider apples produce vigorous plants, suitable as stocks for orchard trees with tall stems. Seeds picked out from the cores of good table or kitchen apples are frequently sown by individuals with the view of raising new varieties, and occasionally thatTHE APPLE. 369 object is attained. In Normandy, where apples are extensively cultivated, the pomace is taken and rubbed between the hands in a vessel of water, in order to separate the pulp from the pips. After allowing some time for settling, a part of the contents of the vessel is poured off so as to get clear of the pomace and bad seeds, the pips at the bottom being the only ones that should be made use of. These are dried, and kept in a dry place till they are sown. The sowing is then performed as soon as the hard frosts are over, for the seed of the apple does not long preserve its germinative powers. The ground should be well prepared, finely pulverized, and enriched with decayed manure. Drills are made 1 inch deep, and from 7 to 9 inches apart, and in these the seeds are deposited, then covered with fine soil, and afterwards rolled or pressed close with the back of the spade. It is sometimes advisable to mulch the surface, to prevent it from becoming too dry. When the plants are 1 or 2 inches high, they are thinned out in rainy weather; otherwise the seed-beds should be watered, to settle the earth about the roots of the plants left. In thinning, care should be taken to leave the strongest plants. The ground must be kept stirred and clear of weeds during the growing season. When a year old the plants are selected for transplanting. Stout plants are preferred to tall ones. In light soils transplanting takes place in November, but in strong ones in February or March. The plants are put in at from 20 to 24 inches apart, in rows distant from each other 40 inches. In light soils the rows are made to run east and west, but in cold soils north and south, in order that the rays of the noon-day sun may penetrate between them and warm the ground. The stem is not shortened in the same year in which transplantation takes place, unless it is very tall and slender, and then the third, or one-half at the utmost, is cut off; but at the same time a sufficient number of buds is left to produce plenty of leaves, for these encourage the tree to take root by elaborating sap for the production of numerous small roots. If it is intended to graft the trees standard high, the upward growth of plants that are inclined to grow straight should be encouraged, by pinching the young shoots on the sides, in order to divert the sap into the terminal shoot; and such plants as are crooked ought to be cut down to obtain a vigorous upright shoot. The shoots on the young stem should be preserved until it has attained a sufficient size to be grafted, but they must not be allowed to grow too large. They ought to be shortened to 8 inches or 1 foot in the beginning of June, earlier or later according to the season. The stubs or shortened shoots left on the stem should not be cut off at once, but partial removals should be annually made in autumn, or before the sap rises in spring. They should be I’emoved by an upright cut, at about one-tenth of an inch from the stem, and parallel to the circular wrinkles or rings at the base of the shoot, for if cut off in the direction of these the wound soon heals over. The above are the essentials of what is considered, in Normandy, the best mode of raising apple-trees from seed, and of rearing them with a tall stem, fit for standards. In this country they are raised for stocks nearly in the same maimer, but they are transplanted, first from the seed-bed, again when they are strong enough for bedding out, and finally when they are to be placed in nursery rows for grafting. Propagation by cuttings is seldom resorted to with the apple, but the Burr-Knot, Codlins, and some other sorts, strike readily in warm moist soil; and any of the varieties may be propagated in this manner with a little extra care, if circumstances should render that mode necessary, as when some sort is required to be preserved when no stocks are in readiness for budding or grafting. Propagation by suckers is also seldom adopted. When suckers spring up they are sometimes taken advantage of for stocks; or if they come from the roots of a' seedling tree, young trees of the identical variety are at once obtained. Propagated in this manner, however, the plants are apt to throw up suckers again. It will be advisable, therefore, to plant the suckers where they can grow for a year or two before they are planted where they are to remain; and on removing them for this purpose, any buds likely to push and form suckers on the underground portion of the stem ought to be cut clean out. If the sucker is at once planted in the spot which it is finally to occupy, the roots and lower part of the stem should be cleared of buds previous to planting. Layering.—Dwarf varieties, such as the English and French Paradise, Doucin, &c., are propagated by layers for stocks for dwarfs. Grafting.—This mode of propagation is the one most generally adopted for the multiplication of the varieties of the apple. Any of the methods detailed in the chapter on grafting may be employed, but of all others whip-grafting is to be preferred for the reasons stated in that chapter, where the process is so fully described that there remains but little to be added. It may be well, however, to remark, that the stocks should be grown in well-manured soil, so as to be healthy and vigorous, and at least as thick as the finger. 24370 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. They ought to be headed back to where the graft is to be placed, in January if the weather is not too severe, but in any case before vegetation becomes active. It is not advisable to cut them down in hard frost, as in that case small splits often take place at the wounded part. If the weather permit, the heading-back should not be deferred to a later period than the end of January or beginning of February. The scions ought to be cut from the healthiest trees that can be found. Where canker is observed in any part of a tree, the apparently healthy shoots from that tree should not be taken if scions can be obtained from a healthy one. The scions ought to be cut in January, but not when they are in a frozen state; and to preserve them till the time for grafting ari’ives, a spade-deep trench should be dug out from east to west, throwing the soil on the south side, so as to form a ridge, on the north side of which the cuttings should be laid in, but not in bundles, the inner portion of which would be hardly, if at all, in contact with the moist soil, and would consequently be apt to become dried up. Each cutting should have its side laid against the slope of the trench, and its end in contact with the soil at the bottom. The lower portion of the cutting must then be covered with soil, which may be tapered up to nearly its entire length, and pressed close. Scions may also be preserved until the time of grafting, by sticking their ends in moist sand; and they may be kept alive for a year by shortening them a little, and inserting to the depth of 5 inches in moist, shaded ground. Treated in this way, we have seen cuttings taken off in January, and grafted successfully in the March of the following year, fourteen months after their removal from the tree. Grafting is performed at 9 inches from the ground for dwarf trees, and also for standards when the sort worked is calculated to form a good straight stem, as is the case with many of the strong-growing kitchen apples. But with regard to many of the weaker dessert sorts, it is better to select such stocks as .appear likely, from their upright growth, to make good stems, and graft them at standard height. For exposed situations where the trees are apt to be broken by the wind, there is an advantage in having the tree worked low, because if the top should be broken off, a strong shoot, pushing from some part of the stem below, can be trained up to form a fresh head. For orchard standards the crab stock is to be preferred; and also when the tree is to be subjected to some modes of dwarf-training in which long shoots are required. For gardens of limited extent, in which small standards are more appropriate than large, and generally for all dwarf trees, with the above exceptions, the Paradise stock should be chosen. For very dwarf trees, and for those to be grown in pots, the dwarfest of all stocks, the French Paradise, may be employed. Budding is now more practised than formerly. Finer growths are sometimes the result, and the operation may often be more conveniently performed than grafting, which has to be done when planting and other ground work has to be carried on. Inarching is not usually practised for obtaining a new plant. It might be occasionally employed for trees in pots, as a portion of a branch with fruit-spurs might be transferred to the stock in the pot, and thus fruit could be obtained from it in the following year. Situation.—In general, the best situation is on a slope inclining towards some point between south-east and south-west. Between south and south-west would be preferable, were it not for the strong gales which frequently come from that quarter about the time of the autumnal equinox, and which spoil much of the crop by shaking it from the trees. This evil may, however, be considerably modified by planting trees adapted for shelter in such a manner as to effectually break the force of the wind. A southern exposure is most desirable for giving richness of flavour to the fruit, yet there have been instances where tolerable crops have been obtained from apple-trees planted on slopes facing the north, when the crop from those facing the south has been destroyed by frost in spring. This, however, would not compensate for the greater degree of perfection which the southern aspect would generally insure. In choosing a situation, the climate of the locality as regards the fall of rain deserves to be taken into consideration. Trees are apt to suffer from want of moisture where the subsoil is naturally well drained, and where the fall of rain does not exceed 24 inches per annum. They do so in the valley of the Thames, where they happen to be planted in good garden soil, resting on a bed of loam, and this again on gravel affording perfect drainage. So long as the soil and loam is moist, the trees thrive exceedingly well; but as the trees increase in size, and acquire a surface of foliage capable of evaporating more rain than falls on the surface of the soil in which the roots extend, dryness at the root must be the consequence; for whilst the foliage is healthy it will act, and must evaporate when the air is not saturated with moisture, and to supply the waste caused by this evaporation the roots will absorbTHE APPLE. 371 all the moisture within their reach. In a short time the principal portion of the roots is in a medium as dry as dust, and in which they must remain as inert as pieces of dry sponge. The greatest dryness is found to take place in the stratum of loam where the roots chiefly penetrate so long as moisture is to be found there, and from this consequently the tree chiefly derives its nourishment. Deprived of this, it can no longer thrive, and has to depend for mere existence on a few roots at the surface, where, especially if it is kept stirred, some moisture, which has been deposited during that period of the twenty-four hours when the air is considerably warmer than the soil with which it comes in contact, will always be present. With this limited supply the tree can only linger. Vigorous shoots are no longer produced; sometimes the wood of the previous year dies back; layers of alburnum can scarcely be deposited; the numerous buds and spurs previously originated can be only partially developed; a large portion of them die in the attempt to vegetate, and the whole tree assumes a stunted, sickly, or cankered appearauce. This deplorable condition is neither owing to the variety nor the soil and aspect, but solely to the action of the roots being suspended for want of moisture. It is therefore obvious that the cause of so much evil demands serious consideration. The lower part of slopes, and the level at their base, will generally have a subsoil moist enough at all seasons, owing to the descent of water from the higher ground. Where the amount of rain does not exceed 24 inches, such places will be found eligible for the apple, so far as moisture is concerned. For the greatest amount of heat and light, the southern exposure is to be chosen. Similar situations will answer for moister climates, provided effectual means are taken to carry off superfluous moisture. Soil.—The apple-tree will thrive in any good soil which is neither too dry nor too moist; but it lives longest, and produces the heaviest crops, where the soil is a good substantial loam; and, in all cases, the less iron there is in the subsoil the better. It succeeds very well in marly soils; and the addition of marl to soils that are not naturally calcareous improves them for the growth of the apple. In hot sandy soils the trees are apt to canker, and the extremities of their shoots to die back; whilst in such as are too heavy, or with cold, wet subsoils, they become diseased, and are frequently overgrown with moss. Preparation of the Ground.—To prepare the ground properly, the directions given in treating of the formation of the kitchen-garden should be. followed. If circumstances will not admit of their being followed out to their full extent, yet they should be kept in view, and acted upon as far as possible. If the ground requires draining, that should be seen to in the first place. It must then be well trenched, whether the plantation be of small or large extent; for, in either case, the trees will amply repay the trouble of the operation. In trenching, let the good soil be thrown Op where it is deep; let all inequalities which may then appear in the bottom of the trench be reduced, and, when all is trenched over, the surface can either be levelled or made to form a regular slope or slopes, such as may be found to agree best with its general inclination. In wet or cold subsoils, it has been recommended to plant the trees on the surface, or on raised mounds or ridges. This may succeed very well for a time, but ultimately the roots will go down after moisture, if this should, in some dry summers, be deficient near the top. It is therefore a much better plan to drain the subsoil effectually, and thus render high planting unnecessary, so far as regards too much moisture at the root. As already observed, there are, however, many situations in which the trees are liable to suffer for want of sufficient moisture at the roots. It may apjrear paradoxical to propose remedying this serious evil by planting on mounds or ridges— the very means by which too much moisture is frequently to be remedied. An explanation, therefore, becomes necessary; and we shall take an actual case in point. On a level garden soil, 18 inches deep, lying on an equal or greater thickness of yellow loam resting on a naturally good drainage of gravel, trees suffered after their roots had drained the loam of all apparent moisture; and the rain uniformly penetrated the surface soil, but was mostly absorbed by the latter before reaching the stratum of loam. A row of trees, in the same kind of soil and subsoil, grew luxuriantly every season. These trees were planted near the edge of a walk, in front of a south-aspect border. The soil where their roots were situated had, of course, its due share of the rain which fell over the general surface; but, in addition to this, it had that which flowed down the slope of the border, and that of the walk. These slopes formed a sort of gathering ground; and the water thus collected proved sufficient to keep moist the subsoil in the vicinity of the trees, whereas if the border had been level, and no water had flowed from the surface of the walk, the trees would have been in the same condition as the others that had only the quantity due to the equal distribution of the amount of rain. Now. if the trees of an orchard were planted on372 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. a ridge, say about 6 inches, or from that to 1 foot above the general level of the ground, a slope could be formed on each side of the tree by digging the soil towards it to a certain extent. At first the slope might terminate in a depression or furrow, running parallel to the row of trees, and about 4 feet from it on each side; and, as the roots extend, the distance of the furrows from the trees could be increased. In this way moisture for the extremities of the roots may be obtained. A tree cannot thrive well when the extremities of the roots are in a dry medium, even although the soil close to the stem may be moist in consequence of the tree being placed in a hollow. But reverse this: let the soil at the extremities be moist, and it matters little if it is dry near the stem. Therefore, it is advisable to supply moisture to the extremities of the roots, even if the ground in the vicinity of the stem is deprived of that supply; and, accordingly, the rows of trees may be elevated on convex ridges, with a sort of valley between, in which water may accumulate in sufficient quantity, not only to saturate occasionally the surface soil, but also to moisten throughout the stratum beneath. If the extremities of the roots can be thus supplied with water, the extremities of the shoots will never perish for want of it. If the soil is not naturally rich enough, it should be well manured. By duly attending to this point, larger trees will be produced in ten years than would be the case in twenty years if this precaution were neglected. We do not wish to encourage over-luxuriance in any case; but a healthy vigorous growth should be promoted. If, consistent with this, a tree make annually twice the quantity of shoots and foliage that another does that is stinted of nourishment, the former will assuredly attain double the size of the latter in a given number of years, and will also be able to bear double the quantity of fruit; and although it may not be disposed to commence bearing at so early a period, it may notwithstanding be induced to do so by skilful pruning. Instead of applying manure from the farmyard in a fresh state, it is better to form it into a compost with such kind of soil as would by itself prove beneficial. Turfy loam will in all cases be suitable. The compost should be worked in as the trenching proceeds; and it should be placed chiefly between 1 foot and 2 feet below the surface. Some good compost ought to be reserved for mixing with the soil in planting the tree. Planting.—Before commencing this operation it will be necessary to determine the distances between the trees, for this of course must vary according to circumstances and mode of cultivation. For wall trees, the average distance may be about 20 feet. For espaliers, the distance of 20 feet will generally be suitable, except in the case of some strong-growing kitchen sorts, for which 24 feet may be allowed. For dwarfs, trained in the pyramidal form, the distance may be from 10 to 15 feet. Standards may be planted at 25, 30, 35, or 40 feet between the rows, varying the distances between the trees in the rows according to circumstances presently to be noticed. As a general rule trees should be planted farther apart in rich soil than in that which is poor; and wider in a warm moist climate than in one that is hot and dry. Under circumstances of a moist soil, combined with heat and moisture, the trees are disposed to grow to wood rather than to bear fruit, and that disposition is increased when they have to be much cut, in order to restrain them within a limited space. The best season for planting the apple-tree is in autumn, as soon as the greater portion of the leaves has fallen. If planted whilst the greater part of the foliage is still in action the shoots are apt to shrivel, because the leaves evaporate more than the recently moved roots can supply. If, however, the autumn continue mild, the young leaves at the extremities of the shoots will remain green for a considerable time after the older ones have either dropped or become all but inactive. Whilst waiting for the falling of these leaves, the ground is cooling; and it is very desirable that the trees should be planted when there is still sufficient heat in the soil to encourage the emission of fresh roots before winter, for when such is the case, the trees, if carefully transplanted, start in spring with scarcely any signs of removal. In order that the planting maybe commenced at an early period, it will be advisable to cut off the leafy extremities of the shoots, except where the mode of training renders it necessary to retain them at full length. If circumstances prevent the planting being executed so early as above recommended, it may be done at any time when the state of the weather permits, before vegetation becomes excited, which is often the case, in forward seasons, by the middle of February. It is therefore desirable that the planting should take place before that time. If the ground be not then ready, and from unavoidable causes the planting cannot be finished before the middle or end of March, the trees should nevertheless be taken up in good time before the rise of the sap, say not later than the beginningTHE APPLE. 373 of February, weather permitting. They should be laid in a cool situation till planted out where they are intended finally to remain. If they are not kept in a cool place, buds will push, and young roots or spongioles will commence to form; but as these have little woody fibre in their early stage, they will be very susceptible of injury from bruising when the trees are finally planted out. This should therefore be done before young roots have begun to push from the plants which have been removed with the view of being retarded in their vegetation. It is only for this purpose that removal can be recommended to be done before the tree can be immediately planted. In all other cases the best plan is not to take up till it can be replanted with the least possible delay. The ground ought to be marked where the trees are to be planted; and to the places determined on, some good compost should be brought, say one or more barrow-loads to each tree, according as it can be obtained, and according to the greater or less natural richness of the soil. The compost should be laid so as not to interfere with the stretching of the line, as must likewise be the soil dug out of the hole for the reception of the tree. The holes ought to be square, wider than the length of the roots when these are extended at full length, and as wide at bottom as at top, if the nature of the soil will admit. They should be so deep as to allow of the tree being quite as much in the ground as it was before removal, and deeper at the sides than in the middle; the bottom will thus be convex, instead of being flat or carelessly hollowed out like a basin, against the sides of which the roots are turned up, whereas they should slope gently downwards, a direction of which the convex form of the bottom will admit. The tree should be taken up with its roots as entire as possible, but all that are unavoidably bruised ought to be cut clean off, for the bruised portions either linger and act imperfectly or rot; in either case it is better to remove them at once, so that fresh ones may be produced instead. In planting the roots must be disentangled and carefully and equally spread over the mound. It should be recollected that a tree having its roots properly disposed will resist the wind better than one with its roots twisted round each other, so that they cannot extend freely. The roots having been properly placed, fine soil, mixed with compost, ought to be introduced among them, but no rank manure should be brought in contact with them. The soil ought to be scattered in the direction of the fibres, for these would be impro- perly reversed by throwing the soil against that direction or towards the tree, as is frequently done. As already remarked in the chapter on transplanting, it is better to settle the earth about the roots by a copious watering than by hard treading ; therefore when the roots are little more than just covered with soil, a good watering should be given, moving the tree gently at the same time. By this means the small cavities among the roots will be filled up by the washing in of the soil. When the water has completely subsided, which may be in a few hours, or the next day, according to the state of the weather and nature of the soil, the remaining portion of the earth dug out of the hole should be levelled up to the tree. The latter must be secured to a stake if it require such; and a mulching of litter as far as the roots extend may also be given with beneficial effects. In planting against walls the bottom of the hole should be highest next the wall, and sloping equally downwards towards the other three sides. It ought to be deep enough to admit of the tree being as far in the soil as it formerly was; and the tree should be placed about 9 inches from the wall, to allow the stem to thicken without danger of pressure against the brick-work. Management of Standards.—It is highly important that these should be reared with clean straight stems; that the stem should be self-supporting; that the head should be commenced at the proper height; and that it should be formed with regularity. We may here observe that the mode formerly adopted to obtain clean stems was that which rendered staking necessary; and moreover it should be understood that a tree for which staking is absolutely necessary in its youth will always be liable to lean and twist after it has attained a considerable size. We shall suppose that the maiden plant or young tree has been well transplanted, and that it is consequently in a vigorous state. We shall select two trees as similar as possible in every respect. We shall treat one according to a mode which has hitherto been the one too commonly practised, and the other according to that which we would recommend. It was not an unusual practice to keep the stems of standard trees well trimmed, that is to say, every shoot that appeared upon them was cut closely in till the desired height was attained. A few shoots at top were only to be seen, and a slender stem unable to keep itself upright was the consequence. This is an artificial stem, for the apple does not grow to the height of 6 or 7 feet without side branches, which bear leaves to thicken and strengthen the lower part of the374 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. stem. When the tree with the artificially formed stem is trailsplanted, it has, however, this advantage, that though liable to bend from feebleness, it can, from that very circumstance, be easily lashed straight to a stake, and so far some good conies out of evil; but on the other hand the stem will require support for years. Rather than have crooked trees, it is better to make sure of straight ones by supplying a fresh set of stakes, and by the time these become decayed, the trees, on their removal, will exhibit straight and apparently self-supporting stems; but left to their own strength to support their tops, now large enough to be acted upon with considerable effect by the wind, the stems bend, and cannot then be well straightened. All this arises from an improper use of the knife whilst the young stem is being reared. To rear a straight substantial stem incurs little additional trouble in the first instance, and much trouble and expense is afterwards saved, and at the same time a satisfactory result is insured. It has been explained in the chapter on pruning that roots and wood are produced in proportion to the amount of foliage. In rearing a properly constituted stem we must bear in mind that important fact. We cannot by any means get so much work done by a few leaves at the top of a stem as we can by ten times the number produced partly at the top and partly along the sides. We want thickness of stem, for if we have that, height can easily be got in one or two seasons; but if the stem is tall and disproportionately slender, it is very difficult to render it inflexible. A slender stem, 6 or 7 feet high, and which has no leaves to thicken it, except those above that height, will increase equally along its whole length, and consequently will be almost cylindrical; and it is well known from experience that when such is the case, it will be always apt to bend in the middle. To be self-supporting it should be thickest at the base, as would have been the case had it not been for the injudicious use of the knife. By such it is possible to produce a stem 6 feet in height, and everywhere about 1 inch in diameter; but in that case it could easily be bent like a bow with one hand. A stem may however be grown so as to have, for example, about the following dimensions—height, as in the other case, 6 feet; diameter at base, 3 inches; in the middle, 2 inches; and at 6 feet high, where the top begins to branch off, 1 inch; thus forming a long tapering frustum of a cone, a form very difficult to bend in any way. Of this fact any one may convince himself by taking a piece of willow—a much more flexible wood than the apple, and after shaping it to the above dimen- sions, trying to bend it. Now, a stem that has once assumed a tapering form will retain it so long as it exists. The whole tree may be torn up by a hurricane, but the stem will not become crooked, and this is precisely the kind of stem that is wanted. We shall therefore endeavour to show how it may be obtained. Commencing with the maiden shoot from the graft or bud, we find it during summer furnished with leaves from near its base to its extremity. If at the end of the growing season we girth the shoot at the top and successively below each leaf downwards, we shall find that every girth is greater and greater as we descend. The difference between each measurement will be greater or less according to the health, nature, and size of the leaves. In one which we have just measured, the difference is about ^th of an inch. Where a portion of a shoot is deprived of leaves such gradation does not take place, that part being nearly cylindrical; but if there are leaves below the naked portion, there will be a sensible difference in the increase of girth below the first of them, and so on to the base. From what has been stated it is evident that all the leaves on the first shoot from the graft or bud should be encouraged. When the leaves drop in autumn, buds more or less prominent will be seen along the stem, and perhaps some may have pushed into laterals; the latter should be shortened at the autumn or winter pruning to two buds. In the second season the terminal bud will certainly push a fresh upright, if no accident has happened to it, as will also several others along the shoot, and some will remain dormant, especially those near the base, which in vigorous shoots are mostly buried in the mass of alburnum there accumulated from the aggregate elaborations of all the leaves above that part. The shoots that do push should be allowed to grow, taking care, however, to check any that are likely to compete with the leader. Foliage should be encouraged on the latter, and likewise on the young shoots of the previous year. With regard to the laterals on the former year’s shoots, they may be allowed to grow till the end of July, and their extremities should then be pinched or cut off. The reason for allowing them to grow is in order that they may bear foliage to give additional strength to the stem below them, so that it may be rendered perfectly self-supporting. It is better to use them for this purpose than to give support by means of stakes, for whilst the foliage of these laterals increases the thickness of the stem, it also contributes to encourage the formation of roots. In autumn, when the growth of the secondTHE APPLE. 375 season is completed, the tree will exhibit a stem consisting of the first summer’s shoot, now two years old, and, in continuation, the young shoot or leader which has just ceased growing. The laterals stopped in July should now be shortened back to one or two eyes, with the exception of two or three of the lowest, which should be cut close to the stem. The same mode of proceeding with regard to the side shoots on the stem should be adopted every year. As the head of the tree is in course of formation, and is producing abundance of foliage, the side shoots can be gradually dispensed with. The quantity of foliage on a young tree should every year considerably exceed that of the previous one; therefore in gradually removing side shoots, care should be taken that the consequent diminution of foliage should bear only a small proportion to the increase made by the new branches and shoots at top. The rate of increase of these must regulate the more or less gradual removal and final clearance of the side shoots. If the tree has been planted in rich soil, and has consequently grown vigorously, the upright leader will have attained the height of more than 6 feet. But whatever may be the intended height of clean stem, the leading shoot ought to be cut three buds above that height, wrhich would be at about 6 feet 3 or 4 inches from the ground for a stem 6 feet high. Supposing however that the extremity of the shoot reached very little above the intended height of stem, the buds immediately below the cut, and which are to commence the main limbs of the tree, would be situated on the softest or almost herbaceous part of the shoot. Instead of this it would be desirable that these limbs should originate from buds on the more substantial part of the shoot; therefore, if it happen that the shoot is not firm at the required height, it will be advisable to let it grow for another season, and then cut it over. In the following spring three shoots should be encouraged from the three buds just below the place where the leader was cut over. Three main branches are better than two, as regards the formation of a well-balanced head; four are too many from the same point, or so nearly from the same point that when they become large they appear to have so originated ; further, when more than three are produced so closely together, they form between them a basin or hollow, in which water lodges to the injury of the tree. As the shoots grow they should receive particular attention throughout the summer, for much depends on the limbs being fairly and equally started. If left to themselves, they will rarely proceed at an equal rate of growth. The upper- most will incline to take the lead, and will endeavour to grow upright to form a stem. This tendency must however be strictly watched, and checked in good time. The shoot having this inclination should be made to diverge at a lower angle than either of the others; and, on the other hand, the weakest shoot ought to be elevated the most. In short, the greatest possible equality of growth between these primary shoots must be maintained, by bringing into operation the means pointed out for effecting that object in the chapters on pruning and training. Before the growing season is over, 1 foot at least of the lower part of each shoot ought to be made straight, and all three should be trained equidistant, and to diverge from the stem at an angle of about 45°. When put in the proper position whilst still growing, they will afterwards retain it. At the autumn or winter pruning each of the shoots should be cut back to within 9 inches or 1 foot of their bases, observing to cut above two buds as nearly opposite to each other as possible, and pointing in the direction which it is desirable the shoots springing from them should take, that is, not inwards, but like a Y with its open part facing the centre of the tree. In the following season two shoots, and no more, should be encouraged from each of the three original ones. The head will then consist of six shoots, originating six principal branches. By a little attention in summer, these can easily be kept at equal distances from each other, and also from the centre. The tree, it is presumed, being vigorous, many shoots will push from the branches formed as above directed. If these were allowed to remain till autumn, and then be cut back, many more would again push in the following spring; or if they were cut off closely, the branches would be too naked. It will therefore be advisable to pinch them in summer, when they have pushed 6 inches, commencing with the strongest. By this process shoots that would otherwise cause confusion can be made to assume the character of fruit-spurs, from which some of the largest and fairest fruit will be obtained. This is also the way to turn to account any strong shoot, or rather any one that would evidently become such, and which, if allowed to proceed, would occupy a position where it is not wanted. It is better to operate in summer, than to allow the shoot to grow till autumn and then cut it back; and this again is better than permitting it to remain for some years, and form a thick branch which must then be cut out. In short, the head being fairly started with its six equidistant branches, it may be left to itself, with the exception of pinching, as above recommended, any376 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. badly placed shoot, and checking any of the leaders that are likely to become too strong for the others. Management of Open Dwarfs.—The distance between the trees may be from 10 to 15 feet, according to the variety and the size which the trees may be allowed to attain. In small gardens they may be as close together as 10 feet, provided they are pinched in summer. In orchards or in open quarters, they may be in rows 15 feet apart, and the trees 10 feet in the rows; or they can be planted in the quincunx form, 15 feet between the rows one way, and about 13 feet the other. Supposing the tree to be a maiden plant, or that which has made one season’s growth from the graft or bud, it may be planted in autumn, and, if carefully transplanted, may then be headed back; if not, the extremities of the shoots must be shortened a little, and it should be allowed to grow at full freedom till next autumn, when it must be cut down to within 9 inches of the ground. The tree, having been a year established, will now be able to produce vigorous shoots, three of which should be selected, as in forming the head of a standard. During the summer, care should be taken that the three shoots make equal growths. They must be cut back at the winter priming to between 6 and 9 inches in length, and thus, as in the case of standards, six branches will be originated. These should be allowed to grow freely during the summer, so as to be tolerably straight, and if kept equidistant, so much the better. It would be advisable to regulate these six shoots in winter, by training them to a hoop, which ought to be 6 feet in circumference, and the branches, secured at equal distances, would then be just 1 foot apart. In many cases materials for hoops might not be at hand, and the purchase of them might be found too expensive. If so, three straight or nearly straight sticks, about 2 feet long, may be substituted. Three such lengths can be much more easily procured than a hoop 6 feet round. At \ inch from each end of the 2-feet sticks cut a notch, so that a piece of bass, tied round, may not slip. Place the stick across the centre of the tree, and secure the two opposite shoots by the ties, near the end of the stick. Stretch the sticks in a similar manner between the other two pairs of opposite branches. "When this is done, each branch ought to be exactly 1 foot from those next to it; if any are wider apart than that distance, let them be brought to it. Whether a hoop or this contrivance be employed, the shoots, after being secured, should be shortened to a few inches above the hoop or place where they are 1 foot apart, in order that each of the six branches may be there subdivided into two, making twelve in all. In shortening, where the leading branch is not intended to be subdivided, observe to cut above a bud pointing away from the centre, or in the direction that the shoot forming a prolongation of the branch is wished to take. From the inclination of the branches, and favoured by the open space which they form, strong shoots from the upper sides of the inclined branches will be apt to push in the middle of the tree, where their presence would prove injurious. The means already pointed out for converting what would otherwise prove worse than useless shoots into fruit-spurs, should therefore be employed. Dwarf Pyramids.-—These occupy less space than the open dwarfs, of which we have just been treating. If not allowed to grow tall, and where the space is limited, they may be planted at 10 feet apart, or in the quincunx mode, 12 feet from tree to tree in every direction. This will require the lines running east and west to be 10 feet 4fir inches apart, and the trees in these rows 12 feet from each other. In order to have a well-formed tree, it is best to plant a maiden plant and merely top it. Allow it to establish itself for a year, then cut it down to about 1 foot from the ground. Train a shoot from the Uppermost bud upright, and the others that may push below outwards. After the leaves have fallen, shorten the nbright leading shoots to 15 inches above where it was cut in the preceding year. Proceed thus every year till the tree attains the desired height. This may properly be 6 feet, or from that to 12 feet, according to their distance from other things that would be injured by their shade. Further directions applicable to the apple-tree, as well as the pear-tree, will be given in treating of the latter. [Dwarf Pushes.—The culture of apple-trees in this form is interesting to many, and of great importance to the owners of small gardens. A line of well-managed dwarf-bushes on the Paradise stock is a very pretty sight, and an ornament in any garden. There are many advantages attending this method of culture, a few of which may be enumerated. The trees are always conveniently under the control of the owner, and do not require any appliance, such as steps or ladders, when they require pruning, or when the fruit is to be gathered; they come into bearing very early; and as they do not grow to a large size, a considerable variety of fruit can be obtained from a small space of ground. We have seen trees of this description planted in a very large garden, and to good purpose. The garden had been neglected for many years, and was encumbered with apple and pear trees of large size;THE APPLE. 377 few of them bore enough fruit to pay for the ground they occupied, and, what was worse, j owing to the ground being so much shaded, the garden, though under other circumstances large enough, was totally inadequate to supply the kitchen with vegetables. It was therefore decided to uproot the old trees aud plant young ones. A space of 11 feet was cleared on each side of one of the main walks; two borders 9 feet wide were formed, with a 2-feet alley at the back of each; the ground was thoroughly trenched; and, as the soil was poor, some well-rotted manure was dug in, a good barrow-load of sound, turfy loam being also added to each trench. A row of bush apple-trees, grafted on the Paradise stock, was planted, a space of 6 feet being allowed between each tree. They might have been 4 feet apart for the first three or four years, To complete the border a row of gooseberry-bushes was planted in front of them, a space of 3 feet being allowed between the apple-trees and the gooseberry-bushes. The remainder of the border was occupied with low-growing crops, such as strawberries, lettuces, and onions. These borders were greatly admired, and were ultimately carried all round the garden, thus forming au inclosed space, which was cleared of the old trees as the young bushes came into bearing. The result obtained in six years was, that a larger quantity of finer fruit was stored in the fruit-room than had been obtained for many years previously, and the supply of vegetables was more than sufficient for all requirements. We think planting in lines, as indicated, is the best way of disposing of these trees. Of course other positions may be assigned to them, according to the size and form of the garden, or taste of the owner. Another interesting feature might have been added to the borders in the shape of a single row of apple-trees planted one foot from the box-edging, and trained as horizontal cordons. Let us now notice in detail the management of bush-trees. First—and of much importance, if dwarf and fruitful treesare desired—it isnecessary to obtain trees on the proper stock. The French Paradise is the best of all for dwarfing the trees and causing early fruitfulness. Some sorts of so-called English Paradise are valuable, others quite unfitted for these purposes. A very large plantation was made, consisting of many acres of apple-trees, on what was said to be the Paradise stock: the trees were planted at first 6 feet apart, and the same distance between the rows, aud it was subsequently found necessary to thin out to 12 feet apart, and also to remove every alternate row; in very many instances also the stock had overgrown the graft. Among them, however, there were a few trees of small size, and bearing abundant crops of finer fruit tliau that obtained from the larger trees, and on examining the stocks, it was found they had kept pace with the grafts, and were much rougher in the bark. It will also be found that those stocks which have most tendency to root near the surface will be best adapted for the purpose* Those intending to plant dwarf-bushes should purchase trees two year's old. They should be selected early in autumn, so that they may be Sent home when in a fit state to remove. The ground should have been prepared previously, and be ready for the plants when they arrive. If the proper stock has been used, the trees, though so young, will be more or less furnished with blossom buds; and should the fruit set, one or two may be allowed to ripen on each tree to prove the variety. The trees are grafted close to the ground, and in planting, the junction of the graft with the Stock should not be buried, but when planting is finished, the junction should just be seen above the ground. With regard to pruning and training, these important operations should be performed iu summer: this, with some varieties, is the only way to induce fruitfulness. About midsummer the young shoots will be strong enough to operate upon, and where they are crowding each other, thin them out, for if sun and air are not freely admitted to the centre of the trees, fruit-buds will be formed sparingly or not at all. The shoots allowed to remain should be half cut and j half broken over by placing them between the thumb and a sharp knife, allowing six inches of the young wood to remain afterwards. When the trees have grown to the required size, aud are in full bearing, the young wood should be closely cut in. The last thinning of the shoots, and final stopping, should take place about the end of August. The fruit-buds will form, and both the young wood and fruit will have a chance to ripen satisfactorily. If the pruning is well managed, any other training is seldom necessary; I the object is to keep the centre of the tree open, and induce the shoots to grow outwards, by cutting at a bud pointing in the direction which the shoot is intended to take. A proper distance at which to plant bush-trees is from 4 to 6 feet. Should the trees grow with too much vigaur, root pruning must be practised about the end of October, the trees being lifted entirely or partially, and planted with a quantity of turfy loam over the roots, but no manure should be added to it. Cordons.-*-This is another system of training, adapted both for large aud small gardens. The378 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. usual forms of training are the simple lateral (Fig. 260a) and the bi-lateral (Fig. 260b). The lateral consists of a single shoot bent in a horizontal position, and trained along a single wire fixed about a foot from the surface of the ground. Fig. 260a. |A A ^ f=- >f / i I f . Simple Lateral Cordon. Fig. 260b. Bi-lateral Cordon. This wire is fixed at one end to a stout iron support, which is best kept in position by being soldered into a solid block of sandstone. This is rather expensive at first, but when its durability is taken into consideration, it is as cheap and far more satisfactory than posts made of oak or other wood, which in some soils soon decay. One of these permanent iron supports may be placed at •each end of a very long border, and to keep the wire steady, supports of stout iron wire should be placed at every 10 or 12 feet; these should have a hole drilled at one end, and the wire is run through these holes before it is permanently fixed. For tightening the wires the useful little appliance termed the raidisseur, which has been in use for many years in French gardens, and is now manufactured in England at a cheap rate, is the best, as however tightly the wire may be strained at first, in the course of a year or two it will hang loosely, then by simply turning the key of the raidisseur it can be made firm at once. This little implement may be fixed on any part of the wire between the two end-posts. For training as cordons, trees one year from the graft may be selected. Of course, if required to come into immediate bearing, trained trees can be obtained, but they are more expensive. Beginning, then, with maiden trees, we plant one in a sloping position, at every six feet along the wire, and all that is required is to bend down the shoot and fasten it to the wire; being placed in such a position, it will break regularly along its whole length, and the wire may be furnished in two or three years. Sometimes each tree is inarched on the one next it, as represented in Fig. 260a, so that the whole of the branches form a continuous line. This is frequently practised on the Continent, as it is supposed that a greater equality of vigour in the trees is thus secured than when these are separate, by the strong contributing sap to the weaker; but even if this be the case to a limited extent, the advantage of the practice is doubtful. Admitting that such an interchange of sap may be beneficial, it must also be admitted that it may be the contrary where a tree is diseased; and it is much more likely that one which is naturally of weak growth, or has become weak through disease, will be robbed by its stronger neighbours than draw from them the sap which their healthy and more luxuriant foliage is ready to appropriate. Persistent summer pinching will soon throw the trees into bearing if the same stock is used as that recommended for bushes. Double or bi-lateral cordons are formed by heading down the young trees to within ten inches of the ground, and two shoots of equal strength are trained in opposite directions along the wire. The general management is the same as recommended for lateral cordons. In cold and unfavourable districts the finer sorts of apples may be grown as upright cordons, and trained to walls. The leading shoot requires to be stopped twice during the growing season, in order that the spurs may form regularly. Trees of this description are sometimes planted between the usual fan-trained wall-trees, marking the division between them, and from such trees very fine fruit may be obtained. The best position for horizontal cordons has been already indicated, and that is to form an edging to walks in the kitclieu-garden. They should be planted within the usual edging of box or tiles. No doubt many other positions would suggest themselves to the intelligent cultivator, such as the front of a warm border for choice varieties. By this method of culture fruit of the highest quality is obtained, at the same time an interesting feature is added to the garden, j. D.] Espaliers.—This mode of trainingis well adapted for the apple either in large or small gardens, takes up little space, and the ground may be closely, if judiciously, cropped to within 1 foot of the trees. The latter are by this mode easily managed ; and the fruit can be well exposed to the sun’s rays and to the free access of air; whilst it is more secure from being blown down by wind than when it is grown either on standards or dwarfs. These advantages ought to more than counterbalance the only drawback, namely, the expense of the espalier rail. This mode has long been in use in British gardens, yet it has been decried as an unproductive one. Certainly, we have seen many espalier trees that produced scarcely anything but wood; and, of course, annual disappointment was the result. It mayTHE APPLE. 379 be well, therefore, to point out the cause of this, in order that it ruay iu future he avoided, and that espalier training may have the patronage which it deserves when conducted in a proper manner. It will, in the first place, be necessary to investigate the main source of the evil. We shall suppose that the horizontal branches have been trained at proper distances, and that the intended number of them has been obtained. A number of shoots will push in an upright direction from the upper sides of each horizontal, but more especially from the two upper ones. Each of the shoots on these will, from their position, command more sap than the shoots which constitute the leaders of the horizontals. Let us take one of them: if we allow it to grow during the season, and then cut it entirely off, it is so much of the vigour of the tree wasted; if it is cut to within a few inches of its base, at the autumn or winter pruning, two or more equally strong shoots will push in the ensuing season; and if each of these is treated at the next pruning like the original, a mass of shoots will result, so that that which was in the beginning but a single bud, will soon become a sort of burr, yielding crops of shoots like a willow-stool. These vigorous shoots will contribute to form, on the branches on which they are situated, thicker layers of alburnum than will be deposited on the lower branches, furnished as they are with a less quantity of shoots, and connected with a less number of leaves, the organs in which the organiz-able matter is elaborated. The sap flows in greatest abundance into the branches which have the greatest thickness of alburnum, because there it finds the largest number of vessels; and accordingly a large share of the sap will flow towards the upper branches in the ensuing season, to be again fruitlessly expended, instead of being equally distributed throughout the whole of the branches of the tree, and unproductiveness is the consequence. The cause having been traced to the buds on the upper branches, and more especially the buds on the upper sides of these branches being allowed to develop strong shoots, it is evident that the remedy consists in checking that tendency, and this is in fact the principal object to be kept in view in managing espaliers; for, however well they may be attended to in other respects, they will not afford a satisfactory result if that be neglected. Having arrived at this conclusion, we shall proceed to the management of the tree. First Season.^This, may date from the planting of the tree in autumn; it should then be cut down to 1 foot above ' the ground. Train the shoot from the uppermost bud upright in summer; also a shoot to the right and another to the left, at an angle of 45° in the first instance, and if one grow stronger than the other, depress the strong and elevate the weak. Second Season.—Cut back the upright shoot to about 1 foot from where it was formerly shortened, or to one bud above two buds eligible for forming a second pair of horizontals. These two buds should be a little below the horizontal line, along which the shoots from them are ultimately to be trained. Let the lowest two be brought to the horizontal position if strong, but only nearly to that position if weak. These lowest branches cannot be too strong; therefore, the shoots they produce should be allowed to grow unchecked, except so much as may be found necessary to prevent them from competing too much with the leaders. Third Season.—Cut back the upright shoot as before, and shorten the laterals on the horizontals to about 2 inches. Shoots will push from the | parts left, and they should be pinched when about 6 inches in length. Proceed in this manner till the requisite number of horizontals is obtained. When the upright shoot is cut in order to obtain the two uppermost j horizontals, only two buds should be allowed to push, a third one, for an upright, being no longer required. The direction of the branches being that of horizontal lines at equal distances, the leaders have only to be trained in that direction, and the intended form of the tree will be insured. This part of the management is so simple that it requires no comment. It is, however, necessary to direct particular attention to the way in which the flow of sap should be equalized, and consequently an equal degree of vigour maintained amongst the respective branches^ and according as that equality is maintained, the more ! healthy and productive they will be; moreover, the fruit will be of better flavour than when some of the branches are starved, whilst others are over-luxuriant. When the shoots begin to push in the early part of the season, inspect the tree, and take j especial notioe of the strongest branches and also of the weakest. If any of the younger branches are thicker and more vigorous than those that are older, such ought not to have been the case, and equality must if possible be restored. The shoots on the strong branches must be kept wrell pinched in, commencing early; as soon as they have pushed five or six joints, they should be pinched immediately below the fifth one. The shoots on the weak branches, on the contrary, | ought not to be pinched till they have attained380 GAKDENEIl’S ASSISTANT. a considerable length, and then they should be left long enough to bear a greater amount of foliage than those 'which are over-vigorous. By these means the weak branches will gain upon the strong. When that equality is regained, which indeed ought never to have been lost, it will still be necessary to commence summer pruning the upper branches first. Presuming that in the spring all the branches possessed an equal degree of vigour, and if, when the shoots pushed, they were all stopped or pruned equally and at the same time, the upper ones would gain an advantage over the lower, from the natural disposition of the sap to flow into the former in preference to the latter. Hence the necessity of always checking the young shoots in the upper parts of the tree before those in the lower. This is very easily done; and with regard to the other points of management, we presume that they will be understood from the explanations given, and that being the case, there -will be no great difficulty in performing the necessary operations. 1 Vall-tj-ecs.—Although the apple is produced in perfection in the southern parts of the kingdom on standards, dwarfs, and espaliers, yet certain sorts are very generally provided with a wall in northern situations. Apple-trees do not require the minute care that some other kinds of wall-trees do; yet, as walls are expensive, every kind of tree planted against them ought to be well managed and productive. The first consideration is the mode of training which should be adopted. If the wall is lovr, the horizontal mode is decidedly the best, and so it is likewise for those of the usual height. In some particular cases, as against the high gable end of a house, the tree may be trained in the fan manner, in order that the wall may be the sooner covered. If the horizontal mode is the one adopted, the next consideration is the distance between the horizontal branches. For Nonpareils, and the weaker-growing kinds of dessert apples, the distance may be three courses of bricks, or 9 inches; but for vigorous, large-leaved sorts, 12 inches, or four courses of bricks, will be preferable. In cold situations this width is not too much; for if part of the surface is not covered with foliage, the sun’s rays, acting directly against the naked bricks, will heat the wall to a much higher degree than if the surface were entirely covered with foliage. Whether the distance between the branches be 9 or 12 inches, the lowest should be 1 foot from the ground. But the upright leading shoot ought to be cut back, so that the two buds intended to originate the lowest pair of horizontals may be about 9 inches above the surface, thus allowing them 3 inches of an ascent to the line by which they are afterwards to be trained. The next pair of horizontals may be allowed nearly as much; the third course of horizontals somewhat less than the preceding; and so on till near the top, where the branches may proceed at right angles from the stem. In some cases two courses of horizontals may be taken in the same season, cutting back the upright shoot to one bud above the place from which the side shoots are required to push. This should not be done later than the end of June. The directions for maintaining equality of vigour among the branches of espalier-trained trees are likewise applicable to those trained on walls. The summer pruning, and the pruning of the spurs in winter, are conducted in the same manner as with the pear, to which article we refer for further particulars. Gathering and Storing the Crop.—The period for gathering any particular sort of apple cannot be precisely stated, for it varies in different localities according to the soil and climate, and even in the same locality in different seasons. In light dry soils the fruit will not hang so long as in those that are of a stronger nature. The dropping of unsound fruit is no criterion; but when that which is sound begins to fall, the crop may be gathered. Or, the apple may be tried without pulling, and if the stalk then parts easily from its connection with the spur, it is fit to gather; but if it hold firmly at that place, so that in order to separate the fruit it must be twisted and broken, the fruit has not attained the degree of maturity which the tree can afford. When this is the case, the seeds are of a brownish colour. Some early sorts of apples ripeu in succession, and should be gathered accordingly; such, indeed, require particular attention in respect to gathering; for if taken a few days too soon they are watery, if a few days too late they are mealy. Dry weather is to be preferred; but if the season is wet, the apples must sometimes be gathered when wet, in which case they should be spread thinly in an airy place to dry. In gathering, great care should be taken not to bruise the fruit by any means. The gathering baskets ought to be lined with some soft substance, and too many fruits should not be placed above each other. Indeed, choice apples, ami such as are intended to be kept through the winter and spring, should be laid singly on a light hand-barrow, the bottom of which is of large area and lined with a mat or cloth; over this first layer another mat or cloth should be spread, and then a second layer may be placed in the barrow. The apples should be taken out by hand and not tumbled out of the baskets, forTHE APPLE. 381 fruit that will bear considerable pressure without bruising, will nevertheless give way under a slight percussion. The effect may not be apparent at the time, except by a small depression; but afterwards it will be found, on removing the skin, that the flesh immediately beneath it exhibits a derangement of tissue and a change of colour, a disposition to decay being the consequence. The late-keeping sorts should be stored in a place where the exhalations from ripe and nearly ripe fruit cannot reach them. The latter could be kept in baskets lined with some well-dried straw, and placed above each other. If the quantity of apples fit for use be too large for the space that can be allotted for them in the fruit-room, they may be laid in heaps on the floor of a loft or other place where there is a free circulation of air, which, though necessary, cannot however be admitted at all times without occasioning vicissitudes of temperature. If the air is cold for several days and nights, the fruit will also become cold; and if the air should get suddenly warm, the apples will get wet from condensation. In order to protect them from being affected to any considerable extent by sudden changes of temperature, it is advisable to cover them about 1 inch thick with straw made very dry by exposure to the sun, or by placing it on a kiln. The straw will absorb any moisture that may arise from the fruit, which will ripen of a fair colour and be more plump than if fully exposed to the air. The most essential points in keeping apples are coolness and a steady temperature, with no greater circulation of air than is absolutely necessary to prevent exhalations from accumulating, and they should be kept in the dark. They keep very well packed in dry fern, kiln-dried straw, or dry sand; they should not, however, be buried in the latter to any great depth, for if almost entirely excluded from the air they lose their flavour. When hermetically inclosed, fruit becomes insipid, although it may seem quite perfect as regards external appearance. The fruit may also be preserved very well in clean, dry-ware casks; for packing in these, the apples should be carefully selected, all that are in any way bruised or specked being rejected. After having been in the cask for two or three weeks, it should be opened and the whole picked over, so that any that may then give indications of decay may be removed. Those •which do not exhibit symptoms of this process taking place will, on being repacked, keep plump till fit for use, if the cask be put in a dry cool place. Diseases and Insects.—The diseases to which the apple-tree is chiefly subject are canker and mildew. Canker, it is well known, attacks some varieties more than others growing in the same soil. Hence, it must be inferred, that some varieties are constitutionally more disposed to this disease than others; again, in some soils, almost every variety is more or less subject to canker, whilst in others the whole of them are comparatively free from it. The cause is imperfectly understood, and so consequently is an effectual remedy. It probably arises from a combination of causes, over which we can have no complete control. We may mention sudden checks to the vegetation of the tree, especially in spring and the early part of summer, derangements of the flow of sap from vicissitudes of heat and cold, as well as of moisture and dryness, unskilful and severe pruning, and vitiation of the sap by deleterious substances in the soil or subsoil. When a tree pushes rapidly in consequence ol high temperature, and is then suddenly checked by cold, small lateral shoots, that have pushed to the length of 1 or 2 inches, are apt to die, and in that case canker takes place round their bases. As soon as this is observed, the dead shoot should be cut in very closely to the branch from which it springs, and the cankered bark ought to be cut entirely away. If this is done when the tree is in full growth, the wounds will heal rapidly. If trees canker where the soil has not been drained, draining should be immediately proceeded with, and beneficial results will certainly follow. Dryness at the root doubtless gives rise to a species of canker which manifests itself on the younger branches and on the shoots. When the sap, from excessive dryness at the root, cannot be maintained in a proper state of fluidity, it cannot circulate so as to produce a healthy organization. Severe and untimely pruning unquestionably induces canker. If a large limb is cut off late in spring, when the buds are just breaking, the sap must either overflow by the wounded surface and cause weakness, or it must stagnate, and when it does so, being partly in contact with the air, it very soon becomes vitiated, and the bark cankers; sometimes the latter shells off, leaving, in some instances, as much as 6 inches of a naked, dead stump, which requires to be cut off, and even then the v'ound is difficult to heal over, as compared with a wound of similar extent made in autumn, or indeed at any other period, except that from the commencement of the active flow of sap, in spring, till the buds have fully expanded into leaf. If canker attacks varieties that are not usually subject to it, and if the trees have not suffered from any of the above-mentioned causes, the evil382 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. may reasonably be attributed to some deleterious principle in the soil. If the canker is evidently progressing, and if the trees are not too old for removal, they had better be taken up, and the soil ameliorated by trenching and other means. In some cases a considerable portion of a bad substratum may be turned up to the top, where it will be comparatively harmless, aud besides, by exposure to the weather, and by cultivation, it must there undergo a change for the better; and when the soil turned down from the top to the bottom is reached by the roots of trees, the latter generally thrive well. Mildew frequently attacks the foliage of the apple, and sometimes the extremities of the shoots. The soil should be examined, and care taken that it is not at any time too dry at the extremities of the roots. Taking up the tree, trenching the ground, and replanting, have produced beneficial results, apparently by removing the cause. Moss and lichens should be scraped off, but it is better if the trees can be made to thrive so well as to throw off the old bark, moss and all, as we have seen ill-thriving, moss-grown apple-trees do, in consequence of draining the soil. After scraping the bark, brushing the branches with a solution of soft soap and salt, well working it in, has been found an effectual remedy. The American blight (Eriosoma mali, Leach; Aphis lanigera and Eriosoma lanigera of others) is one of the most troublesome and injurious of the insects which infest the apple, attacking both roots and branches, and frequently causing the death of the tree if remedial measures are not promptly adopted. At first sight a fine, white, cottony substance, lodged in the crevices of the bark, is all that is apparent, but on closer examination numerous small, wingless insects will be observed. These are, with the exception of the head, entirely covered with long, cottony filaments, and are furnished with a strong proboscis, by means of which they imbibe the sap of j the tree. Various remedies, such as scrubbing with soapsuds and then painting with lime-water, \ washing with tobacco-water, soap-lees, vinegar, i or sulphuric acid diluted with water, as well as painting with clay, have been recommended, and are practised with more or less success; but the most effectual mode of freeing the trees from this ]>est is to wash them thoroughly with water applied through a powerful garden engine. The insects, which are dashed down to the ground in consequence of this proceeding, though seldom capable of doing much injury afterwards, should be removed from near the tree by means of the hoe, and the ground, as far as the branches j extend, ought to be hoed and raked. When the roots are attacked, it is generally those nearest the surface that suffer the most. All that can be safely done, in this case, is to dig out the old soil to the depth of 6 or 8 inches, and to the distance of 2 or 3 feet from the stem, and after washing the roots well, to replace it with fresh. Afterwards the old soil should either be burned, or removed to a part of the garden where fruit-trees are not cultivated. The apple-tree mussel scale (Aspidiotus conchi-formis) is occasionally troublesome, especially in the case of trees trained against walls. It may however be exterminated by scraping the bark with a wooden spatula, or by using a scrubbing-brush and sand, a little quicklime having previously been strewed round the base of the stem. The bark should afterwards be washed clean with soaj) and water, a proceeding which is greatly conducive to the health of the trees. The best time for performing these operations is in May, when the young brood begins to make its appearance from beneath the scales. Of late years applying in winter paraffin oil by means of a hard brush, or a strong solution of Gishurst Compound, has been found to answer well. The stem-boring weevil (Rhynchites alliarice) sometimes does considerable injury by cutting over young shoots and grafts in spring, after having deposited one or two eggs in each. In about a week a small white grub is hatched, which feeds upon the pith of the shoot, and which in a month afterwards, having attained its full size, buries itself in the eai’th; it remains there till spring, when the beetle appears. Collecting and burning the shoots cut over by the beetle, and in which the eggs are deposited, appears to be the only mode of destroying the insect. The caterpillar of the goat-moth (Cossus ligni-perda) attacks the apple, as well as other fruit-trees, aud does great mischief by boring long passages in the wood, thus inducing decay, and rendering the stems of young trees liable to be broken over by the wind. The willow and poplar are, however, its favourite food. It is one of the largest known species, remaining two years in the larva state, and measuring when full grown about 4 inches in length. The moth appears in June and July, and may generally be observed sitting in the neighbourhood of its cocoon, which may be seen protruding from the hole formed by the caterpillar. The only remedies are killing the moth, and destroying the caterpillars by thrusting a wire up the holes, into which tobacco-smoke has also been recommended to be blown. Recently chloroform has been successfully employed for the same purpose.THE APPLE. 38^ The wood leopard-moth (Zeuzera cesculi) deposits its eggs in July and August in the crevices of the hark, and in a few days a yellow caterpillar is produced. This immediately proceeds to eat its way into the wood, and continues boring till full grown, at which time it is about 1^ inch in length. It then makes its way towards the bark of the tree, and changes into a pupa, from which the moth emerges in the following summer. Painting the stems with whale-oil soap is the best preventive to the attacks of the caterpillar, which may also be killed by blowing tobacco smoke into the holes. Aphides, though subject to the attacks of numerous enemies, sometimes appear in such numbers as to prove prejudicial to the tree by exhausting it of its sap, in which case artificial means must be resorted to for their destruction. Syringing with a powerful garden engine, with or without the application of snuff afterwards, and dusting with newly slaked lime, are amongst the most approved remedies. The caterpillar of the figure-of-8 moth (Episema ccendeocepkala) occasionally devours the leaves, though it generally prefers feeding on thorn hedges. The moth deposits its eggs in autumn, and the caterpillar makes its appearance in the following spring. When full grown, it is about 2 inches in length, of a yellowish green colour, with one dorsal and two lateral pale yellow stripes, and a bluish head. In June it forms itself a case out of moss or chips of wood, either upon the trees or in crevices in the wall, changes into the pupa state, and appears as a moth in the following October or later. Hand-picking the caterpillars at an early stage of their growth is the best means of preventing injury to the trees. The caterpillars of the winter-moth (Hybernia brumata) are very destructive to the apple, as well as to most other deciduous trees, devouring not only the buds, flowers, and leaves, but the young fruit also. When newly hatched in spring they are of a grayish colour, and not thicker than a horse-hair, but when full grown are yellowish green, and about -g inch in length. About the end of May they let themselves down by a thread to the ground, in which they bury themselves to the depth of 2 or 3 inches, and change into a pupa, from which the perfect insect comes forth in November or December, and proceeds to deposit its eggs on the trees. The females, being wdngless, must ascend the stem by crawling; they may consequently be caught by placing bands of brown paper or canvas covered with tar or birdlime round the base of the stem. Digging round the trees in autumn, or removing the surface soil to the depth of 3 or 4 inches, and burying it in trenches, may also be resorted to for the destruction of the insect in its pupa state. The caterpillar of the small ermine apple-moth (Yponomenta malivorella) devours the leaves in spring and early summer, covering at the same time the shoots .and branches with thick webs. In these it spins a cocoon, and changes into a chrysalis, from which a white moth emerges in the end of June. The remedies consist in destroying the pupre and moths. With the latter object in view, Prof. Westwood recommends a sheet to be spread under the tree, and the branches to be sharply struck with a stick, when the moth, being sluggish during the day, will fall and be caught in the sheet. The garden-chafer (Anisoplia horticola) attacks the flowers as well as the foliage. If the beetles are numerous they may be shaken at night into a cloth spread under the tree, and destroyed. The rapid increase of the insect is kept in check by birds, which devour multitudes of the larvae. The apple-weevil (Anthonomus pomorum) frequently does great injury to the crop. The beetle, having concealed itself in the ground or beneath the bark during the winter, makes its appearance-early in spring, and deposits a single egg in each of the flower-buds. In April a small white grub with a black head is produced, and this feeds upon the organs of fructification, causing the blossom to wither up before its expansion. In less than a month from the time of its being hatched, the grub is transformed into a beetle, which feeds upon the leaves till autumn, when it seeks a place of concealment where it may pass the winter. Little can be done to lessen the numbers of this destructive insect except by keeping the trees clean, and removing loose bark and fallen leaves, beneath which the beetle might find shelter. Collecting and burning the withered blossoms may also be resorted to with beneficial results. The apple saw-fly (Tenthredo testudinea) appears in May, and deposits its eggs in the blossoms, and the larva feeds upon the interior of the young fruit, which generally falls to the ground when about the size of a walnut. The caterpillar then eats its way out, and forms a cocoon in the earth, where it remains till the following season. Collecting the fallen fruit and destroying it by fire, or by burying it deeply in the ground, is the only mode of preventing the further attacks of this insect. The purple apple-weevil (R/ujnchites Bacchus) deposits its eggs about midsummer in the interior of the fruit, and in a few days a small whitish grub is hatched. After feeding upon the flesh of the apple for three or four weeks, it quits it,384 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. and buries itself in the earth, where it remains during the winter. Shaking the trees early in the morning during the months of June and July, so as to cause the beetles to fall, and then destroying them, as well as collecting the perforated fruit, are the best means of limiting the attacks of the insect. The codling moth (Carpocapsa pomonana) deposits its eggs either at the stalk or eye of the young fruit early in May. In a few days a small whitish grub is hatched, and this immediately eats its way into the apple, upon the substance of which it feeds for three weeks or a month. Having by that time attained its full size, the grub quits the fruit, which in the interval generally falls to the ground, spins itself a cocoon on the stem, and changes into a chrysalis, from which the moth appears in a few days and gives rise to a second brood of grubs. Destroying the fallen apples, and keeping the stems free of loose bark, are the best preventive measures. In addition to the above the following insects may also be mentioned as attacking the apple, namely, the caterpillars of the lackey - moth (Clisiocampa neustria), mottled umbre-moth {Hy-bernia defoliaria), pale brindled beauty-moth (Amphidasis pilosarid), gipsy-moth (Bombyx dispar\ yellow-tailed moth {Bombyx chrysorrhoea), the lunar spotted pinion-moth {Noctaa pyralina), and the hawthorn pontia {Pieris cratcegi). According to Downing the apple-tree suffers in America from three insects, which, though not troublesome in Britain, it may be well to mention. The apple-borer is a fleshy white grub, the larva of a brown and white striped beetle {Sa-perda bivittata), which deposits its eggs during the months of June and July in the collar of the tree. The grub, which takes two or three years to go through all its transformations, penetrates into the stem, and eventually causes the death of the tree, either by its perforations or by consuming the alburnum. It may be destroyed by thrusting a wire into its hole, and its attacks prevented by placing a mound of ashes round the stem; also, to a great extent, by washing the stem with a solution of 2 lbs. of potash in 8 quarts of water. Another insect pest is the caterpillar of a reddish-brown moth {Clisiocampa Americana), the eggs of which are deposited about midsummer on the young branches. The caterpillars are hatched in the following May, and feed voraciously on the foliage for six or seven weeks, often completely stripping the trees. The most effectual remedies are hand-picking, brushing the caterpillars down with a round brush fixed to the end of a pole, or touching them with a sponge dipped in strong spirits of ammonia, when they instantly perish; but whatever mode of destruction be adopted, it should be practised early in the morning, before the insects quit their nests. The canker-worm {Anisopteryx pometaria) proves very destructive to the foliage in some parts of America. The moth occasionally appears late in autumn, but more commonly early in spring; aud the females being wingless, are obliged to crawl up the stems, on which, after pairing, they deposit their eggs. The larva, which is ash-coloured or dusky brown, appears in the end of May. The most effectual means of checking the ravages of this insect consist in 3ur-rounding the stem with a piece of canvas smeared with bird-lime, so as to entrap the females in their ascent. THE PEAR {Pyrus communis), L.—Icosandria Di-Pentagynia, L.; Rosace®, J.; Pomace®, Lind.) is a native of England, as well as most temperate parts of Europe aud Western Asia. It attains a greater height than the apple, and generally assumes a more pyramidal form of growth. Under favourable circumstances it lives to a great age, in some instances upwards of 400 years. It was cultivated more than 3000 years ago by the Greeks and Romans; and the cultivated varieties are supposed to have been introduced by the latter into Gaul, and from thence into England. The uses of the fruit are well known; for the dessert it is highly esteemed, and many varieties are excellent for stewing, baking, drying, and for the manufacture of perry. The varieties cultivated for these purposes are scarcely less numerous than in the case of the apple, and new ones are being continually added. By the exertions of Mr. Knight in our own country, and of Van Mons, Esperen, and others, in Belgium, many valuable sorts have been obtained, which have proved superior in hardiness and quality to the older kinds, and have rendered the cultivation of some of these no longer desirable. The quality of the fruit and bearing in this country of many of the most recent Belgian sorts have not, however, as yet been sufficiently ascertained to permit of our speaking of these varieties with certainty; we shall therefore confine ourselves in the following descriptions to sorts which are known to be of first-rate excellence in this country. I.—Dessert Pears. 1. Alexandre Bivort.—Fruit above the medium size, roundish pyriform. Eye small, half open. Stalk about an inch long. Skin yellow, splashed and spotted with russet, especially near the stalk. Flesh white, tinged with pink, melting, juicy, and rich, with a slight aroma. An excellent pear, in use in December and January.THE PEAR. 385 2. Alexandre Lambre. Fruit about the medium size, roundish, uneven in outline. Eye small, open, segments pointed. Stalk an inch long, rather stout, inserted in a slightly oblique direction. Skin greenish yellow, slightly coloured on the side next the sun. Flesh white, firm, melting, juicy, sweet, and highly flavoured. A very fine pear, but somewhat variable; in use from December to February. The tree forms a handsome pyramid on the quince stock. 3. Althorp Crassane.—Shoots vigorous, olive brown, marked with numerous pale brown dots. Leaves rather large, ovate, acuminate, somewhat cordate at the base, dentate or slightly serrated. Petioles nearly 1 inch in length. Fruit middle-sized, roundish obovate. Eye partially open, the segments of the calyx inclining to collapse, set in an evenly formed depression. Stalk from h inch to 1 inch in length, of medium thickness. Skin greenish brown, in some cases becoming but very faintly tinged with yellow when fit for use. Flesh pale greenish white, buttery, melting, very juicy, rich, and excellent, with a slight rose-water perfume. A dessert pear of the highest merit; in use in the end of October and throughout November. The tree is vigorous, very hardy, and a good bearer, even in unfavourable years. The variety was raised by Mr. Knight. 4. Aston Town.—Shoots long, vigorous, erect, of a dark olive colour, strewed with small pale brown specks, slightly downy. Leaves rather small, ovate, abruptly acuminate, serrated near the apex, almost entire towards the base. Petioles scarcely 1 inch in length, strong. Flowers rather small. Petals roundish obovate. Fruit below the middle size, roundish. Eye small, open, placed in a shallow depression. Stalk long, slender, not sunk at its insertion. Skin pale gray, with specks of russet on the side next the sun. Flesh yellowish white, melting, very juicy, rich, and sugary, with a Crassane flavour. An excellent dessert pear; in season in October and November, but not in perfection till the end of the former month. The tree is very hardy, and well adapted for cultivation as a standard, bearing abundantly as such even in exposed situations. Its branches, when allowed to grow at full length, have a peculiar tendency to twist or curve, and in forming the heads of standards this must be counteracted by judicious pruning. The variety was raised at Aston, in Cheshire. 5. Autumn Bergamot — syn. Common Bergamot, English Bergamot, York Bergamot.—Shoots moderately strong, olive brown, thinly sprinkled with pale brown dots. Leaves middle-sized, oval or ovate, somewhat cordate and acuminate, finely serrated. Petioles about 1 inch in length, slender. Flowers middle-sized. Petals roundish obovate, imbricated, of a cream colour. Fruit rather small, depressed globular. Eye middle-sized, open, set in an evenly formed, shallow depression. Stalk short and thick, inserted in a rather wide, round cavity. Skin brownish green on the shaded side, reddish brown next the sun, the whole surface sprinkled with spots and specks of rough brown russet, and sometimes entirely covered with it. Flesh whitish, tender, gritty near the core, sugary, and rich, with an abundance of perfumed juice. A very good dessert pear; in season during October. The tree is moderately vigorous, hardy, and a good bearer, even as a standard. The variety is supposed to have existed in this country for upwards of 1800 years. 6. Baronne de Mello—syn. Adele de St. Ceran, Beurre Van Mons.—Shoots vigorous, olive brown, sprinkled with brown dots. Leaves oval lanceolate, recurved, and dentate. Fruit large, curved pyramidal, covered with thin dark brown russet. Eye small and open. Stalk slender, half an inch long. Flesh white, very fine-grained, melting and juicy, sweet and high-flavoured. A first-rate dessert pear; ripe in October and November. The tree is an excellent bearer, and very hardy. It succeeds well on the quince stock. 7. Bergamotte Cadette—syn. De Cadet,Beauchamps, Beurre Beauchamps.—Shoots of medium length and thickness, dull brown, with very few obscure, linear pale brown dots. Leaves small, oval, somewhat acuminate, very sharply serrated. Petioles short, about 3 inch in length. Flowers middle-sized. Petals oval. Fruit middle-sized, roundish obovate. Eye small, set in a shallow depression. Stalk rather short and thick, not deeply inserted. Skin pale green on the shaded side, yellowish brown next the sun, partially covered with soft russet. Flesh yellowish wfliite, buttery, juicy, rich, and sweet, with a peculiarly agreeable perfume. An excellent dessert pear, valuable on account of its ripening in succession from October to January, and in some cases continuing to do so from the same tree till March. The tree is vigorous, hardy, and a good bearer both on the pear and quince stock. 8. Bergamotte Esperen— syn. Esperen.—Shoots olive, sprinkled with large brown spots. Leaves large, long oval or elliptic, acuminate. Fruit medium-sized, roundish. Stalk an inch long, thick, strong, and woody. Eye small. Skin rough, covered with dark brown .russet. Flesh tender, sweet, and juicy, with a rich flavour. An excellent late dessert pear; in season from January till April. It succeeds well as a pyramid on the quince, but requires a wall in late situations and wet climates. 9. Bergamotte de Millepieds.—Fruit of medium size, roundish turbinate, wdth an uneven outline. Eye small, closed, set in an uneven basin. Stalk about an inch long, inserted a little on one side. Skin pale yellow, changing to deeper yellow as the fruit ripens, slightly sprinkled with russet, with a shade of dull red on the exposed side. Flesh yellowish, melting, juicy, and richly flavoured. A good early autumn pear, fit for use In September and October. 10. Beurre d’Amanlis—syn. D’Albert, Hubard, Kais-soise, Wilhelmine. — Shoots vigorous, dark chestnut brown, sprinkled wdth rather Large pale brown specks. Leaves large, broad oval, acuminate, very sharply serrated. Petioles 5 inch in length. Fruit large, obovate. Eye open, set in a shallow depression. Stalk long, moderately thick, obliquely inserted in a shallow cavity. Skin greenish yellow where shaded, tinged with brownish red next the sun, and much sprinkled wdth russet. Flesh yellowish white, buttery, melting, and rich. A handsome and excellent dessert pear; in season in September and October. The tree is hardy and an abundant bearer, but being of straggling growth, it is difficult to form it into a compact pyramid. 11. Beurre d’Amanlis Panache.—This differs from the preceding, of which it is a sub-variety, merely in its leaves being variegated, and the fruit striped with yellow. 2538G GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. 12. Beurre d’Aremberg— syn. Due d’Aremberg, D’Aremberg Parfait, Colmar Deschamps, Deschamps, Delices des Oiqdielines, L’Orpheline, Orplieline d’Eng-hien.—Shoots moderately vigorous, of a clear yellowish brown, and sprinkled with small, oblong, light brown spots. Leaves middle-sized, oblong, tapering to the point, somewhat folded, nearly entire on the old wood, slightly seiTated towards the extremities of the young shoots, the mid-rib frequently much recurved towards autumn. Petioles of medium length, moderately strong. Fruit middle-sized, obovate, with a fleshy protuberance on one side of the stalk. Eye small, set in an evenly rounded cavity, the segments of the calyx in many cases entirely disappearing. Stalk about 1 inch in length, thick, generally inserted nearly at right angles with the axis of the fruit. Skin pale green, dotted with cinnamon russet. Flesh whitish, melting, very juicy, and when well ripened, rich and sweet, with a slight, agreeable acidity, but which in unfavourable seasons and localities becomes disagreeable to most persons. An excellent dessert pear; in season during December and January. The tree is moderately vigorous, and a great bearer, succeeding as a standard or pyramid in good situations, but the fruit is better flavoured on an espalier, or against a wall. 13. Beurre de l’Assomption.—Fruit large or very large, obtusely pyriform in shape, bossed and uneven in outline. Eye large, open, set in a wide shallow cavity. Stalk about three-quarters of an inch long, thick, obliquely inserted in a number of fleshy folds. Skin pale yellow, mottled and marbled with russet, especially near the stalk and eye, with some faint tinges of bronzy red on the side next the sun. Flesh pure white, melting, juicy, slightly gritty near the core, very rich, sugary, and excellent, with a slight musky perfume. A truly splendid summer pear, surpassing Williams’s Bon Chretien, which it somewhat resembles. Tree very fertile, succeeding well on the quince. In use early in August. 14. Beurre Bachelier—syn. Bachelier.—Fruit large, oblong obovate, outline irregular. Eye rather small, closed, set in a shallow cavity. Stalk about half an inch long. Skin greenish yellow, strewed and streaked with russet on the side next the sun. Flesh juicy, melting, buttery, and richly flavoured, having a slight aroma. A very excellent pear, large, handsome, and of fine quality; in use in November and December. The tree is tolerably prolific. 15. Beurre Berckmans.—Fruit above the medium size, roundish turbinate, outline even. Eye open, set in a shallow cavity. Stalk about an inch long. Skin pale yellow, profusely covered with warm russet, especially near the stalk. Flesh white, melting, and buttery. Flavour rich and sweet. A handsome pear of good quality; in use in November and December. The tree is an abundant bearer. 16. Beurre Bose—syn. Calebasse Bose, Bose’s Flas-clienbirne, Marianne Nouvelle, Beurre d’Yelle of some. —Shoots vigorous, flexuose at the buds, olive, sprinkled with distinct pale brown dots. Leaves rather large, ovate, acuminate, slightly crenated. Petioles about an inch in length. Petals long, elliptical, not imbricated. Fruit large, pyriform, a little curved. Eye rather small, open, inserted in a shallow depression. Stalk about la inch in length, slender, curved. Skin tolerably smooth, entirely covered with cinnamon russet. Flesh yellowish, buttery, juicy, rich, and sugary, with a very agreeable, cinnamon flavour. A handsome and excellent dessert pear; in season during October and November. The tree is hardy, vigorous, and a good bearer either as a standard or against a wall, which it requires in cold soils and situations to ripen its fruit properly. The fruit does not generally form in clusters, but is distributed singly over the tree. The variety was raised by Dr. Van Mons. 17. Beurre de Capiaumont—syn. Aurore, Capiau-mont, Calebasse Voss.—Shoots vigorous, of a clear reddish brown colour, sprinkled with numerous white spots. Leaves large, ovate oblong, much folded, acuminate, finely serrated. Petioles ^ to 1 inch in length. Fruit middle-sized, turbinate, tapering generally with a slight curve. Eye large, open, prominent. Stalk generally short, thickened at its base, and continuous with the fruit. Skin yellow on the shaded side, of a fine cinnamon colour with a blush of light red uext the sun, the whole surface sprinkled with slight russet. Flesh yellowish white, melting, buttery, juicy, rich, sweet, and pleasant. An excellent dessert pear; ripe about the middle of October, and keeping till the end of that month or | beginning of November. The tree is hardy in constitution, and its blossom is not liable to injury from frost. It is a great bearer either as a standard or open dwarf. 18. Beurre Clairgeau. — Fruit large, pyriform, tapering to the stalk. Eye open, slightly sunk. Skin yellowish, sprinkled with brown dots, and sometimes slightly coated with soft olive-brown russet. Flesh white, very juicy, sometimes melting, and rich. A very showy dessert pear; ripe in November. It I partakes of the nature of the Beurre de Capiaumont. The tree is hardy, and a good bearer. 19. Beurre Diel.—syn. Beurre Incomparable, Beurre Magnifique, Beurre Royal, Diel, Dillen, Gros Dillen, I Dorothee Royale, Grosse Dorotliee, De Melon, Melon de Kops, Des Trois Tours, Diel’s Butterbirne, Beurre Spence and Beurre d’Yelle of some.—Shoots strong, of a dull olive-brown, sprinkled with a few small, linear, asli-coloured specks, slightly downy, especially at the extremities. Leaves large, roundish ovate, acuminate, nearly flat, finely and irregularly serrated. Petioles from | inch to 1 inch in length. Flowers large. Petals roundish oval, imbricated. Fruit very large, varying greatly in form according as it is produced on a wall or in the open ground, obovate in the latter case, obtusely I pyriform in the former, thickest a little above the middle, tapering from thence pretty x-egularly towards the stalk, but there it is obtuse, and some obtuse angles proceed from the middle towards the other extremity when the fruit assumes the elongated form. Eye open, set in an uneven hollow, which is generally deep, sometimes rather shallow. Stalk strong, from 1 to 11 inch in length, placed in a deep cavity, and surrounded by fleshy protuberances. Skin smooth, greenish brown at first, changing towards maturity to brownish yellow, and sprinkled with cinnamon coloured russet. Flesh yellowish white, buttery, melting, a little gritty near the core, juicy, and sweet, with a rich aromatic flavour. A dessert pear of the highest excellence; in season from the end of October to the beginning of December. The tree is very vigorous, attaining a large size, hardy, and a most abundant bearer either ®s a standard or upon a wall. Grown in the latter mode, its fruit is inferiorTHE PEAR 387 in flavour to that produced by standards, dwarfs, and espaliers, though of larger size. In pruning the tree, care should be taken to admit air and light to the large foliage by thinning out the shoots to a sufficient extent. The variety was named after Dr. Diel, the celebrated German pomologist, by Van Mons, who is said to have been its raiser. 20. Beurre Giffard.—Fruit below the medium size, pyriform, outline regular. Eye rather large, closed, set in a very shallow cavity. Stalk about an inch long, slender, inserted a little on one side. Skin greenish yellow, lightly strewed with russet, and shaded with red on the side next the sun. Flesh yellowish white, melting, juicy, rich, and sugary. An early pear of great excellence, but rather a shy bearer. The tree is a slender grower, succeeding best on the quince. In use in August. 21. Beurre Goubault. — Shoots brownish violet, covered with a slight down. Leaves small, oval, or oblong lanceolate. Fruit middle-sized, roundish. Eye large, and slightly sunk. Stalk straight, and very slender. Skin green. Flesh white, tinged with green, melting and juicy, with a sweet perfumed flavour. An excellent dessert pear; in season in September. The tree is a good bearer; and in ripening care must be taken to watch the fruit, as it continues green even when ripe. 22. Beurre Hardy.—Fruit very large, oblong obo-vate, and of regular outline. Eye large, open, set in a shallow basin. Stalk about an inch long, thick and fleshy, knobbed at the base, inserted at the apex. Skin yellowish green, covered with a coat of warm russet and numerous darker dots of the same. Flesh white, veiy melting and juicy, with a fine pleasant flavour and slight perfume. A fine, large, and excellent pear; in use in October and November. The tree is a very strong grower, and a good bearer. 23. Beurre de Jonghe. — Fruit large, roundish ovate, inclining to pyriform, very regular in outline. Eye small, open. Stalk very short, thick, and fleshy. Skin greenish yellow, thickly covered with warm russet. Flesh of a peculiar pinkish tinge, melting, buttery, rich, and very juicy, with a slight perfume. A first-class pear, of very rich and excellent quality, in use in December and January. 24. Beurre Rance—syn. Beurre de Ranz, Beurre Epine, Beurre de Flandre, Beurre Noirchain, Bon Chretien de Ranee, Hardenpont du Printemps, Ran-zige Butterbirne.— Shoots moderately strong, brownish yellow, sprinkled with distinct and rather numerous roundish gray spots. Leaves middle-sized, ovate, taper-pointed, toothed or not deeply serrated. Petioles short, generally from £ to | inch in length. Flowers rather early, large. Petals roundish oval, imbricated. Fruit large, obtusely pyriform. Eye rather large, open, with the segments of the calyx projecting. Stalk long, slender, inserted in a shallow depression. Skin dark green, thickly sprinkled with specks of dark brown russet. Flesh greenish, melting, a little gritty near the core, very juicy, rich, and sweet, not apt to become mealy. A handsome and most delicious long-keeping dessert pear; in season from January till April or May. The tree is moderately vigorous, of a rather straggling habit of growth, tolerably hardy, and an abundant bearer either as a standard or upon a wall. "When grown on a wall, it succeeds best on a western aspect, but in cold situations it fully deserves a place on a southern aspect. It should be worked upon the pear stock, as it does not thrive upon the quince. The variety was raised at Mons, by M. Hardenpont. 24*. Beurre Six.—Shoots strong, light-brown, distinctly dotted. Leaves oval, almost entire. Fruit large, oval. Eye closed. Stalk l.J inch long. Skin green. Flesh greenish white, remarkably fine and melting, juicy and sugary, with a fine perfume. A first-rate dessert pear; in season in November and December. 25. Beurre Sterckmans—syn. Belle Alliance Cale-basse Sterckmans, Doyenne Esterkman.—Fruit large, turbinate. Eye open. Stalk f inch long. Skin bright green on the shaded side, dull red next the sun. Flesh greenish white, rich, melting, juicy, and sugary, with a fine perfume. A very excellent dessert pear; in season in January and February. 26. Beurre Superfin.—Fruit above the medium size, roundish obovate, tapering to the stalk. Outline rather irregular. Eye small, open. Stalk about 1 inch long, rather slender. Skin clear straw colour, suffused with warm russet. Flesh white, melting, buttery, very juicy, and richly flavoured, with a slight aroma. A first-class large, handsome, and excellent pear; in use in the end of September and October. Tree very hardy and prolific. 27. British Queen.—Fruit of medium size, or rather above it, obovate-pyriform in shape, outline slightly uneven. Eye small, calyx with short, narrow, spreading segments, set in a rather deep basin. Stalk about 1 inch long, moderately stout, inserted a little on one side. Skin smooth, greenish yellow, thickly coated with cinnamon-coloured russet, the side next the sun being of a bright rosy crimson. Flesh yellowish white, melting, fine grained, rich, and sugary, extremely pleasant and agreeable. A first-rate pear, raised by Mr. Thomas Ingram when gardener to Her Majesty at Frogmore, very hardy and prolific. In use in October. 28. Broom Park.—Shoots rather slender, thorny, olive-coloured, tinged with red towards the extremities. Leaves small, ovate, acuminate, slightly toothed or serrated. Petioles slender, J inch in length. Fruit middle-sized, roundish obovate. Eye large, open, rather deeply sunk. Stalk thick, about 1 inch in length, not sunk at its insertion. Skin brown, sprinkled with cinnamon russet. Flesh yellowish white, melting, and juicy, with a rich and peculiar flavour, partaking of the melon and pine-apple. An excellent dessert-pear; in use during January. The tree is vigorous, very hardy, and a good bearer as a standard. The variety was raised by Mr. Knight. 29. Brown Beurre—syn. Beurre, Beurre d’Ambleuse, Beurre d’Amboise, Beurre Dore, Golden Beurre, Beurre Gris, Beurre du Roi, Beurre Rouge, Beurre Yert, Bad-ham’s, Isambert, Isambert-le-Bon, Red Beurre of some. —Shoots moderately strong, short-jointed, of a bright chestnut colour, strewed with pale brown dots. Leaves rather large, oblong, inclining to ovate, tapering to the point, folded, irregularly dentate. Petioles about 1 inch in length, of medium thickness. Flowers middle-sized.388 GARDENER'S ASSISTANT. Petals obovate, not much tinged with red. Fruit generally large, obovate, tapering to the stalk. Eye small, partially closed, set in a shallow depression. Stalk from inch to 1 inch in length, thick and fleshy at its junction with the spur, thickened and somewhat twisted at its base Skin greenish yellow, covered more or less with thin russet, and tinged to a greater or less extent with reddish brown on the side next the sun. Flesh white, with some greenish veins, buttery, very juicy, and rich. A valuable, highly esteemed, and, when well ripened, most excellent dessert pear; in perfection during October. It is, however, subject to considerable variation in size, form, colour, and quality, according to the soil and situation in which it is grown. The tree requires the protection of a wall with a west aspect; and in northern situations it should have a southern aspect. It is a good bearer, vigorous and healthy in a warm climate, but very apt to canker in this country. 30. Chaumontel— syn. Beurre d’Hiver, Winter Beurre, Bezi de Chaumontel, Oxford Chaumontel.— Shoots rather slender, flexuose at the buds, bright chestnut red next the sun, paler chestnut where shaded, sprinkled with oblong, oval, and linear pale brown specks. Leaves middle-sized, ovate, with a tapering point, finely serrated. Petioles about f inch in length. Fruit very large when well grown, oblong, blunt at the stalk, somewhat irregular, widest about two-tliirds from the stalk, obtusely angular towards the eye, which is small, partially open, in a deep, irregularly ribbed cavity. Stalk short, thick, obliquely inserted in a narrow, irregular, moderately deep cavity, but often without being sunk, and having a curved projection of the fruit on its upper side. Skin on the shaded side yellowish green or olive brown, covered where well exposed with dark reddish brown russet. Flesh yellowish white, melting, juicy, and sugary, with a peculiarly rich, perfumed flavour. A delicious dessert pear; in season from November to March. The tree bears well as a standard in the southern parts of England, but elsewhere requires a wall. It is well adapted for espalier training, either on the quince or pear stock. The Chaumontel is much grown and attains a large size in Jersey and Guernsey, and is the sort chiefly imported from these islands to London, where it is often sold at the rate of £5 per hundred when pears are scarce. The original tree of this variety was a seedling which sprung up at Chaumontel (Oise), where, according to Duhamel, it existed in 1765, and though 100 years old, was still bearing good crops, 31. Citron des Carmes—syn. Madeleine, Rose Angle Early.—Shoots vigorous, chestnut-coloured, with numerous specks. Leaves middle-sized, ovate, somewhat cordate at the base, tapering to the point, entire, or but very slightly crenated. Petioles upwards of 1 inch in length. Floivers early, large. Petals roundish, imbricated, of a pale colour. Fruit middle-sized, obovate, rising a little higher on one side of the stalk than on the other. Eye rather large, open, set in a very shallow depression. Stalk long, rather strong, somewhat obliquely attached. Skin soft, smooth, yellowish green, with sometimes a faint blush of red next the sun. Flesh greenish white, melting, juicy, sweet, and rich. A most excellent early dessert pear; ripe in the end of July and beginning of August. The tree is a vigorous upright grower when young, but when old it is apt to canker in some soils. It is an abundant bearer as a standard. 32. Colmar—syn. Colmar Dore, D’Auch, De Maune, Incomparable.—Shoots vigorous, yellowish brown, moderately sprinkled with distinct spots. Leaves middle-sized, ovate, tapering towards the point, slightly acuminate, finely not deeply serrated. Petioles about 1 inch long. Fruit middle-sized, or rather large, oblong, tapering towards the stalk, at the insertion of which it is obtuse. Eye large, open, in a rather deep evenly-rounded hollow, on the sides of which the segments of the calyx closely recline. Stalk 1 inch in length, inserted somewhat obliquely in a slight depression. Skin grayish green. Flesh yellowish white, tender, juicy, rich, and high-flavoured. In season in November, and may be kept till March. There is perhaps no pear which will continue good so long after it becomes fit for use as this excellent variety. The tree requires a wall, and is sometimes a shy bearer; but in favourable situations it is very productive. 33. Comte he Flandre—syn. St. Jean Baptiste.—■ Fruit large, pyriform, outline even. Eye open, large, set in a wide cavity. Stalk about 1 inch long. Skin rather rough, profusely coated with warm russet. Flesh yellowish, melting, very juicy, rich, and sugary, with at times a strong perfume. A large and excellent pear, of constant good quality; in use during November and December. 34 Comte de Lamy—syn. Beurre Curte, Dingier, Marie Louise Nova, Marie Louise the Second.— Shoots very long and vigorous, dark reddish-chestnut, with a moderate sprinkling of small round dots. Leaves rather large, oval, acuminate, sharply and irregularly serrated. Petioles rather more than f inch in length. Fruit middle-sized, roundish obovate, broad at the eye, which is large, open, set in a wide depression. Stalk about A inch in length, of medium thickness. Skin smooth, yellowish green, tinged with red, and speckled with the same colour on the side next the sun. Flesh yellowish white, tender, melting, juicy, exceedingly rich and delicious. A dessert pear of great excellence; in use during October. The tree is vigorous, of upright growth, and a very abundant bearer, succeeding well as a standard. 35. Crassane— syn. Bergamotte Crassane, Beurre Plat, Cresane.—Shoots of medium strength, brown, with a thin grayish epidermis where exposed, yellowish brown where shaded, moderately sprinkled with gray dots. Leaves middle-sized, ovate oblong, taperiDg to the point, slightly crenated. Petioles from j inch to 1 inch in length. Fruit middle-sized, or rather large, roundish or turbinate, flat at the eye and a little so at the stalk. Eye small, open, set in a shallow depression, but sometimes rather deeply sunk. Stalk remarkably long, from 2 to 2g inches in length, slender, woody, but fleshy at its insertion, which is on a level, or sometimes in a slight hollow. Skin a little rough, grayish green, dotted with brown, and occasionally sprinkled with russet. Flesh whitish, buttery, rather gritty near the core, juicy, with a rich saccharine flavour. An old and much esteemed dessert pear; in season during November and December. The tree requires a wall, and is sometimes shy in commencing to bear, but afterwards it is frequently very productive. 36. Doyenne du Comice.—Shoots dull chestnut. Leaves oval or oblong, acuminate, sharply serrated.THE PEAR. 389 Fruit very large, roundish, obovate, outline rather uneven. Eye small, open, set in a deep rounded cavity. Stalk about A inch long, fleshy at the base, inserted a little on one side. Skin pale greenish yellow, sometimes tinged and streaked with faint red on the side next the sun, frequently covered profusely with warm russet, which at times assumes a netted appearance. Flesh beautifully white, very juicy, melting, and buttery, very rich and excellent. One of the finest and richest flavoured pears in cultivation, and very coustant. The tree is a moderate bearer, succeeding best on the quince. It does well as an open pyramid. In use during November. 37. Doyenne Defais.—Shoots strong, brown, pubescent at the summit, sprinkled with dots. Leaves oval or elliptic, denticulate, and recurved. Fruit small, roundish obovate. Eye large and open. Stalk nearly 1 inch long, deeply inserted. Skin yellow, covered with cinnamon russet. Flesh tender, buttery, melting, very juicy, rich, and sugary. A most delicious dessert pear; ripe in December. 38. Doyenne d'Ete—syn. Beurre d’Ete, Doyenne de Juillet, Saint-Micliel d'Ete.—Shoots moderately vigorous, of a clear olive yellow, sprinkled with pale brown dots. Leaves rather small, oval, tapering to the point, moderately serrated. Petioles about 1 inch in length, slender. Fruit small, obovate. Eye closed by the convergent tips of the segments of the calyx. Stalk scarcely 1 inch in length, thick. Skin pale yellowish green on the shaded side, streaked with deep red next the sun. Flesh white, melting, juicy, rich, and sweet, with a very agreeable flavour, which is free from muskiness. A handsome and very excellent early dessert pear; ripe about the middle of July. The tree is a most abundant bearer. 39. Duchesse d’Angouleme—syn. Poire d’Eparon-nais, Poire de Pezenas.—Shoots vigorous, olive, faintly tinged with red where well exposed, sprinkled with small, oval, and linear specks. Leaves rather large, oval, tapering to the point, acutely crenated. Petioles about 1 inch in length. Fruit very large, obtusely obovate, with an uneven, somewhat knobby surface. Eye partially open, set in a deep cavity. Stalk of medium length, stout, deeply inserted, and surrounded with knobby protuberances. Skin dull yellow, sprinkled with numerous spots and patches of brown russet. Flesh yellowish white, buttery, melting, very juicy, rich, and high-flavoured, with a peculiar spicy aroma. A very large dessert pear, of the highest excellence; in use in October and November. The tree is healthy, vigorous, and a good bearer either as a standard, espalier, or against a wall. It produces the best flavoured fruit when trained as a standard or espalier, but requires a wall in the colder parts of the kingdom. The variety is said to have been found in a hedgerow near Angers in 1815. The fruit is largely imported from France, for the supply of Covent Garden and other markets, where it is best known under the name of Duchesse. 40. Easter Beurre—syn. Bergamotte de la Pente-cote, Beurre Anglaise, Beurre d’Hiver de Bruxelles? Beurre de Paques, Beurre de la Pentecote, Beurre Rousse, Bezi Chaumontel tres Gros, Canning, Chau-montel trig Gros, Doyenne d’Hiver, Doyenne d’Hiver Nouveau, Doyenne de Paques, Doyenne du Printemps, Philippe de Paques, Du Patre, Seigneur d’Hiver, Griine “Winter Butterbirne, Bergamotte d’Hiver and Pastorale of some.—Shoots moderately strong, of a clear reddish brown, sprinkled with well-defined light-brown or whitish dots. Leaves oblong or elliptical, slightly folded, somewhat recurved, slightly serrated. Petioles longisli, slender. Flowers rather early, middle-sized. Petals oval, not imbricated when fully expanded. Fruit large, roundish obovate. Eye small, closed by the converging tips of the segments of the calyx, set in a moderately deep, somewhat irregular depression. Stalk very short I and thick, inserted in a deep cavity, and surrounded by irregular projections. Skin brownish green, becoming yellowish brown at maturity, sprinkled with numerous russet spots. Flesh white, very buttery, melting, rich, I sweet, and high-flavoured. A valuable late-keeping dessert pear; in season from January till April or May. The tree is an early and most abundant bearer, especially when worked upon the quince stock. In the southern and midland parts of England it succeeds as an espalier, pyramid, or standard; in colder situations it requires a wall, but the fruit so produced is generally inferior in quality to that j obtained from trees in the open ground. When grown j as a standard, it should be as a low one, for the fruit i being heavy is apt to be blown down. When the tree is trained against a wall with an east or west aspect, the branches should be placed at least 1 foot apart, in order to allow of a greater amount of heat being absorbed and radiated by the wall than would otherwise be the I case. When the fruit becomes mealy, as it does some-| times upon a warm aspect, it should be gathered before 1 it parts easily from the spur, and ripened in a warm | place. The variety was introduced into this country from Belgium, but its origin is unknown. 41. Eyewood.—Shoots of firm growth, but rather ! slender, short-jointed, often thorny, olive-coloured near the base, reddish chestnut where exposed, and deep red towards the extremities, marked with veiy few spots. I Leaves very small, roundish ovate, somewhat acuminate, j slightly toothed or serrated. Petals about j inch in I length. Fruit middle-sized, Bergamot-shaped, but some-| what irregular. Eye open, set in a shallow depression. Stalk upwards of 1 inch in length, of medium thickness. Skin yellowish brown, mostly covered with cinnamon russet. Flesh yellowish white, melting, buttery, rich and high-flavoured. A very good dessert pear; in season in October and November. The tree is very hardy, and a good bearer. This is one of the hardy varieties raised by Mr. Knight. 42. Flemish Beauty—syn. La Belle de Flandre, Belle des Bois, Bergamotte de Flandre, Beurre des Bois, i Bosch, Bose Sire, Poire Brilliant, Bouche Nouvelle, I Davy, Imperatrice de la France, Tougard.—Shoots long, j rather slender, dark reddish chestnut, with a purplish tinge, strewed with whitish dots. Leaves rather small? ovate, tapering to the point, slightly serrated. Petioles 1 inch or more in length, slender. Flowers middle-sized, early. Petals obovate. Fruit large, obovate, inclining to oval, terminating obtusely at the stalk. Eye small, open, set in a rounded shallow depression. Stalk of medium length and thickness, inserted in a small cavity. Skin greenish yellow, mostly covered with brown russet on the shaded side, and next the sun with reddish russet, which becomes of a vermilion colour when the fruit has completed its maturity. Flesh yellowish white, melting, buttery, juicy, rich, and sweet. A handsome and excellent dessert pear; in use from390 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. the end of September to the end of October or later. The fruit must be gathered before it parts readily from the tree, or when it is just beginning to acquire a crimson tinge next the sun. After keeping some time, it will then come to its full perfection as regards flavour; but if allowed to hang on the tree till perfectly ripe, it will, though improving in size and appearance, become dry and worthless, and acquire a disagreeable anise flavour. The tree is of spreading habit, and a good bearer, succeeding as a standard. The variety, according to M. de Jonglie, was found at Heure, a village in East Flanders. 43. Fondante d’Automne—syn. Belle Lucrative, Seigneur d'Esperen.—Shoots vigorous, yellowish brown, chestnut-coloured near the extremities, on the exposed side thinly sprinkled with small spots. Leaves rather small, oval or ovate, acuminate, sharply serrated. Petioles nearly 1 inch in length. Fruit rather below the middle size, obovate, tapering to the stalk. Eye open, set in a shallow depression. Stalk about 1 inch in length, moderately thick, obliquely inserted in a small cavity. Skin soft, greenish yellow. Flesh greenish white, melting, very juicy, sugary, rich, and delicious. An excellent dessert pear; in use in October. The tree is healthy, and a good bearer as a standard. It forms a handsome pyramid on the quince. 44. Forelle—syn. Trout Pear, Poire Truite, Forel-lenbirne.—Shoots vigorous, glossy, dark red tinged with violet, thinly sprinkled with pale gray spots, a little woolly towards the extremities. Leaves middle-sized, ovate, somewhat cordate at the base, acuminate, finely toothed. Petioles from 1 inch to 2 inches in length. Fruit middle-sized, obovate, sometimes oblong. Eye small, set in a rather shallow depression. Stalk slender, from 1 inch to lj inch in length, inserted in a small cavity. Skin when fully ripe of a pale brown colour on the shaded side, tinged with vermilion, and strewed with numerous roundish bright gray spots, which are margined with crimson. Flesh white, very smooth, buttery, melting, and rich, with an aromatic vinous juice. A beautiful and excellent dessert pear; in season from November to January. The tree is of upright habit, vigorous, and an early as well as great bearer, succeeding as a standard. Although it blossoms early, yet it withstands the late spring frosts better than most other sorts. It is a German variety, and most probably originated in Northern Saxony. It is called the Trout Pear from its being speckled like a trout. 45. Gaxskl’s Bergamot — syn. Brocas Bergamot, Ives’ Bergamot, Bergamotte d'Angleterre, Bonne Rouge, Diamant, Gurle’s Beurre, Staunton. — Shoots rather short, moderately strong, light brown, rather thickly sprinkled with pale brown specks, which are mostly linear, downy at the extremities. Leaves small, ovate, cordate at the base, obtusely crenated, the young ones downy. It is a remarkable characteristic of this sort that the spur leaves, instead of being longer and more elliptic than those of the shoots, are on the contrary small and heart-shaped. Fruit middle-sized or rather large, obovate, much flattened at the crown, regularly formed. Eye large, open, placed in a wide shallow depression. Stalk thick and slioi-t, being scarcely i inch in length. Skin somewhat rough to the touch, grayish brown, tinged with dull yellow, and reddish brown next the sun, sometimes sprinkled with russety spots. Flesh white, buttery, a little gritty near the core, moderately juicy, very rich, sugary, and high flavoured. A dessert pear of the highest excellence; in season in October and November. Although many pears have smoother flesh, yet in point of rich flavour very few can compete with it. The tree is occasionally a shy bearer, but in good seasons and well managed it generally bears well. Except in the south of England, it requires a wall. The variety was raised about the year 1768, from a seed of the Autumn Bergamot, by Lieutenant-general Gansel, at Donneland Hall, near Colchester. 46. General Todtleben. —Fruit large, pyriform. Eye open, set in a wide irregular basin. Stalk about 1 inch long, set in a small depression. Skin yellow, covered with patches of warm russet. Flesh melting, a little gritty near the core, juicy, rich, with a slight perfume, and of a peculiar pinkish tinge. A large and excellent pear; in use in December and January. 47. Glou Mor^eau—syn. Beurre de Cambron, Beurre d’Hardenpont, Beurre d’Hiver Nouvelle, Colmar d’Hi-ver, Glout Mor^eau, Gloux Morceaux, Got Luc de Cam-bron, Hardenpont d’Hiver, Hardenpont’s AVinter But-terbirne, Kronprinz Ferdinand, Kronprinz Ferdinand von Oestreich, Linden d’Automne, Roi de AYurtem-berg, Stuck.—Shoots vigorous, dark olive, rather thinly sprinkled with small, not very conspicuous spots. Leaves middle-sized, ovate-oblong, waved on the margin, crenated, near the extremities of the shoots sharply serrated. Petioles about inch in length. Fruit large, oblong-obovate, obtusely angular towards the eye. Eye middle-sized, open, with the segments of the calyx partly reclining on the sides of a rather deep but not wide hollow. Stalk 1 inch in length, inserted in a small obtusely angular cavity. Skin greenish brown, dotted and sprinkled with russet, becoming at maturity of a pale yellowish brown. Sometimes in fruit froiji standards it is mostly covered with brown russet, but where not russeted it is not glossy, but feels a little rough. Flesh white, exceedingly smooth and buttery, melting, rich, juicy, and sweet. A dessert pear of the highest excellence; in season from November or December till January or February. The tree is tolerably hardy, and an abundant bearer, succeeding as a standard in the southern parts of England. It also grows and bears well as an espalier. The variety was raised at Alons, in Belgium, by the Abbe d'Hardenpont, about the year 1759. 48. Hacox’s Incomparable—syn. Downham Seedling, Haoou’s Norfolk Incomparable.—Shoots moderately vigorous, somewhat twisted, of an olive colour, thinly and rather obscurely spotted. Leaves scarcely middle-sized, somewhat cordate, slightly acumiuate, finety serrated or acutely dentate. Petioles j inch in length. Fruit large, roundish. Eye large, open, set in a shallow | depression. Stalk of medium leugtli and thickness, inserted in a moderately deep cavity. Skin somewhat rough, pale yellowish brown, slightly russeted. Flesh yellowish white, buttery, melting, juicy, rich, and sweet. A very excellent dessert pear; in season from the end I of November till January. The tree is moderately I vigorous, of a rather pendulous habit, hardy, and a great bearer, succeeding well as an orchard standard in the I southern parts of England, but requiring a wall in the northern parts of the kingdom. The variety originated , at Downham Market in Norfolk.THE TEAR. 391 49. Hessel—syn. Hazel.—Fruit below the middle size, roundish obovate, with a slight projection on one side of the stalk. Eye small, open, set in a shallow depression. Stalk about 1 inch in length. Skin yellowish green, speckled with brown russet, and entirely covered with russet near the stalk. Flesh yellowish white, juicy, and sugary, but gritty near the core. A good dessert pear; in season during September. The tree is small, with pendulous branches, and is a most abundant bearer, on which account it is much cultivated for supplying the London markets. 50. Huyshe’s Prince Consort.—Fruit large, long pyriform, outline and surface uneven. Eye rather small, open, set rather deeply in an uneven cavity. Stalk about 1 inch long, rather stout. Skin green or yellowish green, profusely covered with russet, especially near the stalk. Flesh yellowish green, melting, juicy, and sweetly flavoured. An exceedingly good pear, of rather peculiar texture and flavour; in use in November and December. 51. Huyshe’s Prince of Wales — syn. Huyshe’s Bergamot.—Fruit medium-sized, roundish oval, outline even. Eye small, open. Segments pointed, set in an evenly formed rather deep basin. Stalk about 1 inch long, stout, obliquely inserted. Skin greenish yellow, considerably covered with warm russet. Flesh yellowish white, melting, juicy, and buttery; richly flavoured with at times a fine aroma. A first-class pear; in use in November and December. 52. Jargonelle—syn. Beau Present, Beurre de Paris, Epargne, Grosse Cuisse Madame, Frauensclienkel, Poire des Tables des Princes, Saint Lambert, Saint Sampson, Sweet Summer. — Shoots very long, and remarkably vigorous, of a reddish colour, yellowish green where shaded, thinly sprinkled with yellowish brown spots. Leaves rather large, ovate, acuminate, doubly and finely serrated, woolly when young. Petioles long. Floicers very early and large. Petals roundish, imbricated. Fruit large, pyriform. Eye small, open, the segments of the calyx long and projecting. Stalk long, generally a little curved, not sunk at its insertion. Skin smooth, greenish yellow on the shaded side, tinged with red next the sun. Flesh yellowish white, a little gritty at the core, but melting, very juicy, rich, and excellent. One of the best of the early dessert pears; ripe about the middle of August, but only keeping good for a few days. The tree is vigorous, with a straggling pendulous habit of growth, and a great bearer. 53. Jean de Witte.—Shoots olive brown, buds short and downy. Leaves middle-sized, ovate, slightly serrated. Petioles slender, rather more than 1 inch in length. Fruit middle-sized, obovate. Eye very small, close, set in a slight depression. Stalk rather slender, scarcely 1 inch in length. Skin green, becoming pale green at maturity, sprinkled with small brown dots. Flesh yellowish white, buttery, melting, sweet, and rich, with a flavour somewhat resembling that of the Glou Mor^eau. In season from January to March. The tree is hardy, and a good bearer as a standard. The variety is highly deserving of cultivation, as it comes into use when the really good pears are becoming scarce. 54. Jersey Gratioli — syn. Norris’s Pear.—Shoots strong, short, erect, dull yellowish brown, moderately sprinkled with not very conspicuous dots, downy. Leaves rather large, ovate-oblong, tapering to the point, | crenated. Petioles above 1 inch in length. Fruit middle-sized, sometimes rather large,roundish,regularly formed. Eye large, open, set in an even shallow depression. Stalk about h inch in length, thick. Skin pale brown, sprinkled with russet specks. Flesh yellowish white, tender, melting, very sweet and rich. A most excellent dessert pear; in use during October. The tree is vigorous and a great bearer, succeeding as a standard in the south of England. 55. Josephine de Malines.—Fruit of medium size, turbinate. Eye open, set in a shallow depression. Stalk about 1 inch long, moderately stout. Skin greenish yellow, at times slightly tinged with red on the side next the sun, and having the surface strewed with russet dots. Flesh pinkish or yellow, with a tinge of red, melting, very rich, sugary, butteiy, and with a high aroma. One of the best late pears in cultivation, exceptionally good; in use from December to March. The tree is of peculiar growth, the young wood of a pale cinnamon colour, with very round prominent buds. It is rather a shy bearer, especially when young. It succeeds well on the quince stock, and is well suited for bush and espalier training. It must be carefully pruned, as the fruit is for the most part produced on the tips of the young wood. 56. Knight’s Monarch. — Shoots slender, yellowish olive, sprinkled with a considerable number of pale dots. Leaves small, ovate, slightly acuminate, very slightly crenated. Petioles slender, about 1 inch in length. Fruit middle-sized, obovate, sometimes roundish or even oblate. Eye small, open, set in a shallow depression. Stalk very short and thick, but sometimes rather slender, very little and occasionally not at all sunk at its insertion. Skin yellowish brown, tinged with red next the sun, the whole surface strewed with numerous roundish, pale gray specks. Flesh yellowish white, buttery, melting, juicy, very rich and sweet, with an agreeable, slightly musky flavour. A delicious dessert pear; in use during January. The tree is vigorous, hardy, healthy, and an abundant bearer as a standard or pyramid on the pear stock. It is inclined to bear in clusters at the extremities of the branches. The variety was raised by Mr. Knight. 57. Louise Bonne (of Jersey)—syn. Beurre or Bonne Louise d’Araiulore, Bonne de Longueval, Louise Bonne d’Avranches, "William the Fourth.—Shoots long, moderately vigorous, dark purplish brown, with numerous distinct spots. Leaves middle-sized, ovate-oblong, tapering to the point, doubly and rather sharply serrated. Petioles from h to j inch in length. Fruit large, pyriform. Eye middle-sized, open, set in a small, shallow evenly rounded depression. Stalk of medium length, curved, scarcely sunk at its insertion. Skin smooth, on the shaded side green at first, changing to greenish yellow when fully ripe; brownish red thickly sprinkled with pale brown dots on the side next the sun. Ilesli whitish, buttery, melting, juicy, very sugary, rich, and high flavoured. A most excellent dessert pear; in season during October. The tree is of upright habit, hardy, vigorous, and a good bearer, succeeding as a standard. The variety originated at Avranches, in Normandy. 58. Madame Treyve.—Fruit of medium size, obtusely turbinate, tapering to the stalk. Eye small, closed, I slightly sunk. Stalk short, inserted in a slight depres-392 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. sion. Skiu greenish yellow, changing to pale yellow, with frequently a bright crimson blush on the side next the sun. Flesh white, very melting, juicy, and rich. An exceedingly beautiful pear, of the finest quality; fit for use in October and November. 59. March Bergamot.—Shoots slender, olive yellow, sprinkled with pale brown dots, often prickly. Leaves small, ovate, slightly acuminate, irregularly and acutely crenated. Petioles slender, about 1 inch in length. Fruit middle-sized, roundish, depressed at the eye and stalk. Eye large, open, with the segments of the calyx projecting. Stalk thick' about | inch long. Skin yellowish brown, partially covered with russet. Flesh yellowish white, buttery, a little gritty near the core, very rich and excellent. A valuable late-keeping dessert pear; in season from February till April. The tree is hardy, and a good bearer as a standard. The variety was raised by Mr. Knight. 60. Marechal de la Cour—syn. Conseiller de la Cour, Beau de la Cour, Due d’Orleans, Marechal Decour.— Fruit above the medium size, pyriform. Eye large, open, set in a rather deep cavity. Stalk long, rather slender, inserted a little on one side. Skin yellowish green, profusely covered with light cinnamon-coloured russet. Flesh yellowish white, very tender, melting, juicy, and rich, with a fine perfume. One of the finest of pears; in use in November. The tree is very prolific and hardy. 61. Marie Louise—syn. Braddick’s Field Standard, Forme de Marie Louise, Maria, Marie Chretienne, Princesse de Parme.—Shoots long and moderately strong, inclined to be a little twisted, olive brown where exposed, sprinkled with numerous yellowish brown dots. Leaves middle-sized, oval, sometimes ovate, acuminate, sharply serrated, except near the base, which is nearly entire. Petioles of medium length. Fruit large, oblong, tapering, but obtuse at the stalk. Eye small, partially open, set in a shallow depression, beyond which the segments of the calyx project. Stalk long, of medium thickness, obliquely attached, and having frequently a projection of the fruit on one side. Skin smooth to the touch, green at first, changing when fully ripe to pale brownish yellow, mostly covered with soft russet. Flesh white, buttery, melting, very juicy, sweet, and rich. A dessert pear of the highest excellence; in use during October and November, but when grown in some soils and situations, keeping good till January. The tree is healthy, vigorous, and an abundant bearer, succeeding well upon the quince stock and as a standard, from which, or from an espalier, the fruit is best flavoured. It will also succeed on a north wall in the southern part of the kingdom; but it requires the protection of a- wall with a warm aspect in the north. The variety is of Belgian origin, and was raised by the Abbe Duquesne in 1809. It should find a place in every collection. 62. Marie Louise d’Uccle.—Fruit large, pyriform, outline rather irregular, especially near the stalk. Eye rather large, open, deeply set, having the segments of the calyx very long and peculiar. Stalk about 1 inch long, stout, inserted a little on one side. Skin greenish yellow, soft, splashed in places with patches of warm russet. Flesh white, melting, buttery, juicy, and rich. A very excellent pear; in use in October and November. 63. NapolCon—syn. Archiduc Charles, Belle Canaise, Beurre d’Antein, Beurre Napoleon Bonaparte, Bon Chretien Napoleon, Captif de Saint-IIelene, Charles X., L’Empereur, Gloire de l’Empereur, Liart, Medaille, Medaille d’Or, Napoleon’s Butterbirne, Roi de Rome, Sucree Doree, Wurtemberg. —Shoots strong, olive green, sprinkled with numerous well defined, pale brown spots. Leaves broad, ovate, tapering to the point, widely but not deeply serrated. Petioles of medium length and thickness. Flowers very large, late. Petals obovate. Fruit large, obtusely pyriform, broad and slightly angular at the eye, contracted near the middle, and truncated at the stalk. Eye large, open, set in a shallow depression. Stalk thick, rather more than 1 inch in length, inserted in a shallow cavity. Skin smooth, green at first, changing when fully ripe to a pale yellowish green. Flesh whitish, melting, not very fine, with an extraordinary abundance of rich, saccharine j juice. A delicious melting pear; in use during November and sometimes partly in December. The tree is vigorous, and a good bearer as a standard, against a wall, and as a dwarf upon the quince stock. It is better flavoured grown as a dwarf or espalier, than against a wall, where, if not well exposed, its juice is too watery. The variety was raised in 1808, by M. Liart, of Mons. 64. Neill—syn. Colmar Bose.—Shoots very strong, reddish, sprinkled with pale brown spots. Leaves middle-sized, oval, serrated. Petioles of medium length. | Fruit very large, obovate. Eye large, open, placed in a shallow depression. Stalk generally short and rather thick, set in a small cavity. Skin pale yellow, sprinkled with light russet. Flesh white, buttery, melting, sweet, and very agreeable. A large, handsome, and when well ripened, almost first-rate dessert pear, becoming fit for use in September and October. The tree is vigorous, healthy, and an extraordinary bearer, succeeding well as a standard in I the southern parts of the kingdom. The variety was raised by Van Mons, and named after Dr. Neill of Edinburgh. 65. Ne Plus Meuris.—Shoots strong, rather short-jointed, olive, sprinkled with gray specks. Leaves middle-sized, elliptic, tapering regularly to both extremities, finely serrated. Petioles about 1 inch in length. Ftoicers large. Petals oval, very little imbricated. Fruit middle-sized, roundish or roundish obovate, but very irregularly formed, with large rounded projections. Eye large, open. Stalk very short and thick. Skin brownish yellow, partially covered with russet. Flesh yellowish white, buttery, melting, juicy, and rich. A most excellent dessert pear; in season from January to March. The tree is of upright habit, hardy, and j an abundant bearer, in the warmer parts of England at least. The fruit often grows in compact clusters. The I variety was raised by Dr. Van Mons, and named after his gardener Meuris. 66. Nouvelle E’ulvie.—Fruit large, of true pyriform shape. Eye open, set in a shallow uneven basin. Stalk about k inch long. Skin yellowish green, speckled with russet on the shaded side, bright red on the side next the sun. Flesh melting, rather crisp, juicy, rich, and excellent. A very excellent pear of the Colmar type; in use during November and December. The tree bears freely.THE PEAK. 393 67. Passe Colmar—syn. Passe Colmar Gris, Passe Colmar Gris Precel, Passe Colmar Epineux, Chapman’s Colmar, Colmar Dore, Colmar Epineux, Colmar Gris, Colmar Hardenpont, Colmar Preul, Colmar Souve-rairl D’Ananas, Beurre d’Argenson, Beurre Colmar Gris Precel, Cellite, Chapman’s, Fondante de Mons, Fondante de Panisel, Gambier, Konig von Baiern, Marotte Sucree Jaune, Precel, Present de Malines, Re-gentin, Souveraine.—Shoots long, straight, moderately strong, of a fine clear, olive yellow, sprinkled with small pale brown spots, Leaves rather small, oval, tapering to each end, nearly flat, finely serrated. Petioles of medium length, rather slender. Fruit middle-sized, obovate or obtusely pyriform, broad and flattened at the eye, with sometimes longitudinal furrows proceeding from the stalk. Eye rather large, open, set in a slight depression. Stalk of medium length and thickness, obliquely attached. Skin greenish brown at first, becoming yellowish when fully ripe, sprinkled with russet, and tinged with red next the sun when well exposed. Flesh yellowish white, buttery, melting, juicy, very sugary and rich, with a slightly aromatic flavour. A highly esteemed dessert pear; in use during December and January, and sometimes tolerably good in February. The tree is moderately vigorous, healthy, and a great bearer, either upon the pear or quince stock, against a wall or as a standard. It is well adapted for dwarf and espalier training; but in whatever mode the tree is trained, care should be taken to shorten the shoots to a sufficient extent, as they have a great tendency to grow long and slender, becoming too weak, and overbearing themselves. The variety is of Belgian origin, having been raised at Mott® by M. Hardenpont. | 68. PitmastonDuchessed’Angouleme.—Fruit large, obovately pyriform, outline very uneven and bossed. Eye prominent, open, set in a wide but very shallow depression. Stalk about an inch long, thick, with fleshy folds next the fruit, which seems to taper into it. Skin smooth, yellowish green, with several patches of russet near the stalk. Flesh yellowish white, melting, buttery, juicy, and extremely pleasant and rich. One of our largest melting pears, of superb quality, in use during October. Tree of robust growth and a great bearer. The variety was raised by Mr. "Williams, of Pitmaston. 69. Red Doyenne—syn. Gray Doyenne, Dean’s Gray, Gray Butter Pear, Doyenne d’Autornne, Doyenne Ga-leux, Doyenne Gris, Doyenne Rouge, Doyenne Roux, Saint-Michel Dore, Rothe Dechantsbirne, Rothe Herbst-butterbirne, Red Beurre and Beurre Rouge of some.— Shoots rather short, of medium vigour, greenish gray where shaded, reddish chestnut where exposed, thinly sprinkled with small pale brown dots. Leaves small, elliptic, tapering to the point, finely but not deeply toothed. Petioles very slender, about 1 inch in length. Flowers rather early, small. Petals oval, inclining to obovate. Fruit middle-sized, obovate. Eye small, closed by the converging points of the calyx, set in a shallow depression. Stalk about J inch long, curved, very thick, set in a rather deep cavity, with a projection on one side. Skin covered with bright cinnamon-coloured russet, becoming of a bright red as the fruit approaches maturity. Flesh white, melting, buttery, sweet, and rich, with a cinnamon flavour. A handsome and excellent dessert pear; in use during October and November, succeeding the White Doyenne, over which it has the advantage of keeping longer. The tree is moderately vigorous, healthy, and a most abundant bearer, either upon the pear or quince stock. 70. Rousselet de Rheims—syn. Rousselet, Rousselet Petit.—Shoots long and strong, dark violet, thickly set with round dots. Leaves middle-sized, ovate, shortly acumiuate, finely serrated. Petioles from f inch to 1 inch in length. Fruit small, pyriform or obovate, rounded at the top, obtuse at the stalk. Eye open, with the segments of the calyx rather prominent. Stalk from h inch to 1 inch in length, of medium thickness. Skin brownish green, almost entirely covered with russet, next the sun dark brownish red, interspersed with yellowish brown specks. Flesh yellowish, tender, and melting, with an exceedingly rich and honied flavour. A delicious dessert pear, which dries well; it is ripe in September. The tree is vigorous, and an abundant bearer as a standard. 71. Saint-Germain—syn. Saint-Germain Gris, Saint-Germain Jaune, Inconnue-la-Fare.—Shoots rather slender, olive yellow, moderately sprinkled with small dots. Leaves middle-sized, elliptic, folded, rather sharply serrated. Petioles fully 1 inch in length. Fruit large, oblong, widest at two-thirds of its length from the stalk. Eye small, open, set in a shallow depression, sometimes nearly prominent. Stalk of medium length, obliquely inserted. Skin yellowish green, sprinkled with brown russet next the sun. Flesh yellowish white, rather gritty, but very juicy, sweet, and rich. A dessert pear, formerly in much esteem for its abundant refreshing juice; in use from November to January. The tree is a good bearer, but requires a wall. 72. Seckel—syn. New York Red Cheek, Red Cheeked Seckel, Shakspeare.—Shoots short and stout, reddish brown, thinly sprinkled with whitish or pale brown dots. Leaves rather large, ovate, tapering to the point, crenated or slightly serrated. Petioles about 1 inch in ! length. Flowers small, disposed in clusters at the ends of the shoots. Petals obovate, tapering to the claw, when expanding of a bright rose colour. Fruit small, obovate. Eye small, open, rather prominent. Stalk short, inserted in a very small cavity. Skin olive brown on the shaded side, deep red on the side next the sun, becoming of a brighter colour after gathering; the whole sprinkled with pale specks, which are most conspicuous on the sunny side, also with numerous dark-coloured dots. Flesh yellowish white, buttery, melting, juicy, and rich, with a honied sweetness and highly aromatic, musky, but very agreeable flavour. A most delicious dessert pear; ripe about the end of October, but only keeping good a few days. The tree is healthy, vigorous, hardy, and a great hearer as a standard. 73. Suffolk Thorn.—Shoots small, short, but of firm growth, often thorny, light olive brown, with few spots. Leaves small, ovate, somewhat acuminate, near the base of the shoot cordate and acuminate. Petioles rather slender, little more than 1 inch fin length. Fruit middle-sized, roundish. Eye tolerably large, open, set in a shallow depression. Stalk short, inserted in a shallow cavity. Skin yellowish brown, sprinkled with russet. Flesh white, tender, somewhat gritty near the core, but rich and excellent, partaking somewhat of the flavour of Gansel’s Bergamot. A most excellent dessert pear; ripe about the beginning of October. The tree is hardy; its branches ai’eGARDENER’S ASSISTANT. 391 sometimes thorny, or have sharp-pointed twigs and fruit-spurs. It is an abundant bearer as a standard. The variety was raised from a seed of Gansel’s Bergamot, by Andrew Arcedeckne, Esq., of Glevering Hall, Wickham Market, Suffolk. 74. Swan’s Egg.—Shoots moderately vigorous, short-jointed, of a bright chestnut colour, strewed with obscure small brownish dots. Leaves middle-sized, ovate, acuminate, sharply but not deeply serrated. Fruit rather below the middle size, obovate or roundish oval. Eye large, open, prominent. Stalk long, slender, inserted in a slight depression. Skin yellowish green, sprinkled with numerous green specks and russet spots, frequently tinged with brownish red next the sun. Flesh white, melting, moderately juicy, and sweet, with a very pleasant flavour. A favourite dessert pear; in season during October. The tree is of upright habit, hardy, a good bearer as a standard, and extensively cultivated as such. 75. Thompson’s. — Shoots vigorous, olive yellow, slightly spotted. Leaves middle-sized or rather large, ovate, tapering to the point, with moderately sharp serratures. Petioles about f inch long. At young fruit-spurs the leaves are long, narrow, elliptic, with long petioles. Fruit middle-sized, 3 inches long, and 2;j inches broad at the widest part. Eye middle-sized, open, in a small cavity, the segments of the calyx projecting, a little recurved at the apex. Stalk small, about h inch long, inserted in a small cavity with the fruit projecting most on one side. Skin pale yellow, with a tinge of brown next the sun, occasionally sprinkled with slight thin russet. Flesh white, buttery, very melting and juicy, exceedingly rich and sugary. A delicious dessert pear; in use during November. The tree is vigorous, healthy, and a good bearer. The variety was received as a seedling from the collections of Dr. Van Mons, and named as above. 7G. Urbaniste—syn. Beurre Picquery.—Shoots moderately strong, of an olive colour, thinly sprinkled with pale gray specks. Leaves middle-sized, oval, acuminate, finely serrated. Petioles upwards of 1 inch in length, rather slender. Flowers rather below the middle size. Petals oval, tapering to the claw, not imbricated when fully expanded. Fruit middle-sized, obovate. Eye small, open, set in a narrow evenly-rounded depression. Stalk of medium length, rather thick, a little sunk at its insertion. Skin smooth, soft, greenish brown, slightly russeted. Flesh white, very buttery, melting, juicy, sweet, and rich, with a slight perfumed flavour. A dessert pear of the highest excellence; in use during October. The tree is moderately vigorous, healthy, and a good bearer, succeeding as a standard, dwarf, or espalier, and the fruit so produced is of much higher flavour than that ripened upon a wall. The variety was found by the Comte de Coloma in the garden of a convent at Mechlin. 77. White Doyenne — syn. Beurre Blanc, White Beurre, White Autumn Beurre, Butter Pear, Dean’s, Doyenne Blanc, Pine Pear, Poire it Courte Queue, Bonne-ente, Citron de Septembre, De Limon, Monsieur, Neige, St. Michel, De Seigneur, Snow Pear, Valencia, Virgalieu, Warwick Bergamot, Dechantsbirne, Kaiserbirne, Kaiser d’Automne, Weisse Herbst-butterbirne—Shoots moderately vigorous, light brown, tinged with chestnut where exposed, sprinkled with pale brown spots. Leaves small, oval, folded, recurved, slightly and regularly serrated. Petioles about 1 inch in length, slender, of a whitish colour. Fruit middle-sized, obovate, depressed at the eye and stalk. Eye small, closed by the converging points of the calyx, set in a shallow depression. Stalk very short and thick, a little sunk at its insertion. Skin whitish or pale yellow, and from a standard sprinkled more or less with cinnamon russet. Flesh white, very buttery, melting, juicy, rich, and excellent. A very good dessert pear; in use from the end of September till the end of October. The tree is moderately vigorous when young, but when old it is apt to canker, and the fruit then cracks. It is a great bearer, succeeding well either upon the pear or quince stock. 78. Williams’ Bon Chretien—syn. Bartlett, Williams’.—Shoots vigorous, olive-coloured, light chestnut where well exposed, marked with few not conspicuous brown spots. Leaves middle-sized, of thick substance, ovate with a tapering point, regularly and finely serrated. Petioles about ^ inch long. Fruit large, obtusely pyriform, angular near the eye, which is small, nearly closed, prominent or set in a very shallow depression. Stalk short, thick, obliquely inserted in a small angular cavity. Skin greenish yellow, becoming pale yellow when ripe, thickly strewed with small green spots, tinged with red next the sun when well exposed. Flesh white, buttery, melting, juicy, sweet, and perfumed. An excellent early dessert pear; in use from the end of August till the middle of September. The tree is a strong grower, and a good bearer as a standard. The fruit should be gathered a little before it parts readily from the tree, otherwise it is not so juicy, and its flavour is too musky. 71). Windsor—syn. Konge, Summer Bell of some.— Shoots strong, erect, dark brown, thinly sprinkled with dull brown spots. Leaves large, roundish oval, somewhat acuminate, toothed or acutely crenated. Petioles about 1 inch in length, strong. Fruit large, pyriform. Eye small, partially open, prominent. Stalk upwards of 1 inch in length, of medium thickness. Skin smooth, yellowish green where shaded, becoming pale yellow when fully ripe, and having a blush of red next the sun. Flesh yellowish white, buttery, melting, juicy, and sweet. A handsome dessert pear; ripe in the end of August and beginning of September. The tree is remarkably upright in its habit, vigorous, and a moderate bearer, but apt to canker in cold soils. 80. Winter Nelis—syn. Nelis d’Hiver, Beurre de Malines, Bonne de Malines, Etourneau, La Bonne Malin-aise, Malinaise, Cuvelier.—Shoots rather slender, of a darkish yellow, and sprinkled with small pale brown dots. Leaves middle-sized, very narrow, elliptical, tapering to the point, or almost entire. Petioles long and slender. Fruit middle-sized, turbinate. Eye large, open, set in a shallow depression. Stalk long, of medium thickness, inserted in a small cavity. Skin yellowish green, much speckled, and sometimes almost entirely covered with dark brown russet. Flesh yellowish white, buttery, melting, with a very rich high-flavoured saccharine juice. A most excellent winter dessert pear; in use during December and January. The tree is not a strong grower, but a good bearer as a standard in the south of England. It requires a wall farther to the north, and in cold localities it may even be allowed a place on a south wall. The variety was raised by M. Nelis. 81. Zephlrin Gregoire.—Shoots brown, with veryTHE PEAR. few spots. Leaves small, oval. Fruit about the medium size, roundish. Eye small, open. Stalk about 1 inch long, inserted by the side of a fleshy knob. Skin pale greenish yellow, changing in ripening to a pale straw. Flesh yellowish, buttery, melting, juicy, rich, and finely flavoured, with a powerful and pleasant aroma. A truly excellent pear; in season in December. The tree is prolific, and forms a handsome pyramid; it succeeds best on the pear stock. II.—Kitchen Pears. 82. Bequene Musque.—Shoots moderately vigorous, brown, slightly spotted. Leaves rather small, elliptical, slightly serrated. Petioles about 1 inch in length, slender. Fruit middle-sized, oblong, tapering slightly towards the stalk. Eye small, open, prominent. Stalk long, slender, inserted in a small cavity. Skin pale yellow, sprinkled with numerous brown dots, sometimes slightly tinged with brownish red next the sun. Flesh yellowish white, and crisp, with a perfumed, rather disagreeable flavour. A stewing pear of great merit; in use from November to January. The tree is tolerably hardy, and a great bearer, succeeding as a standard. 83. Bezi d’Heri—syn. Bezi Royal, De Bordeaux.— Shoots moderately strong, reddish brown, strewed with pale brown dots. Leaves middle-sized, ovate, acuminate, slightly crenated, almost entire. Petioles f inch in length. Fruit middle-sized, roundish, inclining to oval. Eye open, set in a very slight depression. Stalk rather long, slender. Skin greenish yellow, speckled with brown, tinged with red next the sun. Flesh white, firm, crisp, and sweet, with an anise flavour. An excellent stewing pear; in use from October to Jan-uary. The tree is a very abundant bearer as a standard. 84. Cat ill AC—syn. Bell Pear, Cadillac, Grand Mon-arque, Groote Mogul, Katzenkopf, Pound Pear and Poire de Livre of some.—Shoots very strong, slightly downy, brown, reddish brown next the sun, sprinkled with numerous not very conspicuous ash-coloured spots. Leaves very large, broad oval, abruptly acuminate, of thick substance, downy. Petioles about 1 inch in length. Fruit very large, broadly turbinate, projecting more to one side of the core than to the other. Eye small, open, in a wide, rather deep hollow. Stalk thick, about 1 inch long, inserted somewhat obliquely in a small cavity. Skin yellowish brown. Flesh yellowish white, hard, crisp, rather gritty, with an astringent juice. An excellent baking pear, and although more gritty than some others, much esteemed for stewing; its pulp by that process acquiring a fine red tinge. It may be used from December to April. The tree is hardy, vigorous, and a good bearer as a standard. It does not succeed on the quince stock. 85. Chaptal.—Shoots short, very stout, dull chestnut brown, moderately sprinkled with spots of light brown, which are not very conspicuous, from their colour approaching that of the shoot in general. Leaves middle-sized, roundish ovate, somewhat acuminate. Petioles short, about ,‘(ths of an inch in length. Fruit large, obovate. Eye open, inserted in a small cavity, on the sides of which the segments of the calyx are reflexed. Stalk scarcely 1 inch in length, of medium thickness. Skin greenish brown, speckled and sometimes nearly covered with cinnamon brown. Flesh yellowish white, firm, tolerably juicy and sweet, with a slight perfume. 395 A very good kitchen pear; in use from December to April. The tree is vigorous, healthy, and a very good bearer. 80. Franc Real d’Hiver—syn. Franc Real, Fin-Or d’Hiver.—Shoots moderately vigorous, brownish yellow, strewed with numerous distinct spots. Leaves oblong, tapering to the point, entire or slightly crenated, woolly. Petioles of medium length. Fruit middle-sized, roundish obovate. Eye small, open, set in a shallow depression or level with the top. Stalk slender, about 1 inch in length, inserted in a small cavity. Skin yellow, strewed with numerous spots of brown russet. Flesh whitish, crisp, coarse, and rather dry, but sweet. An excellent kitchen pear, which on stewing becomes tender, and acquires a light purple colour; in season from December to March. The tree is a good bearer, and succeeds as a standard. 87. Flemish Bon Chretien—syn. Bon Chretien Nou-velle, Bon Chretien Turc.—Shoots vigorous, bright yellowish brown, slightly spotted. Leaves middle-sized, ovate, tapering to the point, finely and sharply serrated. Petioles slender, fully 1 inch in length. Fruit large, obovate. Eye middle-sized, open, set in a shallow, evenly rounded depression. Stalk rather more than 1 inch in length, slightly curved, inserted by the side of a fleshy protuberance. Skin green at first, changing to a yellowish colour when fit for use, sprinked with numerous russet spots on the shaded side, mottled and sometimes almost entirely covered with russet on the side next the sun. Flesh whitish, crisp/ gritty near the core, sweet, and moderately juicy. An excellent stewing pear; in use from November to March. The tree is hardy, vigorous, and a most abundant bearer as a standard. 88. Gilogil—syn. Gillogille, Jilogil, Garde d’Ecosse, Poire a Gobert.—Shoots vigorous, olive brown, slightly and obscurely spotted. Leaves large, downy, ovate, rather sharply serrated. Petioles of medium length. Fruit large, roundish, flattened at the base. Eye large, set in a large hollow. Stalk short, thick, inserted in a deep uneven cavity. Skin thickly russeted, tinged with brownish red next the sun. Flesh white, firm, and juicy. A very handsome kitchen pear, highly esteemed for baking and preserving; in use from November to February. The tree is vigorous, and a great bearer, succeeding as a standard in the southern parts of England. 89. Uvedale’s Saint-Germain—syn. Beaut e de Ter-vueren, Belle Angevine, Belle de Jersey, Bolivar, Chambers’ Large, Ducliesse de Berry, German Baker, Grosse de Bruxelles, Lent Saint-Germain, Pickering Pear, Pickering’s Warden, Royale d’Angleterre, De Tonneau, Union, Uvedale’s Warden. — Shoots strong, somewhat downy, dark olive green, chestnut next the sun, sprinkled with numerous light gray dots. Leaves large, ovate, acuminate, entire or slightly dentate. Petioles upwards of 1 inch in length. Fruit very large, pyriform, being broad at the top, more or less contracted in the middle, and obtuse at the stalk. Eye open, a little sunk. Stalk of medium length, thick. Skin greenish, acquiring a yellowish tinge, and, when well exposed, a blush of red next the sun. Flesh firm, tolerably juicy, but astringent. A very heavy kitchen pear, which has been grown to the weight of upwards of 3 lbs, and of first-rate quality; in use from January till April. The tree is vigorous.396 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. but in some situations inclined to canker. A moderate bearer, requiring a wall. 90. Verulam—syn. Buchanan’s Spring Beurre, Buchanan’s New Spring Beurre.—Shoots tolerably vigorous, dark olive, sprinkled with roundish and linear gray specks. Leaves middle-sized, oval or obovate, acuminate, slightly serrated. Petioles slender, upwards of 1 inch in length. Fruit large, oblong obovate. Eye rather large, partially open, set in a moderately deep cavity, and surrounded by folds. Stalk 1 inch in length, slender, and woody. Skin thinly but completely covered with russet, which is dark olive brown on the shaded side, bronze or dark purplish brown next the sun. Flesh crisp, juicy, sometimes tolerably good late in the season. An excellent stewing pear, becoming of a fine rose colour on cooking; in use from November till March. The tree is hardy, and an excellent hearer, succeeding as a standard. Table exhibiting the Months in which the Dessert Pears above described are generally in use. Name. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Alexandre Bivort, Alexandre Lambre, Althorp Crassaue, ... * Aston Town, ... * * Autumn Bergamot ••• * Baronne de Mello, * * Bergamotte Cadet, * * Bergamotte Esperen, Bergamotte de Millepieds, * * Beurre d’Ainanlis, * * Beurre d’Aremberg, Beurre de l’Assomption, * Beurre Bachelier, * Beurre Berckmans, * Beurre Bose, * * Beurre Clairgeau * Beurre de Capiaumont, * Beurre Diel, * * Beurre Giffard, * Beurre Goubault, * Beurre Hardy, * * Beurrd de Jonghe, * * Beurre Ranee, Beurre Six, * Beurre Sterckmans, Beurre Superfin, * * British Queen, * Broom Park, ... Brown Beurre, * ... Chaumoutel, * Citron des Carmes, * Colmar, * Comte de Flandre, * Comte de Lamy, * Crassane, * Doyenne Defais, Doyenne du Comice, * Doyenne d’Ete * Duchesse d’Angoul&me, * * Eyewood, * * Flemish Beauty, * * Fondante d’Automne, * * Forelle, * Gansel’s Bergamot, * * General Todtleben, Glou Morgeau, * Haeon’s Incomparable, * Hessel, * Huy she’s Prince Consort, * Huyslio’s Prince of Wales, * Jargonelle, * Joan de Witte, Jersey Gratioli, * Jose]thine de Maliues Knight’s Monarch, Louise Bonne (of Jersey), * Madatne Treyve, * * March Bergamot, Mareclial de la Com-, * Marie Louise, * * Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. I April. I May. June.THE PEAR. 397 Tabic exhibiting the Months in which the Dessert Pears above described are generally in use—Continued. Name. J uly. Aug. Sept. Oct. Xov. Dec. ' Jan. Feb. Mar. April. May. June. Marie Louise d’Uccle, Napoleon, * * i Neill, * Ne plus Meuris, ... j * * * Nouvelle Fulvie, Passe Colmar, Pitmaston Duchesse d’Angouleme Red Doyenne, Rousselet de Rlieims, Saint-Germain, Seckel, * Suffolk Thorn, * Swan’s Egg, * Thompson’s, ... * Urbaniste, * White Doyenne, * * Williams’ Bon Chretien, ■* * Windsor, * * ... Winter Nelis, * * Zephiriu Gregoire, * * 1 | Table exhibiting the Months in which the Kitchen Pears above described are generally in use. Name. July. Aug. : Sept. Oct. Nov . 1 Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. 1 April. May. June. Bequene Musque, ... ... * * * Bezi d’Heri, ! * * Catillac, ! * * * * ! * i Chaptal, * i * * Flemish Bon Chretien, * Franc Real d’Hiver, * Gilogil, v.« 1 * * * Uvedale’s Saint-Germain, I > * * Verulam, ... * * * * ... List of Varieties for Orchard Culture in England. Beurre Ranee. Glou Mor^eau. Althorp Crassane. Aston Town. Autumn Bergamot. Baron ne tie Mello, Bergamotte Cadet. Beurre d’Amanlis. Beurre Bose. Beurre de Capiaumont. Beurre Diel. Beurre Bailee. Beurre Superfin. Broom Park. Chaumontel. Citron des Carmes. Comte De Lamy. Doyenne d’Ete. Duchesse d’Angouleme. Eyewood. Flemish Beauty. Fondante d’Automne. Forelle. Hacon’s Incomparable. Hessel. Jargonelle. Jean de Witte. Jersey Gratioli. Josephine de Malines. Knight’s Monarch. Louise Bonne (of Jersey). March Bergamot. Marie Louise. Ne Plus Meuris. Passe Colmar. Red Doyenue. Rousselet de Rlieims Seckel. Suffolk Thorn. Swan’s Egg. Thompson’s. Urbaniste. White Doyenne. Williams’ Bon Chretien. Windsor. Winter Nelis. Kitchen:— Bezi d’Heri. Catillac. Flemish Bon Chretien. Franc Real d’Hiver. Verulam. Varieties for Culture on Walls in England. Bergamotte Esperen. Beurre d’Aremberg. Beurre Bose. Beurre Diel. Beurre Sterckmaus. Brown Beurre. Chaumontel. Colmar. Crassane. Duchesse d’Angouleme. Easter Beurre. Forelle. Gansel’s Bergamot. Jargonelle. Louise Bonne (of Jersey). Napoleon. Ne Plus Meuris. Passe Colmar. Saint-Germain. Winter Nelis. Kitchen:— Uvedale’s Saint-Germain. Varieties for Cultivation as Pyramids on the Quince. Alexandre Lambre. Baronne de Mcllo. Bergamotte Esperen. Beurre d’Amanlis. Beurre d’Aremberg. Beurre Baclielior. Beurre de Capiaumont. Beurre Diel. Beurre Hardy. Beurre Sterckmans. Beurre Superfin. Chaumontel. Comte de Lamy. Doyenne du Cornice. Duchesse d’Angouleme. Easter Beurre. Fondante d’Automne. Glou Moryeau. Jersey Gratioli. Louise Bonne (of Jersey). Mareehal de la Cour. Passe Colmar. Red Doyenne. Urban iste. Williams’ Bon Chretien. Winter Nelis. Varieties for Cultivation as Pyramids on the Pear Stock, or when double-grafted on the Quince. Beurre Berckmans. Beurre Clairgeau. Beurre Goubault. Beurre Ranee.398 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Comte de Flandre. Doyenne d’Ete. Forelle. Jean de 'Witte. Knight's Monarch. Marie Louise. Ne Plus Meuris. Seckel. Thompson’s. Zepliirin Gregoire. Varieties for B Alexandre Bivort. Bergamotte Esperen. Beurre Bose. Beurre d’Amanlis. Beurre Diel. Beurre Giffanl. Beurre Ranee. Beurre Superfiu. Chaumontel. Comte de Lamy. Doyenne cfEte. Easter Beurre. Forelle. List of Sorts for Culti\ Beurre d’Amanlis. Beurre d’Aremberg. Beurre Bose. Beurre de Capiaumont. Beurre Diel. Beurre Ranee. Chaumontel. Duchesse cl’Angouleme. Easter Beurre. Flemish Beauty. Forelle. Glou Morgeau. Josephine de Malines. ush Culture. Jargonelle. Jersey Gratioli. Josephine de Malines. Knight’s Monarch. Louise Bonne (of Jersey). Marie Louise. Passe Colmar. "Williams’ Bon Chretien. 'Winter Nelis. Kitchen:— Catillac. Uvedale’s Saint-Germain. Verulam. nation on Espaliers. Knight’s Monarch. Louise Bonne (of Jersey). Marie Louise. Napoleon. Ne plus Meuris. Passe Colmar. Thompson’s. Urbaniste. Williams’ Bon Chretien. Winter Nelis. Kitchen:— Catillac. Uvedale’s Saint-Germain. Selection of Varieties for a Cottage Garden. Beurre Diel. Louise Bonne (of Jersey). Beurre Ranee. Marie Louise. Glou Morgeau. Williams’ Bon Chretien. And if a stewing pear is required, the Verulam may be added. Selection of Twelve Varieties. Beurre d’Amanlis. Beurre Diel. Beurre Rauce. Easter Beurre. Glou Morgeau. Josephine de Malines. Louise Bonne (of Jersey). Marie Louise. Passe Colmar. Thompson’s. Williams’ Bon Chretien. Winter Nelis. Selection of Twenty-four Varieties. A'ltliorp Crassane. Bergamotte Esperen. Beurre d’Amanlis. Beurre Bose. Beurre de Capiaumont. Beurre Diel. Beurre Ranee. Beurre Sterckmans. Doyenne du Comice. Doyenne d’Ete. Duchesse d’Angouleme. Easter Beurre. Glou Morgeau. Jean de Witte. Josephine de Malines. Knight’s Monarch. Louise Bonne (of Jersey). Mi irie Louise. Ne plus Meuris. Piisse Colmar. Thompson’s. Williams’ Bon Chretien. Winter Nelis. Zepliirin Gregoire. List of Varieties for Cultivation as Standards in Scotland. Althorp Crassane. Aston Town. Beurre de Capiaumont. Broom Park. Chaumontel. Citron des Carmes. Comte de Lamy. Doyenne d’Ete. Eyewood. Flemish Beauty. Forelle. Hessel. Louise Bonne (of Jersey). Red Doyenne. Seckel. Suffolk Thorn. Swan’s Egg. Williams’ Bon Chretien. List of Varieties for Cultivation on Walls in Scotland. Althorp Crassane. Autumn Bergamot. Beurre d’Amanlis. Beurre Bose. Beurre Diel. Beurre Ranee. Colmar. Crassane. Easter Beurre. Flemish Beauty. Forelle. Gansel’s Bergamot. Glou Morgeau. Hacon’s Incomparable. Jargonelle(of theEnglish). Knight’s Monarch. Louise Bonne (of Jersey). Marie Louise. Ne plus Meuris. Passe Colmar. Suffolk Thorn. Thompson’s. Williams’ Bon Chretien. Winter Nelis. List of Perry Pears. Barland. Brown Iluffcap Green Huff cap. Holmore. Long land. Moorcroft. Oldfield. Red Huffcap. Yellow Huffcap. l’einton Squash. All the above are of great excellence, and, with the exception of the last, abundant bearers. Propagation.—This is effected by seed for obtaining new varieties and stocks, whilst the identical sorts may be multiplied by cuttings, layers, and inarching ; but the best and most generally practised mode of doing so is by budding and grafting. The manner of raising pear-trees from seed is similar to that adopted in the case of the apple; and therefore the details of it need not be repeated. Sowing, with the view of obtaining new and improved varieties, has long been a favourite practice in Belgium; and the result has been a number of varieties of better quality and hardier than those formerly in cultivation. Many such were raised by Dr. Van Mons, of Louvain; but the origin of some which rank among the finest has been traced to the gardens attached to religious establishments. M. De Jonghe of Brussels, who has for forty years paid much attention to the cultivation of the pear-tree, gives, in an article in the Gardeneri Chronicle, 1855, p. 55, various details respecting the choice of seeds, their preservation, time, and manner of sowing,THE PEAR. 399 more especially with the view of raising improved varieties. He remarks that “ seedling varieties of pears vary infinitely in successive generations. This truth is being continually proved by ocular demonstration. There is another principle connected with the above, which is, the more a type has entered into a state of variation, the greater is its tendency to continue doing so; and the more it has varied from the original type, the more it is disposed to vary still further.” Witli this we entirely coincide; and, although we already possess varieties so excellent as to leave nothing further to be desired, yet for our climate greater hardiness still remains a desideratum. Seedlings can easily be raised, and some among them may possess that property in a high degree; for, if we compare the hardiest of many of these now cultivated in England and Belgium, with those which have been for ages and are now cultivated in Italy, it must be admitted that the pear-tree has greatly varied in respect to hardiness; and, having done so, there is no proof that it will not vary still more in the same desirable direction. According to M. De Jonglie, the seeds should be taken from fruits produced by vigorous trees, worked on the pear stock. “When taken out of the cells the seeds should be put in a small jar, half filled with dry sand, with which the seeds should be mixed. The jars should be placed in the dark, where the seeds can neither dry nor rot. After remaining in this situation for a month or two, the seeds should be taken out and put in papers, each sort separately, marking the name or number of the variety of fruit from which the seeds were taken, together with the date of the ripeuing of the fruits. By keeping it in the way above-mentioned, the skin of the seed will acquire a consistence, and the kernel a firmness, that will enable it to vegetate with greater vigour when committed to the soil in the open air. I have seen pear-seeds sown in garden-pots, in wooden boxes, and on a gentle hot-bed; but from many years’ experience I have found that it is preferable to sow the seeds in the open ground. They grow in the latter with the proper degree of vigour, and make a substantial growth. In September a part of the garden is chosen which is not infested by any kind of insect. The ground is dug deeply, but not manured. It is carefully cleaned from all weeds, and at the same time the soil is made as fine as possible. About the end of the month drills are made 2 feet apart, and about 2 inches deep. After the bottoms of the drills have been levelled, a thin layer of wood-ashes is sown in them. The seeds, preserved since the winter or spring, are steeped in a solu- tion of sulphate of lime, and placed about 2 inches apart in the drills.” The seeds are recommended to be placed with the thick end downwards, so that the radicle may proceed in that direction, and the plumule upwards, without forming a curve at the base of the stem, as is the case when they are not properly placed. The seed-leaves will appear above ground towards the end of the following March. Mr. Rivers details, in the Journal of the Horticultural Society, vol. ix. p. 292, a very good mode of raising pear-trees from seed, and which might be advantageously adopted, more especially as it is calculated to prevent disappointment arising from the attacks of vermin and from the uncertainty of our springs. He says, “As soon as the pear-eating season commences, I have some two or three dozen 9-inch pots filled with a compost of loam and rotten manure, say two-thirds of the former to one-third of the latter; some sand added will improve it; these pots are then placed on bricks or tiles to keep out the worms, in some convenient situation (away from hedges, as they harbour slugs) near the house, and in each pot is a smooth slip of deal, painted, ready to be written on. I will assume it to be October; I am eating a fine specimen of the Louise Bonne pear; the pips are plump and brown. I take them from the core carefully, go to one of the pots of earth, and with my finger and thumb press in the pips one at a time, to about 1 inch deep, and level the surface with my hand. I then write on the label, say, ‘Louise Bonne Pear, Oct. 1855;’ a piece of slate or tile is then placed on the pot, so as to completely cover it and prevent the ingress of mice. A few days after this I may be again eating a Louise Bonne pear. I reserve the pips, remove the covering from the pot, and plant them with the others, and so rep>eat this till some fifteen pips are planted in one pot, which will raise quite enough trees from one variety. Again, it is February; I am at my dessert; a delicious Josephine de Malines pear gives me some fine pips; my pots of earth are frozen; I place them in paper, and write the name on it. I then have a pot of earth taken to the green-house, or, in de* fault of such a structure, to the kitchen; plant the pips as above, write on the label, ‘ Josephine de Malines Pear, Feb. 1855;’ cover the pot as before directed, and place it out of doors* -early in March the covers must be taken off; the young plants from the pips sown in the autumn will make their appearance early in March if the weather be mild; those from pips sown in February or March will not vegetate till April or May, and the pips sown in May will probably remain dormant till the following March. There•400 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. are two methods of managing young pear seed- I lings; the first is the most simple, and well adapted for those whose hands are full of gardening matters; it is merely to let the pots stand on the bricks in full sunshine all the summer, giving them abundance of water; each young tree in the autumn will, or ought to be, from 12 to 18 inches in height, and its stem as thick as a quill, and well ripened; about the end of October these seedlings may be planted out in the garden, in rows, 3 feet row from row, and 18 inches apart in the rows; and in March following, if there is a wish to bring them rapidly into bearing, each young seedling tree may be cut down to within 2 inches of its base, and one or two scions made from it (one ought to be enough, and that made from the lower part of the shoot); these should be grafted on to some stout stocks, or on to branches of a bearing tree; an excellent method is to buy at a nursery old dwarf-pears without names at a cheap rate, to plant them out one year, and then to rind-graft them (this is to insert the grafts between the bark and the wood) with the seedlings. They should be headed down to a stump, 9 or 10 inches in height, in February. In April the bark will part readily, and they may be grafted; they will soon make nice pyramidal trees, and by being removed biennially, they will come into bearing quickly, and not occupy much room; every sort should be labelled with its origin in this way—‘From Marie Louise, Nov. 1854,’ and so on; this labelling gives much interest to the culture of seedling pears; for while waiting six or seven years till they bear fruit, their habits will be found very interesting, and in most instances a strong family likeness to their parent may be distinguished in the leaves and shoots of the young trees, varied by now and then a puny, weakly youngster, which will canker and die in three or four years, and then by Some one or two trees in ten showing a wide departure from the parental stock, making vigorous and thorny shoots, and growing as much in one year as other members of the family in three; it is these runagates which give the liveliest hopes to the raiser of pears.” “ Thus far I have given the most simple method of raising seedlings by sowing in pots, and not transplanting them till the autumn. Another method is to place the pots in a gentle forcing-house, either in January or February; the young plants will soon make appearance, and when they have made four leaves in addition to the seed-leaves, they should be raised carefully, with all their fibres, and potted into 3-inch pots. As soon as these are full of roots they should be shifted into larger pots, and kept growing rapidly under glass till the be- ginning of June; they may then be planted out in rich light soil, and the probability is they will be 3 feet high by the autumn.” The pear-tree may be propagated by cuttings, but the process is too slow to be recommended, and we only mention it as a means of securing a variety which might otherwise be lost through the failure of buds or grafts. Cuttings in such a case might be struck, so as to keep alive till a favourable opportunity occurred for working from them. If it were desired to have trees on their own roots, layering might be resorted to. We are not aware, however, that there would be any advantage in this, for the wood of the cultivated varieties coincides well with that of the seedlings used as stocks. Budding and grafting, as already observed, are the modes generally adopted for the propagation of the pear. Stocks, consisting either of the pear itself or of some allied species, are necessary before the propagation can take place, and these accordingly require to be fh'st taken into consideration. The Pear Stock is, unquestionably, the most natural for the pear; on it, consequently, the trees possess the greatest vigour, and attain the greatest age. They are reared from seeds, either of the wild pear or of the varieties cultivated for perry, as the seeds can be obtained in the greatest abundance from these sources. The seedlings are reared in the same way as apple stocks. In transplanting, those of a crooked habit, or which do not exhibit a free upright mode of growth, should be rejected. In the seed-bed, some will be observed of taller growth than others; and after the first transplantation, a certain portion will again take the start of others. When about to be finally planted out in rows for grafting or budding, the plants should be sized, so that all the plants ill each row may be of equal height and strength ; those of a secondary degree of vigour will furnish much better plants in a row by themselves than if they were mixed with those that are stronger. For standards, the stocks should be quartered out at least two years, in order that the young shoots which they produce may possess the requisite degree of vigour. They may either be grafted near the ground, at half or at the full intended height of the stem. In the case of such varieties as are of a weakly spreading habit of growth, it is unquestionably better that the stock should be allowed to grow up to form the stem of the tree; but with regard to varieties that have a vigorous upright growth, aud are not disposed to canker, it is immaterial whether the stem consist of the stock or of theTHE PEAK 401 variety worked low and trained up. Before the sap rises in spring, the stocks should be cut back nearly to where the graft is to be placed. The scions ought likewise to be cut off before their vegetation is excited by mild weather; they may, nevertheless, be taken off and worked at any time before the leaves expand. In this case it is advisable to pick out the buds which have pushed, as they would evaporate the sap and dry the scion before it could unite so as to derive nourishment from the stock. There are usually two small buds, one on each side of the principal one, and they generally remain dormant; but when the central bud is removed, the sap flowing towards it is shared by the lateral ones, and they consequently become developed so as to contribute to the formation of a union with the stock. Although grafting may be thus effected and advantageously practised in particular cases, yet it can only be considered as an exception to the general rule—that of cutting off the scions before the buds exhibit symptoms of pushing. The scions should be kept till the grafting season, in the same way as already directed for those of the apple. Quince Stocks.-—There are several varieties of the quince, some of which are much better adapted for stocks than others. The Portugal quince has the broadest leaves of any of the sorts usually employed for the above purpose, aud its growth is the most vigorous; consequently, its stem enlarges more in accordance with that of the pear than in the case of varieties with smaller leaves, and of more contracted growth. The Portugal quince is recommended by the French authors as a stock, unless extremely dwarf trees be the desideratum, and then the varieties of smaller growth are to be preferred, because they do not permit the sap to flow so freely, and have therefore a more dwarfing effect. In general, however, either the Portugal, or some of the broadest-leaved and most free-growing varieties of the common quince are the most proper, for such will not be found to supply more than sufficient nourishment when the tree arrives at a fruiting state, which, by judicious management, may soon be the case. It has been said that the pear on the quince stock is but short-lived. It cannot of course be expected to live so long as when worked on the pear stock, a more natural condition; yet we can point out trees on quince stocks that have existed nearly forty years, and are yet vigorous, exhibiting no symptoms of decay. The quince is readily propagated for stocks by cutting down the plants when they are strong enough to throw vigorous shoots, and the bases of these are covered with earth in order that they may strike root. This mode is adopted in the neighbourhood of Paris, but better plants will be produced by layering at any time during the winter months, and proceeding in the following manner:—“ When the young shoots are laid down, there should not be more than two eyes left above ground, and when those have grown 5 or 6 inches long, one of them should be cut clean off, leaving the other to form the plant, which by the autumn will be 3 feet high. “The layers must be taken off the stools as soon as the leaves are fallen, and planted out in rows at 3 feet apart from row to row, and 10 or 12 inches from plant to plant in the row. At the end of one or two years they will be fit to bud or graft with the different sorts of pear, for quenouille or for espalier training, or they may be allowed to grow up and form standards for orchard planting.”—(Liudley’s Guide to the Orchard and Kitchen Garden, p. 477.) The quince pushes early in spring if the weather is at all favourable. In mild springs we have seen it in leaf at the usual grafting season in | March, and we have also seen the plants headed down at that period and grafted, but with very bad results. Either the grafts did not take at all, or but imperfectly, for the quince stock, having been cut when the sap was flowing, died back to a considerable distance below the place where it was cut over, so that if the lower part of the scion did unite with the quince the upper part of the splice could not. To the circumstance of not ! heading down quince stocks till their vegetation is too far advanced is chiefly to be attributed the want of success in grafting them with the pear. The stocks should be headed down in January, almost to the place most eligible for grafting. It is then advisable to leave a little to be cut off at the time of grafting, because severe frost may ensue, and occasion some small splits or cracks in the exposed section of the stock. In using the quince as a stock, we want its root, and but very little of its stem—no more of it indeed than is sufficient to receive the graft. If the graft were placed, say 9 inches or 1 foot | above the surface, the quince portion of the stem below that height would most probably not increase in thickness in the same ratio as the pear, and thus instead of the stem being thickest near the ground, it would be abruptly smaller. The quince should therefore be worked close to the ground, so as to have no portion fully exposed to the drying influences of the sun and air. Whip-grafting is the best to adopt. After the grafts are clayed, it is a good plan to earth them up as high as the top of the clay. As the roots of the quince run close under the 26402 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. surface, and as it would not be advisable to dis- I turb them by taking soil for earthing up from between the rows of stocks, it should be taken from the alleys or elsewhere. When these particulars are attended to, the failures are very few. Of all things the necessity of cutting down the stocks early in January should be particu-lary borne in mind. It may even be done in December. If deferred till the unfolding buds and leaves indicate a state of active vegetation in the toj), the latter, on being cut off, carries with it nearly all the strength of the plant, so that the portion left must long remain weak, stunted, and unfit for nourishing the pear scion that is worked upon it. The advantages offered by the quince as a stock for the pear are, as compared with the pear stock, a more dwarf growth of the tree, a more shallow disposition of the roots, earlier bearing, and sometimes the fruit is larger and better ripened. The dwarf habit induced by the quince stock renders it peculiarly eligible for trees that have to be planted in a limited space, as pyramids or espaliers, and even against walls that are not of great height. Owing to the shallowness of the roots of the quince, they are better adapted for thin soils, also where the subsoil is unfavourable and occasions canker when the deeper roots of the pear enter it. Trees worked upon the quince may also be removed any autumn till they are at least twenty years old. We have known a number of such trees moved with ordinary care when nearly thirty years old, and without a single failure. The fruit is usually higher coloured than on the pear stock, and sometimes it is larger if the tree is in a vigorous state. This increase in size and colour is owing to the partial check which the sap receives when, in returning, it reaches the vessels of the quince, and has to be subjected to the organization of the latter. Any check to the returning sap, such as that from ringing or from ligatures, has a similar effect ; only by employing these means the cause and effect are more apparent. In cold situations, and in damp soils into which the roots of the pear stock would penetrate and draw colder sap than would be congenial for nourishing the fruit, the quince stock may be advantageously substituted; for, if the soil were laid sloping to the sun, it would be raised by the solar rays, to the depth of at least 1 foot, to a much higher temperature than the subsoil would be. The quince roots can be kept at about 1 foot below the surface, and consequently in a medium so much warmer than that of the pear roots as to induce an earlier and more perfect ripeniug of the fruits. The pear will also succeed for a time on the common hawthorn (Cratcegus Oxyacantha), and from trees worked on this stock fruit has been obtained as large as from those on the quince, and of equally good flavour. It may be conveniently used for working with scions of different sorts when neither quince nor pear stocks are at command. The hawthorn plant should be cut down early, and like the quince as close to the ground as it conveniently can be worked. Probably some of the other species of Crata?gus would answer as well as, if not better than, the common hawthorn. On the mountain ash (Pyrus Aucuparia), and the medlar {J/espilus gennanica), the pear may also be grafted with tolerable success. It seems, however, not to like these so well as it does even the hawthorn, and therefore they need not be further noticed. Soil and Situation.—The pear-tree succeeds in any good, deep, loamy soil, provided the subsoil is well drained so as to be free from stagnant moisture. But, as in the case of the apple, a soil that is too free is not suitable, especially in loca-, lities where the amount of rain is limited, or does j not average more than 24 inches per annum. In fact, the remarks already made with regard to soil, situation, and moisture, in the article on the apple, are also applicable to the pear. Where the apple-tree will grow well the pear will also thrive, only the roots of the pear stock will sooner find | tlieir wav into the hard subsoil than those of the ! apple. The pear will thrive on a strong loam, but not on a stiff clay, at least not until it is well drained, trenched, and otherwise ameliorated. It is essential that the trees should start vigor-1 ously, and therefore if the soil is not naturally | very rich, a compost in which to plant the tree should be formed. A mixture of good turfy loam and farm-yard manure will be very suitable. These should be placed in alternate layers, a year ! or at least six months before the time of plant-1 ing. After having lain two or three months, the materials should be turned and well mixed, and | if again turned some time before using so much the better. By employing more or less of this compost, according as the soil is more or less in want of enrichment, the trees will soon be in a condition to make vigorous growths; and if these are properly managed, the trees may be reared to a size fit for bearing a heavy crop in half the time that is required when they are stunted for want of nourishment after having been transplanted. Distance between the Trees.—Standards should not be less than 30 feet from row to row, and about 24 feet from each other in the row. Where ; more space can be spared, the next wider distanceTHE PEAK 403 may be 36 feet between the rows by 30 feet in the row. In either of these cases the ground between the trees can be equally divided into 6-feet spaces for rows of currants or gooseberries. In planting against a wall, it is an important object to cover it as quickly as possible, consistent with allowing the trees sufficient room. It is evident that the wall will sooner be covered by close planting than by placing the trees widely .apart. At wide distances, trees trained horizontally will reach the top of the wall as soon as others that are planted more closely together, but for many years there will be larger spaces uncovered between those that are widely planted, as will be readily understood on referring to Fig. 561. Supposing that the wall is 13 feet high, and Fig. 261. 1. 2. 3. Horizontal Training. that the upright is annually stopped so that one course of horizontals will be made in a year, then in twelve years, the horizontals being 1 foot apart, the leader will reach the top of the wall. Presuming that, at the expiration of this period, the lower horizontals of the trees 1 and 2 meet, it is then evident that only half of the wall will be •covered; for the space covered by the side of the tree No. 1, and that covered by the side of the tree No. 3, are together equal to the unoccupied space a b c; whilst the space covered by the tree No. 2 is equal to the other unoccupied space c d e. In short, it is easy to observe that the covered spaces form four triangles, and that the uncovered spaces form four similar triangles equal to the former, so that half the wall is covered, and half not. Supposing the trees had been planted at half the distance apart, as in Fig. 262, also that they Fig. 202. Horizontal Training. had grown at the same rate as in Fig. 261, and accordingly reached the top of the wall in twelve years, it will be observed that at the end of that period all the horizontals, from the base as far as half the height of the wall, will have met. The lower half of the wall is therefore entirely covered, and the covered and uncovered portions of the upper half being equal, there is only one-fourth of the surface uncovered, whilst in the case of trees planted at double the distance only one-half of the wall is covered. If we calculate the difference in regard to time, we shall find that by planting at half the distance, as much surface will be covered in three years as will be the case in four years by the other plan. Now, as walls are expensive, it is therefore desirable that they should be covered as soon as possible. Close planting, as above shown, will contribute to that object, and the question is to what extent this may be carried as regards the pear. We know that in time pear-trees in good soil will profitably occupy a wall of ordinary height if planted at 30 feet apart; but at such a wide distance there must be a large space of naked wall for many years. The greatest distance that need be allowed between the trees is 24 feet; but less, than this would be desirable when the object is to appropriate the space rapidly. When wall-trees were badly managed, when by close planting the branches had to be much shortened to keep them within the prescribed limits, and when in consequence of this shortening a mass of shoots sprung up, one of two things usually happened: these shoots were either allowed to grow during summer and cut closely off in winter, entirely wasting so much of the strength of the tree; or they were cut down near to their bases with the view of forming spurs at the portions left, but instead of spurs fresh shoots were usually produced. With such management, close planting was certainly not to be recommended, because it induced growths which, unmanaged, became an evil. But now it is different; for, by judicious summer pruning, trees can be kept in very small compass; thus pyramidal-trained pear-trees ean be kept within a space not exceeding 4 or 5 feet in diameter. This being the case, it is not unreasonable to suppose that, by employing similar means, a horizontal-trained tree might have its branches limited to an extent of 10 feet. This we know to be possible; but to do it properly would l’equire more strict attention than could, in many cases, be given. We would therefore recommend not less than 15 feet as the minimum distance which should be adopted, and 20 feet as the maximum. If the soil is very rich, we consider 20 feet a proper distance, and where but moderately so, 18 feet. It may indeed be said that 24 feet, with riders between, would be pre-404 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. ferable; but riders are not much to be depended upon for fruit, though they answer the purpose of covering the wall; moreover, by the time they are in a good bearing state, they have to be cut away to make room for the permanent trees. The distance to be allowed between these has therefore been considered irrespective of riders. Pruning and Training.—The stems of standard pear-trees should be reared according to the directions already given in treating of the apple. Three shoots are obtained at the proper height for constituting three main limbs, and each of these should be cut so that two shoots may push at from 9 inches to 1 foot from its base; thus, as in the case of the apple-tree, six main branches will be produced, a number which will be quite sufficient. For several years all shoots that push from the principal branches should be kept subordinate, until the latter have diverged so far as to afford an abundance of space for an intermediate branch. Where space allows of a greater number of branches being originated, they may be produced at any place by cutting back to suitable buds at that place. It has been explained that three buds will usually push immediately below the section; but in the case of open standards and dwarfs, three branches, with the exception of the three main limbs, should never take their origin from the same point, or at least from three contiguous buds. There ought to be no tridents in the tops of trees so trained, and one of the three buds should either be cut closely off, or shortened and managed so as to form a spur. When subsidiary branches are encouraged from each of the six main limbs, it is desirable that they should proceed alternately from opposite sides, in order that each branch may be balanced; for when this is the case it will better resist the wind. If each of the six main branches be well balanced by having as many branches on one side as on the other, if the ramifications on both sides possess the same aggregate amount of vigour, and further, if equality is maintained between the six principal branches themselves, the tree may be considered to be properly managed as regards the disposition of its branches. Whilst encouraging six principal branches, by taking care to check vigorous shoots that otherwise would become competitors, nakedness should at the same time be guarded against. Some varieties are naturally disposed to branch, but others are apt to produce shoots that run naked nearly their whole length. These, then, require to be shortened, in order that shoots to form branchlets and spurs may be produced. When the top of the tree becomes large, the spurs on the bases of the large limbs will be apt to die off, from their foliage not having so full a share of light as those on the outside. This can be prevented to some extent by keeping the branches on the south side thinner than elsewhere, in order to admit the sun’s rays more freely into the interior. After the heads of standard trees have been kept regulated for several years as above directed, the tree will generally have to be left to follow its natural mode of growth. Yet all gross irregularities should be prevented: branches must not be allowed to cross each other, and shoots that are evidently taking a wrong direction ought to be cut out before they become branches. When the tree arrives at a bearing state, branches loaded with fruit will be more or less weighed down; and when a branch is bent during any considerable portion of the growing season by fruit or any other weight, it retains nearly that form after the weight has been removed. Hence, in full-grown trees, the extremities of the branches are generally turned downwards, a direction unfavourable for the prolongation of shoots, but conducive to the formation of fruit-spurs. In old standard trees, it will be observed that the fruit is chiefly produced at and near the extremities, and there of course it is best situated for light and air. Not unfrequently, however, when the tree is in this condition, vigorous upright shoots push from strong branches in the interior of the head of the tree. These are injurious, for they appropriate the sap that would otherwise contribute to the nourishment of the fruit-spurs at the extremities. The sap will rush into these vigorous shoots as it would into suckers, and it is well known that the more vigorous they become, the weaker are those situated in the older parts. All upright shoots in the centre of the tree should therefore be entirely cut off, or treated so as to form a spur. Fig. 263 represents a small branch, which has been pruned at b above the two spurs e and/; of the two terminal shoots c and a, c having become too strong is stopped at d, a is left in order to give vent to the sap which would otherwise have flowed back on the spurs e and /, and causedTHE PEAK. 405 them to be abortive. "When danger of this is over the branch is cut off at g. Instead of forming a head from six equally diverging branches, some prefer the pyramidal form, which certain varieties naturally assume. The upright shoot of the young stem should, in that case, be stopped at the proper height; but the shoots which result ought not to be made to diverge equally, but one should be trained as upright as possible; and, subsequently, a central perpendicular shoot ought to be encouraged, so that the head of the tree may consist of a central stem with branches proceeding from it. These branches should be kept on an equality, so that the top may be equally balanced; and any branch or shoot that pushes much beyond the others must be checked. Pyram id Training.—Where it is desired to grow a number of trees in a small space, the pyramid form, Fig. 264, is the best. It is well adapted for small gardens, in which, if a single standard tree were planted, the whole space would perhaps be over-shaded; but with dwarf pyra-m ids the owner could have many trees ripening their fruit in succession. As regards the form, the main object to be kept in view is a perpendicular stem, with every branch proceeding from it shorter in a horizontal direction than the one below it. In proceeding to details, it will be best to commence with a maiden plant, which we shall suppose to be planted, in November, either in the nursery or where it is to re- Pyramid Trainiug. main. The plant should be topped a little, but not cut so far back as to make the, buds break near the ground. Next autumn let the plant be cut back near to the place where it was budded or grafted. If the tree has been well planted, and has made a fair quantity of leaves, and consequently roots, it will push from its base, in the course of the summer, a strong shoot, which should be trained as upright as possible. In November cut it back to 13 inches from the ground, and below this cut several shoots will push: the upright must be trained in a perpendicular direction for a continuation of the central stem, whilst the others will form the lower tier of branches. These should be allowed to grow without restraint till September, and then they ought to be all bent to nearly a horizontal position. But some may be weak and others strong: the latter must be most depressed, whilst the former should be allowed to retain their natural position till they acquire sufficient strength to be bent down in the following summer; but if likely to interfere with the young shoots above them, they must be trained so as to keep clear of these. In the end of November any laterals that may have been produced on the branches of the lower tier should be cut to within 1 inch of their bases. At the same time the upright leader must be cut 15 inches higher than in the preceding season, if the soil is very rich and the climate moist; otherwise, only 1 foot higher, more especially if the variety is not a strong-growing one. This will cause shoots to push for another tier of branches. By these means the two lower tiers will have been obtained, and in the same manner as many more as may be desirable can be produced. In cutting, in autumn, above a bud for a leader, the cut should not be made too close to the bud, otherwise the latter is liable to be more or less inj ured if the frosts should prove severe. It will therefore be advisable to cut at least J inch above the bud; but when the latter has just pushed into leaf, the portion left above it should be cut close off, in order that the shoot may grow upright. Instead of obtaining only one stage of horizontals annually, two may very well be produced after the first two, if the trees are growing well. It is advisable to originate the two lower stages from buds on the mature shoot as above directed, for it is important that they should be well established; but afterwards the upright leading shoot may have its growing point pinched off in summer when it has pushed to the height of 12 inches. This will occasion the production of several shoots at or near that height, one of which should be trained to grow upright during the remainder of the season, and afterwards be cut over at 12 inches above where it was pinched, that is, at 2 feet from where it pushed in spring. Having pointed out the manner in which the stem is reared, and the mode of originating the side branches, we shall now turn to the management of the latter. They should be pruned and406 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. trained with an aim to give the tree the form of a pyramid or cone, of which, if the tree is intended to be of limited extent, Fig. 2(i5 may represent a section. Its total height is about equal to its circumference at the widest part, a proportion which, according to the French authors, is considered to give the most elegant appearance. If the distance from the base b to the apex a be 10 feet, the circumference at the widest being as much, the diameter at d will be about 38 inches. The branches must therefore be kept within the limits a c and a d. The upper branches will be strongly disposed to extend, not only beyond the limits represented by the dotted lines, but also much beyond the horizontal extension of the lower branches. This must, however, be prevented by an early stopping of the shoots. In sammer, as well as at the winter pruning, the regular slanting outline of the tree must be kept in view and strictly maintained, otherwise the vegetation of the top will soon be in a condition to draw the greatest share of the sap. This, permitted to flow in large proportion to any par] ticular part, as for instance to the top of the tree, is unfavourable to fruitfulness. We must therefore endeavour to distribute the sap as equally as possible. If all the branches were of equal length, the tree would be like a cylinder, but they would be equal as regards their length and that only, for their vigour would be very different, vegetation being much more active in the upper than in the lower part. When subjected to the pyramidal form, the upper branches are shortened so that the quantity of foliage they bear is less than the lower ones do; and thus the flow of sap will be limited in the pax-t where, otherwise, it would tend to flow in excess. The above remarks will be sufficient to show the necessity of sti’ictly preserving the outline; but all within will be a mass of shoots unless attention is paid to pinching and summer pruning, for on these the success of ti’ees trained as pyramids chiefly depends. Summer Pruning and Pinching the Shoots.— It is evident that if the shoots of a pyramidally-trained tree were not shortened and thinned, their foliage would sixffer from being shaded and crowded. It is also certain, that if the latei’als were allowed to grow till the winter pruning, they would either have to be cut off entirely, or, if then shortened, a number of shoots would push from their bases, and cause gi'eater crowding in the following season than before. Such being the consequence of cutting back shoots at the winter pruning, in order that little winter pruning may be necessary, recourse must be had to summer pruning, an important operation, respecting which, however, there is much divei’sity of opinion. We shall consider it in detail, both as regards the parts to be operated on, and the time and manner of pei'forming the operation. A pyramid-trained tree consists, essentially, of an upright stem, and as many side branches as can be properly ticiiued without overcrowding. There must be space between them for fruit-spurs when these come to be foiuned. All shoots not required to form the stem or the branches fi’om it must be summer-pi’uned, either by the kixife, or by pinching between the finger and thumb. The operation should be pei’formed on laterals that push from the young summer shoots that are intended to form a permanent part of the tree, as well as on those of the older wood. The time vai’ies with the earliness or lateness of the season ; and again, as a genei’al rule, the operation should be performed sooner upon the upper and moi'e vigorous parts of the tree, than upon the lower and less vigorous portions. M. L. Cappe, of the Jardin des Plantes at Paris, pinches the shoots neai’est the leadei', when I they have pushed to the length of fi’om 24 to 4 inches, so as to leave them only 1 or l-£ inch in length. Those situated lower, he allows to gi-ow to 6 or 8 inches long befoi’e he pinches them. M. Du Breuil l’ecoinmends the latei’als to be pinched back to little moi’e than 1 inch, when they have attained the length of about 24 inches. According to M. De Jonghe, of Brussels (Gardener's Chronicle, 1854, p. 629), the latei’als of trees worked on the pear stock should be stopped or pinched when they have developed six or seven leaves, and those on the quince when they have made five or six leaves. It is now found to be the best mode, to allow the lateral shoots to push six leaves, and then to pinch them immediately under the sixth leaf. There are usually latent or only partially developed buds at the base of the shoot, with occasionally some small impei’fect leaves, but in counting the six leaves these should be omitted. The more vigorous shoots will generally be those that will first attain the above extent of gi’owth, aixd accordingly the first that are stopped or pinched. Many of the shoots will push again after the fii’st stopping, and when these are 3 or 4 inches long they are pinched back to three buds, or to about 14 inch from then’ bases. orTHE PEAR. 407 With regard to the terminal shoots of the branches, those that extend in summer beyond such as are situated below them should be pinched; but the others ought to be allowed to grow till the beginning of September, when they may be cut to their assigned limits, so that any further shortening at the winter pruning will be unnecessary. From what has been already stated, any one may rear and maintain handsome and productive pyramid pear-trees; nevertheless, the nature of the proceedings having been explained, the chief points may now be briefly recapitulated, to render them of still more easy comprehension. The tree having been trained with an upright shoot, is cut back before winter, in order that it may produce side branches near the ground; and a shoot is again trained upright and cut, so as to produce more laterals and a shoot for the continuation of the stem; this shoot may be stopped, if vigorous enough, when it has grown about 1 foot. This will tend to throw more sap into the side branches below, whilst the upright leader, from its advantageous position, will soon regain sufficient strength. Laterals from it must be pinched when they have grown 6 or 8 inches; by shortening them at the winter pruning to within 2 inches of the stem, they will produce shoots strong enough for side branches, and, at the same time, the pyramidal form of the tree will be preserved. By stopping the leader in summer, side branches will result, so that at the winter pruning it will only be necessary to cut it 2 feet, instead of 1 foot, above where it was cut a year before. Thus, without danger of a deficiency of side branches, an advance of 2 feet in height is gained in one season. In subsequent years the upright shoot may be treated in a similar manner till the desired height is attained. It is necessary, however, to observe that where the climate is such as not to ripen the wood of the summer shoot properly, it is better to allow the leader to go on without stopping, and originate the side branches by cutting back to 12 inches in autumn. The laterals from the side branches may be made to form fruit-spurs instead of overcrowding the tree; they must be pinched under the sixth leaf when they have developed that number. The terminal shoots should be allowed to grow till the end of August, when they ought to be shortened to within eight buds or leaves of the stem, not taking into account the buds at the base of the shoot which usually do not push. At the winter pruning, the ends of the branches must be pruned so as not to exceed the symmetrical outline of the tree. The above directions are applicable to pyra- mids strictly kept, and of the smallest dimensions; and any one that can rear such can easily manage those of larger size. In some cases pear-trees are allowed to form pyramids as much as 15 feet high, the side branches extending in proportion; but for these it is only necessary to allow greater extension to the terminal shoots of the branches, and to the upright stem; in all other respects the directions already given should be followed. At the Jardin des Plantes at Paris we saw trees trained in the following manner—The stem of a tree about 15 feet high is kept upright by a long straight pole, from the top of which five wires are stretched and secured, at equal distances, to a hoop near the ground or to five stakes, the wire thus representing the angles of a five-sided pyramid. Towards each of the wires branches are trained from the stem, the spaces between these being kept clear. The trees so trained produce a very good effect, and the plan might be advantageously adopted vThere large pyramids can be grown. Espalier Training.—Of all modes of training the pear-tree in the open ground, the espalier, if well conducted, is unquestionably the best; it is the most economical as regards space, for if the espalier is only 6 feet high, there may be six horizontal branches on each side, and each branch extending, say 10 feet, the aggregate length of the branches will then be 120 feet. The ground may be cropped to within 1 foot of each side of the espalier: each tree trained upon it, and extending 20 feet, occupies therefore only 40 square feet. The same extent of branches, trained as an open dwarf, would occupy a space of 10 feet square, or an area of 100 feet. The mode of rearing a central stem, and that of obtaining branches from it where required, have already been explained; and once the horizontals are started, no one can be in any doubt in training them, as far as the correct form of the tree is concerned—all he has to attend to is simply to train them right along; wdiilst in the fan and other modes of training, many considerations are sometimes necessary with respect to the position and direction of the branches. The espalier mode gives good command over the growth of the tree and the equal distribution of the sap; at the same time the branches are all equally exposed to light. Equality of vegetation is conducive not only to the health of the tree, but also to its productiveness; and, accordingly, well-managed espalier trees are very productive, and generally bear larger and better-formed fruit than can be obtained from standards. On the latter, it is true, many of the newer large kinds of pears succeed; yet from their weight they are408 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. apt to be blown down and spoiled when almost fit for gathering, whilst on espaliers all fruits are nearly secure from this danger. The quality of fruit grown in this way is often superior to that produced on east and west walls. The advantages of this mode of training the pear are many, whilst the only drawback is the expense of the espalier rail. This, however, will be amply compensated by the superiority of the produce which can be obtained from well-managed trees trained against espaliers, even constructed of very cheap materials. In all first-rate gardens, and indeed wherever they can be afforded, rails of a substantial construction should, however, be erected. The distance between the pear-trees intended to be trained against espaliers should be about 20 feet; and the espaliers, if there be two or more parallel rows, should be 15 feet apart. When placed along the sides of walks, the line of rail ought to be 2 j feet from the edge of the walk, and the trees should be planted 3 inches from the rail, otherwise the latter would be pressed out by the stem when it becomes thick. The trees should be planted on the side of the espalier next the walk. There may be some objection to this as regards the trees on the south side of a walk running east and west; it would, it is true, be advisable to plant them on the south side of the rail, but a much better effect is produced when they face the walk on both sides. The branches of a horizontally-trained pear-tree against an espalier should be about 1 foot apart. The mode of heading down the upright stem to obtain these is the same as in the case of the apple. The lower ones should be started a little below the line along which they are intended to be trained; the upper courses ought to proceed very nearly at right angles from the stem, and the highest one quite so. In order that the young tree may speedily acquire strength, the shoots should not be much pinched or otherwise shortened in the early part of the summer at least. Those near the extremities of the horizontals ought, however, to be checked, so as not to compete with the terminal shoots or leaders of these branches. In order to throw more strength into the branches, the upright leader should be pinched when it presents the appearance of becoming too strong. By these means the sap will be diverted into the bases of the branches, natural fruit-spurs will soon begin to form upon them, and in four years from the time of planting, the tree will most probably commence bearing. In order to have well-formed fruit, the fruit-spurs should not be nearer each other than 6 inches; therefore, at the winter pruning, shoots that have pushed along the branches closer to each other than that distance should be cut off quite close. All others should be shortened back to within 1 inch of their base. Fig. 266 represents a portion of the horizontal branch of a pear-tree. In the course of the season it will either produce shoots, as at b, or natural fruit-spurs, as d. At the autumn or winter pruning the shoot b, and others similar to it, should be cut back to about 1 inch from their base, as at c c. In the following spring a shoot e will push below c, from the part left of the shoot b, or two may push, as f g. If more than two push, all but that number should be rubbed off, or cut very close, so as not to be apt to push again. When the single shoot e has made six leaves, it should be pinched or cut closely under the sixth leaf, as represented at e. With regard to the shoots / and g, one of them should be cut like the shoot e, under the sixth leaf, as at g, when so many have been formed, the other under the fifth leaf, as at/. This is done with the view of giving more strength to one of the two, in order that it may take the lead as regards the flow of sap; for if this be attracted more especially to a leading point in one season, it will tend to flow towards the same part in the one following; and one shoot of a fruit-spur is much more easily managed than when numerous small twiggy shoots, too weak for forming fruit-buds, are pushed. This does not affect the principle on which an equal distribution of the sap is recommended, for by that is to be understood an equal distribution into parts that will be useful, and not into a multiplicity of shoots, weak, in proportion to their number, in consequence of the limited supply of sap to each, as well as of the privation of light occasioned by their crowding each other. In all probability the shoots which were shortened, as at e f g, will push shoots fromTHE PEAK. 409 the buds in the axil of the leaf belowthe respective sections, as at e. When this second shoot has pushed several inches, it may be pinched or cut off below the fourth leaf, as at h, and likewise those that proceed from below f h, and others similar. At the autumn pruning, the shoot h should be cut back to within 1 inch of its origin. Buds for spurs may have commenced to push during the summer from the base of the preced- j iii£r summer’s shoot below c: if not, one or two will likely appear in the the same time, a bud or buds of this description may also form on the base of the younger shoot, at a point below i; but more likely a shoot will push if the tree is young and vigorous, and if so it must be managed like its predecessor. Fig. 267 represents a shoot which has been stopped at a, the terminal eye has produced a shoot, b, which was pinched; this pinching has caused the development of the spurs e and f, and also the small branch d, which bears a fruit-bud, and the bud c, which should be stopped in August, in order to concentrate the sap on the buds at the lower part of the shoot. Should the upper portion of the shoot prove weak, then it would be advisable to cut it back following summer. At Pinching and Spur-pruning a Vigorous Shoot. to g. If any branch is weaker than the rest, the summer shoots upon it, or at least a considerable portion of them, should be allowed to grow without stopping till September, when a few inches may be cut off from the extremity of each. If the whole tree is weak, the shoots on all the branches should be treated in a similar manner. In that case, the summer shoots ought to be cut back in winter to about 1 inch from their base. From the stubs left, shoots will generally proceed in the following season; part of them may be pinched, as in Fig. 266, at regular distances along the stem, others maybe allowed to grow till September, when they may be stopped and cut back to about 1 inch from their base as before. There will then be about 1 inch long of the base of the first year’s shoot, now two years old, and as much of the second year’s shoot, which is only one year old; from this a shoot may be allowed to grow till September, when it should be stopped; but instead of cutting it back to 1 inch, it should be cut off entirely, together with the former year’s wood on which it took its rise. By so doing, there will be left a stub consisting of about 1 inch of wood, now three years old, terminating in a portion only two years old. On such portions fruit-spurs will generally form. Espaliers will generally bear very well if not so closely pruned as above indicated, provided means are taken to insure an equal distribution of the sap in all the branches. If this is neglected, no system of management will insure fruit in that perfection which would be the case if the above principle were duly carried out. The means of doing so have been already fully explained in treating on pruning, therefore they need not be here repeated. Whether the trees are worked upon the pear stock or upon the quince, they will generally soon become fruitful, and continue healthy and productive for a long period, if overluxuriance in one portion be prevented by timely checking, whilst more than an average liberty is allowed the weaker portions till the balance is re-established. Gordon Training.—Trained as a single lateral or bilateral cordon (Figs. 260“, 2606), the pear does not invariably succeed so well as the apple, but this mode of culture is interesting, and a few trees may be tried where a large extent of cordon has to be covered. They will not form fruitful spurs so freely as the apple, so that free-bearing sorts, of which Louise Bonne of Jersey is the type, should be selected; worked on the quince stock this variety of pear is adapted for all forms of training, and produces finer fruit than it does on the pear stock. All varieties of pears do not succeed on the quince; but if they do succeed, it is the best stock to employ for trees intended to be trained as cordons in the restrictive application of the term. In planting, the tree should be covered up to the junction of the graft with the stock, but not over it, as when the latter is the case, in some instances roots are emitted from the scion, and the effect of the stock is lost. Trees of this description are afip useful for filling vacant spaces at the base of walls, but they will do no good amongst old trees unless the ground is prepared for them. The old exhausted material should be entirely removed and the roots planted in turfy loam; indeed this is the best medium for the roots of all fresh-planted fruit-trees when the soil is unsuitable.410 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Training and all summer treatment may be summed up in a few words. Always bear in mind that the less pruning there is left until winter, the sooner will the trees come into bearing, and the more fruitful will they become. The experienced cultivator studies the habit of his trees, and his future proceedings are regulated by the variety he has in hand. Whatever form of cordon is intended—be it horizontal, upright, or oblique—the cultivator’s aim is to obtain a regular and uniform disposition of fruitful spurs from the base to the apex of the cordon. The Jargonelle, for instance, though a very free-bearing variety even in a young state, requires persistent pinching in of the side-shoots, as well as frequent stopping of the leading shoot, in order that a regular formation of fruitful spurs may be secured; Louise Bonne of Jersey, on the other hand, will form spurs regularly if the leading shoot is pinched only once in the season. In all cases let the side-shoots be closely I pinched in. A great and special advantage derived from training pear-trees as horizontal cordons is that ! the trees, when in blossom, can be readily protected from early spring frosts, which are so destructive to our crops of choice pears. Various methods suggest themselves to accomplish this object, such as hoops bent over the trees and covered with mats, frigi-domo, or some similar protecting material; but nothing that has yet been invented is at all so well adapted for this purpose as the cheap glass ridges first brought into prominent notice by Mr. Thomas Rivers, of Sawbridgeworth. These not only protect from frost, but also throw off the rains, and serve to maintain around the trees a comparatively dry atmosphere, which is highly important when they are in blossom. The glass ridges should not stand on the ground, but be raised three inches above it by means of a few bricks placed underneath ; a small aperture is also left at each boarded end just under the apex—this, with the ventilation beneath, causes a free circulation of air. In this way may be grown many of the finer sorts of peai'S which would fail to ripen on trees trained in the bush, standard, or pyramidal form. The ridges may remain until the pears ripen, or, in the case of late sorts, are ready to be gathered; but the trees must be well syringed in hot weather. If the ridges are wanted for other purposes they may be entirely removed when the fruit is fairly set and all danger of frost is over. The remaining forms of cordon which we shall notice are more adapted for covering wall surfaces, but in all cases the summer treatment already described is necessary. The best in our opinion is the double oblique (Rig. 267a). The trees are worked on the quince stock, and in our Fig. 267I>. illustration both shoots are trained from the place of union, that is, close to the surface of the ground. The shoots ought also to be of equal strength, as if one is weak and the other strong satisfactory results will not be obtained. By planting the trees 3 feet apart there will be an interval of 1 foot 6 inches between each cordon, which will afford sufficient room in light or loamy soils for a large development of spurs, but in heavy clays a greater space should be allowed; yet even in these 2-j feet apart will be an ample allowance. If the trees be trained at an angle of 45°, and the leading shoot of each be stopped once, twice, or thrice, according to the habit and the tendency to produce fruit-buds, they will come into bearing in the second year after planting, and in a few seasons cover the walls with healthy bearing wood. In rich and somewhat light soils, notwithstanding persistent summer pinching, sometimes a few of the more vigorous trees will not bear; in this case lifting the tree in the autumn and replanting it in maiden loam will generally induce fruitfulness. The double vertical cordon, trained in the form of the letter U (Fig- 2676), is by some thought to be a more beautiful form of tree than the oblique. It has this advantage that it covers the wall more quickly, and is therefore better adapted for very high walls; on the other hand, more care must Double Vertical Cordon.THE PEAR. 411 be exercised in training. The leading shoots grow I rapidly and draw the sap past the side-shoots; attention must therefore be paid to this tendency and the leading shoot stopped, in order that the trees may be well and uniformly furnished. Either the above or a single upright cordon may be planted as a division-line between the usual fan or horizontal-trained wall-trees, and if a careful selection of varieties be made a good supply of valuable fruit may be obtained. When the permanent trees meet, the upright cordons may either be cut out or allowed to remain, according to circumstances or taste. Another form, in which the tree is trained to five vertical branches, is shown in the engraving (Fig. 267c). This may be adopted when the trellis Fig. 267«. or wall is low, as it will allow of more ample development than single or double cordons. Though not common in France, it is extensively adopted in the kitchen-garden at Versailles, where, according to Mr. Robinson (Gleanings from French Gardens), there is a large quarter tilled with trees trained in this form, which M. Hardy, the head gardener, prefers to all others for promptly furnishing walls and trellises, and affording a great number of varieties in a small space. Such trellises may be substantially constructed with iron uprights and galvanized iron wire, or more cheaply, as regards first expense, of galvanized wire and wood combined; those at Versailles are stated to have cost less than 10c?. per yard run. A row of trees trained in the manner above represented would have a neat appearance by the side of a cross-walk in a kitchen-garden. Dwarf Bushes.—This is a system of training very useful for small gardens, and may indeed be adapted to gardens of considerable extent. For some sorts of pears, especially the larger fruits, such as Beui'i’6 Diel, Beurrd d’Amanlis, Triomphe de Jodoigne, and Beurre Ranee, the bush form is better adapted than the pyramid. The fruit is not so liable to be scattered about by the autumnal winds just when it is fit for gathering1. The training and general management of the trees is similar to that recommended for the apple. The branches must be sufficiently far apart not to rub against each other and injure the fruit, and the centre of the tree must be kept open so that air and light may have free access to it. This is absolutely necessary to secure the proper ripening of the fruit. The quince is the best stock, and for those varieties which do not succeed on it double grafting has been recommended—that is, a variety which succeeds well on the quince stock is first grafted on it, and the variety which does not thrive on the quince is then grafted on the pear. That celebrated pomologist Mr. Rivers has largely experimented in this direction, and with great success. Tins is a matter which the amateur will no doubt further investigate, but in most cases it is better left in the hands of the nurseryman. Pruning and Training Trees against Walls.— The modes of training usually adopted are the horizontal and the fan. The former is to be preferred for walls of ordinary height; but in the case of trees planted against the ends of houses and other walls which are much higher than those of gardens usually are, fan-training is the more advantageous, for by it the upper part of the wall can be much sooner covered. Ample instructions for obtaining the requisite number of branches at the proper distances from each other have been already given in the chapters on pruning and training, as regards both horizontal and fan-trained trees. The branches of a pear-tree intended to be trained horizontally against a wall should be the distance of four courses of bricks apart. At this distance the tree will sooner reach the top of the wall than if the branches were trained at three courses or 9 inches apart; but it may be said that, although the ■wall is sooner covei’ed, it will not be covered thickly and efficiently. There will be a 'greater extent of naked wall between the branches, but this is a great advantage, especially in the colder parts of the country; for, where a wall is almost completely shaded with foliage, it receives but little heat from the sun’s rays, and consequently but little412 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. can be radiated for the benefit of the tree. For this important reason a distance of 12 inches between the branches is recommended, and more especially as it is well known that branches, even at that distance, if well managed, will bear as much fruit as a tree can bring to perfection. The first pair of horizontals should be at least 1 foot from the ground; but 15 inches we consider preferable, because the fruit will be better flavoured than when nearer the ground. The lower horizontals should be trained at an angle of about 45°, in order to strengthen them, for they cannot be too strong, and in fact every means should be taken to encourage them to make vigorous growth. 'With this view, lateral shoots, if any are produced, ought to be allowed to grow freely during the summer, and their points should be taken off in September. Before winter, the upright leaders ought to be cut so as to originate a second pair of horizontals, and at the same time the laterals on the first pair should be cut to within \ or | inch of their base. In the second season, the shoots on the horizontals should still be allowed to grow without check, except in the case of any likely to lie too strong for the leaders of the horizontals, and wherever this is seen to be the case they must be pinched. The others may also be pinched if they grow so long that they begin to droop and shade the buds on the horizontal branches. When several courses of horizontals have been obtained, the highest should be subjected to a closer system of summer pruning. They ought, for the most part, to be pinched as directed for espaliers; after an interval of five or six days the next lower tier should be pinched, and so on to the lowest. When more horizontals are formed, six courses for example, the two upper may be pinched first; after several days the next lower two, and after another similar interval the lowest two. In short, by commencing summer pruning at the upper part of the tree, and working gradually downwards at intervals, so as not to deprive the tree of too many shoots or too much foliage at one time, the trees will form abundance of fruit-spurs, and bear regularly from the stem to the extremities of the branches. The spurs will most likely be too numerous, and will require to be thinned and shortened at the winter pruning. Pruning the Spurs.—A spur is a sort of branch, the buds of which are either blossom-buds, which do not push into regular shoots, or imperfectly-formed blossom-buds, in which case they elongate, although but slowly as compared with the growths made by the proper shoots. from the wall, and would lose the benefit of its warmth. It is therefore desirable to have a sufficient number of fruit-spurs as near the branch as possible, and when that is obtained the spurs should be more or less cut back at the winter pruning. The simple spur 1 requires no pruning. Such a one is likely to bear fruit, and in that case its terminal growth will be arrested, and one or two fruit-buds will most probably form near its base. The spur 2 is an older production. It may be cut off at a, or if there are plenty of others near, it may be cut back a little above the bud b, which will form a fresh spur. All buds similar to b are blossom - buds ; but spur-buds, like c, may retain their slender form for years without assuming that plumpness wThich indicates a fruiting state. It is frequently the case that nearly all the spur-buds on a tree are of this description, and are very numerous, abundance of foliage being produced, and every year more and more of these slender unfruitful spurs. The best way of dealing with them is to cut back those on the upper part of the tree to the lowest bud or the lowest two buds, to thin and shorten considerably those situated about the middle of the tree, and to do this more sparingly in the case of those on the lower part. By these means the lower branches, which are usually weak as compared with the upper, will become equal in vigour to the latter; the sap will flow equally to all parts of the tree, and weak elongated barren spurs will become plump and fruitful. The spurs on the middle and lower parts of the tree will require to be gradually reduced, and whilst this reduction is being effected, care must be taken that the upper part of the tree do not acquire a superiority Spurs are either simple, as represented at 1, Fig. 2(58, or compound, as at 2. They require to be pruned, otherwise they would extend too far in point of vigour. Fig. 269 represents theTHE PEA3. 413 branch a, on which the shoots bed have been produced, and also a fruit-bud e, and two terminal eyes/'/; these two eyes must be kept in check by stopping or pinching, in order that the sap may be concentrated on the buds at the base. Thinning the Fruit.—Notwithstanding the thinning of fruit-spui-s at the autumn or winter pruning, it is often the case, in favourable seasons, that much more fruit sets on a tree than it is able to mature; or if, favoured by a good season, it does bring a very heavy crop to tolerable perfection, it then generally rests from bearing for a season, thus producing in one year a surplus which is not much valued, and which can never compensate for the subsequent deficiency of supply. A full supply in every season should be aimed at, and every means tending to insure it ought to be adopted. The principal of these is thinning. This operation should be performed when the fruit is very young, and when injury from frost is not likely to occur. In a good season, when none of the blossoms are injured by frost, one or two fruits of a corymb take the lead, and the rest drop. Still, on a wall-tree, where corymbs are very numerous, too many will remain. A number of the corymbs should therefore be cut or pinched off entirely, but without injuring the foliage on the spur below. The latter, having not so much as a single fruit to support, will generally perfect fruit-spurs for the following season. The largest, best-formed, and finest-flavoured pears are produced from the strongest buds and blossoms. They are generally the most forward, and are consequently apt to suffer most from late frosts, so that they can no longer maintain their pre-eminence in the same corymb; they cannot monopolize the flow of sap, and the extra portion of this, which they otherwise would have appropriated, is shared amongst the whole of the fruits, which are thus enabled to exist, instead of being for the most part starved off. But what is the consequence ? Instead of one or two perfect fruits from a certain amount of nourishment, the same amount is divided amongst a number of fruits, each having an equal but all an imperfect supply. In this case the cluster or bunch must be well thinned; but even when that is done those that are left will rarely be so good as when the boldest flowers, being uninjured, naturally take the lead. After a tree has been loaded with a numerous progeny from weak blossoms, it is apt to prove unfruitful in tbe following season. In order to guard against this as much as possible, it is not sufficient to thin very much the young fruit of each corymb—a number of the corymbs must also be entirely removed. If abundant, every other one may be wholly dispensed with, and on those that are left the fruit may be thinned to one or two. Gathering and Storing.—As a general rule, pears are fit to gather when, on lifting up the fruit to a horizontal position, the stalk, without pulling, readily separates at its junction with the spur. When the stalk requires to be pulled and twisted, and will rather break than separate from where it joins the spur, the fruit in that case has not acquired all the nourishment which it other-I wise would derive from the tree. There are, ! however, exceptions to this very general rule, j Some varieties that are apt to become mealy or | too dry are better when gathered before they will part by merely lifting up. Again, some kinds that are too musky, if allowed to hang till they part very easily from the tree, should be gathered before they are in that state; thus, Williams’ I Bon Chretien is an excellent juicy pear when | gathered early enough, but is disagreeably musky j if allowed to hang too long. The Flemish Beauty I must be gathered before it has even attained it* j full size; if it be allowed to hang till it become of a fine red next the sun, and thus acquire all the beauty of which it is susceptible, it is much deteriorated in quality, and instead of being melting, it becomes dry and musky. Some very early pears must be gathered at a particular time; if removed from the tree a little too soon, they are watery and insipid; if a little too late, their flesh becomes mealy, or their flavour proves flat. Other early kinds ripen in succession, and must be gathered accordingly. Late varieties generally require to remain on the tree as long as they can safely be allowed to hang. The most choice sorts of pears on walls and espaliers should be gathered by taking hold of the stalk, without touching the fruit itself, and without displacing the bloom upon its surface, for this serves as a protection from moisture. The fruit should be placed singly on shelves; late sorts may be placed in a single layer in drawers or shallow boxes, for in such they will have a more equal temperature than on the open shelves in the room; and a steady cool temperature is an essential condition in keeping fruit. Pears keep very well in pure, dry, silver sand, also when packed in kiln-dried straw, or in dried fern. Besides being employed for keeping fruit late, the two last-mentioned materials are well adapted for forwarding it, and, we may add, even for ripening it. If the fruit of a variety which usually ripens in the end of December is in abundance, and if a scarcity should occur in the end of November, the later ripening sort can be brought in condition to supply the deficiency by114 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. packing it closely in dry fern in a basket, and placing it in a warm situation. The basket may be placed near a fire, but not too near, and the fruit will soon be fit for use. Many varieties that will bear well in rather cold parts of the country, in which however the fruit will not naturally become melting, may be greatly improved by packing them as above, and keeping them warm. The proper temperature will vary according to the variety and the greater or less degree of maturity which the fruit has acquired. Some of the pears should be kept in a very slight heat, others of the same variety in a higher temperature, and by this means the most suitable degree of heat may be ascertained. By the above mode of proceeding the quality of the fruit will be greatly improved, much more, indeed, than any one who has not tried the process could believe possible. Diseases.—The principal disease to which the pear-tree is subject in this country is canker. In America, the pear-tree blight, or fire-blight, is very common and destructive. Canker, as in the case of the apple, attacks some varieties more than others; indeed, in both the apple and pear this disease manifests itself in a manner so nearly alike, that what has been said of it in regard to the one fruit is also applicable to the other. Extremes of moisture and dryness at the root are to be guarded against. Where canker makes its appearance, the soil should not be made too rich, for over-luxuriance of growth seems to encourage the disease, at least in our variable and ungenial seasons. It frequently happens that for several weeks, with a warm south-west wind, vegetation is much excited in the early part of the season, and afterwards all at once checked for almost as long a period. This sudden stagnation must derange the flow and affect the quality of the sap, and a tendency to canker is the consequence. There ai’e various kinds of pears, such as the Jargonelle and Brown Beurr6, which in many localities are apt to canker in the open ground, but continue healthy against a wall, all other circumstances being the same. This shows that climate has much influence in the matter. The growth of shoots should be encouraged as much as possible in the early part of the summer, in order that the wood may be matured before frost sets in. When the trees commence to push, and shoots are being rapidly made, care should be taken that their vegetation receive no check for want of moisture; for if it is then stopped the trees are more disposed to grow late in autumn, which is not desirable. Too much moisture is very injurious, especially when it amounts to saturation and its coldness is equal I the to that of spring water; still, in wet seasons, and in certain circumstances, an excess of moisture cannot be avoided; but it becomes far more injurious when the soil about the roots has been previously allowed to become too dry. A pear-tree that may have at one time too little moisture is badly compensated by having at another time too much. Boots that are rendered iuactive from being in dry soil cannot be supposed to act so well, when abundance of moisture reaches them, as others that have never suffered from dryness. If we wished to induce canker in a tree, we should ! select one that had grown vigorously during some rather moist season, and in the first dry hot j year, when the roots had absorbed all moisture | within their reach, and could only afford a very inadequate supply to the leaves to make up for evaporation, we should afford it no assistance, i Meanwhile the leaves, deprived of their regular supply from the roots, will drain the tree of much I of its proper juices; growth will be arrested or greatly checked, perhaps till autumn, and then a late growth will ensue. But vegetation canuot be healthy when the sap is transmitted through roots, stem, and branches which have previously been half-dried, and through tissues suddenly overcharged with water at a period of the season when little or no evaporation takes place, and when both heat and light are greatly diminished in power. It is well known that shoots made under these circumstances are soft and watery, never becoming matured, consequently they are extremely liable to be affected by severe frost. Only an imperfect layer of alburnum is produced, and portions of the cambium sometimes die, even on the stem, a circumstance which is indicated by patches of bark which form depressions where the substance has been dried up, owing to sap not having been supplied by the inner bark. All these derangements from unseasonable and imperfect growth tend to produce canker; and as they recur more or less frequently, so will the tree be affected in a greater or less degree. The best means of preventing canker are those by which growth is encouraged in the most favourable period of the season, that is, during the early part of summer, when there is light and heat to elaborate the sap, and time to mature the wood before these agents become weak in their action. Although it has been recommended to encourage growth as soon as the weather is favourable, yet, where there appears to be a disposition to canker, a rapid and over-vigorous vegetation should be guarded against. The use of rank : manures must be particularly avoided; whilst, on contrary, the application of fresh soil willTHE PEAK. 415 prove advantageous. By attending well to the condition of the roots, the tree may very probably be maintained in a healthy state; but if in spite of every precaution canker should appear, we may conclude that the disease, in this case, arises from the vicissitudes of temperature. To this also we believe the frozen-sap blight of the Americans may be justly ascribed. According to Downing, the circumstances under which this disease is apt to occur are—a very sudden and early winter succeeding a damp and warm autumn. The trees are forced into a vigorous second growth, which continues late; and whilst the sap-vessels are still filled with their fluids, a sharp frost all at once takes place, and is followed in the day by bright sun. By suddenly freezing and thawing, the descending current of sap loses its vitality and becomes dark and discoloured. “ In the ensuing spring the upward current of sap rises through its ordinary channel—the outer wood or alburnum—the leaves expand, and for some time nearly all the upward current being taken up to form leaves and new shoots, the tree appears flourishing. Toward the beginning of summer, however, the leaves commence sending the downward current of sap to increase the woody matter of the stem. This current, it will be remembered, has to pass downward through the inner bark or liber, along which still remain portions of the poisoned sap, arrested in its course the previous autumn. This poison is diluted, and taken up by the new downward current, distributed toward the pith, and along the new layers of alburnum, thus tainting all the neighbouring parts. Should any of the adjacent sap-vessels have been ruptured by frost, so that the poison thus becomes mixed with the still ascending current of sap, the branch above it immediately turns black and dies, precisely as if poison were introduced under the bark. And very frequently it is accompanied with precisely the odour of decaying frost-bitten vegetation.” Mr. Downing also observes, that, if the poison becomes largely diffused, the tree will sometimes die in a day or two; but that, if it is only slightly present, the tree will often entirely recover. As this disease is owing to vicissitudes of climate, over which, as regards a pear plantation, we can have little control, care should be taken to use preventive means. They are chiefly those which have been already pointed out for promoting the ripeuing of the wood. Extremes of moisture and of dryness in the soil should be avoided, as should likewise manure applied so as to stimulate the tree to late growth. Downing states that many persons have remarked, that pear-trees growing in common meadow land were free from blight in seasons when those in rich garden soils were continually suffering from it. Severe pruning should be avoided as much as possible in this, as indeed in all cases. It can only be necessary in certain cases, but not, in general, where the trees harts been pruned and managed with due skill and foresight. Although the disease manifests itself but slightly in this country, in comparison with America, where the alternation from cold to an intensely hot sun is much greater, yet there can be no question that trees are injured when the sap, in full flow about the time the buds are bursting, is heated by the sun’s rays and suddenly cooled by frost at night. In parts of the country where the climate is such as to render protection necessary for pears against walls, such protection would be very beneficially employed, not only against frost at night, but also during a portion of the day when the sun’s rays ere very hot. Insects.—Various insects which attack the applij also prove injurious to the pear. Amongst these are—the caterpillars of the goat-moth (Cossns ligniperda), the wood leopard-moth (Zeueertt jEscvM), the figure-of-8 moth {Episema oocrvleO-cephaJa), the pale brindled beauty-moth (Amp hi-dasis pilosaria), the apple-blossom weevil (Ant/io-nonius pomorum), and of the codling-moth (Car-pocapsa pomonana), as well as the garden-chafer (Anisoplia horticola), and red-footed beetle (Lupe-rus rufipes), The pear-tree oyster-scale (Aspidiotus ostreai-formis), so called from its resemblance to an oyster-shell, is a very minute insect, sometimes formed on the bark, to which it is very similar in colour. Using a hard scrubbing-busli, with soap and water and a little sand, is the most effectual j remedy. The red-bud caterpillar (Pyralis Zuscana) some-I times does considerable injury to the crop by l preying upon the buds. The parent moth de-I posits its eggs upon the buds in June, and in the i following spring, when the sap begins to flow, the caterpillar appears, and having penetrated into the bud, feeds upon it for four or five weeks, when, having attained its full aiae, it spins a | white cocoon and changes into a chrysalis. Dust-| ing the trees with newly slaked lime when the caterpillar makes its appearance, Beems to be the only remedy. The pear-tree chermes (Psglla pyri\ both in the larva and perfect state, attacks the pear, and by exhausting the shoots of their sap, causes them to wither, the crop, as well as the health of | the tree, being sometimes seriously injured in consequence. In addition to this, ants and wasps, I which are attracted by the saccharine excrement416 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. of the larvue, frequently remain on the tree and damage the ripe fruit. The best remedy consists in brushing down the larvae with a stiff brush, and catching them on a cloth, where they may be destroyed. Afterwards the tree should be washed at short intervals with a powerful garden-engine. Syringing with a strong infusion of tobacco may also be attended with beneficial results. The slug-worm, the larva of Selandria atra of Stephens (Tenthredo cerasi and Tenthredo cethiops, erroneously, of some), a small, black, slimy caterpillar, occasionally does considerable mischief, in August, September, and the early part of October, by consuming the parenchyma of the leaves. The most effectual remedy is dusting the trees with quicklime, and repeating the application once or twice at short intervals. Syringing in the evening or morning with a decoction of tobacco, J lb. being allowed to 2 gallons of water, or with lime-water, formed by mixing 1 peck of lime and 2 lbs. of soft soap with 30 gallons of water, have likewise been attended with very satisfactory results. The pear-tree blistei--moth (Tinea Clerckella), a minute moth which appears in May or June, deposits its eggs upon the foliage, and the larvoe, immediately they are hatched, penetrate beneath the cuticle, and by feeding upon the parenchyma, cause numerous brown blisters. When full grown, which is the case in September, the maggot lets itself down to the ground, where it spins itself a cocoon on a leaf, changes into a chrysalis, and remains as such till the following season. When this insect abounds, all dead leaves should be removed in autumn, and burned or otherwise disposed of, so that the chrysalis may be destroyed; the ground near the trees should be dug, and the trees themselves washed with soap-suds when the moths have laid their eggs. The larva of the long-horned tortrix (Tortrix quercana, Fab.), a small greenish white caterpillar, forms a web on the under side of the leaves, by stretching a number of delicate threads parallel to each other, and beneath this covering feeds upon the parenchyma, leaving only the upper surface untouched. At a later stage of its existence it acquires sufficient strength to roll up the leaves, becoming at the same time more voracious; and when full grown it spins a white cocoon on the foliage, and changes into a reddish brown pupa, from which the moth emerges in July. Destroying the chrysalis is the most certain means of checking the increase of the insect; and if, as is probably the case, the eggs are deposited on the shoots, washing with soap and water, with a scrubbing-brush, might be resorted to if the insect prove troublesome. The caterpillar of the large pear-tree astyages (Astyages hemcrobiella), though in general of rare occurrence, sometimes appears in great numbers, and by consuming the parenchyma of the leaves, seriously injures the tree. When full grown it is about 4 inch in length, and is surrounded by a nearly cylindrical blackish case, which, being open at both ends, allows of the insect protruding the fore-part of its body when feeding, or travelling from place to place. In attacking the leaf it perforates the cuticle, and by consuming the parenchyma, forms a circular patch about £ inch in diameter. This being effected, it removes to another part and repeats the operation. Hand-picking appears to be the only means of checking the increase of this insect. The caterpillars of the pear-moth (Tortrix~ angustiorana) attacks the fruit, concealing itself beneath a delicate web formed in the eye of the pear, upon the rind of which it feeds. Little can be done to prevent the mischief caused by this insect, except by removing and destroying the maggot whenever it is discovered. All dead leaves near the tree should likewise be burned, as it is not unlikely that the eggs may be deposited upon the foliage. THE QUINCE (Cydonia vulgaris, Pers., Pyrus Cydonia, L.—Icosandria Di-Pentagynia, L.; Rosacea:', J,; Poiuaceie, Lind.) is a low, deciduous tree, of a crooked, branching, irregular habit of growth, and a native of the south of Europe. It derives its generic name from Cydon, the modern C'anea, near which the tree grew in great abundance. The fruit, which is powerfully odoriferous, and in its raw state acid, astringent, and unfit for eating, is principally used for making an agreeable ice, quince marmalade, and other preserves, as well as to give briskness and flavour to apple pies and tarts. The tree itself, as already mentioned, is much employed as a stock for certain varieties of the pear which are intended to be trained as dwarf pyramids or espaliers. The principal varieties cultivated for the fruit are:— 1. Apple-shaped Quince—syn. Orange Quince, Coignassier a fruit pommiforme, Coing-pomme of the French. —Leaves oval or ovate, downy beneath. Fruit roundish, about 2o inches in diameter, of a rich golden colour. Very productive, and ripening in a less favourable-climate than the other sorts. 2. Pear-shaped Quince—syn. Coignassier pyriforme, Ooing-poire of the French—Leaves oblong-ovate, downy beneath. Fruit rather larger than in the preceding,, pyriform, or sometimes roundish, with a short neck, more or less ribbed towards the eye, of a somewhat paler colour than the Apple-shaped, and ripening later. 3. Portugal Quince—syn. Coignassier de Portugal of the French.—Leaves very large, broad oval or ovate, downy on the upper side, very downy beneath. Fruit very large, about 4 inches in length, and 3 to 31, inches-THE QUINCE 417 in diameter at the widest part, from which it is most elongated towards the stalk, tapering more abruptly towards the eye, where it again projects, forming irregular ribs. Skin thickly covered with gray wool, beneath which it is deep yellow. Flesh more tender, juicy, and much better for every purpose, than that of the other sorts. The tree is taller and more vigorous than in the Apple- , shaped and Pear-shaped varieties, but is not quite so hardy, and bears less abundantly. It is frequently planted for the ornamental appearance of its flowers and fruit; also, from its vigorous growth and forming thicker annual layers of wood, it is well adapted for stocks for the pear. The quince succeeds in almost any soil, but prefers one of a rich, somewhat light, and rather moist nature; heavy clays and dry sandy soils are but ill suited to its growth. To ripen the fruit properly, a situation not shaded by tall trees, and open to the sun on the south, east, or west side, is necessary; but in any case, and particularly in cold and backward localities, a southern aspect is highly desirable. Propagation may be effected by seeds, but as these seldom ripen in this country, cuttings and layers are the modes generally adopted. Cuttings should be made early in autumn, from wood of the same year, and if possible with a small heel of two-year-old wood. They should be planted 1 foot apart, in rows 2h feet from each other, and if watered in dry weather they soon strike root. If intended for stocks, they may be grafted or budded the second or third year after they are put in; if not, they may remain in the nursery for two or three years, and may then be planted where they are to remain. The best plants are obtained in this way, though not so quickly as'by layering. In propagating by layers, the stem of a quince-tree is cut down in autumn to form a stool, and the young shoots which are put forth in consequence are layered in the autumn of the following year, leaving two buds above ground. When these buds have made shoots a few inches in length, the top of the weaker one should be pinched off, and in about two weeks after it may be cut back to the lowest two leaves. The remaining shoot must be trained upright. In autumn the layer should be taken up, the shoot which was shortened back in spring cut off close to its base, and any laterals which may have. pushed cut back to two eyes. The rooted layers formed in this way may then be planted out in nursery rows. Instead of laying down the shoots in the above manner, the following procedure is generally adopted near Paris:—The stem of a young and vigorous tree is cut down in .spring to within 8 inches of the ground, and in the follow- ing year, when a number of good shoots have pushed, mould is thrown in amongst them so as to cover the top of the stump, but leaving their tops above ground. The earth is then formed into a truncated cone, and a basin is made in the centre. The shoots soon strike root, and may, for the most part, be severed from the stump and planted in the autumn of the succeeding year. The stool will soon produce fresh shoots, which may be treated in the same way, and young plants may thus be obtained every two years. If intended for stocks, the young plants should be shortened back to 18 inches on being planted out in the nursery rows, but if for standards, they ought to be trained upright and at full length to a rod. Those for stocks should, in the summer after planting, have the lateral shoots cut entirely off to the height of 6 inches above the ground, in order to form a clean stem near where they are to be worked. But those not propagated for this purpose should have the lower laterals shortened to two eyes, and the points of the remainder must be pinched to determine the sap towards the leading shoot. In two years they may be taken up, after the fall of the leaf, and transplanted to wider distances apart, or planted where they are to remain. In the latter case, they may be placed 15 feet apart if several are planted. The varieties being readily propagated by cuttings and layers, budding and grafting are seldom resorted to. Pruning and Training.—The quince is not one of those trees which naturally grow with a strong erect stem, such as is most desirable for a standard; and to rear it with one of this description requires considerable attention, otherwise it is apt to grow up with long flexible shoots, inclined to branch and twist. A tree planted where it is intended to remain, should be allowed to grow at freedom for a season. It ought then to be cut back, in autumn, to within 18 inches of the ground. Several shoots will push, the strongest of which should be trained upright to a rod, and shortened a little at every autumn pruning. If the one highest up be the strongest, so much the better, if not, the shoot or shoots above it must be rubbed off; and those below it should be pinched, when 1 foot in length. Laterals on the young upright ought to be allowed to grow during the summer, but they should be shortened to a few inches at the autumn pruning; at the same time, the shortened shoots between the base of the one trained upright and the ground ought to be cut clean off. By continuing to train the young shoot quite upright, an erect stem will be insured; and, by allowing plenty of laterals to 27418 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. grow, and by gradually reducing them, the stem will be rendered strong enough in course of a few years to be self-supporting. When the stem has attained the required height, the head should be formed as directed for the apple and other fruit trees. After the principal branches have been originated, very little pruning will be necessary. Over-luxuriant shoots are apt to start up; these should be looked for, and checked at an early period of their growth, and weak spray and cross shoots ought to be cut off. The fruit ripens in the end of October or beginning of November, and may hang on the tree as long as there is no danger of frost. After gathering, it should be wiped with a clean cloth and laid out on shelves, or on well-dried straw, in some cool place, apart from other fruits, to which it is apt to communicate a disagreeable flavour. It does not keep longer than a month or six weeks. THE MEDLAR {Mespilus germanica, L.— Icosandria Di-Pentagynia, L.; Rosaceie; Ponia-ce:e, Lind.) is a low, deciduous tree, a native of England, France, Germany, and the south of Europe, where it grows naturally in hedges, woods, and copses. Its fruit, which is hard, acid, and unfit for eating till it loses its green colour and blets, or begins to decay, when it acquires an agreeably acid, somewhat astringent flavour, is generally eaten raw, but is also occasionally made into preserves along with sugar. The varieties worthy of cultivation are:— 1. Nottingham Medlar — syn. Common, Small-fruited.—Fruit about one inch in diameter, obovate, of a bright yellowish brown spotted with russet, of a rich, brisk, sub-acid flavour. The best sort as regards quality. The tree is of upright growth, in which respect it differs from the other sorts; its leaves also are much smaller. 2. Dutch Medlar—syn. Large Dutch, Broad-leaved Dutch, Large German, Large-fruited German, Blake’s Large, Nellier a gros fruit, Neflier a tres gros fruit, Noflier monstrucux, Neflier de Hollande a gros fruit. —Fruit very large, about D inch in diameter, grayish green previous to bletting, bright reddish brown when ripe. Flavour good, but inferior to that of the Nottingham. It is cultivated on account of the large size of the fruit. 3. Stoneless—syn. French Medlar, Neflier a fruit sans noyeau, Neflier a fruit sans pepins.—Fruit small, about j inch in diameter, obovate, of a russet brown colour when ripe, and without stones. Inferior in flavour to the preceding sorts, but keeps longer, and is worthy of cultivation on that account. The medlar is raised from the stones or seeds, which should be taken out as soon as the fruit is ripe, and sown immediately. They usually take two years to come up, and afterwards the seedlings should be attached to a strong stake in order to preserve a tolerably upright stem. Seed is only sown with the view of obtaining new varieties or stocks, the varieties being propagated by budding or grafting upon the wild medlar, pear, quince, or white-thorn. The latter kind of stock is preferred on the Continent, and is perhaps the best where the soil is sandy and dry. The quince is the best in moist soils, as its roots extend near the surface; and the pear, grafted standard high, gives a straight stem and a more regular appearance to the tree, for which it is probably the best stock in ordinary soils. Any of the usual modes of grafting maybe employed; but for that purpose scions should be chosen from shoots of the previous summer’s growth, anti care be taken to cut off the extremities where the flowers appear, otherwise they will not succeed. When budding is resorted to, the mode with a dormant eye is preferred. With regard to soil, the medlar is not particular, growing in any that is not arid or swampy, but it produces the largest and best fruit in rich, loamy, somewhat moist ground. The tree may be trained as a standard, and the Nottingham and Stoneless varieties may even be formed into productive pyramids, in the same w ay as the pear. The Nottingham medlar, vdiich takes an upright growth, requires very little pruning; but the Dutch medlar, and others of similar crooked growth, will require some regulation to prevent the branches from crossing and rubbing against each other. More than this need not be attempted, for the branches are naturally so inclined to assume an elbowed form, turning frequently at right angles in any direction, that to keep them straight would be almost an impossibility, and in our opinion wrould only spoil the characteristic rusticity of the tree. The fruit should remain on the tree until the end of October or beginning of November; and when the stalk porta readily from the bearing shoots it should be gathered on a dry day, carried to the fruit-room, and laid out upon the shelves. It is a good plan to dip the end of the stalk in a solution of common salt, for this tends to prevent the attacks of a minute fungus, which usually commences at that paid: and extends to the fruit, which it renders useless. Some place straw7 beneath the medlars, but unless perfectly clean and dried upon a kiln or in the sun, it encourages mouldiness, and is apt to give them a musty flavour. The fruit should be looked over from time to time, and any that is affected with fungus must be at once removed, otherwise it will taint the rest. It becomes fit for use in two or three weeks after gathering, and may keep good till January.THE PLUM. 419 CHAPTER XVII. THE PLUM, CHERRY, APRICOT, PEACH, NECTARINE, AND ALMOND. THE PLUM (Primus cldmesticci, L.—Ieosan--dria Mouogynia, L.; Rosacea?, J.; Drupacem, Lind.) is a low, deciduous tree, a native of Britain, as well as of most other parts of Europe and the mountainous parts of Asia. The fruit forms a valuable addition to the dessert, both in respect to its rich flavour and beautiful appearance, which is not a little heightened by the delicate bloom with which the skin is covered. The fruit of some sorts, such as Coe's | Golden Drop and the Ickworth Imperatrice, may with a little care be preserved for months in a fresh state for the dessert, a quality which is not possessed by any other of our cultivated fruits with juicy flesh, excepting the apple and pear. For pies, tarts, and various preserves, the fruit is also held in high estimation, and from some of the varieties the prunes of the shops are prepared. On the Continent, a spirit analogous to the kirsch-wasser, and sometimes called by that name, is also distilled from the fruit. The cultivated varieties are very numerous, some of them closely resembling each other; but, in many cases, the distinctive marks are evident. The principal varieties are:— 1. Bleeker’s Yellow—syn. Bleeker’s Gage, German Gage.—Shoots downy. Leaves downy above. Fruit large, roundish oval. Stalk 1 inch or more in length. Skin yellow. Flesh yellow, separating from the stone, sweet and luscious. Ripe in September. 2. Blue Imperatrice— syn. Imperatrice, Impera-trice violette, Veritable Imperatrice, Violette.—Shoots smooth. Leaves oval, smooth above. Fruit middle-sized, roundish obovate. Stalk J inch in length. Skin violet, streaked or netted with gold-coloured lines near the stalk, and elsewhere dotted with brownisli yellow, the whole surface covered with a profusion of bloom. Flesh yellowish, adhering to the stone, juicy, sugary, and rich. Stone oval, a little flattened. Ripe in October, and will afterwards hang for a considerable time on the tree, if on a wall and netted up. It may also bo kept in a dry room till the middle of December. Good as a late dessert plum, and also for preserving. The tree bears well as a standard in favourable situations; but it would require to be planted against an east or west wall in cold or northern parts of the kingdom. 3. Blue Perdrigon—syn. Brignole violette, Perdrigon violet.—Shoots smooth. Leaves slightly downy above. Flowers middle-sized. Petals roundish. Fruit middle-sized, roundish obovate. Stalk about 5 inch in length. Skin purple, dotted with yellowish brown, covered with a light bloom. Flesh rather firm, partly adhering to the stone, greenish amber, very rich. Stone small, oval. Ripf in the end of August and beginning of September. From this and the White Perdrigon the famous Bri-gnole prunes are made. 4. Prince of Wales.—Shoots long and smooth. Leaves oval, cremated, smooth above. Fruit very handsome, resembling an Orleans in outward appearance, and also in the quantity of its flesh. Rip® in the end of August or beginning of September. It may be used for dessert, and is a good kitchen variety. It was propagated from an old tree found in the grounds of Mr. Chapman, at Syon, near Brentford. The tree is vigorous and a great bearer. It differs from the Orleans in having smooth instead of downy shoots. 5. Coe’s Fine Late Red—syn. St. Martin, St. Martin rouge, Violette Octoverpflaume, Catherine violette.— Shoots downy. Leaves smooth above. Flowers middle-sized. Petals roundish, concave. Fruit middle-sized, roundish, depressed at the ends. Stalk J inch long, thick. Skin purplish red, sprinkled with gold-coloured dots, and covered with an azure bloom. Flesh pale I amber, somewhat transparent, parting from the stone, crisp, and juicy, with a rich, vinous flavour when the autumn is fine. Ripe in end of October or beginning of November. This is the latest known plum of its size. The tree is an excellent bearer as a standard, but will only ripen its fruit as such in the southern ])arts of the kingdom; elsewhere, those who are desirous of late supply should plant it against a wall. 6. Coe’s Golden Drop—syn. Bury Seedling, Coe's Imperial, Coe’s Plum, Golden Drop, Golden Gage, New Golden Drop.—Shoots smooth. Leaves middle-sized, flat, oval, acuminate, crenated, smooth, shining, deep green. Flowers middle-sized. Petals roundish oval, imbricated. Fruit large, oval or somewhat obovate. Stalk from n inch to 1 inch in length. Skin light greenish yellow, freckled with rich spots of ferruginous red next the sun. Flesh greenish yellow, adhering to the stone, very rich, sweet, and delicious. Stone middle-sized, elliptic, sharp-pointed. Ripe in the end of September. It is excellent for the dessert and for preserving. Not the least of its merits consists in its keeping long after it has been taken off the tree, 011 the shelves of a fruit-room, suspended by the stalk inside a window facing the sun, or wrapped in paper and kept in a dry room. By the last method, the author of the Guide to the Orchard and Kitchen Garden states that he has eaten it exceedingly good twelve months after it had been gathered. The tree is a rather shy bearer when young and growing vigorously; but when fairly in a bearing state, it is often very productive, even as a standard, in the south of England; but to bring the fruit to perfection in the north of England and in Scotland, it requires a wall. An east or w'est aspect is suitable, but one inclining to south-west is still better. AVTien it is compared with other plums that decay soon after they are gathered, and which are consequently lost if not used in that short time, and its excellence as a handsome, first-rate dessert plum, is taken into consideration, it must be concluded that in any part of the kingdom it is deserving of a wall. This exceedingly choice variety is said to have been raised about the beginning of the present century, by Mr. Coe, a market-gardener, near Bury St. Edmunds, in Suffolk. 7. Corse’s Nota Bene.—Fruit large, round. Stalk h inch in length. Skin dull purplish brown, covered with a light violet bloom. Flesh greenish, parting from the stone, juicy, sweet, and rich. Ripe in September. The tree is a great bearer.420 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. 8. Damson—syn. Common Damson, Round Damson, Small Round Damson, Early Damson of some.—Branches spiny. Shoots downy. Leaves small, oval, pointed, smooth above. F/owers early, small. Petals oval. Fruit small, roundish oval, inclining to obovate. Stalk slender, scarcely ^ inch in length. Skin bluish black, thickly covered with azure bloom. Flesh firm, yellowish green when well ripened, parting from the stone, acid, and astringent. Ripe in the end of September. The tree is a great bearer. The fruit is much used for pies and for preserving. 9. Denver’s Victoria—syn. Alderton.—Fruit large, oval. Stalk about 1 inch in length. Skin red, covered with a fine light bloom. Flesh yellowish, parting freely from the stone, moderately juicy, with an agreeable flavour. Stone oval, flattish, and remarkably tender, so much so, that it may be cracked between the thumb and fingers. Ripe in end of September. It is excellent for kitchen use, and may also be used for the dessert. The tree is an extraordinary bearer as a standard, the branches being generally so loaded that they require to be supported. 10. Diapree Rouge—syn. Imperial Diadem, Minims, Roche Corbon.—Shoots smooth. Leaves rather large, oval, flat, crenated, downy above. Flowers large, occasionally semi-double. Petals roundish, concave, imbricated. Fruit large, obovate. Stalk about 1 inch in length, moderately thick. Skin light clear purple, thinly covered with a delicate azure bloom. Flesh dull, pale, greenish yellow, parting from the stone, moderately juicy, with an agreeable flavour. Stone rather large, irregularly oval. Ripe in the beginning of September. The tree is a good bearer as a standard. The fruit is very handsome, and excellent for kitchen use. 11. Drap d’Or—syn. Mirabelle Double, Mirabelle Grosse, Yellow Perdrigon. —Shoots downy. Leaves small, oval, crenated. Flowers middle-sized. Petals roundish oval. Fruit smaller than that of the Green Gage, round. Stalk scarcely A inch in length. Skin greenish yellow, marked with reddish specks next the sun. Flesh yellow, parting from the stone, sugary, and rich. Stone oval. Ripe in the middle of August, about a week earlier than the Green Gage; and this circumstance, as well as its intrinsic excellence, renders it highly deserving of culture as a first-rate dessert fruit. The tree is of moderate growth. 12. Dunmore.—Shoots smooth. Leaves smooth above. Fruit above the middle size, oval. Skin dull yellow. Flesh yellowish, parting from the stone, rich, and sugary. Ripe in September. A good, hardy, late plum. 13. Early Orleans—syn. Grimwood’s Early Orleans, New Early Orleans, IVilmot’s Early Orleans, New Orleans, Hampton Court, Monsieur Hatif, Monsieur Hatif de Montmorency.—Shoots downy. Leaves smooth above, or but slightly pubescent. Flowers larger than those of the common Orleans; stamens shorter than the style, stigma large. Fruit similar to that of the Orleans, but of a somewhat deeper violet, and ripening ten days or a fortnight earlier. It is excellent for kitchen use. On this account, and likewise from being an excellent bearer, it is highly deserving of cultivation. Indeed, where space admits of planting only two plums of the Orleans breed, one of them should be this. 14. Fotiieringham—syn. Grove House Purple, Sheen. —Shoots smooth. Leaves smooth above. Flowers middle-sized, stamens short, petals roundish. Fruit middle-sized, obovate. Stalk 1 inch long. Skin purple. Flesh greenish yellow, parting freely from the stone, juicy, and rich. Ripe in the middle of August, a little before the Green Gage. According to Lindley, “this very useful and hardy plum has been in England for many years, having been cultivated by Sir "William Temple, at his seat at Sheen, I near Richmond, in Surrey, before 1700, whence it was called the Sheen plum.” 15. Green Gage—syn. Brugnon Green Gage, Isle-worth Green Gage, Wilmot’s Green Gage, "Wilmot’s Late Green Gage, Bradford Gage, Abricot Yert, Damas Vert, Daupliine, Grosse Reine, Grosse Reine Claude, Reine Claude, Sucrin Vert, Verte Bonne.—Shoots smooth. Leaves middle-sized, ovate, smooth above, crenated. Floicers middle-sized, petals somewhat obovate, concave at top, stamens shorter than the style, anthers reddish yellow. Fruit middle-sized, round, with a small suture extending from the base to the summit, where it terminates in a depression. Stalk from o inch to f inch in length, of medium thickness, bent, inserted in a small cavity. Skin pale green, intermixed with a faint tinge of yellow, and, when well exposed on standards, it is sometimes russeted next the sun, interspersed with some ferruginous specks. Flesh pale green, mostly parting from the stone, a little pulp sometimes adhering, melting, juicy, luscious, exceedingly rich, without that sickly flavour which is often combined with the sweetness of other plums. Stone small, roundish oval. Ripe in the middle or end of August. It is highly esteemed both for the dessert and for preserving. The tree is generally an abundant bearer. The variety has sometimes been reproduced from the stone, but great care should be taken that no seedling of inferior flavour to the original should, in any case, be substituted for it. Hi. Golden Esperen—syn. Drap d’Or d’Esperen.— Shoots smooth. Fruit large, oval or roundish-oval. Stalk short. Skin golden-yellow, with crimson spots on the side next the sun, pale greenish yellow on the shaded side. Flesh yellow, juicy, with a rich sugary flavour, separating easily from the stone. Ripe in the end of August or beginning of September. A handsome and good dessert plum. 17. Goliath—syn. Saint-Cloud, Steers’ Emperor, Wilmot’s Late Orleans, Caledonian and Nectarine of some. — Shouts very downy. Leaves smooth above. I Flowers middle-sized, petals round. Fruit large, roundish oblong, flat or a little depressed at the ends. Stalk very downy; by this the variety may be readily distinguished from the Nectarine, with which it has been often confused, and which has a smooth stalk. Skin ! purple, covered with a rich azure bloom. Flesh firm, greenish yellow, coarse, adhering to the stone, neither rich nor of fine flavour, but only fit for cooking. Ripe in the beginning and middle of September. A remarkably handsome plum, and excellent for kit-; chen use. IS. Hulings’ Superb. —Shoots downy. Leaves large, downy above. Fru it as large as the Washington, roundish ovate. Stalk j inch in length. Skin greenish yellow. Flesh pale greenish yellow, parting from the stone, rich and juicy. Ripe middle of September.THE PLUM. 421 19. Ickworth Imperatrice.—Shoots smooth. Leaves rather small, oval, smooth, of a shining dark green. Fruit middle-sized, obovate. Stalk about § inch in length, of moderate thickness. Skin purple, traced with golden lines, some radiating in nearly a straight downward direction from the stalk, others disposed in a circle, the whole surface covered with a bright purple bloom. Flesh greenish amber, partly adhering to the stone, juicy, and very rich, till it begins to shrivel on the tree. Stone small, oval. Ripe in the beginning of October, and it may be preserved till the following summer, if wrapped in paper and kept in a dry place. Besides being excellent for the dessert, it makes a very good preserve. It was raised by Mr. Knight, whose object in raising this and some other varieties, was to produce a fruit containing sufficient saccharine matter to preserve itself without becoming reduced to a dry or nearly dry state, as the French plums frequently do. In order to effect this, he raised many plants from the Imperatrice Yiol-ette and pollen of Coe’s Golden Drop, “one of which,” subsequently named the Ickworth Imperatrice, he observes, “appears capable of being long preserved without any material trouble. In the autumns of 1829 and 1830 I selected a few plums of this variety, and having folded them in blotting-paper, I put them into a paper bag, and suspended them in my apple-chamber. In this situation they all remained perfectly sound till the end of February or beginning of March, gradually but slowly becoming more shrivelled, and ultimately retaining a good deal of juice; and I entertain scarcely any doubt but that, with the aid of closed jars, I could have preserved them till midsummer, or longer.”—(Horticultural Transactions, 2d series, vol. ii. p. 522.) 20. Jaune Hative — syn. Amber Primordian, D’Avoine, Catalonian, De Catalogue, Early Yellow, Prune de Saint-Barnabe, White Primordian.—Shoots downy. Leaves small, elliptic, crenated, smooth above. Fruit middle-sized, obovate, tax>ering abruptly to the stalk, depressed on the summit. Stalk slender, about h inch in length. Skin yellow, interspersed with small pale dots, and thinly covered with a whitish bloom. Flesh yellow, parting freely from the stone, sweet, and tolerably rich. Stone small, oval, flattened. Ripe in the end of J uly and beginning of August. The chief merit of this is its earliness, on which account one or two trees may be planted in an orchard, or some shoots of another plum which is trained against a wall may be budded with it, for supplying a few dishes before the Royale Hative ripens. 21. Jefferson.—Shoots upright, slightly downy while young. Leaves middle-sized, oval, smooth above. Fruit large, roundish oval. Stalk about 1 inch in length. Skin dark yellow, speckled next the sun with purple and brownish red, covered with a thin bloom. Flesh deep orange, parting from the stone, some portions slightly adhering, juicy, exceedingly rich and sugary. Stone middle-sized, elliptic. Ripe in the second or third ■week in September. The tree is an excellent bearer, and so much hardier than the Green Gage that in a bad season it will attain a greater degree of excellence than that variety, so unrivalled under favourable circumstances. The Jefferson is an American variety, raised by the late Judge Buel in his garden at Albany. It is highly deserving of cultivation as a standard, and also merits a place upon a wall. 22. Kirke’s.—Shoots smooth. Leaves smooth above, i Floicers middle-sized; the autliers reddish-yellow, like those of the Green Gage. Fruit large, round. Stalk about J inch in length, very little sunk at its insertion. Skin dark purple, with a copious bloom, through which some small golden specks faintly appear. Flesh greenish yellow, parting from the stone, firm, juicy, and very rich, resembling that of the Purple Gage, to which this variety, on the whole, bears considerable resemblance, but differs in not being depressed on the summit. Stone middle-sized, broad oval, flattened, channelled along the back. Ripe in beginning and middle of September. This excellent sort was brought into notice by Mr. Kirke, of Brompton Nursery. The tree is a good bearer, though not so excessively prolific as some. It bears well as a standard, but deserves a wall where such can be afforded. 23. Large Green Drying — syn. Knight’s Large Green Drying.—Shoots smooth. Leaves large, broad oval, smooth above. Flowers large. Fruit large, roundish. Skin greenish yellow, with some reddish specks next the sun. Flesh amber-coloured, adhering to the stone, very sugary, and rich. Ripe in the middle and end of September, and will keep for a considerable time, especially if ripened in dry sunny weather. The tree is «a very strong grower, and but a moderate bearer, at least till it attains its full size. 24. Late Rivers.—Shoots smooth. Fruit below the middle size, roundish, somewhat flattened at the ends. Stalk about 1 inch long. Skin dark purple, almost black. Flesh yellow, adhering to the stone, juicy, s^veet, and richly flavoured. Ripe in the end of October and beginning of Novembei'. A dessert plum, valuable on account of its extreme : lateness and excellent flavour. 25. Lawrence’s Favourite—syn. Lawrence Gage.— Slioots downy. Fruit large, roundish. Stalk h inch long. ; Skin dull green, veined with brown, and covered with thin gray bloom. Flesh greenish, melting, rich, and sugary, parting from the stone. Ripe in the beginning | of September. An excellent dessert plum. 2G. Mirabelle—Mirabelle Jaune, Mirabelle Petite. —Shoots downy. Leaves small, ovate, somewhat cordate at the base, on young shoots downy above. Flowers small. Petals roundish oval, shorter than the stamens. Fruit very small, roundish oval. Stalk h inch to J inch in length. Skin yellow, covered with a light bloom, and j marked with reddish spots next the sun. Flesh orange yellow when fully ripe, nearly of an apricot colour, parting from the stone, sweet, and rich. Stone small, ! ovate, a little flattened. Ripe in the middle of August. The tree is of small size, and bears very abundantly as a standard. The fruits are small, but exceedingly7 numerous, being often in clusters. Although not of much value for the dessert, they make very rich preserves. 27. Mitchelson’s.—Shoots smooth. Fruit middle-sized, oval. Stalk .J inch long. Skin black. Flesh yTel- j low, parting from the stone, very juicy, and sweet. : Ripe early in September. A first-rate preserving plum, and being an extraordinary bearer, it is largely grown for market. 28. Nectarine Plum—syn. Caledonian, Howell’s Large, Jenkins’ Imperial, Louis Pliillippe; Peach Plum, Prune Peche of some.—Shoots smooth. Leaves large, I oval, flat or somewhat concave, smooth above. Fruit422 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. large, roundish when well grown, and not too thick on the tree, otherwise oval. Stalk from 1, inch to f inch in length. Skin reddish purple, with a thin bloom which easily rubs off. Flesh dull greenish yellow, partially adhering to the stone, tolerably rich. Stone middle-sized, oval, compressed. Ripe in beginning or middle of August. Useful for the dessert and for preserving. The tree is a very great bearer, frequently so much so that, unless tire fruit be well thinned, it cannot possibly attain perfection. 2!). Orleans—syn. Old Orleans, Red Damask, Monsieur, Monsieur Ordinaire.—Shoots downy. Leaves large, ovate, crenated. Flowers earl}', large. Petals roundish, imbricated, slightly concave. Fruit large, roundish, depressed on the summit. Stalk about h inch in length. Skin having a ground colour of dark purplish red, sprinkled with some pale red specks, the whole covered with a close bloom, giving it a fine Prussian blue colour, which is unequalled amongst at least the generality of other plums. Flesh yellowish green, firm, parting completely from the stone, tolerably juicy and sweet, but not very rich, though excellent for kitchen use. Stone small, oval, flattened. Ripe in the end of August. The tree is a great bearer, and has long been extensively cultivated. 30. Oullins’ Golden—syn. Reine Claude d’Oullins, Reine Claude Precoce.—Shoots smooth. Fruit above medium size, roundish oval. Stalk J inch long. Skin rich yellow, with crimson dots on the side next the sun. Flesh yellow, slightly adhering to the stone, tender, rich, and juicy. Ripe early in August. A first-rate dessert plum. The tree is an abundant bearer. 31. Perdrigon Violet Hatif.—Shoots slightly downy. Leaves smooth above. Fruit middle-sized, about as large as the Blue Impcratrice, roundish oval. Skin purple, interspersed with some yellowish brown lines and dots. Flesh yellow, green, or amber-coloured, parting from the stone when well ripened, sugary, rich, and excellent. Stone small, a little flattened. Ripe in the middle of August and before the Green Gage; but it will hang to shrivel on the tree, and it is then still more rich and sugary. It succeeds as a standard. 32. Prince Engelbert.—Shoots smooth. Fruit, very large, oval. Stalk A inch long. Skin very deep purple, with minute dots of a russet colour, densely covered all over with gray bloom. Flesh yellow, adhering to the stone, j nicy, rich, and sweet. Suitable for the dessert or for kitchen use, and excellent when preserved. It is valuable for tarts, yielding a great abundance of richly-coloured juice. Ripe in the end of August and beginning of September. The tree is a very abundant bearer. 33. Prune d’Agen—syn. Prune d’Ast, Prune d’Ente, Saint-Maurin, Robe de Sergent, Prune de Rrignole of some.—Shoots smooth. Leaves middle-sized, oval, acuminate, bright green, slightly pubescent above. Flowers large, with roundish oval petals. Fruit middle-sized, longish obovate. Stalk about J inch in length, a little sunk at its insertion. Skin purplish red next the sun, with a slight bloom near the stalk, light red where shaded. Flesh yellow, sweet, and when well ripened parting from the stone, which is middle-sized, oblong oval, pointed at the end nearest the stalk, and flattened. Ripe in the end of September. A tolerably good dessert plum, excellent for preserving, and one of the best for drying, for which purpose it is extensively cultivated in the neighbourhood of the place from which it takes its name. The tree is a very abundant bearer. 34. Quetsche — syn. Common Quetsche, Turkish Q« etselie, Quetsche d’Allemagne Grosse, Zwetsche, Zwetsclike, Damask, Damas Gros, Damas Violet, Early Russian, German Prune, Prune d’Allemagne, Sweet Prune; Impcratrice Violette and Impcratrice Violette Grosse of many, Damas Violet and Damas Violet Gros of some.—Shoots long, smooth. Leaves downy above. Flowers late, middle-sized; petals oval, broadest at the base, where they imbricate each other. Fruit middle-sized, long, elliptic, projecting in the middle towards the suture more than to the back. Stalk nearly 1 inch in length. Skin purple, covered with a thick bloom. Flesh greenish amber, separating entirely from the stone, juicy, with a brisk acidity, which this climate does not change sufficiently to sugar to render the variety fit for dessert, but it is good for kitchen use and for preserving. Stone long, flat, sharp-pointed. The tree is hardy, vigorous, and a great bearer, therefore proper for orchards. The variety is much cultivated in Germany and other continental countries, for preserving and making prunes. The Quetsche is often raised from the stone, hence there are many varieties differing slightly from that just described. Such are the Hungarian and Austrian Quetsches, which are very good varieties. 35. Reine Claude df. Bay at—syn. Monstrueuse de Bavay, St. Claire.—Shoots smooth. Fruit large, roundish, flattened at both ends. Stalk n inch long. Skin greenish yellow, covered with a thin white bloom. Flesh yellow, very juicy, rich, and sugary, separating from the stone. Ripe in September and early in October. A dessert plum of first-rate quality'. 36. Reine Claude Violette—syn. Purple Gage, Violet Gage.—Shoots smooth and short-jointed. Leaves middle-sized, smooth above, of a shining deep green, darker than that of the Green Gage. Flowers of medium size. Petals roundish oval, somewhat concave at the top. Stalk about 1 inch in length, thick. Fruit middle-sized, roundish, flattened at the ends. Skin violet, with yellowish dots appearing through a light bloom. Flesh firm, greenish amber, parting from the stone, sugary, rich, and excellent. Stone middle-sized, ovate, compressed. Ripe in the beginning of September, and will keep in dry favourable seasons till October. The tree is a good bearer as a standard, and it deserves a place against a wall. According to Sickler this excellent variety originated in Tourraine. 37. Royale df. Tours.—Shoots slightly downy. Leaves slightly downy above. Flowers early, rather large; petals roundish obovate; stamens long. Fruit middle-sized, roundish. Stalk r. inch in length. Skin purple. Flesh amber-coloured, slightly adhering to the stone, but melting, luscious, rich, sugary, and very excellent. Ripe in the beginning and middle of August, a week or more before the Green Gage. 3S. Royale Hative—syn. Miviam. — Shoots very downy. Leaves middle-sized, roundish oval, slightly pubescent above. Flowers rather large; petals oval, concave. Fruit middle-sized, roundish, rather widest near the stalk, which is thick, about h inch in length, scarcely sunk at its insertion. Skin purple, netted withTHE PLUM. 423 yellowish brown. Flesh yellowish, parting from the stone, sugary, rich, and delicious. Stone small, flattened, ovate. Pipe in the beginning of August. Wasps and flies attack it in preference to other sorts. The tree is a good bearer, and ought to be in every collection, on account of the great excellence and earliness of the fruit. 39. St. Martin’s Quetsche.—Branches spreading. Shoots smooth. Leaves middle-sized, oval, smooth above. Flowers rather large, with roundish oval imbricated petals. Fruit middle-sized, ovate, or somewhat heart-shaped. Stalk about | inch in length. Skin greenish yellow, covered with a light bloom. Flesh yellowish, parting freely from the stone, juicy, rich, and sugary. Stone small, ovate. Pipe in the end of October. It is one of the best very late plums. The tree bears well as a standard, but, where space can be afforded, it deserves a place against a wall or espalier, and could then be netted up for a late supply. 40. Shropshire Damson—syn. Long Damson, Prune Damson, Damascene.—Shoots downy. Leaves downy above. Fruit obovate, larger and longer than the Damson. Stalk scarcely § inch in length. Skin bluish black, with a copious azure bloom. Flesh yellowish green, rather adhering to the stone, acid, astringent, yet somewhat sugary; excellent for preserving. Pipe in the middle of September, earlier than the Damson. 41. Washington—syn. Bolmar, Franklin, Bolmar’s ’Washington.—Shoots slightly downy, reddish toward the extremity. Leaves very large, broad, oval, shining, slightly downy. Floioers large, petals roundish. Fruit very large, roundish oval. Stalk J inch long, inserted in a wide shallow depression. Skin dull yellow, obscurely streaked with pale green, and having a blush of pale crimson next the sun when well exposed. Flesh yellow, parting freely from the stone, sweet, and luscious. Stone rather large, flattened, oval, pointed at each end. The tree grows vigorously to wood when young, and is then a shy bearer, but after it has commenced it bears very abundantly, either as a standard or against a wall. In training, the branches should have plenty of room, otherwise its broad foliage cannot be properly exposed to the light. Its first fruit was produced on a sucker from the original tree in 1818. This sucker was purchased from a market woman by Mr. Bolmar, of New York. 42. White Magnum Bonum—syn. Yellow Magnum Bonum, Egg Plum, White Holland, Wentworth, Dame Aubert, Dame Aubert Blanche, Dame Aubert Jaune, Grosse Luissante, Imperials Blanche.—Shoots vigorous, smooth. Leaves very large, broad, oval, acuminate, downy above. Floioers large, petals somew’hat obovate. Fruit very large, oval. Stalk about 1 inch in length. Skin yellow, covered with a thin whitish bloom. Flesh firm, adhering to the stone, pale yellow, juicy, crisp, but not rich. Stone elliptic, pointed at the ends. Pipe in September. This large handsome fruit is not adapted for the dessert, but it is excellent for sweetmeats and preserving. 43. White Perdrigon—syn. Perdrigon Blanc, Bri-gnole, Maitre Claude. —Shoots vigorous, downy. Leaves oval, acuminate, tapering to the stalk, downy, of a shining deep green. Flowers rather large; petals ovate, cream-coloured; anthers large, yellow. Fruit middle-sized, obovate. Stalk J inch in length, slender. Skin whitish yellow, strewed witll ferruginous specks next the sun, and everywhere sprinkled with a fine white bloom. Flesh pale yellowish white, transparent, parting from the stone, firm, juicy, and rich. Stone small, elliptic. Pipe in the end of August. This variety is oue of the sorts from which the famous Briguole prunes are prepared. It is also excellent for the purposes of the confectioner. 44. Wine Sour—syn. Potherliam.—Shoots slender. Leaves oval, downy above. Floioers middle-sized; petals obovate, concave. Fruit small, but larger than a damson, obovate. Stalk g inch in length. Skin purple. Flesh greenish yellow, partly adhering to the stone, near which it is tinged with red, and becomes so throughout when very ripe, juicy, and sub-acid. Stone long, elliptic, pointed. Pipe in the middle and end of September. The tree is a good bearer; and by some this is esteemed the best of all plums for preserving. Among Dessert Plums not comprised in the foregoing descriptions, the following are of great merit, both in respect to the quality of their fruit and productiveness:— Angelina Burdett, middle-sized, round, dark purple. Pipe early in September. De Montfoiit, closely resembling Poyale H&tive, but larger and rather later. Denniston’s Superb, above the middle-size, round, yellowish green. Pipe middle of August. July Green Gage, middle-sized, roundish, yellow, blotched with red. Pipe end of July. Transparent Gage, resembling the Green Gage in form, but larger; greenish yellow, marbled with red; skin and flesh transparent; very richly flavoured. Pipe beginning of September. The following are valuable Kitchen Plums:— Autumn Compote, very large, oval, bright red. Pipe end of September. Belle de Septembre, large, roundish oval, violet red. Pipe early in October. Diamond, very large, oval, dark purple, coarse-fleslied, but with a brisk acidity. Early Bivers, middle-sized, roundish oval, deep purple, juicy and sweet. (Ripe end of July. Valuable for its earliness and great productiveness. Pond’s Seedling, very large, oval, dark red. Pipe beginning of September. Selection of Twelve Varieties. *Coe’s Golden Drop. Denyer’s Victoria. *Early Orleans. *Green Gage. *Ickworth Imperatrice. *Kirke’s, Late Pivers. Perdrigon Violet Hatif. Peine Claude de Bavay. *Peine Claude Violette. *Poyale Hative. asterisk^*) deserve a *Jefferson. The varieties marked with an place on a wall. Propagation.—Some kinds of plums are propagated by seed, others occasionally by suckers; but the usual mode of propagating the cultivated varieties is by budding and grafting. Propaga-! tion by sowing the stones is employed for raising424 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. stocks for plums, peaches, nectarines, and apri-,cots. The Muscle, White Pear plum, and St. Julien, are the sorts chiefly employed for stocks. For standards the Muscle answers well. The stones should he sown, as soon as taken from the fruit, in a bed of rich sandy soil, placing them 1 inch apart, in drills 2 inches deep, and 9 I inches or 1 foot asunder. Some recommend the stones to be dried a little in the sun, packed in dry sand till November, and then sown. The French stratify the stones till spring, and then plant them out in rows. By either of these modes the seedlings will be fit for transplanting into nursery lines in autumn. In doing this the unripe extremities of the leading and side shoots should be cut off; the tap-root may also be shortened. Twelve months after this they ought to be cut down to two buds above the surface. In the following spring both buds will likely push, but only one should be allowed to grow for a ! standard stem, or for being budded high or low as may be desired. There are some kinds of plums which reproduce themselves more or less perfectly from the stone, and amongst these is the Green Gage; but whilst many of its offspring obtained in this way may nearly approach the parent as regards quality, yet great care should be taken that none be substituted for it in cultivation. If any one is but a shade inferior, and consequently might be considered an excellent fruit, still it ought not to be confounded with the original. Damsons are also frequently raised from the stone. The plum is also propagated for stocks by layers and suckers, but for this purpose plants raised from seed are better, as they are less subject to throw up suckers, and constitute more lasting trees. Budding and grafting are the modes usually adopted for propagating the varieties. Stronggrowing sorts intended for standards may be grafted or budded near the ground, and the shoot from the scion is reared for the stem. In the case of weaker-growing kinds, such as the Mira-belle, it is better to allow the stock to grow up, and bud or graft it standard high. Some prefer budded plants, others those which are grafted; but, if properly worked, good trees can be obtained by either mode. Nurserymen usually have less ground-work on hand at the budding than at the grafting season, and therefore find it convenient to propagate at the former period. Besides, if buds should not take, the stocks can be grafted in the following spring. In order that the graft may form a sound union, attention to a few particulars is necessary. The scions should be taken off early in the season, say in January, or at least before the buds begin to push. At the same time the stock should be headed down near to the place where the scion should be put on. If either the scion or the stock, or both, are too far advanced when they are cut, success is rendered uncertain. Even if the graft should take, gum or canker is apt to ensue. The grafts of plums are more apt to fail than those of apples and pears; yet, when the stocks are early headed down and the scions taken off in good time, as directed, the grafts will generally succeed. We have known every one of the scions that were taken off in December succeed, whilst those taken off when the buds were expanding all died. In case of dry weather, it is a good plan to earth up the grafts above the clay, where, as in the case of dwarfs worked near the ground, this can be done. In budding, great care must be taken that wood and not blossom buds are inserted; and in grafting, it is necessary to see that there are wood buds on the scion. Occasionally it may be desirable to propagate a particular variety, the shoots of which have scarcely any wood buds, except their terminal ones; and when such shoots must be employed for scions, the buds at the extremities should not be cut away; they must form the terminal bud of the scion. j Soil and Situation.—The plum will grow freely in any good loamy soil, neither too dry, nor having a wet subsoil. In strong soils the trees make vigorous shoots when the ground begins to get warm after midsummer, but the fruit is not j so well-flavoured as in fresh light soil. The roots extend nearer the surface than those of the apple and pear, and therefore they do not natur-j ally require the soil to be so deep. Vicissitudes of moisture and dryness are very prejudicial to stone fruits, frequently causing them to gum; the cause of this should be avoided; therefore, the ground ought to be trenched rather deeply; for the amount of moisture in a deeply loosened soil is far more uniform than in shallow, untrenched ground. The subsoil, of course, should be well drained. With sufficient moisture the tree will bear a southern exposure, which of course is the best for giving flavour to the fruit. Planting.—The ground having been prepared, as already directed for the apple and pear, the distance between the trees requires, in the next place, to be determined. In the open ground, for standards, half-standards, and dwarfs, this may be from 20 to 25 feet between the rows, and about 20 feet apart in the rows; or, if planted in the quincunx manner, which is the best, the distance between the rows being 24 feet, that of the trees in the row will be 20 feet inches, veryTHE PLUM. 425 nearly. If the rows are 20 feet apart, the trees in the row, when planted in quincunx, will be 17 feet 3tV inches; in this way the trees will be in line in all directions, which is an advantage in cropping the ground. If espaliers are afforded for plums in a quarter, they may range about 12 feet apart from row to row if the extent of ground is limited, but if not, 15 feet should be allowed; in either case the distance between the trees in the row ought not to be less than 15 feet. Against walls the distance may be from 15 to 20 feet, according to the richness of the soil. The manner of planting the tree is similar to that recommended for the apple and pear. Mulching, in case of dry weather, is advantageous to recently transplanted trees in general, and should be particularly attended to in the case of the plum; for, if the root fail to supply enough of sap to the tree in dry weather, gumming is apt to ensue; the more uniform the supply of sap, the more healthy will be the tree, and the less will be the danger of gumming taking place. The supply of sap cannot be uniform unless the moistui’e of the soil about the roots is steadily maintained; and the best means of doing this is by mulching. Pruning and Training.—For standard trees, where under-cropping is intended, the height of the stem should not be less than 6 feet. Therefore, a stem should be reared above that height on the same principles as recommended in the case of the apple and pear, and it should be cut back in autumn to three buds above 6 feet. In the following summer three shoots from these buds should be allowed to grow at full length, except when it may be necessary to check one that may be too strong for the others. Depressing early the strongest and elevating the weakest may have the effect of maintaining the equilibrium; if not, the points of the strongest must be pinched, but not till they have extended more thau 1 foot. Towards September the three shoots should be so disposed as to have an equal divergence. Cut them back, each to about 1 foot in length; and, from each of the three so cut back, encourage two shoots in the following season, during which maintain an equality among all the six shoots thus originated for forming the six principal limbs of the tree. After this, it will only be necessary to check all over-luxuriant I shoots, and to keep the head of the tree clear of branches that cross and would rub against others. If the shoots generally are seen to be growing very luxuriantly, it would be well to pinch their tops about midsummer; otherwise wheu very long shoots are allowed to be made, nearly their whole extent is apt to be naked in the course of a year or two. For trees against walls, unless the latter are very low, the fan mode is the best; for, being a stone fruit, the branches of the plum are more apt to die off than those of the apple and pear, and, that being the case, fan-training admits of vacancies being filled up by a redistribution of the branches. When the plum is planted in a rich border it grows very vigorously, as soon as its twts gfet well established. It therefore requires to be particularly watched. If any weak shoots have been previously formed, they are of little use— they cannot be depended on for constituting any of the principal branches of the tree, for they have little power of drawing sap Compared with the young vigorous shoots which the tree subsequently emits. With these the two or three small, weakly, old branches have no chance; the latter indeed would gradually acquire strength if the former were cut1 out, but doing so would be likely to occasion gumming; and, if the plan were adopted, the tree would be long in covering the wall. It is therefore better to dispense with the weak shoots which cause disparity, and select shoots of good vigour for the origin of the principal branches. These should be laid off as directed in the chapter on training. The shoots of the plum do not require to be shortened at the winter pruning if their extremities are well ripened, except where branches are required. Numerous shoots will push, more especially from the upper sides of the branches. These shoots must be pinched below the sixth leaf, when they have made as many. They should be shortened at the winter pruning, and, on the portions left, fruit-buds will form or shoots push. In the latter case pinching must be resorted to as before. When spurs grow too far from the wall they must be cut back; but those on the lower branches should be allowed to extend a little more than those on the upper side, in order that as much, or rather more, foliage may be in connection with the lower branches as there is on the \qjper; for, otherwise, most of the sap would be drawn to the latter, and the lower branches would ultimately perish. In proportion to the equal distribution of the sap, so will be the health, duration, and fruitfulness of the tree; and the sap cm only be equally distributed by each branch being furnished with an equal amount of foliage. From not employing means to insure this as much as possible, many plum-trees on walls have been ruined. Where any shoots give indications of excessive vigour, they should be early kej)t in check. The young summer shoots in the upper426 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. part of the tree should receive their summer priming before those in the lower part. It is frequently the case, that shoots in the central part of fan-trained plum-trees are inclined to become excessively vigorous. As they cannot well be much inclined from their upright position without crowding those on the sides, their vigour may be considerably repressed by pinching, or cutting out nicely with a sharp penknife the growing point. This will cause some delay in the progress of the shoot, and consequently in the production of leaves; those already formed will, however, become larger than if the above operation had not been performed. Therefore, in addition to other means tending to diminish excess of vigour, some of the leaves should be clipped across the middle with sharp scissors. Every third leaf may be safely clipped in this maimer; if that is not likely to prove effectual, every alternate leaf may be so treated; and, in obstinate cases, we have seen every leaf on a shoot clipped half away with no injurious results, but, on the contrary, with the most beneficial effects, inasmuch as wood of only the requisite thickness was obtained, instead of a shoot too thick to be retained in that part of the tree, and which would consequently have to be cut away at the winter pruning. Thus, a considerable waste of vegetation is avoided, as well as the probability of inducing disease; for gumming frequently takes place when very strong shoots are cut off. Where the horizontal mode of training is adopted, whether on walls or espaliers, the first course should be 1 foot from the ground, and the others 9 inches apart. Care, however, must be taken to originate the branches 4 or 5 inches below the horizontal line along which they are intended to be trained. If this be done, the branches will not be so liable to die off as if they were taken at right angles from the upright stem, which in training stone-fruits should never be the case. Other Culture.—The roots of the plum-tree run near the surface, and on this account the ground must either be dug every year or not at all. Trees have been known to thrive very well where the ground was regularly dug for vegetable crops; but on its being left undug for two years, the roots made great progress towards the surface, and on again digging the soil for cropping, the trees suffered much from a vast number of young roots which had been formed at less than a spade’s depth from the surface, having been cut in the operation. Suckers are very apt to spring from the roots of the plum, and frequently a long way from the stem. They should therefore in this case be laid bare, and the suckers taken closely off. Suckers are more apt to push from trees that have sickly foliage or diseased stems than from such as are in all respects healthy. The under side of the foliage is sometimes entirely covered with aphides, and when this is the case of course the tree cannot long remain healthy, however well it may be circumstanced in other respects. Every possible means should therefore be adopted to keep the foliage clean; and at the same time, in order that it may be naturally healthy, the roots must be duly supplied with moisture. Gathering and Preserving the Fruit.—Plums should be allowed to remain on the tree as long as possible. Choice fruit ought to be gathered by the stalk without disturbing the bloom, especially if the fruit is of a variety intended to be kept for some time; for the bloom is doubtless a provision of nature for its protection from atmospheric influences and moisture. Such kinds as Coe’s Golden Drop and Ickworth Iinperatrice may be kept for months fit for dessert if gathered in dry weather, wrapped in paper, and laid in a dry airy place. Prunes are prepared in large quantities for exportation, especially in the south of France. Doubtless plums ripened in a dry warm climate are better adapted for this process than those grown in this country; nevertheless, in favourable and abundant seasons good prunes could certainly be made in this country if the mode of doing so were properly understood. To induce the attempt being made, we give the following abstract from the Arboretum Britannicum as to the best mode of preparing prunes. The plums, gathered when ready to drop from the tree, are laid separately on frames or sieves made of wickerwork or laths, and exposed for sevei'al days to the sun till they become as soft as ripe medlars. When this is the case, they are put into a spent oven, shut up quite close, and left there for twenty-four hours; they are then taken out, and the oven having been slightly re-heated, are again put in when it is slightly warmer than it was before. The next day they are again taken out and turned by slightly shaking the sieves. The oven is heated again, they are put in a third time, the oven being considerably hotter than it was the second time. After remaining twenty-four hours, they are taken out and left till they get quite cold. They are then rounded, an operation which is performed by turning the stone without breaking the skin, and pressing the two ends together between the thumb and finger. They are next put upon the sieves, which are then placed in an oven fromTHE CHEERY. 427 which the bread has just been drawn, and the door having been closed, the crevices are cemented round with clay. An hour afterwards, the plums are taken out and the oven is shut up, with a cup of water in it, for about two hours. When the water is so warm as just to bear the finger in it, the prunes are again placed in the oven and left there for twenty-four hours, when the operation is finished, and they are put loosely into small, long, and rather deep boxes for sale. Diseases and Insects.—The plum-tree, when managed properly, is seldom attacked by any disease except the gum, and by that rarely to an injurious extent. Tortrix T Vceheriana, a small brown moth, sometimes lays its eggs on the bai'k, and the caterpillars when hatched penetrate into and feed upon the inner bark. Through the aperture thus formed the sap escapes, and gum not unfre-quently follows. Two generations of moths are produced in the same season, one about the beginning of June, the other in August or September. The presence of the larva is generally indicated by small heaps of red dust on the bark of the trees attacked. Introducing a wire into the hole made in the bark, and painting the steans with lime at the periods when the eggs are deposited, have been recommended for the destruction of the insect. The plum saw-fly {Tenthredo morio) appears when the trees are in blossom, and deposits its egg in the calyx. The larva, as soon as it is hatched, penetrates into the young fruit and feeds upon the interior until the plum falls prematurely. It then buries itself in the earth, and re-appears in spring as a moth. All that can be done appears to be to collect and destroy the fruit attacked, with the view of preventing further attacks. The copper-coloured weevil (Curculio cupreus) occasionally does considerable damage to the crop on the Continent by cuttiug through the stalk of the young fruit after it has deposited its egg within the plum. Collecting and destroying the fallen fruit appears to be the only practicable mode of preventing a repetition of the mischief. The red grub of the plum (Tortrix nigricand) proves injurious by penetrating into and feeding upon the fleshy portion of the fruit, which when thus attacked generally ripens prematurely and falls from the tree. When full grown, the grub creeps out, and selecting a crevice in the bark, spins itself a cocoon, in which it remains during the winter, changing in spring into a pupa, from which the perfect insect emerges in the end of May or beginning of June, and soon afterwards begins to deposit its eggs upon the fruit. Collect- ing and destroying the prematurely ripe plums which have fallen, and searching for the cochons, are the only remedies.. Aphides, red-spider, and thrips also attack the tree. THE CHERRY (Cefasus, J.—IcofCuidria Mo-nogynia, L.; Rosaceae, J.; Drupacete, Lind}?— The cultivated varieties of the cherry, are referred by some botanists, including De Candolle, to four species of the genus Cerasus, namely, C. Avium, C. duracina, C. Juliana, and C. Caproniana, the former a native of England, the others natives of the south of Europe, or introduced into it from Asia Minor. To which of these species the numerous varieties respectively belong has never, however, beeu satisfactorily determined; but, for all practical purposes, tbej1' may be considered auS variations of but one type, and it is not unlikely that this is actually the case. The fruit of the cherry being produced at an earlier period of the season than that of any other fruit-tree planted in the open ground, that circumstance, as well as the cool refreshing nature of its juice, renders it a universal favourite. The sweet kinds are highly valued for the dessert, where also their bright colour and glossy pkiu have a very ornamental effect. The acid or subacid varieties are much used for pies, tarts, and in confectionery. The Morello is excellent for bottling, or preserving in brandy; and from a small black variety, especially in the district of the Upper Rhine, the Germans make the well-known Mrschwasser. Griotte de Ratafia, a small sort of Morello, is employed for making the cordial ratafia; and a small, black, wild cherry is used in the distillation of the Italian liqueur maraschino. It may, however, be well to remark, that in the fabrication of the above liquors, the stones and kernels are pounded and distilled, or fermented with the pulp; and, as the kernels contain more or less of the prussic acid principle —that is to say, prussic acid, although in a diluted form—due caution should be exercised both in their fabrication and use. The Kentish, Flemish, and Montmorency varieties have the stalk so strongly attached to the stone, that the latter may be drawn out by it, so that the fruit may then be dried like raisins, in the sun, or in an oven. By the French, the varieties of the cherry are divided into three principal divisions, namely, 1st. Merisiers and Guignicrs; 2d. Bigarr&mtiers; 3d. Cerisiers and Griottiers. The Merisiers are the wild cherries of the woods; the tree is tall and pyramidal, the branches horizontal, the fruit red, black, or white, with some degree of bitterness. The Guigniers are considered to be improved varieties of the preceding,428 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. the fruit being larger, heart-shaped, and having a soft, very sweet ilesh. The Bigarreautiers do not naturally assume a pyramidal form, and the extremities of the shoots are rather inclined to become pendulous, whilst the fruit differs from that of the Guignier in the flesh being crisp and firm. This division includes the Bigarreaux, and many of the Heart cherries. The Cerisiers are not so strong-growing as the preceding, and the fruit is more or less acid, the pulp being tender and juicy. The Griottiers are scarcely distinguishable from the Cerisiers, except by a bitterness which is combined with the acidity of the fruit. The May Duke, Kentish, and Flemish cherries belong to the Cerisiers; the Morello to the Griottiers. The distinctions in the above mode of classi- | fication not being so well marked as to render its general adoption desirable, we proposed (Horticultural Transactions, 2d series, vol. i. p. 251) the following as a substitute:— “The first class consists of cherries, of which the Bigarreau and Black Heart may be instanced as typical of the better kinds. The leaves are generally large, pendent, waved on the margin, with sharp prominent veins beneath, coarsely serrated, of thinner texture and of a more yellowish green than those of the following class; buds pointed; flowers large, proceeding from wood of not less than two years old; petals loosely set, not forming a well-expanded cupshaped flower, like those of the May Duke, Kentish, &c.; stamens slender, and irregular in length, some being longer and others shorter than the style. “ The second class is composed of aqueous cherries, such as the May Duke, Kentish, and Morello. The leaves are generally smaller than those of the preceding class, and have their margins plane, with the veins beneath as they approach the margin almost buried in the parenchyma, which is thicker than in the other class. The petioles support the leaves erect, or at least from hanging loosely and pendent; the latter are deep green. The flowers expand widely, and the petals hang not loosely, but form a regular cupshaped flower, with strong stamens, generally shorter than the style. “The subdivisions of the first class are taken from the form and colour of the fruit, and require no further explanation. “In the second class, as all the varieties are coloured nearly alike, no white, nor white and red fruit having yet been met with among them, the form of the fruit, the sweetness or acidity of its flesh, and the colour of the juice, constitute the distinctions of the sections.” Class I.—Leaves Waved on the Margin. Division 1 .-^Fruit heart-shaped or oval. A, Colour uniform, dark red or black. B, Colour pale yellow and red. C, Colour uniform, pale yellow. Division 2.—Fruit round or oblate. A, Colour uniform, dark red or black. B, Colour pale yellow and red. C, Colour uniform, pale yellow. Class II.—Leaves with the Margin Plane. Division 1.—Fruit roundish heart-shaped. A, Flesh sweet. a, Juice pale. b, Juice purple. B, Flesh acid. a, Juice pale. b, Juice purple. Division 2.—Fruit round or oblate. A, Flesh sweet. a, Juice pale. b, Juice purple. B, Flesh acid. a, Juice pale. b, Juice purple. The most esteemed varieties of the cherry are included in the following descriptions, which, it is presumed, will be sufficient to render their identification easy, and make their qualities better known. 1. Black Heart—syn. Spanish Black Heart, Ansell’s Fine Black, Early Black, Guignier a Fruit Xoir, Grosse Guigne Noire, Scliwarze Herzkirsche, Schwarze Tauben Herzkirsche, Black Caroon of some.—Branches spreading. Leaves large, oblong, waved, coarsely serrated. Floicers middle-sized. Petals roundish,, imbricated. Fruit tolerably large, blunt, heart-shaped, somewhat compressed. Stalk from 11 to 2 inches in length. Skin nearly black. Flesh of a deep claret colour, half tender, that is, not so hard as in the generality of the Bigarreau tribe, nor so soft as in the Duke cherries; tolerably juicy and rich. Stone large, roundish ovate. 2. Bittner’s Black Heart—syn. Biittner’s Schwarze Herzkirsche, Buttner’s Neue Schwarze Herzkirsche.— A good bearer, and having so much resemblance to the Black Heart, that it is scarcely distinguishable from that sort. It has, however, a more vigorous constitution, and therefore should be planted in orchards in preference to the Black Heart. 3. Kuonberg Black Heart.—This, according to the German pomologists, was raised from seed at Kronberg, in Saxony. It very much resembles the Black Heart; but whilst the fruit is of the same size, the stone is smaller, consequently there is more flesh. The tree being a good bearer, the sort deserves a place in the orchard. 4. Tradescant’s Black Heart—syn. Tradescant’s Cherry, Elk-horn, Elk-horn of Maryland, Bigarreau Gros Noir, Guigne Noire Tardive, Grosse Schwarze Knorpel Kirsche mit siiftigen Fleiscli.-—This is an old variety, said to have been raised by John Tradescant, I gardener to Charles I. It differs from the Black HeartTHE CHEERY. 42i> in having leaves not so deeply serrated, petioles shorter, and flowers smaller. The fruit is about the same size, blackish, with minute stripes of dark red interspersed. Flesh firm, with a similar flavour to that of the Black Heart, and ripening about a week later. The tree is rather a shy bearer. 5. Werder’s Early Black Heart—syn. Werdersche Friihe Schwarze Herzkirsche. — Branches spreading. Leaves oblong, coarsely serrated. Petioles of medium length and thickness. Flowers rather large, opening early. Petals obovate. Fruit large, obtusely heart-shaped. Stalk about l.J inch in length. Skin black. Flesh purplish red, firm, juicy, and sweet. Stone middle-sized, roundish ovate. The fruit ripens considerably earlier than the May Duke, and nearly as early as the Early Purple Guigne, from which it may be distinguished by its shorter petioles. The tree is a tolerably good bearer; and, on the whole, it deserves cultivation where room can be spared, in order to furnish a supply before the May Duke comes in. 6. Early Purple Guigne—syn. Early Purple Griotte, erroneously.—Leaves oblong, pendulous, coarsely serrated, with long, somewhat slender hairs. Petioles furnished with two or more large, reniform glands. Flowers early. Petals oblong oval. Fruit above the middle size, heart-shaped. Stalk long. Skin of a shining dark purple. Flesh purplish, juicy, tender, and rich. Stone middle-sized, roundish ovate. The tree is of moderately strong growth, and a medium bearer. The principal merit of this variety is its earliness. It ripens, in the south of England, on an east or west wall, in the beginning of June, or about a fortnight earlier than the May Duke; and that being the case, a tree of it will prove useful for an early supply. 7. Knight’s Early Black. —This excellent sort was raised by Mr. Knight, about the year 1810, from a seed of the Bigarreau fertilized with the pollen of the May Duke. The tree is very similar in growth and foliage to the Black Tartarian. Fruit large, obtusely heart-shaped, with a shining, black, but somewhat uneven surface. Flesh deep purple, firm, juicy, and rich. Stone small compared to the size of the fruit, and nearly round. The fruit differs from that of the Black Tartarian in being more blunt at the apex, and having a shorter stalk. It is also earlier. It has ripened on a south wall about the middle of June, even before the May Duke. The tree is a good bearer either as a standard or against a wall, on which it well deserves a place. 8. Adam’s Crown.—Shoots vigorous. Leaves large, oblong, coarsely and irregularly serrated. Floicers j early, large. Petals roundish. Fruit middle-sized, ; obtusely heart-shaped. Stalk long. Skin pale red, mottled with darker red. Flesh white, soft for one of this class, juicy, rich, and sweet. It ripens on a standard in the first or second week of July, or in the last week of June upon a wall. Ripening as soon as the May Duke, it affords a contrast of colour with that sort. The tree is a good bearer. 9. Bigarreau—syn. Bigarreau Gros, Bigarreau de Hollande, Graffion, Harrison’s Heart, Italian Heart, Turkey Bigarreau, "West’s White Heart. —Shoots yellowish brown. Leaves large, oblong, somewhat waved, sharply but not so deeply serrated as some of this class. Petioles about inch in length. Flowers middle-sized. Petals oval. Fruit large, roundish heart-shaped, slightly flattened on the side and at the apex. Skin of a clear waxy white on the shaded side, bright red mottled with amber next the sun. Flesh firm, pale yellow or nearly white, sweet, and rich. Stone small for a fruit so large, roundish ovate. It ripens in the end of July and beginning or middle of August, according to the season and situation. The tree is vigorous, an abundant bearer, and succeeds well as a standard in the south of England; but, in the northern parts of the kingdom, it requires a wall. 10. Bigarreau Napoleon—syn. Bigarreau Lauer-man, Bigarreau Wellington, Lauerman’s Kirsclie, Lauer-man’s Grosse Kirsclie, Lauerman’s Herzkirsche, Napoleon’s Herzkirsche.—The tree very much resembles the Bigarreau as regards wood, leaves, and flowers. The fruit is about the same size, the flesh equally firm, and the flavour similar; but it is rather longer in shape, darker in colour, and ripens somewhat later. The Bigarreau, however, has on the whole the finer appearance. The tree is a most abundant bearer, and is well deserving of cultivation either as a standard or upon a wall. According to the Baron Truehsess, who wrote a work on cherries, this sort was obtained from the vicinity of Hanover, by himself and other pomologists, in 1791, under the name of the Grosse Lauerman’s-Kirsclie; and he states that, in 1804, it existed in the collection of the Luxembourg at Paris, under the designation of Le Gros Bigarreau de Lauerman. Since 1829, however, it has been better known as the Bigarreau Napoleon. 11. Bowyer’s Early Heart.—Leaves oblong, tapering to the point. Flowers large, opening very early. Fruit small or middle-sized, obtusely heart-shaped. Stalk long, bright green. Skin pale amber, mottled •with red. Flesh white, tender, juicy, very sweet and rich. It ripens on a standard in the end of June or first week of July. The tree is an abundant bearer; and although the fruit is not large, a tree of the variety may be planted in an orchard on account of its hardiness. 12. Downton.—Branches strong, spreading. Leaves rather large, oblong, acuminate, slightly waved. Petioles about lh inch in length. Flowers large. Petals obovate, imbricated. Fruit above the middle size, scarcely so large as that of the Elton, and less pointed, being of a roundish heart-shape. Stalk about 2 inches in length, rather slender. Skin pale yellow where shaded, tinged and mottled with red next the sun. Flesh pale yellowish white, tender, juicy, and very rich. Stone middle-sized, roundish ovate. It ripens soon after the May Duke, and before the Elton. It therefore deserves a wall; but it bears abundantly as a standard. This and the Elton are so much superior to the old Red and White Hearts, that these are no longer necessary to be cultivated, and therefore need not be described. The variety was raised by Mr. Knight, but its parentage is uncertain. It is said to have sprung from a seed of either the Waterloo or Elton. 13. Elton.—This very excellent variety was raised by Mr. Knight, in 1806, from a seed of the Graffion or A nibree cherry, probably the Bigarreau fertilized with the pollen of the White Heart. Being possessed of much merit, it deserves the particular description given in the Transactions of the Horticultural Society, 2d series, vol. i. p. 2G6:—430 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. “Tree very strong and spreading; branches dark brown; shoots speckled with a silvery epidermis, on a ground of chestnut brown. Leaves very large, even exceeding those of the Bigarreau, to which, otherwise, they have a close resemblance. Petioles about 2 inches long, with large reniform glands near the base of the leaf. Flowers large, opening about the second or third week in April. Petals oval, waved, imbricated. Stamens slender. Fruit large, heart-shaped, less obtuse than that of the Bigarreau, than which it has a longer and 1 more slender stalk, being sometimes 2r, inches, but generally 2.} inches in length. Skin of a very pale waxy yellow on the shaded side, mottled and dashed with red next the sun. Flesh whitish, rather firm, but not so much so as that of the Bigarreau, sugary, and very rich. Stone middle-sized, ovate.” Bipens in the beginning, middle, or end of July, according to climate and situation. It is a good bearer, and highly deserving of cultivation either as a standard or against a wall. It is esteemed by many the very best cherry that can be grown. 14. Florence.—Tree vigorous in habit, resembling the Bigarreau. Leaves large, oblong, tapering, somewhat cordate at the base. Petioles short, little more than 1 inch in length, with reniform glands close to the base of the leaf, and occasionally upon it. Flowers large. Petals obovate. Fruit very large, obtusely heart-shaped. Skin on the shaded side pale amber, mottled with red next the sun. Flesh firm, but less so than that of the Bigarreau, juicy, rich, and sweet. It ripens so as to form a succession to the Bigarreau, but requires a wall, except in warm parts of the kingdom; one with a west or south-west aspect will suit it. The variety was brought from Florence. 15. Buttner’s Yellow—syn. Biittner’s Gelbe Knor-pel-Kirsclie, BiUtner’s Wadis Knorpel-Kirsclie.—Leaves small, oblong. F'loiccrs early, middle-sized. Fruit middle-sized, roundish heart-shaped. Stalk about 1 i inch in length. Skin of a uniform clear yellowish colour, without the least tinge of red. Flesh yellowish, firm, juicy, and sweet. Stone middle-sized, roundish ovate. It ripens in the middle or end of July. The tree is an abundant bearer. The fruit is not apt to be attacked by birds; and such has also been observed in the case of other cherries that never acquire any tinge of red. A tree of this sort may be planted as a standard in the orchard for the sake of variety. The variety was raised by Biittner of Halle, and produced fruit for the first time about 1803. 10. Black Eagle.—This variety was raised at Down-ton Castle, about 1800, by Miss Elizabeth Knight, from a seed of an amber-coloured Bigarreau, fertilized with the pollen of the May Duke. The tree forms a roundish spreading head. Leaves pendulous, with a somewhat wavy margin, so far resembling those of the tribe to which the female parent belongs, whilst they also partake of the thick fleshy nature of the leaves of the other parent, the May Duke. Flowers middle-sized; stamens shorter than the style. Fruit middle-sized, roundish heart-shaped, blunt or somewhat depressed at the top, black when well exposed and fully ripe. Flesh tender, with a rich, dark purplish juice. Stone small, round. It ripens soon after the Fay Duke; and, on account of its good quality and abundant bearing, it deserves cultivation as an orchard tree. 17. Late Duke—syn. Auglaise Tardive.—Tree vigor- ous, with a spreading habit of growth, very different from the erect form of the May Duke. Young shoots yellowish where shaded, yellowish brown where exposed. Leaves larger than those of the May Duke, of thinner texture, and of a paler green beneath. Flowers middle-sized. Petals roundish oval. Fruit large, roundish heart-shaped. Stalk from 1 h to 2 inches in length. Skin bright, shining red. Flesh amber-coloured, tender, juicy, and rich, but with more acidity than that of the May Duke, especially if not allowed to hang for a considerable time after it might be supposed, from its colour and softness, to be ripe. It ripens in August, a period of the season when most tender-fleshed cherries are over. The tree is a most abundant bearer as a standard, and deserves a place upon a wall, where it can be netted up. 18. Buttnkr’s October Morello — syn. Buttner’s September and October Weiclisel, Biittner’s October Zueker Weiclisel.—Fruit middle-sized, roundish or oblate. Stalk slender, about 2 inches in length. Skin dark brownish red. Flesh pale red, tender, with an abundance of acid juice. It ripens in October. The tree is hardy, and a good bearer. It is deserving of cultivation as the latest known cherry which may be used for pies and for preserving. 19. Morello—syn. Black Morello, Dutch Morello, Late Morello, Konalds’ Large Morello, Small Morello, Cerise du Nord, Griotte Ordinaire du Xord, Milan, September Weiclisel Grosse.—The tree forms a round head, with slender, spreading, or pendulous branches. The two-year-old wood is of a blackish chestnut colour. Young shoots yellowish brown. Buds roundish. Leaves small, acuminate, broadest about two-thirds from the base, slightly serrated; upper surface dark green, smooth, soft, but opaque. Petioles short, from 1 inch to | inch in length, supporting the leaves without bending. Flowers large. Petals broadly obovate. Stamens strong, some of them as long as the style. Fruit large, obtusely heart-shaped, somewhat compressed on the sides, and slightly depressed on the apex. Stalk about 2 inches in j length. Skin dark red, becoming nearly black when allowed to hang long on the tree. Flesh deep purplish red, tender, very juicy, and acid. Stone large, oval, slightly pointed. It ripeus in the end of July or in August, but may be preserved on a tree against a wall till October. It is one of the most useful sorts for pieserving, and also one of the few that will bear well upon a north wall. 20. Carnation Cherry—syn. Crown Cherry, English I Bearer of some. Cerise de Portugal, Grosse Cerise Kouge Pale, Cerise d'Orange, Cerise Bouge de Bruxelles, Griotte Bouge Pale, Griotte de Villenes, Hollandisclie Kirselie, Oranien Kirsclie, Botlie Orauien Kirsclie, Altendorfer Kirsclie, Herteguine Kirsclie.—Leaves late in expanding, moderately large, oblong, tapering to the point, remarkably ragged, and coarsely serrated. Petioles strong, about 1 inch in length. Flowers opening late; stamens shorter than the style. Fruit large, round or oblate. Stalk 1.’, inch in length. Skin bright ' red when well exposed, amber-coloured when shaded. Flesh of a pale amber colour, tender, juicy, and rich. Stone middle-sized, round. Bipe in the end of July. It is a good cherry, but cannot be highly recommended owing to the tree being rather a shy bearer. The variety has long been cultivated in the gardens of this and other countries.THE CHERRY. 431 21. Belle de Choisy —syn. Ambree de Choisy, Cerise Doucette, Cerise de la Palembre, Griottier de ralembre, Schbne von Choisy.—Tree vigorous, spreading. Leaves large, coarsely serrated, of a shining deep green. Petioles short, scarcely 1 inch in length. Flowers large; petals roundish; stamens shorter than the style. Fruit large, roundish, somewhat oblate. Stalk about In inch in length, but generally forking at about A inch from its base, and bearing on them footstalks which are about 1 inch in length from the fork. Skin red, intermixed with amber colour. Flesh amber-coloured, tender, very rich and sweet. Stone middle-sized, round. Ripe in the beginning or middle of July. An excellent cherry as regards quality, but not so good a bearer as the May Duke and various others of this class. This variety is said to have been found at Choisy, near Paris, about 1700. 22. May Duke—syn. Early May Duke, Large May Duke, Early Duke, Buchanan's Early Duke, Benliam’s Fine Early Duke, Morris’ Duke, Morris’ Fine Early Duke, Thompson’s Duke, Portugal Duke, Millet’s Late Heart Duke, Coularde, Cerise d’Espagne, Griotte Grosse Noire, De Hollande, De Hollande a Larges Feuilles, ; Royale Hative; Griotte d’Espagne, Griotte Precoce, and i Anglaise of some.—The trees are readily distinguished I by their erect growth. Leaves large for this class, ovate, acuminate on the young shoots; those proceeding from spurs broadest about two-tliirds from the base, abruptly acuminate, of thick substance, and of a shining deep green. Petioles strong, on the young shoots about 1 inch in length. Flowers middle-sized; petals roundish or roundish oval, concave, imbricated; stamens strong, shorter than the style. Fruit large, roundish. Stalk long and slender. Skin dark red when well exposed, fully ripened, and proceeding from perfectly matured buds; but when the blossoms from such buds are killed, and the fruit results from later and weaker blossoms, it remains of a red colour. Flesh, when produced in perfection, red, tender, juicy, and rich. Ripe on standards in the beginning, middle, or towards the end of July, according to season and situation; on walls in the end of June or beginning of July. It is a good bearer, hardier than the Bigarreau tribe, and well adapted for forcing. 23. Royal Duke—syn. Royale Tardive; Anglaise, Anglaise Tardive of some French authorities.—This is most probably one of the varieties which were formerly cultivated in this country under the names of Late Duke, Archduke, or Late Archduke. They appear, however, to have been all but lost, for under these names the May Duke was generally the sort obtained. The variety under consideration was introduced from France, under the name of Anglaise Tardive, by the Horticultural Society of London; and a description of it is given in their Transactions, 2d series, vol. i. p. 283, from which the following extract will tend to identify the sort, and prevent its being confused with others, or lost:— “Tree, in regard to its upright growth, very similar to the May Duke; the leaves and flowers are also very like those of the latter; the glands on the leaf-stalks are somewhat larger and more decidedly reniform. Fruit large and very handsome, oblate, which form will readily distinguish it from the May Duke. Stalks moderately thick, about 1 \ inch in length, separating from a common peduncle which is elongated from about i to A inch, having frequently a leaflet produced on it. Skin deep shining red, becoming dark, but not so black as the May Duke, when fully ripe. Flesh reddish, tender, juicy, and very rich. Stone middle-sized, roundish oval.” It ripens about the middle or towards the end of July, after the season of the May Duke and before that of the Late Duke. 24. Kentish—syn. Kentish Red, Common Red, Early Richmond, Pie Cherry, Sussex, Virginian May, Flemish of many, Kentish Drier of some, Cerise de Montmorency, Montmorency a Longue Queue, Muscat de Prague, Commune a Trocliet of some.—Shoots slender, drooping. Leaves small, oval, acuminate, slightly serrated, of a deep shining green. Petioles short, purplish red, with two or more yellowish globose glands. Flowers rather large; petals roundish, concave; stamens shorter than the style. Fruit middle-sized, round or oblate. Stalk varying in length from less than 1 inch to 1A inch. Skin bright red, but sometimes acquiring a darker colour. Flesh pale, very juicy, and acid. Stone middle-sized, roundish. Ripe about the end of July. The tree is an abundant bearer, and much cultivated as a standard, and sometimes upon a north wall. The stone can be withdrawn along with the stalk from the fruit, leaving the latter whole so that it can be dried. 25. Flemish—syn. Kentish of some, Cerise de Kent, Cerise a Courte Queue, Cerise a Courte Queue de Provence, Gros Gobet, Gobet a Courte Queue, Montmorency a Courte Queue, Montmorency a Gros Fruit, Englisclie Weichsel, Yellow Ramonde Weicliselbaum mit Ivurzen Stiel, Double Volgers of the Dutch.—The tree grows more upright than that of the Kentish, but does not bear so abundantly; though, owing to this, the fruit is sometimes larger; it has a shorter stalk, but in other respects the fruits are similar. As the Kentish answers every purpose for which this is adapted, and is more prolific, it is the more extensively cultivated of the two. The following varieties are also highly deserving of cultivation, viz.:— Belle d’Orleans, yellowish white in the shade, bright red on the sunny side; ripe middle of June. Black Tartarian, also frequently called Black Circassian, large, obtusely heart-shaped, deep black, of fine appearance; a valuable early sort, especially for culture on a south wall. Governor "Wood, large, heart-shaped, pale yellow, mottled with red, very sweet; ripe early in July. Monstrous Heart, very large, deep red; ripe towards the end of July. Rhine Hortense, very large, bright red; ripe in the middle of July. Selection of Ten Sorts for Bigarreau Napoleon. Black Eagle. Biittner’s Black Heart. Elton. Kentish. Selection of Sorts Early Purple Guigne. Knight’s Early Black. May Duke. iltivation as Standards. Knight’s Early Black. Late Duke. May Duke. Morello. Royal Duke. * a South Wall. Royal Duke. Elton. Black Tartarian.432 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Sorts for a North Wall. Kentish, Late Duke, and Morello. Selection of Sorts for a Cottage Garden. Elton. May Duke. Late Duke. Morello. Propagation.—For stocks and for obtaining new varieties the cherry is raised from the stones. Those of the small black or red cherries are the kinds usually sown for stocks. For trees intended to be planted against a wall or espalier* stocks raised from the stones of the Duke cherries and those of the Morello have been recommended. For very dwarf trees Cerasus Mahaleb has long been employed in France, and to some extent in this country, for being grafted or budded with the May Duke, Kentish, Morello, and analogous sorts, but it is not adapted for large-leaved stronggrowing varieties like the Bigarreau. The stones may be stratified till early in spring, when those beginning to germinate should be planted in drills, and covered to the depth of l-g inch; or they may be sown at that depth in light sandy soil immediately after the fruit has been gathered. In two years the seedlings intended for stocks will be fit to plant out in nursery rows. Budding and Grafting.—Propagation by these means is performed in the same way as in the case of the plum. Scions for grafting must be taken off early, and if so, provided the operation is well performed, there is little danger of failure; but if they have not cut until the buds have considerably advanced, the grafts frequently do not resist the effects of dry weather. We have seen vigorous shoots with large pith cut off for scions and stuck in the ground in January; and though in March, when grafted, the pith was discoloured, being of a dark instead of a light colour, yet they all succeeded, whilst scions cut off and grafted fresh failed to a considerable extent, although treated with the same care in every other respect. Sometimes, in old trees of the May Duke class, every bud on the scions is a blossom-bud, with the exception of the terminal one; this should therefore be preserved, otherwise failure is certain. Soil and Situation.—The best soil for the cherry is a moderately rich, free, rather sandy loam, with a well-drained subsoil. Stiff moist soils are unsuitable; and so on the other hand are dry gravelly subsoils. The trees require a large amount of moisture, particularly the sorts with large leaves, such as the Bigarreau and Heart cherries. In free soils the roots can more easily travel after nmisture; but in clayey or stiffloamy soils, wheu this is exhausted, they are fixed as it were in a compact hard-baked mass, from which they can draw no moisture. In dry loose soil, on the contrary, there is considerable circulation of air, which, being charged with moisture at night, will afford a supply of that necessary element to the spongioles, not in abundance, it is true, but to a beneficial extent. A southern exposure is the best for the cherry; but the Morello and Kentish varieties will bear fruit useful for kitchen purposes on a wall with a north aspect. Others will do very well on an east or west aspect; but for early use it is desirable to have one or two trees of the May Duke on a southern aspect. Planting.—The soil must be well prepared and in good condition, but not freshly manured. It should be trenched between 2 and 3 feet deep, and if there is a stratum of loam below the surface soil, the latter ought to be trenched down to the bottom of the trench, and the loam brought to the top. The holes for the plants must be made large, and dug out nearly to the turned-downi surface soil; the tree should be planted not amongst the loam, but in tolerably rich free soil, and if the latter is mixed with turfy loam so much the better. The method of planting the tree is the same as in the case of the apple, pear, and plum. The distance should vary according to the size which the variety usually attains, and according to the breadth of its foliage; for if it have large leaves, it will evaporate much, and will require a larger space for its roots to travel in quest of moisture, to make good that evaporation which in dry weather will be more than the amount of rain which falls upon the surface overhung by the branches. As standards the Bigarreau tribe may be planted 30 feet apart, or even more in rich soil; the May Duke, Morello, and similar varieties, at 20 and 25 feet apart. Against walls and espaliers from 20 to 24 feet should be allowed for the Bigarreau, Elton, and Florence cherries, and from 15 to 20 feet for the May Duke and Morello. Pruning and Training.—The cherry, as a standard, requires but little pruning after the stem has been reared and the six principal branches of the head originated. The stem ought to be grown so as to insure its tapering; and on this account it is necessary that it should not be stripped of shoots and foliage. The temporary side-shoots left should not however be allowed to attain too great a length; they ought not to be permitted to compete with the leader, but must be checked when likely to do so. Further, these shoots should not be more than turo years old when they are cut close to the stem, in order that the wounds may heal the more readily, and with less risk of gumming. As the leaves on the shoots of a young tree are usually large, a fevr shoots will deposit a considerable quantity of alburnum onTHE CHEEKY. 433 the stem below them; and consequently, in proportion to that amount, the stem will be thickened more beneath such shoots than above them. Hence the requisite taper form will soon be obtained, and the side-shoots dispensed with when one, or at most two years old. The head should be formed as directed for the apple and pear, with this exception, that the first three shoots of the Bigarreau tribe may be shortened to 15 inches instead of 1 foot; two shoots from each should be encouraged, one situated at the end, the other 3 inches nearer the stem, so that there may be room for the branches to increase in thickness without pressing against each other, as this occasions gumming, as is also sometimes the case when two large limbs originate from two adjoining buds. After the principal branches of the head have been started, very little pruning will be required. It will be well, however, to see that the principal branches are maintained of as nearly equal strength as possible for a few years, and then the tree may be allowed to take its natural development, with the exception of cutting out shoots that would otherwise form cross branches. In training against espaliers the branches should be 1 foot apart, and, like those of the plum, they ought to be started from the stem with an upward course, and then trained horizontally. In summer pruning, whilst the tree is young, and requires foliage to assist in making roots, the summer shoots may be allowed to grow to 1 foot or 15 inches in length, and should then be shortened to 3 inches. But the shoots on the upper branches must be shortened at least a week before those on the lower ones. The leading shoots, those at the extremities of the horizontals, need not be shortened. After the tree has been planted a few years clusters of fruit-buds will generally form round the bases of the shoots, and likewise on spurs along the branches. With regard to the winter pruning, very little will be required, presuming that the summer pruning has been well performed. The stubs left in shortening back the summer laterals should be cut back to within 2 or 3 inches of their bases, or to the first wood-bud beyond the fruit-buds above alluded to as likely to form at the bases of the shoots. In training the cherry against walls, the horizontal mode may be adopted for those that are under 7 feet high, but those above that height will be sooner covered by the fan method. Whatever mode be adopted, care should be taken that the lower branches are vigorous. It is difficult to render a branch vigorous if it has originated in a weak shoot. A weakly stem cannot produce a strong shoot; therefore the young tree must be well established, and in a vigorous state, before shoots to commence the lower branches should be started. The directions given for espalier training will apply to horizontal training against a wall, only the summer shoots ought to be shortened more, in order that the fruit may be produced near the wall. The distance between the branches may be 9 inches for Duke cherries, and 1 foot for the Bigarreau kinds, their leaves being not only much larger thau those of the Duke, but also more pendulous. The Morello cherry requires a different mode of pruning and training from that which is applicable to other kinds, owing to its mode of growth and bearing. Its shoots are slender, and it bears on those of the previous summer’s growth; sometimes all the buds along the shoot are blosBom-buds, the terminal bud only being a wood-bud; therefore at the winter pruning such shoots ought not to be shortened. Further, as the fruit is borne chiefly on the young wood, a succession of such must be kept up. There ought of course to be a certain quantity of old wood to bear the young, in fact, the shoots should be treated somewhat like those of the peach; they must be trained in summer to bear fruit in the following season, | at the end of which they should be cut away, but whilst bearing fruit, a young shoot ought to be trained to replace them. It is frequently the case that branches and shoots of Morello trees are overcrowded, but this should be avoided, otherwise large and fine fruit cannot be obtained. Protection.—Birds, and particularly the blackbird and thrush, are the greatest enemies to the cherry crop, and the only effectual means of protecting the fruit is by netting. This should be put over the trees so as not to confine the foliage. Although in the case of wall-trees it is necessary that the net should be well closed, so as to prevent ingress at top, bottom, and sides, yet when in doing so the leaves are crowded against each other, the appearance and the effects are bad. The net should hang clear of the leaves; and this may be easily done by running a wire through hooks below the coping, and having another supported about 9 inches from the wall. If the netting be fixed to the former, and drawn over the latter, the object will be so far attained. The netting will hang tolerably clear of the foliage^ but it has yet to be fastened at bottom, and this should be done so that it may be readily loosened at any time when fruit requires to be gathered. Small stakes may be driven in to a uniform height, a stout wire fastened along their tops, 28434 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. and to this the net can be easily hooked. When nets touch the ground they are liable to be spoiled, and become unsightly from being splashed with mud in rainy weather; it would therefore be better to fix wire netting upright to the stakes close to the ground. For protecting espalier trees wire netting, if only I foot in width, should also be used next the soil, and joined to such other kind of netting as can be afforded for protecting the rest of the tree. If wire netting be run along to the height of 1 foot, and so that its lower edge may touch the ground, a light netting, such as that made at Nottingham, may be thrown over the tree, and attached to the wire on both sides; for the material alluded to is so light that it will not press so as to crowd the foliage. By adopting some efficient means of protection, good crops of the sweet kinds of cherries may be obtained from walls; and this is more than can be said of standard trees, for on these it is scarcely possible to obtain a crop of perfectly ripened fruit on account of the birds. If a supply can be obtained from espaliers, it is certainly better 1 to grow the trees against these, and thus render the space they would otherwise have occupied on walls available for other fruits. Diseases and Insects.—The cherry suffers little from either of these when planted in a suitable soil and situation, and in other respects properly managed. The disease of most frequent occurrence is the gum, and this is rarely injurious, except in cases where it prevails to a very great extent. It is merely an exudation of the sap from a rent in the bark. The causes of the disease are various; it often arises from accidental wounds, unskilful pruning, or from the breakage of a branch. It sometimes occurs in consequence of too many branches being made to originate very closely together on the stem, and not un-frequently results from the tree having been worked on an unsuitable stock, or planted in too rich soil. In the latter case the obvious remedy is to take up the tree and replant it in a poorer soil; but if this cannot be done, root pruning, which by limiting the supply of nourishment obtained by the roots will diminish the flow of sap, may be advantageously adopted with the view of checking the disease; but above all, vicissitudes of dryness and moisture at the roots should be prevented. The slug-worm (Selandria atra of Stephens) occasionally attacks the leaves, causing consider- j able injury to the crop of the following year. It may be destroyed by the means already pointed out as applicable in the case of the pear. The caterpillars of the goat-moth (Cossus ligniperda) prove very destructive in some situations to trees of the May Duke breed, which they appear to prefer to the Bigarreau tribe. Aphis cerasi is I sometimes found in great numbers on the leaves and young shoots, but it may be kept under by ! syringing with tobacco-water, dusting with snuff, or fumigation. THE APRICOT (Armeniaca vulgaris, Lam.-— | Icosandria Monogynia, L.; Bosacete, D.C.; Dru-[ pace*, Lind.) is a low deciduous tree, a native of the temperate parts of Central Asia. It was introduced into Europe from Armenia upwards of a century before the Christian era, but there is no record of its having been cultivated in Britain before the year 1562. The cultivated varieties are not numerous, as will be seen by the following classification, in which the principal ones are enumerated:— Class I.-*-Kernels Bitter. Division 1.—Fruit small, round, early. Floioers small. Red Masculine. White Masculine. Division 2.—Fruit large. § 1.—Channel of the stone closed up. Flesh parting from the stone. Large Early. Roman. Blotclied-leaved Roman. Royal. Brussels. Shipley’s. Almond. § 2.—Channel of the stone closed up. Flesh adhering to the stone. Montgamet. § 3.—Channel of the stone pervious. Moorpark. Hemskerk. Class II.—Kernels Sweet. Division 1.—Flesh parting from the stone. Breda. Kaisha. Musch-Musch. Turkey. Division 2. —Flesh adhering to the stone. Orange. Of the above the most esteemed are:— 1. Red Masculine—syn. Masculine, Brown Masculine, Early Red Masculine, Abricot Precoce, Hatif Musque, Abricotin, Friihe Muscateller Apricose.— Leaves broad, roundish cordate, acuminate, coarsely serrated. Fruit small, roundish, concave at the base. Skin dull yellow where shaded, tinged with red next the sun. Flesh pale yellow, juicy, slightly perfumed, parting from the stone, which is roundish, and has a bitter kernel. Cultivated chiefly on account of its being the earliest. 2. Large Early—syn. GrosPrdcoce, Abricot deSaint-Jean, Do Saint-Jean Rouge, Gros d’Alexnndrie, Grosse Friihe Apricose.—Leaves large, tapering more to theTHE APRICOT. 435 petiole than those of any other variety, generally auricled I at the base. Fruit large, somewhat oblong, flattened on the sides. Skin pale orange where shaded, bright orange with some reddish russet spots next the sun. Flesh orange, juicy, and rich. Stone flattened, oval, channelled on the back, sharp at the point; kernel bitter, i This sort is valuable on account of its earliness, for it ripens before any other of the large sorts. 3. Roman—syn. Common, Gemeine Apricose, Grosse Gemeine Apricose; Brussels and Turkey of some.— Leaves broad, cordate, crenated. Petioles about 1A inch in length, with some globose glands. Fruit above the middle size, somewhat oval, compressed. Skin dull pale orange, faintly dotted with orange red next the sun. Flesh pale straw colour, parting very readily from the stone, soft, and soon becoming mealy, especially if not gathered a little before it is fully ripe. Stone flat, oblong. This variety was formerly much cultivated, as the tree is vigorous and a great bearer. 4. Royal Apricot — syn. Abricot Royal. — Shoots strong, nearly as short-jointed as those of the Moorpark. Leaves large, roundish, generally auricled at the base. Fruit about the size of the Moorpark, roundish oval, slightly compressed. Skin dull yellow, slightly tinged with red next the sun. Flesh pale orange, juicy, and rich. Stone large, oval, blunt at the ends, parting readily from the flesh. Kernels slightly bitter. It ripens about ten days earlier than the Moorpark, to which it bears most resemblance. This valuable variety was raised in the garden of the ! Luxembourg, whence it was sent to the Horticultural Society. It is not so subject as the Moorpark to die off : by limbs. 5. Moorpark—syn. Anson’s, Dun more’s, Dunmore’s Breda, Hunt’s Moorpark, Oldakeris Moorpark, Sudlow’s Moorpark, Temple’s, Anson’s Imperial, Walton Moorpark. —Shoots strong, short-jointed. Leaves large, roundish, acuminate, concave, deep green. Fruit large, roundish, compressed, flattened on the summit. Skin brownish orange, interspersed on the side next the sun with brownish red specks. Flesh dull reddish orange, juicy, peculiarly rich and excellent. Stone large, compressed, perforated near the edge from the base to the apex, so that a pin may be introduced. It is not liable to become mealy; but in some unfavourable seasons and situations it occasionally does not ripen thoroughly on the side next the wall, and in wet seasons it sometimes cracks. This variety is the most extensively cultivated of any, and deservedly so. It is said to have been imported from the Continent by Lord Anson, and planted at Moor Park, near Rickmansworth. Ilcmskerk closely resembles the Moorpark, and is by some considered hardier. b. Breda—syn. Amande Aveline, Ananas, Brediiische, De Hollande, Hasselnussmandel, Hollandisclie Orange Apricose, Persique, Brussels of some.—Shoots moderately strong. Leaves broadly cordate, acuminate. Fruit small, roundish, or somewhat obtusely four-sided at the base, the summit slightly depressed. Skin deep brownish orange. Flesh deep orange, parting very freely from the stone, very juicy and rich. Stone small, roundish. Kernel sweet, like that of a filbert. Ripe about the beginning of August on a wall, and its perfection is considerably prolonged on standards. 7. Orange—syn. Early Orange, Royal Orange, Royal | George, Royal Persian, Persian, D’Orange.—Leaves flat, pendulous, tapering. Fruit nearly spherical, downy, of a more intense bright orange colour than other apricots, interspersed with some minute specks. Flesh tender, bright orange in some seasons, adhering to the stone, juicy, but not highly flavoured. Stone middle-sized, larger than that of the Breda and more flat. Kernel sweet. It is chiefly useful for preserving. The tree is an abundant bearer. 8. Turkey—syn. Large Turkey, Abricot de Nancy of some French authors.—Shoots strong, short-jointed. Buds not particularly prominent. Leaves middle-sized, roundish, acuminate, slightly concave, rather evenly serrated, dark green. Fruit rather large, nearly spherical, very handsome, deep yellow, with a number of brownish orange spots and blotches next the sun. Flesh pale yellow, firm, juicy, sweet, with a little acid, very rich and excellent. Stone separating freely, in figure like that of the Moorpark, but without the hole or pervious passage as in that variety. Kernel quite sweet, like that of an almond. It ripens on a south wall about the middle of August, and in other situations may be prolonged till the end of the month. 0. Musch-Musch—syn. D’Alexandrie.—Leaves roundish, somewhat cordate, acuminate. Fruit small, roundish, from lr, to 1J inch in diameter. Skin slightly downy, lemon yellow where shaded, deep orange tinged with red next the sun. Flesh somewhat transparent, parting from the stone, tender, and rich. Stone roundish, flattened. Kernel sweet. The tree bears abundantly; and the fruit answers exceedingly well for preserving. This variety is a native of the oases of Upper Egypt. 10. Kaisha.—Fruit rather small, roundish, slightly depressed on the summit. Skin slightly downy, pale citron-coloured where shaded, pale orange tinged and marbled with red next the sun. Flesh of a clear citron colour, somewhat transparent, parting freely from the stone, tender, juicy, sugary, and delicious, like refined loaf-sugar combined with the apricot flavour. Stone small, roundish. Kernel sweet, like a nut. It ripens early. This variety was sent to Mr. "YVarmington by John Barker, Esq., from Suedia, in the paclialic of Aleppo, where it is stated there exist thirteen varieties with sweet kernels. Propagation.—The apricot is propagated by seed, budding, and occasionally by grafting. The mode by seed is adopted with the view of obtaining new varieties; and there are some sorts which reproduce themselves with considerable exactitude from the stone, and are accordingly propagated in that way. The Moorpark is one of these; and although the original variety should not be lost sight of, it is certain that very good seedlings might be raised from it in abundance. This variety and several others are frequently raised from seed by the French. They select the stones from the finest ripe fruit, and stratify them till autumn. They are then planted in rich soil, covered 2 inches deep, and in case of severe frost a covering of leaves or of litter is afforded. The seedlings may be transplanted in the follow-436 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. ing autumn, and in doing so the tap-root should be shortened. Budding is the general mode of propagating the apricot, and usually the Muscle and Common plums are the stocks selected. In France it is budded upon the Damas Noir, Cerisette, and Saiut-Julien; and it may be well to observe that these stocks are recommended to be in all cases raised from the stones of these varieties, and not from suckers or layers, because the latter are comparatively weak, and apt to cause gumming. The Brussels and the Brompton stocks have also been employed, but, on the authority of Mr. George Limlley, the latter ought not to be used as a stock; on the Brussels stock, however, apricots may be budded for standards to cover the Upper parts of high walls, as its shoots are tall and vigorous, and soon form the required height of stem. The apricot may be budded as early as the middle of June, but later than this is preferable, so long as the buds run freely, that is, whilst the bark with the bud can be easily detached from the alburnum. In selecting the buds care should be taken not to insert blossom-buds instead of wood-buds. Grafting is seldom employed, but it may be resorted to in certain cases, as where buds of any particular variety have failed. Success greatly depends on the proper selection of scions. These should consist of portions of the base of shoots having the buds very close to each other; or the lower portion of the scion may consist of two-years-old wood, which should however be well thinned away in preparing the scion for whipgrafting, which in this, as in most cases, is the preferable mode. As active vegetation commences very eai’ly in the apricot, the scions should be cut off at a still earlier period. In mild weather they may be cut off early in January, and laid in to half their length in moist sandy soil, or in sand kept moderately moist, but not saturated; and they should be grafted as soon as the sap becomes active in the stocks. The grafts ought to be immediately afterwards earthed up as high as the top of the clay. Soil and Situation.—The apricot will succeed in any good free garden soil or loam that is rather sandy than otherwise; strong clay soils do not suit it, neither does it thrive so well in strong loams as it does in those that are friable. The ground ought to be well drained, so that no water may stagnate in winter within 4 feet of the surface. If the soil is a fine yellow loam the roots will readily penetrate it in moist seasons, and the tree will grow rapidly; but when it has attained a considerable size the great amount of evaporation which takes place by the foliage will soon dry the loam, and render the roots which are embedded in it almost useless. The leaves then become diseased for want of sap, mildew ensues, and the tree is ruined if means are not taken to avert the evil. But it is better to prevent it entirely by duly preparing the soil before the tree is planted. In all cases it should be trenched; and in so doing, if the soil, or part of it, is loamy and rather adhesive, it should be turned up to the top, where it can be rendered permeable to rain by mixing with such manures or composts as will render it open. Turf, which contains much fibre, is excellent for the purpose. In the south of England some kinds of apricots, such as the Breda and the Homan or Common, bear well as standards if the springs are favourable; and although the fruit of such is not so large as from trees on walls, yet it is more juicy and of richer flavour. The trees may be planted as standards at from 20 to 25 feet apart. The apricot, however, is chiefly cultivated against walls. In the warmer parts of the country east and west aspects are suitable; but aspects inclined to south-west or south-east are to be preferred; whilst in the northern parts of England, and in Scotland, a south aspect is generally necessary to give the fruit its full flavoui'. The distance between trees against walls should be about 20 feet. Planting may be performed in the end of September, for the buds on the lower part of the shoots are matured early in the season, and growth stops in August, or at least the elongation of the shoots is almost entirely arrested at that period of the season for a week. The shoots then make a fresh start, and a marked difference may be observed between the portion of the shoot produced before and that after the stoppage. Now the older leaves may be cut off from the lower part of the shoots when the tree is about to be taken up; a few left on the second growth will be sufficient to draw sap and maintain circulation till the transplanted tree make fresh roots; and having made these before winter, it will be ready to push in spring, and in the course of the season will be well established and in a condition to produce vigorous shoots for training as principal branches. Although the above period is mentioned as that which is jwoper on account of the tree making fresh roots before winter, for the production of which the heat of the ground is highly favourable, yet the operation should not be undertaken if the weather is dry. In that case it is better to wait till it is moist. Planting may also be very successfully done any time in October, or during the first fortnight of November; but if later than this, fresh roots cannot be expected to be made before spring. It will doubt-THE APRICOT. 437 less frequently happen that borders cannot be prepared so early in the autumn as the periods above recommended, in which case planting may be performed any time during mild weather in the months of December and January, but if possible not later than the middle of February; for, as already observed, the apricot vegetates early, and it is well known that trees do not grow so vigorously if transplanted after they have commenced to push, as they do when vegetation is in a comparatively dormant state. Pruning and Training.—Fan-training is the best for the apricot-tree, because the branches are apt to die off, and, as explained in treating of the plum, vacancies can be most readily tilled up by adopting that mode of training. Besides, the tree is one of those which do not admit of horizontal branches being taken from an upright stem without the risk of such brauches dying off. The fan method is therefore the most eligible. Commencing the training with a maiden plant consisting of one upright vigorous shoot, let the latter be cut down in autumn to 10 inches from the ground, and from the buds immediately below the section let three shoots be encouraged, one to be trained upright, and one on each side for the lowest pair of branches. It is of the utmost importance to manage these three shoots so that the two side ones may be as strong as, or even rather stronger than, the upright one, which if left to themselves would not likely be the case. The central one should be checked in the beginning of June, by which time its wood will be firm as far up from the base as the place to which it will have to be cut back in autumn, at which time the two side-shoots ought to be of equal thickness and vigour, and each of them fully stronger than the central one. With this in view, the trees should be frequently inspected during the growing season, and the experienced eye will by a glance at each tree determine whether the above conditions will be fulfilled. If the side-branehes are evidently not keeping pace with the central upright, means must be taken to check its progress, and the sooner such means are taken the less will be the difficulty in effecting the object. The flow of sap is easily diverted in greater force to any shoot that is on an equality, or nearly so, with those towards which the flow is intended to be in a diminished ratio; but when any shoot or shoots have been in the habit of drawing an undue share, and have established a connection with the roots, so as to have a continuation of an excessive supply, it is not an easy matter to divert the sap from such free channels into those parts where the channels are only adapted for a limited supply. It can only be j effected by encouraging an increased breadth of foliage in the weak parts, and diminishing that connected with the strong. If a branch is slender it will sooner or later become strong, according as it is the medium of communication between a large or small amount of foliage on the shoots, whether that amount is borne immediately by the branch, or on lateral branches and shoots originating on it. Bearing in mind this fact, we may strengthen a weak branch by encouraging it to bear subsidiary branches. If, on the contrary, a branch* is too strong, it may be made to grow but very slowly by permitting it to bear only a limited number of side branches, if any. By these and other means pointed out in the chapters on pruning and training, a due proportion of strength can be insured among the branches of the apricot-tree; and when this is the case, its management in other respects is not difficult. The main branches ought to diverge equally; when they extend so as to be 15 inches apart, each branch should be subdivided into two; and when the brauches resulting from this subdivision have extended so as to be again at the above distance apart, they should be agaiu subdivided. In this way the principal brauches of the tree will be produced with regularity, and there will be space for laying in young wood for bearing. The apricot, when it arrives at a bearing state, produces its fruit on the shoots of the preceding summer’s growth, and also on spurs on wood that is two, three, or more years old. The finest fruit is however produced on the one and two years old wood, and therefore a proper supply of such ought to exist in all parts of the tree. Young shoots should be laid in between the principal branches, but rather tliiuly than otherwise, for it is an error to crowd the tree with more shoots than can well grow, when on half the number of shoots much more fruit would set than the tree could possibly bring to perfection. Youug shoots should therefore be laid in at every 10 or 12 inches, and ought to be shortened to about 1 foot in length, a little longer if they are strong, and shorter if weak. If they should not bear in the following season, that is, when they are one year old, they may be allowed to remain another year, when they will rarely fail if the spring be favourable. The young shoot, after having been pruned in autumn, should be nailed in the course of the winter pretty close to the old branch, in order to afford room for a succession shoot, which should be encouraged in the following summer. If the shoot first laid in has borne fruit, and if at the autumn pruning the young shoot is seen to be furnished with blossom-buds, the one that has borne should then be cut away: but if not, both438 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. ought to remain another season, in which no succession one need be trained, the older shoot being already accompanied with a younger. In the autumn the older of the two should be cut out and the younger trained in its place, and for this a succession shoot ought to be encouraged in the following summer. Thus there will be single shoots, originating at about 10 or 12 inches apart, laid in between the principal branches. In the second summer, from the base of each of these shoots another should be trained. Or instead of originating on the base of the shoot first laid in, a succession shoot may sometimes be eligibly obtained from the branch itself, and of such advantage should be taken. When the shoot first laid in is in the second summer of its age, a young shoot to replace it will be growing. If considered advisable to retain both these for another summer, no young shoot for succession will require to be grown in that summer; but if only one be retained, then a succession shoot must be encouraged. Besides the shoots to be managed as above, spurs will form along the branches. A moderate sprinkling of these should be permitted where the branches would otherwise be too naked. From these spurs, however, long shoots ought not to be allowed to grow. The young shoots should be pinched or cut back to two buds when only a few inches long. Disbudding is an operation which may be treated of in connection with summer pruning. It consists in removing shoots when they have pushed only as far that they can be laid hold of between the finger and thumb. The shoots which should be so removed are chiefly those in front of the branches, where they would otherwise form useless breast-wood. The operation should be first performed in the upper and more vigorous I parts of the tree, and after a short interval another portion should be removed. The finger and thumb only ought to be used when the shoot is in a very young herbaceous state; but as soon as it becomes somewhat woody, the knife must be used, otherwise the bark is apt to be torn, and | gumming is induced. Indeed, it would be better to use the knife in all cases, for the wounds made by it are more easily healed than those occasioned by pinching; and by an expert hand, the operation may be performed with the knife almost as expeditiously as with the finger and ; thumb. The foreright shoots having been gradually removed, superfluous shoots situated elsewhere should either be cut clean out, or shortened for spin's. If all the branches are maintained in a proper degree of vigour, none being allowed I to become either too weak or too strong—and I this will not be the case if care be taken that the I different branches are furnished with about an equal amount of foliage—the sap will be equally distributed, and, as a consequence, the tree will be healthy and fruitful, other circumstances being favourable. Thinning the fruit should be done when it is very young, in which state the thinnings may be used for tarts. Large kinds should be allowed twice the space afforded to those which are only half their size. On vigorous branches, or on shoots that proceed from such, more should be left than on parts that ax-e weak, for, where this can be done, it will prove advantageous in repressing excessive vigour. Cultivation.—Before the mean temperature of the air in spring is, on the average, higher than that of spring or other water which may be employed, the soil and subsoil where the apricot tree is growing should be examined, and if dry, it should be sufficiently watered. The examination ought to be made about the beginning of March, at which time spring-water will in general ! be several degrees warmer than the air, and will ; therefore rather promote than check vegetation. I At this season the surface soil is usually moist I enough; but loamy subsoils, that have never been thoroughly trenched and rendered porous by an admixture of suitable materials, are not readily moistened throughout, either by rain or mere sur-i face watering. The surface soil should be ridged as deeply as can be done without interfering with the roots, and the ridges ought to run parallel to the wall. The hollows between the ridges should then be filled with water, and as it subsides the supply ought to be renewed, until the subsoil is thoroughly soaked. This may be sooner effected by making holes with a crowbar, so deep as to penetrate a little way into the loam; but only a little way, for if the crowbar were deeply inserted, the roots would some day follow its direction, and thus become more deeply embedded than would be desirable. After the object of this watering has been attained, and after the water has fairly subsided from the surface, the ridges may be levelled. The tree will then be in a condition to make a healthy growth, which it could not have done if a thorough watering had not been given. If only the surface roots are supplied with moisture, whilst to those more deeply situated the supply is deficient, mildew is apt to attack the foliage; and although this most destructive disease may be subdued to a considerable extent by flowers of sulphur, yet the health of the trees cannot be restored whilst the cause of the disease is allowed to exist. We have known apricot-trees which were nearly killed by mildew, notwithstanding the repeated application of sul-THE PEACH AND NECTARINE. 439 phur and frequent syringing, cured in the following manner. Although covering the wall, they were taken up in autumn, and after the border had been deeply trenched, and the loamy subsoil broken up, replanted. In the following season they produced healthy foliage, quite free from mildew, no application of sulphur being necessary. Where a border has not been properly prepared, aud where the trees are severely attacked by mildew, it is advisable to take them up, if not too old, and replant them after the border has undergone due preparation; for although watering as we have recommended will be effectual in many cases, yet there may be others in which it would be difficult to insure the uniform moistening ©f all parts of the soil where the roots may travel, as when they pass under walks, &e. If watering be necessary in summer, rain-water is to be preferred to that from springs, for the latter, although in reality no colder than it was in spring, or probably even somewhat warmer, yet is relatively much colder than the mean temperature of the air in hot dry weather in summer, and ought not to be applied unless previously warmed by exposure to the sun and air. Protection.—The blossoms of the apricot are very liable to be cut off, owing to their appearing so early in the season. They will bear , slight frost, but often perish on being exposed to a continuous low temperature for several days, especially if it occur after the trees have been excited by previous warm weather. Wide coping-boards are good, and in most cases sufficient protection; but besides these, woollen netting will be necessary in cold situations and in nights of severe frost. The nets may also be usefully employed as a protection from too much heat, when the fruit is ripening. It has often been observed, that in hot, sunny weather, the fruit of the apricot against a wall is soft and ripe on the exposed side, and hard and green on the side next the wall. This is apt to be the case with the Moorpark and other large sorts. By partially shading from the sun’s rays by netting, the exposed part of the fruit will not come forward so rapidly, and the shaded side will have time to become more mellow. If it do not become perfectly so when the other is on the point of being ripe, the fruit should be gathered and placed in a warm place, with the imperfectly ripened side towards the sun. Diseases and Insects.—The apricot is subject to the same diseases, and is attacked, though to a less injurious extent, by the same insects, as the peach and nectarine. A small yellowish green | caterpillar (that of Ditula angustiorana, Steph.) frequently does considerable injury by feeding | upon the leaves, and forming itself a habitation by tying them together by their extremities, thus causing the foliage to curl up as growth proceeds. When full grown, it ties together some fragments of leaves and changes into a brown pupa, from which the perfect insect emerges in July, before which time the caterpillar should be sought for and destroyed. In some of the varieties, and especially the Moorpark, whole limbs occasionally perish in summer without any apparent cause. By some this is supposed to result from sunstroke, whilst others ascribe it to the sap-vessels being injured by frost. THE PEACH AND NECTARINE (Amyg-dalus Persica, L.—Icosandria Monogynia, L.; Drupaceas D. C., Lind.)—The peach is generally considered to be of Persian origin, and is supposed to have been carried into Egypt during the reign of Cambyses, then into Greece, and after a lapse of time into Italy, where it only began to be known about seven years before the Christian era. The native country of the peach is, however, still a doubtful point, and as such we may pass it over. It is extensively grown, but with frequently a limited share of cultivation, between latitudes 30° and 40°, in Asia, Europe, and America. Under circumstances particularly favourable, it will succeed considerably beyond these limits, but its deciduous nature requiring a period of rest, it is not fitted for a tropical climate. On the other hand, beyond lat. 48° the ground is too cold for its roots, and it will not long continue to thrive unless budded on some hardier species; the tree, also, requires the shelter of a wall or other artificial means of protection. If the summer is hot enough to ripen the wood, it will stand a severe winter uninjured; but this is not found to be the case with trees in the open ground, if the young shoots have been grown under too low a temperature. In localities where the mean temperature of February is 40°, and that of March 44°, the peach-tree will be in full flower against a south wall in the last week in March; and if the mean temperature of April is 49°, that of May 55°, June 61°, July 64°, and August 63°, the season may be considered a favourable one. The general crop in that case will be ripe in the last week of August or first week in September, and the fruit will acquire a high degree of perfection. By artificial means, or in a naturally warmer climate, the above period of five months from the time of flowering to that of ripening may be reduced to four, but not advantageously to a shorter period, except in the case of very early varieties. From the above it will be seen that the peach flowers at a compara-440 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. tively cool period. The blossoms may be destroyed by too much heat, but not by cold, unless actually frozen; therefore no warmer coverings than are just sufficient to protect from frost are necessary. The different varieties of the peach are very difficult to distinguish from the appearance of the fruit alone; hence there was much confusion among them before any good mode of classification was adopted. The task, however, will be rendered much easier by the following arrangement. It is founded on the fruit having either melting flesh which parts readily from the stone, or firm flesh clinging to the stone; the leaves being serrated, without glands, or having either globose or l’eniform glands at their base; and the flowers being either large or small. By these means twelve sections are formed. The glands are situated at the base of the blade of the leaf, or on the petiole. Occasionally the distinctions between globose and reniform glands are not very obvious, but it will be observed that the globose ones are somewhat pedicellate and raised above the margin of the leaf, whilst the reniform or kidney-shaped are indented in the margin. The flowers distinguished as large or small in some cases nearly approach each other in respect to size ; but the small flowers have the petals more of an oval shape than the large, and their colour is different. The large flowers are deeply coloured at the base, whilst their disk becomes pale or nearly white towards the margin. The small flowers, on the contrary, have their petals more deeply coloured at the margin than they are in the middle. Class I.—Melting Peaches. Flesh parting from the stone. Division 1.—Leaves serrated, glandless. Subdivision 1.—Flowers large Madeleine de Courson. Malta. Noblesse. Subdivision 2.—Flowers small. Royal Charlotte. Royal George. Early York. Stirling Castle. Division 2.—Leaves crenate, with globose alands. Subdivision 1.—Flowers large. Acton Scot. Alexandra Noblesse. Barrington. Grosse Mignonne. Belle Bauce. Princess of Wales. Subdivision 2.—Flowers small. Bellegarde. Late Admirable. "SValburton Admirable. Division 3.—Leaves crenate, with reniform glands. Subdivision 1.—Flowers large. Early Louise. Dr. Hogg. Pourpree Hative. Early Beatrice. Subdivision 2.—Flowers small. Chancellor. Reine des Vergers. Salway (leaves serrated). Class II.—Clingstone Peaches. Flesh firm, adhering to the stone. The divisions and subdivisions in this class are the same as those in the preceding one; but few of the varieties of which it is composed are considered worthy of cultivation in this country. 1. Madeleine de Codbson—syn. Red Magdalen of Miller, Madeleine Rouge, French Magdalen, Rouge Paysanne.—Leaves doubly serrated, glandless. Flowers large, pale blush. Fruit middle-sized or rather small, globular, flattened at the base. Skin bright red next the sun, pale greenish white on the shaded side. Flesh yellowish white, with very little red at the stone; melting, very juicy, sweet, and rich. Stone middle-sized, blunt. It ripens in the end of August or beginning of September; the tree is a good bearer, but rather tender. 2. Malta—syn. Belle de Paris, Italian, Malte de Normandie, Peclie de Malte.—Leaves doubly serrated, glandless. Flowers larg*. Fruit middle-sized, globular, depressed at the summit. Skin slightly downy, finely marbled with red next the sun, pale green on the shaded side. Flesh greenish yellow, very slightly tinged with red at the stone, from which it parts freely; melting, very juicy, vinous, and rich. Stone middle-sized, pointed, rather rugged. It ripens in the end of August or beginning of September, keeps well after gathering, and bears carriage better than any other melter. A hardy and excellent sort. 3. Noblesse—syn. Lord Montague’s Noblesse, Mel-lish’s Favourite, Vanguard.—Leaves doubly serrated, glandless. Flowers large, blush. Fruit large, globular, depressed on the summit when well grown, otherwise it is sometimes rather pointed. Skin slightly downy, pale yellowish green on the shaded side; red. marbled with streaks and blotches of dull red on the side next the sun. Flesh white to the stone, from which it parts freely; melting, very juicy, rich, and excellent. Stone large, pointed, very rugged. It ripens in the end of August or beginning of September. 4. Royal George—syn. Early Royal George, Griffin’s Mignonne, Lockyer’s Mignonne, Millet’s Mignonne, Red Magdalen, Madeleine Rouge a Petites Fleurs, French Chancellor and Bourdine of some.—Leaves doubly serrated, glandless. Flowers small, dull red. Fruit large, globular. Skin very downy, deep red next the sun, pale greenish white dotted with red on the shaded side. Flesh pale yellow, rayed with red at the stone, from which it parts freely; very juicy, melting, rich, and vinous. It ripens in the end of August or beginning of September. The tree is a good bearer and forces well, but is subject to mildew. The variety is deserving of extensive cultivation. 5. Royal Charlotte—syn. Madeleine Rouge Tardive, Madeleine Rouge a Moyennes Fleurs, Madeleine a Petites Fleurs, Grimwood’s Royal Charlotte, New Royal Charlotte, Kew Early Purple, Lord Fauconberg's, Lord Nelson’s.—Leaves deeply, doubly, and coarsely serrated, glandless. Flowers small, but larger than those of the Royal George. Fruit large, roundish, deep red next the sun, clouded with streaks of darker red; pale yellow, slightly mottled on the shaded side. Flesh pale greenishTHE PEACH AND NECTARINE. 441 yellow, rayed with red at the stone, from which it parts freely; juicy, melting, very rich and sugary. Stone rather larger and more rugged than that of the Royal George. It ripens in the beginning of September. The variety is allied to the Royal George. G. Early York.—Leaves serrated, without glands. Flowers large. Fruit of about medium size, inclining to ovate form. Skin downy, greenish white, deep red on the side next the sun, and frequently much spotted and mottled on the shaded side. Flesh white, melting, juicy, and tolerably richly flavoured. A fine early peach of good constitution, ripening in the beginning and middle of August. 7. Stirling Castle.—Leaves serrated, having glands. Flowers small. Fruit of medium size, roundish. Skin light, with a marbled red cheek. Flesh white, free, melting, rich, and excellent. A fine hardy-constitutioned peach, ripening in the beginning of September. Raised at Dunmore. 8. Acton Scot.—Leaves crenated, with globose glands. Flowers large. Fruit middle-sized, round. Skin slightly downy, deep red next the sun, marbled with crimson towards the shaded side, which is pale yellow or whitish. Flesh pale yellow, reddish at the stone, from which it parts freely; juicy, melting, sugary, and rich. Stone small. It ripens in the end of August, and is an excellent early sort. 9. Alexandra Noblesse.— Leaves crenated, with globose glands. Flowers large. Fru it very large, round. Skin quite pale, with the exception of some red dots on the side next the sun. Flesh white, pale at the stone, from which it parts freely; juicy, melting, rich, and vinous. It ripens in the middle of August. This is a seedling from the old Noblesse, but, unlike that variety, the tree is not subject to mildew, and is well worthy of cultivation. 10. Barrington- syn. BuckinghamMignonne,Colonel Ansley’s. —Leaves crenated, with globose glands. Flowers large, bright red. Fruit large, round, or somewhat elongated. Skin downy, deep red next the sun, pale yellowish green on the shaded side. Flesh whitish green, slightly rayed with red at the stone, from which it parts freely; very juicy, melting, rich, and of high flavour. Stone small, with a long sharp point, very rugged. It ripens in the middle of September. The tree is vigorous and less subject to mildew than most others. 11. Grosse Mignonne—syn. Mignonne, French Mignonne, Large French Mignonne, French Grosse Mignonne, Swiss Mignonne, Grimwood’s Royal George, Grim wood’s New Royal George, Veloutee, Veloutee de Merlet, Pourpree de Normandie, Avant, Purple Avant, Early Purple Avant, Early May, Early French, Early Vineyard, Padley’s Early Purple, Neil’s Early Purple, Johnson’s Early Purple, Johnson’s Purple Avant, Forster’s, Forster’s Early, Ronald’s Early Galande, Kensington, Royal Kensington, Royal Sovereign, Superb Royal, Transparent. —Leaves crenated, with globose glands. Flowers large, deep red. Fruit large, round, somewhat depressed, and hollowed at the summit, furnished with a deep suture so as to appear divided into two lobes. Skin slightly downy, pale yellow on the shaded side, mottled with red towards the sunny side, which is of a dark red colour. Flesh pale yellow, rayed with red at the stone, from which it parts freely; melting, juicy, very rich, and vinous. Stone small, slightly pointed. It ripens in the end of August or beginning of September. The fruit does not bear carriage well. The tree is a good bearer, forces well, and is not so subject to mildew as the sorts with serrated leaves. 12. Belle Bauce—syn. Belle Bausse, Vineuse de Fromentin, Vineuse Hative, Pourpree Vineuse.—Leaves crenated, with globose glands. Flowers large, bright pink. Fruit large, round, somewhat depressed and hollowed at the summit. Skin thin, downy, of a fine clear colour on the shaded side, the greater portion of the fruit, however, being profusely covered with deep red. Flesh white, red next the stone, very tender, juicy, melting, and rich. A very handsome and delicious peach. A variety of the Grosse Mignonne. Ripens in the middle of September. 13. Princess of Wales.—Leaves with round glands. Flowers large. Fruit large, or very large, round, and pointed. Skin pale cream with a rosy cheek, very clear and beautiful. Flesh melting, juicy, rich, and excellent, having a tinge of red at the stone. A very fine and handsome late peach. Ripens in the end of October. Very excellent for late supply. Raised by Mr. Rivers from the Pavie de Pompone. 14. Bellegarde—syn. Brentford Mignonne, Galande, French Royal George, Noire de Montreuil, Large Violet, Violette Hative of the English, Early Galande and Smooth-leaved Royal George of some.—Leaves crenated, with globose glands. Flowers small, reddish pink. Fruit large, globular. Skin dark red, streaked with dark purple or violet next the sun, pale green, slightly tinged with yellow on the shaded side. Flesh pale yellow, parting freely from the stone, at which it is slightly rayed with red; melting, juicy, rich, and excellent. Stone rather large. It ripens in the beginning or middle of September, succeeding the Royal George and Grosse Mignonne; it also keeps longer after gathering than these sorts. The tree is very healthy, and not subject to mildew. 15. Late Admirable—syn. Boudin, Boudine, Bour-dine, French Bourdine, Judd’s Melting, Motteux’s, Royal, La Royale, Belle Bausse, Belle Bauce, Pourpree Tardive, and Late Purple of some.—Leaves crenated, with globose glands. Flowers small, pale red. Fruit large, roundish, somewhat oblong, with a slight depression at the summit, in which there is commonly a small nipple. Skin very downy, dull crimson, with dark streaks next the sun, pale green on the shaded side, slightly mottled at the junction of the two colours. Flesh pale yellowish green, red at the stone, from which it; parts freely; melting, and very juicy. Stone rather large, with a long sharp point. It ripens in the middle or end of September; and is one of the best late peaches either for the open ground or forcing. 16. Walburton Admirable—syn. Walberton Admirable.—Leaves crenated, with globose glands. Flowers small. Fruit large, round. Skin pale yellowish green on the shaded side, crimson next the sun, mottled and clouded with darker colour. Flesh yellowish white, melting, juicy, rich, and high-flavoured. It ripens in the end of September or beginning of442 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. October. The tree is very liardy, and a good bearer. A most excellent late variety. 17. Early Louise.—Leaves with small kidney-shaped glands. Flowers small. Fruit of medium size, roundish. Skin bright red on the exposed side. Flesh melting, moderately juicy and rich. Ripens very early. Raised by Mr. Rivers from the Early Albert Peach. 18. Dr. Hogg.—-Leaves crenated, with reniform glands. Flowers large. Fruit large, round. Skin very pale yellow, with a slight tinge of crimson next the sun. Flesh yellowish white, red at the stone, from which it parts freely; firm, melting, with a sweet rich flavour. It ripens about the first week iu August, and is the [ largest early peach in cultivation. The tree is a strong, vigorous grower, and bears abundantly. 19. Pourpree Hative—syn. Pourpree Hative a Grandes Fleurs, Early Avant and Avant Rouge of some. -—Leaves crenated, with reniform glands. Flowers laige. Fruit as large as the Grosse Miguonne, which it very much resembles in form, colour, and flavour, but it ripens a week or ten days earlier than that early sort, a very important consideration. The Pourpree Hative, probably from the similarity of the fruits, has been confused with the Grosse Mignonue, but the leaves of the one having reniform glands, and those of the other globose glands, there need be no such mistakes in future. 20. Early Beatrice.—Leaves with small kidney-shaped glands. Flowers large. Fruit of medium size, roundish. Skin thin, downy, of a marbled red colour on the exposed side. Flesh white, moderately rich, and juicy. One of the earliest peaches grown, ripening nearly a month iu advance of Early York. Remarkable for its earliness. Raised by Mr. Rivers from a seedling White Nectarine. 21. Chancellor—syn. Late Chancellor, Cliancelliere of Duliamel, Noisette, Steward’s Late Galande, Edgar's Late Melting.—Leaves crenated, with reniform glands. Flowers small, reddish. Fruit large, roundish oval. Skin moderately downy, of a uniform dark crimson next the sun, pale greenish yellow on the shaded side, mottled with bright red at the junction of the colours. Flesh pale yellow, much rayed with deep red at the stone, from which it parts freely; melting, very juicy, rich, and vinous. Stone oblong, pointed at the summit, very red. It ripens about the middle of September. 22. Reine des Vergers—syn. Monstrueuse de Doue. —Leaves crenated, with reniform glands. Flowers small. Fruit exceedingly large, roundish oval. Skin pale green, mottled with red, with a red cheek on the side exposed to the sun. Flesh greenish, deep red next the stone, from which it parts freely; firm, very juicy, with a rich vinous flavour. It ripens iu the middle of September. The tree is very hardy, and bears abundantly. 23. Salway.—Leaves serrated, with kidney-shaped glands. Flowers small. Fruit large, round, rather flattened. Skin of a dull greenish yellow colour, darker on the most exposed side. Flesh of a deep orange, juicy, melting, and moderately rich when well ripened, adhering slightly to the stone. This is a very late and valuable peach, ripening in the end of October and beginning of November. Nectarines. The mode of classiticatiou adopted for the varieties of the peach is applicable to those of the nectarine. Class I.—Melting Nectarines. Flesh parting from the stone. Division 1.—Leaves serrated, glandless. Subdivision 1. Flowers large. I Subdivision 2.—Flowers small. Hardwicke. I Hunt’s Tawny. Division -Leaves crenate, with globose glands. Subdivision 1.—Flowers large. Subdivision 2.—Flowers small. Pitmaston Orange. Pine Apple. Division 3.—Leaves crenate, with RENIFORM glands. Subdivision 1.—Flowers large. Albert. Stanwick. White. Subdivision 2.—Flowers small. Balgowan. Do wnton. Elruge. Imperatrice. Victoria. Violette Grosse. Violette Hfitive. Class II.—Clingstone Nectarines. Flesh firm, adhering to the stone. Division 1.—Leaves serrated, glandless. Subdivision 1.—Flowers large. I Subdivision 2.—Flowers small. Early Newington. Division 2.—Leaves crenated, with globose glands. Subdivision 1.—Flowers large. | Subdivision 2.—Flowers small. Division 3.—Leaves crenate, with reniform glands. Subdivision 1.—Flowers large. Subdivision 2.—Flowers small. Roman. 1. Hardwicke.—Leaves serrated, glandless. Flowers large. Fruit very large, roundish. Skin pale green on the shaded side, dark purplish red next the sun. Flesh greenish, with a reddish tinge next the stone, from which it parts freely; melting, rich, and juicy, with a delicious flavour. It ripens in the middle of August. The tree is hardy, and very prolific. 2. Hunt’s Tawny—syn. Hunt’s Large Tawny, Hunt’s Early Tawny^-Zcures serrated, with no glands. Flowers small. Fruit rather below medium size, roundish ovate, much depressed at the apex. Skin pale yellow on the shady side, dark tawny brown on the exposed side, and with slight russety specks. Flesh melting and juicy, but not rich, of a deep yellow or orange, and red next the stone, to which it clings somewhat. This is an early and useful nectarine, ripening in the middle and end of August. Tree of fine liardy constitution, and a great bearer. 3. Pitmaston Orange—syn. Williams’ Orange, Williams’ Seedling.—Leaves crenated, with globose glands. Flowers large, bright red. Fruit large, globular or almost heart-shaped, terminating in a small point or nipple. Skin deep purple or violet, spotted witli brown next the sun, orange on the shaded side, mottled witli purple at the junction of the colours. Flesh rich yellow or orange, with short bright red rays at the stone, from which it parts freely; melting, juicy, sweet, and of better flavour than the other sorts with yellow flesh. Stone large, sharp-pointed, very rugged. It ripens in the end of August or beginning of September. The tree is hardy, and an abundant bearer.THE PEACH AND NECTAFINE. 443 4. Pine-apple.—This is an improved variety of the preceding, from which it was raised. Flesh deep yellow, red at the stone, melting and excellent, with a rich flavour resembling that of the pine-apple. 5. Albert.—Leaves crenated, with reniform glands. Flowers large. Fruit very large, round. Skin greenish white, pale red next the sun. Flesh yellow, pale red next the stone, from which it parts freely; melting, juicy, and briskly flavoured. A very fine variety, raised by Mr. Fivers from the White Nectarine, and ripening early in September. G. Stan wick. —Leaves crenated, with reniform glands. Flowers large. Fruit large, roundish oval. Skin pale green, like that of the White nectarine where shaded, with a clear violet blush next the sun. Flesh white, parting from the stone, tender, juicy, rich, and sugary. Stone middle-sized, ovate, very rugged, of a chocolate colour; kernel sweet, like a nut, with nothing of the bitter-almond flavour. It ripened in a peach-house a fortnight later than the Bellegarde, on which it was budded. It has, however, been found unsuited for cultivation on walls, unless protected in the early part of the season with glass. The variety originated from a stone brought from Suedia in Syria, by the late Mr. Barker, formerly Her Majesty’s vice-consul at Aleppo, and which was given by him to the Duke of Northumberland, and raised at Stan wick Park. 7. White—syn. Cowdray White, New White, Em-merton’s New White, Large White, Neat’s White, Flanders.—Leaves crenated, with reniform glands. Flowers large. Fruit large, roundish, depressed on the summit. Skin whitish or pale yellowish green, with a slight blush of red next the sun. Flesh greenish white, parting freely from the stone; very juicy, rich, and vinous. Stone middle-sized, rugged. It ripens in the end of August or beginning of September. 8. B algo wanI—Leaves crenated, with reniform glands. Flowers small. Fruit considerably larger than the Vio-lette Hative, roundish oval, broadest at the base. Skin dark red next the sun, pale greenish yellow on the shaded side, mottled with dull red. Flesh pale yellowish green, i rayed with red at the stone, from which it parts freely; i rich, melting, and excellent. Stone large, oval. It ripens in the beginning of September. The tree is remarkably vigorous, more so than perhaps that of any other variety of nectarine. On this account, as well as the large size of the fruit, it ought to be in every collection. 9. Down ton.—Leaves crenated, with reniform glands. 1 Flmuers small. Fruit much resembling the Violette H&tive, but somewhat larger. Flesh melting, rich, and ! high-flavoured. It ripens in the end of August or beginning of September. The tree is a good bearer and of a good constitution, more vigorous than the Elruge, between which and the Violette Hative it appears to have been raised. 10. Elruge—syn. Common Elruge, Claremont, Oat-lands, Spring Grove.—Leaves crenated, with reniform ! glands. Flowers small, pale red. Fruit middle-sized, | roundish, inclining to oval. Skin dark violet red next the sun, pale red towards the shaded side, which is I whitish or pale green. Flesh whitish, tinged with red at the stone, from which it parts freely; melting, juicy, 1 rich, perfumed, and delicious. Stone middle-sized, oval, deeply fissured, slightly pointed, light brown. It ripens in the end of August or beginning of September. The tree is an abundant bearer, and forces well. One of the very best varieties. 11. Imperatrice.—Leaves crenated, with reniform glands. Flowers small. Fruit in form and colour very much resembling the Violette Hative. Flesh melting, rich, and aromatic, parting from the stone, at which it is rayed with red, but less so than the Violette H&tive. Stone middle-sized, ovate. It ripens in the beginning of September, and will hang and shrivel a little on the tree; it is then very rich. The tree is an excellent bearer, and appears to have a sound vigorous constitution. 12. Victoria.—Leaves crenated, with reniform glands. Floivers small. Fru it similar in every respect to the Stan-wick, with the exception of the kernel, which is bitter. It ripens towards the eud of August. A valuable variety, which does not crack like the Stanwick, and consequently preferable to it. One of the highest flavoured and best nectarines. Baised by Mr. Fivers from the Stanwick. 13. Violette Grosse—syn. Grosse Violette Hative, Le Gros Brugnon.—Leaves crenated, with reniform glands. Flowers small. Fruit like that of the Violette H&tive, but larger; the stone is likewise larger. The flesh however is scarcely so rich and fine. It ripens in the beginning or middle of September, or somewhat later than the Violette Hfitive. 14. Violette Hative—syn. Aromatic, Brinion, Early Brugnon, Brugnon Hatif, Hampton Court, Lord Selsey’s Elruge, Large Scarlet, New Scarlet, Violet, Early Violet, Violet Musk, Violette Musquee, Violette d’Angervil-lieres. —Leaves crenated, with reniform glands. Floivers small, reddish. Fruit large, roundish. Skin dark purplish red, mottled with pale brown dots next the sun, pale yellowish green on the shaded side. Flesh whitish or pale yellowish green, much rayed with red to some distance from the stone, from which it parts freely; melting, juicy, very rich and excellent. Stone middle-sized, roundish obovate, with flattish rough ridges of a red colour. It ripens in the end of August or beginning of September, and is one of the very best sorts either for the open ground or for forcing. 15. Early Newington—syn. Early Black Newington, New Early Newington, New Dark Newington, Black, Early Black, Lucombe’s Black, Lucombe’s Seedling.-S Leaves doubly serrated, glandless. Flowers large, pale red. Fruit large, globular. Skin dark purplish red, marbled with pale brown next the sun; pale green, slightly tinged with yellow on the shaded side. Flesh yellowish white, purplish red at the stone, to which it firmly adheres; firm, juicy, and sweet when perfectly ripe. Stone rather large, roundish oval. It ripens in the beginning of September. 16. Foman—syn. Old Foman, Fed Foman, Brugnon Musque, Brugnon Violet Musque.—Leaves crenated, with reniform glands. Flowers large. Fruit large, roundish, dark red next the sun, bright red where less exposed, pale green next the wall. Flesh firm, pale yellow, adhering to the stone, from which it requires to be sliced; sweet, and tolerably rich when it begins to shrivel. It ripens in the middle of September; and though handsome, yet, on account of its being a Clingstone, it is no longer highly esteemed.444 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Propagation. — The peach and nectarine are propagated by the stones, by budding, and sometimes by grafting. Propagation by the stone is the mode employed for new varieties, for continuing some of the old ones, occasionally with little variation, and for stocks. The method of raising plants from the stones has already been adverted to in the chapter on propagation. The plants will frequently be fit for budding in the same season, much depending on circumstances of soil and climate, whether natural or artificial, with which they may be favoured. Downing states that, in America, a stone planted in autumn will vegetate in the ensuing spring, and gi’ow 3 or 4 feet high, and may be budded in August or September. The stones may also be placed in pots, vegetated and forwarded in gentle heat during the spring, and encouraged by shifting, till the weather becomes warm enough to admit of the plants being turned out in the open air. It is occasionally very convenient to have some young plants of seedling peaches for the purpose of budding with any scarce variety that might fail on the almond or plum stock. Budding is the best and most generally adopted mode of propagating the peach and nectarine. It is necessary, however, in the first place, to know the best kinds of stocks. The peach stock is of course the most natural, but experience has proved that, in the soil of countries much farther to the north than that of its native country, the tree does not long succeed on its own roots. “At all events, the leaves, after several years, acquire partial tinges of yellow; and this goes on every year increasing, whilst the leaves are annually produced narrower and narrower, till at last the tree becomes useless. Peach-trees received by the society from America were generally on the peach stock, and all those that were so invariably became affected in the same way. George the Fourth peach was one of the best of them. In a series of seasons it extended 35 feet along the wall, but being on the peach stock, its foliage became so narrow and yellow, that it was found necessary to remove the tree. The same variety has now a healthy green foliage on the plum stock. This disease is doubtless the same as that so prevalent in America, where it is termed the yellows. It is described by the late Mr. I fowning, who perished, so much regretted, in consequence of the burning of the Henry Clay steamer; but his writings cannot fail still to produce a beneficial influence on American horticulture. In his Fruits and Fruit-trees of America, it is stated ‘that this most serious malady (the yellows) seems to belong exclu- sively to this country, and to attack only the peach-tree. Although it has been the greatest enemy of the peach planter for the last thirty years, rendering the life of the tree uncertain, and frequently spreading over and destroying the orchards of whole districts, still, little is known of its nature, and nothing with certainty of its cause. Many slight observers have confounded it with the effects of the peach-borer; but all persons who have carefully examined it, know that the two are totally distinct. Trees may frequently be attacked by both the yellows and the borer; but hundreds die of the yellows, when the most minute inspection of the roots and branches can discover no insect or visible cause.’ The same author observes that healthy peach stocks afford the most natural foundation for the growth of orchard trees. We admit that it is the most natural; but when we find that whole orchards, some containing from 10,000 to 20,000 trees, become diseased in America, and when in England, all on this stock, and on no other, are similarly affected under ordinary circumstances, we must conclude that the soil in both countries is uncongenial to the peach roots. They are soft, spongy, yellow—more like a pale carrot than the roots of trees we usually see. Most probably the soil is too cold for them. This probability is strengthened by the following instance. It was stated that all trees on the peach stock, under ordinary circumstances, were sooner or later affected. One of the Shanghai trees in the Society’s garden has foliage not tinged with yellow as that of the others are, although it is, like them, worked on the peach, and is of the same age, planted at the same time in similar soil, and sharing with the others the same aspect. But its luxuriant foliage exhibits a healthy dark green colour. Nearly opposite to where it is planted there is the fire-place of a room adjoining the fruit-room; the lower part of the wall is there heated through to the south side, so that there the latter often exhibits a dry surface when elsewhere it is wet; and the ground adjoining has been seen thawed when all not near this heated portion of wall was frozen; it is therefore evident that the roots of this particular tree must have been in a warmer medium than those of its fellows, and to this different circumstance, all others being the same, the difference as regards being free from disease may be fairly attributed. “These remarks may be the means of preventing the planting of peach-trees worked on the peach stock, and consequently the loss of the trees when they ought to be at their best. Excepting in parts of the world where the soil is never too cold, the peach stock ought not to beTHE PEACH AND NECTARINE. 445 used. It is not the loss of only one plantation that has to be considered, for in such countries, as some parts of America, the trees rush up with little pains being taken, and they quickly bear sufficiently to repay that little; but presently disease makes its appearance, and the whole has to be cut down. The ground having been once cropped with stone-fruit, will not bear such again without great expense in trenching, compared with which, that of procuring suitable stocks in the first instance would be inconsiderable.”—(R. Thompson in Journal of the Horticultural Society, vol. vii. p. 231.) From these facts it is evident that, although the peach takes well and grows vigorously on the peach stock, yet it soon becomes diseased, and therefore that stock should only be employed in a temporary manner and in cases of emergency. The stock next in order, as regards natural adaptation for the peach, is the almond, which is also of the same genus. Of this, as a stock, the French have had long experience, and the sort they prefer is the hard-shelled sweet almond {Amandier doux a coque dure). All the varieties of the peach take readily on the almond; and it also succeeds well upon it in soils that are not cold and damp. Some varieties that do not take well on the kinds of plum stock usually employed, had better be worked on the almond for cultivation in the southern parts of the kingdom, whenever proper fruit-tree borders have been formed. Plum stocks are those generally employed in this country for peaches and nectarines. Hardy and almost wild varieties, called the Muscle from the form of the fruit, and the White Pear plum, are those most in use for this purpose in the nurseries. It is found that all varieties do not succeed equally well on both these stocks. The Muscle is the stronger grower, and is the best for those kinds that take well on it. The White Pear plum is employed for those which nurserymen term French peaches, but this is a distinction not very definite. Although many of the finer kinds of peaches take more readily on this stock than on any other, yet it has afterwards the disadvantage of not increasing in thickness in a corresponding degree with the peach worked upon it. We have seen the peach stem twice the thickness of the stock of this sort on which it was growing. The obstruction in the flow of sap which this disparity occasions tends to throw the tree into a bearing state, but weakness soon ensues, and the trees die off sooner than on stocks which afford a freer circulation of the sap. The French employ the varieties called the Saint-Julien, the Pamas Noir, and Myrobolan. M. Lepere of Moutreuil states, that the preference is to be given to the Damns Noir or Black Damask, which the cultivators near Paris get from Fontenay-aux-Roses; that they are cut down nearly to the level of the ground on planting, which is best done in November, and that they are budded when they have made fresh shoots fit for being worked at the proper season. We have seen trees w orked upon the Saint-Julien growing so perfectly in accordance with the stock, that, even after a number of years, scarcely any inequality could be detected at their junction. It is stated {Gardeners' Chronicle, 1853, p. 694) that peaches and nectarines succeed well when budded on the White Magnum Bonum plum. The writer recommends the Brussels to be worked near the ground, when young, with the White Magnum Bonum, and with this he asserts no peach or nectarine will ever refuse to identify itself. The proper time for budding depends on the state of the Weather. The stocks ought to be in condition to run, as propagators term it, that is, the inner bark should readily separate from the alburnum; and the buds must rise freely from the shoot, which will generally be the case in July. Care should be taken that only wood-buds are employed, for if a fruit-bud is inserted instead, oertain failure will be the result. When it is desirable to bud any particular sort, and if, from some unavoidable cause, the operation has been delayed till the stocks are set, that is, have the inner bark adhering so firmly to the alburnum that the bud will not rise without tearing, it is best to insert the bud with a thin slice of the wood, taking care however that it is pared fiat, so that the inner bark may, when tied, be in contact with the cambium of the stock. The peach and nectarine may also be grafted, if care is taken to select for scions shoots with firm short-jointed wood, and with about 1 inch of two-year-old wood at the lower end. Such should be taken off early in spring, and kept with their ends in moist sand till the grafting season arrives, that is, as soon as the sap of tree or stock begins to move. When worked, the successful taking of the grafts is greatly promoted by earthing up as high as the top of the clay. Mr. Cameron practised, when at Higlibeach, Essex, the following mode of grafting. He says, “Sow in autumn kernels of peaches, nectarines, or apricots, under the walls where they are to remain. They will make a vigorous shoot the following spring, and may either be budded in the August of the same year, or grafted the March of the year following. Grafting is the mode I prefer, and the scion should have \ inch of two-year-old wood at its lower extremity; at446 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. least, I have found scions so taken off succeed better than those taken indifferently from any part of the young wood. Cut the stock with a dovetail notch for the scion to rest on, and tie it on in the usual manner. Remove the buds of the scion in back and front, leaving two on each side and a leader; when these have grown 6 or 8 inches, pinch off their extremities with the finger and thumb, by which means each shoot will throw out two others, and thus produce in autumn a fan-shaped tree with ten branches. I have generally found them bear two or three fruit the second year from the graft, and a pro-portionably greater number the third year.”— (Gardener’s Magazine, vol. iii. p. 149.) Instead of sowing the stones of peaches or nectarines, we should much prefer those of the almond; for although the peach will take well on the peach stock and grow vigorously, yet it will not continue to do so many years. We should also employ wrhip-grafting, taking care that the inner barks of stock and scion do not overlap each other at the lower end, for if they do, a projection apt to gum will be formed. Soil and Situation.—In the climate of Britain, the peach requires a wall. In the southern parts of the kingdom it will succeed on an east or west aspect, if the locality is not too elevated and exposed to cold winds, nor, on the other hand, too low and subject to damp and fogs, in consequence of which the wood does not become perfectly ripened. But the most favourable situation is a wall with a southern aspect. As the peach requires to be trained against a wall, it follows that its roots must occupy a border in front. If this is made as recommended in the chapters on the formation of the fruit and kitchen garden, it will be fit for the reception of the peach. In old gardens, or others in which the borders have been formed, some improvements ought to be made before young trees are planted. It will therefore be necessary to point out, first, the soils, subsoils, and other circumstances which are unfavourable to the growth of the tree, in order that they may be avoided or remedied. The subsoil should be first examined as to its condition with regard to moisture. If it is too wet, the trees will not thrive so long as their roots are in a saturated medium, especially whilst this remains in a cold state, neither will the fruit, under such circumstances, progress favourably. If, however, after midsummer, the moisture should become warm, the trees will not unlikely grow rapidly, but so late in the season that the shoots will be imperfectly ripened; therefore draining must be effected, if possible, in order to carry off all moisture that would otherwise be stagnant. If this is impossible for want of fall or outlet, then the level above which drainage may be carried out should be ascertained, and a moderate depth of soil raised above that level; for it is better to raise the border at the expense of losing say 1 foot of height of wall, than to plunge the roots to that depth in a medium which will prove injurious. In the one case, they would absorb nourishment conducive to the health of the whole tree, by encroaching only on the height of the wall to the extent of space for a pair of lower branches; in the other, being situated in stagnant moisture, they would draw watery vitiated nourishment, and supply it to the whole tree. It is therefore better that two branches be entirely dispensed with, in order to have the rest well fed, than that all should be improperly 1 nourished, and consequently the whole produce deteriorated. H aving adverted to subsoils that are too wet for the peach, and the most obvious remedy, it will now be necessary to direct attention to those which are too dry. Where the soil is naturally j shallow and resting on a subsoil that is dry and i gravelly, it often happens that the tree suffers much from want of moisture in dry weather. Exposed to the accumulated heat of the sun’s rays, often above 100°, the leaves evaporate an astonishing amount of moisture as long as the I’oots can supply it. Whilst any moisture is to be found within their reach, they will rapidly absoi’b it; but when all is exhausted their action must cease, and the condition of the tree must undergo a change for the worse, for it cannot be supposed that the foliage that was in a healthy state whilst evaporation was fully supplied, can ! continue in the same state when that supply is almost entirely stopped. Although' the supply I of moisture from the roots may have ceased, evaporation will still continue, drawing, to a 1 considerable extent, from the juices of the tree; then it is that the red spider commences its most I determined attacks, and these, if not arrested, would almost ruin the tree in one season. In order to conquer these small enemies, much labour must be employed, large quantities of water must be wheeled about, the engine must be kept at work, and, after all, the trees will not be so healthy as those that in properly made borders do not require one quarter of such labour to be expended upon them. In many cases, one year’s expenditure in watering and syringing, if laid out in preparing the border before planting, would effect an annual saving of nearly an equal amount. As much should therefore be done in the first instance towards remedying the natural defects of the border as circumstances willTHE PEACH AND NECTARINE. 447 permit. The dry gravelly subsoil ought to be dug out to the depth of 24 or 3 feet, or as near to these depths as it may be possible to obtain good soil to replace that removed. Although the bottom may be dry, yet, with a good depth of soil, the trees will not suffer readily from drought. When soil of the depth of 24 or 3 feet is well moistened, either by rain or watering, it takes a considerable time before the trees can suffer from drought. With regard to the quality of the soil, if the ground is old and worn out, or if trees have long been grown in it, it is not proper for the peach. If it cannot be changed, it should be re* freshed with other soil. If there is a stratum of loam below, let a considerable portion of it be brought up to the surface, and as much of the top soil turned down to the bottom, there to be dug over, mixing it at the same time with a portion of the loam. When black, worn-out soil is turned down in the bottom of trenches with previously undisturbed yellow loam above it, trees grow vigorously as soon as the roots get down to the black soil, although in this, when it was at top, they did not thrive, doubtless in consequence of the small amount of inorganic matter which such soil contains. If the soil is poor and sandy, the trees will not find nourishment to enable them to support a good crop. A compost of dung and loam is better for the peach than dung alone, being more lasting, and not so apt to cause the trees to gum. Although poor sandy soil is not to be approved of, yet as it can afterwards be enriched by suitable composts, it is preferable to soil that, on the contrary, is too adhesive. Stiff clays are most unfavourable, and the most difficult of any to deal with; in fact, the peach ought not to be planted in such. The best plan is to remove the whole, and replace with soil of a more friable nature if possible. This may prove too expensive an operation for some persons to perform at once, but as much as 4 or 6 feet square might be cleared out where the tree is to be planted, and afterwards an additional portion could possibly be removed in advance of the roots, and exchanged for soil from an open part of the garden, where the stiff soil can be subjected to processes for amelioration which it could not be conveniently made to undergo in a border, and which will render it suitable for some kitchen-garden crops. At Montreuil, where the culture of the peach is extensively carried on, the soil is by no means rich; it appears to be a calcareous sandy loam, of a yellowish brown colour, and seems to be too poor for corn crops. In the grounds of M. Lepcre, one of the most skilful cultivators, the borders are prepared* to the distance of 5 or 6 feet from the wall, by trenching 2 feet deep, and mixing well the soil with manure. Afterwards, when the trees come to bear heavy crops, a little manure is forked into the border. The success of the Montreuil cultivators, no doubt, depends on their mode of pruning, and other means which they adopt with the view of promoting an equal distribution of the sap. We think that 6 feet is too little for the width of the border. Although there is proof that a border of the above width will answer, yet a greater width will in most cases answer better. We know that peaches may be grown in pots, and, with the advantage of rich soil, a dozen of fruits may be grown to fair size; but a well-grown tree against a wall may bear as many as forty dozens, and to obtain nourishment to support such a quantity the roots must have a considerable scope. As space on a south border is required for various early crops, the breadth may be 12, 15, or 18 feet, according to the size of the garden. Where an artificial border has to be made, its width is often necessarily limited to correspond with a certain amount of outlay. In that case, the made portion of the border should not be less than 6 feet, but 8 feet at least would be desirable. From what has been stated, it will be understood that, in preparing a border for peach-trees, the extremes of wetness and dryness must be avoided, or remedied by such means as have been pointed out. As to the quality of the ground, any good fresh soil will answer, provided the trees are well managed. Where no expense is to be spared in order that an excellent border may be formed, good turfy loam should form the principal constituent, and if the loam can be made into a sort of compost, by mixing it with a little cow-dung and horse-dung, so much the better. A little bone-dust and lime may also be incorporated. In such a compost the tree will grow quite as vigorously as it ought to do in our climate. Planting.—The border having been prepared, the next consideration is the distance apart at which the trees should be planted. In good soil and a warm situation, this may be 20 feet; where the soil is not very rich—which indeed it ought not to be, or where the climate is rather cold— the distance may be somewhat less, say 18 feet, and it may be 15 feet; but less than this must be considered too limited for fan-training. The best season for planting is the autumn, for the vegetation of the peach takes place early in spring, and when the plant is then removed it receives a check which is injurious to it. When a young stem is cut back after the sap is in full flow, and the buds expanding into leaf, the portion of stem left has in consequence its internal448 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. structure much deranged; and although it may keep alive and be covered with young layers, yet, if the stem were cut over many years afterwards, all the portion of wood formed previously to the heading back will appear discoloured. On the contrary, a young stem cut back when the sap is comparatively at rest, or before winter, may die back a little way immediately below the section, but elsewhere it will exhibit little appearance of derangement in its vegetation. If it should happen that the planting cannot be done before vegetation commences in spring, the plants should be headed back in autumn, and taken up and planted as early in spring as circumstances will permit; or if it is foreseen that the planting cannot, from unfavourable causes, be accomplished till late, the plants should be taken up early in February, and their roots put in the ground, in a cool shaded place, till the final planting can be performed. When the plants are cut back before they are taken up, they should not be cut quite so low as they would require to be when planted against the wall, in order to leave a choice of well-situated buds, to which they can then be cut. The trees should be planted as deeply in the soil as they were before removal, and about 6 inches from the wall. Some recommend the tree to be planted with the budded part outward, but this is immaterial; indeed, if there is any wound, it will heal sooner on the south side than on the opposite one, especially if shaded from the sun’s rays, because on the former thicker layers of wood are deposited. The mode of planting detailed in the case of the plum, &c., is also applicable to the peach. When planted it is well to mulch as far as the roots extend with stable litter. Mode of Bearing,—As all the parts of a tree, except the root, proceed from a single bud, it will be necessary, for the sake of precision, to distinguish the progressive stages of the growth of those parts. The bud produces a shoot on which, during the summer, leaves and buds are developed. From the time that this shoot pushes in spring till its leaves drop in autumn, we propose to designate it as a young shoot, corresponding with what the French term bourgeon. From the time that the young shoot ceases to elongate for the season, becomes mature, and drops its leaves in autumn, until it begins to push young shoots in spring, we shall call it a shoot. In this state it is termed a rameau by the French. After the shoot begins to push buds and form young shoots, it may be called a young stem if occupying the position of a stem; if otherwise, a young branch. This the French call a branche. After the young branch has matured shoots, or when it is two years old, it may be termed a branch. As the young shoot proceeds in growth, leaves are produced at every node or joint, singly, in twos, or in threes; and in the axils of each leaf either fruit-buds or wood-buds are formed. In the following spring the blossoms open before the wood-buds expand, and in the course of the season the fruit is brought to maturity. The fruit is also occasionally borne on short shoots somewhat resembling spurs, which are terminated by a cluster of blossom-buds, with a wood-bud or growing point in the middle, and which, instead of growing, remains almost stationary. Spurs of this sort are, however, of rare occurrence in trees that are managed so as to be properly furnished with successional bearing shoots. For bearing the crop, we ought to depend on these shoots and not on spurs, therefore the latter need not be further noticed here. Fig. 270 represents part of a branch with double eyes, that is, a fruit-bud a, and a wood-bud b. Triple eyes are represented in Fig. 271, and consist of a wood-bud a between two fruit-buds b b. It is necessary to be able readily to distinguish wood-buds from fruit-buds; for if, in pruning, a shoot is cut back to a fruit-bud, no young shoot can proceed from it, and it will ultimately die back to the nearest wood-bud below the section. Wood-buds a a, Figs. 272 and 273, are of a conical, pointed form, and consist of scales surrounding a growing point, which, under favourable circumstances, pushes and becomes a shoot; but many of them remain dormant, especially if the shoot is weak and left at full length. When, however, the shoot is shortened to a wood-bud, that bud, stimu- Peach - Wood and Jated by the sap that would other- Fruit Buds. . ', §■' _ wise flow towards the extremity, is almost sure to push. Fruit-buds b b, Figs. 272 and 273, consist of Peacli—Double Peach—Triple Eyes. Eyes.THE PEACH AND NECTARINE. 449 scales, which inclose, not a growing point, but the rudiments of petals, stamens, and pistil. They are ovate, and gradually become globose, assuming then a hoary appearance, from the scales opening and exposing their downy integuments. They are likewise much more plump than the wood-buds. It will be observed, on referring to the accompanying figures, that some buds are single wood - buds, others are single fruit-buds. Frequently the buds are double—one being a fruit-bud, the other a wood-bud, or both may be fruit-buds; and lastly, some are triple buds. These generally consist of two fruit-buds Peach—Wood and Fruit Buds, with a wood-bud between them. As there must be wood before there can be fruit, it is natural for a young tree to produce chiefly wood-buds; but when the tree has attained a considerable size, it is more disposed to produce fruit-buds, and pruning becomes necessary in order that fruit-buds may not too much predominate, for in that case a deficiency of young shoots would be the consequence. Pruning and Training.—The peach-tree requires what are termed winter-pruning and summer-pruning. The best time for performing the winter-pruning is as soon as the leaves have fallen; that being the case, it would be more properly called autumn than winter pruning. However, it may be done in the latter season, or indeed at any time between the fall of the leaf and the rising of the sap, provided there is not severe frost. Summer-pruning should be commenced as soon as the shoots begiu to push, and is continued as may be found necessary during the growing season. Training may be done any time after the trees are pruned in autumn or winter, Fig. 274. and before they get into active vegetation in spring. Summer-training the young shoots ought to be carried on when necessary throughout the growing season. The peach-tree is trained in a variety of ways, but the fan-method is the best; yet it requires particular care and some knowledge of the physiology of the tree, otherwise the latter will become weak at bottom and too strong at top, as well as exhibit irregular growth throughout. 29450 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Commencing with a maiden plant, consisting of a simple shoot from the bud, as at a, Fig. 275, let that be cut back, as at 1, above two eh- CL gible buds, situated one on each side, and about 9 inches from the surface of the ground. Two shoots will likely push from these buds in the course of the summer, and they should be encouraged to grow as much as possible during the early part of the season by training them rather upright, as in the direction b c; but in August they should be lowered by degrees to the position d e. They are thus brought nearly to a horizontal position, with the exceptions of their extremities, which are turned upwards in order still to encourage growth, and so long as they continue to grow it matters not whether they are straight or otherwise, for they will be cut off at the winter-pruning. The dotted lines, Fig. 276, corresponding with those in Fig. 275, represent the state of the tree, I months afterwards, it is divided into four. At the third cutting, which takes place after the second summer’s growth, each of the four shoots is shortened, as at 3, 3, 3, 3, Fig. 277. Two shoots, proceeding from buds immediately below each of these cuts, give rise to shoots forming the origin of branches proceeding in the direction of a b, d e, o p, r s. When these have made one year’s growth, shoots should be allowed to grow from below the bases of a, b, &c., so as to originate the branches proceeding in the directions c, / n, q. The branches from a to/, and from n to s, constituting the right and left wings of the tree, are now originated. These twelve branches spring from the bases of the shoots/, <7, k, i, Fig. 276. The two wings being well established, branches to occupy the central portion from g to m, Fig. 277, must be originated. For this purpose two shoots should be allowed to spring from near the bases of the two original subdivisions of the tree, as represented in the figure. These should be respectively subdivided at 4, 4, so as to give rise to the branches g, h, l, rn. Then, two buds ought to be allowed to push from near the base in order to form the branches i and k, -which complete Fig. 277. as regards its shoots, at the end of the first summer’s growth, reckoning from the time when the maiden plant was headed back. At the ensuing winter-pruning, the shoots d e are cut back, as at 2, Fig. 276, and in the course of the summer four shoots,/, g, h, i, are the result. Here it should be observed that the extremities of the two lower branches / g are turned upwards during the growing season; whilst the two upper ones h i are not so favoured, otherwise, from being situated on the upper side, they would grow much stronger than the two lower branches, an occurrence which should be carefully guarded against. We have now seen that by the first cutting of the plant it is divided into two branches; and that by the second cutting, performed twelve the number of the leading branches of the tree. Now, it will be observed that, with the exception of the stem itself, the bases of the branches from a to / and from n to s, are the oldest parts of the tree, above ground at least. Of these branches, \a b, d e, op, r s are the oldest; cf, n q not being allowed to commence forming till a year after the others. The branches a, b, c, for example, have the same common origin, all proceeding from the base of the shoot /, Fig. 276. If they were all allowed to originate at the same time, the upper one c would take the lead of the two below it. It is therefore better that they should be established a year before a competitor that would occupy a more advantageous position is permitted to exist. Of the next three branches,THE PEACH AND NECTARINE 451 namely, cl, e, f, which take their rise from the base of the branch f the uppermost is originated a year after the two below; and such is also the case with similar branches on the other side of the tree. The main point to be attended to in training the peach is the maintenance of an equality of vigour amongst all the branches. The greater the vigilance used in preventing any material derangement of the equilibrium, the greater will be the ease with which it can be maintained. The branches should be frequently examined in detail; a comparative inspection ought to be made of every three, of the lowest three with the next three, and so on; and again, every three on the one side with the three opposite on the other side. If one side of the tree is found to be weaker than the other, the branches of the weaker side should in general be elevated above their assigned position, and, on the contrary, three of the stronger side shoidd be depressed. The latter ought also to be disbudded, and their summer-shoots nailed in before those on the weaker side of the tree; and over-vigorous shoots should be checked at an early stage of their growth. All superfluous shoots ought to be dispensed with. Whilst a sufficient supply of shoots for succession must be encouraged, none beyoud these should be allowed to exist, with the exception of those necessary for leaders. If, in the early part of the season, it is seen that a succession shoot will unquestionably become too strong, it should be stopped at an early stage of its growth. With regard to the weak side, an opposite mode of proceeding should be adopted. Shoots not absolutely required for succession may very properly be allowed to grow. The succession shoots generally should be trained at full length, and where there is space, the shoots at the extremities of the, bearing shoots may also be left uushortened. If, on the weak side, a few overstrong shoots should start up, they had better be checked; but all others on that side ought to be encouraged. If we were to count the leaves on one side of the tree, and if they were found equal in number to those on the other, then the amount of vigour would also be equal, provided the leaves on both sides were of the same average size and equally healthy. This is a fact which should be borne in mind; but in stating it we do not mean to imply that the leaves should be counted, or their dimensions calculated. In practice, a sufficiently correct estimate of the relative amount of foliage on both sides can be formed by looking at the foliage on branch a, Fig. 277, then at that on the opposite branch s, and so on. Presuming that a, b, c and d, e,/are, according to their respective lengths, equally furnished with leaves, then the quantity of foliage borne by the first three, as compared with the three above them, will be nearly as 7 to 9; that being about the proportion which the united length of a, b, c bears to that of d, e,f. In that proportion, therefore, the increase of the base of the branches d e will exceed that of the base of a, b, c; and the consequence will be that the former must every year become so much stronger than the latter, instead of which it would be desirable that they should be of equal vigour and thickness. This condition would be obviated by not allowing the branches to extend beyond the semicircle a s, but then, on referring to the figure, it will be seen that a large portion of wall is left uncovered. Supposing the trees to be planted 20 feet apart, and the wall to be 12 feet high, the space which a tree like that represented in the figure might occupy would be 240 square feet; but if limited within the semicircle, it would only cover 166 square feet, leaving 74 square feet, or nearly one-third of the space, unoccupied. Rather than this should be the case, it would be almost better to put up with the loss of the three lower branches on each side. But, in order to guard against this, something may be done; allowing the radius of the semicircle to be 10 feet, then the distance between the branches where they intersect the dotted arc line—that is to say, when they have extended 10 feet from the centre—will be very nearly 21 inches, which would be wider than necessary. To fill that space branches may be originated from the upper side of a, b, c, at about 5 feet from the stem. There will then be six branches in connection with the base a, b, c, and they may be distributed over the space of wall from a to d, the latter being trained closer to c, so that between these two an intermediate branch may not be required; then, if e and / be subdivided, there will only be five branches in connection with the base d, e,f, instead of six, as in the case of the base a, b, c. This will give the latter considerable advantage; and, with the other means already detailed, an equality of vigour as regards the first two subdivisions of the tree may be maintained, whilst the symmetry of the whole is also preserved. What has been said of the branches on the one side of the tree applies of course, to the corresponding ones on the other side. With regard to the direction of the branched it may be as well to point out how they may be laid off so as to present a regular appearance, without being too crowded in some places and too thin in others, as well as to prevent loss of452 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Fig. 278. time in rectifying errors which may easily be avoided in the beginning. The system which has been detailed gives two principal branches, from near the base of each of which three branches are originated, and these are each subdivided into three; so that the leading branches of the tree consist of nine branches on each side, or eighteen in all. They form angles of about 94° with each other. Now, if they were laid ofF at this angle, like the radii of a semicircle, there would be nine branches on each side and one perpendicular in the centre—a position which, in fan-training, no principal branch should occupy, as it is then apt to grow too strong. It is therefore better to be without it, as in Fig. 277, in which two spaces are left between i and k; then eight more branches bring us down to a, which is elevated 5° above the line passing horizontally through the central point, and this elevation is an advantage to the lower branches. From the principal branches shoots for bearing should be allowed to proceed, and also for subsidiary branches, where space admits of such. In our climate, the extremities of the shoots do not usually become perfectly ripened, and this is one reason why they should generally be shortened back, more or less, according to circumstances. In shortening back the leading shoots, it is best to cut to a bud situated at the back of the branch, or nearly so, for if cut to one at either side, the young shoot forms a bend from where it proceeds, and if cut to a bud in front, it curves outwards; but when cut to a bud on the side next the wall, the branch grows quite straight. The form of the knife used for pruning the peach-tree is represented in Fig. 278. The directions for pruning the peach-tree will be easily comprehended on reference to Figs. 272 and 273. In Fig. 273 the buds marked a are wood-buds, and all the others blossom-buds. In Fig. 272 we have two single wood-buds near the base of the shoot; then a twin-bud, consisting of a wood-bud and a fruit-bud; next a single wood-bud; then a triple bud, composed of two blossom-buds and a wood-bud in the centre; then a single blossom-bud; and, finally, two blossom-buds, with a wood-bud between them, Peach—Priming Knife. above which the shoot is cut. It would be wrong to cut to the next lower joint, or immediately above the single blossom-bud a, for that bud would not produce a shoot, and the branch would ultimately die back to the next wood-bud. In Fig. 273 there are only two wood-buds; one, which forms the growing point or apex, situated in the midst of a cluster of blossom-buds; the other near the base of the shoot. Therefore, in such cases, the shoot must either be left at all its length, or cut back above the wood-bud at the base. The latter is generally the preferable mode, for a succession shoot would be obtained; whereas, if not so cut back, the whole would be naked in the following year, with the exception of a slight elongation of the growing point. In tl le peach-tree, all wood that is more than one year old serves only to support shoots that do or may bear fruit; but enough of main branches, and others subsidiary to them, should be provided for, iu order that a sufficiency of bearing-shoots in every part of the tree may be insured. From what has been stated, it is presumed that the training of the main branches of the tree, and also the subsidiary ones, will be understood. The management of the bearing shoots, and of those which should be produced to form a succession to them, remains to be considered. In Fig. 279, a represents a portion of a branch before the winter-pruning; b and c are bearing shoots, which were shortened at the previous winter-pruning, bore fruit in the following summer, and also produced the shoots d and e for succession. The shoots b and c having once borne, will do so no more, and therefore they are cut off close to the origin of the succession shoots d and e. These succession shoots, like their predecessors, are shortened at the winter-pruning, in order that whilst they bear fruit in the ensuing season, they may also produce, in their turn, shoots for succession. In general, every bearing shoot throughout the tree should have a young shoot for succession, and the nearer the young shoot springs from the base of the bearing shoot the better. It may be encouraged from the side of the bearing shoot next the branch, as at e, or from the opjxisite side, as at d. If at any time a bud push closer to the branch than where d and e originated, it should be encouraged, and the stub, which results from repeatedly shortening baek to near the base of the bearing shoots, can Peach—PruningTHE PEACH AND NECTARINE. 453 then he reduced. In fact, wherever there is an opportunity of obtaining a succession shoot from the old branch, it should not be neglected, provided there is room for such young shoot. Fig. 280 represents a branch with two shoots, one of which, b, is intended for succession and is Fig. 2S0. pruned at e, whilst the shoot a is stopped at c, and at the next pruning is cut off at cl. A number of other succession shoots may be allowed to grow to the length of 10 inches or 1 foot, and then be stopped. Several summer laterals will result; but they will push mostly just below where the shoot was stopped; whilst, lower down, enough of fruit-buds will in most instances be formed. By these means the amount of foliage will be much less than would otherwise be the case. Fig. 2S1 represents a branch with two shoots, one of which is pruned at a, whilst the other is Fig. JS1. cut close to the base at c, thus leaving the wood-bud b to form a succession shoot. From the foregoing it will be seen that the peach must have a number of principal branches to constitute what may be termed the frame-work of the tree, and also subsidiary ones to fill up as the others diverge; the rest consists of bearing shoots, and from or near the bases of these, succession ones. These should be all managed according to the general principle above explained, that is, the bearing shoot is shortened, more or less, at the winter-pruning. This has the effect of inducing shoots to push from the buds on the part left, and the lowest of these shoots is to be selected to form a succession; for the bearing shoot, unless it be the leading shoot of a branch, must be cut away at the winter-pruning. From this it appears that the pruning and training of the peach-tree, when it is once formed, is reduced to three very simple proceedings:— 1. Shortening the intended bearing shoot at the winter-pruning. 2. Training a succession one in summer. 3. The removal of the shoots that have borne fruit, except such of them as are leading shoots of branches. The length to which the bearing shoots ought to be shortened depends on their vigour, and occasionally the position of wood-buds; for in order to cut immediately above one of them, the shoot may have to be cut much shorter, or left at greater length than would otherwise be advisable. The distance along the branches, from one bearing shoot to the other, may be about 1 foot or 14 inches. On a branch that is weaker than it ought to be, more succession shoots should be encouraged than on the adjoining stronger ones, and more space should be allowed them, by training those from the stronger branch in a limited space. Stopping or Pinching.—This is in manyrespects the same as disbudding, and is practised dui ing vegetation. Its object is to rectify any neglect which has been made with regard to the tree, and keeping it in good condition. It accelerates the formation of fruit-buds, and puts an end to all confusion with respect to the branches. Applied without discretion, stopping produces the very opposite effects, hindering the formation of buds, or causing them to be developed before the proper time; but, when the operation is well done, it is one of the most useful in the art of conducting trees. Fig. 282 represents a branch, the shoots on which have been shortened. No. 1 shows two Fig. 282. shoots which have been stopped above the eighth leaf, at a a. The flow of sap occasioned by this operation has had the effect of swelling the fruit, at the same time avoiding bursting the eyes made454 GAliDENEK’S ASSISTANT. below. At the end of eight or ten days the two or three terminal eyes are developed as shown in No. 2; when these shoots have acquired sufficient length the second pinching is performed, which takes place on the lowest shoots b, b, a little above the fifth leaf; the two remaining shoots are pruned at c, c. No. 3 shows the shoots after the last operation has beeu performed. Fig. 283, e, gives an example of stopping where the fruit has not set. The tipper branch a is cut back, as well as the lower branch b, in order to give vent to the sap, and promote the growth of the eyes near the base, which ought to yield fruit; f shows the effects of the first stopping. Then the first shoot is cut back to c, and the second is stopped at d\ g gives the result of the second stopping, a feeble result, as the sap is not in full flow. Fig. 284 represents a branch which has been pruned above the fifth bud from the base. In this example the pinching ought to be short because the sap is most divided. The terminal shoot has been pinched, and afterwards cut back to a, which has had the effect of causing the sap to flow back on fruit at the base. The two shoots b and c have been pinched twice, which has caused the fruit to swell and promoted the growth of the succession shoot d. Disbudding.—This consists in the removal of buds, or rather shoots in a very young state. It is evident that if all the young shoots were allowed to grow, they would soon become exces- sively crowded; it is therefore necessary that all should be removed except those for which there is sufficient space. The operation ought to be commenced by the removal of those situated in front of the strongest branches, especially if these are in connection with branches too strong for the others. Then in a day or two those in front of branches or shoots lower down should be pruned off'. N ext a portion of those on the bearing shoots ought to be taken off; but in doing this, care must be taken to preserve the lowest shoot on each for succession. Those having fruit at their bases should also be left untouched at present. According to the state of the weather, and consequently according to the greater or less activity of vegetation, the process of disbudding should be regulated. If the weather proves un-geuial, and vegetation is languid, it is not advisable to disbud much at that time; if, on the contrary, the days and nights are warm, disbudding should be more closely followed up. Vegetation may commence with a considerable degree of activity, but frequently cold weather ensues, and the slightly developed leaves linger or remain in a stationary condition. When they are in this state it is better to refrain from disbudding till vegetation again becomes active. Every bud that is being developed maintains a circulation of sap in its vicinity, but when a bud, or the young shoot resulting from it, is pinched or cut ! oft', the circulation depending upon it must cease S or tiud other channels. In the former case stagnation of the fluids proves injurious to the general health of the tree; but if the sap readily finds other channels, the circulation undergoes comparatively little derangement. When the young I leaves are expanding slowly, in consequence of low temperature, we may remove from a shoot | every poshing bud except one, and yet that one will scarcely be excited to a more rapid development. If we at once remove nine buds from a I shoot, and leave only one, that one, under any circumstances, will not be prepared to receive the sap which was in movement towards the other nine. In order that the disbudded shoot may continue healthy, the disbudding should be performed by degrees. The forerights, in the first place, and then the others, should be gradually thinned away, till no more shoots and foliage are left than there is room to fully expose to light. The leading young shoot of branches intended to be prolonged should be trained at full length. ! The terminal young shoot of bearing branches ought to be allowed to grow till its lower leaves are nearly full-sized, and then it should be shortened to 3 inches. Other young shoots having I fruit at their bases should also be cut or pinchedTHE PEACH AND NECTAKINE. 455 back to three or four leaves; and when the fruit is thinned, many of such shoots, from the bases of which the fruit is removed, may be dispensed with. It will sometimes happen that on shoots laid in for bearing there will be no fruit. When this is found to be the case, they may be cut off at the base, and the succession shoot trained in their place. When any of the succession shoots appear likely to become too vigorous, their tops must be pinched off, but it would be desirable that this should be done not lower than 1 foot or 15 inches from their bases. Cordon Training.—The peach-tree may be trained as a simple oblique cordon for walls (Fig. 2S4“), as a horizontal cordon for glass fruit ridges, and also in the form of a vertical cordon for the orchard house. We shall first notice the simple oblique cordon. This method is desirable in the case of limited Fig. 284°. space, or where it is intended to cover a wall quickly with a huge number of distinct sorts. As usual, a well-furnished tree is the first consideration. If it is intended to cover a wall speedily with trees of this description, they should be planted two feet apart. We shall commence with a tree one year from the bud; such a tree will have a main stem more or less furnished with lateral branches. The leading shoot should be cut back to half its length, if the tree is well furnished with laterals; if it is not, and is weakly, two-thirds should be cut off. The remaining laterals should be cut closely back, and the tree trained in an oblique position. The next attention required is pinching the young shoots when they have grown about six inches; these generally make most progress at the top of the tree, and should be pinched first, which will cause the shoots nearer the base of the tree to grow out more strongly than they otherwise would. Prompt and judicious summer pinching is what is required in this system of training; and to obtain a well-furnished tree, and one that will have a pleasing effect, we must always begin to stop the shoots on the upper portion of the cordon first, and work downwards. The shoots must be trained to the wall as soon as they are strong enough. The leading shoot is the most important, and will also require attention; this shoot ought to be stopped twice during the growing season, for the first time when it has grown a foot. A leading shoot will again be formed, and a number of laterals will also grow out, which must be treated as already advised. The leading shoot must be trained to the wall or trellis and again stopped. By this method of training all the wood that is formed will be fruitful. It is not advisable to pinch any of the shoots after the last week of July. At the end of the season it will be found that there are two classes of shoots amongst the laterals, strong shoots with a number of leaf-buds distributed over them, and weaker ones with only two, namely, one at the base and one at the extremity; these must not be interfered with. The stronger shoots may be cut back to a leaf-bud. Next season’s management and that of future years consists in training one or more shoots from the base of the laterals, which will furnish the bearing wood for next season; all other shoots must be pinched back very closely. At the end of the season the old wood should be removed, and the young bearing wood trained in its place. A wall may be very rapidly covered with trees trained in this way; and the method has not only utility and simplicity to recommend it, but the training and culture of the trees possess much interest to the enthusiast in fruit culture. The cordon system, as adapted to glass fruit ridges, deserves a word of notice. These ridges, as already noticed in the case of the pear, are in the form of a triangle, with a base of from 30 to 42 inches, and are made for convenience in seven-feet lengths, with a close and open end, so that the two butt against each other and form one fourteen-feet length, which is sufficiently large for one tree. The glass ridges may be placed on the level ground with their ends running north and south; but a better position for them is on a bank sloping to the south. The tree should be trained to a wire fixed in a horizontal position about six inches from the ground. The same456 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. system of summer pinching must be followed as that recommended for oblique cordons on walls, a little more latitude being allowed, as the main object in this case is to get the shoots regularly distributed over the inclosed space. In order to get the young wood in position two more wires may be advantageously fixed running parallel with the centre wire, and nine inches from it on each side. This method is worthy of the notice of those who have only limited means, and yet Would like to have a supply of peaches and nectarines. Thinning the Fruit.—If the tree is in a healthy state, and the flow of sap distributed as equally as possible throughout the respective branches, the fruit will set in much greater abundance than could be properly matured, and few will drop unless injured by frost when in a young state. It must therefore be thinned. To what extent thinning should be carried depends on the vigour of the tree and natural size of the fruit. If the tree is weakly, its fruit should be left thin as compared with that on a tree that is vigorous; and on weak branches fewer fruit should be left than on the more vigorous branches of the same tree. Large-fruited varieties, all other circumstances being the same, require more thinning than those that are small. Nectarines, being generally smaller than such peaches as the Noblesse, Barrington, &c., need not be so much thinned as these. A vigorous tree of good size may be allowed to bear as many as twenty dozens, and the fruit, if the foliage is healthy, ought to be large and tine. Trees are sometimes allowed to bear almost as many fruits as they will; the consequence is that the trees are weakened in producing a great number of stones, but the quantity of flesh is by no means in proportion, and the quality is very inferior. The fruits, though numerous, are small, thin-fleshed, sour, and would be reckoned unfit for use by those accustomed to eat peaches or nectarines in perfection. If there has been no frost to injure the kernels in spring the fruits may be pretty well thinned at once; but however healthy the tree may be, if the kernel is injured from the above-mentioned cause, the fruit is very liable to drop, and therefore it is necessary to leave a greater number till such time as the stone is formed. The first thinning should take place when the fruit is scarcely the size of a hazel-nut. By that time it will be seen that some of the fruits are larger than others. The smallest of course should be dispensed with. In removing the superfluous fruits care should be taken not to tear the bark off the shoots, as is likely to be the case if the fruit is pulled backwards towards the base of the shoot. The fruit should be a little twisted and pressed in the opposite direction, or it may be cut or clipped off. Other Culture.—With regard to the routine culture during the summer, besides the operations of pruning and training, one of the most essential points to be attended to is the condition of the roots in respect to moisture. In one week the roots may have just enough moisture, and if the weather is hot the tree will make shoots and foliage with great rapidity; in the second week rain may not fall in sufficient quantity to reach down to the roots, which have then to meet an increased demand from a diminished source of supply; and in the third week the tree exhibits symptoms of disease. The leaves droop and lose their healthy green hue; and although this appearance may have the effect of causing the watering tubs to be employed, yet when full-grown leaves have once been allowed to droop and assume a yellowish sickly tinge, they cannot again be brought quite to their former healthy condition, even if the attacks of insects, induced by dryness, had not to be taken into account, It is much easier to keep a tree healthy than to recover it after it has been allowed to become sickly. Let the border therefore be frequentlv inspected to the depth of the roots. If necessary, let the soil be forked over in ridges, and let the hollows be filled and refilled with water till the border is thoroughly moistened to the bottom. When the top soil has dried, so as to be in working condition, it should be levelled, and if a good mulching of stable litter can be given, it will keep the ground longer moist, as well as afford good nourishment to assist the swelling of the fruit. When the trees are kept in a proper condition as regards moisture at the root, less syringing will be necessary; nevertheless it is very beneficial. It is a good plan to syringe not only the trees, but the whole wall, several times before the flowers begin to open. It must be discontinued whilst the trees are in bloom, but it should be resumed as soon as the fruit is set. At that early period, and whilst the nights are cold, it is best to syringe early in the morning; later in the season four f.m, is a good time to commence. By taking care that the soil about the roots is never allowed to become too dry, and by syringing the foliage, the destructive attacks of the red spider will be prevented; finally, by syringing the trees, and then dusting them with suutf or powdered tobacco leaves, the green fly will be annihilated. Attention to these matters will insure a healthy foliage, and consequently healthy shoots; and if these are properly managed, according to the directions given for pruning and train-THE PEACH AND NECTARINE. 457 ing, well-grown trees and abundant crops will be insured where the climate is at all favourable. When the fruit approaches maturity, it should be exposed to the direct rays of the sun, by putting aside any leaves that shade it. By so doing the fruit becomes sooner and better ripened. In cold seasons and rather unfavourable situations this should be more especially attended to. Gathering. — Instruments of a funnel shape, lined with velvet or other soft substance, have been recommended for gathering peaches without handling them; but nothing is better than the hand, for with it the fruit can be grasped and pulled without touching the crown or part next the sun. The peach should be taken in the hollow of the hand, and the softest parts of the thumb and all the fingers applied as much as possible beliiud the fruit. If the latter is perfectly ripe it will easily part from the tree; so easily, indeed, that when the whole pressure is divided among the parts brought in contact with it, no place can be bruised. The fruit is often well coloured next the sun before it is ripe, the part next the wall being still green; but afterwards the green acquires a yellow tinge, by which the ripening can be known. Peaches may be gathered in the heat of the day without suffering any deterioration as regards flavour. Diseases and Insects.—If the peach-tree is managed as we have recommended it will generally be healthy. Under the best management, however, some trees will become diseased. Gamming is the most to be dreaded, and is very difficult to cure; indeed, if it pervades the tree to any considerable extent, the sooner the latter is dug up and replaced by a healthy subject the better. If the symptoms are but slight, the bark should be frequently well washed with a brush and water; this ought to be done in moist weather. The disease is apt to occur when the trees are planted in soil too richly manured, and whenever strong shoots are allowed to grow as much as they will, and are then cut back. It is not well to plant the tree with too much manure; but if that has been done, and the tree is inclined to overluxuriance, the greater care must be taken to divide the sap among the branches by judicious summer pruning, so that there may be no large pieces to cut out at the winter pruning. The mildew is also very destructive, but may be got rid of by means of flowers of sulphur, which should be applied on the first appearance of the disease. Indeed, it is a good plan to dust the trees over before mildew makes its appearance at all. Blistered leaves are occasioned by cold, and particularly when this occurs after warm weather. The growth of the midrib is arrested, and the circulation of the sap being obstructed, the leaves, or part of them, become swollen inert masses. There is no cure. The preventive is of course warm covering. The leaves that are most affected should be taken off at once, and those that are partially so as soon as warm weather sets in to produce fresh healthy foliage. The yellows is a disease little heard of, except in America, where it destroys whole orchards in a few years. It invariably manifests itself in trees growing on the peach stock, and consequently, in order to avoid it, they should be worked on the plum or on the almond. Sun-burning. — The bark of trees becomes scorched, in consequence of exposure to the sun’s rays. These take most effect on the stem and thick naked branches; to guard against ill effects arising from this cause, the former should be protected with tiles, slates, or any other suitable material, the latter by training some of the young shoots over them. The peach or poplar saw-fly (Tenthredo populi) deposits its eggs on the leaves of the peach and apricot in spring; and from them is hatched, in a few days, a pale green grub, which soon afterwards spins itself a web for protection, and begins to feed upon the foliage. When it has attained its full size, it descends to the ground, and spins itself a cocoon in the earth, where it remains till about the middle of April, when the perfect insect makes its appearance. Searching for the eggs at the time they are deposited, and burning the leaves upon which they are found, is the best preventive; but if not observed in time, the trees must be freed from the larvte by hand-picking. The red-legged garden-weevil (Otiwhynchus tenebrioosus), a small black beetle, sometimes does great mischief to peach and apricot trees by devouring the buds, leaves, and young shoots. The beetles hide themselves during the day in the earth round the stem of the tree, or in crevices in the wall, from which they emerge at night to carry on their ravages. Hand-picking at night, and pouring boiling water over the beetles, is the only known means of effecting their destruction. It is better, however, to kill the larvae, which are destructive to the roots of most fruit-trees and vegetables, by removing the soil from the foot of the wall and sprinkling salt upon it. The caterpillars of the figure-of-8 moth {Epi-sema cce^uleocephald) are very partial to the leaves of the peach; and, whenever observed, should be removed by hand-picking. The plum-tree tor-trix (Tortrix Weeberiand) also attacks the peach and apricot. The means already recommended should be adopted for its destruction. The458 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. garden-chafer (A nisoplia hordeola) feeds upon the leaves and flowers; it should therefore be sought after and destroyed whenever it appears, a trouble which is frequently rendered unnecessary by the formidable enemies which this insect finds in sparrows and sevei’al other birds. Aphides often prove troublesome; and as they multiply with astonishing rapidity, unless destroyed on their first appearance, prove very inj urious. Fumigation, syringing, and afterwards dusting with snuff, powdered tobacco, and syringing with a decoction of tobacco, are the most approved remedies. T1 le red spider (Acarus telarius) and thrips attack the peach; but if the trees are properly managed, are seldom very troublesome in the open ground. Should they, however, make their appearance, they must be destroyed by the application of sulphur, and by copious syringing. Earwigs and ants are very destructive to the ripe fruit; the former are easily trapped, by dozens, in pieces of bean-stalk 6 or 8 inches in length, and from which they should be blown every morning into a bottle of water. The ants may be driven away by frequently hoeing the border; and by raking it from time to time the more redoubtable attacks of biped depredators may, in most cases, be almost entirely prevented. THE ALMOND {Amygdalus communis, L.— Icosandria Monogynia, L.; Rosace®, D C.; Fig. 285. Dm pace®, Lind.) is a deciduous tree, growing to the height of 15 or 20 feet, a native of the warmer parts of Asia. The fruit consists of a dry or fleshy husk, and a shell of a greater or less I degree of hardness, containing a kernel, which is sweet or bitter according to the variety, and which is the edible portion. The kernel of the j sweet varieties is eaten at the dessert, and is largely used in confectionery and cookery. It also yields an oil, which is employed in medicine and the arts, especially in perfumery. The bitter almonds are used in the production of noyau and for flavouring confectionery. They are poisonous to birds and animals, a property which is due to j theircontaining hydrocyanic acid. They also yield an oil which is extensively used in flavouring, I but great caution should be exercised in its use, I as it is very poisonous. The almond seldom bears any considerable ! quantity of fruit, even in the southern parts of : the kingdom; for the blossoms appearing in j March, and sometimes in February, are fre-j quently destroyed by frost; and even if they do escape, there is rarely sufficient sun-heat to ripen the fruit as well as that imported from the south of France, and which can be purchased at a j cheaper rate than almonds could be produced in this country. The tree is therefore rarely planted for any other purpose than ornament, or occasionally as a stock for the peach and nectarine. Little is known respecting the comparative ! merits in this country of the varieties; and the following particulars as to the principal sorts are, with the exception of such synonyms as could be discovered in the present imperfect state of our knowledge, chiefly taken upon the authority of M. Vilmorin, in the Transacdons of the Horticultural Society of London, vol. iv. p. 408:— 1. Common—syn. Common Sweet, Amandier Com-muii, Amandier a petit fruit, Amande Commune.—Nut about 1] inch in length; shell hard and smooth, terminating in a sharp point; kernel small, sweet, hut inferior to that of the other kinds. It is productive, and the sort most commonly cultivated in France. According to Downing it is one of the most hardy and productive kinds in the climate of New York. It is frequently used as a stock for the peach. 2. Hakd-shei>led Sweet—syn. Amande douce acoque dure.—Nut about 1J inch long, smooth, and of a dull colour; shell thick and hard; kernel small. It only differs from the Common in having larger fruit; it is the sort preferred for stocks. 3. Soft-shelled Sweet—syn. Amande douce a coque tendre, Amande Sultane ii coque tendre—resembles the preceding, but has a tender shell; kernel sweet and of good flavour, usually eaten in a young state. Very productive in France. 4. Ladtes’ Almond — syn. Amandier des Dames, Amande des Dames, Amande Princepe, Amande a coque ties tendre.—Nut oval, more than 1 inch in length; shell of a light colour, porous, and so tender that it can be broken between the fingers; kernel sweet and rich. It is considered the best sort, but appears not to be so hardy as the Common. This variety is synonymousTHE GOOSEBERRY. 459 with the Amandier a coque tendre of Duhamel, and perhaps therefore the same as the Soft-shelled Sweet Almond. 5. Sultana Almond—syn. Amandier Sultane, Amande Sultane.—The nut resembles that of the Ladies’ Almond, but is smaller; and it is probably only a trifling variation of that sort. The tree is not an abundant bearer, and is peculiar to the south of France. 6. Pistachia Almond—syn. Amandier Pistache, Amande Pistache.—The nut of this is small, somewhat resembling a pistachia nut in size and form. 7. Bitter Almond.—This differs little from the Common, except in the kernel being bitter. The shell is generally hard and of a dark colour; but there are several sub-varieties, differing in the size of the nut, as well as in the colour and thickness of the shell. 8. Peach Almond—syn. Amandier Pecher, Amande Peche, Amande a pulpe.—This appears to be a cross between the peach and almond. It produces two kinds of fruit on the same tree, and sometimes on the same branch. The one is large, fleshy, and succulent, like a peach, but bitter, and only edible when cooked; the other has only a dry husk like the almond. They both contain a stone with a tolerably sweet kernel. The almond prefers a warm, deep soil, well drained, and not too heavy. It also requires a sheltered situation and a warm aspect. Propagation is effected by seed, and by budding on the almond or on the plum stock, for the perpetuation of the varieties. In raising from seed, the finest and most perfectly ripened almonds should be selected and stratified in damp sand, in November. When they have germinated, they may be planted in March or April, 2 inches deep, in light, rich, well-dug ground, and in a warm situation. They may be placed 18 inches apart, in rows 2 feet asunder, and many of them may be budded near the ground the same year, or standard high when two or three years older. In the autumn of the year after budding, the young trees may be planted where they are to remain; they should be carefully taken up, so as to preserve the fibrous roots as much as possible, and the tap-roots should be shortened by about one-third of their length. They ought then to be planted in well-trenched ground, and supported with stakes till well established. Though the almond stock is generally to be preferred, yet when the subsoil where the trees are to be grown is of a cold, moist, heavy nature, and where the surface soil is shallow, it is generally better to bud upon the plum, as its roots do not strike so deeply into the ground, and are not so liable to suffer from an excess of humidity. The almond may be trained as a standard, half standard, dwarf standard, or as a pyramid; and, in respect to pruning, it may be treated like the apricot. If fruit be produced, as sometimes happens, it may either be gathered whilst the shell is soft for immediate use, or it may remain on the trees till it drop. After gathering, the husks should be taken off and the nuts spread out on the shelves of the fruit-room to dry. Afterwards, they may be packed in dry clean sand, and kept in a dry cool place. CHAPTER XVIII. THE GOOSEBERRY, CURRANT, RASPBERRY, STRAWBERRY, ELDER, MULBERRY, CRANBERRY, &c. THE GOOSEBERRY {Ribes GrossulaHa, L., and Ribes uva crispa, L.—Pentandria Monogynia, L.; Grossulariese, D. C.; Grossulariaceie, Lind.) is a deciduous shrub, a native of Britain and other parts of Europe. The plant is very hardy, although the blossoms and young fruit are very liable to be destroyed by late spring frosts. It succeeds, near the level of the sea, in the most northern parts of the island, and even far above that level as far north as latitude 57° 15'; for, according to some interesting observations made by the Rev. James Farquliarson of Alford, and published in Murray’s Encyclopedia of Geography, it only ceases to be productive at an elevation of 900 feet. The gooseberry not only grows and bears well in the comparatively cool climate of Scotland and the north of England, but the fruit is also better flavoured than in the hotter parts of the south. The fruit is not so good when it is rapidly brought to maturity by very hot weather, as it is when brought forward slowly by a moderate temperature. At Alford the mean temperature of July is about 56° or 57°, and that of August about 56°; at Glasgow, the mean of those months is respectively 61'25° and 59'78°; at Manchester, about the same; and at Lancaster, 57'71° and 57'05°. At these places the fruit acquires its full richness of flavour; but near London, where the mean of July is about 63°, and that of August about 62°, it is frequently overheated in ripening; the large sorts with thin skins appear as if parboiled, especially where the soil is not tender, rich, well manured, and moist, likewise where the trees are pruned so as not to afford sufficient shade. In consequence of the great number of gooseberry shows held in Lancashire, Cheshire, and Yorkshire, the cultivation of this fruit has been carried to a wonderful perfection as regards size, but the prizes being almost exclusively offered for the heaviest berries, the improvement as regards flavour has not progressed in a corresponding degree in these districts. This is to be regretted; for, doubtless, if prizes were offered4G0 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. for seedlings of the best flavour, sorts superior in this respect would be produced. Many of the varieties that are large and coarse are, however, very useful for culinary purposes, for the young fruit soon acquires a size fit for pies, tarts, and puddings; hence they are of great importance in the neighbourhood of large towns. In this way the gooseberry, thong! not the first ripe, is of all hardy fruits the earliest fit for use. Of the varieties, which are very numerous, the following are amongst the most esteemed:-— Class I.—Fruit Red. § 1.—Surface hispid. 1. Red Champagne— syn. Countess of Errol, Dr. Davis’ Upright, Red Turkey and Ironmonger of Scotland.—Brandies remarkably erect. Fruit small, roundish oblong, hairy, light red, rather thick-skinned, very j rich and excellent, with a clear vinous pulp. Middling j early, and a good bearer. 2. Red Warrington—syn. Aston, Aston Seedling, Volunteer.—Branches pendulous, armed with strong prickles, which are generally triple. Fruit roundish j oblong, hairy, red, thick-skinned, with a clear, rich, vinous pulp. Late, and an abundant bearer. One of the best sorts. 3. Scotch Best Jam—syn. Dumpling, Ironmonger of some.—Branches erect. Leaves pubescent above. Fruit small, roundish, slightly hairy, dark red, thick-skinned, brisk, and rich. Middling early, and a good bearer. 4. Ironmonger—syn. Hairy Black.—Branches spreading. Leaves pubescent. Fruit small, roundish, hairy, dark red, with rather a thick skin, rich, and very good, but not so rich as the Red Champagne, with which it is often confounded. Middling Early. 5. Raspberry—syn. Old Preserver.—Branches spreading, somewhat pendulous. Fruit small, roundish oblong, hairy, dark red, thick-skinned, rich and sweet, with a raspberry flavour. Very early, and a good bearer. 6. Keens’ Seedling—syn. Keens’ Seedling Warrington.— Branches somewhat pendulous. Fruit middle-sized, oblong, very hairy, bright red, thin-skinned, rich, and excellent. A good bearer, ripening earlier than the Red Warrington. 7. Rough Red—syn. Little Red Hairy, Old Scotch Red, Thick-skinned Red.—Branches spreading, rather upright. Leaves smooth. Fruit small, roundish, very hairy, dark red, rather thick-skinned, of good flavour. Early, and an abundant bearer. Esteemed for preserving. 8. Small Dark Rough Red—syn. Small Rough Red. —Branches spreading, rather upright. Leaves pubescent. Fruit small, round, very hairy, dark red, nearly black when fully ripe, rather thick-skinned, of good flavour. Early, and an abundant bearer. 9. Rob Roy.—Branches erect. Fruit middle-sized, obovate, hairy, pale red, of rich flavour. Very early. 10. Leigh’s Rifleman—syn. Allcock’s Duke of York, Grange’s Admirable, Yates’ Royal Anne. — Branches somewhat erect. Fruit very large, roundish oblong, hairy, red intermixed with green, thick-skinned, sharp, rich, and agreeable. Late, and a good bearer. 11. Bratherton’s Lord of the Manor.—Branches spreading. Fruit very large, roundish, hairy, red, rather thick-skinned, very good. Late, and a good bearer. 12. Lomas’ Victory.—Branches somewhat pendulous. Fruit rather large, roundish oblong, hairy, light red, thin-skinned, of moderately good flavour. The unripe berries are esteemed for cooking. 13. Milling’s Crown Bob.—Branches pendulous. Fruit very large, roundish oblong, hairy, red mixed with green near the stalk, bright red towards the opposite I end, thin-skinned, and of good flavour. Rather late; an abundant bearer. 14. Monarch (Bratherton).—Fruit very large, oblong, hairy, deep red; of good quality. A very heavy and sure bearer. 15. Cheshire Lady.^Branches erect. Leaves pubescent. Fruit middle-sized, oblong, hairy, deep red, rich and excellent, with a clear pulp. Rather late. 10. Forester.—Fruit large and uniform, hairy, bright red, and of excellent flavour. Early; an abundant bearer. 17. Dr. Hogg (Leicester).—Branches erect. Fruit very large, slightly hairy, purplish red, veined with a darker shade, of good flavour. IS. Magnet.— Branches spreading. Fruit large, very long, hairy, light red, flavour very good. Early; an excellent bearer. 19. Henson’s Seedling.—Branches erect. Fruit of medium size, roundish oblong, very hairy, deep red, of excellent flavour. Late, and an abundant bearer. § 2.—Surface downy. 20. Miss Bold—syn. Pigeon’s Egg of some.—Branches spreading, somewhat erect. Leaves pubescent above. Fruit middle-sized, roundish oblong, very downy, sometimes slightly hairy, light red, tender-skinned, sweet, and of very good flavour. Early, and an abundant bearer. 21. Berry’s Farmer’s Glory.—Branches somewhat pendulous. Leaves slightly pubescent above. Fruit very large, obovate, downy, red intermixed with green, thick skinned, well flavoured. Middling early; an abundant bearer. § 3.—Surface smooth. 22. Red Turkey—syn. Smooth Red.—Branches somewhat erect. Fruit small, obovate, smooth, shining, dark red, thick-skinned, of an agreeable sweet flavour. Late, and a good bearer. 23. London (Banks).—Branches pendulous. Fruit very large, of a roundish ovate shape; skin smooth, of a dark red colour. Quality rather inferior; a somewhat tender and uncertain bearer, but the largest gooseberry grown. Class II. — Fruit Yellow. § 4.—Surface hispid. 24. Yellow Champagne — syn. Hairy Amber.— Branches erect. Fruit small, roundish oblong, hairy, yellow, thin-skinned, rich and excellent. Rather late; an abundant bearer. The best yellow-fruited variety. 25. Sulphur—syn. Rough Yellow.—Branches erect. Fruit small, roundish, hairy, yellow, moderately thick-skinned, of rich flavour. Rather late; a good bearer. 20. Hebburx Yellow Aston.—Branches erect. Fru it small, roundish oblong, hairy, deep yellow, thin-skinned, very good. Middliug early; an abundant bearer. 27. Early Sulphur—syn. Golden Ball, Golden Bull, Moss’s Seedling.—Branches erect, armed with numer-THE GOOSEBERRY. 4G1 ous strong prickles, which are generally triple. Leaves light green, pubescent above. Fruit middle-sized, roundish oblong, very hairy, bright yellow, thin-skinned, tolerably good. Very early, and an abundant bearer, j Its earliness is its principal merit. It is distinguished I from the Sulphur by its earliness, and the leaves being pubescent. 28. Peru (Cook). — Branches spreading, somewhat pendulous. Fruit large, long, and tapering, slightly hairy, pale yellow, of a very good flavour. 29. Catherixa.—Fruit very large, obovate, slightly hairy, bright yellow, of excellent flavour. 30. High Sheriff.—Branches pendulous. Fruit very large, round, hairy, orange yellow, of excellent flavour. An abundant bearer. 31. Mount Pleasant.—Fruit large, long, hairy, deep yellow, of very good flavour. Late, and an abundant bearer. 32. Garibaldi.—Branches pendulous. Fruit very large, long, hairy, bright orange yellow, of very good flavour. An abundant bearer. 33. Fanny. — Branches erect. Fruit large, round, hairy, pale yellow, of a rich, fine flavour. An excellent bearer. § 5.—Surface downy. 34. Rumbullion—syn. Round Yellow, Yellow Globe. —Branches erect. Fruit small, roundish oblong, very downy, pale yellow, rather thick-skinned, of moderately good flavour. Middling early, and a very abundant bearer. It is much cultivated for bottling. § G.—Surface smooth. 35. Beaumont’s Smiling Beauty.—Branches somewhat pendulous. Fruit large, oblong, quite smooth, yellowish white, thin-skinned, somewhat transparent, sweet and good. Early, and an abundant bearer. 3G. Yellow Ball.—Branches erect. Fruit middle-sized, roundish, smooth, yellow, thick-skinned, of good flavour. Deserving of cultivation on account of its lateness. 37. Drill.—Branches spreading. Fruit large, long, smooth, greenish yellow, of good flavour. Late, and an abundant bearer. 38. Leveller.—Fruit large, long and tapering, smooth, greenish yellow, of good flavour. An excellent bearer. Class III.—Fruit Green. § 7.—Surface hispid. 39. Early Green Hairy—syn. Early Green, Green Gascoigne.—Branches erect. Leaves dark green, slightly pubescent. Fruit small, round, hairy, deep green, thin-skinned, very sweet, and rich. Very early; a good bearer. 40. Hebburn Green Prolific. —Branches erect, j Fruit middle-sized, roundish, hairy, dull green, rather thick-skinned, sweet, and very rich. Early, and an abundant bearer. 41. Glenton Green—syn. York Seedling.—Branches ; somewhat pendulous. Leaves pubescent above. Fruit \ middle-sized, oblong, narrower at the base than at the opposite end, very hairy, green, with whitish veins, thick-skinned, very sweet, and good. Early. 42. Thunder.—Fruit large, roundish, hairy, green, of excellent flavour. Early, and an abundant bearer. 43. Broom Girl.—Bran cites erect. Fruit very large, roundish, hairy, yellowish olive, thin-skinned, and of first-rate flavour. Early, and an abundant bearer. § 8.—Surface downy. 44. Gregory’s Perfection.—Branches pendulous, very prickly. Fruit middle-sized, round, slightly downy, green, veined with white, rather thick-skinned, sweet, and agreeable. Late; a moderate bearer. 45. Parkinson’s Laurel — syn. Green Laurel.— Branches erect. Fruit large, obovate, very downy, pale green, nearly white, thin-skinned, very sweet. Rather late, and an abundant bearer. 4(3. Collier’s Jolly Angler—syn. Collins’ Jolly Angler, Lay’s Jolly Angler.—Branches erect. Fruit large, oblong, downy, light green, thin-skinned, of good flavour. Late, and a good bearer. § 9.—Surface smooth. 47. Pitmaston Green Gage.—Branches erect. Fruit small, obovate, smooth, green, rather thick-skinned, rich, very sugary, and excellent. Late, and an abundant bearer. The fruit will hang till it shrivels without deteriorating in flavour, like that of most other varieties. 48. Edwards’ Jolly Tar.—Branches somewhat pendulous. Leaves rather large, of a shining deep green colour. Fruit very large, roundish obovate, smooth, green, veined with yellow, rather thick-skinned, rich and sweet. Middling early; a good bearer. 49. Massey’s Heart of Oak.—Branches pendulous. Fruit large, oblong, with a thick footstalk tapering into the fruit, smooth, green, with pale yellowish veins, thin-skinned, rich, and excellent. Middling early; an abundant bearer. 50. Allen’s Glory of Ratcliff.—Branches spreading, somewhat pendulous. Fruit middle-sized, oblong, quite smooth, light green, thick-skinned, very good, and sweet. Middling early; a moderate bearer. 51. Green "Walnut—syn. Nonpareil, Smooth Green, Belmont’s Green of some.—Branches spreading. Leaves adpressed to the branches. Fruit middle-sized, obovate, smooth, dull dark green, very thin-skinned, sweet, moderately good. Early, and an abundant bearer. 52. Green Overall.--Fruit middle-sized, round, I smooth, dark green, of first-rate flavour. An early I variety, and bears abundantly. 53. Keepsake (Banks).—Branches slightly pendulous, of very strong growth. Fruit large, obovate, smooth, but sometimes hairy, green, thin-skinned; flavour excellent. Ripens early. 54. Shiner.--Branches spreading. Fruit large, round, smooth, pale green, of very good flavour. A free bearer, and one of the heaviest green gooseberries. Class IV.—Fruit White. § 10.—Surface hispid. 55. Adams’ Snow-ball.—Branches pendulous. Fruit middle-sized or rather large, roundish, slightly hairy, rich, and sweet. Middling early. 56. White Champagne. —Bran dies very erect. Lea ves pubescent above. Fruit small, roundish oblong, hairy, slightly downy, white, rather thick-skinned, sweet, and rich. Middling early; a moderate bearer. 57. Taylor’s Bright Venus.—Branches erect. Fruit middle-sized, obovate, very slightly hairy, white, sugary,462 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. rich, and excellent, hanging till it shrivels. Middling I early; a good bearer. 58. Clewokth’s White Lion.—Branches somewhat pendulous. Fruit large, obovate, slightly hairy, white, thin-skinned, rich, and excellent. Very late. 59. Royal White.—Branches erect. Leaves pubescent. Fruit small, round, downy, and slightly hairy, white, thin-skinned, very rich, and good. GO. Jackson’s Abraham Newland.—Branches erect. Fruit large, oblong, slightly hairy, white, rich, sweet, and excellent. Late. 6L Princess Royal.—Branches pendulous. Fruit huge, obovate, hairy, greenish-white, of excellent flavour. A very good bearer. 62. Snowdrop (Bratherton). — Fruit very large, roundish, hairy, white, veined with green, thin-skinned, and of excellent flavour. An abundant bearer. 63. ; Porcupine. — Fruit small, roundish oval, extremely hispid and downy. Flavour rich and honeyed. 64. Antagonist. — Fruit very large, long, hairy, creamy white, of good flavour. The largest white exhibition gooseberry. An excellent bearer. § 11.—Surface downy. 65. Woodward’s Whitesmith—syn. Whitesmith, Grundy’s Lady Lilford, Hall’s Seedling, Lancashire Lass, Sir Sidney Smith.—Branches erect. Fruit large, roundish oblong, very downy, white, thin-skinned, excellent. A variety rarely equalled, scarcely ever excelled. Middling early; an abundant bearer. 66. Large Early' White.—Branches erect. Fruit large, obovate, downy, greenish white, thin-skinned, and of rich flavour. Very early. 67. Saunders’ Cheshire Lass. — Branches erect. Fruit large, oblong, downy, white, thin-skinned, rich, and sweet. Very early, and a good bearer. 68. Early White.—Branches spreading. Fruit roundish oblong, slightly downy, yellowish white, with a thin transparent skin, very sweet, and well flavoured. Early, and an abundant bearer. 69. Stringer’s Maid of the Mill.—Branches erect. Fruit large, roundish oblong, or somewhat ovate, very downy, Yvhite, thin-skinned, excellent. Early, and an abundant bearer. § 12.—Surface smooth. 70. White Honey.—Branches erect. Fruit small or middle-sized, roundish oval, generally smooth, white, rather thick-skinned, rich, and of excellent flavour. 71. White Fig.—Branches erect. Fruit small, obovate, tapering to the stalk, smooth, white, rather thick-skinned, rich, and excellent. It will hang and shrivel on the plant like a raisin. The bush is not vigorous. 72. White Damson.—Branches erect. Fruit small, roundish, smooth, greenish white, thin-skinned, excellent. Very early, and a good bearer. 73. Cook’s White Eagle.—-Branches rather erect. Fruit large, obovate, smooth, white, thick-skinned, of good flavour. 74. Peer’s Queen Charlotte.—Branches somewhat erect. Fruit middle-sized, oblong, smooth, yellowish white, thin-skinned, flavour very good. Early, a moderate bearer. 77. Careless. — Fruit very large, long, smooth, creamy white, very handsome, and of good flavour. An abundant bearer. Propagation.—The gooseberry is easily propagated by seeds, cuttings, layers, and suckers. New varieties can, of course, only be obtained from seed. The seeds ought to be washed, and merely dried on sheets of brown paper, but not hardened by exposure to the sun. They should then be sown in rich sandy loam in the open ground, or in pots filled with loam, sand, and leaf-mould, covering in either case with about an inch deep of soil. Those sown in beds will be fit for transplanting into nursery rows in the following autumn. Those sown in pots may be forwarded by potting them singly, as soon as fit, into small pots, and taking care to shift again, or transplant, before the roots get in the least matted. The seedlings will generally come into bearing in the third or fourth year. Propagation by cuttings is the usual mode, and is performed in autumn, winter, or spring; but early in autumn is the best time. Cuttings of almost any length may be struck, but vigorous firm-wooded shoots are the best. If the cuttings are taken off close to the branch from which they spring, so much the better. Their points should be cut off so as to leave the cutting 10 inches or 1 foot in length. The buds on the lower end ought to be cut out. The minute ones at the base should be strictly looked after, and completely eradicated. This disbudding ought to extend to the height of 6 inches from the base. The prickles may also be so far removed. The soil for the cuttings should be rich and free, as wel l as rather moist, or if otherwise, xvatering must be well attended to. The cuttings should be planted in lines 1 foot apart, and about 6 or 8 inches from each other in the row. Some plant with a dibber; but it is better to cut out a small trench by the side of a line, and placing them with their lower end about 4 inches below the surface, to press the soil close to their base. It may be observed that roots are emitted from any part of the cutting below ground; therefore it may be presumed that the deeper it is inserted the more roots will be produced. This is true to some extent; nevertheless it is found that roots produced along a great length of shoot, like fibres from a tap-root, are not so vigorous and effective as those which proceed from points nearer the leaves; at least this is the case with the gooseberry, which is not naturally a tap-rooted plant. There may be some ad\rantage whilst the elaborated sap of the long cutting is not exhausted; but afterwards it must be recollected that before the returning sap from the leaves can reach the lower roots, it must deposit woody matter in its progress all along from the base of each leaf till it reach the fibres. If theTHE GOOSEBERRY. 463 cutting were f inch in circumference, and inserted to the depth of 12 inches, and supposing that a considerable number of roots were emitted at that depth, then, before the returning sap could reach the lower roots, it must deposit a layer of woody matter over a surface of 9 square inches. If, however, the cutting were inserted only to the depth of four inches, then, all other circumstances being the same, the surface of the underground portion would be only 3 square inches, or only one-third of that of the cutting 12 inches deep, and leaving two-thirds more returning sap to go to the formation of roots. It has even been ascertained that a plant from a deeply-inserted cutting succeeds better when its lower part is cut away in transplanting. From what has been stated, it is evident that the cutting must not be made very long, neither should it be deeply inserted in the ground; from 4 to 5 inches is, we consider, a proper depth. Layering is a sure mode, and may be resorted to when plants of any particular sort are required to be speedily obtained, without risk of failure, though the plants are not so handsome as those raised from cuttings; but the most rapid mode of obtaining well-rooted plants is by that which has been termed layering by insertion of the growing point. In moist seasons, it may have been observed that occasionally many of the pendulous Lancashire sorts naturally strike root in summer at the extremities when these come in contact with the soil. If towards the end of June the tips of the shoots of any variety are inserted to the depth of an inch in soil that has been recently dug and made fine, they will form a large quantity of roots before autumn, together with a bud for a shoot. In autumn these plants will be so well-rooted that they may be taken up, and either planted where they are to remain, or put in nursery rows till next autumn; but, in doing so, great care must be taken not to break the bud formed at the crown of the bundle of roots. Propagation by suckers is generally considered objectionable, as the plants so obtained are apt to produce suckers. In a well-managed plantation there should be no suckers to propagate from; but in the case of scarce sorts, it may be advisable to encourage them for the sake of increase. They should be planted in autumn, and transplanted a year afterwards, on which occasion the roots, whilst out of the ground, ought to be closely examined, and every bud completely removed. By a little care good plants with clean steins may be formed; and if the shoots and leaves are kept healthy and vigorous, the disposition to produce suckers will be easily overcome. Soil and Situation.—The gooseberry will succeed in any good garden soil that is sufficiently loose and permeable for its roots, and rather moist than dry. It does not grow well in stiff clays that become hard in hot dry weather. For growing very large fruit, a compost may be employed, consisting of good turfy loam, plenty of rotten stable manure, and peat or leaf mould. This should be laid in a ridge, and frequently turned till the whole is well incorporated. The fruit is best flavoured from an open situation. The trees may be planted and trained against espaliers in the north, but in the southern parts of the kingdom the fruit generally wants protection from the sun’s rays, rather than exposure to them, when ripening; and accordingly it is found to succeed better in quarters in the bush form, one branch shading the other, than when the branches are individually exposed. They may, however, be planted anywhere on a north wall. Planting.—In quarters, the planting may be done in the quincunx form, and in this way if the distance between the plants is to be six feet, that of the rows from each other will require to be 5 feet 2§ inches. These we consider to be good medium distances, but in rich soil they may be increased, and in poor ground diminished. The bottom of the holes should be made convex; and in planting the roots must be regularly spread out, and not deeper than they were before removal. Pruning.—With regard to the pruning of gooseberry plants intended for quarters, the first thing to be considered is the height of the stem; for an equality of vigour would be very difficult to maintain between two or more, and if it were not, irregularity of growth would result. The stem should be kept clean to the height of 3 or 4 inches, so as to admit of the ground being dug, hoed, or raked close to the plants. If the cuttings allow of that height, and have at the same time three buds above it for as many shoots, the height of the stem and point of origin of the primary branches may be considered as determined; but if the cutting is too short to admit of this, a shoot must be trained upright, and cut at the winter pruning, so as to afford 3 or 4 inches of clean stem and three buds for shoots, but in case of accident an additional bud may be preserved. When the three primary shoots from the cutting have made their first summer’s growth, they should be shortened in autumn to about 6 inches in length. If any laterals have been produced, let these be cut back to their lowest eye. In the following season, from each of the three shoots that were shortened back in autumn,464 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. encourage two shoots, namely, one from a bud pointing to the right hand, and one from another pointing to the left. These shoots should be trained a little outwards in summer, when their wood becomes firm enough to bend without breaking; but in the south the bushes must not be made so much cup-shaped, otherwise the fruit is apt to be scorched. The tree will now have six leading shoots, and in autumn these may be shortened to 7 or 8 inches. All other shoots ought to be spurred, or cut back to within an i inch of their bases. The next subdivision of each of the leading shoots will of course produce , twelve, which will be a sufficient number of | branches, and then the tree may be considered to be pei'fectly formed. The branches should be, as nearly as possible, at equal distances; and with this in view, if a shoot is seen approaching too near the adjoining one, it should be cut to a bud pointing somewhat in the opposite direction. Either naturally, or in consequence of shortening the leading shoots, laterals will be produced. These should be cut back to one eye if weak, or two or three if strong. Shoots that start up with greater vigour than the generality ought to be stopped in summer, unless they are likely to be wanted to till lip a vacancy. When there is an equal degree of vigour in the respective branches, the tree will be more healthy than if some were allowed to be too weak in consequence of others becoming too strong, and the fruit will also be finer flavoured. The largest fruit is, however, produced on vigorous shoots of the preceding summer; and therefore, when size is the object, young shoots must be encouraged to supply the place of old wood, which must be cut away. According to Mi-. Saul of Lancaster, a very intelligent cultivator of the gooseberry, the Lancashire growers, who excel in growing very large gooseberries for prizes, transplant the young plants with three shoots in the first instance, as we have recommended, only they incline them nearly to a horizontal position. For this purpose they employ hooked sticks to pull down the shoots that are inclined to grow upright, and forked ones to support those that are inclined to grow too drooping, as the shoots of many of the prize sorts are. By next autumn these three shoots will have produced a number of side shoots, most of which may be cut back to one eye, and the others to half their length. The less the number of shoots, and the younger the tree, the larger will be the fruit. In November the tree is pruned so as to consist of the three primary shoots, each bearing two young shoots, which are shortened to about 7 inches in length. These last are pruned in the following autumn so as to have only two young shoots each; all the others are to be closely cut offi “ In all following years the system of pruning and thinning which I particularly recommend is to keep a moderate and constant supply of strong healthy young shoots, from which alone can be expected large and fine fruit; and wherever the extremities grow beyond the proper bounds, such branches should be cut back so as to keep the tree in a compact form, and furnished sufficiently, though rather thinly, with new bearing wood; for large fruit cannot be expected if the tree is too much crowded with old and young wood. “ It is not only to the branches and top of the tree,” continues Mr. Saul, “ that the care of those who wish to excel in the cultivation of the gooseberry must be directed; they must pay attention to the roots also, as it is necessary they should be pruned every two or three years. When a root therefore has extended too far from the stem, let it be uncovered, and all the strongest leaders shortened back nearly one-lialf of their length, and covered in with fresh marly loam. This will cause new and more active roots to be formed nearer the stem, and give the whole tree new vigour.”—Gardener's Magazine, vol. iii. p. 422. Trenches filled with compost or manure are formed round the tree in advance of the roots, into which these may strike root. This will insure plenty of nourishment; and, besides, the trees are mulched and regularly supplied with water both as regards the roots and foliage. The fruit is also thinned excessively, so as to leave only two or three on each branch. By these means, and by placing a saucer with water under the fruit, the latter attains an enormous size— upwards of 1| ounce in some cases. Under these circumstances richness of flavour cannot be expected. By the mode of pruning which we have described, the bushes will assume a concave form. This will be suitable for the northern and midland parts of the kingdom, but in the warmest parts of the south it exposes the fruit too much to the sun, and therefore many growers leave a few shoots in the middle. Some prune their bushes only every second year, only half their plantation being pruned in one season, and the other half the next. In the portion not pruned the young fruit often escapes destniction from spring frosts, whilst that on the pruned trees, from being more exposed, is cut oft'; and again, if excessively hot weather should set in when the fruit is ripening, the unpruned bushes afford more shade. Gooseberries may be trained against espaliers or ]xiles, in which case the fan mode is the mostTHE CURRANT. 465 to be preferred, because it affords the greatest facility for training in a succession of young wood. They are also trained on arched trelisses. For this purpose they ought to be planted 15 or 18 inches apart, and trained with a single stem, which should be shortened at the autumn pruning, in order that it may be well furnished with spurs and laterals to fill the space; but none of these laterals should be allowed to grow so strong as the leading shoot, otherwise it will not make good progress. Other Culture.—Gooseberry plantations should be dressed in autumn, taking care in stirring the soil not to injure the roots. The surface of the soil near the stems ought to be drawn back towards the middle of the interval. Manure should be plentifully supplied; and the digging must be chiefly performed with the fork, especially near the roots. Diseases and Insects.—Me are not aware of any disease peculiar to the gooseberry; but it often suffers severely from the attacks of several destructive species of insects. The magpie-moth (Abraxas grossulariata) deposits its eggs upon the foliage, and from them is hatched in September a slightly hairy cream-coloured caterpillar, spotted with black, and marked with orange along the sides, and which forms a loop in walking. It feeds upon the leaves during autumn and spi’ing, devouring all but the petiole, and often entirely defoliating both gooseberry and currant bushes. It changes into a pupa in May or June, and in about three weeks afterwards the perfect insect makes its appearance. Hand-picking the caterpillars at an early stage of their growth, and, still better, burning the leaves on which the eggs are laid, are the troublesome means by which this destructive pest may be got rid of. Pouring over the bushes ammoniacal liquor diluted with water is stated by Mr. Beaton to be the easiest mode of destroying the caterpillars; but, as he justly remarks, the strength of ammoniacal liquor varies greatly, it is therefore advisable to ascertain by experiment the least amount of dilution which will not prove injurious in the sun to the leaves. Another destructive insect is the caterpillar of Phahena Vanaria. It is about an inch in length, of a bluish-green colour, dotted with black tubercles, has ten legs, and, like the caterpillar of the magpie-moth, forms a loop in walking. It changes into a pupa towards the end of May, and the perfect insect appears in the following month, or in July. Hand-picking as soon as the larva is perceived, and dusting the bushes with hellebore powder, or with lime, are the means usually employed for its destruction; and as the insect undergoes all its transformations on the ground, scattering newly-slaked lime round the bushes when the caterpillars quit these, is perhaps the best means of preventing the repetition of the mischief in the following year. The gooseberry and currant saw-fly (Nematus Ribesii) deposits its eggs on the under surface of the leaf, by the side of the principal nervures, early in spring, and successive broods of flies appear until October. The larvae devour the leaves, leaving only the petiole; and when full grown, which is the case when they are about | inch in length, descend to the earth, spin a cocoon, and change into pupae, from which another brood of flies soon emerges. Burning the leaves upon which the eggs are laid, and hand-picking where the plantation is not very extensive, syringing the bushes and then dusting with lime, which should also be scattered round the stems, and sprinkling the leaves with lime-water, are the remedies usually adopted. As a sure mode of destroying this insect, Dr. Hogg recommends covering the ground early in spring, two or three inches deep, with fresh tan from the tanyard, and digging it in during the autumn or winter. Removing early in spring the soil from round the bushes to the depth of 3 or 4 inches, and burying it in deep trenches in order to entomb the pupae, is a good preventive measure. Syringing the bushes in the evening, and sprinkling them with salt or soot, as well as flowers of sulphur applied with a sulpliurator, are likewise said to be infallible remedies. In addition to the formidable enemies above enumerated, birds frequently prove very destructive by picking out the buds in spring. Little can be done to prevent their attacks in extensive plantations, but in small gardens the bushes may be covered with netting. CURRANTS (Ribes—Pentandria Monogynia, L.; Grossularieie, D.C.; Grossulariaceae, Lind.)— Of these there are three principal sorts, the Red {It. rubrum, L.), the White, a pale-fruited variety of the same species, and the Black (P. nigrum, L.) Both species are indigenous to Britain. The red currant is extensively used for pies, tarts, and jellies; and both that and the white are employed for making currant-wine. The white, being less acid than the red, is preferred for the dessert, to which, however, for contrast, both sorts are occasionally introduced. The skin of the black currant contains an essential oil, which renders it disagreeable to many persons, still the fruit is in much request for preserving and for making wine. On the whole currants are important objects of cultivation, especially in the neighbourhood of towns, where the fruit, during the long 30466 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. period of the season in which it is fit for use, is always in demand. The most esteemed varieties are:— 1. Red Dutch—syn. Large Red Dutch, New Red \ Dutch, Large Red, Long-hunched Red, Red Grape, Grosseillier rouge a gros fruit.—Surpassed by none in size of bunch, quality, and abundant bearing; it ripens early, and the berries are large, juicy, bright red. 2. Knight’s Large Red—syn. Lauder’s Red, Pit- ! maston Red, Goliath, Large Sweet Red.—Leaves broad. Lunches large. Berries of a fine deep red. An abundant bearer, but not quite so early as Red Dutch; berries medium size, bright red. 3. Goxdouin— syn. Raby Castle, May’s Victoria, Im-periale Rouge.—Bunches long. Berries large, equal in size to those of Knight’s Large Red, with a sharp acidity; ripening late and hanging well. Vigorous and suitable for growing as a standard or large bush. 4. Houghton Seedling—syn. Houghton Castle, Or-angefield.— A late variety and a most abundant cropper; I the bunches long, the berries medium-sized, deep red, j and very acid. From its compact habit, this variety is suitable for growing in exposed situations, and for training as an espalier or pyramid. 5. Lace-leaved—syn. Large Sweet Red, d'Hollande a feuille borilee.—A compact habited bushy very prolific variety; the leaves have a narrow lacing or border; the bunches are medium-sized, tlie berries pale red. 6. Red Champagne—syn. Grosseillier a fruit couleur de Chair. —Of dwarf bushy habit, the bunches short, and the berries small, pale red, with a pale flesh not so sweet as the white, and less acid than the red sorts. An abundant bearer. 7. White Dutch—syn. Blanche d’Hollande, New White Dutch, Jeeves’ White, Morgan’s White, White Crystal, White Leghorn.—A variety with the habit and appearance of Red Dutch, being dwarf, compact, and bushy. The bunches are large and abundant, the berries large, transparent, yellowish white, with a mild sweet juice. The best variety of white currant. 8. Wilmot’s Large White—Bunches long, less compact than those of the White Dutch, and scarcely so large. The variety is very distinct, being of erect growth, with the leaves deeply lobed. A good cropper. B, Black Naples. — Bunches more abundant and berries larger, as well as more numerous, than in any other sort except Lee’s Prolific. This has long been proved to be a good black-fruited variety for general cultivation. It comes early into leaf. 10. Lee’s Prolific.—An excellent black sort, the bunches large, very abundant, and the berries very large, larger than Black Naples, very sweet and pleasant to eat, and hanging long on the bush after ripening. Propagation. — The currant, like tlie gooseberry, may be propagated by seed, cuttings, suckers, and layers; also, as we have seen in particular cases, by budding and grafting. Tlie best mode, and that which is generally practised for obtaining good plants of any particular variety, is by cuttings. These may be taken off, prepared, and planted, soon after the fruit is gathered, that is, when the young shoots are mature; but anytime from the beginning of autumn till March will do; those however which are struck in autumn have a great advantage over those inserted in spring, inasmuch' as the young roots of the former are prepared to start early in spring, and shoots are produced at the same time, the cutting becoming a plant; whilst in the latter case the cutting is only commencing to form roots. It will therefore be readily understood that nearly a year is gained by early autumn propagation over that performed ill spring. The cuttings should consist of well-ripened vigorous young shoots. If taken off close to the old wood so much the better. The end should be cut smooth, and the buds removed as far as the cutting is to be inserted in the ground. The very small buds near the base of the cutting are apt to be overlooked, but these are the most likely to produce suckers; therefore tlie greater care should be taken to remove them completely. Currants ought to have a clean stem of 5 inches above the surface. If cuttings sufficiently long can be obtained, 6 inches may be allowed for insertion in the ground, 5 iuclies for the stem, and 3 inches for shoots to proceed from, for forming the head, thus making the whole length 14 inches. Blit should the cutting be too short or weak, then it may be cut to the length of about 9 inches, or so as to leave 6 inches below ground and about three buds immediately above the surface. When prepared, the cuttings should be inserted as in the case of the gooseberry. When the shoots begin to push, three should be encouraged, if the cutting is long enough to admit of these being at the proper height from the ground. If the cutting is short the strongest and most upright shoot ought to be allowed to take the lead, and should be trained as straight as possible at least to S inches above the surface. If other shoots posh they may be allowed to grow, as their foliage will assist in forming roots; but they should be kept subordinate to the one trained upright. They will require to be cut off close in autumn, and the upright one shortened back so that the third bud below the cut shall be 5 inches above the ground, i The plants should be fit for planting out in au-' tumn, but if not strong, they had better remain ; another year. Soil and Situation.—A deep, rich, tender soil I is best adapted for the currant; and in a situation j open to the sun, they acquire the richest flavour. They are, however, frequently planted against north-aspect walls, on which they succeed with certainty, when other kinds of fruit-trees often fail. Deprived of the sun’s rays from six in the morning to six at night, the fruit cannot beTHE CURRANT. 4G7 expected to become so sugary as that on bushes exposed throughout the day to the influence of the solar rays; yet on a north aspect, when currants are properly managed, it attains a good size ami acquires a fine colour. The fruit ornaments the wall by its brilliant contrast of white and red, presuming that both sorts are planted with that view; it can also be kept in good condition on the plants, and will thus afford a late supply. The soil should be prepared as for the gooseberry; and, as with it, the planting is best performed in autumn. The distance apart, when planted in quarters, should be 5 feet each way, or even t> feet, if the soil is very rich. Pruning and Training.—Plants consisting of a clean stem of 5 inches, and having three shoots, should, when transplanted, have these shortened back to about 4 inches, and to a bud pointing upwards. In the following spring two shoots should be encouraged from each of the shoots so cut back, and thus, in autumn, the plant will consist of six shoots. These should all be cut back at the winter pruning, so as to leave them from 4 to 6 inches long, observing always to cut to an outward bud. To about this length the terminal shoots of the six branches should be cut at every winter pruning; and when they have nearly attained the intended height, which need not exceed 3 feet, the terminals should be shortened every autumn to within two or three buds from their origin. In soil that is very rich, and likewise naturally favourable to the growth of the currant, the plauts may be allowed to grow to the height of 4 or 5 feet, and, in that case, nine or even twelve branches may be allowed. In the latter case it would be well to have the branches trained round a hoop placed in the centre, so as to extend the branches at equal distances from each other, and more widely than would otherwise be the case. Having explained the manner by which the three primary shoots are shortened so as to produce two shoots each, and which give rise to the six branches of which the head should generally consist, and having followed up the annual pruning of the terminal shoots of these branches, we shall now direct attention to their laterals. These should be cut back, at each winter pruning, to within \ inch of their bases. Some good gi'owers for the London market cut even closer than this, or almost to the old w'ood. The base of the shoots consists of nearly solid wood, but farther from the base the shoots are pithy, and by exposure to the air the pith wastes, leaving the shoot hollow below the cut, and it usually dies back. It is therefore better to cut back nearly close to the old wood, or to the origin of the shoots, in order that the buds, whether for young wood or for fruit, may have a solid basis. As heavy crops of fruit could not be produced without plenty of nourishment, which could only be supplied from abundance of fresh roots, and as the formation of these requires a considerable amount of foliage, young shoots must be allowed to grow for this purpose, and also for producing a sufficient thickness of layers of alburnum along the branches and steins; for when these are meagre, the fruit cannot be large. It is nevertheless wrong to allow too much crowding of young shoots in summer. When this is likely to be the case, they should be moderately thinned early in summer, by removing some of the weakest shoots, or any that cross each other. Besides this, the tops of the strongest shoots may be cut off in June, taking care, however, that no extensive privation of foliage takes place at any one | time. Currants are trained in some gardens with a single upright stem, and when well managed in this way the plants have a very good effect. They bear well; and there is an advantage as regards the fruit being kept free from earth, by which those grown as dwarfs are frequently injured after heavy rains. When grown as standards, the principal aim should be, in the first place, to grow the stem as straight and as strong as possible. It is necessary to keep the leading stem trained to a rod or stake. Shoots must be allowed to grow along the stem; and if the latter is intended to be ultimately naked, like the stem of a tree-rose, the lower shoots and spurs should be gradually taken off' below as others are produced above. When intended to be ti’ained against a wall or espalier, currants should be planted 3 feet apart, and one strong upright shoot encouraged for a stem. It is essential that the plants should be well established before the formation of the primary branches is attempted; therefore, if the plants are not strong and well rooted wdieu planted, it is better to merely shorten the shoot a little, and allow the plant to grow at freedom till the following autumn, and then cut down the upright to 3 inches from the ground. Train one shoot, the strongest of course, upright, cut it back in autumn to 6 inches from the ground, and in the following summer, from the base of the last year’s shoot, train one young shoot horizontally to the right, and another to the left. From these horizontals four upright shoots should be trained, at the distance of 9 inches from each other. These perpendicular shoots ought to be allowed to grow at full length, and should be shortened back in autumn to 6 or 8 inches. A468 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. leader from each must be trained upright every summer, and shortened to the above height every autumn; the laterals from the upright branches should be cut very closely, as directed for the laterals of the branches grown in the open ground. Other Culture.—The soil should every year be drawn from around the trees with a hoe, and buried in the middle of the intervals, for which purpose a spade is the best; but in stirring the ground near the trees, a fork should be employed. Plenty of manure should be given. Manure water increases the size of the fruit, but does not improve the flavour. Gathering the Fruit.—This should not be done when the fruit is wet, and, if the currants are intended for preserving, not immediately after a wet period, for they will be less watery if several days are allowed to elapse. It may not, however, be advisable to delay so long in wet seasons, for when dry days are rare it is necessary to take advantage of them. Insects.—The currant, like the gooseberry, is often entirely defoliated by the destructive caterpillars of Abraxas grossulariata, PhalcenaVanaria, and Xematus trimaculatus or N. Ilibesii, the means employed for tlie destruction of which have already been detailed. The currant-sphinx (sEgeria tipuliformis) deposits its eggs in the crevices of the bark about the end of May or in June, and when hatched, the larva penetrates into the centre of the branches and consumes the pith, forming a long passage downwards. The presence of the insect is indicated by the withering of the leaves of the branches attacked; as soon as this is observed, a branch presenting that appearance should be cut off and split up, and if, on examination, the caterpillar is discovered, all portions affected in a similar manner should be removed from the bush and burned. The caterpillars of Lampronia capitella likewise prove injurious, by feeding upon the interior of the shoots in spring, causing them to droop, and the foliage to wither. All that can be done is to prevent the repetition of the mischief by cutting off'and burning the parts affected. Aphides are frequently found in summer, in vast numbers at the extremities of the shoots. They may be destroyed by the usual methods, or by cutting off and burning the parts infested. ’ THE RASPBERRY (Ilubns Ida-us, L.—Icosan-dria Polygynia, L.; ltosaceag D.C.; I’osacere, Lind.) is a deciduous shrub, with perennial roots and a biennial stem, a native of Britain and most of the temperate parts of Europe. The fruit, being possessed of a fine aroma, is largely employed in tarts, jams, and similar preparations, as well as for the dessert. It is likewise used for making a delicious ice, raspberry vinegar, raspberry brandy, and raspberry wine. Varieties.—These are numerous, the plant reproducing itself freely from seed with more or less variation. The following is a selection of the best:— 1. Red Antwerp—syn. Burley, Knevett’s Antwerp, Late-bearing Antwerp, Framboisier rouge a gros fruit. — Canes strong and long, yellowish green, slightly glaucous, occasionally tinged with purple, covered with dark brown bristles, especially towards the base. Fruit large, conical, dull red, sweet, and rich in flavour. It bears carriage well, and is therefore much cultivated by the market-gardeners. A second crop is sometimes borne in autumn, but the fruit produced is both scanty and small. This was the first improvement on the wild raspberry of the woods, and is still in some respects surpassed by none. 2. Cutbush’s Prince of Wales. Canes very strong and long, light coloured and slightly glaucous, nearly smooth. Fruit very large, globular, or inclining to conical, of a bright red colour, and good flavour. An early and most abundant bearer, and not disposed to produce a superabundance of suckers. Rivers’ Large-fruited Monthly.— Canes moderately tall, very hispid, with reddish prickles. Fruit tolerably large, roundish or obtusely conical, of a deep purplish red, in the second crop of a brighter red. It ripens about the usual time, and again during autumn till frost. 4. Yellow Antwerp—syn. White Antwerp, Double-bearing Yellow.—Canes with numerous small prickles. Fruit middle-sized, ovate, pale yellow, rich, and sweet. A good bearer, but not so strong-growing as the Red Antwerp. 5. Fastolf—syn. Filby.—Canes very strong, of a light brown colour, nearly smooth. Fruit very large, globular, of a bright red colour, and of good flavour. A most abundant bearer, and a generally useful sort. Propagation.—The raspberry is propagated by seeds, and occasionally by cuttings, but tlie usual mode is by suckers or offsets. The seeds should be taken from perfectly ripe fruit, washed from the pulp, and then dried moderately, in order to prevent mouldiness. They may then be sown in rich sandy soil, or in pans, in sandy peat and well-decomposed leaf-mould. They will vegetate in the following spring, and in autumn they will be fit for transplanting into nursery rows, the first shoot being then shortened to a few eyes. In propagating by suckers or offsets, care should be taken to injure as little as possible the plants from which they are separated. The best time for removal, so as to be least injurious to the old stools, is October, which is likewise the best time for making the plantation. AlthoughTHE RASPBERRY. 469 this may be done any time when the weather is favourable during winter, or early in spring, yet it is not well to disturb the roots by taking off suckers late in spring, or after vegetation has commenced. Root-suckers are often thrown up at a considerable distance from the plant, and can be removed without materially affecting it; but frequently the suckers come out almost like offsets. When this is the case, they ought to be detached with a sharp suckering-iron, and, at the same time, care should be taken not to injure the bud or buds which will be found on the part of the root just below ground, at the base of the shoots made in the course of the current season; for these buds give rise to the shoots which become the canes for bearing in the following year. Propagation by cuttings is not a sure method, and is seldom resorted to, as the preceding mode affords so much facility; but any particular sort may be more rapidly increased by both cuttings and suckers than by suckers alone. The cuttings should be inserted in light, rich, rather moist soil, and in a somewhat shaded situation, at least one not exposed to the direct rays of the sun in the hottest part of the day. Soil and Situation.—The raspberry succeeds in any rich garden soil that is not too stiff, but prefers one that is very rich and rather moist. It grows exceedingly well in sandy alluvial ground, also in peat and soils that are mixed with peat; but those which are heavy and compact, becoming hard in dry weather, do not suit it. In all cases, abundance of decomposed manure should be supplied when the ground is trenched before planting, and afterwards every autumn, as a topdressing, The ground should be trenched at least 2 feet deep, and if to the depth of 3 feet, so much the better. Plenty of manure must be introduced, especially about 1 foot below the surface, for the roots near the latter can be fed by the annual manuring. Planting.—Raspberries are usually planted in rows, and their bearing shoots tied to stakes. In this way the distance allowed between the rows may be 5 feet, and that between the plants in the row 3 feet. In very rich soil, 6 feet between the rows, and 3 or 4 feet between the plants in the row, would be preferable distances; or the rows may be 8 feet apart, in which case certain kitchen-garden crops may be grown between; but if so, care should be taken that the soil be kept well manured and always sufficiently moist. Raspberries are sometimes planted for arched training, in rows 4 feet asunder, and the same distance between the plants in the row. When planted to be trained against an espalier, the plants may be 2 feet apart. Mr. Whiting states {Gardener’s Chronicle, 1849, p. 149) that, in poor soil, he finds planting 1 foot apart, in 5-feet rows, and leaving one or occasionally two canes to each root, is preferable to planting at greater distances, and allowing three or four canes to each root. Mode of Bearing.—The raspberry sends up shoots from which the leaves drop in autumn, and from the buds on these shoots, or canes as they are called by some, branchlets push in spring, on which fruit is produced in the course of the summer, and sometimes till autumn. The branchlets diverge in all directions from the shoots from which they spring, so that in the natural state they cannot be overcrowded. Whilst these are bearing the fruit, young shoots arise from the main stock or base of the stem, and suckers frequently spring from the roots, at a distance from the plant. These bear in the following season, forming a succession to those which are bearing, and which die back to the ground befor e winter. Pruning and Training.—When the plants are | intended to be trained to stakes in the usual way, the pruning and training are very simple. We shall commence with a new plantation. One, two, or three canes may be planted for the purpose of being tied to a single stake. If two are planted, they may be 6 inches apart, and in the direction of the row. If three, they may be at the same distance from each other, and placed so as to form an equilateral triangle, in the centre of which the stake may be inserted. Stakes, however, will not be necessary in the first season; for the canes, when planted, should be cut down to within 6 inches or 1 foot from the ground, especially if they are weak; or if strong, and fruit be desired the first season, they should be shortened more than the bearing shoots of an established plantation, so that, in either cww, staking will not be necessary. The object of cutting back I the year-old canes is to invigorate the young j shoots. When these push, three, four, or five of the strongest of them should be encouraged; the others ought to be rubbed off, or destroyed by means of the suckering-iron. Towards autumn, stakes must be prepared. Their lower end should be tapered to a sharp point, but without leaving angles on the taper, for when smooth, they can be introduced between the roots without breaking them. In October or November the plantation should be pruned, in order that the ground may be manured and forked over. Some think that the canes are injured by frost and rain when pruned before winter. Having much pith, injury from such causes may take place for some distance below the cut, or as far as the first joint.470 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. The plant is not susceptible of injury from frost, except so far as the pith may get too much soaked with wet, which will be only a little way, especially if the canes are cut slanting. In proceeding to prune, the two-year-old canes, now dead, should in the first place be cleared away, and three or four of the strongest young canes ought to be selected for bearing in the following season. They should be shortened where they exhibit signs of weakness and begin to twist or bend. If there are more canes than the number considered proper for being tied tip for bearing, they should also be cut away. After hoeing away the surface-soil, and clearing all weeds from the base of the stem, the stakes should be driven in correctly in line, and their tops cut to a regular height. The canes should then be tied to the stakes with osier twigs, or with the golden willow, than which nothing is better for the purpose if it can be had, and if not, tar-twine may be substituted. This operation completes the first year’s pruning and training. Objections have been made to the above mode of training to stakes on account of the canes being brought too closely together, but it must be recollected that the canes do not require light; the buds of course do, but when pushing they are not shaded, and the shoots from them extend outwards, so that the longer they grow the more space there is for the foliage. There is,therefore,less danger of the fruit-bearing branchlets crowding each other than there is of the interference of the young shoots which spring from the root for succession. In the second season the tied-up canes will require no further attention. Lateral shoots will push from them; and these, as already remarked, bear the fruit. At the same time shoots for succession spring up, and frequently in too great abundance. When such is the case they must be thinned out more or less, as in the preceding season; only, as the plants are now established, from four to six shoots may be allowed to grow. In autumn three, or if strong enough four, from each stool should be pruned and tied as already directed. When raspberries are intended to be trained to a rail, the latter may be constructed of stakes and strips of deal about 1 inch thick. The stakes should be driven in line at every 5 or 6 feet, and the strips of deal nailed along their tops, which may be 3 or 4 feet from the ground, according to the length of the canes; and other strips may run along at 18 inches or 2 feet from the surface, or a wire may be stretched at that height. To these horizontals the canes should be trained, so as to leave room for a succession shoot between each. The weak points of the bearing canes ought to be cut off, and superfluous shoots removed at an early stage of their growth. Dr. Neill, in his Fruit and Kitchen Garden, suggests a modification of training to a rail, which deserves to be noticed. He says, “ Perhaps the best support is obtained by fastening the points of the shoots to a slight horizontal rail or bar, about 4 feet high, and placed 14 foot on the south side of the rows. By this means the bearing shoots are deflected from the perpendicular to the sunny side of the row, and are not shaded by the annual wood.” Raspberries are sometimes trained by arching, and for this mode they are planted about 4 feet apart in the rows. A stake is driven in midway between the plants; half the canes belonging to one plant and half of those of the adjoining plant are bent towards each other, and their ends are tied together so as to form an arch, which is secured to the stake in the centre. There are some varieties of raspberry, such as Rivers’ Large-fruited Monthly, which naturally produce fruit late in autumn; but other varieties may be induced to do so by cutting down the canes to within 1 foot of the ground. The shoots which push from these shortened canes grow vigorously, and usually produce fruit late in the season. Another mode is to shorten the canes rather more than usual; then, when the laterals push, and before they flower, they are cut back nearly to their bases, and from these fresh shoots are produced which fruit late in the season. In order to obtain very large fruit, so far as this depends on pruning and training, few bearing shoots should be left to each plant, or in particular cases some plants, or a row or two, may be sacrificed by permitting no suckers to grow. Of course no fruit can be obtained in the following season from plants so treated, the formation of shoots for future bearing being prevented; but in consequence of this the fruiting canes will be better nourished and the fruit larger. Other Culture.—This consists in keeping the surface stirred and free of weeds. Manure should be applied in autumn, and ought to be worked into the surface of the soil with a fork, without disturbing the soil to the depth of more than 4 or 5 inches, but to this depth it should be regularly turned over every year. If the operation is neglected one year, it cannot afterwards be performed without destroying the roots which have formed near the surface in the interval, and consequently ruining the plantation. Suckers not required for future bearing, or for a new plantation, should never be allowed to appear much above the surface; and in forking over the ground they should be traced and eradicated as near to their origin as it is possible to do without injuring the root from which they spring.THE STRAWBERRY. 471 Diseases and Insects.—The raspberry, when planted in a suitable soil and situation, and otherwise properly managed, is not liable to be attacked by diseases; and it rarely suffers any material injury from insects. The grub of the raspberry bud (Tinea corticella, L.) occasionally proves injurious to the crop by consuming the interior of the flower-buds and the footstalk of the fruit, causing them to wither up and die. About the end of May the caterpillar enters into the pupa state, and in a fortnight reappeal's as a moth, which deposits its eggs on the stems, but whether on the young or old wood is not known. The larva? are produced early in August, and feed upon the leaves till winter, when they conceal themselves, and in spring again attack the young buds. The crop from the buds attacked being lost at any rate, all that can be done is to prevent the recurrence of the evil, bv pinching the flower-buds in which the presence of the insect is indicated by their withered appearance. The raspberry-leaf miner (Fcenusct pumila) occasionally injures the plants by consuming the cellular tissue contained between the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf, which, when thus attacked, presents a blotched appearance by which the presence of the caterpillar is made apparent. Collecting and burning the leaves affected is the most effectual remedy. The grub of another insect (Byturus tomentosus) is very frequently found in the fruit, which it does not attack till nearly ripe. No remedy is known. THE STRAWBERRY (Fragaria, L.—Icosan-dria Polygynia, L.; Rosacese, D.C.; Rosacese, Lind.)—Several species, indigenous to various parts of the world, have given rise to numerous varieties. From Fragaria vesca, elatior, and col-Una, natives of Britain and other parts of Europe, have been derived respectively the Wood and Alpine, the Hautbois, and the Green. The Fragaria: grarndi flora, a native of Surinam, and Fragaria chilensis, have produced the numerous varieties of pine-strawberries. Fragaria virginiana is considered the original type of the scarlet strawberries. The varieties of strawberries were first classified and accurately described by Mr. Barnet, in the Transactions of the Horticultural Society; but as many of the sorts cross very readily, especially the Scarlets, Pines, and Chilis, numerous varieties have since been obtained. 1. Amateur.—Petioles tall, very hairy. Leaflets medium, deeply serrated, of a rather light green colour. Fruit very large, roundish obovate, and cockscombshaped, of a deep red colour, occasionally covered with a bluish bloom. Seeds small, prominent. Flesh red, with a pleasant brisk acid flavour. Mid-season. A large and most abundant bearer, having much of the same character as Sir Charles Napier. 2. Black Prince— syn. Cuthill’s Black Prince, Malcolm's Aberdeen Seedling.—Petioles long, slender. Leaflets small, deeply serrated, having a reddish tinge. Calyx small, spreading or somewhat reflexed. Fruit small, obovate, with a short neck. Skin dark red, shining, and when quite ripe nearly black. Seeds prominent. Flesh pale red, with a pleasant briskly acid flavour. A very early, hardy, and prolific strawberry, well adapted for forcing. 3. British Queen.—Petioles tall, erect, hairy. Leaflets large, oval, coarsely serrated, of a light green colour. Calyx large, somewhat spreading. Fruit very large, ovate, sometimes cockscomb-shaped, light scarlet. Flesh moderately firm, pale red, juic}T, rich, and excellent. It ripens in the end of June, succeeding Keens’ Seedling, is an abundant bearer, and forces well. 4. Carolina Superba.—Fruit very large, ovate, light red. Flesh white, firm, with a fine brisk flavour, re sembling the British Queen; but the plant bears better is hardier, and of freer growth. 5. 1)r. Hogg.—Fruit very large, cockscomb-shaped, light red. Flesh pale, sweet, and very rich. It ripens about the middle or end of July, and is an excellent bearer. In appearance like British Queen, but ripens better, and is of a much hardier constitution. It is one of the best strawberries in cultivation. 6. Elton—syn. Elton Seedling.—Petioles short, upright, very hairy. Leaflets middle-sized, obtusely serrated, of a deep green colour. Calyx middle-sized, incurved, sometimes partially reflexed. Fruit large, ovate, frequently cockscomb-shaped, dark red. Flesh firm, juicy, briskly acid, rich. It ripens in the middle or end of July, and is a very abundant bearer. It is chiefly valuable on account of its lateness and productiveness, coming in after the Old Pine, and ripening in long succession. The fruit is also particularly well adapted for preserving whole. 7. Keens’ Seedling—syn. Keens’ New Pine, Keens’ Black Pine, Murphy’s Child.—Petioles tall, slightly hairy. Leaflets very large, roundish, coarsely serrated, smooth, shining dark green. Calyx of moderate size, hairy, incurved. Fruit very large, roundish, sometimes cockscomb-shaped, slightly hairy, dark purplish scarlet next the sun, paler on the shaded side. Flesh moderately firm, scarlet, of a rich and agreeable flavour. It ripens in the middle or end of June, and is a very abundant bearer, on which account, as well as its large size and excellent quality, it is extensively grown throughout the country. It is perhaps the best forcing variety, and is the one most generally used for that purpose. 8. La Constante.—Fruit large and conical, bright crimson. Flesh firm, white, tinged with rose, rich, and juicy, with a brisk flavour. An excellent variety both as regards quality and productiveness, whether forced or grown out of doors. 9. Large Flat Hautbois — syn. Bath, Formosa, Lowder’s, Salter’s, Weymouth, White.—Petioles short, upright, hairy. Leaflets large, irregularly ovate, obtusely serrated, of a yellowish green colour. Calyx close to the base of the fruit, reflexed. Fruit large for a Hautbois, roundish, depressed, light red, pale on the under side. Flesh greenish, without core, juicy and rich. It ripens in the end of June and beginning of July, and is a very abundant bearer.472 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. 10. Lucas.—Fruit large, conical, sometimes cocks-combed. Skin bright shining red; seeds numerous, slightly imbedded. Flesh deep red, solid, with a fine rich pine flavour. Plant of free and robust growth. A great bearer, and excellent for forcing. 11. Myatt’s Eliza—syn. Omar Pasha, Rival Queen. —Fruit above medium size, ovate, light red. Flesh scarlet, pale red towards the centre, very firm, juicy, rich, and high flavoured. The plant is hardy, and bears well when forced. 12. Old Pine—syn. Carolina, Black Carolina, Common Carolina, Large Carolina, Old Carolina, Carolina Pine, Black Pine, Blood Pine, Scarlet Pine, Old Scarlet Pine, Borsdorf.—Petioles tall, upright, hairy. Leaflets small, roundish obovate, obtusely serrated, of a dark green colour. Calyx large, spreading. Fruit large, ovate, with a neck, sometimes of a cockscomb shape, slightly hairy, bright scarlet. Flesh pale scarlet, solid, rich, juicy, and excellent. It ripens in the end of June or beginning of July, and is a good bearer, preferring a cool situation and a rather stiff soil. It is one of the very best sorts. 13. President.—Petioles long, erect. Leaflets large, deep green. Fruit large, obovate, and cockscombed. Skin bright red. Seeds large, slightly imbedded. Flesh light red, solid, with a rich subacid flavour. A good-constitutioned, free-bearing, excellent strawberry. 14. Prolific Hautbois— syn. Conical, Double Bearing, Dwarf, Hermaphrodite, Musk, Regent’s, Sacombe, Sir Joseph Banks, Spring Grove, Capron Royal, Capron Hermaphrodite. —Petioles tall, upright, hairy. Leaflets middle-sized, irregularly oblong, with strong coarse ser-ratures, light green. Calyx small, reflexed. Stamens long, remaining round the base of the fruit even after the latter is ripe. Fruit large for this class, conical, dark brownish purple next the sun, paler on the shaded side. Flesh solid, but of soft consistence, greenish, juicy, highly perfumed, and of excellent flavour. It ripen9 in the end of June and beginning of July, and sometimes produces a second crop, ripening in October or later. It is an abundant bearer, and, on the whole, the best of its class. 15. Red Alpine—syn. Prolific Alpine, Scarlet Alpine, Des Alpes a Fruit Rouge, Des Alpes de Tous les Mois a Fruit Rouge, Des Alpes de Deux Saisons a Fruit Rouge, Des Alpes de Quatre Saisons a Fruit Rouge, Alpine Rouge.—Petioles dwarf, slender, hairy, erect. Leaflets small, oval, sharply serrated, the tips of the serratures of a reddish colour. Calyx small, reflexed. Fruit small, conical, bright red, dark brownish red next the sun. Seeds small, numerous, prominent. Flesh solid, pale red next the outside, white towards the centre, juicy, rich, and sub-acid. It ripens from June to November, and is a most abundant bearer. 16. Royalty (Trotman). —Fruit of medium size, ovate in shape, with a well - defined neck. Colour bright shining red. Flesh pale red, solid, rich, and very pleasant. Habit of plant robust. A great bearer. 17. Sir Charles Napier.—Petioles tall and rather slender, very hairy. Leaflets medium sized, deeply serrated, of a striking pale green colour. Fruit large, conical, frequently of a cockscomb shape, clear light scarlet. Seeds small, numerous, and prominent. Flesh pale, firm, of a brisk acid flavour. It ripens as a midseason variety, and bears most abundantly. It is the chief London market strawberry. 18. Sir Harry.—Fruit large, irregular, and cockscomb-shaped, somewhat resembling Keens’ Seedling. Skin shining, dark red. Seeds large, deeply imbedded. Flesh dark red, very juicy, rather soft and tender. Flavour excellent. An immense bearer. Much cultivated in the London market gardens. 19. Sir Joseph Paxton.—Fruit large, roundish, of regular outline, bright crimson. Flesh firm, salmon-coloured, rich, and of excellent flavour. A first-rate early variety, hardy, and an abundant bearer; it also forces well. 20. Traveller (Laxton).—Fruit of medium size, conical, and occasionally cockscombed. Skin dark red. Seeds large, prominent. Flesh very firm, solid, with a brisk rich flavour, somewhat resembling the Hautbois. A richly flavoured good strawberry, and a great bearer. 21. Yicojitesse Hericart de Thury—syn. Duchesse de Trevise.—Petioles moderately tall, spreading, very hairy. Leaflets large, broad oval, with large obtuse ser- I ratures, yellowish-green. Calyx rather small, incurved. Fruit middle-sized, ovate, of a deep red colour. Flesh pale red, juicy, brisk, and rich. It ripens about the middle or end of June. The plant is an abundant bearer, and retains its green foliage during the winter. 22. White Alpine—syn. Des Alpes a Fruit Blanc, Des Alpes de Tous les Mois a Fruit Blanc, Des Alpes de Deux Saisons a Fruit Blanc, Des Alpes de Quatre Saisons a Fruit Blanc, Alpine Blanc.—The leaves of this are similar to those of the Red Alpine, except that they are of a somewhat paler green, and the tips of the serratures are white. The fruit is white, and scarcely so acid as the Red Alpine, which it resembles in every other respect. Propagation. The strawberry is propagated by seeds, division of the plant, and by runners. The Alpine varieties are always best raised from seeds; the other kinds are continued true to their variety by runners. The seeds of the Alpine varieties should be taken from the finest fruit ripened in the end of June or in July. To obtain the seeds the fruit may either be bruised on sheets of brown paper and dried by exposure to the sun and air, or it may be bruised by hand in water, and the seeds washed, those which float being rejected. If intended to be kept till spring the seed should be well dried ; but if not, it ought to be merely surface-dried and immediately sown, either in a shel-I tered part in the open ground or in pots. If in the open ground the soil should be a very fine rich mould, mixed with peat, well-decomposed dung, or leaf-mould. The ground, if dry, should be watered; and when in working condition, the surface having been made smooth and even, the handle of the rake or any straight round rod should be laid across the bed at every 6 inches, moderately pressed, and in the impressions so made the seeds should be thinly sown, then pressed by again applying the rod; and they ought afterwards to be very slightly covered by sifting overTHE STRAWBERRY. 473 them a little decayed leaf-mould or old decomposed cow-dung. When necessary the bed should be watered from a pot with a fine rose. Previous to watering some cover the surface thinly with chopped moss. The plants should appear in less than a month, and may be transplanted to where they are to remain for bearing as soon as they have made four or five leaves. The plants may however be much more quickly brought forward under glass, where that is at command. The seeds may be sown in pots or in pans, and kept in gentle heat. Care should be taken that the soil do not become too dry, to prevent which the pots may be covered with glass rendered opaque, or with slates, till the seeds begin to germinate. The plants should be pricked out in fine soil laid to the depth of 6 or 8 inches on a slight hot-bed; and in June they may be transferred to the open ground for bearing partially late in the autumn, and a full crop in the following season. The runners should be kept cut off the seedling plants, unless some are required to extend the plantation, and in that case it is a good plan to employ the first plant made by the runner from the seed-ling. Runners are usually produced in great abundance from most varieties; but a sort called the Bush Alpine has not this property, and a few others, not worthy of cultivation, emit them but sparingly. The point of a runner is furnished with a bud, and when the runner has extended to some distance from the stem the bud unfolds, and soon afterwards roots are emitted from its base. If in contact with moist permeable soil, these soon fix themselves, and a young plant is established. This is fed from the mother plant by means of its own roots, another runner proceeds from it, and in a similar manner to the first another young plant is formed, and so on. The runner is fed entirely by the mother plant in the first place, and so is the young plant till such time as it is enabled to strike root; and if circumstances do not admit of this being readily effected, not only the runner and first plant, but also the series of runners which are to be produced in continuation, together with the plants which form upon them at intervals, must be also fed by the parent plant. Now, it is evident that, if the runner be stopped after the first plant is formed, one plant will be better nourished than if a number had to be supplied from the same source. Again, the earlier the young plant can be rooted, the stronger and more substantial it will become, from having the advantage of exposure to light whilst the days are long. From what has been stated, it will readily be admitted that, in order to have good plants, means should be employed to facilitate the early production of runners, and to permit only one to grow from each runner, provided that that will afford a sufficient number of plants. The first proceeding is to encourage the plants to emit runners. This they do readily in moist warm weather, but very slowly, if at all, when the weather is very dry, unless the plants are well watered. Care should therefore be taken to keep the ground moist, so that the growth of the old plants may not be checked from dryness at the root. The runner also makes greater progress along a moist surface than it does along one that is dry. On a large scale, the runners for propagation are allowed to root in soil adjoining the plants; it should therefore be dug or forked over and made fine for the roots to strike into, which they will soon do if it is kept moist and they are closely in contact with it; and this, in many cases, can be easily done by a bit of stone placed on the runner. As soon as the young plant has developed a few leaves, the runner from it should be stopped. On a small scale, and to obtain plants for forcing, 3-inch pots can be very advantageously employed. These are filled with good rich soil, and it is well to sink them in the ground nearly to the brim. As soon as the bud at the first joint of the runner has developed a few leaves, it is pressed closely upon the soil in the pot, and kept in contact with it either by means of a small hooked peg or a small stone. The strawberry may be propagated, in cases of emergency, or in the absence of runners, by division of the plant; but it is neither a sure nor an expeditious method, for the plants are apt to fail, and if they do take root, they grow but slowly com pared with young plants from runners, and are apt to die off in winter. The best time to divide the roots is early in spring, before the young leaves expand, or in August, whilst there is heat in the ground to encourage the growth of roots before winter. If done in August, the old leaves should be mostly taken off. The plants must be protected from the direct rays of the sun till they have struck root, and the ground should be kept moderately moist. They ought to be mulched, before winter, with leaves, or any kind of litter that will protect them, to a considerable extent, from severe frost. The Bush Alpine, and some other sorts cultivated by the French, can only be propagated by division and by seeds. Soil and Situation.—The strawberry will grow in any good garden soil. The Scarlet kinds prefer a rich sandy loam; but the Pine varieties, and especially the Old Pine, succeed well in rather strong loam, provided it is enriched by manure and kept moist. Tenacious soils do not474 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. suit the strawberry, unless ameliorated by such means as have been pointed out in the chapter on soils. Ground that is apt to get very dry from the effects of only ten days or a fortnight’s drought is not suitable, on account of the enormous quantity of water that will be necessary; and if once the plants begin to flag for want of moisture, the crop will be all but lost. A soil that is naturally somewhat moist, but not too wet, answers well; and where the land has admitted of irrigation, we have seen heavy crops produced every yeai\ If the nature of the ground permit, it should be trenched to the depth of at least 2 or 3 feet, supplying, at the same time, plenty of manure, most of which should lie at 1 foot from the surface. If the surface consists of old garden soil that has been long manured, and if there is any yellow loam below, it will be very desirable, in trenching, to turn up some of the latter to the top, and then, after trenching, to spread a layer of dung on the surface, mixing it well with the fresh loam in digging it in. The loam will tend to prevent the plants from growing too much to leaf, instead of forming flower-stems. For stiff soils, good peat, if at command, is very proper; and rotten leaves and leaf-mould are excellent for strawberries. Planting.—The best time for this operation is as soon as the plants are well rooted. If the ground, on account of crops, or owing to other circumstances, cannot be got ready for planting in summer, then it should be done early in autumn, whilst the ground is warm enough to encourage the plants to strike good root before winter; or if this cannot be done, the operation had better be deferred till the plants are about to start into fresh growth in spring, in February or March, according to the season and state of the weather. When it is foreseen that the plantation cannot be made in autumn, it is a very good plan to take up the runners when well rooted, and plant them at 6 inches apart each way, in 4-feet beds, with 1-foot alleys between them, which will afford convenient space for weeding and watering without trampling amongst the plants. In this way 4 or 5 rods will hold sufficient for planting j acre. When the ground is ready for planting, furrows should be drawn with a hoe, as if for sowing pease. The plants ought to be carefully taken up with balls, laid on a hand-barrow, and planted with a trowel. The proper distance between the rows varies according to the nature of the soil and the habit of the plant. In very rich soil the sorts with large foliage are allowed by some as much as 2^ feet between the rows, and 18 inches from plant to plant in the row. Mr. Keens planted in rows 2 feet apart, with an interval of 3 feet between every two rows, the plants 18 inches apart in the row. Mr. Myatt, the celebrated grower at Deptford, plants in rows 18 inches apart, and the same distance from plant to plant in the rows, but leaves a space of 30 inches for an alley between every three rows, and after the fruit is gathered in the first year the middle row is cleared away. Mr. Lydiard, oue of the best growers near Bath, plants in rows 2^ feet apart, the plants being 2 feet from each other in the rows. According to Mr. Keens’ plan, each plant has a free space of 540 square inches. By Mr. Myatt’s plan, the plants in the rows next the alley have each a space of 432 inches, and those in the middle row 324 inches; but after the first year, when the middle row is done away with, each plant has a space of 594 inches. At the distances preferred by Mr. Lydiard, each plant has a space of 720 inches. In Keens’ plan there are seventy-two plants to a rod, in Lydiard’s fifty-four or fifty-five, in Myatt’s ninety-nine in the first year, and sixty-six afterwards. The distance allowed by Mr. Keens is very proper for general cultivation. The interval of 3 feet between every two rows admits of space for young plants from runners, when a new plantation is required. By Mr. Myatt’s plan the ground is more fully occupied during the first season, when the plants are comparatively small, than is the case when the other distances are adopted. Mr. Lydiard’s plants have the greatest space; but they grow very large, in consequence of the encouragement given to the production of young foliage by the removal of the old, after the fruit is gathered. Scarlets may be planted in rows 2 feet apart, the plants being 15 inches apart in the rows. In some cases when the young plants from runnel's are early rooted and well grown, they may be planted doubly close for bearing in the following season, and after the fruit is gathered every other plant can be removed, care being taken in doing so not to injure the roots of the plants intended to be left. In planting, the roots with the ball of earth should be placed as deep as they can be without covering the heart of the plant. Water must be plentifully given at first, but afterward sparingly, until the plants have taken root. Cultivation.—After the plantation has been completed, the ground should be kept clear of weeds, and the surface stirred. Runners should not be cut off on their first appearance, otherwise a superabundance of foliage is induced; but when the runner has formed a second joint or bud, it may be cut off near to the plant fromTHE STRAWBERRY. 475 which it springs, unless wanted for propagation. After J uly all runners should he taken off shortly after they make their appearance. The late Mr. Keens used to divest his plants of runners three times in the course of the season. With regard to cutting off’ the foliage, much has been said both for and against this proceeding. We believe it to be advantageous or the contrary according to the time and manner in which the operation is performed. To mow down the foliage, young and old indiscriminately, is doubtless injurious; but the removal of the old leaves at the proper time must prove beneficial, inasmuch as more light is admitted in consequence to the young and active portion of the foliage. The practice is adopted by the Bath growers, so celebrated for their magnificent strawberries, some of which have measured fully 7 inches in circumference, and who, as soon as the fruit is gathered, cut off’ all the old leaves with a knife. This is certainly preferable to mowing down with a scythe, for with the knife the old foliage can be removed and the young spared. We observed, on visiting the garden of Mr. Lydiard, at Batheaston, near Bath, in 1853, that, in consequence of this mode of proceeding, the plants had acquired, by the lltli of September, a large size from the growth of fresh foliage, which had even become robust from having all the light which the old leaves would have intercepted had they been allowed to remain. “ These young and vigorous leaves were in a condition to elaborate sap to form equally vigorous roots for supplying abundant nourishment to the ensuing crop. After it is gathered, the knife is again immediately employed to remove all old leaves, in order to give space and light for new ones. And inasmuch as the large amount of fresh foliage thus annually encouraged, produces a corresponding amount of new tissue, the plants are so far annually regenerated; and hence it may be concluded, that the frequent renewal of the plantations becomes less necessary.”—(Jour, of Horticultural Society, vol. ix. p. 46.) At Batheaston the plantations remain in bearing during six, or from that to ten years. Mulching between the rows of strawberries, as performed by the London growers, is very advantageous in various respects. It serves to keep the ground moist and the fruit clean, as well as to afford nourishment to the plants. It consists of long dung, chiefly stable litter, and is put on in spring. The manuring principles of the mulching are washed down by the rains or by artificial watering, and the portion next the soil becomes partially decomposed, whilst the upper part, bleached by sun and rain, serves to keep the fruit clean, and the whole has a most beneficial effect in keeping the soil moist. The mulching which Mr. Cuthill used was horse-droppings, covered with at least 1 inch thick of clean straw, laid on just when the plants were coming into flower; and by watering frequently in dry weather, the strength of the manure was washed down amongst the roots by the time the fruit was ripe, when they most needed it, leaving the straw clean and sweet. Various other materials have been employed for mulching; but, on the whole, we believe that nothing is better than the littery dung. If not washed clean by rains, or by artificial watering, before the fruit begins to change colour, a thin sprinkling of clean straw can be then laid over the surface. Tiles have been employed, but they are apt to get much heated by the sun, and spoil the flavour of the fruit which rests upon them; and besides this, they afford shelter to insects injurious to the crop. From the time the blossoms begin to appear till the fruit is ripe, the ground should never be allowed to become dry. The plants, when in full foliage and active growth, evaporate a large amount of moisture in dry weather. Watering over the tops is not sufficient in hot weather. In some soils it is necessary to flood the whole surface of the ground repeatedly, so that the water may reach the lowest roots. The leaves should never be allowed to flag, for if permitted to do so they will never perfectly resume their functions, even if afterwards supplied with abundance of moisture, and from being unable to digest it properly, the fruit will be of bad flavour. In recommending plentiful watering, it is not to be understood that water is to be given from any source without due precaution. If cold spring-water has to be used, it should be given in a somewhat limited quantity at a time, only as much in one afternoon as can be warmed in passing through the mulching. If the following day should prove hot and sunny the mulching will again become heated, and be in condition to warm an additional supply of water in the following afternoon. Where water can be obtained from reservoirs supplied by rain, or from a running stream, such precaution will not be necessary; but from whatever source moisture is supplied, care should be taken to avoid wetting the foliage when the sun is hot. Renewing the Plantations.—There has been much difference of opinion upon this point, some recommending the plantations to be renewed every year, others every second or third year, whilst some of the celebrated growers near Bath476 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. allow a plantation to bear for six or ten years. Much depends on the way in which the plants are managed; if they are kept free of runners and divested of the old leaves after the fruit has been gathered, the plantation may be allowed to remain longer than when these matters are neglected. If the stem of any strong-growing sort be taken and the lower leaves stripped off, it will be seen that there are a number of white points ready to push, if circumstances should be favourable to their doing so. They do not push through the coatings formed by the bases of the leaves above ground, but if the stem is buried in soil, or in a good top-dressing of rotten dung, leaf-mould, or even leaves, they will strike root, in consequence of which the plants will be greatly invigorated, and will bear well for many years. The Old Pine has been known to produce excellent crops when so treated, the plantation not having been renewed for twelve years. A covering of leaves suits the strawberry remarkably well. Some have been known to bear good crops under a large Bigarreau cherry-tree, the leaves of which were allowed to remain, as they fell, upon the plants. The strawberry will push through a considerable thickness of leaves, or any light substance. A top-dressing of loam is even beneficial, if applied before the plants begin to grow in spring, for after that period they should not be disturbed either at root or top. Digging between the rows with the spade is injurious. The sole object in doing so can only be to loosen the soil, in order that fresh roots may push more freely; but many of the roots formed in the previous season will of course be cut oft’, and they are those which contribute most to the support of the crop. The soil, however, may and should be stirred with a fork, as with proper care this can be done with very little injury to the roots, and this injury will be compensated by the great advantage which the plants generally derive from the operation. Strawberry plants sometimes produce a great number of leaves and scapes from the same stock. When this is the case, and when it is desired to have the fruit large and fine, about four of the strongest scapes are selected to be retained, and the others, with the leaves connected with them at the base, are thinned out. It will have been observed that the lowest blossoms on the scape produce the largest, earliest, and best ripened fruit, and that, when such are ripe, those higher up are still green, whilst towards the top some of the pedicels are only bearing flowers. The fruit from these never acquires the perfection of that formed lower down. In forcing, it is found advantageous to cut or clip off these upper productions, for when this is done, those below attain a larger size than would otherwise be the case. The same operation might be advantageously performed on plants in the open ground by persons who can afford the time to do so. At any rate, the beneficial effects of the practice should be known, in order that amateurs and private growers may avail themselves of it. Strawberries are occasionally grown on banks, ridges, and terraces; but we do not think it necessary to enter into details respecting these modes, for the plant will grow in almost any situation where it can be supplied with moisture and sufficient nourishment, and whei’e, at the same time, the foliage can be exposed to light. There are, however, particular advantages to be derived from a terraced ridge formed to run east and west, for the plants on the south side ripen fruit earlier than those on the level ground, whilst those on the north side afford a later supply. Gathering.—Strawberries should be gathered, if possible, when dry, but not when heated by the sun. For dessert, they ought to be gathered with the calyx and just as much of the stalk below it as is sufficient to lay hold of. Those intended for preserving are taken without the calyx. Diseases and Insects.—There has been much said and written respecting male, female, and hermaphrodite plants, but we have never seen what could be properly designated either male or female plants. It is often the case that the flowers prove abortive, either from the effects of frost late in spring, or from an abnormal state of growth in the plants; but, in the former case, there is neither stigma nor style to be seen, only stamens, which in most plants are hardier than the female organs. Frost frequently proves injurious before the flowers expand, and when they do so, it is with what is termed black eyes, the receptacle and the rudiments of the styles having been killed, and their remains appearing of that colour; but this is not natural to the plant, being purely the effect of an accident occurring to that which would otherwise become perfect. Sterility has, however, been known to pervade, with a few exceptions, a whole plantation of Hautbois, although the plants were not at all injured by frost. This would have been considered a proof of the theory of the plants being dioecious, and many in such cases would have taken the precaution to replace the plants with others from bearing beds. These plants were, in fact, taken from bearing beds the year previous, and planted in a rich, well-manured border, in which they started rapidly into tooTHE MULBERRY. 477 great luxuriance, the growth being to leaves rather than to fruit. The plants, however, were not removed, nor were others introduced, nevertheless, the whole bore a most abundant crop in the following season, therefore they could not have been male plants; and we believe that there is no such thing as naturally distinct male and female plants in the strawberry. Abortions may occur, but they may always be referred to such causes as frost, over-luxuriance, and sudden heat with moisture. The strawberry is frequently attacked by snails and slugs, and by the grubs of the spotted garden-gnat (Tipula maculosa), which cut off the flower-stalks by the ground; and the larvse of Hepialus lupulinus, Otiorhi/nchas tenebricosus, and various other insects, prey upon the roots. For snails and slugs, dusting with newly slaked lime is the best remedy; and when the plants are seriously attacked at the roots, it is generally better to form a fresh plantation than to attempt to combat the evil. The ground of the old beds should afterwards be deeply trenched in order to bury the insects. THE ELDER (Sambucus nigra, L.—Pentan-dria Trigynia, L.; Caprifoliacese, D.C.; Capri-foliacere, Lind.) is a low deciduous tree, a native of Britain and other parts of Europe, as well as of the north of Africa. The berries are employed in making elder-wine, of which large quantities are consumed at Christmas, and for the production of a jelly which is said to be useful in cases of severe cold and sore throat. Elder-flower water, which is used for flavouring confectionery and as a lotion for the skin, is obtained from the flowers; and the whole tree is held in great estimation by country people for its medicinal properties. Besides the common sort with black berries, there is a variety with green, and another with yellow fruit, but these are chiefly planted for ornament. The elder is propagated with great facility, either by seeds sown in autumn or spring, or by cuttings. The latter method, being the most expeditious, is that usually adopted. The cuttings may be made any time between the end of October and the beginning of March; they should be taken off immediately below a joint, and may be 1 foot or 18 inches in length. They should be inserted to about half their length in the ground, where they soon strike root, and in the following year are fit for being finally planted out. If the trees are to be grown as standards, they may be planted 20 feet apart; sometimes, however, cuttings are put in 1 foot apart, so as to form a hedge. The elder will grow luxuriantly in any good garden soil, and is not particular as to situation; but a sunny spot is desirable, where good fruit is an object. Further than removing suckers when the trees are young, and forming a regular head, no other culture is required. THE MULBERRY {Morus nigra, L.—Monoecia Tetrandria, L.; Urticese, D.C.; Moraceae, Lind.) is a monoecious tree, a native of Persia, whence it is supposed to have been introduced into Europe by the Greeks. The fruit, which is composed of a number of grains, is oval, 1 inch or more in length, and about f inch in diameter at the widest part, of a dark purple colour approaching to black, very juicy, and having a sub-acid flavour. It is occasionally eaten at the dessert, and sometimes preserved, or made into a sort of wine. A syrup is also prepared from the berries gathered before they are fully ripe, or whilst still red. The mulberry succeeds best in a rich deep loam, rather light than otherwise, and somewhat moist. It grows well in any good garden ground; but in very dry shallow soils, as well as in those which are heavy, cold, or wet, the fruit rarely acquires any degree of perfection, and generally drops before it is fully ripe. The tree requires a situation well sheltered from northerly winds, but open to the sun on the south. In the neighbourhood of London, and in all the warm parts of the kingdom, it succeeds perfectly well, and ripens its fruit as a standard; but in the cold parts of Scotland, and in the north of England, it requires a wall with a warm aspect. Propagation is effected by seeds, cuttings, and layers, also by budding and grafting. The seed is separated from the fruit by bruising the latter between the hands, and washing it free from the pulp in a basin of water. The seeds should then be thoroughly dried, put in paper or canvas bags, and kept in a cool dry place till spring. The seeds may be sown in March, in pans filled with light rich mould, placed in gentle heat, the seedlings being potted off or planted out in the course of the summer; or they may be sown out of doors in soil of a similar description in May. In either case there should only be a slight covering of fine mould, and frequent waterings through a fine rose ought to be given. During the winter the young plants should be protected from severe frosts by hoops and mats, or other available means. In March they may be taken up, shortened to one eye, and planted 1 foot apart, in rows 2 feet from each other. Propagation by seed, however, is seldom practised, as plants 60 raised, unless grafted, are long in coming into bearing, and frequently produce only male blossoms. Cuttings may be made in spring or autumn, and should be taken from the upper branches of the tree in preference to the lower ones, for, when478 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. so chosen, they are said to come sooner into bearing. When made in spring, they should be taken from well-ripened shoots of the preceding year, and a joint of two-year-old wood ought to be left at their base. They may be planted 6 inches apart, in rows 1 foot distant, in light rich mould, in a shady border; or, what is better, they may be potted, and plunged in a moderate hot-bed till they strike good root, when they may be hardened off and put out of doors. In either case only one or two of the buds should be left above ground, and gentle waterings must be given from time to time, so as to keep the soil sufficiently moist, but not wet. During the winter protection should be given in severe weather, and in the spring or autumn of the following year they may be planted out in nursery rows. Cuttings made in autumn ought to be taken off with a small portion of two-year-old wood, when the shoots are well matured. They should then be planted, as above, in a shady situation, and protected from severe frost in winter. They may remain in the open ground till they make good roots, or may be taken up in spring, potted, and plunged in a hot-bed to accelerate the production of roots. Another mode consists in taking in spring the most perfectly matured portions of shoots of the preceding year, and cutting them into as many pieces as there are buds; these pieces are then placed upon their side, with the bud upwards, in light rich soil, and covered to the depth of inch. If the ground is kept sufficiently moist, the buds soon vegetate, and roots are emitted from the under side of the cutting. Bearing branches, and even large limbs, will strike root with facility, and are sometimes employed instead of cuttings of the shoots, especially when the object is to obtain a tree which will bear in two or three years. They should be inserted in autumn in good soil, to the depth of 2 or 3 feet, according to the size of the branch and the depth of the soil; and if of large size, should be supported in an upright position by a stake. At planting, the laterals ought to be shortened back a little, and if possible to a wood-bud at the base of a young shoot; at the same time a good shoot should be preserved as a leader. Afterwards a good supply of water should be given, and when the branch has taken good root, a portion of the lower branches should be removed every year in order to form a clean stem; but care must be taken not to deprive the tree of too large a portion of foliage at any one time, otherwise its health and vigour are likely to be seriously affected in consequence. By far the most common mode of propagation is by layering the young branches, either in autumn or spring. In performing this operation any of the usual modes may be adopted; but as the most eligible branches are generally far from the ground, and cannot be brought down, it is frequently necessary to surround the branch with soil supported in a pot or box, and kept constantly moist. A ring of bark should be removed from the branch where it passes through the soil when this mode is practised. The tree may also be propagated by heading down and moulding up, in the same manner as the quince; but plants so obtained are generally long in coming into bearing. Layers may be severed from the tree in the autumn of the year after they are laid down, if found sufficiently rooted, and may then be transplanted into nursery rows. In this country the mulberry is rarely grafted, budded, or inarched; although these operations may be advantageously performed with the view of inducing early bearing, and to render fruitful trees, whether from seeds, cuttings, or layers, which naturally produce only male blossoms. Inarching is the most certain mode of proceeding, at the same time it is the most inconvenient to practise, especially with large trees. The operation should be performed in spring, after the leaves have expanded. Grafting when the sap begins to flow in spring is l’arely successful with this tree, owing to its bleeding; but it is probable that success would be iusured, as in the case of the vine, by taking off the scions before vegetation commences, and working them when the leaves are developed and capable of appropriating the superabundant sap. On the Continent flutebudding, ring-budding, and budding with a dormant eye are successfully employed, and are considered the best modes of insuring the objects of grafting. Flute-budding is performed when the sap rises in spring, the other two operations before the descent of the sap in the autumn; and if the bud succeed, the portion of the stock above it is cut off in the following spring. Young plants in the nursery should be trained to a straight stem; and as they increase in size, transplanted every second or third year to wider distances apart; when their stems are 3 or 4 inches in circumference they may be taken up early in spring and planted where they are to remain. In planting a large hole should be made, and the roots must be extended at full length; afterwards the hole should be filled up with good rich soil or old liot-bed mould. The mulberry is generally trained as a standard, and planted in the orchard, or on lawns, in order that the fruit may not be damaged by its fall from the tree, but it is always better to keep the groundTHE BERBERRY. 479 beneath dug. The tree will also succeed as an espalier, and in cold localities it may be trained against a wall with a south aspect, on which, however, it occupies a much greater space than can well be spared in such situations. As a standard the tree requires but little pruning. The leading upright shoot should be cut at the proper height, and three shoots originated for principal limbs. These shoots ought to be subdivided into two each. An equality of growth should be maintained among these, so as to form a well-balanced head, as directed in the chapters on pruning and training. On walls the fore-right shoots must be pinched in summer to six buds, and if they push again they should be cut back to within four buds from the base. Beyond pruning, as above directed, the tree requires but little culture, it being merely necessary to dig over the ground about the roots in autumn and spring, and to keep it free from weeds. The fruit ripens in succession in August and September, and should be gathered when about to drop. If the tree is not growing on a lawn, grass mowings should be spread out in a layer, not so thick as to ferment, in order to prevent injury to such fruit as may fall before it can be gathered. It does not keep good more than a day or two, and the sooner it can be used after gathering the better. Besides the common mulberry, the only other species worthy of mention on account of its fruit ; is the red mulberry, Morus rubra, a native of North America, producing berries of a dark red colour, but greatly inferior in quality to those of the common sort. CRANBERRY (Oxycoccus, Pers.B Octandria Mouogynia, L.; Vaccinieae, D.C.; Vacciniacese, | Lind.)—Of this there are two species, valued on account of the fruit, namely, the American and the Common cranberry. The American Cranberry (Oxycoccus macrocarpus, Pers.) is a hardy trailing shrub, a native of North America, where it is found in boggy ground, swamps, and on the borders of lakes. The fruit is highly esteemed for tarts, preserves, &c., for which purposes considerable quantities are annually imported into this country. It may be cultivated in beds of peat soil or bog earth formed in a moist situation, and so that their surface may be about 6 inches below the level of the surrounding ground. In these the roots should be planted 2 feet apart, early in autumn, or in spring when all danger of frost is over. The plants soon spread in all directions and cover the beds; and in no case should they be allowed to suffer for want of water. Propagation is easily effected by layers, or by dividing the roots. The Common Cranberry {Oxycoccus palustris, Pers.), a native of Britain, produces a deep red, very acid fruit, which, though inferior to that of the American cranberry in size and quality, is nevertheless very excellent in tarts and preserves. The plant may be grown in beds formed by digging out the ground at the side of a clear pond or running water, so that the bottom of the excavation may be about 6 inches below the surface of the water, and then filling in a layer of loose stones and peat earth to the depth of about 9 inches. The bed may then be planted and the water let in. THE BILBERRY, or BLAEBERRY (Vac-cinium Myrtillus, L.—Octandria MonOgynia, L.; Yacciniem, D.C.; Vacciniaeese, Lind.) is a deciduous shrub, growing to the height of 1 or 2 feet, and commonly found on stony heaths in various parts of Britain. The fruit, a small berry, is dark purple, and has an agreeable slightly acid flavour. It makes excellent tarts and preserves. The plant is propagated by layers, and may be grown in peat soil mixed with garden mould. THE BERBERRY {Berberis vulgaris, L.—Hex-andria Mouogynia, L.; Berberidere, D.C.; Ber-beridacete, Lind.) is a deciduous shrub, growing to the height of 7 or 8 feet, a native of Britain and most parts of Europe and North America. It is found wild in woods and coppices in dry soil, and was formerly common enough in hedge-: rows, but is now everywhere banished from these in consequence of the plant being very generally | supposed to produce the rust on corn growing in its vicinity. The fruit when ripe is acid and astringent, but makes excellent preserves; those made at Rouen from the stoneless fruit are held in high estimation. In a green state the berries | are pickled in vinegar. The principal varieties are:— 1. Common Red-fruited. 2. Large Red-fruited (Epine-vinette a gros fruit rouge). 3. Purple-fruited (Epine-vinette a fruit violet). 4. White Berberry (Epine-vinette <4 fruit blanc). The Stoneless Berberry, which is sometimes considered as a distinct variety, is produced by old plants which have been propagated by layers. The berberry may be raised from seed, but is generally propagated by suckers, taken off in autumn, by dividing the plant, or by layering the young shoots. The layers are frequently two years before they make good roots, and should be separated from the parent plant in autumn. The plant will grow in any good garden soil, but bears best in one that is rich, light, and rather dry. All the culture it requires is to remove suckers so as to leave only a single stem, and to480 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. prune in all branches that are inclined to straggle too far. BRAMBLE (Rubus—Icosandria Polygynia, L.; Rosacea?, D.C.; Rosaceie, Lind.)—There are several species .and varieties of bramble, in some of which the fruit is of excellent quality for making pies, tarts, and preserves; iu others it is of a very inferior description, but all appear to be susceptible of improvement by cultivation. Some account of the different kinds and their productions may therefore prove useful, and may lead to experiments being made for their improvement; indeed varieties classed as raspberries, one of them producing orange, others purple fruit, have been obtained by Mr. Rivers from a hybrid between the raspberry and bramble. The principal species of bramble are:— L Common (R. fruticosus, L.)—A native of Britain. Stems strong, angular, of a dark red colour, armed with strong hooked prickles. Leaves pedate, dark green. Flowers pink. Fruit purplish black, composed of numerous small grains, of an agreeable sub-acid flavour. There is a variety called the "White-fruited bramble, which has white flowers, and produces a globular, somewhat flattened fruit, composed of light green transparent grains of a sweetish taste. 2. Red-fruited (R. subccectus).—A native of Britain. Stems nearly erect, 3 or 4 feet high, sparingly armed with small, purple, deflexed prickles. Leaves shining dark green, usually composed of five leaflets, but sometimes of seven, on the fruiting branches ternate. Flowers large, white. Fruit small, dark red, composed of few grains, acid. 3. Hazel-leaved (R. coriilifolius).—A native of Britain. Stems long, trailing, armed with numerous prickles, which are nearly straight. Leaves quinate, on the bearing branches always ternate, light green. Flowers white. Fruit large, black, glossy, composed of few but well-swelled grains, juicy, and agreeably acid. A good bearer. 4. DEWBERRY—syn. Blue Bramble (R. casing, L.) — A native of Britain. Stems weak, trailing, armed with numerous small deflexed prickles. Leaves ternate, light green. Flowers white. Fruit small, black, composed of a few large grains of an agreeable acid flavour. A shy bearer, many of the flowers proving abortive. 5. Cut-leaved (R. laciniatus).—Stems somewhat upright, the barren ones long, spreading, and armed with strong recurved prickles. Leaves dark green, composed of three or five leaflets deeply cut. Flowers rose-coloured. Fruit large, black, composed of well-swelled, though not numerous grains, agreeably acid. A good bearer. 1). Buckthorn-leaved (R. rkamnifolius),—A native of Britain. Stems very long, trailing, armed with straight, deflexed, reddish prickles. Leaves generally quinate, bright green. Flowers white. Fruit large, composed of well-swelled grains, agreeably acid. An abundant beaver. 7. G landui.au (R. r/lamiiilostts).—A native of Britain. Stems long, trailing, armed with numerous deflexed, somewhat hooked prickles. Leaves on the flowering stems ternate, on the barren quinate, bright green. Flowers white. Fruit small, black, composed of numerous grains, of good flavour. 8. Shining-leaved (R. nitidus).—A native of Britain. Stems spreading, inclining to grow erect, sparingly armed with hooked prickles. Leaves ternate on the fruiting stems, quinate on the rest, bright green. Flowers white. Fruit small, black, composed of a few prominent grains, rather acid. 9. Dwarf Crimson (R. arcticus, L.)—A native of the mountainous parts of Scotland, as well as of Sweden and other parts of the north of Europe. Stems herbaceous, erect, 3 or 4 inches high, not armed with prickles. Leaves ternate. Flowers crimson, on a solitary stalk. Fruit resembling a raspberry in colour, composed of a few large grains, very fragrant, and partaking of the flavour of the raspberry and strawberry combined. It is raised from seed, and may also be propagated by its creeping roots. It should be grown in peat soil mixed with loam, in a cool, rather moist situation. Both flowers and fruit are very ornamental. 10. Cloudberry—syn. Mountain Bramble (R. Cha-mamonis, L.)—A native of Britain, where it is found in the highest mountains, as well as of other parts of the north of Europe. Stems herbaceous, about 4 inches high, not armed with prickles. Leaves simple, heart-shaped. Flowers white, and borne singly on the stem. Fruit large, of a tawny yellow colour; when ripe, of a pleasant, agreeably acid flavour. It makes excellent preserves. The plant may be propagated by seed as well as by its creeping roots, and requires to be grown in peaty soil. Brambles may be raised from seed or layers, blit the latter seldom take good root till the second year; a better and more expeditious method is to cover the point of the shoots with soil, in consequence of which they make plenty of roots the first year. The species with herbaceous stems require to be grown in peaty soil; the others will succeed well in any good garden ground, and may be trained like raspberries, either to upright stakes, or they may be arched, which is doubtless for them the more natural way; and the shoots of the current year may be disposed in circles round the centre of the plant, and kept in their position by means of pegs. With the exception of cutting out superfluous shoots and dead wood, no further care will be required. CHAPTER XIX. THE NUT, WALNUT, AND CHESTNUT. THE NUT (Con/lns AveUana, L.—Mono?cia Polvandria, L.; Amentacea?, D. C.; Corylacea?, Lind.) is a native of Britain and most European countries. It is extensively cultivated in the south of Europe, especially ill Spain, which is celebrated for the size and quality of its nuts, and exports them in large quantities. It is also much grown in some parts of Rent. The varietiesTHE NUT. 481 were formerly divided into two classes, namely— short-bearded, in which the husk extended but little, if any, beyond the nut; and long or full-bearded y commonly called filberts; but as there are now several sorts intermediate between these extremes, the distinction can no longer be maintained. The most esteemed varieties are:— 1. Red Filbert—syn. Red Hazel, Avelinier Rouge, Blutnuss, Landscliippen, Langbartsmiss, Rotlie Lam-bertsnuss.—Husk long, tubular, hispid. Nut middle-sized, ovate; shell thick; kernel covered with a crimson pellicle; flavour good. Tree a good bearer. 2. "White Filbert—syn. AYrotliam Park, Avelinier Blanche, AYeisse Lambertsnuss.—Husk long, tubular, contracted round the apex of the nut, hispid. Nut middle-sized. ovate; shell thick; kernel covered with a white pellicle; flavour good. Tree a good bearer. This and the preceding are much esteemed, because they can be longer kept in the husk than the other kinds, owing to its long tubular form. 3. Cosford—syn. Miss Young’s, Thin-shelled.—Husk nearly the length of the nut, deeply divided, slightly hispid at the base, expanding but not becoming reflexed when the nut is ripe. Nut large, oblong; shell light brown, very thin; kernel filling the shell, white, sweet, and very good. Tree a good bearer. It ripens rather early, and is highly deserving of cultivation. 4. Spanish—syn. Cob, Great Cob, and Large Cob of some, Lambert’s, Lambert’s Large, Large Bond Nut, Sir John Aubrey’s, Toker.—Husk smooth, longer than the nut, which is very large, oblong; shell thick, nearly filled with the kernel. Tree of rather upright growth. Being a very large variety, it deserves cultivation. 5. C< >B—syn. Downton Large, Prolific, Dwarf Prolific, Glasgow Prolific, Saint-Grisier; Barcelona, Great Cob, and Large Cob of some. —Husk short, hispid. Nut large, short ovate, slightly compressed; shell very thick and hard, generally well filled by the kernel, which is of good quality very like the Barcelona nuts of commerce. Tree of a strong upright habit of growth, ami a good bearer. 6. Ip ixd NutJ—Husk hispid. Nut middle-sized, ovate, oblong; shell thin, well filled by the kernel. Tree a good bearer. 7. Downton Large Square.—Husk smooth. Nut large, short, four-sided, rounded at the corners; shell thick; kernel very good. 8. Frizzi.ED Filbert-syn. Cape Nut, Frizzled NuE —Husk about twice the length of the nut, deeply divided, spreading open at tin* mouth, frizzled, hispid. Nut small, oblong, flattened; shell rather thick, well filled by the kernel. It ripens rather late; and the tree is hardy and an abundant bearer, producing the nuts in clusters of three or more. Besides the above, the Purple-leaved is well worthy of cultivation, not only on account of its good flavour, but also for the ornamental appearance which its jiurjpB foliage has in the shrubbery borders. Propagation.—The nut may be propagated by seed, layers, suckers, and grafts. For propagation by seed the nuts should be gathered when quite ripe, and laid in the sun or in an aiiy place protected from rain, until they drop out of the husk or can be readily taken out. They should then be kept in sand, and sown in October, in rich light soil. Though this mode mav be adopted on a large scale, yet, as the nuts, when so treated, are liable to be attacked by mice, it is generally better to stratify the nuts, and plant out in nursery rows in spring. Plants raised from the nuts of good varieties are rarely so good as their parents, but answer well for planting in woods for rods, hoops, and other purposes; or they may be reared with single stems, and grafted with any of the improved sorts. Layering should be performed in autumn, or any time before Spring that the weather may permit. The layers will generally be fit for taking up and planting in nursery rows, 3 feet apart and 1 foot asunder in the row. Some prefer plants from layers to those raised by any other mode. Propagation by suckers is the mode usually adopted in Kent, where they are generally taken from the parent plant in autumn, shortened to 10 or 12 inches, and planted in nursery rows, where they remain three or four years. Propagation by grafting is not the usual mode, but it may be very advantageously employed in some cases. The grafts take readily, and if a strong growing sort be grafted on one that is less vigorous, fruitfulness will be induced, and overluxuriance checked. Whip-grafting is the best mode, and the operation should be performed in the end of February or in March. JSoil and Situation.—The nut will grow in almost any soil; but that in which it is most fruitful is a loam upon a dry sandy rock; for such, according to the Kev. William AYilliamson (.Horticultural Transactions, voL iv. p. 140), is that part of Kent where the nut is chiefly cultivated. It succeeds very well in sandy loam, or in a mixture of loam and brick rubbish. In strong, moist, loamy soils, the trees are apt to grow too much to wood. In the warm parts of the Continent, they are planted towards a northern exposure, but in this country a southern slope is the best. Culture.—The distance between the trees may be in feet each way, and then they must be kept within limits by pruning, so that they may not shade each other. Jf the soil is not naturally rich, if it is thin, sandy, or rocky, manure of some sort should be given every year, especially if tlie trees bear heavy crops. Old woollen rags are found to be a good manure, and the decayed primings and foliage of the trees themselves are likewise used with advantage. Manure is applied by laying it on after having removed the 31482 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. surface soil for some distance round the tree in autumn. When the soil is removed, all suckers should be carefully eradicated, otherwise manuring will be of little avail, for the nourishment afforded by the manure will be carried by the sap into the suckers rather than through the vessels of the old stem. Keeping the plants clear of suckers is a most important point in the cultivation of the nut; if, indeed, it is not of all others the most important. Pruning.—The plants should be reared, in the first instance, with a single stem, and in autumn it should be cut at 18 inches from the ground. If after the final planting the stem should appear too weak, it will be advisable to allow the plant to grow at freedom, except in respect to suckers, none of which should be permitted to expand their foliage, but must be displaced as soon as j they can be discovered. When the plants have grown for one season, those that have too weak stems should be cut down near the ground, and only the strongest one of the shoots which subsequently push should be permitted to grow. It should be trained erect during the summer, and cut back in autumn to 18 inches from the ground. This constitutes the upright stem, 1 foot of which should always be kept quite clear of shoots. If above this height six sufficiently strong shoots push, let them be inclined outwards and at equal distances from each other. This can be done with the greatest regularity by means of a hoop placed in the centre. If six good shoots cannot be obtained, select three of the best, and endeavour to grow these three of equal strength during the summer, and cut them back to within 4 or 5 inches from their base. In the following summer two shoots from each of these three will become the origin of six branches for forming the head. The leading shoots of these branches require to be shortened more or less at every winter pruning. How far they should be shortened back depends on the soil and climate. The object is to cause the shoot to push laterals along its whole length, instead of being naked near its base, as would otherwise be the case; and this will be insured by cutting off two-thirds; but one-half or one-third may, under some circumstances, be found sufficient. In Kent, the trees are not allowed to exceed fi feet in height, and in many cases not more than 44 or 5 feet. In consequence of the leading shoots being thus shortened, laterals will be abundantly produced. If any of these are likely to grow too strong, they should be checked by pinching. In autumn, the laterals should be shortened back nearly close to the stem, and in consequence of this two or more shoots will push from their bases, which would not otherwise have been the case. If the plant is not growing too luxuriantly to wood, these shoots will bear fruit. If they are too numerous they should be thinned; and if any are too strong for the others, they should be checked, for by this means the flow of sap will be equalized, and then not only will productiveness be induced, but the fruit will be well nourished and of large size. It should, however, be borne in mind, that if any shoot is allowed to push with excessive vigour in any part of the tree, the fruitfulness of the other parte will be rendered uncertain. It should be understood that the nut is monoecious, that is, male flowers, $, Fig. 47, and female flowers, ?, are produced on the same plant. The male flowers, those long pendulous catkins, appear in winter; but the female flowers are not j visible till spring, and are then rather inconspicuous. The bud containing a female flower is a little more plump than the ordinary wood-buds, and from its apex several deep crimson threadlike styles are protruded in spring. The pollen of the male flowers being essential to fertilization, if there are no catkins, or if they are cut off in pruning before the female flowers appear, there can be no fruit. It is, therefore, necessary to save a good number of catkins when the trees are pruned; if this can be done, it is best to prune in January, but if the catkins are scarce it is advisable to delay pruning till the female blossoms have been for some time expanded; and even then, if the catkins are so situated that, in order to give the tree a symmetrical form, they would have to be cut away, it is well to leave some of the shoots which are best furnished with male blossoms, for a week longer. As already observed, the laterals generally bear the fruit. They should be shortened to a female blossom-bud as early in spring as these can be discerned. Occasionally some of the shortest twigs, with a blossom-bud at the extremity, may be left unpruned; but laterals that have borne should be cut back to two eyes, or within 4 inch of the branch from which they j proceed. Gathering and Storing.—Nuts may be gathered for immediate use when the husks become brown; but for keeping, they should remain till ready to prop from the tree, and then be gathered when perfectly dry. The Red and White filberts are the sorts best adapted for keeping in the husk. The base of the latter is succulent, and must be thoroughly dried before the filberts are packed for keeping. When the husks become dry, they are exposed by dealers to the fumes of sulphur, which doubtless prevent them from becoming mouldy. Others, when the husks are dry, packTHE WALNUT. 483 the nuts in dry-ware casks, or in new flower-pots, with a sprinkling of salt, which also prevents mouldiness; others again put them in jars, and strew a layer of salt 1 inch thick over them before covering up. In all cases, when packed, they should be kept in a cool, dry situation, with a steady temperature. Diseases a)idInsects.—The tree is rarely attacked to an injurious extent by either of these, but the crop is sometimes destroyed by the nut-weevil (Baianinus nucam), which pierces the tender shell of the young nut, and deposits a siugle egg in the interior. The maggot hatched from this feeds upon the kernel until it has attained its full size, when it eats its way out either before or after the nut has fallen to the ground, and buries itself in the earth, where it becomes a pupa. In the following summer it reappears as a moth, again to carry on its work of destruction. All that can be done to prevent the repetition of the mischief is to shake the trees in August, and having collected the fallen nuts to burn those which are perforated. THE WALNUT (Juglans regia, L.—Moncecia Polyandria, L.; .Juglandese, D C.; Juglandacese, Fig. 2S6. Lind.) is a lofty monoecious tree, a native of Persia and Asia Minor, whence it appears to have been carried into Greece at least three hundred years before the Christian era; then into Italy, France, Spain, and other parts of Europe. The date of its introduction into Britain is unknown; and though the tree is not recorded to have been cultivated till about the year 1562, yet the circumstance of a walnut-shell having been found, together with a large quantity of Roman remains, thirty-five feet below the surface, in excavating the foundations for the Royal Exchange in London, renders it by no means improbable that the walnut was brought into this country by the Romans. The fruit whilst young and tender is largely used for pickling, and when ripe it forms a favourite article of the dessert. An excellent oil, much used in the arts, is obtained from the kernel; and the wood, being light, durable, and susceptible of a high polish, is considered preferable to any other for making gun-stocks; it is also largely used by the cabinetmaker. The principal varieties are:— 1. Common.—Fruit oval, not large, but well filled. Tree an abundant bearer. 2. Thin-shelled—syn. Noyer ii coque tendre, Noyer mesange.—Fruit double, longer, earlier, and of better quality than the preceding. It lias a very thin shell, which is said to be frequently pierced by birds in order to get at the kernel. 3. Large Long-fruited—syn. Noyer a gros fruits longs. —Fruit thin-shelled, very full, of excellent flavour, aud produced in great abundance. 4. Late—syn. Noyer tardif, Noyer de la Saint-Jean. I—The principal merit of this sort consists iu its not flowering till the end of June, so that the crop is not I exposed to injury from late spring frosts. 5. Large Fruited—syn. French "Walnut, Noyer ii gros fruit.—Fruit very large, but must be eaten soon after gathering, otherwise it becomes hard and shrivelled. j The tree is not a great bearer. (i. Large Double—syn. Noyer a bijoux.—Fruit very I large, double, kernel good, but soon shrivel*. The shells are frequently used by ladies for holding gloves and trinkets, hence its French name. 7. Cluster.—Fruit produced in clusters of fifteen or twenty, thin-shelled, and of good flavour. 8. Dwarf Prolific—syn. Noyer Fertile, Praepartu-riens. —This variety is said to come into bearing when the seedlings arc three years old, and to reproduce itself from seed. It may be trained as a pyramid, but the pruning for this purpose should be performed in summer, whilst the shoots are still in an herbaceous state. 9. Yorkshire,—Large but not double, well filled, shell moderately thin. It ripens well. 10. Highflyer.—Middle size, remarkably thin-shelled, and well filled. It ripen* early. One of the best for this climate. The walnut succeeds best in deep sandy loams; calcareous Boils, and stiff loams resting on a gravelly bottom, are also well suited for its growth. It requires plenty of room, as well as a free exposure to air and light; and in consequence of its not succeeding well in clumps or groups,484 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. the trees are generally planted in a single row in some open spot where their shade and wide-spreading roots will not prove injurious to other plants. Propagation is effected by seeds, and occasionally by budding, grafting, and inarching, for the perpetuation of varieties. In raising from seed, only the best nuts should be selected, and these, having been' stratified in sand in a cool place during the winter, may be planted in February or March, either where the trees are intended to remain, or in a nursery for transplantation. By the former method the tallest and best trees for timber are obtained, whilst the latter mode is j generally more convenient, and affords trees which ! come sooner into bearing and ripen their fruit i earlier in the season than those not transplanted. The ground having been trenched 2 feet deep, and made fine, the nuts, if sown where they are to remain, should be placed 4 inches apart, in patches of three or four, and covered to the depth of 2 inches. In general 60 feet may be allowed between the patches; but in rich, deep soil, 70 or 80 feet will not be too much. Afterwards, when the seedlings come up, only the strongest in each patch should be retained. If the plants are to be grown in a nursery, drills should be traced at Si feet asunder, and in these the nuts should be placed 18 inches apart. In the autumn of the year after sowing, and as soon as the leaves have fallen, every alternate plant should be taken up with a ball, and replanted elsewhere at 1 yard apart, the extremity of the tap-root having been cut off, in order to induce the production of fibrous roots. The next year, those not transplanted should be taken up, treated in a similar manner, and replanted somewhat further apart. As the plants increase in size, successive transplantations should take place every second or third year till the trees are finally planted. Although the number of individual plants is increased by means of the seed, yet other means must be resorted to in order to secure the reproduction of particular sorts with certainty. Grafting the walnut is seldom practised in this country, and it was long considered impracticable, till the error of this opinion was proved by the late Mr. T. A. Knight, who says:— “ The fluid which the seed of the walnut-tree contains, when that is fully prepared to germinate in the spring, and which was deposited within it for the purpose of affording nutriment to the seminal buds, or plumule, in the preceding autumn, is sweet, as in a great many other kinds of seeds; but during germination this becomes, in the seed of the walnut-tree, bitter and .acrid. Similar changes take place in the sap which is deposited, for analogous purposes, in the baik' and wood of the walnut-tree, during the germination of its buds; and I was led by the discoveries of M. Dutrochet to infer the probability, that the sap during and subsequent to its chemical changes, might acquire new and more extensive vital powers. I therefore resolved to suffer the buds of my grafts, and those of the stocks to which I proposed to apply them, to unfold, and to grow during a week or ten days; then to destroy all the young shoots and foliage, and to graft at a subsequent period. A very severe frost in the morning of the 7th of May saved me the trouble of destroying the young shoots; but it deranged my experiment by killing much of the slender annual wood which I proposed to use for grafts, so that I found some difficulty in choosing proper grafts. The swelling of the small and previously almost invisible buds within a few days enabled me to distinguish the living wood from that which had been killed by the frost, and the stocks were grafted upon the 18th day of May. My grafter had more than once been previously employed by me to graft walnut-trees in various ways, and never having in any degree succeeded, he did not seem at all pleased with the task assigned him, and very confidently foretold that every graft would die. The number of grafts employed was twenty-eight, and out of these twenty-two grew well; generally very vigorously, many producing shoots of nearly a yard long and of very great strength; and the length of the longest shoot exceeding 1 yard 5 inches. The grafts were attached to the young (annual) wood of stocks which were between 5 and 8 feet high; and in all cases they were placed to stand astride the stocks, one division being in some instances introduced between the bark and the wood; and both divisions being, in others, fitted to the wood or bark in the ordinary way. Both modes of operating were equally successful. In each of these methods of grafting it is advan-tageous to pare away almost all the wood of both the divisions of the grafts; and therefore the wide dimensions of the medulla in the young shoots of the walnut-tree do not present any inconvenience to the grafter.” With regard to budding the walnut, the same distinguished physiologist observes:—“The buds of almost every species succeed with most certainty when inserted in the shoots of the same year’s growth; but the walnut-tree appears to afford an exception, possibly in some measure because its buds contain, within themselves, in the spring, all the leaves which the tree bears in the following summer, whence its annual shoots wholly cease to elongate soon after its buds unfold; allTHE WALNUT. 485 its buds of each season are also, consequently, very nearly of the same age; and long before any have acquired the proper degree of maturity for being removed, the annual branches have ceased to grow longer or to produce new foliage. To obviate the disadvantages arising from the preceding circumstances, I adopted means of retarding the period of the vegetation of the stocks, comparatively with that of the bearing tree, anil by these means I became partially successful. There are at the base of the annual shoots of the walnut and other trees, where those join the year-old wood, many minute buds, which are almost concealed in the bark, and which rarely or never vegetate, but in the event of the destruction of the large prominent buds, which occupy the middle and opposite end of the annual wood. By inserting in each stock one of these minute buds, and one of the large and prominent kind, I hail the pleasure to tinil that the minute buds took freely, whilst the large all failed, without a single exception. This experiment was repeated in the summer of 1815, upon two yearling stocks which grew in pots, and had been placed during the spring and early part of the summer in a shady situation under a north wall, whence they were moved late in July to a forcing-house which I devote to experiments, and instantly budded. These being suffered to remain in the house during the following summer, produced from the small bulls shoots nearly 3 feet long, terminating in large and perfect female blossoms, which necessarily proved abortive, as no male blossoms were procurable at the early period in which the female blossoms appeared: but the early formation of such blossoms sufficiently proves that the habits of a bearing branch of the walnut-tree may be transferred to a young tree by budding, as well as grafting by approach. “ The most eligible situation for the insertion of budj of this species of tree (and probably of others of similar habits) is near the summit of the wood of the preceding year, and of course very near the base of the annual shoot; and if buds of the small kind above-mentioned be skilfully inserted in such parts of branches of rapid growth, they will be found to succeed with nearly as much certainty as those of other fruit-trees, provided such buds be in a more mature state than those of the stocks into which they are inserted.”—Horticultural Transactions, vol. iii. p. 133. The French graft the trees when the stems are from 34 to 5 inches in circumference. The methods employed are whip and cleft grafting, flute-budding, ring-budding, shield-building, with a pushing eye, and herbaceous cleft-grafting; but whatever be the mode adopted, the sap must be in full flow at the time the operation is performed. For cleft-grafting the scions should be taken off in spring, before the rise of the sap, and laid with their ends in the ground in a north border, where they should remain till required for use. In grafting, care should be taken to cut the stock over above a shoot, opposite to which the scion should be applied. When the graft begins to push, this shoot may be pinched; and when success is no longer doubtful, it should be pruned. In l ing-building, which is only performed when the sap is in full flow, a ring of bark provided with an eye is taken from two-year-old wood, placed on the stock from which a similar ring has previously been removed, and the edges, having been accurately fitted together, are covered with grafting wax, but it is not necessary to tie up. In the following spring the portion of the stock above the graft should be cut off. It may be remarked that this mode of budding is also applicable to shoots and branches. The final plantation may take place in the year after grafting or budding; it may either be performed in autumn, after the fall of the leaf, or in spring. The ground should be deeply trenched, and large holes having been made, the trees must be carefully lifted with balls and planted. In the spring, when all danger of severe frost is over, the graft may be shortened back a little, and at the same season in the following year it should be cut back to five or six eyes. As the trees form their heads naturally, little pruning is required; it is merely necessary to keep a straight stem by cutting off straggling growth, to prevent branches crossing each other, and to remove dead wood or that which is accidentally injured. The best time for performing these operations is in autumn, a little before the fall of the leaf. For pickling, the fruit should be gathered whilst the shell is so soft that it can easily be pierced with a needle. When perfectly ripe, the husk opens, and at this time it is usual to beat the tree with rods; but this is at best a barbarous practice, and, where there is no danger of depredations, unnecessary, for the nuts, when ripe, drop, and may be collected from time to time. There is, however, a common prejudice, that thrashing the trees increases their fruitfulness, but it does not appear to be founded on fact. Where this mode of gathering is adopted, care should be taken to strike lightly, anil not to bruise the buds, upon which the future crop depends. After gathering, the nuts should be spread out in a layer about 3 inches thick, in a dry, airy place, and turned frequently till they486 GARDENER'S ASSISTANT. easily part with their husk; and after having been thoroughly dried, they may be packed in alternate layers with sand in jars or casks, or they may be placed in jars, and salt scattered over them as they are put in. The jars should then be kept in a cool, dry place. Previous to use, the walnuts should be wiped perfectly clean with a cloth; and if the kernel is shrivelled, they should be steeped for several houm in milk and water, to restore its plumpness, and cause it to part readily from the thin pellicle with which it is covered. Insects.—The walnut very rarely suffers from insects, to which the smell and astringency of the leaves appear to be peculiarly distasteful. The caterpillar of the wood-leopard moth (Zeuzera cesculi) and that of the goat-moth (Gossus ligni-perda) occasionally attack the stem, and greatly deteriorate the value of the timber. THE SWEET or SPANISH CHESTNUT (Cas-tanea vesca, Willd. — Moncecia Polyandria, L.; Moreie, J.; Corylaceas, Lind.) is a native of Asia Minor, whence it is supposed to have been brought into Europe by the Greeks, and having been carried to Italy, was probably introduced into Britain by the Romans. The fruit is generally eaten either roasted and seasoned with salt, or stewed in cream. In many parts of France, and especially in elevated situations, where cereals cannot be successfully cultivated, chestnuts constitute the chief food of the inhabitants, who kiln-dry them, and form the farina into a heavy and indigestible sort of bread, or make it into soups and puddings. The principal English varieties are:— The Common, which is chiefly useful as a stock upon which to graft the other sorts, its fruit being small and little worth; the Downton, syn. Knight’s Prolific; and the Devonshire, syn. Prolific, New Prolific. The Avant Chataigne is mentioned by M. Leroy of Angers, as being second-rate, but very early. This being the case, there would be a better chance of its ripening fruit in seasons when, owing to a deficient amount of sunshine in the autumn, the later sorts do not arrive at perfection. The chestnut succeeds best in deep sandy soils and sandy loams resting on a dry subsoil. Calcareous soils are not well suited to its growth, and in stiff clays and retentive subsoils it seldom lives for any length of time. To ripen the fruit properly, a warm situation with a southern exposure should be chosen, for it is only in warn localities and in favourable seasons that it does so in Britain. On this account large quantities are annually imported from France. Propagation is effected by grafting and bud- ding for the continuation of the varieties; and by sowing the chestnuts, of which only the best-formed and most perfectly ripened should be chosen for the purpose. They may be sown in October or November, but in this case are frequently eaten by rats and mice; and the young plants coming up in spring are liable to be injured by frost. For these reasons it is generally better to stratify the seeds in sand, and sow in February or March, for in that case the seedlings do not come up till all danger of severe frost is over. In sowing, drills should be drawn 2 feet from each other, and in these the seeds may be deposited about 4 inches apart, covering with fine soil to the depth of 3 inches. Beyond keeping the ground clean, and stirring it occasionally, nothing further is required till the plants have attained the age of two years, when they should be taken up any time between October and March, about one-third of the tap-root cut off, and replanted 1 foot apart, in rows 2 feet asunder. A clean stem ought to be preserved by pruning off lateral branches. The young trees should be transplanted every other year, and, according to I their growth, allowed more space. When they have stems about 1^ inch in diameter, they shoujd be carefully taken up in autumn and planted where they are to remain. A distance of from 30 to 40 feet may be allowed between the trees. T1 le fruit when fully ripe naturally detaches itself from the tree, and may be collected from time to time as it falls. In many cases, however, the chestnuts whilst lying on the ground are liable to be stolen, and for this reason are frequently beaten down with long poles as soon as the outer capsule begins to open; but in performing this operation great care should be taken not to injure the branches and young shoots. The chestnuts having been collected, should be beaten out of the husks and spread out in a thin layer in the fruit-room. Those not required for immediate use, after having been exposed for some time to the air, to part with a portion of their moisture, may be packed in alternate layers with dry sand, and kept in any dry place secure from frost. CHAPTER XX. THE ORCHARD HOUSE. [No work on practical gardening can be complete without a detailed description of this useful structure, and some cultural remarks on its occupants. The orchard house in its simplest form is a glazed unlieated structure, intended for the cul-THE ORCHARD HOUSE. 487 ture of some of the finer fruits, especially peaches, nectarines, and the best varieties of plum and pear. The orchard house may be of any form desirable, and most in accordance with the taste of the owner—lean-to, half-span, or span-roofed. The span-roof form appears preferable to the others, as with it the trees get more light and a more perfect circulation of air. Such a house may he 20 or 24 feet wide, 11 feet in height from the ground line to the apex of the roof, and of any convenient length; 50 or 60 feet would be a proportionate length for a house of this width, as it will admit of a bed in the centre of the area and borders round the sides and ends. A neat gravel path edged with tiles, such as are made for this purpose, will form an excellent finish to the whole. Lean-to houses not more than from 6 to 9 feet wide will also produce a good supply of excellent fruit, trained trees being planted out against the back wall, aud a row or two of pot trees placed on the front border. Another orchard house which was very successful, producing delicious peaches and nectarines, was a half-span, with a slate platform at the back and a bed in front; in the latter the trees, if it was thought desirable, were plunged, otherwise they were staged on the slate | datform; and as the pots were not in any way protected from the rays of the sun, the roots were sometimes in very hot quarters. The free use of the syringe, however, and abundant supplies of water at the roots, kept them in robust health, and the exposed position in which they were placed served to thoroughly mature the young wood for next season’s crop. The form of structure is therefore, to a certain extent, a matter of taste. Good fruit, under a proper system of culture, can be grown in any or all forms of orchard houses; but to those who intend building such a house, and are not decided about the form, we say, Decide upon the span-roof, and let it run north and south in preference to east and west. The next point is whether the house is to be heated or not ? We say, Certainly let it be heated. The trees will be in blossom in March, and even with the protection of glass, without artificial heat a crop cannot in every season be insured. Continued dull cold weather is most to be dreaded; a sharp frost at night, if the next day be fine, will do no harm, but frost and no sun will blight the hopes of a season. This is when the heating apparatus should be employed, and at the same time a very little ventilation should be afforded both night and day. In a house of the size referred to at the beginning of this chapter, four rows of 4-inch pipes will be sufficient, two rows round both sides, and two rows round the ends, with a dip under the doorways. We now come to the question how the trees are to be grown—in pots, or planted out in the border? Here our experience says, Grow them in pots. Planted-out trees do not require so much attention as regards water, but they have the disadvantage of not being so much under the command of the cultivator; and if the house should be required for any other purpose during the winter months, the trees will be very much in the way. Pot trees, on the other hand, require much attention in watering. As soon as the fruit is fairly set and the trees growing freely, abundant supplies of water are required, and unremitting attention is then most essential to their well-being; for, should the trees suffer from inattention, the bright prospects and expectations of a season will be destroyed. It is the same with any other plants or trees cultivated in pots and under glass, inattention is simply their destruction. In pots the grower has a thorough command of the roots, which should not on any account be allowed to pass through the holes at the bottoms into the beds. The trees may be removed somewhere else in the winter, and the house, if thought desirable, turned into a winter garden, or devoted to some other useful purpose. In the neighbourhood of London the trees may be safely wintered out of doors if plunged in a dry position, but in cold and wet localities and in the north, plunging the trees out of doors is ruinous to them. Where the amount of labour is limited, and the house is not required for any other purpose, we would plant out some of the trees and grow others in pots. The reason in this case for devoting part of the house to trees in pots is, that a greater variety of fruits can be grown in a less space than could otherwise be done; and should it be necessary, an undesirable variety can be discarded, to make room for one of greater merit, much more easily than if the trees were planted out in a permanent border. Treatment,—We now come to the method of culture, and will therefore start at the beginning. Do we wish to form a pyramid, bush, or upright cordon ? Let us take the pyramid first, and we want to form it from a “maiden” tree. This will have a stout leading shoot, well furnished with laterals if it has been well grown. The tree should be potted in autumn. The most suitable compost is good turfy loam, not too heavy. Five parts of this to one of rotted manure will grow them well, and in potting ram down the compost quite firmly with a wooden rammer. Pruning may be performed early in spring, and for a pyramid the laterals should be pruned back in the form of a pyramid; the shoot nearest the base should be cut back to 1 foot, nearer the top the488 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. shoots should be cut in more closely, and the leader should be shortened to one-third of its length. The cordon should be formed in the same way, except that the lateral shoots are to be cut in much more closely. The bush form of tree is also well adapted for orchard house culture. To form a bush tree the main stem should be cut down to an average of 18 inches from its base, more or less according to the habit of the tree. The summer treatment consists in pinching the growing shoots and forming the young tree; judicious pinching of the shoots is of great importance in this respect, as much can be done by pinching at the right bud. Sometimes it is necessary, in order to furnish the centre of the tree, that the shoots should grow inwards, and when the centre is well furnished all shoots should grow outwards. The experienced cultivator can indeed tell at a glance where to pinch, but this knowledge can only be obtained by close observation and considerable experience. The cordon form of tree should be pinched in closely say to every third leaf, the other two forms at the fourth or fifth leaf; but discontinue all pinching of the growing shoots after the last week of July. About three times in a season will be a sufficient number of times to pinch back the growing shoots. Another feature in the culture of pot trees is of considerable importance, and that is surface dressing. Attention to this is very important during the summer months, say from the first week of June until the first week of August. Some of the very early sorts will be in bearing by this time, and it will be as well to keep in mind that no dressing should be applied to any of the trees for at least three weeks previous to the time of the fruit being ripe. The main crop of peaches and nectarines—that is, the midseason sorts —will be in abundance from the second week in August until the same time in September. A small portion of the dressing should be applied at intervals of ten days or a fortnight. It should be made up in this way, viz.: equal parts horse droppings, turfy loam, and malt dust. The whole should be laid up in a heap until it is pretty well decomposed, but to prevent its burning it should be turned over every day. This surface dressing is much more beneficial to the trees than using manure water; for the latter, unless applied with great discretion, and much diluted, is very often productive of harm. Some persons have recommended surface-dressing the trees shortly after the fall of the leaf, say in November; this we do not much approve of. It is done by removing all the old and exhausted material from the surface to a considerable depth, and replacing it with fresh compost. This should not be so strong as that recommended for summer use, but should consist of rotted manure one part and turfy loam two parts. Upon the whole, we very much prefer repotting the trees to surface-dressing them, but to be successful it is necessary to repot at the right time, and that is almost as soon as the crop is gathered. Before commencing operations, it is essential to see that the tree intended to be operated upon is thoroughly moist at the roots; next turn it out of the pot, and with a pointed stick or iron remove a portion of soil from the surface, also from the bottom of the ball, then pick away a portion all round the sides, when the tree may be repotted in a larger pot, or, if the ball has been much reduced, it may be placed in a pot of the same size as that in which it previously was. Do not use the old dirty pot, but one which, if not new, has been well washed, and is dry. After this, much care is necessary to prevent the tree from flagging, as the destruction of so many active rootlets | necessarily checks the flow of sap. If the weather prove hot, the leaves should be kept moist by frequent dewinga from the syringe, but do not water at the root for at least twenty-four hours ! after repotting. Fruit-trees treated in this way will, if the wood has been well ripened, bear freely the following season. A crop cannot, however, always be obtained if repotting is delayed until the leaves have fallen. Fruit-trees should not stand on the surface of the ground, but the pots in vffiich they are growing should be elevated on two bricks, a space being left between the bricks, which will cause the hole in the pot to be raised quite clear of the surface of the border. Pears and plums require similar treatment to peaches and nectarines, except that the fruit does not set so freely under glass; a dry bracing atmosphere is therefore more necessary when the trees I are in flower. This hint is especially applicable to the pear. As regards the quality of fruit to be obtained j from trees well cultivated in pots in an orchard house, from a lengthened experience it may be affirmed that no fruit ripened on an open wall can compare vdth it for a moment either in appearance or quality. Fruit can also be obtained from pot trees quite equal to that from the best arranged peach house. Still the reader must not infer from this that we wish to recommend the orchard house in all cases in preference to the old form of peach house, in which the trees are planted out, and fixed to a trellis in the usualGARDEN STRUCTURES. 489 way. We do not recommend it for the practical gardener who has the superintendence of a large establishment, and very little time to spare for the minor details of the work. To grow fruit-trees successfully in pots the cultivator must take iuteuse interest in his trees; he must know their separate wants, especially the quantity of water that each tree requires; and, altogether, the unremitting attention which the trees require can seldom be obtained from subordinates in a large establishment. To the amateur, however, with plenty of spare time at command, and who would take a delight in cultivating his own trees, this mode of culture may be unhesitatingly recommended, as well as to the gardener who can personally see to the details of the work. Under any circumstances the system is well worthy the attention of cultivators. Insects. —The peach and nectarine trees are very liable to be attacked by red spider, green and black aphides, and frequently by brown scale. The aphis is effectually destroyed by fumigation with tobacco smoke. The enemy usually appears as soon as the trees burst into leaf, and it should be destroyed at once; but the aphides are very tenacious of life, and the house must be well filled with smoke three or four times, at intervals of as many days, before they are effectually dislodged. Red spider is kept in check, but seldom destroyed, by the frequent use of the syringe. Commence syringing as soon as the fruit is well set; this should be done morning and night, and the water must be applied with considerable force. If the house is large, a good garden engine is the most effectual agent. Brown scale fixes itself to the wood, and can only be removed by hand-washing or scrubbing. To get rid of this pest, dissolve four ounces of soft soap in a gallon of water, and apply it with a hard brush, scrubbing the place until the scales are removed, j. d.] CHAPTER XXI. GARDEN STRUCTURES. I.—WALLS. In the chapters on the formation of the fruit and kitchen garden, it was necessary to treat of the direction of the walls, that requiring to be taken into consideration before ground operations can be properly commenced. In fact, the direction of the walls is of primary importance, and the details of construction may be safely left to a good builder; nevertheless, a few observations as regards the materials and modes of construction may be of utility. It is generally understood that bricks are the best material for a garden wall. In those made near London, a considerable portion of sifted cinders is mixed with the clay, and thus a carbonaceous substance is introduced, which is next to indestructible, and the brick always retains nearly the same degree of hardness as it possessed when first burned. It is not so with bricks made entirely of clay, for they are liable to be softened and otherwise affected by moisture, of which they absorb a large amount. Stone materials, however, answer perfectly well for a garden wall, and of these hard and close-grained stones are much to be preferred to such as are coarse-grained and porous. The stones should not be so large as to occasion inconvenience in training; but a difficulty of that kind may be overcome by facing the wall with a trellis of wood, or with galvanized iron wire strained at suitable distances apart. We have seen very fine fruit produced against a stone wall, equally good against a brick one, all other circumstances being the same. Colour.—Of all others, white reflects the greatest amount of the solar rays, and of course absorbs the least. A dark colour, on the contrary, reflects the least, and consequently absorbs the most. In sunny weather, a black wall becomes hotter than a white one, and plants grown against it are then excited, but they are only rendered more susceptible of a check when cold and sunless weather supervenes. Fruit-trees upon blackened walls are brought somewhat earlier into blossom; but in our climate this is not generally a desideratum; and it has been found, in the case of a tree planted one-half against a blackened wall and one-half against one of the ordinary colour, that the blossoms on the dark portion expanded sooner, but that the fruit did not ripen earlier. It may, therefore, be concluded, that there is no material advantage to be derived from a black wall^none, in fact, that would compensate for its ugliness. As regards appearance, black is too gloomy, wThite too dazzling, and all glaring colours are disagreeable. Pale-coloured bricks should therefore be employed in preference to red ones. So far as colour is concerned, any material that is of a subdued tint, inclining to a light rather than to a dark shade, may be considered eligible, provided it be suitable in other respects. Stone colour is, we think, the nearest approach to white that should be chosen. Height.—As garden walls serve as a fence, accumulate heat, afford shelter, and present a surface for training trees upon, these circumstances require to be considered in connection with the question of height. With regard to the first consideration, a wall 6 or 7 feet in height will490 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. unsightly, and give a box-like appearance; but in such cases the south-aspect wall may be made high, and that on the south side of the space inclosed comparatively low, whilst the height of those on the east and west sides may be intermediate between the two. Thickness.—A wall of the standard thickness of 14 inches is as substantial as need be desired in gardens, and it may be carried up to a great height without the support of piers, provided the materials and workmanship are good. The next less thickness of a brick wall, as determined by the dimensions of a brick, is 9 inches; but to render a wall of this thickness secure, if more than 8 feet high, it ought to have piers. By the introduction of piers at frequent intervals, 4-inch walls (by which is meant 4^ inches, or the width of one brick) may be built tolerably secure even to the height of 8 feet. Foundations.—Garden walls have only their own weight to support, and therefore do not require to be so deeply founded as those of an equal height in buildings where there is the additional weight of floors and roof to bear; but the foundations ought to be 3 feet deep, in order that they may not be loosened in trenching the ground, as well as to prevent the roots of trees sun to be at an elevation of 45°, then ah c will from getting underneath them. The bottom of represent a section of the shaded space at the j the trench for the foundation should be examined, north side of the wall. The number of cubic I and if parts are found of a softer nature than feet of air deprived of the sun’s rays behind the others, the bottom should be deepened and made above length of wall would be 1800. Carry up ] up with concrete or other materials. Compact the wall to the height of 12 feet, and ad e will loam will bear a great weight without yielding, become shaded; the number of cubic feet deprived | so long as it is dry or nearly so; but when wet, of the sun’s rays will then be 7200, or four times as much as when the wall was only half the height. We cannot say that the accumulation of solar heat on the other side of the wall would be exactly in the same ratio, for various circumstances would doubtless interfere, but certainly it would approximate thereto. From the above, and from what is actually known of the beneficial effects of a high wall on vegetation requiring a higher temperature than is afforded by a low wall, we arrive at the conclusion that high walls are the most advantageous, and the colder the climate, of course the higher they should be. In the southern counties, and in other warm situations, 10 feet may be allowed for a south wall, but a height of 12 feet is better; and in the walls on the north side, one side of which faces southwards, and consequently presents the most favourable aspect for the more delicate kinds of fruit-trees, 15 feet or more in height would certainly prove very advantageous. We are here speaking of walls intended for utility. It is true that high walls surrounding a small garden are somewhat Fig. 288. it squeezes outwards under pressure, and the wall by its own weight sinks. If this took place equally along the whole extent of the wall, as would be the case if the stratum of loam were uniform, it would be of little consequence ; but if part of the foundation is on loam and part on gravel, a rent or shake is likely to take place. The base ought to be twice the thickness of the wall, whatever that may be, and the width should be diminished, as in Fig. 288, by equal steps on both sides, each step being not more than 2j inches wide. Solidity.—A brick wall 14 inches thick is unobjectionable ; but hollow walls of the same thickness answer exceedingly well, for they can be made so as to present exactly the same appearance, and they are both dry and strong. Some hollow walls that were built nearly fiftv answer perfectly well. As to the second condition, the higher the wall the greater is the amount of heat, partly reflected anti partly accumulated during sunshine, to be given out to adjoiuing substances at all times when the air is colder than the surface of the wall. But it is known that a sort of fruit that will not ripen perfectly against a low wall will do so upon a high one. It therefore appears that the entire surface of a high wall becomes more heated than that of a low one. The difference may be estimated by the amount of shade caused by each. Let a h (Fig. 287) represent the section of a wall (i feet high and 100 feet long, and supposing theGARDEN STRUCTURES. 491 years ago in the garden of the Royal Horticultural Society at Chiswick, cannot be distinguished from solid 'walls built at the same time, except by their sound, when tapped, or by cutting to the interior. They are warmer and more Substantial than a 9-inch wall with piers, which requires nearly as many bricks as a 14-inch wall. In a wall 100 feet in length, and 10 feet high above ground, the number of bricks required for that 1000 square feet of wall surface would be, for a 14-inch solid wall, about................16,000 14-iucli hollow wall, about..............12,800 9-inch solid wall, with piers, about____11,060 It will be seen from the above that, as compared with a solid 14-inch wall, there is a considerable saving of bricks in a 14-inch hollow wall, but between this and a solid 9-inch wall with piers the difference is not much, being only about 1740 bricks, probably not more than £2 as regards expense of materials—a mere trifle in comparison with the superiority of a 14-inch hollowr wall both in appearance and utility. The piers, if they project much, are unsightly, as well as obstructive in training; and the shoots of fruit-trees thrive best against a plane surface unshaded by piers. These, wherever it can be done consistently with securing the stability of the wall, ought to be placed on that side which presents the least favourable aspect for fruit-trees. Construction.—Although this can only be done by practical masons and bricklayers, yet a gardener ought to know something of the principles, otherwise he would be apt to commit errors in cases where he might have to propose plans or give directions. For instance, he might, for support to a 9-inch wall, order piers 20 inches broad, and to project 6 inches from the wall. He would scarcely think of making the dimensions practical ones of 22^ and 4| inches, unless he first took into consideration the size of the bricks; then he would find that these numbers bore a certaiu relation to the usual dimensions of bricks—Ri inches being the breadth of one, and 18 inches twice the length of a brick, making in all 224 inches—consequently the bricks would not require to be cut, as would have to be done in the other case. Stone walls upon which trees are to be trained should not be built of large blocks; if the stones were dressed so as to make each course 6 inches, that is, equal to two courses of bricks, training could be very well performed without a trellis, which a greater distance between the courses would render necessary. The usual size of bricks is nearly 9 inches in length, 44 inches in breadth, and 2£ inches in thickness. In good work, each course is exactly 3 inches deep. The arrangement of the bricks should be such as to form a bond, that is, the joints of one course should be overlaid by the bricks of the one next above it, so that no two joints of any course shall be in the same line with a joint of the next course above it. There are two systems by which this can be readily effected; one is known as English bond, the other as Flemish bond. There are some old walls to be seen in which the bricks are laid in English bond, and this mode of building is still extensively employed in railway and other woi-ks, where walls have to be of unusual thickness and strength; but for dwelling-houses and most ordinary purposes the Flemish bond has been almost universally adopted for more than a century. In Fig. 289 A represents a course of bricks of a Fig. 2S9. 14-inch wall laid in English bond. The bricks disposed lengthwise in the direction of the wall, as a a, are termed stretchers; those placed lengthwise across the wall, as at b, are called headers: b represents the next course. Now, if we imagine it to be placed over the course a, it is evident that the stretchers will bond over the headers, and vice versa. Moreover, the internal longitudinal joint in one course is always bonded by the headers of the next course. Fig. 290 represents the arrangement of the Fig. 290. bricks in a 14-inch wall in Flemish bond, and it will be seen from this, that instead of one course exhibiting only stretchers, and the next only headers, as in English bond, the headers and stretchers alternate in every course.492 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. A 9-inch wall can be rendered very secure by piers 1 foot 104 inches broad, and projecting only 44 inches from the wall. They should be 12 feet apart, and ought to be carried up to within 2 or 24 feet of the top of the wall, and protected by a co] )ing. Hollow Walls.—We are indebted to Mr. Sib-tliorpe for the plan and section (Fig. 291) of a 14-inch hollow wall, and it represents, we think, the very best mode of constructing a hollow wall; that it is a very substantial one we can affirm, and it presents exactly the same appearance as a solid 14-inch wall. It will be observed that headers and stretchers alternate, and that every fifth header on each side of the wall is a whole brick, and that the other headers are half bricks. In the next course a stretcher must be laid across the header at s, and a full-length header from the face of the wall at n. In Fig. 291. mm TV\ ,;Wf w* Hollow Wall. -i the third course the bricks should I B again be laid as in the first, or as represented in the figure; the fourth like the second, the fifth like the first, and so on, till within a few courses of the top, and these should be solid, as represented in the section. In this way, at intervals of about 30 inches, there are 44-inch partitions, which are solid, except where the end of the header s may not touch the opposite stretcher n. There are other modes of constructing hollow 14-inch walls, and which are well know'n to builders, but they are all, we consider, inferior to the above. Hollow 9-inch walls are frequently constructed where solid ones are not required. The bricks are so placed ;is to form headers at greater or less distances apart, and are laid either on edge or on the flat, according to the degree of strength that may be required in the wall. Concrete walls, which were at one time employed to a considerable extent for dwelling-houses, after the duty was taken off bricks, fell into disuse; but it seems likely that they will be again adopted, as Mr. Tall, of Kent Street, Southwark, has patented a method by which they can be moulded with greater facility, exactness, and economy, than by the old mode of boards and posts. Concrete was employed many years ago for garden walls, the concrete being filled in between two 44-inch walls, and such wTalls answered well for training, and were very strong; but, as compared with walls wholly of brick, were nearly if not quite as expensive. We have not as yet seen any garden-walls formed exclusively of concrete; but, properly made, protected with a coping, and provided with a trellis for training, they would doubtless answer well, and their first cost would be much less than that of brickwork. Mr. W. E. Newton, C.E., has erected one 9 feet high and 9 inches thick without buttresses, stuccoed on both sides, to give it a smooth surface, and with a concrete coping. This wall, and others only 6 and 7 inches thick, have stood so well, that for walls not exceeding 9 feet in height, he says he would recommend a thickness of only 6 inches, and for 12-feet walls one of 9 inches Concrete may be formed of clay burned into ballast, gravel, stone, or furnace clinkers, and by packing hard materials, such as brick burrs, hard-burned lumps of clay, large stones, &c., in the centre of the concrete, a considerable economy of cement may be effected. In forming the concrete, Portland cement in the proportion of one of cement to seven of gravel or ballast is employed, and Mr. Tall recommends the following mode of proceeding: — “First, large mixing boards, at least 11 feet by 14 feet, must be provided, either one, two, or three, according to the size of the building. These should be made of 14-inch deal, and in three parts, like three large ledge-doors, and bolted to four lengths of 44 by 3 inch 1 quartering, so as to be easily taken in pieces for removal. For measuring and mixing, a strong I box should be made, open at top and bottom, 3 feet square in clear, thus containing one cubic yard. Divide the depth into eight parts, and | cut off the top part, which will be a measure for the cement, the seven-eighths remaining being the ! measure for the gravel, &c. Screw iron angles to [ each corner on to the bottom edge of the top box, projecting a little below the joint to keep it in I place; a pair of strong iron handles must be fixed on the sides. Place this box on the mixing board, about 4 feet from one end, lay a wheeling plank on one edge, and wheel into the box sufficient of the gravel, ballast, or crushed stone, to fill up the lower box, then strike it off with a straight-edge, aud place on the top box, which fill up with cement, and strike off as before, then two men will lift the box by means of the handles, and the materials will fall in the shape of a pointed cone, with the cement spread nearly even over the top (a round bottomless tub would cause it to be spread perfectly even). Three men will now commence to turn it over, one on each side of theGARDEN STRUCTURES. 493 heap, with shovels, and one at the end, with a three or four pronged larry, in order to properly distribute the cement. The men with shovels must take care to spread it in turning, and not throw it up in lumps. The man with the larry rakes it over as fast as it is turned back. Having been once turned over, it must be turned back again, as before, still in a dry state. At the next turning over the man with the larry now takes a large watering-pot with a coarse rose, and as the other two men turn it over again, he waters till it is sufficiently moist to cause the cement to adhere to the other particles. In dry hot weather it will require to be made more moist than at other times. Being in a moist state, it is once moi’e turned over by all the three men, as before, and is then thoroughly mixed and ready to place into the apparatus. The whole of this measuring and mixing process can be done in about thirty minutes. Care must always be taken not to make the mixture so wet as to cause the cement to settle to the bottom and leave the top work poor, and in winter as little water as possible should be used. Frost will not affect the concrete after it has once set, which, with good cement, will be in about five or six hours. The framework employed, which is the subject of a patent, ‘is of wood lined with zinc, and attached by thumbscrews to upright pieces, which themselves are bolted together through about 18 inches of wall. In this way the wall is made to carry up with it its own mould and scaffolding, the framework being shifted as the wall is carried higher. The expense of concrete walls formed by this method is stated to be about one-half that of brickwork, and it is considered by the patentee that in many places they may be erected even more cheaply.1 Copings.—Stone copings are perhaps the best, but they are very expensive, and there are now various cements which form excellent substitutes, for instance Portland stone cement. Good copings may also be made of glazed pottery ware. The coping should be raised in the middle so as to allow the wet to pass off, and it ought to project 2 or 2i inches beyond the surface of the wall on each side; a groove or throating for the drip should likewise be made in the under side of the projection. Copings are also made slanting towards the back of the wall, with a groove on the under side, so as to throw the water off. 1 Concrete was largely used in the construction of the Metropolitan Railway as a backing to the brickwork of the tunnels, and some portions which have been recently cut into are as solid as stone. This, of course, was concrete of a higher quality than that which might be employed for garden-walls, and still prove durable, especially if iron eyes, for a training trellis, were let into the wall while the materials were being put into the framework. Sometimes also they are made with a channel for water along the centre, to which each side slants, and the water is conducted to the ground by pipes placed at suitable distances, say fifteen feet apart. In each case the projection from the face of the wall should not exceed that already stated. Some recommend a much greater width in order to prevent radiation, and thus serve as a protection for the blossoms in spring. But there are several objections to wide permanent copings: they are very expensive, unsightly, and even if they project 6 inches they would not answer so well for protection in spring as a broader temporary coping; whilst in summer they would prevent the foliage from being moistened by dew, the beneficial effects of which cannot be secured by artificial watering. Temporary copings are of great utility, especially during the prevalence of late spring frosts. The heat accumulated in the materials of the wall during the day is abstracted whenever the air is colder than the wall. The cold air coming in contact with the surface of the wall becomes heated, and consequently lighter, it therefore ascends, and the heat is lost, so far as vegetation is concerned. Broad copings obstruct the free ascent of warm air, which then accumulates where it is wanted, at the surface of the wall. We have seen the young shoots of vines cut off by frost as far as they had pushed beyond 9-inch coping-boards, whilst all that were under shelter of the boards were safe. For supporting 9-inch coping-boards Mr. Atkinson, a skilful architect, had brackets permanently fixed in the wall, and on the upper side of these the boards were fixed by a broadheaded iron pin which passed through the board and upper side of the bracket. It would be better, however, to have the boards 1 foot in width; but a permanent bracket to support boards of that width would be unsightly when not in use. A better plan, no doubt, would be to have iron tubes with an internal diameter of about 1 inch, and in length 4 inches more than the thickness of the wall, so that when inserted across, the ends would project 2 inches beyond the face of the wall. The tube should be secured by having a piece of iron fixed round its middle and built in the wall; a piece of rod-iron with an eye at top would answer the purpose, and if the cold tube were drawn through the eye when red-hot, it would afterwards remain quite tight. There should be a hole drilled through the tube horizontally about 1 inch from the end, so as to admit an iron pin about f inch in diameter. A bracket should be formed with a round prong to fit into the end of the tube, where it can be494 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. secured by the iron pin being passed through a hole corresponding with that in the end of the tube, and on the brackets the coping-boards can be fixed, taking care that they fit closely to the wall, to the under side of the permanent coping, or, which is better, to both. If it should be desirable to have the coping-boards hinged, so that they may be folded up in warm weather and let down in cold, the fixed tubes will also afford eligible means of doing so, for a wooden bar can be secured to the tubes so as to fit close to the coping, and to this bar the coping-boards may be attached by hinges. These should be such as will admit of the boards being removed, and the bar left, in case it should be wanted for supporting materials for protecting the fruit from birds and wasps. The tubular fixtures will also afford facilities for extending protecting materials to a greater or less distance from the wall, for this can readily be effected by means of rods pierced with several holes and inserted into the tubes, more or less according to the distance at which the netting or other material may be required to bang from the wall. When not otherwise occupied, wooden plugs, with neatly formed heads, should be inserted into the mouths of the tubes to keep out the wet. Flued Walls.—Since heating by hot water has become so general, and the price of glass so much reduced, flued walls are seldom if ever built, and where they exist their use as heated walls has been generally discontinued; but good crops of various kinds of fruit have been produced on them, and in northern situations they may be employed, not only in case of frosty nights in spring, but also for ripening the wood in autumn. Flued walls were generally built in a direction running more or less directly east and west, thus insuring a southern aspect; for the expense of artificial heat would not be well compensated if the trees had not the best exposure as regards sun heat and light. The wall should be so constructed as to permit of the heat being readily communicated to the south side, whilst its access to the north side should be prevented as much as possible. In the base of the wall a flue should be built, having a cavity, say 6 inches wide and 18 inches deep; and the bottom of the flue should rest on bricks on edge placed 9 inches or 1 foot apart; elsewhere it should be insulated. A small cavity ought to be left between its sides and the brick-work of the wall, otherwise the latter, where in contact with the flue, would become too hot; it would also be well to have a clear space of 9 inches high above the top of the fine. The wall above this should be 4£ inches thick next the south side, then there should be a 9-inch cavity, next 44 inches solid, then a 4^-inch cavity, and finally 4^ inches solid. The wall will accordingly consist of three solid portions inches thick, and two cavities, one of 9 inches next the front of the wall and in communication with the flue, and another of 4^ inches, the use of which is to contain air, a slow conductor of heat, in order to prevent radiation from the north side of the wall. It must be remarked that the wall ought to be tied together by some courses of solid brick-work at top, and further strengthened by piers. If at every 3 feet in the height of the wall a course of brick or stone were carried from side to side, so as to connect the three 44-inch walls, the strength of the structure would be greatly increased. Of course openings would have to be left in these courses, to permit of the heated air ascending from the lower to the upper chambers. A wall constructed nearly in the above manner may be heated by hot-water pipes; but as these may leak, it will be necessary to have openings in the wall opposite the joints of the pipes, in order that these may be readily examined. II.—STRUCTURES FOR THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. As regards horticultural structures for the growth of plants, there are certain principles which should always be borne in mind. Whatever may be the size or form of the structure, it should be impervious to wet, and as much as possible to the influence of cold air from without, or to the escape of warm air from within ; still ample means of ventilation should be at command: moreover, these conditions must be reconciled with that of the fullest admission of light. Before entering upon the kinds of structures for different purposes, it will be necessary to offer some explanations with regard to the angle of elevation of the roof, for on this the relative dimensions of the structure depeud. Angle of Elevation for Roofs.—It is well known that the rays of light, in passing through glass or any other solid transparent medium, lose much of their energy as regards their effect on vegetation. If, after passing through the glass, the rays of light have a considerable space to travei’se before they reach the foliage, the latter is insufficiently acted upon, even when the glass is very transparent; and when this is not so, either from its original quality, or from not being kept clean, their effect is still further diminished; and as regards the direct solar rays, the intensity of their action depends much ou the greater or less obliquity of the angle at which they impinge upon the surface of the glass. All these mattersGARDEN STRUCTURES. 495 being taken into consideration, it follows that the glass should be as close to the vegetation as circumstances will permit; that it should be bright, but more especially so if the plants are not very near it; and that it should be so placed as to form a plane, on which the sun’s rays may be perpendicular at that period of the season when their greatest effect is most wanted; as, for example, when fruit that is being forced is undergoing the process of ripening. As a general rule, houses intended for early « Fig. 292. forcing should have the glass more upright than those for later crops; and the angle of elevation should also be increased according to the latitude. If for any purpose an angle of 30° is proper in latitude 50°, then in latitude 57° an angle of 37° would be requisite. Before proceeding further in this subject, it will be necessary to refer to Fig 292, in which the lines a b c comprise a quadrant or quarter of a circle, the arc of which, a b, is supposed to be divided into 90 equal parts or degrees. Then, if c b represent the width of a house and b d the back wall, c d, the roof, will have an elevation of 30°. When the angle of elevation is 45°, it will be observed that the width of the house and the height of the back wall are equal, that the line of roof c e cuts through half the quadrant, and that the angles at c and e are equal; but this is not the case with any other slope of roof whatever. Many gardeners designate the slope not according to the angle which it makes with the base, but with the back wall; whether it is the one or the other should be distinctly indicated, otherwise serious errors might be the consequence. Thus the angle c b d might be designated, counting from the back wall, an angle of 60°; and if this circumstance were not mentioned, a house with a roof sloping 60° from the base might be constructed, when in reality an angle of 30° with the base was meant. As the slope of the roof is dependent on the relative dimensions of the house, and vice versd, the following table, which has beeu constructed to show by inspection the angle of elevation rendered necessary by various dimensions, will perhaps prove useful. To use it, look for the width of the house, say 15 feet, in the left-hand column, and at top for the number of feet by which the back wall exceeds the front wall in height, say 12, and where the two columns intersect will be found 38° 40', the angle of elevation corresponding with that width of house and height of back wall above the front. !\Vidth of Height of Back Wall above Front Wall in Feet. | Feet. 2 3 4 5 6 7 i 1 11 12 1 3 » 15 ' 5 21° 48' 30° 5S' 33’ 39' 45° O' 50° 12' 54° 27 ’ 58’ 0' 60° 57'! 63c 26' 65° 84' 67° s' 68° 58' 71’ 21' 71° 34' 6 18 26 26 33 33 41 39 4S 45 0 49 24 53 8 56 IS ■ 59 2 61 24 63 27 65 13 66 48 68 12 7 15 50 9;> 12 29 44 35 32 40 36 45 0 48 49 52 7 55 0 57 32 59 45 61 42 68 26 65 0 8 14 2 20 33 26 33 32 0 36 52 41 11 45 0 48 22 51 20 58 58 56 19 58 24 6,0 16 61 56 9 12 31 18 26 9 Q 57 29 3 33 5 37 52 ' 41 38 45 0 48 0 5d 43 53 8 55 IS 57 16 59 2 10 11 19 16 42 21 48 26 36 30 58 35 0 I 38 39 41 59 45 0 47 44 50 12 59 26 54 27 56 19 11 10 IS 15 15 20 0 24 26 28 36 32 28 1 36 2 39 17 42 16 45 0 46 50 49 40 51 51 53 45 12 9 27 14 2 18 4 22 57 26 33 30 15 33 41 36 52 3!) 48 43 10 45 0 47 57 49 24 51 20 13 8 44 13 0 17 6 21 2 24 47 28 18 1 31 86 34 42 37 34 -ID 14 42 3 45 0 47 7 49 5 14 8 8 12 5 15 56 19 39 23 12 26 34 29 44 82 44 85 :* 38 9 40 2,6 42 53 45 0 47 0 15 35 11 17 14 55 18 26 21 48 25 1 28 4 30 58 ' 33 41 36 15 38 40 40 55 43 u 45 0 16 7 7 10 37 14 2 17 21 20 33 23 38 26 33 29 21 32 0 34 0 8*6 59 89 5 41 11 43 9 17 6 42 10 0 13 14 16 24 19 26 22 21 I 25 12 27 54 30 28 32 54 35 13 87 24 39 28 41 25 IS 6 20 9 27 12 81 15 31 18 26 21 15 • 23 57 26 34 29 3 31 26 83 5 85 50 37 52 39 48 19 0 0 8 58 11 53 14 44 17 31 20 14 22 50 25 21 27 46 80 4 32 16 34 23 36 23 38 17 20 5 42 8 31 ii 19 14 2 16 42 19 17 1 21 48 24 14 26 36 28 49 30 58 83 0 35 0 36 51 The question now is, What are the best angles to adopt for the roofs of houses intended for forcing fruits so as to ripen them at different seasons, and for the growth of plants ? It is well known that when the sun’s rays fall upon glass in a perpendicular direction or nearly so, very few rays are reflected; but when they meet the surface of the glass in a very oblique or slanting direction, more rays are reflected than pass through it. According to Bouguer’s table of the rays reflected from glass, of 1000, when the angle of incidence is496 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. 1°, 25 rays are reflected. 10, 25 20, 25 ,, 30, 27 40, 34 50°, 57 rays are reflected. 60, 112 70, 222 80, 412 85, 543 From this it will be perceived, that at angles of incidence from 1° to 30° the number of reflected rays is nearly the same, therefore the roof of a house may have as much as 30° higher pitch than that on which the sun’s rays would fall perpendicularly, without any important diminution in the light transmitted to the interior. It is certain that any plane of glass, inclined so as to face the south at an angle equal to that of the latitude of the place, will in the course of the whole year admit a greater number of the rays of light to pass through than would be the case at any other angle; but according to the above table, we may deviate as much as 20° higher or lower than that angle without any material difference. In other words, in latitude 54° the angle of roof may be as high as 74° or as low as 34°, without the transmission of light being materially affected. Therefore, between these limits we may choose any angle, according as the structure is intended for dwarf or tall plants. It may be desirable to construct a house with a slope to which the sun’s rays shall be perpendicular at any given period of the year, say on the 15th of August, at a place in latitude 54°. The rule given by the Rev. Thomas Wilkinson, in the Transactions of the Horticultural Society (vol. i. p. 162), is to make the angle contained between the back wall of the house and its roof equal to the complement of the latitude of the place, plus or minus the sun’s declination for the day on which we wish his rays to strike perpendicularly. From the vernal to the autumnal equinox the declination is to be added; from the autumnal to the vernal, it must be subtracted. Instead, however, of finding the slope of the roof by ascertaining the angle formed at top between the back wall and roof, it can be found more easily by calculating the angle of elevation. Thus, by Mr. Wilkinson’s rule, we have 90°— 54°=360, the complement of the latitude, and adding to this 14°, the sun’s declination on the 15th of August, we obtain 50° as the angle between the back wall and roof. It is true we have only to subtract this from 90° and we have the angle of elevation 40°; but to find this at once, it is merely necessary to subtract the sun’s declination from the latitude between the vernal and autumnal equinox, and add it between the autumnal and vernal. Thus 54°, the latitude, less 14°, the sun’s declination, is equal to 40°, the angle of elevation which a roof ought to have, in order that the sun’s rays may fall perpendicular upon it on the 15tli of August, nearly eight weeks after the longest day; and it may be observed that they will do the same about the 27th or 28th of April, or eight weeks before the longest day. In order to have the sun’s rays equally perpendicularly at these periods in latitude 50°, the angle of elevation would require to be 36°; in lat. 51°, 37°; and so on, increasing the angle 1° for every additional degree of latitude, so that in lat. 58° the angle of elevation would require to be 44°. With this pitch of roof the sun’s rays at midsummer would form an angle of 9° or 10°; but this gives only 2| per cent, of loss, notwithstanding which they are still powerful enough at that period of the year. In structures where little fire-heat is employed, we have no hesitation in saying that an elevation of 40° is as good as could be adopted. It is of great importance that the heat should he distributed as equally as possible throughout the whole of the interior of the house; for the sap naturally tends to flow with greatest force to the upper parts of plants, all circumstances being the same; but it is also attracted to where there is the greatest heat, and if this is at the top there is a double tendency to that part, whilst on the contrary the lower portion suffers no undue diminution in proportion. Now the higher the pitch of the roof the greater the accumulation of heat in the upper angle; so we may say, the lower the pitch the less the difference between the temperature of the air at top and bottom of the slope. Owing to this it becomes desirable to keep the slope as low as is consistent with the admission of abundance of light. On again referring to Bouguer’s table, it will be seen that if the rays are not more than 20° from the perpendicular, the reflected rays are only 25 in 1000, or 2£ per cent.; therefore the angle of elevation might be as low as 20°, but this would considerably lessen the extent of surface available for training the vine and peach, and drip would be more apt to fall on the leaves than if the elevation were greater. On the whole, as regards these fruits, it does not appear desirable to construct houses with roofs at a lower angle with the horizon than 30° for the general crop, nor higher than 40°, but for very early forcing an angle of 45° may be allowed. Principal Forms of Plant Structures.—The outline of the roofs of these is either straight or curved, and again the glazed part may consist of one plane or uniform slope, in which case the house is called a Lean-to, or of two plane slopes in opposite directions, when it is said to be Span-roofed. The span-roof may either be equal, when both sides or slopes of the roof are of equal pitch and length, or unequal, when one side, usually that to the south,GARDEN STRUCTURES. 497 presents a long slope, and the other side a short one. Instead of the roof consisting of one span formed by the inclination of two plane equal or unequal sides, each side may consist of a series of transverse spans, when it is termed a Ridge-and-furrow roof. The Lean-to Roof is the form that would most probably be suggested after the shelter of walls had been taken advantage of; and even now there is no form by which a certain amount of light can be so readily admitted, and by which an elevated temperature can be so steadily and so economically maintained, as by this. The back wall generally faces the north, so that whilst the glass presents a surface in the best position for receiving the rays of heat and light, the north side, from the nature of the materials, does not rapidly conduct heat from the interior, more especially when its wall is built hollow, or when it is protected to a considerable extent from wet and cold by buildings erected at the back. jS'pan-roofed Houses.—The number of superficial feet of glass required to cover a certain area with a span-roof is exactly the same as when the lean-to form is adopted, the angle of elevation being the same in both cases, but the extreme height of the span-roof is only half that of the lean-to. This renders span-roofed houses very advantageous for the growth of plants that are dwarf, and cannot conveniently be placed in a lean-to so near the glass as they ought to be. Another advantage is the admission of light on both sides. W hen the rays of light fall chiefly on one side of a plant, it grows most to that side; but in a span-roofed house, light being admitted on both sides, equality of growth is more easily maintained. Much more fire-heat is, however, required for the span-roof than for the lean-to, especially if the house runs east and west, as in that case half the surface of the glass is exposed to the north. Accordingly the span-roofed form is employed to most advantage in such structures as conservatories, orchard-houses, and pits, where a high temperature lias not to be maintained by artificial heat. Span-roofed houses are much more elegant than those of the lean-to form. Unequal Span-roofed Houses.—As already mentioned, these generally have the longest slope facing the south, consequently they are more economical as regards fuel than the equal span, because there is less surface exposed to the north. From any point of view' that the inequality of the sides can be seen, such structures have an unsightly appearance. Their great advantage consists in the extreme height of the roof being considerably decreased by the high upper angle being cut off, as in Fig. 293, and thus the heated air cannot accumulate so much at that part of the house as if the roof had extended till it joined the back wall. Ridge-and-furrow Roofs.—In covering a certain area with glass in one plane, as in the lean-to houses, or even those with a double span, the height of the roof must be considerable, in order to throw off the wet; but by adopting the ridge-and-furrow system this object can be effected with but little elevation of roof. A conservatory, for instance, may be constructed with glazed sides all of equal height, say 10 feet, and by covering it in on the ridge-and-furrow system, it is possible to do so without raising the top of the ridges more than 18 inches higher than the sides. This appears to be the only real advantage afforded by this mode of construction. It may be observed, that the quantity of glass required to cover a certain area of base is the same, whether this is effected by one span, by a Beries of spans like the ridge-and-furrow, or by a single slope like a lean-to, provided the glass in all these cases is placed at the same slope. With regard to light, it will be readily admitted that through every square foot of glass placed at the same angle, the number of transmitted rays will be the same. Now there is this difference between a ridge-and-furrow roof and one with a single slope: there is, as above stated, the same surface of glass in both if placed at the same angle, but when the sun’s rays are perpendicular to one side of the ridge none of them can be BO to the opposite one, in other words, the sun can possibly shine upon only half the surface of glass; whereas on a roof consisting of a single slope, the whole of the surface is exposed to the sun s rays, consequently twice the quantity of these will be transmitted into the interior of the house. In consequence of this, it can be affirmed that a ridge-and-furrow roof will be heated as much by the sun’s rays as a span-roofed one, but much less so than a roof presenting one uniform slope. The latter is best for the ripening of fruits, whilst the ridge-and-furrow roof is suitable where less 32498 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. intensity of solar heat is required, and in cases where, In a lean-to and even in a span-roofed house, the plants would be too distant from the glass. Curvilinear Roofs.—The principal advantage which these possess is, that they can be constructed so as to admit more light than those which are on one plane. The light admitted is in proportion to the relative quantities of opaque and transparent materials used; and in a straight roof the area of surface occupied by wooden materials is much greater than when iron is employed. Again, the curvilinear iron roof can be made lighter than a straight one of the same material; because, in the curved form, in order to support steadily the same weight, the bars do not require to be so thick as when they are straight. The curvilinear form is that by which the greatest amount of light can be transmitted; and in this respect it must be considered the most advantageous. On the other hand, it must be admitted, that whilst roofs of this description admit solar light and heat in greater quantity than where wood is used, yet they have the disadvantage of transmitting heat more rapidly from the interior, as well in consequence of radiation taking place from a larger surface of glass than in a straight-roofed house of the same size, as from the iron employed in their construction cooling much more rapidly than the wood. In constructing curvilinear roofs, it is desirable that they should form some segment of a sphere, and not that of a spheroid; and the question is, a..........•** ----- .....c Knight’s Curvilinear House. What segment is the best? On referring to Fig. 294 it will be observed, that if the whole quadrant a b c were taken as the form, the glass near the base at a would be nearly perpendicular; whilst that at the top b would be almost flat—too much so for the rain to pass off readily. Another form was, however, proposed by Mr. Knight, and this we consider to be unobjectionable. It is represented by d e/, and is obtained as follows: With a radius of 25 feet describe the curve a b: from the base cut off 35°, and from the summit 15°, as from b to e. This gives a house 14 feet wide and 10^ feet high above the brickwork; and such a structure might be used either for forcing grapes and peaches, or as a plant-stove. For growing fine specimens of some kinds of plants they ought to have the benefit of light on both sides. This leads to the construction of curvilinear span-roofs. The curves in such may be joined at top, or a space may there be left for ventilation. In some cases the bars for curvilinear houses have been made of a uniform size; but although these have been found to answer well for forty years, and at the end of that time be substantial, yet we think cast-iron ribs at every 12 feet are preferable, and such can now be made strong, light, and elegant. To these purlins can be secured, and then the intermediate bars for the glass need not be so strong as would otherwise be requisite. The greatest difficulty with regard to curvilinear houses is in securing proper ventilation; and those hitherto constructed have generally been defective in this respect. They require more air than straight-roofed houses; and, accordingly, there should be sufficient opening for its admission at or near the upper part of the curve. In the curvilinear span a longitudinal space can be left at top; but it ought to be much wider than architects are inclined to allow. Panes of glass can now be had of any required size and thickness; and by framing these, so that they could be turned on pivots by means of a rod, plenty of air could at all times be given. By adopting this mode there need be no interference with the framework of the roof, which would then be fixed according to the desired curve. A command of ventilation should also be afforded by panes similar to the above at the ends. Frames.—These are usually made of deal boards lj inch thick. Their dimensions are variable; but the larger they are the less materials are required in proportion to the internal area. Thus, supposing the depth to be the same in both cases—say 12 inches—a frame 3 feet by 4 feet would require for the sides and ends 14 square feet of board, the space inside being only 12 square feet; whilst a frame 8 feet by 6 feet would require 28 feet for sides and ends, and the area inclosed would beGARDEN STRUCTURES. 499 48 square feet: hence the larger, with only twice the quantity of materials for what is called the box of the frame, contains four times the space. It may also be remarked that the small and large frame both require the same amount of labour as regards the joining of the sides and ends. These are usually dovetailed; but Mr. Atkinson had frames made with ends projecting beyond the front board, and in the external angles thus formed, as well as in the internal ones, triangular pieces of wood were fitted, and to these the sides and ends were nailed. In this way the box of a frame can be put together without dovetailing, and by almost any person. These upright corner-pieces are also well adapted for taking the bearing of the frame when placed on posts or other supports. As regards duration, it is of little importance whether frames are painted or not; for it has been ascertained that frames not painted will last as long as those which are, all other circumstances being alike; but paint preserves the surface so that it can be easily cleaned. If painted, frames should be white or light stone colour both inside and out, in order to reflect the light. Black, on the contrary, should be avoided, on account of its absorbing the sun’s rays, and causing the wood to crack in consequence. Pits.—The great utility of these structures is well known. In their simplest form, without artificial heat, they are useful for protecting many kinds of plants, which would either be killed or much injured by exposure to the open air in winter; and even in summer this kind of pit affords the most convenient means of sheltering delicate plants from heavy rain and scorching sun. With heat at command, pits are eligible for the purposes of propagation, nursing for larger structures, and forcing vegetables, flowers, and fruit. Before large structures are built, pits should receive consideration, for without them a good stock of plants cannot be brought forward; so that if large houses are finished before pits are commenced, the former must remain for a considerable time imperfectly furnished, instead of presenting a gay appearance immediately after they are completed; and this maybe subsequently maintained from the supply which pits in good working order can afford. Pits are constructed in many different ways; but the simplest mode in which they can be adapted to answer well the purpose for which they are intended is the best. Fig. 295 represents the section of a good simple form of pit, which may be employed for almost any purpose, kindly furnished to us by Mr. Sibthorpe, who for many years acted as superintendent of works in the garden of the Royal Horticultural So- ciety. An inspection of the section referred to will enable any one to understand the construction of the walls of pits on a good principle. It will be observed that the width of the foundation is twice the thickness of the wall, the latter being 1 brick, or 41 inches; but at every third rafter the back wall is supported by a 4-inch pier, a. The wall-plates both at front and back project sufficiently to allow the drip to fall clear of the face of the walls. Fillets of wood fixed to the under side of the wall-plates, and as close as possible to each side of the wall, serve to maintain both the wall-plate and top of the wall steadily in their positions. The angle of elevation is about 12°. This in a pit 6 feet wide requires the back wall to be about 15 inches, or five courses of brick, higher than the front wall. If the width is 7 feet the back wall must be 18 inches, and if 8 feet about 21 inches, higher than that in front. On the same principles of construction pits may, as already observed, be built wider, and they may also be raised higher above the ground level, or the foundations may be sunk lower to give space for heating materials. In its present form, however, the pit above represented is well adapted for being heated by hot water. When a strong heat has to be constantly maintained, as iu the case of forcing by fermenting materials, pits require to be constructed so that the heat from linings may be admitted as readily as possible into the interior. The walls should therefore be built with openings, or in pigeonhole fashion. If good materials are used, the thickness of the walls may be 4-g inches or the width of a brick, aud their foundation should be 2-Jr feet below the surface. Above the foundation, the wall for three or four courses ought to be solid; then the bricks should be laid as stretchers, leaving, however, the breadth of a brick open between each. The back wall may thus be carried up to 15 or 18 inches above the ground level, and then it should be solid to the required height. Round the pit thus formed500 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. there must be a cavity for dung or other fermenting materials. It should be 2 feet wide at the bottom, which may be paved, and the side ought to be built of 4-inch brickwork, sloping back so as to give a width of 2 feet 3 inches at the ground line, above which it should form a low parapet about 9 inches high, well coped with stone or brick on edge, set in cement. In this coping, however, there should be inlets—say at 4 feet apart—for the ends of rafters to stretch across the cavity, and catch on a ledge of wood closely secured to the wall of the pit by bolts or holdfasts. Wooden shutters supported by these rafters should be made to fit, so as to throw off the wet from the linings, and give the whole a neat appearance. Both rafters and covers should be adapted so that they can be easily and quickly removed when the linings require to be turned and renewed. Pits with hollow walls are warmer than those with solid walls composed of the same quantity of materials. The walls may be built very substantially on the same plan as that represented in Fig. 291, or they may be constructed in some cases securely enough of brick on edge, with a 4-inch cavity between. Protectiny Pits are best constructed with hollow walls, because the space between being occupied with air, a slow conductor of heat, the inside temperature is not so liable to be lowered by the cold outside as where the medium interposed permits of a more rapid conduction of heat. On the other hand, if the temperature of the air outside becomes higher than that of the air of the pit, the latter will in a similar manner be comparatively little affected. According to circumstances this may or may not be an advantage, but it is always possible to secure the advantages, and to avoid the disadvantages, of any rise in temperature by regulating the admission of air. The temperature of the pit, therefore, would be more equable at any season, summer or winter. In the latter, heat is economized, and the plants are protected from the extreme cold to which they would otherwise be subjected. Such would be the beneficial effects if the walls were only hollow above the surface of the ground, but a still greater advantage would arise from the foundations being deeply sunk and carried up hollow from a considerable depth. At 5 or 6 feet below the surface the soil will rarely be at a temperature below 45°. Then, let a b, Fig. 296, represent a hollow wall, a c the portion above ground, c b that below ground, and c a close partition. The air in the portion below this will have a temperature of 45°, or that of the soil with which it is in contact, whilst the portion above ground may, in time of very intense frost, be as low as 25°, and this would soon affect plants in the interior; but remove the partition at c, a mixture of the air above and below the surface c will take place, and a mean of 35° will result; then plants inside the frame will be safe that otherwise would have been seriously injured by frost, had there been no cavity with warm air beneath. The greater the surface of warm soil in contact with the air of the cavity, the more effectually will the cold above ground be counteracted. Therefore drains might be formed to. communicate with the hollow of the wall at or near the bottom. It may be said that these would soon get filled with cold air; such, indeed, would be the case, because it is heavier than warm air, but then it would get heated by the warmth of the earth and ascend, and thus the hollow wall and its tributaries would form a warm medium throughout. From what has been stated it appears that deep hollow walls may be formed to economize the heat of the earth, and so preserve plants in better condition than would otherwise be the case without the aid of heating apparatus, and even where such is erected a saving of fuel as well as of protecting materials will be effected by their means. A writer in the Journal of Horticulture, after referring to the dry, bright-skied districts of the Western States, and the advantage taken by the farmer of a site sloping towards the east or south, in order to secure shelter for himself and his domestic animals, remarks, “The gardener is beginning to extend the system, so as to afford similar and suitable shelter for domestic plants. He finds himself obliged to copy the farmer’s copy of the knowledge of the rabbit and the beaver, and to burrow in the warm soil for protection. “An extension for a plant-house into the hill slope at one end of the house, covered and fronted with glass, and opening to the basement rooms, derives warmth from the surrounding soil, and is easily supplied with a current of warm air from the kitchen fire. Such constructions have proved very effective and economical, and European grapes, especially, are very successfully grown in them without special heating arrangements. Charming winter-gardens of this kind would soon become common in the States, to relieve the long-confining winters, if the gar-GARDEN STRUCTURES. 501 dener could be abroad enough to show the way. A new delightful world of half-hardy fruits, shrubs, vines, and flowers would thus be revealed to homes that at present have but little, and know but little, of these loveliest of decorations. “ The difficulty about water freezing in exposed butts and bursting them is obviated by a similar burying in the ground. Egg-shaped pits are plastered against the earth with a coat of hydraulic cement about half an inch thick, and this shell makes an earth jug or cistern that holds water well—from ten to a hundred hogsheads in a cistern, with or without a filter bed. The water is raised by pumps that allow it to drop low enough to be out of reach of frost; and when filtered and kept in a deep and therefore cool cistern, such water collected from the roofs is the purest, best, most corrective of thirst, and most healthful for man, animals, or plants. “ The bosom of mother earth will afford warmth and shelter to many plants, as vines, that cannot be placed under glass. Thus Antwerp raspberries, native grape-vines, perpetual roses, many kinds of flowering shrubs, even peach-trees, after a thorough ripening of the wood in the bright Indian summer, are laid down on the surface in December, and covered with an inch or so of soil as a security in case of the snow not remaining over them throughout March.” Cucumber, Melon, and Pine Pits. — When these are to be heated by hot water, the width of such a pit as that represented in Fig. 295 may be increased to 8 feet. A flow and return pipe will serve for bottom-heat, and another flow and return pipe for top-heat. The former should be laid in a chamber along which they may run (1 feet from the front wall, returning the same distance from the back wall. Those for top-heat should run along the front, and be at least 3 inches apart, and above each other to save room. The chamber should be covered with slate thick enough to bear the weight of soil; and, to contain the latter, thick slates set on edge should form the sides and ends; and to support them in an upright position, pieces of brick may be set in cement between the slate and the wall of the pit, so as to act as stays. There should be a complete and separate command of both top and bottom heat, so that each may be worked much or little according to circumstances. The space between the "■alls and slate should have a wooden cover to make the chamber close if necessary, or to open and permit superfluous heat to ascend for use at top. With an unequal span-roof there may be a path at back, and a trellis for training the melons and cucumbers upon. The side of the chamber next the path might have close-fitting doors at intervals, so that some fermenting stable-dung could be introduced, not so much for heat as for supplying moisture and ammonia, in order to keep the plants healthy and free from insects. Fig. 297 represents the principal pine pit or stove at Meudon, near Paris, where Queen pines have been grown to the weight of 10 lbs. There is a large stone vault under it which is filled with fermenting materials. The boarding over the vault is supported by iron bars. From the great mass of fermenting materials, a large quantity of ammoniacal and carbonic acid gases must a a, Ground line. A, Hot-water pipes for top-heat, c, Bed of peat soil in which the pine-apples are planted. d, One of the iron bars for supporting the boarded flooring on which the bed of soil rests, e. Vault filled with stable-dung and leaves. /, Foot-path. g g, Air-holes, h, Shelf for strawberries, i. Iron rail over which the straw mats are hung when the house is uncovered. be generated. These will find their way through the boarding to the soil in which the plants are crowing, and to this circumstance doubtless is to be attributed the remarkable growth of the pine plants at Meudon. The boards were not everywhere closely joined, for we observed that strong old pine-apple roots had penetrated through amongst the dung, or rather the mixture of dung and leaves; moreover, ammonia will pass through the fibres of the wood, and that more quickly than common air and other gases do. A vault can easily be made with little additional brickwork, for the foundations of ordinary pits have, in many cases, to be sunk nearly as deep as would be required for the sides of the vault. Therefore we should advise the adoption of this simple plan; if fermenting materials cannot be had in sufficient quantity to fill a vaidt,502 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. still enough could be had iu most cases to ferment on the floor, and prove beneficial by the ammonia given off. Then flow and return pipes would give the additional amount of bottom-heat which would be required, as well as the necessary pipes for supplying top neat. Propagating Pits.—These are usually built so that the plants may be near the light; the path, therefore, is best in the middle; and there should be a good command of bottom-heat under the bed of plunging materials. Aform which answers very well for this purpose is represented in Fig. 298. It is 11 feet wide, and 8 feet high from the path to the upper angle of the roof; and the path is 2 feet wide. There are two beds 4 feet wide, one on each side of the path, for plunging materials, ashes, tan, sand, or sometimes sawdust; and each has a flow and return pipe in a chamber to afford bottom-heat, and one on each side for top-heat; but if the house is required to be long, there should be two flow and return pipes for top-heat; and then a high top and bottom heat will be perfectly at command. There should also be openings in the walls of the chamber, to be closed by plugs or other means, so that heat can be permitted to ascend from the chambers into the atmosphere of the house, or can be confined to the chambers, at will. Vineries.—The vine, from the flexible nature of its rods, can be trained in any direction, whether parallel with the glass or not, and either upwards, downwards, obliquely, or horizontally; and in any of these ways good crops may be obtained, provided the foliage is not too far from the glass. As a good border is generally afforded, the length of shoot made iu a season is considerable; and if the vinery is of limited extent that form is the best which admits of the greatest length of shoot being trained so as to enjoy the greatest amount of light, and as nearly as possible an equal degree of temperature as regards the bottom and top of the plant. Vineries are generally, and we think most properly, built so that their front may present a southern aspect; either one directly south, or inclined to the south-west, in order to be acted on with the greatest possible effect by the sun’s rays. Doubtless, some will object to this on account of scorching; but even the purest glass acts more or less as a screen, iu passing through which the sun’s rays are not so intense as they are when they strike upon objects freely exposed. There is of course an exception to this when the glass is not plane, for the rays would be more or less concentrated by convexities; but we may rest assured that healthy vines will not be injured by the sun’s rays passing through plane glass, if sufficient ventilation is afforded. The size of a vinery must be determined in a great measure by the means at command, not only as regards the first cost of erection, but also that of future keeping and management. We have seen a considerable amount of produce in a very small house, not more than 10 feet long and scarcely so much in breadth, and in such a space it is possible to ripen well 50 lb. of grapes, and even more than that with good management. With ample means, on the contrary, the length may extend to hundreds of feet in one range; but the range ought to be divided bv glazed partitions, and in very few cases should the divisions exceed 50 feet in length. By means of these divisions we can give the proper treatment to early or late crops, as well as to kinds requiring much or comparatively little heat. The width need not exceed 15 feet, and this will admit of nearly 20 feet of training. The height of the front wall is the next consideration. Where there are no upright front sashes, the front wall should not be more than 1 foot above the level of the border, making allowance for this being raised above the general level of the surrounding area. If there are front sashes, they should not be high, otherwise the extent of surface for training the rods of the vines is diminished. The height of the back wall depends entirely upon the width of the house and the angle which the roof is to form with the horizon. This should be considered with reference to what has been stated on that subject; it may be from 30® to 34° for the general crop in the south of England and near London, and a degree more for every degree of latitude farther north. For very early forcing it may be 40°. It is advantageous, we may also observe, to carry up the back wall to at least 18 inches above the glass, and the French recommend even 3 feet. [A great authority on the culture of the vine has said that the form of the vinery is very muchGARDEN STRUCTURES. 503 a matter of taste. Doubtless this is correct so far as regards the architectural features of the house, hut in regard to the form of the structure it is not so, although a little latitude may be allowed. When it is intended to construct a range of vineries, the first thing to be taken into account is the latitude of the place; the second, whether it is intended to force very early in the season or to allow the vines to start without the aid of artificial heat. As regards the first point, the form that it would be desirable to adopt in the south of England would not answer so well for the same purpose in the north of England or in Scotland. If a gardener who has gained all his practical experience in Scotland undertook the management of vineries in the south of England, the scorching hot sunshiny days in March would throw him considerably out of his reckoning at first. When ripe grapes are required by the end of April or early in May, no doubt the best form of house is a lean-to, and it ought to have a very steep pitch to the roof. Excellent examples of Canon Hall Muscats have been sent to the London market for many years in May, from a narrow house not more than 8 or 9 feet wide, and in which the pitch of the roof is such that the sun acts upon the glass very powerfully at mid-winter. Where it is intended that the grapes should not be ripe until June, the greatest measure of success in the same district has been obtained in a house of the half-span form. The grapes grown in this house were of the Black Hamburgh and Sweetwater varieties, and the black grapes certainly coloured very much better in this house than they did in a lean-to. Black grapes, especially Black Hamburghs, colour better, and in other respects finish off more perfectly, when the branches are well shaded by the leaves. White grapes, on the contrary, particularly Muscats and Buckland Sweetwater, take on that fine golden colour, so much desired by the connoisseur, when the sun can act upon the fruit. Here again experience gained in the north will be quite at fault in the south. In Scotland a bunch of Muscat grapes may have the point tied up so that it is brought to the same angle as the glass, and the leaves may also be tied back so as to allow the sun’s rays to act more fully upon it, and this will usually have the effect of finishing the berries olf to perfection. The same treatment south of London would probably have the effect of scorching the grapes, and would also cause them to shrivel prematurely. The half-span structure can also be adapted to a more efficient system of ventilation. In the half-span house above alluded to, the back lights are made to open alternately; the front top lights are all made to slide, and the front sashes are hung on centres to open together with a rod and lever. The house is 16 feet 6 inches wide, and the lights are fixed at about an angle of 45°. The span-roof answers best for late grapes: not that span-roofed houses are the best for late grapes under all circumstances, but this form is better for them than for those requiring to be forced. As a rule, whatever may be its form, the best grapes have been obtained from medium-sized houses, and such as have the front sashes not more than from 2 to 3 feet high. In cold and wet districts the form hest adapted for all purposes is the lean-to. At Lambton Castle, near Durham, both early and late houses are lean-tos; and in one of these a bunch of Black Hamburgh grapes was produced weighing 21 lb. 14 oz., the heaviest of its kind on record. Other vines in this range have produced exceptionally large bunches, and large well-formed berries, but Durham is a wet, cold district. In other wet districts of the north of England and Scotland vineries have been built on the lean-to system; and very far north, splendid Muscats as regards both finish and flavour have been produced in them, the fine golden colour being obtained by exposing the branches to sunlight. Second only in importance to the form of the vinery is the construction of the heating apparatus. It is not so much the form of the boiler that demands attention, as the quantity of piping in the house, and the capacity of the boiler, the latter being of course of an efficient and economical type. If, in order to keep up the naoessary amount of heat, the water in the boiler has to be kept up almost to the boiling point, then the production of first-class grapes is very problematical. This is not the place to discuss the form of boiler, but before a boiler is fixed it is necessary to ascertain what is the nature of the fuel to be consumed. If the fuel is coke, then the oval tubulars are the best; if coal, some one of the numerous improved forms of saddle boiler is the best; but whatever the form may be, the boiler ought to be able to heat a larger quantity of piping than is attached to it. The earliest vineries ought to be furnished with a sufficient quantity of pij ting to maintain a minimum temperature of 70° in a severe frost, without making the pipes hotter than will allow of the hand being held upon them. A house 16 feet wide requires six rows of 4-inch pipes the whole length of the house, besides the flow and return at the end of the house to connect with the boiler or main pipes. The pipes are usually cast in 6 or 9 feet lengths. In the flow pipes each of these lengths should have a trough on it to hold water; such pipes cost just double what the usual pipes cost, but then they504 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. give out veiy nearly twice as much heat, and they are quite necessary to evaporate moisture. The pipes must also be arranged so that the heat is well diffused. In conservatories, plant-houses, &c.,it is sometimes necessary to arrange the pipes in square blocks, so that they may be disposed out of sight in some way, but in a vinery this must not be done. The best arrangement is to have four rows near the front of the house, one pipe to be about 2 feet from the front wall, and the others to be fixed alongside it, so that all the pipes may be about 1 foot or 18 inches from the floor-line, allowing, of course, a little rise for the dows, and a corresponding fall for the return pipes. The other two rows should be nearer the back wall. Another plan is to arrange the pipes in a stack, that is one above another; but this should be done only when the other plan cannot be followed out. When this plan is adopted the dow pipe should be at the top, and the evaporating troughs must be cast on it. The worst plan of all is the square block system; it concentrates the heat too much, and predisposes the vines to the attacks of red spicier. If more than one house is heated from the boiler, valves are necessary; and the extra cost of good close-dtting ones should not stand in the way of their adoption. Sometimes it is needful to watch the dtters, to see that they do not allow pieces of rope to remain in the pipes, as whatever is left in will work to the valves, and prevent them from dtting close. In treating on vinery heating, it is necessary to say something about bottom heating. This system has been strenuously advocated by some of the leading grape growers; others have denounced it in an unqualided manner. This much is certain, that many failures have resulted from an injudicious application of hot-water pipes to vinery borders. The most elaborate system is that of arranging the pipes in a chamber underneath the border. This was done in a large and well-known garden; flagstones were laid on piers, and space enough was left to allow of a man getting in to examine the pipes in case of any of them getting out of order, and after large expense had been incurred, the vines did not succeed nearly so well as those planted in the usual way. Bottom heat from hot-water pipes can only be applied with advantage to houses that are forced very early. The pipes should be placed amongst the drainage, and a 3-inch dow and return will be sutlicient to heat a border 12 feet wide. The pipes must not be placed so that the drainage rests upon them, but a wall of dry bricks 44 inches thick should be carried up on each side of the pipe, and 3 or 4 inches above it; and a row of bricks should be laid over this with the ends resting on the walls. This simple arrangement isolates the pipes, and effectually prevents them from being injured by pressure. The heat from pipes arranged in this way will warm the ground sufficiently without overdoing it; and they cannot in any way injure the roots, even if they are kept always warm from the time the house is started, j. d.] [The vineries erected at Clovenfords by Mr. W. Thomson, one of our best grape-growers, were intended for commercial purposes, and have been constructed with a due regard to economy combined with efficiency. A cross section of one of these houses would represent an inverted letter V, the roof being an equal span with a rather sharp angle, and the slope being continued nearly down to the ground, a short upright sash on each side being introduced for ventilation, and other ventilators being provided in the ridge of the roof. The circulation of air is therefore perfect, while the whole system of ventilation may be opened and shut in a few minutes by means of machinery. The houses are each 200 feet long, 24 feet wide, 16 feet high in the centre, and about 3 feet at the sides. They are intended for growing late grapes to supply the market. These houses are constructed without any central supports, but with cross tie-rods near the apex. The borders are partly inside and partly out. To prevent the undue compression of the former, a trellised footway is laid down along the centre. To facilitate the work of thinning the berries, which is a most tedious but important operation, two broad battens are laid down, one towards each side of the house, and on these a stage is made to travel by means of four flanged wheels. It would be well if some similar contrivance were more generally adopted, especially in all large vineries. Vineries for the main crops of grapes should be made as capacious as circumstances will permit. The vine is naturally a very free-growing plant, and were it not also very docile, submitting to almost any reasonable treatment, one could scarcely credit that it would prove fruitful under the repressive system of pruning commonly adopted. There is an excuse for this in the case of very early forced vines, namely, that the requisite heat is more easily and economically maintained in small low houses, and where there are special houses for late grapes, those of moderate size are more readily kept sufficiently warmed and aired for the preservation of the fruit; but neither of these considerations apply to houses for the late summer and autumn crops.] Peach -hous.es.—Formerly peach-houses were constructed very narrow, the glass being nearlyGARDEN STRUCTURES. 505 upright, and it was necessary that they should be so, otherwise the trees, which were generally planted against the back wall, would have been too far from the light. Now, however, the trees in first-rate houses are planted in front and trained to a trellis, about 1 foot from the glass, and pai’allel to it; and this being the case, all parts of the tree, so far as the trellis extends, en- I joy an equal share of light, and the width of the j house does not require to be so limited. A lean-to house, having a width of 12 feet, and about ‘ 10 feet height of back wall, will give a length of 15 feet for training. This is quite enough of extension for the branches of a vigorous tree, and several years must elapse before the whole of the trellis can be covered. This may, however, be j done in shorter time by planting trees with tall stems in a well-prepared inside border, so that | their branches may extend under the upper half of the roof, while the lower is being furnished by the trees planted in front. Or, as a few well-managed peach-trees in front will afford an ample supply for a moderate family during the time the fruit can be kept, the upper part of the roof may be occupied by vines planted at the back wall and 1 trained downwards, taking care to stop or turn aside the leading shoots before they interfere with the extremities of the peach-shoots. For very early forcing, the trees ought to be planted inside; accordingly the front wall of a peach-house should be on arches, in order that, if planted inside, the roots may have liberty to extend outwards; and the glass should reach as near the ground as possible, whether by the continuous slope of the roof or by upright front lights. Fig. 29!) represents a very good form of peach-house. Its width inside is 12 feet 3 inches, and the height of the front wall 2 feet from the ground line; the height of the back wall from the ground line is 12 feet 4 inches to the lower side of the rafter, and from above the rafter to the coping 14 inches; the path at back is raised 14 inches above the ground line. The roof is at an angle of 403 elevation; so that the structure altogether is well adapted for the early forcing of either peaches or vines. Cherry-houses.—The form of structure most suitable for forcing cherries depends on whether the trees are planted against the back wall or in pots. In the former case, the house should be narrow, in order that the branches and leaves of the tree may have the advantage of being near the glass. If the trees are in pots, a wider house Fig. @90. will be more economical, as it will, as compared with a house of narrow form, contain more plants under the same extent of glass. Whatever may be the form of the house, ample ventilation should be provided ; for the cherry requires abundance of air at all times, and more especially at the blossoming season. As it is not necessary to keep the temperature so high as for vines and peaches, the difference of ex- Peach-house. pense for heating a span - roofed house for cherries, as compared with that of a lean-to, will not be great; and as houses constructed in the former manner admit light on all sides, they may be considered very proper for forcing cherry-trees in pots. To afford head-room over the whole area, the house should be constructed with upright sashes 4 feet high, and these ought to be hinged or made to slide past each other, so as to give ample means of ventilation. Plums and apricots may be forced in the same house with cherries, or in a separate one of similar construction. Fig-houses.—A narrow lean-to, with a flow and return hot-water pipe, answers very well for fig-trees trained against a wall. A span-roofed house, such as that above mentioned for cherries, will be proper for the pot culture of this fruit; or in such a house fig-trees may be planted out in a border having a chalky subsoil, either natural or artificial. Strawberry-houses. — Fig. 300 is a representation of a structure designed by Mr. William Ingram, gardener at Belvoir Castle, for tile cultivation of strawberries under glass. In ordinary circumstances the plants have to be forced on shelves in vineries and other houses, where it is often difficult to secure the conditions necessary for the perfection of the strawberry crop, without injury to the legitimate506 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. occupants of the house. It was to obviate this difficulty that Mr. Ingram devised a structure which affords every requisite for successfully forcing the strawberry. In it not only are the plants kept near the glass, but the pots are shaded, and the roots consequently kept cool, whilst air Ficr. 300. Ingram s Strawberry-house. can be freely admitted at all times. Mr. Ingram states that he was led to the idea of constructing his strawberry-house in the form represented, from observing that strawberries always succeed well on shelves in the front of lean-to houses close to where the roof-lights rest on the front supporting plate, and where a little air constantly enters, the pots being at the same time kept cool by the shade of the plate. This of itself tends to keep the soil about the roots Fig. 301. Conservatory, by Gray of Chelsea. moist, an important point in strawberry forcing, independently of other means which may be employed with the same object. The house figured is 8 feet high at back, 5 feet wide at base, and the front boards 15 inches high, but these dimensions are not material to the principle of the in- vention, as such houses may be made either in the span-roofed or lean-to form, and when not occupied by strawberries they will be found well adapted for growing many kinds of plants. Greenhouses and Conservatories.—The size and form of these are exceedingly variable. TheGARDEN STRUCT GEES. 507 former often depends on the means at command; l many cases they are constructed so as to carry the latter on the taste of the proprietor. In f out in a modified and adapted manner the archi-508 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. being admitted by the rouf, back, or ends, and even much of the frontage was occupied witli architecture too massive to permit sufficient light to reach the plants; but such as it was the plants inclined towards it, and as a consequence their growth became what is termed one-sided. The importance of light as an agent in promoting vegetation has of late years become better understood, and great improvements have consequently been made in the construction of greeuhouses and conservatories. Instead of dark roofs, very light ones are employed; and plants lit to be examined on all sides are now grown under glass. The lean-to form is very generally adopted in the case of very small greenhouses, advantage being frequently taken of a wall already built. In such houses plants may be grown very well, but not so symmetrically as in span-roofed structures, or others that admit light on all sides of the plants. To admit light on all sides, and to provide means for the admission of plenty of air, should be the aim in all greenhouses and conservatories; and keeping these requirements in view, any form may be adopted that the circumstances of the case may render pleasing or convenient. The conservatory (Fig. 301) built by Mr. Gray, of Danvers Street, Chelsea, is well adapted for the growth of plants, and, on the whole, in good taste. It is constructed of wood, and is 30 feet long and 20 feet wide. There are three doors— one at each end and one in the middle, and for ventilation every alternate roof-sash is made to slide downwards by its own weight, and upwards by a counterpoise in the back wall, but the whole of these movable sashes may be drawn up simultaneously when desired by a simple arrangement of the ropes. There are likewise gratings in the base for the admission of air in cold weather, so that it may pass in close to the hot-water pipes, and not in cold currents, which are so injurious to plants. This conservatory combines the advantages of the back wall with those of the span-roof. The former prevents the plants from being injured by sudden changes of temperature, while the span-roof permits the light to fall on the foliage to a considerable extent from the back as well as the front; and abundance of light is admitted by the roof, front, and ends. Fig. 302 represents a handsome conservatory, built by Mr. Ormson, of Stanley Bridge, King’s Road, Chelsea. It is 60 feet long, 30 feet wide, 14 feet high to the eaves, and 22 feet high to the top of the lantern. The sides are composed of wood and glass, the roof of cast-iron and glass. The general section of the building (Fig. 303) affords an idea of the light ornamental appearance that the roofing presents internally. Alto- gether the structure has an architectural character and propriety of design, which contrast strongly with the solid and gloomy architectural conservatories of the last century,—a period which we must look upon as a dark age in regard to large plant structures. Although the terms greenhouse and conservatory are often used indifferently for plant houses in which greenhouse temperatures and treatment are afforded, and the plants grown may be of precisely the same kinds in both cases, yet the conservatory differs from the greenhouse in containing plants growing in borders and beds, while those in a greenhouse are in pots and tubs. At the same time nearly all conservatories contain some plants in pots, and many greeuhouses one or more plants growing in the soil either at the back wall or in front—for example, a vine or climber—without losing the distinctive names of the structures. The conservatory is generallv of a more ornate or architectural character than the greenhouse. Beard's Patent System of Glazing offers several advantages not possessed by the ordinary mode with putty, and one of the greatest is, that if the house is to be removed, the whole of the glass can be taken out and put in again in a few hours, and in a like manner broken squares can be easily replaced. In the section of sash-bar (Fig. 304) a is the rafter-bar, which is of iron, and along each of these bars are placed strips of bituminized felt, d d, on which the glass rests, similar strips being also interposed between the outer side of the glass and the covering bar b. By means of hexagonal hard white-metal nuts c, the whole can be screwed up more or less tightly, as may be desired. The glass is then held securely between the strips of felt, which, being a non-conductor of heat, prevents the passage of heat from the inner to the outer bars. The former, therefore, do not become rapidly cooled inGARDEN STRUCTURES. 509 cokl weather, and there is consequently less danger of drip from the condensation of moisture. The squares of glass employed are 20 in. wide by 30 in. long, and may either be placed edge to edge, which is always done in the fronts and ends, or lapped; the covering bars in the latter case being made of the same length as the squares. This system of glazing may be applied to any kind of house, whether span-roofed or lean-to, but generally Mr. Beard’s houses are made with fronts from 2 to 4$ feet high, provided with hollow iron columns at every 5 feet, which serve to carry off the water collected in the trougliing that also forms the front plate from which the rafters spring. The whole of the iron-work is enamel-painted, the paint being baked on. The columns can be secured either to brick or stone work at their base, or to iron or wooden foundations where it is not desired to render the house a fix- Curvilinear Span-roofed Conservatory, by Beard of Bury ^t. Edmunds ture. This mode of glazing has been found to answer well at the Royal Horticultural Society’s Gardens and other places. In addition to its other merits it possesses that of cheapness. Fig. 305 represents a very light-looking curvilinear span-roofed conservatory, erected on Beard’s system, and which might be set on brickwork, with its base level with the ground, or it might be raised on a dwarf brick wall, as represented in the engraving; or better, on one of stone, with increased height, which would give a more finished and elegant appearance. In the latter case, of course, the door would have to be lowered in proportion to the increased height of wall. It may either stand by itself detached, or the end opposite the entrance may be placed against a wall. Ventilation is provided by sashes opening outwards, both at the sides and at the ridge. The ventilators at the ridge are opened simultaneously by a traversing-rod worked by a ] latent screw; and those at the sides either separately by hand, or simultaneously by a Bimilar means, if the length of the house is considerable. With an increase of width, the half of a house such as this would form a curvilinear lean-to, which might be used as a conservatory, vinery, or peach-house. Curvilinear roofs of this kind have the advantage of dispensing with the costly article, bent glass. [liendle's Patent Houses.—Mr. W. E. Rendle, whose name is familiar in the horticultural world as the inventor of the tank system of heating, has recently introduced a novel style of constructing greenhouses and other similar structures, the chief peculiarity of which is in the system of glazing, which is patented. The glass is slipped into a horizontal groove both at top and bottom, the groove being formed by a slip of bent zinc, as shown in Fig. 306. No putty is used, but the glass is slightly lapped sideways, and where occa-510 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Fig. 308. Rendle's System of Glazing. they carry down the water which falls on the outer surface of the roof, and the same groove also carries off the water formed by condensation in the interior; so that a house glazed on this system is remarkably free from drip. One of the advantages claimed for the system, and which it certainly possesses, is the facility with which broken glass can be replaced; there is no hard putty to hack away, but all that is required is to remove the broken fragments and slip a sound pane into their place. The roofs of these houses can either be con-Bg. 307. Rendle’s Glazing applied to vJytl! \ \ Curvilinear Roofs. Wfir structed entirely of wood, or of iron and wood, covered with \\°i I y1 glass. The frame - work is PWpfpMF formed by rafters placed at in- U P : j . tervals, on which rest cross ‘ bars or battens, and to these the grooves are athxed. Consequently when the glass is in its place the whole of the perishable materials of the roof—wood, paint, iron—are covered in from the action of the weather, and this must greatly add to their durability. All that can be seen Greenhouse, by Kendle. would make a useful lean-to greenhouse, or somewhat narrower a good protector for wall fruit-trees, while, as shown in Fig. 307, the system can 1 ie adapted to the glazing of curvilinear roofs without the necessity of using any bent or curved panes; these latter are very expensive, being double the cost of the ordinary straight panes of sheet-glass, which can be entirely substituted for them. A good curvilinear lean-to house would be formed by taking half such a roof as that shown in Fig. 307, due provision for ventilation being made. Paxton Houses and Pits are the invention of Sir Joseph Paxton, and have the merits of cheapness and portability. The roof consists of ordinary wooden sashes, between every two of which are placed hinged ventilators constructed in halves, which open outwards separately or together. By this mode of construction rafters to carry the sashes are dispensed with, and the whole roof is so fixed that it can be readily re- gionally necessary the panes are steadied in their place by small wedges of india-rubber. The grooves in which they slide are so formed that on the exterior surface is glass, with the narrow strips of zinc forming the upper lip of the grooves. We can speak from personal knowledge of one of these houses, as being in every way efficient; it has stood unharmed in a very exposed situation at Woking through a whole winter and summer, which is a sufficient test of the safety of the mode of glazing; and it is remarkable for the abundant light admitted, there being in fact much less framework than usual to darken the interior. This house, which is fitted With Voice’s ventilators, is represented by Fig. 308, and is in every way adapted for horticultural purposes; it was built for the purpose of blooming (without artificial heat) specimens of the spring-flowering clematises, which need an exceptional amount of light, and has proved to be thoroughly efficient. The half of such a houseGARDEN STRUCTURES. 511 moved, as at the expiration of a tenancy. These houses are made either span-roofed or lean-to, and are well adapted for growing fruit and sheltering plants—in fact, for all the ordinary purposes of a greenhouse or orchard-house; but on account of the mode of ventilation they are less suitable for early forcing. [The principle upon which they are constructed will be more easily understood by a reference to Fig. 309, which shows a portion of one of the Fig. 309. patent roofs. It is composed of strong sashes, from 8 feet to 16 feet long and 4 feet 8 inches wide, connected by iron gauge-bars m, the ends of which fit into the staples n, in such a manner as to leave a space of 9 inches between the sashes for ventilation. This space is closed in by narrow sashes, which are divided lengthways into two portions fixed to one side by hinges o, and open by means of an iron stay i, pushed up from the inside. These narrow sashes are introduced alternately with the larger ones, and form ventilators, which may be opened for the half or the whole of their length, the ixpper half opening separately, and the two halves forming one long ventilator when joined together by the catch k. These parts will be understood by a reference to the figure (309), which represents the upper halfventilator fully open, and the lower half-ventilator closed, the iron bar connecting the ’ large SftShes being shown at m, the stay by which the Ventilator can be opened to its full width at i, and the catch and button for joining the two lengths into one piece at k and l. In the case of lean-to roofs these ventilator’s can be hinged on the right and left sides of the openings alternately, so that they may be opened in either direction, and thus the entrance of a direct current of air, when the wind sets either from the east or west, may be avoided. The side stiles of the sashes are continued 4 inches beyond the glazed portion; these projecting portions, which serve as horns, rest on the gutter d, which is formed of wood or iron, and runs from end to end of the roof, being supported by chairs or saddles e, under the ventilators, and at the ends set upon the piers or walls which form the foundation of the house. Under the capping aGARDENER’S ASSISTANT. 512 weather-board, 9i inches long and 1 inch thick, is inserted between the large sashes, and bedded in white lead in rebates cut out of the side stiles; a gi'oove is made in this board about 1 inch below the bottom line of the capping and below the top of the ventilator, to carry off the drip into the groove in the sash stile, which is indicated by a dotted line. A weather-board is also inserted at the bottom edgewise under the bottom rail, and fitted to the gutter fillet. Fig. 310, in which the reference letters are the same as in 309, shows all the iron parts used in the actual construction of Paxton houses, irrespective of ventilators, heating apparatus, &c. Span-roofed Paxton houses are formed of double lean-to roofs, hinged together at the apex so as to permit them to open more or less, and thus to form steep or flattish roofs, as may be required, without the use of ridge-plates or framework, as in other modes of construction. The end sashes are readily screwed under and attached to the roofs by the iron plates p. All the glazed portions are thus easily erected and removed without injury. In the case of span-roofed structures the ventilators are reversed on the opposite sides of the house, for the purpose of preventing the ingress of cold currents of air by providing for their being opened in the direction least exjiosed to the wind. The forms adopted for greenhouses are various. A useful house, designed by Ml’. Ormson, called the Paradigm, in which a modification of the lantern svstem of roof ventilation is adopted, is shown in Fig. 311. The house was designed to meet a proposition that private gardens should be inclosed by glass structures instead of walls, in order to insure better fruit crops, and hence the original was only 10 feet wide and 8 feet 3 inches high, with a central path, and was intended as part of a dry promenade round the garden. If erected to this scale it would form a very efficient orchard-house for pot fruit-trees. If enlarged to 20 feet wide, it would form an excellent green- house, stages for plants being introduced in the manner indicated by the dotted lines. These houses are framed in 10-feet lengths, by which economy in construction is secured, so that the adopted length in feet should be a multiple of 10. The ventilation is effected by opening the sidelights simultaneously, in 50-feet lengths, if necessary, by means of simple machinery; while the top ventilation is secured by a continuous ventilator at the upper angle of the roof, which gives a clear opening of 12 inches the whole length of the house, and is closed when required by means of a movable capping held in position by movable iron stays, and capable of being elevated, by pulling a sash-line, to a height of 6 inches above the roof, whereby, as it still remains over the opening, the entrance of rain is prevented. This ventilator opens in 20-feet lengths, and on the line being relaxed falls back into its position, and effectually excludes the external .atmosphere. This plan has most of the advantages of the lantern mode of ventilation, combined with greater economy in construction. Fig. 312 shows another good form of greenhouse, recommended by Mr. B. S. Williams, a well-known cultivator and exhibitor of choice plants, in a useful practical book called Choice Stove and Greenhouse Plants. This house is 50 feet long, 20 feet wide, and 12 feet high, with upright side-lights which open outwards by machinery, and is provided with sliding upper roof sashes for top ventilation. There is a fiat side-table and a two-tier central stage for the plants—arrangements which can be varied to suit the size and character of the plants intended to be cultivated.] Orangen/.—By this term is understood a house in which orange-trees are kept during winter, when they will exist without much light, their vegetation being then comparatively inactive. Such being the case orangeries were generally constructed in an architectural style, with a ceiled roof, light being only admitted by large windowsGARDEN STRUCTURES. 513 in the front and ends. In a horticultural sense such buildings can only be termed places of shelter, for except near the glass no perfect growth can take place in them. Now, merely for the purpose of shelter, it is not worth while in this country to be at the great expense of an architectural building when for the same money, or even less, a greenhouse or conservatory could be erected, in which plants can not only be preserved in winter but made to flourish at that and all other seasons. If any intelligent gardener were required to grow orange-trees to the greatest perfection he would not choose a dark-roofed house for the purpose; therefore we may consider the orangery, such as it was once understood to be bv gardeners and architects, as now obsolete. [In some parts of the Continent, however, houses of this kind are necessary in order to afford better protection from the severity of the cold of winter, but the plants are at that season dormant, or nearly so.] Stoves.—These are structures in which plants from the hottest parts of the world are grown. Two kinds are distinguished—the dry and the moist, but as either may be rendered moist or dry according as water is freely supplied or the contrary, the difference is one of treatment and not of construction. The principles by which the construction of stoves should be regulated have reference to the three great agents of vegetation— heat, light, and moisture—principles which ought to be kept in view in the construction of all kinds of plant structures. The stove differs from the gz’eenhouse chiefly as regards heat, for which in the former moi'e ample provision requires to be made, and that not only as regards top-heat, but likewise bottom-heat. It also differs in the mode of ventilatiozi. A greenhouse may be made a stove by supplying bottom-heat and increasing top-heat; and on the contrary, by withdrawing the former and diminishing the latter, the stove may be made a greenhouse. Indeed, in the culture of many plants for which the greenhouse is too cold, and the stove too hot, an intermediate house is desirable. [An excellent form for a plant-stove or intermediate house is shown in Fig. 313, from Mr. Williams’ book, already referred to. This house is 50 feet long, 20 feet wide, and 12 feet high, which dimensions are found to form houses of very convenient size. It is heated by hot-water pipes, and contains, as accommodation for standing the plants, a flat stage or table 3 feet wide against the walls, this being continued round each end as far as the doorway, of which it is convenient in most cases to have one at each end. Next to this table is a 3-feet pathway, which should be paved or made of concrete with a cement surface, and is most agreeable to walk on when made a little rounded in the centre, which Plan and Section of Mr. Williams’ Plant Stove. may be done, if paved, by laying the centre row of tiles highest, and the two side rows a little sloped; it is also a good plan to have a raised, edging or rim to the pathway, if the stages are open beneath, as this admits of washing the paths without converting the earth at the sides into mud, and also permits the water tlirown down for evaporation to lay along the sides of the path, 33514 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. while the centre, being elevated, is dry to walk upon. In the centre is another stage or table for plants, differing from the form shown in Fig. 311 (which is more suitable for larger plants), in having a central shelf 12 inches higher than the rest, on which smaller plants may be elevated nearer the glass, and so as to stand clear of those about them. The tables should be made of slabs of slate, on account of its durability. These should be supported by neat iron standards, which, if an edging to the pathway is adopted, may rest on the edging, or they may be set further in, if that arrangement is preferred. The slates can be had of equal size, and should be ploughed or furrowed on the surface to carry off the water spilled in watering, or which may run through the pots after performing that operation. If any material, such as finely-broken Derbyshire spar, is used on the surface of the tables, as is sometimes the case, and is especially desirable if they are not furrowed, a rim of cement is desirable to keep it from being brushed off on to the path. This arrangement is far better than making use of wooden stages or a wooden rim, since these soon decay, and when decay commences they become a harbour for insects and other plant enemies. All plant-houses of this description should have double or folding doors on account of the facility which is thus afforded for taking in and out large specimen plants, while the half door is sufficient for ordinary ingress or egress, and does not admit so much cold air when opened in wintry weather as a single door, necessarily larger, would do.] Bottom-heat for stoves is sometimes supplied by means of tanners’-bark placed in a pit in the body of the house, and on this the pots containing the plants are set, or occasionally plunged in it to a greater or less depth, as when it is necessary to excite their roots more than their tops. But generally a fair share of bottom-heat is maintained by placing the pots on slate or stone under which there is a chamber heated by flues, hot-water pipes, tanks, or hot air,—hot-water pipes being the most eligible. [The glass houses which are found necessary in a garden establishment are sometimes collected into a range, as it is called, that is to say, several houses are grouped together in some favourable position, such as the south side of a wall, or sometimes on an open spot having a southern exposure. A plan and elevation of such a range will be found in Plate XXX., from a design by Mr. Ormson of Chelsea. In certain cases, and not uncommonly, such ranges of houses consist of lean-to ghiss structures, built on the south side of a wall, the necessary garden offices, such as seed-room, fruit-room, mushroom-house, living-rooms for the young gardeners employed, potting - sheds and storerooms generally being constructed on the opposite or north side of the wall. In other cases the ranges are detached, so as to gain various aspects for houses devoted to different purposes, and the offices are then grouped in some convenient contiguous spot provided in the original disposition of the ground. In many modern gardens of note, and also in those of earlier date, where rearrangement and reconstruction from time to time become necessary, the young gardeners’ apartments are separated from the offices, and form a separate cottage-like structure, wdiich, equally with the head-gardener’s residence, may thus be converted into an ornament of the garden, besides being more healthful for those whose lot it may be to occupy it. The range of glass represented in Plate XXX. has been selected for illustration, because it serves to show how the construction maybe varied to meet different requirements. In the complete state, as shown in the figure, it will be seen that there are four lean-to houses adapted for vineries, pineries, peach - houses, &c., and three span-roofed houses with a different aspect, adapted for the culture of stove or greenhouse plants, or if preferred, one or other of these would serve admirably as an orchard-house. Should the space here provided be more than is required, it may be reduced in various ways according to the accommodation needed. Thus, without much changing the appearance of the range, the lean-to houses might be made smaller by being reduced in length, or one on each side might be omitted. Again, the centre house might be shortened if too large, and the end houses also, or these latter might be converted into ordinary low span-roofed houses, adapted rather for smaller than larger plants, or parted along the centre into small lean-to houses adapted for growing ferns, orchids, or any other specialties. A smaller range might also be had by doing away with the end structures and one of the lean-to’s on each side, thus reducing it to three houses. A larger range might be had by repeating the lean-to houses, and either adding other similar ends to those now shown, or simply increasing the number or length of the lean-to portions, and introducing beyond these east and west houses, as at present indicated. It will thus be seen how easy it is to adapt a range of glass-houses to meet the requirements of any particular establishment. As a rule it may, however, be assumed that in any garden a larger number of small and comparatively low houses are of more utility for cultural purposes than a smaller number of larger ones. Indeed the only houses, except those which, like conservatories,GARDEN STRUCTURES. 515 are built for display, which are the better for being of large size, are vineries intended for main and late crops, and here an increased length of rafter, by giving more scope for the development of the vine, is certainly beneficial. For the culture of other subjects, as pines, early grapes, peaches, figs, fee., amongst fruits, and ornamental plants of all kinds, whether requiring a stove or greenhouse temperature, small houses are decidedly preferable to large ones, for the reason that the plants can be brought more completely under the influence of light. With such an arrangement as that just indicated, which would form a centre, a minor range of span-roofed houses or pits could, if required, be placed in front, and the whole might be most economically heated from a boiler placed at the back of the centre range.] Wall-frames.—In the south of England wall-fruits, such as peaches and nectarines, ripen perfectly well without the aid of glass in ordinary seasons, the only protection required being that against late spring frosts; but in the northern parts of the kingdom more protection is requisite. Accordingly a wall is sometimes covered with glass, forming in fact a narrow house, which may be termed a Wall-frame, Wall-case, or Fruit-preserver; this serves to protect the blossoms, and to assist in ripening the fruit. Colonel Challoner’s wall-frame is constructed on very good principles as regards ventilation, and answers the purpose exceedingly well, but it is rather expensive. It is arranged thus:— Brackets support short sashes about 2j feet long, hinged to a 1 lar below the wall-coping, and sloping so as to throw the wet over the top of the front sashes. Supports of T-iron (so called from its section resembling an inverted T) are provided for sashes in front of the wall, so that they stand at an angle of about 75°, and reach to within 2h feet of the ground. The space from the lower end of the sashes to the ground is provided with sheet-iron flaps for the purpose of ventilation; and air can also be given at top by raising the hinged sashes, which is effected without weights by means of a quadrant arm. The facility with which air can thus be given is of great importance. [Mr. Ayres’ wall-fruit protectors are but another form of wall-frame, and as they readily admit of being converted into narrow closed houses, they may be usefully adopted where the expense is not an obstacle. They are constructed in this way:— First, ornamental cast-iron brackets are bolted through the upper part of the wall at regular distances, and are connected together by purlines recessed to receive the glass, which is held in position by metallic clips. The glass recommended is Hartley’s patent rolled plate, but any good strong glass may be used. The protector, which is in fact a glass coping, projects 3 feet from the face of the wall, and thus affords good shelter to the trees growing beneath it. In this state it is shown by the dark lines in Fig. 314; Fig. 314. Ayres’ Wall fruit Protector. but when the parts indicated by dotted lines are added, a house such as is referred to above is formed. This is readily done, as the brackets are prepared to receive rafters, so fixed by means of a universal joint as to form a house of any width that may be desired. In the form indicated by the accompanying figure not only is the protection of the fruit-trees assured, but much useful space is inclosed, which may be turned to good account both in raising early crops and also in sheltering tender ones. The parts thus added, consisting of the long sloping front sashes and the boarded ventilators, would be easily removable, and might be converted to other uses during summer. When the coping alone is used for protecting permanent wall-trees, the glass might be made readily removable by some such system of glazing as Rendle’s; and thus during the height of summer, when the rains would be beneficial to the foliage and swelling fruits, and in winter, when the wood was required to be kept cool and dormant, the glass might be taken away and the trees fully exposed.] There are many other ways in which wall-frames may be constructed, but some of them are more expensive than lean-to structures, of the character of which they more or less partake. When such expense is to be incurred, we think it would be well to incur still more, and have a command of heat sufficient at least to keep out frost during the spring months. The following, however, would be a very simple mode of constructing a wall-frame:—Let rafters516 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. be formed of deal, 2 inches thick and 6 or 7 inches deep, more or less according to their length, this depending on the height of the wall. These rafters should be secured at top to a wooden plate, bolted to tubes fixed in the wall, such as we have previously recommended, the bolts on passing through the tube to the other side of the wall being there tightened by a nut. At bottom they should be secured to a plank furnished with cast-iron sockets or shoes. The rafters, although only 2 inches thick, will, notwithstanding, admit of sufficient hold to permit the side-bars of the sashes to slide, in giving or reducing ventilation; or if the side-bars of the sashes were made somewhat stronger than usual, and had plates of stout hoop, 3 inches broad, screwed on the outside, they would not swerve if used without rafters, even if made 10 feet in length. They could be glazed up to a cross-bar 3 feet from their tops, and all above this might be constructed so as to be movable on hinges or pivots attached to the top of the sash, to permit of air being given. A wall could be more readily covered by sashes of this description than by any other that we are aware of. The sashes would only have to be placed closely side by side, and fastened in case of strong winds, and when not required they could be as readily removed and employed for other purposes. With little more expense the top of the sashes might abut against a rail Its inches from the wall, and the intermediate space at top could then be glazed so as to form either a fixed or a movable roof. Fig. 315 shows a form of wall-case especially suitable for peaches, designed by Mr. Ormson, Fi; who has erected many hundred feet run, and which has been found to answer exceedingly well. It is 5 feet wide, and adapted for a wall 10 feet high. The space below the glass work, between the iron standards, is filled in with slate slabs, for the reception of which flanges are cast upon the iron standards. Ventilation is effected by opening the front sashes outwards at bottom, Fig. 316. simultaneously by machinery, or singly by hand —the former being the preferable plan, as it is a great saving of time; also by the roof-lights, which are made to slide down over the front gutter by means of pulleys and cords. A wood trellis path, 2 feet wide, is placed along the centre of the case. Glass Walls.—[These, of which an end view is given at Fig. 316, are not worth their cost, which is great in proportion to the area they inclose, while the vegetation within them obtains very little protection as compared with that afforded by a lean-to structure, which might be put up for less expense. Glass and iron radiate heat so quickly that in a sharp frosty night the small quantity of air inclosed by them in the interior of the wall is soon cooled down to within a few degrees of the temperature of the external air; therefore the property of protecting from frost cannot be urged in their favour. With a flow and return liot-water pipe their utility would be greatly increased, as they could then be kept gay with flowering plants; and peaches, vines, &c., could be grown in them; but it would then be necessary to make the width greater, and for all the purposes of fruit-growing to which a glass wall can be applied, an orchard-house would be far more satisfactory, both as regards economy and results. They might be introduced in particular situations where something is required to hide a bad view, but where a solid wall or a house would be objectionable. However, for such a purpose, an ornamental trellis covered with creepers would be preferable.] hi.—HEATING. For horticultural purposes artificial heat is derived either from substances in a state of fermentation or of combustion, two processes which it is convenient to speak of as distinct, though both are in reality only chemical combination in v: R., - R: x 1 Ewing’s Glass Wall end view).GARDEN STRUCTURES. 517 a less or more active form. This being the case, theoretically only a certain amount of heat can be obtained from a certain quantity of material, and practically much less; but that amount cannot be exceeded, though we may obtain it slowly or rapidly. All we can do, therefore, is to obtain and apply heat in the most economical manner, a problem which has never yet been fully solved in heating garden structures. Heating by fermenting materials will have to be noticed in the succeeding chapter, and therefore we shall here confine ourselves to heat from materials in a state of combustion. For combustion wood is sometimes used, but in most cases coal—either as it comes from the pit, or in the form of coke. The chemical constituents of mineral coal are, according to Richardson and Regnault—carbon 24, hydrogen 13, and oxygen 1; and on the authority of Liebig, the composition of coking coal is— carbon 20, hydrogen 9, and oxygen 1. 1 lb. of mineral coal will melt 621 lb. of ice. (Watt, Tredgold.) 1 lb. of charcoal will melt 961 lb. of ice. (Lavoisier and Laplace.) 1 lb. of hydrogen will melt 2951 lb. of ice. (Lavoisier and Laplace.) 1 lb. of hydrogen will melt 320 lb. of ice. (Dalton.) From the above data we may form an approximate estimate of the relative heating values of the carbon and hydrogen constituents of coal. Accordingly the heating effect of the carbon may be roughly estimated at f, and that of the hydrogen at The importance of the latter ought therefore to l>e borne in mind, in order that furnaces may be adapted for its combustion; otherwise the loss of fuel would be very great—upwards of 30 per cent. Fuel of any kind requires to be heated to a certain extent before it will ignite. Many are aware that a live coal will not bum a thin handkerchief strained over a cold iron. This simple experiment shows how rapidly the metal abstracts the heat from the live coal, so much so that the thin fabric of the handkerchief has not time to acquire the temperature necessary for ignition. When fuel does ignite, combustion proceeds with greater or less rapidity, according to circumstances; and that process having been completed, a certain amount of heat must have been produced, and the question is, What becomes of it ? The heat generated by the combustion of the fuel is transferred by contact or by radiation, or in both ways, to other bodies, which receive it in different proportions, according as they are naturally adapted for the absorption of heat, and according as they are more or less exposed to the direct action of the fire. We sometimes hear of an apparatus doing much work with a very small quantity of fuel, but to this there are limits, for evidently no substance can receive from another a greater amount of heat than the combustion of the latter affords. This is the extreme limit beyond which nothing can be expected. Heat has a constant tendency to equalize itself; hence, when combustion ceases, the substances which have acquired an elevation of temperature begin to cool, their heat being communicated to other substances near them, and from these to otheiU more and more remote, till at last the original intensity becomes as it were universally diffused. It may be communicated from one steadfast solid body to another, or it may be conveyed to a distance by air or water in motion. By employing air or water as a vehicle for heat, we can convey it to a considerable distance from the fireplace, in either a perpendicular or horizontal direction, or in that of any upward incline, but not readily downwards, because gases and fluids become lighter when heated, and consfi-j quently ascend. Of the two principal inodes of warming horticultural structures by fire-heat, that by which air or other gas in motion is the vehicle or heat-carrier is the older; the other, by which water in motion is the medium of conveyance, is the more approved, and that which is now generally adopted. Heating by Flues.—The flue is a cavity commencing at the furnace, of which it may be said to be a continuation, and terminating in the chimney. It incloses the heated air and gases, conveying them generally along the front and then the back of the house, by which time most of their heat is imparted to the materials of the flue, and from these communicated to the air of the house. Although heating by hot water has superseded in a great measure heating by flues, yet tligK^ when well constructed, answer the purpose exceedingly well, as shown by the fine productions, both fruit and flowers, that have been obtained in houses so heated. The house in which Mr. Cock of Chiswick grew his pelargoniums was not heated by hot water, but by a flue, and the plants, for healthy foliage and fine bloom, were unsurpassed. In that flue-heated greenhouse plants were grown which obtained the highest prizes at the London exhibitions for a series of years. With such facts on record it must be admitted that well-constructed flues may still be successfully employed for horticultural purposes. By a flue, heat from the furnace is distributed by being mostly transferred to a comparatively518 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. large extent of surface, with which the air of the house is in contact. Previously this air may have been comparatively at rest, but as soon as the flue gets heated, the air next to it is warmed, rarefied, and consequently ascends; and thus whilst the air within the flue is a carrier of heat in a horizontal direction, that outside the flue conveys it in a perpendicular direction, or as nearly so as the form of the house will permit. When, as above stated, the air in contact with the surface of the flue becomes heated and rendered lighter, it is made to ascend by the pressure exerted upon it by that which is colder and therefore heavier, and this in its turn becomes heated and driven upwards. A circulation of the air in the house is thus induced, and it is continued as long as the heat of the flue is maintained. Flues, then, effect a distribution of heat, and at the same time a circulation of air. Where there is a heated flue the air of the house cannot remain stagnant. As heated air naturally moves upwards, it follows that flues have most command of heating the whole atmosphere of a house when they are situated near the lower angle. The upward tendency of the air is such that it conveys the heat from the lowest part of the house to the highest, so as to render this generally hotter than the middle portion, although farther than the latter from the source of heat. In the last century the upward tendency of heated air appears to have been overlooked in the construction of hot-liouses, for in Miller’s Gardener's Dictionary, edition 1768, a stove is represented in which there are four flues all at the back wall, and above each other, but none in front. To this part heat could not be carried by the air, for when heated by the flue at back it could not descend to the front, as the warmer and lighter ail’ could not displace the colder and heavier. The front of a stove with such an arrangement of flues could only derive heat from them by radiation, and the intensity of heat in that way diminishes inversely as the square of the distance from the radiating surface. Supposing that surface to be the back wall, and the temperature there to be 160° above that of the external air, and if in the middle of the house the heat were 40° above that temperature, then at the front it would only be 10° higher than outside. Presuming 40° above the external temperature to be the required temperature of the air throughout the house, the front, heated only by radiation from the back, would be 30° colder than it ought to be. This shows that in order to distribute the heat throughout the house, we must not depend so much on direct radiation as on the movement of the air in the manner which has been already described. T1 le flue should pass along the front, and then return, at a somewhat greater elevation, near the middle. In some very small greenhouses it may be sufficient to carry the flue across one end from the fire, along the front and farther end, to a chimney in the back wall. The space occupied by flues is not lost, for many plants requiring bottom-heat can be placed over them, on a temporary stage, or upon inverted flower-pots, so as to receive no more than the proper degree of heat. The furnace should be placed 1 or 2 feet lower than the level of the front flue, and from the furnace to this level the flue should gradually ascend. Flues should not turn either vertically or horizontally at right angles. There should not only be a gradual ascent from the furnace along the end, but also for a very short distance in the front. Flues are very apt to crack, or sometimes to burst, at or near the corner where they take the front direction; but if the corner is rounded off, and the upward slope continued on a little way in front, the draught of heated air will sweep along with less interruption; and whilst the rest of the flue receives more heat, that part will receive less, and hence will not be so apt to crack. Nevertheless, it is well to use fire-bricks along the end nearest the furnace, and also for several feet along the front. There are now excellent materials for the construction of tines to be had in pieces several feet in length, so that few joints are necessary; and they may even be obtained in a tubular form, and joined like pipes. Where appearance is not a consideration large pipes of the same kind as those for conveying house-sewage, and which can be obtained near towns at a cheap rate, are frequently employed, and answer well. But many persons may have only common bricks at command. In this case hoop-iron may be employed to bind the sides lengthwise, and pieces of sheet-iron, about 3 inches broad, should be bedded in mortar beneath each joint of the cover's. It is necessary to observe that the iron should be wetted, so that it may rust a little, and then the iron and the mortar will adhere to each other. Pieces of thin .slate answer very well for the same purpose if embedded in the mortar, for if the slate should crack in the middle, still the mortar will hold the pieces closely together. When the flue returns as far as the part coming direct from the furnace, it should be built on the top of that part, and it will then have a better draught. Flues should be well cleaned every season before they are set to work, for when coated with soot they neither draw so well nor absorb the heat so readily as they would otherwise do, and if they do not take in the heat well theyGARDEN STRUCTURES. 519 cannot give it out well; therefore facilities for cleaning should be provided when the flue is being constructed. If flues are not heated for a considerable time after they are built they will not be so apt to crack. Small cracks may be stopped with a mixture of clay and cow-dung. Heating by Hot Water.—If a pipe, open at both ends, is bent in the form of a U (Fig. 317), and water is poured in, it will stand at the same height in both legs, as at a b; but if the water is taken out of the leg a, and spirits of wine sub-stituted, the water will fall below b, and the spirits of wine will rise above a, presuming that the two liquids are kept separate; consequently the height of the two columns will be unequal, because the weights of the two liquids are unequal, the pure FiS- 317- spirits of wine being, bulk for bulk, nearly one-fourth lighter. Now, although water of an equal temperature would stand at the same height, yet if cold water were put in the one leg and hot in the other the heights would be unequal, because cold water is heavier than hot; and although the greatest difference between the coldest and hottest water is less than that between water and spirits of wine, still it is sufficient to produce an inequality of pressure. If both legs were completely filled, and heat applied, say to the leer a, the water would overflow; but if the two legs were connected at top as well as at bottom, and one side were kept hot and the other cold, the water would constantly ascend in the warm leg and descend by the cold, and thus a circulation would be established. Let a b (Fig. 318) represent a horizontal 4-inch Fie- 318-pipe; a c and b d two upright ones, the latter having a stopcock at e. The pipes may be glass, in order to see what takes place in their interior. Let pure water be poured in the leg at c, and simultaneously an equal quantity of coloured water at d, till the water in both legs stands at the respective heights of c and e; the coloured portion will then have extended as far as /; there the junction of the coloured and uncoloured portions will remain stationary, and so would any solid substance if introduced anywhere in the pipe a b, because it would there have an equal pressure on each side of it. Whilst the whole of the fluid is motionless in the pipes, close the cock at e; fill the pipe to d; close the opening at c with a valve or cover loaded with say 6 lb., and open the cock at e; there will then be more than 10 lb. of water in the leg b d, against half that weight in a c. On removing the weight at c the water will continue to overflow until that in the pipe at d sinks to e, when the balance will be again restored; but in the meantime the coloured water will have moved to g. Instead of producing motion in the contents of the pipes by increasing the weight of the column b d, it might have been done by decreasing the weight of that in the pipe a c, we shall say one-half; then the water in b e would sink a certain distance, the coloured fluid would move along an equal distance, the water would rise as much in the pipe a c; and then, the balance being restored, motion would cease. Supposing the water in a c to be rendered lighter by heat, and no longer a balance for the colder and heavier water in 6 e, the latter portion will then press forward the water from b towards a c. Again, if the opening at c is closed, and a communication made by a pipe from c to e, the water as it is forced upwards will proceed towards e, and there supply the place of the water tending to move towards a c, and thus a circulating motion is commenced, which will continue as long as heat is maintained to keep the water in a c hotter, and consequently lighter, than that which is cooled in its progress to and through the return-pipe. It will now be evident that the motion of the water must proceed simultaneously from the boiler along the upper pipe, termed the flow-pipe, and to the boiler along the lower one, which is called the return-pipe. The contrary could not take place, because the heated and lighter water at a c could not move that of greater density in the pipes e b and b a. The primary cause of the motion is, then, the heat of the fire rendering the water in the boiler specifically lighter than that in the pipes; and when this effect takes place the law of gravity immediately comes into operation, so that the actions of flow and return are simultaneous. If, whilst the circulation was going on from c to e, the water in e b were heated to an equal extent as that in a c, the circulation would cease, because there would be as much tendency to flow from e to c as from c to e, and of course the two forces would neutralize each other. The greater the difference between the temperature of the water in the boiler and that in the return-pipe, the more rapid the circulation, and the converse. Hence the return-pipe should not pass through heated brick-work, or be otherwise exposed to the action of the fire, either directly or indirectly. Furnaces. — The best furnaces are those in which the fuel is most effectually consumed; it520 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. is scarcely necessary to mention that they should be adapted for a strong fire, in order to counteract intense frost; but they should also be constructed for slowly burning a small quantity of fuel, for at times only a little heat is required; and under some conditions in which fuel is placed, it will not burn in small quantity, and slowly, but the lire will go out if not kept in a brisk state of ignition. It is well known that metals are rapid conductors of heat, and so long as they remain cold the fuel that is in immediate contact with them will not burn. The most perfect combustion takes place when fire is surrounded with slow conductors of heat, such as Welsh-lumps, or other kinds of tire-brick. Tred-gold, in treating of the construction of fireplaces (Principles of Waiming and Ventilating, p. 120), says, “ The slowest conductors of heat should be used; some metal work is absolutely necessary, but it should be avoided as much as possible. The space for the fire and seat of the boiler it will be best to line with good fire-brick, built with fire-clay, with no more iron work about it than is absolutely necessary; that is, simply the bars, and a rim at the mouth where the fuel is put in at;” and he quotes as a maxim that should always be kept in view, that u the fireplace should be insulated from all bodies that are rapid conductors of heat.” In some excellent papers on heating, by Mr. Ainger, in the Gardeners' Chronicle, combustion within slowly-conducting materials is one of the points which he considers of the greatest importance. He recommends the fuel to be burned in slowly-conducting materials, and certainly not in contact with the boiler, remarking, “ Those portions of fresh coal which lie against the boiler undergo for some time distillation rather than combustion, and while they are thus wasting they intercept a large portion of the boiler surface from the central portion of the fuel, which is probably in a state of incandescence.” Tf a fireplace were required to be constructed so as to drive off as much as possible of the hydrogen in an unignited state, the best plan would be to have the furnace-bars and sides formed of pipes with cold water constantly circulating through them. All the fuel in contact with these pipes would not ignite, but it might get hot enough to distil or drive off, unignited, the hydrogen, constituting about one-third of the heating value of some kinds of coal. But this is what ought to be saved, and the best mode of doing so is to construct the fireplace with non-conducting materials. We therefore consider metallic fireplaces objectionable for horticultural purposes, especially when they are tubular, or otherwise form a portion of the boiler. Having pointed out the conditions under which the heat of the fuel may be most advantageously produced, we may now advert to its distribution. Once produced, it must distribute itself in some way, and the grand object to be attained, is, to transfer as much of it as possible to the water in the boiler. The latter ought to be set so as not to obstruct combustion, and should have a large surface directly exposed to the radiation of the fire. The combustion of ordinary heating materials, it is well known, requires a certain amount of air. In furnaces this is usually supplied through the bars of the grating, and occasionally in part through the furnace-doors. Sufficient air should be admitted to supply the necessary amount of oxygen, without which the fuel would not burn; more than sufficient is injurious, for it robs the fire of a portion of its heat, and carries it up the chimney. It is therefore necessary to have the power of regulating the admission of air, and consequently that the furnace-door, as well as the ash-pit door, should fit perfectly. Hinged doors are almost certain to warp. The best furnace-doors that we have seen are Sylvester’s, Fig. 319, which have no hinges. The doors, which Fig. 319. Sylvester’s Fumace- doors. are faced with fire-brick or Welsh-lump, move on rollers on an iron rod, or slide by a ledge in a groove, as shown in the lower or ash-pit door represented in the figure. The frame of the opening projects a little outwards towards the base, so that the weight of the door partly rests upon it; and the more the door is moved the closer it fits. By these doors the air can be regulated to a nicety; and a good stoker will soon find out how much opening he should allow. If he require much heat he must increase the quantity of fuel, and in proportion the supply of air.GARDEN STRUCTURES. 521 [In ordinary furnaces the fire-bars are very apt to become warped or drawn out of place by the glowing heat at which the fires are maintained, and even occasionally to become fused with the clinkers which are left as a residuum of the fuel consumed, so that the latter cannot be easily removed. This is a constant source of annoyance and expense. One mode of meeting the difficulty, and which has just been referred to as a drawback in relation to combustion, is to use hollow water-bars, or, in other words, to form the furnace of cast-iron piping, which in that case is made a continuation of the boiler. This is in fact usually the case with what are called tubular boilers; and for the same reason as already stated, namely, that the full heating power of the fuel is not evolved, in consequence of the combustion of that part of it lying in contact with the boiler or water-bar being for a time impeded, such furnaces are more durable than those formed with bars of solid metal. The loss of heating power by the imperfect or impeded combustion above referred to is, however, partly dependent upon the kind of fuel employed, and would be most felt in cases where a coal full of gas was used; but when coke or cinders are burned, as they very frequently are when procurable, the loss would be comparatively trifling, while the rapid destruction of the bars would be avoided. This, however, is not the only plan of preventing the burning out of solid fire-bars. An excellent and easily-adopted method has been described bv Mr. J. Taplin (formerly gardener at Chats-worth, now living in the United States), who states that by keeping the ash-pit filled with water the bars will last three times as long as with the ordinary dry ash-pit. “ To test this,” he writes, “ I had the ash-pits in all the conservatory fireplaces here built in cement, and kept constantly filled with water. This is the third season since it was done, and the bars are apparently as good as ever, while previously many had to be renewed annually. In new works it is the best plan to have iron pans cast to fit the ash-pit; and it is also advisable to have a water-pipe with a tap near the fireplace, for otherwise the filling of the pan will be forgotten. The water appears to prevent clinkers from forming, so that with moderate stoking the draught Ls always good.”-—Florist and Pomolorjist, 1868* 32.] Boilers.—Of these there are many kinds, some of them very complicated; but of any two that may prove equally effective, the simpler form is to be preferred. We are not aware that any complete set of experiments has yet been carried out to test the relative heating powers of different constructions of boilers, and the amount of work which these will respectively perform with a certain quantity of fuel; but from what we have observed we have come to the conclusion that the simplest form is generally the best. We should be inclined to give the preference to the horse-slioe or saddle form of boiler, with a large surface for the fuel to act upon in a direct manner, and such, too, is the conclusion arrived at by most practical men after a long experience of boiler* of different forms. However, instead of that, the amount of surface presented to the direct action of the fire is in many boilers small in comparison to the secondary or auxiliary surfaces. Mr. Ainger advises that care be taken to receive as much heat as convenient in the shape of radiation, and to depend as little as possible upon the secondary heating by flame, smoke, and gases, which are apt to cany into the chimney a large portion of their heat without its being communicated to the contents of the boiler. Dr. Arnott does not approve of boilers which present only a comparatively small amount of surface to the direct action of the fire, for this he considers the principal one for heating effect; the additional surface over which the draught may be conducted by return flues he considers simply auxiliary. [The intensity of this “ radiant” heat or “ direct action” of the fire diminishes in proportion to the square of the distance. To prove this one has only to hold the hand in front of a very bright fire; when held near the heat is unendurable, but when a very few inches removed, it can be borne without shrinking.] Tlie plain Saddle-boiler is well known, and if properly set over a fireplace of which the sides and back are formed of fire-brick or Welsh-lumps, its working may always be safely depended on, though its action may not be so quick as that of some others. Fig. 320 represents the Corrugated Saddle, a nr saddle-boiler adopted by Mr. Gray of Chelsea, in which the inner surface is ribbed or corrugated. In522 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. this figure a represents the flow-pipe, b the return, c an opening for the escape of smoke, another similar one being on the opposite side; a small pipe in front, to be fitted with a tap, is provided for emptying the boiler. The water circulates all round the arch, and also in the farther end, which is closed, and serves to rebut the flame. Another modification of the saddle-boiler, invented by Mr. Lobjoit, of Turnham Green, is represented by Fig. 321. It is corrugated longi- tudinally, with the view of presenting an increased amount of heating surface to the direct action of the fire; a shows the flow-pipe, b the return. The water circulates within the upright sides, the straight sloped roof, and the ridge at top. Slabs of fire-brick surround the boiler on the two sides, and one is placed against the farther end. Other slabs rest on the sides and against the top of the ridge, thus forming a return flue. The frame of the furnace-doom is secured close to the boiler by hooks fixed to each of its two sides. This boiler might be improved by inserting the return-pipe nearer the bottom; it would then be highly worthy of recommendation. There are numerous other modifications of the saddle-boiler, and most of them are efficient. [One of the best is the Gold-medal Boiler, repre- sented by Figs. 322, and 323, and so called from its having gained the gold medal in the boiler contest at Birmingham in 1872. It is of wrought-iron, and has a water-way back; the heat of the burning fuel strikes against this back before ascending into the centre flue, in passing through which it is diverted into flues right and left, and so on to the top of the boiler, whence the smoke is conducted into the cliimney-sliaft, and by the time this is reached nearly all the heat is absorbed. This boiler is very easily set, there being no complicated flues; and it will consume any kind of fuel. In the figures a shows the ash-pit, b the fire, c the centre flue, d the right and left return flues, e water-way end, f sliding soot-door for cleaning flues, with fire-brick casing, g sludge-plugs for cleaning interior of boiler, h flow-pipe, i return pipes, l hollow space around the boiler for utilizing the heat given off by its exterior surface. This is virtually a flued saddle-boiler, of which there are many variations in use; another most efficient one being known as the Witley Court Boiler, which is constructed in two forms, one having a single and the other a double flue. The Climax Boiler is a wrought-iron boiler having many recommendations. It is provided with two side flues in the interior, like the gold-medal Gold-medal Boiler (longitudinal section). boiler, the centre one being dispensed with; and it has a water-way both at back and front, this being secured by feeding from the top instead of the front, an arrangement which is generally considered to be advantageous as regards the saving of labour. The flame and smoke, passing through the side flues instead of going over the top in front, are made to draw under a wing or midfeather at each side, thus affording opportunity for parting with most of their heating power before reaching the chimney-shaft. This boiler has been designed by Mr. Dunbar, of the Thornes Bank Iron Company. To this same class of flued saddle-boilers belongs Caimell’s Victoria Hot-water Circulator, which, however, differs in being cast in separate parts, requiring to be put together in the setting. ItGARDEN STRUCTURES. 523 is so designed that it may be made to consist of one flue, returned over the top of the larger castings ■which form the furnace, or of any number of flues, up to three or four, carried backwards and forwards, one above the other, the flue sections for each size of boiler being alike and interchangeable. The lower portion consists of a hollow rectangular frame, into which are fixed about eight circular hollow fire-bars, the number varying with the size of the boiler, the return-pipes entering near the back of this casting. Other hollow castings are fitted so as to form the two sides (fluted) and the back and front of the furnace respectively; and the crown is formed by another hollow tinted casting, having a space left for the passage of flame and smoke under a separate hollow casting, which, when fixed, forms a flue, or in the huger sizes a double flue, communicating by means of other flues formed of similar castings with an opening at the top for regulating the draught, and for the passage of smoke up the chimney. The circulation of the water through the several castings made use of is maintained by connections at the sides. The smaller sizes of boiler have usually only one of the flue-sections placed over the crown of the furnace, but other flue-sections can be added if required.] Stevens’ Improved Cornish or Trentham Boiler (Fig. 324) is another powerful form, not strictly speaking a saddle-boiler, being only a modification of the well-known Cornish boiler. The great amount of work done by the latter with a small expenditure of fuel is a matter of notoriety among engineers, and a proof of the soundness of its principle. [This boiler consists of two wrouglit-iron cylin- ders ri vetted together in a very substantial manner, having about 2 inches of water space between the cylinders, and the door-frame being firmly attached at the end. The boiler is carried by two cast-iron chairs, shown at a, a, the front chair forming the frame for the lower flue-doom; these doors, b, b, fasten by a simple catch, and can be lifted off for sweeping, cleaning, &c., with the greatest facility. At the bottom is a plug, c, which should be unscrewed, and all accumulations of dirt thoroughly raked out of the interior once in three or six months, according to the tendency of the water to deposit solid matter. The furnace doom, one of which is open, are shown at d, while e is the flow-pipe and f the return-pipe. In setting, the chairs are placed on a level foundation, and two solid brick walls built so as to clear the boiler, are carried up to about half the depth of the cylinder; here a course of fire-brick lumps is worked on find brought up close to the side of the cylinder, and resting on these an arch is turned over the top, leaving a narrow space about as deep as the top flue-doom, to serve as an upper flue, while the space below the fire-brick forms a lower flue. The grate bars are inside the cylinder towards the lower part, the space beneath them thus forming the ash-pit, and that above them the furnace. The heat therefore passes through the centre of the boiler first, then returns over its upper half, and finally is conducted under the lower half on its way to the chimney shaft, which mode of setting is found to give better results than when the heat is first conducted below the boiler. The principle of this boiler is such as not only to expose a large area of water space to the direct action of the fire, but the heat operates with its greatest force on the upper part of the boiler, where there is no possibility of solid matter accumulating to cause the iron to burn, and thus destroy the boiler {Gardeners' Chronicle, 1871, p. 581).] Monro’s Cannon-boiler is represented in Fig. 325, where a is the flow, and b b the return pipes. It has the advantage of affording plenty of space below it for the fire; but we suspect that a plain saddle-boiler, presenting the same extent of surface more directly to the action of the fire, would answer quite as well, if not better. [A new boiler recently introduced by Mr. Ormson, of Chelsea, and called the Upright524 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Tubular Cornish Boiler, is represented at Fig. 326. This, which is a combination of the principles of the tubular and Cornish boilers, is designed so as to be used in a vertical position, and appears to be both powerful and economical. It consists of two dome-shaped ends, connected by short lengths of pipe, the lower dome-shaped piece forming the ash-pit, and being continued below into a stout iron leg with broad foot, on which the whole is supported. The furnace-bars fit in on Ormson’s Upright Tubular Cornish Boiler. a level with the upper edge of this lower domeshaped piece, so that the fire strikes directly against the upper dome, whence the flames are beaten back and forced through the surrounding tubes into the narrow flue formed by the brickwork, and which completely surrounds the boiler. The direct heat radiated from the burning fuel is thus to the full extent economized. The iron leg, which is part of the water way of the boiler, is provided for the purpose of removing all the sedimentary matter which may be deposited in the interior, and the accumulation of which is one of the most fertile sources of burning and cracking in hot-water boilers, caused by the overheating and consequent unequal expansion of the parts where the .accumulation occurs. In this case, the sides being perpendicular and the bottom concave, all the impurities must gravitate to the bottom and find their way into the leg, where at A a pipe, provided with a tap and communicating with a drain in the stoke-hole, is inserted. The thorough circulation of the water is assured by the position of the flow and return pipes, the flow going out at c c and the return re-entering near the top of the leg, on the side opposite the sediment outlet. In the essential points of exposing a large amount of surface to the direct action of the fire, and in the facility afforded for the removal of sediment, this boiler appears to possess great merit. What are called tubular boilers have been very much patronized by horticulturists; they are no doubt both powerful and rapid in their action, but they are liable to crack from unequal casting when cast in one piece, and to leak from defective joints when made up of many separate Fig. 327. parts. In order to meet these objections Messrs. Weeks & Co., of Chelsea, have provided the Duplex Upright Tubular Boiler, represented by Fig. 327, the leading principle of which is that it is made up of two equal parts, which in ordinary cases can be worked as one, and in case of any accidental defect becoming manifest can be at once separated into two, the one half carrying on the work while the other is being repaired.GARDEN STRUCTURES. 525 This practically does away with the chief objection which has been made to boilers of this type, and which many persons prefer. Another highly commendable feature is that ample provision is made for removing all sediment from the interior. The duplex boiler is made in two sections, each of which consists of the following parts—the upright tubes forming the boiler proper; the horizontal tubes forming the furnace /; the diaphragm a, by which perfect combustion of the fuel is obtained; the How-pipe b; the return pipe c; the outlet for removing sediment d. These parts being in duplicate, the one half, if need be, can be removed for repairs, while the other is left standing in full working order. The horizontal tubes shown at/form the furnace.] Upright tubular boilers are not suited forcom-mon coal, as the products of combustion and the coal-tar and other matters which distil from the fuel without being consumed, condense upon the tubes if a brisk lire is not kept up; and if these be at too low a temperature to burn them off, the ashes adhere, and so choke the furnace. Coke is preferable, though not indispensable, for the effective working of such boilers. [Fig. 328 represents another type of boiler, which appears to be constructed on sound prin- Fig. 32S. tire is in the centre, and by an ingenious arrangement of flues, formed by iron plates built into the brickwork, is forced to act upon each separate coil. The upper end is the flow-pipe, along which the heated water travels; and the lower end forms the return-pipe, by which the cooled water is brought back to be reheated. There is provision made for cleaning the flues, and a T pipe with tap is inserted near the base of the boiler to remove sediment.] Corrugated boilers have been recommended on account of their presenting a larger surface to the action of the fire than where that surface is plane. This must be admitted; but their advantage is not so great as at first sight might appear, for the furrows of the corrugation afford lodgments for soot and the tarry products of coal, and when this occurs the non-conducting coating prevents the rapid transmission of heat to the water inside the 1 >oi lev—a disadvantage by which all that is gained by a greater surface is liable to be Counteracted. Besides, if we want more surface we can easily obtain it by getting a plane boiler of a somewhat larger size, which can be had at the price of a smaller corrugated one. The Portable Boiler and Furnace, represented ciples, and from its simplicity will not be liable to derangement. It is called the Centrifugal Boiler, and is invented and constructed by Mr. Deards, of Hal low. It consists of a continuous coil of pipes, constructed of half-circles turned and faced to form a true joint, and held together by clips and screws cast on the pipes. The base of the coil rests on the furnace bars, so that the a, Inner tube for fuel. B, Wrought welded boiler. C, Ash-box. d, Round smoke-flue. f, Flow and return pipes. iuiil rim and cover. h. Cast-iron hopper. i. Ash-door and ventilator. Fire-door with talc front. at Fig. 329, is well suited for heating a small or moderate-sized house. It requires no 1 trick setting, has a neat appearance, and may be placed within a conservatory, the smoke being carried528 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Temperature of Temperature at which the House is to be kept. ExttTTial Air. 45° j 50° 55° 60° (35° 70° 75° 80° 85° 90° Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. 10° 126 ! 150 174 200 239 259 292 328 367 409 20 91 ' 112 135 160 187 216 247 281 31S 358 30 54 75 97 130 145 173 202 234 269 307 32 47 (37 89 112 137 164 193 225 259 296 40 18 37 5S SO 104 129 157 187 220 255 50 .. .. 19 40 (32 8(3 112 140 171 204 To use the above table look for the lowest external temperature in the left-hand column, and at top for the highest temperature at which the house is required to be kept, and where the two columns intersect will be found the number of feet of 4-inch pipe which will heat 1000 cubic feet of air per minute to that degree. It is desirable, however, in heating structures for the growth of plants of whatever kind, to have a greater length of piping than that which is just sufficient and no more to heat them, so as to avoid keeping the pipes at a very high temperature under ordinary circumstances, for that dries the atmosphere to an extent which is injurious to vegetation, and more especially to that near the pipes. [Cowan’s Lime-kiln System of Heating.—This consists of a combination of a lime-kiln with a hot-water apparatus, and the idea is to use up the waste heat of the former. The advantages claimed for the lime-kiln system are, that it saves the entire cost of fuel, that it works more eveidy and constantly than the ordinary systems, and that it requires much less attendance—indeed no night attendance whatever. On many estates lime in considerable quantities is required for use; and in certain other cases the situation may be such that lime, if not wanted for home use, will command a ready sale. Under either of these circumstances, if the cost of fuel can be materially lessened, as no doubt it can be, it may be found worth while to incur the expense and additional labour involved, even though the whole cost of the fuel may not be saved. The proper fuel to use is anthracite coal, coke, or culm, from which there is little or no smoke. Either chalk or limestone can be burned. The chief {joint in the working is to charge the kiln with proper quantities of the limestone or chalk and the fuel, and to fill the kiln before it is lighted. Mr. Cowan states that once in twenty-four hours is enough for drawing out the lime, and the space left at top is replenished with alternate layers of limestone and fuel. No further attention is required until the time comes for repeating the operation. He also states that the time necessary to do the whole work connected with the kiln, is two hours of one man daily—this including the breaking of the limestone, removing the lime, filling up, and putting all right for the day. Fig. 332 represents a longitudinal section of one of these lime-kilns, of which the parts are as follows:—a, the door by which the kiln is charged with fuel and chalk; b, the eye or opening by which the lime is drawn, which, however, is not necessarily on the same side as a; c, the crown boiler, fixed on the top of the kiln; d, a l ing boiler fixed so as to encircle the kiln below its top edge, and connected with the crown boiler by the pipe e; f, representing the flow-pipes, does not appear in this section; g, the return-pipes, connected also, as are the pipes /, with the expansion cistern h; i, aperture through which smoke passes into the flue /', and thence into the chimney shaft; l, the kiln space; m, masonry work; n, fire-brick shell to kiln; p, layer of sand as a backing to the fire-brick. It will be seen that this system is not well adapted for small gardens, since some considerable outlay is involved in its erection; and in larger places it will be a consideration whether there is a sufficient outlet for the lime which is burned. For this latter there must be a regular demand, or there will be a considerable loss by its becoming slaked and depreciated in value. Mr. Colies, of Mill Mount, Kilkenny, states ('Gard. Chron. n.s. iv. 754) that the bulk of the lime in his case often lies over for months, and then has to be sold a bargain to the farmers, pro-GARDEN STRUCTURES. 529 ducing only about 3s. 6d. a ton; he holds it to be quite unreasonable, with the same weight of coal used in a lime-kiln and in an ordinary furnace respectively, to expect to warm to a given temperature equal quantities of water; and he finds that, with the most economical form of kiln, it takes one part of fuel to two parts of limestone to act efficiently in ordinary weather, whereas in burning lime alone, in the same kiln, one part of fuel to six or seven of stone would be sufficient.] High-pressure Hot-water Apparatus.—This consists of a coil of small pipe placed in a furnace, from which the piping is continued round the house, and on returning is joined to the bottom of the coil, thus forming an endless pipe. The external diameter of the pipe is 1 inch, its bore i inch, and it consists of several pieces, which are screwed tightly into each other. Connected with the highest point of the pipe there is what is termed an expansion-pipe, a tube of lai’ger diameter, closed at top, but having near its base an opening, by means of which the circulating pipe can be filled with water. When this has been done the opening is hermetically closed by a screw. The object of the expansion-pipe is to allow for the expansion of the water when heated, and except in it there is no space for steam; the consequence is, that the water becomes excessively heated, generally to 350°, sometimes, it is said, to 500°, and the pressure upon the pipes is, according to Hood, from ten to twenty-four times that usual in high-pressure boilers. The apparatus, therefore, cannot safely be employed in gardens where regular attendance could not be afforded; and strong as the pipes are we have known them to fissure and the apparatus to explode. Besides, with pipes heated to such a degree, the air must be parched and rendered injurious to vegetation. The Tank System.—In this there is an action of flow and return, on the same principle as those by which circulation is induced in hot-water pipes. The apparatus is very simple. Let Fig. 333 represent a long shallow box, divided longi- Fig. 333. |i Oh c tudinally as far as c. From the top of a boiler let a pipe communicate with one of the divisions, as at a, and from the bottom of the boiler let a pipe open into the other division at b, and, as regards the principle, the apparatus is complete. The hottest water flows by the pipe inserted in the top of the boiler, into the tank at a, and simultaneously its place is supplied by colder water descending through the pipe b, and entering at or near the bottom of the boiler. The flow and return portions may be in one trough, with a division as above, or separated, conducted round the house, or in any other position, so long as they are upon the same level, and communicate with each other at the end farthest from the boiler. Tanks or gutters have been formed of cement, earthenware, cast-iron, or other metal, and even of wood. Roman cement is acted upon by the hot water, so that its cohesive properties are destroyed, for after some time a quantity of it is found in the state of mud in the bottom of the tank. Among the many kinds of cements there are some—for instance, Portland cement—that will not prove so objectionable in this respect. Earthenware will answer if the joints can be made secure; and if some kinds of it are too porous they may be saturated with tallow. Wood, being a slow conductor, does not give out the heat readily enough, but, made wide and covered with slate, wooden troughs answer tolerably well in certain cases. Metal is the most substantial, but it is expensive, and it is a question whether, instead of metal tanks, it is not better to employ hot-water pipes. The latter have the advantage of affording a dry heat when desirable, and with the addition of evaporating pans as much moisture can be insured as required. In iron tanks containing hot water and air the waste of metal is excessive, the accumulation of rust or oxide of iron in one year being very great; while in pipes filled with water, and closed from the access of air, there is very little oxidation. The tank system may be employed for bottom-heat, or where much moisture is required; and with cheap materials it may sometimes be conveniently applied as a temporary means of heating, or as an auxiliary to other apparatus in severe weather. In tanks, as in hot-water pipes, the water-way should be of uniform capacity. We have seen cast-iron tanks in the form of oblong boxes, secured end to end by screws, which were hollow for the passage of the water; but the circulation was impeded at each connection, and it tended to take a direct course from one hole to the other throughout, thus leaving the water at the sides cool and quiet, so that it was long before heat was given out from these parts. Heating by Steam.—This mode of heating is now almost entirely superseded by that of hot water, which is cheaper, more easily managed, and can readily be applied on a small scale; yet it has proved effective in heating some of the very largest horticultural structures—for example, 34530 GARDENER'S ASSISTANT. those at Kew and Chatsworth. Pipes can be heated by steam to a much higher degree than by hot water, unless the latter is kept under pressure, but an intensely heated surface renders the air less favourable to the growth of plants than one which is only heated to 180° or 200°; and without exceeding this temperature we can get from an easily-managed apparatus as much heat as vegetation ever requires. As soon as the water gets warm in a hot-water apparatus heat begins to be communicated to the house, slightly at first, but gradually increasing—and this is precisely what is wanted; while little or no heat is obtained from a steam apparatus till the water boils. Steam may, however, be employed to convey heat to a greater distance than could well be done by circulating water, and it is sometimes advantageously employed for heating beds of stones, which then constitute a source of steady bottom-heat; or water in tanks or pipes is sometimes conveniently heated by the introduction of a steam-pipe, and occasionally steam is generated and conveyed in a small pipe for the purpose of steaming houses. In some such instances it may be occasionally adopted on a small scale; when employed on a large, a skilled engineer ought to be consulted. Heating by Ilot-air Stoves is a mode now rarely adopted. To communicate heat by means of air passing over a surface heated above 212° is allowed to have an injurious effect on vegetation. Drawing air from the coldest part of the house into a chamber heated by a stove, and then delivering it into the house, was thought good, because it combined heating with a circulation of air, this being essential to the health of plants. But that is well secured by either flues or hot-water pipes. From these the heated air must ascend to the top, and from the latter cold air must descend to take its place. This occasions a constant movement of the air in the interior of the house. According to Tredgold’s calculations a well-glazed roof will admit 2j- cubic feet of air per minute for each foot in its length. At this rate the whole of the air of a house would be changed in little more than forty minutes. The working of hot-air stoves being precarious, and not affording any advantage over the modes of heating already noticed, further details respecting them need not be entered into. Heating by Gas is a convenient and cleanly mode of preventing injury from frost in small structures, such as greenhouses and conservatories attached to suburban residences; and if the products of the combustion of the gas be prevented from escaping into the house, the plants growing in it are in no more danger of injury than where any other mode of heating is employed. Various methods of heating by gas have been devised, water being generally the medium of conveying the heat. One of the best is that patented by Mr. G. Shrewsbury, of Lower Norwood, and which is made of various sizes. Fig. 334. Fig. 334 shows one adapted for heating a small conservatory, the length of pipe necessary being of course regulated by the size of the house. The apparatus consists of a cylindrical boiler with flow and return pipes communicating with a pedestal tank. Through the boiler run several tubes, wide below and contracted above, and directly under these tubes are placed the burners, which are constructed on the principle of the Bunsen burner, and are screwed into a flat gas-tight box connected with the supply-pipe. The object of the gas-box is to secure an equal supply of gas to all the burners, and the box is made to swing out of the door of the outer case for convenience of lighting. When the gas is once alight the apparatus maintains a steady heat, and requires no attention beyond from time to time putting a small quantity of water into the feed-cistern to supply any loss that may have taken place. Mr. Shrewsbury states that about a pint a week is enough, but much would depend on the size of the boiler, the heat at which the water is kept, and other circumstances. If a down draught can be guarded against, the apparatus may be fixed inside a conservatory without any risk to the plants. No smoke is emitted from the burner, for the products of combustion being a light vapour, are carried off through an escape-pipe from the top of the boiler. But to render these apparatus suitable for all circumstances, they are made so that the pipes can be fixed inside the house, and the boiler on the outside or beneath, as convenience may allow. If the former, the boiler requires a wood casing to protect it from the inclemency of the weather. The connecting pipes between the boiler and flank can be lengthened to any extent desired to suit the position ofGARDEN STRUCTURES. 531 the boiler. One great advantage of using gas-heated boilers for small greenhouses or conservatories is, that those whose other avocations preclude their attending to fires in the day, can leave the gas burning during severe frost, so as to keep up the heat, whilst the gas entails none of the dust and dirt attendant on coal or Coke fires. [Moreover, once lighted to exclude frost at night, gas needs no further stoking or damping or banking up, as an ordinary fire would do, but continues burning and imparting heat to the water, and thence to the house, so long as the supply of gas continues.] IV.—MISCELLANEOUS STRUCTURES. Fruit Room.‘—The conditions necessary for keeping fruit well are a dry atmosphere and a cool steady temperature. To insure these conditions as far as possible the room should be in a dry airy situation, and its exterior exposed to a free circulation of air; that it may have a cool temperature, the floor should have a circulation of air below it; and there should be the means of ventilation, but at the same time the doors and windows ought to fit closely in case of severe frost. The earth at small depths has a temperature equal to the annual mean temperature of the air, which in Britain is between 46° and 50°. Now, if a room were built with double walls and roof over a portion of ground at 50°, and if the room were closely shut up when a thermometer indicated the air inside to be as low as 32°, although for a week the air outside might continue even colder than this, yet it would be found at the end of that period that the heat from the ground-floor would have warmed the internal air considerably above 32°. It is therefore a mistake to sink into the earth for coolness in winter. Of course, in summer, if the air were at say 80°, and the earth at 50’, the latter, instead of giving, would abstract heat from the air, and the apartment would be cooler than if built on the surface. But in order that the fruit-room may be cool in winter, it should be insulated as much as possible from the constant source of heat existing in the earth. Vicissitudes of temperature have very injurious effects on the keeping of fruit. When fruit is warmer than the surrounding air it is liable to shrivel; when much colder, a deposition of dew takes place on its surface, just as a cold mirror becomes dimmed with dew when brought into a warm room. In the commencement of cold or frosty weather the fruit will be found dry, because warmer than the air; but when the thaw comes with comparatively warm south-west winds, the fruit will be found colder than the air, and covered with moisture. The alternate wetting and drying of the fruit, arising from vicissitudes of temperature, must be guarded against as much as possible, by endeavouring to maintain the greatest possible uniformity of temperature. The walls should therefore be hollow, and it has been shown that such can be built at less expense than solid ones. Fruit-rooms already constructed with solid walls ought to be lined with wood, leaving i inch cavity between the lining and wall; indeed a lining of this description is to be recommended whether the walls are hollow or not. The roof should have a double ceiling. It has generally been considered that fruit keeps best in darkness, and some of the finest specimens of apples and pears which have been exhibited in the spring were so kept; on the other hand, equally good fruit has been shown that was kept exposed to light. It has been frequently observed, however, that the finest specimens of apples and pears, when placed opposite a window, soon acquire a much inferior appearance to that presented by those left in the dark, and it would therefore appear that full exposure to light is not favourable. Josiah Moorman, Esq., of the Clapham Road, had a fruit-room which combined all the above-mentioned favourable conditions. Fig. 335 is Fig. 335. an interior view of it, and Fig. 336 a section. The construction of the room will be understood from the following explanation:—a a, shelves; b, close boarding round the sides of the room; c, air-space between the boards and the wall. There was also an air-space on the north side, between the two plaster ceilings, as shown in Fig. 336, in which d is a stove; e, a circular window532 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. hung on pivots, and fitted with a roller-blind; f, partitions of open work similar to the shelves. The room was a partitioned-off portion of a loft, Fig. 336. having a coach-house below it; thus it was insulated from the earth, and consequently its temperature was not raised by heat from the latter. It had therefore a cool temperature, nearly corresponding with the mean of the winter season. The small stove was seldom used, unless the temperature of the room fell below freezing. The floor was wood, with a ceiling below; the roof slated and double-ceiled on the north side; the walls were brick, between which and the wood there was an air-cavity, c, about half an inch wide. Inclosed thus by non-conducting substances, the temperature of the internal air was not readily affected by changes that took place in that of the external air, for when the weather became frosty it was several days before the thermometer inside was lowered so much as one degree. A little fire was occasionally put in the stove, but only in severe frost or in a dry day, in order to speedily remove any damp arising from the fruit, ah' being freely admitted by the side window at the same time. Whether open or shut, the window was always covered with the roller-blind. From the room above described Mr. Moorman exhibited fine specimens of the Marie Louise pear, in excellent condition, as late as Christmas; and medals were awarded to him by the Horticultural Society in different seasons for his exhibitions of well-kept fruit. Mr. Rivers, who exhibited in the spring of 1869 a collection of apples in admirable condition, both as regards appearance and flavour, thus describes the circumstances under which they were kept:— “ My fruit-room was built in 1761 by my greatgrandfather. It is an arched cellar, 40 feet long, 12 feet wide, and feet high. It was originally a wine-cellar, but for many yearn has been used as a fruit-room. In the centre is a broad pathway, and on each side are shelves, on which the apples and pears are placed on the bare boards. It is ventilated by only one aperture, 3 feet by 2, in the wall at the north-west end, just under the crown of the arch. This aperture, which has an iron grating, has a shutter with which it is closed in very severe weather. This closing is, however, of rare occurrence, for the shutter has not been used to any extent either this or the past winter. The perfect dryness of the cellar is owing to its having a range of packing sheds over it, so that the soil resting on the arch has become in the course of years a mass of earth dry as dust. The temperature of the place is most remarkable for its evenness, ranging from the middle of October till the middle of March from 45° to 47°, the former being the rate from the middle of November till the end of February, seldom varying half a degree. This low even temperature, with a supply of fresh air without draughts, seems very favourable to the preservation of apples and pears; for early autumn apples, such as the Hawthornden and several others, keep plump and sound till Christmas, and even later. To the feeling my fruit-room is agreeably warm in severe weather in winter, and agreeably cool in hot weather in summer” (Journal of Horticulture, vol. XVi. p. 157). The exhalations from ripe fruit have an injurious effect on that which is naturally late in becoming fit for use; therefore it would be well if the early ripening sorts were separated from the late by a close partition. We have seen choice pears and apples well kept in close drawers, care being taken to inspect them occasionally in order to remove any that exhibited the least symptoms of decay; cork-dust has also been employed for packing the fruit in, and with excellent results; but, on the whole, apples, pears, and similar fruits appear to keep on narrow boards with air-spaces between, and fully exposed to the air of the place in which they are put, as well as, if not better than, in any other way. Wherever kept there should be means at command for admitting a current of air, but this should be rarely put in practice; for except when the air of the room is felt to be impure, the less air the better. When it is necessary to give air from without, the time should be watched when the external and internal temperature are alike, or nearly so; and if that be attended to, no deposition of moisture on the fruit will take place in consequence. When the external air is either much warmer or much colder than the air of the room, it should be excluded. In order to absorb superfluous moisture inGARDEN STEUCTUEES. 533 fruit-rooms M. Du Breuil proposed to place a layer of chloride of calcium in a wooden trough lined with lead. This substance is employed by chemists to dry gases and to remove water from liquids; it will absorb double its own weight of moisture from the atmosphere, and as it liquefies it may be received by a small spout into a jar. A fresh supply of the chloride of calcium can be given as required. About 44 lbs., according to M. Du Breuil, will keep the air of the fruit-room sufficiently dry for a whole season; and the water can be evaporated so as to leave the chloride of calcium again fit for use. This substance might be tried on a small scale at first, in case the flavour of the fruit might be affected by its presence. Ice-house.—Although the melting of ice takes place when it is in contact with any substance above 32°, some melt it more quickly than others of the same temperature: for instance, if in contact with moist earth or water, it will melt about twenty times quicker than if it were surrounded with dry air. The temperature of the earth in Britain averages, at some considerable depth below the surface, about 47°; the principal object should therefore be to insulate the ice as much as possible from this constant source of heat by the interposition of non-conducting substances. An ice-house should be well drained, for if the base of the mass is immersed in water the latter will form a medium for rapidly transmitting upwards the heat of the earth to the ice. Care should therefore be taken to render the bottom of the ice-house as dry as possible, and the ice should rest on a wooden grating or on faggots. The situation should have a northern aspect, and be dry and airy, not closely covered with trees, yet sufficiently screened from the direct rays of the sun. It should be sufficiently elevated to admit of good drainage. If no place naturally possessing this advantage can be had the house must be elevated, and an artificial mound formed. The usual form is that of an egg placed with the widest end upwards, and for various reasons this is doubtless the best. It is by the surface that a solid mass of ice is melted, and accordingly the form that presents the least surface in proportion to a given mass is the best, and that would be a sphere. In this form a mass of ice might have a surface of about 314 square feet, but if moulded into a form 6 feet broad, 5 feet thick, and 17^ feet long, it would have a surface of 445 square feet, more than one-third greater than in the spherical form; and if exposed to the same temperature, the sphere would melt in fifteen months, the oblong in ten months. But it must be borne in mind that by taking away portions for use from the top, and by wasting at the bot- tom, the spherical form could not be long retained; whereas an oblong spheroid or egg-shape, when reduced by the above causes, will approach nearly to the spherical or best form by the time it is most tried by the summer heat. The walls should be double, so that there may be an air-cavity between the inner wall and the comparatively warm soil. If this cavity be ventilated during frosty weather so much the better. The roof should be covered with a thick coat of thatch—heath answers very well; and not only the roof, but the sides likewise, ought to be dry, for rain-water, of the temperature of perhaps 60°, must have a very great effect in heating the walls or other parts with which it comes in contact. Straw is usually placed between the walls and ice. It is a good non-conductor when dry, but is objectionable when it is wet and beginning to rot. If straw be used, the stoutest and least bruised that can be had should be employed; but reeds are preferable. The Americans, who are large consumers and expoi'ters of ice, well understand the art of keeping it, and the following remarks on the subject are extracted from Louis F. Allen’s Rural Architecture:—The position of the ice-house may be that which is most convenient to the dwelling, or to the wants of those who use it. If it can be placed beneath the shade of trees, it will so far be relieved from the influence of the sun; but it should be so constructed that sunshine will not affect the ice within it, even if it stand unsheltered. By the ice-merchants of our eastern cities, who put up large quantities for exportation abroad, and others in the interior, who furnish ice in quantity for home consumption, it has been proved to be altogether the better plan to build the ice-house entirely above ground. Such being Fig. 337. the case, we shall present no other mode of construction than this. It may be added that five534 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. years’ experience with one of our own building has confirmed our opinion of the superiority of this over any other plan which may be adopted. The design Fig. 337, and of which Fig. 338 is the ground plan, is of the most economical kind, Fig. 33S. io o io ■ i ■ ■ ' i ' ' ' ' i------------1-------------—* scale: Plan of American Ice-house. yet sufficiently ornamental to make it an agreeable appendage to any family establishment. The size may be 12 feet square—less than that would be too small for keeping ice well—and from that up to any required extent. The idea here given is simply the principle of construction. The posts should be fully 8 feet high above the ground to where the plate of the roof is attached, and the house built thus:— Mark out your ground the size you require for the house; then, commencing at one corner, dig opposite each other a double set of holes, 1 foot deep and 24 feet apart, on each side of the intended building, say 3 feet equidistant, so that when the posts stand up they will present a double set 14 foot apart. Then set in your posts, which should be of some lasting wood, and pack the earth firmly around them. If the posts are sawed they may be 4 x 6 inches in diameter, set edgeways toward each other; or they may be round sticks cut from the woods, lined to a surface to receive the planking. Of course when the posts are set in the ground they are to show a skeleton of what the building is to be when completed. When this is done, square off the top of each post to a level all round; then frame or spike on to each line of posts a plate, say 6 inches wide and 4 to 6 inches deep, and stay the two plates together strongly, so as to form a double frame. Now plank or board up closely the inside of each line of posts, that the space between them shall be a fair surface. Cut out or leave out a space for a door, 24 or 3 feet wide and 64 feet high, and board up the inner partition sides of this opening, so as to form a door-casing on each side, that the space between the two lines of posts may be a continuous box all around. Then fill up the entire space between the posts with moist tan-bark or saw-dust, well packed from the ground up to the plates; and the body of the house is inclosed, sun-proof and air-proof, to guard the ice. Now lay down inside the building some sticks —not much matter what, so that they be level— and on them lay loose planks or boards for a floor. Cover this floor with a coating of straw 1 foot thick, and it is ready to receive the ice. For the roof take common 3x4 joists as rafters, or in place of them poles from the woods, long enough in a pitch of full 35° to carry the roof at least 4 feet over the outside of the plates, and secure the rafters well to them by pins or spikes. Then board over and shingle it, leaving a small aperture at the top, through which run a pipe, say 8 inches in diameter (a stove-crock will do), for a ventilator. Then set in four little posts, say 2 feet high, as in the design; throw a little four-sided pointed cap on to the top of these posts, and the roof is done. To ornament the under side of the roof in a rude way, take some pieces of 3 x 4 scantling, such as were used for the roof, if the posts are of sawed stuff—if not, rough limbs of trees to match the rough posts— and fasten them to the posts and the under side of the roof, by way of brackets, as shown in the design. When the ice is put in, a close floor of boards should be laid on joists which rest on the wall-plates loosely, so that this upper floor can be removed when putting in the ice, and that being covered 5 or 6 inches deep with tan or saw-dust— straw will do if the other cannot be had—the inside arrangement is complete. Two doors should be attached to the opening where the ice is put in and taken out—one on the inner side of the lining and the other on the outside, both opening out. Tan, saw-dust, or straw should also be placed on the top of the ice when put in, so as to keep the ah’ from it as much as possible; and as the ice is removed it will settle down upon, and still preserve it. Care must be taken to have a drain under the floor of the house to pass off the water which melts from the ice, as it would, if standing there, injure its keeping. We have given considerable thought to this subject, says the authority quoted, and can devise no shape to the building more appropriate than this, nor one cheaper in construction. It may appear paradoxical, but the substances which are considered the warmest are the bestFORCING. 535 for keeping ice from melting. If we fill a bottle with liot water, and wrap it in flannel, it will keep hot nearly twice as long as if the bottle had been freely exposed to the air, for wool, being a slow conductor, prevents the air from readily acquiring heat from the water. Suppose the bottle to be filled with ice, the same kind of woollen covering will prevent the ice from readily obtaining heat from the air, and consequently the former will be nearly twice as long in thawing. In filling the house the ice is generally broken, or somewhat pounded, in order that it may pack closer, but we have seen large masses put in without breaking; all cavities should, however, be filled with the fragments pounded, and the whole rendered compact by throwing water over the layers. In default of ice, the house may be filled with snow, well beaten, and watered, if not in a wet state; it answers very well, and may be kept a twelvemonth. Some use salt, but its utility is very doubtful, and according to others it is worse than useless. At all events, ice well insulated from earth and water, and shut out from the free access of hot air in summer, will keep very well without salt. CHAPTER XXII. I.—VEGETABLE FORCING. ASPARAGUS.—The forcing of this is very simple as compared with that of many other plants, where the growth of a tender foliage has to be carefully promoted by exposure to light in an atmosphere of a proper temperature and degree of moisture. But with regard to asparagus we have merely to apply a certain degree of heat to the soil in which the roots are situated; the surface being kept Warm by means of some artificial protection or covering, in order to prevent the shoot being checked in its growth when it appears above ground. The heat required for the vegetation of the plants may be applied without removing them, or they may be taken up from where they have previously grown, and be transferred to a place where heat can be conveniently applied. In other words, the heat may be brought to the plants, or the plants to the heat. In the one case the roots are preserved entire; in the other, notwithstanding the greatest care in taking up, they must to a certain extent be mutilated, and after forcing are useless for further production. Such being the case, it is not difficult to say which is the more rational of these—the two modes of forcing usually adopted. The non-removal system is that by which the largest and finest blanched heads are produced; it is that pursued by the French for obtaining their asperges blanches; while by removal and planting on beds they produce the asperges vertes. The winters at Copenhagen are much more severe than with us. The average cold in January is much greater than that experienced here, and forcing under such circumstances must be much more difficult than in this country; yet, in the royal gardens at Copenhagen, Mr. Lindegard produced excellent asparagus in January, by means of horse-dung, in beds in the open air, and unprotected by frames and sashes. His mode of proceeding is detailed in the Transactions of the Horticultural Society, vol. v. p. 509, and as it is simple, and had been successfully practised by him for thirty years, we may briefly state its essential points. His beds were 40 feet long and 4 feet wide, with 2-feet alleys between. There were two rows of asparagus in each bed, and the plants were 2 feet apart. Four of the best beds were annually selected for forcing; and it should be particularly observed, that these beds were left uncut in the preceding summer. The crop had always to be delivered at a fixed period, the 28th of January, which was the king’s birthday, and forcing was begun four or five weeks previous to that date. Before forcing was commenced the beds were covered with a layer of litter or leaves to keep out the frost. Their surface was stirred with a fork, and the upper spit of the alley thrown on to heighten them. The alleys were then cleaned out to the depth of about 3l feet, and immediately filled with hot dung, which was raised as high as 1^ foot above the level of the top of the beds, and after having been trodden a little was covered with some old boards or planks. The surface of the beds was covered with some of the same kind of dung, or with litter to the depth of 3 or 4 inches, more or less, according to the state of the weather. The produce of each bed of the above dimensions, 40 feet by 4, was about 1000 heads, exclusive of small ones. In a less severe climate a similar produce may be easily obtained by the above plan somewhat modified. The alleys need not be so deeply excavated; 3 feet instead of 3i feet will be sufficient, and it will not be necessary to raise the dung so high. Near Paris the asparagus beds are about 4 feet 4 inches wide, with 2-feet alleys between. The beds are planted with four rows of plants, about 9 inches apart in the row. They are forced in the fourth year after planting. In commencing,536 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. frames the width of the beds are put on, and a layer of mould and several inches of soil from the alleys are then spread over the surface covered by the frames. The trenches, which are 20 inches deep, are filled with hot dung to the top of the frames, and these are also filled with hot dung, which is removed as soon as the asparagus begins to reach the surface. The sashes are put on, and no air is given; on the contrary, they are covered at night with straw mats, and also during the day in cold weather, a temperature of from 60° to 75° being considered desirable. We should, however, prefer starting with a temperature of between 50° and 60°, as is done by means of hot-water pipes in the royal gardens at Frogmore. The heat may be increased so as to range between 60° and 65°, or not exceeding 70°; for it is found that when asparagus is forced too rapidly it is not so good as when it is brought forward gradually, with a temperature resembling that of a very fine May. Where glass is used, a good deal of sun-heat may be economized by keeping the sashes quite close till the shoots begin to appear. In the open air the finest and most tender shoots are produced when the beds have been exposed to powerful sun-heat. With regard to the width of the beds intended to be forced there are two things to be considered. If they are too wide, the heat of the dung in the trenches between them cannot readily get to the centre; and on the other hand, if the beds are too narrow, there is not space for the roots of the plants. They may be laid out 4h feet wide, with 2-feet alleys between; and in order to have fine shoots, the plants should not be less than 1 foot apart. When the trenches are partially filled up after forcing is over, and the dung turned out, the roots strike into the decaying substances usually employed, so that when the beds are again about to be forced, these roots are destroyed in clearing out the trenches for the reception of the dung, and they are generally the most vigorous. This proceeding, in fact, deprives the plant of its most efficient feeders at the time they are most wanted. It is better to keep the trenches open, so as not to encourage the roots in that direction. In this case it would be well to cover over the trenches, in order to prevent the soil of the beds from being dried. In some instances the sides of beds intended to be forced by dung-lieat have been faced with bricks in the pigeon-hole fashion, and where the expense can be afforded, the plan answers very well. In some places it is difficult to procure dung for the purpose of forcing, and in any case it is doubtful whether heating by hot water is not cheaper in the end. The labour required for working dung linings is very considerable, and would go far towards defraying the expense of fuel. At all events the hot-water mode answers well where it has been adopted, as, for example, in the royal gardens at Frogmore. The beds there are 75 feet long and 7 feet wide; their sides are formed with pigeon-hole brickwork, and the spaces between the beds are 4 feet deep; but the lower half is filled with rich soil, and in the upper half there are a flow and a return pipe for hot water, connected with a boiler which heats six ranges of flow and return pipes. The cavities for the pipes are covered with Yorkshire stone, and the beds themselves with a close-fitting wooden roof. Some think 7 feet too great a width for the beds; we should recommend 6 feet; and where such substantial covering as Yorkshire stone cannot be afforded, wooden covers will answer the purpose. At the royal gardens forcing is usually commenced early in December, and a supply is generally obtained by the end of the same month. A little air and light, when the shoots begin to reach the surface, much improve the flavour and appearance of the asparagus. Forcing removed Plants.—For these a hot-bed should be prepared, the heat of which should not exceed 70°. A heat of 65° will give a better produce, and higher than this is not to be recommended, unless a supply is urgently required for some particular occasion. The bed should be covered with about 3 inches of light soil or leaf-mould. The plants ought to be taken up with the greatest possible care, and the crowns immediately placed or packed closely on the surface of the bed, the roots being spread out regularly at full length. Some fine light soil or leaf-mould should then be sifted over and introduced among the roots. The crowns should be covered to the depth of 5 or 6 inches. The sashes must be put on and kept close till the shoots begin to appear, when a little air should be admitted, according to the state of the weather, to give colour to the tops. Near Paris enormous quantities of asparagus are forced, in order to produce the asperges vertes, or green asparagus. We have seen an establishment in the Faubourg St. Antoine, the proprietor of which expended about £800 annually for plants; and M. Courtois-Gdrard mentions, in his Culture Maratcldre, two market-gardeners who together purchased in one year the plants which were produced on twenty-five hectares of land, or about sixty-one English acres. Plants three years old are preferred, for those four years old are generally once cut, and then they do not answer so well for forcing. The beds are pre-FORCING. 537 pared, and covered with about 2 inches of mould, on which the roots are closely packed and covered with light decayed dung or vegetable mould; but it is to be observed that the buds of the crown are not covered, the object being not to blanch the shoots, but to produce them green and very tender, so as to resemble green pease. In about two weeks cutting is commenced, and it is continued about a month, when fresh plants must be introduced for succession. Green or even blanched asparagus may be produced in any forcing-house, in a temporary pit formed of wood, or in boxes. The latter may be made so as to rest one above the other, in order to occupy comparatively little base room. They may be 2 feet wide, 3 feet long, and 1 foot deep, with an upright 20 inches long secured inside the box in each corner. The uprights, standing 8 inches above the upper edges of the box, will serve as posts for supporting another similar box, and leave space for the growth of the shoots and for cutting. In this way four or five tiers may be placed along the back wall of a vinery or other forcing-house at work. BASIL, if required in winter, may be sown thinly every month or three weeks from November to March, in pots or boxes of light rich soil placed in a temperature of from 60° to 70°. The plants may be thinned by taking the largest for use, or by pricking them out when about 2 inches high. CAPSICUM.— Capsicum, L. (Pentandria Mo-nogynia, L.; Solaneie, DC.; Solanaceae, Lind.)— This is cultivated for the pods, which in a green state are used in salads, in pickles, and for making Chili vinegar; dried and ground, when ripe, they form Cayenne pepper. The frequent adulteration of this condiment with red-lead and other poisonous substances renders the cultivation of the capsicum in gardens, with the view of obtaining a home-grown supply, very desirable. For the above purposes several species and varieties of capsicum, mostly natives of the East and West Indies, are cultivated, namely:— Annual Capsicum, Spanish or Guinea Pepper (C. aunuum), of which there are varieties producing red and yellow, long and short fruits. Bird Pepper (C. baccatum), Piment enrage of the French, a frutescent perennial, with small, round, erect fruits. Shrubby Capsicum (<7. frutescens),n frutescent perennial, from which Cayenne pepper is usually prepared. Bell Pepper (C. grossum), an annual or biennial, with large variable-shaped fleshy fruits. Tomato Capsicum (C. dulce), Piment tomate of the French, an annual producing fruit like a tomato in size and form, yellow, and of comparatively mild flavour. Red Tomato Capsicum, American Bonnet, Bonny, or Bonnet Pepper is like the preceding, but red; they are very productive, and much milder than the small sorts. Large Sweet Spanish Capsicum (Piment gros doux d'Espagne), large, much milder than the other kinds, and excellent for salads. The varieties which produce small erect pods are usually called Chilies. The seed should be sown in February or early in March, in pots or pans filled with light rich mould, and plunged in a hot-bed. When the young plants are about 2 inches high, they may be pricked out singly into 3-inch pots, from which they must be shifted on until in 6 or 8 inch pots, and in these they may be allowed to fruit. The plants should be kept near the glass in a warm vinery, pit, or stove, and water ought to be frequently given. In warm situations in the south of England fruit may be ripened in the open air. With this view plants should be hardened off towards the end of May, and planted out in June, on a border with a south aspect, at 1 foot or 18 inches apart, watering at planting, and subsequently in dry weather. In general, however, it is advisable to depend on plants under glass for a supply of ripe fruit; but where the green pods are in request a considerable portion of the plants may, in warm situations, be turned out of doors. The fruit ripens in September, and may be kept two or three years in a dry room. The seed keeps best in the pods, and remains good for four or five years. CARROT.—The best sort for forcing is the Early Short Horn; and in order to have a supply of this in a young state in winter, it may be sown on a hotbed in the end of November or beginning of December; again in the middle of January; and lastly in the beginning of February, if the weather be severe, or if the situation is cold and backward; but if such is not the case, this sowing may be made on a warm border. A liot-bed composed of 3 or 4 feet thick of leaves, or of 15 or 18 inches of dung, should be prepared, and covered with 8 or 9 inches of sandy soil and leaf-mould, so that the surface may be within about 6 inches of the glass. The seed may then be sown either broadcast, or in shallow drills, 3 inches apart, and covered with fine mould to the depth of \ inch. When the plants come up they should be thinned to llr inch apart in the row, or to 2 inches from each other if sown broadcast. The temperature may be from 60° to 65°, and the sashes must be covered at night and in frosty weather; but as much light should be given as possible. Air ought to be given at every favourable opportunity, but cold draughts should be avoided; and if the soil should get too dry, a gentle watering may be given. Radishes are frequently sown along with the carrots; and this is also the custom of the Parisian market-gardeners.538 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. CHICORY. — The blanching of chicory for salads having been treated of in a previous chapter, it is only necessary to give here the treatment for obtaining young leaves in winter. These form an excellent and wholesome small salad, much used in France, but neglected in this country. For this purpose seed is sown in light rich mould, either on a hot-bed, or in pans or boxes placed in a heat of from 55° to 60°; air is given at every favourable opportunity, and a gentle watering early in the day as often as may be required. The chicory may be cut in ten days or a fortnight after sowing; and the same plants Fig. 338a. will afford a second cutting. [Under the name of Witloof, literally white leaf, a peculiar variety of chicory has been much cultivated in Belgium as a salad plant. It is extremely tender when blanched, with a slight but agreeable bitter flavour, and is much preferred to the Barbe de Ca-pucin and other chicories grown in France. The part used is the tuft of young radical leaves represented by Fig. 338a, and this is either eaten raw as a salad, or cooked whole and served with white or cream sauce. The Brussels markets are supplied with this delicacy from Christmas till Easter and onwards. The seeds are sown early in June in rich deep soil, and thinned to 4 inches apart; by autumn they form stout fleshy spindle-shaped roots. These roots are planted in succession from the end of October to February, at the bottom of trenches a foot or more in depth, amongst light soil, the trenches being covered over with from 2 to 3 feet of hot stable manure. In a month or six weeks, according to the heat applied, the heads will be fit for cutting, and are then about 4 to 6 inches or more in height, and 1 to 2 inches in diameter. They should be cut before they reach the manure. The plants might easily be forced in frames on a mild hot-bed, or like the sea-kale in a mushroom-house.] CUCUMBER.—Cucum is sativus, L. (Monoecia Monadelphia, L.; Cucurbitaceoe, DC.)—The cucumber is believed to be a native of various warm countries of Asia, and probably also of Witloof Chicory. Africa. It was cultivated and in general use in Egypt in the earliest ages; there, favoured by the climate, artificial means of forcing it could not be required. At Rome, however, in order to meet the demand for a luxury which a production in its proper season could no longer satisfy, recourse was had to artificial means to obtain cucumbers throughout the year. The mode of effecting this for the table of the emperor Tiberius was not widely different from that employed in the present day. Heat was obtained by frames filled with hot dung, and light was admitted through thin plates of talc, which would doubtless answer the purpose exceedingly well, especially under the strong light of an Italian sky. Pliny mentions beds mounted on wheels, so that in cold weather they could be removed under the shelter of buildings at night. The plants were also reared in baskets or in large vases, in order that they might be placed in the open air when the temperature was favourable, and taken in-doors when it was otherwise. We should not think of moving a bed, with frame, sashes, and all, into a house; but there is nothing preposterous in the idea of moving some kind of protecting structure over the bed; on the contrary, there would be good reason for doing so in certain cases; for instance, a shed lightly constructed of thin boards placed over a bed at night would protect it to a great extent from severe frost, and effectually from cold rain and sleet, which have the bad effect of cooling the linings, till by labour, with perhaps the introduction of fresh materials, the evil is remedied. The cucumber requires for its successful cultivation a very rich light soil, a bottom-heat of from 75° to 80°, and a top-heat averaging 75°, the range being between 70° and 80°. Moisture ought not to be at any time deficient; and it is of the utmost importance that the foliage be exposed to as much light as possible; a thin shading, however, from the direct rays of the sun, when these are too powerful, is advantageous; and it may be added that air should be given when it can be admitted without danger of lowering the temperature below, or at least much below, the limit above-mentioned. As a general statement of the conditions most favourable to the growth of the cucumber, the above, we presume, will be found correct. We are aware that good cucumbers have been produced although these conditions have not been fulfilled; but this is no reason why still better might not have been obtained had they been adopted. They cannot, indeed, be always commanded, and frequently have to be modified in practice, according to circumstances; but, amidstFORCING. 539 the diversity of opinions, they constitute desiderata which we cannot err in endeavouring to attain. [Varieties.—The varieties of cucumbers to be found in seedsmen’s lists are extremely numerous, and many more exist in gardens throughout the country, where they are esteemed on account of their real or supposed superiority in size, productiveness, and flavour. A trial of 118 varieties was made at Chiswick in the year 1861 by the Fruit Committee of the Royal Horticultural Society, and the results were reported in the Proceedings of the Society for 1862. They were grouped in two classes, one distinguished by the fruit bein£ of a bright green colour, destitute of glaucescence or bloom, as well as of mammillae or warts, and never furrowed and ribbed; the other distinguished by the fruit being covered with a thick glaucous bloom, and by having the surface set with mammillae surmounted with spines, which are either black, white tipped with black, or white. The 118 were reduced to 15, as being all that were necessary for furnishing every quality and requirement. The best of the sorts then experimented on are included in the selections given below, but they are in most cases surpassed by more modern sorts, such as those numbered 2, 4, 9, and 11. I.—Fruit not Glaucous. Spineless. 1. Carter’s Champion.—Fruit a foot long, straight, smooth, and somewhat angular all round, the planes between the angles being about half an inch wide. Neck thick and short. The plant is an excellent bearer, and the fruit is solid and firm. 2. Rollisson’s Telegraph.—This is a free bearing variety, producing handsome-shaped fruits 18 inches long; the colour a grass green. The true variety is free from ribs, and the neck short. There are several forms of this fine variety in cultivation, the result of selection by different growers, as Paul's Improved Telegraph, Wool leg's Telegraph, &c. Spines White. 3. Kenton’s Improved.—A very handsome fruit, 15 inches long, with a short and tapering neck; straight, smooth, and inclining to be ribbed, as well as covered with a very delicate glaucous bloom, indicating an admixture of the glaucous strain. It is strewed with white spines, and was considered the finest of the white-spined Sion House race. Spines White tipp>ed with Black. 4. Tender and True.—This is the handsomest cucumber that has yet been raised. It is of the tipped-spined group, but it has so few that it might almost be classed amongst the spineless varieties. The fruit has been grown 30 inches in length, and is of excellent flavour, the flesh being, moreover, very crisp and solid to the centre. It is equally valuable for summer and winter crops, but is very shy to produce seeds. Further, it is unsurpassed as an exhibition variety. II.—Fruit Glaucous. Spines Black. 5. Dr. Livingstone.—Fruit 17 inches long, even, straight, slender, and handsome, not at all furrowed, and with small mammillae, surmounted with very short black spines; neck scarcely discernible, smooth for four inches from the stalk. The plant is an extraordinary bearer, and the fruit is of a fine dark green colour. This was pronounced the best of all the black-spined varieties. 6. Henderson’s A iJ—Fruit 17 inches long, straight and even, with small and not numerous mammillae, obscurely ribbed, and of a fine dark colour; neck small, long, and tapering. Spines White tipped with Black. 7. Hamilton’s Market Favourite.—Fruit 16 inches long, straight, slender, slightly furrowed, and with prominent mammillae; of uniform thickness throughout; the neck tapers gradually, and is smooth for about 4 inches from the stalk. This was considered the best of the tipped-spined section; and it possesses the best colour, the best form, and every property of a good cucumber. Not only was it the best in its section, but the best and handsomest in the whole collection. 8. Phenomenon.—Fruit 16 inches long, straight, slender, even, and handsome, tapering gradually to the point; neck full, and naked for 3 inches from the stalk. A fine cucumber, and the second best of the tipped-spined sorts. 9. Blue Gown.—A very handsome cucumber, and one well adapted for exhibition purposes. It grows to the length of 30 inches; the skin is thinly covered with a glaucous bloom, and the spines are not thickly placed. "When well grown the fruit is quite straight, and of the same thickness throughout its length; neck or handle short. Spines White. 10. Butler’s Empress Eugenie.—Fruit 18 inches long, straight, slender, and handsome, scarcely at all ribbed, and with moderately prominent mammillae; the neck is full, and smooth for about 5 inches from the stalk. The plant is an excellent bearer. 11. Marquis of Lorne.—When well grown, and the fruit cut when quite young, this is the best of the white-spined sorts; but the fruit becomes too thick, and is coarse in appearance before it is too old for cutting. The spines are not numerous. The fruit is thickest about 4 inches from the handle, and tapers a little to the point; its length is about 30 inches. Like all the large exhibition varieties it does not produce seeds freely. 12. Himalaya.—Fruit 18 inches long, straight, even, and slender; very obscurely ribbed, and with small mammillae; the neck is thick, full, and smooth for 5 inches from the stalk. A handsome and excellent cucumber. 13. Improved Manchester Prize.—Fruit 20 inches long, thick, straight, smooth, and obscurely ribbed; mammillae not prominent; neck very short and thick, and smooth 7 inches from the stalk. A very excellent cucumber. Other good useful varieties are:—Masters’ Prolific, Hedsor Prolific, Pearson’s Long Gun, and Monro’s Rabley and Duke of Edinburgh. ]540 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Propagation.—The cucumber may be propagated either by seeds, cuttings, or layers. The first is the usual mode. Cuttings, however, are frequently employed for obtaining plants for winter forcing, and likewise afford a means of continuing varieties which are shy in seeding. They should be taken from the tops of the leading branches of vigorous plants in a bearing state, and Ranted in 9-inch pots, half-filled with rich light compost or leaf-mould. Plunge the pots in brisk heat, and place a pane of glass over their mouth. Layering is easily effected; a shoot may be introduced through the hole in the bottom of a pot, having its side partially sunk in the bed, and its mouth towards the south for light. Soil being put in, the shoot will soon take root, and still more readily will it do so if the pot be kept surrounded with dung that is warmer than the soil in which the roots of the mother plant are situated. Soil.—The soil in which the seeds are to be sown should be rich and light; it may consist of well-decomposed leaf-mould. Mr. Mills recommends finely-sifted peat, a lump of the same soil being placed at the bottom of the pot for drainage. Mr. Ayres employs two parts turfy loam, one part peat, and one part leaf-mould, with some white sand; and this we consider a very good mixture. Mr. Green, another excellent cultivator, used turf of old maiden loam taken off not more than 3 inches thick, laid up, at least six months before being used, in narrow ridges with alternate layers of fresh horse-dung .and a good portion of straw. When required, this compost was chopped up, but not sifted. The compost proposed by Mr. Moore consists of two parts good turfy loam, two of turfy heatli-mould, three of leaf-mould, and one of clear coarse sand. The loam, besides being turfy, should be of a rather friable nature, so as to afford a ready passage for the roots, .and for superabundant moisture. Turfy loam may in many places not be obtainable, and loam that is not turfy may have to be substituted. In this case a less proportion of loam, and more peat, leaf-mould, or decayed dung should be used, in order that a sufficient degree of porosity may be maintained. For winter forcing peat alone has been very successfully employed in dung-beds. Good peat has the property of preserving the roots during winter, when in other soils they are apt to damp off. Mr. Mills, well known for fifty years as a first-rate grower of cucumbers, says, “ In the year 1811, I used the turf or peat obtained from Wansted Flats, in Essex, which contained a great quantity of white sand. This turf was chopped moderately small with a spade, but not sifted; and in this the plants were grown without the admixture of any other soil. The plants thus treated j>roved as fine as I have ever had them since, and I cut fruit from them in perfection in the first week in February. The frames were raised in June to inure the plants to the open air, and at the end of that month the lights and frames were taken away to cover melons which had been propagated under hand-glasses. After this the cucumber plants were trained over the top of the linings, and continued to produce abundantly till October, which is ample proof that the soil was what they liked. “ Peat-soil may be objected to as not being sufficiently rich, but when placed on sweet fermenting dung the roots will help themselves to food when the plants require it, and are swelling off fruit. I have tried numerous experiments with soils, variously mixed, from the year 1811 to the present time, and I am perfectly satisfied that peat alone is best.”—Mills on the Cucumber and Melon. Where composts of the above description cannot be obtained, any tolerably rich, rather light soil mixed with an equal quantity of well-decomposed dung, will answer very well, or layers of soil (J inches thick, and layers of the same thickness of fresh horse and cow dung mixed together may be placed alternately one above the other several months previous to use, and when the whole has been frequently turned, and has undergone a slight fermentation, it will be suitable for the purpose. We have seen a cucumber plant growing vigorously though having its roots in oidy common garden soil; but this was in Ewing’s glass-wall, in which structure the foliage was much exposed to light on all sides, and solely owing to this the plant was more robust than others grown under circumstances less favourable as regards the amount of light. In summer, during a period when both days and nights are warm, it may be observed how healthy are cucumber plants growing in the open air and freely exposed to light without the intervention of glass, and of how dark a green is their foliage. Such favourable periods are, however, in our climate only the exceptions; and means must therefore be employed to produce artificial heat, as well as shelter from cold winds, rain, and snow. We ought to be prepared to maintain a tropical heat amidst all the inclemencies of a northern winter. The mode of doing this was formerly confined to dung-beds and linings, by which heat could be obtained with little expense for constructions in the first instance; but various other methods are now employed, rendering the maintenance of a proper degree of heat, even in the middle of winter, lessFORCING. 541 precarious; therefore in first-rate gardens they should he adopted. Yet a supply of cucumbers for a considerable period can be obtained from a frame with two lights. We have seen many cut from even a one-liglit frame, but a two-light frame is not much more expensive; and while double the produce, or more, can be obtained from the former, the quantity of heating materials required is less than double, and the labour and attendance is much the same in both cases. In other words, a one-liglit frame is more expensive in proportion than a two-liglit frame, and this again than a three-light one, or a pit. Those who require cucumbers in the middle of vvinter ought to be aware that they cannot be produced at that period without considerable expense; if this can be afforded, the best plan is to erect structures heated with hot-water apparatus for the purpose; but where the necessary outlay for houses or pits cannot be made, it is better not to attempt very early forcing by means of dung-beds, indeed no earlier than is consistent with the chance of being successful with a moderate amount of labour applied on good principles. Keeping this in view, the seeds may be sown in the first week in February. Seed Bed.—The preparation of materials for this ought to commence about the middle of January. A quantity of good stable-dung should be thrown into a conical heap, mixing at the same time the long and short, dry and moist, thoroughly together. There should if possible be as much short moist dung as will prevent the littery portion from becoming dry in the course of fermentation. If the littor is dry, and in too large a proportion, it may be separated from the short dung and soaked in the drainings from the stables, or it may be thrown in a heap, each layer being well watered with stable-drainings, if such can be obtained, or otherwise with water alone, and each layer when watered should be beaten with the fork. AVhen this, the previously dry littery portion, is rendered thoroughly moist, it ought to be formed into a heap, mixing it at the same time with the short dung from which it was separated. When the heap is in a full state of fermentation, it should be turned, carefully mixing long and short as before, and that which was at the top must now be at the bottom. If, in the course of the operation, any patches of litter not sufficiently moist should be met with, they ought to be laid aside in order that they may be well-watered and beaten with the back of the fork before being incorporated with the general mass. If the whole is found to be not moist enough, water should be applied from the rose of a watering-pot as the work proceeds. In a few days the materials will be again in a full state of fermentation. When this is the case the heap should be turned, and when fermentation has for a third time become general, the formation of the bed may be commenced. The third fermentation may be effected in the space of a fortnight. The situation of the bed should be sheltered from north, north-west, and easterly winds, but open to the south. The less obstruction to the full light from this quarter the better. The dimensions of the frame being known, an area 6 inches larger should be marked out, so that when the bed is built up and the frame placed, it will be at both sides and ends 6 inches from the outside of the bed. Some put a layer of brushwood on the ground, others long dung. Proceed next to form the bed, layer after layer, the materials of each being well shaken and mixed, and then beaten with the back of the fork, so as to be uniformly compact. The upper layer should consist of some of the shortest materials. The bed should be 6 inches lower at the front than at the back, and at the latter the height may be from 34 to 4 feet. When the bed is completed the frames should be put on, and the lights kept close till the heat exceed 80°, when the sashes ought to be raised to permit the escape of steam. After the bed has been allowed to settle for a few days, some light soil, peat, or half-spent tan should be spread regularly over the surface to the depth of 5 or 6 inches. In a few days more this covering will acquire the temperature of the materials on which it is laid. It would be well to try the heat of the bed by a thermometer. The indications of this should be frequently noted at regular intervals in order to ascertain the rate at which the heat increases. If at the first trial it is, for instance, about 70°, and if it progress but slowly towards 75° or 80°, the seed-pots may be safely plunged. If higher than 80°, and from the rate of increase likely to be much higher, precautions must be taken lest the young plants should be injured by too much bottom-heat. Times of Soiving.~Mr. Mills sowed for early fruit on Michaelmas day; Mr. Green on the 1st and 20th of September, and 5tli of November; the plants of the first two sowings he fruited in pots, those of the third he planted out in a pit. From the plants from seed sown on the 1st of September he cut the first fruit on the 4th of November, and from those of the-second sowing on the 10th of January. The seeds should be proved before sowing by putting them in water for an hour or two, when those only which sink to the bottom ought to be taken for sowing. The soil may consist of sifted leaf-mould or sifted peat, with a piece of fibrous542 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. turf or peat at the bottom of the pot for drainage. It will be found moat convenient in many cases to sow singly in 3-iucli pots. Let the seed be pressed into the soil, and covered not more than £ inch. Some recommend sowing four seeds in a small pot, Mr. Mills nine in a 9-inch pot, placing them round the edge. This mode, practised by a person of great experience, has doubtless been found to answer well; still, by having the plants singly in pots, some can be safely reserved in case of accident when the others are shifted. If it has been ascertained that the bed is of the proper temperature, between 75° and 80°, the seed-pots may be plunged about half-way in the soil; but should the heat be above 80°, or likely to increase beyond that point, it will be advisable to sink a small pot, mouth upwards, and place on this the bottom of the seed-pot. The latter will thus be cut off from immediate contact with the hot materials of the bed, and its temperature must be influenced by that of the air of the frame, and this can be regulated to the required degree by giving air. When, however, the pots can be plunged in soil, tan, or other materials possessing the requisite degree of bottom-heat, it is better to do so, for the temperature thus imparted to the pot and its contents will be more steady than if the heat were derived from the air. When the plants begin to appear above the soil of the pots, care should be taken that they are within 6 inches of the glass—indeed, the nearer the plants are to it the better as regards the beneficial influence of light. On the other hand, when too near it they are apt to be affected by the coldness of the glass, especially when this is rendered very cold by rain or sleet. At the above distance the cooling effects of the glass will be neutralized by the natural ascent of warm air from the surface of the bed. Therefore, if the seedlings are further from the glass than about 6 inches, let the pots be raised up and plunged at the required height in soil gathered up from the surface of the bed. Presuming that there are several seedlings in the same pot, they will require to be potted off, when they have formed the first rough leaf, into pots 3 or 4^ inches in diameter; in soil composed of decayed leaf-mould, well mixed with some turfy peat or light turfy loam, chopped fine, but not sifted. The plants should be held so that Avhen the soil is filled in to within 1 inch of the top of the pot it may be nearly close to the base of the seed-leaves. The shifted plants must then be re-placed in the frame, their foliage being kept near the light as before. In repotting, and indeed in all other operations, care should be taken not to expose the plants to cold currents of air. The plants ought therefore to be carefully screened from such when moved from place to place, and the work performed as far as possible under cover. Stopping should be first performed when the plant has pushed sufficiently to have formed two joints; the growing point must then be stopped by pinching it off above the second joint. The second stopping ought to take place when the shoots which push in consequence of the first have grown so far that the growing point can be pinched off above the third joint. Some growers occasionally stop the second time above the fourth joint, whilst others stop in the first instance above the first joint, and the next time above the second. T1 ae heat of the seed-bed should be frequently ascertained by means of a bark-bed thermometer, or it may be done by the aid of a cheap common thermometer. One of this description may be inserted nearly its length below the surface of the bed, and by fixing it to a rod it may be introduced from the outside to the centre of the bed. If the temperature is found to be high enough, but on the decline, then linings, or coatings, as they are now sometimes and more properly termed, must be applied in time. By attending to the indications of the thermometer, and observing the rate at which the temperature is declining, the time it will reach the point below which it should not go can be nearly enough ascertained. This being known several days previously, materials for preventing to a great extent the escape of heat, or for generating a fresh supply, can in the meantime be added. If the temperature is found to decline but slightly in a given period, it will probably be sufficient to apply a coating of litter, straw, or some other slow-conducting substance not in a state of fermentation. On the other hand, if from the state of the weather or other causes a too low temperature is anticipated, prompt measures must be adopted to prevent its occurrence. A coating of materials already in a state of fermentation, such as hot stable-dung, or some of the fermenting materials from the mass of those in course of preparation for the fruiting-beds, should be used for the purpose. Cold winds have a great effect in extracting the heat from hot-beds. Dry litter or straw is very efficacious in preventing the escape of heat, and is therefore proper for surrounding the bed. Straw-mats may be very advantageously employed above the linings. Fruiting -bed.—Materials must be prepared as directed for the seed-bed. Where plenty of leaves can be had it is a good plan to mix a quantity of them with the dung, as they tend to render the fermentation less violent at first, but more lasting. The heat from the fermentation of stable-dungFORCING. 543 will exceed 150° under circumstances favourable to its development, and that temperature is far too great for vegetation; and if fresh horse-dung is mixed with cow-dung the heat becomes still greater. It is therefore evident that such a high state of fermentation ought to be checked by turning the mass and otherwise moderating its heating by the admixture of materials disposed to undergo a slow mild fermentation, as leaves or old half-wasted hot-bed dung. The shortest materials should be used for the upper layer of the bed, or for this some employ half-decayed leaves. If the bed is made up in the first week in February, the height may be 4 feet in front and feet at back. The bed is formed layer by layer like the seed-bed. We may mention, however, that some of the best French cultivators, instead of raising the bed by horizontal layers, begin at one end, raising the materials to the proper height, and work backwards to the other end. In whatever mode the bed is formed, the frame and lights ought to be put on and kept close till the heat has risen to the surface of the bed, which should then be forked over several times, at intervals of two or three days, to the depth of 9 inches or 1 foot, still, however, keeping the short materials at the top. If in the course of this operation any of the dung should be found too dry, or likely to become so, it must be watered through the rose of a watering-pot. The thermometer should be employed to ascertain the heat of the bed, whether too little or too much, whether declining or increasing so rapidly as to give rise to well-grounded suspicions that it must soon become too violent. In this case steps must be taken to moderate the fermentation: beginning at one end, the upper portion of the bed, as far back as the width of a sash, can be removed to the depth of at least 9 inches, watered, and the materials returned. Portion after portion should be so treated till the whole is moistened; but care must be taken not to give such a quantity of water as to chill the bed too much. Holes are occasionally bored in the sides of the bed with a stick when it is necessary to lower the temperature before or after the plants are introduced. The sticks should be put in about two-thirds above the foundation of the bed, and ought to point a little downwards towards the centre. If the heat is not above 85°, or even 90°, there is absolutely no danger of its injuring the roots of the plants if due precautions are taken. Three or four days at least before the plants are introduced into the frame prepared for fruiting, some barrow-loads of soil adapted for the growth of the plants should be put into the frame, in order to acquire a temperature of 75° or 80°. It should then be gathered up in hillocks, one under the centre of each light, or rather nearer the back than the front. They must be raised so that the plants may be within 6 inches of the glass. The tissue of the young plants is very delicate, and not adapted to bear vicissitudes of cold or dryness, more especially if these occur suddenly. Therefore, before planting out, it will be well to place the plants in the frame for a day or two without turning them out of the pots. The soil in these will acquire the same temperature as that into which they are to be transplanted, and consequently when this takes place no check as regards temperature need be apprehended. The soil of the hills or mounds, raised for the reception of the plants, should be moist, but not what would be termed wet, and the soil in the pots ought to be in a corresponding state of moisture with that of the hills; then, by carefully turning the plant out of the pot, it may be planted in the top of the hill with its ball entire. Watering.—Cucumber plants should always have plenty of moisture regularly supplied; for a superabundance at one time cannot compensate for a deficiency at another. The demand for moisture at the root increases as the foliage expands. It depends also on the temperature, the greater or less dryness of the air, and on the amount of ventilation. Care should be taken that the temperature of the water be about the same as that of the soil in which the plants are growing. The asparagus is a hardy plant, and its shoots push rapidly in spring whilst the ground is heated by the sun’s rays; but though a marsh plant, if the ground is moistened by cold rams, the growth of the shoots is for some days greatly checked. We need scarcely say that if the asparagus is thus affected, the cucumber must be much more so. A plant of a herbaceous nature growing in brisk heat will actually droop from the application of water of a much lower temperature than that in which the plant is growing at the time. It is easy to bring the water to the proper temperature by mixing with it a portion of boiling water, and when it is mixed it is not much trouble to dip a thermometer into the water and so ascertain if it is of the proper heat. If the heat of the soil of the bed is rather low, that of the water may be a degree or two lower, but not on any account higher. The temperature of the water with which the plants are syringed should nearly correspond with that of the air in the frame, but be rather lower than otherwise. If the materials of the bed are likely to become too dry after the plants are in the hills, the portion not occupied by the hills may be well moistened with water of from 70° to 80° higher if the bed is too544 GARDENER'S ASSISTANT. cold, and lower if too hot. Water may also be introduced by inserting the prongs of a fork in a slanting direction below the hills. In watering the young plants whilst in pots, of course a fine rose ought to be employed, and likewise when they are planted out on the hills, in order that the soil may not be washed from the roots. In winter or early in spring the soil should be watered about ten a.m., shutting down the lights for a short time in order to prevent a chill taking place from rapid evaporation, then gradually admitting more or less air according to circumstances. In dull moist weather it is advisable not to wet the foliage, and the stem as well as the soil immediately surrounding it should be kept dry. In summer, watering is usually commenced about four p.m. Giving Air.—The chief object of this is to prevent the temperature within the frame from getting too high. Air, however, requires to be admitted with great caution in the early part of the season, when the disparity between the temperature within the frame and that of the external air is considerable; likewise when the plants are young, and tender from growing in a warm moist atmosphere, they are readily affected by the contrary. The warm moist air of the frame is soon displaced by the admission of cold air, and the colder the air the sooner does this take place. As the cold air becomes heated, its capacity for moisture is increased, and accordingly it then takes up moisture wherever it comes in contact with it, and the surface of the leaves is too suddenly dried. In winter and the early part of spring as little air should be given as is possible. It must never be given with the view of lowering the temperature, but rather with that of preventing it from becoming too high; for example, if 90° may be permitted by sun-heat, air should be given in such time and manner as will prevent the temperature from rising above that point, instead of allowing it to rise, say to 100°, and then lowering it to 90° by giving a large amount of air. Doubtless the true principle of giving air is to admit it as progressively as the temperature increases. This of course could not be carried out in practice; nevertheless, it should be borne in mind and acted on as far as circumstances will permit. The bad effects of a draught of cold air admitted directly into the frame might in a great measure be prevented by employing what maybe termed respirators. Small-meshed garden netting would answer the purpose if placed so that the ingress of cold air and egress of warm must be through two folds 3 or 4 inches apart. A contrivance of this kind will probably be brought into general use; but at all events a single fold of the above or similar materials could be readily employed, and would prove advantageous, particularly when a little air has to be given at night to permit the escape of gases, with which the air of the frame is apt to be overcharged. Coverings.-^-Until the nights become warm these are necessary. It would be desirable to have them of a description that would keep the glass both warm and dry. Double mats are used in severe weather. When the nights are veiy cold, and especially if the heat of the bed is not very strong, a thin coating of hay next the glass is a great protection. As the cold decreases, the covering may be reduced to a single mat, and in summer that may be dispensed with. Shading is necessary when the sun’s rays are powerful, but the air at the same time too cold to be admitted to an extent sufficient to counteract their effects. It is employed at other times when the plants are evidently suffering from a very hot sun, as is most apt to be the case on a sudden outbreak of sun after dull wet weather. Pruning.The cucumber naturally extends its shoots or vines to a much greater distance than the width of an ordinary frame; and if their growth were not regulated by pruning, they would become overcrowded and weakened in consequence. Stopping the plants at every stage of their growth, as already directed, will cause several shoots to break near the stem. Select three, or at most four of these, of as nearly equal strength as possible for principal branches. Encourage laterals from these to fill the frame sufficiently and to bear fruit. Stop at one, two, or three joints above the fruit, according as there is room. All weak shoots ought to be removed at an early stage of their growth, and those which are left should be kept moderately thin and regular. This regularity ought, however, to be more the result of foresight in preventing confusion than in effecting a clearance by cutting away large quantities of entangled shoots. The knife should be very little employed; superfluous shoots ought to be pinched otf with the finger and thumb, for when so treated they do not bleed so much as when severed by a clean cut with the knife. By attending to these directions the plants will receive no material check in consequence of a sudden privation of foliage, will therefore be less subject to disease, and will be able to bear abundance of fruit in succession. Flowering.—The cucumber beam male and female flowers on the same plant; the former consist of petals and stamens only, while the latter have all the organs of fructification with the exception of the stamens. Formerly great painsr FORCING. 545 were taken to fertilize the female flowers, but it has been proved that this is not necessary except where fruit is to be grown for seed. Crooked Fruit.—In dry weather more especially the fruit is apt to become crooked. To prevent this various means have been resorted to. Glass tubes made for the purpose are very convenient ; or three pieces of thin board may be nailed together like the bottom and sides of a box, 3 inches wide and 2 inches deep, and lined with three slips of glass. A number of these can be prepared, and they will be found to answer the purpose very well. Training.—Instead of training along the surface, some prefer training the shoots on trellises. To allow space for the leaves, these should be placed from 9 inches to 1 foot from the glass, and from 12 to 18 inches from the surface of the bed, to admit of the fruit growing downwards in a perpendicular direction. The plants must be trained with a single stem to an upright rod till they reach above the trellis, when the leader should be stopped in order to obtain ramifications for covering the trellis. The principal among these must be stopped when other branches are required. Unfruitful laterals ought to be removed, and those which are bearing fruit should be stopped, so as to leave one joint beyond the fruit till such time as it can be seen whether or not a shoot will push from the same joint as the fruit. If one do so, pinch off that which is above it. Ridge Cucumbers.—In warm summers cucumbers may be produced abundantly on ridges in the open air, protected in the first instance by hand-glasses. The plants should be raised in heat in the end of March in small pots. They are best reared singly, one in a pot, till they can be planted out under hand-glasses on ridges formed over hot dung. In making the ridges a trench should be thrown out 3 feet wide, 1 foot or 18 inches deep, laying the soil on the north side. The trench must then be filled with hot dung, and if this can be raised to the thickness of 2|? feet so much the better. The dung should be covered with about 9 inches of the soil dug out of the trench, or with other rich soil, the surface being made to slope towards the south, and backed up with the soil thrown out of the trench. The hand-glasses must be kept on as long as the growth of the plants will permit, and on cold nights mats or other covering should be thrown over them. The application of any means that may be contrived to afford shelter on cold nights will of course prove advantageous, and so will be a mulching of litter; but fresh stable-litter, strong in ammoniacal exhalations, is injurious to the foliage. Near London cucumbers are extensively cultivated in the open ground. The plants are raised under glass, and hardened off so as to be planted out in the end of May or early in June. Gherkins—a small sort of cucumber grown for pickling—are now frequently sown in the open ground instead of being reared in a frame and transplanted. Some let the plants run without stopping. The French pinch off the extremity of the primitive stem above the third leaf. EGG-PLANT.—Solatium Melongena, L. (Pen-tandria Monogynia, L.; Solanese, DC.), Fig. 339. —This is a greenhouse annual, a native of South Pig. 339. America as well as of the tropical parts of Asia and Africa, and introduced into Britain in 1597. It is cultivated for the fruit, which, when properly dressed, is excellent; but the mode of preparing it is scarcely understood by anybut French cooks. In Provence the fruit is cut longitudinally in two, and the seeds and spongy substance surrounding them are taken out. The two halves are then placed on the gridiron, with the cut faces upwards, and whilst roasting the flesh is soaked with fine salad oil or fresh butter, applied a little at a time, a sufficiency of pepper and salt being added. Some augment the flavour with parsley, anise, or other aromatic herbs; others place an anchovy or a pilchard between the two pieces. The great difficulty in cooking is to avoid the flavour of smoke; with this object in view the fruit is sometimes cooked between two plates. Another mode of preparation consists in peeling 35546 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. the fruit, placing it in a frying-pan, scoring it across and across, filling the incisions with fine Florence oil, and then sprinkling with salt, pepper, nutmeg, and grated bread. When half cooked a little aromatic vinegar is poured over the fruit, and when the process is completed, the fruit is served up garnished with parsley or chervil. There are several varieties, with round, oval, and oblong fruit, of a white, red, yellow, or dull purple colour. The best is the Large Purple, the fruit of which sometimes measures as much as 6 or 7 inches in length and 12 inches in circumference. Another variety, the Chinese Brin-jal (Aubergine blanche longue de la Chine of the French), produces a long white fruit, the flesh of which is considered to be more juicy and less | fibrous than that of the other sorts. To ripen the fruit perfectly the seed should be sown from the middle of January to the middle of February, in pots or pans of light rich soil, placed in a temperature of from 65° to 70°. When the young plants have made two leaves, they may be potted off singly into small pots, from which they should be shifted on till in 8 or 10 inch pots, in which they may be fruited. The plants ought at all times to receive abundance of water, and manure-water may be occasionally given until the fruit has nearly attained its full size, after which the application should be discontinued. The plants ought to be grown with a single stem, which must be pinched to encourage the production of two branches, which should themselves be stopped to make them throw out laterals. When four fruit are set, no more fruit or laterals should be allowed to form. The Parisian market-gardeners adopt the following mode of cultivation. They sow about the end of December or beginning of January. “A hot-bed is prepared, the heat of which should be from 68° to 77°. It is surrounded with a good lining, and covered with a layer of vegetable mould about 5 inches in thickness, and when the requisite degree of heat is attained the seeds are sown. The sashes are covered at night with a good straw-mat. A fortnight or three weeks after sowing, a second bed, not so hot as the first, is prepared. This is covered with vegetable mould, and when their seed-leaves are well developed, the young plants are pricked out into this second bed, and after some time they are again taken up and replanted in the same bed, but at the distance of 8 or 9 inches from each other. The covering up of the sashes at night is still continued, and as soon as the young plants begin to grow a little air is given if the temperature will permit. “In the course of the month of March another hot-bed is prepared. The frames are placed, and the bed covered with vegetable mould. When the bed is of the proper heat, from 60° to 68°, four egg-plants are planted under each 4,\ feet sash. They do not get air for several days, in order that the plants may more readily take fresh root, after which a little air is given by pushing the sashes either up or down, and these are opened wider as the season advances, so that they may be taken off in the month of May. The further attention they require consists in watering when necessaiy, and in cleaning the leaves, which are often attacked by the scale or by the red spider; next, all the young shoots which spring from the base of the stem are taken oft' in order to obtain one main stem, which is pinched when it is sufficiently strong, with the view of forming two main branches, which are themselves pinched at a later period in order to induce the development of laterals on them, and when the fruit is set all the young shoots are taken off in order to increase the size of the fruit. By these means fruit fit for gathering may be obtained about the end of June or beginning of July, and the plants bear in succession till October.”—Gardeners’ Chronicle. ENDIVE is very seldom forced in British gardens; but in France this excellent winter salad is regularly forced, not only in private gardens, but even for supplying the demands of the public markets. According to the Bon Jardinief the following modes are adopted to obtain endive in winter and spring:—It is sown in January and February on a brisk liot-bed covered with vegetable mould, which is afterwards beaten with the back of the spade to give the seed a hold. Some do not cover the seeds at all; many only scatter a very thin layer of fine mould over them at the time of sowing; whilst others only do this after germination has taken place. In all cases, however, sowing in a brisk heat is considered to be the only method of obtaining plants which do not run to seed. A fortnight or three weeks after the plants come up they are pricked out into another hot-bed, where a less degree of heat is maintained. Air is given when the weather is favourable, and the plants, when sufficiently hearted, are tied up as when grown in the open ground. The endive produced in this way is perfectly blanched, of good flavour, and is sold at Paris in March and throughout the spring. There is another mode which has been successfully practised of late years, and in which the seed is sown from the 10th to the loth of September, in the open ground, under bell-glasses or cloches, or in a cold frame. About three weeks afterwards the young plants are pricked out under other cloches or into cold frames; and inFORCING. 547 November or December they are planted close together in frames. The plants must not be exposed to the air, otherwise they toughen; they should therefore be kept rather close; and in frosty weather they must be protected with litter and straw-mats. The endive obtained in this way is very small, but well blanched and very good. The French Small Green Curled is the kind generally employed for forcing. By a mode of treatment nearly the same as the preceding, the Parisian market-gardeners obtain endive fit for use in January and February. They also sow in January or February the French Small Green Cui’led on hot-beds, giving a heat of from 77° to 86°; for, in order to produce plants that will not run, the seeds must germinate in twenty-four hours, no matter at what period of the season it may be. They press in the seeds, cover the sashes with several straw-mats in order to keep in the heat, and sprinkle a little fine mould over the seeds when germination takes place. Afterwards, water is given through a fine rose as required; and about a fortnight after sowing, or when the plants have made four leaves, they are pricked out on another hot-bed, and replanted a fortnight or three weeks afterwards on a moderate hot-bed. The sashes are covered at night with straw-mats; air is given at every favourable opportunity; and the plants when of sufficient size are tied up to blanch. The plants from the first sowing are fit for use in the end of April. INDIAN CORN, or MAIZE (Zea Mays, L.— Moucecia Triandria, L.; Graminacese, DC.; Fig. 340).—This is believed to be a native of America, having been found growing there as a grain crop when that continent was discovered, but it is cultivated as such in all quarters of the world— Europe, Asia, Africa, America, and in Australia, but to a less extent in Europe than in any of the other’s. As a cereal its ripening cannot be depended on in all seasons even in the south of England when sown in the open ground, and its culture, consequently, has never taken a hold in this country; but raised in heat, and afterwards planted out, the crop ripened well for several years in succession at Chiswick. Attention has recently been directed to it from another point of view—as a table vegetable. In America the ears are taken as soon as the grains are plump, and boiled for about half an hour, more or less according to their age. Thus cooked, and eaten with salt and butter, they are highly esteemed, being considered fully equal to pease. There is, however, nothing new in the cultivation of maize being recommended for this purpose, for the celebrated William Cobbett in his English Gardener, published in 1829, wrote of it: “This is a very fine garden vegetable. The ear is to table whole; each person takes an ear, rubs over it a little butter, and sprinkles it with a little salt, and bites the grains from the stalk to which they are attached, and which, in America, is called the cob. In the Indian corn countries, every creature likes Indian corn better than any other vegetable, not excepting even the fine fruits of those countries.” Cobbett’s advocacy of the cultivation of Indian corn was not confined to it as a useful addition to table vegetables, but as a corn crop as well; and he was not an entirely disinterested advocate, for he grew the seed and sold it. The kind which he had was one of the hardiest, probably one of those grown in Canada, where he served as a soldier, especially as he remarks, “ Several of the sorts will seldom ripen well with the heat which they get in the state of New York, requiring that of Carolina or Virginia at least. Other sorts will ripen perfectly well as far north as Boston; and there is a dwarf sort which will ripen equally on land 500 miles to the north of the last-mentioned place. Whether548 GARDENER'S ASSISTANT. this be the same sort as that which I cultivate I do not exactly know, but mine never fails to come to perfection in England, be the summer what it may.” There are now in this country varieties which are doubtless much superior to that which Cobbett grew, for the American Commissioner at the Paris International Exhibition of 1867 presented to the Rev. T. C. Brehaut, of Guernsey, seeds of twenty of the best varieties known there, all of which he grew in Guernsey, and placed in the hands of Messrs. Barr and Sugden, of Covent Garden, in whose catalogue they are described as follows, with the heights which they attained with Mr. Brcliaut:— 1. Pop Corn of Virginia, height 3 feet, ripe early in September. 2. Small Mulberry-coloured, 8 feet, ripe late in September. 3. Small Blue, 8 feet, late in September. 4. Small Mottled Blue and White, 9 feet, early in October. 5. Long White, 9 feet, middle of October. 6. Large Pale Purple, middle of September. 7. Long Light Yellow, 10 feet, middle of September. 8. Long Yellow, 10 feet, middle of September. 9. Long Orange, 10 feet, middle of September. 10. Large Deep Red, 10 feet, end of September. 11. Very Large Red, 10 feet, end of September. 12. Common Yellow, 8 feet, end of September. 13. Large Flat Yellow, 10 feet, end of September. 14. Large Dark Yellow, 10 feet, end of September. 15. Table Maize from Georgia, 10 feet, early in October. 16. Large Light Brown, 9 feet, middle of September. 17. Large Long Table, 10 feet, early in October. 18. Finest Table White from Georgia, 10 feet, early in October. 19. Large Mottled, 10 feet, middle of October. 20. Large Blue, 9 feet, end of October. These varieties, it will be seen, present a range in the time of their ripening of about two months, and by sowing several of them a succession of the ears for table use could be secured for that period. Nos. 5,19, and 20, being so late in ripening, seem less desirable for cultivation in this country than the others; still they might produce ears fit for table in most seasons; but it would probably be found that some of the earlier kinds sown later would be better for a late supply. The culture of Indian corn is very simple. At Chiswick it was sown in the beginning of May, in a warm situation out of doors, and in that way succeeded well in most years. The only after attention given was to stir the soil between the plants. One of the modes pursued in America is to dig holes a foot square, and 8 or 10 inches deep, in the end of May, fill them nearly to the surface level with rank strawy manure, cover this with an inch or two of soil, place five or six seeds in each, put on an inch of soil, lightly pressing it down, thin out the plants to three on a hill, and when they are 6 or 8 inches high stir the soil and draw a little earth to them. Cobbett, who undoubtedly understood the culture of Indian corn, well said, “Nothing can be easier to grow,” and in this he was certainly correct as regards the south of England. He recommended it to be sown in drills, 3 or 4 feet apart in the open ground in the first fortnight in May, placing the seeds 4 inches apart, and when the plants were 2 inches high to stir the soil, particularly that near them. When they were a foot high the ground between the rows was to be dug and a little earth drawn to the stems, and when they "were from 14 to 2 feet high it was to be again dug and the stems earthed up 4 or 5 inches higher. Our own experience is in favour of plenty of room both between the rows and the plants in each row; and as frosts frequently occur in the end of April, it will always be safer to sow under glass and plant out, than to depend on sowing in the open ground. KIDNEY-BEAN.—This is easily forced, for it will succeed under a high temperature—as high as 80°, and in one as low as from 55° to 65°. Hence it may be grown in pots in any forcing-house in which it can be duly exposed to light. Where the temperature can be specially regulated for this vegetable, a minimum temperature of 60°, and a maximum of 75°, or 80° by sun-lieat, will be found very proper. The bottom-heat ought at least to correspond with the mean temperature of the house. It should be borne in mind that as regards the temperature of the soil, the kidney-bean is very different from pease and beans, for these grow and maintain a healthy foliage when the soil is so cold that the kidney-bean will either refuse to vegetate, or, if it do so, it only exhibits a yellow sickly foliage. Early Dwarf sorts, such as the Early Dwarf Dutch, Early Laon, Wilmot’s Forcing Cream Speckled, Fulmer’s Early Dwarf, Newington Wonder, and Black Belgian, should of course be selected for forcing. The Newington Wonder is very prolific, and answers well, but requires to have the tops pinched, as it is not naturally dwarf enough for some situations. In forcing this vegetable there is perhaps no better or more simple plan than sowing in pots; and in order that in these the naked stem may be earthed up, and yet allow sufficient depth of soil for the roots, the pots should be deep. They may be half-filled with light, turfy soil, and leaf-mould, or decomposed cow-dung. The stem should be allowed to grow without earthing up till the true leaves are formed, in order that, by exposure to the air, it may acquire more firmnessFORCING. 549 than if it were earthed up earlier. The plants must be well supplied with water, for if at any time they are allowed to get too dry, that which is most to be dreaded, the red spider, will be encouraged. The plants should be well syringed, at least till they come into flower. It is impossible even by syringing to thoroughly moisten the under side of the leaves; but this can be done by syringing early in the morning, and then keeping the house shut up till the air and vapour acquire a higher temperature than that of the plants; for example, the latter may be kept comparatively cool by syringing with water at 60°, whilst the air of the house is raised to 75°, or even 80'', for some time. Every portion of the surface of the leaves will then, in consequence of condensation taking place, become thoroughly wetted, which could not otherwise be the case even if the plants were completely immersed in water. Give plenty of air when the plants are in flower. By forcing, kidney-beans fit for use may be obtained in six weeks or two months from the time of sowing. Some seed, therefore, may be sown in August to succeed the crops in the open ground; and for succession, other sowings may be made every month till the following March. LETTUCE.—Although in summer the lettuce succeeds well in the open air in our climate, and although in winter we can readily give it as much heat as it can at any time require, yet being of very tender substance, it is apt to damp oil' in the latter season, when light is deficient and moisture too abundant. The more heat we apply under these circumstances the more lax will be the tissue, and consequently the greater will be the liability to decay. The plants must be kept in a growing state; but, in forcing, it is evident they cannot bear to be grown so rapidly in our dark and damp winters as they are naturally in summer, when they enjoy the advantages of free air and abundance of light. In France they at present far excel us in the cultivation of lettuces in winter, partly owing to the great attention they bestow on this branch of culture, and partly owing to the superior brightness of the sky, and the less humidity of the climate. Attention it is quite possible to give in an equal degree in both countries, but as regards light and humidity the conditions are much against us. Taking all these circumstances into consideration, it is evident that we must act on the principle of giving heat to grow the plants but slowly in dull damp weather; we may increase heat when the days prove bright; we must expose the leaves to all the light we can by keeping the glass clean and the plants near, but not touching it; and, finally, we must endea- vour to guard against humidity and its effects by every means in our power. The sorts which may be employed for affording a winter supply, either by protection or by a gentle process of forcing, are of Cabbage lettuces, the Hardy Hammersmith, "White Dutch, and Brown Dutch; and of Cos lettuces, the Artichokeleaved, the Brown Cos, and the Green Paris Cos; and towards spring the White Paris Cos may be produced, as its superior quality renders it desirable; but the others, being hardier, are more to be depended on for the main supply. These varieties should be sown about the middle of August, and in the beginning and middle of September. In many instances two sowings—namely, those in the middle of August and middle of September—would be sufficient; but we have recommended an intermediate one in the end of August or beginning of September, in case of accident to either of the others. These sowings ought to furnish plants for a supply during the winter and spring. The seeds should be sown in rich light soil, or in a compost of well-decomposed dung, leaf-mould, and the soil from an old cucumber bed. Although the soil must be rich, yet strong manure ought to be avoided. In either case, as soon as the first two leaves can be laid hold of, the plants should be pricked out 3 inches apart each way, in a bed prepared like the seedbed. It is presumed that up to the end of November a supply of lettuces fit for table will be afforded by sowings made in the end of July, some of the plants being planted in temporary frames, in order that they may be protected from frost. Sown in the end of July, the Artichokeleaved will give a supply of Cos lettuces in December, with scarcely any protection, if the weather is not severe, but it would be advisable to introduce some into a cool frame before there is danger of frost. The plants may be almost full-grown. They should be taken up with balls, and planted in nearly dry peat and sand; water, if at all necessary, must be used very sparingly; the foliage should not be wetted. By covering the sashes at night, the soil in the frame, and likewise the plants, will be maintained at a higher average temperature than that of the external air; and whilst this is the case condensation will not take place, and damping off will be prevented. We have seen Cos lettuces succeed very well in winter, beneath a cheaply constructed protection, consisting of a row of posts at back, and corresponding with these a row of shorter ones in front, with strips of wood along their tops, so that rafters could be extended with a slope sufficient for the water to run off. A few thin strips of wood, extending horizontally, and nailed to550 GARDENER'S ASSISTANT. the posts, afford the means of securing clean-drawn straw, disposed perpendicularly to the thickness of 2 or 3 inches, for closing in the back and ends. The whole can be done so as to have a neat appearance, and constitute, at the same time, a warm inclosure. Its width may be 6 feet, or as much as spare sashes will cover. If sashes are not at command, straw mats may be employed for covering at night. By the aid of these, and other means of protection that circumstances and materials may permit, lettuces from late summer sowings will afford a supply till the beginning of January, by which time those from the August sowing, and forced in frames with a little artificial heat, can be obtained in a state fit for use. About the middle of October make a slight hotbed, of about 18 inches thick, of well-prepared dung. Cover this about 1 foot deep with a compost of sandy peat, leaf-mould, and a little well-decomposed manure. The bottom-heat should be about 55°. When the soil is put in the frame it ought to be thoroughly watered, and then allowed to get nearly dry. As soon as this is the case, take up carefully with balls the plants which were pricked out as directed from the seed-bed, and plant the Cos and Brown Dutch varieties about 9 inches apart in the frames. Water slightly after planting, and then cover the whole surface of the bed with clean dry sand or dry peat. Some recommend charcoal, but it is apt to soil the foliage; peat-charcoal may, however, be employed with advantage. Shade from sun, and keep the lights close for a few days, till the plants have taken fresh root. Afterwards, give plenty of air when the weather permits. Great care should be taken to prevent frost from reaching the plants. In case of severe weather the frame must be backed with litter, and instead of Russia mats, good straw-mats should be used for covering the sashes. The Parisian market-gardeners, who are celebrated for their successful culture of the lettuce and other salads, adopt the following modes of proceeding, the details of which are abstracted from M. Courtois-G6rard’s valuable work on French market-gardening. Of the Petite Noire or Crepe lettuce, a small variety, which though forming a loose head blanches well under cloches, the first sowing for winter is made early in September. The ground having been properly prepared, the position of each cloche is marked by pressing its edge slightly into the ground, and it is then set on one side. The seed is sown on the place marked out, lightly covered with fine soil, and the cloche put on and its edges pressed into the ground. Shade is given from bright sunshine, by covering with long litter, but no air. When the seed-leaves are well developed and the true leaves are making their appearance, a bank sloping towards the south is prepared, and it is made wide enough to hold three rowrs of cloches, each of which is about 15f inches in diameter. The plants are taken up carefully without breaking the roots, and thirty are planted under each cloche, the finger being used as a dibber. In the first fortnight of October a first plantation is made either under glasses or in frames on an old hot-bed, previously turning the soil with which the bed is covered. Four plants are placed under each glass, and in taking them up a ball of soil is preserved about the roots. In whichever way planted no air is given, and if frost occur protection is given by straw-mats. The fii-st October planting comes into use at the end of November or beginning of December. A second sowing is made under glasses on a sloping bank in the first fortnight in October, and in the second fortnight another sloping bank is prepared, on which the plants are pricked out at the beginning of November. When frost sets in a lining of dung is placed at the back of the bank, and dry littery dung among the glasses, increasing the quantity according to the severity of the weather, and over it straw-mats, which are removed when the sun shines, but not if the plants are frozen. In the latter case the covering is increased, in order that the plants may thaw gradually. The plants from this sowing serve for all the plantings from the end of November to February. In the last fortnight in November a slight hot-bed, giving a heat of from 55° to 60°, is put together, covered with light rich soil, as old hotbed mould, and planted with seven rows of plants under each frame. All leaves which are decayed from damping are removed from time to time, and in the case of this planting only the first three of the lowest leaves are sometimes taken off. The lights are protected from frost at night by straw-mats. If the weather is severe the frames are surrounded with a lining of dung, and the paths between the frames are filled with dry litter as high as the lights, which are then covered with two thicknesses of straw-mats, but these are removed whenever the weather is favourable. These lettuces come into use in January. The last planting is made in January or February on a liot-bed a foot thick, covered with 4 inches of soil, and four Cabbage lettuces are placed under each cloche with a Cos lettuce in the middle, and protection from frost is afforded as before. The Gotte lettuce is sown in the last fortnight of October, on a sloping bank, under cloches, and pricked out in the first fortnight in November, butFORCING. 551 as it is larger than the Petite Noire only twenty-four plants are placed under each cloche. When the plants begin to grow, a little air is given by tilting the glasses, and after a few days the glasses are only kept close when the thermometer falls 4° or 5° below freezing. When the frost becomes severe dung is placed at the back of the bank, and the glasses are packed round with dry littery dung, and the whole is covered with mats. At the end of January or beginning of February the lettuces are planted under glasses or frames on hot-beds a foot thick, and about feet wide, three rows of glasses being placed on this width, and three plants under each glass. At night the glasses are protected with mats, and air is given whenever the weather is sufficiently mild. When grown in frames these lettuces are planted on the same beds as those on which the Petite Noire lettuces were grown, merely turning the soil but not the bed; six rows of fifteen lettuces each are planted in each frame. Air is given whenever the weather is favourable, and the crop planted in the end of January comes into use at the end of March; those planted in February at the beginning of April. The Laitue George, which is larger than the Gotte, is sown a fortnight later in the same way as the latter, and planted in February under glasses on a hot-bed on which the Petite Noire has been grown. The crop is then fit for use about the end of March. The Green Paris Cos is sown in the first fortnight of October, on a sloping bank, under glasses, and the plants are pricked out under these, placing twenty-four or thirty under each, and air is given whenever the weather is favourable. In November the plants are taken up, and immediately replanted on another sloping bank, eighteen or twenty under a cloche, and at the end of December they are finally planted on a hot-bed, one under the middle of each cloche, with four Petite Noire lettuces round it. The plants are fit for use at the beginning of February, and as soon as the bed is cleared it is again planted. Sometimes, also, Green Paris Cos is sown in August, and planted out under cloches on hot-beds, for use in December and January. MINT.—Green spearmint is almost indispensable in most families early in spring, and is frequently required throughout the winter. It is easily obtained by planting roots from time to time in a moderate hot-bed, so as to keep up a succession till a supply is produced in the open ground; or when only a small quantity is required, they may be taken up early in November, and planted in pots or boxes of light rich soil, and introduced in succession into a hot-house with a temperature of from 55° to 65°, or plunged in a hot-bed. In either case the roots may be planted close together, and should not be covered with more than 1 inch or inch of fine soil. Water must be frequently given. Forcing may be commenced early in November, and discontinued in March. MUSHROOM (Agaricus campestris, L.—Cryp-togamia Fungi, L.; Fungi, DC.)—Indigenous to Britain, and indeed to every quarter of the globe; spawn of a large variety of it was sent by Mr. Drummond from the Swan River. Its propagation is effected by means of spores, which are therefore analogous to seeds; they are exceedingly minute bodies, imperceptible to the naked eye, and are produced on the part of the plant exposed to the light, above ground. In cultivation, however, mushrooms are reared from spawn, or mycelium., as it is termed by botanists. This has the appearance of a white mould, in which state it will remain and retain its vegetative powers for many years, provided it is kept dry; but if placed in a proper medium, and afforded heat and moisture, it ramifies in all directions amongst the soil or other substances favourable to its growth. When this active state of vegetation commences, the spawn begins to run, as it is termed, and by adopting proper means it may be propagated to a great extent. In some situations, and especially in old pastures, mushrooms naturally spring up in abundance, when the state of the weather proves favourable to the development of the spawn. Such being the case, some observations with regard to the circumstances under which they are produced may prove useful. They are most plentiful in soils that are naturally neither very stiff or clayey, nor, on the contraiy, very loose, and especially so in old pastures having a compact surface from the treading of cattle. Where the cleanings of old mill-tracks have been thrown on land, mushrooms have been known to spring up most abundantly. In such situations they appear chiefly after midsummer, in July and August, but more numerously in September, especially when a succession of gentle rains has moistened the soil after a dry hot summer. A warm soil, and a calm, moist, warm, foggy atmosphere, are favourable to their natural production. During a period of great summer heat and drought, the surface of the ground where exposed to the direct rays of the sun is frequently of the temperature of 75°, and occasionally as high as 80°, to the depth of a few inches, and consequently whatever spawn may be there situated must be subjected to that temperature. The spawn does not, however, assume that active state of vegetation which results in the production of mush-552 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. rooms till the soil is moistened by rain, and the high temperature of both the earth and atmosphere is on the decline. When the temperature of the earth is between 60° and 65°, and the mean temperature of the air about 5° lower, mushrooms appear abundantly in suitable localities. Such conditions usually occur in September. From what has been stated, it appears that the spawn may be safely exposed to a temperature of 80° without danger of being destroyed; additional proof of this is afforded by the fact that, if inserted in melon-beds, it increases or runs in the soil, whilst the melons are growing in a temperature of 80°; and when the crop of melons is ripened off, the beds cleared and sufficiently watered, and the temperature lowered, a crop of mushrooms springs up. It appeal’s that the spawn requires a higher temperature for its diffusion in its early progress than it afterwards does wffien its vegetation is developed in the form of mushrooms, which is its final stage. Light is not essential for the growth of the mushroom, as in the case of most subjects of cultivation, for, although they grow naturally in open pastures, and dislike moist shady situations in which many other species of Fungi abound, yet it will have been observed that in those pastures the development of the mushroom above ground occurs chiefly in the night. The mushroom is of course exposed to light during the day, and that may be of importance in perfecting the spores; but in other respects light is not essential. The mushroom makes in the open pastures the bulk of its substance in the night, and even the salmon-coloured tinge of the gills is acquired in the dark. Mushrooms, like other species of Fungi, abound in nitrogen; this substance must therefore be considered a necessary element of their nutrition, and unless substances rich in nitrogen are supplied, their cultivation cannot be attended with success. Nitrogen is found in considerable quantity in the dung of horses and cows, and accordingly these substances are generally employed in the cultivation of the mushroom. They are subjected to fermentation, but this evidently must not be carried too far, otherwise the nitrogen would be driven off in the form of ammonia. The substances from which the mushrooms derive their principal supply of nourishment require to be coated with some earthy material, so as to absorb the ammonia which would be driven off by fermentation; they must also be rendered compact by treading or beating, in order that the fermentation may be rendered slower, and consequently more lasting. Preparation of the Spawn.—For the artificial production of mushrooms, it is necessary to be provided with good spawn. This may be purchased from nurserymen and seedsmen, or it may be collected and kept dry for use from amongst the materials of old hot-beds, horse-tracks, and dry places where cattle take shelter. It is easily known by its white colour and true mushroom smell. Brick-spawn is, however, generally considered preferable to that which is collected and kept in a loose state. It is so called from the materials being worked up and cut or moulded like bricks. For the formation of these, various substances have been recommended. The following have been found to answer very w-ell, namely ■—fresh horse-droppings, cow-dung, and a little loam mixed and beaten up with as much stable-drainings as may be necessary to reduce the whole to the consistence of mortar. It may then be spread on the floor of an open shed, and when somewhat firm it may be cut into cakes of 6 inches square. These should be placed on edge in a dry, airy place; and must be frequently turned and protected from rain. When half dry, make a hole in the broadside of each with a dibber, so as to admit of about 1 inch square of good old spawn being inserted so deeply as to be a little below the surface; close it with some moist composition similar to that of which the bricks were formed. When the bricks are nearly dry, make, on a dry bottom, a layer 9 inches thick of horse-dung, prepared as for a hot-bed, and on this pile the bricks rather openly. Cover with litter, so that the steam and heat of the layer of dung may circulate among the bricks. The temperature, however, should not rise above 60°; therefore, if it is likely to do so, the covering must be reduced accordingly. The spawn will soon begin to run through the bricks, which should be frequently examined whilst the process of spawning is going on, and when, on breaking, the spawn appeal’s throughout pretty abundantly like a white mould, the process has gone far enough. If allowed to proceed, the spawn would form threads and small tubercles, which is a stage too far advanced for the retention of its vegetative powers. Therefore, when the spawn is observed to pervade the bricks tliroughout like a white mould, and before it assume the thread-like form, it should be removed and allowed to dry, in order to arrest the farther progress of vegetation, till required for use. It ought to be kept in a dark and perfectly dry place. Although the spawn made from the materials above recommended has proved excellent as manufactured by some persons, yet in the hands of others it may happen to fail. A portion may therefore be compounded according to one or other of the following recipes:—FORCING. 553 1. Horse-droppings one part, cow dung one-fourth, loam one-twentieth. 2. Fresh horse-droppings, mixed with short litter, one part, cow-dung one-third, and a small portion of mould or loam. 3. Equal parts of horse-dung, cow-dung, and slieep’s-dung, with the addition of some rotten leaves or old hot-bed dung. 4. Horse-dung one part, cow-dung two parts, sheep’s-dung one part. 5. Horse-droppings from the roads one part, cow-dung two parts, mixed with a little loam. 6. Horse-dung, cow-dung, and loam in equal parts. From the above it appears that horse-dung and cow-dung are the principal ingredients in making spawn-bricks; the loam is added for the purpose of making the other materials hold together, it also absorbs the ammonia, which would otherwise fly off. As there is so much difference of opinion as regards the substances employed in making spawn-bricks, and as different combinations of them are successfully employed, it will be worth while to endeavour to ascertain whether there is not one common principle in all of them, which is more especially essential for the growth of the mushroom. The quantity of nitrogen which it contains being much greater than in other plants subjected to cultivation, it follows that this element must be abundantly supplied; and accordingly all the substances usually employed for the spawn to feed upon contain nitrogen in considerable quantity, as in the case of horse, cow, and sheep’s dung. Analyses of these are of course subject to variation; but those made by Boussingault, and other eminent authorities, may be considered a fair estimate of the percentage of nitrogen which the substances in question usually contain, and this is exhibited in the following table:— Solid Excrements. Urine. 1 Fresh. Dry. Horse. 0'54 2’2 1‘53 Cow .... 1 0-32 2'3 0'44 Sheep.. 0’72 1-7 1-31 From the above it appears that in the solid excrements of the horse there is rather more than one-half per cent, of nitrogen, in that of the cow scarcely one-third per cent., while in that of the sheep there is nearly three-fourths per cent. The amount of nitrogen in dried horse and cow dung is nearly equal, and about one-fourth more than in dried sheep’s-dung. The urine of the horse, it will also be seen, yields a large amount of nitrogen. Although horse-dung contains a greater amount of ammonia, and ferments more readily than cow- dung, yet the heat of the latter continues longer, and on this account a mixture of the two may be employed for the growth of mushrooms. Some recommend these substances to be used in a fresh state, others after they have undergone a considerable degree of fermentation. In the latter state, much of their nitrogen must have been driven off in the form of ammonia, so that there is no question as to the superiority of the fresh materials, if the heat generated by such can be controlled; but this is the difficulty. They can be disposed in thin layers, but then they do not afford such good produce as when in a greater mass. It may here be observed, that firmly beating the materials tends to lessen the fermentation, and by boring holes the heat is permitted to escape, but likewise the ammonia, which it would be desirable to retain for the benefit of the crop. Therefore, whilst the fermentation is going on, the beds should be covered with loam, by which much of the ammonia, will be absorbed. For the same purpose a little leaf-mould might be spread over the surface of the dung, and then about 2 inches thick of loam, or of a compost of loam and cow-dung which has been frequently turned, and the different substances thoroughly mixed and incorporated. The proper temperature can be maintained in pits during winter much more easily than in the ridges; but on the latter mushrooms are still extensively cultivated by the market-gardeners near London. Their mode of proceeding, as detailed by Mr. Cuthill, is very simple. The ridge is formed of dung as it is brought fresh from the London stables, and when the heat of the bed declines to 80° pieces of spawn-bricks are inserted in the sides of the bed about 1 foot apart. “ The bed is then moulded over, 2 inches thick, pressed with the feet, and afterwards beaten with the spade. It is then watered, and beaten again with the spade, and smoothed down. The more the mould is pressed, the finer the crop is, and the more solid the texture of the mushroom.” Some market-gardeners pursue a different system ; that practised with great success for many years by a well-known grower for the London market, is as followsThe materials, chiefly stable-dung, are allowed to ferment a little, and but very little. The beds are formed on a hard piece of ground, and are 3 feet wide at the base, and are brought up to a very narrow ridge at top, to which the sides form a steep slope. The dung is made compact, and covered with mats or long litter to keep out the wet, and the spawn is inserted when the heat is declining below 80°. The sides are beaten as closely as possible, and the whole is then covered about 2 inches thick with554 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. a fine adhesive loam, worked to the consistence of mortar, and beaten with the back of the spade, so that it becomes a compact casing to the bed. The heat is regulated more or less by the thicker or thinner covering of mats or litter, and if likely to become too cold, the bed is covered with warm litter. It should not be allowed to cool more than is proper, and then be warmed up by hot dung. Care must be taken to protect the beds from rain, for if they were allowed to get too wet the spawn would not run, and for this purpose long litter or mats are usually employed. Some construct roofs—a mode which should be adopted where boards, scantlings, or thatched hurdles can lie procured. Mushrooms can be obtained in abundance for a good part of the year from beds formed out of doors as above described, or in some similar way; but the uncertain state of the weather occasions much more labour in regulating the covering than is required in growing them in a house where they are not exposed to extremes of heat and cold, and dryness and moisture. A mushroom-house may either be span-roofed, or it may be constructed with a lean-to roof against the back of a forcing-house or other wall. A width of 10 feet is very good; it admits of a path 3 feet wide along the centre, and a bed 3J feet wide on each side. If the north wall were built hollow, it would the better resist sudden changes of external temperature, and the same would be the case with the roof if it were covered with a thick coat of thatch, either straw or heath; but thatch, except in particular situations, is unsightly, besides being dangerous in case of fire; consequently slates will be chiefly employed instead, although in sunny weather they become hot, and transmit much heat to the interior. It will therefore be advisable, in the case of the mushroom-house, to have a double ceiling. The interior should be filled up with shelves, having in front upright ledges 9 inches deep, and 2 feet ought to be allowed from the bottom of one shelf up to that of the one next above it. Brick is a better material for the shelves than wood, for the latter sometimes becomes dry in consequence of the heat of the dung, and withdraws moisture without returning an equivalent of it from the moist air of the house. Moisture, however, is readily diffused through bricks, so that if their outside is moist from vapour in the air of the house, their inner surface in contact with the materials of the bed will not be injuriously dry. "Where brick shelving has been tried the crop of mushrooms has proved much superior to those on wood; and this being the case, the question is only one of expense as regards the first outlay. "When we consider how soon decay in wood is induced by con- tact with fermenting materials in an atmosphere saturated with steam, and how rapidly decay proceeds when once it does commence, there can be no doubt as to brick-shelves being not only the best, but eventually the cheapest. Long experienced growers of good mushrooms on the ridge system, who considered mushrooms grown on Oldaker’s plan of wooden shelves of poor quality compared with their own, nevertheless approved of brick shelves, judging from the quantity and quality of the crop they had actually seen produced upon them. Although for the greater part of the year a well-constructed mushroom-house will not require fire-heat, yet, in the case of severe winters, it is necessary to have it at command. A little will suffice, especially as the doors should be made to shut closely, and the windows ought to be furnished with close-fitting shutters. A small hot-water apparatus, with a flow and return 3-inch pipe, will answer the purpose. The pipes can be laid either in a channel under the footpath, where they can be covered with a grating or wooden trellis, or they may be placed along each side of the path, and saddled with movable evaporating troughs, made either of iron, tinned or galvanized, or of earthenware. If more vapour should at any time be required than will rise from these troughs, some of them may be removed, and the hot-water pipe watered through the rose of a watering-pot. A dense steam can be still more readily produced by means of an inch pipe fitted into the top of a small boiler, which may be placed in an adjoining shed or other convenient situation. The material chiefly employed for beds in-doors, and in pots or boxes, or on shelves, is the droppings of horses fed on corn and hay. They should be collected fresh, and laid in thin layers or small ridges in a dry place. The long litter ought to be shaken out and dispensed with; but a portion of the short litter may be retained, provided it has been well moistened by the urine of the horses. These materials should be frequently turned and maintained in an incipient state of fermentation. In order that the ammonia may not be lost, the dung may be mixed with a little rather dry friable maiden loam. Some, indeed, beat up together, with a piece of wood similar to that used for mortar, horse dung, loam, old mushroom-bed dung, and half-decayed hot-bed leaves, containing traces of spawn; and these, when well incorporated, are placed in the mushroom-house in successive layers, and each layer, about 3 inches thick, is beaten firm. When about 10 inches thick the surface of the beds is covered with about 2 inches thick of loam, and if likely to get too hot holes are bored. Beds so formed produceFORCING. 555 well without the introduction of brick or cake spawn; hut in case of failure it is always advisable to be provided with some of it. Mr. Forsyth recommends horse-droppings to be collected and dried a little in an open shed, a stratum of loamy turf 2 or 3 inches deep to be placed in the bottom of the bed, and then three la yens of droppings, each layer being rendered as compact as possible. When the mass heats holes are bored 9 inches apart, and as deep as the loam, and when the heat declines to 80J the holes are partly filled up with loam and horse-droppings mixed; a piece of spawn about the size of a hen’s egg being inserted in each, they are then filled up level with the surface. If the beds are to be of considerable thickness, say 1 foot or more, then it is well to mix the materials with loam in order to prevent the fermentation becoming too violent; but when they are chiefly composed of droppings they must be made thinner, in which case they will not continue so long in bearing. The spawn should be introduced a little below the surface when the heat is 75°, or on the decline from 80°, a temperature which the materials ought never to exceed. The surface of the bed must be immediately covered thinly with loam, and in a week or ten days this covering should be made up to 2 inches thick. When put on it ought to be as warm as the materials of the bed. The whole is then covered with hay or litter. The temperature of the house should be kept at between 60° and 65° till the mushrooms appear; afterwards it may be 60°, or not lower than 55°. When in bearing the productiveness of the beds is sometimes injuriously affected by watering. When moisture is needed it is best to well moisten the covering of hay and litter, but not the beds themselves. The water used for this purpose must be of the temperature of 80°. MUSTARD, CRESS, AND RAPE.—These, when in constant demand, may be sown once or twice a week, from the end of October to the middle of March, beginning and leaving off sooner or later according to the season. The seed should be sown thickly in shallow boxes or pans, placed in any structure where a temperature of from 55° to 70° is maintained, or on an old hot-bed. It must be just covered with fine soil, indeed no other covering than a damp mat need be used, the object of covering being merely to prevent evaporation. When the seed vegetates the mat is removed, in order to allow the leaves to acquire their proper colour. On an extensive scale the seed may be sown on old tan spread thinly in any place where the necessary amount of heat, light, and moisture is at command. ONIONS.—When young onions are required in winter for salads, the seed may be sown thickly in pans or boxes of light rich soil, placed near the glass in a vinery or other structure where a temperature of from 55° to 65° is maintained. The onions are drawn for use in a very young state, and a sowing may be made every fortnight if a constant succession is required. POTATO.—The varieties of the Ash-leaved Kidney, and Hogg’s Coldstream, a most excellent round variety, are the best for forcing, but there are many other early varieties which will answer nearly as well. Potatoes are forced in various ways—on hotbeds, in pits, and in pots placed in a vinery, peach-house, or other structure where there is a moderate degree of heat with plenty of light. Culture on Hot-beds.—The tubers which are to be used for sets are placed close together on a gentle hot-bed, or on the floor of a cellar to vegetate, and when they have made shoots 3 or 4 inches long they may be planted on a moderate hot-bed covered with 8 inches of good light soil. The sets may be planted 4 inches apart, in drills 5 inches deep, and 1 foot from each other, and covered at first with inch or 2 inches of light soil; but afterwards, when the stems grow strong, the drills can be filled up level with the rest of the surface. After planting water should be given sparingly; but as the plants increase in size it may be more liberally supplied. Air must be freely admitted whenever the weather is favourable ; but at night, and in frosty weather, the sashes will require to be covered with straw mats or other protecting materials. A mild and nearly uniform temperature should be maintained. The tubers maybe used when they are about 1 inch in diameter, the largest being taken first, and the small ones being left to afford a supply in succession. According to Mr. Cuthill, the following is the mode adopted by the London market-gardeners for obtaining early potatoes“ A long bed, 5 feet wide, is dug out to the depth of 2 feet. This trench is filled with hot dung, on which 6 inches deep of the surrounding mould is put. Middle-sized whole potatoes are used for planting; they are placed in close succession along the bed, covered with 2 inches of mould, hooped, and covered over with mats and straw. In about a month they will have sprouted; frames are then got ready, placing 2 feet of hot manure along the whole line of framing, which is sometimes 100 yards in length; the mould is put on to the depth of 8 inches; the potatoes are carefully taken up from the striking bed, all shoots are removed except the main one, and they are planted 4 inches deep. Radishes are then sown thinly over them,55G GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. covering lightly with mould. When the haulm of the potato has grown to about 6 inches in height, the points are nipped off; this is done in order to give the radishes fair play, and although it may stop the growth for a few days, still the crop is always excellent. The plants are never moulded up, a plan which weakens the potato more than anything else. After planting nothing more is required but to admit plenty of air, and give water; the crop is not dug up until it has come to maturity. The above is the treatment potatoes receive, but they are also grown largely in hooped beds in the open ground. In the latter case the tubers are sprouted, as I have before mentioned. The beds or ridges are dug out 2 feet deep in January, filled with hot dung, and covered with the surrounding mould to the depth of 10 inches. The potatoes are taken up and planted 5 inches deep, and above all, radishes are sown. The ridges are then hooped over, allowing about 2 feet of space in the middle, between the mould and the hoop. They are covered with mats and straw; but as soon as the radishes come up they are uncovered daily, and covered again every night. This is continued till the potatoes are ready for digging in May, for sometimes large losses are occasioned by a sudden change of weather on cold April nights. Nothing more is done to the hooped beds beyond attending to them with water.” Culture in Pots.—This is very simple; it is merely necessary to plant the sets in 8 or 11 inch pots, filled to within 3 inches of the top with light rich soil. The pots may then be placed near the glass in a vinery, peach-house, or pit, where a temperature of from 50° to 00° is maintained. With the exception of watering, and putting more earth in the pots as the plants advance in growth, no further attention is required. It is advantageous to excite the sets previous to planting, as already recommended. Forcing may be commenced in December, and successional crops planted in January and February. PURSLANE.—This, when required early in the season, may be sown on a hot-bed from January till the end of March. The bed may be about 15 inches thick, and should be covered with (J inches of rich vegetable mould. On this the seed ought to be scattered thinly, and slightly pressed in with the back of the spade; a temperature of 60° or 65° should be maintained. The plants may be cut twice, and after the second cutting, the soil having been renewed, seed may be again sown. RADISH.—The best sorts for forcing are the Oblong Rose-coloured or Olive-shaped Scarlet, and Wood’s Early Frame, among the long-rooted varieties; and the Red and White turnip-rooted radishes. The seed should be sown in light rich soil, laid to the thickness of 8 or 9 inches on a moderate liot-bed, or in a pit where a temperature of from 55° to 65° is maintained. About an ounce of seed will be sufficient to sow 25 square feet. If the plants come up too thickly they may be thinned to about an inch apart; afterwards, thinning will be effected sufficiently well by drawing the most forward for use. Gentle waterings should occasionally be given, and air admitted at every favourable opportunity; but the sashes must be covered at night and in frosty weather with straw-mats, or other protecting materials. A sowing may be made every fortnight from the beginning of November till the middle or end of February, and the crop will generally be fit for use about six weeks after sowing. Radishes are frequently forced along with carrots, or between the rows of endive and lettuce. RHUBARB.—The Tobolsk, Mitchell’s Royal Albert, Randall’s Early Prolific, and Myatt’s Linnaeus, are all excellent sorts for forcing. It would also be desirable to have some of the El-ford, on account of its fine colour. Rhubarb is forced in the open ground, or in pits, cellars, or other structures, where a sufficient degree of heat is maintained. In the open ground, forcing is frequently effected by covering the roots with sea-kale pots, boxes, or dower-pots, which are afterwards surrounded with hot dung or a mixture of litter, stable-dung, and leaves. Another mode which is pursued by the market-gardeners near London “consists in digging long pits, to the depth of 2 or 3 feet, introducing 18 inches of hot dung, and then packing the roots closely together in a little mould, covering the crowns with hoops, or with 6 inches of straw, then hurdles or mats, and finishing with 6 or 8 inches of straw, the amount of the latter depending on the severity of the weather. In this way strong well-davoured stalks are produced, provided the weather is dry. The colour is bright red, and the leaf is always very small.”—(Cuthill’s Market Gardening round London.) All the above modes are, however, attended with considerable trouble and expense, and give the ground a littery and unsightly appearance; moreover, the quality of the produce is frequently much deteriorated by wet. For these reasons, forcing in houses is greatly to be preferred; not only is the heat more at command, but the quality of the produce is not dependent on the state of the weather. Rhubarb may be forced in any structure where a temperature of from 55° to 65° is maintained; a mushroom-liouse, the floor of aFORCING. 557 vinery or peach-house, or a pit, will be very suitable. Where there is not accommodation of this description, the roots may be placed on dung beds in a shed, or even in a warm cellar. Roots from two to five years old are the best for forcing, but in default of such, strong roots of one year’s growth may be employed. The reason of the preference being given to the former is that they contain a greater amount of organizable matter for the formation of leaves and stalks. They may be taken up carefully any time after the decay of the leaves, and placed close together in the spot where they are to be forced. Some light soil should then be worked in among them, and a thin layer of soil spread over the whole, in order to retain a sufficient amount of moisture for vegetation. Afterwards, if the soil become too dry, a gentle watering may be given. No other care will be required. Sometimes the roots are taken up in autumn, potted, or more frequently packed close together in boxes, and kept in a shady situation till required for forcing, when they may be placed in a mushroom-house or vinery. In this way, by bringing in a quantity of roots every three weeks, a constant succession may be secured with little trouble. Forcing may be commenced in the end of November, and continued till stalks are produced in the open ground. SEA-KALE.—This is easily forced. In order that it may become blanched it requires to be grown in the dark. A little heat is sufficient to excite its vegetation, for, with a mean temperature of 42°, it pushes naturally in the open ground, and when the mean of the air and of the soil reaches 55°, the growth is as vigorous as can be desired, and therefore, in forcing, this mean temperature ought not to be exceeded. In cases of emergency, when produce must be had in a certain limited period, 60° may be applied; but this should be the maximum. Mills recommends a gentle heat, adding—“ the milder it is the finer will be the produce.” If forcing is to be carried on where the plants are established in the open ground, the soil ought not to be allowed to get frozen in the autumn or winter previous to forcing. It is easy to prevent this by a covering of litter; but if the soil is allowed to get frozen, it takes much heat to raise the temperature to even 42°, which we may term the starting-point in forcing this vegetable, for at this temperature it will be in a manner dormant. Top and bottom heat should correspond, for at the time of the year when sea-kale pushes naturally, the average temperature of the air and that of the earth very nearly correspond. In commencing to force we may raise the bottom-heat 5°, or to 47° the first week, to 50° the second week, and then increase it by 1° a week till produce fit for cutting is obtained, which will be in the course of six or seven weeks from the commencement of the process. It will be apparent that the above small amount of heat may be obtained in various ways, and in dill'erent situations—in the open ground, by tan, dung, or leaves, or by the last two materials mixed; and in houses or pits by flues or hot-water pipes. The time to commence forcing depends on the period at which produce will be required. If this should be the third week in December, from plants forced in the open ground, they must be cleared of decaying leaves in the end of October, and the soil about the crowns forked over and made fine. A portion of the plants may be covered to the depth of several inches with light soil, sand, or coal ashes, and a succession to those which are not so treated will by this means be secured. The others should be covered with sea-kale pots, or large garden pots, and over these must be laid a covering of dung, or preferably, a mixture of dung and leaves. A mode of forcing extensively practised by the market-gardeners near London is detailed by Mr. Cuthill. Essentially it is as follows:—When the plants are removed in spring, after having been forced, the thongs, or long pliable portions of the roots, are cut off, and as soon as the cuts become dry, the pieces are planted out for the summer, to be taken up for forcing in the following November. All the small buds round the principal one are pared off, so that the latter may make a stronger shoot. Some growers cut off the prongs, or end roots, in November, when the plants are taken up to be forced. The pieces taken off are cut in lengths of 4 inches, and thrown in a heap till spring, when they are planted out for the summer, and taken up before winter for forcing, planting them thickly in beds, hooped over, and covered with straw to the thickness of from 4 to 6 inches. There can be no question as to the superiority of plants raised from cuttings of roots that have not been forced, as compared with those from plants that have undergone that process; for the production of the blanched shoots must greatly exhaust the proper juices stored up in the roots, whilst the latter cannot derive from growths not exposed to the light any equivalent return. On the other hand, taking off the smaller parts from roots about to be forced, and thus reducing them to truncheons, must, to some extent, lessen the vigour of the shoots. The question is, whether, thus treated, strong plants from good cuttings give a better produce than weaker plants from exhausted cuttings, but forced with all their roots. We think the probability is in favour of558 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. the foi’mer. But instead of adopting either, it would be better to raise an abundance of plants from which unexhausted cuttings could be obtained, to produce plants for the purpose of being forced, without mutilation. SORREL.—The best sort for forcing is the Belleville Sorrel. In the middle or end of November the roots should be taken up with small balls, and planted in rich mould on a moderate liot-bed, or in pots or boxes, in any place where there is a bottom-heat of 50°, and an atmospheric temperature of 55°. Forcing may be continued till the end of February or beginning of March. SWEET-POTATO, or BATATAS (Convolvulus Batatas, L. — Pentandria Monogynia, L.; Convolvulaceie, DC.)—is a perennial plant, a native of the West Indies and South America. The tubers, called potatoes by the old writers on gardening, having a sweet agreeable taste, were imported into this country from Spain, and used as a delicacy long before the introduction of the potato (Solatium, tuberosum). The plant is extensively cultivated in the warmer parts of America^ and will even succeed in the open air as far north as New York. It is also grown in the south of France, but in Britain, to produce useful tubers it requires the protection of glass; and for this reason, as well as on account of the difficulty there is in preserving the tubers through the winter, it is but little cultivated. There are several varieties; amongst those known in France the best are the Long Bed, the Bose-coloured Malaga, the White of the Isle of France, the Yam Sweet-potato, the tubers of which sometimes weigh 8 lbs., and the Purple, which attains a large size and keeps better than the other kinds. The sweet-potato is raised from seed, but as in this way several varieties may be produced from the seeds of the same plant, propagation is usually effected by means of the tubers. In February, or the beginning of March (in April at New York), these are placed close together, but without touching each other, on a thin layer of mould, on a moderate hot-bed, and covered with 4 inches of fine soil. If only a few plants are required, the tubers may be planted in pots plunged in a liot-bed, or placed on the flues of a vinery or peach-house. If a large number are required, the shoots are taken off when about 4 inches in length, and planted about 4 inches apart, on a moderate hot-bed, or potted singly in small pots and plunged in heat, keeping them, in either case, near the glass. In the beginning of May the young plants may be planted out 2 feet apart on a slight hotbed, shading till again established, and giving gentle waterings at the root, as may be necessary. Tub el's fit for use may be obtained in August, and the whole crop may be taken up in October, but in doing so great care must be taken not to bruise the tubers, otherwise they will soon decay. Only the soundest should be selected for keeping; and these having been placed so as not to touch each other, in dry sand or moss, in boxes, or earthenware jars, may be kept through the winter in a dry airy place, with a temperature of 50°. The French market-gardeners start the tubers as early as the beginning of January, and obtain tubers fit for use in June and July successionally. They also plant them under cloches on a liot-bed in April, shading from sun with litter for a few days, after which a little air is given, and when the plants become too large for the glasses these are taken off. Farther on in the season, in May, holes from 18 to 20 inches square and 16 inches deep are dug 2 feet apart, and filled with dung, which is covered with 9 inches of light rich soil, and three plants are placed on each hole, and covered with a cloche. TANSY may easily be forced. It is only necessary to pot the roots, and place them in a temperature of 55° or 60°, or to plunge them in a moderate hot-bed. TARRAGON.—In order to have tarragon in winter, roots should be taken up in autumn and planted in light rich soil in pots or boxes, which may be introduced into a house with a temperature of 55° or 60°, in succession, from the beginning of December till the plants in the open ground produce leaves. Boots may also be placed on a moderate hot-bed, and covered with vegetable mould. TOMATO.—Beyond forwarding for planting out, either in the open ground or in pits, the tomato is very rarely forced in this country. Fruit may, however, be produced as early as A-pril or May, by sowing in October, in pots of light rich soil, placed in a pine-stove, shifting into larger pots as the plants increase in size, stopping when a sufficient number of fruit is produced, and training against some support, so as to expose the fruit fully to the light. For very early tomatoes the market-gardeners of Paris “ sow in September in pots, which are placed in a pine-stove or plunged in a hot-bed, and prick out in January; but in ordinary forcing, the seed is sown on a hot-bed in January, and when the young plants have acquired sufficient strength they are pricked out into another liot-bed. A few days after planting they commence to give a little air to strengthen the plants. In February or March a liot-bed, 20 inches thick, is prepared, so as to afford a heat of from 68° to 77°, the frames are put on, and a layer of vegetable mould, 10 inches in thickness, is spread overFORCING. 559 the dung. The frames are surrounded by a lining which is turned when necessary, and as soon as the bed has cooled down to the proper temperature, four tomatoes are planted under each light. The sashes are then put on, and covered up at night with straw mats. When the plants have somewhat advanced in growth, two branches are chosen on each, and pegged down. The others are all cut off, and when a sufficient number of floweis have been produced, the branches are stopped. Afterwards all fresh shoots are pinched or removed; gentle waterings are given, air is admitted on bright days, the frames are raised up as may be found necessary, and, when the fruit begins to redden, all leaves which tend to shade it are removed, in order to hasten the ripening process, and render it more complete. The earliest sown tomatoes commence to ripen in the beginning of April; the January sowing in May.”—{Culture Maratchere.) II.—FRUIT FORCING. APRICOT.—The apricot was formerly considered as difficult to force as the cherry, or even more so. Blossoming in the open air at a cool period of the season, it is adapted for bearing only a low temperature at that stage of its vegetation, and previously. Its buds begin to swell by the influence of warm sun through the day, the nights at the same time being usually frosty. It is therefore not to be supposed that a tree, of which the vegetation progresses under such circumstances, will bear with impunity the heat which might be safely applied to start the vine, for example, into leaf. The Royal Muscadine, one of the earliest grapes, generally breaks into leaf on a south wall in the first week of May, by which time the young fruit of the apricot usually attains a considerable size. The same sort of vine flowers when the maximum temperature of the day is about 68°, and the minimum at night 46°, and it would bear a much higher temperature than this, whereas the apricot flowers with a maximum of 54°, and a minimum of 35°. It therefore appears that the apricot flowers with a day temperature of 14°, and a night temperature of 11° below that in which the vine flowers. This being the case, it may be fairly assumed that the apricot would suffer if it were forced into leaf and flower along with the vine; and attempts to do so would lead, as they have done, to the supposition that the apricot is not adapted for being forced. If the vine were kept in no higher temperature than that in which the apricot flowers, its vegetation would scarcely be moved; therefore a wide difference must exist between the habits of the two plants, so that what would scarcely excite the one would over-excite the other, in the early stage of its vegetation at least. The apricot, however, will bear to be brought forward, agreeably to the temperature experienced in the open air in our best seasons, and therefore somewhat higher than that of the average, which we have taken for data as above. In forcing we may therefore commence with 50° maximum, and 40° minimum, for the first two weeks; third week, 55° maximum, and 42° minimum; fourth week, 58° maximum, and 55° minimum, and the fifth week, if the tree is in flower, the temperature may be continued about the same, with plenty of air. When the wood-buds begin to open, and shoots to push, care must be taken that they do so rather slowly than otherwise, in order that the parts of fructification be not robbed of the sap which would otherwise flow to them. We have seen that a comparatively low temperature is amply sufficient for the perfect development of these parts; and it has been frequently observed that the fruit does not set so well when the tree is subjected whilst in blossom, and before the fruit is well set, to a comparatively high temperature, in consequence of which leaves and shoots are rapidly produced; for, when this is the case, the sap flows with greater force towards these than to the parts of fructification on which its force had previously been almost entirely concentrated. By a moderate temperature give the blossoms time to expand, and the parts they inclose to make slow and substantial growth; at the same time take care that they are not stunted by cold. But the temperature must not be raised to a pitch that would expand the foliage; do not by any means drive the leafing too close to the flowering. Attention to this will insure a well-set crop, provided the tree is in good condition. After the fruit is set the temperature should be gradually raised, and kept always higher when the weather is clear than when it is dull. When the fruit is stoned the temperature may then be raised to 70° by day, and 60° by night; and in ripening off the day temperature may be allowed to reach 70° or 80° by sun-heat. The Dutch force aprioots successfully, as, indeed, they do most things in their pits, heated by dung. In the Journal of the Horticultural Society, vol. ix., there is an account of a trial of their method, by Mr. Tatter, of the Royal Gardens of Herenhausen, near Hanover. The tree employed, it is worthy of remark, had been, from its earliest age, transplanted every two years, and had thus formed an abundance of fibrous roots, and was well furnished with fruit-spur's. It was planted in spring, outside a pit, into which the branches | were introduced, and trained under the sashes.5G0 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. These had an elevation of about 33°, their lower end being within a foot of the ground level. At 18 inches below the sashes, and parallel to them, was a wooden trellis on which the branches were trained. At 9 inches below the trellis, and parallel to it, there was a close boarding forming a partition between the fermenting dung in the pit and the tree. The forcing was commenced on the 6th of January, and the following is a record of the temperatures to which the tree was subjected, and the results which were produced on its vegetation :— Week commencing Temperature. State of the Tree. By Dav. By Night. Jdu. 6 43°-34° 41°-34° Total rest in the buds. ., 14 50°-41° 43°-36° J Buds begin to stir about (the 16th. (Swelling of the buds ., 21 59°-5U“ 50°-41° J, progresses most in up-(per part of the tree. ,, 28 63°-5y“ 54“-45° f In flower from the 8th Feb. 8 54“-50° 50°-45° -J to the 15th; fruit set (on the 12th. „ 15 to 1 March 7 ) March 8-31. April 1 to June L to 1 26 f 68°-63° 59°-54° 68°-G3° 54°-50° 54°-50° 59°-54° Wood buds si loot out; leaves slowly unfold; petals fall about the ISth, and young fruit swell. Fruit the size of a hazel nut; leaves large; towards the 27th the stones begin to harden. The fruits now grow rapidly, and towards the 29tli of April the greenish colour changes to a yellowish white. The ) first fruits ripened on I the 27th of May, and altogether 290 well-grown I fruits were brought to l maturity. The tree in question was planted in the spring previous to its being forced, in the expectation of more certain success than if it had been planted, as in the Dutch practice, at the time of commencing forcing. A trench outside the box inclosing the roots was completely filled with dung and leaves, in order to maintain a moderate degree of warmth about the roots, and encourage them to produce fibres. Inside, the branches derived artificial warmth also from fermenting materials introduced into the body of the pit, below the wooden portion. The temperature was reduced, when necessary, by giving plenty of air, even in the night. The diminution of temperature in the night, Mr. Tatter observes, is indeed essential. The tree would, in the night time, without light, under a high temperature, be drawn up, would send out long weak shoots, and consequently bear small and bad fruits. We may add, that if the temperature by fire-heat be kept low at night, before and during the time of flowering, it may be allowed to rise pretty high by sun-heat. Brought forward by a uniformly high temperature, the blossoms of the apricot will fail insetting; on the other hand, with one uniformly low, the vegetation of the tree will not be sufficiently excited; the range of temperature, however, between the lowest at night and the highest in the shade during the day should be tolerably uniform, and as much as 12°. CHERRY.—Forcing cherries was formerly considered a precarious operation. It was often the case that the blossoms fell prematurely without setting fruit, or if it did set, it was imperfectly, and the young fruit dropped off about the time of stoning. It is now understood that in many instances such failures were occasioned by too high a temperature, with insufficient air, in the early stage of the process, more especially during the blossoming period. The natural circumstances under which the cherry expands its buds and flowers, sets fruit, and brings it to maturity, do not appear to have formerly received the consideration which they have had more recently from many eminent cultivators, whose forced productions of this fruit we have seen year after year invariably excellent. In the open air, near London, and in an average season, the May Duke cherry flower's in the last week of April. The vegetation of the trees moves but slowly at the beginning of March. The average highest day temperature in the shade, in each successive week, from the 1st of March to the 2d of May, progresses as follows:— 1st Week. 2d Week. 3d Week. 4th Week. 6th Week. 48'70° 50-70° 50'78° 51'09° 54'92° 6th Week. 7th Week. 8th Week. 9th Week. 56'03° 57-12° 58-60° 6112° In seasons more favourable than the average, the maximum temperature is as much as 5° higher than in the above series, and the May Duke cherry flowers as early as the middle of April. We may therefore increase the above temperatures by 5°, or a little more or less occasionally, so as to regulate the progressive increase of temperature. The night temperature during the above period averages 19° below the day; but in the climate of Paris, where cherries succeed well, and ripen early in the open air, the range of temperature between the highest in the day in the shade, and the lowest at night, is much less, frequently not more than 10° or 12°. Adopting the latter range in forcing, we should have the highest without sun-heat and the lowest at night, in the respective weeks, as follows:—FORCING. 561 Highest in the Day— 1st Week. 2d Week. 3d Week. 4th Week. 5th Week. 53° 55° 56° 57° 59° 6th Week. 7th Week. 8th Week. 9th Week. 61° 62° 64° 66° Lowest at Night— 1st 'Week. 2d Week. 3d Week. 4th Week. 5th Week. 41° 43° 44° 45° 47° 6th Week. 7th Week. 8th Week. 9th Week. 49° 50° 52° 54° Mean— 1st Week. 2d Week. 3d Week. 4th Week. 5th Week. 47° 49° 50° 51° 53° 6th Week. 7th Week. 8th Week. 9th Week. 55° 56° 58° 60° The above rate of temperature represents a good natural climate for the cherry. At the commencement of forcing, however, the temperature may be 60° during the day, and 45° at night, in order to start the vegetation of the tree, but it must be lowered when the blossom buds are about to open. After the fruit is stoned the temperature may be gradually raised to 70° by day, or 75° by sun-heat, and 60° at night. Subjected to the preceding temperature, with an occasional rise of 5° more by sun-heat, or even of 10°, provided the weather is such that abundance of air can be admitted at the same time, the trees will be in bloom in the sixth or seventh week. In dull cloudy weather the temperature should be lowered a few degrees, and it may be raised several when there is plenty of sunshine. It is easy to distinguish an overforced vegetation from that which is natural. In the former case the flowers are small, the petals thin, the stamens and pistils weak and slender as compared with these parts when developed under natural circumstances, or those which are forced in accordance with such. The foliage on an overforced plant may be broad, but its substance is thin, and altogether the plant has not that robust appearance which indicates a substantial vigorous growth. It is therefore necessary to watch the progress of vegetation, in order to prevent a too rapid development by lowering the temperature, or by giving more air. The variety of cherry best adapted for forcing is the May Duke; the Royal Duke is also an eligible sort. The Duke cherries are of more compact growth than the Bigarreau tribe, and they set better; nevertheless, a few of such kinds as the Elton and Knight’s Early Black may be forced for variety where space can be afforded. The trees should be worked on young stocks, and removed in autumn, after they have made their first shoot from the graft or bud. Tap-roots, or other large roots, should be pruned back, and the leading shoot ought to be shortened to 9 inches above where it was worked. The tree must be replanted in tolerably rich soil, and in the following summer it should undergo a judicious summer pruning, which chiefly consists in stopping shoots that are likely to become too strong for the others, and if vigorous, the lateral shoots may be shortened to six buds in the end of June. The soil for the pots should be good turfy loam, of a friable nature, mixed with a compost of light loam and rotten dung. If the plants are small, they may be put into 12-inch pots in the first instance, and after having been a year established in these, they may be shifted into 15-inch pots early in autumn. When shifted, they should be plunged in some loose or even very slightly fermenting materials that will keep the pots warmer than if they were freely exposed in the open air, and thus encourage the formation of fresh roots, which will be ready to act when brought into heat. The soil of the pots should be protected from snow-showers and cold rain. Occasionally trees have been taken up in autumn with balls, potted, and forced in the following spring; but those which have been established a year in the pots are to be preferred. Such only as are well furnished with blossom-buds should be selected. The house or the compartment in which the trees are to be forced, ought to be thoroughly cleaned, and put in proper condition to receive them in the beginning of December, if fruit be required very early in the season. During the first and second week it may be kept nearly close; for the buds being then in a dormant state, a free circulation of air is not of much consequence; but as vegetation advances, air becomes absolutely necessary during the day, and even at night when the weather will permit. When the trees are coming into bloom, and till the fruit is set, air must be copiously admitted. About the middle of December, or in the third week of that month, fires should be lighted; and if a proper temperature be maintained, the fruit ought to be ripe in the end of March. Water must be regularly supplied to the roots according as it is wanted; its temperature should be quite equal to that of the air in the house. The trees ought to be kept well syringed with water not colder than the maximum temperature of the air of the house. When the trees are in bloom, however, syringing must be discontinued till the embryo fruit is set, after which it should be resumed till the fruit is approaching maturity, when water ought to be given very sparingly. After the fruit is gathered, the trees should be duly supplied with water at the root, and the foliage kept well syringed till the wood is mature. In order to have fine and large fruit, the latter 36562 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. must be thinned. This should be done by removing with scissors the small fruits as soon as they can be distinguished from those beginning to take the lead. Weak manure water may be occasionally given after stoning, but not when the fruit is approaching maturity, otherwise the flavour will be deteriorated. Frequent top-dressings are highly beneficial, for the water passing through them conveys nutriment to the roots. After midsummer, when the weather is so warm as not to give a sudden check to the vegetation of the trees, they may be placed out of doors where the sun’s rays will not act upon the pots; or the plants may be turned out of the pots and planted in some light soil, where they may remain to recover for the ensuing season, and they may then be repotted in autumn in pots a size larger. The forcing of trees planted out in houses is conducted on the same principles as in the case of those in pots, as regards temperature and light. Moisture will of course require to be frequently supplied to the roots, and this point should be particularly attended to, for the leaves of the cherry evaporate a great deal; yet any approach to an excess of moisture about the roots must be guarded against. Care should, however, be taken that there is no deficiency of it when the fruit is swelling, for none ought to be given during the ripening process. CURRANT. See page 568. FIG (Ficus Carica, L.—Polygamia Dicecia, L.; Artocarpacese, DC. ; Moracese, Lind.) is a native of the south of Europe, Northern Africa, and Western Asia. We find in the Scriptures ample record of its cultivation in the earliest ages, and of the estimation in which the fruit was held. The figs of Athens were celebrated for their exquisite flavour; and it is said that Xerxes was tempted by them to undertake the conquest of Attica. The tree, although remarkably soft-wooded, lives to a very great age—several centuries in mild climates; and even in Britain, a tree of the White Marseilles variety, brought to this country by Cardinal Pole in 1525, is remembered as covering a large extent of wall, and bearing abundantly, in the garden of the Archbishop of Canterbury, at Lambeth Palace, where several of its descendants of great age and size still exist. On the south coast, in various parts of Sussex, as at Arundel and Tarring, the fig grows and bears most abundantly as a standard. In parts of the country, where the rigours of severe winters are not mitigated by the sea-breeze, fig-trees, if not protected, are occasionally killed down to the ground; but although this be the case, established plants push up again from the roots. When the thermometer, for several suc- cessive nights, falls to about zero, the old wood is killed, and at 10" Fah. the extremities of the young shoots are mostly destroyed. Like the vine, the fig-tree can bear, as it does in the coun- Fig. 341. tries to which it is indigenous, a very hot summer, but, as appeal’s from the above, not a severe winter, such as the wood of the vine, if previously well matured, withstands uninjured. The varieties of the fig are exceedingly numerous in the countries where it is extensively cultivated, as in the Ionian Isles, Italy, and Provence; but many of them have not been grown in this country, and their adaptation to our climate has not been ascertained. We shall therefore only notice some of those which have been proved to be the best. I. Fruit with dark-coloured skin. 1. [Black Bourjassotte — syn. Precoce Noire.— Fruit roundish oblate, middle-sized; skin black, covered with a thick blue bloom; stalk short; jlesh deep-red, thick, syrupy, and very delicious. 2. Black Genoa—syn. Negro d’Espagne, Noire de Languedoc.—Fruit oblong, very broad upwards, large; skin dark, blackish-purple, with a thick blue bloom; flesh yellow, red towards the middle, sweet, rich, and juicy. A hardy and productive kind. Dr. Hogg points out that it is the large black fig so much grown in Languedoc and Provence.] 3. Black Ischia—syn. Blue Ischia, Early Forcing.— Fruit roundish obovate, middle sized; skin dark purple, almost black; flesh deep red, rich and luscious. The tree is a good bearer, and comparatively hardy. 4. Brown Turkey—syn. Brown Naples, Italian, Murrey, Lee’s Perpetual, Howick, Walton, AshridgeFORCING. 563 Forcing, Early, Fleur Rouge, Purple, Common Purple, Blue, Large Blue, Blue Burgundy, Blue Ischia of some.—Fruit large, turbinate, or short pyriform, with a grooved surface, obtuse at the stalk, which is short and thick; skin brown, with sometimes a faint purplish tinge next the sun; flesh tinged with red at the centre, rich and sugary; ripens early. The tree is a most abundant bearer, and one of the hardiest known. It is the best for out-door cultivation, and it also forces well. 5. [Col di Signora Nero.—Fruit long pyriform, ribbed, above middle size; skin dark chocolate, with a thin gray bloom; flesh dark-red throughout, very rich and sugary. It ripens late. 6. Early Violet. — Fruit roundish, small; skin brownish-red, covered with blue bloom; flesh red and nicely flavoured. Mr. Rivers notes that it is very hardy and an abundant bearer, often giving three crops in one season in the forcing-house. 7. Negro 'L&B.GO^Fruit long pyriform, of the largest size, ribbed through its entire length; skin black; stalk short; flesh pale red, with abundant thick rich juice, and forming a delicious sweetmeat when highly ripened. It is of good habit and adapted for pot-culture.] S. Pregussata.—Fruit oblate or turbinate, large; stalk short and thick; skin dark brown, with a purplish tinge, and sprinkled with pale dots\ flesh red, very sweet and rich. The tree is a good bearer, and well adapted for forcing. This excellent variety was sent from the Ionian Isles to the Horticultural Society of London. 9. [Royal Vineyard.—Fruit long pyriform, with a slender neck, longitudinally ribbed, middle-sized; skin reddish-brown or purple, hairy, with a thick bluish bloom; stalk long, slender; flesh bright red, very juicy and melting, richly flavoured. A prolific variety. II.—Fruit with a pale-coloured skin sometimes TINGED WITH BROWN. 10. Agen—syn. Gros de Draguigan.—Fruit roundish turbinate, middle-sized; skin green, with a brownish tinge, deep brown round the flattened crown, covered with blue bloom; flesh dark blood-red, thick, syrupy, and most delicious. It ripens late. 11. Angelique—syn. Madeleine, Courcourelle Blanche. —Fruit roundish turbinate, flattened at the crown, below middle size; skin yellow, with greenish-white specks; flesh white, with a faint rosy tint towards the centre. A good fig for forcing, and for open-air walls.] 12. Brunswick—syn. Madonna, Hanover, Brown Hamburg, Bays water, Clementine, Black Naples, White Turkey, Drap d’Or, De la St. Jean.—Fruit oblong-obovate or pyriform, very large; stalk short and thick; skin pale yellowish-green where shaded, pale brown next the sun, intermixed with small pale brown specks; flesh opaline outside, reddish-brown at the centre, tolerably rich and sugary. This variety is hardier than most others, and is therefore adapted for the open wall; but it doe3 not answer well for forcing, the fruit being more apt to drop than is the case with shorter-necked varieties. The leaf is large, but very deeply lobed or divided into narrow segments. 13. [Castle Kennedy. —Fruit obovate, very large; skin greenish-yellow, pale brown towards the eye; flesh whitish, with stains of red near the eye, tender but not very rich. An abundant bearer, suitable for walls; it is also remarkable for its earliness. 14. Celestine.—Fruit long pyriform, large; skin pjde reddish-brown or grizzly; flesh deep red, rich, and very delicious. 15. Col di Signora Bianca.—Fruit pyriform, with a long neck, middle-sized, longitudinally ribbed; skin green, changing to yellowish-white, thick, and covered with fine gray bloom; stalk short and stout; flesh dark blood-red, thick, syrupy, and delicious. Dr. Hogg calls it one of the finest figs in cultivation. 16. Grizzly Bourjassotte—syn. Bourjassotte Grise, Nepolitaine.—Fruit round, with a short neck, much flattened, almost oblate, middle-sized; skin chocolate, covered with a very thin bloom; flesh dark blood-red, thick aud syrupy, and of a delicious flavour. 17. Grosse Monstreuse de Lipari.—Fruit turbinate, broad and flattened at the apex, very large, marked with longitudinal ribs; skin pale chestnut-brown, with occasional dark spots, covered with thick bloom; stalk short, thick; flesh dull red, thick, juicy, and well-flavoured. A large handsome fig, which grows freely and bears abundantly. 18. Panachee—syn. Col di Signora Panachee, Col di Signora Bianca Panachee.—Fruit roundish turbinate, with a short neck, above middle size; skin yellow, beautifully striped with flakes of bright green of variable width; flesh bright rose-colour, with a broad rim of white skin, thick, sjrrupy, and richly flavoured. A very handsome fruit. 19. Verdal.—Fruit round, ribbed, about middle size; skin dark green, without bloom; stalk very short; flesh dark blood-red, firm, sugary, and delicious.] 20. White Ischia—syn. Nerii, Green Ischia, Single-ton, Brocket Hall.—Fruit roundish-obovate, small; skin pale greenish-yellow, very thin, and semi-transparent; flesh purplish-red, exceedingly juicy, sweet, and rich. This variety being of small growth and a great bearer, is well adapted for pot-culture, and moreover it forces well. 21. White Marseilles—syn. Marseillaise, White Naples, Pocock’s, Ford’s Seedling, White Standard, Figue Blanche, D’Athenes, White Genoa, Raby Castle. —Fruit roundish obovate, or somewhat turbinate, slightly ribbed, large; stalk short and thick; skin pale green, becoming yellowish-white when the fruit is at maturity; flesh opaline, very succulent, sweet, and rich. This variety ripens freely against a wall, and answers well for forcing. Propagation.—This is readily effected by seeds, layers, and cuttings of the roots, also by tops, suckers, and by grafting. Seeds are easily raised by sowing in pots or pans filled with leaf-mould and sand, plunged in a moderate hot-bed. Seedlings may produce good or bad varieties; some sorts are known to be considerably hardier than others; and by raising a number of seedlings from different kinds, there is a probability that among them some will be found better suited to this climate than any hitherto imported from warm parts of the world. Layers take root very readily. In some cases this mode may be employed for obtaining fruit-564 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. ing plants in a shorter period than they can be had by any other means. In a forcing-house at Versailles we observed, in March, 1847, plants in pots studded with an abundance of young fruit. These were obtained by layering in small pots, in the previous May, shoots or branches in a bearing state; the rooted layers were taken up in October, potted in 12-inch pots, and then taken into the house for forcing. Cuttings should be taken from shoots that have not been injured by frost; or branches of the best ripened wood, taken off before frosts set in, may be buried in moist sand till early spring, when they can be made into cuttings, planted in pots, and plunged in a hot-bed. Care should be taken to rear them with a single stem. They will strike in the natural soil in summer, but in a bottom-heat of 70° or 75° the process is rapid, and a well-rooted plant is soon obtained. Good plants can also be reared from suckers, either in pots, with the assistance of bottom-heat, or in a warm border kept moist by watering. Mulching will likewise prove beneficial, by maintaining the soil in a more uniform condition as regards moisture than would otherwise be the case, and by preventing rapid evaporation it will save labour in watering. Soil and Situation.-—The fig-tree will grow in almost any soil. In the rich well-manured soil of gardens it grows but too luxuriantly for the heat and light of our climate. We have known the roots of a fig-tree extend nearly thirty feet in a kitchen-gai'den, but the shoots were too luxuriant and soft for bringing fruit to maturity. Better wood is obtained where the fig is planted in a border not exceeding 6 feet wide, with a hard road or walk in front, into which the roots can scarcely penetrate. A chalk bottom suits the fig well, for such affords a moderate supply of moisture in dry weather, and in wet it permits superabundant moisture to percolate through it, so as not to remain stagnant about the roots. Where such soil does not naturally exist, the sub-soil ought to be well drained. A rich friable loam is to be preferred, and if calcareous so much the better. The situation should be warm, yet a free circulation of air is essential, and the foliage must be well exposed to light, otherwise it is apt to become yellow, and the fruit is then liable to drop off. A wall with a south, or nearly south, aspect is the best, and next to this, one that has a south-west exposure. Near the coast, in the southern parts of the kingdom, the tree will grow as a standard; and in parts of the kingdom inland, where the summers are warm, but the winters occasionally severe, fig-trees may be planted as espaliers if walls cannot be afforded. In this way their branches can be trained so as to expose the foliage to light and air in summer, and in winter they can be more easily protected than standard trees. M. De la Bretonnerie states, in UEcole du Jar din Frutier, that the sandy gravelly soil of Argenteuil, near Paris, suits the fig remarkably well; but the best trees are those which grow in old quarries, where their roots are free from stagnant water, and where they are sheltered from cold, and exposed to a very hot sun, which ripens perfectly the fruit. The water which collects in the ravines keeps them constantly supplied with moisture. He says that he has always found that the tree succeeds well planted in a paved court, against a building with a south aspect. A fig-tree thus planted and left to grow at liberty will produce excellent figs, and in much greater quantity than in any other situation. The paving protects the roots from frost in winter and drought in summer; and whatever may be the nature of the soil under the pavement into which the roots penetrate, the tree always thrives well. "We have not had an opportunity of seeing the tree planted in the above manner; but we have no doubt that a trial of it would be attended with successful results, for the roots of a Royal Muscadine vine planted, near London, against a wall in a paved court, extended beneath the pavement, and the grapes were the finest we ever saw produced out of doors in this country; and circumstances so highly favourable to the vine would doubtless prove equally so to the fig. Mode of Bearing.—It is necessary that this should be well understood, otherwise errors in pruning, and other points of management, would most likely be committed. The fig-tree is deciduous; it pushes late in spring, near London in the first, second, or third week in May, and continues growing till late in autumn, if not checked by frost. Whilst the young shoots proceed in growth, one, and sometimes two, fruit-buds are formed in the axils of the leaves, frequently in the axil of evei'y leaf along the shoot in succession, from the base upwards. The earliest formed, those situated on the lower portion of the shoot, acquire a considerable size, but very rarely attain perfection in this country, as they do in the Levant, and other parts where the climate is well adapted for the growth of the tree. Here they remain, however, on the shoots after the leaves drop in autumn, but their I growth is then of course arrested; they begin to shrivel, and in the following spring wither, even although they may have been protected from frost I in winter. Such is the fate of all young fruitFORCING. 565 that may have acquired any considerable degree of development on shoots of the current season. But towards the extremities of these shoots fruit-buds continue to be formed, and these embryo fruit-buds, which are about the size of a marrow-pea when the season of growth is over, retain their vitality through the winter, growing and ripening in the course of the following summer. The fruits which in this climate attain maturity in the open air, being principally derived from the extremities of the shoots, the latter, it is evident, must be saved in pruning, and protected from the injurious effects of frost. In many cases the shoots grow luxuriantly, their wood being soft and spongy, more especially that towards the extremities, where, as just stated, fruit-buds are situated that remain dormant, yet retain their vitality throughout the winter. Their position on the youngest and softest part of the shoots is not the most favourable for the fruit attaining the greatest perfection, and it would therefore be desirable if by any means fruit-buds could be induced to form lower on the shoot. The only chance of effecting this is to rub off the figs that naturally form there, so that the sap that would otherwise flow into them may excite latent fruit-buds to push late enough in the season for standing the winter. The time when this should be done cannot be precisely stated, for it will of course depend on the locality, on the season—whether early or late, and on the nature of the variety on which the operation is performed. In the Journal of the Horticultural Society, vol. iii. p. 230, there is an account of a Brown Turkey fig, trained against a wall with a south-west aspect, at Pitmaston, near Worcester, and some of the observations made respecting that tree, bearing upon the point in question, may here be introduced:—“The fruit was not merely at the extremities of the shoots, as is usually the case out of doors, but at intervals all along from their bases upwards. For example, a shoot 40 inches in length had eight fruits, of which four were situated respectively at 3, 6, 15, and 21 inches from its base; the others were borne at somewhat variable intervals on the upper portion. The young figs which formed on the shoots of last summer’s growth, now the bearing shoots, were all rubbed off in the previous August. When the blossoms of apples, pears, strawberries, raspberries, &c., are cut off, a second blossoming is induced. The fig manifests the same disposition on its being prevented from nourishing its first-formed fruits. Deprived of its first, it makes an effort to produce a second progeny. The particular period of the season when the shoots ought to be stripped of their first-formed fruits must be determined by experience, for it is connected with variable circumstances of soil, climate, and situation. As above stated, the operation was performed in August on the tree at Pitmaston; and the results justify the conclusion, that it was done at the proper time as regards the condition of that tree.” The Rev. George Swayne states, that not a single fig, that can be seen to be a fig, fairly protruded from the bud in autumn, will ever become a perfect fruit in the following season. Not one of this description, therefore, should be left. His plan was to rub or break off with the finger and thumb all the figs produced on the same year’s shoot, as soon as they could be distinguished by the naked eye, in order to give the tree sufficient time to exert its powers in the seasonable preparation of new embryo figs for the following year, in the room of those immature fruits of ■which it had been deprived. If this operation be performed in due time, it will not fail to prepare on one, and often on both, sides of almost every fig so displaced such embryos. Alluding to the figs on the young shoots, he says, they usually begin to show themselves at the beginning of August, from which time the trees should be examined once a week in order to displace them, and this examination must be repeated as long as young fruits make their appearance (Hort. Trans. vol. iv. p. 430). These remarks should, of course, be understood to apply to those first-formed fruits on the lower part of the shoots, and not to such fruit-buds as are likely to remain in the bud state during the winter, resuming their growth with the fresh flow of sap in spring, and maturing their fruit in the course of the summer. Pruning and Training.—The fig-tree, grown as a standard, requires but little pruning; it has often been said the less the better, and this is true, unless the operation be done very judiciously. If the roots are in rich soil, and the knife be freely applied to the branches, the consequence will be that from the base of each strong shoot cut back others equally strong, or even stronger, will proceed. If the shoots be cut so closely as not to leave an eye, the accumulated sap will in other parts of the tree stimulate buds to push shoots too vigorous for bearing. It has been explained that the fig-tree bears on the shoots of the current year fruits that attain maturity in favourable climates, with the exception of some of the latest formed, which even in those climates do not ripen till the following season. But with us these exceptions become the rule, for our principal crop is derived from near the extremities of the shoots of the previous season’s growth, except where artificial means are successfully employed to start embryo shoots near566 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. the base of the shoot. But whether the fruit is matured in the first or second season it originates on the young shoots, and therefore of such it is evident we must endeavour to keep tip ft regular supply. This should be done without adopting the general recommendation of cutting out the oldest branches. A mode of training by which this can be avoided, and at the same time a constant succession of young shoots can be maintained, deserves to be noticed, more especially as it is very simple, yet strictly systematic. It was suggested by a writer in the Gardeners' Chronicle, 1848, p. 621, and is as follows:—From a single upright stem branches are ti’ained at a foot apart, but they are not on both sides in the same horizontal line; one branch is trained from the central stem, say to the left; .at 6 inches higher another is trained to the right, the next to the left, and so on, the branches on one side proceeding from opposite the middle of the intervals between the branches of those on the other. In autumn every alternate shoot is cut back to one eye; the others are left at full length to bear fruit in the following summer, after which they are each cut back in autumn to one eye. The shoots proceeding from the single eyes, to which the shoots or branches are cut back, are trained at full length. They will form fruit-buds in the first season, and in the second year of their growth will bear fruit. They are then in their turn cut back to one eye. By this plan all the branches have the same horizontal direction, and can consequently be the more easily maintained of equal vigour. The extent occupied along the wall may be limited to 6 feet, yet the tree may ultimately be made to cover that extent in width from the bottom to the top of even a high wall; and we may remark that the higher the wall, the greater will be the heat and the better will the figs succeed. It is necessary, however, to observe that by adopting the above mode the quantity of the young wood will be great in proportion to that of the old, and when that is the case, the shoots are not so firm and short-jointed, and consequently not so well adapted for bearing. If succulent, over-luxuriant shoots be produced, the roots should be confined, and the soil should not be enriched. We shall now proceed to detail a mode of pruning and training the fig-tree against a wall or espalier, according to which a number of branches are retained to bear the shoots on which the fruit is produced; the former are intended to be permanent, the latter temporary. Presuming that the tree is planted against a wall, let it be cut back to within 15 inches of the ground, and trained with a single stem to the height of a foot. Immediately above this let two shoots be trained, one to the right and another to the left, as directed in training the peach-tree; and from these principal branches two other subdivisions should be encouraged. But these must be trained widely apart, in order to admit of succes-sional bearing shoots being trained between them. These principal branches should be at a greater or less distance according to the size of the foliage; it depends, therefore, on the variety as well as the richness of the soil. In general, 15 inches will not be too wide. Along these branches, at distances of about 8 inches, shoots for bearing ought to be encouraged, and it is most desirable that all of them should be as nearly as possible of equal vigour. A similar equality should be maintained between the respective leading branches. It is a bad plan to allow one or more shoots to grow stronger than the generality throughout the season, and then to cut them back. Instead of doing so they ought to be checked by pinching, as soon as they exhibit symptoms of over-luxuriance. Look at the amount of foliage in connection with the respective branches, compare that on the different shoots springing from the same branch, then apply means to equalize them. By attending to these directions an equal distribution of the sap will be insured, and the result will be a disposition to produce fruit which will not be so liable to drop off as when irregularity of growth is permitted, for then the flow of sap must also be irregular, and when this is the case, the fruit is never secure. The bearing shoots, those produced along the leading branches, should be trained at full length. In autumn every alternate one should be cut back to one eye; at the same time those not cut back must be trained at full length. In the following summer the latter should bear and ripen fruit, and then be cut back in autumn to one eye, and shoots from the bases of those cut back the previous autumn should be trained for succession. In this way every leading branch will be furnished with shoots of the current year for succession, alternately with shoots or branches of the previous year for bearing. According to the vigour of the tree the shoots may proceed from the leading branches, at greater or less distances apart. When there is a considerable quantity of firm wood deposited in the leading branches, the shoots will also be firmer and shorter, and a greater number may be trained between the leading branches without being overcrowded. Young shoots will push from the extremities of those branches on which the fruit is being matured. But these branches are destined to be cut back at the end of the season; therefore young shoots from their extremities need not beFORCING. 567 encouraged. On the contrary, it is advisable to check them by pinching the terminal bud when they have made four leaves. These will prove beneficial to the fruit by drawing sap along the branch; but if the terminal shoot be allowed to grow unchecked, it is apt to rob the fruit, especially if it should start into vigorous growth; for it is well known that fruits situated in the vicinity of vigorous shoots are apt to drop. Instead of pruning back the branches at once to one eye, they may be only partially shortened as early in autumn as it is found this can be done without much loss of sap from the wounds; after some weeks they may be shortened nearly to one eye, and finally cut more closely to it in spring. Protection.—Where the climate is rendered comparatively temperate by the sea-breeze, fig-trees in ordinary winters require no protection. Along the coast of Sussex it is never thought of, but in most parts of the kingdom it is necessary, otherwise trees that have formed a large proportion of old wood, and which consequently produce firm bearing wood, would be occasionally killed to the ground, and in that case a number of years must elapse before they can attain a bearing state. The covering should be thin in mild winters, but provision should be made for readily increasing it if the weather become severe. Various modes of protection have been adopted. At Argenteuil, near Paris, where the fig is extensively cultivated in the open ground, and where the winters are often more continuously severe than they are in Britain, the extremities at least of the branches are laid in the soil, which is of a sandy nature, and the parts not interred are covered with straw or litter. The same plan has been successfully tried in this country; but it is not to be recommended where the soil is not of a sandy nature, neither is it practicable where the branches proceeding from a single stem become strong. Sometimes the branches of standards are tied together and then thatched with straw, forming a cone, or they may be tied in several bundles, and each covered separately; but a backing of thatched hurdles on the north side, and a slighter covering of straw-mats on the south, would be preferable. With regard to the protection of fig-trees trained against walls, spruce branches have been found to answer the purpose exceedingly well, owing to their leaves dropping off gradually when the weather becomes milder, and when the trees require less protection and more light and air, in spring. If spruce branches cannot be had, other coverings should be contrived, so that they may also be gradually diminished in spring; for it is a bad plan to keep the whole of the winter-cover- ing on fig-trees till danger of frost is over, and then uncover them entirely, and at once. Straw, or better, straw-mats, dried fern, reeds, woollen nets, or canvas may be employed. The straw-mats can be made thin, and applied twofold in winter, and reduced to one in spring. Against a south wall a boarded covering, or thatched hurdles, projecting 4 feet from below the coping, with a slope to throw off the wet, will generally prove a sufficient protection unless the weather be very severe, in which case the trees should be matted in front, and litter laid round the base of the stem. The main stem should be well protected, for when it is killed all other parts above ground must give way; but if the stem is uninjured, other parts that may be affected can soon be reproduced. By employing the preceding means of protection, or others equally well adapted for the purpose, one good crop of figs may be annually obtained. Forcing.—It is a question whether as much produce cannot be obtained from a wall, with the assistance of glass and fire-heat, as is afforded by double the extent of open wall. A wall 60 feet in length may cost, say ,£30, but if half that extent covered with glass will yield as much produce, then £15 may be saved in wall-building, and applied to lessen the expense of glazing; and taking all things into consideration, we believe that a glazed structure would be the cheaper. The supply of fruit from such would be less precarious than from the open wall, and it can be had from an early till a late period of the season. Convinced of these advantages, Mr. Henry Bailey had a house erected, at Nuneham, over a large fig-tree on a south wall. The tree was root-pruned in September, and fire was lighted on the 1st of February, a humid atmosphere, with a temperature of 55“ at night, and from 65° to 75° during the day, being maintained. The roots were supplied with tepid water, and copious syringings were given till the fruit attained the size of a walnut fit for pickling, when they were discontinued. “So tender,” Mr. Bailey remarks, “is the skin, and such is the disposition of the ripe figs to mouldiness, that every vestige of moisture must be avoided during the ripening period.” The tree in question ripened its first fruit on the 25th of April, continued bearing till August, and had then many dozens to ripen, which, assisted by fire-heat, would afford a supply till November. The fig requires a somewhat higher temperature to bring it into leaf than the vine. In the open ground its leaves appear near London in the first week of May, when the maximum temperature in the shade averages 62°, and the minimum568 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. 42°, the mean being 52°; but at Naples, according to Professor Gasparini, the trees begin to shoot in March. It thus appeal’s that in the south of Europe, where two crops of fruit are ripened, the season of growth commences two months earlier than with us, and it continues three months longer, as will be seen by the following table, which exhibits the mean monthly temperature of Naples, Messina, and the neighbourhood of London, from the time that vegetation commences:— February, Naples. . 47’59 Messina. 54-21 London. March, . . . 51T5 56 "66 April, . . . . 56'68 60-58 May, . . . . 64 '85 67-21 53-44 June, . . 70’77 73-87 60-25 July, . . . 76-10 78-46 63-05 August, . . . 76-26 79-09 62-01 September, . . 69-35 75-74 56-87 October, . . . 61-93 69-42 50-05 November, . . 53-11 62’67 From the above it will be observed how short is the period from the time that the mean temperature reaches a certain point, and when vegetation is excited in the fig, till in autumn the declining temperature falls below that point. It is scarcely six months. In Italy the period extends to ten months, and in four of them the heat is of great intensity; at Messina, for instance, the hottest four months average 76°’74; at London they average only 60°‘55. On referring to the articles on forcing the peach, plum, and cherry, it appeal’s that the fig requires a much higher temperature to bring it into leaf than either of the above kinds of fruit. In forcing, therefore, this should be borne in mind. It may be commenced at 50° at night, and from 60° to 65° maximum in the day. Afterwards the temperature of Naples may be imitated, or even that of Messina, in clear weather. At night the thermometer in the house may fall 8° below the mean at the above places, and may even rise as much above them in the day, taking care, however, that plenty of air is admitted. It would be desirable that the roots of the plants should be in a temperature corresponding, or nearly so, with that in which the tops are situated, as is the case in countries to which the fig is indigenous. At all events, every means at command should be employed to render the disparity as little as possible. In the growing season water so cold as to lower the temperature of the soil, or that of the pots, should not be used. If the trees are planted out in the border of a forcing-house, the soil can be heated by pipes, care being taken that it is invariably kept in a proper state as regards moisture; or it may be heated by fermenting materials. In a temperature suitable for the fig the amount of evaporation from the leaves is very large; and whilst the young fruit is swelling this amount must be constantly supplied, otherwise the milky juices of the plant will become inspissated, so that they cannot circulate properly, and the fruit must then drop. Syringing the foliage and moistening the floor should be daily practised to keep down the red spider, until such time as the crop is beginning to ripen, and then a moderately dry atmosphere should be maintained, with plenty of air at all times when the state of the weather permits. Forcing Trees in Pots.—Good crops can be obtained from trees in pots; and by successive introductions into heat, a supply of fruit from the formation near the extremities of the previous year’s shoots can be obtained in succession for a considerable period, or until the second crop begins to ripen. Good turfy loam answers very well for potting, and in summer frequent top-dressings of rotten manure and loam will be beneficial. Manure water may be given with advantage twice or thrice a week when the fruit is swelling off, but not if the tree is growing well enough without it. The pots should be plunged in tan, or preferably in a bed of leaves, of the temperature of 65° or 70°. When a plant in the largest sized pot requires shifting, it may be turned out, the ball and roots reduced, and then repotted with fresh soil into the same pot. Good fruit may be grown in pots as small as 8 or 10 inches in diameter, but a larger size is preferable. GOOSEBERRY and CURRANT.—These require about the same temperature in the early stage of their growth, and may accordingly be forwarded in the same house. The currant, both red and white, will, however, stand more heat than the gooseberry during the ripening period. The plants should be reared with a single stem, clear of branches, to the height of 3 inches above the ground. They ought to be transplanted in rich soil early in autumn, and again next autumn. In the beginning of the following September they should be potted in rich turfy loam. They will make fresh roots, and establish themselves in the pots before winter. The pots should be protected from frost. The plants ought to be brought into a temperature not exceeding 50° at first, with plenty of air, and if it fall as low as 40° at night, so much the better. If there be much sun-lieat, there should be abundance of air, so that the foliage may be thick and robust. Let the temperature be gradually raised to 55° maximum, and it may be 45° minimum, then 60° maximum, and 50° minimum. As the seasonFORCING. 569 advances the currant may be allowed quite as much heat as we have in warm seasons in June and July, or about 65° maximum; but this is too much for the gooseberry, for its fruit is better flavoured in a cooler climate. If, on account of other things that may be forcing in the same house, it is necessary to maintain a higher temperature than is suitable for the gooseberry, the latter must be shaded from strong sun. Manure-water should be given occasionally till the fruit begins to ripen, and it ought to be borne in mind that it is better to keep the plants healthy by a due attention to watering, than to neglect them several times, and thus render them liable to a severe attack of red-spider, and then have to overcome it by much syringing. MELON (Cucumis Melo, L.—Moncecia Mona-deljjhia, L.; Cucurbitaceae, DC.) — This is an annual, climbing where its tendrils meet with support; trailing where this is not the case. It is a native of the hot parts of Asia, and probably also of Africa; and is said to have been carried from Armenia to Rome by Lucullus. According to M. Jacquin, the Cantaloup varieties were originally brought from the same region by some missionaries to Cantaluppi, a villa belonging to the Pope, and situated a few miles from Rome. Afterwards they were introduced into France in 1495; from thence they passed into Spain, and from that country into England. In Persia melons are exceedingly plentiful, and their cultivation in the open air in the plains of Ispahan and at Bokhara is considered to be unsurpassed. At Cabul melons are grown in great abundance. The country, although in latitude 34° N., is covered with snow to a great depth in winter, but in summer the valleys become very hot, and in these the fruit acquires a high degree of perfection. Some officers in the unfortunate expedition to the above place, sent home seeds of different varieties of CaDul melons, which when grown in this country have proved exceedingly prolific, some being very melting and sugary; all, however, are apt to degenerate. According to Downing, the climate of the middle and southern states of America is remarkably favourable to melons; consequently they are raised as field crops by market-gardeners, who sow the seeds in the open air early in May, and obtain ripe fruit in August. At Washington, the mean temperature towards the end of May is about 70°; that of June 75°; of July 78^°; and August 76^°. This temperature nearly corresponds with that which prevails over a great portion of the American States, and it is sufficient for the hardier sorts of melons; but where these succeed in America, it is found that the Persian and some other sorts require a higher temperature, with the protection of glass, till July, and occasionally afterwards during cold nights and stormy weather. Hence it appears that certain varieties of melons require a higher temperature than others. The Rock and Cantaloup varieties—those which have been so long cultivated in Europe—will succeed with a bottom-heat of 70°, or from that to 75°. They will do well with a bottom-heat of 70° when the plants are in a very young state, gradually raising it to 80°, say at the rate of about a degree per week. The bottom-heat should never be allowed to decline, but, commencing with the minimum, it should progressively rise to the maximum. It certainly is not a correct imitation of nature to begin with a high temperature, and gradually finish with one comparatively low. The seeds, it is true, require a brisk heat for their germination; for in the case of those that naturally spring up in countries to which melons are indigenous, the surface of the ground is at that time much warmer than the soil lower down, where the roots soon afterwards penetrate, but as the heat of the season increases, the soil about the roots becomes warmer; or, in other words, the bottom-heat gradually increases as the growth of the plant proceeds. With sun-heat the atmospheric temperature may be allowed to rise to 85° when the plants are young, afterwards to between that and 90°, or even higher if the plants are well conditioned, and plenty of air be judiciously admitted. Although this is not higher than is frequently borne from sun-heat by vegetation out of doors in summer, yet under artificial treatment, and after a period of dull, cloudy, wet weather, such as frequently occurs in our climate, the leaves of the melon are not adapted for bearing the full force of the sun's rays. It must, accordingly, be modified in the first instance by shading, which should be gradually diminished as the plants become more accustomed to the light. The same remark applies to the Persian varieties, but they may be allowed a bottom-heat of 75°, gradually increasing to 80°; the top-heat should range from 72° to 82° when the fruit is swelling, and at all times, as much sun-heat may be allowed as the plants can well bear. With regard to moisture, a considerable amount of it is required. It should be borne in mind that the foliage of the melon evaporates much moisture when growing in the open air, and in that case the plants are healthy. When confined in pits or frames, and kept long in a close moist atmosphere, evaporation cannot proceed, and the plants become unhealthy. It is, therefore, necessary that a certain amount of evaporation should be encouraged, but to support this, moisture in a570 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. corresponding degree must be supplied to the roots. There are many plants that will grow luxuriantly whilst their roots have moisture; the supply of this may fail, and growth may be arrested for weeks, or even months, yet it will be resumed, and the plants will again acquire their former healthy appearance when a fresh supply is afforded; but the melon is not one of these. Varieties.—These may be arranged under three heads—Scarlet, White, and Green Fleshed. The varieties are exceedingly numerous, as it may easily be supposed must be the case in a tribe of plants propagated by seeds, and readily fertilized both naturally and artificially; and new ones are being continually produced, so that in a few years the older sorts deteriorate or become supplanted by others of superior quality. I. —Scarlet-fleshed. 1. [Scarlet Gem.—This is a very useful melon, free bearing, of remarkably fine flavour, and one of the most constant to its characters. The fruit is nearly round, and it is also handsomely netted all over. It has one fault, which, however, may be remedied by a little management—the fruit splits at the apex just as it is ripening off. It will not do so if the roots are kept moderately dry as the ripening period approaches, but if this does not succeed in stopping it, the superabundant supply of sap must be stopped by cutting a notch in the lateral. 2. Read’s Scarlet-fleshed.—This variety has not yet come into such general use as the above, but when true to its character it is a splendid sort. It may be distinguished from Scarlet Gem, in which the fruit is nearly round, by producing fruit which is more oblong in shape; it is netted in the same way, but the flesh is richer and more melting, and it has proved to be superior to Scarlet Gem as an exhibition sort. II. —White-fleshed. 3. Colston Basset Seedling.—This variety has proved itself during a series of years to be the finest flavoured in its class. The fruit is evenly netted, slightly obovate in shape, and weighs about 3 lb.; the flesh is melting and very juicy; skin yellow. 4. Queen Emma.—A very handsome variety, producing fruit of about 3 or 4 lb. weight. It has a very thin rind, and the flesh, which is almost white, is tender and melting. The plant is of strong constitution and a free bearer, and it is altogether a very desirable variety. It was obtained by crossing Heckfield Hybrid with Cash-mere. III. —Green-fleshed. 5. Victory of Bath, Gilbert’s Improved.—This is probably the old variety, which has been again brought prominently into notice by Mr. Gilbert, gardener to the Marquis of Exeter, at Burgliley. It is certainly the finest green-fleshed melon in cultivation. Fruit large, with greenish yellow skin, slightly oval in shape, inclined to rib, and but sparely netted; the flesh is juicy, melting, and very richly flavoured. The plant is of moderate growth. 6. Golden Queen.—This is a variety grown pretty extensively in Scotland, and is of a very hardy constitution. It bears beautifully netted fruit with a clear golden yellow skin, and is very prolific. The fruit weighs 3 or 4 lb. Flesh firm, juicy, and richly flavoured. It is said to be a cross between Bromham Hall and Golden Perfection. 7. Gilbert’s Green-fleshed.—This is one of the newest sorts, and was raised by Mr. Gilbert, of Burghley. The fruit is large, oval, of a greenish yellow, and the flesh is melting and juicy. It is a more free growing sort than the Victory of Bath, and worthy of extended cultivation. 8. Eastnor Castle.—This is an excellent sort, presumably a cross between Beechwood and Victory of Bath, and resembling Beechwood in appearance. The skin is pale yellow, and the flesh melting and very rich. It is a free grower, and bears profusely, the fruit weighing about 3 or 4 lb. J. D.] 9. Beechwood.—An excellent and tolerably early variety, originally from Persia. The fruit is from 2 to 3 lb. weight, oval, netted, greenish yellow; the flesh greenish white, melting, rich, and sugary. 10. Bromham Hall.—An early sort, and a good bearer. The fruit weighs from 2k to 4 lb., and is roundish, flattened at the ends, very slightly ribbed, somewhat netted, grayish green, tinged with yellow next the sun; flesh green, very rich, and sugary. 11. Egyptian.—This excellent variety has long been cultivated, and has given rise to many sub-varieties, although it is less apt to vary and degenerate than many other sorts. The fruit is from 2 to 3 lb. weight, roundish, a little flattened at the ends, slightly netted, grayish, or silvery green; flesh green, juicy, exceedingly rich, and sugary. Some proved seeds of this kind should always be kept; for they may come in useful when new varieties begin to lose their excellence. 12. Trentham Hybrid.—An early variety of great excellence. The fruit is about 2 lb. weight, oval, greenish yellow; flesh green, tender, melting, and very rich. Soil.—Good rick turfy loam answers well; if marly, so muck tke better. Some use the turf after being stacked up and dried, other's when it is half decayed; and Mi’. Mills recommends about 3 inches thick of the top of an old pasture to be chopped into pieces the size of an egg and used immediately. A strong loam, rendered compact on the surface, has been successfully employed for dung-beds, but it must be recollected that in these the roots of the melon penetrate into the mass of decaying materials, of which the bed is composed, and thence derive nourishment, whilst the loam, rendered compact on the surface, tends to prevent the escape of moisture from the bed. The top soil of rich alluvial pasture, such as has been overflowed in winter, has been found to answer well. It should, however, be of a friable and not of a clammy adhesive nature. A little well-rotted manure may be mixed with the soil; but the latter ought not to be made very rich, otherwise over-luxuriance of growth is induced.FORCING. 571 With turfy loam, Mr. Fleming mixes a little burned marl. In Persia, and other parts of the East, pigeons’ dung has been employed for the growth of melons from time immemorial, and it may be advantageously given in moderate quantity. The best mode of using it is to make it into a compost with loam, in the proportion of six parts of the latter to one of pigeons’ dung. This, after having been frequently turned, should be well mixed with the soil intended for the bed, at the rate of one barrow-load for each light. The dung of poultry may be used in a similar manner. For beds composed of such materials as dung and leaves, into which the roots of the plants can strike and find nourishment, about 9 inches deep of soil, above a layer of turf 3 inches thick, will be sufficient. Where the roots have no source of supply but the soil, this should have a depth of from 18 inches to 2 feet. The means of supplying the necessary amount of artificial heat require next to be taken into consideration. Formerly the heat, both top and bottom, was obtained by means of fermenting materials, and in many cases it still is; in others, it is wholly derived from hot-water pipes or tanks; and in some, a combination of both these modes is employed, bottom-heat being supplied by dung, tan, leaves, &c., whilst the air of the pit is heated by hot water. Fermenting materials, as compared with hot water, have advantages and disadvantages for melon-growing. When well prepared, so as to be moist whilst fermentation is going on, the dung-bed affords a steady supply of moisture to the roots. This is of great importance, especially in a dry season. Some old gardeners never watered their melon-plants after they were established, or, in other words, none was necessary after the roots struck into the moist dung of the bed. On the other hand, there is much more difficulty in regulating the heat from fermenting materials than that supplied by well arranged hot-water pipes. As regards the materials and their preparation for hot-beds, the directions already given in the case of the cucumber are equally applicable in that of the melon. The beds for the latter should, however, be 9 inches or a foot higher than those for cucumbers, and they should, if possible, be composed of materials that will maintain the heat for a longer period, such, for example, as a mixture of dung and leaves. The following are approximate data with regard to the amount of heat produced by the fermentation of various substances, as stated by M. Jacquin in his Monographie complete du Melon:— Sheep’s dung lasts four months, giving a heat of 141° to 158°; dung of the horse, mule, or ass, six months, affording a temperature of 122° to 140°; dung of homed cattle, eight months, producing a heat of 95° to 113°; but if it is mixed with the dung of pigeons or poultry a higher temperature may be obtained. Tan lasts six months, and dead leaves one year, giving in each case a heat of 95° to 104°. The above temperatures will not, of course, be maintained throughout the whole of the period respectively mentioned for each substance. Linings will therefore be necessary before the heat falls below the point necessary for the plants being forced. It appears that whilst horse-dung affords, with the exception of that of sheep, the strongest heat, though of the shortest duration, leaves, on the contrary, produce a comparatively mild heat, but of much longer duration. Thus a mixture of the two is advisable, in order that the short but too violent heat of the stable dung may be corrected by that resulting from the milder but more lasting fermentation of the leaves. Mr. Fleming of Trentham, well known as an excellent cultivator of the melon, recommends the use of faggots in forming the bed—the latter to be marked off a foot longer and wider than the frame; and on the base so marked out faggots are built to the height of 2 feet, and upon these other faggots, 18 inches in diameter, are laid lengthwise along the front, back, and ends, so that the edges of the frame may rest upon them. A cavity is thus formed in the interior, which is filled up with fermented dung and leaves. Doubtless this mode affords a great command of bottom-heat, and at the same time a great saving of labour and materials for linings is effected; for when a dung-bed becomes compact the heat from linings cannot readily pass to the centre; before it can do so it must be stronger than would be necessary, when there is such ready access as that afforded by the faggots. In making up the bed some of the shortest of the dung should be reserved for the top layer, and after this is put on about 3 inches thick of the melon soil may be laid over it. The whole surface of the bed should then be forked over, mixing well the short dung and soil. The reason for doing this is, that the roots of the plants, after having extended through the soil, on still proceeding downwards, may not have to pass at once from soil only into the substance of the bed where there is no soil; for a change so sudden must affect the regularity of growth in the plant. Sowing.—Melons, like cucumbers, can be grown to a tolerable size without much sun-heat. In order to be fit for use the cucumber requires only to be grown—the more green it is the better;572 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. but the melon must undergo the ripening process, and this cannot be carried to perfection without the agency of the sun’s rays. In the absence of these no amount of artificial heat will effect the conversion of the crude juices of the fruit into saccharine matter. In the generality of seasons May is the earliest period that well-flavoured melons can be expected, although some have occasionally been produced in April. Such very early fruit, however, can be obtained at least expense from plants in boxes or pots in vineries or pine-stoves. For hot-bed culture we think the middle of January is early enough for the first sowing; but in some cases it may be advisable to sow previously in order to try seeds of doubtful quality. To sowings made at the above period accidents are likely to occur; light is then deficient, and in severe stormy weather sufficient air can scarcely be admitted; sowings should therefore be repeated at short intervals. About four months is considered the average time which elapses between sowing and ripening; but this period depends of course on such variable circumstances that it cannot be exactly stated. In summer it may be reduced to three months with early varieties. The seeds may be sown in a mixture of fine loam and a little leaf-mould in 3-incli pots, one seed in each pot. We are not aware of any good reason for raising more than one plant in a pot; by having three in each the same number of plants could, it is true, be obtained in one-third of the space in the seed-frame ; but when we consider that at least sixteen 3-inch pots can be placed on a foot square, and that all the plants necessary to be raised for a three-light frame, allowing for accidents and choice, need not occupy a greater area of frame than a foot square, there can be no great objection as regards the additional room which plants raised singly in pots would require. The seeds should be covered with fine light soil to the depth of nearly half an inch, pressing its surface evenly. The pots should then be plunged in a heat of 70° or 80°. Light is not necessary; and the frame, if not too hot, may be kept almost close. As soon as the plants make their appearance as much light may be admitted as circumstances will permit, in order that they may not be drawn up tall and weak, and the foliage should be kept about 8 inches from the glass. Air ought to be admitted through gauze or some such screen. As the stem grows up a little fresh soil should be added; and when the roots have nearly filled the pots, but before they in the least entangle each other, the plants ought to be planted out in the bed, if this is in a proper condition to receive them; but if not they must be shifted into 4-inch pots. When the bed is made up the soil should be introduced, in order that it may acquire the proper temperature. Some good cultivators turf the surface of the bed all over previous to putting In the soil; others, only such portions of it as the hills for the plants are formed upon. About 2If feet wide, from end to end of the frame, and rather nearer the back than the front, may be turfed over, laying the green side downwards. A portion of the soil may then be disposed lengthwise in one or two ridges raised thin, and nearly as high as the glass, in order that a greater surface may be presented to the heat of the air of the frame. The sashes should be kept close except occasionally a little opening to permit the escape of rank steam. The heat may be increased by covering at night and by confining the heat from the sun’s rays, when there is sunshine through the day, till the soil is warmed to 70°. Before planting the soil should be collected so as to form one ridge rather nearer the back than the front of the bed. Planting.—The usual mode of planting is to form a mound or hill of soil under each light, and to plant two or three plants near each other on the same hill. Good cultivators do not even plant cabbages close together; and we think that, like the generality of plants, melons would thrive all the better if placed as far asunder as circumstances will permit. We have therefore recommended the soil to be disposed along the bed in the form of a ridge, in which the plants may be placed at equal distances, say about 16 inches apart, of a little more or less, so as to admit of three plants being introduced under each sash. In some cases two plants may be inserted about a foot from the back of the frame, and trained downwards; another being planted about a foot from the front, and trained upwards between the other two. The directions for the management of the cucumber as regards shading, watering, &c., will also apply to the melon for some time after transplanting. Whilst growing the roots must always have plenty of moisture, and the leaves should be moistened once a day, either by syringing or by vapour, but their surface should be every day longer dry than moist. Pruning and Training.—These are variously performed. Some stop or pinch off the extremities of the stem and branches at an earlier stage than others. It is sometimes necessary to allow the stem to proceed without stopping till it reach a trellis, where its ramifications may be trained. If laterals are produced they should in this case be stopped so that one leaf may remain in order to strengthen the stem, but no fruit should beFORCING. 573 permitted to set except on the shoots that branch out above the trellis. When large fruit is desired, or a large crop of small-sized melons, the plants should not be allowed to bear fruit till they have acquired considerable strength; therefore till this is the case the blossoms, both male and female, ought to be picked off. When the object is to have fruit as early as possible, the first blossoms that set their fruit must of course be taken advantage of, although when the plants are allowed to bear in a very young state, and when containing but little organizable matter, they cannot produce such heavy crops as plants that are better established. When the plants have to be trained on or near the surface of the beds their tops should be pinched off above the second rough leaf, or rather the growing point ought to be nipped out before a third leaf is developed. It may here be observed that this operation should not be performed just at the time when the plants are transplanted; it should either be done as long before planting as will allow the buds to break, or not till after the plants have taken fresh root. The primitive stem wTill by the above operation be divided into two branches, one from the axil of each of the first two rough leaves. These two branches should be trained one towards the front and the other towards the back of the frame. When they nearly reach these the extremities should be pinched off, and bearing laterals will be the result. According to the Bon Jardinier some excellent cultivators have adopted a very simple mode of pruning, and with the best results. By pinching the young stem above the second leaf two branches are obtained. These are trained till each of them lias formed at least six leaves, and then they are finally stopped by pinching off the extremities above the fifth, sixth, or even the seventh eye. All the lateral branches which are produced in consequence of this pruning are allowed to grow freely. The plants thus treated bear as soon as those that are subjected to repeated mutilations, and the fruit is better nourished. When several young fruit have set the shoots are pinched to one eye above the fruit selected as the most eligible to be retained; and with the exception of that fruit all the others which have set on the same branch are removed, as well as all that may subsequently form on it. The plants will, in the course of the season, produce many more leaves and shoots than the limited space of the frame can well contain. There should be as many leaves as can be well exposed to light in the frame and no more; therefore the production of young shoots ought to be carefully watched. When they push, their future extension and development of foliage must be taken into consideration, and the confusion which is likely to ensue be prevented by pinching off the shoots which are likely to become entangled when in a young state, instead of cutting away large portions at a later period. The more carefully the shoots are watched, and the more frequently they are regulated, the less will be the quantity of foliage necessary to be removed; and when this is the case the flow of sap cannot be much deranged, and a steady healthy growth will result. Setting the Fruit.—The melon is dioecious, that is, it bears male and female flowers on the same plant; the former are essential for the fertilization of the latter, therefore a sufficient portion of them should be retained for that purpose. The male flower has three stamens, united by their anthers; but the filaments are distinct, and the part between the stalk and base of the corolla is slender and cylindrical. The female flower has a short style surmounted by three large bi-lobed stigmas, and the ovary is of an ovate form. In the male flower may be seen an abortive style in the midst of the stamens, and in the female flower, on the contrary, three imperfect stamens surround the base of the style. When the weather is fine, and plenty of air can be given, the female blossoms usually become fertilized without artificial means being resorted to, but the process of setting the fruit, that is, fertilizing the blossoms, is generally thought necessary. This operation should be performed when both male and female flowers are fully expanded, and simply consists in taking some of the pollen, when it can be readily dusted from the anthers, and applying it by means of a camel-hair pencil to the stigma; or a male blossom may be stripped of its corolla, and inverted in the female one. When the young fruit is as large as an egg it should be placed on a piece of tile or slate, to keep it from contact with the soil of the bed, and if shaded by a leaf let it continue so till the skin gets firm; then it may be partially exposed, and when nearly full grown it may be raised so that the sun’s rays may act upon it as much as possible. Before the process of ripening commences the roots should have a good store of moisture, in order that none may be required from that time until the fruit be cut. During the interval the surface of the soil should be kept perfectly dry. \Melon-house.—Although melons may be successfully cultivated in dung frames, they can be managed with far less trouble and greater cer-574 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. tain tv of success in houses specially constructed for their accommodation. For the earliest crop the house may either be a lean-to or half-span facing south. For summer culture a span-roofed house is the best, with the end to the south. The houses ought not to be large, nor yet so small that a person cannot walk through them with comfort. By far the best adapted for growing early crops is the half-span, which may be any length, to be estimated by the quantity of fruit required. If, however, it be more than 30 feet it ought to be in divisions, so that a succession may be obtained; indeed, a house of the above length may with advantage be divided into two, and if required another 15 feet may be added, making three divisions, which ■would give a supply of melons for at least nine months in the year. The fruit produced after October is seldom of good flavour; and it is expensive work and rather uncertain to produce a good crop of well-flavoured fruit before the beginning of May; so that, for the purpose of utility, the time may be counted from the first of May to the end of October, that is, six months. The width of the house should be not more than 11 feet, and the height from floor line to the highest point 10 feet. This will admit of a stage at the back 2 feet 9 inches wide, a path of 2 feet 6 inches, and a bed in which to plant out the melons of 5 feet 9 inches. The plants will succeed without any bottom-lieat, but they do better with it. Two 3-inch pipes will be quite sufficient to supply all the heat required. The pipes should be 1 foot 9 inches below the surface of the bed, and be covered over to the depth of 6 inches with brickbats or some similar material. As these underground pipes will have a considerable body of weighty material over them, they must be protected in some way, especially at the place where the flow-pipe enters the bed; there it ought to be raised above the ground surface 3 inches, by laying under it a brick flat. The flow ought to rise 3 inches at least in every 20 feet, so that if the bed is of this length the flow will gradually rise to 6 inches from the ground surface at the highest point; and two bricks laid one above the other will raise the pipe to this height. From this highest point the return pipe will gradually fall about 6 inches to the point where the flow enters the bed. This arrangement will cause a very rapid circulation. Supports must be placed under the pipes at not less than 9 feet apart. The next thing is to arrange that the pipes be isolated in some way, so that the weight of the soil and drainage does not rest upon them. The most simple way is to carry up on each side of the pipes a dry wall of ordinary bricks laid one over the other, and not fitted too closely together, but carried up 3 or 4 inches above the pipes; then a course of bricks should be laid across the top, and resting upon both walls. The two walls will therefore carry the weight of the soil, while the pipes will be isolated in a narrow chamber. As the bricks are laid loosely, no mortar being used, the heat will permeate the drainage in all directions. The drainage ought to be composed of loose brickbats, if possible, but should these not be available rough stones may be used. It is not necessary to draw a close line as to the depth of soil, but it should not be less than 1 foot nor more than 18 inches. The melon delights in substantial turfy loam, and where this can be cut in quantity success is certain. Over the drainage place turves just as they are cut from the fields, with the grass side downwards, or if turves cannot be obtained some hay or straw litter must be used instead; this is mainly to prevent the compost from dropping amongst the drainage. The best material in which to grow melons is six parts rotted turfy loam to one part of rotted stable manure; the whole should be broken up together with a fork and well incorporated. Only half the bed should be made up when the melons are planted out. The best plan is to divide the bed with a turf wall; the turf need not be wider than 6 inches; strips of turf of this width are cut ready, and as the compost is put in so the turf wall is carried up with it. The compost should be trodden down moderately firm. Although a list of the most approved melons has been given, allowance must be made for difference in taste. Up to the present time, however, the best scarlet-fleshed is Turner’s Scarlet Gem; the best intermediate, or white-fleshed, is Colston Basset Seedling; and the best green-fleshed is Victory of Bath. The plants should be grown on in pots until the roots have fairly well filled a 5-incli pot, by which time they will be 6 or 9 inches high. The soil should be in the house two or three days to become warmed before putting out the plants. It is a great mistake to plant them too closely together; they should be 3 feet apart, and be planted in a row about the centre of the compost. The soil should be pressed firmly around the roots, and the collar of the plant raised about 2 inches above the surface of the bed. A trellis must be provided, to which the plants are to be trained, and it is most convenient to have a movable one. In winter, or late in autumn, or very early in the year, the trellis should be near the glass, say 10 inches from it; in summer this distance may be increased toFORCING. 575 18 inches. The trellis must be made in panels, about the width of the lights, and under each rafter is fixed a bar of iron projecting downwards, and provided with pin holes 2 inches apart, so that the panels rest upon a stout pin projecting through the bar; the whole trellis, if thus constructed, is movable, and can be stowed away when the house is devoted to the culture of any other class of plants. The training of melon plants when grown in houses is rather different from the plan adopted in frame culture. Instead of stopping the plant in an early stage of its growth, it must be allowed to grow to within a foot of the top of the trellis, when it may be stopped; side shoots will immediately grow out at every leaf axil, and each of these will be furnished with female blossoms. When the number of flowers corresponding to the number of fruits it is intended the plants should carry, are either expanded or will probably be open within twenty-four hours, they may be impregnated or ‘ set1 with the male blossoms. It is a fact pretty well known to all cultivators of the melon, that if one or two fruits are set two or three days before the others, these will have the start, and will swell away at such a rapid rate that the later set fruit will either be inferior or drop off. Of course it is sometimes necessary to have a succession from the same house, and this may be done by planting the strongest plants at the warmest end of the house and the weaker at the cool end. The earliest plant may thus be in flower a week before the one next to it, and the second the same period before the third, and so on, allowing six days between the flowering of each plant; or if the plants do not come naturally in this way, they can be made to do so by picking off the earlier female blossoms, as plenty more will come on in time for setting, so that in a house containing only six plants, managed in this way, a succession of fruit may be kept up for six weeks longer than by the usual way of setting all the fruit as soon as it is ready. Some of the varieties are of a long-jointed straggling habit of growth. To this type belongs Trentham Hybrid. Such as these do not require to have the lateral growths thinned out. The greater number of varieties, however, throw out too many side growths, and many of this type—of which Scarlet Gem is an example—require to have every alternate growth taken off. When the fruit has swelled to a considerable size, it becomes necessary to support it, not only because its weight might cause the slender vine to break off, but when the ripening stage is reached the fruit would part from the stem, and fall on the ground and be spoiled. The best plan is to have small boards made of half-inch deal, 9 inches square, provided with holes at the four corners, by means of which they may be fastened to the trellis with fine copper wire, so as to support the fruit. The fruit must not be allowed to remain on the plant until it parts from the stem, but it ought to be cut when it cracks round the stem, and as soon as it gives off that agreeable perfume so much prized by those who are fond of the fruit. The flavour of most of the varieties is improved if the fruit is laid on the shelves of an airy fruit room a week before using it. Under ordinary good treatment the plants seldom damp off at the neck. The most fertile cause of this disease—for such it may be called, is a close, over-moist atmosphere. In a properly constructed house, provided with an efficient heating apparatus, this may be avoided, and even in cold weather a little air may be admitted at the ventilators if chilling draughts are avoided. Red spider is certainly the most injurious pest that attacks the melon, and the only safe way to dislodge it is by syringing it off with clear rain water, warmed by standing for a few horn's in a water-pot in the house. The water must be applied with some force to the under sides of the leaves; it is best done at the time the ventilators are opened in the morning. Any of the usual washes used for vines and other fruit-trees would destroy the leaves of the melon. Green fly does not often attack the plants, but if it does gain a lodgment on them, it increases at a very rapid rate, covering thickly the under sides of the young leaves. Fumigating with tobacco smoke is the best way to destroy them, but the tender leaves are easily injured, so that great caution is necessary. A very small quantity of fuel should be put in the fumigator, as the chances of injury are greatly reduced if the smoke given off is as cool as possible, j. d.] PEACH AND NECTARINE.-BWith the exception of the vine no kind of fruit-trees have been so generally forced in this country as the peach and nectarine. In the northern parts of the kingdom the fruit cannot be brought to full perfection on the open wall, but under glass, with more or less artificial heat, according to the climate and period of the season, fruit both large and excellent can be obtained, even in the most northern parts of the island. The tree requires a good soil, maintained in a proper state as regards moisture, abundance of light, that of the solar rays as direct as circumstances will permit, and a full command of heat sufficient for the growth of the trees and maturation of the fruit, even when the house is not closely shut up. A free circulation of air is essential for dispelling the576 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. moisture, which would otherwise lodge too long upon the foliage, or upon the blossoms and the fruit; for although the foliage must be washed, and the air of the house rendered moist at times, yet a moist stagnant atmosphere is injurious. The border in which the trees are intended to be planted should be well drained, and care must be taken that by no possibility the roots can come in contact with water percolating through the substratum, or stagnant there. If a test-hole were dug to the depth of 3 or 4 feet from the surface, and if in this water should stand for some weeks at any period of the season, then means must be adopted to prevent the roots from ever going down so far. Draining is the best, provided there be enough of fall; if not concrete or paving ought to be resorted to, if the expense can be afforded. If the bottom of the whole border cannot be concreted or paved, a portion may be done below, and to some distance from the place where the tree is planted, to prevent at all events tap-roots from forming; and if this be done, by good management the horizontal roots can always be enticed near the surface. In the case of bad subsoils it is a good plan to build peach and other forcing houses on a terrace. The bottom having been put in a satisfactory condition, the soil may be laid on. The depth of this should not be less than 18 inches; but we would recommend 2jr feet, for a mass of this thickness will retain a more steady supply of moisture than a shallow border. The soil ought to consist of good mellow turfy loam, which is substantial but not of a binding nature. If the loam is rich, manure will not be required in the first instance, except that it may be mixed with a little compost of loam and dung, made up a year previously, and well incorporated by occasional turning. According to the richness of the soil procurable for the border more or less compost should be used. If the soil is rather strong and adhesive, leaves or leaf-mould wall prove beneficial, and some i-incli bone manure will afford a supply of nourishment even after the trees come into bearing, when of course they require it more than at first. For very early forcing the border should be made so that the roots will be inside, and consequently not be liable to be chilled by cold rains or melted snow. The choice of trees partly depends on the position which they are intended to occupy in the structure. The best mode is to plant dwarfs in front, and train on wires from 12 to 15 inches below the glass, as is done in the Royal gardens at Frogmore. In order that forced peaches and nectarines may be well flavoured they must not be grown far from the glass. Some train dwarfs planted in front of the house on trellises, curved so as not to intercept the sun’s rays from the trees which are trained against the back wall. We have known trees which were trained on a trellis at a considerable distance from the glass; but they did not yield good crops till their branches were raised and trained near the glass; excellent crops were then obtained. It is not the greatest quantity of shoots and foliage that can possibly be grown under a certain extent of glass that should be the aim, but the greatest amount that the sun can shine upon with the fullest effect. Now let us suppose that the roof of a forcing-house is composed of one entire sheet of bright glass, and that between this and the floor a medium of ground glass is to be interposed where it will transmit the greatest quantity of light. To do this it must be placed where the light or the sun’s rays can act through the sheet of glass with the greatest intensity. It must, then, be placed so as to form a plane near to and parallel to the plane of bright glass. The medium of ground glass might be waved to curve away from the glass roof like the circular front trellises which some recommend for the peach; and having receded considerably, it might then curve upwards to the top of the back wall. This curving would require a much greater surface of grotutd glass than a plane running parallel to the roof; but the light below would be considerably less in the former than in the latter case, because the light after passing through the bright medium would act with diminished intensity on the portion of ground glass situated at a distance from it. So if curved trellis work were constructed there would be a greater surface for training, but the amount of the action of the light on the foliage would on the whole be diminished. If we take a lens and hold it near the glass of a forcing-house when the sun is shining, touch-paper will be readily ignited; but it will not be so if the lens is held at a distance from the glass. From what has been stated it is evident that in order to receive the fullest amount of light that can possibly be transmitted the trees must be trained in the direction of a plane running parallel to the glass, and as near to it as circumstances will permit. A distance of from 12 to 15 inches, as already stated, answers very well; farther would prove disadvantageous so far as light is concerned, a less distance would indeed be preferable in that respect; but, on the other hand, vegetation would be injuriously affected in severe weather if brought into closer proximity to the then cold glass. The trees may be planted young, or they may be trained for several years, but in this case they should be taken up and replanted every secondFORCING. 577 year. Their training ought to be conducted with a view to the position they are intended to occupy. They should be treated as directed for fan-training in respect to starting the branches. The length of the stem must depend on the height of the roof from the ground at the place where the trees are to be planted. The stem should be cut over so as to subdivide 15 inches below the glass. The branches ought to be trained with an inclination equal to the angle of the roof. By attending to this a tree may be reared to a bearing state before it is introduced under glass. The late Mr. Errington, one of the most skilful gardeners in the country, selected the largest, cleanest, and best formed tree on the open wall, where it covered 480 square feet, removed it to a peach-house, of 0010*86 with due care, and the tree ripened in the same year about eight dozen of very good peaches. In the succeeding seven years it produced at least 2300 large and fine fruit. Specimens of the fruit we have frequently had the opportunity of seeing, and certainly they were remarkably fine. This is sufficient proof that trees of considerable size may be introduced into a peach-house. The best time for planting is after the leaves have fallen in autumn, but it may be done any time in November or December, but not later than January, unless in cases of necessity. Removal after the sap is in active flow is injurious. The pruning of the tree should be conducted on the same principles as those explained for the peach-tree on the open wall. In summer care must be taken to maintain as far as possible an equal distribution of the sap, by checking over-luxuriant shoots in good time, and encouraging those that are weak, by the means pointed out in the articles on pruning and training. Before commencing to force, the house, sashes, and glass should all be thoroughly cleaned. The stems and branches of the trees ought to be scrubbed with a brush and water, and then done over with a mixture of sulphur, a little soft-soap, and tobacco liquor. The house may then be shut up without fire-heat, unless the weather is severe, and in that case as much fire-heat may be allowed as will keep up the temperature at night to 40°. It may be allowed to rise to 60° by sun-heat. Fire-heat must be very sparingly applied whilst the blossom buds are swelling, whilst the flowers are expanding, and until the fruit is set. At the period when the peach is in flower on the open wall, the nights are usually cold, but if not so severe as to freeze the blossoms, the fruit sets very well. Mr. Errington’s tree, above mentioned, was sometimes exposed to a temperature of 34° at night, when the young fruit were as large as pease, without injury. There is less danger to be apprehended from a low temperature, during the blossoming period, provided it is not so low as freezing, than from a high one. The latter has often caused the total loss of a crop, the blossoms dropping prematurely after the house has been kept close and too warm by fire-heat at night. It is not, however, absolutely necessary that the temperature should be so low as 34°, although that will not do harm, except in retarding the process. As time is an important object in forcing, it is desirable, where fuel can be afforded, that as much heat be applied as can be done with perfect safety, both as regards the health of the tree and the security of the crop. Although Mr. Errington has stated the low night temperature to which his tree was occasionally subjected, yet that judicious cultivator also stated that this was through sheer necessity, and in his anxiety to get fruit early he would probably have kept it to 50°, but, he added, he was convinced it would have been worse for the tree. We would therefore recommend, as a safe medium, 40° at night, or, at all events, not more than 45°, and if the latter be occasionally adopted, air must be admitted at the same time. Through the day the temperature may be allowed to rise by sun-heat to 60“ or 65°, with plenty of air; but any sudden influx of cold air causing a lowering of the thermometer should be avoided. Air must be given to prevent the temperature from rising excessively, but not so as to lower it after it has reached too high a point. Independent of sun-heat the range of temperature between the minimum at night, and maximum by day, may be 15°. For example, if at a certain stage of forcing, the highest temperature by sun-heat ought not to exceed 75°, should the thermometer in the peach-house reach that point in the early part of the day, air must at once be given to prevent it from rising higher, but not so as to lower it suddenly. After the blossoms drop, the condition of the expanding foliage should be carefully watched. If tender compared with that in a similar stage on peach-trees on the open wall, less heat and more air must be given, till by a slower growth the proper firmness of texture is produced. When the young fruit are the size of small marbles the heat may be gradually increased to 50° at night, and 65“ by day, or 70° by sun-heat. After the fruit is stoned the temperature may be raised to 55° or 60° minimum, 70° maximum, and 75° or 80° by sun-heat. When the fruit is half grown a high temperature can be safely allowed, provided the trees are duly supplied with moisture, and are in a vigorous healthy condition, 37578 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. which will be promoted by frequently syringing the foliage, and maintaining a proper degree of moisture in the air of the house. Syringing should be practised from the commencement of forcing till the blossoms are beginning to open. The air of the house must not at that time be too dry. At night it should be rather moist, otherwise the trees will not thrive, and the red-spider will be apt to commence its attacks on the foliage as soon as it begins to expand. The paths and soil should therefore be sprinkled occasionally. After the fruit is set, the trees ought to be well syringed to clear off the faded blossoms. The foliage at this time is scanty, yet on it, such as it is, depends the flow of sap, which must be seriously deranged if the young leaves are in a great measure destroyed by red-spider. If there are any signs of this pest the house should be syringed twice a day, in the morning and afternoon. When the fruit begins to ripen syringing must be discontinued till the crop is gathered, after which the syringe should be occasionally used, for until the leaves have fulfilled their purpose, and have naturally begun to decay, it is advantageous to keep them in good health. In order that the fruit may acquire good colour and flavour, it should be exposed to light and air when ripening. It will bear the direct rays of the sun, if they should even be equal to 100°. Leaves that shade the fruit, not only when ripening, but during its growth from the time of stoning, should be gently turned aside. Early forcing is trying to the constitution of the trees, and rather than run the risk of injuring permanent trees, it is better, when fruit is wanted very early, to obtain it from plants in pots if there is a pine-stove or early vinery at work, or a pit might be built on purpose. Mr. Hutchinson, of Eatington Park, ripened peaches in pots as early as the first week in April. The trees should first be potted in autumn, in 12 or 13 inch pots, and next autumn they ought to be shifted into a larger size. They should be introduced into heat in spring, so as to ripen the wood early; and as soon as this is the case, in the following autumn they may be shifted into 18-inch pots, filled with rich friable loam, and then introduced in November into gentle heat. The temperature should be kept comparatively low, especially at night, till the fruit is set, and then, as we have already remarked, the plants will bear an increase of temperature, even the heat of a pine-stove, as Mr. Hutchinson has repeatedly proved. But when subjected to such high temperature, great care must be taken that the roots are supplied with a proportionate amount of moisture. The water employed should however be as warm as the air of the house, for on this success will greatly depend. If placed in a structure specially adapted for such forcing, the temperature after the fruit is stoned should be raised as high as the plants are seen to bear safely, and it ought to be allowed to fall at night as much as is found necessary to produce robust foliage of a firm texture. PINE-APPLE (Bromelia Ananas, L.; Ana-nassa sativa, Lind.—Hexandria Monogynia, L.-, Bromeliaceae, DC.)—The pine-apple is a native of the tropical parts of America, and from its growing in great abundance in the hot parts of Asia and Africa, where it has been introduced, it has been supposed by some to be indigenous to these continents. The Bromeliacese are, however, without exception, all natives of the continent and islands of America. Miller states, in his Gardener's Dictionary, ed. 1768, that pine-apples “have been long cultivated in the hottest islands of the West Indies, where they are in great plenty, and extraordinary goodness; but they have not been many years in the European gardens, so as to produce fruit. The til'st person who succeeded in this affair was M. Le Cour, of Leyden, in Holland, who, after a great many trials with little or no success, did at last hit upon a proper degree of heat and management so as to produce fruit equally good, though not so large, as those which are produced in the West Indies.” Miller further adds, that it was by M. Le Cour that the English gardens were first supplied with plants. If the first cultivators of the pine-apple in Europe had had the means of knowing the nature of the climate most suitable to it, such as that of the West India Islands, and if in their culture they had aimed at one somewhat similar, we think that it would have been almost impossible that they should have made many trials with little or no success, for in a West India climate it thrives exceedingly well with scarcely any care. It has been grown of good size and quality in this country in various soils, differing much in their nature, as in sand, loam, peat, leaf-mould, &c.; but we are not aware that it has succeeded in any soil when a West India climate has been widely departed from; on the contrary, when considerable deviation has been made, numerous instances of failure could be adduced. The finest soil may be selected, and the utmost care bestowed as regards moisture, light, and air, but all attentions and appliances will be in vain if the plants are at the same time subjected to a temperature which is not natural to them. When, therefore, so much depends on a proper tejnperature, that which prevails in countriesFORCING. 579 where it is admitted the climate is most congenial to the pine-apple ought to be known. We believe we cannot do better than direct attention to the temperature of some of the West India Islands, which is as follows:— P LACKS. Latitude. 2 u S5 s ** © 5 3 § E CO « &< >3 s "c © Hq cS ©2 c © ”.2 iso? £{£« © 2ft n-2 * 3 1 "3 St. Vincent 13" 10' N. 81-52’ 83-34° 79-27° 1 4-07° 6t. Christopher.... IT 44 ,, 81-27 84-19 78-02 ! 6-17 St. Bartholomew .. 17 53 „ 79-97 S3-30 78 69 | 4 61 Kingston (Jamaica) IS 0 „ 78-77 SI ’67 75-73 5-94 St. Thomas 18 21 „ 81-23 83-69 78-21 5-48 Average 80*55 83-23 77-9S I 5-25 Taking the average of these stations, it appears that the mean temperature of the year is between 80° and 81°, that of the hottest months 83'23°, and of the coldest 78°, the mean range being 51°. These are indeed very narrow limits, but the pine-apple will bear a wider range with impunity; for we find that at Nassau, New Providence, lat. 25° 16' N., the mean temperature of the year is 76"27°, that of the hottest month 83'20°, and of the coldest 70°, the difference being 13'20°. The climate of this place is therefore not so uniformly hot as the West India Islands within the tropics; nevertheless, the pine-apple thrives well, for the New Providence variety, obtained from thence, is one of the largest. It should, however, be recollected that in New Providence the temperature rarely falls below 65° at night, even in the coldest month of the year; and an occasional low temperature will little affect the health of a plant compared with one that is uniformly as low. Although, as regards heat, the artificial treatment of the pine-apple may be safely regulated according to the temperature of localities naturally well adapted for its perfect growth, such as those above mentioned, yet it is not well to stimulate plants by much heat if at the same time light is deficient, as is the case in our winters, when the days are not only short but often sunless and gloomy. Therefore, under such circumstances, the lowest temperature that can be safely adopted will be most proper. This, if we are to be mainly guided by natural data, may be as low as that to which the plants are subjected in the coldest months at New Providence. Its mean, as above stated, is 70°, the lowest at night averages about 65°, the highest in the day 75°, the difference between the lowest at night and highest in the day being consequently 10°. With regard to the extremes during the coolest period, it may be observed that the thermometer was once so low as 58°, and only once again it indicated 60°; but these instances, it should be remembered, are rare exceptions to the general rule. According to this a safe winter temperature for the culture of the pine-apple is 70° for the mean, with a range of 10°, that is, the lowest 65° at night, and the highest 75° in the day. Having deduced the lowest suitable temperature, we shall now take into consideration the highest. For the mean we may take that of the West India Islands within the tropics, which, in those we have selected for data, averages 83'23°, and it is about the same at New Providence. At the latter place it appears, from well-recorded observations of self-registering thermometers, that neither in the hottest months, nor indeed in any instance throughout the year, was the temperature higher than 89° in the shade. This was the extreme limit, and it was seldom reached; therefore the maximum by artificial heat should average lower, say about 87°, and then the lowest at night may be 79°, which will give 83° as the mean; the difference between the highest in the day and the lowest at night will thus be 8°, which is more than usually occurs, independent of direct solar rays, in the West Indies. But rather than use much fire-heat, if that should be necessary to maintain the above night temperature, the thermometer may be allowed to fall to 75“ and rise to 88°. The natural temperature for the pine-apple, according to the above deductions, is a mean of 70° in the coldest period of the year, and about 83° in the warmest, with a range of 8“ or 10° between the coldest at night and warmest in the day. As the days lengthen, the mean should be gradually raised from 70°, the lowest, till in the summer months it reach 83° or 84°, the highest; the range should be limited generally to 8° or 10°, that is 4° or 5° above the mean in the day, and as much below it in the night; thus, when the mean temperature is to be 75°, the lowest at night should be 70°, and the highest in the day 80°. On this principle the following table, exhibiting the temperature which we consider most suitable for the pine-apple, has been calculated:— By sun-heat, with an additional amount of ventilation, the temperature may be allowed to rise 10° higher than the maxima indicated in the above table. This would limit the highest tern-580 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. perature by artificial means and sun-heat combined to 97°; the house may, however, in summer be shut up at 100° in the afternoon, when the intensity of the sun’s rays have diminished so much that, instead of the temperature rising higher, it will only remain stationary for some time and then gradually decline. It is well known that not only in the tropics, but even occasionally in Britain, a thermometer exposed to the sun’s rays will indicate upwards of 120°, and in warm summers here from 100° to 120° by sun-heat in the open air is of frequent occurrence. This may lead to the conclusion that in our stoves the pine-apple might be very beneficially indulged with as much sun-heat as it has in the West Indies, or as much as cabbages and other hardy plants experience in the open air in our climate. Doubtless it might with advantage; yet we consider that the plants in any forcing structure will be injured if the thermometer in that structure be allowed to rise so high as 120°, although this amount is not by any means uncommon out of doors. By some that are also of this opinion, it has been urged that there is a more free circulation of air out of doors, and that being the case a high temperature does not prove so injurious. This, however, does not afford a satisfactory explanation of the point in question, for sometimes with a hot sun there is not a breath of air, or scarcely so much as would cause a poplar leaf to tremble, whilst in a ventilated hot-house the circulation of air is considerable. Further investigation is therefore necessary. Presuming the temperature of the external air, by a thermometer in the shade, to be 90°, and that shown by an adjoining thermometer exposed to the direct rays of the sun to be 120°; then, if these rays are intercepted the instrument will by degrees indicate lower and lower till it also exhibit a temperature of 90°, or that of the air independent of the sun’s rays; and by that temperature, likewise, every part of the surface of a plant growing freely exposed in the vicinity of the thermometers will be affected, except where the sun’s rays directly impinge. In short, the temperature of the air in contact with the plant would be 90°. But a plant growing in a glass structure, with the internal temperature raised by sun-heat to 120°, is in a very different condition. The thermometer in forcing-houses is usually placed with its back to the sun, so that it is not affected by his direct rays. Supposing it to indicate 90° when there is no sunshine, and then it rises to 120“ after the sun breaks out, this rise must take place in consequence of the thermometer being in contact with air of the temperature of 120°, and not from the direct action of the sun’s rays, for, as above stated, the bulb in hot-houses is not generally exposed. Here, then, we have the pine-apple growing, or rather suffering, in hot air of 120°, or 30° higher than is generally reached by the air in the tropics. And surely we may be contented with giving tropical plants their natural tropical heat without exceeding it by so much as 30°. “The climate of the tropics is much more characterized by the duration of the heat than by its intensity, that is, by the maxima of temperature which the thermometer attains on certain days. I never saw the instrument at Cumana below 69°, nor above 91°; and I found on the registers of M. Orta, whose thermometers were compared by mine with those of the Observatory at Paris, that at Vera Cruz the maximum of heat in thirteen years had only three times attained 90°, and once 96|°, while we have seen the thermometer at Paris at 101°.” —(Humboldt's Personal Narrative, as quoted in Daniell's Meteorological Essays, p. 607.) Having arrived at what we conceive to be the most suitable atmospheric temperature, we may now pass to the consideration of the proper amount of bottom-lieat. In most countries the temperature of the soil, as far as the roots of the plants extend, is on the average somewhat higher than the mean of the atmospheric temperature in the same locality. In ultra-tropical countries the earth is warmer than the air from August till March, but colder during the months of April, May, June, and July. Generally in March, and again in August, the mean temperature of the soil and that of the atmosphere are equal. The greatest difference which exists between these is in December, and then it is scarcely 4°. Within the tropics the earth is generally warmer than the air; according to the accurate observations of Dr. J. D. Hooker, made at ten stations in the plains of Bengal, the earth was on the average 3° or 4° warmer than the aii\ Bottom-heat for pines should, therefore, not fall below the means in the table of monthly temperatures given above, but should range between that and the maximum temperatures. If the plants are found to be insufficiently furnished with roots, the bottom-heat should be at least as high as the maximum for the respective months. This is much higher than was formerly recommended, yet considerably below that which some now adopt. We consider it quite high enough to keep the roots at all times in good condition, and constantly in action; and this is absolutely necessary, for if they are in so cold a medium that the sap cannot flow towards the extremities of the roots, the latter become so inert as to be useless; consequently a plant well grown during the summer and well rooted before winter is reduced to theFORCING. 581 condition of a cutting, its existence depending on the roots which it may subsequently form. Pine growers used to starve not only the tops but also the roots of their plants for months previous to March; then a general shifting of the plants and renewal of fermenting materials usually took place, and with an increased bottom and top heat the plants were started to grow, but a considerable portion of the summer was spent in efforts to remedy the evils which the winter had entailed. Hence the long period formerly considered necessary to fruit the pine-apple, compared with that now required by those who maintain throughout the winter a higher bottom-heat, similar to that which we have pointed out as the most suitable. Varieties.—[The cultivated varieties of the Pine-apple are somewhat numerous, but many of those formerly included in garden lists are now seldom met with, the well-ascertained good qualities of a few leading kinds having gradually led to the discarding of the inferior sorts, while the few approved kinds were found to be sufficient for all practical purposes. They have been classified according to the spineless or spiny margins of the leaves and the colour of the flowers, the spiny-edged kinds being again subdivided according to the fineness or coarseness of the spines, and the flowers being either purple or lilac. We give below a selection of the best. Besides the varieties of Ananassa sativa, M. Linden introduced some five or six years since, from the cold regions of the United States of Colombia, a new species, which he calls Ananassa Mordilona, the latter being the name under which the fruit is known in its native country. This species has smooth-edged leaves, and is said to bear fruit of about 11 lb. weight, of a beautiful violet colour, the flavour of which is reported to be exquisite. As it is found at an elevation of 6000 feet above the sea, it may possibly be found to succeed in a cooler temperature than the common kind. I. Leaves Spineless oe nearly so. 1. Smooth-leaved Cayenne—syn. Cayenne a feuilles lisses, Maipouri.—Leaves long, spreading, very broad, dark-green, brittle, smooth or with very few spines. Flowers pale blue. Fruit very large, cylindrical or somewhat barrel-shaped, dark orange yellow; flesh pale yellow, rich, and excellent. A very handsome fruit, averaging from 7 lb. to 10 lb., and one of the best varieties for fruiting during the winter and spring. Mr. D. Thomson says of it: ‘‘This is the finest pine I know for supplying ripe fruit from October to May. It swells more freely and is more juicy in winter than any other pine that I have grown, and its flavour is excellent.” There is a Prickly-leaved Cayenne, but it is inferior in quality to the smooth-leaved sort, and not much grown. The Havannah, Smooth Havannah, and Green Antigua are smooth-leaved sorts, but altogether inferior to the Smooth-leaved Cayenne.] II. Leaves with Spiny Margins. Fruit Pyramidal. 2. Brown Sugar-loaf.—Leaves broad, pale bluish green, tinged with brown, slightly mealy; spines middle-sized. Flowers lilac. Fruit pyramidal, dull, reddish orange, almost without mealiness; pips large; flesh firm, deep yellow, very juicy, rich, slightly acid, and of high flavour. A handsome sort, attaining the weight of from 4 to 5 lb. 3. Enville—syn. Old Enville, Enville Sugar-loaf, Cockscomb.—Leaves moderately long, rather broad, bluish green, very mealy; spines middle-sized, irregular, thickly set. Flowers lilac. Fruit pyramidal, deep orange, with pale copper-coloured scales; crown small; pips middle-sized or rather large, slightly prominent; flesh pale yellow, juicy, tolerably rich, sweet, perfumed, but not highly flavoured, especially in winter. It generally weighs 6 lb. or 7 lb. This variety, which was raised at Enville from imported seeds, is hardier than most others, and is cultivated on that account. 4. [Hurst House—syn. Fairrie’s Queen.—Leaves short, much recurved; spines strong, thickly set. Floivers pale purple. Fruit pyramidal, rather dull-coloured, with prominent pips; flesh very juicy, firm, and of good flavour. A good summer pine, and useful where accommodation is limited, being a very dwarf compact grower, and producing fruit weighing from 6 lb. to 8 lb. It is shy in starting unless kept rather dry at the root, and its slow growth is considered objectionable by some cultivators. It was raised at Hurst House, near Liverpool, by Mr. Durden. 5. Lady Beatrix Lambton. — Leaves very tall and robust, straight and erect, dark green, and covered with an unusual quantity of whitish mealiness; spines strong, widely set, about four to the inch. Floivers purple. Fruit pyramidal or conical, with a moderatesized crown, and set close down amongst the foliage; pips about fourteen deep, one inch across, flattened, deep orange-colour in the prominent parts, rich yellow in the furrows, the bract or scale of a bright coppery red; flesh pale yellow, delicately tender and transparent, passing into yellow fibres near the axis, remarkable for the abundance of its juice; flavour rich and excellent, even in mid-winter, and found to be superior to the Cayenne and Charlotte Rothschild when ripened in spring—May—though kept for a considerable time in a temperature of 60°. A plant about fifteen months old produced a fruit of 7 lb. weight under similar unfavourable circumstances; and another nearly nineteen months old one over 10 lb. Mr. Hunter reports it as averaging 9 lb. in weight; the heaviest he has cut— in November—being 11 lb. 7 oz., which weight he expects to exceed. It is one of the handsomest of the larger varieties of pine-apple, free-bearing, and more robust in growth and less spreading in habit than the Smooth-leaved Cayenne. It -will probably take a high place amongst the winter pines. It was raised, with about thirty others, from a fruit of Montserrat, by the late Mr. Stevenson, at Lambton Castle, in 1860, but from adverse circumstances has only recently come into prominence. It is likely to prove one of the best and most useful pines for general cultivation.582 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. 6. Prince Albert.—Leaves tall, erect, much fluted, dark shaded green, with faint gray streaks on the upper side, slightly mealy below; spines large, about four to an inch. Flowers pale blue or lilac. Fruit large and handsome, conical or pyramidal, averaging 10 in. in height, and 5 in. in diameter at the base; pips rather prominent, round, yellow suffused with red; flesh yellow, very juicy and melting, the flavour exquisitely rich. A tall-growing and remarkably erect variety, forming a longish stock with the leaves enveloping each other at the base, and not springing so close to the ground as in a Queen. It starts freely, and Mr. W. Thomson states he has had a 4 lb. fruit from a sucker only six months off its parent stem. It is, according to MTntosh, a seedling from the Enville, but it is not so broad in the leaf. The average weight is about 6 lb., but it can be grown up to 8 lb. It is best suited for summer and autumn use, from July to November; in the dead of winter it is not so good in flavour, and the base of the fruit is apt to decay before the top is quite ripe, in consequence of which it should be cut before it colours to the .apex. It does not keep well after becoming quite ripe. It is reported to have originated at Alnwick Castle many years ago.] 7. St. Vincent’s—syn. Green St. Vincent’s, Bahama Sugar-loaf, Green Olive, St. Thomas’, Stubton Seedling. —Leaves long, broad, pale green, mealy; spines middle-sized. Flowers purple. Fruit bluntly pyramidal, slightly mealy, dull yellow; pips middle-sized, flat; flesh pale yellow, juicy, rich, sweet, and highly flavoured. Its general weight is from 3 lb. to 5 lb. The variety is suitable for winter fruiting. 8. Trinidad—syn. Pitch Lake.—Leaves very long, reflexed, broad at the base, and tapering regularly to the apex, dull green much tinged with reddish brown, mealy; spines numerous, middle-sized. Flowers lilac. Fruit of a tall, conical form, dark orange; pips large, slightly prominent; flesh pale yellow, sweet, and tolerably well-flavoured. This is perhaps the largest variety of pineapple known, since the fruit is said to attain, in Trinidad, the weight of 2G lb.; but though large and showy it is inferior in quality. Fruit Cylindrical. 9. Black Antigua—syn. Antigua, Brown Antigua (of Speechley), Jagged-leaved Antigua, "West Indian.— Leaves very long, narrow, acute, of a clear bluish green, the inner ones much tinged with pale brown, very mealy beneath; slightly so above ; spines large, placed widely apart. Flowers purple. Fruit cylindrical, inclining to oval, of a dark yellow colour; pips very large and prominent; flesh pale yellow, sweet, very juicy, pleasantly acid, and highly flavoured. It should be cut when it begins to change to a yellow colour, or just before ripening. It attains the weight of from 5 lb. to 6 lb. 10. Brown-leaved Sugar-loaf—syn. Antigua Sugar-loaf, Striped Brown Sugar-loaf, Moclio.—Leaves short, broad, dark green, much tinged with brown, slightly mealy; spines middle-sized. Flowers lilac. Fruit cylindrical, dark yellow; pips large, somewhat prominent; flesh deep yellow, slightly fibrous, rich, sweet, and excellent. Usual weight from 4 lb. to 5 lb. 11. [Charlotte Rothschild.—Very robust. Leaves broad and of great substance, slightly curved, about as long as those of the Smooth-leaved Cayenne; dark grayish-green on the upper side, the under side densely mealy, radiating compactly from the collar of the plant; spines large and very strong, thickly set, averaging six or eight to the inch. Flowers pale blue or lavender. Fruit large, cylindrical or barrel-shaped, very freely produced, bearing a medium-sized crown; pips large and flat, of a rich golden yellow with gray scales; flesh yellow, very juicy, but not so melting as that of the Smooth-leaved Cayenne; flavour excellent when ripened in a high temperature under the influence of plenty of light and dry air. This fine variety is especially valuable as a winter fruit, from October to March, and averages 8 in. in Fig. 342. height by 6 in. in diameter, and about 7 lb. in weight, but may be grown up to 11 lb. It keeps well after being quite ripe. Mr. D. Thomson observes: “In its general appearance it is just an exaggerated Queen; if the Queen could be grown to the same size, it would be most difficult to distinguish the one from the other.” We borrow from the Gardeners' Chronicle the annexed illustration (Fig. 342), which represents a fine fruit of this variety weighing 9] lb., grown in seventeen months from a rootless sucker by Mr. G. T. Miles, of Wycombe Abbey Gardens, who writes of it as follows:—“Amongst large fruiting varieties this is undoubtedly the best in pointFORCING. 583 of flavour, which, in combination with its robust constitution and free-fruiting habit, renders it one of the most desirable varieties in cultivation. Its history is somewhat doubtful, but it is understood to have originated in the garden of Baron Rothschild, near Paris. 12. Montserrat—syn. Red Ripley, Cape Coast, Red Antigua, Sumatra, Black Jamaica of some.—Leaves longish, green tinged with brown; spines dark, of medium size. Flowers purple. Fruit cylindrical, often broadest at top, averaging from 4 lb. to 7 lb., very mealy, pale orange tinged with copper colour; pips flat, medium-sized; flesh pale yellow, solid, juicy, and of excellent quality. A good winter pine-apple, and, like the Black Jamaica (with which it is often confounded), swelling its fruit better than most others at that season. 13. Queen—syn. Broad-leaved Queen, Common Queen, Ananas Ordinaire.—Leaves very short, broad, of a bluish green, very mealy; spines strong, set widely apart. Flowers lilac. Fruit cylindrical, of a rich, deep yellow; pips middle-sized, or rather small, prominent; flesh pale yellow, juicy, sweet, rich, and excellent. It weighs from 4 lb. to 8 lb. This variety is one of the most generally cultivated, and the best and most useful for general purposes. Its flavour, as a summer and autumn pine, is not excelled by that of any other kind, and it keeps in good condition for three weeks after being ripe. In winter it does not swell freely, and at that season it is generally deficient in juiciness and flavour. There are many inferior varieties of the Queen, and some which, under distinct names, are more or less esteemed. The Ripley Queen is stouter than the Common Queen, and produces rather larger fruit; while the Moscow Queen is dwarfer with smaller fruit. None of them are, however, superior to, if indeed they equal the variety commonly grown. The Comte de Paris is a variety of this type raised in France, where it is regarded as a freer grower, and as bearing larger fruit than the Queen.] 14. Sierra Leone.—Leaves long, broad, bluish green frequently blotched with a darker colour; spines short. Flowers purple. Fruit cylindrical, very mealy, of a dull ochre colour; pips rather small, prominent; flesh very pale, yellow, tender, juicy, and sweet. It attains the weight of 6 lb. Fruit Oval. 15. Black Jamaica—syn. Jamaica, Black Barbados, Copper-coloured, St. Vincent’s Sugar-loaf, Tawny, Montserrat (of Speechley).—Leaves long, narrow, dark green, tinged with brown, mealy; spines small, thinly set. Flowers purple. Fruit long, oval, somewhat pyramidal, dark brownish yellow; pips middle-sized, prominent, flattened in the centre; flesh firm, pale yellow, rich, juicy, and highly flavoured. It generally attains the weight of from 4 lb. to 5 lb. It swells well in winter, and the variety is one of the best for fruiting at that season; indeed it is probably the highest-flavoured winter pine in cultivation. 16. [Otaheite—syn. Anson’s.—Leaves loDg, erect, terminating abruptly, dark brownish green, very mealy beneath; spines medium size, very regular. Flowers lilac. Fruit longish, inclined to oval, deep orange yellow, attaining 4 lb. to 7 lb. in weight; pips large and flat; flesh pale yellow, very juicy and well-flavoured. A good winter sort.] 17. Ripley—syn. Ripley’s, Old Ripley, Heaton House Montserrat.—Leaves rather long, broad, reflexed on their margin, dark green much tinged with reddish brown, mealy; spines middle-sized. Flowers purple. Fruit ovate, slightly compressed at both ends, of a pale copper colour; pips above the middle size, very mealy at their centre, rather prominent; flesh pale yellow, sweet, rich, and of an agreeable flavour. The fruit generally weighs 4 lb. or 5 lb. 18. "White Providence—syn. Providence, Mealy-leaved Providence, New Providence, Wollaton Providence, Wollaton Green Providence.—Leaves long, broad, light bluish green; spines small, numerous. Flowers purple. Fruit oblong or oval, very mealy, reddish yellow; pips large, nearly flat; flesh white, sweet, and juicy, but not highly flavoured. The fruit attains a very large size, frequently weighing as much as 10 lb. or 12 lb., and one was grown by Mr. Mills to the weight of upwards of 15 lb. The variety is only worthy of cultivation on account of its magnificent appearance, its flavour being inferior to that of many other kinds. 19. [Thoresby Queen—syn. Bennett’s Seedling.— Leaves very broad, taller than those of the Common Queen, upright and compact in growth, purplish-green, with a very light-coloured mealy surface; spines very fine and thickly set. Flowers purplish-lilac. Fruit large, roundish ovate, or barrel shaped, shorter and stouter than that of Charlotte Rothschild, which it otherwise resembles; pips flat, swelling evenly; flesh firm, moderately juicy, deep orange-yellow; flavour good, not very highly perfumed, but equal to that of Moscow Queen. This variety is much cultivated in the Midland Counties, and produces large fruit, of from 6 lb. to 8 lb. weight. The plant is very distinct, being dwarf, close-set, and stout in habit, with broad mealy leaves, and a very small crown. It produces suckers freely, and is easily started into fruit.] Fruit Roundish or Globular. 20. Russian Globe.—Leaves rather short, broad, dull green, much tinged with dark brown, somewhat mealy; spines long, thinly set. Flowers lilac. Fruit globular, sometimes tapering to the summit, dark orange, very mealy; pips large, flat; flesh bright yellow, very juicy, sweet, rich, and highly perfumed. Propagation.—This is effected by seeds, crowns, gills, and cuttings of the stem. Seeds should be sown about a quarter of an inch deep, in light rich soil mixed with leaf-mould, plunged in a bottom-heat of 85°, and covered with a bell-glass. By due attention to shifting the plants as they require it, and keeping them always growing, though, of course, but slowly in winter, seedlings may be fruited in three or four years. Good plants, though not equal to those from suckers, may also be reared from crowns. The crowns were formerly laid aside till they became partially dried; but it is better to pare off the base part when twisted out of the top of the fruit, and either pot them at once or insert them in the tan-bed. Suckers afford the best means of propagation, and those are to be preferred which proceed from the lower part of the stem. They are usually taken584 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. off when the fruit is cut; but if this takes place early in the season they will make great progress in growth by being left on the plants till September. As some of the lower leaves of the suckers have to be taken off before they are potted or planted, it will be advisable to shorten these leaves half their length a few weeks previous to the removal of the suckers from the parent plant. The suckers should be removed by taking hold close to their base, and moving them from side to side, twisting a little at the same time. The base should be pared with a sharp knife, and a few, but very few, of the lower leaves taken off. They must then be potted in good rich soil, such as loam and peat, with a little sand, in 6-inch pots, or in larger or smaller ones, according to size. They should be inserted so that the base of the leaves next to those taken off may be a little below the surface, and the soil should be pressed firmly about them. Gills are offshoots produced at the base of the fruit, but they take a longer time than suckers to form as large a plant, and are therefore seldom used except in the case of rare sorts. Cuttings of the stem will furnish plants, and therefore they may be employed when neither suckers nor crowns can be had. Mr. Mills recommends the stems to be cut in lengths of 2 or 3 inches, and split longitudinally down the centre; each piece is then laid on its flat surface, and covered about 1 inch deep with heath soil. [Mr. D. Thomson’s plan with scarce sorts that do not produce suckers in sufficient abundance, is to strip the leaves from the stem after cutting the fruit, and to place them entire in shallow boxes, so as to cover them about an inch with light rich soil, and to subject them to a bottom-heat of 90°. Thus treated every latent bud bursts forth, and the young shoots, as they begin to emit roots, are carefully twisted off the stem, and potted.] Soil.—The soil for pine-apples should be of a friable nature, and incapable of being rendered compact by frequent watering. To insure this property its composition may be either fibrous, peaty, or sandy. In either of these, if assisted by some appropriate manure, good fruit may be produced. Loam may, however, be advantageously mixed in the proportion of two parts to one of peat. At Meudon, in France, where pineapples of an astonishing size have been produced, the soil employed was a sandy peat or leaf-mould, obtained from a high-lying spot where hard-wooded trees, chiefly beech, had long been growing; this heath-soil, therefore, partly consisted of leaf-mould. Its composition was determined by M. Payen to be— Fine sand, ... 62'0 Roots and vegetable remains, ... 20-0 Humus, ... 16'0 Carbonate of lime, ... 0-8 Matter soluble in cold water, ... 1-2 lOO'O In this soil plants of Queen pines were planted out, and produced fruit weighing 10 lb.; but it must be observed that the bed of soil was supported on planks, between which ammonia from a large mass of fermenting horse-dung and leaves could readily ascend. The soil used for pine-apples at the royal gardens at Frogmore consists of rich friable loam mixed with pigs’-dung. Mr. Fleming employed, at Trentham, $ maiden loam and ^ turfy peat mixed in a rough state, and placed under a wooden platform constructed so that the dung and urine of sheep inclosed above it might pass through the compost, the latter being removed to a shed when saturated. Mr. Glendinning recommended turfy loam, deer or sheep dung, and leaf-mould, in the proportion of six parts of loam to three of dung and one of leaf-mould. Mr. Mills, who grew a Providence pine to the weight of 15^ lb., recommended a compost consisting of three parts of loam, three of heath-soil, and one of horse-droppings, the latter having been kept dry, and mixed with the soil when about to be used; the horse-manure, it may be remarked, affords ammonia, a substance which appears to be favourable to the growth of this fruit [Mr. D. Thomson, who, while at Archerfield, grew some of the finest pine-apples ever exhibited, states that he used a sandy soil, very full of fibre, taken from the surface of a rocky crag, and stacked up for a twelvemonth previous to use. This, a few months before being required for potting, was put into a dry aiiy shed, and chopped up without separating any of the fibre from it, and it was used without any addition, except an 8-inch potful of 4-inch bones, and the same quantity of soot, to a barrowload of soil. "Where a friable loam, such as the top four inches of an old pasture, cannot be had, and heavier soil must be used, he advises the addition of sand, powdered oyster-shells, charcoal, mortar rubbish, &e., to keep it open. (Culture of the Pine-apple, p. 12.)] Manures.—When the nature of some of the above composts is taken into consideration, it will be readily admitted that manure of a rather strong nature may be applied to the pine-apple. Plants ki such composts require no other stimulus, so long as they continue to grow vigorously enough; but frequent watering, evaporation, and theFORCING. 585 absorbing action of the roots, all tend to exhaust the nutritive principles which the compost originally contained. A fresh supply therefore becomes necessary, and this can be conveyed in liquid manure. Ammoniacal manures appear very suitable for the plants at a season when luxuriant growth is desirable, and they produce a healthy green appearance in the foliage. Stable drainings will afford ammonia in considerable quantity; it is not, however, advisable to apply this manure in an undiluted state; the admixture of two parts of water to one of urine constitutes a safe application. Liquid manure can also be formed by mixing the dung of horses, cows, sheep, or poultry with water in a tank or large cask; or guano-water may be used. A little carbonate of ammonia dissolved in water, at the rate of 1 oz. to 4 gallons of water, and applied once a month, will likewise prove very beneficial. As the pineapple has been found growing close to the seashore it is probable that common salt, and some other saline manures, might be applied with advantage, but we would not recommend any one to use them until he has carefully experimented with one or two plants; and, to guard against hasty conclusions, it must be borne in mind that a pine plant may be injured at the root, without exhibiting, for months afterwards, any signs of such being the case. [Guano or other ammoniacal manures placed in the evaporation troughs of pineries heated by hot water, or sprinkled on the paths of houses otherwise heated, has been found to increase the vigour of the plants, and deepen the green of the foliage; while the ammonia in the air of the house also to some extent acts as a preventive of insects —it may be by rendering the plants stronger and more healthy, and therefore less likely to be attacked.] Cultivation.—This essentially consists in keeping the roots of the plants in proper soil, maintaining a proper temperature by some of the various modes of supplying top and bottom heat, and affording moisture to the roots in proportion to the amount of evaporation. Much more water is necessary when the plants are growing rapidly, than when, under a lower temperature, they are only required to grow slowly; more also when the pots are filled with roots than when there are few of these; and it must be withheld during the ripening process, and then only a dry atmosphere should prevail. The foliage must be kept clean and exposed to as much light as is possible, except in the case of plants striking root. The sun’s rays should be freely admitted, but in proportion to their intensity care must be taken to give sufficient air to prevent too high a temperature. Various soils or compositions have been pointed out above as suitable for the pine-apple. They I are such as experience has proved to be so, but others may be employed with equal success; they should however be tried before they are adopted for the general stock of plants. Soils may appear very similar to those recommended, and may yet contain some principle which the plants do not like, or they may be deficient in some essential quality. Therefore, when plants are seen not to be thriving, although under favourable circumstances in other respects, they should be shifted into fresh soil, and that at any period of their growth if done carefully; even when the fruit has been swelling we have known instances of plants having been shifted with advantage. The temperature should be carefully attended to, so as to avoid extremes, either in consequence of excessive heat from the sun’s rays in the day, or from too low a temperature at night. Excessive heat in the day must be counteracted by a gradually increased amount of ventilation, for if the temperature can be kept within proper limits the sun’s rays should by no means be excluded. In certain cases when air cannot be admitted so as to have the desired effect, as in very hot weather, or where the construction of the house is such that with all the air that can be given the temperature cannot be kept below 100°, then a shading of some thin material may be employed, in order to prevent the air of the house from rising above that point. When the external temperature is as high as 80°, or nearly so, air may be given freely, provided a rush of it is not suddenly admitted when the atmosphere of the house is much warmer. The greater the disparity between the heat of the internal and external air, the more cautiously should the latter be admitted. When the sky is clear, with bright sun, and when at the same time the wind is very cold and dry, it may be advisable to use a slight shading rather than to introduce much air of that description. If, however, the air can be warmed previous to its coming in contact with the foliage, it may then be admitted to any desired amount. There should always be a good command of bottom-heat. When this is obtained by an arrangement of hot-water pipes, and provided the arrangement is good, there can be no difficulty in regulating the bottom-heat; but when it is derived from tan, or other fermenting materials, its regulation is somewhat precarious. Tan is cheap, and a quantity of it should always be in readiness to supply any deficiency that may occur. Tan and other fermenting substances may, on the contrary, get too hot; in this case they should be removed from contact with the586 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. pots, either wholly or in part, according as the heat is more or less in excess of what it ought to be. It is a good plan to plunge a small pot, with its mouth upwards, aud on this place the bottom of the pot containing the plant. Light.—To this the foliage cannot be too much exposed. The plants belonging to the young stock should be placed within 6 or 8 inches of the glass, and all others must be as near it as their height will permit, so that they may be as much exposed to light as possible. The surface of the bed of soil in which the pines were planted out at Trentham was not more than 18 inches below the wall-plates. The plants should have room to permit the leaves to take their natural mode of growth, that is, to spread themselves in such directions as will insure to their aggregate surface the greatest amount of light. The whole plant naturally inclines towards the side where the strongest light falls; therefore it may here be remarked that in re-setting after shifting the same side of the plants should be placed next the south as before. After continued dry weather the glass, from not being washed by rain, becomes dusty outside, and in winter it is apt to get blackened with soot and smoke. In impinging on the clean polished surface of the brightest glass a considerable portion of the rays of light are reflected, and consequently lost as regards their effects on plants inside the house. This is unavoidable, but not so the additional loss from dust, soot, and other substances lodging on the glass, and rendering it scarcely transparent; all such ought to be removed. Moisture.—Formerly moisture was very spar-ingly given to pine plants for fear of their damping off—a circumstance which one might suppose would not be likely to occur, taking into consideration the great amount of strong fibre which the leaves contain. If they are in a healthy growing state they require plenty of moisture; but when in a perishing condition, either from want of sufficient bottom-heat or top-heat, or perhaps suffering from a deficiency of both, then, not being in a condition to evaporate moisture, this can only assist the process of decay. In winter it was formerly almost prohibited, and under the circumstances it was no doubt advisable; but when a proper temperature is maintained, if the soil is dry, it may be safely moistened thoroughly. In winter care must be taken not to give any more water than is absolutely necessary; but in summer greater freedom may be taken, for if the soil is of the proper texture, and the drainage good, there is little danger of the former remaining in a saturated condition. Just before the fruit begins to ripen water must be withheld, otherwise the flavour of the produce will be deteriorated. The water supplied to the roots should be of about the same temperature as the soil, and that employed for syringing the foliage ought to be as warm as the atmosphere of the house or pit. This should never be allowed to get too dry. In summer, except when the weather is very wet and damp, the house may be filled with steam every afternoon, as soon as the temperature has so far declined from the maximum that the house may be shut up immediately after steaming without danger of raising the temperature too high. If on the following morning the air of the house is found to be getting too dry, which can easily be ascertained by means of the hygrometer, or even by the rapidity with which water sprinkled on the paths is observed to evaporate, moisture should be supplied by syringing the surface of the bed, paths, &c. If the days are cold, except in extreme cases, coverings cannot be employed; but in cold nights the warmest covering at command would be highly beneficial as regards both the temperature and moisture of the internal air. If the glass could be kept as warm as the air inside, no heat would be radiated by it, neither could it act as a condenser of moisture; and so far, therefore, as the roof is concerned, the temperature and moisture of the internal air would remain unchanged. A single layer of mat will prevent radiation from the glass to a considerable extent; but a much warmer covering would not only economize fuel but also greatly benefit the plants, by preventing the air from becoming dry to such an injurious degree as is sure to be the case when cold glass, acting as a condenser, robs the internal air of its moisture. Pine stoves can never be called perfect as long as they are constructed without adopting means by which some covering may be readily applied, so as to prevent radiation at night. By attending to what has been above stated of the soil and climate suitable to the pine-apple, any one may grow it to good perfection without much risk of failure. It should be remembered that it does not require a season of rest like the hardy plants of ultra-tropical climates. On the contrary it must be kept continually in a growing state. It should not of course be much excited in winter, but at the same time it ought not to be subjected to a lower temperature than that which 000111*3 in countries to which it is indigenous; and if it is kept near the lower limit of that temperature there will be no danger of the plants making too rapid growth. It was formerly the practice either to starve or parch the plants in order to start them into fruit;FORCING. 587 but euch is not now the case; and by how much the modern systems are superior to the many which preceded them, may be inferred from the resulting productions. [Indeed, instead of fussing about over three-year-old plants, which at best produced but puny fruits, the practice of modern growers is to fruit them in half the time and in much smaller pots, the result being larger fruit of better quality.] In conclusion we shall briefly notice the method which has been so successfully practised at Meudon, and that known as the Hamiltonian system. Meudon System.—The suckers are potted in 4-inch pots immediately after the fruit is cut, in August or September, the earliest period being preferred, and in these they remain till spring. In March or April a bed is prepared, half dung and half leaves, and covered with 10 inches of peat soil. In this the rooted suckers, turned out of the 4-inch pots, are planted for the summer. In October they are carefully taken up with a little soil at their roots, which are left entire, and potted into 7-inch pots, and there they remain during the winter. In the following spring, when the plants show fruit, generally in March, a number of the strongest are finally planted out of the 7-inch pots into beds of peat soil, in houses, where they ripen their fruit in the course of the season. The plants not selected for planting out are fruited in pots. Beds made of half dung and half leaves are prepared in March, and when they are in a proper condition as regards heat the pots are plunged, and in them the plants are fruited. From what has been stated, it will be understood that the plants are always in pots during the winter. Commencing with the suckers, they are planted in the early part of autumn in small pots, in which they remain for the first winter, and become rooted plants. In spring they are turned out of their pots into peat soil, in which they grow freely during the first summer of their distinct existence. In October they are all taken up, re-potted, and again kept in pots during the second winter. In the second summer the strongest are planted out for fruiting in the beds, and those not planted out are fruited in 7-inch pots. Whilst the results of M. Pelvilain’s simple mode of cultivating the pine-apple were astonishing even the best cultivators in this country, we observed that his system, with slight deviations, was being adopted in various forcing establishments near Paris. At the gardens of the Palace of Versailles the plants in one house were planted out of the pots into peat soil laid on stable litter for bottom-heat. In forming the bed the litter was well beaten. Cayennes and other large sorts were the kinds planted out, some of them in January, after their fruits were formed; and in March following, when we had an opportunity of seeing them, their fruit was swelling exceedingly well. The system pursued by M. Truffaut, a very intelligent and enterprising market-gardener at Versailles, is briefly as follows:—The suckers are potted in 3-inch pots in autumn, and planted out in April in a bed, where they are allowed to grow till the end of October. They are then taken up, disrooted, and potted in 7-inch pots, in which they are kept till March or April, when they show for fruit. They are then turned out of the pots into a bed of sandy peat, supported by wood and tiles, over a chamber heated by hot water in open troughs. [These results, which show a great advance on the slow processes which were formerly adopted in this country, when made known no doubt proved a great stimulus to pine-culture, and gradually led up to the modern system of culture, by which finely swelled fruits are obtained in from fifteen to eighteen months from the time of planting the rootless suckers.] Hamiltonian System.—The system adopted by Mr. Hamilton essentially consists in fruiting the suckers without detaching them from the old stool. At the last shifting the plants are potted rather deeply, so as to allow room for soiling up after the first fruit has been cut. After cutting, some of the bottom leaves are taken off as high as where the roots appear, which is generally 2 or 3 inches above the top of the pot. The stem is then earthed up, and new roots are soon thrown out from the bared trunk into the fresh soil. Mr. Hamilton endeavours to keep the soil moist by frequently syringing over the leaves with lukewarm water. By attending to watering, keeping a moist atmosphere, &c., the suckers grow rapidly and perfect their fruit generally in from eight to twelve months from the time the first fruit was cut. Thus two fruits have been obtained, one in the first season from the original plant, and one in the second season from a sucker produced by it. After the second cutting the soil is removed to the roots of the original stool, the latter is placed in a larger and deeper pot, some of the bottom leaves are removed from the base of a sucker intended to produce fruit, and fresh compost is employed in earthing as before, and thus a third fruit is produced. A fourth is obtained in a similar manner, and then the sucker which bore it is cut off, together with 6 or 8 inches of the old trunk, and potted, in order to produce a new progeny of suckers.588 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Insects.—The white scale (Coccus bromelice) and the mealy bug (Coccus adoniduni) are the principal insects by which the pine-apple is liable to be infested. Both of them are very injurious and difficult to eradicate; but their destruction is possible, and has been completely effected even in severe cases. Great care should be taken to prevent, if possible, the existence of these pests, and, at all events, vigilance should be used to detect them on their first appearance. The plants should be frequently and carefully inspected through a microscope or magnifying-glass such as botanists employ, so that remedial measures may be adopted before the insects become so numerous as to affect the health of the plants. In order to prevent the attacks of insects the plants should be occasionally washed with water of the temperature of 100° by means of an engine with a flexible tube and fine rose, which should be held near the plant. The rose being fine, the water may be strongly urged and directed against both sides of the leaves. The tube should also have a nozzle terminating in a small orifice, for the purpose of passing a stream with considerable force into the axils of the leaves. When this is to be used the plant may be taken up and supported at a convenient height with the bottom of the pot upwards, so that a stream of water can be played into the axils of the leaves from below. The mealy bug, if it exist there, will be driven out by the mechanical force of the water. The steam of fermenting fresh hot dung was successfully employed as an insecticide by Baldwin, one of the best pine-growers of his time. He put the plants bottom upwards over the fermenting dung in a frame, which was then closely shut up and covered with mats for about an hour; the plants were then taken out and washed. This treatment, he states, will kill every insect. With the same object in view pine plants may also be syringed with water of between 120° and 132°, but the latter temperature should not be exceeded. Mr. Curtis states that a wash consisting of lime, black sulphur, and water is successfully employed in Holland. The ingredients are mixed in the proportion of 2 quarts of lime and 2 oz. of sulphur to 16 gallons of water, and after having been well stirred up and allowed to settle, the wash is fit for use. PLUM.—The directions given for forcing the cherry will, on the whole, apply to the plum. It should, however, be recollected that the plum— the Green Gage, for example—blossoms, on the average, ten or twelve days earlier than the May Duke cherry; therefore it may be concluded that the plum requires a lower temperature than the cherry from the time the flower-buds begin to swell, and until the fruit is fairly set. The rearing, pruning, and shifting are conducted on the same principles, and the same routine should be followed. With regard to watering, great care is necessary, as the fruit of the plum is sometimes apt to crack when the tree is subjected to vicissitudes of moisture and dryness. Take, for example, the case of plums growing in the open air. When heavy rains fall whilst the fruit is ripening it is very apt to burst, if the season has been previously so dry that the roots have not had sufficient moisture; but with the same amount of rain falling during the ripening period the fruit is not liable to be so affected after a summer during which the roots have had all along a due supply of moisture. Out of doors it is not always possible with the means at command to regulate the quantity of moisture, but in the case of trees that are being forced, water, it is presumed, will always be at hand, so that it can be readily supplied; and care should therefore be taken that it is supplied when wanted. There are many varieties of plums eligible for forcing, but none, of course, except first-rate sorts as regards quality should be chosen; such are the Green Gage, Transparent Gage, Royale Hfitive, Coe’s Golden Drop, Ivirke’s, and the Jefferson. The Early Orleans might also be included, on account of its earliness and productiveness, as well as the fine bloom on the fruit. RASPBERRY.—Plants of this may be forced along with the gooseberry and currant, or they may be planted along the front of a pit, and trained to a trellis under the glass. But they bear very well in pots, and as these can be removed when the crop is gathered this is the most convenient plan. As soon as the wood is matured, in autumn, the plants should be taken up and potted in 13-inch pots. In doing this, buds on the roots likely to produce suckers ought to be picked off. The soil used in potting should be a mixture of turfy loam of a friable nature, peat or leaf-mould, and sand. The canes may be shortened to 3 or 4 feet in length. The pots should be placed where they can be protected from frost and snow till such time as they can be introduced into the house. If this be done in January, ripe fruit may be obtained in the beginning of April. Or if introduced into gentle heat in February, with a little assistance in dull or severe weather, well-flavoured fruit may be obtained in May. The plants should be duly attended to with water, of which they will require a good deal when in full growth, and until the fruit begins to colour. Suckers must be carefully removed as soon as they make their appearance. Potting the plants earlyFORCING. 589 in autumn is the readiest plan; but plants established in the pots in the course of the summer will stand forcing better. Suckers ought to be planted in large pots in autumn or early in spring; and at the same time the bearing wood should be cut away, in order that the canes intended to bear when forced may have every advantage. The Red Antwerp is, in our opinion, the best sort for forcing, on account of its fine aroma. STRAWBERRY.—Before detailing the modes adopted in forcing the strawberry, some remarks are necessary in order that certain principles may be understood; for, unless they are, success is uncertain and failure probable. The strawberry, for forcing, is usually propagated by runnel's, the first or earliest rooted of these forming the strongest plants. The earlier in the season the runners are established the longer the period of growth, and the greater the amount of light to which the foliage of the plants will be exposed before they become insensible to its effects. In proportion to the intensity of light and the period to which the plants are duly exposed to its action, so will be the quantity of elaborated sap stored up in the roots and stem, constituting the power of the latter to throw up a vigorous scape capable of supporting large fruit, whether by the natural heat of the season in the open ground, or by an imitation of it by artificial means. In order that these means may be judiciously applied, it is further necessary to observe that although the plants are vigorous, with large well-formed buds, capable of producing blossoms that would set their fruit well, yet, without a knowledge of the mode of growth, the whole or greater part of the blossoms may be rendered abortive. This is well explained by Dr. Lindley, who says, “ Those who would understand the philosophy of strawberry forcing should begin by the beginning, and first determine what it is which they have to deal with. This can only be ascertained by examining the young flower-buds as they exist in the plant when it makes its first move towards growth. At that time they are collections of tiny scales, placed over a small spongy centre. By degrees they take on the forms of calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistil. They form successively in the order in which they are named, the calyx first, the pistil last. The calyx and corolla are the most simple, grow the quickest, and most easily bear to be hastened; stamens require more time for growth, the pistil most of all. When high temperature, night and day, with abundance of moisture, and as much light as February yields, are suddenly applied to the strawberry, it is compelled to grow; the predetermined parts advance, and, obedient to the influences which their nature cannot disregard, they by degrees unfold. But how? The oldest parts, namely, the calyx and corolla, simple in structure, and already advanced in their formation, suffer no injury, but appear in their usual state, arraying the blossom in gay apparel of white and green. The next, however, the stamens, having less time to form, acquire perhaps their yellow colour, but are powerless for their allotted office; while the pistil, the most complicated of all the parts—that which demands the longest period for its perfect formation, but which is the latest that the flower produces, and which is to become the fruit—is a mere tuft of abortions, incapable of quickening, and shrivelling into pitch-black threads as soon as it is fully in contact with the air.”—Gardeners’ Chronicle, 1847, p. 235. From what has been stated it is evident that the main points to be kept in view in foi'cing strawberries are, 1st, to have strong, stocky plants, the leaves of which have been well exposed to light; 2d, to grow them slowly till fruit is set, in order that the parts of fructification may have time to form, as they naturally do, in gradual succession. The first consideration ought therefore to be directed to obtaining plants with good substantial stems and well-formed lieart-buds. This requires the plants to be propagated as early in the previous season as possible, and their growth promoted by every possible means—[not a gross growth of foliage, but a moderate leaf-development, and the formation and thorough maturation of a plump heart-bud or crown.] If the weather is dry the plants from which the runners are to be layered should be kept watered. Plants in young plantations, such as have been planted one year, or not more than two, throw out stronger runners than those that are older, and advantage should be taken of the earliest. By the time they have pushed a joint, some good rich loamy soil should be got in readiness, and also a number of 3-inch pots. If moss can be easily procured, a little of it put in the bottom of each will serve for drainage, otherwise a few crocks or some bits of old turf may be employed. The pots should be filled with soil, plunged a little in the ground by means of a trowel or other tool adapted for the purpose; but in doing this care must be taken not to injure the roots of the strawberry plants near which the pots are plunged. The joint of the runners should be inserted slightly in the soil of the pot, and kept down either by hooked twigs or small stones, as explained in treating of the culture of the strawberry in the open ground. If the soil in the pots is kept moist the runners will soon take root. The point590 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. of the runners beyond the joint should be stopped, so that the nourishment derived from the mother plant may be concentrated wholly in the one layered. When the plants are well-rooted, nearly occupying the small pots, they should be shifted into 6-inch pots. In doing this the pots should be properly drained, and good turfy loam, mixed with some leaf-mould or well-rotted cow-dung, employed for filling them. If rough turfy loam and cow-dung is made into a compost six or twelve months previous to its being required for the purpose, so much the better. One plant in each pot will be sufficient. [The soil should be compressed very firmly about the roots.] The plants when potted may be placed out of the sun’s rays till they recover their shifting; they should then be placed in an open space witli a hard surface— either paved or covered with coal ashes, to prevent the worms from working up into the pots; quicklime may also be sprinkled over the surface with the same object. The plants may be placed tolerably close at first, but as they grow larger they should have more space allowed, so that the foliage may have plenty of light and air. Moreover, the roots should not be allowed to pass through the bottom of the pots, which they will be apt to do in wet weather; in this case it is a good plan to lay the pots on their sides, by which means the roots are at once prevented from striking into the ground, and the soil is kept from being washed and soaked with moisture. [The following plan effectually prevents worms from working up into the pots, and the roots of the plants from passing out:—Lay ordinary building bricks flat on the ground, quite level, and at convenient distances apart, so that a pot may be set on each brick; in this way the entrance of worms is prevented, and the plants are at the same time raised higher above the surface of the ground, by which means the air is enabled to play more freely around and beneath them.] On the approach of winter, when the leaves mostly decay and the season of growth is over, the pots should be placed in a pit, where they can be protected, so that the soil may not become frozen. [It is better, however, that they should be put into a heated pit close to each other, on shelves near the glass; abundance of air must here be admitted to them; and the heating apparatus only used to prevent frosts from injuring the roots. Where there is not the convenience of pits, ordinary garden frames may be used for them, but in this case the roots must be protected by plunging the pots in some light material, of which the refuse of cocoa-nut fibre, known and sold as cocoa-nut refuse, is one of the best.] Where there is not this convenience of struc- tures of this kind, the pots may be laid on their sides above each other, with their bottoms against a wall, coal ashes, old tan, or leaves being interposed between the layers. Some stack them in double rows by placing a row of pots on their sides, then another row with their bottoms against those of the first, any substance that will not readily freeze being laid upon and stuffed among the pots. Before the plants are taken in to force the pots should be cleaned, and a little of the surface mould taken off and replaced with rich soil. The crown of the plants, before they start into growth, may be covered with half decayed leaf-mould. When introduced below glass the temperature should not exceed 45° or 50° by fire-heat. Air must at all times be freely admitted, but of course much less will suffice when the weather is cold than wdien it is warm. The temperature and air should be regulated by the appearance of the foliage. If the leaflets are observed to be broad, yet of thin substance, and if the leaf-stalks are drawing up, as if likely to be taller and more slender than those in the open ground, less fire-heat and more air must be given, but an average temperature of 55° by day may be allowed, and continued when the flower-buds begin to open, at which period forcing must be conducted very slowly for the reasons already stated. If it is so every flower will set, or at least as many as the plants ought to bear. The upper portions of the flower-stalks are inclined to continue flowering in succession; but these should be clipped off, for they only rob the fruit previously formed, while they themselves never acquire perfection. After the fruit is set the temperature should be gradually increased, and towards the ripening period it maybe raised to 65°, and occasionally as high as 75“ by sun-heat. The plants should never be allowed to get even once too dry, for if they are the growth of the fruit will not afterwards progress so favourably, neither will the flavour be so good as if vegetation had received no such check. Excessive dryness should always be prevented, for after it has token place it cannot be completely remedied. When the fruit begins to colour no more water should, however, be given than is absolutely requisite to keep the leaves from flagging; the quantity must depend upon the temperature and dryness of the air, or, in other words, upon the amount of evaporation. This must be supplied, especially during hot sun, even during the period of ripening, otherwise the fruit would get heated, and if that is the case the flavour becomes less delicious. The fruit ought to be gathered in the morning. As the crop is gathered from the pots these should be immediately removed from the house.FORCING. 591 Various other modes of proceeding may be successfully adopted in preparing the plants for forcing. Instead of layering the runners for plants to be forced in the ensuing winter and spring, runners may be planted out in August, the plants taken up just before they begin to grow in spring, potted in 5-inch pots, and shifted into 6-inch ones towards the end of July. In this month the spring foliage begins to get too old, and the plants are disposed to start a second growth of young foliage. This is favoured by the shift into fresh soil and larger pots. By means of fresh foliage fresh roots are produced, and these are much better adapted for feeding the plant when being forced than older roots are. Where there is not a sufficient supply of pots, or a scarcity of hands to attend to potted plants, young plants from runners may be put in about 8 inches apart, in rows 15 or 18 inches asunder; neither fruit nor runners should be allowed to grow on these in the following summer; a portion of the oldest foliage of each plant should be cut off in July, and a top-dressing of rich soil or leaf-mould and loam ought to be given close up to the necks of the plants, to encourage fresh roots from that part. These plants maybe taken up in oblong strips about 1 foot wide, and placed near the glass in a pit, closely side by side on some gently heating material, or on a platform with a hot-water pipe below. The heat from the latter should not exceed 60°. Various other plans maybe followed in forcing strawberries, for if the main principles are attended to, modifications as regards minor points of detail may be varied according to means at command and other circumstances. We have known patches cut out of a plantation with the spade, potted into 8-inch pots, and immediately taken in to force; the crop was very good, although the fruit was not so large as from plants nursed up for the purpose. In France strawberries are sometimes forced by dung heat in the beds where they are growing in the open air; and where stable manure is plentiful this might occasionally be adopted in this country. Frames are placed over the bed, trenches 18 inches deep are dug out round the outside of these, and filled in the first instance to the level of the surface with hot dung, and afterwards to the height of the frames if necessary, to maintain the proper temperature. At night the sashes are covered with straw mats. In order to obtain a second crop from the beds so forced the plants are kept dry for some time after the forced crop is gathered; the old leaves are cut off, a top-dressing is given, water supplied, and in August a fair second crop is frequently obtained. The Roseberry, it may be remarked, is particularly disposed to yield a second crop. [ Varieties.—Though the varieties of the strawberry are so numerous, but a limited number have established themselves as favourites for forcing purposes. For the earliest crop Black Prince is probably the best; its fruit is small, but it is most prolific and a certain bearer. Keens’ Seedling is an old established favourite for a general crop, and Sir Charles Napier for market purposes. Other approved sorts are Viscomtesse Hericart de Thury, La Grosse Sucree, La Constante, Myatt’s Eliza, Amateur, President, and British Queen, the latter being the best flavoured of them all.] THE VINE (Vitis vinifera, L.—Pentandria Monogynia, L.; Ampelidete, DC.; Vitacete, Lind.) is a deciduous, hardy, climbing shrub or tree, a native of the shores of the Caspian, but not indigenous to Europe. Michaux found it in the woods of Mazanderan, and Olivier saw it in many parts of the mountains of Kurdistan. Humboldt states that it grows wild on the coast of the Caspian, in Armenia, and in Caramania, but does not belong to Europe. According to Sickler its cultivation extended from Asia to Egypt, from thence to the southern parts of Europe through Greece. From Italy it progressed northwards into France, and in all probability it had been tried in Britain by the Romans, but possibly without success; for varieties suitable for the warm climate of Italy would be likely to fail in maturing their fruit in the moist climate of our island, as indeed is stated by Tacitus to have been the case. In the year 85 Domitian prohibited by an edict the planting of new vineyards in Italy, and ordered those existing in the provinces to be destroyed. This edict was rescinded by Probus in the year 280, and Britain is particularly mentioned among the provinces which enjoyed the privilege of being allowed to cultivate the vine. Vineyards are mentioned by Bede (before a.d. 731) as existing in several parts of Britain. In 1140 barons as well as monks possessed vineyards; by the latter wine was made in good, and verjuice in bad seasons; and from the hardier sorts of Burgundy grapes, planted in the most appropriate situations—and in regard to this the monks were particularly careful—a tolerably good wine may have been produced, better no doubt than some of the artificial champagnes of the present day. Under favourable circumstances the vine lives to a great age. Pliny mentions one 600 years old; vines 100 years old are accounted young in the vineyards of Italy; and Bose states there are some in Burgundy upwards of 400 years old.592 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. The celebrated vine at Hampton Court was planted in 1769, and is yet bearing annually a large number of bunches; and though neither bunches nor berries are so large as those obtained from young vines, yet their aggregate weight is still very great for one plant to bear. Varieties.—The varieties of wine grapes are exceedingly numerous, as are likewise those for table use. Of the former little need be said in this work; of the latter the following are some of the best for cultivation in this country on the open wall and under glass:— I.—Berries Black. 1. Black Hamburg—syn. Warner’s Black Hamburg, Red Hamburg, Brown Hamburg, Purple Hamburg, Dutch Hamburg, Hampton Court Vine, Valentine’s, Knevett’s Black Hamburg, Garston Black Hamburg, Black Portugal, Black Gibraltar, Black Teneriffe, Victoria Hamburg, Admiral, Salisbury Violet, Frankendale, Frankenthaler, Frankenthaler gros Noir, Troller, Troll-inger, Pale-Wooded Trollinger, Welscher, Schwartzwel-scher, Fleisch Traube, Hudler, Languedoc, Schwarzer Gutedel of some, Gelbholziger Trollinger, Bocksaugen, Bommerer, Lugiana Nera.—Leaves large, with three principal lobes, the middle one tapering and elongated, smooth above, slightly pubescent beneath; footstalks long. Bunch large, broadly shouldered. Berries large, round, or occasionally somewhat oval: when highly fed they become oblate, measuring less from the stalk to the opposite end than transversely, and the surface is rendered uneven, like a hammered bullet; skin black, covered with a copious bloom, rather thick, unless allowed to hang till at the point of commencing to shrivel. It is only then that the fruit is perfectly ripe, and the flesh acquires to the fullest extent its rich and delicious flavour; indeed it may be affirmed that nine-tenths of the produce of this excellent variety is consumed when only well coloured, and even in that state it is considered good. The vine, it is well known, is very vigorous and productive. The Black Hamburg has been grown by Mr. Hunter at Lambton Castle to a weight of 21 lb. 12 oz. [The Frankenthal, which the authorities regard as synonymous with Black Tripoli, Pope Hamburg, Victoria Hamburg, Merrick’s Victoria, Gros Bleu, and Chasselas de Jerusalem, was included by Mr. Thompson under the Black Hamburg, as above. Others, however, consider the Frankenthal as a distinct and larger grape, with similar heavily-shouldered bunches, but with larger rounder berries, not unfrequently oblate, and when well-grown dented on the surface as if hammered; the berries, moreover, are said to have a thicker skin, and the whole habit of the plant is more robust. Though an excellent grape, with rich, juicy, tender flesh, it is not so luscious as the true old Black Hamburg, in which the berries are somewhat smaller, and with a tendency to become oval. 2. Mill Hill Hamburg—syn. Champion Hamburg. — Leaves large, pale yellowish green, flaccid. Bunches large and well shouldered. Berries very large, Tound, inclining to oblate, dented as if hammered; skin Clack covered with blue bloom, thin and tender; flesh melting and tender, very juicy, sweet, and richly fla- voured. A noble-looking grape of excellent quality, combining the size and appearance of the Dutch Hamburg, with the quality of the Black Hamburg. It is sometimes confounded with the Black Champion, another excellent grape of the Hamburg section, which latter ripens earlier and colours better than the Black Hamburg itself, and is known from the Mill Hill Hamburg by its more oval berries.] 3. Dutch Hamburg—syn. Wilmot’s Hamburg.— Berries larger than those of the Black Hamburg, firmer fleshed, but not of such good flavour. It is a coarse fruit, much inferior to the Black Hamburg or Frankenthal, and it requires a high temperature and an abundant circulation of air to ripen and colour it well. 4. [Madresfield Court — syn. Madresfield Court Black Muscat.—Bunches large, long, tapering, shouldered. Berries large, oval or oblong, shortly stalked; skin tough but not thick, black covered with a fine bloom; flesh tender and juicy, rich, with a slight musky flavour. This is a very excellent grape, ripening perfectly in a cool vinery. It does not, however, hang long after ripening. In some places it has been found to crack during the ripening process, but this fact indicates that in these cases a drier treatment of either root or tup is necessary. "When it is first observed, it may be checked by partially severing the footstalk of the bunch. 5. Venn’s Black Muscat.—Bunches large, tapering, heavily shouldered, rather loose. Berries oval, of moderate size; skin black covered with a fine bloom, thin and membranous; flesh firm, juicy, with a rich Muscat flavour. This is an excellent variety, ripening freely in a cool vinery under the same treatment as the Black Hamburg.] 6. Espiran—syn. Esperione, Turner’s Black, Turner’s Early Black, Hardy Blue "Windsor, Red Port of some.— Leaves roundish, with five moderately deep lobes, pubescent on both sides, dying off a rich purple; the footstalk is also pubescent, and of a purple tinge; wood somewhat striped with purple. Bunch large, shouldered, or without shoulders if the bunches are very numerous; which they generally are if not thinned off. Berries round, black, covered with a profuse bloom; flesh sweet and vinous, but rather acid long after colouring. The vine is vigorous and hardy, bearing abundantly, and ripening in the open air on a good aspect. It is well figured in the Transactions of the Horticultural Society, vol. iii. page 93. 7. Black Prince—syn. Pocock’s Damascus, Sir Abraham Pytche’s Black, Boston.—Leaves deeply lobed, sometimes open at the base, but generally overlapping, pubescent; the ribs slightly bristled; petioles tinged with red. Bunch very long and tapering, sometimes shouldered. Berries oval, bluish black, covered with a copious bloom; flesh purplish immediately under the skin, juicy and rich when fully ripe, but not so sweet as the Black Hamburg when eaten like it in a well-coloured but not fully ripened state. Under favourable circumstances it will keep sound on the vine for a considerable time after being ripe. The tree is a good bearer, and the fruit will ripen on the open wall in warm seasons. Late in autumn the leaves acquire a bright crimson colour. Sometimes the Black Hamburg does not colour well, and it is therefore advisable to have some plants of the Black Prince from which a supply of well-coloured fruit may be depended on. 8. Black Frontignan—syn. Purple Frontiguan, Pur-FORCING. 59a pie Constantia, Black Constantia, Red Frontignan of some, Sir William Rowley’s Black, Muscat Noir, Muscat Noir Ordinaire, Muscat Noir de Jura, Muscat Rouge of some, Boudales des Hautes Pyrenees, Scliwarzer Musca-teller, Schwarzer Weihraucli.—Leaves roundish, sharply serrated, but not deeply lobed; midribs smooth. Bunch middle-sized, tapering. Berries round; skin black; flesh moderately firm, with a rich Muscat flavour, on which account this excellent variety ought to be included in every good collection. [Dr. Hogg distinguishes three sorts amongst the synonyms enumerated above, the Black Frontignan, Purple Constantia, and Jura Black Muscat.] 9. Black Muscat of Alexandria—[syn. Muscat Hamburg. Leaves large, deeply three-lobed, nearly smooth above, pubescent beneath, the ribs set with short bristly hairs. Bunch long, tapering, and shouldered. Berries large, oval, black; flesh of the consistence of that of the Black Hamburg, very rich, with a decided Muscat flavour. This fine grape appears to have almost gone out of cultivation, until about 1848, when, with the increased skill of modern practice, examples of it produced as a supposed new grape by Mr. Snow of Wrest Park, again brought it into notice, since which time it has been highly esteemed by many cultivators. It may be grown either in the warm vinery or hothouse, and does best when grafted on the Black Hamburg.] 10. [Mrs. Pixce’s Black Muscat.—Bunches large, long, and shouldered. Berries oval, with short stalks, large, and seldom well coloured. This is a useful grape and very productive. It is said by some to be a bad setter, but it sets well if the bunches are gone over twice a day and gently shaken when in bloom. The flavour is distinct from, but equally good as that of Muscat of Alexandria. It is best grown on its own roots; and does not require strong heat to bring it to perfection. The fruit also hangs well. 11. Gros Colman.—Bunches large. Berries very large, oval, and well-set on the bunches; skin thick, black, and covered with bloom when well finished, otherwise the fruit is foxey. It is one of the best grapes to grow for market purposes, or where appearance is more thought of than flavour. It is a late grape, ripening with less heat than Muscat of Alexandria; it must be well ripened else the flesh is watery and wanting in flavour. The bunches must be well thinned out to give the berries space to fully develop themselves. J. D.] 12. [Gros Guillaume—syn. Seacliff Black. It is also generally cultivated under the erroneous name of Barbarossa.—Leaves large, downy. Bunch very large, tapering, shouldered. Berries large, somewhat oval; skin tough, black, with a thin bloom; flesh tender and juicy, pleasantly but not richly flavoured. It is a valuable late grape, hanging till March, and it is only after hanging thus that it attains its best condition. The vine, like all the late grapes, requires a good heat. The leaves become mottled with purple as they die off. 13. Lady Downe’s—syn. Lady Downe’s Seedling.— Bunches oblong, shouldered, rather loose. Berries large, roundish-oval; skin thickish, membranous, of a purplish black, becoming quite black when fully coloured, covered with a thin bloom; flesh firmer than that of the Hamburg, richly flavoured and excellent. A most valuable grape for late keeping, for which quality, indeed, it takes precedence of all known varieties, as it will hang without decay or discoloration or loss of plumpness till the end of March if thoroughly ripened in the late summer months, and properly treated afterwards. It is, moreover, of free habit and an abundant bearer. It is not improved by grafting on the Hamburg. It is certainly one of the best sorts for furnishing a late supply of good grapes. ] 14. [Alicante—syn. Black Lisbon, Black Portugal, Black Palestine, Black Spanish, Black St. Peter’s, Black Tokay, Espagnier Noir, Sanct Peter’s Traube, Meridith’s. Alicante. — Leaves large, leathery, downy beneath.-Bunches very large, shouldered, well-set. Berries large,, oval, jet-black, and densely covered with a bluish bloom; skin tough when the fruit is not perfectly ripened; when it hangs on the vine until January it lias been mistaken for superior examples of Black Hamburg; flesh tender and juicy with a Hamburg flavour. This is one of the most useful grapes in cultivation, and should be extensively grown. As regards its keeping qualities it is second to Lady Downe’s, but far superior to it in flavour. It is decidedly a late grape, and should not be planted in an early house. It requires more heat to ripen it than the Black Hamburg, and succeeds best in a Muscat house. J. D.] 15. Black Morocco—syn. Black Muscadel, Ansley’s-Large Oval, Le Coeur, Horsforth’s Seedling, Kempsey Alicante, Mogul. Leaves very deeply lobed, the lobes-overlapping with broad open sinuses. Bunch very large, shouldered. Berries very large, oval, black; pulp firm,, sweet. This grape has a noble appearance, but it is a bad setter. It should be fertilized with the pollen of the Hamburg, and receive as much heat as the Muscat. 16. Trentham Black—syn. Long Noir d’Espagne.— Leaves bluntly lobed, dark green, and of thick texture. Bunches tapering, shouldered. Berries middle-sized, roundish oval; skin thin, but tough, separating freely from the pulp, black, with a copious bloom; flesh juicy, rich, and vinous. Bears forcing well, ripening as early as the Hamburg, and hanging longer; the latter property renders it valuable. 17. West’s St. Peter’s—syn. Oldaker’s West’s St. Peter’s, Money’s St. Peter’s, Poonah, Raisin des Carmes,. Raisin de Cuba.—Leaves not deeply cut, but acutely serrated, open at the base—that is, the portion on each side of the footstalk not overlapping, smooth above and also beneath, with the exception of a slight pubescence on the ribs; when mature and fading, the leaves assume a purplish crimson hue. Bunch middle-sized, sometimes rather large, and in that case shouldered. Berries round, inclining to oval; skin rather thin, black, with a fine bloom; flesh purplish, sugary, and rich. The variety is a good bearer, and valuable on account of the fruit hanging late. If the vine is not forced in the early stage of its vegetation, and the house be kept free from damp in winter, the fruit will hang and remain in a sound condition till February or March, when the new crop of early forced grapes comes in for use. Although for late-keeping it should not be forced early, yet care must be taken that in its more advanced stage it have heat sufficient to ripen it properly before the leaves begin to lose their action; then the temperature should be gradually lowered. 18. [Black Monukka.—A very distinct and peculiar seedless grape. Bunches very large, with heavy shoulders. Berries oblong, truncate at the ends; skin deep dull brownish purple, very thin, adhering to the flesh, which is firm, crisp, and juicy, with a remarkably pleasant 38594 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. flavour. The fruit may be eaten with comfort as there are no seeds. It is a strong grower and great cropper.] 19. Black Cluster—syn. Burgundy, Black Burgundy, True Burgundy, Early Black, Small Black Cluster, Black Morillon, Auvergne, Auvernat, Auvernat Rouge, Yrai Auvernase, Pineau, Raisin de Bourgogne, Saumoi-reau, Bon Plant, Genetin de St. Menin.Fin Noir de Toulon, Talvagnues Rouge, Ternent, Noirin, Pignolet, Klev-ner, Augustiner, Blauer Seeklevner, Schwarzer Siissling, Klebroth, Schwarzer Rissling, Schwarze Friinkische.— Leaves nearly smooth, rather deeply lobed, but having shallow serratures. Bunc/ismall, compact. Berries rather small, roundish oval; skin deep black, thick; flesh sweet, juicy, and rich. This is a very old variety, and one of the hardiest known. In this country its wood becomes firmer and better matured in the open air than that of any other kind; and as the fruit ripens early, it is perhaps the best wine grape that can be grown in climates not very favourable for the vine. 20. Miller’s Burgundy—syn. Black Cluster (of Miller), Miller, Aleatico du P6, Le Meunier, Fromente, Maurillon Taccone, Resseau, Farineux Noir, Savaguien Noir, Noirin, Miillerrebe, Miillerweib, Pulverulenta, Morone Farinaccio.—Leaves downy above, hoary with down beneath, nearly white, in allusion to which appearance it has the name of the Miller Grape, or one with that signification in various languages. Bunches short, ovate, compact. Berries small, round, or inclining to roundish oval; skin thin, black; flesh tender, with abundance of juice, which is rather sharp long after the fruit is coloured, and when fully ripe it is not so sweet as the Black Cluster. The variety, however, is hardy, and is one of those suited for cultivation against walls in the open air; or it might be grown for wine in warm, sandy, or chalky soils. II. Berries Grizzly. 21. Grizzly Frontignan—syn. Red Frontignan, Red Constantia, Muscat Gris, Muscat Rouge, Moscado Rosso, Moscatel Menudo, Kiimmel Traube, Brauner Muscatel-ler, Grauer Muscateller, Rother Muscateller of some, Rother Schmeckende, Rother Weirauch, Grizeline.— As regards the leaves, the form of the bunch, and that of the berries, this variety is similar to the Black Frontignan, and its rich Muscat flavour is also much the same; the only material difference is in the shade of colour. Some consider the Red Frontignan different, but we think the supposed difference arises from the Grizzly becoming, under some circumstances, more red than usual; or from the Black Frontignan colouring only red instead of black, as is sometimes the case with the Black Hamburg. Introduced by Sir William Temple about 200 years ago. The Black, the White, and the Grizzly Frontignans require the same treatment. The portion of border where their roots extend should be protected from being invaded by those of other kinds of vines. III. Berries White. 22. Royal Muscadine—syn. Common Muscadine, Amber Muscadine, Chasselas, White Chasselas, Chasse-las Dore, Chasselas de Fontainebleau, D’Arbois, Pearl of some, Raisin de Champagne, Campanella Bianca, Amiens.—Leaves with moderately deep lobes, smooth above and almost so beneath, the under side thickly reticulated. Bunches middle-sized, tapering, occasionally somewhat shouldered. Berries of medium size, round; skin thin, white, when well ripened assuming an amber tint; flesh tender, rich, and sugary. A good bearer, and sets welL One of the best white grapes in cultivation for the open wall, greenhouse, and early forcing in vineries or in pots. The berries hang well after being ripe, a desirable property, more especially when there is only one vinery. 23. Reeves’ Muscadine. — Bunches large, broadly shouldered. Berries with short stiff pedicels, oval; skin yellowish white, rather thick; flesh melting, juicy, and rich. This variety, imported from the Cape by the late John Reeves, Esq., is a very abundant bearer, and therefore a few plants may be introduced in a collection. 24. Pitjiaston White Cluster.— Leaves with deep incisions, smooth above and rather glossy beneath, the ribs slightly hairy; foot-stalks smooth, tinged with red. Bunches scarcely so large as that of the Royal Muscadine, but more compact, shouldered. Berries round; skin white, acquiring an amber tinge; flesh tender, with a Muscadine flavour. It ripens earlier than the Royal Muscadine, and is an excellent grape for the open wall. It was raised from a seed of the Black Cluster by John Williams, Esq., of Pitmaston, near Worcester. 25. [Buckland Sweetwater.—Bunches very large, shouldered, sometimes unsymmetrical in appearance. Berries large, round, and occasionally hammered; skin thin, golden or amber when ripe, otheiuvise pale-green; flesh melting, juicy, and richly-flavoured. This is the best white grape other than Muscat; it is rather later in starting than Black Hamburg, and should be grafted on that variety. It ripens with the Hamburg, and requires precisely similar treatment. It does not set its berries quite so freely, and when grown in an early house the bunches ought to be gently shaken twice a day to distribute the pollen. It is quite an early grape, and not adapted for late work. 2G. Foster’s White Seedling.— Bunches large, compact, and tapering. Berries medium size, oval; skin pale yellow or greenish when not well ripened; flesh tender, melting, very juicy, and with a rich saccharine flavour. This is an excellent grape, much superior to Royal Muscadine, and being equal to it in flavour, it has superseded that good old sort for culture under glass. It is also one of the best grapes for pot culture. The fruit sets as freely as that of the Hamburg, and requires precisely similar treatment in all the stages of its growth, except that the leaves ought to be moved aside to allow the sun to act upon the fruit, which will bring out its beautiful golden colour. 27. Duke of Buccleuch.—Bunches large, ovate, broadly shouldered. Bernes immensely large, round, inclining to oblate; skin thin, of a fine golden colour when fully ripe; flesh melting, with very abundant juice; flavour quite distinct, and extremely rich and pleasant. This most noble-looking grape was raised by Mr. W. Thomson, now of Clovenfords, Galasliields, who grows it very extensively for market purposes, and from its fine appearance and high quality it invariably brings the highest price. It is, however, an early grape, and will not hang long after ripening. It succeeds under the treatment given to the Black Hamburg. J. D.] 28. [Golden Queen.—Bunches long, tapering, shouldered. Berries oblong or oval, an inch or more in length, on rather long stalks; skin membranous, amber-coloured; flesh firm, breaking, juicy, and very richly flavoured. This fine new grape is much esteemed byFORCING. 595 some of the leading cultivators, but being of recent origin requires time to establish its claim to a position amongst the first-rate sorts.] 29. Calabrian Raisin—syn. Raisin de Calabre.— Leaves not deeply lobed, smooth above and below, eveu the ribs being glabrous, instead of being furnished with short bristly hairs, as are those of most other varieties. Bunch very long, shouldered. Berries round, white, thinly covered with a delicate bloom, transparent, so that the seeds can be seen; flesh firm, sweet, and pleasant, though not rich. The bunch has a very handsome appearance, and as regards colour, contrasts well with "West's St. Peter’s; hence a plant of it may be grown chiefly on that account, for by having these two, black and white grapes, in all their freshness, can be insured for adding to the elegance of the dessert at a late period of the season. It has been grown by Mr. Curror of Esk-bank to a weight of 2t>i lb. 30. White Nice.—Leaves very downy beneath. Bunch very large and loose. Berries middle-sized, somewhat oval; skin rather thin, greenisli-white, becoming pale-amber when fully ripe; pulp tolerably soft and juicy, but not rich. This variety has been grown by Mr. Dickson of Arkleton to a weight of 25 lb. 15 oz. 31. Syrian—syn. Palestine, Terre de la Promise.— Bunch very large, with broad shoulders. Berries large, oval; skin thick, white; flesh firm, of tolerable flavour when well ripened to a fine amber colour with strong heat. From the firmness of the flesh the bunches will long hang without decaying. Grown by Mr. Speechly at AVelbeck, in 1781, to the weight of 19J lb. The variety is not to be recommended for a limited selection, and in the largest collection one plant is enough. 32. White Muscat of Alexandria—syn. White Muscat, Tottenham Park Muscat, White Muscat of Jerusalem, Lunel, White Muscat of Lunel, Malaga, Muscat Eschcolata, Alexandrian Frontignan, Zebibo of Sicily, Passe Musquee Blanche, Passe-longue Musquee, Muscat Caminada, Muscat Romain.—Leaves large, deeply lobed, sharply serrated, smooth above, slightly pubescent beneath; petioles long, smooth, stained with red, as are also the ribs for some distance from them. Bunches very large, strongly shouldered. Berries large, oval, hanging loosely; skin rather thick, of a pale amber colour, with a thin bloom; flesh firm and breaking, exceedingly rich, with a strong and delicious Muscat flavour. The remark made by Lindley, that this grape may be justly considered as one of the very best grapes ever introduced into this country, is most appropriate. It requires a higher degree of temperature to ripen than many others, and succeeds best in a warm vinery or pine stove. It may nevertheless be ripened very well in a lower temperature; only then it is necessary it should be forced early in spring. We have seen it forced in pots in a stove heat till nearly full-grown, and it then ripened off very well in a greenhouse, into which it was introduced in June. The Cliarleswortli Tokay was once considered different from the Muscat of Alexandria, but when grown side by side no obvious distinction can be observed. 33. Bowood Muscat—syn. Tynninghame Muscat.— Bunch large, shouldered. Berries very large, oval or obovate, deep amber when fully ripened; flesh firm, juicy, with a rich, sugary, Muscat flavour. It requires the same amount of heat as the Muscat of Alexandria, compared with which it is said to be rather earlier, as well as an abundant bearer and free setter; moreover, it keeps equally well. The variety was raised by Mr. Spencer at Bowood, from the Canon Hall and Muscat of Alexandria. 34. Canon Hall Muscat.—This variety has thicker shoots and larger berries than the White Muscat of Alexandria; but when the latter is grown in rich borders it is difficult to tell the difference. In point of flavour, however, the Canon Hall is rather the inferior, and that being the case we cannot recommend its cultivation in limited selections; and where there is a house appropriated to Muscats one plant of this variety will be sufficient. It was raised at Canon Hall in Yorkshire. 35. Chasselas Musque—syn. Josling’s St. Alban’s, Muscat de Jesu, Muscat Fleur d’Orange, Tokai Musque. —Leaves middle-sized, roundish, somewhat convex, not deeply lobed, the serratures turned downwards, of a bluish-green colour, smooth above and nearly so beneath. Bunches tapering, rather loose, with large or small shoulders, or with none. Berries middle-sized, round; skin moderately thick, apt to crack, white, acquiring a yellowish tinge when well ripened; flesh firm, with a rich, sugary, delicious Muscat flavour. An excellent bearer, ripening early. Its only fault is that the berries are apt to crack; but various cultivators produce fruit without this defect; and by avoiding vicissitudes of moisture, either at root or top, it may be obtained in good perfection. Its flavour is thought equal to that of the White Muscat of Alexandria, and it will ripen well with much less heat. Moreover, from ripening earlier it will save the Muscats from being cut too soon, as is frequently the case, by those who prefer the Muscat flavour. 36. White Frontignan — syn. White Constantia, Nepean’s Constantia, Muscat Blanc, Raisin de Frontignan, Muscat Blanc de Jura, Moscatel Commun, Mus-cateller, Weisser Muscateller, Weissgelber Muscateller, Weisse Muscaten Traube, Schmekende, Weyrer, Mus-cataly, Moschata Bianca, Moscat Bianco, Moscado Bianco, Moscatello Bianco, Moscatel Menudo Blanco, Moscatel Morisco, Muscat Beli, Bela Dinka, Zoruna. — Leaves roundish, open at the base, not deeply (sometimes scarcely) lobed, but having deep serratures; midrib not bristly. Bunches long, conical. Berries middle-sized, round; skin white; flesh somewhat firmer than that of the Royal Muscadine, and possessing a delicious, rich, Muscat flavour. In the South of England it will in some seasons ripen tolerably well on the open wall. [It may, however, be grown to perfection either in a cool or warm vinery, as it forces well, and is worthy of the most favourable situation that can be given to it. Selection of Sorts For an open wall in the southern parts of the kingdom. Royal Muscadine. Black Cluster. Pitmaston White Cluster. For an early vinery. Black Hamburg. Duke of Buccleucli. Black Prince. Foster’s White Seedling. White Frontignan. For a late vinery. Alicante. Lady Downe’s. Gros Guillaume. Gros Colin an. Calabrian Raisin.596 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. For a greenhouse. Black Hamburg. Foster’s White Seedling. Madresfield Court. Buckland Sweetwater. For a stove. Muscat of Alexandria. Gros Guillaume. Bowood Muscat. Alicante.] Propagation.—This is effected by seeds, cuttings or eyes, layers, and grafts. Propagation by seeds is chiefly with the view of obtaining new varieties. The object of doing so in this country should be chiefly that of obtaining hardy sorts for greenhouse culture, and for the open wall, in favourable situations. That there is a very great difference in the hardiness of grapes will be readily admitted if we only call to mind the appearance of a Muscat of Alexandria, and that of a Black Cluster, both grown in the open air; in the one a great proportion of the shoot is green and immature when growth is arrested in autumn; in the other the wood is mature, and comparatively hard nearly to the very extremities of the shoots. Therefore it is probable that by crossing such sorts as the Black Hamburg, Royal Muscadine, Black Prince, White Frontignan, and Chasselas Musque, with the Black Cluster, varieties as hardy as the latter, with larger bunches, and berries of better quality for the dessert might be obtained. It will be observed that the petals of the flowers of the vine are inflected at the top, and form a sort of cap inclosing the stamens and pistil. When the vine is in good condition, and in a suitable temperature, this cap is thrown off, and the anthers exposed to the influence of light and air; they then soon burst, and fertilization is effected. Before this takes place, when crossing is to be performed, the stamens should be cut away with very fine pointed scissors; and afterwards, when the style and stigma are sufficiently developed, the pollen of the hardier vine shaken on a piece of paper should be applied with a camel-hair pencil to the stigma of the sort to be fertilized. The process may also be reversed by fertilizing the hardy sort with the pollen of the sorts above mentioned, or that of others that may be thought eligible. The seeds should be sown early in February, in pots or pans of light rich loam, mixed with a little leaf-mould. The pots should be kept in bottom-heat, and always near the light during the growing season, shifting when necessary. With plenty of heat, both at top and bottom, as well as of light and air, the plants will bear the second year. Cuttings.—Where the soil is warm a well-ripened vine shoot inserted in the ground will strike root; but in this climate the progress of rooting is too slow for a good shoot being formed before cold weather sets in. With bottom-lieat the rooting process is accelerated, but it is found, notwithstanding, that when a strong young shoot is produced with plenty of air and sufficient moisture, the returning sap is checked considerably when it comes to the old wood, and we frequently see that the young shoot becomes, in consequence, thicker than the old wood intervening between it and the roots. This thickening does not indicate a natural condition, for the increase in the diameter of the young shoot arises from an accumulation of sap, which, if there had been no interruption, would have gone to make roots. Such being the case, it is found best in propagating the vine to dispense, as much as possible, with old wood. Eyes.—For the reason just given, plants raised from single eyes or buds are preferred, for experience has proved them to be the best. A bud with about half an inch of shoot on each side is all that is necessary; indeed, some slice off half the shoot, or more, opposite the bud. The shoots from which eyes or buds are to be taken for propagation should be firm and well ripened. We have seen vine shoots from Malaga so well matured that they cut almost as firm as a piece of old vine wood. They were cut into single eyes, and subjected to precisely the same treatment as eyes from the best-ripened shoots, whether from the open wall or vinery, in this country; but the strongest plants were produced by the Malaga shoots. The eyes should be planted in the end of January; if earlier, the plants would not have light enough; later, they would have a shorter period for growth. When prepared, the eyes should be planted singly in small pots filled rvitli rich compost of good friable loam, leaf-mould, and a little sand. They ought then to be kept in moderate heat for a Aveek, aftenvards plunged in a bottom-heat of about 75°; and Avhen the plants liaA’e made several leaA’es the bottonr-lieat may be increased to 85°, the top-heat averag-ing about the same during the day, or higher Avith sun and air, and 75° at night. As soon as the roots have reached the sides of the pots the plants should lie shifted, and this operation should be repeated as often as the groAvth of the roots may render it necessary. Only, toAvards the end of the season, the pot may be alloAved to get rather full of roots, but not so much as to preA'ent their being spread out rvitli facility, and without entanglement, on planting out. By giving top and bottom heat, Avith plenty of air and light, as Avell as occasional Avaterings Avitli clear liquid-manure water, strong well-rooted plants, Avith firm AA'ood, AA'ill be insured by the end of the season, much superior to those raised by long cuttings, coiling,FORCING. 597 or layering, which therefore need only be briefly noticed. Coiling a shoot, 5 or 6 feet long, in a pot, and leaving only an eye or two above the surface, was supposed to be advantageous, on account of the great store of organized matter such a shoot must contain, as compared with a short one, or more especially with that in the small portion attached to a single eye. Now, the elaborated sap which a certain amount of foliage can return to the portion of the plant below ground will be much the same whether that portion consists of a large quantity of old shoot, with some pushing fibres, or almost entirely of young roots. In the former case, supposing the coiled shoot to be 5 feet in length, and only f inch in diameter, a surface of more than 120 square inches would have to receive the share of returning sap which would be due to that extent of surface, and then it is certain there could not be much left for the formation of spongioles and young roots. The organized matter stored up in the matured wood of the old shoot may be drawn upon by the leaves in the first instance, but the same shoots will repay themselves with interest as soon as the leaves begin to elaborate and return sap. On the whole, therefore, no advantage can be derived from long coiled shoots, but the contrary. Green Cuttings.—When it is desirable to propagate any sort as extensively and as quickly as possible, all superfluous young shoots may be slipped off when (i or 8 inches long, and put under propagating glasses; and well-rooted good plants may thus be obtained, free from any old wood. Layering.—By this mode it was formerly usual to propagate in the open ground, and strong plants were produced by the end of the season. It is the best mode where fire-heat is not at command; but the objection of too much old wood applies to it. The author of the Guide to the Orchard and Kitchen Garden recommends the operation to be commenced as soon as the leaves have fallen, and to use 8 or 9 inch pots, sunk 2 inches below the surface, and three-parts filled with good mould, twisting the shoot till it splits, and then layering it in the pot, and shortening it to two eyes. “In the spring, when they have grown 9 or 12 inches, they should be staked, tying the two shoots of each layer to the stake, cutting off all the other shoots which are produced upon the bender between the stole and the pot. When the shoots have attained the height of 2 or 3 feet the uppermost shoot must be cut off, leaving the lower one only, training it up from time to time till it reaches the top of the stake, which need not be more than 6 feet at the most, when it must be stopped.”—(Lindley’s Guide, p. 220.) By leaving two shoots, as above directed, plants with roots more in proportion to the tops will doubtless be obtained; for whilst the temporary shoot is growing, it will be at the same time contributing to the formation of roots, which will then bear a greater proportion to the shoot left, than if only one had been allowed to grow. The vine may also be propagated by either of the various modes detailed under the head of layering in the chapter on propagation. The young shoots may be introduced into baskets filled with friable turfy soil, and when sufficiently rooted they may be gradually detached from the parent vine. By this mode they can be carried to a distance more safely, and at less expense than if they were in pots. Grafting.—The grafting of vines is easily and successfully accomplished, provided the operation is performed when the stock and scion are in a fit state. When vegetation is inactive, of course no vital union can take place; and, on the other hand, if the vine is wounded when the sap is rising, and before the leaves expand, bleeding ensues. Having, at the time of pruning, selected scions from the best-matured shoots of the kind which it is intended to propagate, let their ends be inserted in moist earth, or in moist sand in pots, which is preferable, as they can be moved into a warmer temperature some time previous to grafting. Before there is any danger of bleeding, the stock or branch intended to be worked should be cut back to where the graft is to be put on. This may be, according to circumstances, either on the last year’s shoot or on the older wood. Select a place where the scion can be put on as in whip-grafting; but if the shoot is inclined, the scion should not be placed on the under side. Then cut back the stock or shoot above a bud opposite to where the scion is to be put on. When the buds of the vine to be grafted begin to expand, let the scions be brought into a temperature approaching to that in which the stock is growing, so that they may be prepared to start the sooner after grafting. When the bud to which the shoot or branch was cut back has pushed 4 or 5 inches, pinch it back to two leaves, and whip-graft on the opposite side. In tying and claying, the bud of the scion must be left free to push; and after claying, the whole should be mossed over; still, however, leaving the buds exposed to light; it is also necessary that the moss should be kept moist by frequent watering and syringing with tepid water. When the scion has burst, one of the two leaves on the shoot left opposite to it should be cut off; and as soon as the buds of the scion have fairly expanded into leaf, it will be in a condition to appropriate all598 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. the sap; and that being the case, the whole of the shoot which is left may be removed. The shoot from the graft ought to be allowed full freedom of growth to produce as much foliage as can possibly be well exposed to light; but if it should attain the height of 12 or 15 feet, it may be stopped. Various other modes of grafting may be employed, but we have found whip-grafting the best; it makes a much sounder union than cleft-grafting, which many recommend, because, by adopting that mode, they have obtained long shoots in the same season. Of this we are aware; but at the same time the cleft portion will never become sound. Out-door Culture.—Glass being cheap, there is greater inducement to have grapes under its shelter now than formerly, and less to attempt their ripening on walls, or in the open ground. Nevertheless, we still see thousands of cottages having their front walls or gables covered with vines; and in warm seasons properly selected sorts under good management may be ripened very well. Soil.—Provided the situation is warm, the leaves freely exposed to light and air, and the roots supplied with a moderate quantity of moisture, the vine will grow in almost any soil. AVe have seen it succeed both in strong deep loam, and in rocky ground thinly covered with poor sandy soil. In the open air, or against a wall, vines will thrive in any well-conditioned soil that is suitable for fruit-trees generally. A rich, mellow loam, always pervious to moisture, will suit the vine in the open air, and it should be refreshed occasionally with a dressing of compost consisting of maiden loam and dung; if the loam employed for this purpose is turfy, so much the better. In gravelly soil mixed with peat the roots of the vine are not liable to parish from moisture in winter; and having roots tit for action, the plants are prepared to make an earlier growth than those that have nearly all their smaller fibres either destroyed or in bad condition. Planting.—The best season for planting vines against walls or elsewhere in the open ground is in the month of October, early in November, or in spring, just before the sap begins to rise. The roots should be carefully spread out and covered with rich turfy loam, made rather fine; then moderately watered, and afterwards mulched. The cultivation of the grape on open walls is perhaps nowhere so carefully attended to as at the village of Thomery, on the banks of the Seine, about five miles from Fontainebleau, and from this neighbourhood Paris is supplied with 30,000 lb. of grapes daily during the grape season. We shall therefore briefly state the mode of culture which the industrious inhabitants of that village have from long experience adopted. The soil is a light brown sandy loam; a sample of it analyzed by Professor Solly gave 81 per cent, of silica, 7 of alumina, and only 3£ of organic matter, therefore it had not been highly manured ; yet from such soil the Royal Muscadine or Chasselas de Fontainebleau grape is produced of excellent quality. The bunches we saw were only middle-sized, as were also the berries; but these had acquired a fine yellow tinge indicative of perfect maturity, and the quality was excellent. Doubtless this is in a great measure owing to the climate; but much is due to the system of management. The principal feature in this is that each plant is trained with only two branches extending horizontally, as nearly as possible from the same point, one to the right and the other to the left; and from these the bearing shoots are trained upright. The distance between the horizontal courses is 18 inches. At Fontainebleau we observed that the plants were 3 feet apart, and the distance between the courses of horizontals was 2 feet, and these distances are preferable in our soil and climate, in which the vine makes longer shoots than at Thomery. The length of the two horizontals of each vine is equal to the distance at which the vines are planted, multiplied by the number of horizontal courses which the height of the wall will admit; or the length of each horizontal is equal to half that product. A wall 12 feet high will thus admit of five courses; and, planted 3 feet apart, each plant will extend its horizontals 15 feet, or 71 feet on each side, crossing the adjacent upright naked stems. A bearing shoot is allowed to spring from each eye; it is trained upright, and stopped when it reaches the next horizontal; if laterals push, as is likely to be the case in consequence of the stopping, they are cut off above the second leaf. At the winter pruning all the upright shoots are cut back to the lowest two eyes. On the upper one of these the fruit is chiefly borne; but it is completely cut away at the ensuing winter pruning, whilst the other shoot is cut down to its lowest two eyes. If more than two shoots push from the bases of the shoots cut back, they are pinched off close as soon as they can be well laid hold of. The horizontals extend equally on both sides of the stems, and are allowed to meet, but not pass each other. By the Thomery mode, according to the Bon Jardinier, as many as 320 bunches can be produced on a surface of little more than 8 feet square. In this calculation it is supposed that each horizontal of 4 feet 4 inches in length will support eight upright shoots with two bunchesFOECING. 599 on each; but in this climate the shoots would require more space; and besides, the wall, in order that it may be heated by the sun, should not be completely covered with foliage; therefore only half of the above quantity should here be reckoned on for the same space. It will be observed, that in this mode of training, the flow of sap in each plant is divided among sixteen shoots, all of which are equal as regards origin and position. They all sjDring from a horizontal base, they are equally upright, and all are stopped when they attain a certain height, and each should have the same amount of foliage. The stopping takes place in the early part of the season, and in consequence of this the bud at the base of the part left gets well matured. Considering the limited development which each plant is allowed to take, the quantity of foliage is in ample proportion, and year after year it is almost uniformly the same; consequently, the elaborated sap supplied for the support of the roots is as regular as is the demand on these for support in return. Such is not the case when vines are trained in a rambling manner and without system; for in that case the roots are perhaps to-day in full communication with the large amount of foliage on a number of long shoots, and to-morrow all these may probably be cut away without considering that the roots must suffer severely from the shock; the portion of foliage left being frequently less than that suddenly removed. It is not so with the Thomery system, in which the shoots have only their points taken off in a young state, rendering the removal of perfect foliage for the most part unnecessary. From these considerations, and from what we have observed of the system abroad, as well as the favourable results which have, in some instances, been obtained in England by adopting it, we think that the Thomery system is the best that can be pursued in our climate, allowing, however, a distance of 3 feet between the plants, and 2 feet between the horizontal courses. Should it be found that after a fair trial the above mode does not succeed, in consequence of the dampness of the climate and soil, then the following may be adopted. Horizontal branches should be formed to the right and left, and from these upright shoots ought to be allowed to push at 1 foot apart, stopping them in summer when they have attained a height of from 4 to 6 feet, according to their strength. At the winter pruning every alternate upright should be cut down to the lowest two eyes; and those not so cut back may be shortened to 2 feet if rather weak, but to 3 or 4 feet if strong and well matured. These are to bear the fruit in the following summer. The best of the shoots from the two eyes to which the other shoots were cut back, should be allowed to grow from 4 to 6 feet, and then be stopped. They ought to be shortened at the winter pruning to between 3 and 5 feet according to their strength; and those that have borne fruit should be in their turn cut down to two eyes. Thus, with the exception of the horizontal branches, there is no two-years’ old wood, the uprights consisting of the current and previous summer’s shoots; the former are shortened at the winter pruning for bearing; the latter cut back to within two eyes of the base. In this way the wall can only be covered to the height of 4 or 5 feet; for the upper part, vines would require to be planted, and carried upright with a single stem 5 or 6 feet high, above which a second series of horizontals and uprights should be formed, and managed precisely as in the lower series. Culture under Glass.—Grown in the open air, grapes generally colour well even if they should not ripen; and the leaves are robust in appearance, thick and leathery to the feel. It is not always so with the foliage of vines subjected to more artificial treatment under glass; for there, forced into too rapid development by heat and moisture, without a corresponding amount of light, the leaves are sometimes very broad, but comparatively weak and thin. We have observed, that even in this country, vines growing in the open air maintain their roots in a sound state for many years in any soil that is not excessively bad; but by artificial treatment under glass, the foliage of the vine is in many instances rendered incapable of invigorating the roots, and these, consequently, are liable to become weak, and even to perish. This being the case, great care is necessary in the formation of the border, and in the selection of the materials of which it is composed. [The front wall of a vinery is usually built on arches, with the foundation of the arch nearly as low as the bottom of the border; but a much better plan is to arrange for a series of openings the whole length of the house, these may be about 6 inches deep and 12 inches wide; if the wall is of brick a stone slab can be placed over the toji of the hole, and should be about 6 inches below the surface of the border, j. d.] Depth of JBorder.^~-The vine is very successfully cultivated in deep loam on the banks of the Douro, and so it is in shallow soils among rocks on many parts of the Continent. In this country we hear of its succeeding well in deep, and likewise in shallow borders. In order, however, to support heavy crops for a series of years, a large quantity of nutritive substances is necessary; andeoo GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. a greater depth of soil is requisite to nourish a Black Hamburg, for instance, extending over a large surface, than a Burgundy pruned so as to be not larger than a raspberry plant. Before proceeding to excavate for the border the surface level at the front wall should be determined, and, as we have recommended, wTith reference to that of the adjoining ground. It will then serve as a datum from which the depth of the border can be measured. A depth of 3 feet of prepared soil we consider proper; it is not too much, provided it is laid on a well-drained subsoil, for in that case the earth, at 3 feet deep, is, on the average, as warm as at 1 foot deep. In a border of that depth vines have long continued to produce good crops. Then 3 feet below the datum line or surface of the soil at the front wall will be the bottom of the prepared compost, and another 9 inches should be excavated for drainage, making the total depth to be excavated 3 feet 9 inches. The soil thrown out would be very appropriately employed in raising a terrace, on which a walk with grass verges could be formed in front of the border. Drainage.—In some situations holes may be dug to the depth of 4 feet or more without water from below collecting in them at any time of the year; but in others, at that depth, water will rise at almost any season, and especially towards the beginning of summer, when the springs are generally at their highest. In the former case draining is not essential; but in the latter it is of the first importance. If water is constantly percolating from springs on the north side, it will render the bottom of the border cold and chilling for the roots; and as in this case a drain in front will not be sufficient, one lower than the bottom of the border should surround the site of the vinery. Bottoming the Border.—The drainage materials should be laid in the bottom of the border to the depth of 9 inches at least, and with a slope to the front drain. They may consist of brickbats, lime-rubbish, old plaster, stones broken like road-metal, &c., but of all others we consider chalk rammed hard to be the best. In many districts it may be had close at hand, and in any place it can now be cheaply obtained by railway. The roots do not penetrate through the rammed chalk, and this substance, whilst it retains a certain amount of moisture, is yet sufficiently porous to drain oil' that which is supertluous. Some recommend the bottom to be paved, but paving fiags next the warm soil will always be wet by condensation if their under sides are cold by contact with a subsoil in the proximity of spring water. Vines will therefore thrive better on chalk than on stone, or even loose drainage, through which the roots will occasionally push into cold bad subsoils. The width of the border need not be more than 4 or 5 feet at first; but after two years another breadth of 5 feet should be added, and as the roots extend the width may be increased to 15 feet, which will be quite enough. Soil.—The level of the surface and bottom of the border having been determined, as well as its width, we may now proceed to the consideration of the kind of soil to be introduced, and its preparation. In order to produce heavy crops the soil must be rich; and to prevent the roots from perishing from cold and humidity it should be composed of open materials, not liable to become a spongy saturated mass. A rich turfy loam is the best main constituent of a vine border; and the fibre of the turf should be of a nature that it ■ will not readily become quite rotten. Indepen-! dent of its fibre the loam itself should be natur-! ally at all times pervious to water. If loam intended for vine borders were brought in contact with stable manure in a state of fermentation it would absorb ammonia, and vines planted in it would be in a condition to make a good start, and produce healthy and vigorous foliage. In older to dispose the loam for the absorption of the' ammonia it may be laid in alternate layers about IS inches thick, with fresh fermenting stable dung, the litter of which should be previously well soaked in urine from the stable, mixed with water. Another mode of attaining the same object would be to build the loam in beds 3 feet wide and 4 or 5 feet high, with 2-feet spaces between, and holes having been bored horizontally through the beds, to fill up the intermediate spaces with fresh stable manure, covering it with a few inches of soil to prevent the escape of ammonia at top. The dung may remain till its fermentation has considerably abated, when it j may be removed and the loam turned over witli-I out being much chopped; and if naturally rich, j may then be considered fit for putting in the border, but otherwise some rich, well-prepared compost should be mixed with it. Such compost may consist of loam, old plaster, as it contains hair, and half-inch bones. The mass should be turned several times, and on each occasion a little j fresh loam mixed with it in order that the gases arising from fermentation may be completely absorbed. A rich compost, thus worked up, will | prove better adapted for mixing with the soil of the border than strong manures, which have not | been subjected to any such preparatory process.FORCING. 601 A very good compost for enriching the loam for a border may be formed of two parts of turfy loam and one of pigs’ dung, mixed with the loam at the rate of one load in ten. Turfy loam thrown into sheep-pens is soon rendered an excellent soil for a vine border, without the addition of any other ingredients. Planting.—[The best time for this operation is in spring, when the growths have started about I? inch or so, and they should be planted inside from 1 to 2 feet distant from the front wall. The roots should be carefully disentangled, and spread out in all directions. The hole should be wide enough to allow of the roots spreading outwards from the stem, and so deep that when it is filled in the plant may be 1 inch deeper than it was in the pot. Some nice friable turfy loam should be at hand to place over the roots, and this portion should contain no manure. The largest proportion of roots should be laid towards the back wall of the house, in order to encourage them to ramify inside as much as possible, as all vine roots have the greatest tendency to grow through the openings in the front wall into the outside border. The vine must be prepared for planting in this way. The cane should be cut back to within 2 feet of the pot early in the season to prevent bleeding, and as the eyes start they should all be rubbed oft’ except three or four at the base. When the vine is planted, and the shoots are growing freely, the strongest two are selected, and trained up, the others being broken off. Two rods are sufficient from one plant, and with careful management will grow and ripen the whole length of a 20-foot rafter. The plants should not be watered after planting until fairly started into growth, j. d.] Temperature.—We have the excellent authority of Sir William J. Hooker in stating that the favourite climate of the vine in the Old World is between latitudes 36° and 48°; but it thrives wherever' the mean temperature is from 62° to 47|°, provided that of winter is not below 33° nor that of summer under 66° or 68°. Such is the case on the shores of Europe up to latitude 47°, and in the interior of the continent to latitude 50°. Certain varieties are adapted for the high temperature which prevails in the extreme south of Europe and north of Africa; others succeed in certain localities as far as latitude 50°. If even the hardiest varieties occasionally succeed beyond this, it must be under peculiarly favourable circumstances. The range of the vine in Europe may therefore be reckoned at about 1000 miles from south to north. But long before reaching the northern limits the cul- tivation of our most esteemed hot-house grapes must give place to smaller and hardier varieties. Thus such kinds as the Muscat of Alexandria are only adapted for a high temperature, such as prevails in the hottest parts of Europe; there they succeed admirably, and that being the case, it may fairly be concluded that the climate must be highly favourable, and proper for imitation by artificial means. The following table exhibits the mean temperature of the air (omitting fractions) from January, when the buds are in a comparatively dormant state, till September, at Beyrout in Syria, lat. 33° 50' n.; Cadiz, lat. 36° 32' n.; and at Catania, in Sicily, lat. 37° 30' n., where grapes attain a high degree of perfection in the open air:— —II 1 HI j 21 3 April. May. June. ^ to < 1 M2 Beyrout, 56° 59° 61° 63° 69° 75° 81° 81° 80° Cadiz, 51 ; 53 55 59 (53 68 70 72 j 70 Catania, 49 54 j 56 61 71 79 8(3 , 88 | 78 Average, 52 ; 55 | 57 61 67 74 79 80 | 76 By the examples above selected it will be observed that in the principal growing and ripening months, May, June, July, and August, the climate of Catania is the hottest, and its temperature is probably as high as vines that are being forced could well bear. Nevertheless, with care, it may be safely followed in the case of Muscats, and other large sorts; and here it may be remarked that the Muscat of Alexandria, under the name of Zebibo, is one of the sorts grown in Sicily. The temperature of Beyrout is to be preferred when a very early crop is not the principal object. The following table is drawn up from a diary of vine forcing kept, where bunches of Black Hamburg were grown to 8 lb. weight each, at Oak Hill, East Barnet, by Mr. Forsyth, and published in Loudon's Gardener's Magazine. From the data there given we have arranged the temperatures in weekly order from the commencement of the process, when the vines are dormant, till the ripening period, contrasting it with the average weekly temperature of Beyrout, Cadiz, and Catania. The weekly temperatures given for these places, though they are only approximations, must be very near to the truth from their having been obtained by drawing lines proportionate in height to the monthly temperatures, and raising others at one-fourth, one-half, and three-fourths the distance between every two. The lengths of the intermediate ordinates in this and similar cases represent the intermediate average weekly temperatures to within a fraction ofG02 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. a degree, which is certainly near enough for practical purposes. The temperatures thus obtained coincide, it will be observed, with those afforded at Oak Hill, or differ but slightly from them. For the first four weeks after the application of fire-lieat at Oak Hill, the weekly temperatures correspond with the average of those of the places abroad between the third week of April and middle of May, when vines out of doors naturally push; and at Oak Hill, artificially, shoots were produced in the same temperature :— Tem perature at Weekly Oak Hill. mean of Bey rout, Remarks. a Cadiz, and §§ a> s S Catania. 1 60° 45° 52° 57° Vinery shut up, Nov. 8. 2 60 45 52 58 3 60 50 55 59 4 65 61) 55 60 ft** 61 Fire-heat applied, Dec. 1. 6 70 58 64 64 7 72 59 65 65 Buds swelling, Dec. 22. 8 74 61 67 67 Heat of dung on border 96° 9 76 63 69 68 10 78 65 71 70 Shoots 2 inches long. 11 81 68 74 72 12 83 71 77 74 13 14 15 84 85 85 73 75 76 78 80 80 75 76 78 f Vines in flower gene-( rally, Feb. 15. 1(3 85 76 80 79 17 85 74 79 79 Berries all set. 18 85 72 78 79 19 85 72 78 79 Berries thinned. 20 85 72 78 80 21 85 72 78 80 22 85 72 78 80 Black Hamburg colouring. 23 83 72 77 79 24 83 72 77 79 Sweetwater ripe. 26 6c! 81 ( -70 i 7 75 79 Ventilation.—At all times when the state of the weather will permit air should be given, but with due caution, especially when there is great disparity between the internal and external temperatures. Air ought never to be given with the view of lowering the temperature, but to prevent the latter from getting too high. Even if the admission of the external air should be neglected, and the house be found too hot, the operation should have for its object to prevent any further rise, rather than to cause a sudden reduction of temperature. Watering and Syringing.—Ileat, air, and moisture should be so regulated as to produce a uniformly progressive growth of foliage, for on this depends not only the excellence of the present but also that of the future crops. It is, on the contrary, injurious to supply heat and moisture to such an excess as to cause a too rapid elon- gation of shoots and expansion of foliage. Such is the case when the development in a given time is greater than occurs under the most favourable circumstances out of doors. Whilst, therefore, sufficient moisture should be supplied, its excess must be guarded against. When the shoots are seen becoming unusually long-jointed, and the foliage broad but thin, it is necessary to see that the temperature is not too high; if so, it must be gradually lowered to that which is proper, and by so doing excessive development will be moderated. But, notwithstanding this, if moisture is constantly in excess, the atmosphere of the house being kept continually in a saturated condition, so that the leaves cannot perspire, they will not properly elaborate the sap. During some period of the twenty-four hours the air should not be fully saturated with moisture; and this period ought, if possible, to be in the daytime, so that the process of evaporation may take place when the foliage is under the influence of light. But here we must observe, that the atmosphere of vineries and other forcing houses is generally rendered too dry by the coldness of the glass acting as a condenser of the moisture contained in the warmer air of the house, thus rendering it dry in the night when the vine growing naturally out of doors enjoys a moist atmosphere. The greater the difference between the temperature of the air and that of the glass, the drier the air becomes. Therefore, by reducing the coldness of the glass by means of some warm covering, the drying process would be greatly counteracted. [A proper degree of atmospheric moisture can be kept up by keeping the evaporating troughs that are cast on the hot-water pipes constantly filled with water, and by syringing the walls as well as watering the paths two or three times a day. No water should be applied to the leaves from the syringe after the vines start; nor ought water to be in the evaporating troughs when the vines are in flower; it ought also to be withheld when the grapes begin to colour. To facilitate this, evaporating troughs ought to be cast on the pipes, but if this has not been done, zinc troughs can be fitted to them and serve the same purpose. The best time to sprinkle the borders and paths and to syringe the walls, is when the ventilators are opened in the morning, and when the house is shut up in the afternoon. In very hot weather the house should be well damped two or three times during the day besides. When water is applied to the roots, a sufficient quantity must be given to penetrate to the bottom of the border. The first watering ought to be given the same week that the house is shut up; the next when the vines have started about (i inches; anotherFORCING. 603 about the flowering period; and again when the berries, after stoning, take the second swelling. If a thorough watering is given at each of these times no more will be required. Outside borders seldom require any water. j. d.] Pruning ancl Training.—The mode of bearing in the vine is very different from that of many other kinds of fruit-trees. In the peach, for example, no fruit is borne on the young shoots of the current year, but on these blossom-buds are formed for fruiting in the following season; and it can be perceived in winter where fruit will be situated in the summer, provided no accident occur. Such is not the case with the vine; a shoot may push from an unseen latent eye in the old wood, and on this shoot as it grows, whilst young and tender, the rudiments of a bunch may be seen; and frequently, as the same shoot proceeds in growth, a second bunch, or even more, will sometimes be formed. A young shoot may this year grow to the length of 15 or 20 feet, and having been shortened to 10 or 12 feet by cutting otf the more recently formed, and consequently least matured portion, an eye or bud will be found in the axil of every leaf on that which remains. Next season it is possible that on this shoot, or rod, as it is termed, every eye may develop a young shoot which will bear one or two bunches of grapes. Thus any young shoot of a vine, whether proceeding from a bud on the last year's shoot, or from older wood, is eligible for bearing fruit. Therefore, whether we leave the last year’s shoots long or short, or cut them back to within a few eyes of their bases, or even to the lowest eye, still on the shoot or shoots which push there may be fruit. It is necessary to bear in mind that if the sap find plenty of eyes on young rods of the preceding season’s growth it will not readily push latent eyes from old wood. Some principally depend on the last year’s shoots for bearing the crop, leaving a few at considerable length for that purpose; others do the same, cutting them back, however, to shorter lengths, and leaving more of them; whilst many adopt the system of cutting back all the last year’s wood nearly close to the stem. Accordingly there are three systems in use, termed the long-rod, the short-rod, and the spur systems, and there are various intermediate modifications of these. It must be admitted that good crops have been obtained for several years in succession by each of the above methods; and that being the case it is evident that productiveness does not absolutely depend on the adoption of any particular mode of training. Whatever this may be, the production of foliage, and its maintenance in an efficient state, should be the primary con- sideration. As regards the culture of the vine under glass, some that get credit for being good fruit-groivers are not in all cases good leaf-growers. A person may obtain large crops of fruit for a few years if he have strong well-conditioned vines to commence with; but if the quantity of foliage he maintains be not equal to supply the roots with a due share of elaborated sap a general weakness will ensue. Roots under certain circumstances will continue to grow for a time, although there may be no leaves on the plant; but the growth of roots cannot be long carried on independent of the leaves. If the foliage is scanty the roots will be few; if unhealthy, the roots will soon become unhealthy too. The amount of foliage should be as much as can possibly be well exposed to light, this of course being more or less according to the surface of glass. So far then as regards the essential principle of maintaining the vine in a healthy vigorous state, that mode of pruning and training is the best which admits of the greatest amount of foliage being exposed to light. In order to turn the structure to the best account as great an amount as possible of the light transmitted through the glass should act upon the foliage. We do not, of course, mean that the leaves should form a close green canopy under the glass through which no direct solar rays could penetrate, and below which all would be darkness; on the contrary, there ought to be numerous openings clear of foliage, so that the whole of the interior of the house may be light. Under one sash the leaves should not be crowded, whilst below others there are none. Whatever mode of training we may choose to adopt, these observations should be borne in mind; for by acting in accordance with them vines will be kept long in good health and bearing, instead of being ruined, as is frequently the case when, in training, the importance of the foliage is overlooked. Long-rod System.—By this it is generally admitted that larger bunches are obtained than by the spur system; but for a greater weight of fruit under the same extent of glass the latter is preferred. In long-rod pruning the principle is to train a shoot of the last year’s growth for producing shoots to bear fruit in the current year, shortening it more or less according to its strength. From the buds formed on it last season young shoots will push and bear fruit in the present. After bearing, this rod is cut away; thus all the two-years’-old wood is dispensed with, provided it is not required to furnish the upper part of the house. As by this system the two-year-old rods have to be cut away in the autumn, young shoots must be trained up during the summer in order604 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. to be ready to replace them; and these, in their turn, are cut out in the autumn of the following season, and are then replaced by shoots of that summer’s growth. Long-rod training in its simplest form is accomplished as follows:— riant the vine, train up one shoot, and when the leaves have fallen prune it back to the bottom of the rafter. In the next season train up only two of the best shoots, and when they have completed that season’s growth cut one of them back to two eyes at the base. The shoot left at greatest length will likely bear some fruit; the other, cut back to two eyes, will produce two shoots. In autumn the one which bore the fruit should be cut out; one of the two young shoots, cut back according to its strength, will supply its place, and the other young shoot must be cut back to two eyes. “ This mode of pruning and training is applicable principally to those houses where the rafters only are to be occupied by the vine, as over the pine pit, or where other crops are cultivated in the body of the house; but when it is intended to occupy the whole roof this system may still be adopted, by extending the vine on each side of the rafter till it meets that from the adjoining one; or the vine may be divided at the bottom of the rafter, on its first training, and formed with two principals on each side, making four principals to each vine. If, however, the vines should consist of the larger-fruited class, such as Muscat of Alexandria, Black Hamburg, or Syrian, &c., one principal on the rafter and one on each side will be much better than more. It may likewise be necessary to extend this system still further, where the house is large and has a great length of rafter, which may be done by forming a second series one-half the way up the rafter.”—(Lindley’s Guide, p. 224.) In carrying up a stem to furnish shoots for the upper part of the house, that stem will be naked between the parte where shoots proceed to furnish the lower part. To these naked portions of stem the young wood of the lower series may be closely trained, for naked wood does not require light. Short-rod System.—Instead of training rods at considerable length for bearing, some prefer short rods, treating them on the same system of cutting out the shoots which have borne, and supplying their places with young shoots trained up for that purpose. Mr. Roberts selects buds for the origin of spurs alternately on each side of a shoot which is allowed to progress to the top of the house, and he removes the other buds on each side, but so that those retained on one side may be situated about half-way between those left on the other. About two-thirds of the buds are thus removed, those retained being situated alternately on the right and left sides of the shoot. The operation of disbudding is performed when the wood is nearly mature, by cutting out the bud in the axil of the leaf, taking care not to injure the latter. The buds left push, and generally bear in the following season; in summer they are stopped one joint beyond the fruit, and in autumn are cut back to two eyes. These produce two shoots, one of which is allowed to bear fruit, and the other is not. At the autumn pruning the shoot which bore fruit is cut back to one eye at its base; the other is shortened to two, three, or four eyes, cutting above a bold prominent bud for fruiting, and those below are cut clean out, with the exception of one at the base, which is allowed to grow for succession, but not to bear fruit. There are left then, on the shortened shoot, only one bud at top to bear fruit, and one at the base for a succession shoot. Spur System.—This is becoming the most general. The vines are usually planted so that one can be trained up each rafter; but some train them up the middle of the sash, and this we believe to be the preferable mode, because in spur training the shoots are cut back to buds close to the stem, and for the sake of the buds the leaves next the stem should be well exposed to light. Under the rafter the stem is partially shaded, whereas in the middle of the sash'it is in the best position for the shoots proceeding from it being immediately acted upon by the light. A vine may therefore be introduced at that point, and trained in an upward direction; and care should be taken that shoots are encouraged alternately, by removing two buds and leaving one, or, in some cases, by retaining every other bud. When the young shoots push let them be gently brought to a horizontal position, by bending them a little at a time, but so as not to break them. Frequently, opposite the fourth leaf, the rudiments of a bunch will be developed. The leaf directly opposite the bunch must always be preserved. Some stop the young shoot at one joint or leaf beyond the fruit, and some at two joints. It seems to be of little importance, as regards the swelling of the bunch, at which it is done, and hence many good gardeners are not very particular as to whether they stop at one or two joints. Where there is plenty of room for the foliage to expand fully we would say stop at two joints, for the sap elaborated by the additional leaf will go to strengthen the vine and increase its roots. On the other hand, if stopping above the second leaf beyond the fruit would render the foliage crowded, then by all meansFORCIXG. 605 stop at one leaf. After stopping, laterals will pushJ and these may be stopped above their first or second joints. Thinning. — This is sometimes necessary as regards the bunches; and in all cases the berries ought to be properly thinned out and regulated. When more bunches are formed than the vine can bring to perfection, those which are superabundant should be reduced in an early stage of their growth, at all events, before they come into bloom. Sorts that produce large bunches should have fewer of them than those which naturally bear comparatively small bunches. The weight of fruit ought to correspond with the amount of good foliage. We have frequently seen it out of all proportion, in fact, so much so that there have been nearly as many bunches as leaves. Naturally the young shoots push a few leaves, then a bunch or a tendril appears, and this is always opposite a leaf. As the shoot proceeds other bunches may form at greater or less intervals, but still in the natural state the number of leaves far exceeds the number of bunches. The thinning of the berries should also take place as soon as they are well set, which will be soon after blooming. The general form of the bunches of some sorts of grape is that of an inverted cone, of which the stalk is the axis; in others the main stalk subdivides and forms shoulders. At the upper part of the bunch branchlets diverge from the axis, and often these again throw out stalks bearing frequently three berries, namely, two side ones and one terminal. Towards the lower extremity of the bunch the footstalks of the individual berries proceed directly from the axis, which terminates in a single berry. In thinning, the berries which proceed directly from the axis should be first removed, then each ramification should be successively inspected, and the berries thinned out where they would otherwise be too thick, taking care to cut off those nearest the axis or central stalk. The reason of this is obvious, for if we cut off, say, two-thirds of the outmost bernes those left would still be crowded; but by reversing the process the berries occupy a wider space, just as a number of persons forming a small circle may be overcrowded, but by each withdrawing from the centre all soon find plenty of room. In proceeding up the bunch peduncles from the main axis bearing three berries, as already mentioned, will be met with. Mr. Roberts recommends {Culture of the Vine, p. 52) the terminal one to be left, and the two side ones removed. Where there are shoulders they should be thinned on the same principle, and also tied away from the main part of the bunch by slender pieces of matting. [A readier mode of suspending the shoulders of large bunches is by means of convenient lengths of fine wire, such as is used for tying down corks, or for mounting bouquets, bent at each end into the form of a crook, one end being hooked in near the end of the shoulder, and the other hooked on to the nearest training wire or firmly-placed shoot so as to elevate or spread out the portion of the branch to which it is attached. This may be done and undone much more rapidly than tying, and the wires can be preserved and will serve the same purpose for many years.] The thinning of the berries should be modified according to the varieties and the space the berries require when full-grown; and in avoiding overcrowding the berries should not be made too thin and straggling. Moreover, the berries should not be touched either with head or hands that are perspiring. As they increase in size after the first thinning, the bunches should be again looked over, and regulated by a second thinning when necessary. Pot Culture.— The cultivation of vines in pots is not new, for it was practised by Speechly at Welbeck in the end of the last century, but chiefly with the view of proving varieties forming part of a collection too extensive for being all planted in the vineries. Recently, however, this mode of culture has been found very advantageous in other respects, especially as regards the furnishing of a very early supply; for by it such can be obtained without forcing the permanent vines so much in winter, and consequently they are enabled to bear larger and finer crops for many years consecutively. Plants for fruiting in pots should be raised from eyes, and grown as strong as possible in rich turfy loam mixed with about one-third of horse-dung and a little bone-dust. The temperature should be gradually increased from 60° to 80° or 90° by sun-heat, and a bottom-heat always a few degrees higher must be maintained. As the roots require more room the plants ought to be shifted from 3-incli pots into those of 6, 9, 13, or 15 inches in diameter, and in either of the latter two sizes they may be fruited iii the follow- ing season. As growth proceeds it should be determined how the plant is to be trained for fruiting in the ensuing season, whether upright, arched spirally, or umbrella-shaped; and then from what part of the shoot it would be desirable that buds to push shoots for fruiting next year should be situated. The lowest of these buds having been fixed upon, the leader ought to be stopped at five or six joints above it by pinching out the growing point.606 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. From the axil of the leaf, immediately below the point of stopping, a lateral will readily push, and a bud by its side in the same axil will not likely do so till next season if the lateral is allowed to grow; the latter should therefore be entirely removed as soon as it can be laid hold of. The bud will then start and take the lead, making a much stronger shoot than the lateral would have done. This stopping will concentrate the sap in the buds below, and tend to insure their breaking into fruitful shoots in the following season. When the new leader has formed buds as high as will be required for fruit shoots, it should be also stopped and the lateral displaced, so as to stimulate the latent bud to take the lead as before. It may be allowed to grow to the length of 7 feet, and then be finally stopped. A few laterals near the top may be permitted to push several joints; those situated lower should be pinched at an early stage of their growth, and entirely removed when the wood of the principal shoot begins to turn brown. In the beginning or middle of July the wood ought to be ripe along the whole 7 feet of rod, and any laterals remaining should be cleared off; the pots must then be removed to the south side of a wall, or any convenient shelter, and mulched with some substance which will protect the roots from the vicissitudes of cold and heat. Prune the plants in October, top-dress with a compost of rich turfy loam in November, wash them with sulphur and soft soap, and they will then be ready for forcing. About the middle of November, earlier or later according to the urgency of the demand for early grapes, the plants should be introduced into the forcing house or pit. To insure the greatest success the pots should be plunged in a heat of G5° or 70°; the atmospheric temperature may follow that in the table already given; and the bottom-heat ought always to be as high as the mean top-heat. Train six or eight shoots for fruiting; but in order to have the bunches fine, only one bunch should be left on each shoot, which ought to be stopped at one joint beyond the bunch. Keep the air rather dry when the plants are in flower; and supply manure water alternately with pure water. By these means 6 lb. or 8 lb. of well-ripened grapes may be obtained from each pot in April, sixteen months after striking the plant from the eye. The above may be considered one of the best modes where bottom-heat can be afforded; but, instead of raising plants from eyes in one season and fruiting them in the next, plants may be reared with less heat, and fruited after two seasons’ growth. In the autumn after propagation they may be cut down to two or three eyes. In February the best shoot from these should be trained as directed for those of plants forced in the winter following the first season’s growth from the eye. Some place the pots on rich compost, or in other pots nearly filled with such, in order that the roots of the vines whilst being forced may penetrate into it on passing through the hole in the bottom of the pot. It is necessary to observe that vines and other fruit-trees in pots are frequently treated when at rest as if they were certain kinds of bulbs, which, having a store of moisture in themselves, do not require to be supplied with any whilst vegetation is inactive. But such is not the case with vines, and unless it can be proved that the soil in which vines have lived out of doors for hundreds of years is drier in winter than in summer, we must conclude that keeping the roots of pot vines in winter in a soil as dry as dust, must be very injurious to the plants. Diseases.—The vine, grown under favourable circumstances, is not particularly subject to disease. The vine mildew (Oidium Tuckeri) has, however, of late years attacked it almost universally. In America it has been prevalent for more than thirty years upon European vines; but it was not known in England till 1847, when an account of it was given by Mr. Tucker, of Margate, where the disease first appeared about two years previous to that time. It has since proved very destructive to crops of grapes both in vineries and on the open Avail, that Avould otherAvise have been very fine; and not only have the vines of this country suffered severely, but the crops in the Peninsula, France, Germany, Italy, and the Greek Archipelago have in some seasons been almost destroyed. The mildeAv appears to the naked eye like a Avliite powder, but under a powerful microscope it is found to consist of a net-work of Avliite branching filaments, from which others, either resembling a club or necklace in shape (Fig. 343), arise, almost in a perpendicular direction; and by the spores and utricles of these the fungus is rapidly propagated. When the disease becomes A'isible to the naked eye there is no effectual remedy. If it then be allowed to vegetate for the short space of three days on the skin of the berry, the latter is rendered incapable of a natural distension, but the pulp and seeds continue to increase in bulk, Oidium Tuckeri.FORCING. 607 and the consequence is that the berry cracks, so that the seeds are exposed. The further progress of the Oidium may be arrested, but the lost vitality of the skin of the berry it is impossible to restore, and that being the case, prevention should be principally aimed at. The most effectual agent hitherto known is sulphur; the expense of a few pounds of which is but little compared to the value of a crop of grapes in a vinery, and the loss in future years in consequence of the injury inflicted on the constitution of the vine itself. [Before commencing to force, the vines should be washed with water in which some soft soap has been dissolved, and afterwards dressed with sulphur, soft soap, and a little tobacco water, mixed in such proportions that 3 oz. of soft soap and half a pint of tobacco water may make two quarts, sufficient sulphur being added to thicken it. J. d.] Occasionally the atmosphere of the house ought to be impregnated with sulphur by means of a sulphurator, from the time the leaves begin to unfold till the berries change colour; but soon after the fruit is set the sulphurator should be used to dust more directly the foliage. By the liberal use of sulphur in one year there is little danger of an attack in the following, but it is well to adopt preventive measures early in every season. Sulphur may also be advantageously applied in the form of a vapour, with the view of preventing mildew and destroying insects; but it must be remembered that when heated to about 300° it burns in the open air, the product being sulphurous acid, a gas destructive to both animal and vegetable life. Even below its point of fusion, 232°, sulphur gives off fumes too strong for delicate foliage, and in general it cannot be heated above 170° without danger to vegetation. Shanking.—This term is applied to a disease of the foot-stalks of the berries, in consequence of which they lose their green colour, and prematurely their vitality, before the berries are ripe. Shrivelling, of course, takes place when the berries are long exposed to a dry air after being ripe; but this is a natural consequence, and cannot be termed a disease; such it is, however, when the berries shrivel in a green state. These diseases have been assigned to various causes, such as cold borders, over-cropping, injudicious pruning, &c. We conclude that the proximate cause must be an insufficient or vitiated supply of nourishment. The supply may be insufficient in consequence of a deficiency of roots, owing to the vines having been deprived of too much foliage in the preceding season; or there may be too great a disparity between the temperature of the ground where the roots are situated and that of the interior of the house. If we were asked to try how shanking and shrivelling could be induced on a perfectly healthy vine, we should keep the house warm and the border cold to begin with. By plenty of heat and moisture with little air a great breadth of foliage would be rapidly expanded. The vine being previously in good health a heavy crop of fruit ought to set upon it; but under pretence of exposing the bunches to get well coloured, we would almost denude the plant of its foliage, and that suddenly, so as to cause the latter to be out of all proportion to the weight of the fruit. Still the berries might not shank the first season; but the effects of the treatment given would probably, we could almost venture to say certainly, begin to manifest themselves in the succeeding one; and therefore such treatment should be avoided, and the contrary adopted as the best means of preventing the evil in question. Insects.—[Of these the greatest enemy is the vine-louse (Phylloxera vastatrix), which has devastated many of the vineyards on the Continent, and done irreparable injury wherever it has found its way into our vineries. It is allied to the aphis, and appeal's in two forms; one on the leaves, where it produces small galls on the under surface, in which myriads of the insects are bred, and whence they issue and become distributed over the plant; and the other on the roots, the outer coating of which they devour, causing galls also to be formed on these, the injury being so severe as to lead to the decay of the fibrous parts. No certain simple remedy has yet been discovered, although watering with chemical solutions has been recommended. Practically for vinery culture, the only sure remedy is to remove and destroy the vines, to clear out the old infested soil and to replace it with new, if the evil is deep-seated ; or if it is discovered in time (and this is not easy on account of the minuteness of the pest) the vines may be preserved after washing and dressing both stems and roots during the dormant season, and merely renewing the borders. The presence of the little galls on the under surface of the leaf should, therefore, be anxiously watched for, and preventive measures adopted immediately they are detected.] The red spider (Acarus telarius) is another troublesome pest. The attacks of this enemy are, however, seldom felt when the vines are growing in a rather moist atmosphere, and the roots are in a border not too dry; but when the berries begin to colour, water being sparingly applied on account of the flavour of the fruit, the acarus often attacks the foliage to such an extent as to render it incapable of maturing the crop. Care shouldG08 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. be taken in the first place that the roots be duly supplied with moisture. [If this be properly attended to, and a sufficient degree of atmospheric moisture kept up by syringing the walls, sprinkling the paths and surface of the borders, and also, by keeping the evaporating troughs supplied with water, there ought to be no red spider before the grapes begin to colour; and even then, if the roots are never in want of proper moisture, the red spider will not readily commence its attacks, j. d.] On account of the flavour of the grapes, water should be sparingly given after the period of colouring; the quantity ought to be just enough to supply the amount carried off by evaporation, and scarcely so much during the final stage of maturation. With just enough, the vines will lie healthy and generally free from insects, whilst the fruit will be well swelled and of good quality. If, notwithstanding these precautions, the red spider should make its appearance, let the temperature of the house be kept in the morning at the lowest safe night minimum, which we shall suppose to be 60°. The leaves will be nearly of that temperature. Then shut up the house, and suddenly raise steam to produce a saturated atmosphere, and the moisture will be abundantly condensed on the whole surface of the cooler foliage. At the same time the syringe may be plied on the leaves, wherever it is possible to do so Without wetting the bunches. If all this were done when the leaves were warmer than the air of the house, the moisture would not be condensed, and consequently not so universally diffused over every part of their surface, and the insects would struggle to get a dry breathing place, or lurk in dry corners till the evaporation of the surrounding water enabled them to resume their operations. [When unfortunately the vines are attacked by red spider, the insects may be destroyed by sulphur fumes from the hot-water pipes if they are judiciously applied. The pipes should be painted with the sulphur when they are just so hot that it is uncomfortable to hold the hand upon them, in this way:—a little soft soap should be mixed with water, to which sulphur has been added until it is of the consistency of paint, and with this the pipes should be painted over. But it must not be done when the berries are in an early stage of their development. The pipes should be painted twice more at intervals of two days.] The vine scale (Coccus vitis) and mealy bug (Coccus adonidum) sometimes attack the vine; but by stripping off the loose bark and thoroughly cleaning the stem and shoots when the leaves are ofi’ with a brush, using soft soap and warm water, these insects may be completely cleared off. In short, by painting the walls with lime, sulphur, and tobacco water, by washing the rafters, but not the glass, with a solution of soft soap, by syringing and steaming, and by attention to general cleanliness, vines may be rendered secure from the ravages of insects. As for wasps and flies they may be prevented from doing material injury in this way:—A handglass, with a small hole in its top, and a bait underneath, may be set on three bricks, so that the wasps and flies can enter; then another hand-glass being placed over the first, the insects will readily pass into it through the hole in the top of the lower one, but will rarely find their way back through that hole. In this way they may be caught in great numbers. CHAPTER XXIII. FLOWER-GARDEN AND PLEASURE-GROUNDS. I.—FLOWER-GARDEX. By a Flower-garden we understand a compart, ment expressly allotted to the cultivation of flowers. In the pleasure-ground we expect to find lawn trees, and shrubs, and although flowers of certain kinds maybe appropriately introduced, yet they need not constitute the principal feature, as they should do in a flower-garden. At the present day a flower-garden is looked upon as indispensable to every residence, from the palatial mansion to the unpretending villa. Although as regards this country the flower-garden may be said to have come into existence within the last forty-five years, it has, during that time, gone through several phases; the more simple arrangements and combinations of the earlier attempts being followed by the period of hard straight lines and violent contrasts of glaring colours; these in turn being succeeded by the more refined and artistic arrangements consequent upon the use of plants possessing noble form and graceful foliage, and the combination of these with others of more subdued colours than were in vogue in years gone past. There are yet those who condemn the principle of modern flower-gardening in its entirety—designating it as unnatural in every way, forgetting that the same might be said, with more or less of truth, in respect to the treatment and arrangement of almost every plant we cultivate. To those who see nothing to admire in vegetable life except where it exists in the wild grandeur of theFLOWER-GARDEN. 609 primeval forest, a garden under any circumstances can have but slender charms. There are others who hold views entirely opposite, and who are so enamoured with the fashion of flower-gardening, as without sufficient thought to introduce it to situations the most inappropriate, where its effect on the surroundings is such as to mar the whole scene. Here, as in most other matters, the course directed by extreme views is not the best to follow. In this country the aspirations of the majority are associated with home, and the embellishment of that home, by bringing about it the most beautiful flowers and plants, and by tastefully grouping or contrasting the finest forms of leaf growth with the most striking beauty of colouring. There is no system of arrangement that gives such scope for the realization of these feelings and conceptions as the modern flower-garden. Before proceeding further it may be well to note a few of the mistakes as to position, construction, and the use of plants, that have done much to bring discredit upon this style of gardening. In the first place a flower-garden, in common with anything else, may be a beautiful object in itself, and still be so far out of character in the situation in which it has been placed, as to injure the effect of something of far greater importance. This is a mistake we see exemplified in too many places, where the flower-garden has been placed in the most prominent position, adjacent to the windows of the mansion, and occupying the foreground of an extended view. In such a position it frequently forms a blot in the picture offensive to the eye which is gifted with taste and judgment in regard to landscape effect; but if instead of being placed in such a prominent position, a spot had been chosen where the extended view was not thus objectionably interfered with, by the introduction of colour betwixt the eye ami the distant prospect, this fault would have been avoided. The introduction of colour, in ever so slight a degree, in front of a mansion, where the windows command a broad open landscape or park scene of moderate extent, is a glaring mistake. There are, indeed, few places in which the desire for a flower-garden cannot be gratified without placing it in a spot where this objection will apply; for there generally exists, or may easily be found, a suitable site, more or less confined without being overshaded, in which a flower-garden may be constructed without interfering with anything else, and where it can be fully enjoyed. In places of small extent, where even from the best point of view there may exist something in the distance that is objectionable, and from which it is desirable to draw the eye, then the introduction of a flower-garden, instead ] of being out of place, will be the best possible means of effecting the desired end. Krtent.—This is a very important consideration, not only as affecting the flower-garden itself, but every other department in the establishment. In many places the extent to which bedding-out is carried becomes fatal to good gardening in every other respect, by reason of the labour and other resources of the place being inadequate to cope with the yearly propagation and continuous attention required by the untold thousands of plants employed. This evil has of late years been much increased by the introduction of spring bedding, which is indispensable if the full measure of floral effect is to be produced through the circle of the year, and which is especially enjoyable in the early spring months, before the summer bedders can be planted out. In fact, the spring occupants of the beds are by many persons looked upon with much more favour than their summer followers. The labour attending flower-gardening has also been much increased by the very effective system of carpet-bedding, which has come so much into fashion of late, and of which there is every likelihood of a continuance, since the lovely effects produced through the blending of subdued colours have gone far to-disarm those who objected to modern flower-gardening on account of the glare of colour’s which was at one time the fashion. It therefore behoves any one who contemplates the formation of a flower-garden to consider well the available labour and means for propagation of the plants required; for a small space well managed is immensely preferable to double the area indifferently done. The site chosen, it becomes a consideration how to dispose of the space available. Nothing is more common than to see a piece of ground, square or oth’erwise, inclosed by a wall, a hedge, or a formal bank of shrubs, in which far the greater portion of the surface is occupied by the beds composing the design, and which has much the effect of a large highly-coloured picture, without back-ground, and placed in a scanty frame. Now, if the space occupied by the beds had been confined principally to the centre of the area, and had not covered more than a third or a fourth of the whole, the remainder being in grass — this serving as a back-ground to the picture, the effect would have been immeasurably better, and that at one-fourth the cost for labour and material annually entailed. The square sunk panel gardens often met with are objectionable, as they impart to the already over-formal style further formality. Straight unbroken terraces, on which run straight walks, and by the margins of which are planted, at regular intervals, shrubs as stiff and formal 39610 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. as the rest of the arrangement, enclose a space I bounded by straight lines on every side, the whole sunk area being generally covered by an intricate series of beds encircled with box or stone edging, betwixt which runs a net-work of walks, introduced more for the name than for any use they are, being generally only wide enough for i persons to pass in single tile. More recently we have seen introduced coloured materials in j the shape of pounded slates and bricks, of blue, { yellow, red, and other colours, to which the flowers are apparently made to do duty as accessories. This may be art after a fashion, but most decid- 1 edly it is not gardening. Where gravel is used to divide the beds an edging of some sort becomes j a necessity, in order to keep up the soil; for this box-edging looks much the best, and is the most J appropriate; but a flower-garden cut out of grass j looks immeasurably better than any arrangement that requires a permanent edging to the beds. Aspect.—A southern or a western aspect is in some measure the best, but east or even north will do if other essential conditions exist, such as a sufficiency of light from the absence of high walls or trees so near as to exclude or absorb this element, so essential to vegetable life. It is of little use attempting this style of gardening in exposed situations, where there is nothing to check the force of the wind, especially since sub-ti'opical plants have become so largely employed, and which are more or less indispensable to break the otherwise monotonous and too even surface. These must have considerable shelter, or their leaves become so disfigured as to render them unsightly, instead of being objects of beauty. Preparation of the Ground, Drainage, &c.—The measure of success to be attained in flower-gardening depends a good deal upon the nature of the land. Heavy retentive soils, even with the assistance of thorough drainage, will not answer, for several reasons. The nature of flower-garden plants is such as to require a soil that is warm and early, so that they may, after planting-out, grow away rapidly, and so that in the least possible time they may fill their allotted space. Where this does not take place their season of beauty is shortened, and the autumn frosts are upon them by the time they get into their best garb. Again, the majority of the plants employed are fine-rooted, and make greater progress in a soil that will readily pulverize, and which offers little resistance to the penetration of the young feeding roots. In heavy ground these conditions are altogether wanting, consequently the natural soil must be removed from each bed, and sand or light soil added to reduce the whole to a proper consistency. It would be better still were the whole surface of the garden so treated—both the space occupied by the beds and that which is between them, for this reason, that if at any time the design has to be altered, and the beds occupy different positions, no further excavation or addition would be required after the first formation. This also does away with a serious difficulty. In draining heavy land for such purposes, where the natural retentive soil is wholly or in part replaced by such as is lighter and more porous in the space occupied by the beds alone, each individual bed acts as a receptacle for the water that naturally drains to it from the surrounding less absorbent ground, necessitating a drain under each bed to carry off the otherwise stagnant water. To assist in doing this, if the land is very wet and retentive, a layer of brick rubbish or similar material should be put in the bottom of each bed. A great deal has been said and written upon the principles of land drainage, and some writers have attempted to lay down rules that would apply to almost any description of land, and for any crop it might be intended to grow. Yet a little reflection would convince anyone acquainted with such matters, that not only do different soils require to be differently treated in this respect, but the plants intended to be grown need consideration. In a flower-garden, where the subjects used are many of them of an exotic character, and ought, as previously observed, to be grown on after planting-out with the least possible delay, it is necessary to do much more in the shape of drainage than would be requisite for plants that would occupy the ground permanently. As is well known, nothing we can do to the soil tends so much to raise its temperature as thorough drainage. Of course we are now speaking of soils that are strong and retentive, of which a great portion of the kingdom consists. In such, especially if of considerable depth, the drains should be placed not more than 9 or 10 feet apart, and in all cases must be of a sufficient depth to go 8 or 10 inches into the subsoil, if that is composed of clay or similar retentive material; for if the pipes are not thus laid below the pan through which the surface water cannot percolate, it will be obvious that the effects will only be partial. Neither is the ordinary construction of drains— such as consist of a simple pipe alone, which after the wet winter months is long in freeing the land of its superabundant moisture—sufficient for the flower-garden. Instead of tilling in the earth on the top of the pipes in the ordinary manner, there should be placed over them a layer of broken bricks, scoria, stone, rubble, or whatever material of a similar character is mostFLOWER-GARDEN. 611 easily obtainable in the neighbourhood. This should be laid over the pipes to a sufficient thickness to come within 15 inches, or, if the land is very wet, 1 foot of the surface. Even those who are not conversant with the subject will at once perceive, that drains so constructed must be much quicker in their action, and more efficient, than such as are made with the ordinary pipes alone. Land so drained will, all through the season, be several degrees warmer than if drained in an ordinary way, and this will exert a marked influence on the rapidity of growth displayed by the plants which occupy it. For subtropical bedding, such as is now deservedly so much in favour, it is not only found necessary for many plants that the land should be thoroughly drained in the ordinary sense, but the whole under surface of the beds shoidd be so constructed as to form a continuous drain by which the water may be carried away as through a sieve, the material also acting as a duct by which the sun-warmed air may enter and impart heat to the soil above it. By this means many plants can be induced to flourish through the warm summer season that used to be looked upon as being capable of cultivation in heated glass structures only. To still further impart warmth to the soil, where such subjects are intended to be grown, the wdiole is raised, in some cases several feet above the ground level by placing on the surface a couple of feet in depth of open drainage materials, consisting of broken bricks, large stones, burrs, clinkers, or anything of a similar nature, on which is put a layer of grassy sods, fern, hedge-dressings, &c., to prevent the soil above trickling down amongst the drainage. The soil should be of sufficient depth to well sustain the quick-growing nature of the plants it is intended to grow and for this purpose ought to run from llr to 2 feet in thickness. It should be light and porous in nature, consisting largely of decomposed vegetable matter, such as peat, rotten leaves, spent hops, and fibrous turfy loam, combined with sand present in sufficient quantities to keep the whole sweet and highly porous. Where really subtropical plants are attempted to be grown it is necessary to success that the ground they occupy should be previously so prepared. For bedding plants in general the soil should not be less than 15 inches in depth, with, for most things, except strong growing subjects such as scarlet pelargoniums, a couple of inches of manure in the bottom to assist the plants through dry weather. When the natural soil requires an addition of some that is lighter, if peat happens to be plentiful in the neighbourhood it may with advantage be used; for most plants that do not absolutely require such soil, do well in a mixture of peat and loam; it also has the property of retaining moisture longer in dry weather than loam alone, and is so far good in very dry seasons. Thoroughly decomposed leaf mould—if laid together for years, so that it will shrink little, so much the better—is a good material for lightening heavy land, and for the purpose under consideration may be used in considerable quantities. If, on the other hand, the soil is too light and poor, or naturally too shallow, it should have enough of a stronger better description added to it, to impart the necessary consistency with sufficient depth. This latter is of great importance, especially if the subsoil is naturally too dry in summer, for where such is the case, in addition to its being poor and sandy, all the water that can be applied to it in that state will not suffice to keep the plants in healthy vigour during protracted dry weather. JVale?\—'There is one great deficiency in many gardens, that is, an adequate supply of water, with a head sufficient to be available without hand-pumping. There is, indeed, less provision made for this in the south of the kingdom than in the north, where from the greater rain-fall it is less wanted. In no department is this more felt than in the flower-garden, where, from the surface-rooting nature, and quick growth of many of the plants, it is much required, and where to apply it in driblets—as must necessarily be the case when it has to be carried by hand or conveyed in the ordinary water-barrow—is even worse than not at all. Every flower-garden of any pretensions should be furnished, according to its dimensions, with a certain number of stand-pipes connected with a sufficient head of water to furnish an unlimited supply in dry weather. These standpipes should be so arranged that movable hosepiping can be attached, so as to soak the beds as they require it. Nothing is more painful to look upon than a garden of this kind in which the occupants are shrivelling in the sun, instead of showing the health and vigour they display when they receive sufficient moisture, and that at a time when their beauties are most enjoyable, namely, in dry weather. There are few gardens where water could not be made available by means of a ram, waterwheel, or small engine, at a point sufficiently high to give a head that would do away with the ordinary hand application—which belongs rather to the past age of waggons and stage-coaches, and which, viewed in its true light, is the greatest combination of extravagance and inefficiency that could be imagined. In hundreds of places where the garden is now deficient of water, there are612 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. streams at hand, down which millions of gallons run yearly to waste, which at comparatively little cost of piping to intercept and convey it from a higher level, might, without any expenditure in mechanical appliances, be made available. Where there exists a stream even considerably below the garden level, sufficiently large that it may be depended upon for a supply in dry seasons, a pump driven by a water-wheel would be the least expensive means of providing the quantity required, but in that case it would be necessary that the supply should be plentiful, as the quantity required to drive the wheel, and which of course escapes, is considerable. The ram comes next in the scale of cost, with a much less waste of water, and can be used where the supply is more limited. With a small but continuous stream, a ram will, by its incessant action, throw a large body of water to a considerable elevation. A small engine, say of two or three horse power, worked one day or so each week, will lift an immense body of water. If either of the two latter appliances are adopted, it will be necessary to provide sufficient storage room in the shape of large tanks; but where there exists a supply of water at such an elevation that it can be conveyed through a simple pipe by its own gravity to the point required, the cost of obtaining it is very small. Where this necessary provision of water is made for the flower-garden, the pipes should be laid .as soon as the land is drained, before the work proceeds further, and sufficiently deep to be out of the reach of frost. They can be so arranged as not in any way to prove unsightly; iudeed, it is not necessary that the tops of the stand-pipes should in any case be more than a few inches above the ground level; they should be fitted with screws, to which can be attached hose-piping, and be placed at moderate distances apart, so as not to require the piping to be used in long lengths, which is unhandy, as well as being more costly. Style.—The site being selected, and the preliminary preparation of the ground in the shape of drainage, &e., completed, the next matter to be considered is the style to be adopted in the laying out of the garden. In this there is considerable latitude, the principal guiding points being the position and surrounding's, such as the style and size of the mansion—especially the latter. A garden so small as to be out of proportion to a large stately building to which it stands in close proximity, would be quite out of character, yet not so much so as when, in the other extreme, more commonly met with, it covers a large surface out of proportion to the size of the residence. In this there is, of course, no fixed rule by which to bo guided; but the garden should be subordinate in size to the building of which it is an embellishment, always bearing in mind that it is better to underdo than overdo the extent of this kind of floral decoration. The different styles generally employed may be classed under three heads: the picturesque, the geometrical, and the symmetrical, the latter more or less free in the manner of its arrangement. The picturesque, as the term implies, is essentially irregular, and more or less in imitation of nature. Many have been the attempts to work out this style in the flower-garden, but generally with a very small amount of success. Naturally wild scenery, even when of the evenesf and tamest possible description, is not a happy subject to endeavour to illustrate by the use of cultivated plants. No matter how skilfully the ground may be laid out with miniature hills and hollows, clefts and breaks, it rarely merits higher praise than to be called pretty, and in many cases is not inaptly designated a feeble burlesque upon legitimate gardening. This, it will be understood, is altogether apart from the very interesting arrangements sometimes met with for the well-being of herbaceous and alpine plants, and to illustrate the habits of which artificial knolls and shady recesses are made. In the latter case the arrangement of the ground should be such as is best adapted to the requirements of the plants, the successful culture of which is the primary object. In the former the plants used hold a subordinate place, being employed merely to impart the character, and convey some idea—infinitesimal it is true—of the natural scenery it is attempted to illustrate. This style may be dismissed as unsuited to the general requirements of the present day. The geometrical style (by which is also understood the architectural, the ancient, and the for-mal styles) is that which is most generally employed, since it admits of almost every conceivable form of the parts and of the whole. With a sheet of paper and a pencil, rule, and compass, the arrangement may be varied indefinitely. This style, pure and simple, is essentially formal, and well calculated to illustrate certain objects, such as a perfectly even balance of form and colour, the corresponding beds in the design being exactly alike in shape and size, and filled with plants that match in every way; in fact, supposing the garden to have a line drawn across the centre, the whole of the beds on one side should find their exact counterpart on the other. Fig. 344 is an example of the geometrical style; it is formed by the intersection of five circles, four semi-circles, and four quadrants within a square,FLOWER-GARDEN. 613 and thus the shapes of the twenty-nine beds of which the figure is composed, are determined. Fig. 344. Geometrical Flower-garden. The most intricate productions of the draughtsman frequently look better on paper than when filled with plants. Simple figures, when well managed in the planting, always have the best effect. A very neat and pleasing design for a group of geometrical beds, and which may be applied either on a Larger or smaller scale, is shown in Fig. 345. Such a group might be cut out on grass in the front of a conservatory, or some other appropriate spot, Fig. 345. and would of itself constitute a small parterre for some circumscribed position; or it might be made part of a larger group of figures forming together a parterre of greater pretensions, t. b.] In Fig. 346 are represented a number of geometrical forms, which may be employed singly or in combination with others, and as suggestions it is presumed they will be found useful. Thus the Fig. 346. form represented at a is required in the centre of Fig. 345, where the straight sides of a square would not suit the adjacent curves. Then b, c, d will be more suitable in some cases than parallelograms; e, i, k, l have curved ends or sides to correspond with circular lines adjacent; m admits of plants in the middle of the square being reached; and in n four standard roses may fill the circles, whilst other plants may occupy the square. The others may be employed either to relieve the monotonous outline of the circle, or to take off the heaviness or plainness of the square. In cases where it is desirable to have flowerbeds on each side of a straight walk, beds of the form represented in Fig. 347 have an excellent effect, being less monotonous than a succession of straight-lined figures, even when these are connected together by circles. Formal subjects as cypresses, yews, or standard roses may be planted in the circles between the S-like beds. The device is also well adapted for surrounding parterres laid out in the geometrical style. [The free symmetrical style, sometimes called the mixed, the irregular, and the gardenesque, as its614 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. name implies, is freer and less foi’mal than the geometrical, and for this reason is preferable for most situations. In this style the form of the beds may be altogether of a freer description, the outlines being more varied, according to the nature of the surroundings, or the requirements of the individual situation. In this style also, a flower-garden may to a great extent be composed of beds Fig. 347. the outlines of which may be so free and easy as, in a great measure, to strip the whole of the formality more or less inseparable from the planting or arranging of the flowers in this style of gardening. But whatever the shape of the beds or the number employed in the formation of a garden of this nature, they should be in all cases properly balanced—that is, if a line were drawn across the middle from right to left, or so as to divide it in the opposite direction, each side of the line so placed should be a counterpart of the other; otherwise it is impossible in planting to keep the equal balance of colour that should exist when viewed from the centre of any of the sides. This of course applies to flower-gardens that are in shape either a square, a circle, or a parallelogram, or something nearly approaching this form. Sometimes it is desirable that the flower-garden should occupy an irregular-shaped piece of ground, abutting on a belt of shrubs or a divisional wall that cuts it otf on one side, and where the nature of the ground is such as to preclude the possibility of anything approaching a symmetrical arrangement of the whole. In such situations the forms and positions of the beds must necessarily be left to the conception of the individual who designs the plan; and where this work is well done, and is judiciously planted, some beautiful effects can be produced, quite satisfying to the taste of those who object to the formality which is inseparable from the pure geometrical style. In respect to the best material—grass or gravel —on which to place a flower-garden, the only advantage of the latter is, that its surface is drier to walk upon after heavy rains. Where gravel is used, with box, stone, or other permanent edging, the walks should only be just sufficiently rounded in the middle to throw otf the water; for, being generally very narrow, they would, if much rounded, be both unsightly and uncomfortable. The soil in the beds must be a little lower next the edge, especially if of box, from which it should rise somewhat abruptly, and then be finished otf nearly level; for if, as sometimes seen, the beds are considerably rounded in the middle, the water, either in the shape of rain or when applied artificially, runs quickly otf instead of penetrating to the roots of the plants. The soil in the beds should not, in its highest part, be more than 1 inch higher than the centre of the intersecting walks. If the garden is on grass the soil in the beds should be kept about an inch and a half or so below the edge of the turf, so as to allow the latter to clearly mark the outline, here also sloping somewhat abruptly upwards and then presenting an even level surface over the area of the bed, as in the former case. t. b.] Formation of the Beds.—These admit of unlimited variety in form, and can be arranged so as to satisfy individual taste. The regular straight-lined figures consist of the triangle, square, parallelogram, rhombus, rhomboid, pentagon, hexagon, and other equal-sided or regular polygons. To use the latter with more than eight sides, thatFLOWER-GARDEN. 615 is, as an octagon, is useless, as it then comes so near the circle as to make the latter preferable, for unless filled with very small-growing plants the outline is not maintained when considerable growth has taken place. Of the above the triangle, parallelogram, and rhomboid may be varied according to the difference made in the relative lengths of their sides; but it will be obvious that the other figures, as also the circle, can only be varied in size, not in form. The circle should be sufficiently studied before a garden of this description is attempted to be laid out. By making its radius longer or shorter, curves either great or small may be made to correspond with any regularly curved line; but before this can be done, it is necessary to find the centre of the circle of the circumference of which the curved line is a portion. This must be effected on paper, by the rules of practical geometry. The following instructions as to the Fig. 348. b mode by which the curves can be traced on the ground may be of use. Let it be required to find the radius of the curve a be, Fig. 348; and suppose the chord a c to be 60 feet, and the perpendicular bd 18 feet; then multiply ad, the half chord, by itself, divide the product by b d, and add b d to the quotient; the sum will be equal to the diameter of the circle, and the half of course will ii t mi 30 x 30 be the radius. Ihus —, D - - + 18 = 68, and 68 i 18 * ~a = 34, the radius; and this distance measured from b will reach to e, the centre of the circle, with a portion of the circumference of which the curve abc coincides. To trace this on the ground take a line or chain, fix one end by a ring or loop on a stake at e, and with a tracer, at the distance of 34 feet from e, move round, keeping the line or chain stretched, and the curve will be correctly described. Sometimes, however, the radius may be too great, or obstructions may exist in the way of the line. In such cases, at any convenient distance from e, place rods as at and others to be in line with fe, as at gg. Measure from e towai'ds g; at the length of the radius insert rods, and they will be in the curved line, in which there will then be five points determined; and in the same way as many more as may be necessary can be marked out. Or between points already determined, as from h to b, measure the length of the straight line or chord h 6; square the half of that length, divide the product by twice the radius be, already found, and the quotient will be equal to the perpendicular from the middle of that chord t, to a point in the circumference h. It will be observed that if another straight line were drawn from h to k the distance between it and the curve would be very little. It may, however, be easily calculated by the same rule. But any more points will scarcely be necessary, as a line can be pegged so as to admit of the curve being cut out correctly enough by any man who has a tolerably good eye for lines. For extensive sweeps a thick rope can be laid so as to form a very regular curve without the angles which a thin line makes at the pegs. The mode of constructing the preceding figures (344-347) on paper will be obvious enough to almost any one, but to transfer the plan of a flower-garden from the paper to the ground requires some practice. To do it easily and correctly, it must be proceeded with systematically, otherwise some error would soon occur; and in the process one mistake leads to others, till by degrees confusion prevails, and the labour of tracing out the lines must be begun afresh. Before commencing, straight rods for marking certain points on the ground should be prepared. A line and measuring-rods will also be necessary, and a chain with foot links, or a measuring-tape, will likewise be convenient. For tracing the outlines of small figures wooden compasses, and more especially the sort of beam compasses described at p. 75, will be useful, for by them the circumference of circles or portions of such can be readily traced. A large T square, with each bar say 10 feet in length, with the cross bar movable, so as to be set at any angle, will facilitate many operations. There is little difficulty in laying down any individual figure on ground; but where a design, constituting a regular whole, is composed of a number of figures, each of which must not only be correct in itself, but likewise occupy its proper position with reference to the others, method is required. It would be desirable to have the plan, and likewise the ground, included within a square or parallelogram, taking care that the ends and sides are at right angles. The plan may then be divided into a number of squares to the scale of 8 feet or 16 feet on the sides, because the individualGIG GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. squares can then be divided and subdivided to unity without having to use inches in the process. The squares on the plan should be numbered ; and to correspond with these, squares must be laid out on the ground, and numbered in a similar manner. In the latter case it will be found convenient to place the number pegs so as to mark the centres of the squares, which may readily be found by stretching lines from the opposite angles. Where intricate figures occur in any square, it can be subdivided into four if necessary. Fig. 344 may appear complicated, but it may, nevertheless, be laid down correctly on the ground without the necessity of constructing many squares. Mark the corners of the square to be laid out in the above figure with stakes; find the centre of each side, and on each side of these centres lay off half the intended breadth of the walks, driving in pegs at that distance. Every two adjoining pegs will thus be at a distance from each other equal to the breadth of the walk. .Stretch a line from each peg to the one immediately opposite to it on the other side of the ground, which will thus be divided into four squares, each intruding upon its neighbouring squares by a distance equal to half the breadth of the walk, and four smaller squares within •these which do not intrude upon each other. Find the centres of the larger squares by drawing lines from corner to corner; drive in pegs to mark these centres, and one in the centre of the square of ground, which will likewise be found by this process; also other pegs where the diagonals intersect each other near the centre of each side of the ground. The distance of these pegs from such centres will be equal to half the breadth of the walk. There are now nine pegs inserted within the square, each of which will serve as the centre of a circle. With a radius touching the sides of the larger squares, describe a circle round •each centre, and with a radius touching the internal sides of the smaller squares—or, in other words, a radius equal to that formerly employed, less the breadth of the walk—describe circles within those already formed. Lastly, with the stakes at the corners of the piece of ground as centres, and with radii touching the points where the adjoining curves intersect the sides of the square, describe two quadrants in each corner. In many cases it will be found most convenient and sure to fix certain important points by tri-angulation, employing one or more lines already fixed as bases. The position of any point opposite one of them may be thus found on the ground: —Lines from the point to each end of the baseline will form a triangle; take two measures equal in length to the respective sides of the triangle, extend them from the ends of the base-line, and where they meet when stretched is the position of the point. It may be observed that the triangles may be of any form, but the nearer they are to equilateral ones the better. By the modes here explained, or by others that it may be found convenient to adopt according to circumstances, any one may easily lay out a flower-garden, even although the plan should be of the most intricate description. [.Planting.—This is a matter which must be left to individual taste. There is, however, no question that violent contrasts of colour are objectionable, and not nearly so pleasing as gradual blendings of colour, and moreover, giving the preponderance to such as are of a subdued character. Then, again, the highest colours used should occupy the beds at the outer edges of the garden, inasmuch as these, wherever they are, will most attract the eye, which is indirectly drawn to them, and thus, if they occupy the central portion of the design, they have the effect of apparently diminishing the size of the garden. As to the height of the plants which form the principal furnishing of the garden, they should never be so high as to obstruct the view of such as are in the adjoining beds, especially as seen from the principal point of sight. Whatever arrangement is adopted for the summer season it can only be satisfactory for that period, leaving the garden blank for a greater portion of the year, unless recourse is had to the indispensable winter and spring bedders, which give the desirable continuity to the whole, and which cannot be too much encouraged. But here again discrimination is required in the selection of plants in every way suitable for the purpose. In addition to bulbs, in the shape of hyacinths, tulips, spring croci, and snowdrops, used in moderate quantities on account of the short duration of their flowers, and the way in which they suffer by removal before their season’s growth is fully matured, the violas of different colours are some of the most useful things we possess. These, with ied and white daisies, early wallflowers, A rub is albida, aubrietias, and numbers of other early-flowering herbaceous plants, can be brought from the reserve ground in the autumn as soon as the summer occupants have lost their beauty, and will fill their places until the time again comes round for the summer bedders. Several culinary vegetables have been pressed into the service, in the shape of beet with coloured leaves for the summer, and kale variously coloured for the winter; but with the abundance of flowering plants that we possess, these vegetables, devoidFLOWER-GARDEN. C17 ro-portion to the size and pretensions of the garden to which they are accessory. We sometimes see vases filled with flowers of the most glaring colours ] ilaced on terrace walls that bound the dressed ground and separate it from that which partakes of a more park-like character, and where such colours even in the smallest quantity are highly objectionable. In such positions vases are quite out of character, but on the margins of a walk running parallel to a wall, the latter being covered with ivy or other plants, they are very effective, the colours they display being brought out and relieved by the background of foliage. Fountains or basins are sometimes placed in the centre of geometrical flower-gardens, but generally with questionable taste. If introduced to such situations, they should on no account be large enough to be out of proportion with their immediate surroundings, otherwise they must have an overpowering effect. A fountain and basin may frequently be introduced with better effect at the junction of several walks,and where, in addition, the water will be convenient for use. II.—FORMATION OF PLEASURE-GROUNDS. In the laying out of the pleasure-ground so much depends upon the extent of the place and the natural disposition of the grounds—whether they are at a considerable elevation, more or less undulating, or comparatively level, or whether affected by local circumstances, that it is impossible to give any useful rules or instructions except such as are of quite a general character. The extent and style of the building, and the views near or distant, all have to be considered in each case, so that to give full and complete details would be out of the question. In laying out new grounds, before anything is attempted, the site and plan of the mansion or residence and of the necessary offices must be decided on, in order that the ground-work may not be delayed by alterations, or the planting and general arrangements interfered with when once the work has been commenced. It is, moreover, desirable to have all building operations in a forward state before the ground-work is commenced. The first consideration will be the position of such trees as are required to give effect, and afford the required shelter. The selection of those that are to stand near the building must be ruled by the style of architecture. If the mansion is in the Gothic or pointed style, the trees that occupy the most prominent positions right and left, as seen from the front of the building, should be of a broad spreading habit, such as the beech, oak, chestnut, cedar of Lebanon, or plane, these at once affording the required contrast to the lines of the architecture. Where the mansion is of the Grecian style, the trees that are to hold similar positions should be altogether different in habit, such as the upright-growing poplars. It must not, however, be concluded that in the latter case these trees of pyramidal habit must predominate in numbers, for comparatively few of them will be sufficient to effect the required object. Similar upright-growing trees should also be interspersed, although sparingly, amongst the broad-lieaded trees that stand at some distance from buildings constructed in the pointed style, as they break the monotony that would otherwise exist were none used but such as have a spreading habit of growth. In all cases a sufficient number of trees should be planted at the eastern and northern sides, to afford shelter, and impart to the building an air of comfort. No arrangement, however satisfactory, in the more distant parts of the grounds, can make up for the bleak and uncomfortable appearance of a mansion when it is too much exposed on those sides from whence come the chilling winter blasts. Whether provided for shelter, or to give immediate landscape effect, no trees should be planted too near the residence. When the value of fresh air as regards health was not so well understood622 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. as it is at the present day, the mansion was in numerous instances built on too low ground, and then so masked with trees that a free circulation of air was impossible. The nature of the trees to be planted ought to be known; the size to which they are likely to attain, or rather the spread of their tops, should be estimated; and, taking this into account, they should be planted so as not to overhang within 10 or 15 feet of the structure. Although houses are now generally well drained, yet, even in that case, quantities of ammonia, sulphuretted hydrogen, and other noxious gases, from courtyards and other places, are carried by rain into the ground, rendering its exhalations unwholesome. Trees afford perhaps the best means of purifying the soil from these matters, for the roots will absorb and the leaves decompose them in vast quantities. The fallen leaves, it is true, would generate some of these gases again if allowed to lie and rot; but they can be swept up and dug in where the ground is poor, or they can be otherwise disposed of. The roots of trees in soil near dwellings are in the above respect highly beneficial, and should therefore be encouraged. Before any planting is done, the ground should be thoroughly prepared by trenching to a depth proportionate to the amount and nature of the soil, for on this will depend in a great measure the length of time it will take to get the trees up to an effective size. It might be supposed that in such an every-day operation as planting trees in the vicinity of a dwelling, few mistakes would occur as to the distances at which they are placed in relation to the building and to each other; yet such is by no means the case, for it is rather the exception than the rule to see trees permanently placed in positions where they will enjoy enough and not too much room when they get to anything approaching their full size. In planting trees, especially in the vicinity of a dwelling, it is of the first importance to select none but varieties that have been proved to thrive well in the locality, for upon their healthy free growth depends the effect they will produce in after years. However handsome a particular kind of tree may be in situations where it does well, this should never induce the landscape gardener to plant it in any place where the fact of its succeeding is doubtful. In determining the distance at which they are to stand from the building, it is better to err on the right side, and not to place them too near. Those that stand the nearest should have sufficient room for equal development on all sides, even when they have attained the largest dimensions natural to their kind. Care should also be taken that they should stand sufficiently wide apart to allow each to fully exemplify its true character without encroaching upon its neighbours. The form and outline of the different species employed should be well considered, so as to get as much variety as possible. Thus the appearance of any place, independent of the style of the building, is improved by the introduction of a limited number of the cedars of Lebanon; its distinct horizontal line of growth contrasts well with either pyramidal or round-headed trees, and its rich evergreen colour at all seasons is most pleasing, especially when introduced amongst those that are deciduous; but this cedar should not be planted close to the mansion unless the style and lines of the building are such as to warrant its being so placed. Again, the colour of the foliage in deciduous trees, both in their spring and autumn garb, should be taken into account in fixing their positions. The deep red eventually assumed by the leaves of the scarlet oak is especially telling when seen in contrast with the yellow of the elm, the hornbeam, the plane, and numbers of others, which differ in the tints of their autumn clothing. When the trees that are intended to stand permanently are in their places, the filling up becomes an easy matter. In doing this, however, it is well not to overcrowd. The extent of the planting now under consideration, and which may be looked upon as combining shelter with ornament, will, as a matter of course, depend upon the size of the place and other local circumstances. Approach Road.—After this, the course which the approach road is to take must be considered, and this again must be determined by the nature of the surroundings. As, however, road-making, when well done, is expensive, and the position occupied by such a road as that here referred to has a considerable influence over other details in the general arrangement, it is a matter that should be fully considered before being carried out. One principle may be safely laid down as to the position a carriage-drive is to occupy—it should never on any account so run as to cut in half or divide the park or grounds it has to traverse. It ought not to skirt the edge of the grounds so closely as to permit of the extreme boundary being seen from it; neither should it, in the case of very extensive grounds, follow a roundabout course that would have the appearance of increasing its length without any adequate reason. The line of road should describe graceful curves, but all tortuous unmeaning deviations in its course should be avoided. In its construction the first essential is to have its bed well drained; this should be made with a sufficient depth of good hard material—not lessPLEASURE-GROUNDS. 623 than a foot or 15 inches in thickness. Burned clay, which is generally known under the name of ballast, makes an excellent, porous, dry bottom. If on 8 inches of this is laid about 7 inches of broken granite or blue rag, with an inch or two of fine gravel of a warm brown colour on the top, a road will be formed that will both look and wear well, means being of course provided to insure the getting away quickly of all the surface water. Walks.—The course of the road or drive having been determined, it is necessary to consider the position which the different walks are to occupy. The appearance of a place depends very much on these being laid down in the best positions. Walks should always be so placed as to have the appearance of being of real utility, in fact a necessity. If a walk is formed, as is sometimes seen, where it has no obvious use, it would be much better dispensed with. Even where a walk would be useful in shortening the distance that has to be traversed to some given point, if another exists running either in the same direction, or near to and parallel with it, so that one can be seen from the other, one or other should be done away with. But here again care must be taken not to cut up or intersect the open spaces of ground, for a broad piece of green turf entire is vastly more effective than when divided by a walk. Straight walks in the pleasure-ground should in general be avoided, and the curves should be graceful. Where curves are introduced, however, and there is consequently a deviation from the direct line, there should always be a reason for it apparent. Where there is not actually some object, such as a clump of shrubs, or a single shrub or tree, to avoid which the course of the walk has been diverted, something of the sort should be introduced, otherwise the departure from a direct line becomes devoid of meaning, and therefore objectionable. Too great a length of any walk should not be seen from any point of view. This can be avoided by the introduction of clumps of shrubs judiciously placed at different points so as to partially conceal the course of the walk. Walk-making has already been treated of separately. It may, however, be here mentioned that there is no part of a demesne where there exists a greater necessity for good well-made walks than in the pleasure-ground, and upoD the existence of these depends a great deal of the enjoyment to be obtained. There is no time when the grounds are more enjoyable than on a balmy summer’s evening after heavy rains; but if the walks are soft through being badly made, or from the drainage being deficient, there is 1 little pleasure in walking upon them. Another obstacle to the enjoyment of pleasure-ground I walks, and one which may too often be urged with reason, is that they are made too narrow. This should always be avoided, both on the score of use and of appearance. Still, as in everything else, there should be a reasonable proportion between the width of the walks and the size of the place, so that in grounds of great extent they should be proportionately wider than in others which are more circumscribed. Shrubberies, <&c.~Trees and shrubs, when tastefully grouped, constitute one of the most imposing features in the pleasure-grounds, and the effect they produce, either for good or evil, is so enduring, that it becomes a matter of the greatest importance to select and distribute them with taste and judgment. The number of trees and shrubs employed, or, more correctly speaking, the extent of surface planted, should in all cases be in proportion to the size of the grounds. Nothing is more common than to see small places, or those of but moderate extent, overplanted, which in reality is a greater mistake than the opposite extreme. It is indeed a grievous error, however interesting or beautiful the objects themselves may be, to block up every line of sight, or to curtail or close in every vista, by dotting single trees or small groups of trees or shrubs over the whole available area. Under this treatment the best effects are never realized, and when they should be produced they are completely destroyed, and a confused patchy appearance, without any repose, is the result. Many demesnes that were originally planted with judgment have been since brought into this overcrowded condition, more especially within the last quarter of a century, by the introduction of new coniferous trees, which have too often been planted promiscuously, without due regard being paid as to whether there was space for their after development. It may be laid down as a rule that the best and most extended view should be from the front of the mansion. Here there ought to be the greatest stretch of lawn, and the eye should traverse the scene without interruption from any intervening obstacle. Open vistas should be secured in other directions, so far as the nature of the ground will permit, but these should be subservient to the central or principal view, the planting right and left of which should be irregular in outline, with graceful but not unmeaning or too numerous curves. The projections and recesses of the plantations should be more or less bold in proportion to the extent of the pleasure-ground. In the distance should be planted clumps of trees, more or less in number, and varying in size according to the nature of the624 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. ground-surface, and the nature of existing distant objects, some of which may require to be partially or wholly shrouded from view, and others brought into harmony with the newly-planted groups. These few remarks may be looked upon as having a general application, but the details in every case can only be worked out on the spot, as no two places could be found where the nature of the ground and the surroundings were such as to admit of their being treated exactly alike. In the selection of trees it is desirable to secure as much variety as possible. Deciduous trees, as well as Conifene, Tctxacece, and other evergreens, should be used, not so much in a general admixture as showing here and there a preponderance of particular kinds, such as may best suit the situation. A list of the more desirable species will be found in another place, so that here it is only necessary to allude to them generally, and to particularize a few that especially deserve to be largely employed. As a tree for the pleasure-ground, either to stand singly or in a conspicuous place in front of others, the Tree of Heaven (A il-antus glanclulosa) has not been nearly so much planted as it deserves to be; neither has the American plane (Platamis occidentalis). Both these retain their leaves late into the autumn, and have an immunity from the attacks of insects which is greatly in their favour. The same cannot be said of the lime, which is so much used, notwithstanding that it is often bare of foliage by the middle of August through the effects of red spider. The varied gi'een hues of the coniferous and taxaceous trees contrast well at all seasons of the year with those of deciduous subjects; but in the selection of the former, none should be chosen for this mixed planting in the pleasure-ground, that have not been proved to be sufficiently hardy to stand the severest winters of our climate. This is a matter not always sufficiently considered. The great number of conifers and allied trees that have been introduced to the country within the last thirty years has induced many persons to plant largely, and in positions where they could ill be spared, some of doubtful hardihood. This should by all means be avoided; for though the trees may escape for a quarter of a century, they may after all be destroyed by a frost such as we experienced in the winter of 18G0-G1, leaving blanks that it will take half a lifetime to fill up. The rage for new trees of this description lias been the means of putting in the back-ground numbers of the best ornamental deciduous trees and shrubs. There are, it is tine, amongst these Conifene and Taxacccc of comparatively recent introduction, many of extreme beauty and that well deserve a place in large pleasure-grounds where there is room for their full development without excluding other trees of equal merit; but by far the greater portion of them will never succeed in situations where they are exposed to strong winds. Great mistakes have been made in planting these trees in such positions. The Cedrus Deodara, for example, is frequently planted in positions where even the common larch could not grow, with the result that, instead of thriving satisfactorily, it becomes stunted or one-sided, or anything but a pleasing object. At the present day it is sometimes recommended to mass particular kinds of trees in pleasure-grounds—that is, to plant in juxtaposition a quantity of some kind of tree beside a similar group of some other kind; for instance, a mass of any species of Pinus beside a group of some deciduous tree. This kind of arrangement, if special care is not taken, is apt to result in a patchy, unnatural appearance, which effect is more apparent the nearer it is approached. Where the grounds are extensive a few isolated groups of some dark evergreen tree, such as Pinus austriaca, P. Cembra, or P. excelsa, may be introduced with the best results. Where planting is done on a large scale for distant landscape effect, as on the side of a hill, large masses of particular trees may also be employed with good effect. If, for instance, there exists a winding ravine of considerable extent, and this is planted with dark-leaved coniferous trees, flanked on each side with an ordinary mixture, in which deciduous subjects to a large extent predominate, the effect produced at a distance will be good; but in the pleasure-grounds it should rarely be attempted. After the trees that are intended to remain permanently are disposed in their places, then the intervening ground should be filled in with others that are only to remain for a time, until their size and the well-being of the permanent trees require their removal. In regard to this operation of timely thinning, it too often happens that the management of the pleasure-ground is far behind that of any other department. We may see all necessary care taken in the preparation of the ground, and the trees selected with judgment and well planted, and yet the whole injured beyond recovery by want of timely thinning. It is a matter that should never be lost sight of by those who have the management of pleasure-ground trees, especially during the younger stages of their growth. There is indeed a wide difference betwixt the treatment required by these and such as are planted in woods with the object of producing timber; in the case of the latter it is essential so to treat them that a good straight trunk, free from branches, may bePLEASURE-GROUNDS. 625 secured, while in the pleasure-ground the opposite of this is required, for each tree, through all the stages of its existence, should have sufficient room to develop its branches to the full natural extent, and this cannot possibly be the case if timely thinning is not resorted to. Even in the immediate vicinity of the mansion, where it might be supposed every care would be taken to manage the trees so as to allow them to assume their natural habit, they frequently stand as scraggy drawn-up monuments of neglect. In smaller places, where a belt of trees has been planted on the boundary to shut out some undesirable object or prospect, it often happens that they are left to themselves to struggle for existence as best they may, until the whole are as naked in the lower part as so many hop poles, and thus the obj’ect for which they were first planted is completely defeated; whereas, had the treatment been in accordance with the original object, not only would they have formed a block impervious to the eye, but each individual tree would have been a handsome feature in itself. In the case of the shrubs that are to occupy the different positions allotted to them in the pleasure-ground it is equally important, as with the trees, to make, first of all, a selection of those which it is intended to retain permanently, and before planting to consider well how much space they will require when they arrive at their full and natural development. As with trees so with shrubs, it is better to err on the side of ffiving them abundant space. "When the permanent plants are in their places the intervals should be filled in with others to stand for a time. In the choice of these filling-in plants it is well, so far as consistent with the necessity for variety, to select kinds that will transplant well; if this is not kept in view many will ultimately have to be sacrificed, that might, if of a nature to bear transplanting well after some years, be useful for moving elsewhere. Slirulw being for the most part of a naturally bushy habit do not get naked at the bottom, through insufficiency of room, to the same extent as do trees of large growth; yet they should by no means be neglected in this matter, as overcrowding is equally fatal to their ever becoming perfect examples of their kind, which is the condition which should be aimed at in the case of every individual plant introduced to a position in which there is any pretension to high-class culture. Before, then, the plants used for filling-in, encroach in any way upon those intended to stand, they should be taken away by degrees, as it becomes necessary. Where the selection has been suitable to the soil and locality, the ground well prepared, and the planting properly done, shrubs, like trees, require little attention except this timely thinning—nature in their case not failing to play her part, if we only allow them the space they require. With some shrubs, however, pruning to a limited extent may be had recourse to with advantage, especially amongst the deciduous subjects, many of which will be all the better for cutting back. It sometimes happens that when these are encroaching upon a plant of a more valuable description, cutting back is preferable to removal altogether, as the latter operation sometimes leaves too great an opening. The knife should be sparingly used amongst evergreen shrubs, and never employed so as to destroy the natural habit of the plant. The practice of keeping such shrubs as the common laurel, Portugal laurel, aucuba, &c., annually cut in to limit their size, until they are as formal as if they were cast in a mould, is most objectionable. It is generally done to prevent their encroaching upon others, but it would be much preferable, both on the score of appearance, and in regard to the health of the shrubs intended to remain, to remove some of them to another spot. At one time it was thought that many evergreen shrubs did not like, or would not bear manure, especially such things as rhododendrons; but this is a mistake. In poor hungry Boils shrubs are much benefited by the use of well-rotten manure, such as that of old hot-beds; and an occasional dressing of this will promote rapid growth. Hollies especially like it. Rose-garden.—A garden without roses would, at the present day, be considered a misnomer, for much as these flowers have always been prized, they have never been grown so widely or in such quantities as now. Beautiful and acceptable as roses always are there is, however, one drawback to their cultivation in quantities in the immediate vicinity of a dwelling, for the plants, whether grown as standards, dwarfs, or bushes, when not in flower, have anything but a pleasing appearance. In fact it cannot be denied, even by the most enthusiastic lover of roses, that when not in flower, they are much inferior in appearance to most other plants. Still further, to give roses the treatment best calculated to produce their flowers in the finest condition and greatest profusion, they should be grown by themselves. All things being taken into consideration, a site for the cultivation of roses, in connection with the pleasure-ground, should be provided in laying out the grounds. The rose-garden should be located in some measure apart from the more highly-kept ground, yet it must by no means be placed where it might suffer from the adverse 40626 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. influences of trees, or where it would in any way be too much confined, for were such the case mildew, the greatest enemy of the rose, would be certain to develop itself in such abundance as to make it difficult to deal with. A place should therefore, if possible, be chosen where the force of the winds from the west and north-west would be partially broken by distant shrubs or trees, but which would be quite open in other directions. The natural character of the soil is a most important consideration, for the rose, whether on its own roots, on the common dog rose, the Manetti, or any other stock, likes a good strong loam. Consequently, in selecting a position for the rose-garden, the nature of the soil, or the facility for providing a proper soil, are matters to be seriously considered. Neither should the rose-garden be at too considerable a distance from the house, so as to be inconvenient of access, provided the conditions above referred to can be secured near at hand. [As a structural embellishment to a rose-garden, nothing can be more appropriately introduced than a rose-temple, of which a very elegant form, designed by Mr. W. E. Rendle, of Victoria Street, London, is represented in the accompanying Fig. 349. wood-cut (Fig. 349). It is light and elegant in construction, and combines in a remarkable degree the desirable attributes of moderate cost and perfect suitability for the intended object. “ Every rose-garden,” observes Mr. W. Paul, “ if of large, or even of moderate size, should be crowned or supported with a rose-temple; and indeed there are few flower-gardens which would not afford some nook which would be appropriately filled by a light structure covered with climbing-roses. Above all things, let these roses be sweet-scented and of graceful growth, so that if driven for shelter from the noonday heat or a passing shower, the eye may be pleased and the nose regaled whilst kept waiting upon the weather.” For more detailed information on the subject of roses and rose-culture see the section Rose-garden of the following chapter. American Garden.—A garden establishment having any pretension to completeness should contain some accommodation for the culture of the beautiful and free-flowering hardy shrubs known as American plants: so-called from many of them having been originally obtained from North America,but which now, with the improved forms raised in gardens, far eclipse the original introductions. The rhododendron is the most striking and the most varied of this class of plants; and this, when supplemented by such things as azaleas, kalmias, ericas, andromedas, daphnes, &c., is capable of converting the American garden, or that portion of the pleasure-ground in which it is especially provided for, into a perfect paradise of flowers. The preparations made for these plants, moreover, exactly suit the requirements of many of the most charming of hardy bulbs and herbaceous plants, such as many of the lilies, cypripe-diums, trilliums, gentians, and many other of our choicest floral gems. American plants require, for their successful cultivation, to be grown in a light rich soil, readily permeable to moisture, but free from stagnant water. A sandy peat or heath-mould is the best; but a light rich sandy loam, mixed with leaf-mould and rotten turf, will answer exceedingly well. Chalk is wholly unsuitable; and in soils of an adhesive nature the delicate fibrous roots soon perish. If the soil is naturally unfitted for the growth of the plant, and peat cannot be had, a compost will have to be prepared. This may consist of equal parts of leaf-mould or other thoroughly decomposed vegetable matter, rotten turf, sandy loam, and sand—the whole thoroughly incorporated, laid in a heap for some months previous to use, and frequently turned. Where plenty of leaf-mould is at command, a greater proportion of that material may be employed, especially when the loam is not of a very light nature, in which case also more sand should be added. The situation should be moist, and if shady all the better; but it ought not to be overhung by trees, for these would prove injurious by the drip from their leaves, and by the incursions of their roots, which would not only impoverish the soil, but absorb moisture in enormous quantities to supply the evaporation from the leaves with which they are in connection, and this at the very time when the plants are in the greatest dangerPLEASURE-GROUNDS. 627 of suffering from dryness at the roots, a state which is particularly to be guarded against with this class of plants. In preparing beds for American plants in retentive soils, it is of great importance to secure proper drainage in the first instance; for, though requiring abundance of moisture, their roots cannot long survive when this becomes stagnant. Should the natural soil consist of peat or heath-mould, the ground will merely require to be trenched, a little well-decomposed cow-dung or any light rich compost being mixed up with it in the operation, and if deficient in sand a due proportion of this substance must also be added. Where the natural soil is not suitable, it ought to be dug out in September or October to the depth of at least 18 inches, or better, 2 feet, and the subsoil loosened to an equal depth. The peat or compost having been chopped up should be filled in, so that after sinking it may be no higher than the adjoining ground; indeed, in dry situations it is advantageous to sink it below that level, in order to secure a better supply of moisture, and for a like reason it is not advisable to elevate, to any considerable extent, the middle of the beds above the sides. More detailed information on this subject will be given in the succeeding chapter, under the head American Garden.] Decorations.—These consist principally of summer-houses, arbours, and temples, in addition to those already mentioned in the preceding sections of this chapter. Summer-houses are both appropriate and useful appendages to the pleasure-ground and floral departments, and if well placed they afford an enjoyrable retreat in hot weather. In the construction of these much experience has been gained of late years. The unbarked timber formerly used in making summer-houses had, when newly put up, a nice appearance; but even with the greatest care in selection, and felling the timber at the season best calculated to enable it to retain its bark, the damp getting betwixt it and the wood would cause it quickly to peel off, and thus give an unsightly aspect to the structure. Tough, durable wood, like oak, yew, and elm, should be used in a good seasoned condition, and then ought to be well varnished. The roof should be thatched with heather, for no other covering looks so well or is more appropriate, besides which it is very durable if cut in the winter when not growing. Many persons object to summer-houses, alleging that they harbour insects to such an extent as to make it unpleasant to sit in them. Such no doubt is the case if they are not properly made. The inside should always be lined with close-jointed boards; the roof should be treated in the same way, and the whole should be stained a warm brown colour. To avoid dampness, the floor should be composed of boards, and raised a few inches above the ground. Arbours, if judiciously placed, are equally with summer-houses in character in a garden, whether it be large or small. They may be formed in various ways. A weeping-ash or weeping-elm may be pressed into service, and when closely furnished will serve the purpose well; or a light frame-work of iron may be erected on which to train climbing-plants of various kinds, which may consist of vigorous-growing roses, such as the Crimson Boursault, Ruga, or varieties of the evergreen or Ayrshire types, or, indeed, any free-growing sort, which may be budded in places with varieties producing flowers of finer character, in order to give variety. Other climbing-plants adapted for this object are the honeysuckles, the clematises, the vine, and Virginian-creeper. Ivy is one of the best and most manageable evergreen subjects that can be employed in covering an arbour. Adthough in this country we do not use it so much as is done on the Continent, this plant may be freely and safely recommended for the purpose in question; its thorough hardiness in every part of the kingdom, its free and close habit of growth, and its immunity from insects, are properties which specially adapt it for such an object; while its evergreen habit is also deserving of consideration, since, whatever position it occupies, it looks much better through the winter than plants that are deciduous. Vigorous - growing varieties should be selected, such as the Irish ivy (Hedera Helix canariensis), and its mottled-leaved variety; the Algerian ivy (II. Helix algeriensis), the Colchican (H. colchicci), and another thickleaved sort called H. dentata. These, intermixed, have a nice appearance. To have the arbour covered with as little delay as possible, plants should be used that have been grown in pots; these can be procured from 3 to 6 feet in height. The soil in which ivy is planted can scarcely be made too rich, and where plenty of manure is thus added, it will make rapid growth and soon cover a large space. Over the usual iron frame-work of which the skeleton of the arbour is constructed, should be laid stout wire-netting, to which the shoots must be trained. This training must be often and regularly attended to from the time of planting until the whole is closely covered, otherwise the shoots, as they grow, will be injured and their growth hindered by chafing against the wire. When the whole is covered little will be required except to go over it with the knife two or three times during the season, in order to trim in such shoots as may have grown long and straggling.G28 GARDENER'S ASSISTANT. In these structures the seats may either be fixed all round the interior, as is usual, or chairs may be used, according to individual taste. The floor may be paved with moderate-sized blocks of wood on end, or, if well elevated, the floor may be of boards laid upon wooden joists. Arbours and summer-houses should, if possible, be placed with the entrance facing the south, or nearly so, as in such position they are much the pleasantest. An arbour affords very pleasant shade in hot, dry weather during summer; but in our climate the advantages of a rain-proof roof and dry interior, such as a summer-house affords when properly constructed, are not to be lightly disregarded at any season. The summer-house, moreover, equally with the arbour, may be decorated on the exterior with flowering climbers, ivy, &c. Temples may be considered as another class of garden embellishments, and belong to the more distant pleasure-grounds rather than to the garden in near proximity to the mansion. Before an erection of this nature is decided upon, there are several matters to be considered. Unless the mansion is a building of considerable importance the erection of a temple—an architectural building—is a matter of questionable taste. Then, again, the dressed grounds into which such an object is introduced should be of considerable extent, the larger the better, so that the temple can be placed to form a distinct feature and point of attraction. It should correspond in style, and also in the material used in its construction, with the mansion. Even the best imitations of stone are only just admissible, always having a poor appearance. Stone is, in reality, the only suitable material that can be used in building a temple, which should always convey an idea of durability. The position is another important matter; if the grounds are large a distant spot, somewhat elevated, especially if partially hidden by trees from the windows of the mansion and its immediate vicinity, may be chosen writh good effect; or if there happens to be a straight broad walk or avenue, in either grass or gravel, a temple may be set up as a termination, and to this the walk may be an approach, thus giving an apparent object for the existence of the latter, without which it might appear unmeaning. III.—LAWXS, BOWLIXG-GREENS, ETC. There is nothing connected with an English garden that adds more to its picturesque effect, or is of greater importance, than a spacious well-made lawn, well kept; we say, well-made, for on this in a great measure depends the possibility of keeping it in good condition in after yearn, for no amount of labour will keep a badly made lawn in a satisfactory state throughout the season. The extent and form of the lawn will, as a matter of course, be determined by the circumstances appertaining to each individual place; suffice it to say, that the larger the space so occupied, if well laid out, the finer will be the effect. The continued close mowing with machines, that lawns are subject to at the present day, necessitates their being well made, or the grass cannot easily be kept in good condition. Where the soil is naturally deep, and of good quality, there is little difficulty in the formation of a lawn. If the site is not sufficiently dry, it must be made so by draining, and it will be necessary to complete this operation before anything else is attempted. This also should at the same time be carried out, so far as requisite, through the whole of the grounds, either under grass, or planted with trees and shrubs. The work should be performed in a similar manner to that indicated for the flower-garden. After draining has been attended to, it will be necessary to determine the level or levels of the surface; this is indispensable to enable the whole to be dug to a uniform depth. In most cases the height of the ground in the immediate vicinity of the building will be regulated by the ground line of the walls, or terraces if they exist. The general level of the undisturbed ground must then be ascertained, in order that if any difference is found soil may be added or removed as the case may require. Newly moved earth will for a time be higher, but when well soaked with the rains it will settle to the measurement taken before it was disturbed. The whole should be trenched evenly to a depth of from 15 to 18 inches, where there is this depth of soil of fair quality. A lawn may be expected to maintain a fresh green appearance even in dry weather; but unless the natural soil is fully 1 foot deep, as much should be added as will bring it up to that, or in dry seasons the choice will be betwixt a brown-patched surface, or frequent and heavy waterings, which latter operations (unless where there occurs a head of water in quantity that can be applied without stint, through pipes, and running on by its own gravity) become costly on account of the labour. Where the natural soil is poor and sandy, a liberal quantity of heavier and better soil should be added. Where a lawn of considerable extent has to be formed, this bringing in of new soil may appear a formidable task, but it should he borne in mind that the work is of a permanent character, and when once well done will not require redoing, while upon its being efficiently performed depends the future results. Let thePLEASURE-GROUNDS. 629 depth, whatever it may be, be uniform, not alone of the surface when finished, but the subsoil surface, to the point where the spade or pick has gone, should be as even as possible, giving the whole body of loosened earth an equal depth over the entire area; this, and no other method of procedure, will insure a plane surface. If the loosened earth is deeper in one place than another, the subsidence will not be equal, and the surface will become uneven-“°a condition which, so long as it exists, spoils the appearance of a lawn. Besides, it is much more difficult to remedy defects of this nature afterwards, than it is to do the work properly at first. Lawns that are uneven are much more expensive to keep than those that have a plane surface, and not only this, but the tint is not uniform where inequalities exist. Whether the mowing machine or the scythe be employed, the elevated portions are shaven to the quick, whilst the grass in the hollows is left comparatively long; the former presents a pale appearance for several days after mowing, the latter a bright green, and the whole lawn has a spotty aspect. When the trenching is complete, the whole surface should be gone over with the spade and rake, leaving it quite level and smooth; it should then remain for a considerable time to allow it to settle. If the work is completed in the autumn, the rains through the winter months will solidify it, and bring the whole into condition for turfing, or sowing, whichever is preferred. If good turf, perfectly free from weeds, or daisies, or coarse grasses can be procured, a good lawn can be obtained at once, but the work should be completed sufficiently long before the dry season comes on, to allow the turf to get root-hold, otherwise a season will be lost, and the appearance will lie unsightly. The turfs should be regularly cut and rolled up; this is done near London in yard lengths, 1 foot broad, and about l£ inch thick. They should be laid as soon after cutting as possible; and particular care should be taken that the rolls do not get frozen, otherwise the vitality of the grass may be destroyed; for although the natural grasses are hardy, yet we have known blanks result from using turf that had been frozen in a rolled-up state. The surface of the soil will most likely have by this time become close and solid, and will not be in a condition to admit of the turf rooting freely into it. To remedy this it should be dug over 2 or 3 inches deep, making the top afterwards smooth with the rake. The turf may then be laid, but it must be done in a workmanlike manner, the joints being made close. The turf must be slightly and evenly beaten down with the turf-beater, but do not attempt to finish it off until the whole is laid down; then give a good beating, which will not only have the effect of producing a level surface, but will close up the joints. Pass a heavy roller over the whole as soon as the beating is completed, and after that do not touch it until growth has made some progress, and the roots have penetrated the soil. During the first summer do not be too particular in keeping it closely mown, as if a dry season should occur, it will, if close and frequently cut, be much more likely to suffer. If, with this precaution, the weather during the summer following its being laid should be such as to cause it to become brown, water should be applied in the evening, giving a good soaking, in preference to frequent sprinklings. Where really good turf cannot be had, it will be necessary to resort to sowing seeds. The best season for this is the end of March and beginning of April, the showery weather we generally experience then being favourable for the germination of the seeds. The ground should be prepared for sowing in the same way as was advised where turf was to be laid; it must be made solid by treading and rolling, and reduced by working and raking to a perfectly level and plane surface. On this sow the seeds evenly, and rake them well in; after which roll again. When grass seeds are sown the weather should be quite calm, or it is impossible to distribute them evenly. In some places birds are very troublesome on newly sown lawns, devouring the seeds in large quantities if not scared off; this is a matter that requires attention, or the crop may be too thin, and this will entail re-sowing, and that at a season when the weather is too dry for germination. If showery weather occurs about the end of August, lawns may then be sown down, as the grass will have time enough to get well hold of the ground before winter. The following are the kinds of grass suitable for forming a good lawn, and the quantities of seed required for an acre:— Lolium perenne tenue,............... 20 lb. Cynosurus crisiatus,................. 5 ,, Festuca duriuscula,.................. 3 ,, ,, ovina tenuifolia,............. 2 ,, Poa nemoralis,....................... 2 ,, ,, ,, sempervirens,........... 2 ,, ,, trivialis,....................... 2 „ Trisetum flavescens,................. 1 ,, Trifolium repens, ................... 6 ,, ,, minus,........................ 2 ,, 45 The above proportions will be found suitable for the generality of soils; but in shady situations,630 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. to which Poa nemoralis and its variety are particularly well adapted, 1 or 2 lb. of each of these may be substituted for Trisetum Jlavescens and Festuca tenuifolia; whilst in rich heavy soils, 2 or 3 lb. of Cynosurus cristatus, and 1 lb. of Festuca duriuscula may be substituted for Trisetum Jlavescens, the quantity of Trifolium minus being reduced to 1 lb. Keeping of Lawns.—This work is mostly of a routine character, consisting of rolling, mowing, and sweeping, except amongst flower-beds, trees, and on terrace slopes. The scythe is at the present day but little used, mowing machines by numerous makers varying in their construction, and of all sizes, from the toy, cutting 6 inches in breadth, up to the large implement drawn by a horse, being now in general use. Amongst these there are not more than three sizes we should recommend—the smallest, cutting a breadth of 14 or 16 inches; next, the 24-inch, drawn by a pony or active donkey; and then those that cut a breadth of from 30 to 48 inches, drawn by a horse. The machines 24 inches wide, advertised to be worked by two men, are too heavy to work unless the grass is cut every week, and even in that case the two men would do much more, each having a smaller machine to use. Where there is a considerable space to be mown there is nothing better than an active quick-walking pony, with a 24-inch machine, and which will do more work than a home that is slower of foot, with a much larger implement. [As illustrations of modern lawn mowers we introduce figures of two of Green’s machines, which have a very wide-spread reputation, though numerous other good machines are also in the Fig. 352. Green’s Mowing Machine (details). field. In fact, they closely resemble each other as to the general principle of construction, and differ chiefly in matters of detail. That which Fig. 353. Green's Mowing Machine (details). is here represented is Green’s Silens Messor machine, of which we give a general view (Fig. 350), the side elevation (Fig. 351), and the whole ofPLEASURE-GROUNDS. 631 the parts separate (Figs. 352, 353). Fig. 350 shows the machine when ready for use, with the grass box in position. The other three figures show the various pieces of which the machine is composed, and which are indicated by letters as follows:—a, drums; B, cylinder; c, grass box; d, chain; e, cross stay; f, catch wheel; G, catch motion; h, drum scraper; i, front roller of wood; J, front roller fixed; k, chain wheel and pinion; l, catch lever; m, handles; n, sole plate and bottom blade; o, drum fixings and screws; p, cylinder bush with adjusting screws, &c.; Q, catch for catch motion within drums; R, machine sides, right and left. These figures will enable any intelligent person, who compares them with the machine, to understand its construction, and will enable him to take the parts asunder and replace them, as is sometimes necessary, as, for example, when the cylinder of cutting blades has to be reversed. Green’s Royal Lawn Mower (Fig. 354) repre- Green’s Royal Lawn Mower. sents another class of machine of which the Archimedean was the type. These, it will be seen, have a central handle, and the cutting cylinder, which has fewer blades, is fixed to revolve more rapidly. Owing to the less resistance from the fewer blades, these machines are remarkably easy to work, and as they are equally perfect in their cutting action they are strongly to be recommended to amateurs who amuse themselves by taking a share of the work of their gardens. One of the special features of this machine is its extreme simplicity, as it is composed of the smallest number of pieces of any machine extant. In the figure the grass box is shown detached, but it fits on to the front of the machine in the same way as that represented at Fig. 350. A very common mistake in machine mowing is to have the cutting-blades set too low, by which means the grass is often cut almost into the roots, after which, in parching weather, except in places more than ordinarily favourable for its growth, it is sure to burn, and to acquire a most unsightly appearance. Another objectionable consequence that follows this over-close cutting is, that it kills the more tender species of grass outright. This can easily be avoided by setting the knives higher, which has the double advantage of being much better for the health of the grass, as well as leaving it better furnished. It is also bad practice to mow a lawn too closely late in the autumn, for if severe frost should immediately follow, its effects on the bared roots are injurious. For two or three summers after a lawn is made, if any weeds in the shape of dandelions, plantains, &c., make their appearance, they should be regularly cut out, or they will quickly increase, entailing endless work in after years. Coarse grasses and daisies should in like manner be extirpated. Daisies, although at first only existing in small quantities, if not got out by the roots, will increase rapidly where a mowing-machine is used, as their flower-heads are often thrown over the grass-box; and although the seeds are then far from being matured, still they will vegetate and quickly grow into flowering plants. Previous to the first mowing in spring the grass should be gone over with a good heavy iron roller, to solidify the ground, which the winter’s frosts will in some measure have loosened up in places. Before laying down the turf some persons cover the surface of the ground with sifted coal-ashes, in order to keep the lawn free from worm-casts. The latter are troublesome, it must be admitted, but raking and sweeping will disperse them. We do not, however, approve of too much sweeping up of worm-casts, unless where excessively numerous, or for some special occasion; they are the means by which nature manures the grass, as well as drains the surface. Being composed of fine soil the greater part of the worm-casts is washed in among the roots of the grass, forming a topdressing which is peculiarly beneficial to the finer grasses—in fact, it is that kind of top-dressing in which they exist for ages in perpetual verdure on the commons. Were it not for the fresh soil brought to the surface from a considerable depth by the worms, it is probable that the same kind of grass would get tired, as the expression is, of632 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. the same soil, and would disappear, as in fact is the case with regard to some lawns. In another point of view the. worms are of vast importance, and that is in draining the surface. On a wet day no one thinks of walking for pleasure on grass; but on a dry day, when it would be presumed that the most delicate might traverse the lawn, how great the disappointment to find the ground swampy under foot! We have seen instances of this, and such would be more frequent were it not for the boring operations of the worms. Their passages, extending from the surface to the subsoil, afford the most ready means of draining the former, and rendering it free from that unpleasant swampiness so highly objectionable in lawns. We think that the worm-casts are much better rolled down, and for this purpose there is nothing equal to a four-foot-wide wooden roller, 10 or 12 inches in diameter, made of oak, with a stout inch-broad iron hoop at each end to keep it from splitting through the action of the weather; this should be set in a light iron frame, and with this a boy will go over as much ground in an hour as a man with an iron roller would cover in three, doing the work equally well. On the whole we should not be inclined to use any precautions against the worms at first; but if the soil is naturally so light and porous that their assistance is not required, they may be destroyed at any time by means of lime-water. The elastic surface of a mossy lawn is preferred by some to the less yielding grass. The worst feature connected with such a lawn is that in dry weather it is certain to become brown, unless the ground is wetter than it ought to be. To remove moss manure of different kinds is used, such as loam and rotten dung, soot and loam or guano, but all these are so far objectionable that they cause the grass to grow rank and strong. For removing moss without inducing the grass to grow thus objectionably strong, there is nothing so good as lime in a powdered state mixed with maiden loam in proportions of one part lime to three parts of loam. Care should be taken that the loam is new and free from weeds, or the cure will be worse than the evil sought to be remedied. A dressing of from a j to i an inch will be sufficient, and it may be applied at any time during the growing season, when the weather is showery, so as to get it covered in without delay. April or October are the best months for applying the mixture. A similar' dressing may with advantage be given to old lawns that have become exhausted, especially if new grass seeds are sown, and the compost applied afterwards, the application being repeated from time to time as may be found necessary. Bowling-greens.—Space for a bowling-green may be provided in any by-part of the pleasure-ground where it does not interfere with the general arrangements, or with the pictorial or landscape effects. So far as using the ground for the purpose of bowling goes, any level portion of lawn might be taken, but if used much in very dry weather the grass is apt to get bare in places, which would be a dissight. Hence it is better that a parallelogram of sufficient size should be selected in any part of the grounds, and skirted by a shrubbery-walk passing by and amongst groups of shrubs planted in order to screen it from the general view, the surface being sunk so as to retain the bowls. If preferred in an exposed or open position, it would still be desirable to be sunk more or less below the surrounding parts. It is usual to have near a bowling-green a covered seat in the form of a summer-house, which would not be admissible on a lawn, except in a retired corner, where it would compose with the rest of the scenery. It may, however, be taken as a rule that a bowling-green is better apart from the lawn, while it should be, if possible, at no great distance from the dwelling. In years gone by, when this enjoyable healthy recreation was more practised than at present, the green was often surrounded with a high beech hedge, which being kept nicely clipped, shut out the wind effectually, a summerhouse-like erection being placed at each side. A bowling-green then is usually made in what is known as a sunk panel. To form this the top soil is removed, and about 2£ feet of the subsoil excavated. The surface soil is then replaced at the lower level, the plot being of course well drained. Where thus formed, even if the ground is naturally dry enough, it becomes necessary to have on each side drains, with eyes at the surface to carry away the top water, which, from the lower position of the ground, will, during heavy rains, collect upon it. [When thus formed in a level sunk panel, the surface can be flooded in winter, and during frosty weather converted for the time into a skating-ground, but in this case the drains above referred to must be temporarily closed.] In forming a bowling-green it is always well to make it sufficiently large, so that when required there will be room enough for several games to be going on at the same time. The centre of the green should be a few inches higher than the outsides, yet so little as not to be perceptible to the eye, this slight inequality being intended to test the skill of the players. The soil of which a bowling-green is made should be good in quality, and of sufficient depth to be able at all seasons to carry a thick dense sward of fine grass. OnPLEASURE-GROUNDS. 633 ground where there is much play, during very dry weather the grass is liable to get worn off unless recourse is had to watering to an extent that makes it unpleasant to go upon it. The continuous mowing necessary to keep the surface in the required condition, also has a tendency to make the grass more delicate. To counteract the effects of these adverse conditions, unless the soil is naturally good, some of better quality should be added without stint, mixing this all through the ground while being dug. Where the land is naturally poor some well-rotten dung should be mixed with the new soil that is brought in. As in the case of lawn-making, the whole should be well trenched to an equal depth, allowing it afterwards time to settle before turfing or sowing down, previous to which the surface must be made quite smooth. If really good turf can be had, free from weeds, and possessing a thick close carpet-like sward, this will be preferable to sowing seeds. In laying it down the greatest care must be taken that the turves are equal in thickness, and that the work is completed with the greatest regularity, as regards making the joints close, and the surface faultlessly even. Greater care is necessary here, even than in the case of a lawn, for not only must the surface be smooth in appearance, but so that the bowls will roll over it almost as if on a billiard-table, and this cannot possibly be the case unless the turf is well laid in the first instance. No amount of rolling afterwards, will bring it to the condition required, if it is not laid down evenly. If the turf is laid in the spring, and the ensuing summer should prove to be dry, frequent and thorough soakings of water must be applied, and during this time the grass should not be mown too often, nor played upon more than cannot be avoided. Should any coarse grasses or weeds spring up they ought to be at once removed. Where turf cannot be had of good quality, recourse must be had to sowing seeds. The sorts recommended for lawns will answer, but to insure a thick close sward in the shortest time, we should advise the quantity of seed to be increased one-third. The ground should not be played upon until it is well and thickly clothed. The immediate surroundings should not consist of large trees standing too near, or they will cause the grass to grow weakly. A border of mixed evergreen and deciduous flowering-shrubs may very appropriately be planted round the green, either as a screen or a decoration, and beds of herbaceous flowering-plants may with good effect be introduced amongst them, so as to give a cheerful appearance to the whole. The bowling-green, in fact, best realizes its true position, when it comes in as an interesting episode in the circuit of the dressed grounds which surround a substantial residence. IV.—ORNAMENTAL WATER. In pleasure-grounds of considerable extent, or in home parks that are often found laying beyond the more highly-dressed ground, and to which they generally form a sort of continuation, ornamental water is a most important feature, not only on account of the attraction which a well-arranged piece of water in such a position always possesses in itself, but for the marked effects which it has on the whole surroundings. In flower-gardens the extent of water must be limited, otherwise it would bear too great a proportion to the extent of land seen in connection with it, and accordingly it is in them chiefly confined to basins and fountains,as already explained; but in extensive pleasure-grounds and in parks water is so important a feature, and contributes so much to the beauty and enlivenment of natural scenery, that no landscape can be considered altogether complete without it. In nature, from a certain point of view, a river, broad and swelling, may in winding be observed to disappear behind some wood or rising ground, and again appear in full view, till, by following the lowest course it can take through valleys, it finally becomes lost to the sight; but what is seen of it has a much more noble appearance than the same extent of surface in the form of a circular pond. Now, an artificial piece of water can be formed so as to appear and disappear like a natural river, and then no one can reasonably find fault with it. Comparatively few demesnes, however, can boast of a river of any importance winding through the grounds, and even where such a stream does exist, the water is too often so far below the banks as not to be perceptible from any distance. But where a stream of water either flows naturally through the grounds, or can be diverted so as to pass through them, effects of the highest order can be produced if the work is directed with skill and judgment. Where the character of the ground is favourable, nature may be so nearly imitated as to leave little to be desired. Deviations in the course of the stream may be made so as to represent natural windings and irregularities of breadth, while elevations and depressions in the height of the banks may be worked out, the earth that is excavated in the one case being turned to good account in the other. In the planting that is done at intervals on the banks, the sight of the water can, if desirable, be shut out in places so as to give the whole a still more natural appear-634 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. ance, and there may be other details that the situation may specially favour. In places where an extended river-like character cannot be arranged the more simple lake-like form may be adopted; but here everything calculated to produce an artificial pond-like appearance must be carefully avoided, not oidy as seen from a distance, but upon near inspection. Whatever form is given to artificial water, it seldom happens that many trees that attain considerable height can be used for planting on the banks, as in most cases, if they do not interfere with the sight of the water from the principal points of view, they will interrupt the view of something in the distance. The subjects used for planting on the banks at those points which require it, should consist as much as possible of native British plants, such as broom, furze, hazel, thorns, and similar things, which convey a closer idea of nature’s work than of that produced by the hand of man. One thing should always be well considered before any attempt is made in the introduction of artificial water, and that is, that the stream which gives the supply must be large enough to keep the whole pure and in a clear state. It does not require nearly so much water to do this as might be imagined, even where the body of water thus held up is large, but the flow should be continuous, or during long droughts the water may become offensive, not only in appearance, but on account of the exhalations proceeding from it—in which case, instead of having the effect intended, it would become a nuisance. At the edge of the water, in positions where they will produce the most natural effect, should be introduced some groups of water-loving plants, which should here and there clothe the bank, and extend for some distance into the water. This can easily be managed, as near the edge the excavations will necessarily not be very deep, and will offer fitting accommodation for the growth of the plants. All walks in the vicinity of water, whether natural or artificial, should be rendered dry, otherwise the scenery cannot be comfortably viewed. There may, however, be a piece of smoothly-shorn lawn between the walk and the water’s edge. Great care is necessary in the introduction of trees in the neighbourhood of artificial water, for if many large deciduous trees are planted on the banks, the leaves cannot be prevented from falling in and rendering it impure. In such a case open lawn and evergreens, with a sparing admixture of deciduous shrubs, are to be preferred for the positions nearest the water; while trees of tall growth may be planted at such a distance as to preclude the possibility of their leaves falling in large quantities into the water. Exception ought, however, to be made in favour of the weeping willow and birch. The introduction of water in pleasure-grounds is after all a delicate point; but if we can give it every appearance of a broad river, or of a natural lake, the difficulty will be overcome. The banks may in either case exhibit beautiful curves, as those of natural rivers frequently do; for instance, the Thames near Chiswick, which forms a curve that corresponds very well with what is called Hogarth’s line of beauty. In short, water in many cases may be introduced with good effect if the above simple example is borne in mind. t.b. CHAPTER XXIY. HARDY ARBOREAL AND SHRUBBY PLANTS. [The uses of trees and shrubs in garden scenery, and their arrangement in the different parts of the grounds having been treated on in the preceding chapter, we now give detailed and descriptive lists of a selection of the most useful and ornamental of the plants themselves, grouping them under distinct headings for facility of reference. AY e may, however, first direct attention to the beauty of trees in the winter season, a subject which has been well discussed in the Gardeners' Chronicle by Miss Hope, who writes thus:— “Winter is the best season for studying trees. It is a sadly superficial knowledge to know them merely by their leaves; we should be able at once to name a tree from its bark and buds, and from the bare outline of the whole tree. “ Leaves entirely conceal the beautiful and varied way in which the branches and sprays grow, different in every species of tree, and which come out so distinctly against the winter sky, a piece of water, or the snowy side of a hill. The colours of the different barks, both of trunks and young twigs, are brightest, or appear to be so, in winter, not taking into account the endless patterns and stainings of the lichens and mosses, which are almost always finest on the north side of the tree—a fact useful to know when wandering about in a strange wood. We have warm red in the bark of the Scotch fir and sycamore, and the twigs of the lime and maple; white in the thin outer covering of the bark of the birch, and the smooth gray of the beech contrasts strikingly with the spirally growing rough bark of the Spanish chestnut. In the willows we have rich gold, yellow, red, and purple, which last colour isHARDY ARBOREAL AND SHRUBBY PLANTS. 635 best found in the small branches of the alder and birch. The bark of the planes, for peeling off, and Acer striatum, beautifully streaked with white, are very interesting. “ Then, again, unless we go among the trees in winter, we miss many of their flowers—elm, ash, male and female catkins of many varieties of willows, the poplars, and the hazel, of which see that the little female flowers are not overlooked; if not found on the first tree, go to the second, or third, until found; they are earlier, and of a brighter red than the larch flowers. Birch, poplar, alder, and Aldus cordifolia are all interesting with their catkins, the alders particularly so, from having this year’s catkins and last year’s fruit hanging together. These are amongst the earliest flowering trees, but all should be watched for in succession, even insignificant flowers like those of the oak and beech. Thei’e is no fear of the horse-chestnut, the sycamore dripping with honey-dew, or the delicious lime being passed over, even though their tantalizing leaves are then out. “ Even these advantages will not tempt people to make excursions to the woods and forests; but at the nearest tree nursery they will have the readiest means of studying the trees from their seed-bed to the age when perhaps some of them have acquired their peculiar character, as far at least as to the way in which the branches grow —different in every species of tree; and can thoroughly learn to know the tree by the shape and position of its bud, flower, and leaf. The bud of the ash is as like ebony in the seedling of 6 inches as in the tree of 60 feet; those of the horse-chestnut and balsam-poplar as resinous; the lime as round and red; the thin-leaved beech as sharply pointed; the heavy-leaved sycamore and walnut have their fat green buds exactly the same in the seed bed as in the forest tree, and those of the mountain ash are as wide apart, and of the same soft lilac. The elm, willow, and birch have small leaves, and one expects small buds; but the Spanish chestnut, although so large in the leaf, has a small bud, as also has the oak. Hornbeam and beech, so often mistaken for each other by the leaf, could never be confused if compared in bud. All these bud distinctions can be learned by quietly walking round the nearest nursery garden.”] Transplanting.—Respecting transplanting trees and shrubs, it may be mentioned that the autumn, shortly after the fall of the leaf, is the best season for all species with deciduous foliage. Where the soil is heavy and tenacious, planting should be done, if possible, before much rain has fallen, as there will be less labour in getting a good tilth. The roots of all plants should be separated and surrounded with earth, that is, the earth should touch all their surface; but treading the earth down upon them, when it is stiff and wet, is prejudicial to the health of the tree. Planting in a friable soil requires less care, as it crumbles and runs in between the roots and fills up all interstices without any trouble. Trees that do not readily produce adventitious roots from the stem should not be planted so deep that the collar, or point close below which the roots are given off, is quite buried, or they are likely to become diseased and eventually to die. In dry, gravelly soils, however, it is quite safe to plant a little deeper than would be advisable in a heavy soil. Most of the poplars, willows, &c., readily emit roots from any part of the stem, and appear to thrive as well or better when put into the ground to a good depth. Most shrubs, too, will bear tolerably deep planting; this applies more especially to those which throw up suckers. Evergreens may be removed at almost any season of the year, if they will come up with a ball of earth, but early autumn or late spring are the best times. Of course, it is also possible to transplant deciduous trees until the time the buds begin to burst, but more care is required, and extra labour in watering, if a dry season follow; moreover, they make but little growth when planted late. Large and valuable specimens which one may wish to move, should be prepared a year or two previous to being transplanted, by digging out a trench all around them, 2 or 3 feet, or more, from the stem, according to the size of the plant, and then filling it up again. In this way the widely spreading roots are cut through, which causes them to branch out and fill the soil immediately around the plant and help to hold it together. It is advisable to get underneath from one side in order to sever the tap-root, if there be one. A mulching of short stable dung is a great help to newly-moved plants, and shading with moistened mats in very hot weather may be recommended for valuable specimens of evergreens. Where required, staking should be done at the same time as planting, and care should be taken that neither the stake nor the ligature injure the stem. Trees should not be braced up too rigidly, otherwise they will never be able to stand alone. A couple of supple, green stakes, driven in upright a few inches from the stem, and fastened at the top with good tough straw-bands and stout yam^ form a good support that will give a little with the wind. For larger specimens use an india-rubber ring, or some other soft collar, just above the middle of the stem, attached to cords or wires from dwarf stumps, at a sufficient distance from the stem to take a bearing. The general remarks636 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. on this subject, forming chap. xiii. p. 317, may be consulted with advantage. The ground for shrubberies and plantations should be trenched to a depth of 2 or 3 feet, at least, previous to planting, and for single specimens the earth, especially if clayey, should be moved to a good depth and breadth, or the holes are liable to become water-logged. Pruning Trees and Shrubs is an operation requiring some care and forethought, though many things will bear any amount of cutting and clipping, and still continue to shoot out afresh. Trees like the horse-chestnut and sycamore, whose growth is mainly from the tips of the branches, should not be cut at all, or only here and there a branch or shoot taken off where necessary to make a specimen symmetrical in outline. The principal point to consider in pruning flowering shrubs is the nature of the inflorescence, whether terminal or lateral. Shears should never be employed where it is practicable to use a knife. Laurel hedges, for instance, present a much more sightly appearance when cut in with a knife, and with a little practice it does not occupy much more time. In lopping large branches it is better to cut them off close to the main trunk, and not to leave spurs several inches long, for in the latter case decay is almost certain to extend to the trunk in course of time, whereas, if cut as close as possible, without touching the bark of the trunk, they will usually grow over. See also on this subject chap. xiv. p. 330. Propagation.—The propagation of different trees and shrubs is effected in a variety of ways, according to the object desired, or the facilities offered by certain methods for certain species. Most garden, and what may be termed accidental forms, such as variegated, weeping, cut-leaved, double-flowered varieties, &c., are not constant from seed, and therefore some artificial means must be resorted to in order to perpetuate or increase them. Budding on the common variety, or on some closely allied species, is the most expeditious way of increasing most of this class. Some strike root readily from cuttings or layers, and are best propagated thus, because healthier specimens are the result. The mode of branching is, to a certain extent, a guide to the best method of propagation, though no absolute rule can be given. Trees with opposite branches, like the horse-chestnut, ash, pine, &c., are often difficult to raise from cuttings, and handsome, symmetrical plants can only be obtained from seed; moreover, they grow very quickly from seed. It may be useful to indicate some of the principal genera usually raised from seed in nurseries, but it should be observed that rare species of wlimh no seed can be obtained, as well as varieties, are usually worked on the commoner species:—Sycamore and maple, birch, alder, beech, oak, sweet chestnut, horse-chestnut, pines, and other symmetrical branching conifers, thorns, common holly, ash, laburnum, Rhododendron ponticum, yew, false acacia, mountain ash, sweet brier, walnut, &c. The following are chiefly raised from cuttings:—Elders, poplars, privets, willows, box in variety, Euonymus, common laurel, Aucuba, ivies, planes, tulip tree, Ribes, Tamarix, &c. A large number of species are propagated from suckers and layers; among them the elm, lime, some Thujas, Rerberis, lilacs, laurustinus, Portugal laurel, Phillyrea, Philadelphus, Spireea, Dier-villa, and most American plants. Many climbers and trailers root freely at every joint if permitted to run on the ground. Such are some of the honeysuckles, ivies, vincas, Wistaria, Virginian creepers, and Cotoneaster. Most of the bushy conifers are easily propagated from cuttings in a cold frame, kept pretty free from damp; the genera Biota, Thuja, Cupressus, Retinospora, Thujopsis, and Juniperus (some species) are commonly raised in this way. Early autumn is the best season for putting in conifer cuttings; well-ripened wood should be chosen, and a slight heel left to each cutting. The cutting pots should have a layer of clean silver sand at the top, of sufficient thickness to allow the heel of the cutting to rest upon the underlying compost, which also should contain a good proportion of sand. A fi’ame in a cool steady propagating house is the best place for them, and a very slight bottom-heat is sufficient; but the temperature may be raised to that of a warm greenhouse as they grow. All out-door cuttings should be prepared and put in early in autumn, and they should be pushed down again in the spring, as the frosts often draw them up more or less. Layering and seed sowing should be done in early spring. The directions given under fruit-trees respecting budding and grafting, apply equally to ornamental trees and shrubs. Varieties of ash, maple, lime, laburnum, willow, elm, thorn, privet, almond, peach, and various species of Prunus and Pyrus succeed best from buds; whilst those of beech, oak, holly, birch, alder, are usually grafted, though some of them may be propagated both ways. Inarching or grafting by approach is practised for some subjects with hard slender twigs; and the young wood of some hard-wooded things is used for grafting in a slight heat. I. MISCELLANEOUS TREES AND SHRUBS. For the sake of convenience woody vegetation is divided into trees and shrubs, though in natureHARDY ARBOREAL AND SHRUBBY PLANTS. 637 no such distinctions exist, for under different climatal and other conditions the same species may vary in size and habit from a dwarf straggling bush to a tall tree. In practical language shrubs include all low woody plants of bushy, climbing, trailing, or twining habit, and those of larger dimensions that naturally branch out from the base. Many of these are occasionally seen with a single stem, or are artificially reduced to one stem, thus forming miniature trees; and numerous species of large stature in their native countries, notably conifers, are only known in cultivation as shrubs, or rarely attain the size and habit of a tree, and therefore in the following enumeration they are classed as shrubs. For the same reason a few are repeated under different headings. From the foregoing remarks it will be understood that the heights given in the brief descriptions below are merely approximations, as size depends so much upon soil and situation. The term “hardy” is here employed in its widest sense, and includes many species that will only bear the winters of the milder parts of the south and west maritime counties of the United Kingdom. Except under those familiarly known as perfectly hardy, some indication of its relative hardiness is given under each species, and some general remarks on this subject will be found a little further on. The terms “ small ” and “ large ” as applied to leaves and flowers are comparative in relation to species of the same genus, and in a more general maimer they compare with the same organs of common native or cultivated species. Thus leaves larger than those of the oak or lime are described as rather large or very large, and the leaf of the box may be considered as a typical small leaf. Technical terms have been avoided as much as possible. It may be here explained that a digitate leaf is divided into separate segments in a radiate manner like those of the horse-chestnut; and the ash furnishes a good example of a pinnate leaf. These distinctions in foliage are of importance in making a selection for effective planting. The flowers of some plants are conspicuous from their size, those of others from their number, and those of others again from the brilliancy of their colouring, though they may be small; hence there is very great difficulty in instituting comparisons, and the reader must be guided by the commendatory terms employed. To know the native country of a plant is to know something of its constitution, hence it is given under each genus or species; and a person intending to plant should consider the climate of his neighbourhood. Exotic trees and shrubs, hardy in the United Kingdom, are almost exclusively from different regions of the temperate zone of the northern hemisphere, very few being contributed by the southern parts of South America, and fewer still by New Zealand and Australia. With few exceptions, mentioned in the descriptions, New Zealand and South American species are only suitable for planting in the south-west of England, and the same may be said of many Japanese and Chinese species. Again, most of the maritime shrubs of south-western Europe succeed best in similar situations in Britain; therefore the number available for the colder parts of the kingdom is much more restricted, and very many of those ordinarily grown require protection in winter. For small gardens and permanent plantations none but perfectly hardy species should be selected, or a severe winter may kill them off and cause much disappointment. Even the common laurel should be cautiously adopted for permanent hedges, screens, &c., because it is liable to be cut to the ground in most places when we get an unusually severe season. But, as already observed, the local conditions of soil, subsoil, elevation, degree of humidity, &c., should govern the choice. Plants that will withstand the frost in an open elevated situation on a light or poor soil, are often very much injured in rich alluvial, warm, humid valleys, where they grow more luxuriantly, but do not ripen their wood. Before making a selection for any particular place, it is advisable to look about and see what kind of trees and shrubs flourish best in the immediate neighbourhood. Another point for consideration is the necessity or not of introducing shelter or nurse plants. In some localities it is impossible to dispense with them; and in others the soil may be a stiff clay in which very few trees besides poplars will thrive. As a protection from wind few subjects are better than the Austrian pine (Pinus austriaca). In a separate chapter on seaside planting some useful hints will be found respecting trees and shrubs that will bear the winds with impunity. In exposed situations it is necessary to plant thickly for mutual protection, and afterwards thin out by degrees, according as more space is required by those intended to form the permanent plantation. Species specially suitable for shelter are not numerous, but we may name for hedges the whitethorn, holly and furze/ and on rather heavy soils especially, many of the arbor vibes, such as Thuja occidentalis and gigafc tea (Lobbii of nurseries), and the Portugal laurel are very useful. Hornbeam, again, forms a capital deciduous hedge and shelter. Common laurel is liable to be injured by severe frosts, and harbours vermin to a great extent; nevertheless it is an indispensable shrub, and the Caucasian variety is638 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. handsomer and hardier than the common form. In certain places nothing is so appropriate as the yew, but it should be remembered that it is an exceedingly slow-growing tree. Few shrubs will grow under the beech, and in pine or fir plantations; but the following species will succeed in the shade or partial shade of most other trees, those first mentioned being the best adapted for the purpose:—Ivy, periwinkle, Hypericum calycinum, yew, Gaultheria Shallon, Rus-cus, box, snowberry, hedge-maple, hazel, Berberis Aquifolium, Daphne Laureola and other species, Ribes, elder, privet, broom, different varieties of the rhododendron, holly, laurel, laurustinus, &c. For planting near roadsides in dusty places, smooth small-leaved species should be used, both of the deciduous and evergreen classes. Hollies, laurustinus, box, aucubas, Phillyrea, holm oak, Euonymus, Ligustrum latifolium, and some of the smaller conifers are excellent subjects for this purpose, especially for the fore-court gardens of villas on the outskirts of towns. Among deciduous species lilacs, laburnums, almonds, and thorns may be recommended. Amongst the hardiest and freest growing climbers for towns the ivy, Virginian creeper, TTi’s-taria, Forsythia suepensa, and the common jasmine are rapid growing plants, adapted for covering large wall spaces; and for smaller spaces Escallonia macrantha, Cotoneaster microphylla, and Crataegus Pyracantha may be used. Lycium barbarum and other species will grow in narrow courts and back gardens where scarcely anything else will live. For general purposes it may be useful to indicate a few species of each class of trees and shrubs. Among small or moderately large evergreen trees are the evergreen or holm oak, Portugal laurel, Arbutus Unedo, and common holly; with sweet bay and Magnolia grandifiora for mild localities. To these might be added a large number of conifers, but the reader can consult the descriptive list given further on. Some of the best, however, of the hardier species of large dimensions are the cedar of Lebanon, deodar, yew, red cedar, pinaster, Austrian pine, Pinus excelsa and Benthami-ana, PiceaPinsapo and Nordmanniana, Sequoia or Wellingtonia, Araucaria, spruce fir and silver fir. Deciduous trees may be divided into two sections, with or without conspicuous flowers. The latter constitute the great bulk, the following being the principal trees with ornamental flowers: —Common and scarlet horse-chestnuts, Robinia Pseud-acacia, tulip tree, lime, Ilalesia tetraptera, Pyrus spectabilis, Catalpa, mountain ash, Pyrus Aria, various species and varieties of Crataegus, laburnum, Prunus (including the almond and peach), and Amelanchier. A few are very handsome when in fruit, as the mountain ash, Acer rubrum, Crataegus coccinea, Viburnum Lantana, varieties of Prunus cerasifera, &c. Deciduous trees with variegated or coloured foliage are very elfective if judiciously selected; but they should be sparingly planted. The purple beech, purple sycamore, abele, variegated sweet chestnut, ash, elm, Turkey oak, and negundo, are desirable subjects of this class. There are many different varieties in cultivation of unequal merit, and therefore it is always best to select them when in leaf, as the purchaser then has an opportunity of suiting his own taste. The scarlet and yellow barked limes and the gold-barked ash are very striking, especially when young; and some of the cut-leaved varieties are very ornamental, particularly those of the alder, beech, lime, sweet chestnut, elm, and oak, the most desirable forms of which are indicated under each genus. Of weeping trees, willows, elms, poplars, Sophora, ash, beech, and birch furnish the most graceful and robust varieties. Shrubs of all classes are so very numerous that we must limit ourselves to a few general remarks and indications, referring the reader to the lists for further information. Among evergreen erect shrubs the genera Biota, Thuja, Cupressus, Juni-perus, Retinospora, Taxus, Pinus, and A bies (pigmy varieties) in conifers, afford a great choice; and Aucuba, Berberis, Buxus, Cerasus, Cotoneaster, Euonymus, Ilex, and Ligustrum will make up a good variety. Evergreen shrubs with conspicuous flowers belong chiefly to the “American” class treated of in a separate section, which the reader should consult. A few others may be selected from the genera Berberis, Cistus, Ceanothus, Escallonia, Spartmm, and Viburnum. The principal genera of deciduous flowering shrubs are:— Caragana, Cytisus, Deutzia, Diervilla (Weigela), Forsythia, Genista, Hibiscus, Hydrangea, Magnolia, Philadelphus, Ribes, Rosa, Spiraea, and Syringa. Hardy Deciduous Trees. Acer.—Round-headed trees of moderate or large dimensions, with palmately-lobed leaves, and inconspicuous flowers. The common maple and sycamore are familiar examples. Many of the species have brilliantly coloured foliage in autumn. A. campestre, common maple.—A small tree with corky bark and trilobed leaves. "Will grow under the shade of other trees. Europe. A. circinatum.—A medium-sized tree with roundish leaves, downy beneath, cut into about seven shallow lobes. North-west America; introduced in 1826. A. colchicum.—See A. pictum. A. dasycarpum—syn. A. eriocarpum, silver maple.HARDY ARBOREAL AND SHRUBBY PLANTS. 639 —A very fine ornamental tree, 30 to 40 feet high. North America, 1725. A. meterophyllum.—A lofty growing tree,50 to 70 feet, with leaves nearly a foot in diameter. It is of very rapid growth, elegant in aspect, and quite hardy. Northwest America, 1826. A. monspessulanum, Montpellier maple.—A low tree with small three-lobed leaves. In our climate it rarely grows beyond the size of a large bush. South Europe, 1739. A. platanoides, Norway maple.—A handsome hardy tree, 50 to 60 feet, with foliage resembling the plane. A rapid growing and very handsome tree. There are several good varieties of this species, including the eagle’s-claw or hawk’s-foot maple, A. platanoides lacini-atum, which is curious and interesting. A. cucullatum and Lobelii, the latter a handsome fastigiate form, belong here, and there is also a variety, albo-variegatum, having the leaves variegated with white. Europe, 1683. A. Pseudo-PlatanuS) common sycamore.—Europe and Central Asia. A valuable ornamental tree, 40 to 60 feet, succeeding well near the sea. The varieties are numei*-ous. A. P. flavo- variegatum (lutescens), called the Corstorphine plane, has the leaves elegantly variegated with yellow; purpurascens has the leaves rich purple beneath; and erythrocarpum has red keys. A. pennsylvanicum-—syn. A. striatum, snake maple.— A small, slender tree, 20 feet, the trunk prettily striped with dark and light lines. North America, 1755. A. polymorphum.—Shrub, 12 to 15 feet. Japan, 1855. Under this name are included many of the beautiful Japanese maples, as palmatum, dissect um, septemlobum, and the numerous exceedingly elegant variegated forms. Hardy in the most favoured localities only. A. p id inn—syn. A. leetum.—A handsome variable tree having a wide range in temperate Asia; it is usually seen under the name of A. colchicum. The variety ru-brum has the le.aves tinged with bright red. A. rubrwph red maple.—A small tree with scarlet or crimson flowers and red keys, the extremities of the branches deeply tinged with red in early spring, very ornamental. North America, 1656. A. tataricum — syn. A. cordifolium. — A shrubby species with oblong-cordate leaves, paniculate flowers, and red keys. South-east Europe and Caucasus, 1759. A. saccharin urn, sugar maple, or bird’s-eye maple.— A tree from 30 to 80 feet high. North America, 1735. .Esculus.—Noble trees or small shrubs with digitately divided leaves, usually conspicuous flowers, and smooth or prickly seed-vessels. It includes Pavia. Besides the following there are other less ornamental species. jE. ccilijornica. —The handsomest of the North American species, 12 to 15 feet high; flowers white, very fragrant, produced in great profusion. 1857. uE. Hippocastanum, horse-chestnut.—There is a very fine double-flowered variety, and several others, none of the latter being superior to the type. Asia Minor, 1629. jE. indica, also from Asia, but still very rare in gardens.—Flowers yellow and red, and even more showy than in the common horse-chestnut; seed-vessel smooth. jE. Pavia—syn. Pavia rubra, red buckeye.—A small slender tree, with smaller red flowers. Virginia, 1711. The variety humilis is of straggling shrubby habit, and laciniata has the leaves sharply toothed. jE. rubicunda— syn. JE. rubra, coccinea, scarlet-flowered horse-chestnut.—This handsome tree is re- markable for its spherical head. It is believed to be of garden origin. Ailantus glandulosa, tree of heaven.—A tall rapid growing tree, with ample pinnate leaves, and inconspicuous flowers, which are heavy-scented, and said to have an unhealthy influence. North China, 1751. It thrives well in sheltered localities near the sea, but young sappy shoots are often injured by frost in low situations. The food tree of the Japanese silkworm. Alnus.—The alders, a genus of trees useful for planting in wet situations. A. glutinosa, common alder.—Some of the varieties are very beautiful; aurea has golden, and rubronervia reddish foliage, and the leaves of imperialis are elegantly cut. There are several others with variously cut foliage, as quercifolia, laciniata, &c., but imperialis is the best. Fig. 355. A. cordifolia.—A very ornamental tree, about 20 to 30 feet high, with heart-shaped, nearly smooth leaves, giving it the aspect of a poplar. South of Europe, 1820. Amygdalus.—The peach, almond, and allied species are amongst the most showy of spring flowering trees. A. communis, almond.—A small Asiatic tree, introduced in 1538. Its showy rose-pink flowers, produced before the leaves, recommend it for every collection. A. Persica, peach.—An elegant spring flowering shrub and so hardy as to withstand the easterly winds. There640 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. are many fine double-flowered varieties, as scarlet, pink, crimson, and striped. Betola.—The birches are picturesque and graceful trees, especially the weeping forms. B. alba, common birch.—The variety pendula is one of the most desirable of weeping trees, and laciniata has deeply cut leaves. The best and most elegant of the weeping forms is called Youngii. (Fig. 355.) B. papyracea, paper birch.—A North American species introduced in 1750; of larger size than the preceding, but not otherwise superior. In Canada the bark is employed for making canoes. Bkoussonetia papyrifera, paper mulberry.—A small tree resembling the common mulberry, but its flowers are dicecious, and the males grow in cylindrical drooping catkins. Japan, 1751. There are some slight varieties. Caupinus Betulus, hornbeam. — This native tree greatly resembles the beech in general appearance, but it does not grow to so large a size, rarely exceeding 30 or 40 feet, and it has opaque rough leaves. It bears clipping well, and is frequently used for forming dense hedges. Carta.—The hickories form an exclusively North American genus of trees, with pinnate leaves and inconspicuous flowers. They are closely allied to the walnuts, but the husk of the fruit splits into four regular valves. These elegant trees deserve to be more generally planted than they have been hitherto. They should be planted young as they are impatient of removal. There are several species, but the following are the hardiest:— C. amara, bitter nut or swamp hickory.—A fine tree, about 50 feet high, introduced in 1800. C. alba, shell-bark hickory.—A handsome tree, 80 feet high, with leaves about 18 inches long. 1629. C. olivceformis, pecan nut.—Similar to the last, but the nuts of this are described as delicious. 1766. Castanea vesca, sweet chestnut.—This is one of the largest and most stately of our hardy deciduous trees. It is supposed to have come originally from Asia Minor. There are several varieties, among the best is aureo-variegata, witli golden-edged foliage. Catalpa bignonioides—syn. C. syringicefolia, Indian bean.—A handsome small tree with large heart-shaped leaves, and terminal panicles of white flowers, tinged with violet and speckled with purple and yellow, produced in summer. There is a striking variety, aurea, with handsome golden foliage. Southern States of North America, 1726. C. Bungei is a native of China recently introduced. Celtis.—Moderately large trees of pleasing habit. Leaves small, strongly nerved; flowers small, greenish. Allied to the elms. C. australis, nettle tree or tree lotus.—About 30 feet high. South Europe, 1796. C. occidentalis.—An exceedingly variable North American species, including the forms grown under the following names:— crassifolia, pumila, and Audibertiana. Ceuasus.—The double-flowered cherry, C. vulgaris flore pleno, is an extremely attractive tree when laden with its pure white blossoms in May. C. Malialeb, a species much used for stocks, has fragrant flowers, and is of elegant habit. C. semperJlorens is remarkable for its long flowering season, from May onwards; it is a small round-headed tree, and very ornamental as a single specimen; usually grafted or budded on stems of the common cherry; native country uncertain. For other species sometimes referred to this genus, see Prunes. Cercis. — Small irregularly branching trees, with heart-shaped or kidney shaped leaves, and clustered reddish purple, rose, or white flowers. C. Siliquastrum, Judas tree.—About 20 feet high; flowers rosy purple, produced in spring before the leaves are fully developed. There is also a white-flowered variety. Western Asia, 1596. C. canadensis.—A smaller tree than the last, with more pointed leaves, and fewer pale rose flowers. North America, 1730. C. ckinensis—syn. C. japonica.—In foliage this resembles the last, but the rosy-pink flowers are larger, very abundant, and produced all along the branches in spring before the appearance of the leaves. Cladrastis.—Small trees, with unequally pinnate leaves, and showy white or yellowish pea-shaped flowers. G. lutea—syn. Virgilia lutea, V. tinctoria, yellow wood.—Flowers white. North America, 1812. C. amurensis—syn. Maackia amurensis.—A recently introduced species from the Amoor district, still rare in gardens. Cornus.—Small trees, with rather showy yellow or white flowers, and simple leaves. C. mas, cornelian cherry.—A small tree, native of Europe. Flowers small, yellow, produced in w inter or early spring before the leaves. There is a handsome variety variegated with white. C. florida.—A very ornamental little tree, with large white flowers surrounded by a conspicuous white involucre; berries scarlet. North America, 1731. Cotoneaster.—In addition to the familiar evergreen species there are two or three handsome deciduous trees belonging to this genus. C. affinis.—A small tree with lanceolate leaves, cymose flowers, and scarlet berries. C. frigida.—Similar to the last, but having still more showy clusters of fruit. It retains its leaves till late in the season and some, as well as the fruit, remain during winter. Both are from the mountains of North India, 1824. Crat.egcs.—Trees of small or moderate dimensions, with showy flowers, succeeded in some species by handsome berries. There are many other species besides those enumerated below. See also under Hardy Evergreen Shrubs. C. coccinea.—Foliage relatively large; flowers white; fruits large, bright red. North America, 1683. C. Crus-galli, cock’s spur thorn.—Flowers large white; fruits bright red, showy. There are several varieties under different names, as ovalifolia, pyracanthifolia, laurifolia, and splendens. North America, 1691. C. Oxyacantha, hawthorn or whitethorn.—The varieties of this hardy native tree are exceedingly numerous. We need only mention the double-white, doublepink, and double - scarlet, the single-scarlet flowered, Gumperii, and others, as effective in plantations in spring. There is an elegant pendulous and also a fasti-giate variety. Diospyrus. —Low trees, with simple leaves, and inconspicuous flowers. The species are only suitable for the south and south-west. D. Lotus, date plum.—A tree 20 feet high, with dark glossy green leaves. Caucasus, &c., 1596. D. virginiana, persimmon.—A tree 20 to 30 feet high; leaves green, glossy. Bears an edible fruit greatly esteemed in North America.HARDY ARBOREAL AND SHRUBBY PLANTS. 641 Eljsagnus.—Small trees, remarkable for the elegant scales clothing their simple lanceolate leaves. E. angustifolia—syn. E. hortensis, oleaster.—A desirable ornamental tree, with small, clustered, fragrant, yellow flowers, produced in May. South Europe, 1633. Fagus sylvatica, beech.—Besides the ordinary form of this noble tree, there are several striking varieties worth growing. The principal ones are F. s. purpurea, with deep purple foliage, not to be confounded with cupreci, which is of a less pleasing coppery tint; aureo-varicgata and argenteo-variegata, gold-striped and silver-striped; heterophylla (incisa, aspleniifolia), with elegantly cut foliage; and finally, pendula, the weeping form of the type (Fig. 356) and purpurea pendula. Fortun.ea chinensis.—An elegant, small, hardy tree of the walnut tribe, having pinnate leaves, and small flowers in dense spikes or cones. North China, 1844. Fraxinus, ash.—All the species have pinnate leaves and key fruits. There are several from North America and Japan, but they do not excel our native ash in beauty. F. Ornus—syn. Ornus europceus, flowering ash.— This is remarkable for its dense pendulous clusters of white flowers in spring. South Europe, 1730. F. excelsior, common ash.—The best varieties are the gold-barked (aurea), the gold and silver striped and blotched, and the weeping (pendula). The variety monophylla has most of the leaves reduced to a single leaflet, laciniata has much divided leaflets, and crispa has dark green curled foliage. F. lentiscifolia.—A native of Asia Minor, introduced in 1710. Leaflets long and slender. The variety pendula is an elegant weeping tree. Gleditschia.—Symmetrical trees with pinnate or bipinnate leaves, without an odd terminal leaflet; flowers small, greenish white. These trees are mostly armed with simple or branched, often very formidable spines. G. triacanthos, honey locust.—A handsome, hardy tree, 50 to 80 feet high; thorns trifid; seed-pods long, thin, twisted, and pendent. There is a variety pendula, and also a thornless variety called inermis. North America, 1700. Gymnocladus canadensis, Kentucky coffee tree.— Allied to Gleditschia, and of very singular habit. It has a very bare appearance in winter, the branches being few and thick, but in summer is singularly effective, from the size and elegance of its leaves. Height 50 to 60 feet. Canada, 1748. Halesia tetraptera, snowdrop tree.—A small tree 20 to 30 feet high, with simple leaves, white flowers in May, and four-winged seed-vessels. Very ornamental, and perfectly hardy. Carolina, 1756. H. parviflora and diptera are less desirable species. Idesia polycarpa—syn. Polycarpa Maximowiczii.—A tree of considerable size, with large cordate leaves, and terminal panicles of small flowers, succeeded by clusters of purplish-black berries. Japan, 1869; still rare in gardens. Juglans.—The walnut genus consists of handsome bold-habited trees, with pinnate leaves. J. regia, common walnut.—A well-known fruit-bearing tree, 70 to 80 feet. AVestern Asia, about 1650. Among the ornamental varieties laciniata is one of the best. J. nigra.—Of less spreading habit than the preceding, attaining a height of 60 to 100 feet. North America, 1656. A rapid-growing tree. Kcelreuteria paniculata.—A small tree of irregular growth, with unequally pinnate leaves, yellow flowers in large terminal panicles, and bladdery seed-vessels. A desirable ornamental tree, flowering during the summer. North China, 1763. Laburnum vulgare.—The common laburnum (now separated from Cytisus) is a small universally admired European tree, bearing a profusion of drooping racemes of yellow flowers in May. L. alpinum, which has larger flowers in June, is called Scotch laburnum. Laurus Sassafras—syn. Sassafras officinale.—A tree from 40 to 50 feet high, with entire or tliree-lobed leaves, which change to a brilliant red and yellow in autumn. Flowers small, greenish-yellow, slightly fragrant. North America, 1633. Liquidambar.—Elegant, small, aromatic trees of pyramidal outline, resembling the maples in their leaves, which, however, are alternate and not opposite as in the latter. Flowers inconspicuous. L. styracifiua.—This is the species commonly seen. The leaves assume very brilliant tints in autumn. North America, 1681. L. imberbe— syn. L. orientalis.—Rather smaller than the last, with the central division of the leaf usually three-lobed. Levant, 1759. Liriodendron tulipifera, tulip tree.—This handsome tree is readily known by its saddle-sliaped leaves, and tulip-like yellow flowers borne singly at the ends of the branches in June or July. It attains a height of 150 feet in its native country, North America, and as much as 100 feet in England, where it grows very fast. 1688. Maackia.—See Cladrastis. Maclura aurantiaca, Osage orange.—A small tree of the mulberry family, almost too tender for our climate, and which appears never to have produced its handsome orange-coloured fruit with us. North America, 1818. Magnolia.—The deciduous arborescent species of this genus have usually less conspicuous flowers than the others, but they form exceedingly handsome pyramidal heads, which give a peculiar character to a landscape. M. tripetala—syn. M. Umbrella.—About 20 to 30 feet high, with lanceolate leaves a foot long, and large white, unpleasantly-smelling flowers. North America, 1752. M. macrophylla.—Leaves 2 to 3 feet long, auricled at the base. Flowers white, with a purple spot; fragrant. North America, 1800. I M. acuminata, cucumber-tree.—This reaches a height 41642 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. of 60 to 80 feet. Leaves pointed, from 6 to 12 inches long. One of the hardiest of the magnolias. North America, 1736. Melia japonica, which is probably only a variety of M. Azedarach, is a small tree, with elegant compound pinnate leaves, and large panicles of fragrant lilac flowers. It is described in nursery catalogues as hardy, but it is doubtful whether it will withstand our severest winters, even in the south-west. Japan, 1865. Mespilus lobcita—syn. M. Smithii, M. grandiflora.— A very ornamental small round-headed tree, 15 to 20 feet high, with large white, solitary flowers in May or June. It is believed to be of hybrid origin. Morus.—From the peculiar dwarf spreading habit of some of this genus they are worth planting for ornamental purposes alone. M. nigra, common mulberry.—A round-headed tree of slow growth, with deep green cordate leaves. Western Asia, 1548. M. rubra.—A much taller growing species, 50 to 70 feet, of peculiar habit; leaves rough on both surfaces. It is impatient of transplantation, but of rapid growth when well established. North America, 1629. AT. alba,—This is very similar to the common mulberry, but has slenderer, white-barked branches. The varieties are numerous, but not often met -with in this country. China, 1596. It is on the leaves of this species that the silkworm is fed. Negundo fraxinifolium—syn. Acer Kegundo, box-elder.—A small, very hardy tree, differing from the true maples in having pinnate leaves. There is an extremely beautiful variegated variety of this, the foliage of which is almost white. It is, perhaps, one of the best variegated trees we have, and is often grown in the shrubby form. North America, 1688. Nyssa.—A North American genus of handsome trees, belonging to the Cornus family, with small flowers in dense heads, and simple alternate leaves. N. multiflora and N. uniflora are occasionally seen in this country. In North America they bear the names of tupelo, pep-peridge, sour gum-tree, &c. 1824. Ostrya vulgaris, liop-hornbeam.—Very near the common hornbeam in foliage, but of more pendulous habit. It is very ornamental when laden with its drooping hop-like, female catkins. Italy, 1720. O. rirginica closely resembles this, except that its female catkins are erect. Southern Europe, 1724. Parrotia persica.—A handsome, hardy, small tree, still very rare in gardens. Its yellowish flowers are not particularly showy, but its oblong simple leaves are very striking when they assume their brilliant autumnal tints of orange and scarlet. Northern Persia, 1848. Paulownia imperialis.—A distinct, hardy tree, about 40 feet high, with very large cordate leaves, and terminal panicles of purplish - violet spotted fragrant flowers, which rarely expand in this country, as they are formed in the autumn, and are usually injured by the winter frosts. It is rather tender for most situations. Japan, 1840. Pavia. See AIsculus. Tlanera Richardi—syn. Zclkova crenata.—A very ornamental tree about 50 to 60 feet high, resembling an elm in foliage, but with a smooth bark, and a much branched crown like an erect-growing beech. Western Asia, 1760. Tlatanus. — Planes are unsurpassed by any other trees in grandeur and beauty, and are amongst the best for town planting, where they would succeed even better if occasionally well watered in dry seasons. P. m'ientalis.—This is the best species. It has very widely spreading branches, and deeply five-lobed leaves. Western Asia, 1548. P. accrifolia.—This is believed to be a variety of the foregoing, from which it differs in its more erect habit, and less divided leaves. P. occidentalis.—This is not so hardy as the preceding. Leaves with broad open sinuses; fruiting catkins usually solitary. North America, 1636. Populus.—Fast-growing, lofty trees, valuable for planting in stiff clays and in wet places, where scarcely anything else will succeed, especially P. nigra. P. alba, abele.—Leaves silvery beneath. Succeeds well on the borders of streams, in which situation it attains 100 feet in height. There are several varieties, differing in the shape of the leaves, and the density and colour of the tomentum. Europe. P. angulata, Carolina poplar.—One of the most ornamental and desirable, on account of its ample leaves, which are from 6 to 9 inches long. Virginia, 1738. P. balsamifera, balsam poplar.—The leaves expand very early, and are of a fine yellow green; the buds covered with a fragrant resin. Rather subject to canker in some districts, but nevertheless a valuable tree for moist situations. North America, 1692. P. suareolens and P. eandicans (cordifolia) are varieties of the balsam poplar. P. fastigiata—syn. P. pyramidalis, Lombardy poplar. —This popular tree, which is remarkable for its slender, erect, lofty form, is supposed to be a variety of P. nigra. P. grandidentata.—Leaves large, coarsely toothed. A weeping variety is the commoner form in gardens, and is very elegant. North America, 1772. P. monilifera—syn. P. acladesca, P. canadensis, &c., necklace poplar.—This has very long female catkins. Canada, 1769. P. nigra, black Italian poplar.—A rapid growing tree, from 50 to 80 feet high, doing well in most situations. Its leaves expand late. P. tremula, aspen.—There is a variety pcndula, and both it and the type are trees of elegant habit. Prunes Padus, bird-cherry. — An indigeuous tree 20 to 30 feet high, which has the habit of sending up masses of shoots from the roots, these needing to be restrained in order to preserve the tree form. It bears in May long racemes of white flowers, which are very ornamental, but of short duration. P. virginiana is a similar tree, of more slender habit. Ftelea trifoliata, hop-tree.—A small tree, 10 to 15 feet high, with trifoliate leaves and clustered greenish flowers, followed by winged seed-vessels. The leaves and fruit, when bruised, emit a strong odour of hops, whence the popular name. North America, 1704. There is a variety with variegated foliage. Pterocarya caucasica—syn. P. fraxinifolia,—A very ornamental tree, of moderate dimensions, belonging to the walnut tribe. It has pinnate leaves, and the small flowers are borne in catkins, and succeeded by winged seed-vessels. In low, humid situations, and in a rich soil, it does not sufficiently ripen its wood to withstand the frosts, and the tips of the branches are ofteu injured, like those of Ailantus glandulosa. Caucasus, 1782. Tyres.—Small or medium-sized trees, many of themHARDY ARBOREAL AND SHRUBBY PLANTS. 643 desirable on account of the ornamental character of their fruits. P. Aria, white-beam tree.—Leaves divided, densely woolly and silvery beneath; fruit bright red, very ornamental. Very variable in the lobing of the leaf. Indigenous. P. Aucuparia, mountain ash or rowan-tree.—A good subject for exposed situations. It has pinnate leaves, and its bright red bunches of fruit are very striking. Indigenous. P. baccata, including P. cerasifera, cherry-crab.— There are several extremely pretty varieties of these miniature crab-trees, which are very ornamental when in fruit. Northern China, Siberia, &c., 1758. P. pruni- Fig. 357. folia, Siberian crab, and P. astracanica and P. baccata appear to be varieties of one species. P. coronaria, American crab.—A very profuse-blooming, fragrant, large-flowered tree, 15 to 20 feet high. Desirable, as it comes into bloom after most springflowering trees are over. 1724. P. Sorbus—syn. P. domestica, true service.—Resembles the mountain ash, but the fruit is much larger, brownish, and ovate or pear-shaped. Europe. P. spectabilis, Chinese crab.—A beautiful flowering tree, about 20 to 30 feet high. China, 1780. This, with its varieties floribunda and alba plena, are among the handsomest of this section. The variety floribunda, called Malus floribunda in gardens (Fig. 357), is one of the most brilliant of early-flowering trees, especially attractive just as the crimson buds are bursting. P. torminalis, wild service.—A tree 40 to 50 feet high, resembling the white-beam, but not woolly. Quercus.—Hardy deciduous oaks, especially from North America, are very numerous; we can enumerate a few of the best only. Q. jEgilops, Valonia oak.—A relatively small but very elegant hardy tree, bearing very large acorns. Southern Europe, 1731. Q. Cerris, Turkey oak.—A symmetrical and rapid-growing handsome tree of the largest dimensions. The varieties of this species are numerous and widely different, one set, designated subpercnnis, being nearly evergreen. This includes Lucombeana and fidhamensis. Other varieties are laciniata, with lacerated leaves, and albo-variegata, an attractive tree with variegated foliage. Southern Europe, &c., 1735. Q. coccinea, scarlet oak.—A fast-growing, tall tree, of pyramidal outline. Leaves nearly a foot in length, of elegant form, and changing to a brilliant scarlet in autumn. North America, 1691. Q. Robur, common oak.—The extreme forms of this species have been named respectively pedunculata and sessilifiora, having stalked or stalkless acorns; but intermediate varieties exist. One of the most striking ornamental varieties is fastigiata, exactly like the Lombardy poplar in habit of growth. Among others we may mention pendida, variegata, lieterophylla, and picta, sufficiently characterized by their names. Q. Concordia, the golden oak, is also an extremely ornamental plant; as is nigra, a form with blackish purple leaves. Rhus typliina, stag’s-horn sumach.—A small tree, 10 to 20 feet high, with thick, ■woolly shoots, and long, pinnate leaves; this will flourish near the sea. North America, 1629. Robinia.—Thorny trees, with unequally pinnate leaves, and racemose, white, rose, or pink flowers. They are fast-growing, sparsely branched, and shallow rooting. R. Pseud-Acacia, false acacia, or locust-tree.—An exceedingly variable tree, both in habit and foliage. Its branches are very brittle. Among the best varieties are—inermis, thornless, dwarfish, and round-headed; Bessoniana, of free bold habit, with thornless branches; Decaisneana, with bright rosy-pink flowers; nionopliylla, leaves reduced to a single leaflet; and pyramidalis, of close, erect, columnar habit. North America, 1646. R. viscosa, rose acacia.—A smaller tree, with clammy shoots and rose-pink flowers. North America, 1797. Salix.—The willows are valuable for planting in wet places, are very tenacious of life, and will grow in soil of almost any description, and under conditions that few other trees would survive. They include some of the most graceful of weeping trees. Where not stated otherwise, they are indigenous. S. alba.—A large tree, 60 to 80 feet high. S. caprea, goat or sallow willow.—A small tree with broader, rougher foliage than most species. It grows in a saline atmosphere better than most other plants. The variety pendula is the Kilmarnock weeping willow. S. fragilis, crack willow.—A tall tree, 60 to 90 feet high, with narrow, glossy leaves. S. pendula—syn. S. babylonica.—This is the old weeping willow, believed to have come originally from China. S. pentandra, bay willow.—About 20 feet high, with broad, smooth, shining leaves. Flowers later than any other British species. S. purpurea, purple osier.—A small tree or shrub,GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. G44 with reddish or purple bark. The “ American” weeping willow of nurseries belongs to this species. S. vitellina, golden osier.—A yellow barked variety of S. alba. Sambucus nigra, elder.—This is oftener grown in the form of a shrub. It succeeds well on a chalky soil, and withstands the smoky atmosphere of towns. The variety laciniata has deeply-cut leaves, and there is also aurea, a fine golden-leaved variety. S. raccmosa.~This species is the most deserving of a place in a shrubbery, its foliage being much less coarse than the common variety. Southern Europe, 1506. Sophora japonica.—A fine spreading tree, growing from 40 to 50 feet high. Leaves dark green, pinnate; flowers dirty white. Japan, 1763. The variety pendula (Fig. 358) is an exceedingly beautiful example of the weeping class. Tilia.—Limes are usually tall trees, of close habit. Fig. 35S. Sophora jaionica pendula. Leaves cordate, flowers fragrant, in small cymes grown to a leafy bract. The varieties in cultivation are very numerous. T. amcricana.—This includes the names canadensis, nigra, glabra, &c. There is a fine variety of this with leaves nearly a foot in length. It grows about 60 or 70 feet high. North America, 1752. T. argentea—syn. T. alba (not of Michaux).—This forms a handsome tree, 60 feet or more high, with a grayisli-wliite bark, and leaves silvery beneath. Southeastern Europe, 1767. T. europeea, common lime.—There are several distinct varieties usually associated as races of this species. T. parvifolia is of relatively small stature, with small foliage; T. grandifolia is hu ger in all its parts. The variety corallina or rubra has bright red shoots, and aurea has them of a golden yellow. In addition to the foregoing there are several very large-leaved varieties or species in cultivation, as mand-schurica, vitifolia, hybrida superba, &c. Ulmus.—Although there are not many species of elm in cultivation the varieties are excessively numerous, and very diverse in size, habit, and foliage, and some have corky-barked branches. U. campestris, common elm.—The typical form has smaller leaves than the following, does not form a spreading crown, and very rarely ripens seed. Desirable varieties are Berardi, slender habit and very small foliage; viminalis, still more slender, and forming a very pretty object when grafted on a stem about 5 or 6 feet high; fastigiata, of upright growth; and virens, a sub-evergreen. There are also very pretty variegated varieties, both of the small and large leaved forms. Though common in Britain, this tree is supposed to have been introduced from the continent of Europe. U. montana, wychelm.—Perhaps the tallest of native trees. It has large, spreading branches, and is equally with the preceding prolific in varieties. TJ. plumosa is very vigorous, with large distichous leaves;Jilicifolia has dissected foliage; pendula is a peculiar weeping form; and major, glabra, and stricta, the Cornish elm, probably belong here. Virgilia. See Cladrastis. Xantiioceras sorbifolia.—A handsome, hardy, small sapindaceous tree, introduced from Northern China, 1874. It has pinnate leaves, resembling those of the mountain ash, and white flowers with a purple eye, borne in terminal racemes. Hardy Evergreen Trees. Arbutus.—Small trees or large shrubs, with coriaceous shining leaves, and small white or pink flowers. Some of the hybrid varieties are preferable for planting, as they are hardier than one or other of the parents. A. Andrachnc. This species has laurel-like leaves, and sheds its bark, which gives it a very striking appearance. Asia Minor, 1724. A. hybrida.—Intermediate between the foregoing and A. Uncdo, of which it is supposed to be a hybrid. A. procera.—This is a North-west American species, closely resembling the first, but having large and beautiful glossy leaves, and scarcely so hardy. 1825. A. Uncdo, strawberry-tree.—A handsome evergreen, with oblong-lanceolate serrulated leaves, and strawberry-like fruit in drooping clusters. South-western Europe, including Ireland. Buxus.—Small-leaved, compact-growing trees of small stature in this country; flowers inconspicuous. B. sempervirens, common box.—There are numerous varieties of this native tree, including gold and silver variegated. They are of slow growth, and admirably adapted for small gardens. B. balearica, Minorca box.—This has very thick, shining leaves, about 2 inches long, and in its native country it is said to attain a height of 80 feet. Southern Europe, 1780. Ilex.—The holly genus, consisting of rigid, often prickly-leaved trees, of small dimensions, usually bearing scarlet berries. I.Aquifolium, common holly.—Very prolific in varie-HARDY ARBOREAL AND SHRUBBY PLANTS. 645 gated, almost unarmed, excessively prickly, and other varieties. The variegated sorts rank with the best of their class. See also under Hardy Evergreen Shrubs. I. balcarica—syn. 7. maderensis.—This is probably only a variety of the foregoing, but its broad, almost spineless, light green leaves, render it desirable. Minorca and Madeira, introduced in 1744. 7. latifolia.—An exceedingly ornamental species, with leaves from 6 to 12 inches long; but suitable only for the warmer parts of the kingdom. Japan. Laurus nobilis, sweet bay, or bay laurel.—This assumes the dimensions of a tree in the warmer parts of the kingdom. It is prized for its aromatic leaves of firm texture. Mediterranean region, 1562. Magnolia grandiflora.—A very handsome tree, from 20 to 30 or more feet high, with large, white, fragrant flowers, 6 to 8 inches in diameter. It does best against a wall or building. There are several varieties, which are mentioned under Hardy Evergreen Shrubs. Carolina, 1734. Oreodaphxe californica.—A fine hardy tree from North-western America, introduced by Douglas. It has the aspect of a laurel or sweet bay, and attains a height of 30 to 100 feet in its native country. Prunus lusitanica, Portugal laurel.—This valuable evergreen forms a small tree where it has sufficient space; the same may be said of the common laurel. Their varieties are noted under Hardy Evergreen Shrubs. Quercus Cerris sxdjperennis.—These quasi-evergreen varieties of the Turkey oak have been already briefly mentioned under the head of Hardy Deciduous Trees. Q. Ilex, common evergreen or holm oak.—A very variable species in foliage, scarcely two trees being exactly alike. • A valuable evergreen for the south and west, and for districts adjoining the sea coast. It reaches a height of 20 to 40 feet, but assumes a more shrubby habit in the colder parts of the kingdom. Introduced very early, the exact date being unknown; native of the Mediterranean region. Q. Saber, cork oak.—Also very variable, and closely resembling some forms of the last species, but scarcely so hardy, though trees of considerable size exist in the south of England. Mediterranean region, 1699. Q. virens.— A sub - evergreen variety, probably of hybrid origin, between Q. Ilex and Q. pedunculata. Hardy Deciduous Shrubs. Abelia.—Dwarf branching shrubs, with small opposite leaves, and tubular pink and white flowers; allied to Dicrvilla, but less showy. A. mi flora.—Flowers small, pink, clustered at the ends of the branches, usually three on each main branch of the inflorescence. Northern India, introduced about 1852; scarcely hardy. A. uni flora.—This is a much handsomer species, with larger goblet-shaped pink and white flowers. Northern China, 1844. Acer.—Some of the garden varieties enumerated under their respective species in the list of Hardy Deciduous Trees, belong more properly to this section, especially the somewhat tender variegated, cut-leaved, and other varieties of A. polymorphum (which see). JEsBmjs.—Some of the North American species and varieties of this genus, commonly quoted in nursery catalogues under the name of Pavia, are shrubs; but their flowers are by no means so showy as those of the horse chestnut, and are less abundantly produced. AE. californica—syn. Calothyrsus californica.—The leaves are smaller than in the common horse chestnut, and the fragrant flowers white in very dense thyrses. California, 1858. JE. macrostacliya—syn. Pavia macrostachya, P. edulis, Macrothyrsus discolor. — An elegant slender plant, 4 to 6 feet high, with long racemes of white flowers having long projecting stamens, and produced in July and August, later than those of other kinds. North America, 1820. JE. Pavia.—Of this species the varieties humilis, pendula, laciniata, &c., are all of shrubby habit. Aloysia citriodora—syn. Lippia citriodora, Verbena triphylla, lemon-scented verbena.—This favourite agreeably scented shrub succeeds very well in the south-west, or against a wall in less favourable localities. Chili, 1784. Amelanchier.—Shrubs or miniature trees with small oblong or oval leaves, and racemes of pure white flowers, produced in great profusion in early spring. Fruit similar to that of the hawthorn, black, purple, or red. A. canadensis.—There are several varieties of this species differing slightly in the form of the leaves, size of the flowers, and colour of the fruit. The varieties named Botryapium, ovalis, sanguinea, alnifolia, florida, and floribunda belong here. North America, the first variety introduced in 1746. This is the shad-flower of the Americans. A. vulgaris.—Similar to the last, differing mainly in the narrower sepals and petals. It also comes into bloom rather earlier. Central Europe, 1596. Amorpha fruticosa, bastard indigo.—An elegant shrub, 6 to 9 feet high, with pinnate leaves, and small dark purple flowers; remarkable in having only one petal developed in each flower. There are several slight varieties scarcely superior to the ordinary form; Leivisii has slightly larger flowers of a lighter purple. Flowers in June or July. Carolina, on the banks of rivers, 1724. Amygdalopsis Lindleyi—syn. Prunus triloba.—This is a very ornamental early and free-flowering shrub, suitable for a wall. Its large white or rose-coloured rosette-shaped flowers appear before the leaves. Amygdalus.—The dwarf bushy sj)ecies of the almond genus are exceedingly ornamental in early spring, flowering before the leaves appear. A. communis, almond.—The crimson, pink, and striped double-flowered varieties assume a shrubby form, and being very showy are suitable for covering a wall or trellis. A. nana.—A dwarf shrub from 2 to 4 feet high, with rose-pink flowers appearing in March or April. There are several varieties. A dry warm soil suits them best. Native of the plains of Southern Russia, 1683. A. orientalis.—A taller growing species than A. nana, remarkable for the silvery tomenturn of its foliage; flowers rose-coloured. March and April. Asia Minor, 1756. Arabia.—Prickly shrubs of ornamental aspect, with very large much-divided leaves, and a branching inflorescence of small yellowish or greenish-white flowers. Light moist soil. A. chinensis—syn. Dimorphanthus mandsJmricus.— (Fig. 359.) An effective plant, with simple stems, and very large bipinnate leaves, the stalks and rachides usually very prickly. Northern China, 1865.646 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. A. spinosa, angelica tree.—A shrub with stout simple stems, and very large, tripinnate leaves. It has a distinct and noble appearance. Virginia, 1688. Bambusa.—Although, strictly speaking, not shrubs, this genus of woody-stemmed grasses is introduced here, as some of them are very ornamental, and now pretty generally planted in sheltered situations in the milder parts of the kingdom. B. falcata—syn. Arundinaria falcata.—This is perhaps the hardiest and most suitable for this country. It grows from 10 to 15, or even 20 feet high. Northern India. B. Metake—syn. B.japonica.—A dwarf much-branched species, 4 to 6 feet high, with the leaves dark green, lanceolate; it flowers freely in this country. Japan, 1848. B. vindi-glaucescens.—This is also reported to be quite hardy in the south-west, where it attains a height of 10 to 12 feet. A very beautiful species, with yellowish-green glaucous leaves. Japan. Berberis, berberry.—The deciduous species of this genus are not so ornamental as the evergreen ones, but those named below are worth planting. B. aristata.—This has a general resemblance to the following more familiar species, but the foliage persists nearly all through the winter. It is armed with strong tripartite thorns. Flowers yellow, in pendulous clusters, appearing in May. Northern India, 1820. B. vulgaris, common berberry.—There are several varieties of the berberry in cultivation differing in the colour of the fruit, which is either scarlet, yellow, or white, and in most cases very ornamental. That called purpurea has purple foliage, and is very effective in shrubberies. Calophaca wolgarica.—A dwarf branching shrub about 3 or 4 feet high, with small unequally pinnate leaves, bearing a profusion of yellow papilionaceous flowers in June, succeeded by reddish pods. This is an extremely hardy shrub, and forms a very pretty object when grafted as a standard on stems of the laburnum. Siberia, 1780. Calycanthus.—Large or small aromatic shrubs, with simple leaves, and solitary axillary rosette-shaped fragrant flowers of a lurid red or brown colour. C. floridus, Carolina allspice.—A compact bush, 6 to 8 feet high, producing its dusky flowers in great abundance from May to July. There are several varieties in cultivation, including the following:—asplenifolius, with cut leaves; bullatus, with bladdery leaves; and variegatus, with variegated leaves. Carolina, 1726. C. occidentalis.—This is a much larger growing species, with large ovate-cordate leaves, and larger brighter coloured flowers. A warm sunny situation is necessary to bring this to perfection, for, although hardy, it does not flower freely in a shrubbery. The variety called macrophyllus in nurseries belongs to this species. North America, 1831. Caragana.—Very hardy shrubs or small trees, often spiny, with abruptly - pinnate leaves, and abundant yellow papilionaceous flowers. Often grafted standard high on the laburnum, or on C. arborescens. C. Altagana—syn. C. microphylla.—A dwarf spiny bush, 2 to 4 feet high, flowering from May to July. The flowers of this species are rather large, and usually solitary in the axils of the leaves. Siberia, 1789. C. arborescens. —A tall shrub or small tree, from 10 to 20 feet high. The wood is peculiarly hard and tough. Siberia, 1752. C. Chamlagu.—A spreading shrub, 2 to 4 feet high; flowers yellow, changing to a reddish hue. Northern China, 1773. C. frutescens.—A more robust growing species than the last, 8 to 10 feet high. This is very ornamental when worked as a standard on C. arborescens. Siberia, 1752. C. pygmcea.—A dwarf spreading species, with smaller flowers, the stems bearing trifid spines. Altai Mountains, 1751. Cerasus.—The cherry genus, some species of which are showy ornamental shrubs. See also under Aiiyg-DALUS and Pronos. C. Chamcecerasus.—A dwarf spreading shrub about 3 or 4 feet high, producing an abundance of white flowers in May. Very pretty as a standard on the common cherry. Central Europe and Siberia, 1587. C. japonica.—A slender shrub, 2 to 4 feet high, with pink and white flowers; suitable for a wall. There is a handsome double-flowered variety named multiplex, which also bears the name of Amygdalus pumila. Chimonanthus fragrans—syn. Calycanthus prcecox. —A slender branching shrub with lanceolate leaves, and fragrant yellow and purple rosette flowers, appearing in winter before the leaves begin to unfold. A very desirable shrub for a wall, or in sheltered places in the south. The variety grandijlora has larger flowers though not so fragrant. Japan, 1776. Chionanthus virginica, fringe tree.—A large shrub or small tree, with simple leaves, and drooping clusters of pure white flowers, having narrow fringe-like petals, and succeeded by purple drupes. North America, 1790. Will flourish only in a moist sandy peat or loam. Cistus.—A selection of these half-evergreen flowering shrubs is given in the evergreen section (which see). Clerodendron Bungei—syn. C. foetidum—A species of recent introduction from Northern China that will succeed in most parts of the kingdom; and although not so gorgeous as some of the tropical kinds, it is a very ornamental flowering shrub. It is armed with a few scattered spines, has large cordate leaves, and terminal corymbs of lilac-rose flowers. 1820. Colutea arborescens, bladder senna.—A rapid growing shrub, about 10 feet high, with unequally pinnateHARDY ARBOREAL AND SHRUBBY PLANTS. 647 leaves, and yellow papilionaceous flowers, followed by large bladder-like pods, of a reddish tinge when ripe. Suitable for filling up shrubberies or plantations in almost any situation. Southern Europe, 1570. Oomptonia asplcnifolia, sweet fern of the Americans. —A straggling, rather irregularly branched myricaceous shrub, about 3 or 4 feet high, with elegantly-lobed fernlike fragrant leaves. The flowers are small and inconspicuous. North America, 1714. It prefers moist peaty soil, and a shady situation. Coriaria myrtifolia.—A handsome free - growing myrtle-leaved shrub, from 3 to 6 feet high, with the three-nerved leaves lanceolate. Flowers inconspicuous, succeeded by poisonous berries. Rather tender. Mediterranean region, 1629. Cornus.—Elegant shrubs with simple leaves, and white or yellow flowers. C. alba.—A shrub, 5 to 10 feet high, with deep red bark, obovate oblong leaves, and white flowers, succeeded by white fruit. A very effective shrub, especially in winter, on account of the bright colour of the bark. North America, &c., 1741. C. circinata—syn. C. rugosa.—Similar to the last in size and colour of the flowers, but it has larger, broader leaves, and the young shoots are covered with warty excrescences. North America, 1784. C. mascula, Cornelian cherry.—This is more commonly grown than the North American species, and usually seen in a shrubby state. It has yellow flowers, which are freely produced in winter, while it is still leafless. There is a very ornamental variegated variety, which bears the handsome scarlet fruit abundantly. Germany, 1596. C. sanguinea, common dogwood.—This species is one of the prettiest of our native shrubs. Young shoots bright red; flowers white; fruit purple. Coronilla Emerus, scorpion senna.—An undershrub, growing from 3 to 6 feet high, with elegant pinnate foliage, and yellow papilionaceous flowers red in bud. The petals are remarkable for their long narrow claw. April to June. Southern Europe, 1596. CoRYLorsis spicata.—A handsome shrub of recent introduction, having hazel-like leaves, and drooping bracteate spikes of yellow fragrant flowers, produced in spring before the foliage is developed. Japan, 1862. Coryli'S.—This is the hazel-nut genus, which is not only ornamental in some of its forms, but many of the varieties are equally useful for their fruit. C. Ar ell ana, common hazel.—Of this there are several varieties grown for their ornamental foliage, as hetero-phylla, with cut leaves, and purpurea, with deep purple foliage. The latter is a very effective shrubbery plant. Cotone aster.—Some of the species, such as C. affinis and frigida, mentioned under Hardy Deciduous Trees, are frequently met with in the form of large shrubs. C. vulgaris, a semi-deciduous species, is commonly employed as a stock upon which to graft the absolutely evergreen kinds, and is very suitable for forming small standard trees. C. Simonsii and C. nummularia are intermediate in character between the deciduous and evergreen species; both of these are from Northern India. The former, which has scarlet fruit, is very ornamental in winter; the latter has black fruit. Crat^gus.—The thorn family. Some of the varieties of the common hawthorn, as the scarlet and pink, may be kept within the dimensions of a shrub. Cydonia. See Pyrus. Cytisus.—Shrubs with usually trifoliolate leaves, and papilionaceous yellow or purplish flowers. For other species referred by some writers to this genus see Laburnum and Genista. Many of the species are grafted on stems of Laburnum vulgare, and are very effective. Almost all do well near the sea. C. nigricans.—A pretty shrub about 3 feet high, with very small leaves, and terminal racemes of yellow flowers, appearing in June or July. Austria, 1730. C. purpureus.—This is one of the most attractive of the genus, especially grown as a standard on the laburnum. There are white, rose, and purple-flowered varieties. C. Adami is supposed to be either a sexual or graft hybrid between this and the common laburnum. Southern Europe, 1792. C. scoparius, English broom.—The common golden-yellow wild form of this plant, is exceedingly showy; there are also equally handsome white, sulphur-coloured, and double-flowered varieties in cultivation. Among other species occasionally met with in gardens are C. sessilifolius, with stalkless leaves, and terminal yellow flowers; C. elongatus, with long slender branches and yellow flowers; C. capitatus, a very hairy species, with flowers in dense terminal heads; and G. argenteus, with silvery foliage. Daphne.—With the exception of the species named below, these are chiefly evergreen shrubs with very fragrant flowers. D. Mezereum, mezereon.—A small erect shrub, 3 to 6 feet high, with pink, rose, purplish, or white flowers, produced all along the branches very early in spring before the leaves appear, and succeeded by scarlet or yellow berries. The berries and bark are poisonous. Europe, and possibly indigenous in England. Deutzia.—Highly ornamental undershrubs, with small simple leaves, and pure white or pink fragrant flowers, produced in spring. They do well at the foot of a wall. D. crenata.—An erect shrub with numerous slender stems, from 4 to 8 feet high, and exceedingly chaste white or pink flowers. There are two double-flowered varieties, one with white, and the other with pinkish flowers. Japan, 1833. The typical form of this plant is that cultivated in gardens under the name of D. scaln'a. D. Fortunei.—This appears to be nothing more than a variety of the last, with lilac flowers. D. gracilis.—A very attractive dwarf, erect shrub, from 2 to 3 feet high, with axillary racemes of pure white flowers appearing with the leaves in early spring. This is quite hardy, and develops its full beauty in the open ground; it is also very much used for forcing. Japan, 1843. D. staminea (1841) and D. corymbosa (1838), two showy North Indian species, seem to have almost disappeared from our gardens, probably on account of their being less hardy. Diervilla (including Weigela).—Handsome dwarfish shrubs, bearing simple opposite leaves and showy bellshaped or funnel-shaped clustered, pink rose or white flowers. Probably some of the garden varieties are of hybrid origin. All flower in spring and early summer. D. araabilis—syn. Weigela amabilis.—This species grows 8 or 10 feet high, and has strongly reticulated leaves, the veins being particularly prominent below. China, 1855. The varieties referred here, probably some of them hybrids, are:—Isolina, white flowers with a yel-GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. 648 low blotch in the throat; striata, striped red and white flowers; Van Ilouttci, white and pink; and Stelzneri, purplish red, very floriferous. D. canadensis.—A less showy species, with yellow flowers; it forms a dwarf hardy shrub, about 3 or 4 feet high. North America, 1739. I). Middcndorfiana—syn. Calyptrostigma Middcndorf-iana. — This has ovate-lanceolate finely reticulated leaves, hairy on the veins, and yellowish-white flowers, dotted with pink on the lower petal. D. purpurata is said to be a variety of this. Siberia. D. multiflora—syn. D. floribunda.—A very distinct species, with narrow tubular purplish corollas, only slightly dilated at the mouth. Japan. D. rosed—syn. Wcigela rosea.—A very ornamental free-flowering species, producing a profusion of rosy or whitish flowers in April or May. Height 6 to 8 feet. The varieties are numerous. D. florida and D. japonica are probably varieties of this. The original D. rosea of gardens came from China. 1845. Edwardsia grandiflora—syn. Sophora tetraptera.— A very handsome New Zealand shrub with pinnate leaves, and showy yellow papilionaceous flowers, in large clusters. It needs the shelter of a wall. 1772. E. microphylla is a variety with very small leaflets, and smaller flowers. El.eagxus.—Shrubs or small trees with small undivided leaves more or less clothed with elegant scales. Flowers usually inconspicuous ; fruit drupe-like. E. angustifolia—syn. E. hortensis, oleaster.—A handsome hardy shrub with a few scattered spines; leaves clothed with silvery, glistening scales. Flowers yellow, fragrant, succeeded by red drupes in late summer. South of Europe and Asia Minor, 1633. There are two or three varieties in cultivation, including one with larger eatable fruit. E. argentca, silver berry.—A spreading shrub with rusty brown branches, silvery foliage, and small yellow flowers appearing in summer. Hudson’s Bay, 1813. E. longipcs.—A handsome spineless shrub, with silvery leaves studded with brown scales, and flowers on very long stalks, succeeded by oblong orange-coloured acid berries, rendering it very ornamental when in fruit. In Japan there are numerous varieties, some having, it is said, fruit of good flavour. 1872. Euonymus.—The deciduous species of this genus are perfectly hardy—the only advantage they possess over the evergreen ones, of which they have the general appearance when in leaf. E. americanus.—A dwarf shrub similar to the following, but it has thicker leaves, and prickly scarlet capsules. North America, 1686., E. atropurpureus, burning bush.—About 5 to 10 feet high, with small purple flowers and smooth scarlet capsules. North America, 1756. E. caropceus, spindle tree.—This native shrub or small tree is very ornamental in autumn, when the pale scarlet fruits open and reveal the orange-coloured aril of the seeds. It rarely exceeds 8 to 10 feet in height, but sometimes under cultivation attains a larger size. E. latifolius.—This resembles the last very closely, but it has broader leaves, and deep red fruits. It grows from 10 to 20 feet high. South of Europe, 1730. Forsythia.—Erect or diffuse shrubs with simple and trifoliolate leaves on the same branch, and yellow four-petalled flowers produced in early spring before the leaves. Natives of Japan and China. Both the species named below are desirable on account of the early appearance of their abundant flowers. F. suspensa.—This species has long slender branchlets, and is better adapted for a wall or trellis than the open shrubbery. It appears to have been introduced from Japan into Holland so long since as 1833, but did not reach this country till about 1850. F. Fortunei (1863) is apparently identical with this species. F. viridissima.—An erect shrub from 4 to 8 feet high, with simple lanceolate dark-green leaves, and a profusion of yellow flowers. China, 1845. FOTHERGILLA ulnifolia.—A dwarf straggling shrub with slender crooked branches, ovate leaves covered with a silvery down beneath, and white fragrant flowers in terminal spikes, appearing before the leaves. North America, 1765. Fremontia calijorniea.—A very handsome half-evergreen shrub with cordate lobed leaves, and bright yellow flowers, about 2 inches in diameter, appearing in spring. This shrub is wholly different from anything else in cultivation in the open air. It was discovered in California by Colonel Fremont in 1846, and is still very rare in British gardens. It is possibly not quite hardy, but the shelter of a wall is doubtless sufficient. Fuchsia.—Although in most parts of the kingdom the species of this genus must be treated as herbaceous plants, and cut down annually, in the more favoured parts of the south and west they succeed either in the open or against a wall. Where it is possible to have them thus, they form the most ornamental of flowering shrubs. All the hardiest varieties belong to the Chilian species F. macrostemma, of which F. magellanica is a synonym. F. Riccartoni is one of the best varieties for the open ground. Genista.—A numerous genus of prickly or unarmed shrubs, with small, usually trifoliolate leaves, and papilionaceous flo wers, nearly always yellow. They are chiefly from the Mediterranean region, and succeed well in the vicinity of the sea, and on poor sandy soil, in all except the coldest parts of the kingdom. G. alba—syn. Spartium album, Cytisus albus, &c.— This is the Portugal broom of the nurseries. It is an erect shrub from 4 to 6 feet high, with straight slender branches, and few scattered leaves of one or three very small hairy leaflets. Flowers very abundant, white or pink, produced in May and June. This species deserves a place in every garden, either as a bush on its own roots, or as a standard grafted or hudded on the laburnum. South-west of Europe, 1752. G. radiata—syn. Spartium radialum.—A dwarf shrub about 2 or 3 feet high, bearing terminal clusters of yellow flowers in June or July. South of Europe, 1758. G. sagittalis.—A dwarf leafless shrub about a foot high, with winged foliaceous stems, and terminal yellow dowel's in May or June. Alps, 1750. G. tinctoria, greenweed.—There is a double-flowered variety of this indigenous species suitable for planting in stony places, &c. Several other cultivated species will be found mentioned under the genera Spartium and Ulex. Halesia, snowdrop tree.—The species of this genus are usually met with in the shrubby state in this country, but the most showy, H. tetraptera, forms a tree 30 feet high iu Carolina, its native country. The snowdrop trees are very attractive when clothed with theirHARDY ARBOREAL AND SHRUBBY PLANTS. 649 pure white flowers in spring. They succeed best in peat or loamy soil. H. diptem has a two-winged fruit. Georgia, 1758. Halimodendron argenteum, salt tree.—A very hardy shrub with silvery hairy leaves, and pinkish papilionaceous flowers in May or June. It is often grown as a standard grafted upon the laburnum, or on Caragana ai'borcscais. It is a native of the saline steppes of Siberia, and will thrive better if a little salt is mixed with the soil in which it is grown. 1779. Hamamelis rirginWct, wych hazel.—A very hardy shrub or small tree, with obovate leaves, and clustered yellow flowers, produced in autumn and winter. North America, 1736. Hibiscus sgriacus—syn. Althcea frutex.—An exceedingly ornamental shrub, 5 to 8 feet high, with erect straight branches, and large, axillary, white, yellow, rose, purple, violet, and variously-spotted flowers, according to the variety. There are also double-flowered varieties of divers colours, and one with variegated foliage. Syria, 1596. IIipporiiAE rhamnoides, sea buckthorn or sallow thorn.—A low dioecious tree or shrub, with small linear leaves, and minute yellow flowers, succeeded by bright orange-coloured berries. It is a native of the east coast of Britain, and very suitable for planting near the sea as a shelter. It grows satisfactorily even in positions that are occasionally drenched by the sea spray. The berry-bearing plants are very ornamental. Hydrangea.—Dwarf shrubs, with undivided or lobed leaves, and enormous terminal panicles or corymbs of white, pink, or blue flowers. The Chinese and Japanese species only attain perfection in sheltered situations, and they succeed admirably on the coast in the south and west of England, or in Ireland. The North American species are hardier, but less ornamental. H. arborescens.—This is a dwarf shrub, 4 to 6 feet high, resembling in habit the more familiar II. Hor-tensia, but its agreeably-scented flowers are nearly all fertile, that is, not having the enlarged calyx which renders the inflorescence of the latter so conspicuous; they are borne in summer. North America, 1736. H. cordalii.—A variety of the last with more decidedly cordate leaves, and all fertile flowers. II. Hortensia—syn. II. hortensis.—The varieties of this species are numerous and beautiful, but they are most of them better suited for a cool conservatory than the open air. The variety roscdba has the outer flowers sterile and enlarged with either white or pink toothed lobes; carulcsccns has bright blue sterile flowers; Otaksa has a very large inflorescence, in which nearly all of the flowers are sterile, and of a blue colour; and stellatapro-lifera has pink flowers with several series of sepals in the sterile ones. There are also varieties having the foliage variegated with yellow and red. The common variety was introduced from China in 1740. H. nivca.—A North American species, with white flowers, the outer sterile and enlarged; it grows from 4 to 6 feet high in its native habitats on the banks of the Savannah, but scarcely reaches that stature in this country. 1780. H. paniculatct.—This Japanese species has the inflorescence much more elongated than that of II. Hortensia. The variety grandijlora is a very handsome jdant in which all the flowers are sterile, and of a pure white. This attains a height of 8 to 10 feet, and when in bloom towards autumn, is very attractive. This species appears to be hardier than the forms of H. Hortensia. II. quercifolia.—In this species the leaves are lobed, and the flowers greenish-white or pink, in part barren. Florida, 1803. Hypericum.—Undershrubs, with undivided opposite leaves, usually furnished with immersed transparent glands. Flowers yellow, with a bunch of central stamens. II. Androscemum, tutsan, sweet amber.—This indigenous plant deserves to be introduced into shrubberies and plantations on account of the pleasant odour of the dried leaves; it grows from 1J to 2 feet high. H. hircinum.—A half-evergreen shrub, 3 or 4 feet high, flowering late in the summer and onwards till the end of October. Spain, 1640. H. Kalmianum.—This is a North American species, introduced in 1759. It is of about the same stature as the last, flowering in the summer months. H. prolificum.—Also from North America, and very near the last, having rather larger leaves, and smaller flow’ers. Itea virginica.—A dwarf shrub resembling a willow in habit and foliage; flowers white, produced in great profusion towards the end of summer. Thrives best in a cool peaty soil and half-shady situation. North America, 1744. Jasminum fruticans.—A half-evergreen erect-growing hardy jasmine, 5 to 6 feet high. Flowers yellow, produced all through the summer. Southern Europe, 1570. Kerria japonica.—A small shrub with slender, dark-green branches, lanceolate leaves, and orange-yellow terminal flowers. The familiar double-flowered variety was one of the earliest introductions from Japan, having been in British gardens since 1700. The single-flowered variety is now in cultivation, and there is also one with variegated foliage. It used to be known as Corchorus japonica. Laurus Benzoin.—A shrub from 8 to 10 feet high, with large oblong leaves, and minute clustered greenish-yellow flowers appearing before the leaves. Requires a moist shady situation in the south or west, and peaty soil. Virginia, 1688. Laurus Sassafras, which has lobed leaves, requires similar treatment. Leycesteria formosa.—A tall-growing shrub of very distinct appearance. It has hollow stems and flaccid lanceolate leaves. The small white flowers are borne in verticils, gradually diminishing in size towards the tip of the raceme, and are subtended by foliaceous deep purple bracts. It requires a warm sheltered situation or a wall north of London. Mountains of Northern India, 1824. Ligustrum.—The common privet (L. vulgctre) is the only deciduous species worth noticing here, and of this there is an almost evergreen variety. Useful for forming hedges where a screen, not a fence, is the object. Lonicera.—The erect-growing species of honeysuckle enumerated here are valuable on account of their extreme hardiness among flowering shrubs. L. tatarica.—A shrub from 4 to 8 feet high; leaves small, heart-shaped. There are pink, yellow, white, and purple flowered varieties of this desirable shrub, and others with striped flowers. Tartary, &c., 1752. L. Xylosteum. — The habit of this creamy - yellow flowered species is superior to that of the foregoing, and650 GARDENER'S ASSISTANT. it is equally hardy. There are varieties with white, yellow, crimson, and black berries. A native of Europe, which has been cultivated in this country for nearly three centuries, but it is not now so generally planted as it deserves to be. Magnolia.—The following deciduous species of this fine genus are amongst the most desirable of flowering shrubs, but they require protection in the colder parts of the kingdom. M. Campbcllii.—This is an arborescent species in its home in the mountains of Northern India. It has splendid crimson and white flowers, nearly as large as those of M. grandiflora. It is still very rare in gardens, having been introduced about 1870, and we know little respecting its hardiness. M. conspicua—syn. M. Yulan.—This species forms a moderate-sized tree in its native country, but with us usually attains only the dimensions of a large shrub. It produces a profusion of large white fragrant flowers in early spring, or even as early as February in mild seasons, before the appearance of the leaves. There are several varieties or hybrids between this and M. purpurea grown in the nurseries. One of these, M. Soulangeana, has the petals tinged with purple. China, 1789. M. purpurea—syn. M. discolor.—This seldom exceeds 5 or 6 feet in height. It has large obovate dark green leaves, and large fragrant flowers, purple on the outside and white within, which appear in April and May. A variety with larger flowers, called Lennei, is reported to be hardier than the type, though it is believed to be a hybrid between it and M. conspicua. The ordinary form was introduced from Japan in 1790. Myrica.—Small aromatic shrubs, usually covered with resinous glands. Flowers inconspicuous. They inhabit wet peaty places. M. Gale, sweet-gale, or sweet-willow.—This fragrantleaved shrub deserves planting in boggy places, and on the margins of lakes. Negundo. See Acer. Paliurus aculeatus, Christ’s thorn. —A dwarfish, densely-branched, spiny shrub, with three-nerved leaves, greenish-yellow flowers, and curious orbicular winged seed-vessels. Palestine, &c., 1596. Pavia. See ASsculus. Persica. See Amygdalus. Philadelphus—syn. Syringa of gardeners.—Handsome shrubs, with simple leaves, and showy white higlily-odoriferous flowers. They will succeed in almost any soil. P. coronarius, mock-orange.—An erect-growing species, from 6 to 12 feet high. Flowers scarcely so large as in some of the following, but appearing earlier in May. There is a variegated-leaved variety, and also one with double flowers. South of Europe, 1596. P. Gordonianus.—An American species, with flowers nearly double the size of the foregoing, and not appearing before the end of June or beginning of July. 1823. P. inodor us. This has large, scentless flowers, and quite entire leaves; it has long been in cultivation, and is probably a native of North America. P. latifolius, including speciosus, grandiflorus, &c.— Leaves hairy when young. Flowers large, very sweet-scented, appearing in June or July. North America, introduced in or about 1800. There are several other species and varieties in cultivation, none of them superior to those named; and the Japanese species are scarcely so hardy. Pistacia vera, true pistachia.—This will succeed very well in the south-west, where it forms a most beautiful shrub, although the flowers are inconspicuous. Leaves pinnate; flowers inconspicuous. Southern Europe, 1770. Platycrater Sieboldii—syn. P.arguta.—A Japanese shrub introduced in 1866, allied to Philadelphus, and having similar white flowers. Potentilla fruticosa.—A native undershrub, about 3 feet high, with three to five foliolate leaves, and yellow flowers in July and August, continuing long in blossom. The variety tenuiloba is the most ornamental. Prinos verticillata, black alder.—A North American shrub, closely allied to the holly. Leaves hairy, not prickly; flowers small white, followed by red berries. 1736. Prunus. See Cerasus and Amygdalcs. Punica Granatum.—The pomegranate succeeds very well in warm situations in the south and west, but it requires additional protection inland and northward. There are double, scarlet, and striped-flowered varieties. Southern Europe, 1648. Pyrus.—Some of the species of this genus scarcely exceed the dimensions of a shrub or miniature tree, but they are all enumerated under Hardy Deciduous Trees. Rhodotypos kerrioides.—A Japanese shrub, remarkably like Kerria in appearance, but it has solitary white rose-like terminal flowers. It was introduced about 1866. Rhus.—Shrubs, with elegant simple or pinnate leaves, and small flowers, becoming more ornamental when in fruit. R. Cotinus, wig-tree, or Venetian sumach.—A desirable hardy shrub, about 5 to 8 feet high, with simple roundish leaves on long slender stalks, and loosely paniculate flowers. Some of the pedicels or flower-stalks are transformed into white awns, giving the inflorescence a peculiar feathery appearance. Southern Europe, introduced in 1656. R. glabra.—This is a handsome hardy shrub, with long, pinnate, nearly smooth leaves. The flowers are borne in large terminal panicles, and are succeeded by bright red berries. R. coccinea—syn. R. elegans, is a variety having red flowers and brighter-coloured berries. North America, 1726. R. glabra laciniata is a very handsome cut-leaved variety, of most elegant character. There are several other species in cultivation, some of which, like R. Toxicodendron and R. venenata, North American species, are exceedingly poisonous, though their ternate and pinnate foliage is very ornamental. R. succedanea and R. vernix are Japanese species, with pinnate leaves. Ribes.—Highly ornamental, sometimes spiny shrubs, with small simple leaves, and pendent racemes of white, yellow, or red flowers, appearing in early spring. The following are some of the best. To this genus belong the gooseberry and the currants. R. aureum.—This species has glabrous shining leaves, and yellow flowers, the small petals being bordered with red. North-western America, 1812. There are two or three varieties offered by nurserymen; prcecox (syn. fragrans) flowers early, and serotinum flowers late. They grow to a height of about 8 feet. R. niveum.—A dwarf prickly shrub, with white flowers, and purple fruits. North-western America, 1826. R. sanguineum, flowering currant.—This species, now soHARDY ARBOREAL AND SHRUBBY PLANTS. 651 familiar in gardens, has roundish shallowly-lobed leaves, and clusters of showy red flowers. There are several varieties, differing in their ornamental merits. The variety atroi'ubcns has much darker crimson flowers than the ordinary form; glutinosum has pale rose flowers; malva-ceum has dark flowers and very rough leaves; and Gor-doiiian um is reported to be a hybrid between sanguineum and aureum, having reddish flowers tinged with yellow. There is also a white-flowered variety, and another with double flowers, which lasts long in blossom, and is very showy. North-western America, 1826. R. spwiosum—syn. R. fuchsioideiI. — A dwarf spiny shrub, clothed with glandular prickles, and axillary, fuchsia-like pendent flowers, which are extremely elegant, of a rich crimson colour, and borne in twos or threes. California, 1829. Robinia hispida, rose acacia.—A shrub from 10 to 15 feet high, though not usually attaining so much. Young branches densely clothed with sharp bristles; leaves pinnate; flowers rose or pink, borne in clusters in the summer. Carolina, 1758. Rosa, rose.—Some of the erect-growing species are very effective in mixed shrubberies and plantations. A more numerous selection will be found under Hardy Climbing Shrubs, while a separate chapter is devoted to garden varieties. R. bcrberifolia—syn. Lowea berberifolia.—This differs from all other roses in having undivided leaves. It is an undershrub, 2 to 3 feet high, with yellow flowers, each petal with a purple spot at the base. Soongaria, 1790. R. centi folia.—A low, bushy shrub, with large, drooping, exquisitely-scented white or red single or double flowers. Caucasus, 1596. This includes the well-known Provence or cabbage rose and the moss rose, which are old favourites in gardens. R. fcrox, hedgehog rose.—This has large, single, rosy-purple flowers, and is remarkable for its very numerous prickles. It grows .about 3 feet high. Caucasus, 1796. R. pimpinellifolia—syn. R. spinosissima, Scotch rose. —This is a small leaved, very prickly native species, which bears a profusion of white or blush flowers for a long season. There are many garden varieties. R. rubiginusa, sweet-brier.—This should find a place in every garden, on account of the refreshing fragrance exhaled from the glands of its leaves. The flowers are pink. It is an indigenous species, 4 to 6 feet high. R. sulphurca.—The double yellow rose is a shrub 4 to 10 feet high, remarkable for its glaucous leaves, and fine transparent yellow double flowers. Levant, 1629. It is best trained against a wall. Rubus, bramble.—Nearly all of the species of this genus coming within our province require a support of some kind, and further details respecting them will be found under Hardy Climbing Shrubs. Shepherdia argentea, buffalo-berry.—A shrub or small tree, with narrow silvery leaves, and scarlet fruits. It is allied to Elceagnus. North America, 1818. BpARTICM junceum—syn. Genista liispanica, Sparti-anthus junceus.—This is the Spanish broom of English gardens, and has slender branches, and large yellow flowers in terminal racemes, appearing late in summer. It grows about 6 feet high. There is a variety with double flowers. It succeeds well near the sea, and in poor, gravelly soil. Mediterranean region, 1548. Spiraea.—The shrubby species of this genus are among the most ornamental of small flowering shrubs. They are exceedingly numerous, but the following are some of the best. They possess the valuable quality of being very hardy and remarkably indifferent to soil and | situation. S. aricefolia.—This is a much-branched, bushy shrub, with leaves resembling those of the white-beam tree, and a profusion of small white flowers in large terminal panicles, appearing in summer after most flowering shrubs are over. North-western America, 1827. S. bella.—From 3 to 4 feet high, with small ovate leaves, and terminal corymbs of rosy-red flowers. Northern India, 1820. S. Douglasii.—This is a very handsome species, with ovate leaves, and rose-coloured flowers, in dense terminal panicles. North-western America, 1840. S. Nobleana, Menziesii, and salicifolia are all showy species near S. Douglasii, which itself is sometimes regarded as being synonymous with S. tomentosa. S. Fortunei—syn. S. callosa of gardens.—A handsome species with straight, erect branches, and terminal flat corymbs of rosy-red flowers. China, 1850. S. grandiflora—syn. Fxochorda grandiflora.—A fine early-flowering species, which differs from all the others yet known in its much larger white flowers, arranged in axillary racemes. Northern China, 1854. S. hypericifolia.—This is an exceedingly variable hardy shrub, with small simple leaves, and white flowers. Northern Asia, 1640. S. Lindleyana.—A branching shrub, with large pinnate leaves, and large terminal panicles of white flowers, appearing in autumn. Mountains of Northern India, 1840. S. sorbifolia is closely allied to it. S. opulifolia. —This has leaves like those of the guelder rose, and is of larger growth than the others, attaining a height of 10 feet. Flowers white. North America, 1690. S. prunifolia.—The double-flowered variety of this is common in gardens; it has slender branches, small leaves, and an abundance of small pure white rosette-like flowers. Japan, 1845. Stachyurus prcecox.—A shrub or small tree, with red bark, ovate leaves, and beautiful spikes of yellowish-white flowers, produced in great profusion before the leaves are unfolded, in February or March. It is reported as perfectly hardy. Japan, 1864. Staphylea pinnata, bladder-nut.—A shrub from 6 to 8 feet high, with unequally pinnate leaves, and whitish flowers in May or June, succeeded by a bladdery capsular fruit. Southern Europe, and naturalized in some parts of Britain. S. trifoliata is a North American species, with trifoliolate leaves. 1640. Styrax officinale.—A small shrub, with simple leaves, and axillary racemes of white flowers, resembling those of the orange, and appearing in June or July. Syria, &c., 1597. There are two or three North American forms occasionally seen in gardens, which are considered by some botanists as varieties of S. officinale; and there is also a Japanese species. They all need protection in the colder parts of the kingdom. Symphoricarpus racemosus, snowberry.—A much-branched shrub, 4 to 7 feet, with slender branchlets, small simple leaves, and small funnel-shaped pink flowers, succeeded by large white berries. It will grow even under the drip of trees, and is very useful for I filling shady parts. North America, 1817. There are652 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. several other species from the same country, but they are rarely seen in gardens. S. vulgaris (syn. glomerata) has red and yellow flowers and purple berries. Syringa.—The lilacs are among the most universally admired of spring-flowering shrubs. In addition to the following species and varieties, there are many hybrids cultivated by nurserymen, and described in their catalogues. S. Emodi.—In this species the stems are covered with warty excrescences, and the leaves are prominently reticulated. It has purple-lilac or white flowers, and is not so ornamental as some varieties of the common lilac. Mountains of Northern India, 1840. S. Josikcea.—This grows from 5 to 10 feet high, and has dark green wrinkled leaves, and scentless, smallish, bluish-purple flowers. Transylvania, 1835. S. persica, Persian lilac.—A very distinct species of small stature, rarely exceeding 4 or 5 feet in height, and having very slender straight branches. The flowers vary in colour, in different varieties, from rosy carmine to white. There is a variety with cut leaves, called lacini-ata. Persia, 1640. The original form is now rarely met with, being supplanted by a larger-flowered variety. S. rothomagensis, with flowers very much like the improved persica, is possibly a hybrid between persica and vulgaris. S. vulgaris, common lilac.—Among the numerous varieties or hybrids of this useful species, we may note alba with white, rubra with red, and violacea with violet flowers. Of those of more recent origin, Dr. Lindley has extremely large clusters of reddish-lilac flowers; rubra insignis and grandiflora have larger red flowers; and Charles X. is remarkable for the immense size of its panicles and the beautiful tint of its reddish - lilac flowers. South-eastern Europe, &c., 1597. Tamarix.—Half - evergreen shrubs, with straight, whip-like branches, and small scale-like imbricated leaves, giving them a distant resemblance to some of the cypresses. The flowers are small in spikes or spicate panicles, and either rose, pink, or white in colour. These shrubs are amongst the most valuable for the seaside, as they will flourish in sandy soil where scarcely anything else will live. As they are bare-rooted and impatient of transplanting, they should be permanently placed when young. T. gallica, tamarisk.—This is the species commonly planted. It has lateral spikes of pink or white flowers, produced from May to October. A native of the Mediterranean, which has long been in cultivation, and is now naturalized in some parts of Britain. The names pentandra, anglica, &c., have been applied to this species, or slightly different varieties of it. T. germanica—syn. Myricaria germanica.—This is nearly or quite evergreen, and the red flowers are in terminal bracteolate spikes. Europe, &c., 1582. T. tctrandra—syn. T. africana, parviflora, &c., of gardens.—The white and pink flowers of this species, which is scarcely so hardy as the foregoing, are produced from the old wood. Mediterranean region. Tragopyrum lanccolatum.—This is a dwarf ornamental shrub, about 2 feet high, with lanceolate leaves, sheathing stipules, and spicate white and pink flowers, produced in July or August. Siberia, 1770. It prefers a peaty soil. Verbena. See Aloysia. Viburnum.—The deciduous species of this genus are many of them very ornamental, including the native ones. The following are the most ornamental. V. Lantana, wayfaring-tree.—An indigenous shrub, from 10 to 20 feet high. It has rugose, oblong-cordate leaves, and terminal flat cymes of white all perfect flowers, in May or June, and red, eventually black flattened fruits. V. macrocephalum.—In foliage this resembles the preceding, but it has enormous clusters of barren flowers like the Guelder rose. China, 1844. V. Opulus, Guelder rose, snowball-tree.—The ordinary wild form has some only of the outer flowers sterile and enlarged, but in the more familiar cultivated one they are all transformed, so that the flower-heads form white balls. There is a dwarf variety called nanum, and the variety rariegatum has the foliage variegated with white and yellow. V. plicatum. — A Chinese species with flower-heads similar to those of the cultivated variety of V. Opulus, but the oblong-orbicular serrate leaves are distinctly plaited. Northern China, 1844. Vitex Agnus-castus, chaste-tree.—An aromatic shrub, 6 to 10 feet, with digitate leaves, consisting of five to seven leaflets, and small violet flowers in terminal panicles, produced late in autumn. It requires protection in most parts of Britain. South of Europe, 1570. Weigela. See Diervilla. Hardt Evergreen Shrubs. Arbutus.—Handsome shrubs or small trees, remarkable for the bark peeling off from their stems and branches after the manner of a plane-tree, most of the species having larger smoother leaves than the common strawberry tree. The flowers are small, white, greenish-white, or red, numerous and in some species showy. They are really of arborescent growth in their native countries, and attain a considerable size in some parts of Britain, but as they are usually grown in the bushy form with us, we repeat them here. There are many fine hybrid forms in cultivation, which are nearly or quite as hardy as A. TInedo, whilst all the species, except the latter, need protection in the centre and east of Britain. They thrive best in peat soil. A. Andrachne.—This has smooth shining leaves nearly as large as those of the common laurel, and a smooth scarlet fruit, rarely perfected in this country. Mediterranean region, 1724. A. hybrida.—This is one of the earliest of the hybrid forms raised in gardens. It is intermediate in character between the preceding and A. Unedo, and is a very ornamental shrub, but rarely ripens its fruit. Raised early in the present century. -1. proccra.—This has large serrated glossy leaves, and ample terminal panicles of greenish-white flowers. It is quite as hardy as A. Unedo, and much more beautiful. North America, 1825. *4. Unedo, strawberry tree.—This is an exceedingly ornamental shrub or tree, especially when laden with its scarlet muricated fruits. The flowers vary from white to red. It is a native of the south of Ireland, and has long been in cultivation. Aristotelia Macqui.—A. shrub growing to a height of 10 feet or more. It has simple three-nerved leaves, and small axillary purple and yellow flowers, succeeded | by dark purple berries. Chili, 1733. Too tender for theHARDY ARBOREAL AND SHRUBBY PLANTS. 653 colder parts of the kingdom, and usually requiring a wall. Artemisia Abrotanum, southernwood.—This familiar shrub has its fragrant foliage finely divided into narrow segments. The small yellowish flowers are not very ornamental. ‘Widely distributed in Europe and Asia, 1596. The variety tobolskiana is larger in all its parts than the common form. Atriplex JTalimus.—A hardy shrub, from 3 to 6 feet high, native of the coasts of the Mediterranean, and very useful for planting in places where the spray of the sea readies. It has small grayish-green persistent leaves, and inconspicuous flowers, and scarcely comes within the category of ornamental shrubs. Aucuba.—The familiar laurel-like mottled-leaved variety of A. japonica was introduced to this country from Japan as long ago as 1783, and is a female variety. The male or pollen-bearing varieties were introduced from the same country by Mr. Fortune in 1850. The Indian aucuba, A. hinialaica, which is probably no more than a variety of the Japanese species, was introduced a little earlier than the male varieties from Japan. Now, the varieties of both have become exceedingly numerous and diverse, and large specimens of the greenleaved sorts, as well as of the old variegated form, laden with their large scarlet oblong berries, are not rare. If exposed to strong winds the young wood of this shrub is very liable to be destroyed. The varieties of aucuba are among the most ornamental and desirable of evergreens, and it is, moreover, a great recommendation, that they succeed well in town gardens. The following are the names of some of the principal varieties distinguished by nurserymen. Male or polleniferous varieties:—picta, bicolor, sulphured, and ovata, with variegated foliage; and vera and grand is, with green foliage. Female or berry-bearing varieties:— sulphured, latimaculata, and aurea marginata, with variegated foliage; and longifolia, vera, and angustifolia, with green foliage. The variety luteocarpa bears yellowish berries. Azara.—There are several species of this genus of South American evergreens in cultivation, but they require protection in central and eastern Britain. They have pimple leaves, the alternate ones often smaller, and yellow rather showy flowers. A. dentata.—A bushy shrub with glossy bright-green leaves, hairy beneath. This succeeds well against a south wall. Chili, introduced before 1836. A. Gillicsii.—This is a very handsome species with coriaceous, smooth, dark-green leaves, on red petioles. Flowers yellow in dense axillary racemes. Chili, introduced about 1850. A. microphylla,— A recently introduced species with very small distichous glossy leaves, forming an exceedingly ornamental shrub for a wall. Chili, 1872. BacCHARIS halimifolia, groundsel tree.—A branching shrub, from C to 10 feet high, with angular branches, small grayish-green leaves, and small yellow flower heads, appearing in autumn. The female is the more ornamental of the two, but neither of the sexes is very attractive. Valuable mainly for planting near the sea, where few other things will flourish. North America, 1683. Bentiiamia fragifera.—An ornamental shrub from the mountains of Nepal, requiring shelter, except on the west coast. It has simple lanceolate leaves, small greenish flowers surrounded by a large white involucre, and a large strawberry-like fruit. India, 1825. Berberis (including Malionia), berberry.—Some of the species of this genus are among the most ornamental of evergreen flowering shrubs, and very desirable on account of their early season of flowering. They do well in peaty soil, but it is not essential to them. They are mostly spiny, or have prickly leaves, and the flowers are some shade of yellow in all the species. Those belonging to the section Mahonia have pinnate leaves. The following are some of the hardiest. B. Aquifolium (Mahonia).—This grows to a height of 6 or 8 feet, and bears a profusion of yellow flowers in April and May. North-western America, 1823. B. repens is a dwarf form of this. The glossy foliage changes to a reddish-purple colour in winter. Invaluable for planting under the shade of trees. B. aristata.—In foliage this strongly resembles the common berberry. It is erect in habit, with furrowed, reddish-brown branches; the flowers, in pendulous cymes, appearing in May. The purplish glaucous berries are rather large in this species. Northern India, 1820. B. Bealii (Mahonia).—This has large leaves of a yellowish-green tint, composed of broad spiny leaflets of irregular outline, and terminal clusters of yellow flowers, produced in winter or early spring. A native of Japan, and scarcely so hardy as some others. B. japonica is probably a variety of the same species. They are of comparatively recent introduction (1845), and are so distinct from everything else that one or the other of the varieties deserves a sheltered and somewhat shaded place on a well-drained or peaty soil, or a little wall space in every garden. B. Darwinii.—This is certainly one of the most ornamental shrubs in cultivation. It is a densely branching sub-erect species, with small, blunt, glossy, dark green, prickly leaves, and apricot-coloured flowers appearing in early spring, and sometimes again in autumn. Patagonia, 1847. B. dulcis.—An erect slender species, nearly evergreen, 5 or 6 feet high. The flowers are large for the genus, and solitary, on long slender stalks, produced all through the spring. Berries bluish-black. Magellan, 1828. B. empetrifolia.—From 1 to 2 feet high; leaves linear, revolute, and sharp-pointed; flowers in terminal umbels, produced from December to March. Chili, 1830. B. stenophylla of the nurseries, is believed to be a hybrid between this and B. Darwinii, and is a very ornamental plant. B. fascicularis—syn. B. pinnata (Mahonia)—A very elegant-leaved species, rather tender in the climate of London. It is remarkable for its glaucous green colour. Mexico, 1819. It makes a fine wall plant. B. Fortunei (Mahonia).—This species has few distant lanceolate leaflets, and terminal spikes of yellow flowers. China, 1846. B. glumacea—syn. B. nervosa (Mahonia).—A very dwarf slow-growing species; leaflets narrow; flowers yellow, in terminal elongated racemes 6 to 8 inches long, produced in spring. North-western America, 1822. B. ilicifolia.—This is a very handsome species, with smallish holly-like leaves, and orange-yellow flowers tinged with red. Introduced from the extreme south of America about 1843. B. nepalensis (Mahonia).—A remarkably handsome plant of erect habit, 8 to 10 feet high, with pinnate654 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. leaves composed of numerous thickly-set lanceolate spiny leaflets, of a glaucous-green colour, and a cluster of erect terminal spikes of yellow flowers. It is allied to B. japonica, but is of a paler green, and has quite differently formed narrow leaflets, whence it has been called the ash-leaved barberry. Nepal, 1850. Buddleia.—These are evergreen shrubs in their native country, and in mild winters are so with us; but as they usually shed their foliage, more or less, according to the severity of the weather, they should not be planted where evergreen foliage is desired. B. globosa.—The leaves of this species are clothed with a silvery tomentum beneath. The flowers are honey-scented, orange, in small globular heads, appearing in summer. It grows about 10 or 12 feet high, and succeeds well against a wall, or near the sea, where it is not too bleak. It is sometimes killed down to the crown of the stem by hard frosts, but springs up again luxuriantly. Chili, 1774. B. Lindleyana.—This species requires the protection of a wall. It has narrow serrate leaves, and terminal spikes of purplish-red, hairy flowers. China, 1840. Bupleorom fruticosum.—A. branching shrub about 6 feet high, with simple coriaceous glaucous leaves, and yellowish umbellate flowers, the umbels on long stalks; the flowers appear in July or August. It succeeds well near the sea, and in warm situations on a dry soil. Southern Europe, 1596. Buxcs, box.—The different species and varieties of the so-called box-tree may be included here, as most of them do not exceed shrubby dimensions. B. balearica.-—This is a fine species, with thick coriaceous leaves nearly 2 inches in length. It is faster-growing and larger than the common box. Minorca, 1780. B. sempervirens.—The varieties of the common box are numerous, from the dwarf form used for edging, to the arborescent variety. B. s. myrtifolia is a robust form with relatively large leaves; rosmarinifolia is a compact dwarf bush with slender branches and narrow leaves; angustifolia has very narrow leaves; and rotundi-folia small roundish leaves. The several gold and silver striped varieties are also very ornamental. Ceanothus.—Very ornamental North American shrubs, suitable for the south or west or for covering walls, but too tender, with the exception of the first, to stand out in the open in other parts of the kingdom. Flowers small, but numerous and showy, produced in panicles during the summer. G. americanus, New Jersey tea.—A dwarf species from 2 to 3 feet high, with oblong three-nerved leaves, woolly beneath. Flowers white, in dense terminal clusters, produced in summer. Introduced in 1713. C. azureus.—This species grows from 5 to 10 feet high, and has larger leaves than any of the other blue-flowered species in cultivation. Mexico, 1818. G. Vcitchianxis,—Avery ornamental species, with small glabrous leaves, and numerous dense clusters of bright blue flowers. A native of California, as also are C. Lob-bianus and G. floribundus, two closely-allied species. G. dentatus, thyrsijiorus, rigidus, and papillosus have also flowers of some shade of blue, and are exceedingly ornamental, well adapted for covering walls. Cerasus.—Large shrubs or small trees with ample foliage, white racemose flowers, and purple berries. The evergreen species are called laurels by gardeners. The Alexandrian laurel is, however, a distinct plant, with narrow glossy leaves, the Ruscus racemosus of botanists; while the Greek or victor’s laurel is Laurus nobilis. C. Laurocerasus, common laurel or cherry laurel.— This favourite shrub should not be planted for a hedge where a permanent screen is desired, as in very severe winters it is liable to be cut down to the ground. There are several varieties; among the large-leaved ones cau-casica is at the same time the hardiest and the handsomest; it has rich dark-green foliage, broadest above the middle. The variety colchica is of more spreading habit, with narrower serrated leaves; rotundifolia has nearly orbicular leaves. A French variety known as the Versailles Laurel has leaves of immense size. Asia Minor, &c., 1629. C. lusitanica, Portugal laurel.—This is much hardier than the common laurel, with darker green more pointed leaves, and is one of the most valuable evergreens we possess. There is a variety with smaller leaves and denser habit, called myrtifolia; another with the leaves variegated. Portugal, &c., 1648. Cjstus.—A genus of many species chiefly from the Mediterranean region, and only suitable for dry, warm situations, and for the south and west coasts. They have undivided, often glutinous leaves, and large showy, though evanescent flowers. They deserve to be more generally planted on the sea-coasts named; but as they do not bear transplanting very well they are usually grown in pots by nurserymen. The following are some of the hardier species. C. cyprius.—This grows about 5 or 6 feet high, and is very near the true gum cistus, but it has large, solitary flowers, and stalked leaves. The petals are white, with a purple blotch at the base. Cyprus, 1800. C. incanus.—This has very hoary wrinkled leaves, and reddish-purple flowers in June or July. About 3 or 4 feet high. South of Europe, 1597. C. ladaniferus, gum cistus.—Resembles C. cyprius, but the leaves are not stalked; flowers borne in clusters of three or four. Spain and Portugal, 1629. C. laurifolius.—This is perhaps the hardiest of all, and is remarkable for its strongly three-nerved leaves, densely woolly beneath, and white flowers. Scarcely a true evergreen. South of France, 1771. G. populifolius.—A distinct species, of large growth, with heart-shaped or oval wrinkled leaves on long stalks, and white flowers tinged with yellow in the centre. France, &c., 1656. C. purpureus.—From 3 to 4 feet high; leaves oblong-lanceolate wrinkled; flowers reddish purple, with a dark blotch near the base of each petal. Levant, 1659. Cordyline.—The New Zealand species of this genus are hardy in the south-west, and from their distinct habit of growth they merit a place, even if cut down in severe winters. They form miniature trees, with slender, usually unbranclied, stems; long, narrow, flag-like leaves; and large panicles of small white flowers. C. australis, Banksii, and indivisa flower in the open air in the milder parts of England and Ireland. They are often called Draccenas in nursery catalogues. Cotoneaster.—Dwarf prostrate or trailing shrubs, with very small coriaceous leaves, and small white flowers, appearing from April till June, succeeded by showy scarlet berries; admirably adapted for covering walls or banks. They are all from the mountains of Northern India, with the exception of C. buxifolia, which extends to the Neilgherries.HAEDY AEBOEEAL AND SHRUBBY PLANTS. 655 G. buxifolia.—This has oblong leaves, about J inch long, silky beneath, and distinctly fringed on the margins. It sometimes bears the name of C. marginata. Berries dull crimson. 1824. C. microphylla.—The habit of this species is denser, the branches shorter, and the obovate leaves are less than \ inch long. Berries crimson. 1824. C. rotundifolia.—Branches long, straight; leaves round, about inch in diameter. Berries bright scarlet. 1825. C. Simonsii.—A handsome species, of free bushy growth, with ovate leaves, and orange-coloured berries. Khasya, 1850. It forms a handsome standard, but is in that case only sub-evergreen. C. tkymifolia.—Similar to C. microphylla, but smaller in all its parts. A very slow-growing trailer, having the flowers tinged with pink. C. Wheeleri.—This has long slender branches, and is very similar to the first, but the leaves are even larger. It does not appear to produce its fruit so freely as some others. It is sometimes grafted standard high on the half-deciduous C. vulgaris, as are also all the others. Crataegus Pyracantha, fire thorn.—This is one of the most showy of all evergreens in winter, when covered with its large clusters of orange-scarlet berries. It is exceedingly hardy, and will succeed on an east or north wall. The pinkish-white flowers appear in May. In the open it forms a dense bush. The typical form was introduced from the south of Europe in 1629. Another, slightly different, from the mountains of Northern India, called C. crenulata, has more ornamental foliage, and the berries are vermilion. There is also a less ornamental variety, with white berries. Daphne.—Dwarf or trailing shrubs with undivided leaves, and usually highly odoriferous flowers. This genus includes some of the most desirable of small evergreen shrubs. In addition to those enumerated below, D. indica rubra and albay and some others, which are commonly treated as greenhouse shrubs, will succeed against a wall. They all prefer a peaty soil, but thoroughly rotten leaf mould and turfy loam will replace it. D. Cneorum.—A prostrate trailing shrub with narrow linear leaves, and bright rosy red fragrant flowers, appearing in great profusion in early spring. A very handsome free-growing species, deserving of a place in every garden. Continental Europe, 1752. There is a variegated variety, and another with white flowers. D. collina. — An erect-growing species, about 2 feet high, with small oblong-obovate leaves, and terminal clusters of hairy rose-coloured flowers, produced through the winter and spring. Southern Europe, 1752. D. nea-politana is a variety with purple and white flowers. D. Laureolay wood laurel.—This indigenous shrub grows about 2 or 3 feet high, and is worth jdanting in shady places for its glossy foliage, and its greenish-yellow sweet-scented flowers, from February to March. D. pontica.—Very similar to the last, but differing in the lighter green foliage and decidedly yellow flowers, which apj)ear in April and May. Asia Minor, 1759. [Desfontainea spinosa.— A charmingly beautiful evergreen shrub, referred by the best authorities to the order Loganiacece. It is of dense compact habit, with opposite leaves, which are waved and spiny-lobed like those of a holly; the flowers are axillary, tubulose, deflexed, 2 inches long, dense scarlet tipped with yellow. The cultivated plant was introduced from Chili in 1850, but it extends over the Andes, being also found in Peru, Equador, &c. Though recorded as a greenhouse shrub it will bear intense cold if not placed in too wet a situation. It is recorded as perfectly hardy at Kirkcaldy, Fife, a specimen planted out in 1859 being 6 feet high in 1868, and flowering freely every season, from July to Christmas. (See Gard. Chron. 1868, 992.) "VVe have ourselves seen it flourishing and blooming freely planted out in a rather shady sheltered position in the south of England.] EL/EAGNUS.—"Within the last few years several handsome variegated varieties of Japanese evergreen species have been introduced, well suited for walls and sheltered places, and the south-west coast. They have undivided leaves, which, as well as the young shoots, are more or less clothed with ferruginous or silvery scales. There are beautiful gold and silver variegated varieties of E. re-flexa (japonica or umbellata), and a gold-margined variety of E. pungensy a shrub with a few scattered spines. Embothrium coccineum.—A handsome evergreen with leathery oblong leaves and terminal clusters of long pendent orange-scarlet flowers, appearing in May. Chili, 1851; only hardy in the south-west. Ephedra altissima, monostachya and distachya are trailing or twining shrubs, natives of the south of Europe and the saline regions of Siberia, and suitable for planting in the vicinity of the sea in the south and west. They have small scale-like leaves, and quite inconspicuous flowers, but the slender jointed branches are evergreen, and the berries are red or black. Erica.—This genus is more fully treated under the section devoted to the American Garden; but some of the species, like E. carnea, succeed very well in any tolerably good free soil. Eriobotrya japonica.—A shrub closely allied to Photinia, having large wrinkled leaves, downy beneath. The whitish flowers are borne in October or November, consequently it rarely ripens its pale orange-red edible fruit in this country. It requires a warm situation and the protection of a wall. China, 1787. Escallonia.—Ornamental summer flowering shrubs from South America, suitable for shrubberies in the warmer parts of the kingdom, or for covering a wall. They flourish admirably near the sea. The flowers vary from white to pink and deep red, and the undivided usually serrated leaves are often glandular. E. illinita.—A white-flowered species remarkable for its resinous branches. One of the hardiest. Chili, 1833. E. macrantha.—This in its different varieties is perhaps the best in cultivation. It is of robust habit, with coriaceous shining leaves, and flowers varying from red to crimson. The variety sanguinea has very deeply coloured flowers. Chiloe, 1847. E. pterocladon.—The branches of this species are angular and winged, the wings ciliated and waved; leaves small, not exceeding half-an-inch in length; flowers white, very abundant and fragrant. Patagonia, 1848. It grows 5 or 6 feet high, and is described as hardy. E. rubra.—Similar to E. macrantha, but more slender, with more coarsely serrated leaves, and smaller flowers, both red and white. Chili, 1827. Euonymus.—The evergreen species or varieties of this genus are exceedingly ornamental in their foliage; but they need protection in central and eastern Britain. They are perfectly hardy on the south and west coasts, and bear the sea breeze almost as well as the tamarisk. There are two distinct races of varieties, namely:—G56 GARDENER'S ASSISTANT. E. japonicus.—An erect shrub, attaining a height of 10 feet in favourable situations. The ordinary greenleaved variety is perhaps, without any exception, the most ornamental shrub of small gardens in many towns on the south and west coasts; and the variegated varie-1 ties are extremely numerous and diversified, including yellow and white variegations of various patterns, with an infusion of red in some. It is unnecessary to enumerate their names, which in most cases pretty well indicate the nature of the variegation. The name latifolius has been given to some of the broad-leaved varieties. The typical form, and one with variegated leaves, were introduced from Japan many years ago, but most of them are of comparatively recent acquisition. E. cans.—This is of straggling, prostrate or climbing habit, and well adapted for covering rocks, or for slowly covering a wall, as it emits roots from the branches in the same way as the ivy, and is self-supporting. In a light soil the variety tricolor forms an attractive border to a bed of shrubs. There are white and yellow and red variegations, but there does not appear to be a green-leaved variety of this form in cultivation. Eurya latifolia variegata.—This is an exceedingly beautiful variegated shrub, belonging to the same family as the Camellia, which it resembles in foliage, but its flowers are small. The variegation consists of yellow, white, bright pink, and green. Sheltered localities in the south-west. It is a recent introduction from Japan, and probably a variety of E. japonica. Eurybia.—A genus of frutescent composites from Australia and New Zealand. They are very ornamental in foliage, and some of them hardy in the south-west. E. dcntata, ilicifolia, Gunniana, &c., are in gardens. Fabiana inibricata.—An elegant small shrub with the habit of a heath, bearing a profusion of pure white slender long-tubed flowers in May or June. Should have the protection of a wall, unless in a very mild climate. Chili, 1838. Fatsia japonica—syn. Aralia japonica.—A fine evergreen shrub, the leaves of which are broad, of a palmate form, deep green and glabrous. It flourishes in sheltered positions in the warmer parts of the kingdom. F. papgrifcra—syn. Araliapapyrifera, rice paper tree. —A handsome small woody simple-stemmed plant, with light green palmate leaves, woolly, especially beneath, which are retained through the winter if the shelter is sufficient, but in exposed places the stems are killed down, and spring up again the following season. Suitable only for the warmer parts of the kingdom. In China, its native country, the pith of this plant, cut out in sheets, forms the well-known rice paper. Garrya elliptica.—A handsoma shrub with dark green coriaceous leaves, and catkins of yellowish-green flowers in clusters near the tips of the branches, produced from November till February. It grows 5 to 10 feet high, and is very ornamental in winter. N. America, 1828. Griselixia.—A New Zealand genus closely related to the last. There are two species, G. littoralis and G. lucida, highly spoken of for planting on the south-west coast. They have oblique coriaceous shining leaves, and small inconspicuous flowers. IIelianthemum.—Prostrate, trailing, or erect under-slirubs, with yellow, white, or red flowers, resembling those of the genus Cistus, but much smaller. The species are numerous, and very similar in appearance; they succeed well on rock-work, and are suitable for the front row of borders on a warm dry soil, and the southwest parts of the kingdom. H. algarvcnse.—An erect-growing species about 2 or 3 feet high, with hairy leaves, and bright yellow flowers, each petal having a brown blotch at its base. A summer-flowering rather tender species. Portugal, 1800. H. formosum.—About 4 feet high, with tliree-nerved leaves, and very large flowers for the genus—yellow, with a purple blotch at the base of each petal, produced all the summer. Southern Europe, 1780. H. macrantnum.—A hardier species than either of the foregoing, with creamy-white flowers. There is also a double-flowered variety. Southern Europe. II. vulgare, rock rose or sun rose.—The varieties of this indigenous trailing species are the most desirable for general cultivation. The flowers, which are produced all the summer, vary in the different varieties from yellow in divers shades to rose and deep red. The varieties are found in gardens under the names croceum, roseum, surrejanum, grandiflorum, &c. There are also double-flowered varieties. Hypericum.—There is only the following truly evergreen hardy species, but several other species are enumerated uuder Deciduous Shrubs. H. calycinum, rose of Sharon or Aaron’s beard.—A dwarf shrub, with trailing underground stems forming thick tufts, bearing oblong glossy leaves, and showy yellow flowers, from 2 to 3 inches in diameter, and remarkable for their very numerous stamens. This is a most valuable plant for covering banks, &c., especially as it succeeds well in shady places and under trees. South-east of Europe, now naturalized in Britain. Iberis.—Several of the candytufts are shrubby evergreens, though usually classed with herbaceous plants. They are dwarf bushy plants with linear leaves, and a profusion of white, pink, or lilac flowers, produced in corymbs in winter, spring, and early summer. I. sempervirens is the common evergreen species; I. Garrexiana is a very hardy species, flowering earlier, and I. gibraltarica has very large flowers. I. semper-florens blooms in autumn and winter. Natives of the south of Europe, &c., thriving best in a warm border, where they make a good show in spring; and also suited for rockeries. Ilex.—Hollies are commonly seen in cultivation as shrubs, especially the variegated varieties of the common species. The perfect hardiness of these shrubs, and their ability to withstand the effects of the most violent winds, render them desirable for all situations. The common holly, also, forms one of the best hedges for shelter. The varieties enumerated iu nursery catalogues are exceedingly numerous, and the selection should depend upon the taste of the planter. It ought to be borne in mind, however, that some of the variegated varieties are much freer growers than others, a quality which should influence the choice. The Golden Queen, Moonlight, AVaterer’s, with yellow variegation, and the Handswortli and Milkmaid, silver variegated, are among the most vigorous growers in the variegated class. Of green-leaved varieties, Shcpherdii, laurifolia, marginata, rotundifolia, and miirtifolia are very handsome. The Hedgehog Holly, fcrox, is represented by green and white and yellow variegated varieties. There is also a highly ornamental weeping variety. Among other species in cultivation are: 7. cornuta, crenata, latifolia, and opaca, the last from North Ame-HARDY AEBOEEAL AND SHRUBBY PLANTS. 657 rica and the others from Japan. The Japanese species, particularly latifolia, are not so hardy as the varieties of the common holly. L auk us nobilis, sweet bay.—This, although attaining the dimensions of a tree of considerable size in favourable situations, is usually seen as a shrub. Except in low situations on cold stiff soils, it is hardy throughout Britain, and on gravelly or sandy soils it forms one of our most ornamental evergreens. The varieties undulata, salieifolia, and trispa differ in the form and size of their foliage. There is a variegated variety of no particular merit. Southern Europe, 15(32. Lavandula.—Several species of lavender are hardy, and deserving of a place in the shrubbery or flower-garden on account of their agreeable fragrance. They delight in a deep free soil, and flourish well near the sea. L. Spica (1508) and vera are the hardiest, but L. Stcechas and dcntata will succeed in the milder parts of the southwest. All have blue or lilac flowers, and are natives of the Mediterranean region. Ligustkum.—Some of the evergreen privets are very ornamental shrubs, having panicles of white fragrant flowers almost as large as those of the lilac. The eastern species thrive best in warm situations on a light soil. L. co rid an m.—A very distinct species, of compact habit, with stout branches, and thick glossy dark-green coriaceous ovate-oblong leaves. A native of Japan, of recent introduction. L. japonic um.—This is a very desirable ornamental shrub for planting near the sea; and it thrives in almost any kind of soil. It has broad smooth leaves, and large panicles of fragrant flowers in summer. Japan, 1845. There is a very handsome variety with variegated foliage. L. lucid uni—syn. L. ovalifolium.—This form was introduced from China in 1794. It differs from the last in its more slender habit, and smaller less decidedly evergreen leaves; height from 10 to 15 feet. There are beautiful variegated varieties of this. L. vidgctre.—The variety of the common privet called semper circus, or italic um, is almost truly evergreen, and very desirable for shrubberies, hedges, &c., as it will flourish on very poor light soils. Magnolia.—The evergreen species of this genus need protection in most places north of London, and therefore come under the category of shrubs. M. glauca.—This is evergreen only in the milder parts of the kingdom, where it attains as much as 20 feet in height. It has relatively small obovate or elliptical leaves, glaucous beneath, and white fragrant flowers, 2 to 3 ipches in diameter, appearing in May or June. There are several varieties, including Thompsoniana, longifolia, &c. North America, 1G88. M. grandiflora.—This is a magnificent subject for covering a warm wall of considerable height and extent. Its shining entire leaves are from 6 to 12 inches long, and the delicious lemon-scented white flowers nearly as much in diameter; the latter are produced from May or June till late in autumn. There are several varieties in cultivation: obovata, exoniensis, prcecox, and angusti-folia are among the best. North America, 1734. Myrica cerifera, candleberry, bayberry, or wax-myrtle.—Very near the sweet-gale, but it is nearly or quite evergreen. North America, 1699. The variety latifolia is described as being hardier than the type. Myrtus.—The common myrtle, J\I. communis, in its numerous varieties, can only be grown in the open in the south-west; in all other parts it requires the shelter of a wall, and during severe weather additional protection. But it well merits the little care necessary to preserve it. The myrtle is a native of the south of Europe, and bears the spray of the sea with impunity. The date of its introduction is probably about 1597. Osmanthus.—One species of this genus, 0. Aqui-folium, syn. O. ilicifolia, is ill cultivation. It is a native of Japan, and generally reported as hardy, though doubtless tender in low humid situations. In foliage it resembles the holly, but the leaves are smaller and opposite. The flowers are small, and of a greenish white. There are varieties with white and yellow variegation, and a dwarf one called nanus. Pernettya.—An American genus, the hardy species of which come from the extreme south. They are dwarf shrubs, with small dark-green rigid leaves and small white flowurs, succeeded by scarlet berries, which are very ornamental in winter. They thrive best in a peat soil, but they also do very well in a light loam, and will most likely flourish in the neighbourhood of the sea. P. mucronata.—This is the species commonly seen in gardens, from which the others differ only in minor details. It is a bush from 3 to 4 feet high. Strait of Magellan, 1828. Phillyrea.—Handsome bushy shrubs, with small undivided opposite leaves, and inconspicuous fragrant flowers, produced in early spring. There are many varieties intermediate between the following three principal forms. Natives of the south of Europe, thriving in any ordinary soil, and near the sea. P. an gust if alia.—This has narrow, quite entire leaves, and gi’ows from 8 to 10 feet high. Introduced in 1597. P. latifolia.—Of larger stature than the preceding, with ovate toothed leaves. Introduced in 1597. P. media.—Leaves sharp-pointed, slightly toothed, lanceolate-acuminate. This is the commonest form in British gardens. Introduced in 1597. Phlomis fruticosa, Jerusalem sage.—A shrubby plant of the labiate family, growing 4 or 5 feet high. It has oblong-lanceolate toothed leaves, clothed with a yellowish down. The flowers are yellow, in large axillary clusters, in June or July. Southern Europe, 1596. Photinia.—Handsome shrubs, with coriaceous leaves, and terminal panicles or corymbs of small white flowers, produced in summer. Not suitable for stiff soils in low situations. P. arbutifolia—syn. Cratcegus arbutifolia.—This species is a native of California, where it grows to a height of 10 to 20 feet. In its foliage it resembles the common arbutus. Introduced in 1796. P. serrulata—syn. Cratcegus glabra.—This has laurellike leaves, and attains a height of 15 feet in Britain. China and Japan, 1804. Pittosporum.—A few species of this genus are sufficiently hardy for the south-west or a wall. They have simple leaves, and white fragrant flowers. P. Tobira is a handsome shrub, 8 to 10 feet high, with glossy coriaceous leaves, and terminal clusters of flowers, produced throughout the summer. China, 1804. P. undidatum.—An Australian species in cultivation since ]789. It has pale green wavy leaves, with a dark brown midrib, and whitish flowers. Polygala Chamcebuxus.—This belongs to the same genus as the common milkwort, but it is larger in all its parts, growing from 6 to 12 inches in height. The 42G58 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. flowers are yellow and cream, tipped with purple. Mountains of Central Europe, introduced in 1G58. This little shrub prefers a peaty soil, but will succeed in sandy loam and leaf mould. Prinos glaber.—An evergreen shrub growing about 4 feet high, with small lanceolate leaves, and white flowers in July or August, succeeded by black berries. It is closely allied to the hollies. North America, 1759. Quercus Ilex, evergreen or holm oak.—This in its different varieties is often grown in a shrubby form, and is especially valuable for planting on the coast, and in town gardens. Rhamnus Alatcrnus.—In general appearance this shrub resembles a broad-leaved Phillyrea, but the leaves are alternate, and very variable in form. Nurserymen distinguish several of the more distinct forms, as lati-folius and angustifolius, and varieties with white or yellow variegation. Southern Europe, introduced before 1029. Succeeds well in all except heavy wet soils, growing to a height of 20 feet or more. Rhododendron ponticum.—"We mention this species here, as it will thrive in almost any ordinary soil if not too dry. There are many varieties as hardy as the type, and not more exacting as to the nature of the soil. Asia Minor and Gibraltar, 1703. The genus is more fully treated of in the section on the American Garden. Rosmarinus officinalis.—The rosemary in deep free soils attains a height of 0 to 8 feet, and should find a place in every shrubbery or mixed flower-garden. It flowers in winter or early spring, and flourishes on the coast. Southern Europe, cultivated since 1548. llUSCUS.—A peculiar genus of shrubs with leaf-like branches, white or greenish flowers, and red berries. R. aculcatus.—This is the native butcher’s broom, which succeeds well under trees and in town gardens, as the stems are renewed every second year. Flowers solitary on the upper surface of the dilated branches. The two sexes are borne on separate plants, hence the rarity of the berries in some plantations. R. racemosus, Alexandrian laurel.—This is a handsome shrub, with glossy dark-green leaves (branches), and terminal racemes of small flowers. It is a native of Portugal, and has been in cultivation since 1739. It grows 3 or 4 feet high. Santolina Chamcecyparissus, cotton lavender.—A dwarf compact shrub, 2 to 3 feet high, with small dense linear leaves, clothed with a close hoary pubescence, and furnished with four to six rows of short teeth projecting in all directions. The yellow flower-heads are borne on stalks from 0 to 12 inches long, and appear in June or July. S. squarrosa, incana, &c., are varieties of the same species. Southern Europe, in cultivation in 1573. Succeeds in a poor dry soil. Skimmia.—Dwarf shrubs with alternate entire glabrous leaves, having numerous transparent dots, and terminal panicles of remarkably fragrant white flowers, succeeded by scarlet berries. There are three or four species from Japan, all of comparatively recent introduction. They thrive in sheltered situations, but little is yet known respecting their hardiness. jSL japonica.—This was the first introduced, having appeared in English gardens in 1853. It is a very ornamental shrub when in full berry, and grows to a height of 2 or 3 feet. S. nhlata—syn. S. Vcitchii.—This has larger leaves and oblate brighter-coloured berries than the preceding. It is dioecious, the male or pollen-bearing plant being known as S. fragrantissima. Tamarix.—The species of this genus are almost evergreen, but they are included under Deciduous Shrubs. Ulex, furze.—The double-flowered variety of the furze, and indeed the single as well, are both valuable for shelter, and for planting close to the sea. It transplants badly, unless prepared or grown in pots; but can be readily established by sowing the seeds where it is desired to remain. Veronica.—Some of the New Zealand shrubby species are sufficiently hardy for the south and west coasts, and are exceedingly ornamental in winter and early spring. V. speciosa, with glossy oblong coriaceous leaves, and V. salicifolia and V. macrocarpa, with linear-lanceolate leaves, are the parents of the beautiful hybrids with white, blue, purple, red, or crimson flowers, including V. Andersoni, rersicolor, Lindleyana, kermesina, kc. Viburnum.—The only evergreen species of this genus in general cultivation is V. Tinus, the laurustinus. This is one of the most valuable of winter-flowering shrubs for all well-drained soils, and it flourishes with unusual luxuriance either on sand-rock, chalk, or limestone. There are several varieties: hirta is remarkable for the hairiness of its branches and leaves; lucida has larger and less abundant flowers than the common variety; and stricta is of more erect habit. It flourishes well in sheltered places near the sea. South of Europe, 1590. Vinca.—The periwinkles are low trailing shrubs, with glossy simple leaves and solitary axillary flowers, produced from March to May. Both are indigenous or naturalized in Britain, and thrive well in shady places. V. major.—This is the larger species growing a foot or more in height, with oval heart-shaped leaves, and large bright blue flowers. There are several varieties, including some handsome variegated ones. Those named elegantissima and aurco-reticulata are the best. V. minor.—Smaller in all its parts and more carpetlike in habit than the preceding. There are blue, reddish-purple, and white single and double-flowered varieties, and others in which the foliage is variegated with white or yellow. VlMDM album, mistleto.—This native parasite may be introduced sparingly in those parts of the country where it is rare. It will grow on the lime, poplar, thorn, apple, and a great variety of other trees. Ripe berries should be inserted in small niches of the bark. Yucca.—The species of this genus form a distinct feature in the garden, as they are totally unlike any other quite hardy shrubs. They are stemless, or form stems from 0 to 10 feet high; leaves narrow and rigid, often sharp-pointed; flowers large, bell-shaped, white, in large much-branched panicles. The hardy species are natives of the southern states of North America, and they succeed best in a well-drained warm soil, on mounds, and in the vicinity of the sea. Y. gloy'iosa is the hardiest and the most free-flowering; it forms a branched stem, 6 feet or more in height in favourable situations. Y. rccurvifolia is a similar plant, but it has recurved, not sharp-pointed leaves. 1". canaliculata has rigid channelled leaves, and is very handsome when in flower. Y. filamentosa is almost stemless, and is remarkable for the loose threads on the margin of the leaves. There are several other handsome species and varieties that would succeed in the south-west.HARDY WOODY CLIMBERS, &c. 659 n. HARDY WOODY CLIMBERS, &c. (a) evergreens. Akebia 7irinata.—A pretty twining plant, with smooth palmate® dialled leaves on long stalks, each leaflet also stalked. Flowers small, violet-red, appealing in spring. Hardy only in the milder parts of the United Kingdom. Japan, IS45. Berber idopsis coral Una (Fig. 360).—A very ornamental climbing shrub, with simple oblong spiny leaves, resembling those of a B^rberis, and terminal drooping racemes of crimson flowers. Suitable for the south-west of England and Ireland. Chili, 1862. Bridgesia. See Ercilla. Ercilla sj/icata—syn. Bridgesia spicata.—This shrub climbs or clings after the manner of ivy, and for warm situations it is a very welcome addition to our rather limited number of evergreens of this class. It has simple toothed dark green leaves, and reddish flowers, produced in great profusion in spring. Chili, 1810. Euonymus rodicans.—The varieties of this ornamental shrub are well suited for covering small spaces of wall in warm situations. They climb in the same manner as the ivy, by emitting clinging roots from the branches, and their leaves are pressed flat against the wall. Hedera.—Among evergreen climbers the ivies take the first rank; indeed there are few other really hardy subjects of tills class. Nothing is so useful for covering unsightly walls of any aspect, objectionable buildings, or for carpeting shady banks, &c. Their absolute hardiness is another valuable quality, as there is no danger of a severe winter laying bare ivy-covered walls. The varieties in cultivation at the present time are exceedingly numerous, and many of them highly ornamental. The “gold” and “silver” variegated varieties, and the cut-leaved varieties, should be employed only where the space is small or moderately large, and in preference against a uorth wall. The former include marbled, margined, striped, spotted, blotched, and other kinds of variegation, usually expressed by the name of the variety. There are also tricoloured variegations in which red is one of the elements. The same remark applies to those having cut or lobed leaves, as palmala, pedata, sagittce-folia,kc. The common II. Helix and those green-leaved varieties sold by nurserymen under the names canari-ensis, algeriensis, and Rvcgneriana, &c., are suitable for covering larger spaces. The additional varieties named have usually larger bolder foliage than the common one, and they bear the name of giant ivy in common. The | tree ivies of the nurseries are plants propagated from I the flowering branches of the others in which the habit | is more or less erect, and all the leaves undivided. The common forms have black berries, but there is a fine I yellow-berried form called chrysocarpa and baccifera lidea. Jasminum.—Some of the species of this genus are ! nearly evergreen, and J. revobdum, more particularly, ] is a valuable shrub for covering house-fronts near the i sea in the south-west. They are of rambling, not strictly | climbing, habit, and the flowers of most of the species have an agreeable fragrance. J. fndicans.—This is an almost erect-growing halfevergreen species, with glossy tliree-leafleted leaves, and yellow flowers, produced all through the summer. Southern Europe, introduced in 1570. J. revolution.—This has pinnate leaves of great substance, and yellow very sweet-scented flowers, borne in large terminal clusters all through the summer. A native of the mountains of Northern India, introduced in 1812. J. pubigerum is a variety in which the young shoots and leaves are hairy. Kadsura japonica.—A trailing rather tender shrub, from Japan, with simple leaves, and solitary axillary yellowish-white flowers about an inch in diameter, succeeded by heads of scarlet berries. Introduced in 1846, and reported to prefer a peaty soil. Lardizabala biternata.—A tall rapid growing climber, with glossy, dark green, twice ternate leaves, and purplish dowel's in drooping racemes, appearing in December and January. It flourishes admirably in the milder parts of the kingdom. Chili, 1848. Loxicera.—Some of the honeysuckles are evergreen, except in very severe winters, and this character, combined with deliciously odoriferous flowers, renders them desirable for covering walls near window's and door-ways. Being of twining habit they may be utilized in various wrays. L. broxkypoda.—One of the best of the evergreen species. It has oval or oblong shining leaves, and pale-yellow sw'eet-soented flowers, borne in pairs. Unlike the common honeysuckle, its flowering season is of long duration. The variety aureo-reticulata has the leaves beautifully netted or variegated with yellow', with a mixture of red tow’ards autumn. L. japonica (syn. L. sinensis), a native of the mountains of Northern India and of China and Japan, introduced in 1806, is also a variety of this species. In severe winters it is sometimes cut dowm to the ground by frost, even wiien planted against a wall. L. sem/jercirens, evergreen or trumpet honeysuckle.—G60 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. This is not strictly evergreen though it bears the name. It has glaucous stem-clasping leaves, and terminal clusters of showy flowers, scarlet outside and yellow within. It should be noted that the flowers of this species are not fragrant, but they are produced in profusion throughout the summer, if planted in a light rich soil in an open sunny situation. There are several varieties in cultivation; major or Bromrii has larger, more brilliantly coloured flowers than the type. North America, 1656. Rosa.—A few of the climbing roses are evergreen or sub-evergreen, and not so often seen as they deserve to be. R. semperrirens, evergreen rose.—This has long hooked prickles, shining glabrous leaves, and clustered fragrant flowers of medium size. There are several double-flowered varieties; among the best, Donna Maria, pure white; Princesse Marie, bright rose, cupped. Southern Europe, 1629. Smilax aspera.—An elegant climbing shrub, furnished with crooked spines and tendrils. Leaves heart-shaped, with five longitudinal ribs. Flowers small, whitish or red, male and female on separate plants, the latter, when fertilized, succeeded by clustered scarlet or black berries. Southern Europe, 1656. Suitable for covering a small extent of wall. Stauxtoxia latifolia—syn. Ilolbiillia hitifolia.—An ornamental climber, suitable only for the milder parts of the kingdom. It has ample palmately-divided leaves, and curious purplish flowers. Northern India, 18-15. (b) deciduous. Actixidia poh/gama—syn. Trochostigma polggamnm.— A deciduous climber, with heart-shaped loaves on long slender stalks, and white fragrant flowers in summer, succeeded by edible berries. Japan, 1870. Ampelopsis. —These extremely useful hardy climbers are now generally included by botanists in the genus I 'ills, but for garden purposes we retain the present more familiar name. .1. bipinnata.—A beautiful hardy tendrilled climber of slender growth, growing from 10 to 20 feet high, and of comparatively slow growth. The leaves are bipin-nately divided, with the leaflets cut at the edges," and the inconspicuous greenish flowers are in short panicles. North America, 1700. A, hcderaiva, Virginian creeper.—This rapid-growing climber, which quickly attains from 30 to 50 feet in height, is one of the most useful of plants for covering blank wall surfaces or fringing balconies; and in exposed situations its brilliant crimson autumnal tints are most picturesque. Like the vine, to which it is so closely allied, its branches are furnished with tendrils, by means of which it climbs. The leaves are digitate, usually of five oblong pointed toothed leaflets, whence it is also called A, ip'inijuefolia; flowers small, green, panicled, inconspicuous. There is a hairy-leaved variety. North America, 1629. A. serjaniajblia.—An elegant climbing plant, having palmate leaves, with five leaflets, the two outer of which are three-lobed and the three inner ones ternate or pinnate, with the rachis articulately winged. North China and Japan, 1S66. .1. trieuxpidatec—syn. A.Veitchii, A, Roylei.—A beautiful rapid-growing slender climber, provided with short branched tendril-like holdfasts, each branch of which is provided with a sucker or disc by means of which it holds fast to the surface with which it comes in contact, whether stone, brick, or tree bark. Its slender stems are at first provided with simple cordate toothed leaves, lying closely over each other; as it gains vigour they become three-lobed, and eventually they are divided to the base into three leaflets; the colour is a light, tender green, flushed with red in summer, changing to brilliant crimson in autumn. It is a most elegant miniature creeper, and, like the older form, thrives well even in the smoke of towns. The flowers are, as in the other species, inconspicuous. It clings so closely by its suckers that once set going no nails or shreds are required. Japan, 1864. Arauja.—See Physiaxthus. Aristolochia.—Twining shrubs, with large heart-shaped leaves, and curiously-shaped, usually dull-coloured flowers. Besides the species mentioned below, there are several others in cultivation, but all the hardy or half hardy ones are more curious than beautiful. A. Sipbo, Dutchman’s pipe.—This is worth growing for its ample ornamental heart-shaped foliage. The tubular curved flowers are constricted at the mouth with a spreading three-lobed limb, and in colour are dull yellow streaked with purple; they appear in May or June, but being of a dull colour, and produced in the axils of the leaves, they are easily overlooked. North America, 1763. Succeeds best in a light soil and warm situation. Bigxoxia eapreolata.—A climbing shrub, with conjugate leaves terminating in a tendril, and numerous solitary axillary reddish-yellow flowers, appearing in June and July. Very ornamental against a wall with a sunny aspect. North America, 1710. Clematis.—For the rapidity of its growth, for the variety, size, and brilliancy of its flowers, and for the elegance of its feathery carpels, this is the richest genus in our enumeration. The species have simple ternate or pinnate leaves, the stalks of which twine round other plants, and some of the flower-stalks are usually converted into tendrils. The flowers are white or some shade or blending of blue, red, or yellow. The numerous hybrid varieties of recent acquisition are exceedingly beautiful, and nurserymen are gradually banishing most of the original species for the more showy hybrid productions. Almost all of them thrive well on a chalky soil, and flower in summer. C. alpina—syn. Atragene alpina.—A dwarf climber from 3 to 4 feet high, with triternate leaves, and solitary violet-blue flowers on long stalks, appearing in May or June. An ornamental species for covering a small space. C. sibirica is a variety with yellowish-white flowers. Mountains of Southern Europe, kc., 1792. C. F/ammula,—This is the small-flowered species in general cultivation, and one of the hardiest and most, ornamental of the genus for covering trellises, arbours, walls, kc. It has exceedingly elegant pinnate dark-green leaves, and pure white fragrant flowers, produced in great profusion from July till October. There are several slight varieties, but they are not worth distinguishing here. This species also flourishes admirably on the chalk hills near the sea. Southern Europe, kc., 1596. C. florida.—Another eastern species, of which there are many beautiful varieties in gardens. It was the first of the large-flowered Japanese species introduced, having been in cultivation since about 1776. There are I both single and double flowered varieties, with whiteHARDY WOODY CLIMBERS, &c. GG1 flowers tinged with green. C. Sieboldii is a variety in which the flowers have a purple-violet centre. C. Fortnnei.—A Japanese species or variety introduced in 1S63; it has rather thick leaves, and large white double fragrant flowers, about 6 inches across, and consisting of about 100 sepals. This is said to be hardier than the other eastern species. C. Lucie Lemoine is an improved and refilled variety of this type, with purer white and more symmetrically double flowers. C. Jlendersoni.—A garden form of uncertain origin which has long been in cultivation. It is hardier than some of the recent hybrids, and still raised in quantity by nurserymen. The flowers are reddish-violet, and about inches across. C. Jack man ni. —We mention this here to put on record one of the first of the magnificent hybrid varieties raised by Mr. Jackman of Woking. It has large rich violet-purple flowers, with broadly oval petals, and is still one of the best, not only on account of its rich colours, but its habit of flowering continuously, in succession, up to the advent of frosts. The varieties called rubella and celutina purpurea are equally fine, but of different shades of purple, while tunbridgensis is of a deep bluish mauve; and Star of India is plum-coloured with red bars. C. Ian ugihosa.—This has relatively large, usually simple heart-shaped leaves, hairy beneath, and very large and very handsome pale blue or lilac flowers, produced in summer. The variety pallida has flowers as much as 9 or 10 inches in diameter. This enters largely into the hybrid varieties, which are becoming rather numerous, though they are not ephemeral. Some of the more desirable are la ngu inosa nicea, alba mag mi, Otto Froe-btl, LaxLj Caroline Xecill, Laicsoniana, and the blue double-blossomed Countess of Lorelace. China, 1851. C. inoutaua.—An exceedingly hardy highly ornamental species, with white flowers of medium size. It is very valuable on account of its early blooming season, in mild seasons commencing towards the end of April. Mountains of Northern India, introduced in the second or third decade of the present century. C. oriental is.—A yellow-flowered species from Northwestern Asia, introduced in 1731. It is quite hardy, and the medium-sized flowers are produced in autumn. C. patens— svn. C.azurea.—A Japanese species, introduced in 183(1, having bluish-lilac flowers, 5 to 6 inches across, produced about May and June. There are several varieties in cultivation which were imported direct from Japan. It is one of the species from which many garden hybrids have been raised. A few good and distinct varieties of this type are Miss Bateman, Vesta., Fair Rosamond, Lad*/ Lond.tsborou.gh, Sir Garnet Wolseleg, and Stella. C. Viorna.—This species has flowers of a different form from any of the preceding. They are pendulous, tubular, and inflated, and the sepals curled backwards at the top, of a leathery consistence, and yellowish-white tinged with purple. North America, 1730. C. Vitalba, old man’s beard or lady’s bower.—This indigenous species is of rapid growth, and suitable for covering unsightly objects. It has small, greenish-white, fragrant flowers in August, followed by ornamental feathery carpels, which render the plant very ornamental in winter. C. Viticella.—A very variable species, and one of the parents of many of the hybrid varieties recently raised. Flowers purple, blue, violet, or rose, of medium size, j appearing all through the summer. Southern Europe, j 15(59. Clianthuspuniceus, parrot flower.—A handsome shrub, with pinnate leaves, and showy papilionaceous scarlet flowers in May or June. It is of erect habit, but it requires the protection of a wall, except in the most favoured localities, and is very well suited in habit for training. New Zealand, 1832. Decumaria sarmentosa.—A trailing shrub of small . . . . ° size, with simple leaves and white flowers, only produced in warm situations. North America, 1834. Forsythia suspensa.—A trailing or half-climbing shrub, with very long slender branches, bearing both simple ; and trifoliolate leaves. Flowers yellow, exceedingly ; numerous, borne in spring before the foliage appears. | Japan, 1845. Glycine. See Wistaria. Humulus Lupulus, common hop.—This, although an j herbaceous twiner, we include here, because it is an agreeable plant to introduce with other climbers for covering summer houses, &c., the odour of its catkins being very I invigorating to most people. The sexes are borne on different plants, and it is the female that produces the hop. Jasminum.—The deciduous jasmines in general cultivation are limited to the two following, both of which I are deservedly great favourites. J. nudicaule.—This species has yellow flowers, pro-! duced throughout the whole length of the flexible green branches from November onwards through the winter. China, 1844. J. officinale, common white jasmine.—This elegant climber is fast growing, and will soon cover a large space. Its slender deep-green branches give it the appearance j of an evergreen, although its leaves are deciduous. In ' its beautiful pinnate leaves and pure white sweet-scented | flowers, it is unequalled by any other of its class. It j blooms from May till October, but a light moist soil is necessary to induce free-flowering. There is a double-flowered variety, and one with variegated foliage, neither of them of great merit. Asia, 1548. Lapageria rosea.—A handsome climbing shrub, with I 5-nerved leaves, and large bell-shaped flowers of a deep I rosy red or white, and of great substance, keeping fresh j for a long time after being cut. On walls and trellises in the south-west it is one of the most effective climbers | we have, requiring a deep and rather moist soil. It I appears to bear frost with impunity. Patagonia, 1847. Lonicera.—The deciduous honeysuckles rank equal with the jasmines in the fragrance of their flowers. Those here enumerated are of twining habit. Their foliage is | less ornamental and durable than some other climbing shrubs. Some species, although not strictly evergreen, are enumerated under that class, and it is unnecessary to repeat them here. L. Caprifolium—syn. Caprifolium italicum.—This resembles the common honeysuckle, but the clusters of flowers are seated close upon the upper connate leaves. It blooms in summer. Southern Europe, long in cultivation, and now naturalized in some parts of Britain. L. flava.—A yellow-flowered rather tender species, from North America, introduced in 1810. The flowers are large and very fragrant. In foliage it approaches the evergreen honeysuckle. L. flexuosa.—A handsome Japanese species with long lanceolate leaves, hairy and purplish below when young.G62 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Flowers pink and yollow, borne in pairs, very fragrant, appearing in summer. One of tho best of the eastern species. Introduced in 1804. L. fragrantissima.—This species produces its small, white, highly odoriferous flowers in February, before the appearance of the leaves. China, 1845. L. Perichjmen urn, common honeysuckle or woodbine.— This indigenous species equals, if it does not surpass, an}' of the exotic ones in cultivation. There are several varieties, differing in the size and brilliancy of the flowers, kc. The Dutch honeysuckle, L. belgica, is one very commonly grown; L. serotina is the lato red of the nurseries; and L. qucrcifolia has lobed leaves, similar to those of the oak. L. Standishii.—Very near L. fragrantissima, but having pink and white flowers. China, 18(30. Lycium.—Rambling shrubs, with small narrow leaves, and small purple-violet or red flowers. The branches are very long and slender, and more or less armed with small thorns. L. barbarum, box thorn or tea tree.—This has violet-red flowers and a scarlet fruit, and is a rapid-growing climber, thriving in almost any situation, and bearing the smoke of towns and the sea breezes with equal impunity; in short, it should bo tried where nothing else will thrive. Its flowers, although not large and showy, compensate in numbers, and are produced all through the summer. Southern Europe, 1730. L. eino/xeum, chinense, kc., differ very little from L. barbarum,of which they are probably mere varieties. MKHTBFF.RlflJU canadense, moonseed.—A tall-growing ornamental climber, with large heart-shaped or kidneyshaped peltate leaves, and panicles of small yellowish-green flowers, succeeded by clusters of black berries resembling small grapes. This hardy climber deserves to bo more widely known than it is at present. It should be noted that the male and female flowers are borne on different plants. North America, 1713, or beforo. Mutisia.—This is a large genus belonging to the Contposit/K(.—A slirubby species of compact pyramidal outline, which will not bear our severest winters. Chili. Pick a.—Grand evergreen trees of symmetrical growth. The genus differs from Amts in the mature cones being erect, and in the foliage usually being two-ranked. They may be divided into two groups, in one of which the bracts of the cone project beyond the outer scales, while in the other they are shorter than the scales. P. anmSmis.—1TBs is one of the finest of the genus, with beautiful dark glossy green foliage, silvery beneath. It grows tall and straight, with a slender conical habit. North California, 1831. P. halxamea, balsam, or balm of Gilead fir.—This resembles the silver fir, but it attains only a small size, 40 to 50 feet, and is liable to early decay. Very hardy. North America, 1696. P. bradeata.—A tall slender tree, with leaves 2 to 3 inches long, and long slender bracts. As a young plant it starts into growth so early in spring that it is almost always injured by the late frosts. California, 1850. P. cephalo/tica.—A handsome tree, 50 to 60 feet high, with the rigid sharp-pointed leaves regularly disposed like a stiff bottle-brush all around the branches. It commences its growth early, and is thus liable to be injured bv frost. It should always be planted in very elevated situations and on cold soils. P. Piusapo is to be preferred for all except mild sheltered localities. Cepha-lonia, 1824. P. grand is.—A handsome hardy species, 100 to 250 feet high. Leaves distichous, dark green above, silvery beneath. North California, 1831. P. itobilis.—A very distinct and beautiful species, bearing its large erect cones while still quite young. As seen in our gardens it has crowded curved thick leaves of a glaucous, bluish-green tinge, afterwards assuming a darker hue. A very lofty Californian tree, perfectly hardy in this country. 1831. P. Sorduianniana (PI. XIII.).—Another very distinct and desirable hardy species, from the countries bordering the Black Sea, 80 to 100 feet. The leaves are dark green and shining above, and silvery beneath. Resembles the silver fir, but is both handsomer and hardier. 1845. P. Parsonsii—syn. P. Lowiana, P. lasiocarpa of gardens.—A very handsome hardy species, with spreading leaves 2 to 3 inches long, and yellow bark on the young branches. It is said to attain a height of 250 feet in its native country. California, 1860. P. pectinata, silver fir.—This is quite hardy, save that when young it is often very much crippled by spring frosts. Central Europe, 1630. P. Pichta.—Probably a variety of the last, and equally liable to be frost-bitten. Siberia, 1820. P. Pindrow and P. IVebbiana, from Northern India, are fine species, with long flexible leaves, and purple cones, but they are spring tender. P. Pinsapo.—A splendid hardy tree resembling P. cephalon ica, but the light-green leaves are stouter and less sharply pointed, and not like it liable to be injured. A symmetrical densely branching tree, 50 to 70 feet high, deservedly a great favourite, and one of the finest ornaments of our shrubberies. Mountains of Spain, 1839. Pinus.—This genus includes a large number of species, from which we select the following as the most desirable for various purposes. As limited here, it consists of evergreen trees with needle-shaped leaves invested at the base with a membranous sheath. The number in each sheath is so far constant in different species as to furnish a sectional character; and as this character is easily seen we make use of it here. § 1. Leaves usually Two in each Sheath. P. austriaca, Austrian pine.—A tree 60 to 120 feet high, with dark green leaves 2J to 4 inches long. A valuable tree for shelter and for planting in exposed situations. It will succeed in almost any soil except that which is very wet. Some recent accounts of it from Scotland are, however, less favourable. Styria, 1835. P. Banlsiana—syn. P. rupestris, divaricata, &c., scrub pine.—This is a dwarf, bushy, extremely hardy species, with leaves about an inch long. In warmer climates it attains a larger size, suitable for planting in rocky places. Extreme north of America, 1735. P. densifiora.—This is a desirable hardy species, from the northern parts of Japan. It has very small clustered cones. P. Laricio, Corsican pine.—Similar to the Austrian pine, but the leaves are more spreading and curved or wavy. The principal varieties are:—pygmeea, a dwarf trailing bush with short rigid leaves; contort a, with distorted branches; and caramanica or romana, intermediate in aspect between this and P. austnaca. Corsica, 1759. P. montana—syn. P. Pumilio.—A small tree or shrub. The variety nana, called the knee pine, does not grow more than 2 or 3 feet high. P. Mu.gho also belongs here. Mountains of Europe, 1779. P. Pinaster—syn. P. rnaritimci, cluster pine.—This species is of irregular growth, with leaves 6 inches to 1 foot long, and clustered woody cones. It attains a height of 60 to 80 feet. A valuable species for planting in exposed situations near the sea. P. Pima, stone pine.—This forms when mature a small round-headed tree, 20 to 30 feet high, of very striking aspect. It is much admired by painters, and is often represented in Italian views. It makes few roots, and is consequently difficult to transplant. Mediterranean region, 1548. P. sylvestns, Scotch pine.—A dense-growing tree, with glaucous foliage; is not so handsome when young as some other species, but it makes a grand old tree. A common European forest species, wild in Scotland. Other hardy species of this section are P. Pctllasiana (taurica), from Siberia, and P. mitis, inops> and resinosa, from North America.666 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. § 2. Leaves usually Three in each Sheath. P. Benthamiana.—A very large tree, with stout horizontal distant branches, and flexible, not glaucous, leaves, 8 to 12 inches long. P. ponderosa is united with this by some writers, but the plant in nurseries under the latter name has slenderer branches and shorter leaves. North-western America, 1826. P. Bungeana.—A moderate-sized tree, with rigid leaves 2 to 3 inches long. China, 1864. P. Fremontiana—syn. P. mouophylla. A small slow-growing tree, leaves rigid, 2 to 3 inches long. Mountains of California, 1848. P. insigtiis—syn. P. cali/ornica.—This is an exceedingly handsome species, with rich deep green twisted foliage. In valleys or damp situations it succumbs in severe winters, and small plants need protection; but it is nevertheless an indispensable species for the sea-coast and well-drained soils. California, 1833. P. macrocarpa—syn. P. Coulteri, large-coned pine.— This is a fine hardy species, of very robust growth, with glaucous leaves, 9 to 12 inches long, and cones a foot long. It attains a height of 80 to 100 feet, and even in its early stages has a majestic aspect. Mountains of California, 1832. P. rigida, pitch pine.—A variable tree, according to situation, quite hardy and of vigorous growth when young. Eastern United States, 1750. P. Sabiniaiia.—A tree attaining 40 to 100 feet in height in its native country; the leaves very long, glaucous. Said to be tender in some localities, but we believe it is quite hardy, except perhaps in the coldest inhabited parts of Britain. California, 1832. § 3. Leaves usually Five in each Sheath. P. Cembra, Siberian stone pine.—A very slow-growing species, at least the variety commonly met with in nurseries, which is probably the Siberian form. The Swiss form is said to grow from 50 to 80 feet high. The variety pygmata is an extremely diminutive pine, attaining, it is affirmed, a height of only 5 or 6 feet in a hundred years. The leaves are short and closely-appressed to the stem, and, like most of the following, of a glaucous hue. Introduced 1746. P. excelsa, Bhotan pine (PI. XIII.).—A handsome slender tree with loose foliage of a silvery-gray colour. This is perhaps the most desirable species of this section, being a rapid grower, and freely producing its ornamental cones. Mountains of Northern India, 1823. P.flexilis, wavy-branched pine.—A small slow-growing species, with short rigid leaves. Mountains of California, 1863. P. Lindleyana.-—One of the long-leaved species of this group, few of which are hardy in Britain, and this is probably not quite so. This and several other forms are now referred to P. Monlezumce. Mountains of Mexico, 1839. P. monticola.—A compact conical and hardy tree, resembling P. Strobus, but denser, with shorter lighter-coloured leaves, which arc silvery glaucous when young. Northern California, 1831. P. Strobus, Weymouth pine.—A tall tree, producing the American white pine timber. As a young tree it is remarkably ornamental, but loses in beauty with age. The bark of tliis species is quite smooth, and of a pale ash-gray. North America, 1705. Podocarpus.—This genus belongs to the same group as the yew, and has similar foliage. The fruit is fleshy and drupoid. P. andina—syn. Prumnopityselegans.—A small spreading tree or shrub, with coriaceous glossy leaves in two rows and about an inch long. From the alpine regions of Southern Chili, introduced in 1863. It is worth mentioning that our leading nurserymen still offer this plant under both names. Possibly they may have different plants under these two names, but there is no doubt, from authentic specimens, that the names quoted belong to one and the same species. P. japonica—syn. P. chinensis and P. coriacea of gardens, Taxus japonica.—This so closely resembles the Irish yew in habit and foliage that the incurious might pass it for that, but the branches are stouter, and the leaves 2 to 3 inches long and nearly a third of an inch wide, and silvery beneath. P. nubigena.—A large tree, with linear-lanceolate leaves. Mountains of Chili and Patagonia, introduced in 1848. We know nothing respecting the constitution of this species. Retinospora.—Elegant hardy evergreen shrubs or trees, with imbricate or spreading leaves. Some botanists refer the species to Cupressus, whilst others consider them to form a distinct genus (Chameecypans), to which also some of the species we have noted under Cupressus are referred. It. ericoides—syn. Cupressus ericoides.—A dwarf compact conical bush with spreading leaves, assuming a ruddy tint in winter. This is probably one of the states of 11. squarrosa or leptoclada, but very little is known of the affinities of some of the forms collected under this genus. Japan, 1845. R. leptoclada—syn. R. squarrosa leptoclada.—An erect-growing compact shrub, with glaucous-green, imbricate foliage. Japan. It. obtusa.—A very distinct and beautiful species, described as a tree 60 to 100 feet high. Only known, like most of this genus, in a young state in this country. It has closely imbricated, obtuse, tubercled leaves, of a | deep-green in exposed parts, silvery below and where shaded. R. lycopodioidcs is a variety in which some of the leaves are subulate and spreading; aurea and argeniea are prettily variegated varieties; and pygmcea (syn. Thuja pygmcea) is a miniature form. Japan, 1850. R. pisifera.—A desirable small tree, with slender, feathery, light-green branchlets, and scale-like, very sharp-pointed, imbricated leaves. There is a variety attrea, variegated with gold and green, and a variety argentea, with silvery foliage. Japan, 1852. R. plumosa.—The forms under this name probably belong to R. squarrosa. They are exceedingly beautiful in the young state. The variety argenteo-variegata has soft, silvery, and pale-green acicular leaves and very slender branchlets. Japan, 1850. Salisburia adiantifolia—syn. Ginlgo biloba, maidenhair tree.—This is a hardy deciduous tree, attaining a height of 50 or more feet. Its remarkable fan-shaped coriaceous leaves are very peculiar in this family. China and Japan, 1754. Saxe-Goth.p.a conspicua.—A small tree with yew-like foliage, from the Andes of Patagonia, and too tender for our climate generally. Sciadoiutys verticillata, umbrella pine.—A lofty hardy evergreen tree, 50 to 150 feet high. Leaves 2 to 4 inchesHARDY CONIFERS. long and about a sixth of an inch broad, whorled. A very singular and beautiful tree from Japan, 1861. Sequoia.—Gigantic evergreen trees, with linear spreading or scale-shaped and imbricated leaves, and small cones. This genus is at present limited to two species, which rank with the largest trees known. S. gigantea—syn. U"ellingtonia gigantea, mammoth-tree.—This tree probably exceeds all others of the northern hemisphere in height and dimensions, having been found, it is affirmed, upwards of 400 feet high—a height which the gum-trees of Australia alone approach. The Wellingtonia was first discovered by Douglas in 1831, and Lobb was the first to introduce it to this country in 1853. It is of very rapid growth, and appears to be perfectly hardy in England, though when young the foliage is sometimes discoloured by frost. It luxuriates in deep soil of very diversified quality, rather inclining to moisture than otherwise. It does not transplant so well as many things, especially if left in the same place for several years. Unlike other evergreens it can be more safely removed in early spring than in autumn. Sierra Nevada in Upper California. S. sempercinns—syn. Taxodium semper lire ns, redwood. —This, although not so colossal in its proportions, towers to the height of from 200 to 300 feet. This is scarcely so hardy as the Wellingtonia, though it thrives very well in thoroughly drained soils, and is less frequently met with in cultivation. In aspect it is very different, the leaves being linear, about half an inch long, and spreading in two ranks. Also a native of California, introduced in 1843. Like the last it grows very rapidly in favourable situations. Taxodium distichnm, deciduous or bald cypress.— This is one of the few deciduous conifers, and forms a handsome tree, sometimes exceeding 100 feet in height. It has linear leaves, in two ranks, variable in length; and succeeds best in sheltered situations in a moderately rich moist soil. It is peculiar for forming hollow humps or knaurs on the roots. Swamps of the eastern states of North America, introduced before 1640. Taxus.—The true yews may be known by their peculiar fruit in a coloured fleshy cup. Much difference of opinion exists as to the number of species of which the genus consists. T. baccata, common yew.—One of the hardiest and most useful of evergreens, attaining great age, and the dimensions of a small tree, but in the shrubby form exceedingly valuable for hedges and close screens. The varieties of this species are very numerous, and many of them highly ornamental. One of the most familiar is the narrow upright-growing fastigiata, or Irish yew; cheshuntiensis is intermediate in habit between the common and Irish; Docasfonihas pendulousbranchlets; nana is a very inches to 1 foot apart, .according to size. If frosts occur after planting, they must be protected with hoops and mats, furze, or other means; and the same precautions should be taken in the case of seedlings which come up late in autumn or early in spring. The young plants sometimes flower in a month or two after coming up, but it is not advisable to allow them to expand their blossoms so early, as the plant is thereby greatly weakened, and no decisive opinion can be formed as to the merits of the flowers thus prematurely produced. Many will flower in the second season, others not till the third or fourth year. When the plants come into bloom, all those with single flowers should be discarded; the most promising of the others should be preserved till a correct opinion as to their merits can be arrived at. Cuttings may be struck at any time during the spring, summer, and autumn. Those of the Bour-sault, Hybrid Chinese, Hybrid Bourbon, Hybrid Perpetual, and Ayrshire roses may be struck in a shady border. The cuttings should be about 9 inches in length, and are best taken off with a heel. They may be inserted into the ground to the depth of about 6 inches, and 3 inches apart, in rows 1 foot asunder. In the following autumn they will be fit for planting out. In the case of cuttings put in about the end of September or beginning of October, a border should be made of light soil on the north side of a hedge or wall; and the cuttings be made 6 inches in length, from well-ripened wood, with a small portion of the old wood to form a heel. The cuttings may be put in thickly, pressed firmly into the soil, well watered, and covered with hand-glasses, which can remain on till the cuttings are rooted in spring. A great number will root without the protection of hand-glasses, but when this is attempted, the cuttings require to be made 9 to 12 inches in length, and planted, at least, 6 to 8 inches deep, and the soil trodden firmly to them. An occasional watering with clear lime water will destroy any worms that may work among and disturb the cuttings. In the spring, when the cuttings are found to be rooted, they may be taken up and potted singly into small pots, and placed in a cold frame where they can be shaded from the sun, until sufficiently hardened to be planted out of doors. Although the above classes of roses may be thus struck from cuttings, there are others, such as the Bourbon, China, and Tea-scented, which require more careful treatment. In autumn, before the fall of the leaf, the cuttings ought to be taken off about 3 or 4 inches long, and with a heel. When prepared they should be inserted 1 inch deep round the edges of 4-incli pots filled with a mixture of turfy loam, leaf-mould, and silver sand. A gentle watering having been given, the cutting pots should be placed in a frame, and the sashes shut up; but air should be occasionally given to dispel damp. The cuttings will be rooted in the following spring. Cuttings may also be easily struck if taken off in summer, immediately after the plants have flowered, prepared, and potted as above, set in a cold frame for a few days, and then placed in bottom-heat. When rooted they should be potted off, replaced in heat till again established, then removed to a cold frame, and hardened off. Lastly, where roses are forced, cuttings may be struck in a few weeks, if placed in a bottom-heat of about 75°, in spring. Where bottom-heat is employed, the cuttings may consist of only a single joint of well-ripened young wood. Layering is not much practised; it is, however, a sure and easy mode of propagation. The method of layering which is chiefly employed is that represented in Fig. 205 (p. 295). It is best performed in June or July, in which case the layers will generally be fit to be separated from the parent plant in the autumn of the same year; but if the process of layering is not commenced till a later period of the season, they will not, in general, be fit for removal till the following year. It is necessary to observe, that the ground in which the branch is laid should be made fine. Suckers are often produced, and these if taken off in autumn, either with or without roots, will generally grow. Budding is the mode by which the varieties are chiefly perpetuated. The stocks usually employed are the dog rose, and the varieties known by the names Celina, Boursault, and Manetti. The dog rose is in general the best stock. It is obtained from the hedges, whence it may be removed in autumn or early in spring. Well-ripened Backers, and plants two or three yeai's old, free from side branches, are to be preferred; and their roots having been trimmed, the tops shortened to from 6 inches to 4 feet, according to the height at which they are to be budded, and side branches removed, they may be planted in nursery rows. When the buds begin to push in spring the whole of them should be rubbed off, with the exception of two or three situated nearestTHE HOSE GARDEN. 677 the top—if three, the preferable number, they should form a triangle. Stocks raised from seed of the dog rose are now being much used for dwarf roses. The Celina makes a good stock for Bourbons and Noisettes, and may be readily propagated by cuttings. The blush and crimson Boursault, from emitting a large quantity of roots, answer well for China and tea-scented roses to be grown in pots; but as they are apt to die oif are not to be recommended for plants not so confined. The Manet ti rose has been greatly lauded as a stock, but according to Mr. Paul, “its nature is too gross for any but the free-growing kinds, and for them it possesses no advantage over the dog rose. Many kinds budded on it grow more rapidly the first year, but decline and die afterwards, owing, we believe, to an over-excited growth. For pot culture we are disposed to use it; because in this condition its exuberance is somewhat checked, and pot-roses usually receive a closer watching for the destruction of wild shoots than such as are planted in the open ground. The freedom with which this stock throws up young shoots, which, if not closely watched, impoverish and destroy the budded variety, is a second great objection to its general use.”—(Supplement to the Rose Garden.) For pot - culture, however, and for delicate growers in poor light soils this stock succeeds very well. Both Boursault and Manetti stocks are propagated by cuttings; the former may likewise lie obtained bv layering by circumposition in July, as recommended by Mr. Rivers, tonguing the shoot, and using a mixture of rotten dung, loam, and sand. The shoot may be budded at the time of layering, or as soon afterwards as possible, ami then headed down to within two eyes of the bud. The mode in which the operation of budding is effected has been already detailed in the chapter on propagation (\>. 313). In the case of the rose it is performed in July, or as soon as the bark rises freely from the wood. About a month after budding the ties may be loosened, and if the bud has taken,wholly removed; but if this is not the case it must be tied up again. Early in the following spring, before vegetation becomes active, the wild shoot ought to be cut off at two joints above the bud; and when the shoot resulting from the latter has pushed 3 or 4 inches, it should be stopped to encourage the development of buds for the formation of the head. In May, the stock may be cut over immediately above the bud. Grafting.—Although budding is the mode usually employed for the continuation of the varieties, yet grafting may be successfully, and in some cases advantageously, practised; for instance, when the budding season has been allowed to pass over without that operation having been performed. There is, however, one drawback in grafting, namely, that the scion and stock rarely effect so complete a junction as in budding. StandaVd roses may be worked at the usual season for grafting fruit-trees, in March; but for roses in pots Mr. Paul recommends January, the stocks having been placed in bottom-lieat for a week or ten days previous to the operation, and afterwards they must be kept there till the graft has taken. The scions should be 2 or 3 inches in length, and should be taken from well-ripened shoots. They may be applied to the stocks in any of the modes already described. All suckers that may spring from the stock should be stopped as soon as they appear, and when the union between the scion and stock is complete, plants in pots which have been kept in heat may be gradually hardened off. The shoot resulting from the graft should be treated like that produced by budding. Soil and Situation,—The rose succeeds best in a rich, deep, loamy soil, of a rather stiff nature, but free from stagnant moisture. Roses on their own roots will, however, succeed in lighter soils than they would do when budded on the dog rose, which naturally grows in stiff land. Heavy clays and light sandy or gravelly soils, as well as those which are badly drained, are unfavourable to the health and longevity of the plant, and in such it will not flourish for any length of time unless artificial means are resorted to for their improvement; but these having been already pointed out in a previous chapter, need not be further alluded to here. Of course, where the ground is not capable of being sufficiently improved the natural soil will have to be dug out and replaced, either partially or wholly, with soil of the proper description. In connection with this subject it will be necessary to advert to the most suitable manures; for the soil in which roses are to be planted may be naturally poor, and therefore in need of artificial enrichment; or it may have become impoverished from long cropping. The kind of manure must to some extent be regulated by the nature of the soil; thus, in light soils the application of substances which would tend to render them still lighter, would, it is obvious, be injurious; whilst in ground of a heavy nature manures of a contrary tendency will prove beneficial. To light soils a dressing of strong loam will be very advantageous, especially if applied in conjunction with cow-dung,or night-soil. The latter, indeed, is perhaps the best manure that can be used in all but very rich soils, provided it is not employed in a fresh state, andC78 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. in too great quantity. It is best applied when mixed with a quantity of loam, and laid in a heap for a year or more, and turned occasionally. To heavy soils chalk, peat, burned earth, or sand should be applied, and such manures as stable dung, leaf-mould, .and burned earth saturated with liquid manure. Except in the richest soils, plantations of roses ought to be manured every year. With regard to situation, an open spot with an east or southern exposure, and sheltered from strong winds, but not shaded by tall trees or lofty buildings, is the best. Roses produce the best effect when planted by themselves, for the straight naked stems of the varieties grown as standards contrast unfavourably with shrubs, and indeed all other vegetation which is not of a dwarf character. Where, therefore, plenty of space can be afforded, a rosary should be formed. The form and arrangement of this must, to a considerable extent, be dependent on taste, the form of the ground, and other circumstances. A regular figure is, however, to be preferred, and it should be separated into two divisions, one for summer, the other for autumnal roses. The laying out of the ground is of course a matter of taste; but the beds, whatever their figure may be, ought not to exceed 0 feet in width, in order that the flowers may be inspected without treading on the ground. The walks may either be of grass or gravel; the former are cooler, softer, and when kept nicely mown present a better appearance than those of gravel; moreover, the green sward is refreshing to the eyes after these have been gazing upon the brilliant hues of the flowers; in fact, the predominant colour in a l’osary is red, and of this green is the complementary. The only objection to grass walks is, that they are unpleasant to walk upon early in the morning, late in the evening, and after wet weather; and in this respect gravel has the advantage. In many cases, it may be, ground cannot be spared for the formation of a proper rosary, and the plants must consequently be introduced into the flower-garden or pleasure-ground. A few remarks on the most proper situations for planting in these will therefore be necessary. Standard roses may be planted in clumps or beds on lawns, or along the sides of walks when the borders are filled with plants of low growth. The lawn is likewise a suitable position for dwarfs in beds, also for pillar and weeping roses, than which, when planted either singly or in groups, few objects can be more ornamental on a lawn. Climbing roses may be employed wherever it is desired to hide unsightly objects, for forming arbours, covering arches, or making festoons along the sides of walks. The evergreen and Ayrshire roses may also be planted for covering the surface of the ground, or introduced into shrubberies, for which purpose the Scotch roses are also suitable. Planting.—The most proper time for this, in the case of the hybrid perpetuals and other hardy kinds, is in October or November; but if the ground is not in good order, or is of a very strong nature, planting had better be deferred till early in spring. The China and other tender varieties are very liable to be injured by frost if planted in autumn; this operation, therefore, should in their case be deferred till March or April, or, if the plants are very young, till all danger of frost is over. With the view of obtaining flowers late in autumn, hybrid perpetuals are sometimes taken up in February; and, after the roots have been shortened, planted in a cool border, where they remain till the end of April. They are then again taken up, and their tops having been closely pruned, planted in well-manured loamy soil. The same treatment must be pursued every year when it is desired to have roses thus late in the season. It may also be remarked that the greater portion of the buds produced in summer should be pinched off at an early stage of their growth, otherwise the plants are likely to afford only a poor show of bloom in winter. Standard roses should be allowed a distance of 3 feet from plant to plant; dwarfs from 1 foot to 3 feet, according as the variety is less or more vigorous. They may also be planted in the intervals between standards. The ground, if the roses are to be planted in beds, ought to be trenched 3 feet deep, and the soil which is thrown out of the holes mixed with some well decomposed manure. The addition of leaf-mould will likewise prove beneficial, especially in heavy soils. In such, according to Mr. Paul, this substance is almost indispensable for the success of the tea-scented varieties. Where roses are to be planted on lawns, the turf should be removed from a circle about G feet in diameter, and the soil thrown out to the depth of 3 feet. It should then he mixed with more or less of the subsoil if this be a good loam; but when both soil and subsoil are bad, they ought to be replaced with good fresh loam mixed with some old manure. In planting, the soil ought to be tilled in and trodden to prevent sinking, the roots should then be spread out horizontally within 5 or 6 inches of the surface, and covered with soil, which must afterwards be trodden firm. Standards should then be secured to stakes, and if planted on a lawn the turf may be replaced so as to leave uncovered a circle 2 or 3 feet in diameter. After planting, the groundTHE KOSE GAEDEN. C79 should be mulched with litter, and if necessary water must be given from time to time. Pruning.—The mode and amount of pruning depends on the class to which the rose belongs, the method of training which is adopted, the natural vigour of the variety, and the health and strength of the individual operated on. The operation is best performed in November or in March; and each season is attended with its advantages and its disadvantages. By removing a portion of the shoots in autumn the sap flows in greater abundance in those which Krts left, and the result is that the buds push vigorously and regularly; the flowers are also earlier and more abundant than when pruning is performed in spring. " But autumn pruning,” says Mr. Paul, “has its disadvantages, the greatest of which is this:—A few mild days in winter often excite the buds of autumn-pruned roses, and they push forth; severe weather follows; the young shoots . , J j are frosted, and the bloom injured. This is more particularly the case with the Chinese Noisette, Bourbon, tea-scented, and the hybrids of these kinds, which we shall term excitable, because they are quickly excited to growth. The Provence, Moss, Fiencli, Alba, and others, rarely suffer from this cause, as they are not so readily affected by the state of the weather. Be it remarked, however, that the quickness with which buds are roused into action depends much upon how far the shoots were matured the previous autumn; the less mature the more excitable. It will be perceived that there is a difficulty in the way of autumn pruning when applied to the excitable kinds winch can oidy be remedied by affording them jii i flection from frost, should a mild December or January be succeeded by severe weather. But this would entail great additional trouble, and cannot always be done. Let us now turn to the other season. “The chief advantage gained by deferring pruning till spring is, that the flower shoots are placed beyond the reach of injury by frost. If, during winter, any buds push forth in unpruned loses, it is those at the ends of the branches, and they will be removed by pruning. But there, is an evil attendant on this apparent advantage. When pruning is put off till spring, the buds placed at the extremities of the shoots are often found in leaf, and in the operation we cut off some inches from a shoot in this state. The tree is denuded of its leaves, and thereby receives a check; the sap being in active motion, exudes from the fresh wounds. The lower buds find themselves suddenly in contact with a great supply of food, by the cutting away of the buds beyond them. There is a pause. Soon one or two buds at the extremity of the pruned shoots take up the work; they swell and are developed apace, but all below remain dormant. Thus, spring-pruning is unfavourable to an abundant anil regular development of branches and flowers, and, consequently, to the well forming of a tree. The flowers are also usually produced later in the season, and of less size. Thus it may be said that each season has its advantages and disadvantages; but is it impossible to draw from both! We think not; and would strongly recommend that all but the excitable kinds be pruned in autumn; thin out these at the same time, but leave the shortening of their shoots till spring.”— (Pose Garden, p. 58.) The extent to which the removal of shoots and portions of shoots ought to be carried depends on the vigour of the plant. In a strong grower, more shoots will have to be thinned out than when the contrary is the case; but those left should be pruned long, otherwise wood, and not flowers, will be produced. Weakly growing varieties, on the other hand, require their shoots to be shortened back more closely. The Provence, Moss, Damask, and Alba roses, with the exception of the vigorous kinds, require to be close pruned, or to have their shoots shortened to three or four eyes. The French ought to be well thinned, and shortened to four, five, or six eyes, and the strongest growers should be left still longer. The Boursault, Austrian brier, evergreen, and Banksian roses must also be well thinned, but merely the points of the shoots ought to be taken off; the Banksian should be pruned in summer. The Bourbon, Noisette, Chinese, Tea-scented, and their hybrids may be thinned in autumn, but the shortening back of the shoots is better deferred till March. The strongest growers, especially among the hybrids, should be well thinned out, and pruned to from eight to twelve eyes; those of a vigorous growth, but less so than the preceding, to six or seven eyes, and those which are of weakly, or only moderate growth, to three, four, or five eyes. In thinning out the shoots of any kind of rose, all which are diseased, badly ripened, or which tend to create confusion, or to spoil the form of the tree should be taken off first; and if, after their removal, there are still too many to admit of a free circulation of air anil light, or for the tree to support in a healthy condition, a further reduction must be made. In pruning no snags should be left; the shoots ought to be cut off close to their base; and in shortening them the cut must be made in a slanting direction immediately above a bud. In pruning pillar, climbing, and weeping roses, the shoots must be short-C80 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. ened closely at first, to induce the production of a few vigorous shoots; afterwards, the shoots arising from these will have to be left at greater or less length according as there is space to lay them in without confusion, and according to the vigour of the plant and the number of shoots into which it is divided. The short lateral shoots of pillar and climbing roses may be shortened in to from four to seven eyes; but when it is desired to obtain vigorous shoots to fill up a vacancy, they may be pruned to one or two eyes. To obviate the necessity of removing a large number of shoots by thinning, and consequently wasting the sap of the plants, which is then devoted to the production and nourishment of superabundant shoots, Mr. Paul has suggested the adoption of the practice of disbudding, by means of which their development may be entirely prerented in the first instance. He says: “ By rubbing out a portion of the buds when swelling, and others at any season when they may sprout forth in a position where shoots are not wanted, the remaining buds form stronger shoots; and thus perhaps a larger, certainly a healthier surface of foliage is the result. It is bad policy, then, to suffer more buds to be developed as shoots than are required for forming the tree, or for flowering; for by cutting away these when pruning there must be a waste of the elaborated juices of the tree. But this is not the only evil. Beyond this, the tree is sorely maimed in the operation. Now, if the nutritive matter, which has been supplied in the development and sustenance of numerous branches, was confined to a lesser number, they would have been more powerfully developed, and the loss by removal, and the injury the tree suffers by thinning, would have been avoided. I believe disbudding to be the system best calculated to produce flowers in the tinest possible condition, to keep a plant in full health and vigour, and to bring it to the highest pitcli of beauty.” The correctness of the above views has been fully established by long experience, and there can be little doubt that disbudding may be advantageously substituted for thinning; in large collections, however, the practice would involve too great an expenditure of labour, for the trees have to be gone over two or three times before flowering, and once or twice afterwards. In disbudding, as in thinning, the vigour of the plant must be taken into account. If too many buds are removed from the shoots of a strong growing variety, those which are left will be developed into excessively vigorous shoots, with a tendency to produce wood rather than flowers; if, on the other hand, the buds in such sorts are left too close together, the resulting shoots will soon become overcrowded, and the knife will have to be resorted to. Again, in less vigorous kinds a greater number of buds should be rubbed out, but those allowed to remain may stand closer together. When disbudding is not practised the shoots will have to be thinned out after flowering in summer; those of the autumnal roses should be pruned at the same time. The bad effects of depriving a plant of many shoots, or of much foliage, at any one time, were pointed out in the article on pruning; and in managing the rose the remarks on the subject should be borne in mind. Other Culture. — Every spring the ground should be dug or forked over, and enriched with some well decomposed manure. Suckers must be removed whenever they appear, over-luxuriant shoots should be checked by pinching, or wholly removed if likely to destroy the symmetry of the tree; flower buds ought to be thinned if large and fine flowers are desired rather than quantity; and lastly, all decayed blooms should be removed. The China and Tea-scented require to lie protected in winter; for this purpose branches of fern, fir, or other evergreens may be employed, sticking them thickly into the ground among dwarfs, or tying them on the stem so as to protect the head of standards. A mulching of litter, short dung, peat, or fibrous turf should likewise be placed over the roots. \Pegged-doicn Roses.—This is a mode of growing roses that is finding much favour among cultivators; and exhibitors aver that some of their finest flowers are taken from plants so treated. It simply consists in planting free-growing dwarf roses, worked on the Manetti stock, or on their own roots, in lines or beds, or plantations, as the case may be, but far enough apart for the strong shoots of the previous year’s growth to be bent down and kept in that position by means of strong wooden pegs, about 6 inches from the ground. From nearly every eye blooming wood breaks, and masses of flower are thereby produced. In November the blooming wood of the previous summer is cut away close to the ground, and 3 or 4, as the case may be, of the strongest shoots of the summer’s growth left for pegging down in February. As soon as the old wood is cut away plenty of good manure should be dug in about the roots. Boses treated in this way throw up plenty of strong shoots from the roots during the summer, and there is never any lack of wood for pegging down. If some of the ripened younger shoots be made into cuttings in October, and planted thickly in any out-of-the-way spot in lines, a number of them will take root, and a supply of plants on their own rootsTHE ROSE GARDEN. C81 can be obtained. The most vigorous growing varieties should be used for pegging down. r. d.] Culture in Pots.—ltoses are always desirable for the decoration of the conservatory during the winter and spring months, and unquestionably the most convenient mode of cultivating them for that purpose is in pots; moreover, most of the Tea-scented, and indeed many varieties belonging to hardier groups, will only produce their flowers in perfection under glass. Plants for cultivation in pots may be on their own roots, in which way the Chinese and Tea-scented succeed best; or they may be worked on stems from 6 inches to 1 foot high. If plants growing out of doors are selected, they should be taken up in September or October, when the shoots are ripe, and, the roots having been pruned and the heads thinned, potted firmly in 6, 8, or 9 inch pots, according to their size. The soil may consist of mellow turfy loam, mixed with as much leaf-mould and well decomposed dung in equal parts, and some silver sand if the loam is strong; indeed, the addition of this substance is an improvement in any case. After potting, a gentle watering having been given, the plants should be shut up closely in a frame for a fortnight to make them take fresh root, when they may be gradually hardened off and plunged, in an open situation, up to the rims of the pots, in earth, coal ashes, or old tan, care being taken to place the bottom of the pots on slate, tile, or some other hard substance, in order to prevent the roots from striking into the ground, and worms from getting into the pots. Here the hardy kinds may remain all winter with only a layer of dung over the roots; but those which are delicate ought to be removed, before severe weather sets in, to a cold frame or any structure that will merely protect them from frost; and in spring they may be again plunged out of doors, where they may remain till October, when they may be introduced into a heat of 50' to 55° for flowering. If young plants lately struck from cuttings are preferred to roses taken up from the ground, they should be shifted in spring into 5 or 6 inch pots, according to their vigour, care being taken not to overpot the China and Tea-scented varieties, for these ought not to be shifted until the roots reach the sides of the pots. Afterwards they should be plunged out of doors as already recommended; and during the growing season attention must be paid to disbudding, stopping shoots which are becoming too strong, and encouraging others which from their position are liable to become weak, as well as to pinching off the flower-buds as soon as they appear, for if many of these were allowed to develop) themselves the plants would not form such handsome specimens, nor bloom so well in the following year as would otherwise be the case. In July or August most of the plants will require to be shifted into 8 or 9 inch pots, and if removed in October to a pit or greenhouse the autumnals will bloom throughout the winter; but it is better not to allow them to do so till the second year. During the winter, if not intended to flower the same year, the hardy varieties may be plunged out of doors; but the China, Tea-scented, and Bourbons should have the protection of a fiame, air being freely admitted at all times except in frosty weather. In spuing the plants should be turned out of their p>ots, and the greater portion of the old soil having been removed, again plotted in fresh soil, using, if necessary, pots a size larger; they may then be pilunged out of doors. In October those intended for winter flowering ought to be placed in a pit or greenhouse with a temperature of from 50° to 55°; and, after blooming, they should be removed j to a cold pit, shifted in March into 11, 12, or 13 inch plots, according to their vigour, and again pflunged out of doors; a second bloom will be produced late in summer. Plants not intended for flowering in winter ought to be repiotted in the end of September* using larger pots when requisite, and pilunged in the ground till the time of flowering, when they may be placed in the greenhouse or conservatory. The time of pruning must be regulated by the season at which the pilants are required to be in flower; for the earlier this operation is performed the earlier will the flowers be produced. By pruning at various periods, and by forcing, roses may be made to flower throughout the year. By pruning in August and September flowers will be obtained from November to February; and by forcing, from that pieriod till May. By pruning in November, and merely protecting in a pit, flowers will be produced ill April and May; and from that time until October the pilants bloom naturally in the open air. In pruning, the shoots, if at all crowded, should be well thinned by cutting out the weakest and those which tend to cross each other, so that those left may stand at a sufficient distance apiart; and this should also be attended to in summer. If, however, disbudding is carefully practised, it will seldom be necessary to remove many of the shoots. Pot-roses require, in general, to be moi’e closely pruned than those growing in the' opien ground; and again the shoots ought to be shortened in more in the early stages of their growth than subsequently. The hybrid pierpetuals and other autumnals may be cut back to two, three, or four eyes, according to their vigour; most of the summer roses, with the exception of Hybrid682 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Chinese and other strong growing varieties, which should be left longer, require to be shortened to the same extent. After pruning it is a good plan to bend down to a nearly horizontal position such shoots as are left long, in order to make the buds break regularly from the bottom to the top; but when this takes place the shoots may be restored to their former position. The general culture of pot-roses consists in Stopping over luxuriant shoots, disbudding, tying out the shoots at an early stage of their growth, nipping off the flower-buds where these are not required, shifting into larger pots or into fresh soil, watering, syringing occasionally during the growing season, and keeping free from green fly by fumigation, and the rose-grub by hand-picking. An occasional application of manure-water will prove very beneficial to the plants, but it should not be used too strong or too frequently, otherwise the shoots will be apt to become over-luxuriant, and the wood will be imperfectly ripened in autumn. Attention should also be paid to protecting the roots of plants plunged out of doors during the winter, by spreading a layer of littery dung over the surface of the soil in the pots before severe frost sets in. Forcing.—In order to have roses from February to May the plants must be subjected to artificial heat, in a house or pit, where a temperature of 75° can be commanded. Previous to forcing, the plants should be grown for some while in pots, and receive the treatment pursued in the early stages of that mode of cultivation; for if placed in heat immediately after removal from the ground, they seldom develop their flowers in perfection. The length of time which must be passed in this preparatory process depends on whether the plants are worked, or grown on their own roots; in the former case they may be taken up and potted in September, and if introduced into heat the same year, will bloom well; in the latter, a year’s growth in pots should be allowed after removal from the ground. Young plants struck from cuttings, and established in pots for two, three, or four years, are, however, more convenient to force than those of larger size taken from the open ground. The plants having undergone the requisite preparatory culture, may lie introduced into heat in the beginning of December, and plunged for a fortnight in a gentle bottom-heat to start them, maintaining an atmospheric temperature of about 50° in the day, and at least 40° by night, and giving abundance of air whenever the weather is favourable. At the expiration of the above period the plants may be removed from bottom-heat, but if they can be continued in it so much the better. The tem- perature of the house should be gradually raised to 70° or 75° by day, and 50° at night; air should be given when the external temperature is high, in order to dispel damp, care being taken, however, not to admit it in draughts; and a moderate supply of water at the roots will also be necessary. Syringing overhead in the forenoon should be practised daily, until the flower-buds begin to colour, when it ought to be discontinued. An occasional application of manure water will likewise prove highly beneficial. Green fly, which is frequently very injurious to forced roses, must be carefully looked after and destroyed. Mildew also occasionally makes its appearance; tins is best guarded against by preserving a proper amount of ventilation; but should it manifest itself, any plants that may be attacked must be at once removed, to prevent the spread of the disease, and dusted with sulphur. But in the case of mildews, the common saying that prevention is better than cure, is a fact well proved by experience. Therefore, whilst there are yet no signs of the disease, the soil should be sprinkled with flowers of sulphur, and the air of the house should be occasionally impregnated with it. When the buds begin to expand, if full-blown flowers are not required at once, the temperature of the pit should be gradually lowered. The plants may then be removed to the greenhouse or conservatory, and from being thus placed in a lower temperature, expansion will take place more slowly, and the beauty of the flowers will be increased, as well as prolonged. A succession of forced roses may be kept up by introducing plants into heat in January and February; and the autunmals, if cut back to three or four eyes after the flowers have faded, top-dressed with rotten dung, and liberally supplied with liquid manure, will bloom well a second time. After flowering, the plants should be gradually hardened off in a cold pit, then potted and plunged in an open situation out of doors, and all flower-buds nipped off whenever they appear.] The varietiesof the roseareextremely numerous, not less than 2500 being supposed to be in existence at the present day. These have been obtained by sowing the seed, crossing, and hybridization fromanumberof species,mostly indigenous to the warmer parts of Europe and Asia; and in consequence of the changes thus effected, many of the varieties can no longer be referred to any particular species. According to their time of flowering and predominant characters they have been divided by florists into two classes—Summer Roses, flowering from May to July, and Autumnal Roses, blooming from May till November.THE ROSE GARDEN. 683 SUMMER ROSES. Provence Roses.—The individuals composing this group owe their origin to Rosa cen t (folia, a native of the Caucasus. The old Provence or cabbage rose is supposed to have been introduced in 1596. The flowers are generally of a globular shape, and being very odoriferous, are largely grown for making rose-water. All the varieties are perfectly hardy and deliciously fragrant, mostly of moderate or dwarf habit of growth, requiring rich soil and to be rather closely pruned. Amongst the best varieties of this group are :— Co muffin or Cabbage—Large, rosy pink; vigorous. Cristata or Crested—Rose; calyx fringed, giving the buds a crested appearance. Heine d> Provence—Large, lilac blush; vigorous. Hot de Ibigs Has — Large, deep pink. Striped Unitjue—White, striped with lake, but apt to lose its striped character if planted in rich soil. Unique, syn. White Provence—Pure white, perhaps the purest white rose grown; flowers large and full. MUs [ATt’RK Provence, or Pompon Roses, being of very low growth, are frequently planted as edgings to beds, or in small beds by themselves. ])<> Meaux, syn. Pompon—Rosy pink and lilac, a beautiful little rose. Dtcarf linrgundg—Very small, deep red. Spomj—Small, pale rose. Moss Roses.—These are supposed to have been in the first instance a sport of the Provence, and the accidental disposition to produce moss having become, to a certain extent, constitutional, fresh varieties are obtained by seed. They, however, it may be remarked, produce from seed a large proportion of plants destitute of the mossy covering. Moss roses, especially when on their own roots, should have rather high cultivation, a warm friable soil, and an open situation, well exposed to the sun. Where these conditions cannot be secured, it is advisable to cultivate plants budded on short stems. The vigorous kinds may be grown as standards, or as pillar roses, and require but little pruning; the other varieties ought to be closely pruned. Afire Leroi—Lilac, shaded with rose; rigorous. Angeliq»e Quetier—Rosy lilac; vigorous. A risttdes- Bright crimson. Baronne de Wassena'tr—Bright red; rigorous. Captain Ingram—Dark velvety purple. CGina—Rosy crimson, shaded with purple. Common or Old—Rale rose; vigorous. Comf.esse de MarinoAs—White, large and double; very hardy. iPoire d>.< Monssev.x-—Very large, blush. Julie de M>rsent—Rosy pink, very pretty. Jjunei—Rosy crimson, vigorous. Nuits d' Young—Blackish-crimson, rigorous habit. Princess Alice—Blush, pink centre; rigorous. Princesse Adelaide—Pale rose; vigorous. Unique—Pure white, large and full. 117/ ite Batk—White. Damask Roses.—These take their name from R. damascena, a native of Syria, and introduced into this country in the sixteenth century. The flowers being produced in great abundance, are used for the distillation of rose-water; those of many of the varieties, presenting beautiful shades of pink, salmon, blush, and white, are very ornamental. The plants, which are remarkable for the light colour of their foliage, are hardy, and succeed either as dwarfs or standards; and some of them, such as Madame Hardy, form good pillar roses. In pruning, the shoots of the strongest growers may be shortened to six or seven eyes. Bachedier—Salmon pink. La Yille de Bruxelles—Large, bright rose; rigorous. Madame Hardg—Large, white; vigorous. Madame Soetmans—Large, cream white. Semiramis—Pink, fawn centre. Alba Roses.—These have been obtained by seed and hybridizing from R. alba, a native of Central Europe, and are distinguishable by their light glossy foliage. They are remarkable for the beauty and abundance of their flowers. Pel idle Payment ier—Rosy flesh; vigorous. La Stduisante—Rosy blush; rigorous. Madame APale flesh; vigorous. Madame Legras — Pure white, centre frequently creamy. Sophie de Baviere—Deep rosy pink, beautiful and free; blush, rose centre. French or Gallica Roses.—This group is the progeny of R. gallica, a native of France and the south of Europe, and until the introduction of the perpetual blooming varieties was the favourite rose of our English gardens. The flowers offer diversity and richness of colouring, combined with great fragrance. The plants are hardy, of compact growth, and suited for cultivation either as standards or dwarfs; they will grow in any ordinary garden soil. Adele P re cost—Silvery blush, fine shape and very beautiful. Bizarre Marbree—Rich crimson and purple, fine and free blooming. Boula de Xantcuil—Very large, crimson purple. ILAmuesseau—Bright crimson. Gloire de Colmar—Rich crimson. Kean, syn. Stalks pear e—Rich purple, crimson centre; rigorous. Latour d' Auvergne—Rosy crimson. Napoleon—Very large, bright rose, shaded with purple; rigorous. (Eillet Parfait—White, striped with crimson; dwarf. Old—Dark crimson, scarlet centre; rigorous. Lyrince Regent—Deep rose. T mason Goubault—Purple crimson; vigorous grower. William Tell—Very large, bright rose, margin blush; rigorous. Hybrid Provence or Hybrid French, are hybrids between the French and Provence roses, but partaking more of the character of the latter class. They are hardy, and require to be pruned tolerably close. Blanchejleur—Large, white, tinged with flesh; an abundant and early bloomer. Comtesse de Segur—Pale flesh. La Volupte, syn. Letitia—Large, bright rose, exquisite. Princess Clementine—Paper, flowers very large and well-formed. Hybrid Chinese, Hybrid Bourbon, and Hybrid Noisette Roses.—These have sprung from the Provence and French, crossed with the Chinese, Bourbon, and Noisette roses. They are rigorous and very hardy, succeeding even in unfavourable soils and situations; and being most abundant bloomers they form magnificentGARDENER'S ASSISTANT. 68-i objects, either as standards or pillar roses, for which mode of training the more vigorous kinds are exceedingly well adapted. The strong growers require the shoots to be well thinned in autumn, and shortened a little in spring. The others should be pruned more closely. Baron Gonella, H. B.—Bright rose-shaded bronze. Blairii, No. 2—Very large, rosy blush; a free-growing good wall or pillar rose. Brennus—Very large, bright crimson, vigorous. Catherine Guillot, H.B.—Beautiful lilac rose, large, fine form. Charles Lawson—Vivid rose-shaded, large and very double. Chenedole—Very large, brilliant light crimson; vigorous; a superb pillar rose. Comtesse de Lacepede—Silvery blush, centre flesh, large and full. Coupe d'llebe, H. B.—Deep pink; vigorous. Frederick the Second, II. B.—Crimson purple; vigorous. Fid gens—Bright crimson; vigorous. Juno, H. B.—Very large, pale rose; vigorous. Legoure, H. B.—Purplish crimson; rigorous. Madame. Plantier, H. N.—Pure white; rigorous. Madeline, H. N., syn. Double-Margined 11 ip—Cream, edged with crimson; vigorous. Miss Ingram—Delicate blush-white, perfect globular form, large and full. Paul Perms, II. B.—Very large, pale rose; rigorous; a good pillar rose. Paul Bicaut, H. B.—Rosy crimson; rigorous. Paul Verdier—Light carmine-red; first-rate in every way. Heine Victoria, H. B.—Fine bright pink; large. Vivid (Paul)—Rich crimson; rigorous; a fine climbing or pillar rose. Scotch Roses.—The Scotch roses have originated from R. spinosissima, a low and extremely spiny bush, indigenous to Britain. They produce an abundance of small globular flowers early in spring before any other roses, and succeeding even in the poorest of soils, they may be planted in parts of the garden where other things will not grow. They are also suitable for forming a hedge round the rosary. There are many varieties differing in the colour of the flowers, which are purple, red, blush, yellow, or white. Austrian Brier Roses.—The roses of which this group is composed are descended from R. lutea, a species producing yellow dowel’s, and indigenous to Germany and the south of France. They are very hardy, succeeding best in a rather poor soil, but with the exception of Harrisoni, will not bloom well in a smoky atmosphere. The flower-buds being chiefly situated towards the extremities of the shoots, the latter should be shortened very little in pruning; the head, however, must be well thinned. The best are:— Austrian Copper—Reddish copper; flowers single. A nstrian Yellow—Bright yellow; flowers single. Harrisoni—Golden yellow. An abundant bloomer. Persian Yellow—Flowers large, deep yellow. The Double Yellow Rose (R. sul/dmrea), supposed to bo a native of Persia or of the Levant, is remarkable for the beauty of its large, deep yellow flowers, and the rarity with which these expand properly, if produced at all, a circumstance which is doubtless attributable to the difference between our climate and that of its native country. This being the case, the greatest chance of success would probably be secured by training it against a wall, with an east or west aspect, or upon a south wall if the locality is cold. Mr. W. Paul recommends the following mode of cultivation as that most likely to be attended with success. He says:—“I would advise all who desire to cultivate the double yellow rose, to plant it on a border with an eastern or western aspect, not training it to a wall, but growing it as a round bush. Let the locality be airy, the soil rather heavy, and tolerably rich. So soon as the buds break, set a watch over the plant to keep it free from the insects which almost invariably infest it, and which may be done by brushing them off into the hand, or syringing with tobacco water. When the flower-buds are forming, have an eye to their growth; if weakly, or seeming likely to become so, water the plant twice or thrice a week with a solution of guano, using about two ounces to a gallon of pond or rain water. As soon as the flowering season is past, remove some of the shoots, if they have been produced in such number as to crowd each other, when those suffered to remain will become thoroughly matured by fuller exposure to sun and air. By this procedure one grand point is gained—the formation of wood in the most favourable condition for the production of perfect flowers. In March the plant may be pruned, but -eery little: on the weak shoots, five or six eyes should be left; on the strong ones, from six to nine eyes.”—(Rose Garden, 5tli ed. p. 199.) The Sweet Brier or Eglantine, R. ruLiginosa, a native of Britain and most other parts of Europe, is so familiar to every one by the fragrance of its leaves that no garden should be without a bush or two, or a hedge of this native plant. There are several varieties having more ornamental flowers than the wild plant, but not excelling it in the scent of the foliage. Among the best of these are:— Celestial—Blush, semi-double; rigorous. Double Scarlet—Deep rose, double. Rose A ngle—Lilac rose. Boursault Roses.—The roses composing this group owe their origin to R. alpina, a native of the Alps, the name Boursault having been given to it by a French amateur of that name; and from their shoots being long and flexible, they are well suited for training on walls, fences, and phial's, and for covering arbours. They are very hardy, growing vigorously, and blooming freely even in unfavourable situations. In pinning, the shoots ought to be well thinned, and shortened a little. .1 mad is, syn. Crimson—Large, and semi-double, deep crimson purple. Blush Boursault, syn. De I’lsle—Very large, double, blush. B/egans—Semi-double, rosy crimson. Gracil is — Full, rosy red. Ayrshire Roses.—These have sprung from R. areen-sis, a trailing shrub, indigenous to Britain, and as might be supposed are extremely hardy. They grow rapidly, and are well adapted for covering walls, fences, banks, and pillars, as well as for cultivation as weepers. No pruning further than reducing their size when overgrown is necessary. Bennett's Seedling, syn. Thoresbyana—Small, double, white. Countess of Lercn—creamy-white, semi-double. Dundee Rambler—Small, double, white.THE HOSE GARDEN. 685 Ruga—Large, double, pale flesh. Splenclens—Large, and semi-double, white, with red margin. Evergreen Roses.—The evergreen roses have originated from R. sew pen'ire ns, a native of the central parts of Europe, but, correctly speaking, are only subevergreen, retaining their foliage till late in winter. They are hardy and vigorous, blooming in large clusters, and forming tine pillar and weeping roses; they are also suitable for covering banks. The shoots should be well thinned in pruning, and left nearly at full length. Ranhsiafora—White, centre pale yellow, double. Pel kite PcrpRue—Cream white. Leopold ine d'Orleans—White, shaded with rose. Myrianthes Ilinoncule—Blush, rose towards themargin. Princesse Marie—Reddish pink. Ram pa n te—Pure white. Spectabile—Large, rosy lilac. Multi flora Poses.—These have originated from R. multijlora, a native of China and Japan. They all require a warm sheltered situation, and many of them will not succeed unless trained against a wall; those which do not require this protection may be grown as climbers. l)e la Oritferaie—Large, blush. El ego. ns—Blush and white, double; requires a wall. Gra al/t ie—Pure white. Grefill' i—Bright rose, variously shaded; requires a wall. Superha—Bright rose. Hybrid Climbing Roses.—The roses forming this group are hybrids, some of the musk rose, others of R. m»ltijlora. They are extremely rigorous, and bloom in great profusion. Porta/'e's )\ l lorn—Orange-yellow, semi-double. La. are J)aroast—Pink, changing to blush and white, double. Madame d' Arblay, syn. Wells's White—Double, white. The Garland—Fawn and blush, changing to white. Russellia ><<• —Crimson purple. A good pillar rose; but in cold situations it requires a wall. Banksian Roses.—The origin of these is R. Ranh sice, a native of < ’hina. They grow vigorously and bloom abundantly, and at an early period of the season; but being rather tender they should have the protection of a wall with a warm aspect. A warm dry soil suits them best. In pruning, which should be performed just after the plants have flowered, it is merely necessary to thin out badly ripened and over-luxuriant shoots, and to take off the points of those left. Porta net—Yellow, of large size and free-blooming habit; one of the best. Jaune Serin—Bright yellow, larger than any other. White or Alba—Small, pure white, very fragrant. Yellow or Late a,—Very small, bright yellow. AUTUMNAL ROSES. Macartney’ Roses.—The varieties constituting this small group» have been obtained from R. brcccteata, an evergreen species, brought to this country from China by Lord Macartney. They are all rather tender, requiring for their full success the protection of a wall with a •warm aspect. The best are— Alba Simplex—White, fine open single flowers. Maria Leonida—White, with a blush centre. Berberry-leaved Rose.—The original R. berberifolia is a native of Persia and Chinese Tartary. M. Hardy succeeded in raising a hybrid between it and R. involu-crata, which is called— Berberifolia llardii—Fine yellow, with maroon spots, and possessing a hardy character. Microphy’LLa Roses.—These have sprung from R. microphylla, a native of the Himalayas, and are evergreen, with distinct shining foliage. But little pruning is necessary. They require a warm soil, and the protection of a wall. The best are— Rubra or Common—Deep red. Rugosa—Fine, large, crimson-purple. Musk Roses.—The Musk roses owe their origin to R. moschata, a species found wild in the north of Africa and in Persia, and they are remarkable for the odour of their flowers, which resembles that of musk. They are suitable for training on pillars, &c., in warm situations, and against walls in cold ones, and bloom abundantly, especially in the autumn. Double White—Yellowish white. Nivea—White, tinged with rose. Princesse de Passaic—Cream white, very fragrant. Perpetual Scotch Roses.—These are hybrids of the Scotch, blooming during the summer and autumn. The Stamcell is a liybrid-Scotch, flowering in the autumn. It is among the first to unfold its delicate blossoms, often flowering in May, and continuing at short intervals till the flowers are destroyed by frost. The flowers are rosy blush, large and double, very fragrant. Perpetual Moss Roses.—The varieties of this group are Moss roses flowering in summer and autumn, obtained by crossing the Moss rose with perpetuals. They require a rich soil and close pruning. Alfred de Dalmas—Rose-edged, rosy-white, blooming in clusters. Eugenie Guinnoiseau—Bright cherry, changing to violet, large and full. Eugene de Savoie—Bright red, full. James Veitch—Deep violet, shaded with crimson, large and double. Madame Edouard Ory—Bright carmine. Madame William Paul—Bright rose, large and full. Perpetual White—White, well mossed; vigorous. Raphael—Flesh-colour, large and full. Salet—Bright rose; vigorous. Damask Perpetual Roses are hybrids of the damask, blooming in autumn. They are remarkable for the great fragrance of the flowers, and are very hardy, succeeding as standards, but better on their own roots, and as dwarfs budded on the Dog rose. To insure their success, a rich soil and close pruning are necessary. jBernard—Salmon. Celina Dubos—White or flesh, large, very double. Crimson, syn. Rose da Roi—Bright crimson, large, and very double. Cnmson Superb or Mogaclor—Purplish crimson, large. Hybrid Perpetual Roses.—The numerous varieties composing this beautiful group have chiefly originated from the Damask Perpetual, crossed with hybrids of the Bourbon and Chinese roses. Uniting brilliancy of colour and fragrance in the flowers to great hardiness in the plant, they thrive well and bloom abundantly either as standards or dwarfs even in cold localities, and in the neighbourhood of large towns, where the more delicate kinds of rose will not succeed. Nevertheless some dis-G86 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. crotion must bo exorcised in selecting for cold damp situations, for many which in the south of England are beautiful will scarcely open their flowers in the north. Nearly all tho Hybrid Perpetuals, excepting those described as of dwarf habit, make good standards, but it will bo well in every instance when making selections to bear in mind that the vigorous, free, and robust make the best standards, the moderate the best half or dwarf standards; and the dwarf-growers should be grown as dwarf bushes only. The whole of the Hybrid Perpetuals thrive best in a rich soil, and require close pruning, regulated by the rate of growth. The strong-growers form excellent autumn-flowering climbers for pillars; when so used they need but little pruning, leaving the shoots a good length. A choice selection is formed as follows:— Abel Grand—Silvery rose, large, full, and fine form. Alfred Colomh—Blight fiery red, large, full, and fine. Andre Dunand—Pink, with silvery white edges, large and full. A nna A lexiejf—Bright rose-pink, large and double. Baron de Bonstettcn—Very dark velvety crimson, large and fine. Baronne Prevost—Rose, very large; a fine old variety. Beauty of Waltham—Bright rosy carmine, full, good form. Bessie Johnson—Superb light blush, large and full. Camille Bernardin—Beautiful bright red; a superb rose. Captain Christ)/—Very soft flesh, deeper centre, large and full; a good garden rose. Caroline de San ml—Pale blush, large and double. Charles Lefebrre—Bright crimson, shaded with purple, extra fine. Climbing Victor Verdier—-Bright cherry-red; a fine pillar rose. Clothilde Holland—Cherry-rose, large and full. Comtesse d'Ojford—Bright carmine, shaded purple, fine form. Co'/netfe des Blanches—Pure white, medium size, full and good. Derienne Lamy— Carmine-red, large, full, and fine form. Due de Rohan—Bright carmine, very large and double. Duke of Edinburgh—Fine vermilion, largo and full. flake of Wellington—Rich crimson, extra fine. Du/my Jamain—Bright cerise, large, full, good form. Edouard Jforren—Clear rosy pink, large and double. Etienne Level—Carmine, large, full, and fine form. Ferdinand de Lesseps—Purple, shaded with violet, fine form. Francois Miehelon—Beautiful rich rose, with silvery edges, very fine. tleneral Jace/neminot—Brilliant crimson-scarlet, fine. Gloire de Santcnay—Crimson, shaded with purple, large and double. Horace Vcrnet—Velvety reddish-purple, shaded with deep crimson, fine. John Hopper—Rosy crimson, very large and double. Jules Margottin—Bright rosy pink, large and full. Tai France—Silvery white, with recurved edges; a beautiful and distinct rose. Leopold Ilausburg—Bright rosy pink, large, full and globular. Lord Clyde—Rich scarlet-crimson, deeply shaded good form. Ijord Macaulay—Bright velvety crimson, fine and full. I,ord Raglan—Crimson-scarlet, large and double. Louis van Houtte—Reddish-scarlet and amaranth, very large. Madame Charles Crapelet—Beautiful bright crimson, very fine. Madame Charles Venlier—Beautiful vermilion rose, large. Madame Clemence Joigneaux—Deep rose, shaded with violet, full. Madame George Schwartz—Fine rose, very large, full, and excellent form. Madame la Baronne de Rothschild—Delicate blush rose; a superb flower. Madame Lacharme—White, the centre flesh, very large and full. Madame Lefebrre Bernard—Beautiful rose, edged with white. Madame Rivers—Flesh-colour, fine form, large and full. Madame Victor Verdier—Brilliant cherry-red, large and full. Mdlle. Marie Rady—Fine brilliant red, extra fine. Mdlle. Therese Leret—Delicate pink, large and full. Magna Charta—Bright pink suffused with carmine, largo, full, and globular, very robust; an improved Paul NtSron. Marguerite de St. A mande—Rosy flesh, large, full, and fine form. Marie Baumann•—Vivid red, large and full. Ma rr/uise de Mortemart—White, tinted delicate flesh, fine. Marguise de Castellane—Beautiful bright rose, very large. Afamice Bernardin—Rich crimson, shaded violet, extra fine. Monsieur Noman—Delicate rose, large, full, exquisite form. Nardy Freres—Fine violet rose, large, full, and very fine. Paul NSron—Deep rose, very large and full. Paul Verdier—Very deep bright rose, large and full. Perle des Blanches—Pure white; a beautiful pillar rose. President Thiers—Fiery red, large, full, and good form. I1 rince Camille de Rohan—Velvety crimson, large and full. PrintttS Beatrice—Rosy pink, fine globular form. J‘rincess Christian—Bright rosy peach, large and fine. Princess Mary of Cambridge—Delicate rosy flesh, very free-flowering. Richard Wallace—Bright rose, large and full. St. George—Rich dark crimson, large, full, globular. Scnateur Vaisse—Scarlet-crimson, large and double. Star of Waltham—Deep rich rosy crimson, large, very full, and smooth. Thyra Ifammerichr— Delicate fleshy-rose, large and full. Vicomte 1 ’igicr—Lively violet-red, good form, very fine. Vidor Verdier—Rose, shaded with carmine; a.superb flower. Naiicr Olibo—Velvety black and fiery red, good form. Bourbon Roses.—Tho origin of this beautiful group was a seedling, supposed to be a hybrid between the Chinese and Four Seasons rose, found in the Isle of Bourbon, and from it numerous varieties have resulted. Although they flower early as well as late (with few exceptions), it is rare that blooms of the natural size orTHE HOSE GARDEN. 687 with characteristic colours are produced until the cool autumnal weather sets in, when, for brilliancy and tone of colour, they are unsurpassed. The vigorous kinds form good standards and pillar roses, and require moderate pruning; those of medium and dwarf growth are best cultivated as low standards and dwarfs; these should be closely pruned. Aeidalic—Blush white; vigorous. Armosa—Pink, double; very showy. Bouquet de Flore—Deep carmine-red; very effective. Charlcmagne—Silvery blush. Comtesse de Barba ntanne—Flesh-colour, large and full. I) a petit Thouars—Bright crimson; rigorous. Empress Eugenie—Rose, margin purple. George Dupont—Brilliant crimson, shaded with purple. Gloire de Ro. somanes—Bright crimson, semi-double, but effective. La iju t u f t h i, —Dark crimson purple. Madame Cmhourg—Rosy lilac, red centre; rigorous. Earl of Eldon—Orange-buff, very free and fragrant. FellenG rg—Bright crimson, large and effective. La Pdelu—Pale flesh, very large. A fine pillar rose in a warm situation. La marque—Lemon, very large; rigorous. Requires a sheltered situation. Madame Massot—Pure white, centre flesh-colour; very pretty. Marechal Xiel—Bright golden yellow, large and perfect form; a magnificent rose. Ophirie—Nankeen and copper. Rece d'Or—Deep yellow, very free. Solfaterre—Bright sulphur; vigorous. Requires a wall or sheltered situation. Triomphe de Bennes—Light canary, large, fine form. Chinese Roses.—The roses of this group have sprung from the Common China (R. i ad tea), and the Crimson China (R. semperforens), both natives of China, and introduced into this country in 17S9. They are for the most part of dwarf habit, and being tolerably hardy, may, in the warmer parts of the kingdom, be planted in the open ground; but in cold localities the shelter of a wall is requisite, and in either case protection should be ' afforded in winter by spreading a layer of tan, litter, &c., over the roots, and by sticking evergreens, furze, or fern among the branches; in times of great severity, moreover, straw-mats may be employed to secure plants against walls. Archduke Charles—Pale rose, changing to crimson, very large; rigorous. Cramoisi Superieur—Rich crimson. Ducher—Pure white, good form. Eugene Be a u h am a is—Amaran th. Fabcier—Bright scarlet. Hen rtf the Fifth—Crimson striped with white; dwarf. Madame Breon—Very large, rose. Madame Bureau—Pure white. Maejolin—Dark crimson, very large; vigorous. Mrs. Busan quet—Pale flesh; rigorous. President d'Olbecque—Cherry-red, very pretty and distinct. A section of this group, called Lawrenceana or Fairy Roses, first introduced from China in 1810, are remarkable for their diminutive size. They are suitable for pot culture; and either for planting as edgings, or in small beds in warm dry soils. The varieties are not very numerous. La Desiree, Gloire des Laterenceanas, Jenny, and Xemesis have crimson flowers; Retour du Printemps, bright rose; Fairy, blush; and Alba, white. Tea-scented Roses.—These roses, alike remarkable for the beauty and fragrance of their flowers, have sprung from the Blush Tea-scented and Yellow Tea-scented varieties of R. indica. They are too tender for planting in the open ground, except in the warmest parts of the kingdom, but succeed well against a wall with a warm aspect, if protected in winter like the China roses; and for cultivation under glass, wThether in pots or in conservatory borders, they are better suited than any other group. They may be grown either as dwarfs or standards. In the latter form, however, if planted out of doors, they are more exposed, and therefore require to be very carefully protected from frost. In the conservatory the rigorous growing kinds form beautiful pillar roses. Tea roses should be planted in rich soil mixed with leaf-mould, and require to be closely pruned. Recently some very vigorous growing varieties have been raised, of which Gloire de Dijon is such a conspicuous example; and seedlings from it arc of a very hardy character and vigorous growth, succeeding well as standards. Adam—Very large, rosy salmon; vigorous. Adrienne Christoplde—Coppery-yellow or apricot, very distinct. Alba Rosea—White, centre rose, extra fine. Auguste Oger—Salmon-rose, large and full. A uguste Vacher—Yellow*, shaded copper, large and full. Belle Lyonnaise—Deep lemon, extra fine. Bouton d'Or—Bright yellow, charming. Catherine Merrnet—Light flesh-coloured, extra fine. Cheshunt Hybrid—Cherry carmine, large and very fine. Clara Sylcain—Pure white. Comte de Paris—Very large, rosy flesh; rigorous. Devoniensis—Pale yellow, very large. There is also a climbing variety of this. fjlise Savrcage—Pale yellow, centre buff or orange; dwrarf. Eugenie T)esgdches—Pale rose; vigorous. Gloire de Dijon — Very large, yellow, shaded with salmon or rose; rigorous.GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. 688 Goubault—Very large, bright rose; hardy and vigorous. | Homer—Rose, centre salmon. La Louie d’Or—Fine golden yellow. Le Nankin—Coppery yellow, very fine. L' Enfant Trov.ee—Large, pale yellow. Louise (le Savoie—Pale yellow. Madame de St. Joseph—Vcry large, pale pink; vigorous. Madame Falcot—Dark apricot, large and full. Madame Ilippolgte Jamain—White, centre dark yellow, fine. Madame Jules Margotlin—Light rose, sometimes ! bright red, large and full. Madame Margottin—Deep citron yellow, extra fine. Madame Villermoz—White, centre salmon, very large. \ Madame 11 i/liam—Rich yellow, large and full. Mdlle. Cecile Iierthod—Very bright sulphur yellow, , extra fine. Millie. Marie A maud—Fine canary yellow, large, full, 1 and fine form. Mdlle. Marie Van Houtte—Yellowish white, edged with rose, extra fine. Moire—Very large, fawn, shaded w’ith rose; vigorous, j Monsieur Furtado—Bright sulphur yellow, large and ' full. Xarcisse—Fine pale yellow. Niphetos — White, pale lemon centre, very large; vigorous. Perfection de. Monplaisir—Deep canary yellow, extra i fine. Perle de L,gon—Deep yellow, beautiful form. President—Rose, shaded salmon, large and full. Princesse Marie—Rosy pink; vigorous. Reinc de Portugal—Golden yellow’, shaded copper, very fine. Rubens—Rose and white, centre yellow, large and full. I Safrano—Pale buff, beautiful in bud; vigorous. Souvenir (TElite Vardon—White, centre yellow, very fine. Souvenir de Paul Neron—White, edged with rose, extra fine. Sourenird’un Ami—Salmon; vigorous. Triomphe da Luxembourg — Very large, rosy flesh; I vigorous. Vicomtesse de Cazes—Bright yellow, centre tinged w’ith copper colour.—R. D. CHAPTER XXV. HARDY HERBACEOUS PLANTS. I.—HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS. So various are the conditions under which the plants usually known by the above title grow in their native habitats, that it is almost impossible to give within any reasonable limits instructions as to their general culture. Nay more, this is only to be done, even on a most extended scale, by a system of grouping, according to the geological character of the districts they affect; and then even those groups would have to be subdivided according to the absence and presence of water. Fortunately for us, with our limited space, Nature appears to give to plants a wonderful power of adaptability, as every one who has cultivated these plants, and is equally familiar with them in their wild condition, must admit; but it is from nature that the true secret of the successful culture of a certain proportion of them must be learned. In the following selection of about 300 species we purpose, where any marked cultural specialty presents itself, to record the same, in addition to giving a necessarily brief description of each plant, and therefore here content ourselves by a few remarks on the formation of wliat is technically known as an Herbaceous Border. Situation.—Though we have not the least objection to their occupying their old position in the bordei’s surrounding the squares of the kitchen garden, where they always formed a varied, interesting, and at the same time useful feature, we must remember, that in many cases these borders are now devoted to the culture of pyramid trees, for which indeed they are especially well adapted both as regards cultivation and display, as well as general manipulatory convenience. Possibly the side borders along the central walk facing the range of glass might in many cases still be devoted to them; but in other instances it will lie advisable to select a border in connection with the pleasure-grounds for this purpose. In choosing its position, let it be borne in mind that a south aspect quite clear from the shade of trees, and as far removed from the action of tree roots as possible, will be found best adapted to the end in view. An east or a west aspect will also answer the purpose, but the sunny south is the best. Such a border can generally be selected, of about 10 feet in width, in front of a well-established mass of evergreens, whose varied neutral tints assist wonderfully in bringing out the colours of the various flowers, and also furnish the otherwise naked appearance of such a border during the winter season. Soil.—A good strong loam above a clay subsoil will be found the most useful for general pur* poses; but where the loamy portion is shallow, say not more than 6 inches deep, then supplement it by getting a further supply of similar soil sufficient to raise the border 12 inches at the back, and take out the clay in the front half of the border, so that there will be a depth of at least a foot of good soil. Over this a dressing of 3 inches of short well-decomposed manure or leaf soil may be spread, and a nice covering of old screened lime rubbish, or failing that of sand, or still better of both; the whole then being incorporated together, and allowed to consolidate, willHARDY HERBACEOUS PLANTS. G89 constitute an admirable border for herbaceous plants. Where the soil is sandy on a gravelly subsoil, the latter condition being a very frequent sequence to the former, the ground should be trenched over, and sufficient gravel removed to admit of a depth of 15 or 18 inches of strong soil, obtained from the most convenient place available, being commingled with the sandy surface soil of the locality, the whole to receive a dressing of manure, and before planting to be properly consolidated by being trodden down. Note, that in a border formed under these conditions, when completed, it is not raised as in the former case, but presents a surface only slightly above the natural level. Drainage is necessary under either of the above conditions; but more especially in the former case is it important that there should be thorough drainage, and that, if possible, the depth of the drains should not be less than 3 feet. The roots of most plaotd, and of this class more especially, i have a particular liking for such aerial arteries, and are liable to seriously interfere with the purposes for which the drains are intended, added to which, dee]) drainage is always the most effectual. Arrangement Si to Height.—Allowing, in our supposed l()-feet-widu border, that 2 feet at the back be devoted to a line of demarkation between the plants and the shrubs, four or at the utmost live lines of plants will be all it will contain. These lines should be graduated, as regards height, from front to back; and in each of these lines certain bold and telling plants should be placed at equal distances apart—identical kinds of plants, we mean—as, for instance, in the front line patches of the blue Aubrietia, or of the yellow A/yssum, should occur at intervals of say every 15 or 20 feet. In the back row a similar arrangement as to the tall growing varieties of J)elphinunn; ami the same will hold good with all the other rows, the object being to carry the eye from point to point along the entire length of border, giving at the same time an idea of distance, regularity, and continuity, which is too frequently absent in these borders. Let complete wildness and irregularity be left to the wilderness garden. The maintenance of a certain amount of order, such as this process of planting secures, will not in the least detract from the variety in form and foliage which may be introduced into the intermediate spaces. Care, however, should be taken to select for such prominent places those plants which retain their floral or leafy beauty for the longest period of time. The Tritomas, and the garden form of Lythrum known as L. roseum superhum, in respect of flowers, are admirably adapted for the purpose, I and some of the Ferulas and Macleaya as regards beauty of foliage. Arrangement as to Colour.—In arranging ] ilants as to colour, of course the proper relationship of those only that are in blossom at the same time need be studied; and knowing, as every one does, that two tints of the same colour when placed | side by side are sure to militate against one another to the detriment of both, we would prefer, rather than go into any details on this matter, to recommend the use of as much discretion as possible in this respect in the original planting, and that any alteration required should be noted down during the summer, and properly carried out the following autumn or spring. The same remark will apply to discrepancies in the matter of height, which are sure to occur, as the vigour of growth and character vary much in different soils and localities. A word on staking will not be out of place, for on the neatness and appropriateness with which this is done in a very great measure depends the satisfactory appearance of a border of this sort. As a rule never stake unless support is absolutely required. In our opinion there is no operation in connection with the management of herbaceous plants in which discretion and knowledge are more essential than in this; nothing looks more unnatural than to see a procumbent plant tied up to a stake, and nothing worse than to see a strong stake placed where a slender one would do, or a stake obtruding itself on our notice, as it is Bure to do if it be twice the height of the plant. That knowledge is absolutely essential in whoever allots the stakes to the different plants, will, we think, be obvious when we say that the supports should be furnished in the early stages of growth so as to secure the young shoots while perfectly erect, and prevent them thus being blown about by the wind; since tliepartial dislocation that takes place in their falling down isalmost sure to be completed in the attempt to render them amenable to any tying process afterwards. In selecting from some 6000 species of herbaceous plants, which may be estimated as about the number now in cultivation, a limited number of select sorts, as we purpose doing, more difficulties present themselves than the reader may imagine. The remembrance of many old friends crops up as though they asked individually, Why am I not one of the select ] Then again, plants which thrive freely in one locality may grow so indifferently in another as to look objects of pity rather than of beauty. It is utterly impossible that in making the selection we can anticipate these variations of adaptability. We must therefore plead this as an excuse if the value of our 44C90 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. selection and descriptions be not at all times, and under all circumstances, realized. With one further word of advice we close our cultural remarks. Let no one judge of the character of his herbaceous border by the first year’s result after planting. Many of our very best plalnS of this class require two or three years to become thoroughly established. If we do not begrudge time to our trees and shrubs neither need we do so to our border plants; they, in the final result, will equally repay any small amount of patience that may be demanded of us; and by way of consolation we may add, that as a rule, the longer they are in attaining strength and perfection, the longer will they retain it. The following selection of hardy herbaceous plants for border culture is made to embrace as much variety as possible; necessarily many good plants resembling those mentioned are omitted:— Achillea.—Familiarly known as yarrow, which grows abundantly in all our light pastures. The flowers are arranged in flattened heads. Increase by seeds not to be depended on, as they are liable to variation; division of root and replanting should be done every two years. .1. aurea.—Of dwarf compact habit, about 12 inches high, of a bright yellow, an abundant bloomer. Flowers in June. Levant, 1739. .1. Utrjaatorium.—Of rigorous habit, 3 to 4 feet high, brilliant yellow; continues in bloom from July to September. Capital for shrubberies. Caucasus, 1S03. A. rosea.—Quite distinct from our rosy var. of A. JIi/le/o!iam, of more slender habit, 2 feet high; flowers rosy crimson. June, and successional blooms in August. Southern Europe. AOON1TOM, monkshood.— There are many species having great similarity in their general appearance. The flowers arc hooded and irregular, produced in dense erect racemes; while the roots of all are intensely poisonous. Increased by division. A. Cam nutnon has deep purple flowers produced in August; grows from 3 to 4 feet high, with deeply-divided leaves. Austria, 1752. A. japonicutn.— Blue or white, more slender and branching in growth, 2 feet, flowers smaller. Japan, 1790. A. sinense.—Flowers in September, very large, dark violet; broadly lobed fleshy leaves of an olive-green colour; If to 2 feet. Japan, 1849. A. versicolor.—White blue-margined flowers in branching erect racemes. A very pretty and distinct species, 3 feet. Siberia, 1S20. Adenorhora.—Allied to Campanula, the flowers bellshaped, with exserted style, produced in branching panicles. Increased by seeds, not by division; thrive in any ordinary garden soil; they dislike removal. A. vo>iim>nus.^ Of slender erect growth, 2 feet high; flowers blue; blooms in July and August. Siberia, 1S10. A. stylosa.—Flowers more campanulate, 2 feet high, light blue, exceedingly elegant. Siberia, 1S20. Adonis vernal is.—An early spring-flowering plant, with finely-divided leaves, and large yellow flowers; height about 12 inches; may be increased by seeds or divisions, but dislikes frequent removal. Europe, 1S29. Alyssuji saxatile.—A dwarf compact growing crucifer, 12 inches high; produces sheets of golden blossom in April and May; readily increased by seeds, which it produces freely. Old plants should be replaced by young ones every third year at furthest. Candia, 1710. Anchusa italica.—A rough-leaved somewhat coarse plant belonging to the borage family, 4 feet high, produces in May and June an abundance of brilliant blue flowers; will grow in any soil; increases by growth from every piece of root. Anemone, wind-flower,—This contains many lovely border plants, besides our own well-known garden anemone. They will thrive in any good garden soil; and are increased readily by seeds or root-buds. A. apeiuiina, blue wood anemone.—Considered a native of England, possibly introduced; flowers freely in April, about 6 inches high; thrives well and shows to advantage in grass at the foot of trees. A. corunaria.—The type of our common garden anemone, of almost all colours; flowers in March and April; grows freely from seed; likes a light soil, and is fond of an admixture of chalk. Levant, 1596. A. hortensis.—Flowers in May, star-shaped, intense scarlet; 9 inches high; grows in tufts. Italy, 1597. A. japonica.—Flowers deep rose, semidouble; grows 2 to 3 feet high; increases freely by root-buds; blooms in July and August. Japan, 1S44. A. (jap.) II(marine Jobert.—A sport from the above, having pure white single flowers, set off with a mass of yellow stamens; leaves less divided; grows 3 feet high, and blooms in September and October. One of the finest autumn plants we have. Sometimes called A. japonica alba. .1, Pulsatilla.—A dwarf plant, 9 inches high, with much-divided leaves; violet-coloured flowers, with hair-covered surfaces; increases slowly by root division, but may be raised freely from seed. Britain. AntennaRIa maryarifacea.—One of the everlasting flowers, with white woolly stems and leaves, also white blossoms; 18 inches high, grows freely by creeping underground stems, and requires to be kept within bounds; better adapted for the wild garden. Britain. Anthemis linctoria.—Flowers large, daisy-shaped, bright yellow, of compact habit; leaves much cut, 2 feet high; blooms June to August. A most desirable plant when obtained true. Britain. Anthf.RICU.m Liliastnnn, St, Bruno’s lily.—A liliaceous plant, with narrow grass-like leaves, producing an abundance of pure white scented flowers in spikes about 15 inches high. It is now more generally known by the name Czavlia. Blooms in May. It enjoys a moist peaty subsoil; may be increased by divisions of the root; it docs not seed freely. Southern Europe, 1629. Aquilegia.—Amongst the columbines, besides our own wild species, A. rulyaris, there are many otheis quite distinct, and admirably adapted for border cultivation. They prefer a light rich soil, and may be increased by division of the root and by seed; they, however, are very liable to hybridize. A. a urea.—Of recent introduction, a rigorous grower, producing bright canary yellow flowers with long out-curving spurs. A charming border plant. Flowers, May. Utah, 1S70. ,1. ylandulosa. -Of dwarf compact habit; newel’s blue and white, with long spurs and wide expanding petals; of remarkable free growth in some localities especiallyHARDY HERBACEOUS PLANTS. G91 in the north, in many places exceedingly sliy. Flowers in May and June. Siberia, 1822. A. truncata—syn. A. cal if arnica.—Flowers orange colour approaching to scarlet outside, the inside of the petals a beautiful yellow, the spur long and the expanded portion of flower short; flowers in July; 2 to 3 feet. California, 1S47. Aha his.—The wall-cresses contain, besides a number of purely alpine species, two, as selected, well adapted for borders. They are both dwarf trailers and remarkably early spring bloomers. A. a I hula.—Has leaves of a whitish tinge, pure white flowers, forms a large patch, ought to be trimmed into a compact mass as soon as bloom is over; 6 inches high. Caucasus, 1798. -1. crispata.—Leaves light green and narrower; flowers a little later than the previous one, to which it is inferior. The variegated form of this is much cultivated for its yellow marketl foliage. Carniolia, 1818. Armeiua Mhdlotes.—The largest form of our sea-pink; produces tufts of broad leaves, and globular masses of flowers supported on stalks 18 inches long; grows in any soil, and flowers freely in June and July. Besides the pink there is a white form. Portugal, 1800. Akundo conspicaa (Fig. 364).—A remarkably ornamental grass of large growth, forming massive tufts of Fig. 364. long narrow arching leaves, and slender culms, 8 to 10 feet high, each terminating in a drooping panicle. Its graceful foliage ami its long silvery drooping plumes render it a strikingly beautiful object in the summer months from July to September. It is a native of New Zealand, but survives our winters without injury in sheltered places in the south and west of England, where the soil is light and dry. Where it thrives well it is much more ornamental than the Pampas grass {O'gneriam), being not only more graceful in aspect, but corning much earlier into flower. A sc l kit as taberosa.—Has a fleshy and brittle root which might not to be disturbed; sends up stems 15 to 18 inches high, with long blunt-pointed leaves, support- ing a flat corymb of bright deep yellow and orange flowers; it is a very handsome plant, and is partial to peat soil, but very impatient of any injury to the root. September. North America, 1680. Asphodelus.—A genus of handsome liliaceous plants, remarkable for their thick and fleshy roots, and erect stems, bearing starry flowers. They grow freely in any good garden soil; increased by seeds and division. A. test lens.—A very handsome border plant, the stems of which grow about 3 feet high; the leaves are long and tapering, the flowers white striated with brown. A. ramosus differs in having a slightly branching inflorescence. June and July. Spain, 1820. A. albas, white asphodel.—A showy vigorous growing plant, with stems, 3 feet high, long deeply channelled tapering leaves, and white flowers. June. Southern Europe. Aster.—A large genus of composite plants popularly called Michaelmas daisies, producing starry flowers late in the autumn. All increase freely by division, or by means of young shoots taken off in spring. A. bessarabicus, often erroneously called A. grandi-florus.—A dwarf compact grower, 15 inches high, with broadish leaves, gradually narrowing up the stems; flowers large, bright blue, forming lovely masses of colour in September and October. South Russia, 1834. A. longifoUns formosus.—Has very narrow leaves, and is a most abundant bloomer; flowers, a lovely bright rose-tinted lilac, 18 to 24 inches. September. North America, 1798. A. none an glue.—Grows to 4 or 5_ feet high, and has long narrow pubescent leaves; flowers in compact masses of a deep purple, star shape irregular. October. North America, 1710. Both this and its variety spurius, with red flowers, are fine border plants for a back row, or shrubbery culture; the latter grows from 6 to 7 feet high. Astragalus.—A genus of pea-flowered plants, with compact heads, and usually ornamental pinnate foliage; may be increased by seeds, or in some cases by root division. A. arenarius.—Produces purplish-blue heads of bloom in August, about 18 inches high, grows freely, and is long lived. Germany, 1798. A. dasgglottis.—A most abundant bloomer, about 6 inches high, bluish-purple flowers, and very small leaflets, a plant rarely met with, but most desirable. August and September. Siberia, 1810. A. maxlmus.—A plant 4 feet high, producing dense yellowish-green oval masses of woolly flowers from the axil of each of the upper leaves; its general contour is both striking and handsome. June to August. North America, 1811. A. reamspess id anus.—A tufty plant, 6 or 8 inches high; flowers produced on longish stalks, crimson purple; must be increased by seeds. July. France, 1710. Aubrietia.—Often miscalled the blue Arabis, consists of a few very closely-allied species — all valuable for spring flowering. We select the two best. A. deltoidea.—Forms a carpet of bright blue flowers, and is admirably adapted for planting along a sunk fence where it will hang down the wall and bloom abundantly; likes a dry sandy soil. April. Levant, 1710. A. grandijlora.—Is more lax in growth, and produces larger flowers of a lighter shade of blue. Greece, 1847. Baptisia australis.—A compact-growing herbaceous plant of erect habit, with smooth pale-green foliage andG92 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. blue flowers. North America, 1758. Not remarkably showy, but pretty in habit. Bupiithalmum cordatum, more generally known under the generic title of Teledia.—A fine robust herbaceous plant, with large cordate leaves. The flower-heads are of a rich orange colour produced in cymose panicles— a plant well adapted for a shrubbery border. Its bloom is long continued, and with the foliage constitutes a handsome border plant. The robust stems require no staking. South Europe, 1825. Calystegia pube.iceus.—A free-blooming double-flowered convolvulus, with bluntly-pointed sagittate slightly woolly leaves, producing its pink flowers in abundance, but, like our common garden bindweed, when once established, a perfect monopolizer. Blooms in July. China, 1814. Grows freely by division of the root. Campanula.—A genus that contributes very largely to the gaiety of the herbaceous border during the entire summer, and is distinctly marked by the perfect bell-shaped character of its flowers. Amongst the dwarf growers we would select, as the most useful, C. carpatica, with its white variety alba; C. Utrbinata, closely allied, but still dwarfer; C. tenella, with bronzy foliage, and somewhat allied to our common harebell, but possessing a darker colour in the flowers and broader leaves; C. soldariella’jiora, a charming plant, with narrow leaves and slender stems, every flower being double, and with its duplicately-fringed margin, reminding one of the sol-danellas after which it is appropriately named. Amongst the intermediate forms as regards growth we have C. ylomerata, whose dense heads of rich dark-blue flowers are alike an ornament to our fields and borders; C. Mbilis, with a somewhat creeping root, has large well-defined bell-flowers, sometimes white, sometimes I slightly chocolate tinted; C. persiafolia, with its white and double varieties, constitute a valuable addition to the midsummer gaiety of our herbaceous borders; and C. sarmatica, though rather dull in colour, claims a place in the intermediate group as a decidedly valuable plant; as also do C. Burgliali and C. Van Honftei. Amongst the tall-growing species we have C. mac-rabl'i i, a large-flowqred Russian form of our native C. hitijolia, growing full 5 feet high, remarkably erect in habit, but the flowers are of short duration; C. pyra-midalis, available for outdoor or conservatory decoration, which sends up its densely floriferous spike to a height of 5 or even 6 feet, and retains its beauty for a considerable time; and C. lactiflora, a compact-growing herbaceous plant, with, as the name indicates, milk - white flowers, somewhat more expanded at the mouth than any of the previous species, but which along with the closely-allied form C. cc/tidifolia, in which the flowers are a light blue tint, should occupy a place in every selection. Cataxanche ccendea.—A composite plant, belonging to a somewhat weedy section of the order, but nevertheless a very desirable plant. It grows about 2 feet high, is of graceful and elegant habit, and flowers abundantly through a considerable portion of the summer. The flowers are blue. South Europe. Introduced into cultivation some three centuries ago. There is also a very desirable variety, which combines in the flowers the blue and white, with a preponderance of the latter, and is known by the title of C. coerulea bicolor. Cextaurea.—A large genus of vigorous growing composite plants, whose specifically distinctive characters, however constant they may be, are not readily appreciated by the ordinary observer. V. bahylonica.—Is a plant alike valuable on account of its distinctive habit of growth, as its fine irregularly sinuosely divided foliage, and its winged flower-stem, along which the flowers are sessilely arranged; it attains a height of 5 to 7 feet. The flowers are yellow, produced in succession from July to September. Levant; originally introduced in 1710, and recently reintroduced. C. vuicroceplada.—A. strong and robust many-stemmed I plant, with large heads of yellow flowers, produced on stems 4 to 5 feet high. Caucasus, 1805. Well adapted for shrubbery borders, and readily increased by division. C. montana, with its white and rosy varieties, is a useful plant, though slightly erratic in its root development. Its flowers are a bright deep blue; the leaves are silvery; height about 2 feet. A native of Austria, and an old inhabitant of our gardens. Cei’Halauia farlarica.—A tall vigorous growing plant, closely allied to the scabious, with handsomely-cut leaves: height 7 to 8 feet; flowers pale yellow. Better adapted perhaps for the shrubbery than the herbaceous border. Russia, 1759. Chkiraxthus id pin us. —To this genus belongs the wall-flower, so deservedly popular in our gardens. The alpine form grows well as a border plant on light soils, forming dense compact masses. Conspicuous for its lovely lemon-yellow flowers, which are freely produced in May. A native of South Europe; introduced in 1810. C. Marshallii.—A hybrid between the former and the well-known annual species Erysimum Peroffskiamm, wherein the more rigorous growth and the bright orange colour of the latter have left well-marked indications of the parentage. It can only be perpetuated in true character by cuttings. CheloxeM-A genus closely allied to the Peulstemoi'. producing tubular flowers of a scarlet or rose colour. All its representatives are North American. C. barbata.—An elegant plant, with a somewhat slender glabrous flower stem, acquiring a height of 3 to 4 feet, or, in exceptional cases, even more; the flowers are bright scarlet, narrow and tubular, in July. Mexico, 1794. C. Lyoni.—This is of more compact habit than the last, its erect flower-stems growing about 2 feet high; the flowers are tubular inflated, rosy purple, and produced late in the autumn. May be increased by division, or by spring-struck cuttings from the young shoots. Introduced 1S12. Chrysobactrox Hoid'eri, the giant bog asphodel of New Zealand.—Perfectly hardy, but requires peat or bog soil. Flowers bright golden yellow, in spikes, on stems 18 inches high, in June and July; leaves narrow, olive-green, tapering. Increases readily by seeds, which always vegetate more freely when self-sown round the parent plant than when sown in pots. New Zealand, 1848. Coxv all aria.—Dwarf-growing endogenous plants, represented by the well-known lily of the valley. They delight in a rich soil of decaying vegetable matter, and increase freely by division. C. bifolia (now relegated to a distinct genus—J/dhiw-diemum).—A pretty compact grower, with small spikes of white flowers rising from between a pair of broadly-cordate leaves. A native of Europe, recently recognized as indigenous to Britain. C. majalis, lily of the valley.—This plant is so familiarHARDY HERBACEOUS PLANTS. 693 to all under its trivial name as to need little or no description. Its pretty white bells are produced about May and June; and it will thrive under almost any circumstances of soil or exposure, though it prefers shade. There is a larger variety known as the major form; and one with rose-tinted flowers, besides a very pretty form with gold-striped leaves, which, when well developed, are very ornamental. A native of Britain. Coreopsis auriaiftita.—A good herbaceous composite plant, with smooth almost entire leaves, bright yellow flowers, those of the ray deeply notched. Grows 2 to 3 feet high. Flowers in July and August. North America, 1699. Corydalis j(obilis.—This produces its light yellow spikes of bloom from a dense mass of finely-cut and delicate leaves in the month of May. Its roots are excessively brittle, and in case of removal should be handled with the greatest care. Should any fragments break off in the operation remember that every particle, when placed among sand in a gentle bottom heat, will grow. Siberia, 1783. Cvpkipkdium.—A genus belonging to the family of terrestrial orchids, the large majority of which possess lovely flowers of irregular and fantastic shape. This genus is known as the lady’s slipper, from the curious sac-like shape which the labellum assumes. C. Calool'js.—A rare plant in Britain, where it still grows wild in one or two localities. The flowers have narrow brownish outer segments, and a large yellow pouch or slipper. Flowers in May, and loves a slightly shady position. Thrives best in a good stiff loam and leaf-soil. C. sj>< tiabi/r.—The most charming of the hardy section of this genus. It sends up its stems to a height of IS to 24 inches; these are furnished with broad stem-clasping hairy leaves, and terminated by one or two flowers of large size, the labellum being white, with a lovely blotch of carmine upon it. A native of North America, where it grows freely in woods. This plant flourishes best in a peat soil upon a cool moist subsoil. Flowers in June, and may be increased by division, but not being of rapid growth the less it is disturbed the better. Delphinium, larkspur.—Alike well known and prized in its annual and perennial forms. Amongst the latter are found many plants which possess a special value in the herbaceous border. Blue in various tints is the predominating colour of the flowers. They should have rich garden soil. J). l>arlo. /iiti/se/iiamim.—Entire plant less branched ; leaves narrow, dark green; flowers dark blue, produced in terminal clusters on stems 15 to IS inches high. May be increased by seeds or spring cuttings. Flowers in July. Central Europe, 1099. Echixacka intermedin: Rndbeckin of old authors. — A fine autumnal plant. Radical leaves few, lanceolate, covered with rough hail’s; flower-heads 5 inches in diameter, reddish purple, supported on stems 3 to 4 feet high, rising from a short woody rhizome. Produced in September and October. Said to be a garden hybrid, llarely matures its seeds. Originated 1S2(3. K. serotiiio.—Has smoother more ovate leaves than the preceding; flower-stems 2 feet high; flower-heads smaller, produced in August. Rarely seeds. North America, 181(5. Neither of these plants like to be disturbed. Ei’iMKDiuii.—A genus alike beautiful in flowers and foliage; the latter are exceedingly tender, the leaflets heart-shaped, and remarkable for their beautiful green colour, tinged with coppery bronze. Should have peat or leaf-soil, and a shady comer sheltered from winds and spring frosts. E. macranthuni.—Produces spikes of large white flowers, tinged with lilac. Grows 12 inches high. Japan, 1830. E. pinnntvm—syn. E. colchicum.—Somewhat taller in stature, the flowers bright yellow, produced well above the leaves. Caucasus, 1848. E. riolaceum.—Like E. macranthum, but the flowers are distinctly violet and white. Japan, 1837. All are early spring bloomers, and may readily be increased by a division of the underground stems. Rrigkron.—A genus closely allied to .1 ste,-. Some of the species are weedy, but many are valuable border plants. E. glanmt.—A compact-growing half-shrubby plant, with broadlv-obovatc glaucous leaves, producing throughout the summer large heads of lavender-blue flower-heads. Grows 1 foot high. Said to be from South America, but perfectly hard}-; its origin, therefore, doubtful. 1812. E. lloylei.—A dwarf plant, with narrow spatlmlate leaves, and dark blue flower-heads, produced on stalks S to 12 inches long. Sikkim, ISIS. E. pttrpurens.—11 as broad sinuate leaves below, from which rise the flowering stems to a height of 15 or IS inches. The flower-heads are pink, with narrow twisted rays, exceedingly elegant in contour. Hudson’s Bay, 177(5. Increases freely by root division and seeds. Eryxgii’.m.—The sea hollies comprise many valuable border plants, remarkable for their lasting qualities and for their rigid elegance of contour. They all thrive best in a deep soil. Root division is dangerous. E. (i/pinitm. — With broadly-cordate radical leaves. Sends up a stem 2 to 3 feet high of bluish colour. The involucral bracts are much divided, and particularly elegant. July and August. Switzerland, 1597. E. aipiifidittm. — Radical leaves cordate; stem folia-ceous, 3 to 4 feet high, gray-coloured. A noble border plant of candelabra - like appearance. The flowering period extends over July, August, and September. Spain, 1S1(5. E. amet/t list in inn.—Radical leaves lobed; stem 2 feet high, bright steel-blue. A remarkably handsome riant. June, July, and August. Styria, 1S16. E. Bourijati. — Radical leaves sharply divided, and blotched with white; stems 15 to 18 inches. A compact and distinct species. Juno and July. South of France, 1731. Eupatorium.—A useful genus of tall autumn-flowering composite plants; remarkably free growers, and adapted to any garden soil. E. ai/eratoides. —With cordate leaves ; produces fiat heads of white sweet-scented blossoms on stems 3 to 4 feet high in September. Useful for cut flowers. North America, 1(540. E. cordntnm—syn. E. melissoides. — Very similar in appearance to the last, but dwarfer, and blooms in July and August, North America, 1S11. Epphorbia.—Though not a showy genus of plants, owing to the absence of petals, this loss is compensated by the bracts or appendages which are of a bright yellowish-green, and this, together with a graceful habit, renders several of them useful as border plants. E. Ci/parissias.—An old familiar friend, a native ofHARDY HERBACEOUS PLANTS. 695 our English woods, forming dense tufty masses about 12 inches high; leaves narrow; floral bracts a bright lively green. Increases somewhat too freely by the root. K. M'/rsuiites.—A trailing plant, with broadisli cordate silvery glaucous leaves; 9 to 12 inches high; of distinct habit, and adapted for either border or rock culture. Likes a dry situation. Southern Europe. Ferula.— Nearly all the species of this genus are characterized by their large much-divided and handsome leaves. They are almost too massive for the herbaceous border, and are worthy of a special location on the grass. They are all deep rooters and heavy feeders, ami are readily increased by seeds. F. < vmm"ni—Leaves very finely cut, produced in massive recurved plumes; flowers yellow, in short-stalked umbels, on a stem 6 to 7 feet high. Southern Europe, 1597- F. 'jhi.'tra.— The leaf divisions are broader than in the last, glaucous; the stem beautifully glaucous, about 6 feet high. A handsome plant, quite distinct from the preceding. Flowers yellowish-green. Italy, 1596. Fkancma. — A South American genus, from a considerable altitude on the Andes. Perfectly hardy in most localities. All the species are attractive border plants. F. ramosa.—Of dense compact habit; leaves somewhat lyrate; flowers white, produced in spikes 18 inches to 2 feet high. July to September. 1831. F. ,«>/<<'/,i/nlia.—More lax ingrowthand more vigorous; the leaves less hairy; flowers a rosy purple, in branching spikes 2 to 3 feet Inch. 1830. Funkia.—A group of plants with handsome broadly-ovate undivided leaves, rendered more striking by the well-defined nerves that run parallel from base to apex. They are all tufty-growing plants, and require a strong rich soil for their full development. F. Ihn-indr37. F. yrandi flora—syn. F. mbeordata.—Has large shiny light green leaves; flowers borne in a loose racemose manner, pure white and delicately scented, in September. on stems 18 inches high. Japan, 1790. Quite hardy, ami useful for conservatory decoration as well. F. hnhCnua. Has largebroadly-ovate light glaucous gray leaves, with well-marked nerves, forming a charming mass of foliage, from whence arise racemes of lilac flowers in the month of August. Japan, 1S30. These species thrive well in any heavy garden soil. F. un.dv.lata (>irlmjnfa ami F. a"rco-mwralata are both remarkable for the variegation of their leaves, which they maintain with considerable constancy. Gaii.lakdia.—A genus of fine showy composite plants, all natives of North America. Maybe readily increased by seeds, which they ripen pretty freely. G. an'.-itnfti.—Flower-heads fully 3 inches across, of a butf orange colour; height, 18 inches to 2 feet; flowers, July and August. 1812. G. Ha.«hiri. — The flower-heads, in addition to the orange colour, have a bold red blotch at base of the florets; 18 inches high. Possibly a hybrid of American origin. Galkoa.—A small genus of strong robust border plants, with small pea-like flowrers, readily increased by roots or by seeds. G. orientalis.—Has handsome light green leaves; flowers blue produced in June; grows 3 to 4 feet high, and is of rather rambling root habit. Levant, 1801. G. persica.—Foliage smaller than that of the preceding ; flowers pure white, produced in great abundance, more tufty in growth; height 2 to 3 feet. June and July. Persia, 1826. Gentian a.—Under this genus we have grouped a number of deservedly popular species, all so desirable for border culture that it is ditlicult to make a selection. Those here noted arc free growers, and enjoy a strong loamy soil. They are all extremely sensitive of any root disturbance, and will take two or three years to recover a removal. U. acaulis.—The old dwarf G ait ian ell a so long known in our gardens, and admired for its large deep blue tubular flowers; it is in fact a native of Britain, and is familiar to all lovers of flowers. G. asdepiadea.—Possesses a neat upright habit, the stems IS inches high, producing numbers of blue flowers from the axil of the leaves along the upper half. It flowers in July. May be increased by division; seeds to vegetate must be self-sown. Austria, 1629. G. craciata.—A decumbent plant, with smooth shining opposite leaves; flowers blue, aggregated at the extremity of the shoots, the stems all springing from one root-stock. It will not divide, but it seeds freely, and should be increased by this means. In pricking out seedlings avoid any injury to the tap-root. July. Austria, 1596. G. I ((tea, mountain gentian.—An alpine in habitat, but a giant in height, growing 3 to 4 feet, producing* large glaucous cucullate ribbed leaves below and along the flower-stems, from whence spring a series of whorls of yellow flowers in July and August. A noble plant, fond of a deep bed of peat soil. Swiss Alps, 1596. Geranium.—Amongst the crane’s-bills there are many useful border flowers, some of which are natives of Britain, all are free growers, and adapt themselves to almost any soil or situation. G. iberkum.—A species closely allied to G. eriodemou, but handsomer, the leaves only slightly divided into rounded lobes; flowers large dark blue, on stems 12 to 15 inches high. A nice compact grower. Flowers in July. Levant, 1S22. G. Lambertianvm.—A somewhat scandent or trailing species, with prettily mottled leaves; flowers a chocolate red, somewhat striated, produced in August and September. Readily increased by seeds. Nepal, 1824. G. stiiif/nineum.—A native of Britain, of dwarf habit, 12 inches; forms in a border a neat compact tuft, and when in bloom is studded over with large deep rose-coloured flowers. There is a variety more compact in growth, with light flesh-coloured flowers, called G. lan-ca.deinixe, well worthy of culture. G. sylcaticv.m jlore-pleno.—The double form of the wood crane’s-bill is one of our very best border plants, of nice compact habit. It produces myriads of double flowers that appear to combine the blue and pink colours in the petals after the manner of “shot silk.” A native of Britain, but where or when the double form originated we cannot say. Geu.m chilensc atrosauyuineinn.—A garden form of a very useful rosaceous plant; the flowering stems rise from a mass of unequally divided pinnate leaves to a height of 18 inches; flowers a deep blood red in June and July. The double or semi-double form is very desirable. Chile, 1826.G96 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Gynerium argenteum, pampas grass (Plate XY.) — A noble grass forming immense tussocks 5 or 6 feet in diameter and as much in height, from which arise, some 3 or 4 feet higher, the silvery plumes or panicles forming the inflorescence. The foliage is rigid, but bends elegantly over at the slender points, and the plumes, which are silvery in the female plant and purplish in the male, are erect in the former and drooping in the latter. Being of large growth, the soil should bo well prepared for its reception, and sheltered nooks are most conducive to its full development. It forms a rather bolder mass than the Arundo conspitua, but its drawback is that its inflorescence is produced so late in autumn that in ungenial seasons it scarcely gets fully developed before it js liable to be disfigured by the frosts and damp of early winter. In fine seasons, and when well grown, it is, however, one of the finest ornamental plants we have. Buenos Ayres, 1847. Gypsophila paniadata.—A slender growing plant belonging to the pink family. From a thickish root-stock it sends up each year a set of shoots with smooth narrow loaves to a height of 2 feet; from these a perfect cloud of small flowers, supported on the slenderest of foot-stalks, forms a conical mass of elegance, its beauty continuing through August and September. It is very useful for intermixing with cut flowers, and should find a place in every garden. Siberia, 1759. HeDTSARCM sibiricum—syn. II. alpinum.—A Siberian plant of considerable elegance both in foliage habit and blossom. The flowers are pea-shaped, of a lively pink colour, and produced in short pendent racemes. It blossoms in J ime, height about 2 feet, dislikes removal, and should be increased by seeds, which it produces pretty freely. 1798. SELENIUM antiunnalc.—A fine autumn-flowered composite plant, producing freely; its brilliant yellow blossoms on stems rising 3 to 4 feet from a compact tufty root-stock. Flowers in August and September. North America, 1729. IIelichrysum arenarium.—A dwarf composite plant, whose dried flowers constitute an important element in the everlasting flowers sold for decorative purposes, sometimes not only dried but dyed. It is a dense growing, creeping plant, with narrow woolly leaves; its foliaceous flower-stems arc terminated with a flattened cluster of flower-heads at a height of 9 to 12 inches. It flowers in July. Southern Europe, 1739. HeUANTHUS mnltitlbrastlore-pleiio.— Amongst the sunflowers, which are notorious for their gigantic floral development, we select this species as the best representative for the herbaceous border. Its bright golden double flower-heads are produced in such abundance as to form a telling feature amongst border plants, or still more so amongst shrubs, for which situation it is by its vigorous growth extremely well adapted; its height is 4 to 5 feet. North America, 1597. IIelleborus.—The genus with which we are familiar in its special representative, the well-known Christmas rose, contains some twenty species, all of which are remarkable for their early blooming qualities, and some of them on account of their own intrinsic beauty. They are all dwarf compact growing plants, with pedately-divided leaves. II. atrorubens.—As its title indicates, is distinguished by its dark red drooping flowers, arranged in a lax cymose panicle, which attains a height of about 15 inches. It flowers in February and March, and when the weather is mild, so as to give it a chance of full development, it is a very handsome plant. Hungary, 1820. II. niger.—The blackness indicated by the specific title must appear a sad misnomer to any one who contemplates the pure whiteness of the interior of the flower; it refers, however, to the poisonous property contained in the root. A further anomaly exists in calling it a Christmas rose. But though the flowers are pure white internally, they are suffused with a delicate rose colour externally. The Scotch variety, known by the title maxima, is far superior to the old species; the flowers are not only double or treble the size, but they are also well elevated on long stout foot-stalks. They bloom in January, February, and March, modified of course by the severity or openness of the winter. Austria, 1596. II. orientalis.—This plant has much of the general appearance and habit of growth of II. atrorubens, and therewith pretty pink or rose-coloured flowers, with a slight touch of green. India, 1839. ITemerocallis, day-lily.—A popular old garden flower, represented by two dwarf species, II. graminm, with bright yellow, and II. distuha, with deep orange flowers; the former a native of Siberia, the latter of China, neither attaining a height of over 15 inches; and two tall growing species, II. jiara from Siberia, and II. ftifoa from the Levant—the former, as the specific name indicates, yellow, the latter, a sort of buff orange colour, both attaining a height of 3 feet. Vigorous growers in any garden soil. HepATICA,—A genus of charming dwarf early spring flowering plants, of compact tufty habit of growth, the flowers rising well above the dense masses of three-lobcd leaves. All the species succeed best in strong soil on a cold subsoil, and are readily increased by division before spring growth takes place. They however dislike being disturbed. II. angulosa (Fig. 366).—A vigorous grower, 6 to 8 inches high, with very beautiful large light blue flowers, much larger and more showy than in II. triloba. The leaves are also more divided. Hungary, 1864. II. triloba—syn. Anemone Ilepatica.—A native of Europe, varying much in colour; we have the pink, the original type of the species, with its double form; the blue, with its double, the latter a lovely plant, but somewhat shy, and not often met with in cultivation; and the white, of which the double variety, though said to exist, we have never yet seen. Between these there are various intermediate forms. All are equally beautiful. IIesperis matronalis jlore-phno.—The old double rocket has white flowers suffused with the slightest tinge of pink, deliciously perfumed; blooms in May and June; loves a stiffisli calcareous soil. The flower-spikes ought to be removed before blooming is complete, else the plant is liable to exhaust itself. There is a lilac-coloured variety equally pretty, but less common in cultivation. Europe, 1597. IIecchera ribifolia.—-A compact plant, with pretty chocolate mottled palmate leaves, from the mass of which rise the somewhat slender flower-stems to a height of 18 inches, the flowers inconspicuous; but the plant is deservedly popular for spring gardening on account of its foliage. All the plants of this genus are natives of North America; this was introduced in 1827.HARDY HERBACEOUS PLANTS. G97 IIlEKAClUiM auraatuicniii\—A prostrate plant, with dark green hairy leaves; the flowers are produced in clusters on stems some 15 inches high; a native of Scotland, and grows freely in any ordinary garden soil. Fig. 300. Iheris, candytuft.—In its perennial form this plant furnishes several dwarf compact growing species that are well worthy of general culture; they are all readily propagated either in spring or autumn by cuttings. I. carnm&—4syn. I. correcefolia.— A dense compact plant, with somewhat broad fleshy leaves; the heads of bloom also dense, and of great purity. Spain, 1824. I. cor>folia.—A much dwarfer form, with narrower leaves ami darker green than the preceding; flower-heads smaller and less dense. Flowers in May. South Europe, 1789. I. saxatUis.— The species most frequently met with in cultivation. Has long narrow leaves; the corymbs of flowers are considerably elongated as they reach maturity, but are produced in such abundance that the wide-spread plants present the appearance of masses of snow in the month of May. Southern Europe, 1739. Ikrs.—This genus naturally divides itself into two distinct sections by the habit of growth. The one which we are more familiar with, as the old Fleur-de-Lis or flag-flower, in some of its commoner forms is abundant in our cottage gardens. It has sword-shaped vertical flat leaves and creeping rhizomes; the other has round fistulose tapering leaves arising from a tuberose underground stem. Of this latter section we may take as types what are popularly known as the Spanish Iris (I. XipJuum) and English Iris {I. xipkioide.s'), though why the latter should be so called it would be hard to say. No group of plants presents a greater variety of unusual colours than is to be met with amongst the Spanish Irises. Iris ])crsica and I. reticulata arc charming plants of this section. It is difficult to select a few where there is such an cm-harms de riches. Amongst the herbaceous perennial forms we would name 1. yermanica, with large blue flowers; /. susiana, with brown mottled flowers, from the Levant; /. flaiweem, whose flowers are of a beautiful straw-yellow; /. De Beryii, possibly only an improved garden variety of /. variety ata, but so much improved as to leave the parent type far behind; the flowers being of a bright yellow, with the reflexed portion of the perianth a rich deep velvety chocolate; /. amte/ia, in which the white and blue arc beautifully combined; /. nudieaulis, which decks the garden with its gay blue blossoms fully a month in advance of those previously mentioned; and I. ochroleuca, of loftier stature, whose yellowish-greeti specific cognomen is alike applicable to leaves and flowers. Nor must we omit the many lovely varieties of the /. pv.mila, whose flowers rise only some few inches above the ground, and present many interesting shades of colour. They are generally of the easiest culture. LaMIXTM, dead-nettle.—Gay early-blooming labiate flowers. The variegated form known as L. maculatum, combining white, green, and purple in its mottled foliage, and flowering in April, is a doubtful native of Britain. L. Orcala.—A compact tufty plant, with large cordate leaves suffused with a deep chocolate colour, as also the stems, which are IS inches high; the flowers are large, presenting a purplish tinge, combined with chocolate, produced in June. Italy, 1596. L. ruyosum.—A dwarf creeping plant, with pale green foliage, and pure white flowers, closely allied to L. ruolle. Southern Europe. Lathyrus, everlasting pea.—Free-growing plants, with exceedingly tough deep-feeding roots. They do not like being disturbed, and hence are more readily increased by seeds, except in the case of L. yrandiHorns, whose flowers are very rarely fertilized. L. yrandiHorus, large-flowered everlasting pea.— Has a slender habit of growth; spreads rapidly under ground; is difficult to establish, and equally difficult to eradicate; its flowers are produced singly or in pairs, of a dark purplish crimson colour, in the month of May or June. It grows 2 to 3 feet high. South Europe, 1814. L. latifolius.—This grows to a height of 5 or 6 feet; and its winged stems being heavy, require some support, either natural, from some adjacent plant, or artificial, by means of stakes or pea-rods. The flowers are deep rose-coloured, produced in compact spikes. There is a white variety, very useful for cut flowers. Both are devoid of perfume; they flower in September, and are hence very valuable. A native of Britain, but much improved by garden cultivation. Lavatera thurinyiaca.—A vigorous-growing maiva-ceous plant, of erect habit, attaining a height of 4 feet, I and producing freely its pink flowers in August and September. Germany, 1731. Liatris.—A North American genus of composite plants, forming singularly short corm-like underground stems close to the surface, and hence liable to be displaced by the frost, and thus to suffer from exposure. L. pumila. — Has narrow grass-like leaves; produces purplish flower-heads in spikes about 1 foot high; the698 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. terminal capitulum is the first to expand, the floral development proceeding downwards. 1734. L. scariosa.—Has its involucral scales lax, shell-like, and fringed—hence the name. Grows 2 feet high. Its flower-heads are rosy coloured. 1739. Linaria, toad-flax.—Our native L. vulgaris presents what would be a very desirable border plant were it not for its root-rambling propensities. The great majority of the genus are European. L. dalmaiica.—Is a pretty-habited plant, with pale-green leaves, broad at the base; its flowers are yellow, produced on stems about 2 feet high. Flowers in June; increased freely by seeds. Levant, 1731. L. /mr/uu'ett.—AVith narrow glaucous leaves, producing its purple flowers in July and August in long spikes. The blooms, though individually small, are very effective in the mass. Southern Europe, 1648. Lindelofia spectabilis, formerly known as Cynoglossum ancltiutoides.—A. compact-growing plant, producing from its root-stock numbers of leafy stems, each one terminated by a cluster of dark-blue flowers rising about 18 inches above the ground. It is a very handsome plant; grows freely from the roots, and should be in every collection. Linum, flax.—Whether seen in their annual or perennial form, the flaxes are plants whose slender growth commends itself for its elegance. L. arboreum, often grown as L. flavuvi.—Is of slightly shrubby character, with broadly-obovate glaucous green leaves, forming a compact mass 12 inches in diameter, and producing freely in the months of May and June an abundance of bright yellow flowers. It likes a dry soil, being liable to suffer in winter from damp. Docs not often seed, but grows freely from spring or summer cuttings. Candia, 1788. L. narhanente,—Of rather loose habit, with narrow glaucous leaves, producing large dark-blue flowers. A most desirable plant. Slightly tender and should have a sheltered corner. South of France, 1759. LobBEIA.—Besides the many garden varieties raised from the slender Cape species known as L. Erinus, wo have a distinct section, natives of North and South America, which are amongst our most charming and useful herbaceous plants. This section also has of recent years yielded a large harvest of hybrids. We here, however, adhere to the old species. All readily increase by root division. L. fulgens.—This species has strap-shaped leaves, broad at the base, and narrowing up the flower-stems, the latter full 3 feet high, terminated by spikes of bright scarlet flowers, produced in July and August. Mexico, 1809. L. ignm.—A tall-growing plant, having deep copper-coloured foliage, and flowers of the most intense scarlet. Chili, 1838. L. syphilitica.—In this the stems are about 2 feet high, and bear broad somewhat undulate leaves; flowers blue, in July and August. Virginia, 1665. A hardier plant than either of the foregoing. Lupinus polyphyllus.—A handsome old garden plant, growing freely and vigorously in any soil. Alike pretty in its blue and white varieties. Recommends itself as the best herbaceous species from amongst a very extensive genus. North America, 1826. Lychnis chalcetlonic.a, scarlet lychnis,—This plant gives us a colour—bright scarlet—very exceptionally met with among herbaceous plants. It is a free-growing plant; height 3 feet; flowers in June. The old double form reminds one of the present race of double zonal pelargoniums on a small scale. Russia, 1596. L. diurna flore-pleno.—The double garden form of a plant wild in our hedgerows; it is alike beautiful in its white and pink colours. Under these conditions the plant is dwarfer, and the flowers twice the size of those of the wild type. June. L. Flos-Jovis.—A showy popular plant,which has somewhat woolly leaves, and grows to a height of 18 inches; it produces numerous flowers of a lovely clear rose colour in June and July. Germany, 1726. Lysimachia Epkemerum.—A compact tufty plant, of an elegant habit of growth, with strap-shaped smooth leaves of a brownish-green colour; the flower-stems are erect, 2 feet high, and the flowers in lax spikes, small, whitish, in August. Spain, 1739. L. verticillata.—Leaves broad, light-green, produced in whorls; flowers yellow, numerous from the axils of the leaves; height 18 inches. Crimea, 1S20. Lythhu.m diffusum.—An exceedingly slender and graceful form of a well-known genus. Height 2 to 3 feet; leaves scattered and lanceolate; flowers pink, tinged with lilac, produced from July to September. Seeds freely. Carolina, 1800. L. Salicaria superbum.—A fine deep-coloured variety of one of our handsomest wild bog plants. It is amenable to any soil and situation; sends up its flower-stems to a height of 4 feet from a hard woody root-stock. July, August, and September. Requires no staking. A noble border plant. Maclkaya cantata and 21. japonica, sometimes called JBoccoAia,—Are two closely-allied species, both robust plants, attaining in vigorous growth a height of 6 feet; the leaves are lobed; the veins and foot-stalks salmon-coloured, and the whole surface slightly bronzy, suffused with a glaucous tint; the flowers are small, flesh-coloured, produced in elegant branching panicles. The former was introduced from China in 1795; the latter from Japan in 1866. MALTA 2forenii.—A handsome plant, with palmately-lobed leaves, and branching stems 3 to 4 feet high; flowers pink, produced in abundance in July and August. Italy, 1820. 21. vwschata.—This has the leaves much cut, the lobes reflexed ; is of dwarfer and more branching habit than the previous species; flowers similar, pink or white. Occasionally found wild in Britain. Mklittis 2IelUsophyllum.—A dwarf plant, with broad corrugated leaves, somewhat like those of a dead-nettle; flowers labiate, cream-coloured, with an intense crimson marking on the lower lip ; 12 inches high. Found very rarely in woods in Britain. Mku.m athamaiiticum.—For charmingly-cut foliage of most intense green this plant has no rival; of small compact habit, its height not exceeding 12 or 15 inches; flowers of no importance, but the leaves of great value for decorative purposes. Wild in Scotland. Mimulus cardinalis.—Of erect branched habit, and growing 2 feet high; leaves broadly-cordate, opposite, pubescent; from their axils the scarlet flowers are freely produced in July and August. California, 1S35. 21. ro-setis is nothing more than a rose-coloured variety. Both are rich in the musky odour of the old 21. moschatus. 21. niaculosus.—A name given to the many blotchedHARDY HERBACEOUS PLANTS. 699 forms of M. lute its whia /<■"/,( has larger and more glaucous leaves, springing from dark purplish stems; similar in growth, but less graceful, nevertheless a desirable plant. P<)LYG< )Xi 'M, —A large genus of apetalous plants typical of the order Polygonarrow some of the species of which are of ornamental character. They grow freely in any good garden soil, and increase by division. P. lyisjjidoJt'ni.—An excellent plant for shrubbery borders, and for planting where a screen is desired. It is an herbaceous plant of rapid growth, 8 to 10 feet high in good soil. The stem is mottled with red, and the heart-shaped caudate leaves have a reddish tinge; the flowers are white, produced in autumn in divaricate spikes, on the lateral branch lets. It runs underground, and sends up suckers like a raspberry, so that when once established it is not easily eradicated, but the young stems can be thinned out when not required. It is also grown as P. Sieboklii. For the back part of borders, amongst shrubs as a screen, in prominent situations in the front of shrubberies, or wherever rapid herbaceous growth is required, this plant is to be strongly recommended. Potentilea.—A genus allied to the strawberry, but devoid of the succulent receptacle. It contains many deservedly prized species, and has received considerable attention at the hands of the hybridizers. Amongst species we have P. nepa/ensis and P. afrosan-guinea., both Nepal plants, growing about 2 feet in height; P. neradensis, a pretty yellow dwarf species; and P. pyrenaica., producing bright golden flowers in profusion. Amongst the hybrids few herbaceous plants are more showy than P. M‘Xabiana, whose intense crimson-scarlet blooms are produced in abundance, and have almost a dazzling effect on the eye. P. grand (flora jlore-ple no has double yellow flowers, and P. speciosa jlore-pleno, of compact habit, has the petals scarlet at the base, changing to yellow towards the margin. Many other double and semi-double hybrid varieties of great beauty have recently been raised, but they scarcely fall under this category. Ptarmica vulgaris jlore-pleno.—The double form of the common sneezewort of our woods produces its charming heads of pure white flowers during midsummer and autumn, on stems about 18 inches high; it is rather straggling in habit, but well worth cultivation. Pulmonaria angustifolia.—Of dense dwarf habit, with long narrow leaves, slightly suffused with whitish spots, producing masses of intense blue flowers in May. Said to be a native of Britain. P. sibirica.—A plant of similar habit to the foregoing, but with broader leaves, clearly mottled with white; flowers blue. Desirable as a border plant on account of the beauty both of its flowers and foliage. Siberia, 1801. P. virginica and P. darurica belong to a distinct section of the genus, with glaucous foliage and azure-blue pendent flowers, produced in panicles 18 inches to 24 inches high. Young growth in spring very tender, liable to be seriously injured by May frosts, especially when exposed to direct sunshine. They always do best in woods, where they enjoy shade and partial shelter. Pyrethrum carneum and P. roseum.—Are neat-habited plants, with finely-divided leaves and deep rose or flesh-coloured flower-heads. They constitute the elements from which the host of charming so-called double Pyreth-rums have originated, and which promise to fairly rival our annual asters both in brilliancy of colour and regularity in the arrangement of the different parts of the flower. P. v.liginosum grows to a height of 4 or 5 feet, the leafy stems terminated by clusters of large white flower-heads about twice the size of our field “ dog daisy;” produced in October, wrhen it forms one of the most conspicuous features in the herbaceous border. Hungary, 1816. Ranunculus aconitifolms.—A pretty plant, more generally known in old-fashioned gardens in its double form by the title of the “ Fair Maids of France.” It is of compact habit, and produces its white flowers in abundance in May. Is a native of the Alps, introduced in 1596. R. amplexicaulis.—A neat-habited plant, with entire glaucous leaves, and producing paper-white flowers in May, on stems about 12 inches high. Pyrenees, 1633. P. bullatus.—A decumbent plant, with leaves somewhat less divided than our field buttercups; flowers large, yellow, in the double form exceedingly handsome. Pyrenees, 1640. Rudbeckia fulgida.—A composite plant of free creeping habit, with rigid lance-shaped leaves; and bearing its flower-heads on stems about 18 inches high, bright golden in ray, contrasting beautifully with the dark chocolate disk; blossoms in September. This plant is a surface-rooter, and liable to suffer from drought in dry summers, which, if not provided against, tends seriously to affect its blooming. North America, 1760. Salvia.—The genus to which our common garden sage belongs affords us many valuable herbaceous plants; even the bicolor and tricolor forms of the old garden sage are not to be despised as foliage plants.702 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. S. cldonantha.—A fine ornamental species with narrow leaves, and erect flower-stems, which latter are abundantly supplied with white flowers of considerable size and elegance in arrangement. Asia Minor. S. Sclarea.—A fine bold-habited plant, with great hairy rugose leaves, and tall branched panicles of bluish flowers; the coloured bracts contribute much more than the flowers themselves to the floral gaiety of the plant. South of Europe, 1562. Often called S. bracleata. S. argentea, a pretty species, whose name appropriately indicates the silvery character of the broad patent leaves, which, expanding over the surface of the ground, constitute in our flower gardens, prior to the flowering process taking place, a handsome, albeit slightly coarse, silvery-foliaged plant. Crete, 1769. Saponakia caucasica.—Perhaps nothing more than a dark double variety of the old soapwort, S. officinalis, but it is, at least, a very pretty variety, and its value is materially increased by the fact that it grows only about 18 inches high, and produces its blooms, of a deep rosy colour, in the months of September and October. Saxifraga.—An extensive genus, the majority of whose species come more correctly under the title of alpine or rock plants. Several, however, are valuable spring-flowering border plants. Amongst these we have the large-leaved species, such as S. corduta, S. crassi-folia, S. ligulata, producing their panicles of bright rosy flowers in the month of April, and admirably adapted for shady localities. S. Strachegi and 3. ptirpuniscens belong to the same vigorous section of the saxifrages, and are natives of the Himalayas, and are also rosy flowered, but as yet somewhat scarce in cultivation. Scabiosa caucasica. — Produces handsome pale blue flower-heads fully 3 inches in diameter, supported on stalks 2 feet high, and forms a handsome erect border plant, blooming freely from July to September. May be increased by division of the root or by seeds. Caucasus, 1803. is. graminifolia.—Much more slender and procumbent in growth; flower-heads similar in colour, but much smaller. Switzerland, 1683. Well adapted for a border or a rock plant. Both of these species are more generally named Asterocephalus. But under whatever title they may be known, they are most desirable hardy border plants. Sedl’.u spcctabile.— In a genus otherwise specially adapted for rock culture we have in this species one of our very showiest autumn-blooming border plants, well adapted to thrive in a dry sunny aspect; flowers in broad flattish rose-coloured cymes, on stems 15 inches high. South of Europe. A variety of S. Fabaria. SiLEXE Jinibriata.—A good perennial plant, with broad leaves, inflated calyx, and whitish petals, beautifully fringed at the margins; 2 feet high. Caucasus, 1S03. Silphium laciniatum, compass plant.—A handsome bold-habited composite plant, allied to the sunflower: leaves large, laciniately divided; height 6 to 10 feet; flowers bright yellow. October. North America. Sisyrix'C'HIUM.—An iridaceous genus, consisting of pretty dwarf plants, which succeed best in peaty soil, and increase by seeds or by divisions. S. grandijlorum.—A dwarf plant, with slender rushlike leaves, and producing its purplish flowers freely in the early part of April; they are large, and suspended singly or in pairs from the top of fragile stalks. There is also a variety with white flowers, equally pretty; they thrive in peaty soil, and much more freely in Scotland than in the south. North America, 1826. S. striatum.—A vigorous grower, with foliage quite like that of an Iris, broad and sword-shaped; flower-spikes 18 inches high, bearing numerous yellow flowers, striped externally, and showing the striped character through the delicate texture of the perianth; seeds freely, and should be increased by this means, else it is liable to die out. Mexico, 1788. Spiraea.—This genus gives us, besides numerous handsome flowering shrubs, several valuable herbaceous plants. S. Aruncus, goat’s-beard.—Has large divided leaves, with terminal branching panicles of gracefully-disposed yellowish - white flowers; height 4 feet. A vigorous grower; requires plenty of room. Siberia, 1633. S. palmata (Fig. 369).—With slightly-lobed palmate leaves; produces flattish corymbs of rich rosy crimson flowers; IS inches high. Increases by division, but not very’ rapidly. China, 1S23, and reintroduced about ten years ago. S. venusta.—Differs from the preceding in its greater stature, pinnate not palmate leaves, and more laxly-arranged flowers, of a more delicate rose colour. Siberia. Stachts germanica, generally called N. lanata, though devoid of beauty as regards its flowers, enjoys a wide popularity on account of its silvery woolly leaves —whence its popular title of Lamb’s Ears—which form a dense carpet; it is a native of Britain.HARDY HERBACEOUS PLANTS. 703 Statice, sea lavender.—An extensive genus chiefly found in Europe and Northern Asia; they are amongst our most valuable autumn-flowering plants, and exceedingly useful for giving a light airy finish to a bouquet of flowei*s; they rarely produce perfect seeds, but may be increased by division. S. Besseriana.—This sends up its flowering branches to a height of 2 feet or more; they are slender, and require some support. The flowers are a deep blue, in August. Caucasus. S. hiti/olia.—An old familiar garden plant, with broad leaves, forming a beehive-like mass of grayish-blue Bowers in September; if cut when just coming into bloom, they may be charmingly associated with everlasting flowers for winter decoration. Siberia, 1791. N. tafarira.—Similar to the last, but more compact, and bearing flowers of a lavender-pink colour in September. Russia, 1731. Stexactis upettiosa.—The summer-blooming michael-mas daisy ; a tufty plant, with narrow leaves, producing masses of showy blue dowel’s from June to September; height IS inches. California, 1831. Stipa pennahi, feather grass.—An old familiar friend, so well known that it is needless to say more than give it a well-deserved place in our selection. Teltjma grand([flora.—A useful plant for a moderately shady corner; the leaves light green, palmately lobed; the flowers green, arranged in spikes, about 18 inches high, and having the calyx inflated, and the petals small, but charmingly ciliated. North America, 1S26. Thauctrum aquilegifolium.—A fine old plant, with glaucous moderately divided foliage, having all the aspect of that of a columbine. The flowers are devoid of petals, but this is compensated for by the numerous rosy-coloured stamens. June. Height 2 feet. Austria, 1731. T. purpnrasrens.—Of larger and coarser growth; foliage and stems a dark bronzy colour, contrasting wTell with the masses of yellow stamens; height 4 feet. North America, 1699. T. rugosum.—Of erect habit; stems 6 feet high, crowned with an abundance of showy yellow-stamened flowers; very effective for the back line of an herbaceous border, or amongst shrubberies. North America, 1774. Tradescantia eirginica, Virginian spider-wort.—A neat compact-growing plant, having its flowers clustered between two foliaccous bracts, and borne on stems about 12 inches long; they continue expanding for a period extending through July and August, and even into September; in colour there is considerable variation; intense blue, slaty blue, purple, and pure wdiite; in the latter the hairs wdiich abound on the filaments are delicately tinted with blue, which enhances the beauty of the flowers. It grows freely in any soil, and forms a good town plant. North America, 1629. Tricyrtis h ilia.—A singular-looking plant from the Himalayas; sends up numerous stems, with alternate clasping leaves, to a height of 2 feet or more, each crowned by two or three white dark-spotted flowers, that remind one more of a Stapelia than anything else; these are produced in October, and are hence liable to suffer from the autumn frosts. This plant, though sometimes cultivated in the greenhouse, is perfectly hardy, and is a very interesting, though not absolutely showy, plant. Tritoma.—A genus of noble autumn-fknvering liliaceous plants, whose brilliant spikes of deepest orange, shaded to yellow, have now for years formed a conspicuous element in the autumn decoration of our borders. All the species are natives of the Cape of kGood Hope. They may readily be increased by dividing the roots in early spring. This genus is now often called Kniphojia. T. Uvaria is the original species that wTas planted out at Kew in 1848, with a view to test its hardiness, and is, when obtained true, still one of the very showiest. The leaves are long, channelled, and tapering, and the floral stems under good culture attain a height of 4 or 5 feet. 1707. The finest variety is that called T. Uvaria glance see ns, in which the leaves are more glaucous than in the type. Trollius.—Few herbaceous plants have a greater value than the whole family of the globe ranunculuses, represented in this country by the lemon-coloured flowers of T. earopceus. They are all compact-growdng plants, from whose dense masses of palmate foliage rise the flowering stems. They all prefer a moderately moist and rich soil. T. asiaticus.—Leaves much divided; flowrers small, bright orange yellow*; height 15 inches; flow*ers in May. Siberia, 1759. T. dauricus—syn. T. giganteus.—A vigorous growler, with leaves sharply and rigidly divided; flowrers large, lemon yellow; 2 feet high in June. Dahuria. T. napellifolius.—The finest of all; leaves a bronzy green, less divided, and softer in texture than the preceding species. Flowers large, golden yellow; they do not expand, but attain their globular form in June; height 2^ feet. Eastern Europe. T. sinensis.—Foliage similar to the last; flowers smaller, orange yellow. A distinct corona formed by the circle of abortive petals, rising high above the calyx, which peculiarity the wTidely-expanded flowTer shows off to full advantage. Mongolia. Tropjeolum speciosum (Fig. 370).—One of the most beautiful of the slender climbing herbs, remarkable alike for its elegantly cut four to six cleft foliage, and its profusion of rich crimson-red flowTers of peculiar form. It has a running underground stem by wdiich it extends, and which is available for increase; but the plant is difficult to establish in the warm climate of the south of England, and seems to prefer the cool moisture of that of Scotland, where it often establishes itself like a weed. Subandean districts of South Chili, 1846. Uvularia 'perfoliata.—A handsome dwarf-habited, delicate-looking endogenous plant, with numerous stems, well clothed with oval clasping glaucous leaves, rising from a compact tufty root-stock, from wdiich the pale yellow flowers, with slightly-twdsted petals, hang pendent; flowers in May, and rarely receives any injury from the spring frosts. U. sessilifolia.—A dwarfer plant, with creeping stems, and smaller pale yellow flowers. Both are natives of North America. The latter is essentially a bog plant; the former, though it grows in any garden soil, prefers a deep moist bog bed. Veratrum.—A genus of tall strong-growing endogenous plants. The lower leaves are broad and massive, beautifully recurved and plaited. On this account alone they are well wTorth cultivation. V. album, wdth whitish flowrers, is a native of Europe. V. nigrum, wdth almost704 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. black flowers, comes from Siberia, and V. viride, with green blossoms, is from North America. The flower-stems in each case are produced in August, and in a Fig. 370. good vigorous-growing plant attain a height of 4 or 5 feet. They are plants that dislike removal, and should be raised from seed rather than by division of the root. Verbascum.—A large genus of fine showy border I plants of erect spire-like habit, the majority possessing great vigour of growth. I', cupreunt,—A neat-habited plant, rarely exceeding 2 feet in height, and producing brown copper-coloured flowers in June and July. Caucasus, 1798. 1'. pirmosiun.—A vigorous-growing species, 6 feet high, with large woolly leaves, from which rises a dense branching panicle of large golden flowers. It blooms in July. It does not seed freely, so that the flowering stem should be removed as soon as it is out of bloom, to encourage a fresh growth from below. Russia, 1818. 1'. p/ia'niceum.—Leaves broadly oval, smooth, with a purplish tinge; stem slender, 3 feet high. Flowers a rich purple, produced continuously from May to the end of July. Native of Southern Europe, but perfectly hards'. Seeds pretty freely, and occasionally sports by this mode of propagation into white and salmon colour. A most desirable and useful plant. 1796. Veronica.—To the speedwells we are indebted for many plants of a highly decorative character. They are all readily increased by division, or by cuttings taken during the early spring growth. V. ametliystina.—A compact plant, growing about 15 in. high, each stem terminated by a spike of amethyst-blue flowers, produced in June. Lovely but short-lived. V. crassifolia.—This has thick fleshy shining leaves, and attains a height of 2 feet; flowers dark blue. July and August. Southern Europe, 1822. f, indm.—A slender-growing plant, with finely-divided leaves; flowers light blue, contrasting beautifully with the bright orange anthers; an exceedingly elegant plant; 2 feet. Rare in cultivation, and does not seed. Siberia, 1739. F, salnreiafolia.—Possibly only a very fine variety of F. pv.lc/iel/a, but retains its true character from seed, which, however, is rarely produced; stems slender, decumbent; flowers large, deep blue, in terminal spikes. A native of Southern Europe, and the prettiest of the whole genus. 1825. Vicia argentea.—A vetch with elegant silvery leaves, of dwarf habit; flowers large, pinkish-white; height 2 feet. A somewhat rare but very desirable species. Pyrenees, 1827. Viola cnadlata.—For many years erroneously called V. pennxylranica; it is a vigorous-growing compact plant; flowers large, on long foot-stalks, handsome but devoid of perfume. June. North America, 1762. V. palmacnsis.—Has narrow grayish-green leaves; in Southern Italy it assumes almost a shrubby character, and is a very continuous bloomer; flowers lavender blue, not large, but produced in great abundance. 1826. Yucca, Adam’s needle.—A semi-arborescent genus of very handsome liliaceous plants, sometimes acquiring a considerable development of stems and branches. They should all have their leaves tied up during winter, so as to prevent the snow lodging in the heart and thus l rotting the growing bud. May be increased by buds cut ; from the underground stems with a sharp knife, and i placed in a close frame, with a gentle bottom-heat, or by i planting the branches as cuttings. They are nearly all | North American. See under Evergreen Shrubs. Y. gloriosa.—Is the most vigorous grower, with erect rigid sharp-pointed leaves, producing occasionally large panicles, 8 or 10 feet high, of yellowish-white tulip-| shaped flowers. Before flowering it usually assumes an arborescent character. 1596. Y. acuminata.—Is dwarfer than the last, with longer recurved leaves, and an inflorescence about 5 feet high. 1S00. }'. Jilamentosa.—A dwarf-growing stemless plant, withthemarginsof the leaves bearing long curled threads. It throws up a flowering stem of from 4 to 5 feet high, the tulip-shaped flowers being creamy white. There is a variegated-leaved variety which is very handsome, especially when grown indoors as a decorative plant. 1675. Y. rufo-cincta.—Has rigid concave leaves, margined with a red line, and is dwarfer than Y. gloriosa. 1816. Y. reenrrifolia—syn. 1. pendula (Plate XV.)—Is remarkable for its drooping leaves, which give it a habit quite distinct from those already named, though its inflorescence is similar. This and gloriosa are especially fine as formal objects on grass lawns when well developed, and before they produce their inflorescence. 1794. Zauschneria cafi/ornica.—Closely allied to the willow-herbs. It is of a creeping habit, and only thrives in very light soil, where its hard woody underground stems can run with freedom; height IS inches; produces bright | scarlet flowers. California, 1S47-HARDY HERBACEOUS PLANTS. 705 II.—HARDY ALPINE OR ROCK PLANTS. These charming little tufted plants, for many years neglected, are now establishing a fair and just claim to popular patronage. There are few gardens in which some neglected corner may not be utilized for the purpose of forming a bit of rockery, amongst whose chinks and crevices these choice gems may with a little care and attention find a happy and permanent home, and gladden the eye of the cultivator by the affectionate embrace with which they cling to the adjacent stones. Be the corner a shady one, a few root-stumps, thrown together with some fresh loam and leaf-soil, will form a fitting home for a group of ferns. If it be a sunny one, wliat more appropriate than the saxifrages, stone-crops, and house-leeks, of which there are sufficient species alone to fill a large rockery 1 The formation of a rockery has been already treated upon, and space will not permit us here to describe in detail how it should be made; indeed, it is not an easy matter to do so. There are, however, one or two principles that may be looked upon as chief corner-stones in successful rockery building, and these may briefly be stated as follows:—Always identify the rockery with its surroundings, so that there need be no danger of the beholder wishing to move it anywhere else; this is sure to be the case when a hummock of formal stones are thrown together on a flat piece of grass; its proper position will vary with every point at which it catches the eye. Such a rockery is a warty excrescence that ought to be removed. Another principle is to avoid anything like regularity in outline, the more irregular the better. Let the grass gradually rise to the base of the stones, and if one or two be left peeping out of the grass at prominent points all the better; it gives the idea that nature had a hand in the construction. The last is to arrange the stones so that moderately flat spaces are left for the plants, thus allowing the rain to sink into the body of the mass rather than to be thrown from ledge to ledge. No better back-ground can there be than evergreen shrub* amongst which the upper tier of stones become partially hidden. A judicious use of the knife will always keep these from extruding themselves to the detriment of the more delicate denizens. One point more: all rockeries should be taken down and rearranged, with an abundant supply of fresh soil, every three or four years. Some few plants are sure to have monopolized more than their share; those that are thriving well, and indicate no exhaustion of the soil, may readily be arranged to remain in situ, merely projecting the adjacent portion of the rockery so as to renew the soil. These remarks are especially applicable to such plants as the rock-roses, that retain their beauty for years, and do not like to be disturbed at the root. A word or two about soil may not be out of place. Nothing is better than a good loam, such in fact as has been put through a process of liberal manuring for kitchen garden purposes; this mixed with a little peat, some sand, and a fair addition of small nodules of limestone grit, or failing that of burned soil, will make admirable compost for the purpose. Should the soil be a sandy maiden loam, then mix with it one-tliird of well-decayed leaf-soil, in addition to which a little short old manure will be rather advantageous than otherwise. For such plants as specially require peat soil—and they are but few in number—a special arrangement may be made by either filling a certain number of the pockets with peat or by devoting a portion of the rockery to the reception of such, and making preparations accordingly. The bottom of a miniature ravine will be well adapted for this purpose, as it will receive rather more moisture, whether of a. natural or artificial nature, than the adjacent higher portions; and most of the peat-loving plants are fond of moisture. Most of those enumerated in the following list may also be grown in pans of 8 or 10 inches in diameter, the chief point in their culture being that they have a thorough and efficient drainage. o o AciENA microphylla. — A dwarf-growing plant, with dark brown pinnately divided leaves; rambles freely in a bed of peat soil; flowers in globular heads in August and September. It is chiefly remarkable for the crimson-coloured spinous processes that protrude from the angles of the calyx. Mountains of New Zealand, 1854. Acantholimon glumaceum.—A dense tufty prostrate plant, with needle-shaped leaves and pink flowers, closely related to Slatice, and formerly grown under the name of S. Ararali; blooms in July and August. Armenia, 1845. Achillea uvibellata.—A dwarf compact plant, with pretty pectinate silvery leaves, producing corymbs of white flowers; about 8 inches high. Greece, 1866. A. Clavennce.—This species has deeply and irregularly notched silvery leaves; not a very free bloomer, but worth growing for its foliage. Austria, 1656. A. ageratoides.—Formerly grown as Anihemis Aizoon; very dwarf, leaves narrow, beautifully gimped along the margins; flowers pure white, borne singly on stalks; 3 inches high. Greece, 1869. Ajuga alpina.—A labiate plant producing erect leafy spikes of deep blue flowers from a mass of tufty leaves; is partial to a light peaty soil, where from its wide-spreading roots it develops numerous buds. European Alps. Alyssum raontanum,—Forms a dense carpet of light 45706 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. green foliage, leaves narrow, about h inch long; flowers light yellow, in small compact umbels. Germany, 1713. A. olj/mpicum.—Very diminutive, with orbicular tiny leaves; of neat habit, but somewhat shy growth, and will not thrive in damp clay soil. Greece, 1709. Axdrosace Chaimrjasme.—A primulaceous plant of exceedingly dwarf habit, producing its pink flowers abundantly in July; should bo firmly wedged in between pieces of rock. Austrian Alps, 1708. A. villosa.—Forms rosettes of pretty silvery leaves, from which the flower scapes rise to a height of a couple of inches; flowers in June, at first white with a bright pink eye, tinging off to rose colour; a charming plant, likes a dry sunny situation. Pyrenees, 1790. A. lanuyinosa, and A. sarmentosa, the latter of quite recent introduction, are both charming rock plants from the Himalayas. The stems are creeping, clothed with silky-haired leaves, and the flowers arc in umbels and lavender-coloured. Ought to be placed on a dry shelf of the rockery well exposed to the sun. Flowers through the autumn. Axe.moxe Ilalbri.—The finely divided pinnate leaves are clothed with long hairs; the flowers are produced I singly on stems G inches high; they are large deep blue, covered with hairs; a somewhat rare plant, flowers in May. Swiss Alps, 1816. A. rernalis.—Leaves brownish, deeply notched, with broad lobes; flowers almost sessile, of a grayish white colour, surrounded with fulvous silky hairs; blooms in April. Swiss Alps, 1752. Antenna hi.v diviea. mihor.—The small form of our British mountain cat’s-ear; has minute silvery leaves; the flowers deep rose colour; about 2 inches high. A. tohientosa.—Makes a carpet of pure white, ovate-spathulate leaves; flowers yellow and white, similar to the old everlasting flower, but smaller. An American form of our A, kyperborea, 1S17. Arabis ihtniit. rock wall-cress. -Has small roundlv-notched lyrate leaves, and produces its pure white flowers in corymbs in May and June. Mountains of Scotland. ,1. I acuta and its variegated variety are good lasting plants, with bright green almost entire leaves; flowers white, produced on leaf}' stems in May and June. In the variegated form the leaves have a well-defined golden margin. Hungary, 1790. Arenaria balcarica, Minorca sandwort.—Forms a carpet of minute leaves, producing myriads of white flowers in May; a free-growing plant, well adapted for training down the face of a damp rock. Majorca, 1787. A. montana.—A more vigorous grower, withlong procumbent stems, narrow leaves, producing its large white flowers in June; may be increased by seeds and cuttings. France, 1S00. A. pirr/mrasccns.—Also a procumbent plant, with shorter leaves than the last; the flowers have a purplish tinge, hence the name. Spain, 1822. Aretia Vila liana.—A tufty little plant with narrow silvery leaves and yellow flowers, produced singly; very likea Primula, to which genus it used formerly to belong; flowers in July, but not an abundant bloomer. Pyrenees, 1787. Asperui.a ci/iuinctiica, lesser woodruff.—Forms masses of creeping stems; leaves narrow, arranged crosswise in fours; flowers tubular, flesh-coloured, produced in abundance; particularly partial to limestone. A native of Britain, but rather rare. Aster alpinus.—A dwarf aster with obovate blunt-pointed leaves, tapering down to the footstalk; flowers Blue, large, on stems G to 8 inches high, produced in June; seeds very sparingly, but readily increased by division. There is an equally pretty white variety. European mountains, 1658. A. ramosus.—Of similar habit to the last, but more woody and erect in its branches; leaves broader and softer, the flower-stems 9 inches, foliaceous, and bearing numerous blue flowers in July. Swiss Alps. A. versicolor.—One of the latest autumnal bloomers, flowering in November; leaves lanceolate, flowers arranged in a branching panicle, 9 or 10 inches high, at first white, changing to pink. North America, 1790. Asterocephales parhassicc.—A dwarf neat habited plant, with auriculate appendages at the base of each notched leaf, the flowers in dense heads just rising above the foliage; lavender coloured, and succeeded by a silky pappus of pinkish colour. Greece, 1S55. A. IVeblianus.—Similar in habit to the former, leaves broadly ovate, entire, more woolly; flowers creamy yellow, pappus membranous. Greece, ISIS. Astragalus IIypoglottis.—A neat procumbent plant, with small leaflets arranged in a pinnate manner: flowers in compact heads, purple, 6 inches high. A native of Britain, but by no means common. There is also a white variety equally pretty. A. vwnspessulanu.s.—Of much larger growth, but admirably adapted for a rockery, in the fact that its crimson flowers are produced (June and July) on long slender footstalks, which to be seen to advantage should be so placed that the flowers can hang down, otherwise they lie on the ground, and half their beauty is lost. France, 1710. A. dasyylottis.—A wonderfully free-blooming species, producing its bluish-purple flower-heads in the month of August, in compact masses about 8 inches high; does not creep, but forms a long-lived tufty plant. Russia, ISIS. Aurrietia delloidca.— One of the loveliest of our spring flowers; forms a carpet of deep lilac blue, verging on purple. Levant, 1820. There are now several fine varieties, such as Campbclliic, and its variegated form; also Mooreana, and recently a pink-flowered variety has been raised. Levant, 1710. A. fji'uudi/ora.—Habit more lax, leaves larger, flowers also larger, produced in longish spikes. Greece, 1852. Camtaxula liarbata.—A very distinct species, with lanceolate leaves, and pale-blue flowers, arranged in a loose manner along a stem rising to a height of 12 or 15 inches; its specific name originates in the lax hairs that protrude from the mouth of the corolla. It seeds freely, and should be increased in this way. Swiss Alps’, 1752. C. (larganica.—Produces racemes of light blue, widely expanded flowers in profusion; the leaves are broadly cordate or deltoid, notched and crimped at the edges, frequently cultivated as C. /rayilis; perfectly hardy, and anexcellent windowplant. Italian Alps, 1830. There are distinct hairy and white-flowered varieties of this plant which are equally pretty with the above. C. isophylla, svn. C,jioribvnda.—Allied to the preceding, but larger in everyway; flowers less deeply divided, and leaves less crimped at the margins, the whole plant more lax; flowers in June. A native of the Apennines. C. muralis.—The wall bell-flower is a most compactHARDY HERBACEOUS PLANTS. 707 grower, of much dwarfer and more dense habit than C. garganica; flowers light blue, star-shaped, in July. South Europe, 1S35. C. piimila.—A dwarf creeping plant with small bellshaped flowers, produced in twos or threes on stems 6 inches high; both free growing and free blooming, and alike pretty in its blue and white forms; flowers in July. Closely allied to this, if not indeed identical, are C. civspltosa and C. pusilla. Switzerland, 1821. Fig. 371. C. pul la.—One of the handsomest of the dwarf bellflowers; the flowers single, on stems 4 inches high, cam-panulate, of a deep purple colour; may be readily increased by cuttings made from the early growth and placed in a little heat, it strikes as freely as a Lobelia. Austria, 1779. C. iirbinatd (Fig. 371).—Foliage dense, broadly cordate, undulate at the margin, slightly hairy; flowers broadly campanulate, blue, one on each stem, height 9 inches; allied to C. car pat him, to which seedlings raised from this plant very closely approximate. Should be increased by cuttings or division, if the true dwarf compact habit is to be retained. A native of the Austrian Alps, 1859. C. Waldsf' iui.—A handsome dwarf species, producing numerous bell-shaped flowers of darkish blue, arranged on branching panicles; rare in cultivation. Austria, 1824. Card am ink trifulia.— A dense compact-growing species with trifoliate leaves, and neat corymbs of pure white flowers, about 9 inches high, produced in May; grows freely in moderately heavy soil, and likes a cool damp subsoil. Switzerland, 1629. Ckrastium alpiuvm.— The mouse-ear chickweed is well known in general cultivation by the species C. tomen-tosani and C. Jiieberstieui, whose silvery leaves are so effective in flower-garden decoration. The species we have selected has broad ovate woolly leaves, and produces large white flowers. It is a very dwarf grower, and rather impatient of damp during winter. Found in the Welsh and Scottish mountains, but rare. Comaropsis trifoliata.—Closely allied to Potentilla, of procumbent habit, with shining trifoliate leaves, and producing clusters of bright yellow flowers in the month of Kay; a very desirable addition to the rockery. North America, 1800. Coronilla iberica.—This has glaucous pinnate leaves, and yellow flowers in compact heads, raised only slightly above the ground. It differs from the ladies’-Angel’s of our wild banks chiefly in the fact of its large size, and the articulate character of its pods. Iberia, 1822. C. minima is a diminutive shrubby plant, the leaflets of which are very small and round, and so widely separated in each leaf that they are distinctly seen; grows 9 inches high; flowers a deep yellow. Southern Europe, 1658. Cortusa Matthioli.—A primulaccous plant, with dark red flowrers borne in umbels, pendulous, the tube of the corolla very short; the leaves are palmate, hairy, especially on the foot-stalks. This plant is partial to a damp soil, and succeeds best wThere there is a good mixture of peat. Austria, 1596. Cyclamen Coum.—A charming dwarf plant, having rounded leathery slightly-blotched dark-green leaves, produced from a fleshy, almost globose underground stem; flowers on slender stalks, deep crimson; blooms in February or March; increased freely by seeds, which should be sown as soon as ripe. Southern Europe, 1596. C. europamm.—This has prettily marked sagittate leaves; and flowrers either rose or white, produced in autumn before the leaves show above ground. Southern Europe, 1596. C. repandum.—Has the leaves sharply deflned at the angles, and blotched flowers, the reflexed petals of wrhich are much longer than those of C. Coum, to which the whole plant has a considerable resemblance both in size and development; flowers in April or May. Greece, 1816. Dianthus alpinus, alpine pink (Fig. 372).—A perfect gem, with rosy crimson flowrers fully an inch in diameter, Fig. 372. supported on stalks 2 or 3 inches long; leaves short and blunt-pointed, dark green; may be increased by seeds and cuttings. Alps, 1759. D. arenarius.—A neat compact little pink, with white flowers; the petals deeply and finely divided; leaves narrow, tapering to the point; an abundant bloomer. A native of the shores of the Baltic. J). neglectus.—A handsome dwarf-growing species with the habit and general aspect of D. alpinus, but differing in the colour and in the markings near the base of the708 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. petals. The flowers are nearly 2 inches across, and of a beautiful rosy tint, with deeper spots near the claw. European Alps, 1868. D. petrmis.—The glaucous foliage of this species forms a dense mass from which rises the flower-stems to a height of 6 or 8 inches; flowers a lovely deep rose colour, produced in June. Should be grown from cuttings, as it does not come true from seed. Hungary, 1804. D. jmdchellus.—Of rather slender habit, with narrow leaves, slightly glaucous; flowers small, produced three or four on a stem, white, with a charming red blotch at tlio throat on each petal; propagated by cuttings. Siberia, 1827. Draba aizoides.—A dwarf cruciferous plant, forming rosettes of small lance-shaped leaves, clothed along the margin with forked hairs, which are arranged with considerable regularity; the flowers are bright yellow, produced in clusters on stems about 3 inches high; flowers in March. An exceptional native of our northern mountains. 1). Aizoon.—A stronger grower, with large rosettes of broad leaves, the hairs more rigid and less closely arranged; flower-spike 6 inches long, flowers yellow, in April. Readily increased by seeds, which it ripens freely; likes a sandy soil and good open exposure to the sun. Carinthia, 1823. Dracockphalum grandijlorum.—A labiate plant with creeping stems, ovate leaves, and flowers produced on leafy spikes, not numerous, but large, and of a brilliant blue similar to that of Salvia patens, in June. Grows freely in Scotland, but rarely to be found in a flourishing condition south of the Tweed. Siberia, 1759. DrTAB iJnunmondii and D. octopetala.—Two almost shrubby rosaceous plants of prostrate habit, the stems densely covered with small ovate notched leaves. The flowers of the former are yellow, on stalks 3 inches long, those of the latter are white. Both are peat-loving plants, the former a native of the extreme north of the American continent (introduced 1828), the latter of our higher English and Scotch mountains. Erigkiiox glaucus.—A dwarf - growing semi-shrubby plant, with gray glaucous broadly-obovate leaves, and largo aster-like flowers, blooming continuously through June and July. Said to be a native of Buenos Ayres, but proves perfectly hardy. Strikes freely by cuttings, but varies a good deal when grown from seed, which it ripens sparingly. E, Roglei.—A dwarf plant, with narrow lance-shaped hairy leaves, and dark purplish-blue flowers, solitary on stems 6 to 10 inches high. Sikkim, 1849. Erin us al/)inus.—A pretty rock plant of dwarf habit, with small notched and glabrous leaves, and pinkish-purple flowers in spikes about 6 inches high. It stands the winter best when self-sown in sandy soil. There is a white variety with broader leaves, and a hairy variety known as E. hirsutus or E. hispanims. Pyrenees, 1739. Erodium petnenm.—A dwarf woody plant, with finely divided leaves; flowers of a pinkish-purple, slightly veined; blooms through May, June, and July. Southern Europe, 1640. E. ReiehanU, syn. E. ehanmdvioides.—A dense tufted plant, with dark green small ovate leaves, from which rise simple but pretty white flowers, rather less than those of the wood sorrel. A native of Minorca, and perfectly hardy; introduced in 1783. Erytiirjea aggregata.—One of the dwarfest of the centauries, scarcely raising its charming pink flowers 2 inches above the level of the ground. When once established on a rockery it seeds freely, but though a little gem in its way, it can hardly be called a perennial. Southern Europe, 1824. Galium alpicolum.—A compact-growing little plant, with narrow leaves arranged in verticils of four; flowers small yellowish-white, produced in great abundance. Austrian mountains. G. gracum.—A pretty trailing hairy species, with long delicate pink-coloured flowers, arranged in clusters at the end of the shoots, in July; requires peat soil and a dry sunny situation. Candia, 1798. Gentiana acaulis, the old Gentianella of gardens.— Forms dwarf compact tufts of foliage, from the surface of which numerous large deep blue campanulate flowers are produced. Although a native of England it thrives much more luxuriantly in Scotland. G. scptemjida.—Produces from its root-stock annually a number of flowering stems, clothed with sessile decussate leaves, and terminated by a cluster of blue campanulate flowers, produced in July. Seeds freely, but rarely vegetates till the second year after sowing, and requires some four years’ growth before it becomes a well-established blooming plant. In potting off the young seedlings, care should be taken that the principal or tap root be not injured, as it seriously retards their growth. Persia, 1804. G. verna.—The spring gentian in the month of May is one of the loveliest alpines cultivated. The flowers are scarcely half the size of those of G. acaulis, but of a more brilliant blue. The foliage and general growth is much smaller, and its culture is much more difficult. It is a native of Britain, and grows abundantly on some of the mountains in the west of Ireland, but is not very amenable to cultivation. Geranium argentevm.—Of all the many species of crane’s-bills this is one of the prettiest. It gets its specific name from its silvery, much-divided leaves. The flowers are large and flesh-coloured. It suffers in our climate more from damp than any inherent tenderness. Southern Europe, 1699. G. cinereum, syn. G. caulescens.—This has grayish-green leaves, divided into blunt or rounded segments. The flowers are produced in twos or threes on a stem scarcely 6 inches high, large, almost white, with pinky veins; in June. It matures its seeds, but requires very careful watching in order to collect them, and does not increase readily except by seed. Pyrenees. Geum montanum, mountain avens.—A dwarf-growing plant with somewhat lyrate, soft, hairy leaves. The flowers are large and yellow, borne in May on stalks about 9 inches high. The fruit, owing to an after growth of the style, becomes a pretty and conspicuous object. Southern Europe, 1597. Globularia cordifolia.—The generic name is derived from the compact round clusters in which the flowers are arranged. The leaves of this species are heart-shaped, the stems trailing, the flowers blue. Germany, 1633. G. nana.—A much dwarfer and smaller form, also with blue flowers, more compact in habit than the former, but rarely flowers. Mountains of France, 1S24. IIelianthemum, rock rose.—A large genus of dwarf shrubby plants, whose blossoms include amongst them all the imaginable shades of yellow and red, from theHARDY HERBACEOUS PLANTS. 709 brightest orange to pale straw colour, and from the most delicate rose to almost scarlet. They are admirably adapted for a dry sunny corner, and when decorated with their beautiful flowers nothing can excel them in glowing beauty. They may be increased by seeds, but when a number of species are grown together considerable variation attends this mode of increase. Cuttings of half-ripened young shoots taken off in July will strike freely under glass, in a gentle bottom heat, and by this means only can a true reproduction of any particular species or variety be depended upon. Amongst yellow-flowered sorts we would recommend II. tomentosum, II. vabjare fore-phno, II. yrandi riorum, and II. stramiacurn; amongst whites, II. apenninum, 11. macranthum, and II. paptjraeeum; and amongst reds, II. roseum, II. mv.tabile, II. hyssopi/oHm/i ai petitm, and II. rhodanthum. Nearly all are natives of Central and Southern Europe. Hypericum doussatum, syn. 11. ciliatum.—A dwarf trailing species of St.John’s wort, with markedly decussate and ciliated leaves, the sepals furnished with glandular hairs. Flowers produced in terminal clusters on the procumbent steins, light yellow; July. Levant, 1739. II. iiuiiuimlariiiui.—A branching dwarf species with small ovate leaves, both the stems and margin of leaves suffused with a reddish chocolate colour; flowers in lax panicles S inches high, bright yellow. Southern Alps. Ibhris, candytuft. — Many of the prettiest Alpine forms of this genus are little better than biennials. Among the true perennial sorts much confusion of nomenclature exists. With one exception, all are natives of Southern Europe. I. podium olpinv.m, sometimes referred to the old genus Vnn/thfiUaM—A singular plant, native of the Swdss Alps, where it is known by the popular title Edelweisse. The flower-heads are flat-topped, surrounded by a wide-spreading woolly-leaved foliaceous involucre. The appearance not inaptly resembles the soft-cushioned foot of the lion, hence the generic name. Should be grown from seeds, which it ripens but sparingly in our moist climate, and must be kept dry in the winter. Linaria al/nua.—The alpine toad-flax, though little better than an annual, must not be omitted from our list, as, once established on a rockery, it comes freely from seeds; it is procumbent in habit, wflth narrow fleshy glaucous leaves, and produces deep purple flow'erS, wflth a brilliant orange spot on the upper lip, than which no more lovely contrast exists in nature; it blooms in July, August, and September. Austria, 1750. L. hepadca folia.—A very dwarf species, with singular angular leaves, of compact growth, and producing an abundance of lilac flowers in July and August. The whole plant does not exceed 1 inch in height. Pyrenees and Apennines. Linxjea borealis.—Named after the father of botany. It is a charming trailing plant, with rounded opposite leaves, admirably adapted for rockery. Its flowers are pale pink, pendent in threes or fours from a foot-stalk some 3 inches long; a native of Britain. There is also an American form, with larger leaves, and altogether of more vigorous growth. Linum arboreum, syn. L. flavum.—A dwarf branching shrubby plant, wflth broadly obovate leaves, of a glaucous green tint, and large yellow7 flowors, produced in the months of May and June. A native of Candia, but perfectly hardy when it is planted on a dry rockery, and the wrood gets well ripened in the autumn. 1788. L. (auricum.—Of true herbaceous character as to grow7th, dying down to the ground in wflnter; sending up flowering stems, covered with deep green leaves, and terminated by groups of bright golden flowers; blooms in August; height 12 inches. Tauria, 1818. Lithospkrmum prostration.—A twflggy-growflng prostrate evergreen plant, with broadly lance-shaped hairy leaves. The flowers are of a brilliant blue, borne on lax panicles, in May and June, and also sjiaringly in the autumn. A most desirable rock-plant. France, 1825. Lychnis aljdna.—Belongs to the pink family. It is a very diminutive mountain form of L. Yiscaria; leaves narrow7, in rosettes, from the centre of wfliich rises the flowering stem to a height of about 3 inches, the flowers being of a rosy pink, each petal deeply notched. A charming plant in its native habitat, and readily cultivable if allowed to establish itself by seed. A native of the highest mountains in Britain, flowering in May. L. Layasca>.—Sometimes referred to the genus Pctro-copitis, owflng to a peculiarity in the seed. A dwerf branching plant, wflth short broadly ovate opposite leaves; flowers produced singly, of a deep rosy colour. An exceedingly show7y species, much more compact in habit than L. pyrenaiea, to wfliich it is closely related. Should be increased by seeds, wfliich are freely ripened. Flowers in April and May. Mountains in Southern France, 1862. Mazus Pumilio.—A creeping attractive little plant, wflth leaves tapering towards the base, and irregularly notched; the lavender blue flowers bear a great resemblance to those of the butterwert, and are supported singly on stalks about 2 inches high. Introduced in 1S23 from Tasmania, w’here it growls in mountain marshy districts. With us it thrives best on a cool subsoil, stands perfectly hardy, and flowers in July and August. Myosotis mpicola.—The dwrarf alpine forget-me-not; it has tufts of broadly lanceolate leaves, from amongst which branching scorpioid cymes are develojied, each covered with azure-blue flow’ers of large size; height 2 to 3 inches. A native of Scotland, and recently found on the Teesdale mountains. Flowers in May, and if not attacked by green-fly, to which it is very subject in long-continued dry weather, it will ripen its seeds freely. Nertera scapanioides, syn. N. depressa.—Popularly knowrn as the bead plant, owflng to the profusion of golden berries it produces. The plant forms a dense mass of creeping stems covered with tiny leaves, closely adpressed to the surface of the ground; the flowers are produced in June (out of doors), inconspicuous, and succeeded by berries at first yellow, then golden approximating to scarlet, and retaining their beauty for a long period. Cultivated in the rockery, it should have the protection of a bell-glass during winter. It is a native710 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. of the highest mountains in New Zealand, and may readily be increased by division or by seeds. Nierembergia rivnlaris (Fig. 373).—A dwarf creeping plant, truly herbaceous, and of much elegance of character. It produces tufts of short broadly-lanceolate leaves from slender creeping underground stems, and funnel-shaped creamy white flowers, which have a long slender tube. It is a really handsome little plant, not exceeding 3 inches in height, and is perfectly hardy even Fig. 373. when growing in strong clay soil. La Plata, 1866. May be readily increased by division. Oxai.is flnribunda.—Forms a dense tuft of semi-woody stems, from which its hairy leaves are produced; succeeded by numerous rosy crimson flowers, which continue blooming for fully three months commencing in May. We have doubts as to whether 0. florilmnda is the true name, but it has been grown so long under this appellation, and it is so appropriate, that we hesitate not to retain it. A native of South America, but perfectly hardy. 1827. 0. lohata—syn.O. granulata.—A dwarf-growing species, producing four leaflets in place of three, on stalks an inch or two long. The plant is dormant through the early part of summer, commencing its growth in September, and producing large bright golden flowers in November. South Africa, 1823. Oxytropis cyanca.—A dense-growing plant, with silvery pinnate leaves; of dwarf stature, producing its spikes of bluish-purple flowers in June; 6 inches high. A slow-growing plant; may be increased by seeds. Ural Mountains, 1818. 0. montana.—Of similar habit, but devoid of hairs; the spikes of flowers not erect but pendent, dark purple, and succeeded by large inflated pods. Should be raised from seed, and grown in a sandy peaty soil. Austria, 1581. Papaver nudicaule.—A pretty golden-flowered poppy, with slender naked stems, rising from a tuft of bright green pinnately divided leaves, about one foot in height; blooms nearly all the summer through. There is a more slender form, of dwarfer growth, producing white flowers, which is the true P. alpinvm; and one with bright vermilion flowers known as miniatum. Siberia, 1730. Parnassia asarifolia and P. caroliniana.—Two enlarged forms of the grass of Parnassus of our own bogs. Both are North American species, and vigorous growers where they are supplied with plenty of moisture below. The white flowers are much enhanced in beauty by the green veins which form a very conspicuous object in the first species named, which was introduced in 1812, the latter in 1802. Both may be increased by division in spring, just as the plants start to make their growth. Parochetus communis.—A trailing clover-like plant, with bright green slightly blotched leaves, growing freely during summer, and producing its solitary bright blue flowers of amethyst tint, in autumn. Admirably adapted to trail down the face of a rockery. A reserve plant should always be kept in a frame, as it is liable to die off in a severe winter. South America, 1820. Petrocallis pyrenaica, whose name literally means beautiful rock plant, is a charming dense-tufted little cruciferous plant, with notched cuneate leaves arranged in compact rosettes; the flowers pink, in small clusters. Not a veiy free growing plant. Should be firmly wedged between pieces of stone, and have ample drainage. Pyrenees, 1750. Phlox canadensis.—The majority of the dwarf-growing pliloxes are charming spring-blooming plants. In this species the leaves are opposite, well apart from one another on the stem. The flowers are of a purplish-lilac tint in a lax panicle, about 10 to 15 inches high, produced in May. May be readily increased by cuttings of the young shoots in spring. Canada, 1S25. P. frondosa.—Has prostrate stems, covered with densely imbricated narrow bristly leaves; flowers pink, | produced in abundance in May. Should be increased by cuttings, or more freely by layers, by which many good-sized plants may be obtained at once. North America. P. nivalis.—Of similar habit to the above, but with shorter leaves, and less rampant growth. The flowers are wdiite, produced in May. P. Ndsoni is a hybrid form of this, with a pretty pink tinge at the mouth of the tube. North America, 1S20. PhyteL’ma Hallcri.—A campanulaceous plant, whoso individual flowers are small, but when grouped together, as they are in heads, they are very pretty and effective; the leaves are ovate; the flowers dark blue, produced in Juno and July. Readily increased by seeds, which it ripens freely. Pyrenees and Alps, 1822. Pinguicula (jrandljlora.—The large-flowered butter-wort is a bog-plant of great beauty, found wild in the south of Ireland, and generally supposed difficult of cultivation. The leaves are broad, sessile, of a yellowish-green, and covered with minute glands; the flowers solitary, on stalks 3 to 6 inches long, deep blue in colour. Requires a continuous supply of moisture at the root for its successful culture. Voi.YGOy vsivaccini/nlium (Fig. 374).—A neat plant, with slendertrailing rooting stems, small cordate sessile leaves, and pink flowers in ascending spikes, produced in August and September. Likes a mixture of bog and leaf soil. Himalayas, 1845. P. Brunonis.—A showy plant, forming a close tuft of oblong leaves, from which in August, on stems about 6 or 8 inches high, rise the oblong spikes of bright rose-coloured flowers; a pretty border or rock plant. Northern India, 1S45.HARDY HERBACEOUS PLANTS. 711 Potentilla aureal—A dwarf plant, wdtli broadly-lobed shining leaves; flowers large, bright golden colour; height 6 inches. Blooms in June. Pyrenees. P. ambigua.—Of creeping habit; leaves hairy, with Fig. 374. obcordate leaflet-;; flowers a bright yellow, the petals also bein'/ bnfflily obeordate. Sikkim Himalaya, 1851. Primula.—A deservedly popular genus, from which, where all are so beautiful, it is very difficult to make a limited selection. P. corf'<*<>1(1?|, and its so-called variety o.moeno,, now known as P. Sieboldii (Fig. 375), have pink flowers; in the latter, however, we have many sports, such as crimson, white, and lilac, and all the elements of beauty, hardiness, and vigour of growth, that will entirely supersede the former. It is a native of China. P. jnponica.—A handsome species, with stems 12 to 18 inches liiLfh, winch bear crimson flowers tier above tier, and is a tine object when well grown. It has broad oblong leaves, and is tolerably hardy. Japan, 1870. P. pedewoutturn and P. decora, with the aspect of the auricula, have lovely magenta-coloured blooms, almost embedded in the heart of the leaves. Both are natives of the Piedmontese Alps, the former blooming in May, the latter in June. P. nicalis and P. helcetica belong to the same section, and produce massive trusses of bloom, the former purple, the latter more generally known by its wThite variety; both these are April bloomers. P. Munroi.—A distinct plant, with dark green ovate-spathulate leaves; the flowers white, with a tinge of lavender towards the margin of the petals. Flowers in June. A native of the Himalaya, 1845. P. scoiica.—This has broad blunt-pointed powrdered leaves; stem 3 inches high; flowers small, deep purple with a yellow eye, produced in June and July. Grows in the north of Scotland. All the plants in this genus are partial to a mixture of well-decayed manure along with the soil in wiiich they are potted or planted. Prunella grandiflora and its cut-leaved variety, the latter sometimes called P. laciniata, are both pretty compact-growing species, with large blue labiate flowers, produced in dense terminal spikes on stalks 9 inches high. Austria, 1590. Ranunculus a tpest r is.—A dwarf mountain buttercup, 3 inches high, with shining leaves and white flow’ers, produced in June. Northern Europe. 11. parnassifolins.—Leaves broadly ovate, dark green, undivided; flowers three or four on the stem, pure white, in June. Swiss Alps, 1709. Rhodiola rosea, rose-root.—This possesses, beside a pinkish colour, an agreeable rose-like perfume in its stems and roots. It forms a dense branching plant, about 12 inches high; each stem provided with an imbricated series of shell-shaped glaucous green leaves, and terminated by a dense cluster of yellowish flowers. The beauty of the plant depends more on its habit of growth than on its blossoms. Fig. 375. Primula Sieboldii (P. cortusoides amoena). Saponaria ccpspitosa.—From a thick woody root-stock is developed a dense cluster of branches, w’hich produce an abundance of flowers almost as large as, and very similar to those of the alpine pink. A really lovely plant, but rarely met with in collections; height 6 inches. Pyrenees, 1820. S. ocymoides.—A trailing plant, with lanceolate leaves, inflated calyx, and small rose-coloured flowers, produced in myriads. In the major variety the petals are broader,712 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. and the whole plant more vigorous. A somewhat rampant grower when it becomes fully established. May be increased either by cuttings or seeds. South of France, 1768. Saxifraga.—Here we have a genus nearly all the species of which are so admirably adapted for the rock garden that it is next to impossible to make a selection. All we can do is to take a few of the more distinct species, typical of the several sections into which the genus naturally divides itself. Amongst the crustaceous species we have S. longifolia, with long narrow spathulate recurved leaves, unquestionably the gem of the group, a native of the Pyrenees; S. A izoon and its minor variety S. pectinata, whose dark green leaves display the white marginal markings to perfection; S. ccesia, S. diapensioides, and S. squanvsa, which almost rival one another in the diminutive character of the rosettes; all natives of the Maritime Alps. 8. oppositifolia and its major and white variety are amongst the very first flowers of spring to greet with their expanded blooms the returning sunshine from the mountain tops. In the mossy section we have S. muscoides, with its still more pigmy form 8. Schafta.—A dwarf procumbent plant, not exceeding 6 inches in height, branching freely; the leaves opposite, small, ovate, and acuminate; flowers large, a deep rose colour. A handsome autumn-blooming plant, of neat compact habit. A native of Southern Russia, 1844. Next to S. Elizabeths this is one of the most valuable perennial plants in the genus. Soldanklla alpina.—One of the most charming alpine plants we possess. The leaves are almost orbicular, arranged in compact masses, and somewhat leathery in texture; flowers blue, pendent, fimbriated, two or three on a stalk, not more than 3 inches high. The variety Wheeler i is decidedly the most floriferous form of this plant. Flowers in April, and is a gem of gems. Swiss Alps, 1656. S. pusilla has much smaller leaves than S. alpina, scarcely rising above the soil; the flowers are pale blue, pendent, and campanulate, with a neatly-notched margin, not so deeply cut nor reflexed as in the species just named; about 2 inches high; flowers in April. Switzerland, 1820. Stack vs Corsica.—In a genus of tall-growing plants, such as the majority of the woundworts are, it would scarcely be expected to find a genuine alpine plant; nevertheless, in Stocky s Corsica we have a plant whose height does not exceed 2 or 3 inches; the leaves are light green; the flowers large in proportion to the size of the plant, white, suffused with pink. A remarkably pretty alpine plant. Balearic Islands. St a tick, sea-lavender.—We have here a number of pretty dwarf-habited plants admirably adapted for the rockery. All autumnal bloomers. From those of dwarfest habit we select the following. S. bdlidifolia.—This has rosettes of broadly obovate-spathulate leaves; flowers small, lavender-coloured, arranged in branching cymes about 8 or 9 inches high. Greece, 1810. S. emarginata.—Is closely related to the former. The leaves distinctly emarginate; the flowers larger, purple, about 6 inches high. Gibraltar, 1872. >8. hii/iuta.—A semi-shrubby evergreen plant, producing dense corymbose cymes of small bluish flowers. The whole plant forms a dense compact tuft of brownish foliage. Southern Europe, 1658. S. nano..—With larger leaves, but dwarfer habit; scarcely exceeds 4 inches in height. Flowers blue. A native of the Pyrenees; occurring also in Britain, but rarely. All may be increased by seeds. TeuCRIUM aureura.—Of procumbent habit, the stems clothed with small white leaves, notched at the margin; the flowers and bracts yellow, arranged in heads. A native of the shores of the Mediterranean, but when grown in a dry place stands the winter well in the open air. Height 4 inches. Flowers in August and September. T. pyrenaicum.—Of dense habit, and having rounded rugose leaves; flowers pale yellow and purple, arranged in compact heads, almost embedded in the foliage. An exceedingly pretty plant, flowering in July and August. The spring shoots strike freely in a gentle bottom heat —a much better way of propagation than by division. Pyrenees, 1731. Thymus.—All the dwarf-growing species, not even excepting our common wild thyme, with its white variety, are lovely plants, and well worthy a place in every alpine collection. The woolly-leaved form known as T. lanu-ginosus, a native of the Swiss Alps, is a most charming rock-plant, whether in foliage only or in flower. T. alpinus, from the Alps, has much larger leaves than the common thyme, and bears longer spikes of pretty pink blossoms, which are produced in July. T. micans forms a remarkably dense dwai*f-growing plant—in fact, a perfect dark-green cushion, with small pink flowers, not very freely produced; it is a native of Southern Europe, and closely allied to T. azureus, but smaller in all its parts. Veronica, speedwell.—This family furnishes us with many charming rock-plants. A good tuft of our common wood germander ( V. Chama’drys) has, in the months of May and June, few rivals in respect of beauty. In the variegated form the lovely blue of the flowers is much enhanced by contrast with the light yellow foliage. V. Guthrieana.—A hybrid raised from the old V. sa.va-tilis; has much larger flowers, of a more intense purple, than the parent, as well as possessing an increased vigour of growth. It is a charming rock-plant. Flowers in June, and spasmodically through the summer. V. lactea, syn. V. repens.—This species hugs the soil with its creeping shoots, each densely covered with small oval dark-green leaves; and in May the whole surface of the plant is covered with milk-white flowers, whose height can only be measured by decimal parts of an inch. Southern Europe, 1829. V. pectinata.—A prostrate plant with ovate hairy leaves deeply notched at the margin. Flowers in procumbent spikes of azure blue, in May and June. A lovely rock-plant, but liable to suffer from damp; does not ripen seeds in this country, but is readily propagated by cuttings in spring. Italy, 1819. V. satu reicefolia.—A tufted-growing plant with narrow acuminate leaves of dark colour; stems prostrate; flowers of a deep intense blue, arranged in terminal spikes. Said to be a variety of V. prostrata, but the whole genus requires overhauling as regards nomenclature. Southern Europe. V. tairnca, of which possibly the former is a broadleaved form, has narrow almost linear leaves, and slender procumbent stems; the flowers are small, dark blue, arranged in spikes, and produced in May. Seedlings from this have produced broad-leaved forms very closely allied to the former species. Tauria, 1820. V. rerbenacea.—A species not found in our botanical works is in cultivation under this name. A very distinct and desirable plant, prostrate in growth, with light-green broadly-ovate leaves, and light-blue flowers produced in abundance in June and July. Carpathian Mountains.714 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Viola.—A genus with which, as in our common violets and their many varieties, vernal beauty and delicious perfumes are intimately associated. In the species here selected the latter recommendation is not represented. V. bijlora.—A small-growing species, with reniform leaves, producing small yellow flowers, insignificant as regards size, but charming in their modest simplicity. Flowers in May. Europe, Alps, 1752. F. pedala.—Has leaves deeply seven-lobed, divided into linear radiating segments; flowers a light blue. Forms a handsome compact-growing plant about 3 inches high. Should be watched closely for snails, which are very partial to it, and in early spring often eat out the heart of the plant. North America, 1759. Wclfexia carinthiaca.—A scrophulariaceous plant, with tufts of large obovate light-green leaves, and dark purple flowers arranged in spikes, 8 inches high. Carin-thia, 1S17- Zapaxia nodijiora.—A creeping verbenaceous plant, with opposite ovate leaves, and pinkish umbellate flowers produced in August and September. It is perfectly hardy in this country; and forms a section of the old genus Lippia. South America. III.—BULBS AND TUBEROUS-ROOTED PLAXTS. The soil best adapted for the successful cultivation of bulbs is one of a light sandy nature, moderately deep, and well enriched with manure, resting on a well-drained subsoil, such in fact as every well-managed garden offers. Amongst this class of plants we find many of our earliest popular spring dowers, such as the snowdrop, crocus, squill, tulip, &c.,—all of which have either desliy underground stems called conns, or attenuated stems coated with thick deshy scales. These possess one important character — which is nearly universal amongst bulbu —namely, that during the winter and spring they are in active growth, and during the summer and autumn they are in a dormant condition. It is a very usual practice to lift such bulbs annually as soon as the foliage has died down, and store them away till the autumn, when they are replanted, selecting of course the strongest and best-developed bulbs for planting in the more conspicuous positions to be found in the dower garden. This process, however necessary it may be under some circumstances, cannot be denominated a natural one, and where it has to be resorted to there are some few points that must never be lost sight of. First, before the bulbs are lifted the leaves must have died away naturally; the strength of the bulb depending on the full and perfect development of the foliage. Secondly, the bulbs should be thoroughly dried before storing away, ami kept in a perfectly dry cool place; both damp and heat being liable to excite prematurely the dormant energies, and induce root development. Thirdly, they must be planted again before any root action has taken place, else the fresh protruded rootlets are liable to be damaged in the process of removal and planting, to the serious detriment of the growth and blossom. Under natural conditions we generally find that bulbous plants are associated with other plants; not infrequently do we find them growing in masses under the shade of trees, or along the margins of plantations; here the periods of active and dormant life are admirably sustained by a sort of reciprocity, which nature has provided. In winter and spring, while the bulbs are in active growth, other forms of vegetation are in a quiescent state; the leafless branches above enable the rains to penetrate and saturate the ground to the very stems; but soon after these harbingers of spring have presented their floral offering, the fresh growth of the surrounding heritage and the leafy canopy above provide that dryness of soil which affords complete rest. These remarks may be taken as of general application to all bulbous plants. For specialties in culture we refer to the remarks which, where necessary, have been appended to the brief descriptive notes accompanying each species. Alstrcemeria.—A genus containing many charming species. They produce fleshy tuberous roots, which, being somewhat tender, should be planted at least 8 inches below the surface, in deep soil composed of peat and leaf mould with a good mixture of sand. The roots should rarely be disturbed, as, being extremely brittle, they suffer seriously in the process. They may be readily increased by seeds, which are produced freely. A. aurantiaca.—This handsome free-growing plant produces its orange or golden yellow flowers in July and August, on stems 2 feet high. Chili, 1831. A. Pclrgrina.—Has flowers of varied shades from creamy-white to deep orange, with slight variations in the depth of tint in the individual flowers that much enhances their beauty. Height 12 to 18 inches. June and July. Peru, 1754. Amaryllis Belladonna.—The only species of a large genus of showy plants which has any pretensions to be hardjT. Except in the south it ought to be planted at the foot of a wall, where it may get the summer’s heat in a concentrated form. Its flowers,of a deep rose colour, are produced in August and September, and, as is characteristic of the genus, they are produced prior to the development of the leaves. Said to be a hybrid, but this is perhaps doubtful. Axomatheca amenta.—A pretty dwarf plant belonging to the Iris family. The corms and leaves are those of a very diminutive gladiolus. The flowers are of a blood-red, produced in August and September. Height 9 inches. It should be planted tolerably deep, and thrives in any light garden soil. South Africa, 1830. Brodi.ea grandiilora. ■—A plant with somewhat the aspect of an Allium, producing clusters of numerous soft lavender-coloured flowers, in July, terminating the floral stems, at a height of about 2 feet. It grows freelyHARDY HERBACEOUS PLANTS. 715 in any light soil, and increases by offsets from the parent bulb. North America, 1S06. B. coccinea (Fig. 376).—A very handsome hardy bulbous plant, with longish narrow channelled leaves, and Fig. 37(5. erect flower-scapes, bearing at the top an umbel of drooping tubular scarlet dowel’s, the ends of the perianth segments tipped with green. They are very showy and distinct, and are produced in September. California, 1S70. Bulbocodiiwi vernum.—Belongs to the Colchicum family, and has much the aspect of a dwarf autumnal Crocus. Produces its pink blossoms, before the leaves appear, in March* Of rather shy growth, and does not increase very freely. Spain, 1629. HaMassia esc•ulenta.—A showy North American plant whose bulbs are used by the Indians as an article of diet. The flowers are large, deep blue, arranged in close spikes, on stalks about 18 inches long. It thrives best in a bed of deep bog or peat soil. Columbia, 1827. Colchicum autumn ale, meadow saffron.—All the species of this genus bloom late in the autumn, before the development of the leaves. Their fresh rosy or wrhite flowers rising from the bare surface of the earth have a singular and somewhat unnatural appearance, the leaves not being produced till the following spring. A native of Britain, where it grows in the fields, and has a lovely effect during August and September. There is also a double variety. C. tessellatum.—Has beautifully mottled flowers, with broader and shorter petals. A native of South Europe, 1600. C. speciosum.—This plant is of altogether stronger growth, and has very large flowers of a deep rosy hue, and somewhat broader foliage. Crocus.—A genus of grassy-leaved dwarf plants, containing some of the gayest spring flowers we have. Added to this recommendation a small section contributes no inconsiderable share of gaiety to the late autumn months. Amongst old species worthy of culture belonging to the spring section wo have C. aureus, C. susianns, C. stellaris, and C. sulphureus, with various shades of yellow flow'ers; C. Cartwrightianus, C. reruns, C. neapolitanus, and C. longifiorus, with blue flowers; C. bijlorus, C. Boryanus, C. striutus, and C. albijlorus, with white flowers. Amongst tho autumn bloomers, whose lovely flowers expand in September and October, we have C. autwmnalis, C. nudi-florus, C. S2)eciosns, and C. serotinus, with deep purple flowers, the colours of whose petals contrast beautifully with the bright golden stigmata. Besides tho above species we might specify a score more of equal beauty, but most of them are rare in cultivation, and persons wishing- to acquire a complete collection will find no little difficulty in getting them true to name. Seeing, however, that the number of persons who are taking an interest in our hardy spring-bulbs is great, we append the following additional list of desirable and distinct species:—C. Cambessedesii, C. carpetanus, C. Clusii, C. Fleischerii, C. haclriaticus, C. hy emalis, C. I m per at i, C. vices tacus, C. minimus, C. 01 iv-ierii, C. ThomasU, C. Sieberi, C. valesiaca, C. ritellinus. All the above are well 'worthy of cultivation, and may be looked upon as a representative selection of the specific peculiarities of the genus. Erythronium dens canis, dog-tooth violet.—Alike beautiful in flower and foliage. The former are produced singly on stalks raised some few inches above the ground, the colour varying from pink to white. The latter are broadly ovate, beautifully marbled with a mixture of brown, white, and green. Europe, 1596. B. americcinum, syn. E. lanceolatum.—While having narrower and less beautifully marked leaves, has lovely yellow flowers, which, as a rule, are not produced very freely in this country. North America, 1665. Fritillaria, fritillary.—This name originates from tho old Latin title given to the chess-board, owing to the singular disposal of the colour, after a symmetrical fashion, into squares, as exemplified in our own native species, F. Meleagris. F. imperial is, crown imperial.—A noble plant that from a large scaly bulb sends up in the very earliest spring vigorous shoots, clothed with foliage, to a height of 2 to 3 feet, terminated by a cluster of pendent bellshaped flowers varying in colour from lemon-yellow to red, and yielding a powerful and somewhat disagreeable odour. Perfectly hardy, but frequently nipped by our spring frosts iust as it is coming into bloom. North of Persia, 1596. F. Meleagris.—The pendent mottled blossoms of this plant have a charming appearance in the month of May. There is a white, and also a double variety as well—the latter by no means as handsome as the single one. They never exceed 12 inches in height. F. pyrenaica, more generally known as F. nigra.—• This though far from being a brilliant plant, possesses a beauty of its own; the flowers are produced soli-716 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. tary, or in pairs, on leafy stalks 15 to 18 inches high, from which they hang pendent; they are dark brown outside, but, on turning up the flower, the margin of the slightly reflexed perianth will be found to be of a bright olive-green. Southern Europe, 1605. F. tulipifolia.—In the general contour of the plant this is somewhat related to the foregoing, but there is a distinct purple tint in the flowers; the perianth also is shorter, and the margin rather less reflexed. It is a native of the Caucasus, and is of recent introduction. Gagea lntea.—An old English early spring flowering bulb, with greenish-yellow flowers, produced in April. A native of Britain, but rare, and well worth cultivating. Though generally known by this name, it is more correctly referred to G. fascicuhiris. Galanthus nivalis, snowdrop.*—Both in its double and single forms this earliest of spring flowers is so familiar as to require no description, and possesses a simple beauty that renders words of praise unnecessary. G. plicatns.—This species has larger flowers and broader leaves, with undulated margins; it is also somewhat later in blooming than our snowdrop. Crimea, 1818. Gladiolus.—An old genus, the beauty of whose original species has been far outstripped by that of the magnificent modern varieties, for which we are indebted to the zeal and industry of our hybridizers. The brilliancy of the blossoms in one section has been incorporated with the vigour of constitution of another, till as a result they have attained a wonderful perfection of both colour and stature. The great majority of the species are natives of the Cape of Good Hope; and hence they are somewhat tender, and ought to be lifted every autumn, and planted again in March or April. If this be not done some light litter should be strewed on the bed to prevent the frost penetrating the soil. Where the garden hybrids so far excel them, it would be waste of space to make a selection of the original species for cultivation. G. brenc/tlei/eusis, however, one of the earlier hybrids, is a very brilliant variety for beds. IIyacinthus.—A familiar genus represented in olden times partly by our blue-bells (which more recently, however, have been referred to the Scillas), and partly by the eastern hyacinths (II. oriental is), which now retain the name, and which form such an important element in the spring decoration of our greenhouses and flower gardens. • Ixia.—A genus of showy iridaceous plants from South Africa, consequently somewhat tender in our northern counties, unless under exceptionally favourable circumstances; but in the more sunny lands of the south they yield the loveliest and most diverse mass of colour that it is possible to obtain. They require a peaty, sandy soil, with a liberal mixture of leaf-mould for their culture. All the species of the genus are well worth cultivation where circumstances of soil and situation will permit. They succeed admirably in the Channel Islands, and also in the south of England. Fig. 377. II. amet/u/stinus.—A distinct and charming species, of small growth, not attaining a height of more than 6 inches. Its nodding tubular flowers, of an amethyst blue, are arranged in spikes, and produced in May. It grows freely in any light garden soil. Southern Europe, 1759. II. canclicans.—A magnificent plant, with long lorate leaves, and scapes 6 feet high, bearing on the upper part numerous large pendent white flowers. Hardy in the south of Englarid in light soils. Mexico, 1S70. Iris.—The bulbous section of the genus Iris is specially represented by what are known as the Spanish iris (I. .viphioidcs, Spain, 1571) and the English iris (I. Xiphium, Spain, 1596), of each of which there are numerous garden varieties. Amongst the continental variations of I. .vi/diioides we have all shades of colours barring scarlet and crimson; and in I. Xiphium blues of all degrees of intensity are to be met with. 7. persica, which blossoms in April, has beautiful particoloured flowers which scarcely rise above the soil; I. juncea, which has narrow leaves and yellow flowers, blossoms in July. Leucojum astirum, summer snowflake.—Though much taller of stature, this reminds one of the snowdrop in the month of June, when the reminiscence of drops of snow ought to be rather agreeable than otherwise. It is an exceptional native of England, and grows to a height of 15 to 18 inches. L. rernum, vernal snowflake.—This scarcely attains a height of 6 inches, and has broad dark-green leaves and somewhat larger flowers than the last. A native of Germany, introduced 1596, and worthy of more general culture than it at present enjoys. Lilium.—Of these popular favourites there is such a variety in habit of growth and colour that it is no easy task to make a selection. Amongst free-growing deflexed : yellow lilies we have L. monadelphum, L. colchicum, and L. Leichtlinii. Amongst those with orange-coloured erect flowers we have L. bulbiferum, L. croceum, L. dauricnm, and L. Thunbergianum; and in another group, where the | flower is turned downward and the perianth is reflexed,HARDY HERBACEOUS PLANTS. 717 we have L. tir/rimnn, L. chalcedonieum and L. temdfo-Hum, scarlet, L. superbum and L. Humboldtii, orange. The white-flowered section is admirably represented by our old familiar sweet-scented L. candidum; the Japanese L. auratum (Fig. 377), in which the white is combined with a broad golden or crimson band; L. longifloruniy where the white, typical of perfect purity, is purity itself; L. speciosum (ofton miscalled lancifolium), whose wide expanded blooms are sometimes white, sometimes rose tinted, and at other times dyed with intense crimson; and L. Parhnanni, a splendid hybrid between auratum and speciosu illy with magnificent crimson spotted flowers. These are all hardy, and amenable to ordinary culture; they, however, like a deep rich soil, well drained, and enjoy a partial shade. MUSCARI bofruoides, grape or starch hyacinth.—This is one of our early blooming plants. Its flowers, which are spheroidal in shape, sometimes blue, sometimes white, and sometimes of an intermediate pale blue, are clustered in dense compact spikes, which attain a liei gilt of 6 to 8 inches. Italy, 1596. Jf. wonstrosum9 feather hyacinth.—This obtains its very appropriate name from the peculiar abnormal arrangement, by which the various parts of a once regular spheroidal flower assume an irregular feather-like growth, of a pale blue colour. Southern Europe, 1596. 31. raeemosum has long lax foliage; flowers dark indigo- \ blue, arranged in racemes, with the footstalks of the j lower flowers longer than those of the upper ones; blooms in March. A native of Britain. Narcissus.—In the daffodil family we have a genus equally perplexing to select from as that of the Liliums. All are pretty, and all, or nearly all, are amenable to ordinary culture. The large majority are amongst our most familiar spring flowers; some half-dozen species alone, and these of very rare occurrence, being autumn bloomers. Where nature has distributed her beauties so equally we hesitate to make a selection, and present the genus as one in which all or any are desirable, the numbers cultivated being only governed by the extent of space it may be convenient to devote to them. Orchis.—Under this genus, and the closely allied Ophrysy are embraced the large majority of our British terrestrial orchids. These are usually supposed to be not amenable to cultivation; but the early purple Orchis mascula, ami the later spotted-leaved 0. maailata, may both form interesting elements in garden cultivation, and, moreover, may improve under such cultivation. 0. folio. feet, the flowers springing umbel-fashion from a radiating’ scries of long leafy bracts that have a very elegant appearance. Droskka anglira, P. rotundifAia, and T). longifolia. —Our three British species of sundew are all amenable to cultivation. In order to establish them properly they ought to be removed from their native habitat with a fair amount of soil. The first is the largest and most desirable, but is rarely met with wild. Equiskti’m I) ru nanondn.— The prettiest of all our horsetails, the branchlets beautifully recurved. It is, however, a terrible rambler, and we would suggest for its culture that an old shallow tub be sunk to within 3 inches of the surface of the soil, so as to place a limit to its wandering propensities. It grows wild in the north of Ireland. Eriophohum pohistachgon, cotton grass, which, with its nodding silky plumes, forms such a conspicuous feature on our native bogs in June and July, will, when once established, thrive equally well under artificial conditions. Juxcrs |iftisns spiralis, screw rush.—A singular abnormal growth found in the wilds of Connemara; the spiral character which its leaves assume varies considerably, being sometimes quite dense, sometimes lax. Mknyanthks trifAiato, bog bean.—A very distinct and pretty native plant, having smooth creeping stems, and trifoliate leaves, and producing freely racemose heads of charming white flowers, which are lovely in the delicacy of their structure, and beautifully fringed. Myosotis palustris.—The lovely forget-me-not, whose azure-1 due flowers have a real as well as a poetic beauty, and are familiar to all. It is of very easy culture. Myrica ('ale, sweet gale.—Is a shrub rarely exceeding 2 to $ feet in height, deliciously fragrant, its resinous perfume being dispersed freely when the plant is rubbed against. NaRTJIECIUM ossifragnm, bog asphodel.—Tn aspect like a miniature Iris. It produces lively spikes of deep golden-yellow flowers, in July and August. Related to and associated with this might be tried the New Zealand Clt rgsohactmm Hooheri. Pa una SSI A a.sa rifol ia, P. Carolinian a, and P. podustris. —The latter is our British grass of Parnassus, a favourite wild flower, blooming in August and September. The two former are still finer North American species, both being of larger development, alike in flower and foliage. Pinguicula grandijlora and P. vulgaris, butterwort. —The singular flat incurved light olive-green leaves of these plants contrast beautifully with the dark purple flowers; the latter is very common throughout Britain; the former, which is by far the finest, is peculiar to the south of Ireland, where it is tolerably abundant. Sarracf.nia purpurea, side-saddle plant of North America.—Though generally cultivated in our conservatories, the plant is perfectly hardy, as indeed the conditions of climate it enjoys in its native habitat ought to lead us to expect. It is exceedingly curious. J. C. N. V.—HARDY AND IIALF-IIARDY ANNUALS AND BIENNIALS. Those plants which are known by the popular titles of annuals and biennials flower only once. Those belonging to the first category will glow up from seed, and flower and reproduce seed, all within a few months. In a natural state the seed either germinates in autumn, or lies dormant in the ground until the spring; in either case the plants bloom the following spring or summer. Very hardy kinds naturally germinate in the autumn, and the gardener should take the advantages offered by such species to make a display as early as possible in the year. Biennials do not flower before the second summer; but there are some plants which are either of annual or of biennial duration according to the conditions under which they are growing. Plants that are strictly biennial in a natural state often flower the first season in the more stimulating soil and more favourable conditions of garden culture, especially if sown early; but the inflorescence is usually less luxuriant and less profuse, and therefore this fact should be borne in mind in order to avoid disappointment. To a great extent the gardener has it in his own power to regulate the flowering season of annual and biennial plants, subject only to the climatal conditions of the country in which he operates, and of course even these may be overcome in a measure by sowing under glass. The duration of plants of this class maybe considerably prolonged by not permitting them to flower, and choice varieties of annuals that will not come true from seed care sometimes propagated from cuttings, but they care rarely so vigorous as seedlings, and very liable to disease. Some perennials will flower the first season, hence numerous handsome species, especially those that are half-hardy, are available for summer and autumn decoration; and a considerable proportion of the species in the following descriptive list are of this class. The number of annuals commonly grown is 4670° GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. very small, and yet the beauty and easy management of many of them entitle them to a greater share of consideration. With the exception of stocks, asters, zinnias,marigolds, and a few others, annuals are nowadays seldom seen growing in perfection. The common complaint is that the flowering season of annuals is so very short; but if they are allowed plenty of space, like other more favoured plants, this cause for complaint would not exist. Watering in very dry hot weather, and the removal of the seed-vessels before they are matured, will also tend to lengthen the flowering season. The great drawback they have usually to contend with is this, that a dozen or even a score of plants are allowed to struggle for life in a space where there is only room for one to attain full development: consequently all are starved. Ample space, then, is one of the most important condit ions for all species under all circumstances. Different species vary so much in size and habit that no hard-and-fast rules can be given; cultivators must be guided by the peculiarities and requirements of each species, which can only be gained by actual experience. Under favourable conditions a single plant of mignonette will cover a square yard, one plant of Xemopliila insignis more than a square foot, one plant of Leptosiphon hiteus !) square inches or more; but it is not recommended that quite so much space as this should be allowed for each plant. On the other hand, a diminutive plant, such as Ionopsidium acaule, requires little more than a square inch on which to attain its full size. Indications of size and habit are given under most of the species, as also of their hardiness. Broadly they are classed as hardy and half-hardy, though every degree of hardiness is included. Hardy species include such as will withstand our winters —usually designated very hardy in the descriptions —OS well as those which will only bear slight frosts. As already hinted, the period for sowing annuals should be regulated by the time it is desired to have them in bloom. Naturally only the very hardy species, as candytuft, sweet-pea, Saponaria calabrica, some of the lupins, Koniga, Ccntaurca Ci/anus, Virginian stock, Erysimum, Silene pen-dula, &c., can be sown in the open ground in autumn for early ilowering; and sowings of these should be repeated in spring to succeed the lirst display, and again in May or June for later bloom. The perfectly hardy species are mostly natives of Europe, and the colder parts of Asia and North America. September is the best time for most of this class, but November, or even December, will do for some, according to the season. After these we have a very numerous contingent of species from California and other parts of North America, Chili, Southern Europe, Asia Minor, &c., which may be sown in the open ground from the beginning of March onward, according to the season. Little, however, is gained by sowing very early, because the plants grow slowly, and are much longer exposed to the attacks of vermin and other enemies. Possibly the result may be a week gained in the flowering season over those sown a month later, and probably, too, a total failure may ensue. It is better, where frames or pits are available, to sow thinly in pans, and afterwards prick out in the open border, for the first flowering. The soil for annuals should be well drained, and moderately light and rich, with a fine tilth to retain the moisture. Whether for beds, edgings, or in patches, it is advisable to sow the seed much more thickly tluui the plants should be allowed to stand, and gradually thin out until each plant appears to have sufficient clear space. Where the soil is stiff or very poor a little prepared mould should be forked in and sprinkled over the seeds. A layer of soil about the thickness of the seed sown is a sufficient covering; and very minute seeds should be sown on the surface of finely-pulverized soil, and slightly raked in. If the ground be very dry it should be well watered some little time before sowing, otherwise it is better to wait for a shower, especially where the soil is stiff or adhesive, and liable to cake when watered. A sharp look-out for caterpillars, slugs, &c., will prevent much disappointment, and occasional waterings in dry weather after the plants are grown up will be beneficial. Few annuals require any support, except those of climbing habit, but where it is necessary small neat sticks should be used scarcely so tall as the plants, and the tying material should be as slender and inconspicuous as possible. Next come the half-hardy species, which must be raised in heat under glass in order to have them sufficiently earl}’ to flower properly. These are principally from Lower California, Mexico, tropical America; a few from India and China, South Africa and Australia. The Australian species are perhaps the most difficult to manage, especially in cold rainy seasons, warm sunny weather suiting them best; but the commonly cultivated Ildichrysum braeteatiun is less delicate than many others. Half-hardy annuals should be sown in heat in March or April. Nothing is better than a frame and hot-bed for this purpose, with a night temperature of about 50° Fahr., rising to 70° or 75° during the day. After the young plants are formed they must not be suffered to remain long in a close heat, but should soon be potted off, and gradually hardened ready for planting out some time during the latter halfHARDY HERBACEOUS PLANTS. 723 of May. The weather should he the gardener’s guide in trusting his tender plants out of doors, but the middle of May is quite early enough for the majority of things, and a few of the most delicate are better left till the beginning of June. The selection of annuals and biennials should be regulated according to the purpose for which they are required, and the space at command. In a general way, and especially for amateurs having little time and few conveniences for raising half-hardy species, it is better to limit it to the perfectly hardy species, of which there is a rich variety. Different species are suitable for diverse purposes, and the special qualities of certain species are usually indicated in the descriptions, and tlie most desirable and easily cultivated ones specially recommended. When not otherwise stated, they are hardy. The approximate height, habit of growth, colour, and duration of flowering season are the chief points to keep in view in making a selection. It may here be observed that most of the hardy perennials amenable to the same treatment as annuals continue in flower until late in autumn. The following is a selection of a few of the most useful and attractive of these plants:—Hardy: —sweet-pea (Lathyrus) in variety; candytuft (Ibe-ris); larkspur {Delphinium); lupine (Lupinus); Virginian stock {Malcobnid); Centaurea Ci/anus, and other species, various colours, but especially the blue; Clark ia pulchella; Erysimum Peroff-skictnum; Eschscholtzia calif or nica; Lavatera tri-mestris; Mai ope grand (flora; Limnanthes JDou-glasii; lonopsidium acaule; various species of | Cilia, Leptosiphon, Nemophila, and Linum; mignonette (Reseda); convolvulus minor {C. tricolor)’, Saponaria calabrica; convolvulus major (Phar-bitis hispida); poppy (Papaver); prince’s feather (Amaranthus); love-lies-bleeding (Amaranthus); Wit itla via grand (flora; nasturtiums,canary creeper (Tropceoium), &c. Half-hardy:—asters (Calliste-phus); marigolds (Tagetes); everlastings (Ildidmj-sum, Waitzia, Rhodunthe, &c.); the double Zinnia elegans; stocks (Matthiola); Phlox Drummondii; Clintonia pulchella; marvel of Peru (Mirabilis); Portulaca; Calandrinia; balsams (Pupations); ornamental gourds (Cucu?'bita,&c.); Cobcea,Lopho-spermum, Eccremocarpus, &c. In all cases where no special cultural instructions are given it will be understood that the species will succeed in ordinary garden soil, subject to the treatment recommended for annuals in general. The number of biennials in cultivation is relatively small, and their culture presents no particular difficulties. The hardy kinds, such as the purple scabious (Scabiosa), may be sown in the open ground as soon as the seed is ripe, and trans- planted in spring. Tender species like Ilumea elegans must be grown in pots, and should be raised in summer, in order that they may make strong plants for housing in the greenhouse, before the winter sets in. A n nuals. Acrocltnium roseum.—An elegant erect-growing half-hardy annual, about a foot high, bearing everlasting tlower-heads in the way of Ilelichrysum, but much more slender in habit. The outer bracts of the flower-heads are brown, the inner ones pink, and the central florets yellow. There is a variety, album, having pink bracts. A light soil and warm situation are necessary to grow them in perfection. Australia, 1854. Agkratum mexicanum.—This old favourite bedding plant has within the last few years produced a number of varieties differing chiefly in height and in the colour of their flowers. The ordinary form grows about 2 feet high, and has lilac-blue flowers; album has white flowers, and ritbrum red, attaining about the same height. There are varieties called the Imperial Dwarf White, Blue Tom Thumb, and White Tom Thumb, from 6 inches to 1 foot in height, but they do not come very true from seed, and are commonly propagated from cuttings. They succumb to the slightest frost. Mexico, 1822. Agrostis.—A genus of exceedingly slender and graceful ornamental grasses suitable for mixed borders. They are very useful for bouquets, and for mixing with flowers in stands. Among the best are A. nebv.losa, A. plumosa, and A. pulchella. The two former grow about 1J foot high, and the latter 6 inches. Natives of Southern Europe, &c. Amaranth us.—Vigorous-growing plants, with very small purple or red flowers, borne in large bracteate clustered spikes or panicles. Some of them have deeply coloured foliage, and are very effective as bedding plants. A. caudatas, love-lies-bleeding.—This showy hardy annual deserves more general cultivation on account of the brilliant crimson of its drooping and trailing inflorescence. A variety with pale yellow flowers is not worth growing. India, 1596. A. hypochondnacus, prince's feather.—The foliage of this species is purplish beneath, and the crimson flower-spikes quite erect. It grows about 2 feet high. A. spe-ciosus is a variety or closely allied species of larg*er stature. India, 1548. A. melancholicus ruber.—A recent introduction, with crimson foliage, suitable for bedding. It is tender, and grows about a foot high. Japan, 1861. Amberboa.—Neat hardy annuals, closely allied to the genus Centaurea. Natives of Asia Minor, and long familiar in cultivation. A. moschata, sweet Sultan.—About 18 inches high, with purple agreeably-scented flowers. The variety atropurpurea has much deeper coloured flowers. A. odoraia, yellow Sultan, is not quite so tall, and has pale yellow flowers. Ammobium alatum.—An Australian plant of the “everlasting” tribe, growing about 2 feet high. It has few small leaves, winged stems, and small yellow and white flower-heads. It is of perennial duration when slightly protected. Introduced in 1822. Anagallis indica, pimpernel.—A trailing hardy annual with small deep blue flowers, produced in great724 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. profusion through the summer months. Northern India, 1824. Antirrhinum; majus.—All tho varieties of the snapdragon will flower tho first season if raised early under glass. Native of various parts of Europe, and one of the earliest of cultivated plants. AsriiRUi.A azurea sefosa.—An attractive and very hardy annual, about a foot high, with narrow whorled leaves, like those of tho woodruff, and sky-blue flowers early in spring. Caucasus, of recent introduction. Bartonia aurea.—A handsome annual, about 2 feet high, with whitish branches, rough lobed leaves, and large showy yellow flowers. California, 1834. Brachycome iberidifolia, Swan Itiver daisy.—A very pretty Australian plant, of erect habit, about a foot high; leaves pinnate, with narrow segments; flowers blue or white with a dark centre. Introduced in 1840. Briza, quaking grass.—Several species of this genus are very beautiful, bearing a general resemblance to the indigenous one. B. maxima has very large spikelets, and grows about 18 inches high. B. gracilis is of more slender habit. Southern Europe, &c. Cai.ampelis. See Eccremocarpus. Cai.andrinia.—Dwarf plants with brilliantly-coloured flowers, which, however, only remain open so long as the sun shines upon them. Natives of South America. C. discolor.—A half-hardy species, about a foot high, with racemose flowers, whose petals are rosy purple, contrasting well until the orange - coloured stamens. 1834. C. spedosa.—Hardy and of procumbent habit, with very pretty violet-crimson flowers, those of the variety alba being white. 1831. Calendula ojfidnalis, marigold. — The improved double orange-yellow varieties of this old-fashioned flower merit a place in the garden, being very hardy, free-growing, continuous-blooming and showy. South of Europe, 1573. Calliopsis. See Coreopsis. Callistephus hortensis, China aster.—No annual is richer in varieties than this, the different races or strains presenting almost every shade of colour, except yellow and a true blue. Florists distinguish a considerable number of strains, but they may be referred to two principal groups, according as they are quilled (that is, having all tubular florets) or not. The different varieties range from 2 or 3 inches to 2 feet in height. The quilled asters arc of two sorts, flat and hemispherical, but the varieties with strap-shaped florets are numerous, and designated Pteimg-jlowered, Chri/santhemum-jioiccred, Emperor* Cockade, Croirn, Bouquet, Dwarf, &c., described at length in the catalogues of tho principal seedsmen. The China aster was introduced towards the end of the last century. Asters are tolerably hardy, but to have them in flower in good time they should be sown in pans early in April, and raised in a gentle heat; but they should be quickly transferred to a cold pit, and there hardened off, and pricked out in prepared beds, or better still, potted three together in a 4-incli, or four together in a 5-inch pot. According to the soil and situation they may be planted out from the middle to the end of May. Centaurea.—Tall-growing plants, with showy and usually brightly coloured flower-heads, thriving in any ordinary garden soil. C. Cyanus, cornflower.-—The sky-blue variety of this native annual, which is very attractive, and scarcely equalled in its colour by any other plant in cultivation, is very useful to cut from. There are also pink, white, and purple flowered varieties. They grow from 2 to 3 feet or more in height. C. dejn'essa, from the Caucasus, is very similar to the last, and equally as hardy, but of stouter, dwarfer habit, with larger flower-heads of a deeper blue. Centranthus macrosiphon.—A hardy plant of compact habit, from 1 to 2 feet high, having glaucous foliage and rose-coloured or white flowers. Southern Europe, 1693. The common perennial C. ruber will also flower the first season, and the crimson-flowered variety of it is a most desirable plant. Chloris.—Ornamental grasses, in which the spikes of the inflorescence are usually arranged in a digitate or radiate manner. The following species are quite hardy and very elegant, growing from 1J to 2 feet high:— C. radiata, barbata, elegans, and cucullata. Natives of West Indies, &e. They should not be sown too early. Chrysanthemum.—The annual species of this genus are hardy, branching, free-flowering, brightly-coloured plants, filling up well where there is plenty of space, and succeeding in almost any situation. C. carinatum—syn. C. tricolor.—About 2 feet high, with glaucous foliage and long-stalked showy flower-heads, varying in colour according to the variety. The common variety has a white and yellow ray and brown centre, and there are double yellow, crimson, and purple ones, or one of these colours with a brown centre. These varieties are named and sold separately by seedsmen. North Africa, 1796. C. coronation.—Rather taller than the preceding, producing a profusion of single or double yellow flower-heads. South Europe, 1629. Clarkia.—Elegant hardy, slender, branching plants, from 1.1 to 2 feet high, with narrow leaves and a profusion of rosy purple or white flowers. Very ornamental, and requiring no special care in cultivation. Natives of North-west America. C. pulchella.—The varieties to which this lobcd-petaled species has given birth are very numerous and diversified, and worthy of a place in every collection. One set of varieties called integripetalahas the petals without the typical notches; and another set, called Tom Thumb, is of very dwarf habit. C. pulc/terrima has deep crimson flowers. 1826. Clinto-nia.—Dwarf, branching, and very beautiful plants, resembling the procumbent lobelias. Natives of North America, and quite hardy; but as the)- are very small they are better raised in pots. C. pulchella.—An exceedingly elegant plant, about 3 or 4 inches high, with blue, yellow, and white flowers. The plain white or purple varieties are not equal to the ordinary one. 1831. Cob.ea scandals.—A rapid-growing climber, with ten-drilled leaves, and large dull purple bell-shaped flowers. This is an admirable plant for covering trellises, kc., as it quickly attains a length of 20 or 30 feet. It is of perennial duration, but treated as an annual for outdoor culture. There is a very handsome variegated variety. Mexico, 1792. Collinsia bicolor.—A slender branching annual, about a foot high, with a profusion of clustered flowers, of which the upper lip is pale lilac or white, and the lower lip purple. There is also a pure white variety; andHARDY HERBACEOUS PLANTS. 725 there are two or three allied species which are equally ornamental, namely, C. venia, white and blue, the seeds of which should be sown as soon as ripe; C. grand i-flora, lilac and blue; and C. multicolor, and C. corgmbosa, lilac. North America, 1833. Quite hardy. Collomia coccinea.—This is a compact-growing hardy plant, about a foot high, with terminal heads of red or buff llowers. Chili, 1832. Convolvulus tricolor—syn. C. minor of gardeners.— This old hardy inhabitant of our gardens needs no recommendation. Besides the common variety, in which blue, yellow, and white are so beautifully blended, there are several others, one of which, in which the blue is very intense, is superior. Southern Europe, 1629. Coreopsis.—Slender composite plants, with elegant pinnate leaves, and showy tlower-heads, often grown under the name of Calliopsis. Natives of North America, and hardy. C. 1 irammondii.—A dwarf spreading species, about a foot high, with large orange-yellow flower-heads. The most desirable of the genus. Introduced in 1834. C. tinctoria.—This grows about 2 feet high, and the otherwise yellow flower-heads are purple-brown in the centre. The variety atropurpurea is deep purple, and marmorata is marbled yellow and brown. 1823. Cucumis.—Climbing or trailing ornamental gourds. A rich soil and warm situation are requisite, as they are tender, and must be raised in heat to get them sufficiently early to fruit well; and the fruit is the most ornamental part. C. erinaceus, hedgehog cucumber, has a spiny cucumber-like fruit. C. myriocarpus, gooseberry gourd, is South African, and bears small green fruits resembling a gooseberry. C. dipsaceus and C. jlexuosus are also occasionally cultivated. Cucurbit a. — Another genus of gourds, of a more ornamental character than the species of Cucumis, requiring the same treatment. The varieties of C. Pepo are exceedingly numerous, embracing a wide range of diversity in the form of the fruit, which is their chief ornamental feature. To this belong C. aurantiiformis (orange gourd), which, when ripe, so closely resembles an orange that at a very short distance one might easily be deceived; C. limo/iis (lemon gourd); C. maliformis (apple gourd); and C, pyriformis (pear gourd)—all more or less resembling the fruits after which they are named. The species was introduced from the East in 1570. Datura.—Tall, coarse-growing, spreading, half-hardy annuals, with very large trumpet-shaped white or purple flowers, suitable for planting about ruins, among shrubs, Ac. lJ. Stramonium (thorn-apple) is a medical species of this genus; 1). ccratncaula, from South America, has white fragrant flowers; 1). fastno.m is an Asiatic species, of wdiich there are double and single white, and various shades of purple in cultivation; 1). Taiu.la is a hardier North American species, with violet-blue flowers; and Jj. mctdoides has large white or purplish fragrant flowers. Delphinium.—The annual larkspurs are among the most beautiful of hardy plants of this class when the varieties are well selected, but they do not continue in flower so long as some things. D. Ajacis.—The rocket larkspurs of florists are varieties of this species. They grow about 2 or 3 feet high, and present a great variety of colours both in the single and double flowered forms. There is also a strain of dwarf German varieties, which scarcely exceed a foot in height. Southern Europe, 1573. D. Consolida.—The parent of the branching larkspurs, of which there are white and various shades of pink and blue flowers. Southern Europe, and long in cultivation. Dianthus chineusis, Indian pink. —The varieties of this plant range from 6 inches to 1 foot in height, and the flowers are either double or single, attaining a diameter of 3 inches in the strain called llcddeicigii (Fig. 379). Fig. 379. In colour there are one-coloured or streaked or spotted white, pink, crimson, carmine, and purple-violet varieties; and the petals of the large-flowered laciniatus strain are beautifully fringed. Very showy plants for well-drained warm beds or borders, or rockwork. A biennial, usually treated as an annual. Introduced from China in 1713, the Heddewigii variety in 1858. Eccremocarpus scabra—syn. Calampelis scaber.—A very pretty plant, with bipinnate leaves, and orange and scarlet tubular flowers, climbing by means of tendrils to a height of about 10 or 12 feet. A perennial, usually treated as annual for the open air, for which purpose it should be sown early in February. It is nearly hardy, and may be planted out early in May if properly hardened off. Chili, 1824. Eragrostis elegans, love grass.—A very ornamental little grass, about 1 foot high, with two-ranked pendent spikelets. Erysimum.—Very showy hardy profuse-flowering cruciferous annuals of neat habit, succeeding in ordinary soil. K. as per, syn. E. arkansannm, grows from 1 to 2 feet high, with long terminal racemes of lemon-yellow flowers, and is a North American species, introduced in 1859; E. Peroffskianurn is of about the same stature, with very handsome flowers of a rich deep orange colour. Caucasus, 1838. Eschscholtzia.—Hardy biennials, commonly treated as annuals. They have glaucous finely-cut foliage and poppy-like flowers, produced in great profusion throughout the summer and autumn. North America.I GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. 72G E. califonika.—A procumbent much-branched plant, about 1 foot high, with showy pure yellow, white, or pink flowers, according to the variety. Valuable for their long flowering season, hardiness, and indifference as to soil and situation. 1833. E. crocea has saffron-coloured flowers, and is a variety of this. Eucharidium continuum.—An elegant little plant, about 18 inches high, allied to the Clarkias, and bearing a profusion of white or pink flowers. The variety graudi-jlurum has larger rosy-purple flowers. North America, 18-21. Gaii.lardia Drummondii—syn. G. pida.—A perennial, about 11 foot high, with large showy crimson and yellow flower-heads in the way of a Gacania, flowering the first year if raised in gentle heat. North America, 1833. GI li a . —Handsome hardy annuals from North America, thriving in ordinary garden soil. G. ac/iilleajolia.—A branching plant, 2 feet high or more, with very much divided leaves, and largo globose heads of showy blue flowers. California, 1861. A false plant, G. multicaulis, with the habit of G. tricolor, was long grown under this name. G. capitata.—This grows from 2_to 3 feet or more, and has deeply-lobed elegant foliage, and terminal dense heads of pale-blue flowers. 1826. There is also a white-flowered variety. G. tricolor.—A slender species, about 1 foot high; leaves divided into narrow linear segments; flowers two to four together at the ends of the branches, about inch in diameter, purple and lilac, with a blackish ring in the centre. There is a white and also a rose-coloured variety. 1S33. Glaucium plaenicenm. — A hardy plant, resembling the horn poppy, but scarcely more than 1 foot high, and having red flowers with a dark centre. Asia Minor, 1823. Godktia.—Showy diffuse branching plants, closely resembling the evening primroses ((Enothera), but having red or purple flowers, and usually of dwarfer habit. Natives of North America. G. rubicunda.— About 2 feet high, with lilac-purple flowers. There are also some handsome varieties, with more brilliantly coloured flowers. Introduced in 1814. G. Whiitbtyi.—A very handsome species of recent introduction. It is of dwarf compact habit, scarcely exceeding 1 foot in height, and bears a profusion of rosy-red flowers, blotched on each petal with crimson, and from 3 to 4 inches in diameter. Other desirable species are:—G. rosco-alba, rosy-purple and white, with a dark spot on the centre of each petal; G. Lindleyuna, purple spotted with crimson, also with double flowers; and G. replans, a trailing species, with rosy-purple spotted flowers. Grammanthks genfianoides.-—A half-hardy dwarf plant, less than 6 inches high, with small simple leaves, and a profusion of pretty crimson or scarlet star-shaped flowers, tinged with yellow. Warm border or rockery. South Africa, 1848. Gypsophila.—-Slender and graceful much-branched plants, with very numerous though small paniculate flowers, suitable for rockeries and borders. G. clegans, 18 inches high, with a profusion of pale-rose flowers, and G. mnralls, a dwarf species, about 4 inches high, with brighter coloured flowers, are the best of the hardy annuals, from the Mediterranean region. Heuanthus annuus, sunflower.—Some of the varie- ties of the sunflower, especially the double-flowered, may be introduced in large shrubberies and wild gardens with good effect. The varieties grandijlorus, plenissimns, and calif or nicus are the best, growing 5 or 6 feet high. South America, introduced in 1596. H. argyrophyllus is an allied species, with silvery foliage and smaller flower-heads. H. cucumerifolius.—A showy plant, 3 to 4 feet high, of slender branching habit, and free flowering; the leaves are cordate, broadisli, and angulately toothed; the flower-heads 3 inches in diameter, on long slender stalks, with golden ray and black disk. Texas, 1875. A tallish and free-growing annual, devoid of the coarseness of most of the sunflowers. IIelichrysum. — To this genus belong the most esteemed of the ‘everlasting’ flowers, or immortelles of the French. It is a very large genus. II. bradeatum.—This is the large-flowered ‘ everlasting,’ of which there are white, yellow, crimson, pink, and other varieties in cultivation. It is the parent of the varieties known in gardens under the names incurrum (monstrosum), acuminatum, macrocephalum, nanum, &o. The common form grows from 2 to 3 feet high, while the last-named variety does not exceed 18 inches. Introduced in 1799. IIEI .ipterum.—A genus of very elegant annuals, bearing ‘everlasting’ flowers, closely resembling those of IIelichrysum. They require a light warm soil and situation. II. Ilumbnldtiaitum—syn. 11. Sandfordi.—A handsome plant, 1 to 2 feet high, with woolly-cobwebbed stems, and linear-lanceolate leaves; the flower-heads are small, yellow, in dense terminal compound corymbs. West Australia, 1S60. II. lacanum—syn. II. brachyrhynchum.—A slender erect-habited plant, growing about 1 foot high, and covered with a silvery down; the leaves are long and narrow; and the flower-heads vary in colour from white to yellow or pink, the involucres being hemispherical, and spreading to 14 inch in diameter. New South Wales and Tasmania, 1826. Hibiscus Trionum—syn. II. africanns.—An annual species, growing about 2 feet high, bearing large sulphur-yellow flowers with a dark eye. Introduced from tho south of Europe in 1596. Iberis, candy-tuft.—Dwarf bushy profuse-flowering hardy plants, with white, crimson, or purple flowers. Natives of the Mediterranean region. I. coronaria, rocket candy-tuft.—A good border plant, from 12 to IS inches high or more, having bluntly-toothed leaves, and numerous racemes of pure white flowers, sometimes S to 10 inches long. Origin uncertain, 1831. I. odorata.—Dwarf and compact, growingabout afoot high, with linear toothed leaves and fragrant white flowers. Crete, 1S04. I. umMlata.—This is the common candy-tuft, and one of the most useful of early-flowering hardy annuals, growing about a foot high, and branching so as to show a broad flat head of blossoms. There are pure white, crimson, purple, pink, and flesh-coloured varieties. Introduced in 1596 from Candia, and hence called candy-tuft. Impatiln's. —Besides the balsam there arc several hardy annual species that thrive well under the shade of trees, and consequently are worth growing, although not very showy. Such arc I. noli-mc-tangcre, fulva, and ylanduliyera.HARDY HERBACEOUS PLANTS. I. Bahamian.—The varieties of balsam make very showy beds in warm sheltered situations on a rich light soil, but they should not be tried in exposed places or on a poor soil. They are very tender, and last only a short time, hence they are only suitable for certain purposes. India; introduced in 159(3. I ON ops i di itm acaule.—An exceedingly pretty early free-dowering plant, not exceeding 3 inches in height. Flowers lilac or white, tinged with violet, cruciferous. It is quite hardy, and is of comparatively recent introduction from the south-west of Europe. Kaulitssia orue/{aides.—A hardy dwarf annual, about 6 inches high, of compact habit, with blue, violet, rose, or white tiowers, according to the variety. South Africa, : 1819. Lauknaria culgaris.—A tender plant of the gourd family, of which there are some curious ami interesting varieties, including the bottle and siphon gourds. They will climb to a considerable height in a warm situation. India, 1597. Lac;i ri s orafu.s, hare’s-foot grass.—A dwarf hardy grass, about 1 foot high, with soft silky oval flower-spikes of ornamental appearance. South of Europe. Lamar key aurea—syn. Clri/sunis aureus.—A pretty tufted grass, (3 inches high, of slender growth, with narrow leaves and a close-panicled yellowish inflorescence. Mediterranean region, 1779. Lathyrts odoratus, sweet pea.—Among hardy climbing annuals there is nothing that surpasses the best varieties of the sweet pea. They will continue flowering I from May till late in the autumn if properly looked after. Usually they are planted much too thickly, and starve each other in dry weather. They should be sown early, liberally watered, and those from which as much flower as possible is desired should not be allowed to ripen seed. There are white and almost black-flowered varieties, as well as scarlet, purple, blue-edged, and variously striped sorts; that called Invincible Scarlet is one of the finest. Southern Europe, 1700. Lawreneeeea rosea.—A delicate little Australian annual of the ‘everlasting’ group, now referred to lleli-chi’ijsiim. It has linear glabrous leaves, and small pink or white flower-heads on long stalks. West Australia. Leptocheoa gracilis.—A graceful grass, with long plume-like panicles. It grows about 3 feet high, and is quite hardy. South America. Le ptosi ph on . —-Charming dwarf slender annuals, with palmately-divided leaves in narrow linear segments, and terminal clusters of very brightly-coloured flowers in the way of [>K trijida.—A hardy plant of the mallow tribe, about 3 feet high. Flowers bright crimson-purple or white, very showy. -11, ynmdijlora is a garden name for a large-flowered Variety. Mediterranean region, ISOS. Matthiola.—Half-hardy annuals of great beauty and fragrance. Different species of this genus are the parents of the various races of stocks in cultivation. M. (Hama.—The ten-week, intermediate, Victoria, and various other strains of stocks belong here. These include a great variety of colour, from pure white, yellow, buff, lilac, violet, rose, scarlet, and crimson to purple. Theymay be had in flower in-doors at almost any season of the year. For early out-door flowering the first batch might be sown in August or September, but where there is no convenience for keeping them through the winter the}' may be had nearly as early by sowing on a liot-bed at the end of February or beginning of March, potting up and turning out in April or May. To keep up a succession further sowings should bo made in April, May, and June. They may bo raised in the open ground in the spring, but there is perhaps less trouble attending the operation if they are sown in pans and placed in a gentle heat to bring them up, afterwards hardening them off before potting or pricking out in a border. Sea-shores of the south of Europe, 1731. J/. (//•«('((, wallflower-leaved stock.—The varieties of this species have nearly smooth (not downy) bright-green leaves, resembling those of a wallflower, and variously-coloured flowers, similar to those of the ten-week stocks. Southern Europe. Mkskmbkyanthemi'.m. — Trailing half-hardy plants, with more or less fleshy opposite leaves, and white, pink, purple, crimson, or yellow showy flowers, opening only when the sun shines upon them. Chiefly natives of South Africa, thriving best in a very light or sandy soil. .1/. cordi/olium.—A handsome variegated variety of this species is extensively used for bedding purposes. It has sessile purple flowers, and may be treated as an annual. South Africa, 1774. M. cnjstallinum, ice plant.—A South European spe- cies, remarkable for the leaves and stems being covered with crystalline granules. The flowers are pink or white, with a yellow centre. Introduced in 1775. J/. tricolor. — This is an ornamental little plant. Flowers pink and crimson, with a dark centre, produced in great profusion in warm sunny spots. There is a variety with white flowers. South Africa, 1794. Mimulus cii/rreus.—The varieties of this and some otherspecies—asM. Inters,guttatus, variee/atus, maculosiis, kc.— flower readily the first season, if sown early. This species is hardy, and was introduced from C’hili in 1861. The varieties present a great diversity of combinations of yellow, purple-brown, maroon or crimson, and will grow well in moist places. Mirabilis Jalapa, marvel of Peru.—A branching half-hardy plant, about 3 feet high, with broad shining leaves, and showy white, yellow, pink, crimson, or scarlet flowers. In some varieties the flowers are striped or blotched with two or more of these colours. West Indies, kc. 1596. Nkmophila.—Very showy dwarf branching hardy trailers, with lobed leaves, and conspicuous variously-coloured saucer-shaped flowers borne on long slender stalks. Natives of North America, thriving in common soil, and well adapted for edging and massing. TV, atomaria.—Flowers white speckled with blue or chocolate, or white with a black centre, pale blue with black centre, or blue with white centre, according to the variety. -V. discoidalis, a variety of this, has rather smaller purple-brown flowers, edged with white. Introduced in 1S36. iY. insiynis.—The original variety of this species has sky-blue flowers with a white centre; but it is equally as rich in varieties as the last, and much superior as an ornamental plant. Introduced in 1S33. A. marulata. — This has large white flowers with a violet-purple blotch on each petal, and is very showy. 1848. NlKBEJtBERQIA grucili*,—A beautiful slender trailing plant, bearing a profusion of lilac and white flowers when fully exposed to the sun. May be treated as an annual or perennial. South America, 1831. Nigkli.a dainascena, love-in-a-mist.,—lA hardy plant, about 2 feet high, with finely-divided leaves and pale blue flowers encircled by a leafy involucre. South Europe, 1790. There are several other similar and pretty species. CEmithera.—To this hardy genus belongs the evening primrose, and there are several annual species deserving of a place in mixed borders, on the margin of shrubberies, &c. Natives of North America, with showy white, yellow, or rarely purple, rather evanescent flowers. Most of the perennial species will bloom the first season. (77. Lamarkiana.—A tall-growing plant, of erect habit, i 3 to 6 feet high, with long spathulate-lanceolate downy root-leaves, and very large and numerous yellow flowers through the autumn months. One of the best of the larger evening primroses, allied to (77. biennis. Ui. odorata.—A slender erect-growing plant, 2 to 3 feet high, with oblong-lanceolate leaves, and abundant axillary yellow fragrant flowers in August and September. Mexico, 1790. (77. triloba.—A stemless plant, with interruptedly pinnate leaves, and pale yellow flowers, very sweet-scented in the evening. Red River, 1824. O.mpiialodes linifolia, Venus’ navelwort.—A veryHARDY HERBACEOUS PLANTS. 729 hardy plant, about a foot high, with narrow glaucous leaves, and long spikes of white flowers faintly tinged with blue. South of Europe, 1748. Palaver. — The double-flowered poppies are very showy, not to say gaudy; but where colour is the object they may be admitted into large gardens. P. Rhims, corn poppy!—The dwarf double ranunculus-flowered varieties present a great diversity of colour, including scarlet; and they do not occupy much space, growing from 1 to 2 feet high. P. sown iferum, opium poppy.—A tall glaucous species, 3 or 4 feet high, with large white, rose, lilac, violet, or striped flowers; the petals usually have a darker spot at the base, and in some varieties they are deeply fringed. A native of Asia. Date of introduction uncertain. Per ill a nanlinensis.—A half-hardy plant, 2 feet high, with deep purple foliage, and on this account useful for bedding. Introduced a few years ago from China. Petunia.—The hybrid varieties, with single flowers, the colours kept separate, are useful for bedding. White, rose, crimson, purple, magenta, and other colours, as well as striped and blotched forms, may be had. They are only half-hardy, and should not be turned out too early. The original species were introduced from South America in 1S31. PhaRBITIS hisglda—syn. Convolvulus major of gardeners.—This half-hardy twiner is too well known to need description. The flowers usually present some combination of white, rose, carmine, or blue. South America, 1029. P. kedcraoa.—This is a dwarf species, of which there are many handsome varieties in cultivation, with azure-blue, violet and white, and carmine and white flowers. North America, 1729. Phlox Prummondii.—One of the most valuable of half-hardy annuals, as it continues flowering until late in the autumn. Florists name the best varieties, and sell the seeds separately, and every year new varieties are sent out. They grow from 12 to 18 inches high, and present different shades and combinations of white, scarlet, crimson, purple, lilac, blue, and violet. That called lenue.suim.—A tall-growing hardy plant, 4 or 5 feet high, resembling our native viper’s bugloss, but having rosy-pink flowers. Of recent introduction from North Africa. Hedysarum coronarium, French honeysuckle.—A showy hardy biennial, resembling the cultivated sainfoin in its foliage and prettily-marked scarlet or white fragrant flowers. It grows from 2 to 3 feet high. felt; flowers purplish-crimson. The variety bicolor is white, with a purple eye; and there is a handsome double purple variety. Southern Europe, 159G. Mattiiiola incana, Brompton stock.—To this species belong the woody stocks, growing from 2 to 3 feet high, with hoary leaves and flowers of various shades of red, crimson, purple, violet, and brown and pure white. M. fenestra/is (giant Cape stock) is regarded as a variety of this species by some botanists, as well as M. senqx’rjlorens (emperor or queen stock), though the latter is said to be of perennial duration. For out-door cultivation they may all be treated alike. A rich light well-drained soil and a warm sheltered situation are necessary conditions to obtain them in perfection, and a little protection in winter, especially if the season be wet, will prevent vexatious losses. Their natural place of growth, on sea cliffs in the south of England and the Mediterranean region, will suggest these precautions. The seed should be sown in June, or at latest in July, in pans, and the young plants pricked out before they become stunted. They should be transplanted to their winter quarters before the end of September. Where the climate or situation is unfavourable to their standing out during the winter, or to provide a supply in case the frost should destroy those planted out, they should be grown on in pots until all danger of sharp frosts is past. A well-ventilated pit and careful watering will be necessary to prevent them from rotting or damping off. Sc a bios a atropurparea, purple or sweet scabious.— This is another plant that will look after itself. It grows about 3 feet high, and was formerly as common in gardens as it deserves to be now. The flower-heads vary in colour from pink and lilac to a rich dark purple, and also to white. It is of rather straggling habit, and should only be used where there is plenty of space. A dwarf variety with double flowers requires less room. The native country is unknown, though it is reported to have been introduced into England from India in 1G29. Si lex e corn pacta.—A rather delicate though handsome plant, requiring to be kept in pots during the winter. It is of the same habit as S. Armeria, and grows from 2 to 3 feet high, and bears large terminal clusters of pink flowers. Southern Russia, 1823.—w.b.h. Southern Europe, 1596. IIesfehis tristis, niglit-scented rocket.—About 3 feet high, with dull purplish-brown flowers, which exhale a delightful odour in the evening and during the night. Austria, 1G29. Hume a eUyn.ns.-- A half-hardy plant, attaining a height of 5 or G feet, remarkable for its graceful feathery inflor- | escence. The best variety has crimson flowers, but there j are white, pink, and brown varieties. When well developed this is a very striking plant for mixed borders or the centre of a bed, but it is rather delicate, and does not thrive in cold wet seasons. It should be sown in June or July, and grown in a dry airy greenhouse. To get fine plants it is necessary to give them rather large pots for the last shift, and a rich soil. Australia, 1800. Luxauia biennis, honesty.—An erect leafy plant, from 2 to 3 feet high, with terminal racemes of purple flowers. The oblong or oval seed-vessel is curious; the valves fall away when the seed is ripe, leaving the silvery transparent partition standing on the stalk. There is a white-flowered variety. Central Europe, 1570. Lychxis coronaria.—A showy hardy biennial, from 2 to 3 feet high; leaves covered with a thick woolly VI.—HARDY FERNS. Ill the construction of a Fernery for hardy species, much will of course depend upon the space and means at command. The first conditions as to the site are, however, protection from wind, and provision for shade, these being essential to the majority of ferns. Some species, indeed, such as Kothochlcena Mar an tee, the Ceterach, and some others, are found growing naturally on the sunny slopes of the bare rock, quite exposed to the full I influence of the sun’s rays, and for the reception of these similar nooks must be provided. The best of all material to use in the construction of a fernery is undoubtedly large masses of rough stone; this, however, except in the neigh-i bourhood of quarries, is rather expensive. In building let each block recede instead of overhang-| ing, because in this way the plants in the fissuresGARDENER’S ASSISTANT. receive the benefit of the nun or dew which falls. It must also be borne in mind that a considerable bulk of good soil is necessary for their roots to spread in; and therefore before one block is set above another a layer of mould should be placed so as to till up the fissures between the stones. When stone is not obtainable, bun’s splashed with cement form a good substitute, or logs and butts of trees maybe used. These latter are not, however, to be preferred, because they are sure to decay in the course of a few years, and moreover, they are a harbour for slugs and woodlice. Whatever material be used, accommodation for the plants must be the main idea, and for this reason elegant designs, or blocks of veined marble, &c., are quite out of place, because if the plants thrive, all these knick-knacks will be hidden with their foliage. The cavities, or pockets, or fissures in which the ferns are planted, should be well drained, so that no sour or stagnant water may lie about their roots. The style of planting will of course depend upon the size of the fernery. If large, then a good mass of each species should be placed as a group, but where space is limited one plant of each will be sufficient. Care should also be taken to distribute the various genera and species so that the deciduous and evergreen kinds may alternate, in order that the fernery may have a more furnished and interesting appearance throughout the year. A little practice will soon enable any one interested in the matter to master the details of the cultivation of these elegant plants in the open air. AdiantUM.—The name of maiden-hair fern appears to be given to this genus on account of the very slender and jet black stipes. Although there are many species, very few are hardy. The soil should be turfy, and the situation chosen for them should be shady. A. Cujiillus-Wmcris.—This would perhaps be more properly classed with the half-hardy kinds, yet as it is indigenous, and will thrive in tho open air in many parts of the United Kingdom, it can scarcely be omitted here. The rhizome is creeping; the fronds 6 to 12 inches long, hi- or tripinnate, ovate in outline; pinnules obliquely fan-shaped, bright green. Although a native of the British Isles, it has a world-wide distribution. Tho variety incision, found in Ireland, differs from the normal form in having tho pinnules cut into numerous narrowish segments; and cornubicnse, found in Cornwall, is also a fine form, with very large fringed pinnules. .1. indatam,—Creeping, the fronds lateral, 1 to 2 feet in length, pedate, with linear branches; pinnules developed on one side of the midrib only, oblong, obtuse, bright green; stipes and raehis shining black; extremely handsome. North America, 1(54 0. AU.QSQaitS.—A small genus having tho barren and fertile fronds dissimilar (dimorphous), and having the margins rolled in so as to form a continuous indusium. A. crispus, parsley fern.—Frondsherbaceous,bi-tri-pin-nate, 0 to 10 inches long, bright green, fertile ones contracted. It loves shade, and must have an abundance of drainage. It is found wild in Britain and other parts of Europe. Aspi.en’ium.—An extensive genus characterized by their free forked veins, and linear sori and indusia. Extremely handsome plants, which may be cultivated without difficulty. The hardy kinds thrive best in turfy soil, and should be planted in moderate shade. A, Adiantum-nigrum.—One of the most beautiful of our indigenous species, of which there are several well-marked varieties. In the normal state the fronds are evergreen, somewhat triangular, bi-tri-pinnate, the pinnules ovate, dentate, dark shining green; stipes black. It flourishes most luxuriantly in sandstone. Europe. The variety yrandiceps is a beautiful form, having the apex of frond tasselled and crested. A, antjitstifolium.—Fronds deciduous, pinnate, lanceolate, 10 to 20 inches long, sterile ones much broader than the fertile; pinna; alternate, linear-lanceolate with a cordate base, light green. North America, 1812. A■ alternant,—Fronds evergreen, 6 to 8 inches high, pinnatifid or sinuose, green above, paler below. In general appearance it resembles Ceterach otficinarum, but may be distinguished by the absence of the dense covering of chaffy scales. Should be protected slightly in severe winters. Himalaya, 1866. -1. ebenenM.—A dwarf evergreen plant having linear-lanceolate, pinnate fronds, 6 to 12 inches high; pinnfe auriculate at the base, crenate at the edge, deep green, the raehis cbeneous. North America, 1779. A. Jontannm.—Fronds 4 to 6 inches high, evergreen, bipinnate, linear-lanceolate, broadest in the middle; margins of pinnules toothed, deep green. Europe, and a somewhat doubtful native of this country. A. yermaniaon.—Fronds 4 to 6 inches high, pinnate; pinna; alternate, and deeply divided at the apex, light green; a dwarf-growing rare evergreen species. It should be planted in sheltered crevices amongst pieces of freestone rock and decayed vegetable mould. British. A. hourolatum.—Fronds evergreen, bipinnate. lanceolate, 6 to 18 inches high; pinnules deeply toothed, bright green above; sori numerous, deep brown. A European species, found in Britain. The variety miccodon has pinnate linear-lanceolate fronds, 6 to 12 inches long, the pinnae somewhat triangular, deep green, and is a very distinct and handsome variation, found in Guernsey in 1855. .1. »((U'(7(«/»,-^Fronds evergreen, 6 to 12 inches high, linear-lanceolate, pinnate ; pinna? coriaceous, deep green; the stipes purplisli-blaek. Although indigenous to Britain it rarely grows much above the sea-level, and still more rarely far away from the sea-coast; consequently it docs not thrive well in the hardy fernery, unless special attention is given it. Of this species there are a few variations, the most distinct being nonosum, tnx2>c:ijonnc, subbipinnatitm, and crcnation. .1. Tricltomiuies.—Fronds evergreen, pinnate, 3 to 12 inches long, linear; pinna; small, oblong-ovate, deep green; tho slender stipes blackish-purple. The most distinct variations of this species are incision, Afoiilci, ramosuM, mn/tijidam, and cristation, Athyuium.—This is distinguished from Asplaiiion by its short, fringed indusium, and liippoerepiform sori. The species, which are all deciduous, that is, dying downHARDY HERBACEOUS PLANTS. 733 in winter, grow luxuriantly in any ordinary soil and in a shady situation, but are most impatient of drought, and therefore must be supplied regularly and abundantly with water. A. Fili.rfiemina.—Fronds deciduous, bi- or tripinnate, lanceolate, 1 to 3 feet high, brilliant green; pinnules sessile, ovate, dentate. A British species, and found also in many parts of the world. The varieties are very numerous:—corymhificum has the fronds 12 to 20 inches high, its apex and that of all the pinna) furnished with a ramose crest; crispttM is a dwarf and handsome form, with densely crisp and tasselled fronds, so variable in its ramifications that no two fronds are exactly alike; Fri-Zf'U'u.e has the fronds rather pendulous, about 18 inches long and 1 inch wide, the small pinnce flabellate, overlapping each other, dentate at the edges; a very elegant sport; Apphlryanum is similar, with a much-branched apex; grandictps has lanceolate fronds, the pinnae crested, the apex of frond forming a large dense much branched globose head ; plumoskm is very lovely, and has the fronds broadly lanceolate, 3 to 4 feet high, thin in texture, and very finely divided, giving it the appearance of a beautiful plume; Vidoruv has the fronds and pinnae crested at the ends, the latter forking at the base, and crossing so as to form a letter X; very distinct and handsome. Besides these there are many more well deserving the care and attention of fern-growers, namely:—cipicu-latnm, acrodadon, apncvforme, coronation, Elicorthii, gra-cillimum, Grantia’, marinv.m, multicepsy mult (fid urn, poly-cl7m$, pol'id'Utylon, thysso.notum, &c. A. Goringianum pictum.—Fronds deciduous, 6 to 18 inches long, lanceolate, spreading, the stipes and rachis red; pinnie next the costa red and white, forming a medial band the entire length of the frond, the other portion deep green. Japan, 1862. Blkchntm.—As a genus this is closely allied to Lorn aria, the contraction of the fertile frond in the latter being usually regarded as the chief point of distinction; it is, however, desirable to include all those with intramarginal sori in the present genus, irrespective of the contraction of their fronds, whilst those having marginal sori and indusia go to Lomaria. This species and its varieties thrive admirably in any soil, so long as lime is excluded from it. B. Sp leant. —Fronds evergreen, dimorphous; the sterile ones pinnatitid, lanceolate, spreading, deep green; the fertile ones erect, pinnate, contracted. Britain. There are numerous elegant varieties, as imbrication, which has the sterile fronds ovate-lanceolate, with the lobes somewhat oval, imbricated, the fertile ones erect, broad, with the lobes crowded, and is an extremely handsome variety, sometimes grown under the name of crassicaulc; muWfarcatum, which has fronds about a foot long, and 1 to 2 inches wide, with the apex ramose, forming a terminal divaricate flattened crest some 4 inches in diameter; and ro.mosv.rn, with fronds usually less than a foot high, the apices much forked and branched, the branchlets crisp, forming a beautiful almost globose crest, extremely handsome. Camptosorus rkizophyllus.—Of this genus of asple-nioid ferns, which has the oblong sori generally in unequal pairs standing face to face, the present is an interesting evergreen species, about 6 inches high, and requiring to be planted in a damp shady situation. The fronds are simple, cordate at the base, quickly tapering to a point, where they take root, and become proliferous, which peculiarity has obtained for the plant the popular name of the walking leaf. North America, 1680. Ceterach offici/iarum.—This is the sole British representative of a genus of asplenioid ferns characterized by its leathery pinnatitid fronds, which are densely clothed on the under side with imbricated chaffy scales. The plants delight in limestone, and should be planted in sunny well-drained fissures of the fernery. The evergreen lanceolate fronds are 2 to 6 inches high. Cyrtomium.—Bold-growing plants, which are a great acquisition to the hardy fernery on account of their very distinct aspect. They have the fructification and somewhat the habit of Poly stick ion, from which they differ in having anastomosing veins. They should be planted in loam, peat, and sand, watered sparingly in winter, and slightly protected. C. caryotideum.—Fronds evergreen, 2 to 3 feet high, pinnate, the pinna) elliptic-lanceolate, auriculate, 4 to 6 inches long, pale green, the terminal one somewhat triangular, with a basal lobe on either side. Nepal, 1861. C. falcatum.—Fronds pinnate, evergreen, coriaceous, 2 to 3 feet high; the pinna) somewhat falcate, 4 to 6 inches long, intense deep shining green. Japan and China, 1838. Cystopteris.—Small elegant ferns, having soft membranous deciduous fronds, which are bipinnate or tripinnate. The sorus has the indusium attached by its base. There is a great similarity in the so-called species, and much diversity of opinion as to their specific value. They should be planted in sand, peat, and loam; and shady moist but well-drained nooks should be selected for their reception. C. hulh ifir a.—Fronds bipinnate, somewhat lanceolate, upwards of 1 foot long, erect, dull purple, changing with age to pale green, and bearing on the under side of the rachis quantities of bulbils, which fall off when mature and quickly become plants. North America, 1638. C.fragil is.—Fronds bi- or tripinnate, oblong-lanceolate; pinnules ovate and dentate, from 6 to 12 inches high, dark green. A native plant, of which the following are fairly marked varieties:—angustata, narrower in all its pai’ts; dentata, which has the bluntish pinnules bluntly toothed and the sori near the edge; Dickieana, which has bipinnate fronds, with the pinna) dense, bluntly-toothed, and dark green. C. montana.—An extremely handsome species, with tripinnate triangular fronds, 6 to 12 inches high, bright green; the rhizome slender, creeping. Rare in Britain. DennsT/EDTIa punctilobula—syn. Dickson ia pilosivs-cula.—An extremely ornamental fern, nearly allied to Dicksonia. The fronds are deciduous, sub tripinnate, broadly-triangular, with the segments obtuse, dentate, light green, and slightly pubescent; the sori are marginal, cup-shaped, with the indusia entire. It should have a shady situation, and be planted in loam peat and sand. North America, 1811. Dictyogramma japonica.—The only species of a genus of net-veined Gymnog commas. The fronds are pinnate, sometimes bipinnate, 1 to 2 feet high; the pinna) lanceolate, 6 to 10 inches long, dark green above, paler below. A distinct and handsome fern, which should be planted in a compost of good loam and peat, and be well supplied with water. Japan, 1860. Diplazium.—Of this extensive genus, closely allied to Asplenium, differing chiefly in the double indusia, set together on the same vein, and opening back to back,734 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. we have a couple of interesting hardy species, which require the same culture as Asplenium. I). la/iceum.—Fronds simple, lanceolate, 6 to 15 inches high, slightly undulate at the edges, bright green; the regular double lines of brown sori are well-marked peculiarities. Japan and China, 1861. I), thehipteroidi's.— Fronds deciduous, pinnate, lanceolate, 1 to 2 feet high, bright light green; pinnules deeply divided. North America, 1823. Glkichknia alpina.—This beautiful family of ferns is known by the dichotomously-branched fronds and small orbicular (often revolute) segments. G. alpina, which is extremely rare in cultivation, has upon several occasions withstood the vicissitudes of our winters with impunity, but it requires a covering of dried fern or leaves, and to be planted in rough loam, peat, and sand. The rhizome is creeping, the fronds evergreen, 3 to 12 inches high; the pinnae 1 inch long, the segments small, orbicular, deep green. Tasmania, 1870. Hv.mexophyi.lum.—An extensive genus of delicate pellucid filmy-leaved ferns, having usually a filiform creeping rhizome, and well distinguished from Trichoma tits by the 2-valved involucre. They require abundance of moisture, and some artificial protection when removed from their native habitats. II. tanbridgense and II. unilateral, both natives of this country, have pinnate fronds 1 to 6 inches long, the pinnae pinnatifid, pellucid, membranous, and deep olive green; those of the latter being distinguished by the smooth (not serrate) edges of their involucres. Lastkka.—An extensive family of evergreen or sub-cvergrccn aspidioid ferns, distinguished by having a reniform indusium and free veins. They are mostly plants of robust constitution, and love shade, with an abundant supply of water, provided the drainage is good. For soil use peat, loam, and sand. L. (eniitht—syn. I. fcnisecii.—Fronds evergreen, tri-pinnate, triangular, 1 to 3 feet high; pinnules lobed, serrate, or dentate, bright green. It gives off a grateful hay-like perfume in drying. Britain. L. at rata.—Fronds evergreen, pinnate, the pinna? with toothed margins, upper side deep green, paler below; stipes densely clothed with large dark chaffy scales. Japan and East Indies, 1862. L. cristata.—Fronds bipinnate, narrow-oblong; pinnre broadly triangular, the pinnules blunt and toothed at the edges. Britain. L. dibit at a.—A variable native evergreen species, having the caudex stout, erect, and scaly, the stipes clothed with large brown chaflfy scales, and the fronds 2 to 4 feet high, ovate, bi- or tripinnate, with the basal pair of pinnre somewhat triangular. It is a l>old-growing plant, of a dark green colour. Some of the best varieties are:— Chanfrrite, an elegant Devonshire variety, with erect lanceolate fronds, 2 to 3 feet high, with an elongate diminishing apex; dumeforuin, with dwarf ovate fronds, the stipes and under surface covered with glands, a pretty and distinct form, fructifying while very young; b’pidota, a very distinct form, having the stipes and rachides exceptionally scaly, the fronds broadly-ovate, quudripinnatc, with the peculiarity of growing on at the points after the basal parts are perfected. L. ergthrosora.—Fronds evergreen, bipinnate, 2 to 3 feet high, pinnules light green above, pale below; sori large, the indusium bright red, giving a peculiar beauty to the under side of the fertile fronds. Japan, 1862. L. Filut-mas.—One of the commonest but one of the most beautiful of our native evergreen ferns. Fronds bipinnate, lanceolate, 2 to 4 feet high; pinnules oblong-obtuse, deep green. A bold-growing fern, which has produced an immense number of normal and abnormal variations, a few of the principal of which are here noted. Its distribution is world wide. The variety Bollandice has membranous fronds 12 to 18 inches high, the pinnules deeply cut, undulate, and dentate, a distinct and handsome form, rarely if ever fertile; cristata has the apices of all the pinnae beautifully crested, the pinnae shorter and narrower than in the normal form, and tapering rapidly up to the point of the frond, which is also crested; it is perhaps the handsomest of all hardy evergreen ferns; cristata angustata, a sub-variety, is less than 2 inches wide, the pinna; all densely crested—forming, as it were, a narrow band—with the edges beautifully crisp and curly; grandiceps grows 12 to 18 inches high, the pinnre and pinnules forked, and the apex of frond densely ramose, forming a broad crested head; paleacea has the fronds sub-bipinnate, 3 to 4 feet high, tinged with yellow in a young state, deep green when mature, the stipes densely clothed with large golden-brown chaffy scales; this is considered by some a distinct species; Pindari is linear-lanceolate in outline, 1 to 2 feet high, and is a narrow form of the paleacea type. L. Goldiaua.—Caudex erect, fronds bipinnate, triangular, spreading, 10 to 20 inches high, bright lively green, bold and handsome. North America, 1822. I. marginal is.—A distinct and beautiful species having large bipinnate lanceolate evergreen fronds, 1 to 2 feet high; pinnules oblong, obtuse, crenate at the edges, bright green on the upper side, paler below; sori placed near the margin. North America, 1772. L. montana.—An elegant native fern, with the fronds pinnate, 1 to 3 feet high, bright green, fragrant from the presence of glands, much tapered at the base; pinn;e linear-lanceolate, deeply pinnatifid, spreading. The variety crispa has the pinnules crispy at the edges, giving the frond a pleasing undulated outline; cristata has fronds of the normal shape, but the apex and that of all the pinna; are beautifully tasselled; Xoicelliana has the pinnre linear and erose, deeply cut and serrate at the edges, and is a thoroughly distinct form, found in Wales. L. remota.—Fronds 3 to 4 feet high, erect, sub-tripin-nate, bluntly lanceolate; pinnules stalked, toothed. It is intermediate in aspect between I. Filix-mas and L. spinulosa, and hitherto has been found only in South Germany and in England. L. rigida.—Fronds evergreen, bipinnate, somewhat triangular; the pinnules oblong, obtuse, dentate, furnished with numerous glands, giving it a glaucous hue. A British fern, found also in North America. A. spinulosa.—Caudex decumbent, bearing distant broad ovate pale-coloured scales; fronds erect, bipinnate. Britain. L. Standishii.—Caudex decumbent; fronds evergreen, tripinnate, broadly triangular, spreading, 2 to 3 feet high, pinna; and pinnules closely set, giving the frond a dense and massive appearance; pinnules deep green, set on as if reversed. Japan, 1862. L. Sieboldii.—Fronds coriaceous, evergreen, pinnate, 1 to 2 feet high; pinnre alternate, from three to four pairs, about 6 inches long and 1 inch broad, dark green above, paler below; sori bold and numerous; stipes clothed with large pointed chaffy scales. Japan, 1851.HARDY HERBACEOUS PLANTS. 735 Z. Thel'gpier is.—Caudex slender, freely creeping, the fronds bipinnate, membranous, erect, 1 to 3 feet high; the fertile fronds have the under surface quite covered with the dark brown soli. It delights in a damp boggy situation, and is found both in Britain and North America. Z. vast'a.—Caudex decumbent; fronds evergreen, sub-tripinnate, broad and massive; the pinnules deeply lobed and serrated; the sori large and prominent, black; and the raeliis clothed with black chaffy scales and hairs. Japan, llffc Lomaria.—These ferns are very similar to the Blech-n inns, but the sorus is marginal, covered by a marginal indusium. The fronds also are dimorphous, the fertile ones being contracted. They are all of evergreen habit, and require the same culture as Blech num. L. tityflna.— Sterile fronds pinnate, lanceolate, almost prostrate, 4 to 6 inches high, dark green; the fertile ones similar in shape, but all the parts contracted. New Zealand, Falkland Islands, 1S43. Z. chUtutis.—A bold-growing species, hardy in several parts of the country; fronds 3 to 6 feet long, pinnate; sterile pinna? broad, deep heavy green, the fertile much contracted. Chili, 1845. Lygodhjm.—An interesting and beautiful genus of climbing deciduous ferns, characterized by their scandent habit and conjugate, or digitate, or palmate pinnae. The veins, which are free, extend beyond the margin, and form distichous sporangiferous spikelets. They should be planted in peat loam and sand with ample drainage, and the crown should be protected in winter with dry leaves. Z. pal mat um.—Length of frond indefinite, but seldom more than 2 feet, the raeliis scandent; pinna? palmate, 3 to 6 lobed, lobes somewhat oblong, bright green; the upper portion of the frond usually contracted into small spikelets with linear segments. North America, 1845. Nothochl.kna.—This genus contains many elegant species, but most of them are tropical. The species named below have for several years borne uninjured the severe and precarious weather of our winters; they should, however, be planted in sunny nooks and crevices of the rockery, so that the fronds may hang downwards and cast off all superabundant moisture. In such situations they form a pleasing and interesting feature. A". MneauUe.—Fronds bipinnate, broadly lanceolate; the pinnules oblong, 4 to 10 inches high, deep green above, clothed beneath with a dense covering of reddish-brown scales. Southern Europe, &c., 1820. y. vesfita.—Fronds bipinnate, narrow lanceolate, 6 to 12 inches long; the pinnules pinnatifid, with crenate margins, pale green; stipes and frond furnished with I numerous reddish hairs. North America, 1812. Oxoclka.—A small genus of deciduous ferns, having dimorphous fronds, and a peculiar membranous indusium inclosing each sorus. The veins of the sterile frond are reticulate, those of the fertile simple and free. The soil used for it should be rich loam, and the situation shady. O. sens*bills has the fronds 1 to 2 feet high; the sterile triangular, pinnate-pinnatifid, with oblong, obtuse, pale green segments, the fertile bipinnate much contracted, forming bacciform spikes. The caudex is creeping. North America, 1799. Ontchium.—A small genus allied to Pteris. The species here quoted is not usually accepted as hardy, but in many localities, saving during exceptionally cold winters, it will be found to thrive admirably in the open-air fernery. Soil: loam, peat, and plenty of sand. 0. hicidum—syn. 0. japonicum.—This has a creeping caudex, and evergreen, dark green fronds 9 to 18 inches high, the fertile ones having triangular pinnules and small linear segments, the sterile fronds broader and larger in all their parts; the sori are linear, but not continued round the apex of the pinnules. Japan, 1844. Osmunda.—This genus comprises a few noble and handsome plants. One species found wild in Great Britain and Ireland has acquired the names of royal fern and flowering fern from the large and much-branched fertile panicles, which are contracted and wholly covered with spore-cases. The fronds are leathery or herbaceous, pinnate or bipinnate, springing from a thick-tufted caudex. These plants delight in abundance of water, shade, and shelter, and should be planted in fibrous peat. 0. an/uimomea.—A hardy deciduous plant, having the fertile fronds distinct, entirely sporangiferous, and densely clothed with ferruginous hairs; the sterile fronds are spreading, bipinnate, glaucous, shorter than the fertile. North America, 1772. 0. spedabilis.—An elegant species, having the general appearance of a miniature form of 0. regal is, the pinnules being much smaller than in that species; fronds bipinnate, about 2 feet long; the lowTer pinnules some 3 inches long, bright green, upper portion of the frond contracted, and sporangiferous. North America, 1811. 0. Claytoniana—syn. 0. intevrv.pta.—Fronds bipinnate or sub-bipinnatifid, upwards of 2 feet in length, erect. The great peculiarity of this species lies in its having the middle pinna? contracted and sporangiferous, hence the name iuterrupta. North America, 1772. O. regal is, osmund royal.—The fronds of this regal species are coriaceous, erect, bi- or tripinnate, 3 to 9 feet high; the pinnules often 2 inches long, oblong, and auri-culate at the base, light green; the upper portion of the frond fertile, the pinnae being contracted into a sporangiferous panicle. A native bog-inhabiting plant. The variety crutaW resembles the preceding, but the whole of the pinnules are crested at the apex. Polypodium.—This genus is distinguished by its naked globose sori, and free veins. The species thrive in almost any situation, but they must not upon any consideration be subjected to a continuous drip, although they enjoy a copious supply of water. The evergreen kinds cast their old fronds about midsummer, and then require a little extra attention in watering and shading. P. alpestre.—A deciduous species; the fronds bipinnate, lanceolate, erect, 12 to 18 inches high, writh pinnatifid, lanceolate, serrated, dark green pinnules. It is found in Scotland. The variety flexile has deciduous bipinnate, spreading, linear-lanceolate fronds, a foot high, the pinnse inclining downwards, and the stipes very short. P. Drgopteris.—This has a slender creeping caudex; fronds deciduous, ternate; pinnse deeply incised, bright cheerful green. A British species, and exceedingly beautiful in the rockery. P. Phegopieris.—A creeping British species, with deciduous fronds, pinnate, triangular; pinnse sessile, the lowTer pair refracted, the whole surface hirsute, colour dull green. The North American P. h ex agon opterv. m is nearly allied to this, but broader in outline. P. Iiobertianum—syn. P. calcareum.—Fronds deciduous, subternate, tripinnate in the lower half, twice divided above, the edges crenate, dull green; the caudex is scalyand creeping. It should be planted in broken limestone, and is one of our rarer British species.73G GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. P. vul rmanica.—Sterile fronds 1 to 3 feet high, pinnate, the pinna? pinnatitid, spreading, fertile fronds rising from the centre of the barren ones, pinnate, contracted, with revolute margins. Europe, 1760. 8. pennsylvanira (North America, 1812) is often looked upon as a variety of the preceding; its chief differences are the greater size and more ovate outline of the barren fronds, and the more sparingly produced fertile fronds. Trichomaxks.—This genus is characterized by its pellucid membranous fronds and cup-shaped involucres, which are situated in the edge of the fronds, or sometimes exserted. The opinions of fern growers vary respecting the hardihood of our native bristle fern {T. tadican>•); as, however, it is found wild in the mountainous parts of Wales and in Ireland, it must, perforce, be indigenous, and plants indigenous to the British Isles are certainly hardy in some parts, although they may require protection when removed from their native habitats. This must be borne in mind and acted upon by any one attempting the culture of this plant in the hardy fernery, where, to insure success, a small well-sheltered cavern should be constructed, or a glass-case provided for its reception. T. fadicans.—The only British species, but widely distribute*l throughout the tropics, and differing considerably in appearance in the different localities, none of the tropical forms ranking as hardy ferns. Fronds broadly-triangular, decompound, pellucid, rich olive green, and from a few inches to 2 feet in length. Wo0D>IAP—A small genus of dwarf ferns, mostly confined to mountain regions of temperate climes, and known by their globose tori, set within a soft delicate involucre. They should be planted in peat and loam, with lumps of freestone; and if the crowns are elevated between small lumps of stone, so much the better. IF. alpina and If'. Ur mm are two rare British species, with a tufted caudex and pinnate deciduous fronds; the former with the pinna? somewhat triangular, rounded at the base, while the latter has them oblong-obtuse, hairy beneath. IT. obtusa.—Fronds deciduous, 6 to 12 inches long, bipinnate; pinnules deeply pinnatifid; pinna? somewhat triangular, pale green. North America, 1825. IF. polystirhoid^s Vcltch li.—Fronds deciduous, pinnate, densely clothed with chaffy scales; pinnae broad, obtuse, 737 crenate at the edges and auriculate at the base, dark green. Japan, 1864. Woodwaudia.—This genus contains some very fine distinct and handsome species. They have reticulated veins, which become free at the edges of the pinnules; the costal veins anastomose and form elongated areoles, and upon these transverse veins the sori are situated. It should be planted in loam and peat, and watered freely when growing. IF. areolata.—Sterile fronds subpinnate, erect, 1 foot or more high; pinme broad, serrate on the edges, bright green; fertile fronds narrower; rliizomo creeping. A deciduous species. North America, 1812. W. japonica.—Fronds evergreen, pinnate, 1 to 2 feet high; pinme broad, pinnatifid, margins serrate, dark green. Japan, 1862. If', riryinica.—Fronds deciduous, 1 to 2 feet high; pinna? sessile, lanceolate, pinnatifid, segments somewhat ovate; margins plane, pale green; caudex creeping underground. North America, 1774.—w.ii.g. CHAPTER XXYI. HARDY POPULAR AND FLORISTS’ FLOWERS. FIBROUS-ROOTED PLANTS. THE ANTIRRHINUM (A metjus, L.) —The great snapdragon was originally introduced from the shores of the Mediterranean; and it has become abundantly naturalized in this country, and subjected to great improvement. It ranks among the most constant and showy of our hardy summer and autumn flowers; and is a conspicuous feature in the border when strong-established plants are in full bloom. Some years ago it was taken in hand by florists and greatly improved by them in the size, shape, variety of hue, and rich marking in the flowers, and cut spikes of it used to be much in request for exhibition purposes. Such high-class culture did it, at that time, receive at the hands of its admirers, that individual plants planted out and carefully tended have been known to reach a height of 7 feet, by 5 feet in diameter, and these enormous bushes, when in full flower, were remarkably effective as floral objects. When the zonal pelargonium and other modern flowers became so popular, the antirrhinum among other flowers experienced a decline in the public estimation, though the Scottish florists still raise and distribute named varieties, many of which are very beautiful, especially those with striped flowers. When the striped varieties are raised from seed it is usual, when they flower, for the early blossoms to come self-coloured; and some of the spikes will show one or two striped flowers among a number that are self-coloured. Well- 47738 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. grown antirrhinums will produce spikes mea- j suring 20 inches or more in length, and in the case of vigorous examples they are always produced with great freedom. Propagationby Seed.—The antirrhinum,though classed among the hardy perennials, is to all intents and purposes an annual in regard to the time of blooming; and seed sown in early spring will produce flowers the following autumn. There is, however, a certain amount of risk in this respect, that if the season should prove uncongenial and tardy, the plants do not flower till the early autumn frosts begin to set in. The best plan is to sow the seed in pans or shallow boxes in August, using a light sandy soil, quite fine on the surface, and this should be gently pressed level, and the seed scattered thinly over it. A very slight covering of soil should then be added,again pressed down, then sprinkled gently through a fine rose watering-pot, and the pan or box placed in a gentle bottom-heat, or in a frame where they can be kept close to induce growth. Germination soon takes place, and in the early part of the autumn the plants should be pricked off into pans or boxes, and wintered in a frame or greenhouse. Planting out.—The antirrhinum is most effective when planted out in a bed so as to flower a number of varieties together, and it is a pleasant feature through the summer and autumn. It ; will grow in any good garden soil, but stiff clays should be ameliorated. A friable yellow loam \ is the best, and it should be deeply dug and manured, and previous to planting a good dressing of leaf-mould should be forked into the bed. Then plant out early in April in lines 1M inches apart, and the same distance in the line. If dry weather sets in some water at the roots will be necessary to get the plants well established; and during the summer frequent sprinklings overhead as well as copious waterings at the roots will be needed. A check from the effects of drought results in a starved appearance in the plants, and inferior flowers. The plants, when growing in rich soil, make a profuse growth, and some of the side growths require to be thinned out; while the main shoot or shoots should be neatly tied to stakes to keep the plants from being blown about by the wind. Any particularly tine varieties that it may be desirable to preserve should be marked for propagation by means of cuttings. To maintain the effectiveness of the bed, all the spikes should be cut away as they fade, as the antirrhinum produces seed very freely, which circumstance militates against the production of flowers. A pod or two of seed may be left on any tine varieties to raise a few seedlings from. | In this manner a crop of fine flowers can be had quite iip to the time that wintry weather lays the outdoor flowers low. It is best to flower in this way a batch of seedling varieties every year, as the plants, if left in the bed till the following year, grow unduly large and bushy, and do not present the regular appearance of plants bloomed the first time. The old roots can therefore be thrown away; unless it is deemed necessary to propagate any by cuttings, and that can be done towards the end of the summer. Propagation by Cuttings.—In July and August the antirrhinum puts forth young shoots from the base of the plant, and these should be used for making cuttings. They can be inserted in well-drained pots or pans, and placed in a cold frame, and when rooted they should be potted off singly into small pots to winter, and keep them in a cold frame; in spring plant them out in beds as directed in the case of seedling plants. The antirrhinum can also be somewhat rapidly pxropa-gated in spring by putting a few old plants into a gentle heat and causing them to put forth growths, which can be struck in bottom-heat in the same way as verbena and fuchsia cuttings. The Tom Thumb section of the antirrhinum is of very dwarf bushy habit, and the varieties are very useful for border plants and small beds. Some of the two-coloured and striped flowers are remarkably pretty, and are well worthy of being cultivated. The following list of varieties represent the best in cultivation:— Admirutin,?, bronze and yellow striped. Un-l/ui, white mottled with dark claret. Courage, creamy white, veined with purple. Di Foe, dark crimson self, tinged with purple. Flora, light yellow, striped with dark rose. Garry, clear yellow, spotted with claret. Lr Grand, French white, striped with cerise. Minnie, delicate rose-coloured self. Pilot, dark rosy purple, mottled with crimson. Fainted Lady, white mottled with rosy crimson. Pretty Polly, French white, shaded with yellow. tinoudrift, pure white, slightly mottled with rose. THE AURICULA (Prinnda Auricula, L.)— [This native of the Alps has long been cultivated in our gardens, and prized bv our florists as one of their finest flowers. The date of its introduction is, however, unknown, but it must have been prior to 1697, when the plant was described by Gerard, who mentions several sorts of bear's ear, by w hich name the auricula was formerly known, as being then commonly grown near London. Since that time great improvements have been effected in the flower through the efforts of florists, and the active competition which exists amongst the operatives in the great manufac-HARDY POPULAR AND FLORISTS’ FLOWERS. 739 taring towns, who have carried the culture of this plant to a high degree of perfection. Ill the language of florists a single flower is a pip, and several of these borne on the same flower-stem constitute a truss. The individual pip is divided into four parts, the sexual organs in the centre or tube of the flower, called the thrum, the circle of white surrounding this, called the eye or paste, the next external band, which should have a feathery edge, termed the ground colour, and the margin or edge. According to the colour of the edge the varieties are divided into green-edged, grey-edged, and white-edged, and those which have no edge or distinct band of colour external to the ground colour, constitute a fourth class termed Mn.j Besides these there is another division, the alpines, in which the paste is both yellow and white, the former being the most valuable; whilst the portion of the flower external to the paste does not consist of ground colour and edge in distinct zones, but of a combination of two colours, viz. the ground, and the shading on the margin of the petals. Great improvement has been made in the alpine auricula < if late, and some very beautiful varieties have resulted. Propagation.-—The auricula is propagated by seed for the production of new varieties, and by division of the plant for the perpetuation of the identical sorts. The seed should be sown soon after it is gathered in July or August; but a sowing can be made in January, February, or the early part of March. The seed should be sown thinly in pots or pans well drained, and filled with light rich mould sifted tine. A mixture of sandy loam and leaf-mould will answer very well. Only a very thin covering of earth should be given; some recommend that the seed should be simply pressed into the soil, and not covered at all. After sowing, the |iota ought to be placed in a cold frame or near the glass in a greenhouse, but in a position shaded from strong sun, and with a piece of glass placed over each pat; and a proper degree of , moisture should be preserved in the soil by gentle waterings, (.'are should be taken in giving water not to wet the foliage; and when the young plants have made three or four leaves, they may be transplanted into 3-inch pots and hardened off; some, however, plant out G inches apart in a shady bonier as soon as the weather will permit. In the following season many of the seedlings will bloom, and when this takes place, those which are meritorious should be picked out, and the rest relegated to the flower-borders or rock-garden. Propagation by division is best effected in May and June when the plants are repotted after blooming in the spring; though the operation may be performed in the beginning of August, if repotting at that period is adopted. [The offsets or suckers are taken off between the finger and thumb, or with a blunt knife, taking care to disturb the roots as little as possible, and finely powdered charcoal is placed on the wounds. The offsets should then be potted in 3-incli pots, or in threes round the edges of 5-inch pots, using light loamy soil with a plentiful admixture of leaf-mould and silver sand, and placed in a cold frame till again established. A writer in the Midland Florist, 1854, p. 342, states that he has often successfully practised the following mode of propagation, in the case of varieties that do not readily produce suckers. He says, “ When I repot, about the first week in August, those with long tap-roots I cut well back; the part of the root I thus cut from favourites, I pot, leaving nothing but the cut part above the earth. I then give them a little water with a syringe or watering-pan; and in two or three weeks perhaps as many buds will make their appearance round the old root. These grow very fast, and may be potted singly in autumn or spring, according to their size.” Soil.—Mad dock, Emerton, and many other authorities on the cultivation of the auricula, recommend excessively rich composts for the growth of the plant, which, when thus highly fed, generally perishes; for the consequences of over-feeding in the vegetable as in the animal kingdom, are disease, and most frequently premature death. At the present day less stimulating mixtures are employed. Dr. Horner, of Hull, an eminent cultivator of this plant, considers the most suitable soil to be two parts pasture sods two years old, one part cow-dung three years old, and half a part of coarse river sand; and to this compost he adds in potting a small quantity of partially decayed leaves. Good rich loamy soil from an old pasture and old frame dung will, he observes, be good substitutes for sods and cow manure, and should be used in the same proportions. The late Mr. Dickson, of Brixton, employed a mixture of one-third Norwood loam, one-third peat and leaf-mould in equal quantities, and one-third rotten dung. Mr. Lightbody of Falkirk has used for many years a compost of two barrow-loads of cow-dung at least two years old, one barrow-load of leaf-mould, and one of pure light loam from an old pasture. These are intimately mixed together, and a sufficiency of fine silver sand added to keep the mass open and insure drainage. He contrives to have it all frozen through during the740 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. winter by removing the frozen surface and placing it under an open slied, where it remains till wanted. Mr. Cooke, of Coventry, another successful cultivator, states that the auricula thrives and colours well in a mixture of one-half old hotbed manure, and one-half sound fibrous loam, well turned over and frozen through before being used. He has found charcoal broken to the size of split peas or wood ashes preferable to sand in the compost, as these substances not only keep the soil open, and therefore sweet, but also help to fertilize it.—(Florist, 1853, p. 93.) General Culture.—Although the auricula may be grown in a shady border, yet the finer varieties can only be flowered in perfection in pots and under protection. For this purpose a cool frame or pit is generally employed; but a frame specially adapted for the plant is preferable. There are several such contrivances in use; one of the best is that devised by Dr. Horner. It stands on legs between 2 and 3 feet high, and is open at bottom. The back is of wood, and there is a door in it for access to the plants and for the admission of air. The ends and front are of glass, the former are fixed, and the latter, being hinged to the frame, can be let down at pleasure for giving air. The top is protected with sashes, which can be tilted or entirely removed when it is desired to completely expose the plants. In the interior there are five rows of shelves, the rise between which is 2 inches, and the distance from the glass 15 inches. Each shelf is 5 inches in breadth, and a piece about 1 inch in width is cut out along the middle to within a short distance from each end, to permit the water to escape from the pots. The dimensions are:— height from the ground at back, 4 feet 8 inches; in front, 3 feet 8 inches; width, 3 feet 8 inches, and length 7 feet 2 inches. Where a frame like that above described is not at command, the plant may be successfully grown in a common garden frame, care being taken to pave or concrete the bottom, and give it a proper slope to allow moisture to run off. If, in addition, a portion of the front and also of the back of the frame were provided with hinged or sliding ventilators, so that air could be given in wet weather, it would greatly add to the convenience of the structure, and materially contribute to the preservation of the health of the plants. The season of growth in the auricula is from February till June; active vegetation is then suspended till the beginning of August, when it is resumed, continuing till about the middle of October, from which time till February the plant remains in a state of rest. With regal'd to the culture during these periods, much difference of opinion exists, and many modes have been recommended; but in our opinion no directions are plainer and better than those of Dr. Horner, who says:—■ The pots for a full-sized plant should not exceed 4 inches at the top, and 3 inches at the bottom, inside measure; they should also be made 54 inches deep, to allow of abundant drainage, and should not be hard baked, but left as porous as possible. It is a great and almost universal fault to use pots of too large a size. The best time for potting is immediately after the plants have bloomed; for on account of the long previous confinement in the frame, the frequent waterings, and the excitement of blooming, the auricula is very apt to contract disease, especially rot or decay in some part of the main or tap root, as it is called. This, in repotting, is at once detected, and consequently the life of the plant saved. Moreover, by early potting ample time is given for the pot to get well filled with young healthy roots before the approach of winter—the great secret of a vigorous bloom the following spring; neglect of yearly repotting is a great evil. The important operation is thus performed:— first, put at the bottom of the pot at least 1^ inch of crocks of broken garden pots; on these place a thin layer of decayed leaves unbroken up, which will prevent the soil from filling tip the interstices between the crocks, and, moreover, furnish a most acceptable nidus for the roots of the plants. Next, fill up the pot within about 2 inches or so with the compost, leaving it slightly cone-shaped; on the top of the cone put a little sand, on this place the end of the tap-root, and, having disposed the roots regularly over it, let the pot be filled nearly to the brim, so that the soil just covers the insertion of the lowest leaf. Now strike the pot smartly two or three times on the ground, and then remove it to its summer quarters, when water must be given, just sufficient to moisten the soil, and repeated at the end of a week, not before. In filling the pot with compost I always put in about three fingers’ full of decayed or rather decaying leaves, not leaf-mould —a pinqh here and there. In repotting the following year an unusual mass of roots will be found surrounding and piercing them through and through; they at once afford most acceptable nourishment and drainage. Previously to the operation of potting, the plant must be prepared by carefully crumbling off the old soil with the fingers, and then washing the roots in water, in order that any decay or disease may be detected, in which case it should be effectually cut out with a sharp knife, and the main root should then be shortened to within 1 inch of the leaves, leavingHARDY POPULAR AND FLORISTS’ FLOWERS. 741 only the young and new fibres or roots. One great and fatal cause of the dwindling and disease of auriculas is the leaving too long a taproot; it will most assuredly decay and kill the plant. When it is desired to save seed the operation of potting must be delayed till August. “ The summer situation of the auricula is all-important. As it naturally delights to grow in open and elevated regions, as on the Alps, so its place and position in the garden must be comparatively high and of free exposure. The pots should stand on planks, which are raised 2 feet from the ground, and placed by the side of a wall or hedge having a north-east aspect, and without awning or covering. Here they may be safely left till November; for if they are annually repotted, properly trimmed at the root, have sufficient drainage in the pots, and if due attention, moreover, be given to them from time to time (as by carefully twisting off decayed leaves, stirring the surface soil occasionally with the point of a knife), the much-talked-of rot need not be dreaded; but if these directions as to potting, just described, have not been followed, and the plants have not been elevated on planks the required distance . from the ground, and consequently left in the usual susceptible state of disease, by all means let a temporary awning be erected over them if the summer prove wet. “In November, they may be placed in the1 frame, giving them all the air possible, as by letting down the front lights and opening the door ■ behind—the top lights being kept on in case of . rain. Watering must be gradually withdrawn, ! so that during December and January the soil : be just kept from being absolutely dry; if it be kept wet or damp, the plants will be in great ! danger of contracting disease, and of suffering from frost. In winter, during intense frost, the frame must be protected with efficient covering; two stout blankets, with an outer coverlet of tar-pauling, I have found the best, and, in the end, the cheapest materials. If not protected from severe frost many of the flower-stems will be found deaf, or with only two or three pips at the blooming time. In winter, during milder days, the plants should have sufficient air. “About the end of February, and during March, they must have all the air possible, and also should be exposed, by removing the top lights, to frequent gentle showers: nothing is so invigorating. They must now also be top-dressed with a compost of two parts cow manure and one part loam, having previously removed the old soil to about the depth of an inch. At the beginning of April, when they have pushed up their flower-stems, they must not longer be exposed to showers of rain, but the soil must, to the end of the blooming season, be preserved in a moist state. As the pips, if frosted when about to expand, will never bloom flat, the frame must be carefully protected, as just described, every night. In watering the plants great care must be taken to avoid the foliage; and if a drop has accidentally fallen into the crown of the plant, it must be extracted by means of a camel-hair pencil, or decay will probably be induced. A small watering-pot, with a spout l4 foot long, bent at the end, and then contracted to the diameter of a goose-quill, should always be used for the purpose of watering. “ When the pips are just expanding into bloom, the frame, which has hitherto been exposed to a southern aspect, should be removed into the shade; or what is more feasible, the plants may be placed under hand-glasses, in a calm and shaded part of the garden, air being admitted at the bottom. The best plan, however, is to remove the plants into a common garden frame, placed in a shaded pai’t of the garden, with the benefit of two hours’ morning sun. The pots are not placed on the ground, but on shelves, graduated according to the fall of the glass lights. Slide doors are made in the front and back of the frame, by which means any quantity of air can be admitted freely, to circulate around the bottoms, sides, &c., of the pots and plants; it is most injurious to admit air in the common way, by tilting up the glass lights, as the cold air is thus suffered to blow directly upon the expanding blooms; hence the very great advantage of the contrivance just described. As the pips expand, the smallest, least perfect, and overcrowded ones must be carefully thinned out, leaving a truss of five, seven, or nine. When in full bloom the plants may be removed to any other situation the grower may fancy, as to a cool, airy greenhouse, where their beauties can be more conveniently seen and examined.”—(Gardener’s Chronicle, 1841, p. 397.) Fir. Lightbody, of Falkirk, another eminent cultivator of this plant, pursues a different system as regards potting. “There can be no doubt,” says Mr. Lightbody, “ but that early potting causes many of the plants to bloom in autumn, which weakens the plants, and injures the spring bloom. My time for beginning this necessary operation is towards the end of July, so that I may have them all finished by the middle of August. The plan I follow is to shift two years consecutively, leaving a good ball of soil at the roots; and the third year to shake the whole of the compost from the fibres, and pot them afresh. When I require to do this I repot about a month earlier. The method I adopt in repotting is742 GARDENER'S ASSISTANT. as follows:—For a full-sizeil plant I use a pot 6 inches wide, and 7 deep; and for smaller plants and offsets, pots varying from 3 to 5 inches wide. For draining I use, first, a layer of broken crocks, then a layer of oyster shells, convex side up; above this I place some vegetable fibre, to prevent the compost choking the drainage. I then fill in some compost; when this is done I examine the plant to be repotted, and reduce the ball of fibres with a sharp knife. I like to grow my plants with short stems; consequently, the lower portion of the stem or carrot is well examined annually, and all decaying portions of it cut off, and the wound dressed with powdered wood-charcoal to dry it up, and keep the plant healthy. The offsets are then slipped carefully olf, and the part of the plant to which they adhered dressed also with charcoal; the plant is then placed in the centre of the pot, which is tilled up to within about 4 inch of the top, care being taken to keep the foliage clear of the compost; a gentle stroke or two upon the bench will settle the soil, and should it sink much, add the quantity necessary to complete the process. When the compost is shaken altogether from the plants, and the stem and fibres properly trimmed, the fibres require to be equally distributed over the soil iu the pot, touching the side, and then tilled up. Some cultivators have recommended keeping the plants in a dry state for a few days after repotting. I have found harm resulting from following this advice; therefore they should be watered whenever completed.”—(Florist, 1852, p. 33.) To Save Seed.—For this purpose the most healthy plants of varieties possessing desirable jwojterties should alone be selected. These should be removed from the blooming stock in March or April, and placed on a dry hard bottom, in a shady part of the garden, where there is no danger of accidental impregnation taking place. Here they merely require to be protected from heavy rain, and to be watered when there is danger of the soil in the pots becoming too dry. When the plants bloom, the pips should be thinned, by cutting out some of the weakest, and as soon as the seed ripens, the pods should be cut otf as they successively turn brown, and kept in paper bags, in a dry place, till the time of sowing arrives. When artificial impregnation is resorted to, the anthers of the female parent should be carefully removed as soon as the flower opens, and the pollen applied to the stigma with a camel-hair pencil. Afterwards, it is advisable to cover the plants with hand-glasses, or fine net, till all danger is past of accidental impregnation taking place.] It may be remarked, that it is almost imjRissible to save seed pure in gardens where alpines are grown, and indeed the seed of fine-edged varieties saved from a collection of auriculas that did not include a single alpine variety will often throw alpines. The alpine varieties should be potted in poor soil, in order to bring out the beautiful shading on the pips, so much prized by florists. Diseases.—The roots of the auricula, and especially the tap-root, are frequently attacked by the rot or canker, in consequence of which the foliage changes colour, and the plant droops and quickly perishes. The causes of the disease appear to be deficient drainage, an excessive supply of moisture, want of air, and too rich a soil. On the first indication of disease the plants should be turned out of the pots, the decayed portions of the roots cut off, the tap-roots shortened, and the wounds having been exposed for some time to the air to dry, the plants should be again repotted in fresh, rather poor soil. The following are some of the best varieties in cultivation:— Green-edged. Leigh’s Colonel Taylor. Page’s Champion. Trail’s Prince of Greens. Oliver’s Lovely Ann. Litton’s Imperator. Beeston’s Apollo. Campbell’s Lord Palmer- Ashton’s Prince of Wales. ston. Booth’s Freedom. Trail’s Anna. Grey-edged. Ileadly’s George Light- Lancashire’s Lancashire Hero. body. Sykes’ Complete. Walker's George Levick. Ileadly’s Alderman C. Brown. Smith’s General Bolivar. Waterhouse’s Conqueror of Turner’s Colonel Champ- Europe. neys. Lightbody’s Richard Headly. Cunningham's John Lightbody’s Robert Trail. Waterston. Kay’s Alex. Meiklejohu. White-edged. Heap’s Smiling Beauty. Hepworth’s True Briton. Smith’s Anne Smith. Smith's Ne plus ultra. Lee’s Bright Venus. Taylor’s Glory. Summerscales’ Catharina. Ashworth's Regular. Lightbody’s Miss Lightbody Walker’s John Simonite. Selfs. Campbell’s Pizarro. Spalding’s Blackbird. Campbell's Lord of Lome. Turner’s Charles J. Perry. Smith’s Formosa. Netherwood’s Othello. Lightbody's Meteor Flag. Martin’s Mrs. Sturrock. Headly’s Petronella. Polilman’s Garibaldi. Turner’s Bessie Ray. Turner’s Selina. Turner’s Masterpiece. Turner’s John Leech. Turner’s Jessie. Turner's Spangle. Alpines. Diadem. Turner's Susie Matthams. Turner’s Queen Victoria. Turner’s Sydney. Turner's Bronze Queen. Turner’s King of the Belgians. THE CARNATION and PICOTEE (Diant/ius CaryophyUus, L.)—[The species from which theHARDY POPULAR AND FLORISTS’ FLOWERS. 743 varieties of these flowers have originated, having been found wild in England, is generally considered to be indigenous, but many suppose that it was introduced from Italy. However that may be, the carnation has been cultivated in our gardens from a very early period, for Chaucer, who wrote in the fourteenth century, mentions the clove carnation, or girofler, as it was then called. This name, derived from the French giroflicr (clove), was no doubt given in consequence of the powerful spicy aroma of the flowers, and it afterwards became corrupted into gillyflower, or July-flower. It may, however, be remarked that these appellations are thought by some to have arisen from the circumstance of the plant flowering in July. The varieties are extremely numerous. Rea, in 1670, gives the names of 360 distinct sorts of all classes, and at the present time upwards of 300 are grown in the nursery of Mr. Turner, of Slough. They are divided into bizarres, flakes, and picotees. Bizarres are those in which the white ground colour is striped with two colours, one of which is darker than the other. Flakes are those in which the ground colour of the petals is striped with only one colour—purple, scarlet, or rose. Picotees, instead of being striped, have the petals edged with various shades of red, purple, rose, or scarlet, the band of colour being more or less dense, and of greater or less breadth, ! in dill event varieties. The picotee, it may be ; observed, is always spoken of by florists as if it were a distinct plant from the carnation, but both may be raised from seed produced in the same seed-pod, and both require the same treatment. Propagation!^-The carnation is propagated by seed, layers, and occasionally by pipings. Seed may be sown in May, in pots or pans of light mould, covering thinly with finely sifted soil. After sowing the pots should be placed out of doors in a position where they will be shaded from strong sun, and care must be taken to keep the soil sufficiently moist. When the young plants have made six leaves they may be planted out, 6 or 8 inches apart, in beds wdiere they are to remain for blooming, which they will mostly do in the following season. Layering is the usual mode of propagating established varieties; it is performed in the end of July, or first fortnight in August. The plants I should be well-watered at the root a day or two before, the lower leaves of the shoots intended to be layered cut off, and some light sandy mould spread round the plants for the layers to root in. Each shoot is cut half through a little below the third joint from the top, and the knife having been gently inclined to one side, an incision is J I made along the middle of the shoot to the distance of about half an inch from the joint, so as to form a tongue, the portion of which extending beyond the joint is then cut off. The layer is next bent down to the ground, care being taken to keep the tongue separate from the rest of the ! shoot, fixed in that position by means of a small : hooked peg, generally made of fern, and the , lower portion covered with soil to the depth of 1 inch. Afterwards the layers merely require to be watered occasionally through a fine rose, and at the end of September or beginning of October they may be severed from the parent plant close to the joint at which they were layered, and potted singly in 3-inch, or two in 4 or 5 inch pots. Pot very firmly, use plenty of drainage, and place near the glass in a cold frame, keeping close for five or six days. After that time a good watering may be given, and air admitted gradually at first, but afterwards freely, . Pipings are taken off as soon as the young shoots are sufficiently long in the last fortnight in June or first week of July. When the operas tion is deferred to a later period than this the plants have not time to become properly rooted before winter, and seldom bloom well the following season. For striking the pipings, a slight hotbed should be made up, and covered with 5 or 6 inches of light sandy soil, mixed with leaf-mould. For making pipings, short-jointed shoots are to be preferred. These, having been cut off close below the second or third joint, and the bottom pair of leaves removed, are planted {inch deep and 2 inches apart, or even closer, if a large number is to be struck. In planting the soil ought to be pressed round the pipings; and after they are put in a gentle watering should be given. When the foliage has dried they may be covered with a frame and sashes, or with hand-glasses. Afterwards they must be kept close and shaded from bright sun; but if any of them are suffering from damp, air should be admitted in order to dispel it, and at the same time all decaying leaves must be picked off. Excessive dryness has likewise to be guarded against; a gentle watering should therefore be given whenever it appeal’s necessary, taking care, however, that the foliage is dry before they are agftin shut up. As they become rooted air may be admitted, and the quantity gradually increased till at length they are fully exposed. As soon as sufficiently rooted they should be planted out, 6 inches apart, in a nursery bed, where they may remain till the time for potting arrives, in September or October. Soil.—The carnation thrives best in a fresh loamy soil, not too strong, and but moderately enriched. Innumerable composts have been re-7U GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. commended for the growth of this plant, but most of them are of a very complicated nature, and by far too rich. Perhaps the best soil that can be employed consists of three parts loam, from an old pasture, laid in a heap for a year or more, and frequently turned, and one part well decomposed cow or stable manure, the whole well mixed six months before it is required, and occasionally turned in the interval. For some time previous to use it should be kept dry; it ought also to be carefully examined to see that it contains no wire-worms, for these would quickly destroy the plants. General Culture.—The plants after having been potted are kept in a cold frame during the winter. Air is freely admitted night and day whenever the weather is favourable, the sashes being drawn completely off on fine days, when decaying foliage should be carefully removed. About the beginning of December it is advisable to plunge the pots up to the rims in coal-ashes to protect the roots from frost. Early in March the plants must be shifted into their blooming pots, the strongest being potted first. Three plants placed in an 11 or 12 inch pot present the finest appearance when in bloom; or two may be potted in a 9 or 10 inch pot. In potting plenty of drainage should be used, and it is of the utmost importance to press the soil very firmly into the pots and round the plants. After potting those which require support must be secured to small sticks, and the whole of the plants should be placed on a dry hard bottom, in a warm, sheltered situation. If, however, the weather prove unfavourable at the time of potting they ought to be placed in frames, or to be protected with inverted flower-pots or hand-glasses till all danger of severe frost is over. Before the plants have grown much, sticks or pieces of wire about 4 feet in length should be inserted for the support of the flower-stems. All shoots, except the leading one, which are likely to run up for flowering must be regularly stopped; water given when necessary; the surface of the soil stirred when it becomes hard; and the flower-stems tied to the sticks as they lengthen. About the beginning of May the surface of the soil in the pots should be cleaned, and a top-dressing of decayed cow-dung and loam applied. After this has been done disbudding ought to be proceeded with. The extent to which the removal of the buds may be carried will depend on the habit of the plants, and the purpose for which they are grown. On weak-growing sorts some eminent florists only leave one bud, on strong growers seldom more than two or three, but when the blooms are not intended for exhibition a greater number may be allowed. When the buds have nearly attained their full size they should be tied round the middle with a piece of bass to prevent the calyx from bursting; and this ligature must be frequently examined, and loosened when it is becoming too tight. Instead of bass a narrow strip of silk coated with isinglass may be employed, moistening it before it is put on. Attention is likewise paid by florists to assisting the flower in opening, by splitting open the divisions of the calyx with a sharp-pointed penknife or fine scissors; but in performing this operation care must be taken not to injure the petals. In order to keep the flowers in shape, as well as to display them to greater advantage, a circular piece of card, with a hole in the centre sufficiently large for the calyx to pass through, having also a slit from the centre to the circumference, is placed beneath each bloom as soon as the external or guard petals have dropped. When the buds begin to open the plants should be protected from strong sun and rain by a canvas covering, or placed in an airy glass structure.] The following lists comprise some of the best and most useful varieties:— Carnations. Scarlet Bicarres. Easom’s Admiral Curzon. Turner’s Oliver Goldsmith. Turner’s Guardsman. Taylor’s Lord Napier. Holliday’s Lord Ilancliffe. Ely's Sir J. Paxton. I [oxtail's Mars. Martin’s Splendid. Daniels’ Dreadnought. Turner’s Campanini. Crimson Bicarres. Haines’ Black Diamond. Bower’s Lord Raglan. Wood’s Eccentric .Jack. Simonite's John Simonite. Wood’s Graceless Tom. Wood’s Rifleman. Simonite’s J. D. Ilextall. Slater's Warrior. Pink and Purple Iiicarets. May’s Falcoubridge. Hale’s Lady of the Lake. Dodwell’s Fanny. Wood’s Purity. Gibbons’ James Taylor. Ward’s Sarah Payne. Purple Flakes. Ilextall’a Ajax. Taylor’s Mayor of Notting- Ilolland’s Colonel Wynd- ham. ham. Milwood’s Premier. Addin' Earl of Stamford. Brabbin’s Squire Meynell. Simonite’s Jas. Douglas. Taylor’s True Blue. Foster’s Dr. Foster. Baildon's Juno. Scarlet Flakes Jackson’s Anniliilator. .May's Christopher Sly. Fletcher’s Clipper. Puxley’s Illuminator. Bose Bower’s E. S. Dodwell. Brooks' Flora’s Garland. Wood’s J as. M erry weather. Whitehead’s John Keet. Chadwick’s James Cheetham Dodwell’s John Bayley. Hedderly’s Sportsman. Ingram’s Superb. Flakes. Ely’s Lovely Ann. Wood's Merrimae. Lord’s Airs. Dodwell. Puxley’s Princess Royal.HAKDY POPULAR AND FLORISTS’ FLOWERS. 745 PlCOTEES. ilrtl-tdqxl. Taylor’s Agnes. Headly’s Chancellor. Turner’s Dauntless. Ingram’s J. B. Bryant. Taylor’s Miss Turner. Turner’s Mrs. Dodwell. Turner’s Mrs. Hornby. Simonite’s .Mrs. Simonite. Norman’s Mrs. Norman. Fellowes’ Princess of Wales. Lord’s Rev. F. D. Horner. Simonite’s Wm. Summers. Purple-edged. Turner’s Admiration. Dodwell’s Amy Robsart. Simonite’s Bridesmaid. Norman’s Favourite. Simonite’s Mary. Simonite’s Mrs. Hanaford. Turner’s Mrs. May. Simonite's Mrs. Summers. Fellowes’ Norfolk Beauty. Jackson’s Piceo. Hextall’s Venus. Lord’s Zerlina. Rose and Scarlet-edged. Turner’s Edith Dombrain. Norman’s Mr. Ingleton. Kirtland’s Empress EugCnie. Turner’s Mrs. Allcroft. Lord’s Miss Horner, Taylor’s Mrs. Fisher. Lord’s Miss Lee. Lord’s Mrs. Lord. Taylor’s Lucy. Kirtland’s Princess Alice. Norman’s Miss Williams. Payne’s Purity. V liter Ground. Bragg’s Beauty. Turner’s Jupiter. Turner’s Canary. Blackmore’s Seraph. Elliott's Empress of India. Blackmore’s Sovereign. Blackmore’s Goldfinder. Turner’s Venus. Tree Carnations.—The perpetual flowering or tree carnations represent a class of flowers that are rapidly rising in popular estimation. They have sprung from I). Caryophyllus, but their origin is somewhat obscure. They would appear to have been originated on the Continent, and there they have been much improved; and now English florists are turning their attention to them because of their great value for cutting from during the winter. Among others, Mr. Turner, of Slough, has been successful in raising very fine varieties from seed. These perpetual flowering varieties can be propagated by cuttings or by layers. The simplest mode is to place the old plants in a gentle heat in January and February, then take off the young shoots as cuttings, and place them in 3-inch pots around the edge, using as a compost a mixture of loam, leaf-mould, and sand; they should be well watered and plunged in a gentle bottom-heat, not too moist. When they are rooted the plants should be potted singly into 3-inch pots in a mixture of loam, coarse sand, and rotten dung, and kept in a close space until well established, after which they should be hardened off gradually, and placed in a cold frame. In April, if the weather permits, the plants should be put out in a piece of open ground, which has been well dressed with soot, dung, and lime, and trenched from 2 feet to 3 feet deep. A 4-feet stick or support should be placed against each plant, and the plant tied to it, so that the winds may not break it. By the middle of September the plants should be potted into 6-incli or 7-inch pots. After potting the plants must have a good watering, and for about a fortnight should be placed in a shady place, and syringed overhead twice a day in bright weather. When they are established the plants should be placed in the sun on a bed of ashes, or on boards, but as soon as the autumn rains come on they should be got under cover where they can have plenty of air. They will soon begin to flower, and will continue all through the winter and spring months, if assisted with a little fire-heat, and some liquid manure, which latter, when the plants get well established, and the pots full of roots, they may have once a week. The plants delight in being plunged in sweet dung, so as to keep the roots cool, and will root into it through the bottom as well as over the top of the pot. The plants must never be allowed to get root-bound, which is the point where many cultivators have failed with them. They must be shifted as soon as the pots get well filled with roots, and they should be kept during the winter in a light, dry, airy house, where they can get all the sun possible without being exposed to draughts. If the plants get too wet at the roots they are apt to suffer from mildew and canker. In case mildew appears, sulphur should be applied, while for green-fly the plants should be washed with soft-soap and water. The following are choice and useful varieties:— Ascot Yellow (Picotee)—Large and full. Boule de Feu—Bright scarlet, showy. Caliban—A fine bright rose flake. Empress of Germang—White, marked with rose. Garibaldi—Rosy scarlet. Indian Chief—Dark crimson. King of the Belgians—Deep rose, very fine. La Belle—White, large and fine. Marchioness of Westminster—Deep rose, extra fine. Mi.is Jollife—Pale pink. Pi ince of Orange (Picotee)—Yellow, crimson edge. Purity—Pure white, fine. Queen of the Belgians— Large white, extra fine. Warrior—Bright scarlet. THE CHRYSANTHEMUM {Chrysanthemum sinense, L.i—[For the decoration of the conservatory or greenhouse in the autumn and winter, few plants excel the Chrysanthemum; and though liable to suffer from frosts at the time of blooming, it can, in the warmer parts of the kingdom, be made to afford a fine display out of door’s. The splendid large-flowered varieties at present in cultivation have been obtained from C. sinense, a native of China, introduced into this country in 1764; and the Chusan daisy, sent home by Mr. Fortune, has given rise to the dwarf small-746 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. flowering pompons, which are scarcely surpassed in point of beauty by their larger competitors. The curious and showy Japanese varieties, also obtained from some plants originally sent to England by Mr. Fortune, are now being much grown because of their great value for conservatory decoration. Their grotesque flowers are highly attractive, and generally of striking hues of colour. They bloom later than the large-flowering varieties, and therefore need the protection of a cold house, or some other suitable covering that will resist frost. Soil.—For striking the cuttings a mixture of sandy loam and leaf-mould, or any tolerably rich light soil, may be employed; but to produce a fine bloom the plants require, in the more advanced stages of their growth, soil of a richer and more substantial nature. A compost consisting of two parts of loam, one of leaf or vegetable mould, and one of well decomposed cow-dung, with as much sand as will keep the whole porous, will answer A ery well; but many dispense Avith the leaf-mould, and increase the proportion of loam to three parts. The addition of bone-dust or pounded oyster shells is recommended by many eminent groAvers. Propagation.—The varieties are propagated by division of the plant, and by layers; but the usual mode is by cuttings and suckers. Division of the roots is best efl'ected in autumn, or in March or April, and fine strong plants for borders may be obtained in this way, but for pot-culture they are increased by cuttings. Layers are sometimes made in August by pegging down the shoots, and C0Arering Avith light soil, so as to lea\'e a portion G or 8 inches above ground. When rooted they should be seArered from the parent plant, potted in G-incli pots, and shut up close in a cold frame till established, when air may be freely admitted. They Avill form small compact plants suitable for the front shelves of the greenhouse. Cuttings may be taken off at any time, and by propagating early, larger specimens and an earlier bloom will be produced, AA'hilst late struck cuttings will afford dAvarf plants, and a succession of floAver to January. For fine specimens cuttings are generally struck in September or October, in 3-inch pots, plunged in a cold frame during the winter, and shifted in February or March, as soon as the pots get filled with roots, into 4 or 5 inch pots. The plants are stopped Avlien about 6 inches in height; and as soon as the shoots which result from this operation are 3 or 4 inches in length they are likeAvise pinched. Good plants for ordinary purposes may however be obtained from cuttings taken off in March or April. In making the cuttings stout healthy shoots must be chosen; these liaAring been cut over below a joint, at about 3 inches in length, and the eyes at the base taken out, should be inserted singly in 3-inch pots, watered, and plunged in a slight bottom-heat. They ought to be kept close, and shaded from strong sun for about three weeks, by which time they will generally be well rooted; they may then be potted in 4 or 5 inch pots, using light compost, and plenty of drainage, .and when again established, freely exposed to the air. About the middle of May, or as soon as all danger of frost is over, the pots may be placed out of doors, on a dry hard bottom, in a sheltered situation, Avell exposed to the sun. Cuttings may also be inserted in the open ground in March and April, and will form good plants by autumn, Avlien they may either remain in the ground to bloom, or be taken up, potted, ami removed to the greenhouse. They Avill not, hoAvever, be equal to plants groAvn in pots. Nice little plants for late bloom may likeAvise be obtained by taking off cuttings 5 or 6 inches in length from the tops of the shoots in July or August, striking them in slight bottom-heat, potting off in 4-inch pots, placing on a hard bottom, out of doors, and shifting. into 6-inch pots Avhen they have filled the others with roots. Suckers springing from near the surface, Avith roots attached, afford a ready means of propagation, soon forming Avell-rooted plants, and are by many preferred to cuttings, their treatment being the same. After-culture in Pots.—The plants struck in autumn are repotted in March, or as soon as the pots are filled Avith roots, and again in June, using pots a size or two larger than those previously employed; the spring-struck plants should likewise be shifted when necessary, say in May and June. The whole of the plants should at this period be plunged 2 or 3 feet apart, and to about three-fourths the depth of the pots, giving the ponqtons a spot shaded from strong sun. About the middle of July, or sooner if the pots are Avell filled with roots, the plants should be shifted into their blooming pots, plenty of drainage being afforded. For the large-floAvering kinds 9, 11, or 12 inch pots may be used, but for the pompon varieties 8 or 9 inch ones Avill be sufficient. Throughout their subsequent growth attention must be paid to syringing the plain overhead night and morning, to Avatering frequently and copiously at the root, and to turning round the pots tA\’o or three times a AA’eek, in order to obtain a Avell-balanced groAAffh, as well as to preveni the roots striking into the ground. Staking, pegging down, and tying out the shoots must likeAvise be attended to as the plants ad-HARDY POPULAR AND FLORISTS’ FLOWERS. 747 vance. Stopping should be commenced as soon as the leaders are (i or 8 inches high, and repeated when the shoots which result are 3 or 4 inches long; but it is not advisable as a general rule to practise the operation after the end of July, otherwise the bloom may be retarded, and suffer in consequence; with the pompons, however, there is less danger of this being the case. Weak liquiil manure may be given early in the summer, and increased in strength and frequency as the buds appear, discontinuing, however, when these begin to show colour. During July, August, and September, the pots, being tilled with roots, should be plunged in a bed of cinder ashes, spent, hops, or cocoa-nut fibre up to their rims, as drought at this stage gives a seriouscheck to the plants. When finerather than numerous blooms are required in the case of the large-flowered kinds, they must have their flower-buds thinned out to one or two on each stem, preserving, of course, the strongest and healthiest buds. In the end of September, or beginning of October, the plants should be removed to a cold pit, from which they may be transferred to a cool greenhouse as soon as in bloom, or they may be placed in it at once if more convenient. Plants in the open ground may likewise be taken up when the buds begin to swell, taking care to injure the roots as little as possible, potted in large pots, plunged for a few days in a shady situation till established, and removed to the greenhouse, where they will make a good show, though not so fine a one as pot plants. Whilst under glass, the plants merely require to be supplied with plenty of water and abundance of air, whenever the weather is favourable. After flowering they should be cut down to within 3 or 4 inches of the soil, and placed in a cold pit till spring, when, cuttings having been taken off, they may either be divided and planted out in April, or preserved for flowering in pots in the following autumn; but for this purpose young plants are greatly to be preferred. Culture in Borders.—The early varieties, and especially the pompons, flower very well in favourable seasons out of doors, though, of course, not in such perfection as under glass, where they are not exposed to autumnal frosts, which frequently injure, if not destroy, the bloom when no protection is afforded. A rich warm border is to be preferred for plantations out of doors, and it should be prepared by trenching 2 feet deep in winter or spring, mixing plenty of well-decomposed manure with the soil in the operation. If old pot plants are to be employed they may be divided in March or April, and planted out feet apart; the pompous, however, being of more compact growth, may be placed 2 feet apart. Plants from cuttings struck late in autumn, or early in spring, may be turned out at the above distances as soon as well rooted, taking care to loosen the balls in planting; they will form fine strong plants by autumn. The after management of border plants is in most respects the same as that for pot plants; frequent waterings must be given in dry weather, occasionally sprinkling or syringing overhead, and liquid manure should be supplied two or three times a week, commencing in July, and discontinuing when the buds are about to expand. A top-dressing of compost, consisting of rich loam, and thoroughly decomposed manure, may be spread over the bed in J uly; it will serve to protect the roots near the surface from the sun, and at every watering a portion of the nutritive matters of the compost will be carried down to the roots. Staking, tying, and disbudding the lai'se-flowerin" kinds should likewise be at-tended to. Instead of putting out the plants in open borders, they may be planted in front of a warm wall or paling, and trained thereto; in this way a better show of bloom will be produced, and there is the additional advantage that protection can be readily given in frosty nights.] Of the sorts comprised in these classes, the following are some of the best:— Large-flowered Varieties. Albe Passaglia—Clear amber, fine. Alfred Salter—Delicate pink, large. Annie Salter—Golden yellow. Beethoven—Bronze red, extra fine. Beverley—Ivory white, large and fine. Cheralier homage—Bright gold. Crimson Velvet—Rich velvety crimson. Dr. Brock—Reddish-orange. I)r. Sharpe—Magenta crimson, very bright. Empress of India—Ivory white, very large. George Glenny—Golden amber, extra fine. Gloria Mundi—Brilliant golden yellow. Golden Becerley-r-Bright gold. Guernsey Nugget—Pale primrose, very fine. Ilerewarcl—Large purple. Jardin des Plantes—Golden orange. John Salter—Red cinnamon, extra fine. Julia Lagrarere~— Deep crimson. Lord Derby—Dark purple. Lady Talfov.rd—Rosy lilac. Mrs. Geo. Rundle—Pure white, extra fine. Orange Perfe/lion—Salmon orange, very fine. Prince A f reed—Rosy crimson. Prince of Wales—Purple violet. Princess of Wales—White, tinted rose. Sparkler—Red, tipped with orange. Venus—Rosy lilac peach. White Globe—Pure white, very fine. Yellow Perfection—Brilliant yellow. A nemone-flowered Varieties. Acquisition—Bright rosy lilac.748 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Bijou—Bright rosy purple. Fleur de Marie—Pure white, large and fine. King of Anemones—Crimson purple. Princess Louise—Delicate rosy lilac. Virginale—Pure white, very fine. Pompon Varieties. Adonis—Rosy purple. Aurore Bo reale—Orange, clear and bright. Bob—Dark crimson. Fanny—Dark rosy red. General Cmtrobtrt— Bright pure yellow. Golden Cedo Xulli—Canary yellow. Gulden Trevenna—Golden yellow, extra fine. Lilac Cedo Xulli— Soft rosy lilac, fine. Louise—Crimson, very fine. Mdlle. Marthe—Pure Chinese white, extra fine. Miss Julia—Dark chestnut. Model of Perfection—Rich lilac, fine. Mrs. Dix—Rose, yellow centre. Monarch—Dark Indian red. Rose Trerenna — Rosy blush. White Trerenna—Pure white. Anemone-fotcered Pompon Varieties. Calliope—Ruby red. Pi re-jig—Bright scarlet. Madame Sentir—Pure white. Marguerite de Wildemar—Clear bright sulphur. Mr. Astie—Bright golden yellow. Mr. Wgness—Clear rosy lilac. Queen of Anemones—Clear crimson. Reine des Anemones—White. Japanese Varieties. Bismarck—Bright orange. Fair Maid of Gaernstg—Pure white, extra fine. Gamdt—Bright blood red, very handsome. Jfi.ro of Mitgdn/a—Blood red and orange buff. James Salter—Clear lilac, line. Meteor—Bright golden yellow. Xagasaki Violet—Dark rosy violet, golden disc. Oracle—Dark rosy purple. Red Dragon—Red chestnut, tipped with gold. Robert Fortune—Bright orange or amber. Wizard—Bright red maroon. Viddo Lilac—Rosy lilac, pale centre. THE DELPHINIUM. — This really superb hardy herbaceous perennial has long been a favourite border flower, and so great lias been the improvement made in it during the past year that the old types, such as D. Hendersoni, I). magnijicum, and others, that were once so highly esteemed, have given place to varieties of great beauty and diversity of character, showing several shades of colour, and some of them of a double form, and singularly beautiful. That fine introduction, 1). formosum, was originally used as a seed parent, and then by means of the cross fertilization of seedling varieties showing a tendency to vary, the large number of beautiful types now in cultivation have been produced. The blossoms of some of the single varieties are of great size; the flowers of the double varieties are smaller, but they are thickly set on the spikes, which are generally of considerable length, and very symmetrical. The varieties, both single and double, vary in height of growth; some being comparatively dwarf, others attaining a height of 5 feet and even more when the plants are well established. Cultivation.—The delphinium needs a good deep rich mellow loamy soil, well manured; and in cases where it is planted out for permanent service the roots should be lifted every two years at least, about the month of November, and the soil deeply dug and well manured. The position should be a sunny and open one; and on no account should they be planted in a soil that is shallow, and that soon dries when the weather is hot. The plants should be mulched during summer, and be plentifully watered during periods of drought. When strong the delphinium becomes a striking object in the back row of a mixed border, and it also makes an effective bed. In planting a bed there should be a previous knowledge of the varieties used, in order that the tallest plants may be in the middle, the dwarfer plants occupying the sides. Beds of delphiniums are grown for the sake of the supply of cut flowers they furnish, as well as for their decorative value. Sometimes the plants are pegged down in the beds and in this way a low surface is formed, with the flower-stems rising 12 or 18 inches above it. But, as has been well observed, “the pegging-down process is a nice business, and no one should employ delphiniums as bedding plants until confident of the capacity to perform this operation without breaking the stems or producing irregularity in the heights of the flowers.” Propagation.—This is done by means of division of the roots and by raising plants from seed. The former method must be relied upon when particular varieties have to be increased. The best plan is to cut down the plants in July or early in August; then they commence to break up freely from the roots, and by careful division a number of offsets can be obtained. These should be potted singly in small pots in a fine light open soil and placed in a cold frame, and by the spring they will make good plants for planting out. It is not difficult to raise seedlings, but as the seed is often very slow to germinate it is sometimes thrown away under the impression that it will not grow, when it is'in reality only a question of time. The seed of some of the sorts has been known to lie in the ground a whole year before it germinated. It is best to sow the seed as soon as ripe, using a very light free soil and shallow boxes, and, placing the boxes in a cold frame, trust to time for the seedlings to appear. As soon as large enough they may be planted outHARDY POPULAR AND FLORISTS’ FLOWERS. 749 on a warm border, or pricked off into other boxes to grow into size previously to being planted out to bloom. The following selection gives the very best single and double flowers in cultivation:— Sinr/le-jtotcered Varieties. Amahilis—Azure blue, striped and tipped with rose. Celestial—Ultramarine blue, dark brown centre. Oloiit de St. Jfirtwh 'Brilliant blue, tinted crimson. La Belle Alliance—Bright violet blue, orange centre. Jfadiune Chute—Porcelain blue and bronze red. Madante K. Gen if—Reddish purple, tipped blue. J[adame ldenri Jacotot—Bright azure and rosy pink. BfVifTi I'lfrtmt i Brilliint blue and bronzy red. Mrs. Gerard Lehjh — Light blue with white centre. Pulcherrinunu—Rich shining blue and reddish bronze. 1touble-jhiwered 1 arieties. Amedte Hans—Bright shining blue, light centre. A iwl—Azure blue, striped and tipped rose. Claire Cuvrant.^Bright azure blue. General Chricli—Rich dark shining blue, striped lilac. G raudijlurum plenum—Intense glossy blue. Hermann Stengcr—Bright violet blue and rosy pink. Ki teleeri—Lavender blue, very fine. Manteau de. AftMMw—Dark blue, very durable. Pan! it rpold—Bright blue and rosy violet. THE HOLLYHOCK (Althea rosea, L.)—This is a native of China and has been an inhabitant of our gardens for about 300 years. Formerly the plant waS almost invariably propagated by seed; ami no care having been taken to perpetuate the variations which thus arose, or to cross them with each other, little if any advance was made until the late Mr. Baron, of Walden, directed his attention to raising improved varieties. Mr. Bir-cliam, Mr. Chater, Mr. Parsons, Mr. Paul, Mr. Roake. Air. I townie, and the Rev. Edward Hawke, now Lord Hawke, have,since Mr. Baron’s decease, originated most of the varieties at present in cultivate m. The hollyhock has now risen to the rank of an important florist’s and exhibition flower, as well as become a most valuable plant for the decoration of the flower-garden and shrubbery in the autumnal months, when no garden of any pretension should be without a choice collection of its varieties. Soil.—For striking the cuttings a mixture of sandy loam and leaf-mould may be employed; and when rooted they will grow well in good sandy loam. For the final plantation a rich loam is the best; but the plant will succeed well in any good garden soil well exposed to the sun. Previous to planting, the ground should be dug two spades deep, and if of a poor nature it should be thoroughly enriched by well-decomposed manure incorporated with it. Propagation.—The hollyhock is propagated by seed, by division of the plant, and by cuttings. Raising from seed is practised in order to obtain new varieties, and where a large number of plants is required for the decoration of shrubberies. The seed should be saved from the finest sorts, and sown out of doors in June or July, in an open situation, and before winter the seedlings should be taken up, potted, and placed in a cold frame. The seed may also be sown, as soon as ripe, in pots or pans of light rich soil, placed in a slight bottom-heat. When the seedlings have made two leaves, they may be potted into 3-inch pots, kept close till again established, and then hardened off’ and placed in a cold frame. In either case the young plants should remain in the cold frame during the winter, shifting into larger pots when necessary, and they may be planted out in the end of April. Division of the roots is effected after flowering, but plants from cuttings are generally preferred to those obtained in this way. In performing the operation each crown should be separated into two or three parts, preserving to each of these at least one bud, and as large a quantity of roots as possible. The usual mode of propagation is by cuttings, which may be taken oft' nearly all the year round, those struck in summer and autumn blooming early, and those put in during the spring, late. The cuttings are made from the young shoots; these are taken off close to the old root as soon as they are 2 or 3 inches in length, potted singly and firmly in 3-inch pots, watered gently, placed in a cold frame, shut up close, and shaded from sun. After a week a little air may be admitted; and when well rooted the young plants may be freely exposed to the air, whenever the weather is favourable. In the case of varieties difficult to strike, and when propagation is carried on between October and March, a gentle bottom-heat should be applied. Another mode of propagation much practised by nurserymen consists in taking off the side shoots close to their base as soon as they begin to get firm in J uly, August, or September, and cutting them into as many pieces as there are eyes. The leaves, with the exception of a portion of the leaf-stalk, having been removed, the pieces are planted in light mould, either horizontally, and covered with soil to the depth of an inch, or vertically; a hand-glass should then be placed over them, and care must be taken to shade from strong sun. When struck they ought to be potted in 3-inch pots and placed in a cold frame. After-culture.—At whatever period of the season the plants may have been propagated they ought to be kept near the glass in a cold frame during the winter, plenty of air and but little water750 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. being given. Particular attention should be paid to shifting, as the pots become filled with roots, for, observes Mr. Paul, if large flowers and handsome spikes of hollyhocks are wanted, the plants, when in a young state, nmst never he allowed to become pot-bound. An abundance of water should also be given in May and June, the period when their large porous leaves are in the most active state. In the course of March the plants may be gradually hardened off. Those for early bloom may be planted out where they are to flower in the middle or end of April, according to the season and locality, whilst those for late bloom may be put out a month later. If planted in masses, a distance of 3 feet every way may be allowed between hollyhocks; if in rows, these may be 4 feet apart and 3 feet from each other in the row. After planting, a flower-pot should be placed over the plants at night till all danger of frost is over, and copious waterings given in dry weather. Strong-growing plants may be allowed to send up two or even three flower-spikes, and the weaker ones not more than one; all side-shoots should therefore be removed as they appear, and these will prove useful for cuttings. When the plants are a foot high, strong stakes must be driven into the ground so as to be about 3 feet above the surface, and to these the flower-spikes should be tied as they advance. In the case of flowers intended for exhibition the spikes are topped when they reach the height of 7 or 8 feet, the flower-buds thinned, so as to leave no more than sufficient to cover the spike when they expand, and the bloom protected from sun and rain for a week or ten days before exhibition. After flowering, the spikes are cut down to within G inches of the ground, and at the approach of winter the plants should be taken up and placed in a cold frame till April; but if the soil is tolerably dry the roots of all, except choice varieties, may remain in the open ground. For the ornamentation of rough borders or shrubberies the seed may be sown in June, and the plants put out in autumn where they are intended to flower.] A peculiar disease, resulting from the attacks of a fungus named Puccinia mah'acearum, has lately attacked the hollyhock and wrought great ravages in plantations that have become affected by it. During times of drought it is particularly destructive, and therefore plenty of moisture at the roots and a vigorous growth should be maintained. When the disease puts in appearance, the best plan is to remove and burn the worst affected leaves, and frequently wash the others with a strong solution of Sulphur, soft-soap, and Gishurst compound. In 1873-74 this disease was particularly virulent; but during the summer of 1875, probably owing to the presence of moist weather, it was not nearly so destructive. The following is a selection of some of the choicer exhibition varieties:— Acme (Chater)—Lovely peach, extra fine. A. J. Dean—Crimson, shaded with red, extra fine. Black Gem. (Chater)—Glossy blackish maroon, fine. Cams Chater (Chater)—Reddish crimson, very fine. Competitor (Chater)—Deep rich purple, extra fine. Constance (Chater)—Delicate pale flesh, dark base. Conquest (Chater)—Deep crimson, very fine. Crimson King (Chater)—Deep cherry red, fine. Eclipse (Chater)—Bright rosy red, extra fine. Edward .Spe«Z( Chater )—French white and deep purple. Eleanor (Hawke)—Soft pale rose, very fine. Enij/eror (Chater)—Crimson maroon, extra fine. Golden Drop (Chater)—Deep bright yellow. Incotnparahle (Chater)—Heavily tinted apricot. Jessie Dean (Chater)—Clear apricot, tinted salmon. Joshua Clarke (Chater)—Brilliant cherry, fine. Jiuiia (Chater)—Pale primrose, fine. Lilac perfection (Laing)—Pale lilac, fine. Marvellous (Chater)—Deep orange buff. Mr. Chater (Hawke)—Amber tinged with crimson. Nonpareil (Chater)—Rich dark purplish maroon. Octavia (Hawke)—Rose pink, very fine. President (Chater)—Yellowish buff, very fine. lluh;i Queen (Hawke)—Deep shining ruby. Scarlet Gem (Chater)—Yen' bright scarlet. Tyrian Prince (Chater)—Rich crimson purple. THE LOBELIA.—The herbaceous or perennial lobelia has been very materially improved upon since the days of the old Mexican Lobelia fulgens and the Chilian L. ignea, numerous improved varieties having been raised from seeds. One remarkable feature is the variety of colours that has been obtained in addition to the blood-crimson colour of the parents, namely, purple, violet, magenta, lavender, peach, and pink, some of the varieties being very beautiful indeed. Continental and English raisers alike are doing their utmost, and with marked success, in prosecuting the work of improvement. Soil and Treatment.—The lobelia needs a good moist loam on a cool bottom, and it thrives well when it is planted in a mixture made up of sandy loam, leaf-mould, and rough peat, with some well-decayed manure. This, in the case of plants placed in the open ground, should form a bed some foot or 18 inches in depth, in which the plants can root freely and strongly. In addition to throwing up a stout main stem, they also produce side branches, all of which bear spikes of flower, and when in blossom present the appearance of brilliant bushy pyramids. In some old-fashioned gardens it is still the rule to have a bed of herbaceous lobelias, and it is always a pleasing sight; the stems being robust and stiff, no supports in the form of stakes are needed, and no disfigurement of the bed is thereby effected.HA11DY POPULAR AND FLORISTS’ FLOWERS. 751 Cultivation in Pots.—This is a favourite method of cultivating the herbaceous lobelia by many who are its admirers. Such a compost as that recommended for out-door planting will serve for pot culture, and the plants should be placed in 8-inch or 10-inch pots, well drained. The plants should be previously grown on in smaller pots, so as to be well rooted, and put into the blooming pots in Jone or even earlier', the pots being plunged out of doors up to their rims in cinder ashes, to prevent the soil from drying too rapidly in hot weather. When they begin to throw up their flowering stems a little weak manure water may be given, or the surface of the soil covered with some well-rotted manure, which will be of great assistance to the plants. When the buds begin to expand they should be taken to the conservatory to flower, or they can remain in the ash-bed. The plants must not be allowed to suffer for want of water. Propugationt^~']i\na can be done by suckers or offshoots, cuttings, Mid seed. Towards the end of the summer what are known as suckers come up round the base of the stem, and these make young plants if taken oft' below the surface, and put singly in small pots in a light sandy soil, giving them the protection of a dung-frame or a warm pit dining the winter. When well rooted a shift into a larger sized pot will be required, repeating the process as the plants gain size. Repeated shiftings conduce to a vigorous growth and fine heads of flower. Propagation by cuttings is generally done about the month of June; a stalk or shoot is then cut up into lengths of 4 or 5 inches, and placed singly in small pots or under a hand-glass on a prepared border. A border open to the east, so that the sun can shine on it during a [Motion of the day, is to be preferred. ('uttings treated in this way strike with remarkable facility, and they get furnished with roots In a few weeks, when they can either be potted into pots or planted out in a prepared bed for late summer flowering. Raising from Seed.—Most of the recently improved varieties produce seed, and the usual custom is to sow it in pans as soon as it is ripe, using a light sandy veil-drained compost. Before sowing the seed some fine soil should be placed on the surface and rather firmly pressed down, and on this the seed should be thinly scattered, and covered with the barest possible layer of soil. A gentle sprinkling may then be given; but it is always best to use the soil in a moist condition, so that water will not be required till it h,os settled down. Then the pan should be placed in a cool frame and covered with a handglass. Early in spring the seeds will begin to germinate, and as soon as the plants can be conveniently handled they require to be pricked off into pans or pots, and when large enough potted into small pots and grown on into size. Some of the best and most varied varieties will be found amongst the following:— Annihilator—Deep rose, shaded with violet. Carminata—Pleasing rosy carmine. Charles Landseer—Brilliant crimson, shaded maroon. Distinction—Rosy cerise, tinted with pink. LjXC11ent-™Bright magenta, white centre. Grand Duchess Marie—Pure pale pink. JXonsiich—Violet rose, margined with vermilion. 1 ‘i '.(‘.'i'-bl'issxn-— Clear peach, very pretty. Ringleader-—Light purple with deep shading. Roi des lilt1 ns—Lavender blue, very pretty. Ruby—Rich ruby, novel and distinct. Victoria lietjina—Rich scarlet, very showy. THE MIMULUS.—The Yellow Monkey Flower (.1hmulus luteus, L.) had already made us familiar with a race of spotted garden varieties, ere, some time since, the late Mr. Veitcli introduced from Chili a dwarfer-habited plant of the same family, bearing bright coppery-red flowers, to which the name of Mimuhis cupreus was given. The large-flowered spotted varieties then in cultivation, though varying in the size, colour, and disposition of their markings, yet agreed in this, that either on each of the five segments of the corolla, or on the lower segment only, there was a large blood-coloured blotch, often indeed occupying the whole of the surface; various irregular blotchings were sometimes superadded; and, as is the case usually with flowers taken in hand for improvement by our energetic cultivators, the size of the blossoms had been very much increased. When M. cuprous came into cultivation it was used to effect crosses between it and some of the large garden varieties. The race so obtained, while it reduced to some extent the vigour of growth of the older type, gave also floWei's curiously marbled, pencilled, and spotted with colours obtained from M. cupreus. These hybrids have come to be known as M. maculosus, M. tigrinus, &c., and are yearly being much improved upon, till large bold flowers, blotched and spotted with singularly bright and effective patches of colour, have been obtained. There is also a group called duplex varieties, in which the calyx is coloured like the corolla, forming what is called a hose-inhose flower; that is, one flower set within another. Propagation by Seed.—It is by seed that these fine types of the mimulus are mainly propagated. It should be sown in spring in fine sandy soil, in shallow well-drained pans, sprinkling the fine seed very thinly over the surface, and then gently pressing it into the soil, sprinkling the surface by means of a very fine rose watering-pot, andGARDENER’S ASSISTANT. 752 then covering each pan with a piece of glass. The pans should he placed in a gentle heat, where the seeds will speedily germinate, and when large enough the plants should he pricked off into other pans, so as to encourage them to grow as fast as possible, and then potted singly into small pots as soon as large enough. The mimulus is a plant of rapid growth, if kept moist when making size. As soon as the plants are established in their pots they should he gradually hardened otf, so as to hear exposure in a cold frame. When once the pots in which the plants are growing, whatever their size, are filled with roots, the plants will begin to flower; and as they blossom most profusely they have a great decorative value. Being, as a rule, of a vigorous succulent habit, a rich soil and an abundance of moisture at the roots are necessary to their wellbeing. A soil made up of loam, leaf-mould, well-decomposed manure, and some sand to keep it open, suits the mimulus well, and good specimens can be grown in 5-inch or 6-inch pots. When the leading shoots have made a few inches growth they should be pinched back to encourage the production of vigorous side growths, staking and tying out the stems as soon as it can be conveniently done, to give them a good shape and even appearance. The main object is to secure short strong stems bearing vigorous foliage, and fine flowers will be certain to result. To give vigour and brilliancy to the blossoms, weak guano-water may be applied once or twice a week, from the time the first flowers open until the plants are at the height of blooming. The mimulus, being somewhat impatient of a dry sun-heat, should be grown in a cool north house, which has the morning or evening sun only. In cool moist districts it may be grown in the open air in beds, but the wind is apt to injure the brittle shoots unless suitable protection is secured. THE PANSY or HEARTSEASE.—[The numerous varieties of this interesting and popular flower have been obtained in a great measure from Viola tricolor, a native of Britain, by selection and hybridizing with other species of the same family, as Ir. granditlora and V. altaica. Soil.—For ordinary flower-garden decoration the plant may be grown in any cool border, but where choice varieties are cultivated a bed must be prepared for the purpose. A situation shaded from the mid-day sun, but not overhung by tall trees or shrubs, is the best. The site of the bed having been decided on, 1 foot or 18 inches of the surface soil should be removed, and replaced with a compost of sandy or decayed turfy loam, leaf-mould, and rotten cow-dung, the whole thor- oughly incorporated, laid in a heap for some months previous to use, and occasionally turned. The proportions of four parts loam, one leaf-mould, and one dung will he found to answer well either for culture in beds or in pots. If the loam is rather stiff as much sand should be added as will serve to keep it open. Propagation.—This is effected by seeds, cuttings, and occasionally by layers. Seeds may be sown at any time when the weather is sufficiently mild, but preferably in April or May, and in August and September. The sowing should be made in pans of light rich soil, either in gentle heat or in a cold frame, and the seeds covered lightly with fine soil. As soon as strong enough the seedlings should be planted out in a cool border, but if they have come up so late in the season that they cannot get well established before winter, it will be advisable to keep them in store pots in cold frames till February or March. As soon as the plants come into bloom the most promising should be selected for propagation, and the rest discarded. Cuttings may be struck at any period of the season, but with the greatest facility in spring and early summer and in autumn; where it is desired to keep up a good stock the work of propagation should, however, be carried on throughout the summer. In this way, also, a succession of bloom will be produced, the spring-struck cuttings coming in for late bloom, the summer ones for late and early flowering, and those put in in autumn, for succession. For cuttings, side shoots about 2 inches long are to be preferred, and if springing from beneath the soil and partially rooted so much the better. These may be planted in light sandy soil, in a cool shady border, and covered for a few days with a hand-glass; but if taken off in spring or autumn, they ought to be put in shallow pans or boxes and placed in a frame, where they should merely be shaded from strong sun. When rooted, they may be planted out in nursery beds of light soil till the time for final planting arrives; it is safest, however, to pot up the general stock in October, and place it near the glass in a cold frame, where the plants may remain.till March, merely protecting from frost, but giving them all the air possible. Culture in Pots.—For flowering in pots, vigorous plants should be selected, and these having been potted in the end of September or beginning of October, in 4 or 5 inch pots, with plenty of drainage, are placed near the glass in a cold frame with a south aspect. As much air and light are given as possible, the sashes being drawn oft’ in fine days, but kept close and covered up in frost, and water is supplied in moderation in mild weather. Early in February the plants are shiftedHARDY POPULAR AND FLORISTS’ FLOWERS. 753 into 6 or 8 inch pots for blooming, using plenty of drainage, removing the old surface, and loosening the sides of the ball. Water is withheld for three or four days. Afterwards, as the plants progress, attention is directed to thinning, pegging, and tying out the stems; and as they begin to show bloom weak liquid manure may be given with advantage two or three times a week to such varieties as are not apt to become over-luxuriant, and produce coarse dowers. In May the frames should be turned so as to face the north and render less shading necessary. With regal'd to dowers intended for exhibition, the treatment in other respects is the same as in beds; but where the plants are to be shown in pots, the buds are removed till about three weeks previous to the day, in order to have all the stems in dower at the same time. Culture in Beds.—Plants intended for early dowering may lie planted in the blooming bed in the end of September or beginning of October; those for succession in the end of February or in March, according to the season and state of the ground; and those for autumn bloom in a cool border in July. The distance between the plants may be 10 or 12 inches for such as are of weakly or medium growth, and 15 inches for those of vigorous habit. After planting, little is required beyond stirring the surface soil occasionally, searching for slugs, which are frequently very destructive, watering freely in dry weather, removing decaying leaves, thinning out the shoots, and pegging down the branches. A top-dressing of well-decomposed manure and loam shoidd also be spread over the beds in spring, any vacancies which may exist having been previously Blled up. Slight protection may also be given in winter to autumn-planted beds, by sticking in spruce branches, or by covering in severe weather with mats. Where tine flowers are required for exhibition, only from two to six main stems are allowed to remain, the side shoots beinsr removed from time to time; and the bloom buds are picked off until about three weeks before exhibition, whilst the beds are shaded from strong sun, wind, and heavy rain by a calico covering.] The Belgian or Fancy Pansy, as it is now termed, represents a distinct strong-growing race, remarkable for the rich colouring of many of the flowers, and their peculiar and even fantastic marking, and because they supply tints of colour quite unknown in the ordinary show pansies. The original type came from the Continent a few years ago, and since then it has undergone great improvements at the hands of our English florists, who have quite taken the lead in the production of new varieties. Tints and hues of colour of a most gorgeous character are to be found in the Fancy Pansy, and they are much in request for exhibition and border purposes. They have much more vigour of constitution than the high bred English show pansies, and they bear exposure to sun much better in consequence. They require the same mode of treatment as the preceding. Bedding Pansies.—A very useful class known as bedding pansies is now being extensively used both in the spring and summer for flower-garden decoration. Winter and spring gardening being much followed in these days, early blooming pansies have become very useful and effective for the purpose, and raisers are turning their attention to the production of new and improved varieties. Bedding pansies are distinguished by a dwarf, compact, free-branching habit, constantly producing young growth to furnish a succession of bloom. They stand exposure to wet and cold better than the more highly cultivated exhibition varieties; and as some bloom early and others late, they can be had in flower all the year round. The established varieties are propagated in the same manner as other pansies; and new ones are being rapidly produced now that attention is being directed to their decorative value. The merits of improved varieties of other species of Viola, namely V. lutea and V. cornuta, as bedding plants, both for spring and summer, are also being extensively recognized. The large-flowered types of the former of various shades of colour, known as Viola lutea grandiflora, have been found most useful in the flower-garden; while of Viola cornuta, itself a valuable though not an early blooming bedding plant, a very fine type known as Perfection has produced some fine varieties; and by means of crossing some of these with bedding pansies a most useful and effective race of intermediate types have been obtained, most profuse of flower, and at the same time lasting. We have now a race of bedding violas with flowers as large as those of the pansy, without loss of the continuous growing habit of the Viola. Self-coloured Show Vo.rieties. A lexander M‘Aiab—Dark maroon, fine. Cherub—Clear yellow, fine form. Captain Elder—Light purple, very smooth. Dr. Masters—Golden yellow, extra fine. Dux—Dark plum colour, very fine. Empress—Cream white, large and fine. Golden Prince—Deep yellow, extra fine. George Fisher—Dark violet purple, very fine. Miss Ramsay—Pure white, very fine. Miss E. Goodal~Wery pure white, extra fine. * Peeress-—Rich cream, very fine. Wm. Forbes—Rich dark, fine form. Yellow Ground Show Varieties. Alexander WLamond—Bright bronzy purple belting. Coruus—Dark purple margin, very fine. 48GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. 754 Clipper—Bronzy purple belting;, bold flower. Captain S/a njf— lironzy purple belting, good. Oeori/e 11 'i/sou—Bronzy maroon border. (leorye Mairhead—Light bronzy purple belting. Joseph James—Belted with dark crimson. John Dotrnie—Bright reddish bronze belting. Miss L. Mnrra(/--Belted with dark bronzy crimson. Crinee of ll'a/i*—Deep purple belting. Thus. II. Donylas—Belted with dark maroon. Walter AC Kay—Narrow margin of dark bronzy purple. Whitt Ground SrniV 1 ’ariclies. A lire Doirnie—Belted with dark purple, fine. Belina—Shaded purple margin, very tine. E!dna■—Belted with rich purple, dense eye. Liuh/ Lite// Deep purplish maroon belting. Alahel-—Belted with light purple. Mary Middleton—Bluish purple belting, very tine. Mr. (ialhncay—Deep bluish purple margin. Airs. .1. Buchanan— Belted with light purple. Miss Jessie Foot—Belted with light purple, tine. Miss Bessy JCAslan— Xarrow belting of light blue purple. Sunny I’arl Beauty—Light purple margin, very fine. Yillaye Maid—Purple belting, extra fine. Fancy Varieties. A my—Dark crimson, white belting. . 1 lice Laird— Straw, margined with white. Htwar—Deep violet purple, very tine. Black• Crinee—Black, edged with white. Dacid Same—Deep orange yellow, veined bronze. lhirid Mitchell—Orange, bronzy markings. Earl of Rossh/n—Crimson, large dark blotch. Figaro—Deep violet purple, edged white. John Russell—Dark bronze, edged yellow. Maynifcent—Creamy white, pencilled blue. Miss Melcille—Light shaded crimson. Miss Bella Kay—Dark bronze, edged yellotv. Mrs. R. 1 lean—White, large dark blotch. Mrs. Laird—Pale lemon, veined purple. Xinian Xiren—Light carmine, dark blotch. Oram/e Boren—Dark orange red, black blotch. Crime Leon—Yellow, large dark blotch. Her. 11. II. Boinhrain—Dark purple, edged white. THE PENTSTEMON. —Probably no other hardy plant has been so much improved and made to become so widely popular during the last ten or fifteen years as the pentstemon. Some years ago our tlorists were induced to take the pentstemon in hand, and their efforts to improve it were most successful. By careful seeding from such well-known species as J’cntstemon Ilartwegii, P. gen-tianoidcs, P. Colxva, and others, there have been obtained a race of very fine hybrids, hardy, vigorous in growth, and remarkably tloriferous, having flowers large in size, bold in appearance, and varied in colour, and therefore of great value as hardy border plants. Some very tine species are also cultivated, such as P. barbatus and P. Alu.r-rayanus, scarlet; P. Digitalis and P. Palmeri, pale coloured; and P. spcciosus, P. cyanant/ius, and P. Jatfrayanus, blue; all of which, and several others, well deserve a place in the choice mixed border. Cultivation.— The pentstemon succeeds well in any good soil, but a deep and rather moist sandy loam is best adapted for it. This should be occasionally dressed with manure and leaf-soil, and then when the plants are thoroughly established they produce enormous spikes of beautiful dowers, which are continuously brought forth through summer and autumn, as long as the weather keeps at all open. The plants can be placed singly in borders, where they soon attain a great size if liberally treated, or they can be grown in beds, in which case they make a most edective display when the many charming hues a choice assortment of varieties affords become blended together at the time of dowering. It is a practice with many gardeners to plant lines of beds of dowers to cut from, such as clove carnations, pinks, stocks, phloxes, pentstemons, &e., the latter adbrding a large quantity of spikes to cut from. The pentstemon is sometimes used in the dower-garden to form a centre to large beds, or mingled with some other suitable plant, such as dwarf bedding dahlias, &c., and to form rib ton borders or lines. Propagation by Cuttings.— Cuttings can be struck at almost any time of the year, but the best pitta is to take them in August or September, from the young growth that always comes up round the main stem of the plant; the softer the wood, the more readily do the cuttings root. About 4 or 5 inches of the points of the leafy shoots should be Liken od' for the purpose, and cut cleanly across just below a joint, and then inserted in pots filled with a free light sandy soil, well drained, pressing the cuttings firmly into it, and then placing the pots in a cold frame. Or they can be pat into some prepared soil on a warm border and covered with a hand-glass, shading the cuttings from the sun when it shines warmly at mid-day. The advantage gained by using pots is this, that the cuttings can be wintered without removal.and pot ted off or planted out in the spring. When struck in the open border it is necessary that they be lifted ere ■winter sets in, potted off. and wintered in a cold frame. Plants that have remained out all the summer will often last through the winter in the open border, but it is a wise safeguard to place some ashes about the roots by way of affording protection in severe weather. "When it is considered requisite to increase the stock of any one or more varieties as rapidly as possible, the store pots should be introduced to a brisk moist heat in early spring, and a growth induced from which to make cuttings, and if the young growths be put in cutting pans and placed on a bottom-heat they soon strike, and can be rapidly grown on into plants. It is in this manner that new varieties are increased to admit of distribution.HARDY POPULAR AND FLORISTS’ FLOWERS. 755 Raising Seedlings.—Seed of tlie best varieties only—choosing large, bold, finely formed flowers of striking colours to save from—should be sown, and in this way some improved forms can be reckoned upotl. When this end is kept in view, a select number of seedling plants rather than a large quantity, should be raised, as a few would be likely to receive a larger share of necessary attention than a multitude. The seed should be sown in February or early in March, in a gentle bottom-heat, using shallow boxes and good light soil for the purpose. The seed soon germinates, and when the plants are large enough to handle they should be pricked off into other boxes and kept in heat for a time, and then gradually hardened off in cold frames, ready to plant out in prepared beds in May and June. They should be planted in lines and be about a foot apart each way, and if dry weather sets in occasional sprinklings overhead and copious watering at the roots will keep them growing. A good soil is absolutely necessary to bring out as fully as possible the qualities of the seedlings. All the best and most distinct flowers should be marked for propagation by cuttings, and for seeding from, while the inferior ones will supply a large quantity of cut flowers. If extra strong plants are required by May seed should be sown in August, and the plant! grown on through the winter. The following selection includes some of the finest varieties in cultivation:— Aynas J.ithV—Dark rose, white throat. Albi.rt Tm-dim—Large dark red, white throat. — Clear carmine, large and fine. Iliad: Kniij/il—Maroon, white throat. Bon Vilhujnus—Bright crimson scarlet. Colonel Lorn|—Bright crimson, white throat. Ih t k-tUis.-iiut it in - Pure white, tinted bright pink. Ije .St. f’w—Lilac purple, fine. Ctorot jfSffiwf - lleddish purple, very fine. John J/'/'/KnwHSjight blue, shaded lilac. LoA'i (Jo"Hs Lin'Ufiif- Pure white. Le Kindi <■> —Purple, white throat. MoUerc — l lark lilac, white throat, large. Mrs. A . SU rif—Delicate rosy jieach, white throat. Polly King—Posy crimson, white throat. Sfans/inil L'kiil—Bright scarlet crimson, fine. IP. K. (r'ninhlelon—Deep purplish rose, extra fine. IP. 1‘. L"ird—Light blue, pure white throat. THE PINK.— [This delightful flower, the supposed type of which (Dianthus plumarius) is naturalize 1 in Britain, is a great favourite amongst florists. Si ime persons, however, are of opinion that Dianthus Cargopltgllus, D. deltoides, and perhaps some other species, have contributed towards the production of the many beautiful varieties of pink which are now in cultivation. The pink succeeds well when planted in any tolerably rich soil, bat for the production of perfect blooms a bed should be specially prepared. A mixture of two parts turfy or maiden loam, one of vegetable mould, and one of well-decomposed cow-dung, the whole turned several times and thoroughly incorporated, answers exceedingly well. If the loam is of a stiff nature it will be advisable to add sand to render it sufficiently open. The bed should be prepared in August; it niay be formed to the depth of 1 foot or 18 inches, according as more or less compost can be afforded, the greater depth, however, being preferable. It ought to be raised as much as 6 or 8 inches above the path, and rounded, in order to throw off the rain in autumn. An edging of wood or slate will serve to confine tlie soil of the bed within proper limits. Propagation.—The pink is propagated by seeds, layers, and pipings, i.e. cuttings, the latter method being that generally adopted; and the modes of proceeding are exactly the same as in the case of the carnation, but the pipings should be taken from the plants somewhat earlier in the season. Planting is performed in September, and ought never to be deferred later than the beginning of October, otherwise the plants will not be well established in the ground before winter, which is a matter of the greatest importance. The distance allowed between the plants may be from 8 to 10 inches. Afterwards it is merely necessary to water in dry weather, and to stir the surface of the soil when this becomes too hard. In the middle or end of March the edges of the bed should be made up so that it may be nearly level. An inch of well-decomposed manure should then be spread over the surface, into which it may be lightly forked early in May. When the flower-stems shoot up, thin them less or more, according as the plants are of a stronggrowing habit, or the contrary. Florists only allow one flower-stem to weak plants, and seldom more than four to those which are vigorous; but when the plants are grown for ordinary flower-garden decoration this need not be attended to; the side buds should, however, be removed. Weak liquid manure may be occasionally given at this period; in all other respects the treatment should be the same as for the carnation.] Forcing Pinks.—There is a section known as forcing pinks that have become great favourites in the present day because of their adaptability for being forced into flower during the winter and early spring. The treatment of forcing pinks is a very simple process. During the month of March, or early in April, cuttings should be taken from plants which have been forced, and inserted in a compost made up of sand and sifted leaf-soil, using pots of some 6 inches in diameter. The pots of cuttings should be placed in a gentle hot-bed,GARDENER'S ASSISTANT. 75G •and in all respects treated like cuttings of verbenas, although they will not root so quickly as the latter. When rooted the cuttings should be potted singly into 3-inch pots, and the plants gradually hardened off, and towards the end of May or early in June they can be planted in an open border of good soil in any convenient situation in rows about 15 inches apart and about 1 foot from plant to plant. They should be well watered when required. During the first fortnight in October the plants should be carefully raised and put in G-incli pots, using soil composed of turfy loam, enriched with a little well-rotted hot-bed manure or leaf-soil. They should be placed in a shady position for a time, and ultimately wintered in a cold pit, from which they can be introduced to the forcing house as required. Here the plants should be kept as close to the glass as possible. Perhaps no better situation can be found for them than a shelf on the back wall of an early vinery or peach-house, at some 18 inches from the glass. The following is a select list of some of the choicest florists’ or show varieties of pinks:— Bragg's Goliath. Bragg’s Hector. Hooper’s Annie Cliater. Hooper’s Beauty of Bath. Hooper's Emerald. Hooper’s Victory. Kirkland’s Rev. Geo. Jeans. Maclean’s Annie. Maclean’s Beauty. Maclean's Constance. Maclean’s Device. Maclean’s John Ball. Marris’ Arabella. Morris’ Unique. Marris' Vesta. Turner’s Bertram. Turner’s Bianca. Turner’s Blondin. Turner’s Boiard. Turner’s Cristabel. Turner’s Diadem. Turner’s Dr. Masters. Turner’s Kustace. Turner's Godfrey. Turner’s Lord Kirkaldie. Turner’s Marion. Turner’s Minnie. Turner’s Mrs. Waite. Turner’s Shirley Hibberd. Turner’s Superb. The following varieties are adapted for forcing :— Anna Boleyn—Bose, crimson centre, useful. Coccinea—Bright scarlet, very profuse. /krln/ Day—Large deep pink, bright red lacing. Favourite—Pure pink. Isabelle—Fine blush. Lad// Blanche—White, profuse, useful for bouquets. Lora Lyons—Deep rosy purple. Meteor—Rose, crimson centre. Mrs. /‘tlti/cr—Dark centre, broad white edge. Paddington—Deep purple and white. Rubens—White and crimson. Sultana—Blush pink. THE PHLOX.—This fine hardy herbaceous plant has been so much improved of late years, both by our home and the continental florists, that it has become included among those special flowers the florist delights to cultivate and tend with more than ordinary care. Some of the varieties now in cultivation are remarkable for the extraordinary size and beautiful hues of colour seen in the flowers, to which are added the qualities of the finest form, and fullest substance. There are two distinct types of the herbaceous phlox in cultivation, though they appear to possess much in common when judged by first appearances. One of these is called the suffruticosa section, and is the dwarfest in growth as well as the earliest ill flower, and appears to be better adapted for cultivation in the cool moist districts of the north than in the drier and warmer south. The other, or decussata section, has the stems taller in growth and more naked at the base, throwing out lateral flower-stems towards the top; these are much hardier in constitution as well as later in flowering than the others. It is the varieties of the latter group that are generally cultivated in English gardens. The phlox has come to be regarded as a valuable plant, not only for the adornment of the open or mixed border, but also for grouping in beds; and it is sometimes cultivated in pots for exhibition and decorative purposes. Propagation and Cultivation in Beds.—The varieties included in both sections are readily propagated by division of the l’oot in spring, and by cuttings made from the young growth which comes up round the base of the flower-stem in summer. The cuttings speedily make root when placed in light sandy soil in a frame or cool house, and covered with a hand-glass. As soon as the cuttings have rooted they should be potted singly in 3-inch pots, and wintered in a cold frame, being, in the spring, transplanted into a deep rich and somewhat strong loam, as the panicles of flowers come very much finer in good holding soil than when the plants are grown in that which is light or dry. When the plants are coming into blossom, the stems need to be tied to stakes to keep them from being blown about by the wind. In the southern districts of England, and, in fact, in the majority of cases in northern localities, the phlox can be wintered in the open ground with little fear of injury, but it is always best to protect in some way the choicer varieties. A bed of phloxes planted in a piece of well-prepared ground is always an object of great beauty in a garden, and also of great value to cut from. If some heads of flowers are wanted for exhibition | purposes the bed should be mulched with manure during summer, water plentifully applied, and ! some liquid manure given when the flowers are expanding. Cultivation in Pots.—The mode of cultivation in pots is a very simple one. The strongest of the newly-struck cuttings should be selected for the purpose, and be shifted from 3-inch to ; 5 or G inch pots, according to the vigour andHARDY POPULAR AND FLORISTS’ FLOWERS. 757 dimensions of the plants, in the spring. The blooming pots should be from 10 to 12 inches in diameter, and after the plants are placed in these pots they should be plunged to their rims in a bed of cinder ashes, tan, or any other suitable material; the bed should be in a shady position; and the plants ought not to be allowed to suffer for want of water, as a check at this stage would most prejudicially affect the well-being of the plants. As the flower-stems ascend they should be secured to stakes, and some manure water be given once or twice a week as the buds form. Then they should be removed to the conservatory, or to the place where they are to flower, and be well supplied with water, when, if shaded from the sun for a few horn's during the middle of the day, they will remain in bloom a long time. As sOon as the plants have done flowering they should be removed to the open air to ripen their growth, and the stalks then cut down, and the pots again plunged in ashes; and when severe frosty weather sets in a little litter should be shaken over them to protect the roots from injury. Here the plants can remain till spring, and when they have started into growth the plants should be turned out of the pots, the roots trimmed, and then placed in smaller pots preparatory to being potted into the blooming pots in due course. If not required again for this purpose a bed should be formed of the plants, or they can be transferred to the mixed border. The plants can be used two or three successive years for flowering in pots. Soil.— For potting purposes this (should be formed of good yellow loam, a little stiff, some sand, leaf-mould, and well-decomposed manure, and in the act of potting the soil should be pressed very flrmly about the roots. A good drainage should always be given to the pots, as liberal watering is at all times required. Raising SeedlingsNew varieties of the perennial phlox are obtained from seed, and this is invariably freely produced even by the finest varieties. So much difficulty has been experienced in getting the seed to germinate that many have been deterred from attempting to raise seedlings. Frequent failures have occurred from attempts made to raise the seed in heat. As soon as possible, after being gathered, the seed should be sown in a shallow pan or box, using a sandy loam enriched with leaf-mould, and the pan or box should be placed in a cold frame, and kept moist, and in course of time the plants will appear above the surface, and continue to make their appearance for a space of several months. The following are among the best varieties:— Svffruticosa or Karly-flmoering Varieties. A lexandra—Pure white, crimson eye. R/rina—Shining rosy crimson, dark eye. Jona—French white, purple eye. James Mitchell—Deep rosy purple, crimson eye. James Keilson—Rich rosy violet, extra fine. Lad# Lucy Dundas—Pure white, crimson eye. Marquis—Dark rosy lilac, fine form. Mauve Queen— Light soft mauve, distinct and fine. Max Kolb—Light rosy lilac, crimson eye. Marquis of Lome—White, rose eye. Miss Robertson—Pure white, very fine. Stella—Deep rosy crimson, large and fine. 1 Vaverley—Dark rosy purple, fine form. William Sinton—Waxy white, dark crimson eye. Decussata or Late-floicering Varieties. Adelina Patti—White, violet purple centre. A. I'\ Barron—Beautiful rose lilac, large crimson eye. .1 wore Boreale—Rich salmon vermilion. Chancy—rosy lilac, large and fine. Dr. Masters—Rosy pink, bright crimson centre. UervalltV—D a rk rose, striped white. Lothair—Light scarlet, shaded purplish violet. Madame Turcnne—Pure white, purple centre. Mohs. Conrad—Rose purple oentre, extra fine. Mohs. Jtclamere—Dazzling red, dark centre, fine. Afons. Hugh J.ou—Red purple, deeper in the eye. Mrs. Laing—Delicate soft rosy lilac. R. B. Laird—Peach, rosy carmine eye. Roi des Roses—Rose, suffused salmon, fine. THE POLYANTHUS (Primula acaidis um-bellata).—The polyanthus has long been a popular florist’s flower, and a favourite subject for exhibition purposes. . One class in particular has been singled out for this purpose—viz. the gold-laced section—in which the centre and the edges are zoned and edged with gold. Rigid rules or properties regulate the presence of qualities in the flowers. For instance, the flower or pip, as it is termed, should be perfectly flat and round, and be slightly scolloped on the edge, which should be divided into live or six lobes or segments; the tube or throat should be thrum-eyed, r that is, not exhibiting the pistil; the edging round i and down the centre of the florets should be of even width all the way, and universally of the same shade of sulphur, lemon, or yellow as the eye, and there must by no means be two shades of yellow in the centre. The ground or body-colour should be black or red, but perfectly clear and unshaded. The flower-stem should be stiff, strong, and erect, capable of sustaining in an upright position the truss of flowers at its top. I Some thirty years ago collections of fine-named varieties of the gold-laced polyanthus were some-i what common, and as many as three dozen varieties were catalogued by cultivators. Now it would be very difficult to get a sixth of this number, but there are evidences that an awakening interest in it is being put forth; and in the north of England especially, florists are turning their attention to the raising of new varieties.758 GARDENER'S ASSISTANT. Cultivation in Pots.—In one of Ills papers on I this flower the late George Glenny remarked:— “ The great diificulty in the cultivation of the I polyanthus is to get strong plants with single hearts, for the loot is apt to throw up side-shoots, which take from the strength of the principal j one and from each other. To obviate this considerable pains must be taken to plant out only single hearts when the roots are parted after j blooming, and also to remove all side-shoots at ! their very first indication.” A good strong crown is absolutely necessary in order to have a fine truss of bloom. The polyanthus needs to be flowered in pots in order to have the blooms of fine quality and as clean and correctly developed as possible. The best time to pot—or repot if the plants are kept in pots all the year round—is in August. The polyanthus, like other members of the same family, makes a long tap-root. At the time of repotting this should be cut away to within an inch or so of the leaves, hiking care to preserve some nice fibrous roots attached to the portion retained. Soil.—The best soil for the polyanthus is good fibry loam, leaf-mould, rotten horse manure, dry enough to crumble to pieces, and a little silver or river sand. The loam should form fully two-thirds of this compost. It should be prepared and well mixed together a month before it is used, and turned once or twice before potting time to thoroughly sweeten it. The pots should be well drained, with a little moss or fibry turf over it, and the soil should be pressed a little firmly about the roots. The soil should be used fairly moist. After Treatment.—After potting the pots should be placed in a shady position—a cold frame with a north aspect, for instance—and not be watered till they really need it. Like the auricula the polyanthus does best when water is withheld for a few weeks, provided the soil be moist when the plants are potted. About the end of September the plants need to be placed in a frame having a south aspect, and there wintered, protecting from frost when necessary, and yet giving an abundance of air on all favourable occasions in order to keep them dwarf and robust. Top-dressing. —-This is considered an important part of the cultural process. It is generally done in February by carefully removing an inch of the surface soil, taking care not to disturb the roots, and replacing it with a rich compost made up of good loam and dung. In spring the polyanthus puts forth new roots immediately below the leaves, and the top-dressing is intended to supply nutriment for these. In order to have a fine head of bloom the plants should be placed in a cool north house or frame as soon as their trusses are being developed, and be kept from cold winds and hot sun, which, if allowed to act on the flowers, will diminish their size, and destroy their depth of colour. Fancy Polyanthuses.—Within the last few years quite a new race of polyanthuses have been introduced, which are designated fancy varieties. They are of various hues of colour from pure white to deep purple and crimson; and the flowers are of great size, and finely formed, being selected with a similar regard to quality as observed in the case of the gold-laced varieties. They are of a very vigorous habit of growth, blooming with great freedom, and produce fine heads of flowers. They also are well adapted for pot culture, and should be treated in the same way as those of the florist’s type. CultivationinBeds.—Beds of both the gold-laced and fancy varieties make very attractive objects in spring, and are being much adopted, because so useful. The plants need a good soil, such as loam, dung, and leaf-mould, and they should be planted out as early as possible in October so as to become well established by the spring. In Spring a top-dressing of good soil will greatly assist the plants, and facilitate the production of fine flowers. Propagation.—This is done by dividing the roots at the end of the summer. In the case of the gold-laced varieties cultivated in pots it is done when the plants are potted in August; and the young side growths placed singly in small pots, or several in a store-pot. The plants used for bedding purposes are best divided in October at the time of planting the beds. As the beds in which the plants flower in the spring are wanted for summer purposes, the plants need to be lifted with good balls of earth about the roots, and planted for the summer on a cool border in a shady place, and kept well watered in hot dry weather. Here they make a profuse summer growth, yielding a good supply of offsets in autumn. Raising by Seed.—Seed should be saved only from the very best varieties, as there is always a decided tendency to deteriorate, especially in the case of the fine laced varieties. The seed should be sown in shallow boxes or pans, early in March, using a light free sandy soil. The surface of the soil should be made level and smooth, and the seed thinly scattered and then covered with a thin layer of earth, all being gently pressed down. A piece of glass should be placed over each pan, and over this a covering of paper. The pans should be put in a dry cool place, and the soil kept moist; and a thick crop will soon appear.HARDY POPULAR AND FLORISTS’ FLOWERS. 759 As soon as the plants are well above the ground the covering can be removed, but the pans need to be kept shaded from bright sunshine. When large enough to handle the plants should be pricked out into boxes to give them loom to grow, and finally planted out in the open ground to dower. A great many more seeds germinate in this way than when the sowing is made in the open ground; many failures result when the latter course is adopted. The varieties of named gold-laced polyanthus now procurable are:— Dari Ground Laced l arietta. Karl of Li urn/a—Extra fine, large and bold. Cheshire l'arourite—Extra fine, rich lacing. Alexander—A good bold flower. lied Ground Laced Varieties. Exile—A fine variety. Geniye IV.—Very large, but apt to come coarse. Lancer—Very free and striking. Fancy Varieties. Bride—Pure white, deep orange centre. Ciuupieror—Bright magenta crimson, golden centre. Marginafa—Maroon, edged and laced with white. Saturn—Claret maroon ground, golden centre. Viceroy—Sulphur, with deep orange centre. I Vrrrior—Rich shaded magenta, yellow centre. THE POTENTILLA.—There was a time when the potentilla could lay claim to a place among the flowers which the florist took in hand to improve. That is some time since, and now it has fallen away among the neglected plants that are but little grown. A large number of species have been imported from time to time, and a few of these have been used to yield the improved varieties now to be found in gardens. P. atrosan-guinea, with its dark scarlet flowers, gave rise to some tine forms, find these again have been used for seed purposes, and so a large progeny has accumulated, and the foreign horticulturists still raise new varieties, from which source our supplies fire mainly drawn. The flowers are large, single as well as double, of bold and striking appearance, and of very showy hues of colour; and a good supply of bloom is afforded during the summer and autumn from well-established plants. The potentilla should certainly be included in a choice selection of hardy perennials. Cultivation.-—The potentilla will thrive well in almost any situation and soil, but the better the conditions under which it is growing the finer will be the effect produced when the plants are in flower. An open position, fully exposed to the sun, is to be preferred provided the soil be a holding one. A good loam, a little stiff and well manured, brings these plants to great perfection, when they cannot fail to command admiration. When a bed is made for permanent use some manure should be dug in about the plants in autumn; and a good surface dressing of the same given in early summer. This secures a cool bottom during the hot months, which greatly assists the plants. Propagation.—This is done by division of the roots in autumn or spring, taking off any side growths, and potting them, or planting them out in prepared ground to grow into size. Generally the Spring is preferred for this work, just as the plants are breaking into active growth. As the potentilla is a seed-yielding plant seedlings can also be raised. The seed does best when sown in shallow boxes soon after being gathered, and the boxes placed in a cold frame and kept close during the winter. Sometimes the seed will vegetate in the autumn, but as a rule it comes away in early spring, when the plants should be encouraged to grow on as quickly as possible. A selection of single varieties should include:— Arlequiri. Lc Dante. Mara. Menziesii. Meteor. Striata multiflora. Douhle-iloicered Varieties. Chameleon. Etna. Louis van Houtte. Nigra plena. Touissant L’ Overture. Versicolor flore pleno. Cliromatella. F endlon. Marginata. Pluton. Vase d’or. William llollisson. THE PYRETHRUM (Pyrethrum roscum, L.)— The Pyrethrum is one of those flowers that have undergone a wonderful transformation at the hands of the florist. So far lias this improvement extended, that the fine double-flowered kinds of recent introduction may be said to bid fair to rival both the aster and the chrysanthemum. There have been in cultivation from time to time several single forms of the hardy herbaceous pyrethrum, but the first step towards the production of double flowers was a large variety of a distinct shade of rose colour raised by M. Them-isterri, of Belgium, and which was sent to the late Mr. John Salter, of Hammersmith. Under Mr. Salter’s treatment the single flower gradually filled in the centre, until double forms were reached. The first of these sent out was a variety named Itoseum Album, having several rows of florets of a lively violet rose with a white centre. The continental florists also took the pyrethrum in hand, and from them some of the finest forms we now possess have been obtained. Cultivation.—The pyrethrum is of a robust and vigorous character, and therefore not difficult to cultivate. It is a thorough hardy perennial, standing the severest winter unharmed in the open border. The plants do well in a free loam made rich by digging into it a good dressing of manure. When the plants are placed per-760 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. manently in it some manure should be forked in in the autumn, and a surface dressing applied in the spring. The slugs are apt to attack the plants, and they need looking after at the season of the year When they are found to devour them. Propagation.—This is done by dividing the roots when lifted, after the plants have done dowering, and also by means of cuttings made of the side shoots which are thrown out at the end of the summer. They can be pricked out into a prepared bed made up in a cold frame; or, under a hand-glass on a shady border; when they have rooted, they can be planted out to flower, and this can be done in the autumn or e;udy spring. Raising from Seed.—But little seed of the double varieties is saved in England, but it can be obtained from the Continent. It should be sown in pans in fine soil in early spring, and the pans placed in a cold frame and kept covered with a hand-glass, or they may be placed in a cool greenhouse, covered with glass, and shaded from the sun until it germinates; the young plants should in due time be hardened, and finally planted out like the cuttings. There are some single varieties grown, but the double ones are so much superior to them in every respect that the others are now but little sought for, and it is difficult to find them in catalogues. The following selection of double-flowered varieties comprises some of the best in cultivation, one of the very best being Haage et Schmidt:— A nnie Hollxrrn—White lilac blush centre. Delicatissimum—Lively rose, dwarf, extra fine. Oloirede Stalls—Rich purple carmine, fine. Haage et Schmidt—Rich rosy crimson, orange centre. Hermann Stcnger—Rosy lilac, very double. Jeanne d'Are—Blush, large flowers, extra fine. Le Dante—Bright crimson, very fine. Monsieur Barrel—Crimson purple, extra fine. Mrs. Dix—Blush shaded with purple, very double. Mrs. Plindce— Rosy pink, very double. Modele—Bright rose, large and fine. Nt Plus Ultra—Soft lilac, very double. Xiceum plenum—Pure white, large and fine. Princess Alexandra—Large pure white, very double. Progress—Dark red, very fine. liossuttt album—Rosy purple, white centre, fine. Scmirainis—Buff yellow, very fine. Virgo Marie—Pure white, large and fine. THE STOCK (Matthiola).—The stock now includes a numerous family, made up of several distinct types, all of great beauty and usefulness. Like other popular flowers the stock has undergone great improvements in the course of years, the foreign seedsmen especially having been foremost in prosecuting the work. Summer StocJrs.—These are the most popularly grown and the most useful of the types. By means of careful selection they can now be had of large size, with full double flowers, and of several hues and shades of colour. What is known as the Large-flowered Pyramidal German Stock is one of the finest strains one could well desire to cultivate. There are smaller and closer growing forms,butfor general usefulness the large-flowered type exceeds in value any other. Of this there is a wallflower-leaved section, distinguished by its blight green, smooth and glossy leaves, presenting a marked contrast to the grayish-green, woolly leaves of the older type. Seed should be sown in March and April, to secure a succession. A little warmth is advantageous in raising seed, as it soon vegetates by means of this assistance, and the plants grow on quickly. There is little difficulty in raising seed; it can be sown broadcast in a cold frame, or in shallow boxes or pans placed on the shelf of a greenhouse and covered with glass, or in a spent hot-bed, and indeed in many ways that will soon suggest themselves. Mildew will sometimes lay hold of the young plants and destroy many of them. In order to have strong plants it is well to transplant some of the largest to boxes, and to get them on into as good size as possible by planting-out time. Advantage should be Liken of showery weather to plant out in the open ground. The soil in which stocks are to be flowered cannot well be too rich; therefore it should be prepared by digging a good supply of manure and leaf-mould into it. An ordinary dibber can be used for planting, and if a little fine soil be put into the holes with the plants it will greatly assist their quick rooting. Stocks make very attractive beds, and are very useful indeed to cut from. Winter Stocks.—ITnder this head is included the Brompton, Queen, and Cape types. The Bromptons are known by their large spikes of massive flowers, but the purple and white varieties of these are very scarce indeed. The Queen stocks are dwarfer, of a close bushy growth, and flowering earlier than the Brompton stocks, generally early in May. They are of a somewhat robust character, and stand the winter well. There are the purple, white, and scarlet varieties. The Cape stocks greatly resemble the Queen stocks, but are hardly so robust. They are much grown on the Continent, but in this country are not so serviceable as the varieties of the Queen type. They however supply a larger number of tints of colour, which is acceptable from a decorative point of view. Seed should be sown in June or early in July, so as to get good plants to put out early in autumn to stand the winter. The warmer and drier the soil, the better are these stocks likely to stand the winter,HARDY POPULAR AND FLORISTS’ FLOWERS. 761 and it is well to have a position somewhat sheltered from the northern influences. It is undue moisture at the roots that proves more dangerous to winter stocks than frost and cold; and a well drained position in the garden should he therefore assigned them. In very cold and wet localities, where difficulty is found in wintering stocks, it is well to plant them out in a cold frame, where they can have protection during the winter. The Intermediate Stock.—The invariable rule is to sow these about the same time as that recommended for the winter stocks, and then pot them in the autumn or early in spring when they begin to show their double character. There are the scarlet, purple, white, and mauve coloured varieties. For the supply of the London markets the scarlet and white varieties are grown by the thousand; and as they possess a nice free branching habit, anil possess great sweetness of perfume and purity of colour, they are great favourites. The East Lothian Intermediate NtocL—-This represents a somewhat distinct strain peculiar to Scotland, where it is much grown for decorative purposes in the flower-garden. The practice there is to sow the seeds in a gentle bed early in March, and when the plants are in rough leaf they are pricked off into boxes 2 inches apart each way; and before they become crowded they are potted singly into 3-inch pots, and kept in cold frames till well established, but not pot-bound, when they are planted out in the open ground where they are to flower, about the middle of May. The plants bloom towards the end of the summer, and in early spring following, when they are very attractive. THE SWEET-WILLIAM (Dianthus barbatus, L.)—This is a fine old flower, common to gardens; and by reason of having been cultivated with some regard to those properties which constitute beauty in a florist’s flower, it has been wonderfully improved during the last twenty years. It has been grown for a long period as a border flower, receiving just that scant attention usually given to flowers of this character; but though the efforts to improve it are of recent development, the results have been most assuring. A notched or fringed edge is a normal characteristic of a flower of the sweet-william, together with smallness in size, a speckled surface, and a flimsy texture. By means of careful selection these have given place to flowers smooth on the edge, of large size, with handsome colours regularly displayed, and of a stout and durable texture. The florist has adopted the smooth edge as a qualification; but some of the fringed flowers are very attractive. A few years ago there were two strains that were much grown: one selected by Mr. Hunt of Wycombe, and known as Hunt’s strain, fine in form and varied in colour, but having dark centres; the other, the auricula-eyed, which had large white centres, with crimson and other shades round them. These two strains have now become blended. Raising from Seed.—Good seed being obtained it should be sown in a shady spot in the open air, on a bed made of good soil, in March or early in April, so as to have strong plants to put out in Jline and July during showery weather. It is a great advantage to transplant as early as possible in the summer to the blooming beds, that the plants may grow into size and become bushy. Soil.—A good loam suits the sweet-william, and it should be dug and well dressed with some rotten manure, for it is a vigorous grower, and a generous soil adds to the beauty of the flowers. The plants should be put out in lines 1 foot apart, and the plants 9 inches apart in the rows, and the soil pressed firmly about them. The ground should be kept hoed and clean from weeds, and a little soil should be drawn up to the plants as it greatly assists them. When in bloom a bed of sweet-williams is a fine sight. Propagation by Layers and Cuttings.-^Layers can be made in J uly in the same way as with carnations, using the strong side shoots for the purpose; or if they be gently separated from the parent plant, and put out on a shady border, the pieces will soon root. Fine and striking varieties are best increased this way, as they cannot be depended on to reproduce themselves exactly from seed. Double Sweet- Williams.—There are now several varieties of these with large and full double flowers of striking colours, especially of crimson hues. They are very attractive border flowers, and well deserving cultivation. They seed, and the varieties can be increased in numbers in this way; but any particular or favourite forms should be propagated by layers or cuttings. BULBOUS AND TUBEROUS ROOTED PLANTS. THE ANEMONE (Anemone coronaria, L.)— The anemone has long been a favourite flower in our gardens, and with the florist especially it has proved one of those subjects on which he has bestowed great pains in the direction of its improvement. Years ago it was a much esteemed exhibition flower, but its cultivation for that special purpose has declined of late, not because it has lost any of its beauty or decorative value, but in consequence of the introduction of other popular plants to general cultivation. The varieties of the garden anemone have7G2 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. chiefly been derived from A. coronaria. There are two sections, viz. the double-flowered and the single-flowered, all of which are hardy enough to bear the rigour of our climate, excepting in seasons distinguished by unusual severity. Mr. Carey Tyso, Wallingford, thus details the mode of culture he has followed with success:— “ Soil.—The soil should be a friable loam, in which gritty particles abound. Decayed turves form an excellent basis for compost. The manure to be added should be vegetable, in preference to animal, and be incorporated with the soil, rather than deposited in a layer below the tubers.” Some cultivators dig their beds quite 18 inches in depth previous to planting, and in the act of digging the dressing should be incorporated with the soil. The old plan was to put 3 inches or so of well rotted dung at the bottom of these beds, partly to keep the base of the bed cool, and partly to give the roots something invigorating to run in. Time of Planting.—Mr. Tyso states: “There are two seasons for planting, viz. the middle of October and the end of January. The early vegetation of such roots as are left in the ground would intimate that the former is the most natural season; and undoubtedly October-planted tubers make stronger plants, throw up more flower-buds, flower earlier, and when the season is favourable mature finer blossoms than those that are planted in spring. The main drawback is, that the blossoms expand before frosts have ceased, and hence a larger amount of care and protection is requisite.” Planting, &c.—“Make a bed of the prepared compost in a sheltered spot in the garden, where the subsoil is pretty well drained. Three feet four inches will be found a convenient width, and at least 15 inches in depth. Protect it from heavy rains, so that it be tolerably dry when required for planting. Rake the surface level, and mark the bed in cross-rows. Plant five roots in a row, which will allow 6 or 7 inches apart. As the tubers are varied in form and size, the hand or a trowel should be used to make the holes, 2 inches deep, and large enough to admit the root to rest evenly on the soil, avoiding much pressure, as the limbs of the tuber's are often slenderly attached to the crown, and are easily broken off. Anemone tubers are formed of irregular fleshy bunches, having a number of small protuberances called crowns. These crowns are distinguishable as tufted apices or obtuse points, often a shade darker in colour than the surrounding skin; they are frequently found in clusters near the centre, ami sometimes singly at the extremities of the projecting limbs. They are easily recognized by the practised eye; but as amateurs have frequently been known to plant them upside down, some attention to this matter is needful. The base or lower part of the tuber is known by the remaining fragments of the fibrous roots of the former year, unless indeed they have been very carefully cleaned away. The direction to plant the roots right side upwards seems very trite, but it is not in this case altogether superfluous.” Cultural Treatment.—“Strew over the surface of the bed 2 inches of half-decayed leaves for a protection against frost; but as the plants come up, attention must be given to liberate the rising foliage; the decayed leaves matted together by rains will sometimes obstruct and injure it. As the leaves and flower-stems protrude through the ground in a doubled or folded form, they disturb the soil; and the surface around the plants should be eased, broken fine, or pressed, as may appear needful. Should the protecting materials be thought untidy as the spring advances, they may be carefully drawn off, and a top-dressing of short decomposed stable dung and leaf-mould applied, which will be useful in nourishing and sustaining the plants. When the flower-buds appear they may be thinned out with advantage. It will often be found that some of them are defective in formation, some of them blind, or without the complement of central petals; these of course should be pinched off to strengthen those remaining. Water must be given in dry weather: copiously twice a week in the evening is better than occasional waterings.” The roots planted in October flower in May, those planted in January about June. Judicious shading will greatly prolong the period of blooming. Taking up and Storing.—Though the foliage of the anemone commences naturally to die away soon after the time of flowering, it yet happens that a second growth is sometimes made and fresh flowers put forth. In order to have the roots thoroughly ripened, it was the practice of the old florists to cover their beds during summer to protect them from rain. Dryness is the preventive of second growth, to which the anemone is prone, and it is to second growth, prior to lifting the tubers, that much of the want of successful culture is to be attributed. When the foliage is quite withered and dry, the tubers should be carefully lifted; and if the soil does not easily fall away from the fibrous roots, it is well to leave them a week or so before the final cleaning. Drying and storing are important matters, for the tubers are very susceptible of injury from damp. They should therefore be kept in a dry room and be occasionally looked over. If mildew appears]HARDY POrULAR AND FLORISTS’ FLOWERS. i 63 it should be brushed away, and the roots exposed to a drying atmosphere. Propagation.—The anemone can be propagated by division of the tubers, and new varieties are obtained from seed. The place of division is sometimes indicated naturally, but often it is needful to divide them by breaking. Although each portion possessing a crown will grow, yet division into many parts weakens the roots and diminishes the prospect of future bloom. The separation of a tuber into two parts is commonly as much as ought to be attempted. In regard to seeding, Mr. Tyso recommends that as soon as the seed is gathered, a bed of nice mellow soil, of which vegetable matter and road grit are large constituents, should be prepared ami raked level. The seed being woolly and adhesive, is to be put into a bowl with sharp sand, and rubbed till the seed and sand are evenly mingled. Then sowratlier thinly, and cover lightly with similar compost. Little more will be required than the extermination of weeds and worms, a supply of water in times of drought, and a slight top-dressing of rich soil among the young seedling plants, which will appear in less than a month. Thus encouraged the seedling plants will grow vigorously till November. Many will flower in the succeeding April, when the best should be marked, the worst rooted out, and space thus given for the growth of the plants that have not flowered. When the tubers are at rest, the largest, which will be indicated by the strength of the foliage, should be lifted and the bed again top-dressed with rich soil, to encourage the small roots which should remain undisturbed in the bed another year. The following list comprises some of the finest double anemones in cultivation :— Albani—White and rose. .1 o' yv liit'inn/Kimble—Blue. Ji'dUm d? I 'm—Red variegated. lion ftS—Blue. Cerise Prim" —Pink. CHrar Teudre—Daifk rose. Co'drirr dr Sa/nj—Rod. EdhMia —Shaded scarlet. Kuterpe— Purplish rose, Farorite —Rosy red. Teii H'ljierlc—Scarlet. Foiitairif llenv -Dark blue. GranriUe,— Pinkish rose. Henri (padre—Rose variegated. HjyflT Sindaf/—Dark crimson. Jim n of A re— Cream and white. Madame Rosenthal—Red and white. Xacariuq—Dark purple lilac. Plan taqnid—Violet blue. Wilhelmiiia—Claret. THE CROCUS.—The “ happy and beautiful crocus ” is a plant that does great and valuable ' service in our gardens in spring, opening its richly coloured flowers soon after the snows of winter have departed. The ordinary garden varieties of the crocus—those which are generally grown in gardens in the early spring months—are no doubt the progeny of C. aureus ami C. vermis, the first representing the yellow, and the last-named the purple, striped, and white varieties. By the Dutch florists they have been much improved from time to time, and now some very handsome forms are annually imported. A great number of the large yellow variety is grown in Lincolnshire and the adjacent counties. There are many beautiful species, both autumn and spring flowering, which are somewhat scarce —some indeed very rare; and they are now only found in gardens where particular attention is given to such things. On the other hand the ordinary garden varieties are much grown, especially for planting in clumps in borders, and as a permanent edging for beds and borders. In the latter case they have a great decorative value in early spring. Cultivation in Borders.—When first planted for this use, a trench some 9 inches in depth should be dug next to the edge of box, tiles, grass, or whatever may be used for the purpose. This should be filled up to the depth of 3 inches with some rich soil, and a line of good sound bulbs—strictly speaking, cormsBplaced on it about an inch or two apart. Then the trench should be quite filled with rich soil, and the whole pressed firmly down. In this way a most effective edging can be provided; but so thick will the corms become in course of time, that they should be lifted and replanted, while dormant, once in five or six years. The varieties of the crocus can also be planted in clumps in the mixed border, either in masses of one variety or of several varieties; and they are sometimes dotted about lawns, where they thrust up their blossom among the blades of grass in early spring. Cultivation in Pots.—A few corms put into pots in October, and treated similarly to hyacinths, are .of great value for conservatory decoration in early spring. The soil should be light and rich, and the corms buried just beneath the surface. The potted crocuses throw up a good succession of flowers, which come in some little time before the hyacinths and tulips. When out of blossom they may be transferred to the open border. The best among the ordinary varieties are:— A liken— Violet striped, large and fine Caroline Chisholm—White. David Iiir.zio—Deep glossy purple. La Majestmuse.—Violet and white stripes. Lilaeeus Superhus—Shaded light blue. Ke plus ultra—Blue tipped with white.7GJ GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Sir J. Franklin—Dark purple, fine. Sir Walter Scott—Pale lilac striped, very fine. Yellow—Large and fine. THE CROWN IMPERIAL (Frilillaria impe-ria’is, L.)—This plant represents a group of stately spring-tloweriiig plants, of great value as decorative agents in the early spring-time. The bulbs throw ftp strong stems, and nearly at the top there is produced a coronal of pendent, bell-shaped dowel's, surmounted with a tuft of fresh green leaves. There are several species of Fritillaria; but the crown imperial represents the largest and most striking of them all. Treatment.—The crown imperial being a strong grower, needs to be planted in a deep rich loam, but not too stiff and wet; in fact it should be well drained to prevent water from standing about the roots. If the soil is not rich, it should be made so by the addition of a good dressing of well-decomposed manure. When the plants are well established the stems send out, just above the bulbs, a number of strong young roots, and then it is that a top-dressing of rich manure greatly benefits the plants. They succeed in any situation; but they are especially fitted for shrubbery borders and outlying situations, where they can remain and establish themselves. It is recommended that the clumps be divided once only in five or six years, for they require to be established to bloom freely. The crown imperial is very useful for forming back lines to borders of spring dowel's, and its blossoms are in perfection during the month of April. In mixed borders, when grown in clumps, it forms a really grand object; and as the bulbs multiply freely in the ground, the clumps soon become very large. When the clumps are lifted for the purpose of division, it is a good plan to take away the small offsets, and plant them by themselves in a spare piece of ground, where, in the course of a year or two, they will develop into flowering bulbs. vation there are the Single Red and the Double Red, the Single Yellow and the Double Yellow. Then there are two forms of Single Red with variegated foliage, i.e. having the leaves striped and marbled, in the one with silver, and in the oilier with gold. In catalogues they are termed the Gold-striped and Silver-striped crown imperials, which terms are somewhat misleading, as the purcluisers sometimes suppose the flowers and not the leaves to be striped. What is known as the Crown-on-Crown is supposed to produce a double coronal of flowers, one above the other; but as far as observation goes, this double crown occurs only in fasciated stems. Other varieties are:— Aurora— bronze red, single; Cupid — orange, single; William Rex—orange, single. These are only selections; but they are quite distinct in character, and well worthy cultivation. THE DAHLIA (Dahlia variabilis, DC.)— This splendid flower is a native of Mexico, and was introduced into England in 1789 by the Marchioness of Bute, who brought it from Spain. The form, size, and colours of the flowers have been so much improved, that we now have almost every shade of red, white, yellow, and purple, as well as an infinite variety of mixtures of these colours. Dahlias are divided into two leading classes by florists, namely, show and fancy flowers. These distinctions are somewhat arbitrary and confusing, as a white, yellow, or pale-coloured dahlia, edged, tipped, or laced with a dark colour, after the manner of the picotee, is denominated simply an edged, tipped, or laced dahlia, and is included among the show flowers; but when the disposition of colours is reversed, and the florets being of a dark colour are tipped with a light colour, it is then denominated a fancy dahlia, as are all the kinds with carnation-like stripes. \Propagation.—The dahlia is propagated by seeds, cuttings, division of the roots, or occasionally by grafting. The seed may be sown in the end of March or the beginning of April, in pans filled with light rich soil, and placed in a bottom-heat of about 60°. A dung frame with a moist heat is invariably used by the leading raisers of seedling dahlias. ’When the seedlings are about 2 inches high, they should be pricked out in small pots, gradually hardened off in May! and planted out in the beginning of June. In propagating by cuttings, which is the usual mode, the roots are planted, but without covering the crowns, in February or March, in light sandy mould, either on a liot-bed or in large pots or boxes, placed in a moist bottom-heat of about 60°. Shoots are soon produced, and should be taken off close to the root when they have grown 2 or 3 inches in length, and be potted in thumb pots, or in threes round the edge of a 5-inch pot, using light sandy soil, with a layer of silver sand at top. They must then be removed to a gentle hot-bed, and kept close, shaded, and watered gently, till they strike root. They may then be potted singly into 4-inch pots, well drained, and filled with rich soil, and, when established, hardened off, and removed to a cold pit or frame, where they should be kept near the glass, allowed plenty of air, and repotted when necessary. They may be planted out in the end of May or beginning of June, and protected, if the nights are cold, by having an empty flower-pot inverted over them.HARDY POPULAR AND FLORISTS’ FLOWERS. 7G5 Cuttings of the shoots may also be taken off below a joint in summer, and struck in heat. The plants thus obtained form smaller tubers than those propagated earlier, and while dormant in winter merely require to be protected from frost, and to be started in heat .and repotted in spring. Division of the tuber-like or fleshy roots is chiefly practised where only a few strong plants are required. In this case place the roots in heat in March or April, anil when the buds at the crown push, divide into as many parts as is necessary, preserving at least one bud to each piece. The pieces must then be potted according to their size, and kept in a greenhouse or cold frame till the time of planting out. Grafting is sometimes performed in autumn, with the view of preserving new varieties, when there is danger of their roots dying in winter. A shoot is taken off' just below a joint, one of the leaves cut off’, and a portion of the skin removed; it is then inserted into, or applied against one of the fleshy roots, from which a corresponding piece has been cut. The graft having been tied up, and covered with clay, is potted so that it may be covered with the mould, and placed under a hand-glass in a slight bottom-heat. After the union has been effected the grafted roots should be gradually hardened off, and kept in a slow growing state during the winter. They will furnish a good supply of shoots for cuttings on being plunged in a hot-bed in spring. This practice is seldom resorted to. Soil.—The dahlia, to produce its flowers in perfection, requires a well-drained soil, which is neither very light nor of a strong adhesive nature. Any good fresh loam will do exceedingly well. The ground should be prepared by deep trenching in winter, and if it is naturally poor, some turfy loam and well-decomposed cow-dung, or old hot-lied mould, may be mixed with the soil at the time of planting. Much strong manure, however, is apt to cause canker in the roots, as well as by inducing over-luxuriance to prevent, in a great measure, the production of flowers. Planting.—Any open situation, not shaded by trees, will suit the plant. The tall varieties may be planted with good effect on each side of a walk, or in front of shrubbery borders. They also have a most brilliant appearance when planted in masses. The dwarf varieties may be used for bedding in the flower-garden, where they are either allowed to pursue their natural mode of growth, or are pegged down.] For decorative purposes those only should be grown which are of rich and effective colours, and throw out their flower-heads on long stalks clear of the foliage. [In the end of May, or first week of June, the plants may be planted out in the open ground. Holes are made 5 or 6 feet apart, according to the height of the variety, and the plants having been turned out of their pots, taking care to preserve the ball entire, are planted a little deeper in the soil than before. A good watering should then lie given, and this should be repeated once or twice a week if the weather be dry. To save trouble in watering, some mulch the ground round the stem with grass mowings or litter, but this, of course, cannot be practised in the flower-garden or pleasure-grounds, on account of appearance ; but some rotten dung or leaf-mould can be used with great advantage. Syringing, or watering overhead, in the evening, through a fine rose, may also be very beneficially practised, if that amount of attention can be bestowed. As the plants advance in height they should be tied to stakes with matting, and any superfluous shoots removed. Where very tine flowers are desired the side shoots are also supported by stakes, and the shoots, as well as flower-buds, thinned out, more or less according to the habit of the variety, strong-growing large-flowering sorts requiring very little thinning, whilst those of a less vigorous growth require to be thinned considerably. Flowers for exhibition are also protected from sun and heavy rain for some days previous to cutting, by shades of tinned iron, wickerwork, or wire covered with calico. When the buds have formed, liquid manure may be given with great advantage once a week. As soon as the stems are injured by frost they should be cut down to within 6 inches of the ground, and the roots taken up with a fork with the soil adhering to them, labelled with the name of the variety, and turned stem downwards for a few days, to permit the moisture to drain off. When dry, a good portion of the soil may be got rid of with a pointed stick, and they may be stored in hay, straw, dry soil, or sand, or be stood on shelves, the crowns being left uncovered in a cool place which is secure from frost, and free from damp. There they may remain till propagation is commenced in spring, with no other care than examining them from time to time, and removing any parts which are beginning to decay. Insect Eneni f es. E a r w i gs frequently prove very destructive to choice blooms by devouring the florets. To entrap them bean-stalks may be hung among the branches, or a flower-pot half-filled with moss, or a trap sold for the purpose, may be placed on the top of the stake. These contrivances should be examined every morning, and the earwigs destroyed.] There are also two other sections of dahlias, both of much value from a decorative point of view, viz. bedding and bouquet dahlias. The7GG GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. varieties of the former are especially adapted for decorative purposes in the flower-garden, either for forming masses, ribbon-borders, or single specimens in mixed borders. These are all of dwarf growth, averaging from lj to 3 feet in height. The bouquet dahlias have small, compact, and interesting flowers, and are valuable for cutting for bouquets, or for large groups of cut-flowers; they also make most effective garden plants, but are generally of tall growth. The following list comprises the best sorts in the several sections :— S/ioio Fcrwfiw. Acme of Perfection^Yrimrosci yellow. Anna Keynes—White, tipped with rose. Arbitrator—Buff or fawn, suffused with purple, novel. Caroline Tetterell—White, tipped with deep lilac. Charles Turner—Yellow, edged with crimson. Charlotte Darling—White, tipped with lake. Christopher liidley— Bright scarlet. Criterion — Delicate rose. Edward Purchase—Crimson. OintV King—Mulberry. Herbert Turner—French white, tinted with lilac. James Service—Dark crimson, largo and fine. John Standish—Bright red, very showy. John Neville Keynes—Yellow, fine form. Kate I/as/ant- Pale poach, very fine. King of Primroses—Primrose, very large. Leah—Golden yellow, extra fine. Lord Derby—Crimson, large and full. Mrs. llenshaw—White, extra fine. Ovid—Rich puce, extra fine. Sir Grecil/e Smythe—Bright crimson purple, fine. Thomas Goodwin—Very dark maroon, extra fine. Toison d’Or—Rich golden yellow. ]Villiam Pringle Laird—Lilac, extra fine. Yellow Boy—Fine yellow, large and full. Fancy Varieties! Butterfly—Buff, with scarlet and brown stripes. Carnation—White, flaked with rosy purple. Chang—Yellow, striped and mottled with scarlet. Fanny Sturt—Red, tipped with white. Flora Wyatt—Orange, striped and flaked with red. Flossie Williams-—Dark flaked purple crimson. Harlequin—White, striped with purple. Laura JIaslam—Palo yellow, tipped with white. Magpie —Dark maroon, white tips. Monarch—Very dark, tipped with white. Mrs. Goodwin—Fawn, striped with rod. Mrs. Saunders—Yellow, tipped with white, extra fine. Parrot—Yellow, striped with crimson. Pauline—Buff, with distinct white tips. Pluto—Dark maroon, tipped with white. Prospero—Maroon, tipped with white. Jllehard Dean—Yellow, flaked with crimson. Viceroy—Rosy lilac, crimson stripes. Bedding Varieties. Alba tloribunda nana—Pure white, 2 ft. BeUMti ties Massifs—Scarlet, very showy, free, 2\ ft. Crimson Item — Rich crimson, 2!, ft. Dari■ Model—Crimson, fine form, 2.\ ft. Faust—Shaded dark maroon, very free, 2 ft. Littl c 11 oitdcr- —Scarlet, '2h to 3 ft. L'Original—Buff, shaded with lilac-rose, 2h ft. Rising Sun—Intense scarlet, very free, 1J ft. Wiriegata—Pale lilac, variegated leaves, 3 ft. I'esitcius—Scarlet, very bright and free, 2f ft. White Redder—Pure white, dwarf and free, 2 ft. Ztlinda—Crimson purple, very free, 2 ft. Bouquet or Pompon Varieties. Amelie Barbier—Flesh, tipped with rose. Jiird of Paradise—Deep scarlet. Jluttcrfiy—Orange, tipped with claret. Criterion—Buff, tipped with claret. Emotion—Bright crimson, tipped with white. German Favourite—Crimson lake, deep edg'e. Little Dear—Blush white, striped with rose. Mdlle. Leon Goclefroid—Rosy white. Mrs. Sophie Eisner—White, shaded with lilac. North Light—Bright scarlet, good. Princess Alice—Maroon and white. White Aster—White, very free and good. THE GLADIOLUS.—During the last quarter of a century a wonderful improvement lias been wrought in the gladiolus, and there are now in cultivation an immense number of varieties of great beauty and diversity in colour. For many years past certain species have been known in our gardens, such as G. cardinalis, G. Colvillii, G. byzan-tinus, G. floribundus, G. ramosus, G. psittacinus, G. gandavensis, and others; but these have given place to the hybrids of G. gandavensis and G. floribundus, which are now extensively grown. They range in colour from pure white, with sulphur and primrose shades, up to the richest dark crimson; while many of the flowers are beautifully striped and flaked. The French florists, especially Mons. Souchet, of Paris, were among the first to take in hand the gladiolus and effect improvements in it; and now English raisers, and notably Messrs. Kelway & Son, of Langport, have taken a decided lead. Soil.—An open, airy situation should be given to this superb summer-flowering plant, especially when grown in beds. It should have a deep holding soil, such as a rich sandy loam, which needs to be heavily manured in autumn. This should be done in the month of October, trenching the soil to a depth of 2 feet, mixing in at the same time a liberal supply of old liot-bed or cow manure. The manure should be well decomposed before using. Planting.—In order to have a succession of bloom the bulbs can be planted from the first week in March, and at intervals of a fortnight or so on to the first week in June. This may appear late to keep the conns, but it can be done by preserving them in a cool dry place. A bed or border of three lines is the best arrangement, as the cultivator can then examine the growing plants! Olid keep them securely tied to supports as required. In planting, the conns need to be buried about 3 inches in depth, placing a little fine rich soilIIAKDY POPULAR AND FLORISTS’ FLOWERS. 7G7 .about each. During hot drying weather, and when the plants are in the full vigour of their growth, a good mulching of half-rotten manure, 3 inches in depth, will greatly assist the plants, and the production of tine spikes of flowers. As soon as the dowel’s appear, supplies of liquid manure may be given with great advantage. For ordinary dower-garden decoration, such as the embellishment of borders, for dlling up spaces between dahlias, roses, beds of rhododendrons, and such like, clumps of three or more gladioli, either of one or different varieties, can be planted. Some well-manured soil is essential if a tine decorative effect be desired. Pot Culture.—Though this is a practice not much followed, yet by cultivating in this way a tine eti'ect can be had in the conservatory. A twenty-four sized pot will be large enough for a strong bulb, and the compost recommended by Mr. Kelway is “ one part decomposed hot-bed manure and two parts rich loam, with a little river or silver sand under each bulb.” Potting can be done at any time during March and April, and the pots need to be plunged in soil, ashes, &c., in an open situation, and have liberal supplies of manure-water in dry weather. As soon as the flower-stems begin to lengthen they should be tied to stakes to protect them against danger from wind. As soon as the buds show signs of expanding the plants should be removed to the conservatory, where they have a brilliant effect when mingled with ferns and foliage plants. Growth in pots somewhat retards the blooming period, and if the conns be planted later for succession some can be had in flower when there are but few greenhouse plants in bloom. The conns should be lifted from the ground in October, as soon as the leaves begin to fade, and : laid out in a dry loft for a time. When the sap has been pretty well dried out the stems should I be cut away with a sharp knife close to the crown, and the conns placed in paper bags for the J winter, and stowed away out of the reach of frost. The young conns or spawn that form round the ' base of the parent should be carefully preserved ! and planted, for by this means any one variety can be largely propagated. liaising from Seed.—The gladiolus seeds very freely, and seedlings can be raised with comparative ease. The best method is to sow early in March, in large and somewhat deep pots, filling them with some rich and rather fine soil up to within an inch or so of the top. The seed should be sown thinly so that there may be twenty plant* or so in a 10-inch pot, and the pots placed in heat. When the plants commence to grow they should have plenty of air and be kept near the glass, and gradually hardened off so as to be placed in some warm and sheltered place out-doors about the end of May. The plants should remain in their seed-pots, be top-dressed with some rich soil, and well watered during the summer. About the first week in October the pots will require to be set in some place of shelter from frost, and there the conns will ripen their growth, and water needs to be withheld. The conns should then be taken up and put away in paper bags, and kept in a dry room till the first week in March, when they may be planted in the same way as that recommended for flowering plants. Many of the seedlings so raised will flower the second year. The following are some of the finest varieties raised by Messrs. Ivelway and Son :— White Ground. Accius. Medina. Hogarth. Osei. Mrs. Reynolds Hole. Pink or III ash. Julia. Lady Bridport. Lilac or Rose. 0 boron. Grandeur. Scarlet Shades. Astrea. Lycoris. Hesperia. Magnificent. Lord Napier. Rictus. Crimson or Red. Pheneus. Lord Bridport. Victory. Orcus. Yellow. Yellow King. Of the continental varieties the following form a select and varied collection:— Crimson, Addison. JolnvWaterer. Stephenson. Pale Scarlet, Rose, Figaro. Mons. Legouve. Sappho. Antiopo. Edith Dombrain. Lacepede. Pericles. Thomas Methven. mile Canova. Mad. Adele Souchet. Reine Blanche. Yellow Red. Horace Vernet. Le Phare. Virgil. and Salmon. Madame Furtado. Princess Clothilde. Ulysse. Bernard do Jussieu. Eugene Scribe. Madame Vilmorin. Robert Fortune. Zelinda. Ground. Didon. Norma. Sylphide. Ground. Scarlet, and Deep Purple and Puride-flaLed. C’itrinus. Nestor. Ophir. THE HYACINTH (Ibjacintlius orientalis, L.)— [This plant, a native of the Levant, has long been an inmate of our gardens, where it is esteemed one of our earliest and most beautiful spring flowers; and for producing a brilliant display inGARDENER’S ASSISTANT. 7 G8 the greenhouse during the winter months it is scarcely surpassed by any other bulbous plant. Propagation.—The hyacinth is propagated by seeds for obtaining new varieties, but as these are mostly imported from the Continent that mode of propagation is seldom practised in this country. The seed may be sown in September in light sandy mould, and covered to the depth of about * an inch. During the winter protection should be given from frost, and when the leaves die down 1 inch of fine mould should be sifted over the plants, and in the following year they must be treated in the same way. In the third year the bulbs may be taken up when the leaves turn yellow, and afterwards they should be treated like old bulbs, only not covered so deeply. The seedlings flower in the fourth or two following years. The offsets are removed soon after the bulbs are taken up; they should be planted 2 inches deep, in a bed of light soil, deeply dug, where they will merely require to have their 1 lower-stemS cut off for two years after planting, and to be treated in other respects like the old bulbs. They may be planted in the autumn of the third year in a bed for blooming. In order to cause an increased production of offsets, the Dutch, after taking up, make two cross cuts, commencing at the base, half-way through a healthy bull), which is then dried like the others, planted apart, and taken op in the following year, during which little or no foliage is produced, but a quantity of young bulbs is formed; these are separated, dried off, stored, and planted in nursery beds in the usual way. Culture in Beds.—Although the hyacinth will bloom well in any good garden soil of a light nature, yet, to flower it in perfection, and maintain the bulbs in a healthy condition, a bed should be specially prepared for its growth. The situation should be rather high, and well exposed to the sun; and if superfluous moisture does not readily p;iss away the ground should be deeply and thoroughly drained. The soil ought to be dug out in August to the depth of at least 2 feet, and replaced with prepared compost. As to what is the most suitable some diversity of opinion exists; the Dutch use soil of the lightest description—their own light sandy mould rendered still lighter by the addition of fine sand, and enriched with cow-dung; or decayed leaf-mould, river sand, and cow-dung are placed in alternate layers for six months, then chopped up together, again laid in a heap for some weeks, and finally put into the beds; but even then hyacinths are not planted in it the first year. In Britain soil of a heavier description is usually employed, but there can be no doubt that sandy soil is the most suit- able; it is in such that the plant grows naturally; it is in such that the Dutch cultivate the tine varieties which they yearly export to all parts of Europe; and it is in such alone, we believe, that there is any prospect of preserving these for any considerable time in our climate, cold and sunless in spring and summer, as compared with that which the plant enjoys in its eastern home. We would therefore recommend a compost of two parts light friable turfy loam, or sandy loam and peat, and decayed leaf-mould, sand, and rotten cow-manure, one part of each, the whole well mixed, laid in a heap for some months previous to use, and occasionally turned. The bed having been filled with the prepared soil, so that, allowing for settling, it may be about 4 inches above the adjoining path, should be levelled in October, keeping the centre 2 inches higher than the sides for a bed of the ordinary width, 4 feet. Planting may then be proceeded with in the same way as for tulips, placing the bulbs 8 inches apart, and at a depth of from 3 to 7 inches, according to the size of the bulb, the nature of the variety, whether strong-growing or the contrary, and the lightness of the soil. The largest bulbs and the strongest-growing varieties should be planted deepest; but in heavy soils it is not advisable to cover so deeply as in those of a lighter description. As a general rule 4 or 5 inches may be taken as good average depths in light soil. A little silver sand ought to be placed beneath each bulb, which, when placed in its position, should likewise be just covered with sand. After planting no attention is required except protecting the bed from severe frost by a layer of tan, straw, or some protecting material; but this covering should be removed before the plants push in spring, when they may be protected by hoops and mats, but these must be taken off whenever the weather is favourable, otherwise more damage is likely to arise from the leaves and stems being drawn up than from the frost. When in bloom an awning of calico or tiffany may be placed over the bed to screen the flowers from sun during the heat of the day, but it should be taken off before evening; and after flowering this covering may be kept on during heavy rain; at all other times, however, the plants should be freely exposed to air and light. The flower-stems should be broken off immediately after the bloom has faded, as the production of seed will tend to exhaust the bulbs. These must be taken up when the foliage assumes a yellow colour, and the leaves having been cut off, spread out on a dry bottom in an airy place which is shaded from strong sun, to complete their maturity. During the process of drying they ought to be occasionally turned, anyHARDY POPULAR AND FLORISTS’ FLOWERS. 769 loose earth which may adhere to the roots shaken 1 off, and all unsound bulbs picked out. When dry the rough outside skin, fibres, and offsets may j be removed if they part readily from the bulbs, i which may then be placed, without touching each other, in open drawers with perforated bottoms, I in baskets, or on shelves, in a dry airy place, ! where they should be occasionally looked over, ; and any which exhibit symptoms of unsoundness ! carefully removed. The Dutch pursue a different system in the i management of the bulbs. When the tips of the j leaves turn yellow they level a portion of the bed, I place the bulbs on their sides close together, with their roots facing the south, and cover them with an inch or two of earth. At the end of two or three weeks they again take up the bulbs, expose [ them to the air for some hours, clean them, and place them on shelves to dry. It may, however, be observed that this method is not practised on moist heavy soils. In replanting the Dutch never place the bulbs \ in beds where hyacinths have been grown in the preceding year; they always allow an interval of j at least two years, and more frequently three, I before they plant again in the same bed, the soil of which is enriched by the addition of rotten ! cow-dung in the winter previous to planting. Culture in Pots.—For flowering the hyacinth ! in pots in the greenhouse during the wdnter a mixture of two parts loam and peat, decayed leaf- i mould, well-decomposed cow-dung, and river sand, one part of each, makes perhaps the best compost j that can be employed. When the plants are j required to bloom as early as Christmas they should be potted in 6-inch pots in the beginning ! of September, and for succession from that time j to the end of November. The pots having been j well drained and filled nearly to the top with soil, j a little sand should be placed in the centre, and ' upon this the bulb must be placed; it should then ! be surrounded with soil, but so as to leave about half of the bulb above ground. The pots should then be placed on a dry hard bottom out of doors, and covered with 6 or 8 inches of decayed tan, leaf-mould, or ashes, leaving them thus for about six or eight weeks, by which time or sooner the ! pots will be well filled with roots. As soon as this is the case the most forward may be removed to a frame, where they should be gradually exposed to the light; and when the foliage has become green they may be placed in a pit where a temperature of from 60° to 70° is maintained. Attention must be paid to watering, and an occasional application of weak liquid manure may be given as the flower-spike advances. When the flowers begin to expand the temperature may be gradu- ally lowered; and when in full bloom the plants should be placed in the greenhouse. Throughout their growth they should be fully exposed to the light, and as much air as is consistent with maintaining the temperature required. By bringing in the pots according to the time of potting, and as they successively get filled with roots, and by placing in heat, or merely in the greenhouse, a succession of bloom may be obtained throughout the winter. After flowering the pots should be placed out of doors till the leaves decay; the bulbs may then be taken up and kept in a dry place till autumn, when they may be planted in the borders; it would, however, be more in accordance with nature if the pots were placed near the glass in a pit or frame, where the bulbs could ripen under an increasing temperature, and without the check which must be the result of their transference from the greenhouse to the open air. In Glasses.—Hyacinths grown in glasses are very ornamental in drawing-rooms, and their treatment is exceedingly simple. Firm well-ripened bulbs should be chosen, and the glasses having been filled with rain-water the bulbs should be placed so that their base may just touch the water. The glasses should then be placed for a few weeks in a warm dark place. When the roots are about 4 inches in length they should be removed to the light, but the bulbs ought not to be fully exposed too suddenly;. afterwards they should have all the air and light possible, otherwise the foliage and flower-stem will be drawn up and weakly. When the leaves are produced the glasses may be kept filled up with water as required. Fresh water should be supplied whenever that in the glasses becomes impure, but at whatever time it is given it ought to be of the same temperature as the air in which the plants are growing.] A few pieces of charcoal placed in the glasses when the bulbs are set in them will not only greatly assist in keeping the water pure but will be of service to the plants also. After flowering the bulbs are generally thrown away, but they will recover if planted out of doors in suitable soil. Single-flowered varieties of the hyacinth should always be selected for cultivation in glasses. The following list comprises the finest varieties of hyacinths in cultivation; a selection of the choicest sorts is marked by asterisks:— Double Red. Milton, dark red. Noble par mSrite, pink. Waterloo,* pale red. Grootvorst, blush. Koh-i-noor, pink. Lord Wellington,* rose. Double Blue. Bloksberg, dark stripe. Robert Burns, dark. Comte de St. Priest, light. Van Siebold, porcelain. Laurens Roster* dark, extra. Van Speyk* light shaded. 49770 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Double While. Anna Maria, blush. La Tour d.' Auvergne,* pure. Comtesse tie St. l’riest, cream- Prince of Waterloo* pure. colour, large. Triomphe de Blandine, pink Jenny Lind, purple eye. eye. Double Yellow. Goethe, pale. Heroine, bright citron. Jaune supreme, primrose. Single Red. Cavaignac,* pink striped. Prince Albert Victor, crimson. Fabiola, salmon striped. Robert Steiger, crimson. L'Etincellante, crimson. Solfaterre, fiery carmine. /,ina,* bright crimson. Sultan’s Favourite,* rose Macaulay,* rose striped with striped. carmine. Von Schiller, salmon red. Forma,* clear waxy pink. Vuurbaak,* dark red, fine. Single Dine. Adelina Patti, purplish. Grand Lilas,* light azure. Argus,* indigo, white eye. Haydn,* mauve, distinct. Baron van Tuyll, dark. Lord Palmerston,* pale, white Baron von Humboldt, blackish, eye. Charles Dickens,* light. Marie, rich dark blue. Couronne de Celle, porcelain. Mimosa, fine black. De Candolle, light. Orondatus, porcelain blue. Feruck Khan,* dark, extra. Prince Albert, purplish black. General Havelock,* rich black Hegulus, pale violet, purple. William I.,* dark purple. Single While. Alba maxima, pure. Mirandoline, pure. Baroness van Tuyll, creamy. Mont Blanc,* pure. Grand Vaingueur* pure. Orondatus, blush. Grandeur <1 Merveille,* blush. Pair de VEurope, pure. La G randesse* pure, extra. Queen of the Netherlands,* Madame van der Hoop,* pure, pure, extra, very large bells. Snou-ball, pure, fine bells. Single Yellow. Anna Carolina, primrose. Ida,* deep pure yellow, extra. Bird of Paradise,* pale. King of Holland, shaded Heroine, canary. Victor Hugo, bright. The ] >retty early-flowering single white Roman hyacinth should he grown for forcing purposes, and it can be had in bloom as early as November. It should, however, be grown from imported roots each year, as it deteriorates during the second year’s growth in this country. THE IRIS.—Under this name is comprised a large and interesting group, the flowers of which are curious and quaint in form, the colours rich and beautiful, ranging through many diverse tints. There is an immense number of them, as new additions are constantly being made, both by means of imported species, and home-raised varieties. The irises are undoubtedly entitled, by reason of their many fine qualities, to rank amongst the first of all our hardy ornamental plants, and yet they have been much neglected. There are two principal sections of iris now in Cultivation, viz. the bulbous and the rhizomatous, the first having long narrow bulb-like conns, the second creeping fleshy root-stocks called rhizomes, which form quite large masses in the case of established plants. The Bulbous Iris.— These are represented principally in our gardens by I. Xiphium, the Spanish iris, and I. xiphioidcs, the English iris. Both are of Spanish origin, the so-called English iris being the greater bulbous iris of Spain. There are a few other species of this group well worthy of cultivation, such as I. reticulata and I. persica; these are characterized by a delightful fragrance. There is also the early-flowering I. J/istrio, allied to reticulata, but scentless, which forces well, and may be had in flower early in November; and /. Jili-folia, whose flowers are brilliant purple with a bright yellow spot. The English and Spanish iris are represented by many varieties too numerous to particularize. All are more or less distinct and strikingly effective, and they can be strongly recommended for planting in groups and beds for a July display. The smaller Spanish iris differs from the English in the size of its roots and flowers, and in its more curious combinations of colours; it also blooms about a fortnight earlier. The pretty early-flowering species can be potted in a light soil for blooming under glass, or they can be planted out for permanent service, but under any circumstances the soil must be made very light, and be thoroughly well drained, for the bulbs are very apt to rot in stiff tenacious ground. Both the English and Spanish iris are too coarse in habit for cultivation in pots, and need to be planted in the open ground, and left there; but the soil in their case also should be of a light open texture and well drained. Great care is necessary to promote their success as flowering plants. The Rhizomatous Iris.—These are known as the flag irises, and more strictly belong to the previous ! section of this chapter, though treated here for convenience. They are found more or less abundantly in all countries, and are much more accommodating than the bulbous iris in the matter of soil. They yield a succession of bloom, commencing in February and continuing through a good portion of the summer. They are splendid subjects for ' massing together in various contrasts, and, being mostly early flowering, their floral beauty is exhibited while as yet the flower-beds are without their summer occupants. Their style of growth, the structure of the flowers—which is very remarkable—.and the splendid and often peculiar style of colouring by which they are distinguished, Stamp them at once with all the qualities that should be desirable in a popular plant. The earliest-flowering group is the Crimean iris, known also as I. pumila, and it includes some charming dwarf forms, growing from 8 to 9 inches high, flowering during March, April, and May, and comprising claret, purple, blue, and yellow flowered varieties. For groups in small borders or as edgings they are invaluable, and they succeed in almost any soil and situation, sheltered from cutting winds and hot sunshine. The bearded iris (/. germanicd), commonlyHARDY POPULAR AND FLORISTS’ FLOWERS. 771 called the German iris, or the blue flag of English gardens, comprises a great number of varieties, and some of the very handsomest forms. The flowers are all very large, and among the hues of colour represented are the richest yellows, the intensest purples, the most delicate blues, the softest mauves, and the most beautiful claret reds; there are also whites, primroses, and bronzes of every imaginable shade, and a single flower sometimes represents many of these varying shades of colour. The following species with their varieties constitute this group in the main: — amcena, germanica, neglecta, pallida, squalens, and variegata. Innocema is supposed to be the only milk-white rhizomatous iris known to cultivation. The bearded irises may be grown almost anywhere and in any soil, whether heavy or light, wet or dry. They form their rhizomes on the top of the soil; and if the plants are placed in the open ground during the winter the rhizomes should not be bulled,' as they are liable to rot. They strike their long thick roots deep down into the earth, and are great feeders; it is therefore of importance that some good manure be dug in about the plants in the autumn. There is yet a race of iris, of Japanese origin, known as the Japan flag iris (/. Kwmpferii). They are, without exception, the most exquisite of all the irises, but do not flower freely in all soils; they succeed best in sandy peat, wherein they produce vivid green foliage, and an abundance of dowel's. THE NARCISSUS. — There is perhaps no flower more widely known or grown than the homely daffodil; and it is one of the earliest, as it is also one of the most lasting of spring flowers. There are a large number of species of Narcissus, and a good many forms of some of them, including both double and single, some being common, and others very scarce. The narcissus bears a flower of peculiar shape, having a perianth of six parts, representing calyx and corolla, and from the inner surface of this perianth issues a crown or coronet, which is more or less trumpet-shaped or cup-shaped, being either long or short, according to the particular species, which may be roughly divided into those in which the crown is as long or rather longer than the perianth, those in which the crown is half as long as the perianth, and those in which the crown is less than half as long as the perianth. It is the last of these groups which may be regarded as representing the true narcissi. It includes Narcissus bijlorus, the old primrose peerless; N. Jonquilla, the single and double jonquils; N. gracilis, a similar plant, with graceful yellow starshaped flowers; the common N. poeticus, or phea- sant-eye narciss, and its richly-scented double variety, best known as the double white; and the many forms of N. Tazetta, of which the best-known are lacticolor, orientalis, prcecox, and ro-manus, or the early-flowering Roman narciss, which is used for forcing purposes. Under this species {Tazetta) are ranged the polyanthus narcissi, with their large heads of white, creamy, or yellow dowel's with golden yellow, citron, lemon, primrose, or pure white cups or coronets, all the varieties being richly fragrant and much grown for flowering in pots in early spring, as well as for the decoration of beds in the open ground. When grown in the open ground the bulbs of the Tazetta type should be from 6 to 9 inches below the surface of the soil. The jonquils are generally grown in pots for the sake of their delightful fragrance; and they should be treated in the same way as the hyacinth. Among the mock narcissi, represented by the group with medium-sized coronets, are included some remarkably fine forms, both double and single, the best-known types being N. incom-parabilis, and its several varieties, including those known as butter-and-eggs, and orange phoenix; N. juncifolius, a charming dwarf species, bearing yellow flowers; and N. odorus, and odorus minor, the double form of the last being also known as Queen Ann’s double jonquil. The best time to plant these in the open ground is in January, and they will then produce their large blossoms in fine character during May. In the group of the pseudo-narcissi—those with the trumpet-shaped coronets—the plants vary much in size, from the giant iorms of N. bicolor down to the pretty little N. minor, minimus, and the hoop-petticoat narciss (Corbidaria tenuifolia) and its allies. The last-named is a well-known form, but the bulbs should be dug up in the autumn, and stored away in a cool dry place till January or February, and again planted. This practice is recommended because the bulbs, if allowed to remain in the ground, become excited early in the winter, and the growth is in danger of being destroyed by frost. The hoop-petticoat narciss is also known as Medusa’s trumpet. Here also are found the Ajax or trumpet narcissi, which include N. bicolor, bicolor Ilorsfieldii, and bicolor Empress, a gigantic and magnificent variety; N. cernuus, and cernuus flore-pleno, N. lobularis, and lobularis plenus, N. major, maximus, and minor, N. moschatus, N. nanus, N. nobilis, N. obvaUaris maximus, N. Pseudo-Narcissus, N. Telamonius, and Telamoniusplenus, the large double golden yellow daffodil. All these are very fine, and of great value for the decoration of flower borders. In regard to the time of flowering it may be772 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. stated that the trumpet forms of the daffodil bloom first, commencing in February, and are followed by the mock daffodils in March, the Tazettas in April, and the true narcissi in May. Cultivation.—The daffodil is an accommodating flower, thriving well in almost any soil or situation, but doing best in a deep and moderately stiff yellow or black loam. As far as possible it should be planted so as to have the benefit of shade when the flowers are fully expanded, for hot sun destroys them sooner than rain, frost, snow, or wind. Clumps once planted can remain for a long time in the earth, and they will increase in size and flower with greater profusion year after year. They are well adapted for planting on the margins of lakes or ponds, and in the grass by the side of woodland walks, or in open spaces in shrubberies, where they are conspicuous objects in spring. Deep planting is recommended for all the forms. Of polyanthus narciss the following varieties are recommended for blooming in pots in spring, three bulbs of each variety being placed in a 6-inch pot in some good soil in October and November, and treated in the same way as the hyacinth:— Bathurst—Primrose, orange cup. Bazelman major—White, yellow cup. Florence Nightingalk—White, orange cup. Gloriosa—White, orange cup, extra fine. Grand Monarque—White, citron cup. Grand Primo—Yellow, very fine. Paper White—Pure white, very early. Perle d’Amour—Primrose, yellow cup. Sir Isaac Fei(seep.690).—Very hardy dwarf tufted, half-shrubby cruciferous plants, 9 to 12 inches high, bearing bright yellow corymbose flowers in great profusion in April. A. saxatile and A. gemonense are in cultivation. They are natives of Europe, and will grow in any ordinary garden soil. The former is a very old inhabitant of our gardens, and there is a variety of it with variegated leaves. Anemone (see p. 690).—The florist’s varieties of the South European A. coronaria and A. hortensis are very showy spring flowers, suitable for massing in beds, but not for pattern bedding. The single and double varieties of the former exhibit a great variety of shades of purple, violet, and almost pure blue, rose, pink, and white. The latter includes scarlet and crimson varieties. To get them in bloom early, the tubers should be planted in October or November. Antennakia tomentosa (see p. 706).—An elegant composite plant, trailing close on the ground; cultivated for its small silvery hairy leaves, and admirably suited for edgings, folia, which are very useful for bedding. Cerastium tomentus-um.—This excellent trailing silvery-leaved plant is useful for a variety of purposes, and as it will bear any amount of cutting and clipping it may be kept as a permanent edging. Southern Europe, 1648. Che Iran thus (see p. 092).—To this cruciferous genus belongs the wall-flower, C. Che in, whose varieties are familiar to all. C. alpina, a dwarf plant (6 to 9 inches), has single bright yellow, and C. Marshaltii bright orange flowers; both are well suited for bedding, but they do not commence blooming till towards the end of April or at the beginning of May. They are natives of the south of Europe, and do not thrive satisfactorily in wet heavy soils. From seed, or cuttings in the case of the double-flowered varieties. Crocus (see pp. 71f>, 763).—There are several spring-flowering species of this genus in cultivation, all natives of the south of Europe or Asia Minor; the date of the introduction of the first species is unknown. C. vermis is the parent of all the varieties with a hairy throat to the perianth; there are various shades of blue, and purple, and white, and striped varieties; C. reticulatus has yellow flowers brown outside; C. hi tens, yellow; C. variegatus, purple; C. Iniperati, lilac, striped with purple; and C. bijlorus, white or striped with purple externally and yellow within, are the principal species from which the numerous garden varieties have descended. For edging or massing in small beds they are exceedingly effective, but they begin flowering in February and are over by the end of March. The bulbs need not be replanted oftener than once in three or four years, when they will have increased considerably in numbers under favourable conditions, and they will succeed in almost any soil. Erysimum Peroffskiamnn (see p. 725).—This showy annual is one of the best for early flowering if sown in the open ground in early autumn, or in pans to be transferred afterwards. Suitable for a small bed with an edging. Fritillaria (see pp. 715, 764).—The crown imperial, F. imperialis, is one of the most showy of early-flowering liliaceous plants, and suitable for spring bedding, because it dies down before the time arrives for putting out the summer plants. Galanthus nivalis.—The common snowdrop is too well known to need more than mention here. Its flowering season is too early for general bedding purposes, but it may be employed as an edging with shrubs. G. plicatus is an allied later-blooming species. Hkdera (see p. 659).—Permanent edgings of various green and variegated ivies are very effective and easily managed. Ivies are also useful for partially covering the pedestal of a vase or filling a vase in winter. The varieties are very numerous and beautiful both in the form and variegation of the foliage. Hepatica (see p. 696).—The single blue, pink, and white, and the double blue and pink forms of II. triloba and the blue II. angvlosa are all valuable plants for spring bedding. They love partial shade, and should for this purpose be grown in pots and plunged out when required. Hyacinthus orientalis (see pp. 716, 767).—There is an unlimited choice of varieties of the hyacinth, presenting almost every conceivable shade of blue, red, and yellow, and pure white, and they are excellent as spring bedders. Iberis (see pp. 697, 709).—Several species and varieties of candytuft are suitable for spring bedding, as they will succeed in any ordinary garden soil with very little attention. Almost all the perennial species flower in spring, and I. sem-perflorens begins blooming in the autumn and continues through the winter in mild seasons.780 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Lithospermum fruticosum (see p. 709).—This is unquestionably one of the most beautiful of spring-flowering perennials, when it succeeds properly. A light well-drained soil is necessary to have it in perfect health. It is a prostrate, half-shrubby plant, with rich deep blue flowers, resembling those of the forget-me-not. L. prostratum is only a variety of this. Southern Europe, 1825. Mattiiiola (see pp. 728, 700).—Some of the varieties of stocks may be grown in pots and turned out in spring, but they require the warmth of summer suns to develop their full beauty. Malcolmia maritima, Virginian stock.—This is one of the few annuals suitable for early spring decoration. Muscari (see p. 717).—Most of these are spring-flowering plants, but the varieties of M. botryoides and M. racemosum are among the most familiar and also the best adapted for edgings, Ac. They grow from 0 to 12 inches high. The pure white, sky-blue, and tipped varieties of the former are handsome compact plants, flowering in April and May. It is better not to disturb the bulbs except when it becomes desirable for thinning out. Myosotis.—Several species and varieties of forget-me-not, including M alpestris, M. dissitijlora, and M. azorica, are used for bedding, and few plants are more attractive. For this purpose they must be raised from seed in autumn and brought forward in a pit. They require so little care, and furnish a colour that is very rare among plants available for bedding, that they ought to be grown in every garden. Although perfectly hardy, young plants flower much more freely than old ones, and therefore it is better to raise seedlings every second or third year. In mild seasons M. dissitijlora comes into bloom out of doors early in May. M. sylvestris sown in July and autumn planted forms beautiful spring beds. Narcissus (see pp. 717, 771).—A familiar genus of hardy bulbous plants, consisting of numerous species, very prolific in varieties. They are not very exacting as regards soil, if tolerably light and rich. The varieties of A\ Pseudo-Narcissus, the daffodil, will grow almost anywhere. Nemophila insignis (see p. 728).—This and some of the other species attain greater beauty if sown in autumn for spring flowering, and they form very effective beds or border-ings. Oxalis corniculata rubra.—A very hardy self-sowing plant, with trifoliolate copper-red leaves, and small yellow flowers. Very pretty, very hardy, and difficult to get rid of after being once planted. The common green form is supposed to be indigenous in the south-west of England. Phlox (see p. 710). — The varieties of spring-flowering phloxes belong principally to one species, namely, P. subulata, a dense dwarf tufted plant, growing only a few inches high, having small narrow leaves, and pink, purple, or white flowers with a darker centre. The names sctacea, Xelsoni, frondosa, and nivalis have been given to varieties of this, which was introduced from N. America in 178G. P. rcptans, introduced from the same country in 1800, and cultivated also under the names of P. verna and P. stolonifera, is a very different plant, having roundish thick nearly smooth leaves, and clammy naked flower-scapes bearing small cymes of reddish-purple flowers. Primula (see p. 711).—To this genus belong some of the most valuable of spring-flowering plants. The single-flowered varieties of the common primrose, P. vulgaris, take a high position. The double white, crimson, lilac, pink, and yellow are simply indispensable; and many of the intermediate tints are very pretty. Then come the polyanthuses, varieties of P. veris or P. officinalis, which exhibit innumerable shades and combinations of red, purple, and yellow. Pyretiirum Parthcnixcm axxrexun.—This is called golden feather; it is a hardy perennial, with elegantly-cut soft yellow foliage. For spring use the borderings of the previous summers may be retained where convenient; but for summer young seedling plants are preferable, because they are later in producing flower-stems. Saxifraga crassifolia (see p. 702).—Some of the best varieties of this and allied North Indian species with large glossy leaves, a foot or more in length, and clustered pink or purplish flowers, make ornamental permanent beds. Half-shaded situations in small isolated beds. Many species of saxifrage have very pretty foliage for edging purposes. Sempervivum (see pp. 712, 795).—Fleshy plants with the leaves in regular rosettes. Among the hardiest we may mention S. calcareurn, commonly known in gardens by the name of S. californicum. It is a native of the south of Europe. Silene pendula.—For edging or massing this annual, sown in autumn, is one of the prettiest and most useful of the genus. There are rosy pink and white varieties. Scilla (see p. 717).—Dwarf bulbous liliaceous plants, with narrow radical leaves, and spikes of blue, purple, pink, rose, or white flowers. The varieties of S. bifolia and S. sibirica are among the prettiest of early spring-flowering bulbs, blooming from the end of February or beginning of March until the end of April. A rich moderately heavy soil suits them best, and the bulbs should only be disturbed when they become too thick. For edgings, small beds, and various other purposes they are very useful. Tulipa (see pp. 718,774).—The species and varieties of tulip are numerous, and may be ascertained from the various nurserymen’s catalogues. The varieties of T. suaveolens, called Van Thol,and the numerous varieties of T. Gesncriana, including Rex rubrorum and Tournesol, are among the best for massing. Where expense is not the first consideration, fresh bulbs should be planted each season for bedding purposes, but for the mixed border they may be allowed to remain undisturbed for several years. Viola.—Some varieties of the pansy, V. tricolor, and of V Ixitea and cornuta, as well as some hybrid varieties, are valuable for spring and summer bedding. Among pansies we may note Imperial Blue, Blue King, blue; Snowflake, Miss Maitland, Dean's White Bedder, white; Bedfont Yellow, Cremorne, Dickson's Golden Gem, yellow; Cliveden Purple, purple; and Magpie, mulberry blotched with white. Among the best varieties belonging to other species or of hybrid origin are Perfection, bright blue shaded with mauve; Magnificent, violet with yellow eye, bred from V. cornuta; and Grandi-flora Major, pure clear yellow, obtained from V. lutca. A rich cool soil is essential to those plants, and with this advantage many of them flower well through the summer. § 2. Plants adapted for Summer Bedding. Abutilon.—Erect malvaceous plants, chiefly used in bedding for centres, single plants to bring out the patterns, Ac. The varieties in use for these purposes are not numerous. A. Boule de Xeige is used for its pure white flowers; whilst A. Thompsoni has curiously variegated leaves, blotched with yellow. A. vexillarium marmoratum, aureum macidatum, and others, have variously marbled and variegated foliage, and are useful in many ways; they will grow 2, 3, or 4 feet high, if not stopped. Natives of tropical and subtropical regions; propagated by cuttings. Ageratum meo^icanum (see p. 723).—This familiar bedding plant, being of very free growth, is rather extensively planted, but the old tall-growing sorts have been superseded by dwarfer varieties, which seldom exceed a foot in height. Chafer's Imperial Dwarf, Imperial Dwarf White, and White Toxn Thu tub, are among the best. Readily propagated from seed or cuttings. Will not endure any frost. Ajuga rcptans purpurea.—This variety has deep purple bronze foliage. A hardy creeping plant, native of Britain, thriving best in damp places. Useful for edgings, as it will grow in almost any soil. Division. Altern anther a.—There are several exceedingly beautiful varieties of A. sessilis, Ac., in cultivation. They are among the most effective of dwarf bedding plants with coloured foliage, but their flowers are insignificant. To succeed well they require a light warm soil, as they are natives of tropical South America. They are of tufted habit, ranging from 3 or 4 inches to nearly 1 foot in height. The leaves are small, and variously variegated with yellow and red or crimson. Those named amocna,amoena spectabilis, magnifica, paronychioides major, and amabilis are the best. Raised from cuttings inBEDDING AND SUBTROPICAL PLANTS. 781 strong heat, ami grown on in a warm greenhouse, they should he carefully hardened off before planting out. Alyssum maritimum variegatum — syn. Koniga maritima variegata.—A slender branching plant about S or 10 inches high, with narrow linear leaves, prettily and distinctly margined with white, and bearing also small white flowers. This is a very pretty variety for edging, filling small beds, &c., and in its way has no rival. The type is a European plant, and quite hardy. Propagates freely from cuttings. Amaranth us (see p. 723).—Tender plants with coloured foliage. A. melancholicus ruber is a very effective plant, with deep red foliage, growing 2 feet or more in height if not pinched back. A. m. tricolor has beautiful foliage variegated with crimson yellow and green; and A. salicifolius has long narrow wavy leaves. Natives of eastern tropical countries. Propagated by seeds. Antexxaria tomentosa (seep. TOG).—A diminutive creeping plant with silvery woolly leaves, admirable for edging. A native of North America, and quite hardy. Antirrhinum rnajus (see pp. 724, 737).—Some of the named varieties of this old favourite make fine beds, with a well contrasted edging. There is a race of dwarf varieties specially adapted for bedding. Propagated from cuttings. Armeria, thrift.—For permanent edgings, etc., the crim-son-tlowered, white, and other varieties of A. maritima and other species are very useful, as they are perfectly hardy, and easily propagated by division. A run do Don ax variegata (see p. 7S6).—A stout tall-growing South European grass of noble aspect, with variegated foliage, suitable for clumps or beds. Aster. See Callistephus. Bam bus a Fortunei (see p. 78G).—There is a pretty variegated variety of this hardy bamboo suitable for beds or edging for tall-growing plants. It should be liberally watered in the summer time or it soon loses its beauty. Begonia.—Some of the hybrid varieties of the almost hardy tuberous-rooted species have very large brilliantly-coloured flowers, and elegant foliage, and are very effective bedding plants; but they are not yet very extensively used for this purpose. Beta Clcla variegata—syn. B. chilensis (see p. 7S7).—There are various handsome varieties of the common leaf-beet, having the leaf-stalks and nerves of different shades of bright yellow, orange, magenta, or crimson. Propagated from seed, the brighter coloured plants being selected when young and grown on. BrassicA.—The curled and frilled varieties of B. oleracea with coloured foliage are very curious and pretty, and are not so generally planted as they deserve to be, especially for winter beds. Callistephus hortensis, China aster (see p. 724).—The great variety of asters now in cultivation offer a rich choice of colour for bedding purposes. They are especially valuable for making a good display in autumn; but they may be had in bloom early or late according to the time of sowing. Calceolaria.—During the last few years calceolarias have been so much infested with disease that gardeners have been ! endeavouring to And a substitute for them; but nothing yet proposed to replace the yellow-flowered varieties is equal to them for bedding purposes. They require a cool, rich soil, and frequent watering in dry seasons. Propagated from cuttings in the autumn, and kept in a cold pit or greenhouse during the winter. Among yellow varieties may be named Aurea jloribunda, Yellow Prince of Orange, and Golden Gem. The orange-brown and orange-crimson varieties, as Prince of Orange, Firefly, Sambo, and Sparkler are very striking and less difficult to grow than the yellow ones. Natives of the mountains of South America, and nearly hardy in the milder parts of the kingdom. Canna (see p. 787).—The species and varieties of this genus are numerous and beautiful, both in foliage and flowers, and some of them are employed in almost every style of bedding. Centaurea (see pp. 787, 703).— Plants with bold variously cutorlobed silvery leaves, and yellow or purple flower-heads. In bedding they are used for the fine contrasts their silvery foliage affords, and therefore they are not usually permitted to fiower. C. ragusina has exceedingly elegant, dissected leaves. They are natives of the Mediterranean region, and nearly or quite hardy with us. Offsets or side cuttings in a cool pit with a moderately dry atmosphere. Ckrastium tomentosum (see p. 703).—This hardy trailer with silvery foliage and star-like white flowers, makes one of the best of edgings. Chrysanthemum.—The dwarf varieties of this admirable genus make a fine display late in the autumn in the milder parts of the kingdom, in town and sea-side gardens. Cineraria maritima.—A hardy perennial from the south of Europe, having pinnate silvery-haired leaves. It grows about 2 feet high. Clematis.—Some of the beautiful varieties of this genus form very showy permanent beds. For this purpose they are tied down or allowed to run over dwarf trellises. Early in the spring the shoots should be thinned, and cut back, reserving only the stronger ones for flowering. C. Jackmanni, purple; C. lanuginosa Candida, white; C. Madame Grange, mulberry crimson with red bars, and C. rubella, mulberry purple, are all fine sorts. Coleus.—The hybrid varieties, and even the old C. Ver-schaffeltii and Veitchii, have brilliantly coloured foliage; but they are too tender for bedding purposes, except in very favourable situations or unusually mild seasons. Still they are so easily propagated that they are worth trying where there is a chance of success. Natives of tropical Asia and the Pacific Islands. Convolvulus mauritanicus.—A very ornamental trailing perennial species with mauve-purple flowers. Suitable for vases, &c. A native of Northern Africa, and almost hardy in the south-west. Cordyline australis (see p. 788).—In the young state this is a simple-stemmed evergreen, with a terminal tuft of long narrow recurved leaves. For the centre of a bed, or a large vase, or planted out singly, it is very effective. Native of New Zealand, and hardy in many places. Propagated from portions of the stem and lateral shoots. Cuphea ignea — syn. C. platycentra.—A dwarf perennial, with smooth lanceolate leaves, and tubular scarlet flowers, having a narrow black and white limb. Profuse flowering, about a foot high. Easily propagated from cuttings. Mexico. DactYLis glomerata variegata.—The variegated variety of this strong-growing native grass is very elegant. Dahlia (see p. 764).—The bedding varieties range from 2 to 3 feet in height. The following are among the best at the present time:—Alba floribunda nana, pure white; Gem of the Dwarfs, crimson tipped with white, 2 feet high; Cap-tain Ingram, dark crimson, one of the very best dwarf varieties; Rising Sun, brilliant scarlet, early; Prince of Wales, yellow and crimson; Pluton, pure yellow. Eciieveria (see p. 793).—Succulent crassulaceous plants, with thick, fleshy leaves in rosettes, as in E. secunda and its varieties, or large, broad, and spreading, as in E. metallica. ! Plants of this class should not be associated with ordinary ! bedding plants, as the mixture produces an incongruous effect. Many gardeners, however, use the smaller ones for edging. Euonymus radicans variegatus.—This hardy shrub forms a beautiful compact edging of almost any height required. The variegation is white and green. Festuca ovina glauca.—A dwarf, tufted, hardy grass, with extremely slender blue-green leaves. It has a somewhat arid appearance, and should be only sparingly used. Fuchsia.—The hardy varieties, as Riccartoni and globosa, form beautiful permanent beds; and in half shady sheltered places, standard and pyramid plants are unsurpassed for centres or standing out singly. There are some pretty varieties with coloured foliage, as Meteor, which has the young growth flushed with red. Golden Fleece, with the leaves bronzy-yellow, &c. Young plants are preferable for bedding purposes. GazaniA.—Trailing plants, with linear-spathulatc leaves, and large flower-heads, which open only in sunny weather. The ray florets of G. splendens are bright orange, with a black and white spot at the base. There is a variety in which the782 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. leaves are elegantly variegated with white. Easily propagated from cuttings in spring or autumn. South Africa. Gladiolus (see pp. 71G, 700).—This magnificent genus of bulbous plants should not be forgotten when filling outlying beds, Ac. Free-growing free-blooming varieties, such as G. brenchleyensis, are best suited for this purpose. HEBERA, ivy (see p. 050).—Some of the smaller leaved varieties, both green and variegated, form excellent permanent edgings, and are useful for a variety of purposes. Heliciikysum 2^tiolatvm—syn. Gnaphaliuni lanatum.—A trailing, vigorous plant with silvery gray foliage, almost hardy, which rapidly fills up its allotted space, and will bear any amount of cutting back. A nati ve of South Africa, increased by cuttings. The varieties of II. bractecttum, usually treated as annuals —the annual everlastings — are very showy for isolated beds. IIeliotropium pfcruvianum. —This familiar plant was introduced in 1757, and though it is only within the last few years that florists have turned their attention to the raising of improved varieties, there is already a considerable choice, from nearly white, to a deep violet; and there are dwarf varieties, Jersey Beauty, for example. M iss A’ igh tiny ale is a capital sort for bedding, and Surpasse Guascoi is remarkably fine. Heliotropes do not require much heat; on the other hand, the slightest frost injures them. Propagate from cuttings in heat in spring. IlESi'ERis matronalis, rocket (see p. 090).—The double-flowered varieties of this old favourite hardy perennial make showy beds, which are especially agreeable in the evening when the flowers exhale their delicious perfume. The double-flowered varieties can only be increased from cuttings or offsets. South Europe, 1597. Iresine.— Plants with handsomely coloured foliage growing from 1 to 2 feet high; flowers inconspicuous. They require a warm season to bring them to perfection, especially I. Herb-stii, but they are very beautiful when fully developed. The leaves of I. Ilerbstii are oblong, cupped, variegated with crimson, and in a variety called aureo-reticulata netted with yellow. J. Lindeni has longer lanceolate flat leaves which, as well as the stem, are of a crimson red. South American plants, raised from cuttings in heat. Lantana.—Showy plants of erect bushy habit, closely related to the verbenas. Some of the best of the new varieties are very pretty bedding plants. They embrace white, yellow, and various shades of red, and combinations of red, white, and yellow, the colours often changing with age. The species from which the cultivated varieties have descended are from South America. They are free-growing plants, easily propagated by cuttings in spring. Lathy RUI odor at us, sweet-pea (see p. 727). —This forms showy beds if not planted too thickly, and provided with dwarf trellis-work or short spray-boughs. Lobelia (see pp. 727, 794).—The dwarf lobelias used for bedding are seminal varieties of the South African L. Hr inns, bicolor, camjmmdata, Ac., or hybrids between them. The named varieties must be propagated from cuttings; But it is much easier and more economical to get a good strain or two and treat them as annuals, raising fresh plants from seed early in the season. There are blue and white, and wholly blue or white or pink varieties; besides a race of pigmy tufted forms constituting the pumila section. The larger-flowered blue and white varieties are the most useful for bedding. Loniceiia aureo-reticidata.—The variegated honeysuckle is an elegant plant for edging large beds, and easily managed and kept in form by clipping. Mattiiiola (seep. 728).—Ten-week and intermediate stocks in variety are useful for bedding where they can be followed by late asters or something else, but they are of too short duration for general purposes. Mesembryanthemum.— Of this large genus we have one species to mention here, namely, M. cordifolium from South A frica, a trailing-plant, with heart-shaped leaves,and very small crimson flowers, of which there is a finely variegated variety, valuable for edgings or low surfaces. Fropagates freely from cuttings. Myosotis (see p. 794).—The forget-me-nots are mostly rather too late for spring bedding and too early for the summer, but they may be advantageously employed where they can be replaced by some late-flowering plant. Nierembergia gracilis.—A slender procumbent plant with small narrow leaves, and a profusion of lilac and white flowers on thread-like stalks. In a light warm soil, fully exposed to the sun, this delicate little plant is very ornamental. Cuttings strike freely. South America, 1831. Pelargonium.—The numerous classes of this genus, excluding the show and fancy varieties, have descended from three or four South African species. The varieties of the ivy-leaf section are the offspring of P. peltatum, introduced in 1701; but it is only within the last decade that florists have turned their attention to this species with the object of raising more ornamental varieties. There are also varieties of hybrid origin between this and the zonal class. The true ivy-leaf varieties are of trailing habit, and chiefly used for vases and borderings out of doors. The various classes of zonal or bedding varieties are the issue of P. inquinans, introduced in 1714, and P. zonale, introduced in 1710. The former 1ms soft leaves, with a very faint zone, and relatively broad petals, and the latter conspicuously zoned leaves, and very narrow deep-coloured petals. To give even the most limited selection from the Scarlet, Nosegay, Bronze, Tricolor, and other variegated classes would uselessly occupy space, since the varieties are constantly changing, if not improving. It may be observed that the double-flowered varieties we now have are scarcely suitable for bedding, as they are mostly rank growers, and do not flower freely in the open ground, but they will no doubt lie improved. Many of the delicate variegated sorts do not develop their full beauty out of doors, but make admirable pot plants for the greenhouse. To preserve them through the winter, water must be very sparingly and carefully applied; and they should only be used for bedding on warm, light, well-drained soils. The scarlet, pink, salmon, and other varieties, are among the most robust and valuable of bedding plants, easily propagated from cuttings in autumn, and if quite dry, very little heat is sufficient to keep them alive through the winter. The cuttings should be well-rooted early in the autumn, before they are allowed to get very dry. To economize space they may be left in the cutting pots or pans till the beginning or middle of March before they are potted singly. The best sorts will always be found in the current catalogues issued by florists. Pentstemon (see pp. 700, 754).—Some of the species and varieties of this handsome North American genus are suitable for large beds, and for isolated beds in shrubberies, Ac., with a suitable edging. Perilla nankinensis.—An annual plant of the dead-nettle tribe, with dark sooty-purple foliage. Although of a rather sombre hue, it is often used because it is so easily raised from seed. China. Petunia (see p. 729).—Some of the single-flowered varieties of these clammy-leaved S. American perennials, with convol-vulus-like flowers, are very pretty for bedding. There are white, crimson, and banded varieties suitable for this purpose. They have descended from P. violacea (phcenicea), and nyctagini-flora, both introduced within the last fifty years. Phlox (see pp. 729, 750).—The perennial species form magnificent beds where tall plants are admissible. There are also many beautiful varieties of the dwarf branching annual P. Drinnmondii, introduced from Texas in 1835, and nearly hardy, which are almost constant from seed; they are perhaps better suited for isolated beds than for the parterre. Polemonium coeruleitm vanegatum, Jacob’s ladder (see p. 701).—This is one of the most beautiful of variegated plants, its elegant pinnate leaves being an uncommon feature among plants of this class. But it is not so readily propagated as some things, and loses its beauty before the end of summer in a hot dry soil. It seems to do better in the climate of Scotland. Pyrethrum Parthenium aureum, golden feather.—This is now well known, and its merits fully appreciated. It is quiteBEDDING AND SUBTROPICAL PLANTS. 783 hardy, but it is advisable to raise seedling plants every year, as they do not usually throw up flowering steins so early as the older plants. Especially useful as an edging, to define the outline of beds upon grass. Salvia.—Rather tall, loosely branched plants, with very showy flowers. S. patem has rich deep blue, and S. splendens scarlet flowers. Both are natives of Mexico, the former introduced in 1338, the latter in 1S*22. From their habit of growth they are only suitable for mixed bedding. Saxtolixa incana.— A dwarf, bushy, sub-shrubby plant, 4 to 6 inches high, with grayish, narrow, toothed leaves. A South European plant, hardy in Britain. Saxifraga (see p. 712).— Many of the species of this genus form beautiful edgings, &c. Sepum acre elegans. A hardy trailing plant not more than 2 or 3 inches high, with golden yellow foliage. It spreads rapidly, and makes a very attractive edging or carpeting. Sempervivum (see p. 712).—Fleshy plants with rosulate leaves. S. calcareum, a South European species, is very commonly used for edging, under the false name of S. californicum. Stachys lanata. — A hardy perennial, with thick leaves covered with a silvery-gray woolly tomentum, retaining its beauty through the whole winter. Siberia, 1782. Stellaria gra mlnea a urea. — A pretty yellow-leaved variety of a common British plant, of trailing habit. Tagetes.—The varieties of T. pa tula, the French marigold, and T. erecta, the African marigold, are among the best annuals for bedding; but a dwarf variety of T. signata is of more importance here as being a good dwarf yellow-flowered bedder. Like the above it is annual, and a native of Mexico. Increased by seeds sown in heat. Thyiius citriodorus aureus.—This is certainly one of the most beautiful of hardy variegated plants, being of dwarf compact growth, and retaining its character all through the year. There are several other variegated varieties of thyme, all of them pretty dwarf bedding or edging plants. Trop.eolu3I, nasturtium. — Trailing, rather succulent plants, with peltate leaves, and showy flowers of a great variety of colours. This refers to the varieties of T. Lobbia-nuni, a half-hardy annual introduced from Columbia in 1843. Named varieties from cuttings; mixed varieties from seed. Verbena.—The florists’ varieties are the offspring of V. tencrioides, Ticeedieana, chamcedrifolia, &c., introduced at different periods from South America. Very few species are adapted for general bedding, and only those of decided colours. For this purpose the older sorts have now been surpassed by those of more recent date. Crimson King, Purple King, and Snoicflake are each good in their several colours. V. venosa is a distinct species, of erect branching habit, with wrinkled leaves, and bluish violet flowers, and is very effective mixed with some of the silver-leaved Pelargoniums. This was introduced from Buenos Ayres in 1830, but it is only within the last few years that it has been so extensively used for bedding. Veronica Andersoni variegata.—A nearly hardy evergreen shrubby plant from New Zealand. It has rather large leaves, and forms a bold and striking edging or bush. Vinca major elegaatissima.—A beautiful variegated variety of the larger periwinkle, useful for edging, &c.—\v. B. H. II. SUBTROPICAL GARDENING. The introduction of large-foliaged or stately-habited plants into our open-air flower-gardens during the summer months, enables us to obtain pleasing and varied glimpses of luxuriant tropical vegetation, otherwise unattainable in our northern climate, and increased variety of noble plant form for contrasting or associating with ordinary flowering and dwarf-growing foliage plants, during the hottest portion of the year. In order to obtain the best effects in colour an abundance of fresh green foliage is required, and this greenery is agreeably augmented by stately tropical plants. It is true we can get plenty of cool greens by the judicious use of fresh velvety turf and ornamental trees and shrubs, but we also want pleasing variety of form in this green setting, and so of late years we have resorted to the use of the most extraordinary noble-habited plants of quick growth obtainable, as affording a most agreeable sense of variety and freshness. In this style of gardening we may use any plant whatever of noble or distinct and effective habit, if it is sufficiently robust in constitution to withstand the fluctuations of our summer and early autumn climate; but here, as in all other innovations in gardening, there is some danger of the subject being carried too far; and as a rule it will be generally acknowledged that better and more satisfactory results will be obtained by a few distinct plants judiciously arranged, than by the unthoughtful grouping of a much more extensive collection. There are many opinions as to the tasteful arrangement of foliage plants; but as a rule the best arrangements, other things being equal, are those which contain the most variety of form, colour, and texture, since groups so disposed generally give satisfying impressions of pleasure to a greater number of observers; and that taste is assuredly the best in gardening as in the other arts, which pleases the greatest number of intelligent persons the most. Nature is so rich and prolific in form and colour, that we cannot associate any two plants belonging to different species together without obtaining a certain amount of variety; but by carefully selecting and grouping distinct types of vegetation, the most beautiful and satisfying effects are to be obtained. When we associate the massive, rugged foliage of Gun-nera with the slender, wand-like growth of Arundo or Thamnocalcimus {Arundinaria falcata), we not only obtain the impressions of rugged beauty and slender gracefulness belonging to each of these plants respectively, but the ideas or impressions belonging to each type of beauty are intensified by contrast. Contrast is, however, only one of the elements of beauty, and if employed too frequently it soon fails to please by becoming monotonous. Harmony of form is another element of beauty. For an example of this, let us take a circular mass of green-leaved cannas margined with Funkia Sieboldiana. Here we have noble ovate or ovate-lanceolate foliage of two distinct kinds; but the most cursory examination will prove the harmony not only in form but also in colour. Substitute Ricinus Gibsoni for the Canna, however, and the soft harmony becomes a striking contrast. Now by using a dark purple or bronzy-leaved784 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Canna we should have had harmony of form and contrast of colour, and by multiplying effects in this way some very pleasing arrangements may be made. Apart altogether, however, from the numerous effects to be obtained either by harmonizing or contrasting the forms and colours of subtropical plants, there is the question of appropriateness or keeping, which may be here defined as the fitness of plants by their habits or mode of growth for associating with each other, or with the situations in which they are placed. There is a perfect sense of fitness in associating the rugged Gunnera, the slender grassy-leaved Arundo, ami the stately Osmunda together, because they are all naturally marsh or bog plants; and keeping this fact in view, we plant them on low spongy portions of the lawn, or use them for fringing the margins of ornamental lakes and streams. Again, we obtain harmony of form and colour by associating agaves and yuccas together, but just substitute Agave americana for Gunnera scabra, as a type of massive beauty, along with the fresh green Osmunda and slender Arundo; and while the contrast of form is as forcible as before, the group does not please any intelligent observer, simply because the Agave is well known to grow in arid soils, and all delicate sense of fitness or keeping is entirely destroyed by associating it with marsh plants: to say nothing of the results which would follow such treatment from a cultivator’s point of view. On the other hand, the Agave is in perfect keeping when placed on terraces or otherwise associated with noble masonry, not altogether because their erect and diagonal massive foliage contrasts pleasingly with the horizontal lines of the buildings, but partly because the situation selected for architectural features is generally a dry one, so that there is here again that perfect fitness or keeping so essential in all good decorative art. It is as well to observe here that there are two distinct classes of foliage plants which are equally useful in subtropical gardening, but between which there is a great and most important practical distinction. To the one group belong palms, tree-ferns, cycads, dracaenas, and other tropical plants of comparatively slow growth, which require the protection of a warm plant-house or conservatory during the winter months, and which are plunged outside during the summer. To the other belong certain quick-growing plants, as sola-nums, cannas, aralias, wigandias, and others similar in character, which may be preserved through the winter in a moderately light cellar, and readily propagated from stem or root cuttings in the spring, these being planted in the beds or borders after all danger from late frosts is over. With the last group may be named the robust-growing annuals, as Ricinus, Ficotiana, Zea, and Fanicum capillare. A third group, and one very useful to those who do not possess the convenience of heated plant-houses, consists of stately or graceful habited plants sufficiently hardy to withstand our winter temperature in warm localities—and the number of noble foliage and flowering subtropical plants which will do this in the south and south-western counties of England and Ireland, is much larger than appears to be generally known. Most of the strong-growing cannas, Aralia canescens, A. Sieboldii, Polygonum cuspidatum, Gunnera scabra, Thamnocalamus Falconeri (Arundinaria falcata), Arundo Donax, golden-leaved Sambucus or elder, Melianthus major, the erythrinas, and many other plants, are quite hardy if carefully planted in deep rich well-drained soils, south of the Trent, or even further north if planted carefully in sheltered localities. After plants like the last-named and others of similar character have finished their growth late in the autumn, it is an excellent plan to clear away the decaying foliage and mulch them with litter or stable manure, and a few dwarf evergreens planted around such clumps will hide the mulching and also afford considerable shelter to the young growth in the spring. One of the most essential points in the culture of all tender large-foliaged plants in the open air is shelter; and in the case of many arads and tree-ferns shade and moisture are also absolutely necessary, in order to insure success. Many plants, as tender fan-palms, musas, large-leaved caladiums, and other permanent foliage plants, will make a vigorous growth plunged outside on the lawn during the summer months; but one day’s exposure to a high wind will ruin the growth of several years, and in positions where shelter cannot be obtained from rough winds it is best to trust entirely to such hardy and half-hardy plants as cannas, Ricinus, wigandias, ficuses, nicotianas, Catalpa, Pawlownia, Ailantus, sumach, and Arundo, all of which start into growth afresh every spring, or are annuals easily propagated from seeds. The best of all stately-liabited foliage plants for terrace gardens or other elevated positions fully exposed to high winds, are the larger growing American agaves, yuccas, and such stiff-habited fan-palms as Chamcerops humilis, C. excelsa, C. Fortunei, or Coryplia australis. There are but few gardens, however, in which shelter and the necessary amount of shade cannot be obtained, either by forming nooks and bays along the shrubbery borders, or by lowering the surface of some outlying portion of the lawn, and surrounding it with evergreen shrubs and conifers, with the addition of silvery-leaved willows, planes, purple-BEDDING AND SUBTROPICAL PLANTS. 785 leaved beech, and the rapid - growing Populus canescens or P. fastigiata, for variety. A deep, rich, well-drained soil is necessary for all the st rong and rapid-growing subtropical plants w hich are planted out in the beds or borders, and if the space devoted to these is trenched 3 to 4 feet deep every winter, and heavily dressed with well-rotted manure at the same time, so much the better, after which they can be planted with springflowering bulbs and other early-blooming plants, which will afford a glow of colour early in the year before the subtropical® can be planted out. About the second week in June is the earliest date at which it is safe to venture on planting out j Imimts, Xicotiana, Solamnn, Wigandia, UhJea, 1 and other soft-wooded plants reared annually. Robust young plants well rooted and carefully hardened off in a cool frame previous to planting out will succeed much better than larger speci- j mens which have been drawn up in a high tern- 1 perature—indeed this is one of the most impor- | taut points in the management of large-leaved , foliage plants. Previous to planting, the soil ; should be stirred as deep as possible, for the more open and friable it is the quick® and stronger I will the plants make their growth, since open well-worked soils absorb heat and retain moisture much better than those which are stiff and badly cultivated. It is important that the ground devoted to subtropical plants be thoroughly well drained, since when in this condition it is capable of absorbing and retaining a larger quantity of solar heat. If the draining of the soil cannot be carried out permanently, it is an excellent plan to trench the subtropical beds or borders 2 to 3 feet deep; and as the work of trenching proceeds, throw a few barrow-loads of broken bricks, stones, crocks, or vitrified materials into the bottom of the trench. This rubbish acts like the crocks in a flower-pot draining the soil above, and by reason of their greater density they give off absorbed heat more slowly than the surrounding soil. This simple plan of geothermal culture has acted well at Battersea and elsewhere. These plants require copious waterings during dry hot weather. Where large ferns, arads, dra-cienas, and tender palms are plunged in shady dells, they should be sprinkled early in the morning, and in the evening, with spray from the hose or garden engine, and if the turf is well soaked at the same time so much the better, as it will then diffuse a genial moisture during the hottest days of summer. This will greatly add to the freshness and beauty of all tender foliage plants, more especially of tree-ferns, which suffer far more when plunged outside from dryness in the atmosphere, than from a lack of heat. The following is a select descriptive list of the best subtropical plants:— Arutilon. — Tropical malvads, easily propagated from cuttings, and sufficiently hardy to make a vigorous growth when planted on the lawn during the summer months. A. brasiliensc is a robust-growing plant, 2 to 4 feet high, having large cordate, soft-green leaves. Is useful for planting in masses. There are also several other varieties, having golden-blotched leaves, useful for associating in masses with dark-leaved cannas and other foliage plants. Among these the following are good:—A. Thompsoni, A. Van llouttei aureum, A. vex Mariinn aureum, . brasilioise is a subarborescent species, bearing a crown of pinnate fronds which arch gracefully, and render this plant a most attractive object. The young fronds are of a bright copper colour, and contrast well with those of older growth. Bui'g.waxsia.—Showy flowering plants from Peru, nearly allied to Solanum, some species of which they much resemble in foliage. The pendulous flowers are white, yellow, or crimson, nearly a foot in length, and of a tubular form, with a bell-shaped mouth. In sheltered districts, on warm rich soils, sturdy young plants grow rapidly, and flower freely, if planted out in June, and liberally sni»i»lied in hot weather with liquid manure, diluted with water. Cuttings root freely in spring. B. sanguinea is a strong-growing plant, with large drooping reddish-crimson flowers, and is very effective in sheltered shrubbery borders or in masses of more elegant-habited foliage plants. £. suaveolens, a well-known inhabitant of our stoves and conservatories, bears its drooping fragrant yellowish-white flowers nearly all the year round. Planted outside during summer, in warm rich soils, it grows and flowers in the most luxuriant manner. Caladium.— Ornamental - leaved tropical arads, mostly with variegated or parti-coloured foliage, and useful only for stove culture. C. esculentum, a green-leaved species, is, however, robust enough to grow well during summer in our climate, planted out in moist rich soil, and duly sheltered from high winds. It is the noblest of all the species, attaining 4 to 5 feet in height, and forming leaves a yard in length and of proportionate breadth. It is useful for massing in beds or for isolated specimens in moist sheltered glades and dells. Easily propagated by dividing the tubers, or fleshy root-stocks. It should be taken up before the appearance of frost, and the tubers either potted or stored indoors in moist sand. CaxxA.—Tuberous-rooted half-hardy marantaceous plants from India or South America, much used in recent years for massing in the flower-garden, or as isolated foliage plants on the lawn or in the shrubbery borders. They grow from 2 to 12 feet in height, having large green or purple lance-shaped leaves on reed-like steins, and some varieties produce terminal clusters of very showy flowers. They maybe propagated from seeds, but far easier and quicker by division. 'The tubers (root-stocks), which somewhat resemble those of Jerusalem artichokes, may be taken up in the autumn and stored in moist sand until the spring, when they should be looked over, divided, placed in boxes of earth, and started into growth previous to planting, as in the case of dahlias. C Annei.—Bob us t, o to 7 feet in height, with erect glau-cescent foliage, and large salmon or orange-tinted flowers; one of the best light-foliaged cannas. All the varieties of this plant, as Annei roseci, Annei bicolor, Annei jloribunda, Annei falgIda, and Annei discolor, are effective, and well worth culture. C. Bihorelli. --Of rather low stature, averaging about 3 feet high; dark bronzy leaves, and fine spikes of large crimson flowers, which are very freely produced. C. Chatei discolor, 4 to 5 feet in height, with massive deep green purple-veined foliage, and bearing conspicuous masses of blood-red or crimson flowers. One of the best. C. excelsa zebrina.—Bobust, 6 to 8 feet high, both stems and leaves deep green, shaded with dark reddish crimson, the leaves rayed or striped diagonally with violet purple. It is principally useful as one of the finest of the striped-leaved kinds. C. Impcrator.—Stems green, downy, 6 to 8 feet in height, bearing light green leaves fully 2 feet in length. The flowers are moderate in size, and of a brilliant crimson colour. C. Krelagei discolor, 5 to 6 feet in height, with dark red or bronzy green leaves, rayed with violet purple. The large flowers are carmine, streaked here and there with white. Effective whether massed with glaucous kinds, or as an isolated specimen. C. nigricans, 6 to S feet in height, clothed with copper-coloured leaves, nearly a yard in length, and about a foot in width. As a foliage plant this is one of the finest, its younger leaves glistening with metallic lustre when seen under a bright light. It ought to be grown in every collection. C. picturata fastuosa, 5 to 7 feet high, bearing large glaucous-green foliage, and light yellow red-speckled flowers. The foliage of this plant is large and imposing, and being a profuse bloomer it is well worth culture. C. rubra superbissima, 5 to 6 feet in height; leaves very broad, of a rich purplish red colour, with a metallic lustre in the sun. This is a free grower, and one of the best of the red-leaved kinds. C. Rendatleri—Vigorous, C to 8 feet in height, having pointed deep-green leaves tinged with reddish purple; flowers bright salmon red. It is an effective and free-growing variety for masses or isolated clumps. C. Warscewiczii, 3 to 4 feet in height, purplish leaved, with large and brilliant crimson-scarlet flowers; an effective kind, seeds freely, flowers early, and is the parent of some of the best varieties in cultivation. C. Van Ilouttei.—Bobust, 5 to C feet in height, clothed with lanceolate green leaves, rayed and margined with deep reddish purple. Flowers large, bright reddish scarlet. It is effective, and stands well in exposed positions. Caxxabis. -—A strong-growing annual, effective in masses or isolated, in outlying beds and borders. Easily propagated from spring-sown seeds in a gentle bottom-heat. C. sativus is the common hemp plant, and in deep rich soils grows 10 to 15 feet in height, with elegantly digitate or Inbed fnliage. It is rather too coarse for kept portions of the lawn, but is elfeetive and useful isolated or grouped in weak parts of the shrubbery borders, or as a green background to more pleasing flowering or foliage plants. Caiiotya.—Bipinnate palms, the pinna) being premorsely cut or jagged on the outer margin. They form graceful heads of fresh green elegantly-drooping foliage, and are reproduced either from suckers or imported seeds sown in heat. C. sobol-ijera is a slender-growing palm from Malacca, well suited for isolating along with tree-ferns and large-leaved arads in moist sheltered dells. C. urens is a stronger-growing plant than the last from East Indies, bearing arching bipinnate leaves of a deeper green colour, and it does not produce suckers so readily. Catalpa (see p. 640).—Bignoniaceous trees from China and Japan, one species, C. bignonioides—syn. syringa'foUa, forms a distinct flowering tree in sheltered southern positions in this country. Young plants of the yellow-leaved variety, C. bignonioides aurea, a yard high, are very effective contrasted with dark-leaved cannas or castor-oil plants, and at Battersea have been used with excellent elfect, associated with hardy, purple-flowered clematis. Propagated by cuttings of the stem or root or by hillock layering. Cextaurea.—Composite plants, more remarkable for their silvery foliage than for their stately appearance; they are useful for the edges and margins of masses and beds of subtropical plants, and are propagated from cuttings or seeds. C. gyninocarpa is a European plant, having finely-cut silver-haired leaves, and is hardy only in very favourable sheltered positions on warm soils. C. ragvsina (syn. candidissirna), and its varieties compacta and jtlxunosa, have bolder, less finely, cut foliage than the last, and are more densely covered with silvery tomentum; they are the most generally useful for edgings, in company with Coleus or Perilla, and rarely attain more than 10 to 12 inches in height.788 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. CiiAM-EPEUCE.—Thistle-like plants, useful for margins, or for associating with dwarf-growing subtropical plants. They are propagated by sowing seeds in heat in the spring. C. dieted ntha grows 10 to 12 inches in height, and is often used for edging dark-leaved foliage beds, under the name of herringbone thistle; its cut leaves are rigid, growing in rosette-like tufts, and are conspicuously armed with glistening ivory-white spines. C. Casabonev, another herring-bone thistle, is distinguished from the last by its smaller deep green leaves not being cut at the edge, and by its spines being yellow or rufous-coloured, and not white. ChamHrops.—Fan-leaved palms, one or two species of which do well in our gardens. C. cxcclsa has stood outside for several years in Messrs. Backhouse’s nursery at York, the only protection given to the tine examples there being a slight covering with a mat or other fabric after severe frosts, and this is applied not so much to guard against severe cold as to protect them from the sudden effects of bright sunshine. C. Fortunei. is also growing well planted out at Osborne and at Ilecktield. The plants are fresher and more ornate, however. treated as half-hardy subjects, and removed into the greenhouse or conservatory during the winter months. C. exerted is a variable and valuable plant, native of China, and allied forms are grown in many gardens under different names, as C. hum it is, C. Fortune i, or Chusan palm, C. sinensis, and C. Palmetto. which, however distinct as garden plants, are probably referable to this species, and succeed with similar treatment. This is one of the few palms which do well plunged on the more exposed parts of the lawn or pleasure-grounds. Cordyline. See Dracaena. CorypiiA.— Fan-leaved palms, of which C. australis, an Australian species, is the best for our present purpose. Imported seeds grow freely in a genial bottom-heat, but as several years elapse before palms from seeds attain anything like effective proportions for outdoor gardening, it is best to procure well-developed plants if possible. They should be plunged in a sheltered dell or bay in the shrubbery border, and require, like all other palms, an abundant supply of moisture at the roots during dry hot weather. Cyathka.—Fine tree-ferns, one or two species of which are sufficiently hardy to stand plunged outside in sheltered moist situations from June until September. C. dealbata is a slender-stemmed species from New Zealand, having bright green leaves or fronds, the lower surface of which is of a decided silvery hue. It is one of the most distinct of all ferns for the subtropical garden. Cycas.— Tropical plumose-leaved foliage plants, of very persistent habit, and well adapted on that account for subtropical effects. Nearly all cycads are robust and stately in habit, and well-developed specimens of Cycas, Macrozainia, Fncephalartos, or Zamia may almost without exception be used outside during the summer months, with excellent results, if artistically grouped in sheltered positions. C. cir-c trial is (£\. XXII.) is a plumose and long-leaved species, rather more striking in its habit than the next, and equally hardy. C. revoluta is a fresh bright or glossy green-leaved species, forming a short stem 2 or 3 feet in height, bearing at its apex a vasiform tuft of pectinate foliage. It may be plunged in sheltered positions outside with impunity. Dick so xi a.—Tree-ferns of stout and robust habit, easily propagated from spores. D. antarctiea is a well-known Australasian species, sufficiently hardy to be one of the most effective of all subtropical ferns. It forms a stout dark-brown trunk 5 to 10 feet in height, from the apex of which spring the deep-green, lance-shaped, much-divided fronds. Plunged in moist shady dells or glades this forms a most attractive and refreshing object. Dkac.exas.— Many of the Drachmas or dragon-trees are very useful for mixed beds and other forms of outdoor gardening during the summer months, and they are easily propagated by cuttings of the stems in a heated propagating pit. The green-leaved kinds are hardiest. D. australis is on' of the most elegant and most useful of the whole group, being quite hardy, in Devon, Cornwall, and also in some parts of the south and south-west of Ireland. It has slender leaves. 3 to 4 feet in length, borne on a stem 4 to C feet in height. D. canneefolia, D. Draco, D. congcsta, D rubra, and D. um-braculifcra are sometimes similarly used. Erytjikina.—Tropical, scarlet orcoral pea-flowered shrubs, having the young growth often armed with prickles. They are useful either as isolated specimens or for massing in beds or borders. E. cristagalli and some of the newer varieties are sutticiently hardy to be planted for permanent effects in sheltered positions where their roots can be protected in winter by a mulching. The following are the hardiest and best, and differ but little from each other, being partly seedling varieties:—E. cristagalli, E. laurifulia, E. Madame Belanger, E. Ilendersonr, E. profusa, and E. ruberrima. Ferdinanda. — Mexican composites, one species being grown in our gardens on account of its stately parts, and enormous dull-green opposite and entire leaves. Easily propagated by cuttings of the stem or root, and requires protection during the winter months. F. eminens (PI. XVI.) is one of the most noble of all large-leaved foliage plants, attaining a height of 6 to 12 feet if planted in a sheltered position in deep rich moist soils. It is useful either as an isolated specimen or as a central plant in beds or masses of other subtropical plants. Ficus. —The fig genus, consisting of shrubby tropical plants, having massive glossy leaves, and readily propagated from cuttings, for which purpose branches a foot in length may be employed in the spring, as these root equally as well as shorter pieces, and make strong plants sooner. F. Chauvieri (PI. XVIII.) is a free-growing plant, having dark green glossy leaves, 10 to 12 inches in length, often with gently undulating margins, and conspicuously marked with yellowish - green mid-rib and veins. Useful for masses in beds or borders. F. elastica, the india-rubber plant, is the most generally useful plant in the genus for foliage effects, and gsows well if planted out in June. Funkia (see p. 095).—Hardy Japanese lilyworts, all having more or less handsome subcordate leaves, and bearing spikes of nodding white, lilac, or purple flowers. Easily propagated by division in early spring. F. Sieboldiana is the noblest species in the genus, forming dense clumps of bold, heart-shaped, glaucous nervose leaves, which are especially fresh and beautiful before the flower-stems appear. As an isolated specimen in moist shady positions on the lawn, or for the margins of shrubbery borders, or beds of dark-leaved foliage plants, this is very effective and distinct. Geranium.—Flowering herbs, generally too small or not distinct enough for our present purpose. G. anemoncefoliunn however, is a distinct and handsome sub-shrubby perennial from Madeira, its radiating crown of fresh green much-divided leaves, and its numerous panicled rosy-lilac flowers, giving it a handsome appearance. Guxnera.—Robust rugged-looking plants of rhubarb-like habit. The coarsely-lobed, hispid leaves, fully a yard across, are borne on stout spinose petioles. The fruit grows in dense oblong fleshy clusters, partly hidden below the shady foliage. There are two or three species, the best being G. scabra, of which there is a specimen in the herbaceous ground at Kew. which is 4 or 5 feet in height and S to 10 feet through. Propagated by seed or careful division. After the plant decays to the surface of the ground in the autumn the crowns should be covered with littery manure and a piece of oil-cloth to keep off heavy rains and frost. Gynerium (see p. 69(3).—Long-leaved tufted grasses, native of the South American plains or pampas. Propagated by divi-i sion, or imported seeds. Of G. argenteum (PI. XV.), known in gardens as the pampas-grass, there are both silvery-white and I rosy-plumed varieties. Although perfectly hardy it should fee ' planted in sheltered nooks, or in bays formed by the undulating shrubbery or plantation margins, in order that its silvery -plumed wand-like inflorescence may not be injured by rough autumn winds. It makes a most luxuriant growth in warm, rich, deep soils. Well-established masses, 6 to S feet in circumference, often produce thirty to forty flower-stems, and it is ditheult to imagine nobler objects than these. IIedychium.—Tropical herbaceous plants of the gingerBEDDING AND SUBTROPICAL PLANTS. 789 family, often grown as conservatory plants, but the two kinds ] here named may grow and flower freely, if planted out in I sheltered positions on warm, rich soils. Propagated by divi- I pion. II. a lira ntiacum is strong-growing and of reed-like habit, bearing large ovate glaucous foliage, and terminal oblong clusters of bright orange-yellow flowers. II. Gardnerianum is of vigorous habit, attaining at Battersea a height of 5 to 7 feet, and flowering freely in the autumn, the fragrant flowers being of a bright yellow colour. Li vision a. — Fan-leaved palms propagated by imported seeds which germinate readily in a genial bottom-heat of 80° to 90c. L. chinensia— syn. Latania borbonica (PI. XX.)—is one of the noblest of all fan-leaved palms, and is sufficiently hardy to endure our summer climate without injury in sheltered positions. The bright green fan-shaped leaves are 2 to 3 feet in diameter. Mklianthus. —Ornamental Cape plants, represented in our gardens by 31. major, a glaucous pinnate-leaved plant, which endures the severity of our winters on warm dry soils, if protected at the root with manure or leaves. It is one of the most distinct of all foliage plants, and is effective either as an isolated specimen or mixed with dark-leaved foliage plants. In deep rich soils it forms a bush 2 to 3 feet in height. Muntagn.ka.- A genus of effective foliage plants from South America, represented in our gardens by the following species, which is readily multiplied from root-cuttings in autumn or stem-cuttings in spring. 31. he rack if alia—syn. Pulymnia gra mi is (PI. XVI.)—the noble aspect assumed by well-grown examples of which, is well represented in our figure, is of symmetrical habit, and therefore valuable for isolating in moist sheltered positions on the lawn, where its boldly-lobed foliage produces the most charming effects of light and shade. Musa.—Large-leaved plants, some of which are much cultivated throughout the tropics for the sake of their edible fruits. They are readily propagated from seeds or suckers. M. Ensete is the noblest of all subtropical plants, producing enormous pale-green red-ribbed leaves 6 to 8 feet in length, and growing very freely when plunged outside in sheltered positions during the summer. It is an excellent plan to form bays in the shrubbery border especially for this and other large-leaved plants likely to be torn by high winds. It requires an abundant supply of moisture at the root. Seeds only in heat. 31. snperba and the striped-leaved 31. zebrina grow well on warm rich soils in the south and south-western parts of England and Ireland. Nicotian a. — A well-known genus of narcotic “weeds” much cultivated in America, and utilized in the manufacture of tobacco. Some of the strong-growing, high-coloured varieties of the Virginian tobacco, X Tabacum, are effective foliage and flowering plants, forming masses of bright-green foliage, G to 8 feet high in warm rich soils, and are useful for massing j along with other foliage and flowering plants, or for isolating j along the margins of plantations and shrubbery borders. Basil}' raised in heat from spring-sown seed. Osmun’DA.— Hardy or half-hardy subaquatic ferns, well suited for fringing the spongy margins of ponds, lakes, or brooks, or for massing and grouping on the lawn in moist j partially shaded positions. 0. regalia, the noblest of all our native ferns, produces fronds G to 8 feet high in moist rich | soils, if abundantly supplied with moisture. The spongy mar- j gin of a rivulet, where its roots can descend into the water, i or to the level where the water soaks the soil, is the best of j all positions for this plant or its North American allies, O. xpectabilia and 0. gracilis. Paxicni.-— Ornamental annual or half-hardy grasses, some, like I*, altissimam, being of noble habit, and valuable for , grouping with stiffer-habited foliage plants, or as isolated 1 specimens near water margins. The perennial kinds are easily multiplied by division, and the annual kinds from i spring-grown seeds. P. altissimam is a robust-growing perennial, quite hardy, forming dense masses 3 to G feet in height. The grassy leaves are linear, arching gracefully, and when the branched panicles assume a bright-red hue the whole plant presents a most attractive appearance. P. capil- lare is a hardy annual North American species, forming most graceful tufts about 2 feet in height, and may be allowed to naturalize itself on outlying portions of the kept grounds. Paulownia imperial is.—A large-leaved Japanese bignonia-ceous tree, not unfrequent in gardens in the South of England. Its flowers, which appear early in spring, grow in trusses something like those of the horse-chestnut, but each blossom is fully 2 inches in length, of a distinct violet-purple colour, and shaped like those of the old-fashioned gloxinias. In continental gardens it flowers freely, but with us rarely blooms, and is principally useful w hen used as a foliage plant, in a young state; when cut back near the surface of the ground every spring, and trained to a single vigorous growth, it attains a height of 8 to 10 feet in a single season, the roundish ovate leaves being 12 to 18 inches across. Phoonix—Robust pinnate-leaved palms, represented in our gardens by P. dactylifera, the common date-palm, and one or tw o dwarfer-growing species. Propagated by imported seeds, P. dactylifera from date stones, which may be obtained in quantity at the shops. This plant possesses a very distinct habit, and may be isolated or plunged on the open lawn with excellent effect. P. reclinata is smaller growing, and can either be used as a central plant in mixed beds, or isolated on the open lawn. Piiormium tenax, New Zealand flax.—This vrell-known strap-leaved plant is hardy in wrarni dry soils in the southwestern parts of England and Ireland, and is propagated by division or imported seeds. Its leaves attain a length of B to G feet, and when seen in well-developed masses this species is one of the most distinct and eifective of all foliage plants, either isolated on sheltered portions of the turf, or associated with other large-leaved plants. There are one or two varieties with striped foliage. Phytolacca.—American herbs, one of which is striking in habit, and flowers and fruits freely in our gardens, where it is occasionally grown under the name of Virginian Poke-weed. This plant, P. decandra, is a free-grow'ing hardy perennial, easily propagated from seeds. It attains a height of 5 to 7 feet in deep rich warm soils, and bears a profusion of whitish flowers on spikes, succeeded by purple berries. Polygonum.—Tall-growing or scandent-habited plants, only one of which is noble enough for our present purpose, namely, P. cusjridatum (p. 701), a tall-growdng herbaceous perennial, perfectly hardy and well worth a place on the sheltered lawn. It forms an effective specimen in shrubbery borders, but when a well-developed mass is planted in a sheltered position on the lawn, where the soil is rich and moist, it grows into a noble specimen 6 to 8 feet in height, its spraylike inflorescence arching gracefully in every direction. Riius (see p. G50).— Pinnate-leaved shrubs, grown under the popular name of sumachs in most gardens. Young plants well grown, and trained to one or two stems form masses of distinct feathery leaves of the freshest green colour, and quite palm or fern like in aspect; and being hardy they are valuable in small gardens. They should be carefully pruned, so as to insure an annual supply of strong young growth. It. glabra, and its more elegant purple-veined cut-leaved form R. glabra laciniata, if planted in light rich soil, and trained to one or two leading growths, form most effective plants. Rioinus.—The castor-oil plants are among the very finest of all subtropical plants, and are valuable for their rapid growth and the ease with which a stock can be raised from seed sown in heat in the spring. There are numerous forms now in cultivation, and all are valuable for massing in the centre of beds or borders, where their great lobed metallic-tinted foliage produces a distinct and tropical effect. The common species, from which most of these varieties have sprung, is It. communis, a plant well known in commerce as furnishing seeds from which a valuable oil is expressed. It is rather difficult to keep the varieties true, as they are very apt to vary, the seed of one plant often producing green and purple leaved forms or varieties, which vary much in height and vigour. When good varieties are obtained it is advisable to save seeds carefully, as by so doing a better strain may be obtained than by trusting to purchased seeds.790 GARDENER'S ASSISTANT. M. communis giganteus is St strong-growing purplish-lea veil variety of vigorous habit, 4 to 10 feet high, well suited for large masses. There are several sub-varieties of this, of which the best are pr(tpt(ftu$, 8 to 10 feet; major, 7 to 10 feet; Obermannii, 4 to S feet; and monstrosus, 5 to 7 feet—all belonging to the tall-growing purplish-red stemmed class with bronzy foliage. The following sub-varieties have glaucous or pale-green stems and leaves: —albicans, G to 8 feet; elegantissimus, 5 to G feet; borboniensis, 4 to 6 feet; domingensis, 3 to 5 feet. Jl. communis sangineus is another robust stout-habited typeof many sub-varieties, in all of which the stems, petioles, and young foliage are of a blood-red colour. R. viridis and Jl. microsper-mus nanus are the best of the green-leaved sorts, forming dense stout-habited plants, 2 to 4 feet in height. Shaforthia.—Very elegant-habited, tall, smooth-stemmed, pinnate-leaved palms, natives of North Australia, and represented in our gardens by S. elegans, one of the most valuable of all decorative palms, and especially adapted for our pur-pose, on account of its graceful beauty of form and hardy constitution. Plants witn stems G to 10 feet high, grown in tubs, are very useful for plunging as isolated specimens in the sheltered portions of ttie pleasure-grounds. Senecio.—These composite plants are easily raised from root or stem cuttings or from seeds. S. Ghiesbreghtii, a strong-growing Mexican species, which attains a height of 3 to 4 feet in deep rich soils, has the stems deep purple and curiously spotted or warteil, and the leaves deep green, about a foot in length, and coarsely toothed or lobed. It is useful for massing or for isolating on the lawn. Young plants trained to a single stem are best for the last-named purpose. S. laciniatus is one of the most elegant of all foliage plants, its slender pale-green foliage being finely cut into long narrow lobes, and the tender leaves droop in the most graceful manner from the upper part of the slender half-woody stems. It should not be allowed to flower. Solanum. —Ornamental plants of distinct or noble habit, eminently fitted for subtropical gardening. They require protection during winter, and are readily increased in autumn by cuttings of the roots placed in heat, or in the spring by cuttings of the young growth. The following are some of the best kinds: — S. crinitum.—A strong-growing plant from Guiana. 4 to f> feet in height, the stout spinose stems being clothed with roundish, green, purple-veined hairy leaves, fully 2 feet in length. It bears white flowers. 5. giganteum— syn. S. macrophi/lhnn.—A large-leaved Indian species attaining a height of 3 feet or more in deep rich soils, but it requires shelter or its foliage is apt to be disfigured by rough winds. It is a noble species for isolating on the shaded lawn. The under side of the leaves is white ami downy. S', laciniatum. -A strongand noble-habited Australian plant, attaining a height of 3 to 4 feet in rich soils, the erect slightly branching stems being clothed with boldly cut foliage of a deep dead-green colour; it bears purple flowers. Very effective for massing in groups, or planting as isolated specimens. S. macranthum.—A robust-growing Brazilian species, 5 to G feet in height, clothed with large lobed pendent leaves of a pale-green colour, with purplish-red veins, the under surface being reddish. In warm sheltered positions this is a most effective plant. S. marginatum.—A strong bushy species from Abyssinia, 2 to 3 feet in height, the oblong sinuate leaves deep-green, covered with silvery tomentum, which is so thick near the edge as to form a white border. In clumps, contrasted with purple or crimson-leaved plants, this is very effective. The white flowers are freely produced. S. robustum (PI. XVII.) —A vigorous and highly ornate Brazilian plant, growing 2 to 4 feet in height, the irregularly lobed leaves being 2 feet in length, of a soft-brown or rust-eolour above, the midrib and lateral veins being set with strong hooked spines on both sides. The flowers are white. It is a noble species, quite one of the most suitable for the subtropical garden, its clear bright-brown hue, moreover, giving it a very distinct appearance. S. \Var$eewiczii.—A moderately robust species, branching from the base, the spinose stems being clothed with irregularly-lobed deep-green leaves, the leaf-stalks and young branches tinged with red. Well deserving of culture. TorneliA. — llroad-leaved scandent arads, of which T. fra-grans, better known as Monstera deliciosa (PI. XXII.), is a well-known representative in our gardens, where it is partly grown for its curiously slit, glossy foliage, and partly for the sake of its luscious edible fruits, the last, however, being only produced in a high humid temperature. It is a robust plant, which may be plunged outside on the sheltered lawn during the hottest part of the year. Being of creeping habit it shows to the best advantage if plunged at the foot of a tree, to which its growths may be fastened as naturally as possible. Its large white-spathed inflorescence is very striking. Tussilago.—Herbaceous composite plants, of which the variegated form of our common coltsfoot (T. Farfara varie-gata) is by far the most effective. It is dwarfish, seldom reaching a foot in height, having irregularly angled green leaves, cordate at the base, and conspicuously margined with golden yellow. It is quite hardy, and forms most effective margins to large beds, along with purple Coleus, Ircsinc, or scarlet-flowered Pelargonium, but requires digging up and replanting every season, otherwise, from the running tendency of its rhizomes, it comes up irregularly. I'iiueA.—Stout-habited Mexican composite plants, of which one species, V. bipinnatifida, forms a noble plant for summer decoration. It is of robust growth, attaining a height of 4 to G feet in deep soils. The branching stems are clothed with slightly silvery or glaucous irregular and deeply cut foliage. In sheltered positions on the lawn it forms noble isolated specimens, or it may be judiciously grouped along with darkleaved llicinus and Canna. Propagated easily from cuttings, which are freely produced by old specimens taken up carefully in the autumn, and repotted. WiGANMA,—Noble strong-growing South American plants, sufficiently hardy to make, during summer, a luxuriant growth in sheltered positions on deep rich soils. They are perennial, but are best propagated from root cuttings every year. IP. caracasana—syn. ir. macropliylla (PI. XVII.)—The most familiar of the species, of which single-stemmed specimens attain a height of from 3 to G feet in the season, and are noble objects, forming imposing masses of deep-green foliage, each leaf being oblong-ovate, and often over 2 feet in length, rugose, with gracefully undulated margins. Our engraving shows something of the stateliness assumed by well-grown examples of this species. IP. Vigicri is even more vigorous, the leaves exceeding a yard in length in deep rich soils, while the hairy stem is often f> to G feet in height. It is distinguishable from the last by its more hairy stem and petioles. IP. urens is remarkable as possessing glandular hairs which, like those of the nettle, have the power of stinging. It is ornate, but scarcely so beautiful as the two last. Of all these, young dwarf but well-hardened plants are best for planting out. as they form better furnished specimens than those which are drawn up before being planted out. Zea.—Noble corn-bearing grasses, easily propagated from seed sown in a gentle bottom-heat in the spring, potted in rich compost, and kept in an airy position near the glass until June. A light soil heavily manured and deeply tilled, suits them best. Z. Mags is the maize so largely cultivated in America and intertropical countries, as a corn plant. There are innumerable varieties of this plant, varying principally in height and vigour. The strongest-growing kinds form distinct masses of sword-sliaped gracefully-wavy foliage G to S feet high, of a fresh green colour: and being easily raised as annuals, they are useful where glass accommodation is limited. The variegated forms are conspicuously striped with white lines, and clumps or masses of these show well contrasted with purple or crimson leaved plants.—F. w. b. III.—CARTET BEDDING. Carpet bedding, or mosaicnlture, as it is called in America, is comparatively a modern idea,BEDDING AND SUBTROPICAL PLANTS. 791 and one which has many points that render its adoption to a moderate extent desirable. Practically it may be defined as a system of bedding in which neat and dwarf-growing foliage plants alone, are used in the form of mosaic, geometrical, or other designs, the beds being either fiat or more or less raised above the level. In some cases, indeed, very dwarf-growing flowering plants, as dwarf lobelias, are used, but as a rule the best and most permanently effective carpet-like designs are those formed of brightly coloured foliage plants alone. The advantages possessed by this system are unexceptionable neatness, and permanent brilliance of colour, from the time they are planted until the autumn frosts appear; whereas ordinary bedding plants, as pelargoniums, calceolarias, and verbenas, are more unmanageable in their growth, and their brilliance is often impaired by heavy rains, added to which drawbacks are their leafy growth and paucity of flowers late in the autumn months. Dwarf-growing foliage plants, on the other hand, are but little affected by rains; indeed they often look all the more beautiful after heavy showers. Their too luxuriant growth can, in the majority of cases, be kept within the prescribed limits by a system of clipping or judicious pinching, so that they can be used to form almost any pleasing design in colour which an artist can plan. Again, the colours of these foliage plants, although very rich, are not so glaring as those of flowering plants, so that they harmonize together in a more pleasing manner, and the result is, that, by carrying out this system moderately and judiciously, some very beautiful and satisfying colour effects are obtainable. It is not always necessary, however, to have richly coloured beds, and in positions where rich colour would be out of place cool neutral-tinted arrangements of succulents and other carpeting plants may often be introduced with really excellent effect. In other words, we may, by adopting modifications of this system, obtain a pleasing variety of form, without disturbing the repose or breadth of those portions of the lawn where colour is not desirable. One of the attractions of this system, and one which, apart from the universal love of rich colours, has done much towards making it popular, is the ease with which the most pleasing designs can be worked out with the aid of alternantheras, coleuses, centaureas, pyrethrurns, cerastiurns, succulents, and other dwarf-foliage plants, while as to the diversity of the designs themselves, there is no practical limit. A glance at our illustrations (Plates IX. to XII.), which represent some of the best examples in the London parks in 1875, will show how cool strips of turf backed by verdant masses of trees and shrubs maybe richly jewelled here and there with pleasing designs. Another point worthy of remark is that one or two well-planted beds, surrounded by velvety turf, and backed by shrubs or cool masses of subtropical plants, look far more beautiful than a complicated but meaningless design or parterre of such beds on exposed parts of the lawn. Indeed, bright colour in a garden is rendered far more attractive by being seen in a setting of cool greenery, just as colour in a fine picture is enhanced by an appropriately tinted back-ground, and a frame of elegant proportions. The manner in which the different coloured plants are arranged, is a very important subject in connection with this system; and here again a glance at our plates will teach much, and the study of well-arranged examples with their natural surroundings still more. The following list of types of colour plants will be useful:— Classified List of Plants for Summer Car jut Jjedding. White. Antennaria tomentosa. Euonymus radicans variegatus. Artemisia judaica. Clnaphalium lanatum. Centaurea ragusina compacta. Kleinia tomentosa. Cerastium tomentosum. Leucophyta Brownii. Cineraria maritima compacta. Salvia argentea. Dactylis glomerata elegantis- Stachys lanata. sima. Veronica Amlersoni variegata. Crimson. Amarantlms ruber. Coleus VerschafTeltii. Coleus VerschafTeltii Improved. Glaucous. Cotyledon pulverulenta. Koeliea perfoliata. Echeveria secunda. Sedum corsicum. Echeveria glauca. Sedum dasyphyllum. Pacliyphyton bracteosum. Sedum glaucum. Roche a falcata. Carmine. Alt ernan tli era am am a. Alternanthera magnifica. Alternantliera amcena specta- Lobelia Omen, bilis. Yellow. Euonymus flavescens. Sedum acre elegans. Lysimachia aurea. Sedum anglicum. Mesembryantlicnmm cordi- Stellaria graininea aurea. folium variegatum. Thymus citriodorus aureus. Tyre thrum Parthenium aureum. Blue. Kleinia repens. Lobelia pumila. Lobelia Blue King. Lobelia pumila magnifica. Lobelia Blue Stone. Lobelia pumila maxima. Orange Bed. Alternanthera paronycliioides. Alternanthera paronychioides Alternantliera amabilis. major. Alternanthera amabilis lati- Xertcra depressa. folia. Green. Cerastium arvense. Sempervivum calcareum. Pyrethrum Tchihatchevvii. Sempervivum canariense. Saxifraga (species of the mossy Sempervivum hirtum. section). Sempervivum montanum. Sedum Lydium. Sempervivum tabuliforme. Sempervivum Bollii. Tagetes signata pumila. Purple. Ajuga reptans purpurea. Iresine Ilerbstii. Echeveria atropurpurea. Iresine Lindeni. Iresine acuminata. Perilla nankinensis.792 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Only nine of the most distinct colours are here named as types, hut no two of the plants arranged under each heading are of exactly the same shade, and thus it will he seen at a glance what a variety of colouring material we have, and how attractively it ma/be used, if a little taste is exercised. Even supposing we had only the nine distinct tints indicated in this list, a very simple ride of arithmetic will prove that they alone may he arranged side hy side, or rihhon border fashion, in hundreds of different ways. In preparing the ground for carpet-beds much more care is necessary than in the case of larger-growing plants, since from their neat and compact habit the slightest settling or inequality of the soil becomes evident, and this is particularly to be guarded against, especially in raised beds, and strictly correct geometrical designs. A moderately rich soil is best for these plants; it should be deeply dug, and if stiff or heavy, a dressing of sandstone-grit or turf-ashes may be applied with advantage. In those beds devoted to carpet and other succulent plants, a larger proportion of sand, turf-ashes, or pulverized bricks should be used, as they are apt to damp off in stiff tenacious soils. After digging, and before planting, tread or beat the soil, so that no after settlement can take place, that is, supposing the bed must at once be ]danted; but if this is not necessary, treading, especially on adhesive clayey soils, may be dispensed with, and the beds left for a week or two before planting, so as to settle naturally, after which any inequality of surface can be remedied before putting in the plants. Before planting, the design must be decided on, and if a plain or roughly-coloured sketch is made so much the better, as it is easy for any expert workman to imitate it on the ground with the aid of a line and peg, using these instead of compasses, .and a measuring staff (! or 8 feet long instead of a square. The planting of intricate designs occupies some time; and it is best to avoid treading on the soil while this is being done, by using a stout broad deal plank, the ends of which can be placed on boxes or other supports placed on the turf, so as to form a bridge just above the surface of the soil. The sloping edges of raised beds are apt to wash down during rainy seasons, or when the beds are watered in dry ones, and to prevent this happening, it was formerly the practice to mix a little Roman cement with the soil in a wet state, some dry soil being sprinkled over to hide the colour. This plan is now, however, seldom followed,and a much better one is to plant the sloping margins or sides of such beds with dwarf sedums, mossy saxifrages, cerastiunis, or other dense-grow- ing carpet plants, which both bind and hide the slopes at the same time, without interfering with the introduction of larger succulents, or more richly coloured panels, or lines formed of other plants. We are apt to associate our ideas of carpet bedding with summer decorative arrangements only, but very pretty carpet beds may be formed during the winter and spring by judiciously utilizing the hardy foliage plants at our disposal, such as arabis, aubrietias, silvery stachys, ceras-tiums, or antennarias, silver and golden vincas, and ivies or euonymus; and winter beds formed of these materials could be enriched in the spring with torquoise - coloured forget-me-nots, and scarlet and blue anemones, or even hyacinths, blue-bells, primroses of all shades of yellow, rose, lilac, and crimson, or golden bosses and shields of dwarf daffodils. The following is a select descriptive list of carpet-bedding plants:— Ajuga.—European labiates, one form of which is useful as a dark bronzy foliage plant contrasted with golden J’yrethnnn or Stellaria aurea. This is A. reptans ptirpurea, a purpleleaved form of the common bugle. It must be grown in poor soil, and fully exposed to the sun, otherwise it does not colour well. Useful for dark panels or belts. Division in spring. A i.ternastiiera.—A dwarf-growing and most useful genus of South American foliage plants, readily propagated from cuttings inserted in spring in heat. They are rather tender, and it is best to keep stock plants in pots all the summer and autumn, as plants taken up in autumn from the beds and repotted are apt to damp off. All are useful for narrow lines, belts, or panels. A. amabilis is a strong grower, 4 to 6 inches in height, having large ovate, purplish-green leaves, the young foliage brilliant orange-red when grown in the sun. A. ainabiliti Inti-folia is rather larger than the normal form, and the colour is a shade brighter. A. amoena grows 2 to 4 inches in height, having narrow ovate or lance-shaped purplish leaves, the young foliage being of a clear rich carmine. In rich soils it does not colour well. A. amoena spectabilis is a larger-leaved and brighter-coloured form, the young leaves having a decided magenta tinge. A. magnijica is a sport from A. paronychioides, and is similar to A. amoena in habit, with a flush of orange-red on its carmine-tinted young foliage, the old leaves being deep purple. A. paronychioides is free-growing and a little stronger in habit than A. amoena, the young foliage being of a rich orange-red, while the old ovate foliage is green, tinged with purple. A. paronychioides major is a stronger-growing and brighter-coloured form. Alyssum maritiimnn variegatum— syn. Koniga. — A free-growing hardy cruciferous plant, readily multiplied from cuttings. It has glaucous foliage, margined with creamy whiten grows 10 to 12 inches high, bearing a profusion of racemose, white, honey-scented flowers, but can be kept compact in edgings, belts, or panels by clipping. Antenna hi a. — Hardy composites, readily propagated either from division or spring-sown seeds. A. tonicntosa is one of the dwarfest of silvery-foliaged plants, covering the ground with a dense white carpet scarcely 1 inch in height, and perfectly hardy. It runs and spreads in every direction, and may be readily increased by division. Useful for panels or marginal belts in the flower-garden or for carpeting slopes and rockwork. Arabis (see p. 779).—Dwarf hardy crucifers, very valuableBEDDING AND SUBTROPICAL PLANTS. 793 for rockwork or dry banks, and for carpet bedding or edgings in the spring. Seed, cuttings, or division. -1. albida and albida variegata, and A. lucida, with its variety variegata, have been already described. In A. lucida variegata each leaf lias a golden margin, which renders it valuable in spring carpet-bedding arrangements. Artemisia. —Hardy or half-hardy plants, allied to the wormwood, and propagated from seeds, cuttings, or division. One or two silvery-foliaged species are useful for our present purpose, namely: — A. judaica, a free-growing plant on dry soils, attaining a height of 10 to 12 inches, but easily kept lower by pegging or pinching. Its deeply-lobed leaves are clothed with dense silvery tomentum, so that, contrasted in belts or masses with Coleus or Iresine, it is one of the most effective of all silvery-leaved plants. A. Stelleriana is similar as to height, but of a more branching habit; the stems, branches, and leaves all densely covered with silvery hairs. It forms very neat panels or lines of silvery whiteness, and is most valuable when fully exposed to the sun on dry sandy soils. Aubrietia (see p. 779).—Close-growing, purple-flowered, perfectly hardy crucifers, forming masses of glaucous foliage similar to that of Arab is but smaller, and in spring becoming a mass of purple flowers. Valuable for rockwork, dry banks, beds, or borders in the spring. Cuttings, division, or seed. A. Campbellii, A. delta idea, and A. p urp urea are amongst the best. The last is a very popular plant in spring-bedding arrangements along with Myosotis and A rah is, forming sheets or masses of soft lilac purple flowers, in April and May. A variety of this having variegated foliage is useful for edgingsor panels. Bellis (see p. 779).—Composite plants, represented in our gardens by the crimson, rose, pink, white, and golden-leaved double-flowered daisies. They grow freely in cool moist hearty soils, and are very valuable for edgings or panels in spring carpet bedding. All are forms of the common daisy, which too pertinaciously proves its carpeting powers on our lawns in spring. Division of the tufts after flowering. In B. perennis aucubcefolia the bright-green leaves are profusely blotched with golden-yellow. The most effective colours are the double white, crimson, and pink. Centaueea (see p. 781).—Free-growing hardy or half-hardy composite plants, principally grown for their silvery foliage. All are dwarfer and whiter in colour when plunged in pots. C. gymnocarpa has elegantly-lobed plumose leaves about 1 foot in length; it can be grown on slender stems 12 | to 20 inches in height, and then assumes a plumose palm-like habit, suitable for use as a dot plant in panels of Coleus or I Iresine. C. ragusina—syn. C. candid issima—imd its varieties are well-known silvery-leaved plants, dwarfer than gymno-earpa, and the leaves are whiter and more boldly lobed. It forms dense tufts or masses 9 to 12 inches in height, and is useful for lines or masses along with dark-leaved plants. Cerastium (see p. 707).—Dwarf-growing caryophyllaceous | plants, two or three of the species of which are well adapted I for edgings, belts, or panels, as they bear clipping well. Easily propagated by division. C. arvense is close-growing, and may be clipped to almost any extent, forming panels, belts, or lines of the brightest green colour imaginable. Valuable for associating with carmine-tinted alternantheras j and the silvery antennaria. C. tornentosum is one of the best of all silvery-leaved plants for edgings or carpeting. , C. Biebersteinii is a stronger-growing larger-leaved plant, not j so white in colour, though useful for carpets and edgings. Chrysanthemum iadicum variegatum.—A plant commonly grown in gardens under the popular name of C. Sensation. I It is of dwarf habit, and bears pinching well; each leaf is | distinctly margined with cream-colour. Cineraria maritima.—A free-growing hardy plant, having deeply-cut foliage covered with satin-like tomentum, which gives it a distinct silvery appearance, making it useful for masses or edgings. C. maritima compacta is dwarfer and whiter than the normal form, and is very useful for edgings or as dividing lines in carpet beds. It is called Dusty Miller. Coleus.—Tropical labiates, popular in gardens for their richly-coloured velvety foliage. They are easily propagated from cuttings inserted in heat during the spring. C. Verschaf-feltii is a dense-habited plant, with ovate or ovate-cordate, eoarsely-serrate leaves, of a velvety-crimson colour when grown in the sun. It bears pinching well, and produces rich elfects contrasted with silvery centaureas or golden pyreth-runis. C. Verschaffeltii Improved is a brighter coloured plant, useful as being a shade or two lighter in colour. Co PR os m A.—New Zealand evergreen shrubs nearly allied to the cinchonas. One variety is very useful as an edging plant, and is tolerably easy to propagate from the young shoots taken from plants grown in a high humid temperature. This plant, C. Baueriana variegata, is of moderately quick growth, its glossy oblong leaves being richly margined with yellow. It forms a most distinct and effective marginal line or belt around summer beds, and can be kept dwarf by pegging. Cotyledon.—Succulent plants nearly related to crassulas and echeverias, readily propagated by offsets, or by stem and leaf cuttings in sand. C. sanguinea, C. pulverulenta and any other distinct-liabited species may be used as dot or centre plants in panels of dark-leaved foliage plants. Dactylis glomerata variegata.—A silvery-leaved, elegantly-tufted grass, C to 12 inches in height, and nearly hardy on warm soils. It is surpassed in whiteness and permanence, however, by D. elegant issima, a plant of similar habit, but both are effective in summer carpet-bedding along with Coleus and Iresine. Eciieyeria (see p. 781).—Succulent plants forming rosettelike tufts of bluish-gray, reddish-crimson, or metallic-tinted leaves. Propagated by offsets. For marginal lines or panels the dwarfer kinds are invaluable, while the larger forms are effective as central or dot plants. There are now many new hybrids between this genus and Pachyphyturn, which will be valuable when more plentiful. E. atropurpurea is a distinct plant, having sub-erect rosettes of long, narrow, deep purplish-crimson leaves. It is often grown under the name of E. sanguinea, and is valuable for contrasting with the glaucous species, or with silvery or yellow carpeting plants. E. gibbijlora.—A large-growing plant, forming a stem 1 to 2 feet in height, terminated by a tuft of broad, thick, glaucous foliage, slightly metallic on the upper surface. E. gibbijlora metallica is a deeper coloured, more coppery-tinted form, and is popular as a central plant in panels of golden feather or Alternanthera, under the name of E. metallica. E. glauco-metallica.—A distinct and robust habited hybrid between E. glauca and metallica. Its stout glaucous foliage is borne in stemless rosettes, and it is useful as a central plant or for large edgings. E. pumila.—This belongs to the E. secunda section, but has longer, narrower, greener leaves, and its rosettes are more upright in their growth. Useful for dwarf edgings. E. secunda is a well-known and popular plant for the margins of carpet-beds, its dwarf rosettes being of a glaucous green colour. E. secunda glauca is similar to the last in habit, but of a more distinct glaucous or bluish-gray colour; indeed lines or panels formed of this variety have quite a pale blue appearance when contrasted with rich purjjle and orange red-tinted Iresine and Alternanthera. Euonymus (see p. G55).—European and Japanese shrubs, having glossy green or variegated foliage, and useful in bedding arrangements as edging plants, cuttings, or layers. E. japonicus is a dense-habited, glossy-green leaved shrub, which may be kept dwarf by pegging it down. There are several golden and silver variegated forms of this species, the best being argenteo-variegatus, white; aureo-variegatus, yellow; latifolius albo-variegatus, broad-leaved white; latifolius aureo-variegatus, broad-leaved golden; ovatus aureo-variegatus, oval-leaved yellow; and jlavescens, golden yellow. E. radicans variegatus is a dense-growing, small-leaved species, conspicuously variegated with white, and useful for the edges of carpet beds and borders. It may be kept to any required height by pruning or pegging. Gazania.—A genus of brilliant, orange-flowered composite plants, commonly employed in ordinary bedding arrange-GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. 791 meats. Cuttings. G. splendensvariegata forms a soft glaucous i green ami yellow carpet, and may be used most effectively as a carpeting plant along with Coleus or I resine. The brilliant orange-yellow dark-eyed flowers may be removed if a soft glaucous carpet only is required. Heliciirysum petiolatum—syn. Gnaphalium lanatum (see p. 782).—A free-growing, silvery-leaved plant of rambling j habit, but readily kept neat by pegging or judicious pinch- ! ing. It is useful for belts or lines, contrasted with purple 1 resine and crimson Coleus. There is a variety of this plant having yellow margins to its woolly foliage. Iresixe.—Fopular South American foliage plants of great value in all summer bedding arrangements. Easily propagated from cuttings in heat. Equally suited for lines, belts, panels, or masses, and readily kept in condition by pinching. I. acuminata is a strong-growing, dark, purple-leaved plant, 12 to 14 inches in height, having broadly ovate acuminate leaves. I. Ilcrbstii is also stout-liabited, purple, with crimson | ribs, veins, and stems, but the leaves are roundish and more ! or less cupped. There is a yellow variegated form of this plant, useful as a variety, grown under the name of /. aureo-reticulata. 1. Lindent is one of the best, being of neat habit, having flat, ovate, deep purple leaves and stems, and growing about a foot high. In hot sunny weather it acquires a rich crimson purple colour, and produces beautiful contrasted effects. ; Kleinia.—Semi-slirubby, succulent-leaved composites from the Cape, easily propagated from cuttings or offsets. K. repcns j is a dwarf compact plant with oblong, semicylindrical bluish-tinted leaves. For divisional lines or small panels this is one of the prettiest and most effective of all succulent-leaved j plants. K. tomentosa is a rather larger grower, more shrubby in habit, having spindle-shaped leaves densely covered with i silvery tomentum. Used in similar positions with the last or contrasted with carmine-tinted alternantheras and deep- | leaved iresines this is very pleasing. Leucoi'HYTA Brownii.—A pretty silvery plant much used for carpet bedding. Propagated by cuttings in the spring. It is of slender branching habit, 4 to S inches in height, its whipcord like growth being densely covered with silvery tomentum. It bears cutting well and is very useful for edgings or divisional lines contrasted well with crimson alternantheras. Lobelia (see p. 782).—A popular genus of flowering plants, the most valuable being the blue-llowered kinds, but there are also rosy purple ami white varieties. Cuttings or seed. Well ! suited for lines, margins, or panels. New varieties are const mtly appearing. Lysimachia.—Hardy herbaceous plants, easily propagated by division or layers. L. Eummularia aurea is a distinct rich golden-foliaged form of the common moneywort, which j forms an effective edging associated with dark-blue lobelias, or it is extremely pretty for borders, tree roots, or draping rock work. Mesembryaxtiiemum cordifolium variegaturn. — One of the finest and hardiest of all soft golden yellow edging plants i for summer effects. It forms a dense carpet of fleshy ovate crystalline leaves, and grows freely on dry soils, always looking fresh and beautiful, especially when contrasted with carmine-tinted alternantheras or crimson iresines. It is readily multiplied by cuttings or seeds. Any of the dwarf-growing 1 free-flowering species of Mescmbrgajithemum may be used for ; planting on a carpet of Sedmn glaucum, or for sloping banks and beds in dry sunny positions. Myosotis (see p. 782). —A popular genus of hardy borage-worts well known under the familiar name of “ forget-me-nots,” and of exceptional value for carpet bedding in spring. Division or seed. M. dissititlora is the best of the forget-me-nots for carpet bedding in spring on cool rich soils. M. azorica is a dense-tufted species, 4 to G inches in height, bearing a profusion of blue and rosy tinted flowers in April. M. azorica ccelcstina is a variety similar in habit, but an even more profuse bloomer, the flowers being of a soft turquoise-blue tint. M. [mperatrice Elizabeth is an hybrid between this species and M. rupicola, and is both a free-blooming plant and hardy in constitution. Nertera (see p. 709).—A small genus of rubiaceous plants from the bleak Antarctic mountains of the southern hemisphere. Readily propagated by division. It is represented in our gardens by N. scapanoides—syn. N. depressa—a procumbent plant, which resembles a dwarf-growing Selaginella inhabit, and bears amongst its fresh green leaves rich orange berry-like fruits of the size of small peas. It is best grown in small pots on a shelf near the glass until its fruit are set, when it maybe plunged outside in the carpet beds, where its bright tufts of green leaves, covered with glossy orange-scarlet berries, have a very brilliant effect. It requires a copious supply of water at the roots. Plunged on a cool gray carpet of Sedum it is lovely. Paciiyphytum.—Thick-leaved succulents, nearly allied to Echeveria, but more caulescent in habit, and readily propagated by placing the old leaves in pots or pans of sand and treating them as cuttings. Like many other succulent leaf-cuttings they root best in a sunny place. jft bracteosum is a white or glaucous plant, with thick oblong or wedge-shaped leaves 2 to 3 inches in length, and varies from 0 to 12 inches in height. Very effective for forming divisional lines in summer carpet beds. P. roseum has greener leaves, and is not quite so erect in habit, the leaves being more spindle-shaped. It grows freely, and is useful as a variety in mixed carpet and succulent beds. Perilla nankinensis.—A strong-growing sooty-purple, nearly black, leaved foliage plant, which naturally attains a height of 18 to 20 inches, but by pegging it down and pinching in the leading growths it can be made available for central masses or belts in summer carpet bedding. It is readily propagated from spring-sown seeds. Pyretiirum.—Dwarf-growing composite plants, easily multiplied from spring-sown seeds or division. P. Parthenium aureum, one of the very finest and hardiest of all goldenleaved plants used in carpet bedding, is well known even to cottage gardeners under the name of golden feather. P. TchihatcJmpii is a deep green turfing or carpet plant, popularly called the turfing daisy. It is useful as forming a fresh verdant carpet on the driest and most barren of soils, its creeping stems being densely clothed with finely cut or lobed foliage. It bears large white-rayed flowers with a yellow disc. Roche A.—Robust erect-growing succulents, easily propagated by leaf-cuttings in the spring or summer. 11. falcata, a strong-growing plant, has broadly falcate glaucous leaves, and cymose clusters of bright orange-scariet flowers; its foliage is distinct and effective, it perfoliata has narrower, longer, opposite, perfoliate leaves of a paler glaucous tint, and is useful for lines or isolated specimens on a carpet of Sedum or other dwarf-growing succulent. Salvia argentea.—A large-leaved species of dwarf spreading habit, the foliage being densely covered with silvery tomentum. It is useful for mixing along with other carpeting plants, in borders, or on rockwork. Seeds. Saxtolixa.—Hardy herbaceous plants, propagated by seeds or division in spring. S. incana is a pretty and distinct dwarf-growing plant, its growth resembling that of Aphelexis or Phocnocoma on a small scale, its slender twig-like growths and knotty leaves being densely covered with silvery tomentum. It is useful for either divisional lines or edgings. Saxifraga (see p. 712).— A well-known genus of semisucculent plants, quite hardy and well suited for carpeting shady banks or borders in the flower-garden, for rockwork or carpet bedding. Propagated by offsets and division. All the quick-growing species belonging to the mossy section form valuable carpeting plants. The choice is almost unlimited. As compact rosulate white-edged species, S. Aizoon and Aizoon minor, S. llostii, and S. pcctinata may be used with advantage; and of the mossy-like group S. hgpnoidcs and its varieties, S. dcnsa, &c. Sedum (see p. 712).—Dwarf-growing succulents well adapted for covering old walls, dry banks, or for carpet bedding where a cool, glaucous or green carpet is required, on which to dot more prominent designs or single plants of striking or distinct habit. Easily propagated by division in spring.SEA-SIDE AND TOWN PLANTS, ETC. 795 S. acre.—This common stone-crop affords one of the best of all substitutes for Sclaginella in the open-air beds. acre aureum has a golden glow, each growth being tipped with yellow, and is useful as a variety distinct in hue from the normal form. S. album is a dense-habited deep green species, well suited for beds or dry banks. In hot weather the old leaves change to a bright coral red, and the plant is then very distinct and ornamental. S. anglicum.—A very free and dense growing species, which bears clipping well, the growth being of a soft glaucous colour suffused with a yellow glow. For edgings or panels, along with carmine Alternanthcra, it is superb. S. carneum.—A glaucous-leaved plant of free growth, and one which bears pinching in well. There is a form with yellow or creamy-white margins to the leaves and pinkish stems (S', carueum caricgatum), and this is very effective as a light, coloured edging plant, or for belts along with Coleus. S. corstcuin.—One of the best of the glaucous carpeting species, forming a dense cool grayish ground of little rosetteshaped growths only an inch in height. S. glaucum is very similar to this, but more blue in colour, and forms very dense cool carpets for larger-growing succulents, Chanuvpcucc, or fanciful designs in brighter-coloured plants. S. hispunicum is also a dense-growing plant of a light shade of glaucous green, and one of the prettiest for carpets; while S. fariunsum ! is similar to the last, but of a still lighter shade of glaucous . green. S'. Lgdium.—One of the best of dwarf-growing green kinds, forming a fresh carpet upon which silvery plants or larger succulents show to excellent advantage. SEMi>F.RVlvUM(seepp.712,7S0).—Rosette-shaped succulents, easily propagated by cuttings, offsets, or division, and very valuable in summer carpet-bedding arrangements. All the large and distinct-habited kinds are useful for mixed beds on a carpet of sedums or saxifrages. S. arac/tiioldeum is a dwarf dense-growing hardy species producing small green rosettes, each covered with silk-like cobwebby silvery hairs extending from point to point. Useful for mixed beds or vases. .S', arboreum.—A tall-growing caulescent branching species, bearing spreading tufts of fresh green leaves. A form of this, S. arboreum variegatum, has green leaves margined with creamy-white; and S. arboreum atropurpureum has blackish-purple foliage, and is very effective in a sunny position. S. calcareum.—A dwarf stemless European species, having deep greenish rosette-shaped tufts, each leaf being tipped with purplish-brown. This is much grown as an edging plant under the popular but erroneous name of ,S. californicum. I S. canar tense.—A strong-growing green-leaved plant, forming a tuft of fresh green spathulate leaves, fully 12 to 14 inches j in diameter. It is useful as a dot plant, or for large edgings I or lines. S. hi rtum.—A free-growing and prolific hardy species throwing off offsets in every direction, and these form a rounded tuft, with the parent plant in the centre. It is of a fresh green colour, and well deserves a place as a border plant in lines, or in mixed beds. S. montanuin.—One of the neatest and prettiest of all the species, forming globular rosettes the size of a shilling or larger, of a deep fresh green colour. Very pretty for edges, and the margins of small carpet beds. S. tabuliforme.—A pale-green tender species with closely imbricated leaves, forming flat table-like tufts fully a foot across in well-developed plants. Well suited for large edgings, or as a dot or central plant for panel beds. S. tectorum, common house-leek.—A valuable edging plant in gardens where there is no convenience for preserving the more tender kinds during winter; it forms boldish rosettes, and is quite hardy. S. aureum—syn. S. Bollii, Greenovia aurea.—A distinct tender plant of an elegantly cupped or vasiform shape, the light-green fleshy leaves being erectish, closely imbricated, with the heart sunk. It comes from the Canary Isles. Stachys.—Hardy labiates, easily multiplied in spring by division or seeds. S. lanata is a common silvery or woolly leaved plant, popularly known as lamb’s ear, and useful for edgings, lines, or panels all the year round. Tradescantia. — A genus of spider-worts easily propagated by cuttings or division in the spring. The indoor T. zebrina makes a luxuriant growth in shady positions on rich soils during the summer months, and is useful for forming a dense carpet of purplish silvery-striped foliage as an undergrowth to hide the soil in subtropical and other beds. Veronica Andcrsoni variegata.—A distinct shrubby half-hardy plant, its smooth oblong leaves being blotched and margined with creamy-yellow. Forms an effective edging plant when pegged down, or it may be pinched to make it dwarf. Cuttings. V. incana.—A dense-growing carpet plant, very useful for lines, edgings, and panels. The leaves are ovate, about an inch in length, and of a glaucous-green colour, densely covered with satin-like tomenturn. Propagated by division. —F. w. B. CHAPTER XXVIII. SEA-SIDE AND TOWN PLANTS, ETC. I.—SEA-SIDE PLANTS. The detrimental effect of strong sea breezes and salt spray on most kinds of trees and shrubs, when grown near the margin of the sea, is well known, and the ill-thriven or disfigured appearance of many of those planted for the adornment of sea-side residences is generally regretted. This unsatisfactory condition of the vegetation is usu-ally caused by want of sufficient shelter. To plant in very exposed situations so as to obtain sufficient shelter is a matter of great difficulty, and in some places may be impracticable; but in moderately exposed localities, particularly on the southern and western coasts of our islands, success or comparative success may be attained by care and attention. In any circumstances it is most natural to plant next the sea the kinds of trees and shrubs that are found to possess the greatest power of resisting the influence of storms, and to place them in such a manner that they will form a screen for less persistent and more ornamental kinds. An examination of the condition of any native trees and shrubs growing near the sea, at a locality intended to be planted, is a good index of the amount of precaution that must be used, and affords some reliable suggestions as to the kinds of trees and shrubs most suitable. Owing to the configuration of the coast, it is frequently found that while one part is bare and bleak, indicating great exposure, another within quite a short distance has the native trees extending nearly to the water’s edge, indicating a considerable amount of shelter. In the former case a broad and dense screen of the very hardiest kinds may be needful, and even these may require in their young state the shelter of hurdles or other contrivances, while in the other79G GARDENER'S ASSISTANT. a narrow screen of less persistent subjects may be found sufficient. In laying out grounds at the sea-side it is well to employ plants of very moderate size that they may have the protection of the boundary-wall usually erected next the sea. The coping of the boundary-wall itself should slope from the highest part outwards, so that wind impinging upon its external surface may glance off upwards in a slanting direction. If it is attempted to gain effect at once by employing somewhat large subjects, the risk of failure is^yery great. The larger trees get shaken by the storms before they are fully rooted, and then follows a process of gradual dissolution. It is no uncommon thing to find three or four years wasted in attempts of this sort, and after all that it is needful to begin the work anew, by employing trees of smaller size. For small j daces a screen border of 20 feet in breadth is desirable, and still broader if the amount of ground can conveniently be spared. Such a border may be planted externally with a selection of the trees and shrubs enumerated in the first portion of the subjoined list A, and internally with a selection of the denser-growing evergreens from that list and the list B. In cases where the external border or screen needs to be made quite narrow a row of tamarisks or of Euonymus planted closely together will be found very suitable for the more sunny localities, and for those less favoured by sunshine the sea buckthorn, the goat willow, and the elder, kept to the size of large shrubs, will do excellent service.1 In planting specimen trees of the less persistent kinds full advantage should be taken of minute local circumstances that afford some shelter. The position, in reference to strong winds, of a projecting rock, of a neighbouring building, or even of a single tree of the hardier sort, must not be overlooked. It frequently happens that a change of less than 50 feet in the position of a tree or shrub, may make all the difference between rearing a well-formed shapely sjjecimen, or one that is quite the reverse. Till an external screen is well grown a protection of hurdles or rough boarding fixed on the external wall during the winter or windy season will be found of much advantage. Similar screens may also be employed for single plants or groups of plants within the grounds. Newly-planted trees, liable to be shaken, should be staked in the most 1 Lavcitera arborca, tree mallow, .although only of biennial duration, attains in its second year a height of from 8 to 1*2 feet, and being naturally a sea-coast plant, it forms an excellent shelter for young seaward plantations. Thickly planted beds of it from 2 to 4 yards in breadth are successfully employed for screening garden crops from direct sea blasts. efficient manner, and the cords or wires support-ing them maintained in good condition for several years. An article on forest planting at the seaside in Grigor’s Arboriculture (chap, xii.) may be advantageously consulted. Among deciduous trees the mountain ash, the sycamore (called plane in Scotland), and the wych elm, and among evergreen trees the Austrian pine, the Corsican pine, and the maritime pine, have been found the most persistent. These trees, if planted in masses, grow freely, and maintain their shape even in positions of considerable exposure. Among shrubs, or trees that may be treated as shrubs, the sea buckthorn grows freely within a few yards of high-water mark, where it is liable to be drenched by the salt spray of every storm. Placed less near to the sea-margin the goat willow shows great powers of endurance. In a like situation the elder grows vigorously, and though some of its young shoots are liable to be killed during winter these are speedily concealed by the exuberant growth of the following season. On the south coast, as at Brighton, a double or even a single row of tamarisks, planted closely together, is employed with great success in exposed situations. It is found to thrive in positions where even the sycamore suffers greatly. Among evergreen shrubs the thick-leaved hollies, ivies, and thick-leaved rhododendrons are the most serviceable; Euonymus japonicus is also employed with success as a screen towards the sea in many places on the south coast. Good results have been obtained with common holly, Rhododendron and Arbutus; less satisfactory with yew, laurustinus, and laurel, the common laurel being less persistent than the Portugal laurel. Most of the ornamental hollies need some shelter in order to preserve their shape. The sweet bay and the evergreen oak become quite discoloured when touched by salt spray, but thrive well if screened or removed from its influence. The Araucaria and the varieties of cypress named in the following lists grow vigorously with only the shelter of a border screen such as we have described. Attention is called to the unsuitableness of certain common trees—as the lime, the horse chestnut, the Scotch fir, and the spruce—for planting in exposed sea-side positions. The writer has frequently observed these trees so planted, ami with the unvarying result that the lime becomes disfigured if not kept down to a bush; that the horse chestnut is more or less stunted, and usually assumes its autumn foliage in the month of July; and that the conifers lose their top-shoots before they have attained many years’ growth. When suitably placed, however, even within the bounds of 3 acres of pleasure ground, these trees, thatSEA-SIDE AND TOWN PLANTS, ETC. 797 Buffer so much on an external border, can be grown satisfactorily. Where there is sufficient shelter the influence of the sea in moderating the winter temperature is so great, that various plants that need careful protection in the neighbourhood of London, can be grown at the sea-side as far north as Oban, without any special attention. In sheltered situations in the islands of Skye and Lewis, and also on the Orkney Islands, many plants accounted tender in inland localities can be freely grown. In the following lists the trees and shrubs are arranged as nearly as has been ascertained in the order of their power of resisting the effects of the sea-breeze, those that are the most persistent in each section being placed towards the top, and the others in relative sequence. The selection and arrangement of these lists is mainly based upon experiments and observations made at Cove and Kilcreggan on the Firth of Clyde, during a period of fifteen years. It comprises, however, some important additions and a few modifications derived from a revision by correspondents, who have been observers on the eastern and southern coasts. Buplearum fruticosuni, hare’s ear. Fscallonia macrantha; F. jiterocladon. Cotoneastermicrophylla, small-leaved eotoneaster; C.Simonsii\ Simons’ eotoneaster. Atrijfab Ilalim us, orach or tree purslane. Berberis Dancinii, Darwin’s berberry; B. empetrifolia, hardleaved berberry; B. Aquifoliam (Mahonia). Quo reus Ilex, evergreen oak. Cratcegus Pyracantha, lire thorn. Rha minis Alaternus. P hilly re a media, P. any ust if alia, P. latifolia. Trees. Sal ix cap re a, goat willow or sallow; S. cinerea, gray willow; S. alba, white or Huntingdon willow; S. rubra, sea-side willow; S. vimiaalis, osier. These are all good as screen plants. Pyrus Aucujiaria, mountain ash or rowan. Acer Pseado-Platanas, sycamore and its varieties. Clams montana, wych elm. Pinas auxtriaca, black or Austrian pine; P. Laricio, Corsi. can pine; P. Pinaster, maritime pine; P. Pumilio, mountain pine—all evergreen. Cratceyus Oxyacantha, common hawthorn; also many of the varieties. Bet ala alba, common birch. Pyrus Sorb us, service. I Fraxinus excelsior, common ash. Laburnum alpinvm, Scotch laburnum. Has much greater power of endurance than the common variety. Carpinus Bctulus, hornbeam. Fay us sylvatica. common beech. Populus canescens, gray poplar. Alnus glutinosa, alder. A.—Trees and shrubs that withstand the sea-breeze. Deciduous Shrubs. Hippophiie rhamnoides, sea buckthorn. Clex europanis, gorse or whin. Tamarix gallic a, tamarisk; T. yermanica. A most valuable screen plant, extensively employed on the south coast. It thrives well in fully exposed situations on the Firth of Forth. Sambucus nigra, common elder and its varieties. Forms an efficient screen-fence on poor soil if pruned twice or three times a year. Lycium europceum, box thorn. Maybe employed for covering an external fence. Cytisus scopanus, yellow broom. Berberis vulgaris, common berberry. Rhamnus cartharticus, buckthorn. Juniperus communis, common juniper. Ribes sanyuineum, flowering currant. Symplnn'icarpus racemosus, snowberry. Corylus A vellana, hazel and its varieties. Rosa spinosissii/ia, Scotch rose and its many double varieties; R. rubiyinosa, sweet briar. Ceanothus amerieanus, New Jersey tea. Hydrangea Hortensia, hydrangea. Evergreen Shrubs. Euonymv.s japonicus, Japan spindle-tree. Veronica decusBMta. Reported by Mr. Gorrie as free and symmetrical, growing in a position fully exposed to the sea winds and salt-water spray on the island of Rousay in Orkney. Hex Aqv.ifoli>n,i crassifolia, leather-leaved holly; I. A. scotica, I. A. Ilodyinsii, Hudgins’s holly; and generally the thickleaved varieties. Iledera Helix, common ivy; If. canariensis, Irish ivy; II. algeri-ensis, Algerian ivy; II. Rwgnerinna; and other varieties. May be grown over a pile of rough stones or a tree-root, and will assume the character of a distinct and branching evergreen, in positions unsuited for the growth of laurels and other broad-leaved evergreens. Rhododendron catawbicnse; R. ponticum; and most of the thick-leaved kinds. Chenopodium fruticosuni, shrubby goosefoot. B.—Trees and shrubs that withstand the sea-breeze when slightly screened or partially sheltered. Deciduous Shrubs. Syringa vulgaris, persica. Ligustrum vulgare. Viburnum Opulus sterile. Fuchsia magellanica. ,, Riccartoni. Weigela rosea. ,, amabilis. Cornus sanguinea. Colutea arborescens. Philadelphia coronarius. Azalea pontica. Spartium junceum. Cytisus albus. Spiraea, many varieties. Deutzia crenata. Buddleia globosa. Leycesteria formosa. Evergreen Shrubs. ! Rhododendron, hybrid and alpine varieties. Arbutus Unedo. ,, Andrachne. ,, procera. Taxus baceata. Viburnum Tinus. Ilex Aquifolium balearica (maderensis). | Ilex Aquifolium nngustifolia. ,, ,, laurifolia. ,, ,, „ variegata. Pemettya mucronata. Cerasus lusitanica. Laurus nobilis. Cerasus Laurocerasus. Griselinia littoralis. ,, lucida. Daphne Laureola. Garrya elliptica. Buxus sempervirens. ,, balearica. Aucuba japonica and its varieties. Ligustrum japonicum. Andromeda floribunda. Deciduous Trees. Acer platanoides. Platanus orientalis. Laburnum vulgare. Pyrus Malus prunifolia. Prunus Padus. Cerasus avium flore-pleno. Populus alba. ,, nigra. ,, tremula. Quercus, various. Evergreen Trees. Cupressus Lawsoniana. ,, macrocarpa. ,, nutkaensis. Araucaria imbricata. Picea Xordmanniana. Picea pectinata. ,, l'insapo. ,, nobilis. ,, lasiocarpa. Thuja occidentalis.798 GARDENER'S ASSISTANT. C.—Trees that thrive at the sea-side when, well sheltered from the strongest winds and from sea spray. .Esculus Ilippocastanum. Castanea vesca. Juglans regia. Tilia europtea. Kobinia l’seuil-Acacia. Wellingtonia gigantea. Cedrus Deoilara. ,, atlantiea. Tinus Cemlua. „ sylvestris. „ macroearpa. Pinus insignis. ,, pyi'uimica. Larix europsea. Abies exeelsa. „ alba. ,, orientalis. Taxus baccata fastigiata. Juniperus chinensis. „ drupacea. Thuja LohWl or ilenziesii. Biota orientalis. Under the heading of the above list, marked C, a very large proportion of the trees and shrubs that can be grown out of doors in this country, might be included.—R. B. [In matters of this kind experience is of the utmost importance, and we shall therefore collect together some recent records of what has been done in sea-side planting. A writer in the Field points out the especial excellence of the willow as a shelter plant near the sea-coast. Between Blackpool and Southport it is extensively planted in belt lines to protect plantations and gardens from the breezes which sweep along that part of the coast with unusual severity. It grows well in the light sandy soil of the district; indeed, in some places, it is growing on what were but a few years ago nothing but sand-banks. In the well-kept public gardens at Lytham, which extend to within about 50 paces of high-water mark, the willow again is planted next the sea for shelter; and, though the soil is poor, the trees in three or four years have grown 20 feet or 30 feet high. The elm, beech, sycamore, oak, laburnum, and other deciduous trees, become as brown and withered in foliage during the summer as if a severe black frost had passed over them; but the willow towers aloft, and is green and luxuriant to its topmost branches. In the extensive park around Clifton Hall, and close to the sea, the plantations have all been protected in the same way from the blast. In some places the willows appear to be of good age, and are considerably taller than the spruces, oaks, and other trees which they guard from the storm. The Rev. T. C. Brehaut, of Guernsey, in noting his experience on the effects of exposure to violent summer gales of wind when growth was in full vigour, states that amongst shrubs the best to withstand its ravages were Euoni/mus and Escal-lonia, which can be relied on generally. The common sea tamarisk was equally good; the rest, including ash, elm, and pinaster, suffered immensely; and honeysuckles, quicktliorn hedges, buckthorn bushes, and brambles were destroyed. Where, however, one hardy plant sheltered another, or where a wattled paling, 4 feet high, afforded protection, almost perfect impunity from injury resulted; and where the soil was richest, the loss was least. From these and other observations he concludes that it is owing partly to the mechanical effects of a violent current of air on plants, and partly from such a current being laden with salt particles, that a summer gale is so destructive; also that a very little artificial shelter would enable many delicate plants to be employed in exposed places, quite near to the sea (Gardeners’ Chronicle, 1876, x.s., vi. 386). It may be inferred that the injurious effect of a stiff gale on the leaves of plants is owing to the rupture of small vessels or cells in their tissue, since experiments made with the object of producing the same results by syringing with salt water, have uniformly failed to do so. The same writer, ref erring totlie shelter afforded by introducing broad belts of plantation, states that, owing to the value of even poor cliff soil, this mode of planting, though proved to be effectual elsewhere, would be simply impossible in the Channel Isles. By planting successive rows, and by the sacrifice of many an outer one, the immense Landes near Bordeaux were reclaimed, the tree used being the pinaster, which so signally failed in Mr. Brehaut’s own garden. He further instances the case of a garden in Sussex, where the belts of I shelter, which included walks bordered by laurels, completely defended the rare trees and shrubs, so that conifers of various kinds, planted simultaneously in this garden and in Guernsey, had in the former position reached double the height and triple the width of those in the latter, owing mainly to protection from the pressure and the ! extreme violence of the gales. It is the same in the Scilly Islands with their comparatively mild climate. Here, he continues, the only fence is the tamarisk, which grows to about 15 feet, but more inland, in good old soil and along a stream, even ! 25 feet high. The poor people carefully fence even a few perches of sand all round with the invaluable tamarisk; otherwise they employ as shelter, walls of loose stones, but not turf, though earth hedges are common divisions of the fields inland, topped with furze and thorn. A broad hedge or bank of earth, with furze growing on the | top, is a good wind-screen. The sea buckthorn is also used in Guernsey, but not so much as the j tamarisk, nor is it found to be so hardy. Did ' space permit, the belts of tamarisk might be advantageously widened, but this obvious idea does ’ not seem to occur to anyone. Mr. Brehaut adds:— “ My recommendation of euonymus (E. japoni-cus) and of escallonia (E. mcicrantha) is based on three seasons' good results; but then these excel-SEA-SIDE AND TOWN PLANTS, ETC. 799 lent shrubs are somewhat sheltered by a fence. Quercus Ilex is cut down at once here, and only lives behind the cottage. My present idea is to employ a new strip of land as a screen mainly, by raising a turf bank, putting a fence above it, and interlacing and overtopping it by strong furze branches, then planting tamarisks trained as stems to rise quickly, with euonymus bushes between elder, and A triplex llalimus to be planted to leeward of these. Then would come elms” (Gardeners’ Chronicle, 1ST0, x.s., vi. 581). Another correspondent of the same journal, writing anonymously, also recommends the Atriplex or sea orach as being a good screen plant in such situations. Mr. A. Forsyth suggests the planting of truncheons in order to establish protective fences. He planted some willow branches, side by side with rooted plants whose tops he had cut off, and in four years no one could tell which were the truncheons, or which were the trees. Now the willow will bear to be pollarded, and by this means hundreds of truncheons can be supplied without much expense. The sallows are even better suited to sea-side planting than the willows. The only tool required for truncheon- I planting is a crowbar, pointed at one end and blunt at the other. Where the land is light and sandy, the truncheons should be inserted at least a foot deep for the sake of moisture. Willow truncheons are cheap, and letting them into the sand or soil with a crowbar during the winter will secure their services for many years.] II. —TREES AXD SIIRCBS FOR EXPOSED INLAND SITUATIONS. [The great secret of success in inducing trees to grow in open situations exposed to strong atmospheric pressure, is to provide them with shelter. It is utterly useless to expect either valuable or ornamental trees to thrive in very exposed situations unless the force of the strong winds from the most exposed quarter is broken before it reaches them; but shelter once provided, whatever its character, a certain amount of success, dependent on the concurrence of other favourable circumstances, may be looked for. In planting under conditions of this kind, it lues been well remarked, that nothing is so likely as a deep and well-drained soil of good staple, to promote a vigorous growth, or sustain the vitality of the plants under adverse circumstances. Moreover, thick mulchings of any loose vegetable matter should be applied to the surface of the ground after the trees are planted, and for a year or two subsequently, till theyare fairly established. This mulching retains the heat of the ground, and also prevents evaporation. The scathing winds of the spring months are exceedingly trying to newly planted trees, and their evil effects are felt much more severely if the soil is left bare, in which condition it is apt to become parched and thus hardened. In all cases well-rooted and transplanted trees, i.e. trees that have been moved say two years previously, should be selected for this kind of planting. They should be put in their permanent places as soon as possible after being obtained, the roots in the meantime, if there is any delay in planting, being carefully covered with soil, and also with dry litter should frosty weather intervene. With the exception of hollies, which are best planted in August, this work should be done in October or early in N ovember, or else deferred till March or April. Unless in very favourable seasons, mid-winter, especially in cold districts, is the worst possible time for such work. Thick planting should be had recourse to, and any necessary thinning effected afterwards; but for the first few years nursing is of the utmost importance, and thick planting is the best mode in which this can be carried out. It would prevent much disappointment in planting exposed sites if more care were exercised in selecting only those kinds of trees and shrubs which are suitable; for, although all may be affected more or less by exposure, there are many that will thrive tolerably well if they get a good start. Any of the following trees may be advantageously planted in elevated districts deficient of shelter:— Deciduous Trees. Pyrus Aucvparia, mountain ash. Acer Pseudo-Plata mis, sycamore. Quercus Jlobnr, oak. Fagus sylvatica, beech. (Jl)inis montuna, wycli elm; U. campestris, common elm. Pop ulus mo n it if era, black Italian poplar; P. canadensis nova, new Canadian poplar. Salix alba, Huntingdon willow. Ptctula alba, birch. Castanca vrsca, Spanish chestnut. Crater g us Oxyacanthet, hawthorn. Pyrus Mains, crab. As undergrowth, the Corylus Avellana (hazel) and Sambucus nigra (elder) form almost impenetrable thickets. Decipuous Shrubs. Derberis vulgaris, berberry. Daphne Mezercum, mezercon. Philadelphus coronari.us, mock orange. Syr Inga vulgaris, lilac. Sambucus nigra, elder. ilibes sang a ineum, scarlet currant. Spurt in. in junceum, Spanish broom. Rosa rubiginosa, sweet briar. Evergreen Trees. Pinu$ anstriaca, Austrian pine; P. Laricio, Corsican pine; Pi era yrctinata, silver fir; Abies excrlsa, spruce fir. These are unsurpassed for purposes of shelter, and in tolerably800 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. moist and deep soil grow with great rapidity in the bleaker situations, forming in a few years a dense covert. Plans sylvestris, Scotch fir, which will grow almost anywhere.. Cedrus Libani, cedar of Lebanon. Taxus baccata, English yew. Ilex Aquifulium, common holly. The two last should be planted extensively. Evergreen Shrubs. Cerastis Lanrocerasus, the cherry laurel, of which the Caucasian variety is the hardiest, claims the first place. Berber is Aquifoliuia, holly-leaved berberry. Aucuba japonica, Japan laurel. Biixus sempervIrens, box. [flex europceus jlure-pleno, double furze, which is highly ornamental. Ilhododendron, in variety.] III.—TREES FOR CHALK SOILS. [Chalk soils are exceedingly difficult to furnish ' with a thriving mantle of vegetation, and yet j there are many situations on elevated chalk land, I which are exceedingly well adapted in other respects for residential purposes, and in which, as a j consequence,planting becomes important. Aseries of most instructive papers by Mr. James Salter, F.E.S., in the Gardeners’ Chronicle (1875, x.s., ii. 3!) 1) supply the best information we know on this subject, and we propose here to give an abstract of them:— The chalk districts of England do not vary much in their physical characters—bold, undulating hills of great breadth and extent, with open valleys, all much exposed to the action of the wind. Here and there these massive undulations jut out upon the plateau of a lower formation in the form of escarpments, whose exposure to the storm is complete, and where the action of the wind upon vegetation is without mitigation. The soil of these chalk hills and downs is very uniform, a thin crust of brown loam immediately overlying the pure chalk. Here and there on the highest hills and most elevated flats are a few patches of plastic clay, forming the basins of those perennial ponds which one sees on the South Downs, and which no drought can destroy. These clay patches are very valuable and important in many ways. The chalk and the loam are very definite and sharp in the line where they meet; there is no mixing-up, no transition from one to the other; but the line of union is often irregular, for in a section it is sometimes seen that the loam will be only 5 or 0 inches deep at one spot and 2 or 3 feet at another close by. Chalk consists almost entirely of carbonate of lime with some silica, and a trace of alumina. It therefore very imperfectly supplies the mineral elements necessary for vegetable growth. The loam on chalk consists of carbonate of lime, some clay, sand, and a considerable quantity of decayed vegetable matter, and is, therefore, a fair supporter of vegetable life. Previous to planting trees in blocks or masses it is absolutely necessary to trench the land, and this upon chalk soils is a matter in which very serious mistakes may be made, as Mr. Salter found to his cost. There is a prevailing idea that trees require a deep soil for their growth; but this is an entire fallacy as regards the greater proportion of them. That trees will prosper more in a good deep soil, than in a similar soil that is superficial, is no doubt true; but a thin rich soil is better than a deep poor one; and the most fatal mistake that can be made in trenching land preparatory to planting, is to throw up a barren subsoil, and bury the better elements beneath it. This is particularly the case on the chalk lands. That trees of very large size will grow upon the very thin soil may be rendered evident to any one who travels through the chalk cuttings on our southern railways. In many places the soil is not 6 inches deep above the chalk, and yet splendid trees, especially beeches, are seen clothing the hills. In trenching chalk land the trench should be carried to the bottom of the loam, but no further. However superficial the top soil may be, even 3 or 4 inches, it alone should be turned over in the trench, and not a grain of chalk should be raised. The chalk may be broken up into large lumps with a pick-axe, and left at the bottom of the trench, but there it should remain. Through a misunderstanding on the part of the foreman of a gang of trenchers, some 60 yards of a belt of land had the whole of the loam buried and covered over with more than a foot of fine powdered chalk. This 60 yards of subsoiled land proved to be a region of vegetable barrenness, ' while the rest was a complete success. In a subsequent paper (Gardeners’ Chronicle, \ 1875, x.s., ii. 582) Mr. Salter gives a list of ! the trees that have succeeded best under the foregoing conditions. The following are noted as ' flourishing:— Conijera’. Abies excelsa,common spruce. Cedrus atlantica. ,. Deodara. Cupressus Lawsoniana. ., ,, erecta viridis. ,, maeroearpa. Juniperus chinensis (male). ,, communis hibernica. „ virginiana. ,, Sabina. Larix europiea. ,, leptolepis. Picea magnifica. ,, nobilis. ,. Xordmanninna. ,, Pinsnpo. Pinns austriaca. ., excelsa. Pinus Laricio. „ Pinaster. ,, sylvestris. „ Torreyana. Retinospora ericoides. ., filieoides. Salisburia adiantifolia. Taxus baccata. fastigiata. Thuja Lobbii. occidentalis. orientalis. ,, au re a. ,, semperaurea. tatariea. AVareana. Tlmjopsis borealis. Wellingtonia gigantea.SEA SIDE AND TOWN PLANTS, ETC. 801 Deciduous Trees. Acer colehicum rubruni. Gledit-chia sinensis. ,, dasyearpum. Halimodeinlron argenteum ,, Negundo. (grafted on Caragana arbo- „ platanoides. rescens). „ Pseudo-Platauus. Kolreuteria paniculata. , rubram. 1'opulus alba. „ saccharinum. ,, balsamifera. ,, striatum. ,, canadensis. „ tataricum. ,, candicans. .Esculus Hippoeastanum. ,, nmnilifera. ,, ,, ffore-pleno. ,, tremula pendula. ,, ,, rubicunda. Pyrus Aria. Alnus glutinosa. ,, Aucuparia. ,, ,, laciniata. ,, hybrida. ,, ,, imperial!!. ,, Mai us tloribunda. Amelanchier Bi ing), burnum). (both these weeping sorts Fagus sylvatica. grafted on S. caprea). ,, pendula. Tilia europrea. ,, purpurea. Ulmus americana. Fraxinus excelsior. „ ,, pendula. ,, ,, aurea. ,, montana purpurea. ,, „ crispa. ,, glabra vegeta. Gleditschia triacanthos. Virgilia lutea. SIr, r.bs. Amorpha fruticosa. Cotoneaster microphylla. Aralia Siebnldii. ,, Simonsii. ,, canescens. Cratfegus Pyracantha. Berberis Aquifolium. Deutzia crenata ffore-pleno. ,, aristata. ,, Fortunei. ,, Darwinii. ,, gracilis. ,, Xubertii. ,, scabra. ,, vulgaris. Dimorphanthus mandchuri- „ .. purpurea. cus. Buddleia globosa. Kl;eagnus japoniea. Calycantlius lloridus. Escallonia macrantha. Ceanothus azureus. Euonymus japonicus. Cerasus Laurocerasus. ,, ,, albo-variegatus. ,, „ caucasica. ,, ,, aureo - variega- ,, ,, colchica. tus. ,, lusitanica. Garry a elliptica. ,, vulgaris llore-pleno. Hamamelis virginica. Cercis Sili'iuastrum. Hypericum calycinum. Cistus ladaniferus. Ilex Aquifolium — several „ incanus. green varieties. ,, laurifolius. Kerria jaj>onica. Colutea arborescens. ,, ,, ffore-pleno. ,, . „ cruenta. Lavandula spica. Cornu3 alba. Leycesteria formosa. ,, mascula. Ligustrum coriaceum. Corylus Avellana purpurea. ,, japonicum. Ligustrum lucidum. ,, vulgare ovalifolium. Magnolia glauca. Philadelphia coronarius. ,, Gordonianus. ,, graiuliflorus. Phillyrea ilieifolia. ,, buxifolia. Pyrus japoniea. Raphiolepis ovata. Rhus Ootinus. ,, elegans. ,, typhina. „ glabra. ,, ,, laciniata. Ribes aureum. ,, sanguineinn. Rosa rubiginosa. Spiirtium junceiun. Spinca arisefolia. „ callosa. ,, bella. ,, Lindleyana. ,, japoniea. Taniarix gennanica. „ japoniea. Viburnum Opulus. ,, Tinus. Weigela amabilis. „ rosea. Yucca filamentosa. ,, gloriosa. ,, recurvifolia. To these may be added some climbing plants:— Ampelopsis Veitchii. Rignonia radicans major. Clematis Flammula. ,, Jackmanni. I Iledera Helix. Jasminum nudiflorum. Jasminum officinale. Lonicera brachypoda. ,, aureo-reticulata. ,, Periclymenum. sempervirens. ,, Standishii. i “ I believe,” continues Mr. Salter, “ that the plants named in the foregoing list, may be safely relied upon to flourish on the typical chalk soils which constitute so lame an area in the south- O western parts of this country. Some of the trees and shrubs that flourish on this soil deserve special remark. Among the larger Coniferce the I common spruce ranks first; scarcely one dies, and in a short time they nn of smoke, water, or snuff. The most effectual mode of applying tobacco is in the form of smoke, as it then finds its way into every crevice and corner. But it will not avail to get the master to merely puff at the depredators as he is enjoying his pipe of an evening; they (the green-flv) would laugh in their sleeves at that, if they had any. They must have something more concentrated. Then what's to be done? You have a washing-tub—of course you have—lay your plants carefully on their sides in it, over it stretch a towel previously wetted, and wrung out; mind there are no holes in it; a bit of glazed calico lining would be better. Make, however, a tiny opening in one corner just big enough for the stalk of a pipe. Then enlist the services of your old man, let him fill a good long pipe—a “churchwarden” will he best—then light it in the usual way, cover the bowl of the pipe with three or four folds of an old duster or pocket handkerchief, and then let him blow through the same. I know he’ll tell you he has got at the wrong end of the pipe, but tell him to blow away, and the green-flies lying dead at the bottom of the tub after the operation is over will be pretty good proof that for once in a way he was at the right end of it, however much he may have thought to the contrary. Two things I must mention as important ingredients towards complete success: first, the plants should be thoroughly dry as regards their leaves—wet repels smoke; and secondly, the pipe stalk should reach the bottom of the tub—smoke prefers to ascend rather than descend. The difficulty which usually Attends fumigating, as it is called, is the reason why I have felt obliged to give this detailed description of a process which I have adopted myself with success.” Staking.—-The tendency of window-grown plants is to get what may be called leggy, and also onesided in growth. The former can only be corrected by a judicious pinching out of the growing shoots when in a young state, preparatory to flowering, and by cutting down to a few inches above the previous year’s growth after the process of flowering has taken place—a surgical operation which, by the way, it requires no small amount of moral courage on the part of an amateur to carry out properly. The one-sided character may be much modified by turning the plant round occasionally, and thus equalizing its growth. This, however, is not of so much importance, as a window-plant grown equally on all sides would tend to limit the available space of a room. The staking and supporting may, we think, well be left in the hands of the cottagers themselves, who often show considerable ingenuity in this respect. Our advice would merely be never to stake unless it is necessary, either for support, or to spread out the plant so that it may be acted upon more fully by light and air. No better material will be found than split cane for this purpose; its curves are always graceful, and it may readily be adapted to any shape required. Moreover, its straw colour is not too conspicuous. Plants adulated for Windows.—These we will enumerate under two classes, as follows:— Hanging Plants.—This section includes all such as are adapted for suspending from the top of the window, or for placing on brackets at the sides. These are an extremely useful class, as they do not interfere with the admission of light, and are out of the way of children. The old mother of thousands (Linaria Cymbal aria) is a familiar object in almost every village; the Wandering Jew (Saxi-fraga sarmcntosa), w ith its broad, prettily-marked leaves and thread-like pendent stems, is admirably adapted for this purpose; lobelias, both white and blue, and the dwarf bellflowers (such | as Campanula garganica, fragilis, and Barrelieri)808 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. are all pretty; the pendent thread-like grass {Isolepis gracilis), that might well receive, the title of mermaid’s tresses; the plants popularly known as ice-plants (Jlesembryanthemurn, in various sorts); some of the sedums, such as S. Sie-boldii, in both its green and golden striped forms, S. A nacampseros, and the variegated S. carnosurn; the ivy-leaved pelargoniums, sometimes called Howering ivy, of which we have white, pink, lilac, and crimson forms, all neat and pendent in habit; and though last, not least, our smaller-leaved common ivies, all of which are well adapted for window culture, though scarcely sufficiently appreciated in this country for such a purpose. Plants for the Window-sill.—-Here will come pelargoniums of scarlet and other colours, variegated both in the silver, golden, and tricolor forms,as well as the scented-leaved sorts; petunias, fuchsias, cuplieas, echeverias, aloes, Cacti, Vallota or Scarborough lily, calceolarias, Chinese primroses, hydrangeas; the old so-called nettle-leaved geranium, properly called Plectranthus fruticosus; nierembergias, myrtles, and heliotropes. These constitute in their variations a goodly array of plants to select from, not only as regards colour of flower and form of foliage, but also habit of growth. Spring-flowering bulbs must not, however, be forgotten. Amongst them we have snowdrops, crocuses, tulips, hyacinths, and squills, all spring bloomers, and all readily amenable to ordinary culture. To the mention of these, however, we may add one word of advice. After potting your bulbs, keep them in a cool, dark place till they have made some roots. What may in this way appear a loss of time will in practice be found a gain, as the vigorous foliage and amply expanded blooms produced under these conditions will testify. As a creeper, the German ivy, Senecio mikanioides, may be recommended; as also may the common nasturtium. Exhibitions.—We must not omit to say a few words on this head. Our limited space renders it unfortunately necessary that they must be few. That a healthy spirit of rivalry is disseminated by these exhibitions none will deny, and that they are appreciated by the public will be patent when we record the fact that upwards of 4000 people entered the marquee at an exhibition held at Hull during the year 1876, with a consequent financial return. The management of one of these window-plant shows is in most respects similar in detail to that of any ordinary flower-show, with which the majority of gardeners are tolerably familiar; but there are two most important points in which they differ, and these we will explain under the headings of classification and registration. By classification we mean the grouping together for competition in separate classes those plants which are grown under similar conditions. For this purpose we would establish three classes— (a) To include plants grown under favourable conditions. (b) Those grown under less favourable conditions. (c) Those grown under unfavourable conditions. It will be obvious to every one that it would be most unfair to place a plant grown in a window in a narrow alley, with possibly a north aspect, and buried in the very heart of a densely-populated neighbourhood, in competition with one grown in the outskirts of the same town, in the full enjoyment of a nice, sunny aspect and a comparatively clear atmosphere. All enjoying the latter conditions would be placed in class A; i those under the former would be associated to-I gether in class c; and those intermediate between these two extremes would find their fitting place in class b. The reader may naturally ask how they are to be thus classified, as necessarily it can j only be done by domiciliary visits, which, moreover, must be undertaken by some one with suffi-| cient practical knowledge of plant culture to I enable him to place a correct value on the special ! conditions and circumstances which each exhibitor | is subject to. This little difficulty may readily be got over by placing a short printed form, giving clear and concise instructions, in the hands of any one willing to undertake the task—say a Scripture-reader or town missionary—indicating the standard by which they are to be governed. By this means, and by this means only, can a fair and just competition be carried out. As to registration, “Are all these really bona-fide window plants!” is about the first question asked on entering an exhibition of this sort. Can it be replied to in the affirmative! Yes; but only by carrying out a process of registration. This should be done two or three months before the time fixed for the show, and may readily be done in this way. A small card is provided with two brass eyelet-holes, to one of which a short piece of red tape is fastened by means of a punch; this tape is carried round the stem of the plant to be registered, a brass eyelet is used, and with the punch it is firmly fixed, so that any attempt at tampering or attempted removal will be at once detected. On the little card is previously written the number of the exhibitor whose name and occupation is recorded on the registration sheet, in the hands of the registrars, who at the same time decide the class in which the plants are to be exhibited. In order to facilitate the arrangement on the show morning the cards are distinguished byCONSERVATORY AND GREENHOUSE PLANTS. 809 colour, a is white, b blue, and c yellow; this enables the most illiterate to take his plant at once to its proper place. It is needless for us to say more as to the value of these two processes, classification and registration, which must be patent to every one; it is true they involve trouble, but willing hands for so good a cause may always be found. Without the former the competition will not be just. Without the latter it may not be honest. J. c. N. CHAPTER XXIX. CONSERVATORY AND GREENHOUSE PLANTS. Ir^-TIIE CONSERVATORY. The conservatory, to be enjoyable at all seasons, more particularly during the winter months when it affords a pleasant place of resort, should be so situated as to be contiguous to, if not directly connected with the mansion, and in any ease should be at such a distance only as to be readily accessible by means of a corridor, so constructed and embellished as to form an enjoyable promenade in all weathers, if not forming an integral portion of the structure. When thus situated every opportunity is afforded for making full use of it, and for revelling amongst the refreshing odours of the choicest flowers. This cannot be done in the case of isolated houses, however luxurious and inviting they may otherwise be, especially if they are placed at some distance from the mansion. At the same time it must be admitted that most cultural requirements, which are of the greatest moment, and should never be made subservient I to mere architectural adornments, are most readily met in detached buildings. The many dark dismal heavy-looking structures erected by architects who know nothing of the requirements of plants, are simply artistic blunders, and wholly unsuited either for the cultivation or preservation of plants. Doubtless it may be difficult to combine in one structure the requirements of the architect and the gardener, but at least the necessities of plant life should be so far met, that the building, however imposing, may not be converted into a vegetable charnel-house. Before, therefore, determining either the character or the most appropriate site for the erection, the designer should make himself fully acquainted with the capabilities of the position, having in view not only the general effect but the no less important point of suitability of aspect. Much depends upon the style of the mansion and its surroundings; and every place I will present features peculiar to itself which must be carefully studied and honestly met. It is obvious that as regards outward construc-! tion, conservatories that are placed in proximity ! to the house or mansion should present features harmonizing as closely as j>ossible with the architectural character of that structure. This can be fully assured in the case of modern erections, if they are judiciously planned, since wLat is mainly required is that a sufficiency of light and air may be enjoyed by the plants which are to be placed ' within. On this point it is of the highest impor-j tance that the architect should confer with the cultivator, in order to secure the combination of the practical with the artistic requirement#. By this means much more satisfactory results than are now generally obtained would be arrived at. Conservatories are necessarily important adjuncts to the residence, and it is therefore most desirable that they should have an ornate exterior. Nothing could be more offensive to refined taste than the plain, bald, meagre style that such houses sometimes present. The importance of fixing on a suitable aspect is fully equal to the provision of a suitable exterior; but from the limited range of jiosition, and the necessities of architectural laws, it is frequently very difficult to secure. Either a south, southeast, or south-west aspect is the most desirable, on account of admitting the greatest amount of light and of the sun’s rays during the dull winter months; for plants, whether in bloom or not, require at that dreary season all the light that can be secured to them. Without abundance of light, indeed, successful cultivation is impossible. Another point which is by no means unimportant is to guard against the near proximity of large trees, for these not only obstruct direct light and sunshine, but by their overhanging shadows throw a general obscurity over the interior, which weakens the growth of all kinds of plants. On the other hand, shelter from the north and northeast is most essential, as affording protection from the bitter cutting winds, which should be shut out by distant plantations when necessary. The size of the house must be determined by circumstances. To secure successful internal arrangements a good-sized structure is to be preferred, so that a considerable amount of variety may be introduced in the style of embellishment. By the aid of modern manufacturing appliances, the conservatory, whilst being less expensive, need not have that cramped and artificial character which it generally presents. The size of the mansion with which it is associated, must to some extent regulate the size and proportions of the' conservatory itself, as must also the tastes and the810 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. means of the proprietor. And not only should the first cost of erection he fully considered in determining the size of the structure, hut also the cost of keeping and maintenance, especially the means to be provided to insure a frequent change in the poi’table plants, for unless full provision is made for all this, satisfactory results are not to he looked for. The quality and durability of the materials employed in construction are matters of primary moment, for without they are of the best possible description they will quickly perish by exposure to the variations of temperature to which they will be subject. Iron principals and frame-work are the most lasting, and are much to be commended on that account. In form these structures present much variety. Some of our most chaste and pleasing conservatories have the form of a parallelogram, with lightly rounded curvilinear roofs. Others are square, with ridge-and-furrow roofs. Each of these systems has its advocates, and both are well adapted to the display of plants. Ventilation is another important matter that must be amply provided for, as a free interchange between the internal and external atmospheres is essential to the health of the plants. Moreover, by the modern system of glazing with large panes of glass, there is not that constant infiltration of fresh air going on which there formerly was when the small pane mode of glazing was in vogue; so that without an efficient system of ventilation the interior atmospheric air becomes the sooner vitiated, which necessitates more careful supervision and a freer use of the ventilators. More particularly does roof ventilation become necessary during the earlier part of the day, as the confined atmosphere is soon heated when the sun shines powerfully upon it, and quickly rises to a dangerous and exciting degree, whence comes the scalding and consequent disfigurement of the plants now so frequently complained of. Ventilating apparatus have, however, been so perfected, by the aid of improved machinery, as to greatly facilitate the task of admitting fresh air, both as regards labour and time. But whilst securing a health-giving interchange of air it is requisite to guard against cold cutting draughts, for currents of cold air are at all times most damaging to tender vegetation, and more particularly so during the winter and early spring. At that season, when the temperature of the external air is so much below that of the house, and but little interchange is necessary or desirable, ventilation should only be permitted at the apex, and that chiefly in order to dislodge impurities of the atmosphere and expel superabundant danqn To supply the necessary atmospheric heat the pipes of the warming apparatus must be judiciously placed. Nothing unsightly or obtrusive, as we sometimes see, should be tolerated. If the sides of the house are furnished with stone benches or ornamental cast-iron shelves, the pipes will be concealed from view by placing them beneath these, otherwise they are best conducted in drains underneath the pathways, and covered by ornamental castings of an open character, through which the heat may freely pass upwards into the house. These suggestions can, of course, only be offered in general terms, and must be adapted to suit the circumstances of each individual case. The heating surface should be sufficient to supply a temperature of 60° during winter, without overheating the pipes, as a mild heat from a moderately heated surface is much more congenial to vegetation than the same amount of heat obtained from one which is heated excessively. As conservatories are kept furnished during the winter months with a mixed assortment of plants, including plants in flower, it is necessary, to insure their standing uninjured by damp or cold, to maintain a temperature ranging between 45° as a minimum and 55° as a maximum; this will most suitably meet the requirements of the great majority of plants best adapted for this purpose. Shading is necessary during the summer months to subdue bright sunshine, and should never be employed for any other purpose. To facilitate removal it should be attached to movable rollers, so as to be readily taken away when not in use. The material employed should be of a light open texture, so as but slightly to obstruct the light, whilst sufficient to intercept the direct glare of the sun. Turning to interior arrangements, the form and capacity of the house must to a great extent govern the order and position of the walks, which should be bordered by an ornamental stone edging. The neatest and most satisfactory slabs to walk upon are either marble or Minton tiles, as from their solid nature they are easily kept clean, and moreover they are durable and wear well. But of whatever form or material the paths may be, they should be sufficiently wide to admit of the unimpeded movement of the visitors. A few vases appropriately placed will be quite in keeping, and give both variety and interest. Mirrors may also find a place; when judiciously disposed they not only heighten the general effect, but vastly magnify the extent. A fountain may occupy the centre, as water always produces a very pleasing and refreshing effect, more particularly so when in motion; while from the roof may be suspended graceful plants growing in baskets. Statuary, ifCONSERVATORY AND GREENHOUSE PLANTS. 811 used at all in tlie interior, should be introduced in moderation, the vestibule being the more appropriate place for it. In preparing the central portion of the house, between the walks and walls, which portion is to be planted with permanent plants, it is absolutely essential in the first place to provide an efficient system of drainage, so that any excess of water may have a free outlet, and may not be stagnating about the roots. To insure this it will be requisite to place over the drain-pipes 8 or 10 inches of porous material, such as coarse brick rubble, &c., the upper 2 inches being broken moderately tine. Over this place a layer of fibry turf, grass-side downwards, in order to insure an unimpeded drainage, which is most essential, as the majority of the plants to be recommended are free-growing moisture-loving subjects, requiring an abundance of water when i a active growth. The space left for soil should average about 3 feet in depth. As over-luxuriance of growth would be most objectionable in the majority of the plants permanently planted out, a simple soil, abounding in decomposed vegetable fibre, is much to be preferred to one that is composed of rich ingredients, as that which is naturally good will doubtless produce a sounder and more lastiug growth; and, moreover, plants when thoroughly established which show signs of exhaustion, may readily be resuscitated by top-dressings. Therefore, for the generality of plants the most satisfactory soil is a turfy loam or fibrous peat, adding charcoal and sand to insure porosity and also to keep) the mass in a healthy state. All artificial composts should be avoided, since they too often mislead. In preference to chopping the bulk of the soil fine, it is better to have a portion only in a finer state with which to surround the roots of delicate subjects. In reverting to the fundamental features of embellishment, it is obvious that in the permanent disposition of the materials a great amount of forethought is requisite. It is of importance to know the nature and habits of the various plants empdoyed, as regards their futuredevelopment. In mixed conservatories, where foliage and flowering plants are necessarily combined, it is difficult to lay down rules for planting, yet very pleasing and satisfactory effects may be produced by skilfully contrasting the various forms and colours in as natural a manner as possible, imparting relief and effect by giving prominence to such magnificent subjects as draenmas, palms, cycads, and tree-ferns. In using the bolder massive types of vegetation it is necessary to avoid crowding; and to leave spaces, more particularly around the sides, for plants in pots. This is especially desirable, not only as securing a frequent change of scene, but as giving an opportunity of introducing a greater variety of flowering plants, in their season, than could be successfully grown under any other conditions. Thus it will be seen that it is not desirable to entirely fill up the beds with permanent plants, as we should thereby exclude a great proportion of the choicest and most interesting stove and greenhouse plant* provided elsewhere, in succession, for the setting off of this structure. The smaller decorative plants which, in infinite variety, adorn the side benches, provided they are frequently changed so as to be kept fresh and gay, are always a source of great interest, and should be provided for in all arrangements of this character. As a general rule we are too apt to allow practical cultural details, rather than effective arrangements to occupy our attention, as is attested by the stiff and formal monotony existing in the majority of such houses at the present time. However, it is pleasing to observe that a progressive improvement is evincing itself in the embellishment of plant-houses, and we may hope that the more natural and picturesque features of composition in arrangement may be more fully carried out in the future. The following plants will, from their natural adaptability as regards temperature and general characteristics, be adapted to form the nucleus in such an arrangement, and in such a temperature as has been indicated. Foremost amongst them must be placed the palms, whose majestic proportions and elegance present a rich and tropical appearance unequalled by that of any other class; but as many of these attain large dimensions, their use, except in very large houses, must be limited, selecting for small arrangements the slender (mowing kinds and such as are of low stature. For central positions and as prominent features for relief, they should be chosen with well-formed stems, and of sufficient height to stand clear of the other plants. The Sea for tit ia is admirably suited for this purpose, as are also the under-named kinds:— Areca sapid a. Jlraheu nitida. Calamus australis. Ceroxylon andicola. Chama.Tops excelsa. Chanuerops Fortunei. Chanuerops hystrix. Chanuerops stauracantha. Cocos australis. Cocos schizophylla. Corypha australis. Diplntliomium caudescens. Kentia Canterburyana. Latauia borbonica. Livistona oli vaiformis. Livistoua sinensis. Oreodoxa frigid a. Pluenix dactylifera. Ptyehosperma Alexandra). Itaphis flabelliformis varie-gata. Seaforthia elcgans. Seaforthia gracilis. Thrinax excelsa. Thrinax gracilis. Veitchia Johannis. These are but indications of the palms which will succeed in a temperate house; and, indeed, many of the reputedly tender kinds will adapt themselves to such a temperature; but as these812 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. may be added in pots, it is better not to risk as permanent such kinds as there is the least doubt about. They thrive best in a moist heavy loam, and require an abundant supply of water; in fact, it is difficult to overdo them in this respect. They are subject to scale, which must be kept under by frequently washing with soft-soap or other of the various compounds applicable for this purpose. In other respects they are most accommodating as regards their general culture. The cycads are also remarkably effective decorative plants, producing such grand yet curious and distinct eff ects. The strongest-growing kinds are the most suitable for conservatory adornment. Many of them are of a moderately vigorous habit of growth and tenderly rooted, and these are best grown in pots, as they require but little water when at rest. Some of the best for planting out are:—Cycas circinalis, C. revoluta, C. media, C'. Xormanbyana; Dion edulis; Encephalartos Alten-steini,E.cycadifolius, E.villosus; Lepidozamia Per-offskiana; Jlacrozamia spiralis; Zamia Jfiquelii. The hardier dracamas are most elegant subjects for isolated planting, their light graceful forms I O' o o giving relief to the denser growing plants. The most desirable are Draccena australis, 1). Banksii, D. Draco, D. indivisa, and D. Veitchii. Cur-cidigo recurvata variegata is also a most effective large-leaved plant, bearing much resemblance to some of the palms, and well worthy of general cultivation. Aralias are also very eligible and of distinct character for planting out, as they produce large massive foliage, some of them being beautifully variegated; grown thus they attain large dimensions, flowering freely and producing racemes of berries which are very ornamental. They require an abundance of water. The most desirable kinds are :—Aralia crassifolia, A. dacty-lifolia, A. heteromorpha, *1. papyrifera, A. pubes-cens, A. Sieboldii argenteo-variegata, A. Sieboldii aureo-variegata, A. Sieboldii reticulata, and A. trifoliata latifolia. These lists might be extended to unlimited proportions, but we must confine ourselves to adding a few of the most important types only, such as Agave, Beaucarnea, Dasylirion, and Yucca—Y. aloifolia, Y. aloifolia qnadricolor, and Y. aloifolia variegata being particularly suitable. In large houses several of the tender araucarias are well worthy of a place. Araucaria elegans and excelsa are particularly suitable, as also are Arundo Donax variegata, some of the grevilleas and lomatias, Phormium Colensoi variegatiun, P. tenax variegatum, Rhopala australis, R. corcovadensis, and R. Porteana, and Stadmannia australis. The above names are sufficient to indicate the style of plants best suited to form the primary features of such an arrangement as that referred to. The eligible subjects for filling in the gaps are very numerous, and none more so than the large and elegant family of ferns, the stately grandeur of the arboreal forms being indispensable in all arrangements. The following are a few of those suitable for this purpose, although many others are available:—Cyathea dealbata, C. prbleeps, C. Burkei, C. australis, C. excelsa, C. medul-laris; Dicksonia antarctica, D. squarrosa; Asplen-ium axillare; Lomaria ciliata, L. cycadifolia, L. gibba, and L. magellanica; Blechnum brasiliense, B. cartilagineum, and many other strong-growing forms. In fact, the whole class of ferns is so serviceable for decoration, and so varied and graceful in outline, that it is needless to further specify particular kinds. We would here remark that tree-ferns when planted out are liable to attain too great a size for the proportions of such structures ; neither do they combine so harmoniously with their associates when so grown as when the roots are restricted in pots or tubs. They do not benefit by a large amount of pot-room, when properly syringed and attended to with water, as they derive the greatest portion of their nourishment from the moisture supplied to the stems, which should be frequently well damped. We would, therefore, strongly recommend their being plunged in pots, in preference to their being planted out. The flowering plants that can be advantageously planted out in such arrangements are . comparatively few; neither can permanent brilliancy be so fully or satisfactoi'ily insured in this way as by adding plants in pots—this plan affording an unlimited opportunity of lighting up the house with fresh and varied aspects of inflorescence. However, there are one or two notable exceptions, and foremost stands the fragrant Lucidia gratissima, a plant that is somewhat impatient of root restriction, but which is quite at home planted out in such a mild temperature. If si >aee permits, a few plants of the doidjle white camellia, C. japonica alba plena, and of the red imbricata, would be valuable for the production of early blooms; otherwise camellias are much more appropriately cultivated in a separate house; Acacia af/i a is is also worthy of a place for the sake, more particularly, of its elegant foliage; a place should be given to Pittosporum Tobira, and its variegated variety, to P. lucidum, and P. undu-laturn, all of which produce freely their delightfully-scented flowers. Brugmansia suaveolens is also a most fragrant plant, which would be worthy of a place in such an arrangement. As affording relief and breaking the formalityCONSERVATORY AND GREENHOUSE PLANTS. 813 of the architectural lines, the climbing or trailing forms of plants are most essential. Whether trained to the pillars depending from the roof, or suspended in baskets, they are alike applicable. Foremost amongst these undoubtedly stands the lovely Lapageria rosea and its white variety, with which it is difficult to be overdone. When planted out they thrive freely in a moist, partially-shaded situation. For corridors they are admirably adapted, as they show best when trained overhead, and studded with their pendent rose and white waxy blossoms. For these plants thorough drainage is most necessary, as they must be supplied with an abundance of water. The most suitable soil in which to plant them is three-parts fibrous peat to one of loam; and to most perfectly insure the porosity of this material a liberal admixture of sand, charcoal, and brick rubble is requisite. With these materials, and with a cool temperature and liberal supply of water, no one need despair of perfect success. Tacsonia Van Volxemii is, without exception, the most effective conservatory climber of rapid growth which we possess, and it produces a profusion of its rich crimson blooms; Tacsonia Buchanani, T.ignea, T. exoniensis and T. insignis —the latter a most promising kind; Passijlora Carnpbelli, P.ccerulea, P. Clowesii, P. Imperatrice Eugenie, are all good, free-growing, and showy. Trachelospermum (Rhynchospermum) jasminoides is a most desirable plant for a pillar near to the front. Jasminum, grandiflorum, planted out upon its own roots, is not only one of the sweetest-scented, but one of the most desirable climbers for clothing a wall or training to pillars that we possess, from being almost constant in flowering. Cobea scandens variegata, Ilabrothamnus elegans, Hoy a carnosa, Plumbago capensis—most suited for a pillar, Tropieolums, and various other plants, might be named as applicable for roof-adornment. It would lie objectionable to plant out exuberant growing things to obstruct the light, and weaken the growth of the plants underneath; they must be avoided. Neither should deciduous plants be used for this purpose. Suspended wire-baskets, judiciously disposed, are admirably adapted for the display of many of the plants which are of a pendent habit of growth, as their gracefulness and beauty of inflorescence is thus fully discernible. There is a great variety of plants, both of the foliage and flowering classes, suitable for this purpose. Thus, during the summer months, Achimenes, ivy-leaved pelargoniums, petunias, begonias, tropieolums, convolvuluses, Clematis, &c,, are well adapted for the pendents; while during winter nothing is more effective than the varieties of Epiphyllum truncatum. Vinca major elegantissima is most graceful for this purpose, its streaming spray and reflexed leaves being specially attractive in such a position. Tradescantias are also very suitable, as are a great number of the ferns, which, from their rhizomatous habit, and the graceful elegance of their fronds, are quite adapted for basket culture—as, for example, most of the species of Davallia with creeping rhizomes, Dry-naria, Niphobolus, Lygodium, Nephrolepis, Adi-antum, Asplenium Jlabellifolium, with the bold and graceful Goniophlebium subauriculatum, and Asplenium longissimum, and the quaint and picturesque platy ceriums, the last contrasting forcibly with the fragile elegance of others. Various forms of Selaginella are applicable for this purpose, and none more so than the dense free-growing S. Kraussii (known commonly as S. denticulata), which forms such verdant carpeting for plants in general. A great point in the cultivation of plants that are so suspended is an abundant supply of water, or they soon become seared and shabby. Conservatories that are arranged in the manner thus briefly indicated will not only prove more satisfying and interesting than those furnished on the stiff and formal model too commonly adopted, but they are also capable of being kept in a fresher and brighter condition with far less labour than is usually bestowed upon such structures.—g. w. II.—TIIE GREENHOUSE. By a greenhouse we understand a structure devoted to the cultivation of plants, hard or soft-wooded, that require to be kept, even when at rest, some degrees above the freezing-point. Many of these, such as the pelargoniums, keep growing through the winter, and consequently need all the light possible. The necessity of this vital element to vegetable life is better understood at the present day than in times past, particularly as regards the plants we grow under glass, and more especially such as require greenhouse treatment, which in most cases are indigenous to countries where the light is much in excess of that which our climate affords, even in the open air. There is undoubtedly in plants a certain ability to adapt themselves to circumstances of situation very different to those under which the individual species or variety existed in a state of nature; otherwise, ninety-nine hundredths of the plants we cultivate under glass, either fruiting or flowering subjects, would fail. Yet there are some elements so indispensable to the existence of many of them, that even after a generation of years has passed, during which they have been inured to the altered conditions of their artificial existence,814 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. they are still as unable to dispense with them, as ' they were the day they left their native country, j Amongst these light is of the first importance. A plant that in its native habitat is fully exposed to unobstructed light can never, even if it be a 1 seedling fifty generations removed from its first imported progenitor, be induced to succeed with a diminished amount of light. If this fact were ' more generally considered, many of the plants we grow would be better provided for in this respect. Light is the element, above everything else that we can give a plant, that will in some measure compensate it for the deficiency of air it must necessarily receive when confined within a glass structure. Much as has been written upon the construction of horticultural erections, comparatively little has been urged on this matter of light, especially as to the position or site chosen for hothouses and greenhouses. In private establishments we too often see the houses standing in a place evidently chosen on account of its being where they could best be kept out of sight, and under the damaging influence of high trees or walls that obstruct or absorb the light to an extent that seriously interferes with the healthy growth of the occupants. Not but that it is an advantage in severe weather to have something in the shape of walls, thickly growing tall shrubs, or trees not too high, at a moderate distance from plant-houses, but they should never be so near as to absorb a ray of light that ought to reach the plants. The evil thus existing in many old places has evidently arisen through the trees that at one time were not so large as to do mischief, not being removed when they began to interfere with the houses. It will thus be seen that in choosing a site for houses intended to be devoted to the growth of such plants as those under consideration, this question of light is of primary importance. The best houses constructed at the present day for growing greenhouse plants are widely different from the old lean-to, with its high light-absorbing back wall and clumsy high stage, on which the plants were continually struggling to the side from which the light came. The ridge-and-furrow roof, admitting of extension so as to inclose any required width within a single house, has also been employed for plant growing, but is not nearly so good in many respects as a single span, which for general usefulness and as conducing to the well-being of the subjects grown in them, is far the best, when pro parly constructed as to width and height. The height obviously must, in houses of this shape, be in a great measure determined by the width. In houses devoted to the growth of greenhouse plants there is little internal moisture, consequently there is nothing to feai' from drip through condensation of vapour upon the glass and sash bars, which is often troublesome in houses where much moisture exists, and which, when it falls to a considerable extent, is at times injurious to the plants, unless the roof has sufficient pitch to cause the water so condensed to follow the bars down to the bottom. For greenhouses we prefer the roof at an angle of 40°. In a span-roofed house, in which are combined the best arrangements for growing the plants well, and for presenting a good appearance, the width ought to be from 1G feet to 20 feet inside measurement; the sides should consist of brick Avails, 3 feet high aboAre the ground, with 3 feet of glass, making in all G feet above the ground leA'el. The upright lights on both sides of a house in which greenhouse plants are intended to be grown should be hinged from the top, and made to open. The necessity for each side being thus made to open is that, Avhenevcr there exists anything abo\'e a gentle current in the external atmosphere, air should neA’er be giA’en at the side from Avhich the Avind comes, as feAV plants can stand against a cutting draught. The most economical arrangement of the internal space in a lG-feet wide span-roofed house, as also that most conduciA'e to the health of the plants, is to have a single passage 34 feet Avide down the centre, Avitli a flat stage 3 feet high on each side. This may appear too far from the roof, but if higher it Avill not allow head room for large plants, and small stock can always be eleA-ated on inA'erted pots or similar contriA-anees. The stage should consist of material that is not liable to rot, as upon its surface there should be 2 or 3 inches of mixed sand and fine ashes, or similar material, that w ill retain moisture in the groAving season. Span-roofed houses that run 20 feet in Avidth require a path on each side, without which it is difficult to get at the plants so as to examine them as to their requirements in watering. Next the upright side-lights should run a flat stage 3 feet in Avidtli, the top of this should be G inches beloAv the top of the Avail plate; this Avill bring the glass doAvn to the leA’el of the surface of eA'en small pots, so that eA’ery part of the plant down to the base can get full light. On these outside stages the small stock should be grown, for in this position it Avill not only receive most light, but is easily got at in attending to its Avants in regard to Avater, &c. Then should come the paths on each side. 34 feet Avide, the centre space being occupied by a flat stage 3 feet high, which will of course hold the larger plants. [Very similar arrangements as to construction are sIioavii at p. 512, in Figs. 311 and 312.]CONSERVATORY AND GREENHOUSE PLANTS. 815 Houses constructed in this way, if occupying a good light position, will answer every purpose of grown® satisfactorily even subjects the most difficult to cultivate. In addition to the maximum of light which a span-roofed house affords, the plants are not drawn to one side by the admission of a one-sided light, as in the case of a lean-to or liip-roofed house. In all cases these span-roofed plant-structures should stand north and south, by which means the light is equally balanced on both sides morning and evening, whereas if they stand in the opposite direction, east and west, the plants will naturally become drawn to the southern side of the house. There is another great advantage in a house standing north and south, that is, the rays of the mid-day sun when at its greatest power do not descend so fiercely upon the plants, being broken by the sasli-bare, which they strike in an oblique direction; at the same time in a house standing in this position the plants receive the greatest possible amount of light morning and evening. The kind of glass used in these structures is important. The old crown-glass in small squares with open laps has become a thing of the past, giving way to sheet-glass of different strengths. Then we had the corrugated opaque sheet-glass, which found favour with some under the supposition that it would admit light fully, and yet do away with the necessity for using shading materials for such plants as cannot bear full exposure to the suns rays; yet when fairly tested it was found not to admit sufficient light in dull weather, nor to obviate the necessity for shading, for the plants were in some cases as much scorched under it as where transparent glass was used. Rough plate-glass, that is, plate-glass that has not been either ground or polished, has also been tried for fruit and plant houses. It possesses two advantages in keeping the internal air warmer on a cold night and in bidding defiance to hail storms, yet these two points, important though they be, are adversely counterbalanced by the insufficiency of light it admits, except when the sun is upon it, and by the extra strength required in the sash-bars to Support its weight. Taking all together there is nothing yet in glass that equals good British sheet-glass, but except for repairing purposes it should be used of the substance of 24 02. to the foot; in too many cases that which passes for 2L oz. is only lb, and not sufficiently strong to resist hail-storms; but this defect will possibly be overcome by the glass prepared under the new hardening and toughening process. Whatever system of glazing or of putting in the glass is followed, there is one essential that should never be lost sight of—it should be quite close in every way, the laps included. This is necessary for several reasons. Wherever the laps are open the temperature on a severe night will be found considerably lower than where they are close, requiring more fire-heat; in exposed places the rain is often driven in considerably by the wind through open laps; while in frosty weather the water that lodges in them gets frozen,and thus becomes swollen, cracking the squares to a serious extent. To obviate this latter defect some recommend very small laps, but these we have always found more or less liable to drip, unless the pitch of the roof was much sharper than ordinary, or than it ought to be. Again, it is often necessary to fumigate for the destruction of insects, and where the glazing is not close this is a difficidt matter. In addition to the side-lights being made to open it is necessary to have ample means for roof ventilation. To secure this many contrivances exist, some of them very complicated and often of a nature calculated to exclude light. There is nothing more simple or effectual than a hinged light on each side the ridge, about 2 feet in depth, worked with the usual lever and screw gearing; this allows air to be given even in wet weather, and at whichever side is most favourable for the non-admission of cold currents; it also admits of abundant ventilation even in the hottest weather, which in many plant structures is insufficiently provided for. Air.—Plants grown under glass necessarily do not receive nearly so much fresh air as they get in their native habitats. Much has been written on the principles of ventilating plant and fruit houses, but comparatively little has been urged upon the necessity for more intelligence being brought to bear upon the operation of giving air to plants grown under gla.ss. Nothing is more common than to see them treated in respect to air in a way that renders all other attention futile, it being either withheld at times when it should be admitted freely, or given in a continuous routine sort of fashion from a certain hour in the morning to a given time in the evening, regardless of the state of the weather or season. It is impossible for any plant to make favourable progress when subjected to cold draughts, yet we too often see, even in the spring, when young tender growth is in course of formation, the front-lights of plant-houses open right in the face of a keen cold wind, that stunts the young leaves in a way that afterwards prevents their healthy development, the roots, through the perfect sympathy that exists betwixt them and the leaves, thereby suffering to a similar extent. Where, however, the side-lights of the house are made to open, as816 GARDENER'S ASSISTANT. already ad vised, air can always be admitted on the side opposite to the direction from which the wind blows. The quantity of side air admitted must be regulated more by the state of growth the plants are in, than by the temperature of the air, either within the house or externally. The temperature of a greenhouse in the sjrring months, when the plants are making young growth, had much better run up a few degrees too high than to admit air in large volumes when cold winds exist, as they frequently do with bright sunshine. In our fickle climate we often get several descriptions of weather in a single day. The careful plant-grower will notice these changes, and regulate the admission of air accordingly, always bearing in mind that when the houses are closed in the after part of the day the greatest amount of i growth is encouraged; later in the season, as the young growth becomes solidified and ripened, more air will be required in the day, as well as being left on during the nights; but never, even when the wood and leaves are fully matured, should any plant be subjected to a keen draught, which is always more or less injurious. Temperature.—The large variety of popular greenhouse plants that at the present day are met with in a single house, coming from different parts of the world, where both the maximum and minimum temperatures raider which they exist naturally differ considerably, compels us to make in some measure a compromise, especially in the winter season. Although many greenhouse plants are not perceptibly injured by a degree or two of | frost, yet it is by no means advisable to submit even these to so low a temperature. On the other hand, many are seriously injured by being excited into premature growth by a few degrees more heat than they like in the winter season; growth so made when there is such a deficiency of light ] is of the worst possible character, and it has a most injurious effect upon the plants, destroying their power to make the required effort when their right season for growth has arrived. This is a subject much better understood at the present than in times past. The night temperature that greenhouse plants used to be kept at during the winter months ranged from 40“ to 45°, the latter being looked upon as the most desirable; but this, undoubtedly, is too high for the generality, especially of hard-wooded subjects. Where from 35° to 40° is maintained, the condition of the majority of plants in the spring, when the proper season for growth is at hand, is more satisfactory than when kept warmer through the winter. Watering.—This is by far the most important operation connected with the cultivation of plants in pots. The necessity for continuous atten- tion and watchfulness as to the requirements of each individual plant where large collections are grown cannot be realized by any but those who have had experience in the matter. A deficient or superabundant supply of water probably causes the death of more pot plants than all other causes put together. It is of all matters connected with plant culture the most difficult to explain by any definite rules. Nothing but long and patient observation of the requirements of each particular species, and in some cases variety of plant, will give the knowledge necessary to grow greenhouse subjects, especially the hard-wooded section, satisfactorily. Nevertheless, a few hints bearing generally upon the subject may be of use. i The most essential thing for those who essay the cultivation of plants difficult to grow is a knowledge of the conditions as to water under which they exist in their native country; for in this matter their requirements under artificial cultivation will in no way be changed: not that it is possible to give any plant whose roots are confined within the limits of a pot exactly the same treatment that it gets in a state of nature; but if the soil in which it is found indigenous is never subject to excessive changes of wet or drought, it unmistakably will not bear extremes of this nature under cultivation. It may be taken as a rule that the finer the roots possessed by any plant the more impatient it will be of a deficiency or excess of water. On the other hand, thick, I strong-rooted plants are generally able to bear up better against the effects of an occasional deficient or too liberal use of the water-pot. The injunction so often given that such a plant “cannot take much water,” or “ requires to be well-watered,” j is as indefinite and calculated to mislead as any advice could well be. To the inexperienced the impression this conveys is generally that the plant cannot bear to receive much water at a time, or that it requires a great deal when it does receive any. Greenhouse plants of every description, and all others, with few exceptions, when they receive water at all, require it in sufficient quantity and no more, that the whole of the soil in which the roots are embedded may be fully moistened. No plant except an aquatic requires or is benefited by more than this; consequently, there is no great amount of knowledge required to know in watering how wet the soil ought to be made. The important point in the operation is to know what degree of dryness the soil of each particular species or variety of plant should attain before water is given; for with many of our most beautiful yet delicate-rooted liard-wooded subjects, to give it only a veryCONSERVATORY AND GREENHOUSE PLANTS. 817 short time before the soil had arrived at a condition in which the roots required it would cause death, or disease from which they would rarely recover. Nothing except lengthened practice and close observation can convey this knowledge, yet it is of more importance than all the other operations put together connected with the cultivation of plants. A plant even when potted in soil not suited to its requirements,—or other conditions of equal moment,—will frequently struggle on for existence, but in the matter of water, except in the case of the strongest-constitutioned subjects, if they do not receive the treatment they require, their existence is short. Soils.—Different species of greenhouse plants require soils of different descriptions, the principal of which are :—peat, more or less fibrous, according to the nature of the particular species of plant; and loam, also differing from that which contains a quantity of the roots of grasses, and is fi'eer and more open in its texture, to that which is of a more adhesive nature—these two should have more or less manure added according to the requirements of the different subjects grown. Sand in greater or less quantities is needed by most plants grown in pots, otherwise the soil, through the continued application of water, becomes too retentive of moisture, and gets into a close sour condition, in which the roots cannot exist. Many quick-growing soft-wooded things delight in soil to which has been added a portion of rotten leaves more or less decomposed. To the plant-grower a stock of the different soils suited to the nature of the plants he cultivates is indispensable. In time past it was thought absolutely necessary that these should lay in heaps in the soil-yard for a number of years, but this was a mistake, especially as regards the vegetable fibre contained in them, the use of which is quite as much of a mechanical nature in keeping the mass open and porous, as in affording sustenance to the roots. If either peat or loam lays together just long enough for the roots of the grasses and ferns it contains to die, it is much better than if kept longer; consequently, it is better not to lay in a greater stock than will last for a year or so. The best time to procure these is about .July or August, when the roots of the heritage growing upon them are matured and tough, as upon this depends their slow decomposition and consequent utility. Potting soils of all descriptions are much bet- ' ter in the open air until it becomes necessary to bring them under cover to insure the requisite dryness to permit of their being used. Both peat and loam that have lain under cover until they have got dust dry, seem to lose their best properties; j and even if afterwards sufficiently moistened, never appear to answer so well. But on no account must any plant ever be potted in soil that is too wet, as under such conditions, no matter how good the quality, the roots even of the most vigorous-growing subject will never make healthy progress in it. Peat from a swampy bog is quite unfit for pot plants, being generally of a soft soapy nature. The best is procured iq>on the hills, where it is shallow, and where a thick sward of coarse grasses or of the common bracken exists; this generally contains little sand, but is much richer than where the surface is covered with heather; although, as this latter description of j>eat is suitable for some of the slowest-growing hard-wooded heaths, it is necessary where these are grown to provide some of this description. Loam also differs quite as much in its nature as peat. That which is of a yellow colour is generally the best; it should be procured from a common or old pasture that produces a thick? close sward, and as a rule the better and finer the quality of the grass the better the loam. That which contains anything of a red, irony nature should by no means be used, being unsuited to most things. The sand used for mixing with the different soils should not contain anything of a metallic nature, but should be pure, sharp, and gritty, and free from dusty particles, which, if existing, should be removed by washing. In preparing soil for potting it should never, under any consideration, be sifted, except for newly-struck cuttings. Soil that has passed through a sieve, even when a liberal quantity of sand has been added, is always liable to get into a close adhesive mass quite unsuited to the roots of plants. The soil, whether peat or loam, should be broken by hand to the requisite fineness, which will vary according to the size and nature of the plants to be potted, from those that should have it reduced to pieces no larger than an acorn, up to the stronger and free-rooting subjects that require it as large as pigeons’ eggs. In all cases the fibrous portion contained in the soil should be used amongst it, not discarding it as is sometimes done, as it is unquestionably the most important ingredient. For some things that do the best in very open material it becomes necessary to sift a portion of the earthy matter out, so that what is used may contain a greater proportion of fibre. Propagation.—The means employed in propagating greenhouse plants embrace all the known methods for the increase of plants generally; the most usual mode being from cuttings, commonly of the shoots in different stages of maturity, ns found best for rooting. Many plants make roots freely from cuttings in a soft young state, others 52818 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. when the growth is half-ripened, and some require the wood to be fully matured. Some plants will strike from cuttings made either from their shoots or roots; others again there are that cannot easily be induced to grow from any but root-cuttings. Grafting in its numerous forms is also used for the increase of these plants, as also layering in the case of a few. The spring of the year is generally considered the best for striking most things, as the natural disposition of plants to grow at this season favours the formation of roots. Irr the case of those plants which strike only from cuttings of the mature wood, arrd which generally take a considerable time to callus before rooting, the autumn, as soorr as the season’s growth is completed, is the best time to put them irr. The natural way of propagation is by seeds, arrd some greenhouse plants are so increased; yet this is mostly confined to such species as reproduce themselves by seed, that is, when the progeny may be depended upon as varying little from the parent plant. The proper time for sowing differs widely iir different plants. The seeds of some require to be put irrto the grourrd as soorr as ripe, while others retain their vitality unimpaired for a considerable period. 'The treatment which the seeds of different plants need is varied, yet the subjects under consideration, as a rule, require the soil to be fine, porous, arrd well-drained, by placing in the pots or seed-pans sufficient drainage material. Sorrre seeds require covering to a greater depth than others, but few vegetate freely unless near the surface: half atr inch of soil at the most is generally sufficient to place over those that require to be covered to the greatest depth, and as a rule the smaller the seed the less depth it requires, so that the finest seeds rreed only to be sprinkled on a surface kept constantly damp till they have germinated. If covered too deep most seeds are liable to perish. Placing in the Open Air,—The practice of turning greenhouse plants out of doors early in the summer, as soon as the danger from frost is over, was at one time very common, and by some it is still continued; yet with few exceptions, it is anything but conducive to a free healthy condition of growth. Most of the plants we grow in greenhouses or pits come from a warmer climate than GUI’s, with fewer fluctuations in temperature than we get in the most favoured parts of the kingdom. Even in the height of the season, when the days are very hot the nights are often cold. These changes have a certain effect in checking growth. Again, under glass the temperature, even through M arch and April, is necessarily considerably higher than in the open air; this naturally excites growth, which is generally in full force by June —the time when many plants used to be turned out of doors, the result being that growth was at once checked, and in many cases stopped altogether, the soft young wood and leaves being prematurely ripened when not more than half developed. This also has a certain tendency to induce an early disposition to flower, often during the winter months, when the blossoms are not required. Plants so managed always have a more or less stunted yellow appearance, very different to that of such as receive more rational treatment, though its effects are more apparent upon some than others. At one time it was a common practice to expose Azaleas to the open air in June when full of soft tender growth; the small stunted leaves and puny shoots that resulted from this treatment could not possibly produce flowers the following season more than half the size borne by such as had made their growth and set their flower-buds under the influence of a warmer moist atmosphere, such as can be given them under glass. The majority of greenhouse plants are, however, benefited by exposure to the open air for a few weeks after they have completed their growth, say from the last week in July to the first in September. This with most things gives ample time for ripening and hardening the season’s growth, and rendering it less liable to the attacks of mildew, which both leaves and wood insufficiently matured are subject to. In this turning out, it is necessary to be careful for the first week or so not to expose the plants to the full sun, for although they may not have been subject to any shading whilst under glass, yet the effect of the sun in the open air is quite different, the evaporation from the leaves being proportionately much greater than inside. Many hard-wooded plants, if put, when first taken from the houses, where the sun comes too forcibly upon them, have their leaves seriously injured, and although this is not immediately apparent in their absolute destruction, yet they assume an unhealthy brown colour from which they do not recover. To avoid this they should be shaded in the middle of the day, for the first few days after being placed out of doors, by standing them at the north side of a wall or of trees that would exert a similar influence upon them, after which they may be placed where more fully, yet not directly, exposed to the influence of the mid-day sun. In the case of delicate-rooted subjects, however, especially those of a hard-wooded nature, the pots should be protected from the action of the sun, for the roots of a healthy plant lay thickly against the inner surface of the pot, and if the full force of the sun comes upon it, the drying influence and heat communicated are certain to stop their further progress whilstCONSERVATORY AND GREENHOUSE PLANTS. 819 so exposed, and in many cases cause their death by destroying these feeding roots altogether. Yet to guard against this, plants that are at all delicate in their nature should never be plunged, as this always makes it difficult to ascertain their condition as to requiring water. A piece of old canvas or mat tied round the pots is the best remedy for middling and large sized plants; and in the case of small ones, if they are stood near together, the heads of one row will generally afford enough shade to the pots in the row behind them, or thin boards, equal in width to the depth of the pots, reared against them at the sunny side will effectually protect them. There is another very Important thing to be guarded against when plants growing in pots are stood out of doors, that is, the effects of heavy drenching rains. The roots of any plant when confined in a pot cannot bear so much water as it would stand if it was planted out. With valuable tender-rooted subjects means should always be taken to prevent the soil getting too wet. The simple expedient of laying them down on their sides, the rim of the pot resting betwixt a couple of bricks or small pots inverted, will often effect the desired object; but it is still better if the plants are stood out under a light framework, made in the shape of a span-roofed pit, provided with a couple of rollers with canvas covers that can be run down over the plants during heavy rains. If the roof of this skeleton frame is made at an angle of 45° there will be but little drip through the canvas, the water running down to the bottom. Previous to placing the plants outside they should have abundance of air admitted to them, both night and day, so as to enable them the better to bear the change. Another thing to guard against when plants are thus placed out, is the ingress of worms to the pots. This by no means must be allowed to occur, as where they exist in the soil the plants soon get in bad condition, through the worms honey-combing the ball, and thus making it too open for the roots, as also choking the drainage at the bottom. To avoid this 6 inches of finely-sifted ashes should be placed on the surface where they are to stand, treading and rolling it firmly; the worms will not come through this. This practice is much preferable to that of standing the plants on several small pots, as is sometimes done, and which is a most unnatural position, allowing the dry air to act upon the whole surface of the pots, whereas, when they stand upon a moisture-holding medium such as the bed of ashes described, they to some extent absorb moisture, which tends to keep the roots cool. To assist in this, and also to maintain a health-giving moisture regularly rising amongst the plants, the surface of the ashes should be damped every day in hot weather, as also should the material advised to be placed round the pots whilst standing out of doors. Stopping and Pruning.—With plants grown in pots and similar appliances, except in the case of climbers, there never should be occasion for the operation of pruning in the literal sense of the term. Where the knife has to be used to the extent here implied, it is evidence of neglect in allowing growth to be made that has to be afterwards removed, and which should have been dispersed evenly over the whole surface of the plant by timely stopping and training. If a satisfactory result is to be attained the training of plants, with few exceptions, must be commenced in their infancy. If once a plant is allowed to run up with a long lanky stem it is difficult afterwards to get it into a satisfactory shape. In training pot plants it is more necessary to look to the future form they will have, than to their present appearance. As a rule the class of subjects under consideration should be so treated in their early stages, as to insure their being well furnished in after years with healthy foliage down to the base, for pot plants generally have a very poor appearance, if bare and naked at the bottom. Even if possessing a head of healthy growth they do not bear inspection. At the same time the observant cultivator will, in training any plant, take into consideration its natural habit, which will to a certaimextent influence his practice. If it naturally assumes a pyramidal form this can, so far as necessary, be preserved; if a low spreading bush, in like manner the trainer will favour this shape. The thing to be observed is, to see that no over-strong leading branch or branches are allowed to keep a direct upright position, with nothing but weak ones at the base, or the strong upright growths will be certain ultimately to starve the others, and these dying off will leave the bottom of the plant naked and unsightly. To insure the requisite balance in the branches of a trained plant all shoots that have a tendency to outgrow others should be stopped back and bent down in a horizontal position, so as to induce them to break back freely, persevering in this treatment until the foundation fen- the future specimen is laid. In a selection of plants such as is generally met with in private establishments, it is an equal mistake to aim at growing all large as all small plants, for among the almost innumerable subjects that we possess that will succeed under pot culture, there is no lack of both large and small growers, and a well-assorted collection will consist of both. The object which should be aimed at is to grow all, both large and small820 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. growers, up to good examples of their respective kinds, and this can only he attained by intelligent and timely training. In addition to the early training which plants require, the greater portion need the shoots shortening back yearly. This cutting-in should with most things be done immediately after flowering, and should be more or less close according to the nature of the plant. We have already intimated that it is not good practice to expose plants in the open air. too early in the season; there are also a considerable number that are often subjected to this treatment that are much better never stood out at all. The principal object is to ripen up the growth and set their bloom-buds, as also to make them less subject to mildew. Plants that are not affected by this parasite and will form their bloom-buds indoors are better inside, by which means the houses have not the objectionable empty appearance they have when the occupants are collectively subjected to the open-air exposure. III.—SELECT GREENHOUSE PLANTS. We now proceed to treat of some of the principal plants cultivated in the greenhouse, or pits, where a greenhouse temperature is maintained, and to give lists of the best and most ornamental species or varieties grown in these structures. They will consist of a selection of both hard and soft wooded subjects, giving variety in form and colour of flower, as also in the habit and general appearance of the plants. THE CAMELLIA.—The camellia is a native of Japan, and has been in this country considerably over a century. Of all the decorative plants cultivated in our greenhouses none are more deservedly popular than camellias; their beautiful glossy foliage is even surpassed by the magnificent flowers they produce with the greatest freedom when well managed. The fine habit and vigorous constitution of the plants will enable them, when fairly treated, to keep on growing until they assume a large size, and attain a vigorous old age, much beyond that of the generality of plants grown under glass. The camellia is sufficiently hardy to withstand our winters out-of-doors; but through its natural disposition to bloom in the spring, its flowers get injured by cold and wet, whence the necessity for giving it greenhouse treatment. For the production of cut flowers it stands unrivalled, being so manageable that were it desirable it could be had in bloom almost the whole year round, by the use of a sufficient number of plants treated so as to bring them on in succession; but where an ordinary collection is grown, as generally managed, it usually furnishes a supply for four or five months. The varieties of camellia now in cultivation are very numerous, the following being a selection of the best; they include those that have a natural disposition to flower early in the autumn, and also the latest spring sorts; but in regard to the blooming time of the camellia more depends upon the treatment it receives as to the making of its growth and setting its flowers, than upon natural habit:— Adrien Lebrun.—Fine large red flowers, beautifully imbricated. Alba Compacta.—Pure white, good shape, well imbricated. Alba-plena (old double white).—One of the best white varieties in cultivation. Bealii.—One of the best crimson varieties known; a free late bloomer. Bonomiana.—Pure white, with stripes and bands of rosy carmine, round large petals; a most beautiful and finely formed flower. Candidissima.—Good white, of fine form; a late flowering variety. Caryophylloides.—White, marbled and banded with rosy carmine; flowers large, of good shape, and well imbricated. Chandleri Elegans.— Light rose; flower large and fine. Circe.—Pure white, small flowers; an excellent sort for bouquets. Comte de Paris.—Salmon pink, edged with white. Contessa Lavinia Maggi.—Large flowers, pure white, with broad bands of rosy cerise; of excellent form; the best of the striped varieties. Contessa Lavinia Maggi rosea.—Rosy red; of good form; a splendid variety. Countess of Ellesmere.—White, mottled and striped with rose; sometimes delicate rose, spotted with pure white; a large flower, of excellent form and substance. Countess of Orkney.—Broad petals, pure white, striped with carmine. Cup of Beauty.—White, striped with rose; a beautifully imbricated flower. Donckelaari.—Rich crimson, blotched and marbled with white; a large semi-double and very showy flower; small foliage. Duke of Lancaster.—Fine rose; a well-imbricated, handsome large flower. Eclipse. —White, flaked and stored irregularly with crimson. Exirnia.—Crimson scarlet; of fine form. Finibriata.—White; of beautiful form, and finely imbricated, each petal splendidly fringed. Hendersoni.—Bright rose; a fine flower. Ilenri Favre.—Rosy salmon; one of the best sorts grown. Imbricata.—Scarlet crimson; of good form, and finely imbricated; one of the best of the double reds. Imbricata alba.— White, frequently striped with carmine; a very fine variety. Jubilee.—Most delicate pinkish white; very large petals, strewed over (except the centre), and splashed here and there, with rose; the finest of its class in cultivation. Lady Hume's Blush.—White, beautifully flushed with flesh-colour. La Heine.—White, splashed delicately with carmine; round large petals; fine. Madame Ambroise Verscliaffelt.—A beautifully imbricated flower; white shaded with blush, and dotted with red. Madame Pepin.—Rosy carmine, the middle petals soft rose; well-imbricated and large flowers; very fine. Marchioness of Exeter.—Very large; fine rose colour. Mathotiana.—Brilliant red; large, and very handsome. Mathotiana alba.—Large pure white; flowers finely imbricated to the centre; a splendid variety. Monarch.— Beautiful scarlet crimson; a fine flower. Mutabilis.—A good double well-imbricated flower, similar in colour and mottling to Donckelaari.CONSERVATORY AND GREENHOUSE PLANTS. 821 Xapolron ///.—Rose veined with a deeper shade of the same colour, and edged with white; of good substance. Pearl.—Pearly white; round petals of good substance; perfect in form; one of the finest whites. Prince Frederick William.—Striped carnation; a beautiful variety, of tine form. Princense Baciocchi. — Rich velvety-carmine; neatly and regularly imbricated. Princess Mary.—Bright reddish crimson, with thick shelllike petals; flowers very regular in outline; a splendid sort. Queen Victoria.—Carmine, with a lighter shade in the centre, the petals banded with white. Reine des Fleurs.—Finely imbricated; flowers very regular in form, vermilion red, sometimes flaked with white. Reticulata jlore-pleno. — Bright rosy lake; fine flowers; very distinct. Saccoi nova.— Bright rose in the centre of the petals, shading to a soft rosy pink at the edges; a well-formed flower. Storyi.— Rosy pink; well imbricated, and regular in form. Tricolor.—White, flamed with carmine; semi-double. Tricolor de Mathot.—Similar in colour to the last, but quite double; very fine. Tricolor iuibricata plena.—Blush white, with abroad, rich crimson stripe on each petal; very large and double. Valtevareda.—A fine large flower, beautifully imbricated; colour bright rose, generally spotted with pure white. Verschayeltit.—Pale rose, striped with white in the centre of each petal. Wilderi.—Fine form, and well imbricated; soft rose. Propagation.—The camellia may be propagated bv various means, principally by grafting in numerous ways, also by cuttings. It can likewise be raised from seeds, sown in pots of sandy peat or loam, slightly covered and placed in a gentle heat, keeping the soil moist and shaded until the plants appear; then giving more light, but not exposing them to the sun. When a couple of leaves are formed, they should be placed singly in small pots in sandy peat, keeping them in a moist growing temperature. Propagation by cuttings is employed to some extent, generally with free-growing compact-habited sorts, such as the old double-white or the red-flowered imbricata. The stocks used for grafting, princi] >ally the single red, are also raised from cuttings. They will strike at any time of the year, but most raisers prefer to take the cuttings when the wood is about two-thirds ripe, towards the close of the growing season; they may consist of the entire shoot, 4 or 5 inches long, or shortened to one or two joints, and should be inserted in pots filled with peat in which there is a good portion of sand, having an inch of sand on the surface, and plunged in bottom-heat, a little warmer than where the cuttings have been grown. If carefully attended to in shading, and in the supply of the requisite moisture, and kept in a close confined atmosphere, they will root in five or six weeks, when they should be placed singly in 3-inch pots, and kept in a temperature similar to that in which they have been struck, until they root into the new soil, when they should be gradually inured to more air and light. If cuttings are made of the ripe wood, they require to be placed for a consider- able time in a cold frame or pit until they have callused, and after this to be removed to the propagating pit; when they have rooted freely they should be potted and kept on growing through the spring, shaded through the summer, and when their growth is matured grafted in the autumn. Any of the various modes of grafting may be employed, but for small stocks whip-grafting is the best, and makes the soundest junction. Camellias may be grafted at any time of the year when matured grafts can be had. Even in the dormant season the grafts will soon take, if they are placed in confined heat; but, as with most other plants, the best time to perform the work is in the early spring before any growth has commenced. Grafting in this way need not be confined to small plants; good-sized specimens of inferior kinds, with stems an inch or more in diameter, may be headed down and cleft-grafted, putting two or four grafts in each. These, if the stocks have plenty of roots and are in a healthy condition, soon make very fine heads, the strength of the stocks forcing the grafts to make as much growth in a single season as would be made in three by grafts on young stocks, the rate of increase for some years afterwards being proportionately great. But care must be taken in the management of large plants so grafted for some seasons, to keep them stopped, and any overstrong shoots bent down to equalize the growth, or they will run up quickly, entailing the necessity for using the pruning knife where it should not be required. Camellias take well by inarching, and where a large plant exists of any kind not approved, another head may be quickly placed upon it by inarching it in several places; but where this method is employed, it is necessary for a time afterwards to secure the shoots, as when they get heavy they are easily broken out, on account of the comparatively slight hold which for a time they have of the stock. Soil.—The camellia, like most other Japanese plants, is not over-nice as to the soil it grows in. It will succeed in either peat or loam, or a mixture of both. In peat the plants make the freest growth, and the foliage produced in it is always larger, of a richer green, and finer in appearance; but the disposition to flower is not so free, especially with young plants. When camellias are in peat, and are full of strong growth, unless the lupply of water is restricted at the time when the flower-buds should set, they are apt to push into a second growth. A mixture of peat and loam is used by some growers; others prefer loam alone, but where this is used it should be of a good rich nature, moderately free, containing plenty of fibre; to insure this, the turves, when procured,822 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. should not be dug above inches thick, and before being used they should be allowed to lay stacked up until the grass is dead, but not longer. For moderate-sized plants the soil should be broken in pieces about the size of walnuts, and considerably bigger for large specimens, enough clean sharp sand being added to keep the whole mass open and porous after the fibre has become decomposed. It is not possible to give the precise proportions of sand required, as that will depend upon the greater or less amount the loam or peat naturally contains, but in potting any such plant as the camellia, that may be expected to stand for a number of years without having the soil removed, more sand should be used than in the case of things that are periodically shaken out and the soil replaced. The quantity of water which these plants require, especially in the growing season, makes it necessary that the soil in which they grow should be of a character that will not become too close and compact. From the inability to procure peat the Belgian growers use thoroughly decomposed leaf-soil, yet this is not equal to peat; and where good loam cannot be procured we should advise the use of peat, which will undoubtedly grow the camellia quicker than loam. The peat, however, must not be of a boggy nature, but good in quality, containing plenty of fibre, and must have sand added in proportion to the quantity naturally existing in it. Potting.—The best time for potting camellias is just as they complete their growth. When this takes place will, as a matter of course, be influenced by the time the plants are started. Where the flowers are required early in the autumn, say October anil November, it is necessary to start them into growth comparatively early in the season, by which means they set their flower-buds soon. Those that bloom during the winter and spring will make their growth correspondingly later. It is easy to see when they are about to set their flowers, the shoots ceasing to lengthen and commencing to thicken at the points, the terminal leaves having attained their full size and getting solidified. This is the proper time to pot such as require more root-room. The operation must not be delayed until the bloom-buds get fully formed, or the consequences most likely will be that they will afterwards drop off prematurely; the outside roots should be slightly disentangled without disturbing them too much; for if camellias are potted after flowering before they commence growing,the disturbance of the roots always interferes with the season’s growth. In shifting, the size of pot they are transferred to should be regulated by the strength of the plants, and the amount of roots they possess. The camellia does not require re- potting nearly so often as most plants, growing as it does to a large size with comparatively little root-room. The pots should be well-drained, placing some lumpy fibrous pieces of the soil used over the crocks. Camellias will not grow with the material about their roots light and open, consequently, in potting, the soil should be rammed down firmly with the potting lath. This must in all cases be done, so as to make it as solid as the ball of earth the roots are already in; otherwise when water is given it will pass through the new soil, leaving the ball dry, in which state the plants cannot possibly retain a healthy condition. Temperature.—From the fact of the camellia being hardy, it is evident that, where fire-heat is used, the object is to accelerate the season of blooming, as its flowers, •which are so largely used in a cut state, are most in demand in the dull autumn and winter months. To produce them at this season it becomes necessary to start the plants into growth correspondingly early, for if growth is made late they cannot be had in bloom early. Plants grown in cold houses where they merely receive protection from frost, and make their growth through the influence of sun-heat alone as the season advances, do not generally flower until the lengthening days exert an influence upon them, j They will bear a moderately high temperature— Vtp to SO3 will do them no harm whilst making their growth, but this is not necessary, as from 00° to 70° will be sufficient; neither is it desirable to submit them to more than 65° at the commencement of their growing period, especially if they are started early. As they push growth, the tempera-I tore may ill the daytime be raised to the point ; above indicated, with sufficient air to prevent weak growth, allowing the heat to come down to 60°, or a few degrees lower, during the night. When the young wood and leaves get matured,and the buds are formed, the temperature should be lowered and more air given, turning off fire-lieat altogether, for if the plants are kept close and warm for too long a time after the buds are set, they will probably flower too early, and it is in j this stage of the growth of the flower-buds that ■ the time of their blooming can in a great measure j be regulated. For instance, camellias that had not begun to open their flowers the present year before February, if required the ensuing season two months earlier could be brought in so by keeping them in heat for a longer time than usual | after the buds were set, and until they had ! attained considerable size; in this way, before they have been allowed to assume their usual dormant state, their flowering can be accelerated , by heat, whereas, if anything like forcing is ! attempted after they have been rested by a lowerCONSERVATORY AND GREENHOUSE PLANTS. 823 temperature after the buds are set, iu all probability the greater portion will drop oif instead of opening. When opening their dowel’s the plants enjoy a temperature of 45° or 50°. Some kinds, the blooms of which are very full of petals in the centre—designated, in garden phraseology, hard-centred sorts—do not open freely in a low temperature; but whenever fire-heat is applied to accelerate the opening of camellia dowel's it should not much exceed 5o°, and on no account whilst the plants are subjected to this must the atmosphere be allowed to become too dry, or most likely quantities of the buds will drop. 'The requisite humidity can be secured by pouring water upon any moisture-holding medium present in the house, such as the border wherein roof-climbers are planted, if such exist. In houses where there is an absence of any such medium, recourse must be had to sprinkling the stages or door, yet this must not be carried too far, as if too much vapour exists, the dowers will become spotted. Watering.—The camellia is undoubtedly a moisture-loving plant, and will not make growth freely without an abundant supply at the roots, as also in the atmosphere; copious syringing, at this time twice a day, assists them much, not only in the development of their shoots and leaves, but it also frees the old foliage from dust that accumulates upon them during their season of comparative rest. As the plants complete their growth, and the terminal buds where the dowers are to be, become visible, they should be kept drier both at the root and top; the extent to which it is necessary to cany this depends upon the more or less vigorous condition of the plants. Where very strong, as is sometimes the case when they are planted out, it becomes needful to keep the soil at this time as dry as it is safe to do without endangering the health of the foliage, which would be injured if water was withheld so as to cause the leaves to dag. After the dower-buds are fairly visible, water should be given so as to keep the soil iu a moderately moist healthy state, and from this time until the blooms begin to swell for opening, they must never be allowed to suffer for want of water, or most likely many of the buds will fall off before they expand; this, indeed, often happens even months after the mischief has been done. As the dower-buds expand, and all through the blooming season, the plants must be kept quite moist at the roots. Liquid manure is of great assistance if applied with judgment at the proper season. To plants that are already strong enough it would obviously be worse than useless, by inducing over-luxuriance, but any that are wanting iu strength, or too much restricted at the root, or that have dowered very heavily, will be benedted by having manure water during the time they are making their growth. It is only at this time that we have found it to benedt them. It should always be used in a clear state and not too strong. Either sheep or horse droppings will do to make it from, or guano, but the latter must be used with caution on account of its great strength; a little soot added is also benedcial in keeping worms in check, either with plants in pots or when planted out, and it also imparts a dark green colour to the leaves that much improves their appearance. Situation.—Where very large specimens are grown a span-roofed house is the most suitable, as it gives more room for them to extend their growth. It should run north and south, otherwise the plants will be liable to draw to one side. In such a house shade will be required dining very bright weather, especially whilst the young growth is being developed. For moderate-sized plants some growers prefer a lean-to house facing the north. When so plaoed they require no shade, which is so far an advantage. A north aspect also has the effect of retarding the blooming season with all or any that it may be desirable to keep for late flowering; and it likewise does away to a great extent with the necessity that sometimes occurs for moving the plants out of the house after they have set their flowers, to keep them from coming on too early, as a house standing in this position, if well ventilated, is much cooler than if so placed as to receive the sun more directly. The practice of placing camellias out in the open air is had. The drenching the soil gets when it does not require it, from thunder showers or continued rains, frequently does serious harm. If the plants have been so managed as to make it apparent that they will flower earlier than is required, the best place for them is the north side of a high wall; but here they should have over them a light framework, on which to place a canvas screen worked on a roller, that can be run down so as to ward off sun and throw off heavy rains. When thus placed out, they should not be allowed to remain too long, in the autumn, as when growth is made early and the buds are far advanced, they cannot stand being frozen. Pruning,—Camellias, more than most things, frequently suffer through inattention to keeping their shoots sufficiently shortened, especially in the early stages of their growth. Strong shoots spring out from the centre, and if not shortened back in time, are certain to run away with more than their share of sap, thus still further weakening the already weaker side shoots. This necessitates824 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. the cutting away and destruction of growth that should have been evenly disposed over the surface of the plant, if attention had been directed to it in due time. The twisted distorted branches often met with in camellia training, are simply the result of previous neglect. Where camellias have been allowed in their early stages to grow out of shape, or have been too much crowded, so as to cause them to get naked at the bottom, it often becomes necessary to head them down, and if the operation is well managed few subjects do better with it. Care should be taken not to cut lower than 8 or 10 inches above the point where they have been grafted; neither should it be deferred until after they have flowered, for in this case growth will generally be ready to start, and the plants will bleed to an extent that will seriously injure them. The heading down should take place two months at least before the time they would commence growth, if not interfered with. After operating upon them they should be removed to a temperature of 60°, and if a gentle bottom-heat of TO"1 can be given them it will be an assistance; keep the soil in a state neither too wet nor too dry, just containing a little moisture, until they have well broken, after which it may be kept a little wetter, but not nearly so much so as with plants that have not had their heads removed; for if the roots ever get too wet before there is leaf-surface to absorb the moisture, they will perish, in which case there is little chance of the plants recovering. If they are kept in heat all through the summer they will make two or three growths, and soon form nice bushy specimens. If they require more pot room they may have a shift about two months before they are started into growth the spring following. Insects.—Camellias are very subject to attacks of the scale insects, both brown and white, the latter being much the worst to deal with, for if allowed to go unchecked it soon increases to a serious extent on both wood and leaves. AVliite scale requires a stronger application of any insecticide to destroy it, than other insects gardeners have to contend with, a dressing strong enough to kill the pest generally doing serious injury to the plants. All ordinary tooth-brush and a sponge are the best for removing this species of scale from camellias; the plant# should be gone over thoroughly as soon as their growth is completed, and again before the buds begin to swell. Brown scale is more easily dealt with, for repeated washings with “ Fowler’s Insecticide,” 5 oz. to the gallon, applied at a temperature of 90° as soon as the flower-buds are set, but before they have got much size, will destroy this insect. The plants are much benefited by having their leaves sponged over once or twice a year, so as to remove all accumulations of dirt. In growing camellias, as other things, they should always have sufficient room; when too closely crowded the whole become bare and naked at the bottom. It is much better to grow a score of specimens well than double the number of weakly drawn-up examples. THE CAPE HEATH (Erica sp.).—Although there is much similarity in the general appearance of heaths, yet in habit of growth and flower there is considerable diversity, especially in the size and form of the blossoms. The beautiful waxlike tubular flowers of most of the varieties, so distinct from those of all other blooming subjects to be met with in the whole range of plants grown for decorative purposes, have made them general favourites. Most of the kinds flower naturally from the beginning of April to the end of August, but they are most numerous in May and June, though some come in both before and after the above months, so that there is no part of the year in which representatives of the family may not be had. The slender-growing bright-coloured E. mutabilis keeps on flowering in succession almost all the year round. The early E. caffra, curviflora rubra, gracilis rernalis, hycmalis, melantkera, persoluta, physodes, rubens, Willmorei, Sindryana, and others, bloom on through the first months of the year, followed through the late spring months by a whole host of the most distinct and finely-coloured sorts, supplying every shade and colour from the neat white E. jlorida, the lemon-coloured E. aj/inis, the deep yellow E. Cavendishiana, the lovely pink shaded E. exquisita, the elegant drooping E. propendens, the fiery red E. ventricosa grandiflora, to the deep crimson and black E. aristata, so beautifully relieved by the white segments at the mouth of the tube. 'These are again succeeded by a number of beautiful forms, as the exquisite small pink E. Savileana and its major variety, with globular flowers almost like beads; the equally fine larger-flowered and stronger-growing E. Irbyana, Aus-tiniana, Jacksoni, and retorta major, that come in succession from July to September, followed by a few still later-blooming kinds that continue flowering till the end of the year. Some there are that last long in bloom, the flowers remaining perfect for a couple of months, like E. depressa, with its most distinct drooping habit and dense dark green foliage, having the appearance when in bloom of a plant reversed, with the points of its shoots downwards, to the fine but short-lived E. tortilijlora, the flowers of which fade quickly. All the species, and the very numerous varietiesCONSERVATORY AND GREENHOUSE PLANTS. 825 that have been produced from seed, are of a more or less dense bushy habit: some with stout erect branclM like E. vestita, covered with their thick clothing of comparatively long leaves, that gives them the appearance of some miniature erect-growing pines; others weak, and almost procumbent, like E. cerinthoicles, with its brilliant dowers, the long loose straggling shoots of which are unable to support themselves at all. As subjects for greenhouse and cool conservatory decoration they are most important, enlivening the scene by the colours of their dowel's, and contrasting well with the many elegant-leaved subjects that are now so largely employed in plant-houses; but when the summer and spring dowering sorts are removed during the time of their blooming to conservatories, they should by no means be placed close together amongst things that will overhang them, or where they will be more or less shaded, as they are essentially light-loving plants, and cannot bear a close atmosphere, or to stand too crowded together. For winter and spring dowering the hy emails section plays a very important part, and one that could scarcely be supplied by any other class of plants. That the demand for them, in common with all other established favourites, is very great, is evident from the immense quantities grown yearly in those nurseries that make a specialty of winter-dowering subjects. There is a very large number of species of this family in cultivation, all more or less attractive; while many others are not worth growing bv reason of being comparatively inferior in general habit, in size, colour, or profusion of dower, or in possessing a less vigorous constitution, being consequently more liable to die suddenly—a complaint which the family is unfortunately more or less subject to under even the best treatment. All who grow heaths will do well to add each spring a few young plants to their stock, for by this means the place of such as get worn out or die off, is kept dlled up. The colours of heaths are difficult to describe, as so much depends upon the treatment they receive during the time they are opening; the colours will indeed vary in the same variety under different management, so much as to make the sort scarcely recognizable under its different appearances. The following selection of the best sorts will dower over a great portion of the year:— E. affinis.—A strong large-growing sort, with dense dark-green foliage, and pale lemon-coloured flowers that last long. Aijril and May. E. cemula.—A very dense grower, dwarf and compact; flowers olive and red, produced in large whorls. June to August. E. aristata superb a.—A dwarf-habited, very hard-wooded I kind; a profuse flowerer; dark red tube, with white segments. May and J line. E. Austiniana.— One of the very finest summer heaths, large and free in growth, remaining in flower for several weeks; red tubes, with dark band near the extremity. July to September. E. ampullacea obbata.—A magnificent sort, one of the finest large waxy-tubed flowers, much inflated at the base; flesh-white. July and August. E. ampullacea.— Smaller flowers than the last; a fine variety. J uly to August. E. Aitoniana turgida.—A good free-flowering kind, with slender growth. August and September. E. Aitoniana Turnbullii. — Differs considerably from the preceding, but is equally well worth a place. August to September. E. Bergiana.—A nice summer heath, with small purplish flowers. June and August. E. Candolleana.—One of the very hest; a good grower, moderate in size, and a profuse flowerer; flesh-white, tinted with pale pink. June and July. E. Cavendish)ana.—The best of the yellow-flowered heaths, and one of the finest varieties in cultivation; a large grower, of strong constitution, and very free in growth; leaves of the deepest green, profuse; flowers long enduring, bright yellow, produced freely. May to July. E. cerinthoides.—One of the finest in colour of the whole family, the crimson flowers produced in large whorls at the points of the shoots; the only drawback is its straggling habit of growth. Summer and autumn. E. depressa multijlora.—This is an improvement on the well-known E. depressa, one of the most distinct and durable heaths in existence, and of the easiest possible growth; although slow, the plant lives long, often kip to twenty or thirty years; flowers yellow; leaves very dense, deep green; shoots drooping. May to July. E. Devoniana.—A smallish heath that produces freely a profusion of highly-coloured flowers; deep-red tube and black band near the extremity. May and June. E. exiniia superba.—A great advance upon the old E. eximia; close and compact in habit, and profuse flowering; olive-green and red. June and July. E. exquisita.—A fine variety; large waxy tubes; colour flesh, and deeper pink. June. E. Fairrieana.—A fine kind of moderate growth; very free flowering; highly-coloured blooms, with a dark band near the apex of the tube. June to August. E. ferruginea superba.—Large and free growth; profuse flowerer; good constitution; high colour. July to August. E. jiorida.—An erect stout-growing kind; flowers white, small but profuse; distinct and desirable. May and June. E. gem in if era elegans.—A great improvement on the old E. gemmifera; a free grower and more abundant bloomer; salmon red. June to August. E. Ilartnelli virens.—Free in growth, and equally free in flower; palish red tubes, with a band of green round the throat. June and July. E. it genial is.—A soft-wooded, very free growing variety, of upright habit, the points pendent; a profuse winter-flowering kind, grown in immense quantities for decorative purposes; flowers white and rosy-pink. December to March. E. Irbgaua. — One of the best summer heaths; large and free in growth, and profuse in its disposition to flower; it lasts long in beauty; pink tubes, almost black near the extremity. July and August. E. inf undibulifor mis.—A very distinct and desirable kind, of moderate size. June and July. E. Jacksoni. — Another grand sort, deeper in colour than E. A ustiniaaa, and somewhat later in flower, but in other respects similar to that excellent variety. July to September. E. jasminijlora alba.—A free large grower, with long white waxy tubular flowers; a desirable sort. July and August. E. Lindleyana.—A magnificent variety, and free grower; it forms a good-sized plant, and is one of the best of a very distinct flowered section of heaths; free bloomer; the flowers,820 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. which are long and even, are red with olive-yellow tips. May and June. E. Massoni major.—A perfect aristocrat among heaths, but difficult to grow; habit upright; the flowers very large, and produced in immense whorls at the points of the shoots, similar in colour to Lindleyana. June. E. mutabilis.—A free but slender growing plant, that forms a good-sized specimen; almost continuous in its habit of flowering, coming in at all times of the year; bright red. E. Xab tana rosea.—This is a good sort, free ingrowth and bloom; it forms a large-sized plant, sometimes powering twice in the season, early in the spring and again in the autumn. E. Marnockiana.—A compact-growing variety, and one of the very best heaths in cultivation; deep crimson and black tube with white segments. August and September. E. obbata.—One of the finest heaths in cultivation ; a free grower, unapproachable in the size of its waxy-white flowers, produced in large whorls of from four to twelve on the points of the shoots, lasting in good condition for three weeks. June to August. E. Panne ntieriana rosea.—A much higher coloured form of the old E. Panncntieriana; a splendid sort, free in growth, and a profuse llowerer; it lasts long in bloom, and is deserving a place wherever heaths are grown. July and August. E. Paxtoni.—This is another fine variety, free in growth and flower; the colour very distinct, salmon pink, with a brownish band behind the segments. June and August. E.propc miens.—One of the most elegant in habit of the whole genus, the points of the shoots curving gracefully over gives it a very distinct appearance; the flowers, which are of a pinkish lilac tint, are produced in the greatest profusion all up the preceding year’s growth. May and June. E. retorta major.—A good free-growing kind, and profuse bloomer. July and September. E. Savilcana major.—A small-growing sort that produces freely quantities of miniature bead-like liowers that last for a considerable time; very pretty and distinct; colour shining pink. July and August. E. Sindryana.—A free-growing and profuse-flowering kind, very useful as a spring bloomer. March and April. E. Spencer tana.—A good heath, with distinct tubular, lilac-pink flowers, and well worth a place. May to July. E. Shannoni.—One of the l>est white varieties grown; forms a good-sized plant; excellent in habit, and very free flowering. July and August. E. tortiliflora.—A very distinct and beautiful sort; profuse in flowering, but does not retain its beauty long, the flowers soon going off. May and June. E. tricolor.—This name represents a group of very numerous forms, mostly free in growth, and abundant flowerers, the flowers forming inflated tubes, and the plants attaining a large size. Thus E. t. coronata is a good useful heath, with flesh-coloured tul >e and greenish band. June and July. —E. t. Eppsii is the finest of the section, producing large flowers, high in colour. June to August.—E. t. llulj'ordii is a free-growing woolly-leaved variety; an immense bloomer; flowers pale flesh, darker towards the mouth of the tube. June to August.— E. t. Wilsoni is an old favourite sort, one of the best growers, and very free in flowering; colour pale pink. June to August. E. venosa.—One of the finest high-coloured kinds in cultivation; very hard-wooded, and attaining a moderate size; colour deep crimson; flowers of medium size. July and August. E. ventricosa.—Of this most beautiful species there are several fine forms; for example, E. v. coccinca minor is one of the best, attaining a good size; of beautiful habit; a most profuse flowerer, lasting some three weeks in good condition; flowers of medium size, pale red, with black band. May and June.—E. v. grandijlora is a grand heath, with rather stiff upright habit; flowers intense deep crimson; and one of the brightest sorts in cultivation. June and July.—E. v. magni-fica is very similar in habit of growth to the preceding, and equally free in flowering, but paler in colour. June and July. E. vestita.—This represents a very distinct type of heaths in their strong upright habit, but they are not so much in fashion as at one time.—That called E. v. coccinca is one of the best; the flowers produced in dense whorls, and very effective; colour reddish scarlet; the plants have a determined upright habit of growth that is difficult to correct so as to keep them well furnished at the base, hence they are not liked by many. July and August. E. Victoria.—A strong robust-growing kind, with deep-green leaves, forming a moderate-sized plant; flowers deep crimson red, the segments of the limb white, with black band. April and May. E. Willmorei.—A most useful decorative rose and white Spring kind, flowering freely through February and March. Propagation.—Heaths are easily raised from , seed, as evidenced by the quantities of fine garden varieties that we possess. They cross freely, hence the almost innumerable forms and colours to be met with at the present time. But the i raising of heaths is a slow process, as it takes a 1 good many years after sowing the seeds before it is possible to obtain any considerable stock of a variety so raised. Sow the seed early in the spring. As anything in the shape of stagnant water, or soil too retentive of moisture, is fatal to heaths, it is necessary to drain the seed-pots well; then fill up to within an inch or so of the top with sandy peat of a rather hard than spongy nature; press the surface quite smooth, water : it so as to close up all holes wherein the seed 1 might in sul (sequent waterings get washed too deep, and again press smooth—the bottom of an empty flower-pot is the best thing wherewith to do this; ; then sow the seeds and cover very slightly with ! finely sifted peat, mixed with a good portion of I sand, pressing the surface a little, and slightly ! moistening it, without disturbing the soil; place the pots in a warm, but not too high, temperature, I and shade from the sun so that the top of the soil does not get dried up. As soon as the young ! plants are fairly up allow them sufficient light to 1 prevent their becoming drawn up and weakly. 1 When large enough to handle, and they have got sufficient substance in the wood, pot them off* I singly in thumb pots, keeping them a little close, | and shading from bright sun until their tops have : commenced to grow and their roots begun to move. ! After this gradually inure them to more light and i air; but although air-loving and light-loving plants, ; they must not for the first season be placed where | they will be directly under the influences of cutting draughts or scorching sun heat, for the little body of soil these small pots contain would I quickly become parched up. Nip out the points 1 early so as to cause them to throw out side shoots, , and the following spring move them into pots | a size larger, and treat as hereafter advised for plants struck from cuttings. Propagation by Cuttings.—The points of the half-ripened shoots are those which must be selected when it is intended to propagate heaths in this way. The soft-wooded kinds that make earlyCONSERVATORY AND GREENHOUSE PLANTS. 827 growth, should be taken off as soon in the spring as the wood is in a tit state; remove the lower leaves, till the pots two-thirds full of crocks, on the top of which place a layer of tine sandy peat, and surface with silver sand, in which insert the cuttings i an inch deep, putting them in moderately close; water gently, so as to settle the sand about them; cover with bell-glasses, and place in a temperature of 60°; keep the glasses wiped, and directly any sign of mould appeal's on any of the cuttings remove it or it will quickly spread over all that are in the pot. Do not allow them ever to become dry, or the result will most likely be the destruction of the whole. Hard-wooded varieties do not commence glowing nearly so early as the softer kinds, and the summer is considerably advanced before their cuttings are tit to put in. Treat them as advised for the soft-wooded sorts, and keep them all close until they are rooted, which will show itself by theircom-mencing growth; then gradually inure them to more air by the removal of the glasses, and expose them to more light. In the spring following pot them singly in 3-inch pots, and keep the atmosphere around them somewhat moist and confined, until they take to the new soil. Stop the points to induce a bushy habit, and to lay the foundation for the future specimen. Their progress is slow in the first stages of their existence, but do not allow them to become pot-bound before shifting them into larger pots. Soil, Ac.—Heaths require to be potted in peat of a harder or softer character, according to the nature of the different varieties; liard-wooded, slow-growing kinds requiring the soil to be of a closer harder description than the soft-wooded, quickergrowing sorts. Very hard peat is comparatively poor. It is not advisable to grow even the hardest-wooded kinds altogether in such, as in it they make slow progress; a mixture of two-thirds of this hard peat with one of a softer nature will generally be found the best for these varieties, and equal quantities of hard and soft peat for the softer-wooded kinds. Good pure silver sand must be added, according to the more or less sand contained- naturally in the peat; a sprinkling of potsherds, broken to about the size of horse beans, mixed with the soil, will be an advantage, keeping it open and porous, the beneficial effects of which will be apparent in after years, when the fibre at first contained in the soil is decomposed, after which, unless there is sufficient sand, or something of a larger description, such as the crocks under notice, present in the soil, it is liable to become too close for the free passage of water through it, without which, fine-rooted plants of the nature of heaths cannot exist. The pots occupied by heaths must always be well drained, an inch of crocks for small pots up to three for full-sized specimens will be about right, in all cases covering the drainage over with a little sphagnum, or fibrous matter picked out of the potting material used. Never, especially in the early stages of the existence of the plants, should the roots be allowed to become pot-bound. On the other hand, do not go on the principle of periodical potting, vdietlier they require itor not. When movingheaths, ahvays let the shift be in proportion to the state of the roots, and the nature of the variety operated upon; when the roots fully occupy the ball of the plant to be moved, it will bear a larger shift than when they are less numerous. The slowest-growing kinds also do not require, nor will do with, so much pot-room as the quicker and comparatively freer-growing soft sorts. In potting, never disturb the roots more than just to remove the old drainage from the bottom of the ball, and in this do not mutilate more than is unavoidable. Heaths may be potted at any season of the year when the weather is not hot and parching, as their roots are seldom quite at rest; in the autumn, about September, or early in the spring through March and April, is much preferable to the after-blooming potting in the heat of summer so often advocated. Always make the newr soil as firm as the old ball, or the water will find its way dovm the new, and allow the roots to perish through drought. After potting, keep the atmosphere a little close, not admitting nearly so much air until the roots get fairly to work in the new material. House.—The description of house best adapted for growing heaths is a span-roofed one, standing north and south, as in these they do not draw to one side, as they have a disposition to do in a lean-to structure. The maximum of light they receive in a span-roofed house is in accordance with their requirements, for no plants cultivated under glass are greater lovers of light than these. The house should be situated where there is nothing to intercept the light from it, so that it can receive every ray from the rising to the setting of the sun-It should not be lofty, so that the plants may be set sufficiently near the glass. Heaths grown in such a house will live much longer, not being nearly so liable to die off suddenly, or so subject to the attacks of mildew, their great enemy, to which they are a prey continually when grown where they receive an insufficiency of light. Air.—They require air in abundance. There are no plants cultivated in pots to which a stagnant confined atmosphere is so injurious, especially during the season of their active growth; consequently the house in which they are grown should have the lights on both sides of it hinged828 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. from tire top, so that they can be opened wide when required, and also admit of air being given on the lee side during windy weather; for although, as has been stated, they delight in plenty of this essential element, still they are not benefited by being exposed to a draught, especially during March and April, when even the old leaves appear to be more tender than at any other time during the year. In the roof there should also be ample ventilation, a portion of it being hinged at the ridge, so as to lift easily, more or less according to the state of the weather. The advantage of this system is that it admits of a greater opening than with the use of shutters at the ridge, thus keeping the house cooler during hot weather ; it also possesses the advantage over sliding lights, in admitting of air being given during rainy weather. Temperature.—Heaths more than most plants dislike fire-heat; they will bear anything short of i actual frost, although it is not advisable to submit them for long to a temperature approaching freezing; from 36° to 40° is the proper heat to keep them at during the winter season. The pipes in the house where these plants are grown should be so placed as not to be near the pots, or during severe frosts, when it is necessary to keep the water hot, they will have a drying effect upon the roots, which will soon do serious mischief. Fire-heat should never be used in the heath-house unless there is actual frost, or an appearance of it, or in very damp winter weather, when it may sometimes be advisable to turn a little on early in the day to expel the damp; but when employed for this purpose it should be taken off sufficiently early to permit of the pipes getting quite cool before the house has to be closed in the evening. During the summer and all through the autumn air should be left on in plenty day and night. Whilst heaths are small and in little pots it is not well to expose them fully to the open air, as the drying effects of sun and wind will act upon them injuriously; but from the time they get into 10-inch pots and upwards, they should be set out through the latter part of July, August, and the beginning of September, after which it is not safe to leave them, for fear of frost. This exposure to the open air is the best means of hardening up the growth, to enable it to resist the attacks of mildew. When this pest is discovered, the affected parts should at once be dusted over with flowers of sulphur, which should be allowed to remain on for a few days, and afterwards syringed off’, being careful not to let it get on the soil, as if it gets to the roots in any quantity it will kill the plants, having an effect upon them similar to that which lime has on most things that are evergreen. Stopping, Cutting-baclc, and Training.—From the first the young plants must not be neglected in stopping, so as to induce bushy growth, training the strongest shoots out horizontally to furnish the base; as they get larger after flowering, all except the slowest growers will require cutting back, to an extent of about one-tliird of the preceding season’s growth, and in the case of such kinds as make long growth more than this. Watering.-—This is a most important operation in the cultivation of these plants,' and requires great care and long practice to do it as it ought to be done. Never, on any account, give water to a heath before the soil has got sufficiently dry to need it. The hardest-wooded kinds are the slowest growers, and require the soil to be allowed to get drier before water is given, than the soft-wooded free-growing sorts. Never by any means resort to the practice of syringing heaths overhead in the summer season; it causes the leaves to be much softer than they otherwise would, and by this means makes them more liable to mildew. THE AZALEA INDICA.—The original progenitors of the present race of greenhouse azaleas are natives of the cool moist hilly regions of India and China. From these have been produced an immense number of magnificent varieties, that at the present day stand unequalled as indoor decorative flowering plants. They are much more easily grown than many hard-wooded sul ijects cultivated in pots, so far as not being so liable to die off suddenly as some things. The splendidly-bloomed plants occasionally seen have a very different effect from that of the small-flowered deficiently-coloured examples too often met with. These great defects are generally the result of allowing the plants to get overrun with thrips and red spider during the season of their growth. Azaleas are very subject to these pests, and although, except in the most extreme cases of neglect, they do not kill the plants outright, yet a weak unhealthy condition is induced that prevents the possibility of their having, either when in bloom or out, anything approaching the appearance possessed by such as are kept clean. Another great mistake in the cultivation of these plants is that they very often get treated in respect to water in a similar manner to the generality of other hard-wooded subjects. If we for a moment consider the enormous rainfall of the regions from whence they come, it will at once be seen that to keep them so dry as plants which are natives of the Cape or New Holland is a mistake; and under such treatment they never attain anything like the condition they are capable of being brought to. One of the greatest merits in azaleas is the ease with which they can be had in flowerCONSERVATORY AND GREENHOUSE PLANTS. $29 over the greater portion of the year. Were it desirable, they might, by a judicious selection of varieties, with a sufficient number of plants, and the requisite treatment, be had in ilower all the year round. If required, the early-blooming Chinese species, A. vittata, will commence to open its blooms in September, and when strong will keep on giving a succession for six months. Many of the white varieties (which are the best for forcing) will come in before Christmas, after which there is no difficulty in keeping up a continuous display until the end of June. Many seedling azaleas raised recently are great improvements in form and size of Ilower over older kinds, some almost rivalling the best varie- i ties of Show Pelargoniums in the perfectly circular outline of the dowel's; yet there is one fault in 1 many of them, that is, they do not last so long in ; bloom or are not so profuse in dowering when the plants get large, as some of the older kinds with less perfectly formed dowers. It may be here mentioned that the semi-double sorts are the best to force for cutting, as their individual blooms last much longer than the generality of single dowers. • The following selection may be relied upon as including the best both of the newer and older improved varieties:— A. Morsig.—A splendid new pure white, waxdike in substance, tine form, semi-duuble; a first-rate sort for winter forcing. Apollo.—Magnificent new white, striped, large, and very fine. Brill unit.—Splendid deep orange scarlet, the latest blooming variety; flowers last very long. Bride of Abydos.—White, splashed with pink, good habit, and profuse fiowerer. Chamu r.—Bright amaranth, good substance, and fine form; a distinct variety. Chelsoni.—Light scarlet, with violet centre; an old but excellent sort. Cointesse de Beaufort.—Bright rose, with crimson centre in upper segments. Criterion. - Blush, finely spotted in upper segments; free and constant. diaries l)e Buck. In the way of Dae de Xassau, but a different shade of colour; one of the very best. Cedo Xulli.—One of the darkest coloured and most distinct azaleas grown; a free-llowering and desirable sort. Comte de JIainault. -Double, very rich pink; an excellent variety. Due de Xassau.—Very large, dark purple, excellent habit, a profuse bloomer; one of til© best azaleas in cultivation. Dr. Livingstone.--Deep rose purple, very large; form and | sill (.stance excellent. Flag of Truce. - Pure white, one of the best double sorts. Flower of t/w Day. — Ground colour the purest white, with rose stripes; of the finest possible shape. Fanny leery.— Splendid red, with crimson centre; a fine kind. Fra/1'jois De Vos.—Deep crimson; one of the finest double sorts, very free and constant. leery ana.—White, faintly striped with red, large-sized fi.owers; one of the best sorts in cultivation. James Veiteh.—A fine sort, in the way of Stella, but brighter. L'Eclatante. —The deepest crimson, shaded with violet, a profuse bloomer; should be in even the most select collections. La Supcrbc.—Crimson lake, shaded with orange, upper segments deeply spotted with black. Louise von Baden.—A magnificent white, of fine form and substance. Lizzie.—White ground, regularly striped with crimson like a carnation. Madame Joseph Vervaene.—Delicate rose colour, with a narrow border of pure white; a most distinct kind. Madame Leon Maenhaut.— Crimson amaranth, upper segments bright rose; new in colour, and excellent in habit. Madame Louis Van Jloutte.—White, flaked with rose and scarlet; good substance, splendid shape, and line habit. Magnet.—Deep rosy pink; a free-llowering kind. Mars.— Bright orange red, spotted with crimson, a fine variety. Monsieur Thihaut. Very distinct shade of rose, deeply spotted with black; fine form and habit. Perfection.—Ground colour deep rose, finely spotted; very free fiowerer and good in habit. Roi des Beiges.—Satin-like scarlet, upper part of flower feathered with carmine; very large, good habit. Roi de Ilollande.—The deepest crimson grown, upper portion deeply spotted with black; excellent habit. Reine de Portugal. — Pure white, double; an excellent forcing kind, can be had in Ilower early in the winter. Sinensis.— Orange yellow, very fine and distinct; belongs to another specific type. Souvenir du Prince Albert.—Double, deep rose, broadly edged with white; a very distinct and telling sort. Stella.—Bright orange scarlet, deep purple on upper segments, profusely spotted; good in habit. Sigismoml Rucker.—A high-coloured distinct kind; bright salmon, with white edge; very showy and of fine quality. Sunrise.—In the way of Criterion, but deeper in colour. Vittata.—White ground, heavily flaked with violet; flower* early in the autumn, and continuously through the winter; a most desirable kind as a decorative plant. Propagation.—Azaleas can be raised freely from seed, which, however, should be sown as soon as it is ripe in well-drained pans, in finely-sifted ]>eat and sand, four-fifths of the former to one of the latter; press the surface smooth and water so as i to settle the soil; sow the seeds moderately thin | and cover very slightly with similar soil; place I them in a brisk heat and shade from the sum As soon as the seed germinates keep the young plants near the light, but do not allow them to I get much sun or they will shrivel up. If they I come up very thickly, as soon as large enough to handle prick them out 1 inch asunder in 6-inch I pots idled with soil such'as that in which they have been sown; keep them in these nursery-pots until they get several leaves each, after which pot off singly in 3-inch pots, well-drained, in sandy peat, and place them in a warm, moderately moist atmosphere, where they will have sufficient light to keep them stout and robust. When they have I got 4 oi‘ 5 inches high, nip out the points to induce them to break two or three shoots each; but ; do not stop so much as would be necessary were ! it desirable to form them into specimens, the object being to get them to flower as early as possible to ascertain if there are any distinct enough to render them worth propagating. This is830 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. best done by grafting the half-ripened shoots on I any strong-growing kind, than which for the pur- | pose there is none better than the salmon-red j variety, Sir C. Napier, which is itself far from a bad azalea. In grafting, all that is necessary is to have the shoots of the stock and the grafts in a similarly half-ripened condition; remove the leaves at the point where they are to be joined, j and pare down the bark and wood about one- | third the substance of the whole, preparing the ; grafts in the same way. In placing the grafts to the stock, see that the bark meets on one side at j least, and bind the whole with worsted, which, ; from its ability to stretch a little, is the best material to use. Keep the plants where they will have the benefit of a moist heat of 65° in the night, in a propagating-frame or under bell-glasses with a little air, or so as to prevent damping. In a few weeks they will unite, when the ligatures must be slackened, but not taken completely oil’ until the union is firm; keep them on growing, and stop the points so as to cause them to break. The operation of grafting may be performed any time when the wood is in proper condition, early in the spring and through the whole of the summer and autumn, so that the grafts will have time to take before the short days arrive; it will be advisable to keep the plants through the winter in a temperature of 50° during the night, so that they may go on growing slowly; for if allowed to go to rest in a cool house they will lose many of their leaves. Large plants of inferior kinds, if their roots are in a healthy condition, may be grafted in the way described, putting on as many shoots as desired. Previous to this the shoots of the stock should be well thinned out to a few above the number it is intended to graft. After grafting, treat these large plants in every way, including keeping them growing through the winter, as recommended for the smaller ones. Azaleas increase freely from cuttings of the half-ripened wood in silver sand in a brisk heat; but unless for the propagation of stocks, it is not desirable to grow them from cuttings, as they rarely do so well as grafted plants. Soil and Potting.—Azaleas can be grown in either loam or peat, but the latter is much the best. It should be rich and fibrous; hard peat, such as is found where wild heather exclusively grows, is not good for them; in this they do not last nearly so long as in that which is of a more fibrous nature, As the plants get large enough to occupy 5-inch or 6-inch pots, use the peat in a more lumpy state than is required for them in their earliest stages. In all cases a sufficient quantity of sand must be used in the soil to insure con- tinued porosity, and to keep the whole in a sweet healthy state, one-sixth or one-seventli part, according to the nature of the peat, will not be too much, mixing it well before use. In all stages of their existence, drain the pots well, as azaleas cannot possibly be kept in health if the soil gets at all waterlogged. They do not require so much root-room as many things. After they have got sufficiently large to occupy 12-inch or 15-inch pots, they will not need a shift oftener than once in two years; when in 18-inch or 20-inch pots they can be kept for several years in a vigorous healthy state without more room, by the use of liquid manure when growing. The best time to pot azaleas that have got large enough to flower, is about a month after their blooming is over, as before this their roots are not sufficiently active. In potting, the soil must be made quite solid by a free use of the potting-lath. If it is left in a light open state they will not do well through its retaining too much water. Stopping, Training, and Cutting-back Large Plants.—Stopping and training must be attended to in the early stages of growth, or, like other similar subjects submitted to pot-culture, they soon get naked and bare at the base. Stop the points of small plants, and when they have broken and pushed several shoots some length, train the strongest down so as to bring them to the rim of the pot; but until they get up to something like a half-specimen size, do not attempt to keep them too close or bushy by over-stopping, or their progress will be unduly retarded. As they get large work them into the shape they are ultimately to bear; a rounded pyramid, not too much pointed nor made too even in the outline, looks the best, and suits the natural habit of the plant; but in all cases keep the strongest branches down near the base; if the reverse of this is done, by letting the most vigorous shoots run up to the top, they will so far take the lead as ultimately to starve the weaker shoots at the bottom. Use no more sticks than are necessary to support the plants, as their presence in the soil in too great numbers is injurious to the roots; simply give the requisite support, and do not make them too formal. Large specimens that have got naked and leggy may be cut back. Azaleas will bear this much better than most hard-wooded things. The operation should be performed in the spring just before growth commences, after which they should at once be placed in a temperature of 60“ to induce them to break. In cutting back, whatever the size of the plant may be, it would not be safe to reduce it more than one-half, for if a greater proportion than this is cut away they may not break freely. If plants that have been thus cut backCONSERVATORY AND GREENHOUSE PLANTS. 831 are suffering for want of pot-room, they may | have a small shift when they have made shoots 3 or 4 inches long; but if not absolutely in want of more root-space, they had better not be moved until the year after being cut back. House.—One great essential in the cultivation of azaleas is to give them plenty of light; a span-roofed house is the best for them, as this form admits the light on all sides of the plants, without the necessity of repeatedly turning them round as when grown in lean-to houses. The house should also if possible stand with the ends north and south, and be away from the intluence of buildings or trees that will in any way intercept or absorb light. The plants should, especially during the growing season, be well elevated so as to keep them near the glass. Temperature.—Although azaleas when at rest will bear without injury anything short of actual frost, yet it is not desirable to submit them even during the winter to a lower temperature than 35°; and ill the case of small stock recpiired to-get on without delay, they are much better kept in winter at 45° during the nights, as so treated they will not lose nearly so many leaves, the loss of which entails corresponding injury to the roots, and makes them less able to move rapidly the ensuing spring. During their season of growth, and until the flower-buds are set and the shoots well matured, they should be placed in an intermediate temperature of from 55° to 65° in the night, with a rise of 10° by day, keeping the atmosphere well charged with moisture, and syringing them every day so as to thoroughly wet the leaves all over the plants; this is necessary to keep in check the thrips and red spider. The syringing should be done early in the afternoon, closing the house with the Bun upon the glass. During the earlier part of growth-making they do not require so much air admitted, especially if the house is a light one; but some must be given every day to impart strength to the wood and leaves. In the early stages of growth they will also want slightly shading in sunny weather; but this must not be overdone, or it will make the leaves thin and weak, which must be avoided, as such leaves invariably fall off during the winter in undue quantities, leaving the plants in a languid state. As growth approaches completion and the buds are formed, give more air, reduce the moisture in the atmosphere, withhold the action of the syringe, and dispense with shading. In the case of plants that have flowered late in the season, and on this account have not completed their growth before the fool autumn weather has set in, it will be necessary to use fire-heat, as also in the northern parts of the kingdom during sunless weather in the summer. Azaleas, even those that have flowered and made their growth early, should not be turned out in the open air. Plants so treated are never equal to such as are kept continually under glass, when well managed. Watering.—Prom the time, early in the spring, when the plants begin to push out young growth before flowering, all through the blooming season, and whilst growing, they must be well supplied I with water at the roots, giving less during their time of rest. Insects.—They are not troubled with so many species of insects as some things, but are very liable to suffer from the attacks of thrips and red spider. If either of these pests are allowed to get possession of the plants they do very great harm, injuring the leaves, causing their premature falling off, and in this way producing weakness, so as to seriously injure the colour and size of the flowers, which on plants that have been so affected are always comparatively poor. Azaleas that are allowed to become infested with these insects, get into a weakly state and rarely recover. THE PELARGONIUM (Pelurgonia sp.).—'The almost innumerable varieties of Pelargonium existing in our gardens at the present day, and which owe their origin to hybridizing and crossbreeding, have sprung from the conqiaratively insignificant-flowered species indigenous to the Cape of Good Hope. There is probably no family of blooming plants in existence that has so richly rewarded the labours of the hybridist as the pelargonium, or that is used for decorative purposes in such a variety of ways. They find a place alike in the mansion of the wealthy and the home of the cottager. There is not a day in the circle of the year but they can be had in flower, as indoor decorative plants for conservatory, hall, or window, on the exhibition stage,or in the flower-garden, where the brilliant or subdued colours of their flowers, or the varied tints of their leaves, play so conspicuous a paid. They are equally useful for producing cut flowers. The rapidity with which they can be propagated, and their easy culture, succeeding in soils quite different in character, is another great advantage. Annexed is a short list of the best varieties in the different sections, suitable for both in-door and out-door culture:— Large-jloim-rd Pelargoniums. Achievement—Large lilac, rosy lower petals, white centre; maroon spots on top petals. Ariel—I.ower petals white, dark carmine top petals. Urigand—Cherry pink, dark spot on top petals, pink-shaded margin, white eye. Ilelle of the Hall- Rosy lower petals shaded with crimson; black top petals margined with rose, white eye.O O.) ooZ GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Beacon—A large free-bloomer, very effective crimson. Captain John—A profuse bloomer, with white centre, lower petals rosy lilac shaded witli carmine, and maroon top petals with lilac margin. Claribel—A distinct and delicate flower, pure white, with clear spot on top petals. Caractacus—Finely formed; lower petals purple, upper dark maroon, light centre. Conflagration—Rich crimson, dark blotch on top petals, very fine form. Conqueror—Pale lilac, upper petals spotted with maroon. Desdemona—Pure white lower, dark top petals, flue. Example—Of fine habit, very free, deep crimson, with white centre, dark blotch on top petals, fiery crimson edge. Emperor—Large and fine; light pink, with maroon spot on top petals, pink margin, white eye, free and distinct. Eclipse— Dark rose, maroon top petals deep rose on the edge, eye white; a large and fine variety. Exhibitor— Light rose, centre white, top petals reddish plum colour. Favourite—Very rich; lower petals rose heavily shaded with red, dark maroon top petals margined with deep rose, white centre. Heirloom— A large fine flower, rich rose, with deep blotch on top petals, white eye. International— Bright rose bottom petals, darker above with narrow fiery margin, white centre. Maul of Honour—A grand showy flower, delicate pink, deep blotch on top petals, white centre. j/rJ Harvey—A very free-flowering variety, French white, with dark spot on top petals. Mary Hoyle—Warm rose, dark blotch on top petals, bright orange margin. Fompey—A large flower, fine form and colour, lower petals orange, top maroon with bright margin, eye white; one of the very best varieties. Pericles—Lower petals white, top dark, margined with carmine. Patroness—A fine large white flower, with crimson blotch on to]> petal*. Prelate—'Lower petals deep purple, top almost black with purple margin, relieved with a white eye. Queen ^&?-LW bottom petals, maroon top with lilac margin, white centre. Queen of Whites—Lower petals glossy white, top petals crimson with an even margin of white; a most desirable variety. Royal Albert—Rose, with large deep blotch, orange margin, white centre; a magnificent flower. Viola—Bottom petals lilac, top maroon, white centre. Spotted and Frilled Pelargoniums. Beauty of Oxton—Flowers evenly margined with white, and fringed, upper petals maroon, lower deep crimson. Empereur des Pelargoniums—Pure white, with crimson spot on each petal, fringed on the edge, immense truss, very distinct. Captain Bailees—Very distinct, upper petals fiery crimson flaked with black and edged with carmine, lower petals fiery crimson; a line decorative plant, the petals so much crisped as to give the flower a double appearance. Duchess of Edinburgh—A most profuse flowerer, and compact in habit, pure white, with light spot on top petals; one of the best varieties for general cultivation. Gloire de Lille — Crimson scarlet, each petal spotted with maroon, margined with white. Jeanne d'Arc— Upper petals maroon, lower white stained with purple. La Ville de Caen—A .large flower, cerise, splashed with bright purple, and edged with rose; petals crimped in the edge, distinct. Madame Ilamelle—Lower petals orange splashed with purple, upper petals maroon with a fiery margin. Mademoiselle Berger—Rose, spotted with maroon. Queen Victoria—Colour rich vermilion, blotched with maroon, and broadly margined with pure white; a fine decorative sort. Monsieur Barillet—Violet purple, veined with purplish black; fine and distinct. Victor Lemoine—Cherry rose, all the petals spotted with maroon, centre white. Victorine Pinguard—Bottom petals blush spotted with carmine, top petals white spotted with maroon. Fancy Pelargoniums. Acme—Deep maroon, white margin, and throat pure white. Belle of the Season—White, with purple spots on each petal; perfect form and free habit. Brightness—Deep crimson, white edges and centre, very free flowerer. Decision—Maroon, upper petals margined with white, bottom petals mottled with purple. Ellen Beck— Delicate carmine, lighter on the edges, white throat, good habit. Fanny Gair—Rosy lake shaded with purple, white on the edges, and white centre. Lucy—Crimson shaded with violet; free flowerer, and of good habit. Mrs. Alfred Wigan—Pink, white edge and centre. Madame Sainton Dolby— Hose under petals, spotted with crimson, white centre. Princess Alexandra—Silvery white, upper petals rose; a fine variety. Princess Teck—White, spotted with carmine; a profuseflowering sort. Boi des Fantaisies—Rose, centre white; a very distinct variety. Double Pelargoniums. C. Glijm—Orange scarlet, fine truss and good habit. Le A" eg re—Maroon, very large flower, and free. Madame Lemoine—Colour pink, dwarf habit, fine. Madame Michel Buchner—Rosy salmon, very free; one of the best. Mdlle. Marie Lemoine—Rich, rose, good habit. Wilhelm Pfltzer—Intense scarlet, very free flowerer. Pelargoniums of Z<>nal Section for Pots. Am a ra nth —Deep rosy pink. Beaute de Suresnes—Bright rose. Belle Equermoise—Creamy white, with salmon centre. Blue Bell—Bluish lilac, very distinct. Corisande—Scarlet, very fine for a pot. Corsair—Intense scailet. Florence Durand—Pink. Master Christine—Bright rose. Mom. Janvier de la Motte—Deep orange, tinged with amaranth. Mrs. Tate—Bright pink, a good pot kind. Polly King—Peach colour, edged with white. Bichard Dean—Scarlet. Bose Bendatler—Bright rose, free flowerer. Thomas Speed—A free-flowering red. Vesuvins—Vivid scarlet, a fine bedder. Virgo Marie—White, a good variety for pot culture. irass through an inch-mesh sieve, is added to each wheel-barrow load of the soil, it will do much to insure its keeping in a satisfactory condition. The distance at which the trees should be placed apart will of course depend upon their size at the time of planting; if small to begin with, it will nevertheless be advisable to plant at a sufficient distance in order to afford them room when they have got to a useful bearing state, and to fill the space until they grow to that size some pot-plants can be plunged in the beds. This is a better arrangement than planting the whole out, as these that are not planted out can be supplied with larger pots as they need more root room, can be moved according as the requirements of the permanent trees demand it, and when the time comes that they can be altogether dispensed with, they are available for use elsewhere. There are few things grown under glass, either flowering or fruit-bearing, that are more benefited by bottom-heat than oranges, for although they can be grown without it, yet they will not make so much progress in a given time. In the case of trees that are to be planted out in the manner described, and where it is the intention to apply bottom-lieat, this can be done by constructing under each bed a chamber, which it will be necessary to sink below the level of the floor inside the house. Wherever chambers of this description are used in which to lay pipes for bottom-heat, they should always be made large enough to admit of the pipes being got at inCONSERVATORY AND GREENHOUSE PLANTS. 837 case of leakage. Want of forethought in this matter is often most serious in its consequences, the roots of trees grown over the chambers having to be disturbed, or the trees removed altogether, in order to repair leakage. A flow and return pipe should run in each of such chambers, with in all cases a valve to regulate or entirely shut off the heat as required. There is another matter that must never be lost sight of when this or any other fruit is thus grown with bottom-heat; that is, the liability there exists of the soil at the bottom of the border getting dry; nothing but strict attention as to watering, and occasional examinations, can prevent this occurring. It often happens that the roots of plants so placed Buffer great injury before the cause is discovered. The treatment that oranges require when grown in pots or boxes is in every other respect similar to that given to trees planted out. The soil should be of the same nature, and in all cases such as will last long, for plants of this kind do not like their roots to be often disturbed. In houses devoted altogether to orange culture, like the above, a limited amount of bottom-heat will be of service all the year round, even in winter, the temperature of the house being kept at 48° or 50°. Although they can be grown by keeping them considerably cooler than this, yet so treated there is loss of time, the trees not growing so fast, and being consequently longer in getting up to a useful size, the fruit being also much longer in coming to maturity. Where the orange-house is kept at a temperature as above advised, the trees will come into bloom in February; as the days lengthen, the heat must be increased 8° or 10° in the daytime, and further on in summer must rise to 80° or 85°. So managed the fruit will ripen from about the middle of October tip to January, and furnish dessert daily of surpassing excellence. It will be seen from this that the orange, from the time of flowering, is much longer than most fruits in coming to maturity, taking from eight to eleven months. Indeed, where grown as usually met with, in something like a greenhouse temperature, it will not generally flower before midsummer, and in that case the fruit will not ripen till the summer following; and as might be supposed, so managed, the quality bears no comparison to that which is grown on in a temperature more in accordance with the natural requirements of the trees. The fact of their being able to carry the fruit and ripen it at all when grown so much cooler than is their nature, speaks for itself as to the wonderful powers of the tree to accommodate itself to usage such as few fruits could be induced to succeed under. We often hear of orange-trees getting into bad health, and this can scarcely be wondered at considering the treatment they receive. With these, as with many other of our most accommodating plants, it is only under an accumulation of bad usage that they succumb. When oranges are grown in pots and boxes, they must have root-room proportionate to their size, and they may have bottom-heat supplied by being plunged in a tan-bed, or one made of oak-leaves; but this, like all bottom-heat obtained by means of fermenting matter, entails a good deal of labour in its renewal, and requires much attention in its regulation. In a very light house like the one described, most likely the plants will require a little shade in bright weather to prevent the leaves scorching. They must have air given timely in summer and in sufficient quantity. One essential to success is a free use of the syringe all through the growing season. The garden engine is a still better implement, especially where a number of trees are grown; if this is used freely so as to thoroughly drench them every day, yet without so much force as to injure the young leaves, it will materially assist in keeping down insects, especially brown-scale, to which they are very liable. The water should be made to reach every part, both upper and under surface of the leaves. The natural habit of the trees is such that they require little attention in the way of pruning or training; if any branch appears to take the lead so as to rob the rest, it should be shortened back or tied down in order to induce it to break back. Oranges, like all other evergreen plants, cannot bear the soil in which they grow to become too dry, especially in the summer season, the continual evaporation going on through the leaves requiring thata constant supply of moisture should be drawn up by the roots; on the other hand, they must not when at rest be kept too wet. It is the want of discernment in giving too much water in the winter to oranges that are being subjected to a much lower temperature than is natural for them, that often produces a sickly condition through the loss of the small feeding roots. When they get into this state there generally follows a loss of leaves, a great portion falling off, in which case the only remedy is a removal of a good part of the soil, cutting back into the sound all decayed roots, and putting them in smaller pots, which should not be larger than is necessary to admit the ball without unduly crushing the roots. They must then be placed in a growing temperature and supplied with a bottom-heat of 80°, giving sufficient but not too much water, and shading closely from the sun until new roots are formed; as the latter get plentiful, larger pots must be given, still continuing the bottom-heat.838 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. If they have suffered much in leaf, and the branches are consequently bare, they may be cut back the following spring just before growth commences; but this reducing of the shoots must never be attempted with plants in a weakly state, until first their roots have been got to move freely, otherwise death is almost certain to follow. Insects.—All the Citrus family are subject to insects, the most troublesome of which is the coccus or scale. If affected with the white scale, there is little chance of eradicating the pest without cutting the trees well back into the hard wood, as the leaves cannot bear a dressing strong enough to kill the insects. After this heading down, a thorough washing with “Abyssinian mixture” at 8 oz. to the gallon, repeated two or three times in the course of a fortnight, before the young buds have begun to push will, if carefully carried out, completely free the trees. For brown scale a good syringing in the winter before the flowers begin to move with “Fowler’s Insecticide,” at a strength of 5 oz. to the gallon, will leave few of the insects alive. Many gardeners try these insecticides, and afterwards abandon their use, alleging that they are not effectual, for the reason that plants dressed with them are again affected; whereas if the application was thorough and persevered with, few insects would escape. It is quite possible, by persistent action to completely eradicate from a houseful of plants, the worst description of insects; but nothing less than a determination to conquer will succeed. Where brown scale is kept down by sponging, the work should be assiduously carried out so as never to allow them to get to a great head. By this means the labour is considerably less than by periodical cleanings after the trees have been allowed to become almost smothered; while their health is much better preserved. Selection.—The sorts most generally cultivated in England are the following:— o o Maltese Blood—This is an excellent kind, the fruit deep red; it is not so early as the Tangierine or St. Michael’s, but forms a nice succession grown along with them. Ma ndarin—This has larger fruit than that of the Tangierine, although it is sometimes mistaken for it; it is not so fine in flavour, and is larger in the leaf. St. Michael's—or ordinary variety of commerce, is the most usually grown sort, and is in every way deserving of all that can be said in its favour. It is of a good free habit of growth, with ample foliage, and the quality of the fruit is excellent. Tangierine—A delicious small-fruited variety that comes in earlier than the other larger kinds. Other varieties of the family most frequently met with in this country are the Lemon (Citrus Limonum), more grown for the name than for any use it is ever likely to be when cultivated here; the large-fruited Citron (Citrus medico)', and the diminutive Japanese or Otaheite Orange, the latter mostly used as a small decorative plant. These thrive well with treatment similar to Shat which has been described for the more esteemed eatable kinds. The orange has always been held in high repute for itsflowers; and the quantities now required and used for wedding bouquets, wreaths, &c., are very great. For flowering purposes the plants must be treated as has been advised for the production of fruit; this will answer in every way, except that when the bloom is the only object, the plants, if well managed in other respects, will do without bottom-lieat. THE CHINESE PRIMROSE (.Primula sinen-sis).—*-There are few small indoor flowering plants so generally useful as this primrose. It is, as its name implies, a native of China, and has been in the country now some fifty years; but it is within the last dozen or fifteen that the greatest advance has been made in raising improved varieties. The double sorts are a great acquisition, especially for cutting purposes, from the much longer time they will last when severed from the plant. For bouquet-making the double white kinds are most useful, being available all the year round. As decorative subjects the single forms are in the greatest demand and are the most serviceable, for, during the winter and spring months, it would be difficult to make the consei’vatory or general plant-house wear so cheerful an aspect without the aid of this little free-flowering plant. It is easy to grow, provided it receives fair treatment, and its natural requirements are studied. As with most other subjects that hail from the Celestial Empire, plenty of light is an element all-important to its well-being; in the winter it is not possible to keep it too near the glass, and at that season, as might be supposed, it likes a little more warmth than an ordinary greenhouse temperature; otherwise, as most growers can testify, it is liable to damp off at the collar, the leaf-stalks going first and then communicating the decay to the main stem. This is aggravated if the plants do not receive a maximum of light. The most usual method is to raise fresh plants every year, destroying the old ones as soon as they have flowered or have ripened seeds, except in the case of any that may appear to possess some superior quality. To get them strong for flowering towards the close of the year, the first sowing should be made about the beginning of March. Well-matured plants that have not been pushed on too quickly are not so subject to damp off as those which have been hurried. The seeds of prinmlas require care in sowing, or they perish, or do not come up well; in all stages, from the seed-pan up to maturity, they can bear, lessCONSERVATORY AND GREENHOUSE PLANTS. 839 than most things, any approach to stagnant moisture in the soil; consequently the seed-pans must be well-drained, placing a layer of dry rotten manure over the crocks. The soil should consist of three parts good loam sifted, and two parts sand and well-rotted leaf-mould in equal proportions, the latter sifted, the whole well mixed together; till up the pans with this to within an inch of the rim, squeeze moderately down, sprinkle a little sand, and press the surface smooth with the bottom of an empty pot; next give a gentle watering to settle the soil, so as to close up any inequalities; then sow the seeds evenly, and scatter some very fine compost, half soil and sand, over them to the depth of about the eighth of an inch; again smooth the surface by gently pressing it, and place on it a thin layer of chopped sphagnum, which will keep it damp, so as to obviate the necessity for giving water until the plants appear above ground. Care must be taken that the sphagnum does not remain on longer than this, or it would cause them to become drawn. After they are up, place them near the glass in a light situation, shade from the sun with thin white paper, which will protect them from scorching, without darkening them too much; give a little water as they require it, and when large enough prick them out 1J, inch apart in pans or shallow boxes, in soil similar to that in which the seeds were sown, still giving plenty of light, and shading when the sun is clear. When they have made leaves nearly an inch long, they must be placed singly in 60-sized pots, using soil as hitherto, but with the addition of one-sixth rotten dung. After potting the best place for them will be a light frame in an open situation stood facing the north, the inside filled up within 9 inches of the top, so as to raise the plants close to the glass; this is of importance, as if stood in the bottom of a deep frame and at all near together the leaves become drawn up, and the plants not only have a weak unsightly appearance, but also are not calculated to produce half the quantity of flower they will do if strong and vigorous. When the weather is very bright they should be slightly shaded with a piece of hexagon netting or other thin material, but never allow even this over them when the sun is not on them; give plenty of air during the day, and when there is no sign of heavy rain the lights may with advantage be taken quite off during the night. As soon as they have filled their balls with roots, they should be moved into 6-inch or 7-inch pots, which for all ordinary purposes are large enough to grow and flower them in. The soil this time should consist of three parts good loam broken with the hand, one part rotten dung and leaf-mould, and as much sand as will keep the whole porous; pot firmly and leave sufficient room for watering, not filling the pots too full, as is often done. Put them in frames similarly placed, and as before close up to the glass, and treat as hitherto through the summer with air and shade; never over-water or allow them to get too dry. The best place for them until the end of September, up to which time the flowers they from time to time throw up should be nipped out, will be in frames such as already advised; after which there will be danger from frost. They should then be placed in a light pit or house, keeping them near the glass, and the atmosphere free from damp by occasional use of fire-heat. If a little warmth is kept on so as to have the night temperature at 45° the flowers will be much larger and produced through the winter in greater quantities. As they throw up their bloom-stems give manure-water once or twice a week; this will be of much assistance to them. The double and semi-double forms of this flower are increased from seeds sown and managed as desci'ibed in the case of the single varieties, as also by cuttings made by a division of the crowns with a portion of stem attached; these strike the best in small pots in sandy soil put in a moderate heat; they must not be, whilst rooting, in a very humid atmosphere, only just sufficient to keep them from flagging, or they are liable to damp. When they are well rooted move them into 4-incli pots, using soil similar in every way to that advised for the single kinds: pot them well down so as not to leave any of the stem bare, so treated they will do much better than with the very common practice of leaving a considerable space between the soil and the bottom-leaves. Through the summer let their treatment be the same as that of the single sorts; but in the winter they do far the best when kept in an intermediate temperature of 45° or 50° at night, and a little higher in the day, with air when the weather is suitable; and placed near the glass so as to get all the light possible. Other primroses useful for pot culture as greenhouse decorative plants, and which succeed under cold frame treatment, are the following, which come from Japan:— P. Sieboldii—syn. P. cortusoides amcena—Dark rose, ami some varieties distinct in colour of which purpurea, albo-ccerulca, and maxima are the best. P. japon ica—Flowers of different shades, from deep magenta to creamy white. Both species succeed in rich loam in well-drained pots. Propagation by division of the crowns and seeds. THE CINERARIA (Seneciocruentusimd S. Tus-silaginis).—These may be classed amongst the most useful flowering plants we possess. They can be840 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. raised in quantities, and are comparatively easy to grow provided a few conditions indispensable to their well-being are not lost sight of. One of the most important of these is to keep them quite free from aphides, to which they are more than ordinarily subject, and which, if left undisturbed, soon do them irreparable injury. So liable are they to the attacks of these insects that unless continuous watchfulness is exercised they are sure to get established upon them, after which the leaves never have a healthy appearance. Cinerarias also differ materially from most plants in their not being able to bear anything approaching a dry atmosphere around them; if submitted to such a condition, its influences are even worse than the opposite one of being too wet is with many soft-wooded things, consequently they should never be placed on dry shelves, especially in houses where there is much air admitted near where they stand. They like plenty of air, but it should not be given in a way to come directly through them in a current. Neither should they be subjected to so much sun as most plants enjoy, their soft watery growth not being able to bear the consequent evaporation, which in a very short time gives them a brown rusty appearance. They can be had in flower more or less all the year, but it is in the winter and through the spring months that they are in season, and in the latter are capable of being bloomed in the greatest perfection. Their exceedingly bright colours and compact habit constitute them most suitable conservatory decorative plants, where, as also for furnishing cut flowers, their presence could ill be dispensed with. At one time good forms of pleasing colours were comparatively scarce, and the best kinds were named and propagated from root-suckers taken off and placed singly in small pots; these, when well supplied with moisture, shaded, and kept a little close, soon S'. anemonijlora —fine white. S. bulbifcra—deep violet. S. lineata—pink and white. S. grandijlora—white. S. pendula -deep purple. S. violaceo-purpurea— purple and violet. S. sanguineo-pur-purea—red. S. versicolor—yellow and purple. Trop.-eolum.—Very distinct and beautiful twining plants, particularly well adapted for pot culture and greenhouse decoration; they are easily grown, requiring to be kept in a854 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. cool frame with just a little moisture in the soil during their season of rest. They thrive well in a mixture of peat and loam, and are increased by seeds and division of the bulbs. T. azuream is a very desirable plant, blooming profusely in August and September, the flowers of a pretty blue colour. T. pentaphyllum is a handsome orange-yellow variety, flowering in August. T. speciosum is a free-growing, profuseflowering kind, with scarlet blossoms, very showy, but preferring the cool climate of Scotland. T. tricolorum is a neatgrowing, abundant-blooming species, orange and purple; June. T. Jarrattii very much resembles the last, and is very beautiful with its scarlet and yellow flowers, produced in summer. TuitoniA,-^Handsome bulbous plants, easily grown; they require a mixture of sandy loam and peat, and must be placed where the slugs cannot get at them, or they will much disfigure the leaves, for which they appear to have an especial liking. Offsetsand seeds. T.capensis—fine white. T.longijlora —creamy white. T.fucata—red and yellow. T. rosea—deep pink. T. aurea—one of the finest; deep yellow. Vallota.—Very nearly allied to Amaryllis, but flowers when the season’s growth is near completion. They are evergreen bulbs, and must never be allowed to get dry at the root. They are of easy growth, doing the best in strong loam, and not overpotted. They increase fast from offsets, which they form in large quantities; these, if taken off and placed several together in small pots, soon make nice plants. V. purpurea (Plate XXIV.) is an exceedingly attractive plant, with six or eight large highly-coloured scarlet flowers in an umbel, produced in August and September. There is another form of this plant that bears lighter scarlet flowers, differing little in other respects, except that it blooms earlier in the summer. Both are deserving of extended cultivation. Zepiiyranthes.—These are very pretty dwarf plants; easily grown. They do not need much root-room, and do the best when not very often disturbed. Loam. Offsets. Z. Candida has large white flowers, tinted with purple. Z. carinata lias very pretty pink flowers; May. Z. Drummandii bears white and pink flowers; May. Z. rosea has large flowers of a beautiful dark pink, produced tn succession for several weeks through the summer. To the foregoing may be added selections of heliotropes, petunias, fuchsias, calceolarias, pelargoniums, &c., already separately treated on. In the cultivation of softwooded greenhouse plants the practice of the grower has in some things to be just the opposite of that which it is necessary to follow witli hardwooded subjects. With the former, when the soil becomes exhausted, | the nature of the plants is in most cases such that | they will bear being shaken out and the worn- | out soil replaced with new. For plants that will bear this operation it is not necessary to limit one’s self to the use of materials that will be long ; before they get exhausted; consequently the first j consideration of importance is to use soil that affords a rich medium for the roots to revel in, and to give nutriment such as will build up the substance of the plant in as short a time as possible, such as well-rotten dung and recently decomposed vegetable matter in the shape of leaf-mould. In the cultivation of the quickest-growing softwooded plants, the latter material is indispensable to success. The roots of anything that it will answer for, luxuriate in it in a way that nothing else seems to equal; but when it is used to any considerable extent, even with quick-growing subjects like cinerarias and calceolarias, the soil so prepared should in potting be made a little firmer than it would be either necessary or advisable were leaf-mould not present, as from its light nature, if allowed to remain too open, it would have a tendency to induce long straggling growth. When highly stimulating soils are used wherein to grow any plants, it becomes necessary to place them in the most favourable conditions as to light, with sufficient air, and above all things to avoid any higher temperature than the nature of the plant requires; otherwise the growth so obtained will be of the worst possible description, and the reverse of what is required to produce flowers in their wonted numbers, or leaves robust and healthy. Light and air under all conditions of plant life are absolutely requisite, but more so when growth is stimulated through the effects of rich soil. To impart to things of the nature under consideration solidity in their several parts, leaf and stem, it is essential that nothing in the shape of crowding should exist. Better to grow a dozen well than a score with insufficient room, the results of which can never be satisfactory. Where the system of culture is such as is calculated to induce quick vigorous growth, it is necessary that the training should be regularly attended to, in stopping and tying out the branches so as to expose the whole to the influences of air and light. There is also another requisite to the successful cultivation of softwooded plants; it is that they never must be allowed to suffer from the attacks of insects, the effects of which are more speedily apparent on them than in the case of those that are firmer in the texture of their leaves and branches, and which consequently are not so soon injured. Aphides and red spider should never be allowed time to get established, but as soon as discovered should at once be destroyed by fumigation and washing. If these pests are suffered to remain but for a short time, they not only disfigure any softwooded plants they are upon, but do positive injury that cannot during the season be remedied. A condition of perfect freedom from insects is indispensable to the successful cultivation of all descriptions of plants, but to none more so than such as are of a softwooded or herbaceous character, t. b. IV.—SUCCULENT PLANTS. The plants which are classed under the head of succulents are numerous, and they are, moreover, extremely varied. We find stateliness and humility side by side in the same genus. As to their uses, it is not the object of these remarksCONSERVATORY AND GREENHOUSE PLANTS. 855 to enter on that topic, excepting in so far as may relate to their adoption for ornamental garden purposes; but rather to give a few notes as to their culture, and to point out those most worthy of it, both for pots, and for the open air. The chief object will be to help those who are seeking to grow a few of these plant gems. To those who desire a collection, the following hints as to culture will be useful, but not complete, as the proper course to adopt must be found out by experience, as is generally the case with amateurs, to whom these plants present special attractions. In fact, it forms one of the pleasures of keeping a collection, to feel out one’s own mode of culture, though it may be hoped the following notes will put the possessors on the right road; and once in the right way, experience and observation will do the rest. W ing:—31. refiexum, rose util, falcatum, retroflexion, polyan- i thum, emarginale, blandum, curviflorum, imbricans, for- j inosum, spectabde, compicuum, glaucum, candens, barbatum. I These can be used for bedding purposes very well, as those i that require it can be pegged down. Curious varieties for amateurs:—3f. felinum, tigrimnn, vulpinum, agninum, albidum, murinum, caninum, dolabri- , forme, minimum, obconellum, Jissum, linguceformc, densum, and octophyllum. These are dwarf growers, and require more sand and some brick rubbish in the soil, with less moisture. Opuntia.— The prickly-pear of Southern Europe and Gibraltar, or Indian fig of South America. These are not ornamental plants on account of the awkwardness of their growth; but a few’ are interesting on account of their variable development. Any large-growing kinds do for the culture of the cochineal insect; but those that are the smoothest and freest from spines are the best from which to gather the insects. O. humilis, vulgaris, and Rafinesquiana, are hardy in the south of England. For culture the following are the most curious:—0. exuvi-ata, microdasys, corrugata, senilis, and clavarioides. For their fruit the following:—0. maxima, elatior, Ficus indica, and decumana. Pachyphytum.— A dense-growing plant, which can be increased from the leaves planted as cuttings, and which makes a useful bedding plant, on account of its compact and steady growth, which adapts it for geometrical bedding. The foliage being white, the plants are sometimes useful for marginal lines. They are closely allied to EcheveHa. The species best adapted for the foregoing purposes are:— P. bracteosum and roseum. Phyllocactus.—These are so generally knowrn as showy greenhouse flowering plants, that it is needless to say much of them, except that we seldom see any but the crimson-flowered sorts; though P. crenatus and nitens are grand whites, and P. Edwardsii, phyllanthoidcs, and Corderoyi are good pinks, and should be in all collections. riLOCEREUS.—The old man cactus, P. senilis, is the type of this genus, which consists of very interesting plants, the long hairs produced so freely from the apex being very peculiar. They do not grow’ so fast as Cereus, and seldom llower; when they do, the blossoms come from the apex of the plant, and last only a few hours. The species of Pilocereus are amongst the best in the cactus tribe, and deserve a place in any garden. It is a curious fact that no insects infest them. They are slow grow ers, and require less water than Cereus. The following are the more distinct sorts:—P. senilis, fossn-latus, jubatus, glaucescens, and Jloppenstedtii. Rhipsalis.—A tropical genus of the large cactus family, neither conspicuous for beauty of flower, nor outline of the plants. They grow as epiphytes in the forests of Brazil and West Indies, and are interesting to those who like curious plants. The following are distinct sorts:—M. Cassytha, mesembry-anthoides, funalis, Sagilonis, and pachyptera. Rochea.—These are wrell known as greenhouse plants, at least 11. falcatei is so, but many fail to get them to llower regularly; this can be insured by keeping them pot-bound and w’ell exposed to sunlight. They strike freely from leaves or cuttings put in in spring. Rochea falcata and R. perfoliata have scarlet flowrers; and R. odorata white. Sempervivum.—The greenhouse or Canary Island group of this large family is easily grown in any soil. They are good plants for subtropical bedding purposes, and are easily propagated either by seed or cuttings. Large growers for beds, spreading from 10 to 20 inches:— S. canariense, cuncatum, dorame, velutinum, and subtabidce-forme. Small growers, spreading from 4 to G inches:—S. tabulce-forme, aureum, balsamiferum, Ilaworthii, and Pavia1. For pot culture, flow’ering in winter:—S. holochrysum, aureum, and Donklaarii. Stapelia.—The toad-ilower, or carrion plants, belong to this genus of greenhouse plants, wiiicli is of great interest on account of its floral structure, and the peculiarities of its growth. They grow freely on an exposed shelf, requiring but little water in w'inter, but to be freely supplied when growing in summer. They have been divided into several genera; but as the distinctions are only in structural development, not in diversity of shape, we retain them all under Stapelia. They illustrate the fact that instinct is not reason, in that the flies deposit their ova on the flowers when open, mistaking them for flesh, the result being the frustration of the design of the fly—the development of the ova—to the advantage of the plant, the fly becoming an agent in impregnating the flowers. The following is a selection of the most distinct kinds, illustrating the various sections:—S. hirsuta, Plantii, variabilis, Bufonia, campamdata, radiata, maculosa, glauca, euro pa* a, Thuretii, Bayfieldii J. C. V.—GREENHOUSE FERNS. Of all the plants which are grown for indoor decorative purposes, these must hold the first rank, by reason of the elegance of their general habit. Nothing that has occurred in relation to gardening indicates so clearly the great improvement in public taste that has taken place within the last quarter of a century, as the appreciation of elegance of form, manifested by the all but universal demand for ferns. Thirty years ago the structures devoted to their culture in British gardens might have been counted on the fingers; and now there is scarcely a garden of importance but can boast of its fern-house—from that of moderate pretensions, up to the largest and most highly-finished erections, furnished with noble examples of Dick-858 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. sonia, Cyatliea, and AIsopkila that thrive and look as much at home as when growing in the moist shady detiles of New Zealand. Neither is it to the fern-house proper that their cultivation is confined; their presence lends a charm to almost all other kinds of plants to he met with in glass structures. To avoid repetition a few special notes on the culture of most of the genera will be found under the section Stove Ferns. The selection which follows comprises some of the finest and most ornamental of the ferns suitable for the temperate house:— Ackophokus.—A group of d avail ioid plants remarkable for their linely-divided fronds. A. hispid as has the evergreen fronds tripinnate, ovate in outline, membranous, 6 to 10 inches long, and growing from creeping rhizomes, which are clothed with ferruginous hairs. A i>iAxtu.w.—Elegant evergreen ferns remarkable for their oblong or reniform, or sometimes linear continuous sori, which grow on the re Hexed indusia. The surface of the fronds is peculiarly repellent of moisture. Mi affine, of New Zealand, has tripinnate fronds which are glabrous, 10 to 15 inches high, with obtusely-oblong pinnules; the stipes and raehis jet black, sparingly furnished with reddish hairs; caudex creeping. A. assimilc lias tripinnate, drooping, glabrous fronds, 9 to 12 inches long, the pinnules small, delicate green; and the stipes and raehis slender; caudex creeping. Australia. 1823. ; A. colpodcs.—A slender plant, the fronds 1 to 2 feet long, ■ the pinnules roundish, of a soft pink when young, changing j to deep green. Ecuador. 18(31. A. cuneatum.—One of the most useful of decorative ferns; j the fronds quadripinnate, 10 to 18 inches high, the pinnules small, wedge-shaped, deep green; the stipes and raehis shining black; tufted. Brazil. 1820. A. fonnosum.—Fronds quadripinnate, 1 to 3 feet high; i pinnules small, rhomboid, serrate; stipes and raehis black, * slightly pubescent; creeping. Australia. 1820. A. glaucophpUuiH. — A slender plant with deltoid fronds, 1 to 2 feet high, tlie pinnules small, euneate, inclining to ' spathulate. green above, very glaucous below; the reniform sori large and conspicuous. Mexico. A. hispidulum.— A free-growing useful species, with pedate ! or ialHlate fronds, 12 to 18 inches high, the pinna* narrow, j and the pinnules oblong-obtuse, crenate, deep green; stipes ! and raehis clothed witli short stiff brown hairs; tufted. New j Zealand. 1>22. A. reni/nmie.—A very distinct plant, the fronds simple, reniform. (3 to 8 inches high, glabrous, bright shining green, with a black stipes, produced from a creeping caudex. Madeira, Tenerilfe, and the Azores. 1000. A. scabrum.— Fronds decompound, S to 10 inches high; pinnules rounded, obtuse, dark green, hairy, dusted on both sides with a white farinose powder; the stipes and raehis scabrous. Chili. A. sulpha ream.—Fronds tripinnate, ovate, 8 to 10 inches high; the pinnules obovate, reniform, lobed, dark green on the upper surface, and clothed below with sulphur or golden farinose powder. Chili. Alsophila.— A genus of noble tree-ferns, distinguished by its raised receptacles, and the absence of an indusium. There are, besides the following, many tropical species. A. australis (PI. XXIII.)—This has a stout arborescent caudex, 10 to 30 feet high, bearing ovate-lanceolate bipinnate fronds, (> to 12 feet long, with linear-lanceolate pinnules, deeply pinnatifid, dark green above, slightly glaucous below. The stipes and rachides are studded with rough points, and the crown of the plant is densely clothed with large dark brown chatty scales. Tasmania and Australia. 1823. A. eupen^V. —This has an arborescent caudex, 10 to 15 feet high; fronds tripinnate, ovate-lanceolate, 3 to 1 feet long; the pinna) lanceolate and deeply pinnatifid, with the dark green pinnules somewhat falcate and serrated. The lower pinna) are usually abortive, forming narrow filiform segments, resembling in outline some species of Trichomanes; stipes and raehis slightly scaly. Cape of Good Hope. 1845. A. excelsa.—The stem is somewhat slender, and from 10 to 30 feet high. The fronds are bipinnate, ovate-lanceolate, G to 15 feet long; pinnules deeply pinnatifid, pale green; stipes and raehis, clothed with pale chaffy scales; crown densely scaly. Norfolk Island. A. Leichardtiana.—This is the wliip-stick fern of the Australian colonists. It has a slender caudex, 10 to 20 feet high; fronds bipinnate, G to 12 feet long; pinna) deeply pinnatifid, bright green, the pinnules spinulose-serrate, the rachides all dark ebeneous purple. New South Wales. I860. Asplenium.—Of this large and varied genus there are many species of great value as ornamental plants. They are known by their elongate oblique indusiate sori; and all of them bear evergreen fronds. A. appendiculatum.—Fronds subtripinnate, lanceolate, 13 to 18 inches long, proliferous at the apex; pinnules sharply oblong, with acute dark green segments. Australia and Tasmania. 1822. A. bulb if cram.—Fronds tripinnate, lanceolate, pendulous, and loaded on the upper surface with young plants (proliferous), 1 to 2 feet long; stipes green on the upper, but brown on the lower side; caudex decumbent, densely scaly. There are many forms of this fern in cultivation. New Zealand. 1820. A. ccnupressum.—Fronds bold pinnate, broadly lanceolate, coriaceous, viviparous, 1 to 2 feet long, bright shining green, the pinna) oblong, tapering, serrate; raehis winged. The caudex is erect, scaly. St. Helena. 1825. A. dimorphum.—Remarkable for its two forms of fronds. The fertile ones are tripinnate, broadly lanceolate, the segments linear, each bearing a single sorus; while the sterile ones are bipinnate, with roundish serrate pinnules, bright green. The fronds are 12 to 18 inches, springing from a decumbent caudex. Norfolk Island. 1831. A. jlabellifolium.—A good basket fern, with slender, pendulous. pinnate fronds, proliferous at the apex, 10 to 15 inches long, the pinna) fan-shaped, serrate on the upper edge. Australia. 1820. A. jlaccidu)n.—Adapted for basket culture; fronds pinnate, narrowly lanceolate, pendulous, viviparous, 1 to 3 feet long, the pinnules linear-acute, decurrent, the stipes green above, pale brown below, and the caudex scaly. New Zealand and Australia. 1843. A. llemionitis—syn. A. palmatum.—A very distinct-looking plant, the fronds being palmate, the middle lobe the longest, glabrous, coriaceous, bright green, 6 to 10 inches high, and growing from a creeping caudex. North Africa, Madeira, Ac. 1810. A. lucidu)n.—A bold, pinnate, pendulous fern, 2 to 3 feet long, the pinna' oblong, coriaceous, serrate, shining green, from a creeping caudex. New Zealand. A. monanthemuin.—Of erect habit, the fronds pinnate, linear-lanceolate, 0 to 12 inches long, the pinna) oblong, rounded, dimidiate, with upper edge slightly toothed; sori usually solitary, though sometimes produced in pairs; stipes and raehis chestnut-brown. Tropical America, Cape of Good Hope, Ac. 1790. .1. obtusatum.—A stout-growing fern, with the fronds pinnate, 8 to 10 inches high; pinna) oblong, obtuse, serrate, leathery, blunt at the apex, deep green, with a winged raehis; caudex decumbent. New Zealand, Tasmania. 1824. A. pdyodon.—Suitable for basket culture; fronds pinnate, lanceolate, smooth, 1 to 2 feet long, pendulous; pinna) trapezoid, lengthened out into deeply serrate tail-like points, euneate at the base, bright green; caudex creeping. New Zealand. 1843. A. prennorsum.—Fronds bipinnate, broadly lanceolate, 1 to 3 feet long, pendulous; pinna' elongate, erose, varying much in width, light green, stipes and raehis clothed with brown, chaffy scales; caudex stout, creeping. There are numerous constant varieties of this species in cultivation, the mostCONSERVATORY AND GREENHOUSE PLANTS. 859 notable being A. canariense and furcatuni. Madeira, Sc. 1703. A. tenellum—syn. A. reclinatain. — Fronds springing from an erect eaudex, pinnate, lanceolate, pendulous, proliferous at the apex, (5 to 1*2 inches long; pinna) oblong, membranous, subauriculate at base, cremate, the racliis winged. St. Helena. 1847. Balantium. — A inonotypic genus allied to Dicksonia, from wliich indeed it dilfers most in having a decumbent instead of an erect stem. It should be potted in peat and loam with a liberal quantity of sharp sand. It enjoys a liberal supply of water during the growing season, and should never even when at rest feel the want of water. B. Culcita.—A bold and striking plant having a stout creeping densely criniferous eaudex, from which spring the tripin-nate, deltoid, coriaceous, glabrous fronds, 3 to G feet long; the segments are oblong, dentate, of a rich dark sinning green, and the stipes clothed with dense, fulvous, silky hairs. Madeira, Azores, Ac. 1770. Oheilanthes.—A genus of evergreen ferns mostly of small growth and elegant structure, distinguished by their puncti-form marginal sori, covered by the reilexed altered edge of the frond sometimes continuously. C. alabamensis.—Fronds bipinnate, lanceolate,, somewhat firm in texture, 3 to G inches long; pinna) rich deep green; stipes and rachis black; eaudex creeping. United States of America and Canada. C. argentea.—Fronds tripartite, triangular, glabrous, 2 to G inches high; primary divisions pinnatifid, cremate, deep green above, copiously clothed below with a white powder; sori black, forming a continuous marginal band; stipes and racliis reddish brown; eaudex decumbent. Siberia and Japam 181G. C. capensis.—Fronds bipinnate, deltoid, 3 to G inches high; pinnules ovate, cremate at the edges, decurrent, dark green. Cape of Good Hope. C. fray ran*.— Fronds bipinnate, broadly lanceolate, 4 to 5 inches high; pinme obtuse, the lower ones pinnatifid, light green, emitting a grateful perfume of counaarin; stipes and rachis hairy. South Europe, Ac. 1778. C. hirta.— Fronds subtripinnate, linear-lanceolate, clothed with glanduluse hairs, G to 18 inches high; pinnules pinnatifid, bluntly oblong, segments small, cremate, pale green. South Africa, Ac. |iD6. The variety Ellisiana is double the size of the normal form. C. interQjjhylla.—Fronds bipinnate, lanceolate, 12tol8inches high; piiime linear, alternate; pinnules somewhat ovate, slightly cremate, dark gi*een; stipes and rachis ebeneous, sparingly scaly; caiadex creeping. Tropical America, Ac. 1822. C. pAerokles.—Fronds tripinnate, glabrous, somewhat triangular, 12 to 24 inches high; junnules cordate, coriaceous, an inch or more long, bright green; sori reddish brown, forming a continuous marginal band; stipes and rachis stout, ebeneous; eaudex creeping. Cape of Good Hope. 1775. C. Sieberi.—Fronds tripinnate, linear, glabrous, 6 to 12 inches long; piniue linear-oblong; segments decurrent, bright green; stipes and rachis ebeneous; eaudex creeping. Australia and New Zealand. C. tenuijolia.—Fronds tripinnate, ovate, erect, 10 to 20 inches high; pinna) linear-acuminate; pinnules oblong, light green; stipes and racliis reddish brown; eaudex creeping. East Indies, Australia, New Zealand, Ac. 1824. Cyathea.— A noble genus of tree-ferns, distinguished from its allies Alsophila and Ilemitelia by having a cup-like involucre surrounding each sorus. C. Burkei.—This has a stout arborescent eaudex, 6 to 12 feet high. The fronds are hi- or tri-pinnate, broadly lanceolate, pendulous, 3 to G feet long, deep green; stipes and rachis densely clothed with large dark chaffy scales. South Africa. 1873. C. Cunninghamii.—This has an erect slender eaudex, 6 to 20 feet high. The fronds are tripinnate, broadly lanceolate, 6 to 9 feet long; the segments obtuse, sub-falcate, crenate on the edges, dark green above, slightly villous below; stipes and rachis slightly muricate, light brown, and furnished with numerous dark-coloured chaffy scales. New Zealand. C. Drcgei.—Caudex arborescent, G to 12 feet long; fronds tripinnate, broadly lanceolate, erect, 3 to G feet long; pinnules finely divided, bright light green; stipes sparingly clothed with brown chalfy scales. South Africa. 18G0. C. dealbata.—Caudex stout, arborescent, 10 to 20 feet high; fronds bi-tri-pinnate, broadly lanceolate, glabrous, G to 7 feet long; pinnules deeply pinnatifid; segments falcate, serrate at the edges, deep green above, silvery white below; stipes slightly muricate and scaly. New Zealand. C. medullar is.—Caudex stout, arborescent, 10 to 30 feet high; fronds tripinnate, glabrous, coriaceous, broadly lanceolate, 10 to 15 feet long; segments linear-oblong, obtuse, serrate, bright light green; stipes and rachis black, muricate, profusely clothed at the base, as also are the young fronds, with large black chalfy scales. New Zealand, Ac. C. Smit/ui.—Caudex arborescent; fronds tripinnate, broadly lanceolate, spreading, 10 to 12 feet long; pinnules lanceolate, tapering, segments sessile, oblong, sub-falcate, serrate, bright green; stipes and rachis slightly muricate, and profusely clothed with light brown chally scales. New Zealand. Davallia.—Handsome evergreen ferns, with articulated fronds, and sori seated in cup-shaped marginal indusia. D. canariense is an excellent basket fern. The stout creeping densely scaly rhizome has from its colour and shape led to the popular name of hare’s-foot fern being applied to this genus; fronds tripinnate, triangular, the segments leathery, bright green, again much and very finely divided. The fronds are from 12 to 18 inches high, and the stipes and rachis brown. Madeira. 1G99. Dicksonia.—Bold arborescent evergreen ferns well deserving the attention of all plant-growers. One species, D. antarctica, although found abundantly in our temperate houses, would doubtless prove hardy in many parts of Great Britain, as the plants have to withstand frost and snow, although not of long duration, in their native localities. Dick-sonias are characterized by their large decompound, coriaceous fronds, by their forked veins with free venules, and by the coriaceous two-valved indusium. Pot in loam, peat, and sand; drain well, and water freely. When they are growing, sprinkle the stems with water from the syringe several times in the day. D. antarctica.—Caudex arborescent, stout, 10 to 20 feet high. Fronds tripinnate, lanceolate, rigid, spreading, 6 to 15 feet long; pinnules linear-lanceolate, deeply pinnatifid, dark green; the segments oblong, inciso-pinnatifid; stipes and rachis clothed with dark brown hairs, the base of the stipes densely scaly. Australia and Tasmania, 1824. I). squarrosa. — Caudex slender, arborescent, bearing nodules, G to 20 feet high; fronds tripinnate, ovate-lanceolate, coriaceous, 10 to 12 feet long; pinna) oblong-lanceolate; pinnules subsessile, the segments lanceolate, serrate, rigid, deep green, and when fertile, slightly contracted; stipes and rachis almost black, mucronate, clothed with blackish hairs. New Zealand, 1842. Dogma.—A small genus of dwarf-growing interesting ever-green ferns, nearly related to Woodwardia, the chief distinction being in the sori, which in Doodia is superficial instead of immersed, and in the indusium being less vaulted. Doodias are plants of easy culture, and may be grown in almost any situation. Put in peat and sand, and drain well. These plants may be grown in the sitting-room, and form also handsome little specimens in a Wardian case. D. Fronds pinnatifid, lanceolate, G to 12 inches high; pinnae linear-acuminate, slightly falcate, dull green, serrate; stipes and rachis rough; caudex creeping. Australia, 1808. D. aspera corymbifcra differs from the type in its shorter fronds, which have the apex transformed into a broad and dense corymbiferous head. IJ. blechnoides.—Fronds pinnatifid, rigid, broadly lanceolate, G to 18 inches high, dull green; segments lanceolate, serrate; stipes densely clothed with black chaffy scales; caudex erect. Australia, 1835. Jj. caudata.— Fronds dimorphous; the sterile pinnate, linear-oblong, smooth, G to 8 inches long; the fertile contracted,8G0 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. linear-lanceolate, pinnate, with linear pinna), cordate at the base in both forms; apical pinme caudate, dark green; rachis smooth. Australia, 1S30. D. caudata conjtucns—syn. D. linearis—has the sterile fronds pinnatifld, and the fertile much contracted, confluent, 6 to 9 inches long. New Caledonia, Ac. D. media.—Fronds pinnate, narrowly lanceolate, slender, pendulous, 12 to 18 inches long; pinnse obtuse, spiny-toothed at the edge, light red when young, changing to dark green with age; stipes and rachis pink, downy; caudex creeping. New Zealand, Ac., 1834. Gleiciienia.—For culture and general remarks, see under Stove Ferns. G. circinata.—Fronds dichotomously divided; branches pinnate, 1 to 4 feet long; pinna) deeply pinnatifld, glabrous; segments subrotund, not pouched below, green above, paler on the under side; stipes and rachis clothed with ferruginous hairs; rhizome wiry, creeping. New South Wales, Ac. 1845. G. circinata ylauca dilfers from the normal state in its much stronger habit of growth, and by the under side being beautifully glaucous. New Zealand, Ac., 18(37. G. Cunninyhamii. — Fronds llabellate, dichotomously branched, erect, 1 to 4 feet high; segments lanceolate, C to 8 inches long, dark green above, slightly glaucous below; stipes and young growth densely covered with large brown chaffy scales. New Zealand. G. dicarpa.—Fronds dichotomously divided, 1 to 3 feet high; branches pinnate; pinna) pinnatifld; segments orbicular, with the margins recurved, so as to become pouched beneath, deep green; stems furnished with ferruginous hairs; branches smooth. Tasmania. G. flabellata. —Fronds llabellate, dichotomously branched, erect, 2 to 5 feet high; segments lanceolate, pinnatifld, the margins serrate, bright green; stipes stout, smooth; rhizome creeping. Australia, Tasmania, 1845. Or. hecistophylla.—Fronds dichotomously divided, 2 to 3 feet high; segments orbicular, pouched below. It resembles G. dicarpa in general appearance, but is larger than that species in all its parts; dark green; stipes dark-coloured; rhizome wiry, Keeping. New Zealand. Or. rupestris.—Fronds dichotomously branched, 2 to G feet high; branches pinnate; pinna) broad, pinnatifld, coriaceous in texture, deep green, glaucous beneath, the margins recurved, causing a deep pouch on the under surface; stipes dark-coloured. New South Wales. G. semivestita.—Fronds dichotomously branched, 2 to 4 feet high; branches pectinate; pinna) pinnatifld; segments orbicular, concave, but not pouched, deep green, the branches clothed with a dense ferruginous pubescence. New Caledonia. G. Spelunca:.—Fronds dichotomously branched, 2 to 5 feet high; pinna) pinnatifld; segments somewhat ovate, not pouched, pale green above, silvery white below. New South Wales. IIymenopiiyllum.—A genus of film-ferns, distinguished by the sori having two-valved involucres. II. cerwjinosum.—Fronds tripinnatifld, ovate, pendulous, C to 8 inches long; pinna) dense, the segments deep green, slightly tomentose. N ew Zealand. II. bivalve.- Fronds decompound, ovate, G toS inches high; pinnules small, serrate, deep green. New Zealand. II. crispatmn. — Fronds tripinnatifld, triangular, 6 to 10 inches high, edges of the segments, as also the wings of the stipes and rachis, beautifully waved, bright green. New Zealand. II. demissum.—Fronds tripinnate, ovate-acuminate, 6 to 12 inches high; segments linear, finely divided, shining, bright green; stipes smooth, terete. New Zealand, Ac. II. dilatation.—Fronds tripinnatifld, broadly oblong, erect, 1 to 2 feet high; pinme ovate-lanceolate; segments entire, drooping, pale green; stipes and rachis winged. New Zealand. II. jlabellatum.—A beautiful but variable species, having bright shining green, finely-divided fan-shaped fronds, G to 12 inches high; rhizome creeping. New Zealand, Tasmania, Ac. II. flexuosum.— Fronds tripinnatifld, G to 12 inches high; segments finely divided, and everywhere much undulated or flexuose, dark green. New Zealand. II. polyantlios.—Fronds tripinnatifld, oblong-ovate, G to 8 inches high, 1 to 2 inches wide; segments small, entire, spreading, bright green; stipes terete at base, slightly winged above. New Zealand, and widely distributed. II. pulcherrimum.—Fronds tripinnate, ovate-lanceolate, 6 to 18 inches long; segments short, entire, bifid at the apex, the margins undulate, pale green; stipes and rachis winged. New Zealand. II. scab rum.—Fronds bi-tri-pinnatifid, erect, ovate-acuminate, 10 to 15 inches long; segments finely divided, pale green; stipes and rachis terete, clothed with numerous pale chaffy hair-like scales. New' Zealand. II. valvatum.—Fronds tripinnatifld, ovate, G to 12 inches high; segments attenuated, much waved or undulated, dark green; stipes and rachis terete, black. Columbia. IIypolepis.—A small genus of handsome free-growing plants, nearly allied to Cheilanthes, the chief points of distinction being the long creeping caudices, and the position of the sori in the sinuses of the lobes. The fronds are evergreen, hi- or quadripinnate, piloso-glandulose, with free veins. The sori are round, situated beneath axillary crenules of the segments. These are plants of easy culture. Pot in rough peat, sand, and a little loam. On account of the spreading habit of the caudex ample surface room should be provided; drain well and water freely. II. distans. —Fronds bipinnate, 6 to 12 inches long, ovate-lanceolate; pinna) set on at right angles; pinnules oblong, sharply cut, serrate; stipes slender, flexuous; rachis scabrous. New Zealand. II. te nu if alia.—Fronds quadripinnate, stout, triangular, 2 to 4 feet high; lower pinna) ovate-acuminate; segments lanceolate, cut into numerous linear-oblong lobes, bright green, hairy; rachis tomentose. New Zealand. LASTREA.—Useful evergreen free-grow'ing ornamental aspi-dioid ferns, related to Polystichum. L. decomposita.—Fronds tripinnate, deltoid, 1 to 2 feet long; pinnules deeply pinnatifld, deep green; stipes furnished with dark brown chaffy scales; rachis downy; caudex creeping. Australia, Tasmania, Ac. L. decurrens.—Fronds pinnate below’, pinnatifld in the upper part, lanceolate, 12 to 18 inches high; pinna' sessile, pale green; sori numerous, reddish brown; stipes and rachis straw colour; caudex tufted. China, Ac., 1841. L. elonyata.—Fronds bipinnate, narrowly triangular, 1 to 3 feet long; pinnules sharply oblong, dentate, deep green; stipes pale; caudex creeping. Madeira, Azores, 1799. L. ylabella.—Fronds tripinnate, somewhat triangular, 9 to 12 inches high; pinnules pinnatifld, dentate, pale green; stipes furnished with a few scales at the base; caudex tufted. New Zealand. L. hispida.—Fronds tripinnate, triangular, 9 to 12 inches high; pinnules linear-lanceolate, narrows mucronate, dentate, rich dark green; stipes and rachis profusely clothed with black hairs; caudex creeping. New Zealand, 1845. Litobroohia. —A group of pteroid ferns, distinguished by their reticulated venation. L. macilcnta.—Fronds tripinnate, broad, spreading, 1 to 3 feet long; pinnules deeply cut, serrate at the edges, light green. New Zealand. L. vespertilionis.—Fronds tripinnate, broadest at the base, tapering to the apex, 1 to 3 feet long; pinna) opposite, lanceolate; pinnules opposite, sessile, obtuse, bright green above, very glaucous below’; caudex creeping, furnished with reddish brown scales. Australia, East Indies, Ac., 1838. Llayea.— One species only at present represents this genus in a cultivated state. It is a peculiar plant, and is known in some gardens by the name of Ceratodactylis. The upper fertile portion of the frond is contracted, so that the pinnules become siliquiform, the edges being revolute. The veins are simple or forked from the central costa, the venules few’; the receptacles linear, occupying nearly the whole of the veins in the contracted pinna); caudex erect. Fot in peat and sand; drain well, and keep tolerably cool; stove-heat w ill kill it.CONSERVATORY AND GREENHOUSE PLANTS. 8G1 L. cord (folia.—Fronds tripinnate, somewhat coriaceous, glaucescent, 1 to 2 feet long; fertile and sterile pinme dissimilar, the latter ovate-cordate, serrate, pale green; the fertile occupying the upper portion of the frond, forming a panicle of linear almost terete pendulous segments; stipes and rachis slender; caudex scaly. Mexico. Lomaria.—Fine bleclmoid ferns, known from the nearly allied Blechnum by having the sori quite marginal, and the fertile fronds contracted. L. australis.—Sterile fronds pinnate, lanceolate, 1 to 2 feet long, the pinna? oblong, obtuse, sessile, bright green, paler below; fertile fronds much contracted, the pinna? longer than In the sterile one. Cape of Good Hope, 1830. L. blechnoides.—Fronds pinnatitid, 5 to 10 inches long; segments short, obtuse, coriaceous, and deep green; fertile fronds much contracted, shorter than the sterile. Chili, 1801. L. capensis.— Fronds pinnate, broadly lanceolate, glabrous, 2 to 3 feet long; pinna? narrow, lanceolate, the edges undulate, cordate at the base, 5 to G inches long, deep green; fertile fronds much contracted, the pinna? linear-acuminate, equal in length to the sterile. Cape of Good Hope. L. ciliata.—Fronds pinnatitid, but divided almost down to the rachis, 6 to 12 inches long; segments pnemorse, sometimes bifid, the edges set with fine teeth-like hairs, bright green; fertile fronds smaller, much contracted. Xew Caledonia, 1805. L. discolor.—Fronds pinnate or pinnatitid, lanceolate, 1 to 2 feet long; pinna? glabrous, bright green on the upper side, gray beneath; fertile fronds much contracted; more rarely only the apical portion of the pinna? are contracted, whilst the basal part retains its normal character; stipes scaly at base; caudex stout, arborescent, 1 to 3 feet high. New Zealand. L. jluviatilis.—Fronds pinnate, linear-lanceolate, spreading, 1 to 2 feet long, pinna? nearly round, alternate, deep green, bearing a profusion of reddish brown chaffy scales; fertile fronds equal in length to the sterile, erect, their pinna? linear, dark brown. Xew Zealand. L. Fraseri.— Fronds bipinnatifid, broadly lanceolate, 6 to 12 inches high; pinnules finely divided, giving the frond a plume-like appearance, bright green; sori bright red and very dense; caudex erect, stem-like, slender. Xew Zealand. L. gibba.—Fronds pinnatifid, divided nearly to the rachis, 1 to 2 feet long, broadly ovate-lanceolate, pinna? dense, deep green; stipes scaly at the base; fertile fronds contracted; caudex erect, stem-like. Xew Caledonia, 1SG4. L. Gilliesii.—Fronds pinnate, ovate-lanceolate, glabrous, 1 to 2 feet long; pinna? linear-oblong, acute, cordate at base, serrate, deep green; fertile fronds much contracted; it more rarely happens that the frond bearing the sori is only partially contracted, and then the basal portion of each pinna is fertile, whilst the upper part retains its normal sterile character; stipes scaly; caudex erect. Chili, 1S41. L. lanceolata.—Yvonds pinnatifid, lanceolate, G to 12 inches long, pinme oblong-obtuse, slightly toothed on the edge, dull green; fertile frond pinnate, shorter than the sterile; caudex tufted. Xew Zealand, 1&33. L. magellanica.— Fronds pinnate, ovate-lanceolate, 1 to 2 feet long; pinna? lanceolate, coriaceous, the margins entire, sub-opposite or alternate, the terminal pinna? much the largest, deep green; fertile frond much contracted, the pinna? linear, acute; stipes and rachis profusely furnished with large reddish brown chaffy scales; caudex stout, arborescent, 1 to 4 feet high. Brazil, Chili, Falkland Islands, Ac., 1843. L. nuda.— Fronds pinnatifid, divided nearly to the rachis, ovate-lanceolate, 12 to 18 inches long, the pinna? oblong-lanceolate, light green; fertile fronds contracted, the pinna? dense, massive, coriaceous, linear-acuminate; caudex erect. Xew Zealand, Ac., 1845. L. Fatersoni. —Fronds simple, entire, lanceolate, 8 to 10 inches long; fertile frond much contracted, linear, longer than the sterile; caudex tufted. Australia, 1830. L. procera.—Yronds pinnate, broadly lanceolate, 1 to 3 feet high, the pinna? oblong-obtuse, cordate, coriaceous, deep green; fertile frond much contracted, its pinme linear; stipes and rachis clothed with chaffy scales. Xew Zealand, Australia, Ac., 1*83. Loxsoma.—In some respects this genus agrees with Tri-chomanes, but it has subeoriaceous instead of pellucid fronds, and at first sight resembles a Davallia. The only species at present known is that here named, which should be potted in loam and peat, well-drained and supplied liberally witli water, both in the atmosphere and to the roots. L. Cunninghamii.—Fronds decompound, deltoid, 12 to 18 inches high; segments sessile, coarsely dentate, light green above, glaucous beneath; sori situated upon exserted receptacles in the sinuses of the segments; rhizome creeping. Xew Zealand, 18G0. Mickolepia.—A genus of strong-growing evergreen ferns, closely allied to Davallia, differing mainly in the half cupshaped indusium, and the intramarginal sorus. The species of Microlepia are plants of great beauty and easy culture, and should commend themselves to amateurs who have temperate ferneries to embellish. M. cristata has the bright green fronds bipinnate, broadly lanceolate, 1 to 3 feet high, the pinna? G to 8 inches long, lanceolate, tapering to a point, and the pinnules pinnatifid, obtuse; both stipes and rachis are hairy. Northern India. M. platyphylla.—Fronds 2 to 4 feet long, tripinnate, spreading, membranous; pinnules broad, deeply divided, the segments obtuse and of a bright green; sori large and conspicuous, reddish brown; stipes and rachis slightly hirsute. The caudex is creeping, stout, clothed with silky white scales. Xorthern India. M. scabra has deep green, pinnate, broadly lanceolate fronds, 1 to 2 feet long; pinme auriculate on the superior margin, and dentate. Japan. M. strigosa.—Fronds bipinnate, 1 to 3 feet long; pinna? 3 to G inches long, bright green; pinnules dimidiate, crenate. Japan. Xipiiobolus. —This group has not any very striking character to distinguish it from Pleopeltis or Campyloneuruni, the most prominent being the dense coating of stellate scales or hairs which clothes the under side of the frond, and through which the sori protrude. The fronds are evergreen, simple, coriaceous, and dimorphous, springing from a wiry creeping caudex. They are plants of easy culture, requiring ample surface room for their stems to spread over; and should be potted in rough fibrous peat, well drained, and be liberally supplied with water at the roots. X. Lingua.—Fronds entire, lanceolate, acuminate, the fertiles ones much contracted, G to 12 inches high; the upper side dark green with white stellate scales scattered over it, the under side densely covered with a brown jmbescence; sori red and conspicuous, covering the whole surface of the fertile frond. China and Japan, 1817. X. Lingua corymbiferum differs from the species in having the apex of the fronds branched and crested, forming a dense corymbiferous head. It was introduced from Japan. X. rupestris.—Fronds simple, entire, the sterile ones 2 inches high, ovate or spathulate, coriaceous, deep green on the upper side; fertile fronds linear, obtuse at the apex, 3 to 4 inches long, dark green above, and, like the sterile, white below. Australia. Xotiiochl.ena.- Small-growing scaly-fronded ferns, of evergreen character, and remarkably elegant in aspect. X. cunariensis.—Fronds 1 to 2 feet high, bipinnate, ovate-lanceolate; pinnules obtuse, dull green above, clothed below' with a dense covering of long reddish-brown scales; stipes and rachis scaly. Teneriffe, Ac. X. Eckloniana.—Fronds 6 to 12 inches high, tripinnate, ovate; the segments small, green above; when young, the under side densely clothed with long white scales, which become tawny with age. South Africa. X. Ian;is.—Fronds G to 12 inches long, pinnate; pinna? entire, dee]) green above, clothed when young on the under side with white scales which turn brown with age. Mexico. X. lanuginosa.— Fronds 6 to 10 inches high, bipinnate, linear-lanceolate, about an inch wide; pinnules small, obtusely ovate, deep green, profusely clothed with very long white woolly hairs when young, and which turn to brown with age; caudex creeping. South Europe, Madeira, Ac.862 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. 2V. Marantce.—Fronds 4 to 10 inches high, bipinnate, ovate-lanceolate; pinnules oblong, obtuse, deep green above, clothed below with a dense covering of reddish brown scales; caudex short, stout, creeping. South Europe, Ac. Platyloma.—A small genus of peculiarly interesting evergreen ferns, characterized by their pinnate or bipinnate, often coriaceous and glaucous fronds, their free venation and oblong marginal sori, the receptacles being formed of a portion of the apices of the venules, whence the sori spread and form a continuous marginal band, the edges of the pinna) becoming in some species rellexed, and forming a spurious indusium. Pot in peat, loam, and sand; drain well, and water freely. These plants are somewhat subject to the attacks of black thrip, usually brought about by their being subjected to drought and too high a temperature. ]*. atropurpureion.—Fronds G to 12 inches long, bipinnate, somewhat lanceolate, glabrous; pinnules oblong or bluntly ovate, the terminal ones much longer than the others; stipes and rachis hirsute; caudex creeping. North America, 1770. P. Brownii.—Fronds 1 to 2 feet long, pinnate; pinna), 4 to 8 pairs, broad, cordate, acuminate, coriaceous, dark green, paler below; sori continuous, forming a broad brown marginal band; caudex creeping underground. Australia, 1821. P. cordatum.—Fronds 1 to 2 feet long, bipinnate, triangular; pinnules cordate, when fertile inclining to hastate, pale glaucous green above, paler beneath; stipes and rachis pale brown. Mexico, 1842. P. Ccdomelanos.—Fronds G to 12 inches high, bipinnate, triangular, erect, glaucous; pinnules trilobate, cordate, coriaceous; stipes and rachis black, furnished at the base with a few chaffy scales; caudex creeping. South Africa, 1843. P. fiexuosum.—Fronds 3 to G feet long, tripinnate, branches alternate, pinnules small, ovate, glabrous, cordate at base, light glaucous green; rachis llexuose. This fern has a sub-scandent habit. Peru, 1838. P. falcatum.—Fronds 1 to 2 feet high, pinnate, lanceolate, erect; pi lime narrow-lanceolate, falcate, coriaceous, deep green above, paler below; stipes and rachis scaly; caudex creeping. New Holland, 1S23. P. rotund ifoliiun.—Fronds 12 to 18 inches long, pinnate, linear; pinna; subrotund, coriaceous, crenate on the edges, very deep green; sori broad, forming a continuous brown band round the pinna); stipes and rachis densely furnished with reddish-brown scales; caudex creeping. 'Phis species is hardy in some parts of Great Britain. New Zealand, 1841. POLYSTICIIUM.-—Evergreen aspidioid ferns, with free veins, dot-like sori, and peltate indusia, in which latter feature they differ from Lastrea. P. capensc.—Fronds 2 to G feet high, tripinnate, broad, and spreading; pinnules large, obtuse, dentate, bright green; sori bold and conspicuous; caudex stout, creeping, clothed with large chaffy scales. South Africa, 1823. P. falcinellion.—Fronds 12 to 20 inches high, pinnate, oblong-lanceolate; pinna) linear-oblong, acute, eared, serrate, bright green above, paler below; sori red, conspicuous; stipes densely scaly; caudex erect. Madeira, 1820. P. frondosion.— Fronds 2 to 3 feet high, tripinnate, triangular, acuminate; pinna) largest and broadest at the base of the frond, pinnules dentate, acuminate, of a bright shining green; stipes and rachis furnished with numerous pale brown chalfy scales. Madeira. P. lepidocaulon.— Fronds 1 to 2 feet long, pinnate, the rachis lengthened nut into tail-like points and proliferous at the apex; pinna) broad, aurieulate on the upper base, muero-nate, dark green; stipes furnished below with large light brown chaffy scales. Japan, 18(53. P. ordination.- Fronds 1 to 3 feet or more long, hipinnate, broadly lanceolate, erect; pinnules small, very finely toothed, bright green; stipes and rachis densely clothed with light-coloured imbricating chaffy scales; caudex erect. Chili. P. prolife ru m. - - Fronds 1 to 2 feet long, bipinnate, linear-lanceolate, viviparous at the apex; pinnules coriaceous in texture, dentate, deep green; stipes densely furnished with large black chaffy scales. Tasmania, 1843. P. venustum.—Fronds erect, G to 12 inches high, bipin- nate; pinnules small, spiny-toothed at the edges, dark green; stipes and rachis densely clothed with very large black, imbricating, chalfy scales; caudex erect. New Zealand. P. vestition.—Fronds 1 to 2 feet long, bipinnate, lanceolate, rigid; pinmc oblong; pinnules cuneate at the base, ovate, slightly aurieulate, mucronate, bright green; stipes and rachis densely clothed with chaffy scales. New Zealand. Pteris.—Evergreen ferns, with linear marginal sori, many of which are ornamental in character. P. arguta.—Fronds 3 to 5 feet high, bi-tripinnate, deltoid, glabrous; pinmc pinnatifid, the segments obtuse, dentate on the edges, pale green; stipes greenish-brown, one-half the height of frond naked; caudex erect. Madeira, Ac., 1778. P. crenata.—Fronds 10 to 20 inches long, bipinnate, dark green; pinna) ovate where sterile, linear where fertile, decurrent, crenate on the edges. China, Ac., 1822. P. hastata.—Fronds 10 to 18 inches high, bipinnate, glabrous; pinnules hastate in shape, of a dark dull green; sori forming a dark brown continuous band round the edge; stipes and rachis brown; caudex creeping. South Africa, 1822. P. hastata macropliylla is the finest variety. P. Kingiana.—Fronds 1 to 3 feet long, subbipinnate, glabrous, broad; pinna) linear-lanceolate, lowest pair bipartite; pinnules linear-acuminate, serrate, pale green; stipes scaly at the base; caudex creeping; a fine bold species. Norfolk Island, 1831. J\ longifolia.—Fronds 1 to 2 feet long, pinnate, lanceolate; pinna) linear, 5 to 6 inches long when sterile, serrate, dull green; sori brown, forming a continuous marginal band; stipes and rachis furnished with a few pale-coluured chaffy scales; caudex creeping. Tropics, common. 1770. P. serrulata.—Fronds G to 18 inches long, pinnate, pendulous, glabrous; pinna) linear, narrow, serrate on the edges, the lower pair or pairs bipartite, light green. There are many garden varieties of this old but ornamental species, the most notable of which are:—P. s. angustata, Applebyana, corymb ifera, cristata, cristata v ariegata, Goeziana, polydac-tyla, semifastigiata, Lcyit and fimbriali*. China. Ac. P. tremula.—Fronds 1 to 3 feet long, trielliicida.—Fronds bipinna-tiful, pellucid, membranaceous, triangular, 10 to SO inches high; segments finely divided, vivid green; stipes and rachis slightly hirsute; caudex erect. New Zealand. T. superba.—Fronds bipinnatilid, lanceolate, spreading, 10 to 20 inches long. The whole frond is everywhere eris-pate, giving it the appearance of a vivid green plume; caudex erect. New Zealand. Triciiomanes.—One of the genera of film-ferns, more fully described under Stove Ferns. T. elongation. — Fronds bipinnate, triangular. G to 12 inches high; segments incised, deep green; stipes and rachis terete; caudex erect. New Zealand. T. renifonne.— Fronds simple, entire, reniform, 4 to G inchesCONSERVATORY AND GREENHOUSE PLANTS. 863 high, 2 to 3 inches wide, coriaceous, rich bright green; sori exserted, numerous and conspicuous, forming a continuous marginal frill. New Zealand. T. I'enosnm. —Fronds pinnate, membranous, 4 to G inches long; pinna: small, linear, sinuate, bright shining green; caudex slender, creeping. Xew Zealand. Wooiiwardia.—Bold evergreen ferns of a highly decorative character, and nearly hardy. It', orientalis.—Fronds bipinnatifid, 1 to 4 feet long, broad; pinna: broad, the segments bearing upon the upper side a profusion of little bulbils, which ultimately form young plants; stipes and crown furnished with large brown chaffy scales. Japan, &c. 11'. radieans.—Fronds bipinnatifid, broad, 1 to C feet long, viviparous at the apex; segments lanceolate, serrate, bright green; stipes clothed with a dense covering of large brown chaffy scales; caudex creeping. .Madeira, North hulia, Ac., 1779. A crested variety of this fern is a very ornamental plant. w. H. G. [Until of late years, since their requirements have been better understood, ferns were looked upon as difficult subjects to grow; and many were deterred from attempting their cultivation under the impression that it could not be successfully carried out without the aid of warm houses with a confined moisture-laden atmosphere; yet such is by no means indispensable for the growth of many of the most beautiful. As a rule ferns do not get so large when subjected to a comparatively dry atmosphere, yet this method of growing them has the advantage of causing a more robust condition of the plants, and they are not so liable to turn brown and unsightly by exposure to full light and a considerable amount of air. Great numbers that were supposed to require stove-heat are now found to thrive in a much lower temperature, such as that kept up for ordinary ; greenhouse plants; and although their fronds may not attain so large a size, yet they become sufficiently developed to show their true character. At the same time to produce them with the soft delicate green hue, for which they are so justly admired, it is essential to use more shade than is necessary for plants grown in a comparatively low temperature. Some ferns that are often subjected to heat will live out of doors without any protection even in winter; but so treated they exhibit little of their natural beauty. In the cultivation of greenhouse ferns the extremes should be avoided of overshading with blinds of thick material, or permanent shades all through the growing season whether it is required or not; too much moisture in the atmosphere, which makes them soft and delicate, or a dry arid state of the air, especially whilst the plants are in active growth. A medium course, avoiding all these extremes, is required. We sjxeak upon these matters first, as in the culture of ferns and their allies the lycopods, the atmospherical conditions are of more importance than the material the roots are placed in. Propagation.—The most general way of propagating ferns is by sowing the spores. For these ordinary pots or seed-pans should be well drained; the soil ought to consist of good fibrous peat rubbed through a fine sieve, with one-fourth of crocks broken the size of small peas, or where it can be had sandstone pounded equally fine, to which add some clean washed sand; mix the whole together, and fill the pots, pressing it firmly down; well water the surface, so as to leave no openings wherein the spores can get too deep, or they will not germinate; on this sprinkle the spores and cover the pots with propagating glasses or pieces of common sheet-glass, to prevent water getting to the surface and washing the spores down too deep into the soil. It is not in all cases necessary to be so particular that water does not get to the surface of the soil in this way; but with valuable kinds, the spores of which are limited in number, it is well to be thus careful. The pots should then be stood in feeders in which is an inch or so of water; they will suck it up this way in quantities sufficient; place in a temperature of from 45° to 50° by night, and if the weather is bright, shade them. The spores may be sown at any time of the year, but late in the autumn is not so good on account of the young seedlings being more liable to damp off in the winter. In the course of a couple of months they will begin to vegetate in the shape of little green circular bodies on the surface, from which ultimately will spring small fronds. When the young plants are an inch or so high, they should be pricked out into seed-pans, well-drained, and filled with soil similar to that in which they have been raised; keep the soil moist, and continue to shade from the sun. When they have made an inch or two more growth, place them singly in 3-inch pots, using soil as before; as soon as the pots are fairly filled with roots, remove into larger ones proportionate in size with the quantity of roots, and the more or less strong-growing nature of the 'Species under treatment. In the following spring, just before they begin to grow, give them another shift, never allowing them to become pot-bound whilst young, and required to get larger. Although most ferns can be kept comparatively small and healthy for years by confining them to small pots, yet plants that have been so treated in their early stages are some time before they grow freely. From this time the soil should be used in a rougher state, not sifted but broken with the hand, and one-sixth of broken crocks, charcoal, or coal cinders mixed with it, and as much sand as will insure the free percolation of the large quantities of water these plants require. The drainage must also in all cases be ample, andGARDENER’S ASSISTANT. 864 secured from the soil being washed into it by a layer of sphagnum or other fibrous matter betwixt it and the soil. Potting.—Ferns may be potted at any time of the year; but it is better to perform the operation in spring, just before growth commences, for if their roots are disturbed whilst young fronds are in course of formation, these are sure to be injured. Most of the species which form creeping rhizomes that root along the ground, can be propagated by division of these when well rooted, and the plants are at rest; in like manner those that form a number of crowns, such as most of the adiantums, can be increased by dividing the crowns in the dormant season. In all cases the larger the pieces taken off, in other words the less subdivision there is, the more likely are they to succeed. For example, the beautiful gleichenias will do well when divided, providing the pieces they are cut into are large, but if consisting of only small bits of the rhizomes, they are very apt to die. These can also be increased by layering the points of the rhizomes into small pots before they produce roots, and allowing them to make plenty in the little pots before they are severed from the parent plant; the small pots can be fastened with a piece of wire round the rim, and on a level with the pot in which the plant that is to be operated upon is growing, and if a sufficient number of these creeping stems exist extending over the rim the pots above described can be placed continuously all round so close as to touch each other. This operation should be carried out in the spring, giving them all the summer wherein to get thoroughly established before being separated. Several club-mosses (lycopods), such as Selagin-tlla Kraussii from South Africa, usually in error called S. denticulata; S. apus from North America; and (S', uncinata (coesia) from China, with others of a like nature, will thrive in a greenhouse temperature, if oidy accommodated with a little shade and plenty of water. As to soil, potting, and general treatment, they do well with such as advised for ferns, always giving plenty of drainage. Feans that will thrive in a greenhouse temperature do not require to be kept quite so moist at the roots as the stove species; but nevertheless they are water-loving plants, and never must be allowed to get dry, or their beauty is generally destroyed until they have made fresh growth. Insects.—In respect to insects, ferns that will grow in a greenhouse are not so subject to their attacks as the stove kinds, or those of more hardy nature, when grown in heat. Thrips are their greatest enemies; these must be diligently sought for, and as soon as discovered, the plants should be fumigated with tobacco smoke, not too severely, but the application repeated at short intervals until the insects are destroyed. Aphides will live on them, yet do not often molest them; these may also be destroyed with tobacco smoke. If they are affected with brown scale this must be perseveringly removed with a sponge or soft brush; but in a greenhouse temperature it does not increase upon them very fast. Ferns in Rooms.—The handsome cases used for growing ferns in rooms and halls, deserve all that can be said in their favour; yet many sorts grown in them can be successfully treated in the same situations, without the cases, where not under the deleterious influences of gas. Where it is the intention to grow ferns in an ordinary room of a dwelling-house, care should be taken that they are not introduced in a soft immature state of growth, from a house where they have been subject to a moist over-warm atmosphere. Such plants as these directly assume an unhealthy appearance, and entail certain disappointment. The opposite course should be followed, of selecting such as have been grown slowly, in a drier and more airy place, and above all such as have fully matured their fronds. The principal things to avoid are, first, allowing them to get dry at the roots, by being stood too near an open window, where the dry external air will come in direct contact with them, and secondly, placing them in a sunny aspect without shade in the middle of the day, especially while the fronds are young. T. b.] CHAPTER XXX. THE STOVE AND FORCING HOUSE. I.—TIIB PLANT STOVE. To attain success in the cultivation of plants indigenous to hot countries, it is necessary to have a house, or, still better, a couple of houses, devoted to their growth. If we consider the great differ-ences as to temperature and moisture under which the plants usually met with in the stove exist in their native habitats, it will at once be seen that to grow all well it is imperative that two houses, kept during all times of the year at considerably different temperatures, should be used for the purpose. Where this convenience does not exist, it necessitates a compromise as regards the treatment, betwixt those that come from the hottest countries, and which, to do justice to them, always require to be kept in a high temperature, and those that do not need, and will not well bear being kept so wai’m. Where all are grown in one house, the very large number of fine plantsTHE STOVE AND FORCING HOUSE. 8G5 that want intermediate treatment, are forced to make much more growth than is conducive to their flowering freely; and those from the hottest regions have not sufficient heat to make enough growth to exemplify their true character. Where a stove of say 50 feet long exists, there will naturally he a considerable difference in the heat betwixt the end next the boiler and that farther away from it, and something may be effected by placing those that require the most heat at the warmest end, and devoting the opposite end to plants that do not need so much. The requirements of each section may still further be met by giving the greatest amount of air at the coolest end. In respect to moisture in the atmosphere of the house there is more difficulty, as this cannot be much under control, so as to vary it according to the requirements of the occupants, consequently it is better to have either two houses Or a division to separate the warmest from the coolest end, so that the wants of both hot stove subjects and the cooler section can be provided for. Light.—In our remarks on greenhouses we laid considerable stress upon the necessity for having them properly constructed, so as to afford a maximum of light; as also on the site selected, which should be where there are no surrounding influences to darken them. All that we then urged holds good with stoves to an equal if not to a greater extent, inasmuch as the growth of the plants in heat is even more rapid, and extends over a longer period of the year when there is not so much solar light as in the summer, when greenhouse subjects are principally making their growth. No form of structure is fully adapted to stove plant culture but the span-roof, in as light a situation as can be got, but withal sheltered. The house should always stand with the ends north and south to equalize the light on all sides. It is not well to have a hot stove too wide, as it necessitates too great height, and in such houses there is difficulty in keeping up a sufficient temperature in severe weather. For the purposes under consideration, a house 17 feet wide inside measurement is about the best; the length, of course, being dependent upon circumstances, though from 40 to 50 feet is a good size. The walls all round, ends included, should consist of 9-inch brick-work 2| feet in height above the ground level, with 3 feet of upright side-lights; the ends being also of glass, and the glass from 1 foot to 14 inches wide. If wood is employed, no more should be used than is necessary to give enough strength. The internal arrangement may be as follows :—side-tables feet wide, on a level with the wall-plate; in the centre a tan-pit 5 feet wide, the walls, including plate, 3 feet above level of floor; this will allow for a 3£-feet path all round, betwixt the pit and the side-tables. Ventilation.—For a plant stove vre do not approve of the side-lights being made to open, as the air so admitted, is seldom if ever, fit to come in direct contact with the plants; consequently they should be fixed. In the wJHla on both sides there should be openings 2^ feet long by 1 foot deep, fitted with hinged shutters in frames, and worked with a lever inside the house; these openings should be 3 feet apart. In the roof there ought to be a 2-I-feet light, hinged at the ridge, so as to open with a lever also. These arrangements will afford ample ventilation, and the air, which will be principally admitted at the sides, under the tables, will always be in a fit state for coming upon the plants, by its having first passed over the pipes. Heating.—The hot-water pipes should be fixed immediately under the tables, and consist of five rows of 4-inch pipes, three flows and two returns; on each side of the house there should be three 9-feet lengths of the pipes with troughs cast on them their whole length for evaporation; they can be filled or otherwise as needed. These wrill not be too much for a house of this size intended for heat-loving stove plants. There is no more mistaken economy than leaving any description of plant-house with insufficient heating power, but especially a stove. Where this deficiency exists, it necessitates a continuous excess in the consumption of fuel during the winter season, as well as additional labour in attention. We do not recommend any pipes being placed under the centre pit, which should be filled with new tan about the close of the year. A considerable body such as a pit of these dimensions will hold, will keep up a heat of 90° for three months, and much assist in maintaining the temperature of the house, as well as answering to plunge the plants in, for those who adopt the practice; but with most stove subjects the objections against plunging outweigh the advantages, the greatest being that, except in very low narrow houses it necessitates the heads of the plants being further away from the glass than they ought to be, through the dull days of winter, when all the light possible should be secured, even by elevating them on inverted pots placed upon the tan and side-tables, so as to bring the tops within 1 foot of the roof, gradually lowering them as growth extends. Water.—There is yet another essential that no plant stove should be without, that is, a good-sized cistern, one capable of holding a supply of water sufficient for at least two or three days, even in summer when much is required; this 5586G GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. should not be sunk in the ground, as is most generally the case, where the surrounding earth, so much cooler than the atmosphere of the house, prevents the water from getting nearly so warm as it ought to be, but should stand clear of any cooling influence, and, if possible, near the pipes, where it will get warmed. An excellent plan is to have a coil of the liot-water pipes running through the tank; by this means the water is kept, as it should be during the growing season, considerably above the temperature of the house. Shade.—In both the warmest and coolest stoves there are usually grown a number of plants that require shading in the summer season, and also others that are much better without it. To accommodate both the best way is to shade one end, say half of each, putting together in each such things as require so protecting, and leaving the others exposed. In all cases the shading should be of a movable character, such as can be worked up and down as required, upon rollers fixed in the usual way. There can be no greater mistake in our sunless climate than to have fixed shading that remains on whether required or not, to the continual exclusion of the most indispensable element to vegetable life—light. The cooler stove or intermediate house should be constructed in every way similar to the house already described for plants requiring the most heat, with the exception that so much piping will not be required; three or at most four rows of 4-inch pipes round it will be sufficient; the tan-bed and general arrangement should be the same, including the very important water cistern. THE ACHIMENES {Achimenes sp.).—These very beautiful and free-flowering gesnerads are indispensable for the summer decoration of conservatories and other plant-houses; their continuous blooming habit, lasting as they do for many weeks, placing them amongst the best small flowering things that come in during the summer season. They are, moreover, easily grown. Most of the varieties in cultivation are garden hybrids, raised from species introduced principally from the warm regions of South America; consequently they will bear a considerable amount of heat, though in the summer, during their time of blooming, they will do in a house without artificial warmth, provided they are not exposed to draughts or keen currents of cold air. In March they should be started into growth, for which purpose some ordinary seed-pans should be prepared with a little drainage material, and filled to within li inch of the rim with fine sandy soil; on this place the tubers 1 inch asunder, and cover over with a little of the soil. Put the pans where there is a night temperature of (!5° or thereabouts, and keep the soil slightly moist; they will soon begin to grow, and when the shoots are a couple of inches long, they may lie potted off, using 8 or 10 inch pots, according to the size of plants required. Put 1 inch of clocks in the bottom, and on these a rough layer of turfy material. The soil should consist of three parts good fibrous loam, pulled by the hand, two parts sifted leaf-mould, and a moderate sprinkling of sand. Fill the pots with this to within 2 inches of the rim, making it moderately firm; then put in at equal distances apart from eight to ten of the plants, covering their roots with an inch of soil, and pressing it firmly, and place them in a similar temperature to that in which they were started, as near the light as can be. A shelf over a path, where they will be not far from the roof, is a good place. AVhen they have made 6 inches of growth, pinch out the points so as to induce them to push forth several shoots; and as they advance in size put a neat stick to each shoot, so as to keep the plant shapeable. In all stages of their growth they must be well supplied with water, syringing overhead until they come into flower; this is necessary to keep in check red spider, to the attacks of which they are very subject. AVhen the blossoms are apparent give manure-water two or three times a week. Admit sufficient air from the first to keep them stout, and when the flower’s begin to open, gradually inure them to more, after which they may be transferred to the conservatory. Whilst they last in bloom do not let them suffer for want of water. AAdien the blooming is over, they may be placed on a shelf in a pit or house until they show signs of going to rest by turning brown; up to this time do not let them want for moisture, or it would seriously injure the bulbs for next year’s flowering. AA’hen the tops have died down the tuber's may be taken out of the pots, and put away irr dry sand in a place where the temperature is about 50J or a little under for the winter; or. if room can be found irr a similar heat, they may be allowed to remain in the pots, in which way they generally keep the best. Achimenes have a tine effect grown in wire-baskets for suspending, the baskets being lined with sphagnum, so as to keep in the soil; some of the plants may be put in so as to grow through the bottom of the baskets, some allowed to hang gracefully over the edge, and others neatly staked upright. AA’hen well managed in this way they are very effective. In addition to their increase by the number of scaly tubers each one will form every year, they can be struck from cuttings in sandy soil in heat under a bell-glass. They also can be raised freely from seed sown in the spring, treating the plantsTHE STOVE AND FOiiC'IXG HOUSE. 8G7 when up as recommended for the tubers. Annexed is a select list of the best kinds:— Ambroise I'ersehajfelt. —White, dark centre. Belmont iensis.—Lanre, plum colour, li^ht centre. Eclipse.—Orange-red, spotted with carmine. Fireflp* — Carmine, spotted with crimson, yellow eye; large flower. Grand is.—Deep violet, yellow eye. Lomjijlora alba.—White, slightly coloured in the centre. Bon girl or a major.—Large flower, blue. Mauve Queen.—Large mauve-coloured. Parsonsii.—High-coloured flower, orange centre. Hose Queen.—Rosy purple, yellow throat. Stella.—Magenta, spotted with purple, orange eye. WilliamsiL—Scarlet, yellow centre. THE TYDvEA.—These handsome gesneraceous plants are descended from the Achimencs picta, introduced from Mexico in 1844. Many of them bloom during the winter months, at which time they are particularly acceptable, their bright colours enlivening the stove at a season when dowel's are not over-plentiful; they also may be had in bloom during the summer. They are propagated from the scaly tubers, from cuttings, and also from seeds. The established plants should be started into growth during thelaterspringmonths; they should be potted in 8 or 10 inch pots, in sandy loam, to which has been added some sifted leaf-mould, and a little sand, and grown in a temperature of (10° in the night, with a rise of 10° by day, keeping them near the glass, or, like all other soft-wooded plants of similar nature, they become drawn up weakly, in which state they never bloom freely, and have an unsightly appearance. From their naturally bushy habit they do not require much stopping, but they should be kept tied out so as to admit the light equally through the plants. As the season advances give more heat; and when they come into bloom, those that flower in the summer may be removed to the conservatory, where they will keep on for some time. Such as are wanted for autumn and winter flowering should be started latest in spring, and grown on slowly in a more gentle heat. Towards the close of the summer when showing flower they must be kept in a nice growing temperature, with all the light possible, when they will go on blooming for a considerable time, to assist which manure water should be given once a week. When at rest they must not be kept too cold, or the roots are liable to decay. The following is a list of the best kinds:— A Haw.—White, spotted with vermilion. r.'iuilii.— Yellow and scarlet, spotted with crimson. Clio.—Straw colour, spotted with red. Etna,—Red, striped with Mack. Ladji DighfL—Crimson, with dark spots. Ophtr.—Vermilion, spotted with hlack. Polifiunic.^-Scarlet and white, carmine spots. Jlachel—Scarlet, spotted with black. Thaliv. - Citron, spotted with red. Tricolor.--White, spotted with amaranth. THE GLOXINIA (Gloxinia speciosa — syn. Ligeria speciosa).—If we take into account their distinctness, their continuous flowering habit, the exquisite colours they possess, and the ease with which these plants may be grown, it will at once be admitted that there are few stove subjects so well tieserving of attention as the gloxinias, which represent a genus of gesneraceous plants, from the original species of which, imported from the warm regions of South America, have sprung the race [ of beautiful hybrids now in existence. They flower continuously through a considerable portion of the spring and summer, and are invaluable for decorative purposes; the flowers are also well adapted for cutting. They can be raised from seed sown early in spring, in equal proportions of finely sifted loam anti leaf-mould to which has been added a little sand; drain the pots and fill up with the soil, pressing it firm on the surface, over which scatter theseeds somewhat thinly,covering them slightly; put the pots in a temperature of 65° in the night, and just keep the soil damp. As soon as the seedlings appear place them close to the light, or they will become drawn; when large enough to handle, prick them out in shallow pans, using soil similar to that in which they were sown; when they have got leaves an inch long, place them singly in 3-inch pots, keeping them all along in a warm light house. As soon as they have made a fair amount of roots move them into 6-inch pots, using sandy loam in the proportion of three parts to one of leaf-mould, with enough sand to keep it open, and in these they may be grown on and flowered. In propagating gloxinias from the leaves, by which means they can be readily increased, either the leaves may be planted whole with a small portion of the stalk, which is to be inserted in sandy soil, in small pots, these being placed in heat, shaded, but not kept too close, or they are liable to damp; or, if the variety is scarce the leaves may be laid flat on the soil, the under surface downwards, the midrib severed in three or four places, over each of which a small stone sufficient to keep the cut part of the leaf in contact with the soil should be pot; at each cut a small bulb will soon be formed. Or if more abundant increase is needed, the leaves may be cut into small fragments, an inch square or so, cutting clean through a principal vein or rib, and these may be planted like cuttings, being half inserted in a cutting pot of sand. After flowering keep the soil damp so long as there is any vitality in the leaf. The bulbs when mature should be stored through the winter in dry sand in a temperature of oOJ. They may be I started at two different times so as to give a sue-868 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. cession, say at the end of February, and a second lot the beginning of April. Use soil similar to that which lias been recommended for growing the seedlings, and put the bulbs in 6-incli pots, just leaving the top level with the surface of the soil; place them in a temperature of 60°, and do not give much water until growth has commenced; let them have full light, or they will become drawn. AVhen they have filled their pots with roots move them into others a size larger, and allow them to flower in these. In growing gloxinias they must never be kept in a too close moist atmosphere, or one deficient in either air or light; if so, both leaves and blossoms come weak, which gives them a straggling unsightly appearance. To prolong their blooming season give manure water as soon as the flowers begin to appear. In the autumn when they show signs of going to rest, gradually, but not too suddenly, withhold water, and when the tops are quite dead keep dry, and store for the winter as before. The original Gloxinia spcciosa had the tube of the flower deflexed, but a race has been now obtained originating in a garden sport, in which the blossoms stand erect. The accompanying is a selection of some of the best varieties with erect and deflexed flowers:— Alfred de Mussett.—Bright red, striped with lilac. Anneau Cobalt.—White ground, edged with blue. Attraction.—Spotted with crimson, tube and mouth white. Brilliant.—Bright crimson, rose margin, violet throat. Charles Dickens.—Very large, violet and deep purple. Don Luis de Portugal.—White tube, banded with carmine and spotted with blue. Duke of Edinburgh.—White tube, throat suffused witli maroon. Grand Monarch.—White tube, limb deep crimson, bordered frith white. James Brand.—Throat and lobes white, dotted and streaked with violet. L'Etendard.—Crimson, purple throat. Liseri d’Argent.—Crimson with even white edge, throat spotted with carmine. Madame Ernst.—Throat white, spotted lilac, edged with white. Madame Grivet.—White mouth, dotted with violet. Magenta Queen.—Tube magenta, base of limb crimson. Mogol.—Tube red, crimson limb; a fine flower. Mans. Brongniart.—Tube white, yellow throat, limb white, spotted violet. Mons. de Vasconcellos.—White tube, blue limb, spotted with violet. Mons. Lecomte.—Spotted violet, shaded with carmine. Mr. Thomas Binney.—Throat bright red, limb crimson. Mrs. John Smith.—White, dotted with lilac. Xe Plus Ultra.—-White, spotted with carmine. Oswald de Kcrchova.—Throat white, blotched with crimson; dark lobes. Scarlet Gem.—Tube white, spotted lilac, limb vivid scarlet. Setniduplex Marginata.—Throat white, shaded blue. The Czar.—Tube and throat white, rich purple limb. THE POINSETTIA (Poinsettia pulcherrima). —This fine autumn and winter flowering plant is a native of Mexico, The red variety stands unrivalled for the brilliant colouring of its scarlet bracts, which, when well grown, will attain a length of 9 or 10 inches, lasting long on the plant. The flowers are yellow, but inconspicuous. There is a white-bracted sort (P. p. alba) that is often grown as a companion to the above, but is not nearly so effective, although forming a nice contrast. We have also recently acqu ired what is called a double-flowered variety (P. p. pianissimo), in which the cymose inflorescence is branched, bearing within the outer bracts, tufts of smaller but equally high-coloured bracts, which mature in succession, and much extend the flowering season. As decorative subjects for a warm conservatory, or stove, the red kinds have few equals at a dull time of the year when flowers are not over-plentiful; they also possess the advantage that they can be brought into bloom at different times, giving a succession for eight or ten weeks. They stand long when cut if kept in water, or wet sand They increase readily from cuttings in spring, taken off with a heel when the shoots are about 4 inches long, inserted in sand, and placed in a brisk heat; when rooted, put them singly in 3 or 4 inch pots, in good turfy loam to which is added one-sixth of leaf-mould with a little sand; they should be kept in a temperature of 68° or 70° at night, with a rise of 10° by day. The plant has an almost uncontrollable habit of running up with a single straight shoot without any disposition to branch. Young plants are grown on without stopping, but to prevent their getting up too high they should be kept all through the growing season with their heads almost touching the roof, and allowed sufficient air when the weather is fine; give enough water, and as soon as the pots get filled with roots move them into others 8 or 10 inches in diameter, using soil similar to that for the last potting, and treat as before, syringing them freely overhead in the afternoons. Towards the beginning of August, when they have got plenty of roots, they may be gradually inured to more air, and either removed to a house without fire-heat, where they can have air night and day whilst the weather is warm, or stood out-of-doors under a south wall in the full sun for a month; but before there is any approach to cold nights they must be taken inside. The above treatment hardens them up preparatory to flowering. They should now be kept at a temperature of 50° during the night, and by the end of September some of them may be put in the stove where they will come into flower, the remainder being brought into stronger heat later on for succession. AVhen in bloom they will bear placing in a temperature of 55° at night, and so used will last longer than if kept where it is hotter. By the above method very large heads of flowers can be grown.THE STOVE AND FORCING HOUSE. 8G9 Dwarf Plants.—Where they are wanted dwarf, say from 8 to 12 inches high, and bloomed in 6-inch pots, the following course may be taken. When the shoots have got strong about the beginning of September, with a sharp knife cut them half way through 6 or 7 inches from the tops, and leave them in this state upon the plants for ten days until the cut portion has become callused over; then completely sever them and place in 3-inch pots in a mixture of half sand and loam; keep them in a close cutting frame, where they will root in about three weeks, after which give air gradually, and ultimately, as soon as they evince ability to bear it, fully expose them to the stove: move into 6-inch pots in soil such as before advised, and keep them as near the glass as possible. If they show a disposition to get taller than desired, again half sever them at a similar distance below the tops, and after they are callused as before, take them off and root them. When the flowering is over, both large and small should have water gradually withheld; they will then cast their leaves, and the soil should be allowed to get quite dry. Put them in any out-of-the-way place where a temperature of 55° can be kept up, and here let them remain until the time to start them in spring about the end of March or beginning of April, when they should be cut down to within 18 inches of the ground, and placed in a temperature of 60°, giving them a good soaking with water. They will here soon push into growth, when cuttings, as required, can be ; taken off, and the old plants destroyed or grown on if wanted. These the second year may be made more bushy with a number of shoots by stopping when they have grown about 8 or 10 inches. When fairly broken they should have a good portion of the old soil shaken off, and be replaced in the same sized pots in new soil, train- i ing the shoots well down, as they will bend freely whilst young into any shape desired. With the aid of manure water through the growing season , they will not need larger pots, and should be treated in other respects as advised for the young plants. Where it is desired, they can be grown in succeeding years to a large size by giving them more root-room, cutting them well back each j season before starting into growth, and removing the exhausted soil, which the spare nature of the roots allows to be readily shaken away. THE EUCHARIS (Ai£c/tama?/ia20>u’ca,Fig.382). —This is one of the most beautiful of all white flowers, equally suitable for decorative purposes j as a blooming plant, or as a flower for cutting, for which by its distinct character and long-enduring properties it is especially fitted. It has no parti-! cular season for flowering, but can be brought in at any time after it has made good growth, and been rested. It is propagated by division of the bulbs, which increase moderately fast when well grown. In M;ircli divide these, placing them singly in 6-inch pots. Like most other subjects of a similar nature it delights in good loamy soil with as much sand added as will keep the whole in a sweet healthy state; drain the pots sufficiently and pot firmly, just covering the bulbs up to the base of their thick leathery evergreen leaves; give Fig. 382. a little water and place them in a temperature of 65° or 70° during the night, with a rise of 6° or 8° in the day. They will require nothing more than attending to with water, giving increased heat and a little shade in blight weather, with enough light and air to keep them stout and prevent the leaves becoming drawn. They will make roots rapidly, and by midsummer will begin to throw up side shoots, when a size larger pot may be given. Encourage growth all through the autumn up to the middle of November; they should then be rested, which is effected by maintaining a lower temperature, say 60° at night, and withholding water until the leaves flag slightly, but not allowing them to suffer by going too long dry, as an evergreen bulb like this cannot bear its roots being too much dried up; give a little water, but not enough to saturate the soil, and then no more until the leaves again flag, when the watering may 870 GARDENER’! be repeated. Two months of resting in this way-will be sufficient, after which the roots can be well soaked and the plants placed in a temperature 8° higher. Here they most likely will throw up a flower-stem each from the original bulb, which, when flowering is over, can be cut out, ami the plants at once removed into pots 2 or 3 inches larger, ramming the soil cpiite firm; return them to a house or pit, where they can be now kept at a temperature of 70° by night, and proportionately higher by day, treating them every way as in the summer previous; and as the object will be to get the plants larger so as to make good blooming specimens, it will be advisable this season to keep them on growing as before during the summer and autumn, when rest can be induced as in the previous year. In the winter start them as previously directed, and after flowering move into larger pots and grow on until June, when they can be rested for six or eight weeks, again placed in a brisk heat with moisture, when they will make a good growth before winter, and can be rested and bloomed as before. As they get large, they can be either separated to single bulbs, or divided to two or three moderate-sized plants of several bulbs each; and when there are a number of pots, and a portion of them are thus grown and rested in succession, they can be had in flower all the year round. Iiisects.—This plant is easily kept clean from insects, for though brown scale, mealy bug, and black thrips affect it more or less, they can be destroyed by sponging and the use of the syringe, the nature of the leaves being such that the pests are easily removable. THE PHYLLOCACTUS. — These singular habited and showy succulent plants of the cactaceous order, which have sometimes been included with the Epiphyllum, are indigenous to Brazil and Mexico. From the species originally introduced several hybrids have been raised, possessing much of the general character of the parents. They are of easy culture, requiring dry stove treatment. To this latter circumstance may be attributed the decrease in their cultivation as compared with a former period; for the general occupants of the plant-stove at the present day are found to need much more atmospheric moisture than was formerly given to plants cultivated ill heat, while the stove of times past was a structure where the atmosphere was of a dry parching nature, extremely conducive to the production of red spider and kindred pests. They are readily struck in spring before growth has commenced, from cuttings 5 or 6 inches in length, made from the mature shoots; these should be put singly in 3 or 4 inch pots well ASSISTANT. drained, the soil, which should be loam, being made more than ordinarily porous by the admixture of one-sixth crocks broken fine, with the addition of a little sand; and be placed in a night temperature of G0°. They must not receive more water than will just prevent the soil getting cpiite dry, or they will rot, neither must they be confined under a bell-glass, or anything of the kind, or a similar result will follow. When the pots are filled with roots they may be moved into others a size larger, but, anything in the shape of over-potting must be studiously avoided, for the loots are always liable to rot if in too large a proportion of soil. They should be grown on through the summer with a fair quantity of heat, giving more water as they increase in root-power. Let them have all the light possible with plenty of air, but no shade, as they enjoy an unlimited amount of sun. When they have pushed some growth, those that do not show a disposition to break out side shoots, or to push up from the base, may have the top of the leader cut clean off, so as to cause them to break back, but most of the kinds are naturally of a branching habit, and do not require meddling with. They should be wintered in a temperature of 45° or 50", and kept tolerably dry at the root. By the end of February place them where they will receive more warmth and water, and when growth has fairly commenced, if the pots are well filled with roots, move them into others larger, using soil similar to that before recommended. By the end of Jime, turn them out under a south wall where they will get the full sun, and give water as required; here let them remain until the end of August, when they should be taken in, and kept during the autumn in a cool house, with all the light and sun possible. Winter as before, starting them early in spring, the object being to get as much growth made as possible before the time comes for turning out, which is necessary every summer to ripen up the growth in order to insure its flowering. Some of the plants will most likely make a few blooms, but it is not until they have got to a considerable size by a course of treatment such as above advised, that they show their true character by producing in quantity their intensely-coloured gorgeous flowers. As they require it in after years, give them more pot-room. They are long-lived, rarely suffering from ill-health if fairly treated, especially if not overwatered. The undermentioned are good, free-blooming kinds, coming in early or late in the spring, according to the time when started into growth. P. irf fftiMinrt nit^i—flmr'-t dowering from May to July. P. Jenkingoni.—Crimson, flowering from June to August.THE STOVE AND FORCING HOUSE. 871 P. cri'iiatut.—Creamy-white, flowering in May and June. P. ereuatus atrosanguiileus.—Shaded red. P. IJookei ii.—White, flowering in June and July. P. speciosm.—Rosy pink, flowering from May to July. Similar treatment to that recommended for the Phyllocacti will be suitable for the splendid crimson and purple Ccreus speciosissinuis, and its varieties, and for the yellow and white C. Mac-Donatdiw and C. grand {floras, the latter being known as the night-blooming cactus. THE EPIPHYLLUM {Epiphglhim trunca-tum, Fig. 3S3).—This species is a native of Brazil, and is naturally of a free-blooming disposition, coming in during the spring and winter when required by the use of heat. The plants are of slow growth, and not at all difficult to manage; they do not occupy much room, and are alike suitable for large or small houses. In the winter and Fig. 3S3. early spring their beautiful purple, scarlet, and crimson shaded flowers are most effective in either the warm conservatory or plant-stove; they are equally suitable for use in a cut state in filling vases, or as an addition to a choice bouquet. They will succeed from cuttings on their own roots, or, as more usually grown, by grafting on the Percskia in the form of a small standard, in which way they have a nice appearance. The stocks are struck from cuttings inserted during the winter or spring, and placed in heat, where they soon root; they should be grown on in sandy loam, the pots being well drained, anything In the shape of stagnant moisture being particularly objectionable to the whole family. These stocks should be kept to a sini.de stem, and when large enough, that is, of sufficient height, say 1 foot or 18 inches, grafted with small pieces of the Epi-phyllum, and grown on in heat. They do not require a great deal of root-room; 0 or 7 inch pots are large enough for these grafted plants until they get to a nice size. They should be grown on through the summer after grafting, in heat, and where they will get plenty of light until autumn, when they ought to have less warmth and moisture for a time, so as to get a rest. In February they may be again started into growth, the object being to get them on to a useful size. They do not usually require much stopping to keep them in shape, being of a profuse spreading habit, but should any branch take the lead, it should be cut back so as to balance the head properly. By the end of July in the second season they will have made nice plants, and must have plenty of air, and be fully exposed to the sun so as to ripen up the growth, for on this depends their ability to flower freely. Through the autumn give them greenhouse treatment, applying no more water than necessary to keep them from shrivelling; a temperature of 45° will be sufficient. About the end of the year, a portion of them may be started in a temperature of G0°, giving enough moisture to keep the roots in a growing state; they will soon show flower, and when open can be moved into a cooler situation, others being started to come in as the first go out. These should at once be again pushed on into growth in heat, giving if required an inch more pot-room, and treating them through the summer as in the preceding season. They will thus last for many years, increasing in size, and each season producing a greater quantity of their very attractive blossoms. Plants grown from cuttings put in during the early winter, and struck in heat, should, when rooted, be placed in 3-inch pots, and grown on as directed for the grafted ones in every way. The principal objection to these struck plants is that from their drooping habit they soon grow too much over the pot to be seen to advantage. Epiphyllums are not subject to the attacks of many insect enemies, but scale will live upon them, and must be removed by sponging; and green-fly sometimes attacks the young flower-buds as they make their appearance, and must be destroyed by tobacco smoke. There are a number of varieties of E. truncatum, differing little except in the amount and shade of rose-colour or crimson in the flowers, some of the best of which are:— Albo-violaceum. Bicolor. Bridgesii. Ruckerii. .Salmoneum. Salmoneum marginatum. Splemlens. Violaceum Snovvii. Violaceum superbum. Violaceum grandiflorum.872 GARDENER'S ASSISTANT. THE BEGONIA.—The flowering begonias are very easily grown free-blooming plants, succeeding well with comparatively little attention. By the use of a few varieties they can be had in bloom all the year round, but it is in the winter and early spring that they are the most useful. They are indigenous to both the eastern and western hemispheres, the greater portion being from South America; and large numbers of fine hybrids have been raised in gardens. They root freely in sandy soil, placed in heat at any time of the year when moderately firm shoots can be had; it is not well to keep the cuttings too close or damp, as from their succulent nature they do not require it, and so treated they are liable to rot. In selecting shoots for cuttings choose such as are stout and strong, by having been well exposed to the light, as they make better plants than the soft growths As soon as they are rooted move them singly into 6-incli pots; they will do well in sandy loam with a moderate admixture of leaf-mould and sand. When they begin to grow, pinch out the leading points to cause them to break; place them in a light situation, and as the days lengthen give a moderate quantity of air, and thin shading over the glass in the middle of very bright days—although they are not things that suffer much from the effects of sun. They root very fast, and in two months will want another shift. The size of pot they should now be placed in depends upon the varieties grown, the strongest of course requiring the most room. It is not well to use over-large pots, as they can be assisted with manure water; those from 8 to 12 inches diameter are large enough for most kinds. They may at once be placed in these, opening them out by tying to a few sticks, and stopping the points to cause them to break out more side shoots. During the summer a light pit where they can be stood near the roof glass, is more suitable for them than a house. The summer-flowering kinds will commence blooming as soon as they get fairly established, those that come in through the autumn and winter keeping on growing. Give plenty of air, but shut it off in good time in the afternoon, whilst the sun is on the glass. They should be kept through the autumn and winter at a temperature of from 55“ to 60° by night, with a few degrees more in the day, and all the light possible. If at this season they are grown far from the glass, or in too high a temperature, they are useless for cutting, the flowers being too soft, and flagging as soon as severed from the plant. In most cases it is better to grow the stove varieties of begonias from cuttings struck every year, destroying the old plants when they have bloomed, as from their free disposition young ones can be grown large enough in a short time, and are much preferable. The following are some of the best and most useful kinds:— Carminata. Chelsoni. Fuchsioides. Ilydrocotylifolia manicata. Intermedia. Parvifolia. Prestoniensis. Rosfeflora. Sagittata. Sedeni. Victor Lemoine. Weltoniensis. To these might be added several varieties of the tuberous-rooted boliviensis section, and the old popular B. Evansiana, which, however, do not require so much heat, at least during the flowering stages. Fine-leaved Begonias are plants which have of late years become, as they deserve, very popular, their singular-shaped, beautifully-marked leaves, so different ill general character from the generality of cultivated plants, rendering them very useful for many decorative purposes. The handsome marbling and banding of their rich yet quaint colours, alike distinct in every way from other vegetable forms, contrast well with most other plants. They are found indigenous in the warm parts of both the eastern and western hemispheres, and from these have sprung the large numbers of beautiful hybrids now in existence. They are well adapted for pot culture, as also for planting out amongst rock-work in ferneries, where their red, bronze, and silvery markings, displayed upon massive leaves, are a perfect contrast to the light airy forms that surround them. There is no position in which these plants can be grown where they are so effective as amongst ferns, the appearance of both being improved by the association. As pot subjects in the stove they can with advantage be stood about amongst things of lighter form and larger growth; but here they must not be so crowded as to cause them to get drawn up weakly, or they soon have an untidy appearance, and are wanting in the effect produced by plants that have highly-coloured leaves on stout short stalks. Their propagation is very simple, as they increase readily from leaf-cuttings prepared by cutting the leaves into pieces of about 1 inch square, and inserting them edgeways half in the soil in pots sufficiently drained and partially filled with sandy peat, and having an inch of sand on the surface; they will soon root and throw up shoots, when they can be placed singly in thumb-pots in sandy peat or loam, to which has been added one-fifth of leaf-mould. In this they grow rapidly in a night temperature of 65° or 70° with a corresponding rise in the day. The propagation is best carried out in the summer when the leaves are well matured; for if young and soft, the cut-THE STOVE AND FORCING HOUSE. 873 tings are liable to rot. They must be shaded from the sun, but not confined under a bell-glass or propagating-frame. Give the young plants plenty of light with sufficient air to prevent their getting weak. They will only require shading for a few hours in the middle of the day during the brightest summer weather. As they need it, give more pot room, using soil similar to that advised for the first shift, but not broken too fine. The habit of these begonias is such as not to want stopping, since they have a disposition to branch out. Very large pots are not necessary for their cultivation; those 12 inches in diameter will suffice for fine specimens; they may, as the soil gets filled with roots, be assisted with manure-water two or three times a week. In the summer they can with advantage be used for decorative purposes in the conservatory, being previously prepared by gradually submitting them to a lower temperature and more air. During the winter they should not be kept cooler than 50° at night. From the ease with which they can be propagated, and their free disposition of growth, it is not advisable to keep very old plants, which are better destroyed, and young ones grown on to take their places. They are little subject to insects; thrips will sometimes attack them, but can be kept under by syringing. The following are distinct and deserving of a place:— Adrien Robine. Charles Sehurer. Dr. Regel. Duchesse de Brabant. Grandis. Gloire de Montereau. Louis Boutard. Madame Crousse. Madame Malets. Marga. Monsieur Thouvenel. Mirabilis. \ ivea splendens. Professor Gasparrini. Rex. Splendens. 3-incli pots. They succeed well in good fibrous loam to which has been added one-fourth leaf-mould and a sprinkling of sand; in this they root quickly. They should be kept in a night temperature of 70°, with a rise of 10° in the day; when the sun is powerful shade a little, syringe them overhead in the afternoon, and close the house with sun-heat. The plants are naturally of a bushy habit, but if any shoots show a disposition to take the lead they should be stopped. Fig. 384. THE BOUVARDIA(Fig. 384).—The continuous flowering habit possessed by these plants, together with the freedom in which their highly fragrant blooms are produced, render them almost indispensable where flowers are much in demand, while from their compact form they take up little room. So persistent are they, that with most of the varieties every bit of growth they make an inch or two in length will blossom. They are natives of Mexico, and therefore do not require a very strong heat to keep them alive through the winter; but, as that is the season in which their flowers are the most in request, they must then have a brisk temperature to induce them to bloom freely. Plants that have been in heat during the winter and spring will have made plenty of cuttings; these should be taken off in April, inserted round the sides of 6-inch pots in sand, placed in a good heat under bell-glasses or an ordinary propagating frame, and kept moist in a close atmosphere. When well rooted put them singly into As the pots get filled with roots move them into those they are to bloom in, which should be 6 or 7 inches in diameter; use the soil prepared similarly to that for the first potting, and treat as before. By the end of July they ought to be moved to a cold pit, in which they should be stood sufficiently far apart to prevent crowding, giving them plenty of air in the day, and leaving a little on at night. Here they may remain until the middle or end of September, when they must be removed to a house or pit where a little heat can be turned on when the weather comes cold. If flowers are required through the autumn a portion of the plants should then be at once placed in a temperature of 68° or 70° at night, with a few degrees higher in the daytime; they will shortly begin to push up blooms which will open in quantity for a time, and keep on producing others to follow as they make additional growth. Another portion may be introduced into brisk heat as above, that will come in succession through the winter and spring,874 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. and continue if wanted more or less during the summer. Propagate young plants as required every season, treating them as above advised. The old ones can either be destroyed after flowering, or some may be cut back, and when they have broken partially shook out, repotted in good new soil, and treated as recommended for the young stock, except that they will need an inch larger pots. The following are a selection of the best kinds, differing considerably in habit and size of flower, as also affording diversity in colour:— A Iba odorata. —i’lowers white, very fragrant, and lasting long in bloom. Elegans.—Scarlet; a fine variety. Hogarth.—Scarlet; good habit. llumboldtii eorymbijlora.—White; the largest and finest variety grown. Jasminijlora (Fig. 384).—White; a very free grower. Maiden’s Blush.—Blush pink; a fine winter-ilowering kind. Van IJouttei.—Bright scarlet. Vreelandii.—White; a very free flowering sort, of compact habit. They are not much subject to insects. Aphides and red spider will occasionally make their appearance upon them; fumigate for the former, and a liberal use of the syringe will be the best safeguard against the latter. THE HIPPEASTRUM or AMARYLLIS (Fig. 3S5).—The magnificent hybrids now existing of these splendid bulbs have sprung principally from species of Hippeastrum. imported from South America. There are few plants that have better rewarded the patient and persevering labours of the hybridist than these, and their gorgeous flowers, and combinations of telling colours, striped, mottled, and blended in the most effective manner, render them general favourites. The small space they occupy, their easy culture and free-blooming disposition, are additional merits. They are increased by offsets that push up from the base of the flowering bulbs, and which, if severed from the bulbs that produced them with the roots which they have made entire, will at once commence growth. To thus increase them it is necessary to turn them out of the pots and shake the soil away so as to separate without injury the roots, which get much interlaced; but this is an operation that should not be resorted to often, as they do not like being disturbed, and as the offsets increase in size faster whilst attached to the parent bulb, without in any appreciable extent interfering with the growth of the latter, it is better to leave whatever are produced for some time, until there are several to take away. Like most other bulbous subjects, they cannot endure their roots being meddled with when in a growing state, consequently the operation should be performed when the plants are quite at rest. The young stock thus removed should be placed singly in small pots, the size of which will be regulated by the size of the bulbs, but on no account should they be overpotted, as if too much room is given they will make little progress; a 6-inch pot is large enough for a good-sized offset, and this should be drained in a manner Fig. 385. Hippeastrum (Amaryllis) Leopoldii. that will insure the water passing freely away. They do best in good loam, to which has been added a moderate quantity of sand, but as they like a holding soil, it should not be made too light. In potting disperse the roots evenly, keeping about two-thirds of the bulb above the level of the soil, which should be rammed well with the potting lath to make it quite solid. The large bulbs, from which the offsets have been taken, should be potted singly in similarsized pots to those they have already occupied, and all should be placed in a temperature of 55° by night, with a rise of 10° by day, syringing overhead slightly once a day. They should have a light situation, either on a shelf over a path, or on a side stage. Be careful not to over-water until the roots have begun to grow freely, after which they must have as much as will keep the soil moderately moist; increase the temperature to 70° at night, with 10° higher by day. They do not require any shade, but should have plenty of air in the middle of the day. Through the summerTHE STOVE AND FORCING HOUSE. 875 and autumn their treatment will be of a simple routine character, merely giving water and air as required, with a continued use of the syringe overhead in the afternoons in bright weather. This is necessary to keep down red spider, to which they are liable. They may be kept on growing to the end of September, giving plenty of air in the day, with a little during the night when the weather is warm. As the days shorten, and the temperature outside gets lower, gradually decrease it with the plants, but as the object with the young bulbs is to get them on in size without delay, they should not be kept lower than 50° at night, giving enough water to keep the roots gently moving through the winter. About the middle of March turn each one out to examine it, without disturbing the roots; any that are found to have got full possession of the soil may be moved into pots an inch larger, potting as before quite firmly, and treating all through the summer, as to water, air, and light, in every way as already advised. In the autumn keep them drier, and winter as before. The larger plants that were shifted the preceding spring, if now in 7-inch pots, will not require this season any increase of room, but will need another summer’s growth similar to what they have already had up to the beginning of August; then keep them a little drier at the roots, with all the sun possible and plenty of air, so as to mature the growth and prepare them for flowering: but the hipi >eastrums, which are evergreen, must never be allowed to become too dry at the root, or they will suffer. Through the autumn they should receive just as much water as will keep the soil from getting quite dry. In February or the beginning of March place them in a temperature of 60J by night, with a rise to 70° in the day, and srive sufficient water to moisten the soil through. Ackcnnamii pulclierri-mum. Aulieum. liievi. Coccineum. Conspicuum. Dr. lilecker. Elegans. Exquisite. General Garibaldi. Giganteum. Ilighgate Jtival. Ignesceiis. Leopoldii (Fig. 3S5). Loveliness. Marginatum conspi-cuuin. Meteor. Oritiamme. I'anlimnu. Princess Dagmar. Pyrroclirouni. Striatum superbum. flyrene. 11 nique. Virginale. Williamsii. William Pitt. If they get affected with scale it must be removed with the sponge. Thrips and aphides should be exterminated by tobacco smoke, and red spider kept under by the use of the syringe; but although these insects will live upon aina-ryllids, they are not so subject to them as most plants. THE CALADIUM.-“-These beautiful aroids are amongst the finest of the coloured-leaved stove plants we possess. They are indigenous to the hot regions of both the eastern and western hemispheres, and besides the introduced species there are now a number of very fine hybrids that have been raised by judicious crossing. Their peculiar arrow-shaped leaves are ■ profusely marbled, blotched, or veined with red, pink, and white, in many cases the deeper or more lively colours largely preponderating over the green portion, imparting to them great variety. The darker kinds, such as Caladium bicolor splendens, have ample rich leaves, whilst the lighter sorts are exquisitely mottled with a higher colour upon a ground of delicate white. Form and colour alike give them a most distinct character, and they are eminently fitted for associating, not only with ferns and other things of elegant habit, but also with subjects of more massive growth and sombre hues. They are easily grown, one of the principal things to be observed in their cultivation being If all goes well they will soon throw up their bloom spikes, and when the flowers are opened they may be moved to the conservatory, where they can remain until these decay; after which they should be again placed in a growing temperature as in the preceding summers, treating as before to ripen them up in the autumn. When they need more root-room larger pots must be given, as also to the smallest offsets as they require it. The principal things to avoid in the cultivation of these and allied plants is overpotting, or allowing the soil to get sour, as if this ever occurs the roots are sure to rot, in which case the bulbs, instead of increasing in size, grow rapidly smaller. The following are a selection of the finest sorts, but the list might be indefinitely extended:— not to allow the tubers during the winter when at rest to remain in too low a temperature, for should this ever occur they are almost sure to rot, even if the soil is quite dry. They are increased by division of the young growths that are thrown up plentifully from the crown of the tubers in the spring when they commence growing, at which time they should be kept in a temperature of C5° by night; these, when they have advanced a little, throw out roots close above where they are attached to the parent, and at this point they should be severed with a clean cut so as not to braise either the portion which is removed or the tuber from which it is taken, and placed singly in 3-inch pots. They will grow in either fibrous sandy peat or good turfy loam; drain the pots well and add enough sand to insure porosity in the soil; keep them876 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. under bell-glasses or in a propagating frame until they are established, after which gradually inure them to the atmosphere of the stove, and give plenty of light by placing them well up to the glass. They should be shaded during bright sunny weather, or the leaves will be injured in coloui’, but do not allow any shading material over them, unless when absolutely required, or it will draw them up weakly, in which case no after treatment during the season will set them to rights. Syringe overhead every afternoon, and as soon as the pots are filled with roots move them on into larger ones; they will bear a 4-inch | shift, using the soil in a lumpy state. Through , the summer the night temperature may be kept about 70°, with 10° higher by day. As the autumn approaches they will show signs of going to rest by ceasing to make fresh leaves, and those ! they already possess will become yellow. From this time gradually withhold water, and when the whole of the leaves are dead remove them, and give no more water, but allow the soil to become quite dry, and let the tubers remain in it i through the winter, during which period they should be put on a shelf in a temperature of about 55°. Towards the end of February they may be removed to larger pots in new soil and placed in a temperature of 65°, when they will soon begin to grow, and should be treated in every way as advised for the preceding summer. If small or moderate-sized plants are required, they may be grown in 6 or 8 inch pots, and propagated every spring so .as to have a succession of tubers for the purpose. If the intention is to grow them into large specimens they must be encouraged by liberal pot-room; in this way the tubers in a few years get very big, and will require a 16-inch pot, the treatment in other respects being the same as advised for the first season. They do not well bear, even in the height of summer, to be placed in a cool house, as under these conditions the leaves become flaccid and lose their lustre. From the acrid nature of their juices these plants are not palatable to many insects; green-fly will sometimes attack the young growth, but these can be destroyed by fumigation; red spider will also occasionally make its appearance during the summer if the atmosphere is kept too dry, but it is easy to cope with by a timely use of the syringe. The annexed selection comprises all the most distinct and beautiful varieties:— Argyrites.—A lovely miniature-leaved kind; very suitable tor small pots; mottled white and pale green. Alfred Bleu.—Green ground, with white spots, and flesh-coloured centre. Belleymei.—A flne large-leaved sort, three-fourths of the leaf covered with white marbling, suffused with pale pink. Bicolor splendens.— Noble leaves, intense crimson centre, margined with green. Chantinii fulgens.—Green ground, crimson centre, spotted with white. Chelsoni.—Green, suffused with red, and crimson spots. Donizetti.—Dark green margin, red centre, spotted with rose-colour. Due de Nassau.—Centre and nerves bright red, white spots on pale green margin. ildouard Andri.—Green ground, rose-coloured centre, blotched with pink. E. 6. Henderson.—Green, spotted with rose and crimson. Henri Doucet.—Deep crimson centre, bright red ribs margined with green. Jules Putzeys. —Dark green, crimson rib and veins, blotched with gray and red. Laingii. — Carmine centre, spotted with pure white, yellowish green margin. Lepeschkinei—Centre deep red, and spotted with rose. Leplay.—Large white centre, veined with violet. Murillo.— Centre deep red, blotched with crimson, green margin. Prince Albert Edward.—Leaf-stems barred with white, deep green ground, crimson mid-rib, the surface spotted with white. Princess Alexandra.—Salmon green central rib, banded with crimson, green margin. Reine Victoria. — Green veins and margin, marbled with white and crimson. THE DRACiENA.—These elegant - habited, splendidly-coloured plants are mostly indigenous to different parts of the East, including the South Sea Islands, Madagascar, and East India. They are a grand addition to our decorative stove subjects, the remarkable colouring of the leaves, and their regular yet graceful mode of growth, distinguishing them from any other plants we possess. They are not so quickly increased as some things, but beyond this there is little difficulty in their propagation. They are easy to grow, and but little subject to disease, while another great point in their favour is that during all the summer season they can be used in the conservatory or greenhouse, where they form a very telling feature, their bright colours well supplying the place of flowering things, which in the late summer time are not so plentiful as in the spring. They can be increased by cuttings made from the stem; even when the wood has got quite hard and become denuded of leaves, small pieces an inch long, consisting of two or three joints inserted a couple of inches asunder in an ordinary seed-pan, drained and filled with fibrous sandy peat, and half an inch of clean sand on the surface, will soon make young plants. As soon as put in! give them a good watering, and place them in a house or pit where there is a temperature of from 65° to 70° by night. They may be struck at any time of the year when the above heat can be maintained, but the spring is the best, as they have then all the summer before them to mature their growth; they should be set out of the sun, but it is not necessary to confine them under bell-glasses or in a propagating frame. In a few weeks theTHE STOVE AND FORCING HOUSE. 877 eyes will break, and they will emit roots; and when the young shoots have pushed a couple or 3 inches, they should be placed singly in 3-incli pots. They do the best in good peat, containing a fair quantity of fibre, and enough sand to keep it porous. Through the summer they ought to be where a temperature of 75° is kept up during the night. Give plenty of light, shade thinly in the middle of the day when the sun is upon them, syringe overhead in the afternoon, and water at the root when required. By the end of July they will need moving into 6-incli pots, using soil similar to that in which they were before put. In the winter a night temperature of 60° will be sufficient, never allowing them to get dry at the root. About the beginning of March raise the temperature 10° by night and correspondingly by day. As soon as they appear to be making active growth at the roots give them pots 3 or 4 inches larger, using the soil a little coarser; pot them moderately firm, and treat them in every way as advdsed the preceding season. By the end of the summer they will have grown into nice plants, and must be kept through the winter as before recommended. The season following they will not require potting in the spring, unless the object is to grow them very large, in which case they may receive a 3-inch shift. Those that are wanted for ordinary decorative purposes can be kept growing by the use of manure-water twice a week, and if required for the conservatory should by midsummer be gradually inured to more air, and then placed in the cooler situation, but out of a cold draught. Whilst here care must be taken that they do not become affected with red spider, as this, if allowed to get established upon them, is fatal to the leaves, which are quickly turned brown, and the oldest will fall off, giving the plants an unsightly appearance and necessitating their being headed down. Do not let them stay too long in a cold house; if the weather is not very warm, they should be moved back into heat by the middle of September. If required to remain in small pots, 6 inches in diameter, they may be kept in such for a couple of years by assisting them during the growing season with manure-water. When they get too large, and the under leaves become shabby, they can be headed down, shaken out, and placed in smaller pots with new soil; and if treated as advised for the young stock the stools will throw up growth, and make very handsome plants with larger leaves down to the base than is possible in the case of those that are newly struck. The tops of course can also be made into cuttings, and managed in the way already directed for other cuttings, they soon make good plants. Dracamas are liable -to the attacks of most of the insects that infest stove plants, as scale, mealy bug, thrips, aphides, and red spider. Bug and scale must be kept down by sponging; thrips and aphides destroyed by fumigation; and red spider by a diligent use of the syringe. Though the name of Draccena has become thoroughly identified with these plants in gardens, they are more correctly referred to the genus Cordi/line. The following are all beautiful varieties deserving of general cultivation. Many other desirable kinds, especially some of Mr. Wills’ novel hybrids, might be recommended:— Albo-rosea.—Mature leaves of a bronzy green; whilst young suffused with white, changing when older to pale rose. Amabilis.—Leaves bright green, suffused with pink and creamy white. Augusta.—Slender, narrow, arched leaves, dark green above, tinted with purple underneath. Baptistii.— Deep green, erect, arched leaves, suffused with rose. Excelsa.— Leaves deep bronze, broad deep crimson edging. Fraseri. —Broad, erect, stout leaves, dark purple, margined with deep rose. Very distinct. Gemma.—Green and bronze, edged with rose. Impmialis. —Bright green leaves, with white and rose variegation. Mooreana.—A noble-liabited variety, leaves dark green, edged with red. Pulchcrrima.—Narrow purple leaves, streaked with red and white. Shepherdii.— Immense bronzy orange leaves, suffused with pale green. Splendens.— Bronzy leaves, suffused with pale pink. THE COLEUS. — These very free-growing plants are remarkable for the bright colours of their leaves, amongst which we have all the shades of red from pale pink up to the deepest crimson, and green from the faintest to dark olive, combined with yellow—these variously blended, from varieties that have half their leaves yellow and the other part crimson, to those that are spotted and edged in the most regular manner. As conserva-tory decorative subjects they are very effective and useful in the summer, during which season they will stand well. They are quick growers, very easy to increase, and are therefore best propagated every year, merely keeping a plant or so of each kind through the winter for increase. At the beginning of March take off cuttings, which should consist of shoots about 3 inches long; insert these in thumb-pots in sandy loam, place them where they will have a night temperature of 60°, and keep them moist and shaded from the sun; here they will root in a fortnight or three weeks, when they may be moved into 6-inch pots, using ordinary loamy compost with a moderate quantity of sand, in which they will grow apace; keep them near the light, and pinch out the points to induce them to break back. In the course of a month they will have filled their pots with roots, and may878 GAEDENEE’S ASSISTANT. be placed in others that are larger, regulating the dimensions of those which are used by the size to which it is intended to grow the pitots. For general decorative purposes 8-inch pots will be large enough, but if large specimens are required they may at once be put in 10 or 12 inch pots; syringe them overhead in the afternoon, and pinch out the points to keep them bushy. They should not have much shade, as it induces them to draw up weakly. By the beginning of June give them more air and less heat for a week or two, so as to harden them a little before removing them to a cooler place; after this they may be put in the conservatory or greenhouse, where, if attended to with water, of which they require a good deal, they will do well until the end of September, when they may be destroyed, retaining as many as requisite to propagate from the succeeding spring. They should be wintered in a house where a temperature from 50° to 55° by night is kept up, and placed near the glass; here they will require no further attention than giving water when needed. They are little subject to insects, although red spider will sometimes attack them if the atmosphere in which they are grown is kept too dry. The subjoined are a selection of the most distinct and worthy of cultivation:— Baroness Rothschild.—Bronzy crimson, golden yellow margin. Crown Jewel.—Crimson centre, yellow edging. Duchess of Edinburgh.—Blotched and mottled with deep maroon crimson, pink, and cream colour. E. G. Henderson.—Centre purple, golden edge, with crimson spots. Keteleeri.—Bark maroon, fringed edges. Mons. V. Lcrnoine. — Pale yellow leaves, centre violet, blotched with purple. Prince Troubetzkoi.—Yellow leaves, spotted with carmine. Queen Victoria.—Bronzy crimson, yellow edging. The Shah.—Leaves half crimson and half yellow. MISCELLANEOUS STOVE PLANTS.—In addition to the different families of stove plants that have been especially treated of, there are a very large number of others in general cultivation, amongst which are many of the finest which are known. We give a selection from those which are especially deserving of notice, either for the beauty of their flowers, or the attractive character of their foliage. JEciimea.—Small, compact growing plants, almost like Tillandsias. Loam or peat. Suckers. jE. fulgem produces handsome spikes of scarlet and black flowers in July or August, jjfffl Mar ice Regince is a larger grower, with very handsome rosy bracts in April and May. ./KscIIYN ANthus. —Free-growing plants of moderate growth, producing handsome flowers from the points of the shoots. Loam. Cuttings. Ml. Boxchianux is a dwarf drooping plant, with pretty scarlet blooms; suitable for a hanging basket. Spring. uE. splendcns is a stronger groover, of more upright habit, bearing large terminal bunches of bright red flowers. Summer and autumn. Allamanda.—Large, vigorous, strong-growing climbers, suitable for draping a roof, or as trained pot specimens. Loam. Cuttings. A. Chelsoni is very free, producing its yellow blooms in succession all through the summer. A. grandijlora is a smaller, more compact-habited plant than the last, with pale yellow flowrers. Summer. A. nobilis is a strong-growing species, with large, handsome, pale yellow blooms, one of the best of the genus. Summer. Amherstia nobilis.—One of the most magnificent blooming trees in existence, bearing in spring large racemes of vermilion-coloured flowers; requires a large space to grow in, and strong heat. Loam. Cuttings. Antiiurium Scherzerianum (Fig. 386.)—A brilliant, scarlet-flowered aroid, of compact habit, lasting long in bloom. Peat Fig. 386. and sphagnum. Seeds and division of the crowns. A. Scherzerianum album is a fine white-flowered variety of this species. Apiielandra.—Of somewhat spare erect habit, with little disposition to branch out. Peat. Cuttings. A. cristata is a plant of moderate growth, producing freely in autumn large upright spikes of deep orange coloured flowers. A. Roezlii is a dwarfer grower, having deep green shining leaves, and bearing at the points of the shoots, in winter, fine heads of bright red flowers. Arplsia cremdata.—Small and compact in habit, bearing quantities of bright red berries (for which it is grown) that hang long upon the plant; the flowers, which are inconspicuous, are white. Loam. Seeds and cuttings. UJ crenulata cdba is a white-berried form of the same plant. Aristolociiia. —Mostly strong-growing, twining plants, suitable for stove climbers, producing large, very singularshaped flowers; they require a considerable amount of room. Peat or loam. Cuttings. A. Gigas has very large flowers, creamy-white and brown. June. A. ornithoccphala has smaller blooms than A. Gigas, of a purple and brown colour. August. They are all of very singular form. Ataccia cristata.—A plant of small growth; flowers deep chocolate, of the most singular form and texture. June and July. Fibrous peat. Division of the crowns. Bignonia.—Free-growing climbers, suitable for training on the roof of a warm house. Peat. Cuttings. B. Cltamber-lagnii produces yellow flowers in July. B. venusta is similar in habit to the last, with orange blooms produced in August. Billbergia.—Plants of small or moderate size, compact in habit, the flowers produced in handsome, drooping or in some cases erect spikes. Teat. Suckers. B. Mondi has violet purple flowers, borne on a drooping panicle, in April and May, B. vittata is a very handsome plant, with purple blossoms produced in June.THE STOVE AND FORCING HOUSE. 879 Bougainvillea. —Strong, free-growing, profuse-flowering plants, suitable for draping a pillar or training on the roof; their highly-coloured bracts produce a gorgeous effect. Loam or peat. Cuttings. B. glabra is the freest-flowering sort, blooming in succession all through the summer; colour pale mauve. This makes a good pot plant. B. spectabilis is a strong-growing species, with deep mauve flowers. Summer. Burchellia capensis.—A handsome bushy plant, in habit not unlike an Ixora; it is a free-grower, bearing from the points of the shoots moderate-sized bunches of scarlet flowers. Spring. Peat. Cuttings. Centrapenia rosea.—A moderate-sized dwarf spreading plant, of easy growth, producing freely in spring close heads of pinkish white flowers. Peat. Cuttings. Centrostemma multijionnn—syn. Cgrtoceras rejlexum.— A compact-growing shrub, with thick leathery leaves; from their base spring numerous large bunches of straw-coloured flowers, borne on stout stems, much like those of Iloga; blooms in spring and again in autumn. Sandy peat. Cuttings. Cleropenprox.—These are represented not only by dwarf shrubby plants, but by others of twining habit; all are good growers and remarkably free in flowering. Loam. Cuttings and seeds. C. /alia.r has spreading ample foliage, above which are borne large panicles of bright scarlet blooms. June and August. C. fragrans is moderate in growth, and has white flower's tinged with red; very fragrant. June. C. Bal/ouri-anum is a splendid twiner, a variety of C. Thomsomv, suitable either for a pillar, rafter, or as a trained pot specimen; flowers deep red, with pure white calyces produced in the greatest profusion, and lasting for several weeks during the summer. Cochliostema Jacobianiun.—A broad-leaved, spreading, dense-habited plant, in appearance not unlike a Billbergia; bearing through the summer, from the base of almost every leaf, large panicles of azure-blue flowers. Peat. Suckers. Columnea splendent.—Of dwarf spreading habit, bearing freely during the summer numerous tube-shaped scarlet flowers. Sandy peat. Cuttings. Combretum purpureum.—This is a handsome evergreen climber of moderate growth, producing large sprays of intense purplish-crimson flowers in July. Peat. Cuttings. Crinum americanum.—A free-growing, moderate-sized, bulbous plant, producing stately spikes of elegant pure white flowers. Summer. Loam. Offsets. Curcuma Roscoeana.—A low-growing, deciduous, herbaceous plant, with ample foliage, from the base of which are thrown up plentifully dense bracteate flower-spikes of scarlet and yellow, that stand for weeks in the summer. Peat. Division of the crowns. Dalechampia lloezliana.—A free-growing plant of bushy habit, moderate in size. The flowers are inclosed by large pale pink bracts, produced in May and June. Peat. Cuttings. Dipladenia.—Twining plants of moderate growth, suitable for a rafter or trained pot specimen, flowering freely in succession all through the summer, and extremely beautiful. Fibrous peat. Cuttings. 1). Brea rley ana is one of the finest garden hybrids ever raised; a free bloomer, the flowers of the richest crimson, borne well above the foliage, and continuing to oi>en in succession from May to October. D. amabilis is similar in general character to the last, but the flowers are of a purplish-crimson colour. I). Williainsii produces chaste blooms of a delicate blush, with a deep rose-coloured throat. June to autumn. Franthemum pulchelliun. — Moderate in size, of stiff upright habit, producing freely through the winter months s:out erect shakes of intense blue flowers. A fine decorative plant. Peat. Cuttings. Kuphorbia. — Handsome continuous flowering, highly coloured, easily grown plants; indispensable for winter decoration. Loam or peat. Cuttings. E. jacgni/tuejlora— syn. E. f udge ns, is of slender, erect growth, with moderate-sized foliage; flowers intense scarlet, produced in long sprays on the upper portion of the shoots. January to April. E. splendent is a stout-growing, dense-habited spiny plant, that produces all the year round bright orange-scarlet blooms, usually borne in pairs. Franciscea.—Of free growth, ample shining leaves, .abundant bloomers, and deserving of general cultivation. Peat. Cuttings. F. calycina has large lilac flowers, produced in succession through April and May. F. confertijlora lias handsome shining leaves, and deep purple flowers, fading to-lilac as they get older, borne in bunches on the points of the shoots from April to June. F. L hi deni is a smaller growing species, with lanceolate leaves, the blooms deep lilac, produced in succession during May and June. Gardenia.—Alike handsome in foliage and flowers, the former a deep shining green, the latter in most of the species creamy-white, and highly fragrant. Peat. Cuttings. G. citriodora is a small-growing kind, producing freely its citron-scented blooms, in appearance when in bud not unlike orange blossom, as a substitute for which it is often used. February to June. (x. Fortunei is in habit not unlike a Camellia, but does not grow so large; the flowers are a beautiful pearly-white; April and May. G. jlorida is smaller in growth than the last, the blooms not so large, but it is the best sort for general use; may be had in flower all the year by using a succession of plants. G. Stanlegana is of quite a distinct spreading habit, the long-tubed flowers produced in May, rising from the axils of the young leaves. Gesnera.—Mostly tuberous-rooted plants, of dwarf growth, the leaves as well as the flowers of some kinds being remarkably handsome. They are easily grown, succeeding in either peat or loam. Cuttings. G. Cooperii has tube-shaped flowers of an intense scarlet, produced in May and June. G. lJonke-laari is similar in habit to the last-named; but the blooms are deep crimson. May. G. exoniensis has deep orange flowers, produced in large panicles from the crown of the shoots; the leaves are broad anti covered with innumerable hairs, having the appearance of silk plush, and are beautifully marked. Winter. Gloriosa superba—syn. Methonica siqwrba.—A tuberous-rooted liliaceous plant of climbing habit, bearing singular flowers, with narrow reflexed petals, of a golden yellow colour. August. Loam. Divisions. Godwinia Gigas. —A most singular aroid, with an immense solitary leaf, and very large flower-spathe of a dark reddish-brown in spring. Loam or sandy peat. Offsets. Griffinia hi/acinthina.—A low-growing evergreen bulbous plant, with handsome foliage, from the base of which spring erect, stout stems, bearing umbels of distinct and beautiful lilac and white flowers. Autumn. Loam. Offsets. Hexacenthis niysorensis.—A climber of robust habit, with extremely beautiful red and yellow flowers of singular shape,, borne freely in drooping racemes in spring and summer. Peat. Cuttings. Hibiscus.—Free-growing plants, of vigorous habit, those here noted having flowers not unlike those of a large double petunia. Peat. Cuttings. II. rosa-sinensis miniatus semi-pie n as has deep scarlet flowers approaching to crimson, in spring. II. r. puniceus is compact in habit, with very double, intense crimson flowers, in summer. There are many other handsome varieties. Hoy A.— Most of these are twining plants, producing handsome wax-like flowers, from short persistent spurs, springing at regular intervals from the shoots; they are easily grown and bloom freely. Peat. Cuttings. II. imperialis has ample, thick, leathery leaves; the straw-coloured flowers are borne in large bunches. Summer. II. bella is a slender-growing plant, of drooping habit, 1 (earing quantities of lovely waxlike flowers, white, witli pink centre. This is one of the best subjects for a hanging basket. Summer. II. Paxtoni is similar in habit to the last, with paler green leaves, and very handsome pink and white blooms. Summer. Lmi’ATIEN.s Jerdonue.—A small-growing plant of neat habit, producing freely numbers of comparatively large, yellow and rosy-red flowers, in August and September. Peat. Cuttings. Ipomjsa.—Evergreen twiners, very suitable for training over a path in the stove, where their splendid flowers are seen to advantage; they are free in growth. Sandy loam. Cuttings and layers. I. Learii is a stmug grower, requiring plenty of room; the flowers large, trumpet-shaped, deep blue, in Sep-880 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. tember. I. Horsfallice has beautiful deep rose-coloured blossoms, produced in succession during the winter; this plant is difficult to strike from cuttings, and is more easily increased by layering the shoots. Ixora.—These are the most gorgeous-flowered stove plants in existence, many of them lasting long in bloom; the foliage is ample and handsome, and the habit compact and bushy, requiring little training. Easily propagated from cuttings. They grow freely in fibrous peat, and require a strong heat. I. cocci nea, the finest of the genus, produces freely from the points of the shoots immense heads of bright scarlet flowers all through the summer. I. Colei is a white-flowered variety with handsome foliage, blooming in May and June. I. java-nica is of more slender habit, with paler green foliage, and bright orange flowers, in June and July. I. Williamsii is a hybrid of great excellence, with very large reddish-salmon blooms. Summer. I. salicifolia has narrow lance-shaped leaves, and an erect habit of growth, producing large heads of deep orange-coloured flowers, in summer. Jacquemontia violacea.—A low-growing trailing convolvu-laceous plant, slender in habit, producing freely blue funnel-shaped flowers. Summer. Loam. Cuttings. Jasminum.—Somewhat straggling growers, of slender habit. Loam. Peat. J. Duchesse d'Ocleans is a tall-growing plant, bearing highly fragrant white flowers, in winter. J. Sambac Jlore-pleno is of straggling habit; its white fragrant flowers are produced from the points of the young shoots all the year round. Justicia carnea.— Of stately upright habit, bearing large erect heads of flesh-coloured flowers in autumn. Loam. Cuttings. Lucui.ia gratissima.—A large strong-growing plant, of free-blooming habit; very easily grown in sandy loam. Cuttings. The fragrant flowers are of a reddish-pink colour, and produced in large bunches through the autumn. Fig. 3S7. Medinilla magnifica. Mebixilla.—These are large strong-growing shrubs, with broad leathery leaves, springing from stout shoots; and blooming from well-ripened wood. Loam. Cuttings. M. magni- fica (Fig. 387) bears its rosy-pink flowers in fine drooping panicles about April and May. M. amabilis is similar in both growth and flowers to the last, but the inflorescence forms erect instead of drooping panicles. Mussjenda frondosa.—A low spreading bushy plant, bearing on the points of the young shoots bunches of small yellow flowers, encircled by large, pure white bracts, which give it a very singular and pleasing appearance. May and June. Loam. Cuttings. Nelumbium speciosum.—A handsome and singular aquatic plant, with pink flowers, requiring a tank of heated water wherein to grow it. Loam. Seeds. Nidularium fulgens.—Of small growth, almost like a Tillandsia, producing from the centre a large compact head of intense red flowers, in summer. Loam. Suckers. j?Tymphjea. —These are beautiful flowering aquatics, also requiring a tank of heated water. Loam. Seeds. A\ Devo-niana has large crimson flowers that stand above the water. Summer. X. coerulea is a smaller-growing plant, the flowers blue, appearing from June to September. Pancratium fragrans.—An easily-grown, handsome, bulbous plant, with elegant, fragrant, white amaryllidaceous coronate flowers. May. Loam. Offsets. Passiflora.—Large, free-growing climbers, suitable for covering walls or suspending from the roof; remarkably distinct and beautiful plants, but requiring a good deal of room. Loam. Cuttings. P. Raddiana—syn. P. kennesina, is a splendid crimson-flowered S. American species. Autumn. P. Decaisncana is a handsome free-growing hybrid, blooming in summer. P. Buonapartea is a magnificent strong-growing kind, the flowers very large, of remarkable colour; blue and white, suffused with red, in summer. P. raccmosa is another splendid plant, its crimson - scarlet flowers, in June, often hanging down in leafless racemes. PE NT AS carnea rosea.—Of low spreading habit, free-growing, and producing abundant moderate-sized corymbs of pretty rose-coloured flowers in June and July. Loam. Cuttings. Plumbago rosea.—An erect slender grower; the flowers, in panicles, of a deep rose-pink colour, are produced in the winter from the points of the shoots; it is a very free bloomer. Loam. Cuttings. Kondeletia speciosa.—A moderate-sized, somewhat slender-growing plant, bearing on the points of the current season’s shoots bright red bunches of verbena-like flowers; it blooms in June, and lasts two months. Peat. Cuttings. Stephanotis jloribunda.—A magnificent twiner, having deep green ample foliage of great substance; the tubular flowers are borne freely in large bunches, and are of the purest white, and highly fragrant. May to August. Loam. Cuttings. Strelitzia regince.— A stately-growing distinct-habited plant, with yellow and blue flowers issuing from a boatshaped sheath. June. Feat. Division of the crowns. Streptocarpus Rcxii.—X small, dwarf-growing, herbaceous plant, that bears a succession of pale lilac gloxinia-like flowers in spring and summer. Loam. Seeds. 5. Greenii is a very beautiful free-blooming hybrid between this plant aud S. Saundersii. Tabernjemontana coronarui jlore-pleno.—Of medium size and free-growing habit; the flowers, which are of a beautiful pearly white, are borne on the points of the young shoots in July. Peat. Cuttings. Tiiunbergia.— Handsome vigorous twining plants, that require a good deal of room. Peat. Cuttings. T. Harrisii, which is strong and free-growing, produces in the summer a succession of handsome racemes of pale blue flowers. T. laurifolia is suitable for a pillar or rafter; flowers pale blue, in summer and autumn. T. alatay with its handsome black-eyed buff flowers, is quite of another type, being a moderate-sized free-flowering stove annual. Thyrsacanthus rutilans.—An erect-habited free-growing plant, that produces during the winter numerous elegant, long, drooping panicles of bright crimson tubular flowers, very distinct. Loam. Cuttings.THE STOVE AND FORCING HOUSE. 881 Tillaxdsia Lindeniana (Fig. 3S8).—A small-growing plant, with upright arched leaves; and producing from the centre of the crown erect flattened spikes of the most lovely blue flowers, through June and July. Peat. Suckers. Fig. 3SS. Tillandsia Lindeniana. Torenia asiatica.— An evergreen soft-wooded trailer, of moderate growth, bearing large numbers of porcelain blue and purple flowers all through the summer. Peat. Loam. Toxicophl.ea spectabilis.—Of medium size and branching habit; the flowers, which are white and clustered, are produced from the points of the shoots and in the axils of the leaves, freely during the summer. Peat. Cuttings. Victoria regia.—This is undoubtedly the queen of aquatic plants. The leaves, which float on the surface of the water, are very large and turned up rim-like at the edges; the flowers, bright pink, are proportionate in size, and have a noble appearance. It requires a large tank of heated water to grow it. Loam. Seeds. Vinca rosea oculata.—A dwarf, bushy-habited, free-growing plant, bearing all through the summer from the points of the growing shoots pretty white red-eyed flowers. V. rosea has rosy and V. rosea alba white flowers. Loam. Cuttings. Vriesia splendens.—A small-growing tillandsia-like plant, with handsome green leaves banded with dark brown, from the centre of which arises a brilliant red flattened spike, producing white flowers. July. Peat. Suckers. ORNAMENTAL-LEAVED STOVE PLANTS. —T1 le following is a selection of the best and most effective of fine-leaved stove plants. It includes some plants that grow to a large size, others of moderate growth, and some small-habited species, that do not occupy much room. The list contains not only plants that are remarkable for the varied and brilliant colouring of their leaves, but likewise such as are conspicuous for their massive grandeur, or lightness or elegance of character. Acalypiia tricolor.— A very distinct shrubby plant of moderate growth, the leaves reddish-green, blotched and spotted with copper colour and bright red. There are two or three varieties of this, as musaicay Macafceana, &c. Teat. Cuttings. Alocasia.—A11 extensive family of handsome-leaved plants, some attaining a considerable size, others of much smaller growth; they thrive in a warm humid atmosphere, and require shading from the sun. Peat or loam. Division of the crowns, suckers, or offsets. A. illustris is a bold-liabited free grower, with erect leaf-stalks, the leaves large, bright green, marked with patches of dark olive. A. Jenningsii is dwarf in habit, the leaf-stalks and leaves moderate in size, the ground colour pale green, blotched with blackish-brown. A. Loioii is of moderate growth; the leaves, borne on stout stalks, are large and handsome, of a beautiful deep green, with ivory white midrib and veins. A. macrorrhiza variegata is a noble plant of large growth, with stout leaf-stalks, pale green in colour, striped with white; leaves very large, pale green and pure white in about equal proportions, dispersed over the surface in broad irregular blotches. A. metallica is of smaller growth than the preceding; the leaf-stalks erect, the leaves large, in the form of a shield, smooth and shining on both upper and under surface; the colour deep olive green, suffused with bronzy red above, and underneath reddish brown. A. Veitchii is in the way of A. Lowii as to form; the ground colour green, the whole surface having a peculiar metallic shade like polished steel. A. zebrina is a plant of stately growth; leaves handsome, large, and arrow-shaped, borne on long, stout foot-stalks, which are pale green, banded with dark olive. At PIN IA vittata.—Of small growth. The plant throws up a number of stems from the underground rhizomes, bearing lance-shaped leaves, pale green in colour, striped with creamy white. Loam. Division. Ananassa sativa variegata.—A variegated form of the pine-apple, with channelled arching leaves bearing spines on the edge, the surface colouring green and creamy white, tinged with red in about equal proportions. Loam. Suckers. A. Porteana is of similar habit to the preceding, the variegation being more of a silvery gray. Antiiurium.—Large-growing handsome plants, very distinct in appearance. Peat. Division of the crowns. A. crystallinum is a noble species, with massive rich green leaves, the midrib and divergent veins shining white, as if composed of crystals. A. magnificum is also a large grower, with stout green leaf-stalks supporting very large pale green leaves, having white ribs. Apiielandra variegata.—Leaves handsomely marked with pale yellow. Peat. Cuttings. A. aurantiaca lioezlii is a pretty variegated plant. Aralia.—Ifandsome-habited hard-wooded plants, with elegant foliage; they are of an erect habit of growth, and should always be confined to a single stem, as when more are allowed their appearance is much impaired. Peat. Cuttings. A. Guilfoylei is a handsome species, with pinnate leaves, serrated on the edge, and margined with white. A. reticulata is an erect tall grower, with long narrow leaves, prettily veined. A. elegantissima has very handsome jailmate leaves, with serrated leaflets. A. Veitchii is of very slender habit, with most elegant palmately-parted foliage, and does not require much room. Artocarpus Cannoni.—A variety of the bread-fruit tree, with handsome purple leaves; a plant of very large growth, but beautiful in a small state. Loam. Cuttings. Bertolonia.—Dwarf-growing plants, not attaining more than a few inches in height, the leaves splendidly marked with small round coloured spots. B. superbissima has leaves olive green, sj)ottcd with reddish pink. B. Van Ilouttei is a magnificent species; the leaves are veined and spotted with carmine in the most beautiful manner possible. Campsipium JUicifolium.— A slender-growing climber, with elegant, finely-divided, fern-like foliage. Peat. Cuttings. Carica aurantiaca.—A plant with fleshy stems, upright in habit; it has handsome leaves, and orange-coloured fruit. Peat. Cuttings. 56882 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. CrSBTJS.—Very free-growing climbing plants, suitable for covering a wall, or as pot specimens for training over a trellis. Peat. Cuttings. In C. discolor the leaves have a splendid velvety appearance; dNp chocolate green marbled with white, and shaded with pink. C. argentea is a strongergrowing species, the leaves handsomely marked with silvery gray. Coffea arabica aureo-variegata.—A variegated form of the coffee of commerce, in which the leaves are handsomely marked with yellow. Peat. Cuttings. Cossignia borbonica.— One of the best of fine-leaved woody plants, attaining a considerable size; the imparipinnate leaves green, with orange-coloured veins. Peat. Cuttings. Croton.—A beautiful family of hard-wooded variegated plants, the leaves differing in form to a greater extent than is to be met with in almost any other genus; they are of'bushy habit, and retain their variously and highly-coloured foliage for a long time. Loam. Cuttings. C. angustifolius has long narrow pendent strap-shaped leaves, the surface yellow and green in about equal proportions. C. Iloolccrii.—A strong-growing large-leaved kind; colour deep green mottled with reddish-pink. C. viajest tens.—Long narrow leaves, deep green, mid-rib and centre bright red. Good bushy habit. C. undulatus.—Dense bushy habit; leaves deep green, undulated in the margin, marbled with yellow and red. C. UVhvma/mi.—Good habit of growth; two-thirds of the surface of the long narrow and drooping leaves pale yellow, the remainder lively green. C. spiralis.—Leaves narrow, partially erect, singularly twisted cork-screw fashion, of a dark bronzy green tinged with red. Ct'PANlA filicifolia.—A hard-wooded upright-growing plant, with fern-like leaves of most elegant habit. Peat. Cuttings. Curculigo recurvata variegata.—Moderate in size, of beautiful habit; the leaves narrow, oblong, gracefully curved, green striped with white. Peat. Suckers. Cyanopiiyllum magnificum.—A noble plant with immense velvety ribbed leaves, of a deep green on the upper side, the under surface pale red. Peat. Cuttings. Desmodium gyrans.—The moving or telegraph plant, of slender, erect-growing habit; tbe leaves are continually in motion, as if the foot-stalks were hinged at their junction with the stem. Very curious. Teat. Cuttings. Diciiorisandra musaica.—An interesting plant with handsome leaves, on the upper surface deep green, traversed by numerous light-coloured transverse lines; dark purple on the under surface. Teat. Cuttings. Dieffenbachia.—Plants with stoutish succulent stems, from which proceed large spreading leaves of a very ornamental character. Loam. Cuttings. D. ebarnea is compact in habit, the leaves light green spotted with white. D. Bavsei is dwarf-growing, the ground colour of leaves pale green, blotched with dark green and spotted with white. There are many other handsome kinds. Dorstenia argenlata.— A small-growing singular-habited plant, with pale green leaves banded with white. Loam. Cuttings. Kciiites nutans.—A slender-growing twiner, with leaves of a pale pea-green, the mid-rib and nerves veined with beautiful transparent red. Peat. Cuttings. Erantiiemum marmoratum.—Oi moderate growth, the leaves are pale green mottled and suffused with white. Peat. Cuttings. Erytiirina Parcelii.—A free-growing plant, having handsome leaves, with a pale yellow feathering in the centre, surrounded by a green margin. Loam. Cuttings. Ficus clastica. —The india-rubber plant; a tall-growing erect-habited shrub, with peculiar large glossy green leaves, of great substance; very handsome, especially in a small state. Loam. Cuttings. F. dealbata has fine handsome leaves, deep green above and silvery white beneath. Fittonia argyroneura.— A pretty free-growing trailing plant, with foliage marked by closely-netted silvery veins. F. Verse!iaffcltii is a dwarf trailer of easy culture, with extremely pretty leaves, dark green ground, mid-rib and veins bright red. Most suitable for a basket or vase. Peat. Cuttings. Gardenia florida variegata.—A variegated form of G. Jlorida, with handsomely-marked leaves. Peat. Cuttings. Hibiscus Cooperi.—A free-growing plant, with beautifully-marked foliage, the leaves pale-green, marbled with a darker shade and edged with bright red. Peat. Cuttings. IIiitomane spinosa.—Very distinct and handsome, shining deep green leaves. Peat. Cuttings. IIoyA carnosa picta. —A handsome variegated form of II. carnosa; the leaves finely marked with creamy-white tinged with red. Peat. Cuttings. Maii ant A.—These are exceedingly beautiful, mostly of moderate growth and easy culture; they are readily increased by division of the crowns, and do best in fibrous peat. M. fasciata is of moderate size, the leaves broad and stout in substance, pale green blotched with a darker shade. M. lineata alba is a plant of stout habit, the young leaves erect, drooping as they get older; colour pale green striped with white. M. lineata rosea is a smaller grower than the last; deep green leaves striped with rose. M. Makoyana is a dwarf-growing species, the ground colour greenish-white blotched with deep green. M. regalis is a handsome compact grower, with very dark green foliage, striped with bright crimson. Jf. roseo-jiicta is a small-growing variety, with stout erect leaf-stalks, on which are borne beautifully-coloured leaves. M. Veitchii is one of the finest of the genus; the plant grows to a large size, the leaves finely streaked and mottled with different shades of green and gray. M. zebrina is a very strong grower, with large leathery leaves, striped and barred with alternate shades of light and deep green. Musa.—Very large strong growers, with noble foliage, suitable for a large house. Loam. Suckers. M. Cavendishiana is a fine free-growing species, with ample, spreading, pale green leaves. M. coccinea is a taller grower, with smaller foliage; produces handsome scarlet flowers. M. vittata is another tall-growing species, with very large, striking, banded foliage. Nepenthes.—These represent the most singularly beautiful forms in the whole vegetable kingdom. The majority of them are slender-growing plants, that cling by the leaves to anything they can lay hold of; the extremities of the leaves are elongated into a sort of cord-like appendage, at the end of which is a pitcher, in which is secreted a sweetish fluid, attractive to numerous insects. Peat and sphagnum. Cuttings. They are so varied in general appearance that wdiere convenient all or any of the sorts may be grown w ith advantage, and will add great interest to a collection of plants. 1Sf. amjndlacea.—A small-growing species, that forms large tufts of stout, short, green pitchers. X. amjndlacea picta.—Similar in habit to the preceding; but the pitchers are handsomely spotted with brown. X. distillatoria. — A very free-growing kind, with long narrow pitchers; the colour green suffused with red. X. Dotn ini ana.—A handsome hybrid of moderate growth, having well-marked pitchers. X. Iloolccrii.—A stout strong-growing plant, the leaves bronzy green; the pitchers, which are short and stout, are covered with large reddish-brown spots. X. hybrida metadata.—A small grower, the pitchers long and narrow, of a pale green ground colour, streaked and mottled with brown. A", lanata.—A very robust dwarf-habited variety, producing short stout leaves with large green pitchers. X. Itajllesiana.- A large free-growing species, one of the finest in the genus; produces very large pitchers, the whole surface mottled with reddish purple. X. sanguinea. — A splendid sort, with pale green leaves, and immense pitchers; green deeply suffused with red. Ou v i r andrA fcncstrail's. —The lattice-plant of Madagascar, one of the most singular plants in existence; the leaf is simply a vegetable net-wrork, resembling a woven fabric in which theTHE STOVE AND FORCING HOUSE. 883 threads have been left so open as to have the appearance of a piece of wire netting. It requires to be grown in a bed of loam submerged in water, the leaves covered to a considerable depth; the water should be kept night and day as near at a temperature of S0° as possible. The llower is insignificant. When the plant does well it increases by self-sown seeds, that fall and vegetate on the bed of earth in which it grows. Pan DAN us.—Mostly large growers; in general habit much like the pine-apple, witli regular arched leaves, generally armed with powerful spines, and set on in a spiral manner, whence they are called screw-pines. They are easily grown and very handsome. Loam. Offsets. J°L fern® its is aiBegant, narrow, arched-leaved kind; deep green. J*. javanicus vane-rojecting in form of a hood over the top, which is spotted witli transparent white. Sonerila margaritacea—A dwarf grower of dense habit, with small dark green leaves beautifully spotted with white. Peat. Cuttings. Some pretty hybrids have been obtained. SRATim’jm.i.rM pictnm.—'Sot unlike a Di^jf^nbachia in appearance; the leaves large, deep green, mottled and striped with a paler tint. Loam. Cuttings. Srh.kkoovne latifolia.— A unique melastomaceous plant with magnificent deep green velvety ribbed leaves, set on in opposite pairs. Peat. Cuttings. Term IN a li a elegants.— A very beautiful plant of erect habit, not unlike an Aralia; the leaves are trifoliate and narrow; ground colour deep green; centre-rib and nerves bright red; smooth and glossy. Peat. Cuttings. Tiieopiirasta imperialis.— A large stately-growing plant, with a stout erect stem, from which proceed immense, oblong, glossy green leaves, armed with strong spines on the edge, which is undulated the entire length. Peat. Seeds. Tillanpsia musaica.—A handsome plant, in habit like a Billberyia, with strap-shaped leaves, recurving near the extremities; ground colour grayish green, marked transversely with dark green, the back of the leaves partially of a dull red. T. temllata is like the last in habit, the leaves shining, pale green, mottled with yellowish green; a handsome plant. T. zebrina is a small dwarf species, with deep green leaves, barred and spotted with brown. Peat. Suckers. Tornki.ia Jrayrans—syn. Monstera delieiosa. (PI. XXII.) —A singular strong-growing aroid, with stout fleshy stems, from which are borne large leathery leaves, remarkable for . the numerous slit-like openings of the surface. The fruit is edible. Quite distinct. Loam. Cuttings. General Culture.—Independent of the cultural I details already given in reference to the different families of plants that have been separately treated of, it may be well to append a few remarks of a general character applicable to the large number that require stove heat. Plants from the lower tropical regions are all the year round subject to a high temperature. The greatest atmospherical differences that affect them in a state of nature, are the change from hot | and dry, to hot and moist; while in many parts they are nev er under the inliuence of drought, either in the air or at the roots. Plants indigenous to countries where such climatic conditions as these exist, and where the mean temperature for the whole year is little below 80°, as many of our stove plants in their native habitats are subject to, cannot long bear without injury a low temperature. Yet there are several other considerations of importance by which in this matter we must be guided. Tlie small amount of light we get through the winter as compared with that to be met with in tropical countries, prevents in the dull season our applying so much j heat as to induce growth at a rate that would be j admissible, were it not for the absence of sufficient light to solidify it as it is formed. Again, any one who has been in hot countries cannot fail to have observed that with a given temperature in the air, say 00J, the sense of heat pro-; duced in the human body was no greater than : takes place when shut up in an artificially-heated , plant-stove when the thermometer does not range I above 80'. This no doubt is owing to the confined state of the air, and we may suppose exerts a like influence upon plants. A temperature of 70° by artificial heat in a plant structure will force growth equal to what would take place in the open air when the latter was GJ or 8° higher, under equal conditions of moisture in the atmosphere and at the root; consequently it follows884 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. that it is neither necessary nor advisable to maintain in our plant-stoves so much heat, especially in the winter months, as the occupants are subject to in their native countries. It is not good practice to keep stove plants too cold in the winter. Many are subject to this treatment, and the result is that they lose root and get into a weakly condition, and after the requisite heat is applied, the season is far advanced before they recover so as to grow and flower freely, seldom producing more than half the bloom they are capable of when managed more in accordance with their requirements. In most hot countries the dormant season for vegetation is short, yet often, under artificial culture, plants from these regions are compelled to exist inactive for nearly half the year by being subjected to an unnaturally low temperature. Eight or ten weeks is quite sufficient for any stove plant to remain in a somewhat dormant state; and this season of rest is best given in the latter part of the year. Temperature.—The warmest stove should be kept say as near to 66° by night, with 5° more by day, as may be, during the latter part of the year. At the commencement of the year increase the temperature 3°, and use a little more moisture in the air as well as to the roots. By the middle of February raise the heat 3° more day and night. The temperatures at this season should be slightly altered in accordance with the weather; in severe frost they ought to be 3° or 3° lower than the above, as the increased use of fire-heat would exercise an influence upon growth. At the end of April give 3° more at night; the day temperature will of course in a great measure be ruled by the state of the weather; when bright and sunny during the middle of the day it may run up as high as 90° or 95° with air admitted. It must be understood that these temperatures are advised for thoroughly good light houses, with the plants kept up to the glass and well managed in every way, with plenty of room, otherwise their growth will be drawn up and weakly. By the middle of May give another rise of 3°; this will bring the night temperature to 78°, at which and up to 80° in warm weather it may be maintained for the following three months. The extension of daylight and increase in the external temperature, will now admit of the day heat being kept up to the maximum for the season of 88° or 90° with sun. Where such a course of treatment as this, in raising the temperature of the house early in the season, is carried out, it will be evident that the plants must have a very considerable start over such as are kept in an almost dormant condition until the spring is advanced, correspondingly lengthening the time for blooming. Summer Treatment.—The general treatment through the summer months will be of a routine character. Towards the end of August there will not be any necessity for very much further extension of growth with the generality of plants, consequently they should be treated in a manner more calculated to ripen and solidify the wood than to increase it in quantity. This will be best brought about by reducing the amount of atmospheric moisture, and by the admission of more air with less shading, but not by the mistaken practice of reduction of the temperature, which should never occur until the ripening process has made considerable progress. As already suggested, during the two concluding months of the year the temperature should be kept near the lowest point advised, namely, about 66° during the night. In the intermediate house or cooler stove the temperatures day and night should range from 8° to 10° lower, summer and winter. Soils.—The majority of stove plants from their naturally vigorous habit of growth, especially in their power of root formation, are not so particular as to soil as are fine-rooted greenhouse subjects; nevertheless there are many that will not succeed without some particular soil, such as peat of a more or less fibrous nature; others again require something of a closer, more adhesive character, such as good loam, although many stove subjects will do well in either. As a rule, strong growers that are naturally not possessed of a free disposition to flower will, if grown in peat, be still further inclined to produce wood rather than bloom, the inclination to flower being more favoured by their being grown in a loamy soil. Their generally free growth and abundance of foliage of a comparatively soft character, calculated to evaporate moisture rapidly, involving the application of large quantities of water to the soil, it becomes necessary to make it thoroughly porous. This can be best done by a liberal use of sand, which is indeed indispensable, from the close confined air of the stove, which acts upon the soil in a way calculated to produce a sour condition, if at all too retentive of moisture. Both peat and loam for stove plants should always be of a fibrous nature, in preference to that which contains little undecomposed vegetable matter. It is most fit for use wdien it has lain together a sufficient time for the roots of the different grasses and ferns which it contains to become dead, but not further decayed, as in this state it lasts the longest. Propagation.—There are some plants that require especial treatment in their propagation; but the majority of stove subjects are easilyTHE STOVE AND FORCING HOUSE. 885 increased from cuttings kept more or less moist and in a confined atmosphere until they have emitted roots; the object of both these conditions is to prevent flagging, until enough roots are formed to keep up the balance, by supplying moisture as fast as it is expended by evaporation; to still further assist in this, recourse is generally had to a reduction of the leaves oil the cuttings at the time they are put in. In the propagation of stove plants from cuttings there is one thing that should not be lost sight of, the necessity of always placing them in as high a temperature as the plants that produced them were in previous to the cuttings being taken off; otherwise, except in the case of very free-rooting things, they do not strike well. In propagation from seeds, the principal things to be observed are, to never cover them too deeply or to give more water than their nature requires to assist them to vegetate, and to place them in as high a temperature as the plant needs to grow it in. Potting.—The plants under consideration, like most others, are best potted just as the roots begin to work freely in the spring, although many free-rooting things require a second shift during the summer. Never, if it can be avoided, pot a plant at a time when the temperature of the house in which it is grown is about to be reduced, as when this takes place the ability of the roots to extend and enter the new soil is always diminished. There are a few stove plants, such as Allamanda and Bougainvillea, particularly gross feeders, that are benefited by the use of solid manure added to the soil; but far the greater number are better without it, as any assistance they require in the way of stimulants is best applied in the shape of manure-water, which is quick in its action, with the advantage of not promoting superabundant growth in the early part of the season. Over-light potting, that is, not making the soil sufficiently firm, is a very serious mistake, involving a tendency to hold too much water; yet with few exceptions stove plants do not require the soil in which they are potted to be compressed so closely as in the case of plants that grow in a lower temperature. The generality of stove subjects will bear and are benefited by being periodically partially shaken out, and the soil removed when it has become exhausted, their vigorous habit enabling them to recover the check they must necessarily receive by the mutilation of the roots. Training, Heading-down, &c.—It often happens that very serious mistakes are made in the training of stove plants, especially such as are of a climbing or twining habit. Where subjects of this nature are grown as pot specimens it is no un- common thing to see them kept trained down closely for appearance sake, to the obvious certainty of reducing their ability to produce flower-s. When the points are brought down lower than the other portions of the branches, their first effort is to push the buds and break out growth in the highest position, thereby diverting the sap from the points, and in this way stopping their further extension. All plants of this nature that have a natural disposition to upright growth, and that flower from the extremities of the shoots, should never be trained until their blooms are set, after which they can be put into the required shape. As to training in general, it is well always to be guided by the habit of the plant; such as are naturally spreading are less likely to be in any way injured by being trained in a busli-like form. The greater number of plants that are grown in heat will bear, when required, freely cutting back or heading down; this should always be done a little before active growth commences. Never on any account head down a plant or cut it in severely before it is submitted to a lower temperature. The removal of leaves and branches has a proportionate effect in the reduction of root-power, and to some extent would cause their destruction; so that if, after a plant is headed back, it is placed in a temperature calculated to keep growth stagnant, the chances are that the roots will die in such quantities as to kill it outright. In most cases, after a plant that has been grown in a pot or tub has been headed down, a good opportunity will be afforded for removing a portion of the old soil and replacing it with new, shortly after a little growth has been made. Firing and Air-giving.—In the cultivation of stove plants a good deal depends upon judicious firing, especially in the spring. In March and April the sun is often very hot when cold cutting winds [irevail; and if enough forethought is not exercised to stop the fires sufficiently early in the morning, when there is the appearance of a bright day, it necessitates either too much shading, whereby the light is unduly excluded, or the admission of air in such quantities as to be highly injurious to the young tender foliage, which, produced by the application of a high temperature, is anything but calculated to bear contact with cold air admitted in a considerable volume. Air should on all occasions be given to stove plants with very great care, or the ills of crippled leaves, stunted growth, and the certain appearance of red spider are entailed. As the season gets further advanced, and the external air becomes more nearly assimilated to that in the house, more air may be given, yet, whilst growth886 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. is making much progress, it should never be admitted in such quantities as to dry the atmosphere too much. Towards autumn, vdien the ripening process is going on, more may be given. Watering and Syringing.—Were everything else possible for the welfare of the plants done, yet the watering not being properly managed, little progress could be made. A volume might be written on the subject, inasmuch as so many plants require different treatment in respect to watering. The more or less vigorous condition of a plant, the size of the pot it occupies, the time of the year, must all be taken in accomit with each individual, and acted upon accordingly. Morning is the best time to give water to the roots, as, if the wdiole stock are gone carefully over then there is not so much likelihood of its being required during the day when the sun is upon the plants, at which time its application is so injurious. Syringing, when required, should be always done in the afternoon sufficiently early to admit of the leaves getting moderately dry before darkness sets in, as, if the foliage is surrounded with too much moisture during the night it becomes too soft and liable to receive injury from the amount of sun which the plants ought necessarily to be able to bear. There is no description of plants to which manure water can be applied with more advantage than the occupants of the stove, but it should never be used except when the pots are filled with roots. Water at all times, either given to the roots, or for syringing overhead, should be used as warm as the temperature of the house in which the plants are growing. Insects.—In the cultivation of plants, unfortunately, there must be an incessant warfare kept up with insects; and with no plants is this so imperative as with the occupants of the stove, where the conditions favourable to their rapid increase, in the shape of heat and choice of food, are always present. To attempt the cultivation of stove plants without insects being kept well under, is simply to court disappointment; mealy bug, white and brown scale, thrips, aphides, red spider, and ants are ever at work, and must have no quarter. The best time of the year to get these pests under is in the autumn, when the wood and leaves are matured, and able to bear whatever insect dressings are used. At this period the whole should be gone over diligently and repeatedly, so as to reduce their numbers as much as possible, especially the worst and most troublesome species, such as scale and mealy bug. Thrips, red spider, and aphides, that are generally the most rife in summer, should have no respite. It is only by continued perse- verance that these troublesome intruders can be kept down; and the gardener who by assiduous attention keeps his plants clean, does much to attain success. t. b. II.—TROPICAL ORCHIDS. The difficulties which formerly seemed to beset the cultivation of orchids have now for the most part been overcome, so that with a little care, and the provision of certain necessary conditions, these plants are found to be amongst the easiest to cultivate. Heat and moisture will afford all the nourishment they require; so that it is only necessary to find the proper way to apply these elements in order to insure success. True, we may here and there find a sickly-looking plant which eventually dies, but after all it is a wonderful feat that we are able to collect plants from such different climes and such varied situations, and succeed so well with them under the same, or nearly the same, conditions of treatment. Moreover, it is not at all surprising that we should have a few losses, for even in a state of nature every plant does not grow up into a specimen. The usual system is to exclude all other plants from the house or houses in which orchids are cultivated. This, however, is neither necessary nor judicious, as they are much benefited by the company of others, and ferns especially are well adapted to be their companions. Those who adopt this mixed system of culture will be rewarded by increased beauty in the house, and a corresponding increased vigour in their orchids. There are various temperatures necessary for the cultivation of orchids, a fact which had been ignored by the earlier cultivators; for to know that a plant was a native of India or of South America was enough to consign it to a stewing heat, which, if the particular plant was from the mountain regions of either hemisphere, soon brought about death, and then forsooth orchids were said to be hard to cultivate. Heat.— Where large collections of these plants are grown it will be necessary to have three houses or three divisions of one house for their accommodation, although, as before noted, it is by no means necessary or expedient to exclude all other plants. The first or East-Indian house will accommodate all the orchids from the warm parts of the eastern hemisphere, and also those from the hottest parts of the western; and the temperature for this division may range from 75° to 85° during the summer months or growing season, and from 60° to 65° or 70° during winter. The next or Brazilian and Mexican division must be devoted to the plants from the warm parts ofTHE STOVE AND FORCING HOUSE. 88 T South America; the temperature here should range from about to 75° during summer, and from 1)0° to ()5° in winter. The third or Peruvian division must be set apart for the special accommodation of the numerous mountain species from South America and India, in which the more uniform the temperature can be kept the better; in summer the nearer the glass indicates some degree between 00° and 70" the more rapidly will the plants grow; the summer temperature should in fact not much exceed 70°, and in winter may range from 45° to 60°. Moisture.—For the plants in the hottest division a good genial moisture must be kept in the atmosphere during the growing season, with a free circulation of air; at the same time care must be taken to prevent a too great influx of air, or the moisture will become absorbed too rapidly, and the plants will suffer in consequence. During the winter, and when the plants are at rest, little or no water will be found necessary; still it must always be borne in mind that the majority of these have no fleshy pseudobulbs to assist them, and therefore they must not be kept sufficiently dry to cause their leaves to shrivel, or the plants will be permanently injured. Again in the second division or Brazilian house most of the plants will be able to withstand a greater drought, because they have thick fleshy growths to assist them; still it will always be found best to so watch the plants that no shrivelling takes place in any case. In the third division or Peruvian house a genial moisture must be maintained all the year round, for the various kinds of Odontor/Iossum, Jlasdevallia, &c., appear never to have any season of rest, but keep growing more or less nearly all the year, and even when they are not making actual growth a nice moist atmosphere must be maintained. The plants from Mexico, which enjoy full exposure to the sun, should be hung up close to the glass, and have the shading material removed, for it is scarcely feasible to suppose a house can be devoted entirely to them; or they may be hung up in the greenhouse during the summer months, where, however, they will require extra care in the matter of watering. In potting or blocking orchids good fibrous peat and living sphagnum moss are the materials which are necessary, so as to secure good drainage, for they need an abundant supply of water when growing. Heavy syringing is not good for them, because the water is apt to lie in the sheathing bases of the leaves and work serious mischief. It may be said that orchids are subject to heavy tropical rains, and, therefore, should not be injured by the syringe; but those who make use of this argument entirely forget that in a state of nature these plants mostly hang downwards and thus shoot the water off, whilst under cultivation they are placed more or less erect. Insects.—Orchids are subject to the attacks of red spider, scale of various kinds, yellow and green fly, and thrips. For tl*e extermination of all these pests, washing with tepid water and soft-soap is far preferable to fumigation; indeed this latter operation is highly injurious to many kinds, and often leads to permanent injury. Orchids when in flower may be removed from the house in which they have been growing to a cooler place, or may even be used with much advantage in the embellishment of the various apartments in the dwelling-house. During the time they are thus employed very little moisture to the roots will be necessary; still, if they are allowed to get quite dry, it will tend to shorten the duration of the blossoms. The following is a selection of some of the best orchids for general cultivation:— Aerides.—An eastern genus of distichous-leaved plants, graceful in habit and extremely ornamental even when not in bloom. The leaves are truncate at the ends; and the large, handsome, and often fragrant I lowers, are produced in long racemes. They may either be grown upon blocks of cork or wood or in pots, the latter method being preferable for large plants. Temperature, summer, 75° to 85°; winter, 65° to 70°. A. affine superb inn.—Flowers rosy-pink and white on long branching spikes. May and June. Assam, 1837. A. crispum.—A robust plant; llowers large, on branched spikes, waxy-white tipped with rose. June. Bombay, 1840. A. Fieldingii.—Flowers large, rosy-purple. This is popularly known as the “fox-brush Aerides,” on account of the dense manner in which the flowers are set upon the long spike, which is sometimes branched. June and July. Assam. A. Lobbii.—Flowers very showy, bright rose-pink and white, on long branched spikes. June. Moulmein. A. odoratum.—There are many varieties of this species, majus and purpvrascens being the best; flowers waxy-white tipped with pink, delicately fragrant. June and July. Northern India, 1S00. A. Quinqucvulnerct.—Flowers waxy-white, tipped with crimson and spotted with purple. July and August. Philippines, 1838. A. virens.— Flowers white, spotted with purple and peach. May and June. Java, 1843. Angr.ecum.—An African genus, having, for the most part, little interest in a horticultural point of view. The species here given are, however, exceptions, having long broad distichously-arranged, i.e. two-ranked leaves, and very large and curious flowers. They thrive best under pot culture. Temperature, summer, 75° to 85°; winter, 05° to 70°. A. citra-tum has long pendulous racemes of pale yellow flowers at various seasons. Madagascar, 1800. A. cburncum is very robust, with large ivory-white flowers. January. Madagascar, 1820. A. sesqnipedale has the flowers larger than any other orchid in cultivation, of a wraxy-white, with a very long tail-like spur. May. Madagascar, 1857. Anguloa.—Pseudobulbous terrestrial orchids, inhabiting the forests of tropical America, at considerable elevations. Pot culture and a moist atmosphere are essential. Temperature, summer, 00° to 70°; winter, 45° to 00°. A. Clowcsii produces large tulip-shaped rich yellow flowers, in June and July. Columbia, 1842. A. Jiuclceri has yellow flowers, spotted with crimson, in June and July. New Grenada, 1845. In A. unijlora the flowers are creamy-white, in June. Peru, 1843.GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. Barkeria.—A small genus of deciduous epiphytes, with stem-like pseudobulbs, nearly allied to Epidendrum, but differing in having a winged column. All are very beautiful, and require to be grown upon blocks in the cool house. Temperature, summer, 60° to 70°; winter, 45° to 60°. B. elegans.—Blowers in erect terminal racemes; the sepals and petals rose, the lip reddish crimson; in winter. Mexico, 1S36. B. Skinneri.—Flowers in many-flowered racemes, deep rose; in winter. Guatemala, 1S42. B. spectabilis.—The finest of the genus; racemes terminal) loose, many-flowered; colour rosy-pink dotted with crimson. June. Guatemala, 1841. Broughton ia.—rseudobulbous epiphytes, with oblong, coriaceous, light green leaves; thrives best upon a block in strong heat, with good exposure to sunlight. Temperature, summer, 65° to 70'; winter, 65° to 70°. B. sanguined bears a short erect spike of deep crimson flowers during the summer months. Jamaica and Cuba, 1793. Burlixgtonia.—Small-growing epiphytes, with leathery dark green leaves; they enjoy strong moist heat when growing, and should not be much dried during the resting season; block or basket culture suits them best. Temperature, summer, 65° to 75°; winter, 60° to 65°. B. Candida.—Spike pendulous; flowers large, pure white, stained with yellow at the base of the lip. April and May. Demerara, 1834. B. decora.— Growths long, somewhat straggling; flowers white spotted with light rose. Winter. Brazil, 1852. B. fragrans.—Flowers large, pure white, the lip stained with yellow; perfume resembling that of white-thorn blossom. April and May. Brazil, 1850. Cal an the.—Evergreen terrestrial plants, many of them highly ornamental. C. vestita and its varieties belong to a distinct group, and are deciduous; pot culture and rich soil are necessary. Temperature, summer, 75° to S5:; winter, (55: to 70°. C. Jlasaca grandijlora.—Leaves large, plaited, spike erect; flowers violet and purple in summer. East Indies, 1840. C. veratrifolia.—Leaves plaited, spike erect; flowers pure white in May and June. East Indies, 1819. C. Veitchii,—A deciduous garden hybrid; spikes erect, (lowers large, rich rose, produced in the winter months. C. vestita luteo-oculata.—Deciduous; flowers white with yellow eye, in autumn and winter. Burmali. C. v. rubro-oculata lias white flowers with crimson eye. Cattleya.—Pseudobulbous epiphytes, peculiar to the western hemisphere. They produce coriaceous leaves, and very large and richly coloured flowers. The robust-growing kinds require pot culture in turfy peat and sphagnum; the smaller lands succeed best on blocks. Temperature, summer, 655 to 75°; winter, 60° to 65 \ C. Aclandice.— A dwarf plant, producing very large flowers, chocolate brown, yellow, and rich rose. June and July. Brazil, 1839. C. amethi/stoglossa.—A robust grower; flowers in dense corymbs, white, spotted and blotched with rich purple. April. Brazil, 1861. C. Duiciana.—Flowers very large, nankeen colour, the lip rich purple, streaked with golden lines. Autumn. Costa Ilica, 1865. C. exoniensis. —A charming garden hybrid; flowers soft lilac, the lip white, golden yellow and rich purple, in September. C. labiata.—Flowers very large, sepals and petals rose, lip deep crimson. October. Spanish Main and Trinidad, 1818. C. lobata.—Flowers of a uniform soft purple, tinged with violet and treaked with crimson on the lip. June and July. Brazil, 1847. C. Mossia\—Flowers very variable, but very handsome; s pals and petals lilac, lip yellow within, streaked witli red and purple. There are an immense number of varieties of this species. Summer months. La Guayra, 1S36. C. Skinneri.—Flowers in dense corymbs, of a uniform rosy-purple colour. March and April. Guatemala, 1S36. C. superba. —Flowers extremely handsome; sepals and petals deep rose, lip rich crimson. June and July. Guiana, 1838. Must be grown upon a block. C. Triance.—A very variable species; flowers white or lilac, the lip rich purple and orange. Winter. New Grenada, I860. C. Wageneri.— Flowers large, pure white, saving the centre of lip, which is stained with yellow. June and July. La Guayra, 1855. C. Walkeriana.—A dwarf plant; flowers very fragrant, bright rich rose. May and June. Brazil, 1844. C. War neri.—Flowers very large; sepals and petals soft rose, the lip rich crimson. June. Brazil, 1862. Chysis.—A small genus of deciduous epiphytes, characterized by their thick fleshy pseudobulbs and their plaited leaves; pot culture with peat and sphagnum suits them best. Temperature, summer, 65° to 75°; winter, 60° to 65°. C. bractescens produces thick and waxy pure white flowers, which have the lip blotched with yellow. April and May. Guatemala, 1840. C. Limminghei has flowers similar to the form#, but the sepals and petals are pink, and the lip rich rose. May and June. Guatemala, 1861. Ccelogyne.—An Indian genus of pseudobulbous epiphytes, many of them extremely beautiful. Those from Northern India may be grown advantageously with the mountain species from the western hemisphere; pot culture with peat and sphagnum. Temperature, summer, 65° to 75°; winter, 60: to 65°. C. corrugata.—Flowers abundant; white, yellow, and orange. Winter months. Neilgherry Hills, 1S65. C. crista ta.—Flowers numerous and large, snow-white, the lip stained with yellow. Winter months. Nepal, 1837. C. Gardneriana.—Spikes pendulous; flowers white and yellow. Winter months. Kliasia Hills, 1S36. C. Loicii.—A robust plant, ■with pendulous spikes of pale yellow and brown flowers. June and July. Borneo, 1845. C. pandurata.— Sepals and petals apple-green; lip black. J une. Borneo, 1S45. C. sj)eciosa.—Flowers large, creamy-white and dark brown. September. Java, 1S45. Col ax.—Pseudobulbous epiphytes, nearly allied to Jfaxilla ria. Pot culture and cool treatment suit them best. Temperature, summer, 60; to 70=; winter, 453 to 60s. The beautiful C. jugosus has the sepals and petals creamy-white, the latter transversely barred with rich purple, and the lip white, striped and spotted with purple. Spring. Brazil, 1828. Cycnociies.—Deciduous pseudobulbous epiphytes, popularly known as the swan orchids; they are extremely curious, and require to be kept perfectly dry when at rest; pot culture with peat and sphagnum. Temperature, summer, 65: to 75°; winter, 603 to 653. C. chlorochilum bears numerous yellow flowers, in June. Demerara, 1838. C. pentadactylon has large yellow and brown flowers, in spring. Brazil, 1841. C. ventri-cosum has very fragrant flowers, in June and July; the sepals and petals greenish yellow, the lip white. Guatemala, 1835. C. ventricosum Egertonianmn bears green flowers suffused with purple and pink, in June. Guatemala, 1840. Cymripium.— A large genus of terrestrial orchids, many of which, however, are more curious than beautiful; pot culture. Temperature, summer, 75° to S5°; winter, 65° to 70°. C. ebur-ncum—one, two, very rarely three, very large and very fragrant flowers* of an ivory white, sometimes spotted with rose, the lip stained yellow. Winter months. Northern India, 1846. C. Mastersii produces clustered white and yellow flowers in the winter months. Northern India, 1S41. Cypripedium, lady’s slipper.—A genus of terrestrial species, the tender ones having their leaves arranged in a distichous manner, and often beautifully variegated; pot culture, with peat, leaf-mould, and sphagnum. Temperature, summer, 65° to 75°; winter, 60° to 65s. C. barbatum superbum.—Leaves mottled with two shades of green; flowers large, solitary, dorsal sepal white, pouch rich brownish-purple. May and June. Malacca, 1838. C. caudatum.—Scape 2-5-flowered; petals lengthened into tails (18 to 20 inches), and together with the sepals yellowish-brown; lip reddish-brown, tinged with yellow. April and May. Cliiriqui, 1S50. C. Dominianum.—Scape 3-flowered; sepals and petals yel-THE STOVE AND FORCING HOUSE. 889 lowish-brown, the latter lengthened into tail-like points; lip reddish-brown. Garden hybrid. C. Fairrieanum.—Scape 1-106wered; perianth white, striped with green and purple; lip brown and purple. Autumn. Assam, 1855. C. Uarrisianum.—Flowers solitary purple white and claret tinged with green. Garden hybrid. C. hirsutissimum.— Scape 1-liowered; flowers large, purple and brown tinged with green. May. Assam, 1S55. C. Icevigtttf&n. —Scape 3-4-tlowered; sepals striped within, purplish crimson; petals much twisted, marked with purple and chocolate; lip yellow. April and May. Philippines, 1865. G. Lowii.—Scape 3-5-flowered; blossoms large, the petals rich purple towards the ends, the lip brown suffused with purple. July and August. Borneo, 1847. C. niveum.—Leaves variegated; scape 1-2-flowered, satiny-white dotted with purple. Summer months. 1870. C. Schlimii.— Plant dwarf; scape 3-S-flowered; sepals and petals white and green; lip white suffused with rosy-crimson. It should never be allowed to suffer from drought. Various. Temperature, summer, CO5 to 70°; winter, 45J to 00°. New Grenada, 1866. C. Stonei.— Scape 2-3-flowered; sepals white, striped without with crimson; petals long, yellow, streaked with purple; lip purplish veined with red. June and July. Borneo, 1S4G. C. superbiens.—Leaves variegated; scape 1-flowered; sepals and petals white and purplish-brown; lip brown tinged with rose. May and July. Indian Archipelago. C. villusum.—A robust plant; flowers solitary, orange-red tinged with purple and green. May. Moulmein. Cyrtopodium.—Large-growing terrestrial orchids, the stout stem-like pseudobulbs often attaining a height of 5 feet; they have long thin plaited leaves, and bear large panicles of showy flowers. Should be grown in a pot with peat and sphagnum; during winter keep dry. Temperature, summer, 75= to S53; winter, 653 to TO3. C. pu ncta turn has a large and dense panicle of brown and yellow flowers. April and May. Brazil, 1823. Dendrobium.— An extensive genus of epiphytes, for the most part having long thin stem-like pseudobulbs, and showy flowers. For small plants blocks or baskets are preferable, but large specimens should be put into pots with fibrous peat. Temperature, summer, 75° to S5"; winter, G53 to 70°. D. aggregatum majus.—Flowers yellow. March and April. Northern India, 1835. It succeeds best on a block. D. albo^sanguineum.—Flowers creamy-white; lip blotched with dark crimson. It requires a warm corner. May and June. Moulmein, 1850. D. barbatulum.—Flowers numerous, delicate white dotted with crimson. It must be grown on a block. Bombay, 1803. D. Bensonce.—Flowers creamy-white; lip orange with two large black eye-like spots. June. Rangoon, 18GG. D. Cambndgeanum.—Flowers very abundant, bright orange blotched with crimson. March. Khasia, 1&37. D. chrysotis.—B-aceme slender, 5-G-flowered, rich apricot yellow'; lip fringed at the edge and blotched with purplish-black at the base. Summer. Assam, 18G9. D. crassinode.— Sepals and petals waxy-white tipped with purple; lip white blotched with rich orange at base. Moulmein. D. Dalhousianurn.—A tall plant, producing drooping spikes of rose-coloured flowers; lip richly blotched with purple. April and May. Moulmein, 1837. D. densijlorum.— Racemes dense, pendulous; flowers rich amber. April and May. Nepal, 1828. D. Devonianum.—Peduncles 2-3-flowered; sepals and petals creamy-white tinged with rosy-purple; lip deeply fringed and tinged with orange at the base. May and June. Khasia, 1837. D. FaIconeri.—Flowers large, solitary; sepals and petals soft rose tipped with dark purple; lip fringed, white and orange, with dark purple spot. May and June. Bootan, 1856. I). Farmeri.—Racemes many-flowered, pendulous; sepals and petals rosy-pink; lip rich yellow. April and May. Northern India, 1847. D. formosurn giganteurn.— Racemes 4-5-flowered; flowers very large, pure white, except the lip, which is blotched with bright amber. April and May. Rangoon, 185G. 1). Utuijlorum.—Peduncles 2-3-flowered; flowers very showy, rosy-lilac; the lip white and rose with deep violet eye. March and April. Northern India, 1856. D. M'Carthia.’.—Flowers large, bright cerise; lip blotched with rich purple within. Spring. Ceylon, 1854. D. nubile.—Flowers produced in pairs, large and showy; white, tipped with rosy-pink; the lip blotched with purplish-crimson. May. East Indies, 1836. One of the most useful of orchids for general decorative purposes. D. Parishii.—Peduncle 2-3-flowered; sepals and petals deep rose; lip rich purple in the throat. May and June. Moulmein, 1863. D. pulchellum.—A dwarf plant; flowers white tipped with purple and with deep orange blotch in centre of lip. February and March. Sylliet, 1830. Does best in a basket. D. superb uni.—Peduncle 2-f lowered; flowers large, rosy-purple, with a pair of deeper spots at the base of lip. April and May. Manilla, 1838. The variety Huttoni has the sepals and petals white. D. I17i nil a n u m.—Flowers large and showy, produced in pairs or more rarely three on one peduncle; sepals and petals white tipped with magenta; lip orange with two eye-like crimson spots at the base. May. Assam, 1863. DendrociiILU31.—A small genus of pseudobulbous epiphytes, not conspicuous for the individual beauty of their flowers, but as they are arranged in graceful pendulous bracted spikes the effect is very beautiful; pot culture. Temperature, summer, 753 to 85°; winter, 65° to 70°. D. fill for me has the flower-spikes long and pendulous, the bracts arranged in a distichous manner, and the flowers bright yellow, in June and July. 1836. D. glumaceum has bracted drooping spikes, larger than in the preceding species, and the flowers are white, very fragrant, produced in winter and spring. 1838. Both are from the Philippines. Epidendrum.—An extensive genus of epiphytes, many of them very showy, but a considerable number of no value to the horticulturist. Some have stout pseudobulbs, others have stem-like growths; for the former blocks or baskets are preferable, for the latter pot culture with fibrous peat and sphagnum. Temperature, summer, 65c to 75°; winter, 60° to 65°. F. dichromum.—Scape 1 to 3 feet high, branched, many-flowered; sepals and petals pure white; lip rosy-red with yellow base and white margin. Summer months. Brazil, 1843. E. dichromum amabile differs from the normal form in having rose-coloured sepals and petals; lip deep crimson with a light margin. 1864. E. macrochilum.—Flowers large and showy, the sepals and petals brown; lip large, pure white, blotched with purple at the base. April and May. Guatemala, New'Grenada, 1836. E. macrochilum roseum has the sepals and petals purple, the lip deep rose colour; it is known by the name of dragon’s j mouth in its native country. E. nemorale majus. Raceme very dense, drooping; flowers large, rich rose colour. June. Mexico, 1840. Likes exposure to the sun. E. prismatocarpum. —Scape erect, many-flowered; sepals and petals yellowish-green, blotched with dark purple; lip pink. June and July. Central America, 1861. E. vitellinum majus.—Sepals and petals yolk-of-egg colour; lip bright yellow. It requires to be kept very cool indeed; will even thrive in the open air during summer. An almost perpetual bloomer. Mexico, 1840. Ljelta.—This genus, which contains many extremely handsome species, is closely allied to Cattleya, the chief distinction being that Lcelia has eight pollen masses, whilst Cattleya has only four. They are pseudobulbous epiphytes; the Mexican kinds for the most part thrive best upon blocks, in a somewhat cool and airy house with full exposure to the sun. The Brazilians require pot culture, and the same treatment as Cattleya. Temperature, summer, 65° to 75°; winter, 60° to 65°. L. anceps.— Scape 2-3-flowered; sepals and petals thick and waxy rosy-lilac, the lip rose and purple. December and January.GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. 890 Mexico, 1S33. The variety Daicsoni has the sepals and petals pure white; lip rosy-purple with white margip, yellow within. L. autumnalis.—Scape 5-0-flowered; sepals and petals soft purple; lip rose and white, yellow within. The flowers are delicately perfumed. December and January. Mexico, 1S36. Should be grown on a block of wood. L. cinnabarinci.—Scape erect, many-flowered; the flowers reddish-orange. March and April. Brazil, 1836. L. elega ns. —There are many varieties of this species, all beautiful; the normal form lias soft rose-coloured sepals and petals and a bright purple lip. Summer months. Brazil, 1S63. L. majalis.—Plant dwarf, scape few-flowered; flowers 4 inches across; sepals and petals soft rose; lip of the same colour, streaked and spotted with bright brown. May and June. Mexico, 1838. L. Pern'nii.—Scape erect, many-flowered; sepals and petals rosy-purple; lip crimson with white throat. September and October. Brazil, 1835. L. purpurata.— Scape erect, many-flowered; flowers very large, the sepals and petals pure white; the lip very deep purplish-crimson, with radiating lines in the throat. May to July. Brazil, 1838. L. superb lens.—Scape often 3 to 4 yards long, 10-20-flowered; sepals and petals rosy-red; lip crimson streaked yellow. Winter. Guatemala, 1840. L. 1 Vallisii.—Flowers large; sepals and petals white tinged with rose; lip large, yellow. Northern Brazil, 1866. Limatooes.--Terrestrial plants with fusiform pseudobulbs, and plaited leaves. Pot culture with rich vegetable soil. Temperature, summer, 75° to 85°; winter, 65° to 70°. L. rosea bears a many-flowered scape of dark rose-coloured flowers in the winter months. Moulinein, 1850. Lycaste.—Pseudobulbous epiphytes, having large plaited leaves, and for the most part showy flowers; being natives of mountain regions they thrive best under cool treatment; pot culture in flbrous peat. Temperature, summer, 60° to 70°; winter, 45° to 60°. L. Deppei.—Scape 1-flowered; sepals and petals white and greenish-brown; lip orange. Winter and spring. Xalapa, 18*28. L. Skinneri.—Flowers large, solitary, varying in colour from rose to rich crimson and white. Winter. Guatemala, 1841. The variety virginal is has the sepals and petals pure white, and the lip stained with lemon-colour. M A s P E v A L LIA.—A large genus of small-growing epiphytes from the high mountain regions of South America, many of them small-flowered, and having no interest from a decorative point of view, whilst others rank amongst the most brilliant of orchids. Pot culture with flbrous peat and sphagnum. They must be kept moist all the year round. Temperature, summer, 603 to 70°; winter, 45' to 6(P. 31. Ilarnjana.—Scape 1-flowered; sepals united at the base, forming a gibbous tube; colour violet crimson shading to scarlet; blooms at various periods, and affords many variations of colour. New Grenada, 1860. 31. ignea.—Sepals pale orange outside, bright cinnabar shaded purple within; the upper sepal of this species invariably bends forward over the gibbous tube. Winter. New Grenada. 1870. 31. Lindeni.—Flowers solitary, of a violet-rose or brilliant magenta colour. Winter. New Grenada, 1866. M. tovarensis.—Scape 1-2-flowered; snow-white. Winter. Columbia. 1865. 3f. Veitchiana (Fig. 339).—Scape 1-flowered; flowers very richly coloured, large, orange-scarlet, shaded with bright yellow and a plush of purple hairs. Winter. Peru, 1S6S. Maxillaria.—Pseudobulbous epiphytes, the majority of them mere curiosities. Pot culture in fibrous peat. Temperature, summer, 60° to 70°; winter, 45° to 60°. 31. luteo-alba has solitary showy flowers, creamy-white and tawny-orange, in winter and spring. Ocana, 1847. 3f. venusta bears large flowers, the sepals and petals snow-white; the lip white, marked with red and yellow. Winter. New Grenada, 1869. Mesospixipium.—This small genus comprises some compact-growing pseudobulbous epiphytes, from considerable elevations, which require cool treatment. Block culture is best. Temperature, summer, 60° to 70°; winter, 45° to 60*. In 3f. sanguineum the panicle is pendulous, many-flowered; the flowers bright rose in autumn and winter. Peruvian Fig. 3S9. Andes, 1867. 3f. vulcanicum has a many-flowered panicle, the flowers larger than in the preceding, and of a rich rosy-purple; in winter. Peru, 1872. Miltoxia.—Showy pseudobulbous epiphytes, the foliage of which has, however, generally a sickly hue. Pot culture in peat and sphagnum. Temperature, summer, 65s to 75°; winter, 60* to 05 \ 3f. Candida grandidora.—Raceme many-flowered; sepals and petals yellow, spotted with bright brown; lip yellow tinged with pink. September. Brazil, 1837. 31. Cloiccsii major.—Sepals and petals yellow, transversely barred with chocolate; lip deep purple and white. September. Brazil, 1840. 3f. euneata.—Raceme many-flowered; sepals aud petals rich brown; lip white, stained with pink. February and March. Brazil, 1843. 31. Regnelli. —Raceme many-flowered; sepals and petals white tinged with rose; lip rosy-purple. September. Brazil, 1862. 31. spectabil is. — redunele 1-flowered; sepals and petals white; lip large, flat, deep violet edged with white. July and August. Brazil, 1835. The variety 3loreliana has the sepals and petals rich purple; the lip large, flat, and spreading, of a deep violet streaked with crimson. 31. Warsceiciczii.— Panicle branched, many-flowered; sepals and petals reddish-brown at the base, yellow at the tips; lip rosy-purple, yellow and white. Spring. Peru, 1868. Odontoglossum.—Mountain orchids, comprising numerous extremely handsome species, which, in consequence of the cool regions they inhabit, are easily cultivated in a comparatively low temperature, and have consequently become very popular in European gardens. Pot culture with peat and sphagnum, and must be kept moist all the year round. Temperature, summer, 60° to 70°; winter, 45° to 60°. O. Alexandrce. —Panicle branched and many-flowered; sepals and petals pure white, spotted with reddish-brown; lip white, stained at the base with yellow, and spotted with reddish-brown. Autumn and winter. New Grenada, 1S64. O. citrosmum.—Raceme pendulous; sepals and petals white; lip rose. June and July. Mexico, 1840. O. gloriosum.—Panicle much branched, many-flowered;THE STOVE AND FORCING HOUSE. 891 flowers pale greenish-yellow, blotel>ed and dotted with dark chestnut. It blooms at various times. New Grenada. 0. grande.—Scape 2-5-flowered; flowers large and showy; golden yellow transversely banded with chestnut. Autumn. Guatemala, 1S32. 0. Hallii.—Flowers large; sepals and petals yellow, spotted and blotched with reddish-brown; lip white, spotted with purple. Feru, 1S40. 0. hastilabium.—Panicle 20-100-flowered; sepals and petals pale green, transversely barred with reddish-purple; lip white and purple. July and August. New Grenada, 1841. 0. Insleagi.—Scape 2-5-flowered; flowers large, brown, orange, and purple, produced at various seasons. Mexico, 1S40. 0. luteo-purpureum.—Racemes many-flowered; sepals and petals chocolate tipped with yellow; lip white, brown, and golden yellow, much bearded. It blooms at various seasons. New Grenada, 1S4S. 0. membranaeeum.—Scape 2-4-flowered; sepals and petals creamy-white, transversely barred at the base with red lines; lip white streaked with red. Winter months. Mexico, 1843. 0. na’cium majus.—Panicle spreading, many-flowered; sepals and petals wavy, pure white, blotched and spotted with crimson; lip white, yellow at base. May and June. New Grenada, 1840. 0. Pescatorei.—Panicles much branched, many-flowered; sepals and petals white, shaded with rose; lip white and yellow. March and April. New Grenada, 1852. 0. Phalcenopsis.—Raceme 2-3-flowered; sepals and petals white; lip large, flat, crimson and white. Spring and summer. New Grenada, 1805. 0. pulchellum majus.— Flowers fragrant, waxy-white, the lip stained yellow. Winter. Guatemala, 1S40. Fig. 390. 0. Roezlii (Fig. 390;. — Scape 1-2-llowered; flowers large, flat; sepals white, petals white with purple base; lip very large, white, with yellow base. Various seasons. New Grenada, 1875. 0. liohxii majus.—Scape few-flowered; sepals and petals white, the latter transversely barred with imrplish-crimson; lip white. Winter. Mexico, 1839. Does best on a block. 0. triumphuns.— Raceme many-flowered, the flowers large and showy; sepals and petals golden yellow, barred with chestnut; lip yellow or white, spotted with brown, rich rose in front. Spring and early summer. New Grenada, 1800. 0. Pro-Sk inner i.—Scape many-flowered, the flowers large and fragrant; sepals and petals greenish dotted with reddish-brown; lip spreading, white, spotted with round blue dots. Summer and autumn. Guatemala. O. vexillariurn.—Scape 3-0-flowered; sepals and petals soft rosy-lilac; lip very large and spreading; deep rose. Various seasons. New Grenada, 1874. Oncidium.— Pseudobulbous epiphytes, many of the numc-I rous species being very showy; the majority bear yellow I flowers; all except the small-growing kinds thrive best under pot or basket culture. Temperature, summer, 05° to 75°; ! winter, 00° to 05°. O. ampliatum maj-us.—Pseudobulbs compressed, applc-I green, freckled with brown; scape branched, many-flowered; flowers yellow in front, white beneath. May and June. Guatemala, 1840. 0. Barken.— Scape branched; sepals and petals brown, I barred with yellow; lip large, bright yellow. Winter and I spring. Mexico, 1840. Likes full exposure to the sun when | growing. 0. bifolium majus.—Flowers large, brilliant yellow. May | and June. Monte Video. Does best on a block. 0. crispum.—There are many varieties of this species; flowers copper-coloured and yellow, produced at various periods. Organ Mountains, Brazil, 1831. Does best on a block. 0. cucullatum.—Flowers rose colour and reddish-purple, spotted with deep purple. Winter. New Grenada, at 8000 to 10,000 feet altitude, 1848. Must be kept very cool and moist. 0. excaratum.— Scape branched, many-flowered; ground colour rich yellow, spotted with chestnut, sometimes called 0. aurosum. May. Guatemala, 1840. 0. incurmun.—Scape branched; flowers curled back, white, striped with mauve. Autumn. Mexico, 1S54. 0. Lanceanum. — Sepals and petals yellow, blotched with crimson; lip rich violet. July and August. Guiana, 1834. 0. leucochilum,—Scape branched, many-flowered; sepals and petals greenish-yellow; lip pure white; blooms at various periods. Guatemala, 1835. 0. macrantlium.—Spike several feet long, branched; sepals and petals bright yellow tinged with purple; lip yellow in front. Spring and summer. New Grenada, I860. 0. ornithorhynchum.—Flowers numerous, rosy-lilac with a perfume of heliotrope. Autumn and winter. Mexico, 1820. The variety album differs from this in being wholly white. 0. Papilio majus.—The butterfly oncid; flowers large, rich brown, striped with yellow. Summer. Trinidad, 1823. 0. sarcodes. — Scape erect, panicle branched, many-flowered; flowers rich yellow blotched with crimson. Spring. Brazil, : 1848. 0. serratum.—Scape 10-12 feet long, branched; flowers I curled, chocolate, margined with yellow. Winter and spring. Peru, 1851. 0. varicosum Rogersii.—Panicle much branched, 50-150-flowered; lip large, golden yellow. November. Brazil, 1809. Does best in a basket. Peristeria. —A small genus of pseudobulbous plants, re-! quiring strong heat and abundance of water when growing; j the species here quoted is called by the Spaniards El Spirito Santo, from the resemblance of the lip to a dove. Pot culture i in fibrous peat. Temperature, summer, 05° to 75°; winter, 00° to 05°. P. elata produces a many-flowered spike of flowers, of which the sepals and petals are waxy-white, the lip dotted with lilac, and very fragrant. Autumn. Panama, 1820. Piiajus.—Pseudobulbous terrestrial plants, having broad plicate leaves, and stout erect scapes bearing showy flowers. Pot culture in peat and turfy loam. Temperature, summer, 65° to 75°; winter, 00’ to 65°. P. grandifolius has a many-flowered scape, the flowers brownish-red within, white without, produced in winter and spring. China, 1778. P. Wal-lichii has large flowers orange-yellow, tinged with buff and purple; in April. Northern India, 1837. Pjialjenopsis.—A small genus of epiphytes, destitute of pseudobulbs, and having little stem; leaves thick leathery and two-ranked; flowers large and showy. They should be892 GARDENER'S ASSISTANT. grown upon blocks, and require great care. Temperature, summer, 75° to 85°; winter, (55° to 70°. P. amah ills.—Raceme many-flowered; sepals and petals broad, flat, pure white; lip spotted and streaked with crimson and pink, the tips lengthened out into curious twisted tendrils. Blooms at various seasons. Manilla, 1830. P. grandijlora.--Flowers large, pure white; lip streaked with yellow, the tips lengthened out into twisted tendrils. Blooms at various seasons. Java and Borneo, 1847. 7\ Liiddemanniana.—Blowers medium size, white, transversely barred with amethyst; lip rich violet. Summer. Philippines, 1865. P. Schilleriana.—Leaves transversely banded with gray; scape many-flowered; flowers pinkish-mauve, the lip furnished with recurved horn-like points. Winter and spring. Philippines. Bleioxe.—Deciduous pseudobulbous alpine epiphytes, by some considered as forming a section only of Cccloggne. They are called Indian crocuses. The flowers are exquisitely beautiful, and appear before the leaves. Pot culture; peat and sphagnum; strong heat and moisture when growing, cool and dry afterwards. Temperature, summer, 75° to 85°; winter, iP to 65°. P. humilis.—Peduncle 1-tlowered; sepals and petals bright rose; lip white, striped and spotted with crimson and brown. October and November. East Indies, 1841. P. lagenaria.—Flowers large, solitary; sepals and petals mauve; lip white, striped with crimson. Autumn. Khasia Hills, 1840. P. maculata.—Sepals and petals pure white; lip white, streaked with deep red. Autumn. Khasia llills, 1841. P. Reiehenbacliiana.—Peduncle 1-2-tlowcred; sepals and petals rosy-lilac; lip purple with magenta fringe at the margin. Autumn. Rangoon, ISOS. P. Wallichiana.- Flowers solitary; sepals and petals deep rose; lip of the same colour striped with white in the centre. Autumn. Sylhet, 1838. Renanthera.—The species of this genus were formerly included in Fu/ufa, from which, however, they are distinguished by their jointed lip, with a spur in the middle instead of the base. Pot culture, sphagnum moss. Temperature, summer, 75° to S5°; winter, 653 to 70°. R. eoccinea.— Stem slender, scandent; leaves short, two-ranked; raceme many-tlowered; sepals and petals orange-scarlet; lip deep crimson. Blooms at various seasons. Cochin China, 181(3. It must be exposed to the full influence of the sun. A’. Loicii.—Plant very tall; leaves distichous, from 1 to 3 feet long; spike pendulous, 0 to 1*2 feet long; flowers reddish-brown, veined with greenish-yellow; the two flowers at the base of the spike, however, are entirely different, being yellow spotted with crimson. Spring and summer. Borneo, 1840. Sacco labium.—Extremely showy epiphytal plants, with distichous leathery leaves, the spike usually densely clothed with flowers, and forming a very handsome cylindrical wreath. Although they will thrive upon blocks, their weight when large renders it necessary to resort to pot culture. Temperature, summer, 75° to 85°; winter, 05° to 70°. S. ampullaceum.—Racemes erect, shorter than the leaves; flowers deep rose colour. Spring. Sylhet, 1838. & Bin mei majiu.—Racemes pendulous, longer than the leaves; flowers dense, white and violet. July. Java, 1835. S. curri/olium.—Racemes erect; flowers orange-scarlet. May and June. East Indies. 5. giganteum.—Plant robust; racemes dense, pendulous, longer than the leaves; sepals and petals white, spotted with lilac; lip violet and white; very fragrant. Winter. Rangoon. •S', guttatum.—Racemes longer than the leaves, densely set with rosy-purple and white flowers. May and June. East Indies, 1819. The variety Hof/ordianum has the flowers larger than in the normal form, and the lip is rich crimson. ♦S', retimim.—Very free-flowering, racemes dense; flowers waxy-white spotted pink. May. East Indies. S. violaceum.—Racemes dense, longer than leaves; flowers deep mauve and white, the lip violet. Winter. Manilla. The variety Ilarrisonianum has pure white and very fragrant flowers. Sobralia.—A genus of terrestrial plants, having reed-like stems and thin plaited leaves, and bearing upon their summits large showy flowers; these individually are very fugitive, but a succession is long maintained. Pot culture in peat ami leaf-mould. Temperature, summer, 05° to 75°; winter, 00° to 65°-S. macrantha splendens has flowers 6 inches across, the sepals and petals rich purple and the lip crimson. June. Guatemala, 1846. Sopiironitis.—Pseudobulbous epiphytes, of small size, but producing brilliant flowers. Should be grown on a block of wood. Temperature, summer, 60° to 70; winter, 45° to 00°. S. grcindiflora has the broad sepals and petals flat and of a rich scarlet, the lip yellow striped with red. Winter. Brazil, | 1S37. Stan hope A. — Pseudobulbous epiphytes, bearing large plaited leaves and pendulous scapes; the flowers large, showy, and strongly scented. On account of the pendulous spikes pushing out below they must be grown in open baskets. Temperature, summer, GO3 to 70°; winter, 45° to GO3. S. Bucephalus.—Flowers rich orange, spotted and blotched with red. August. Ecuador, 1843. S. grand ijlora.—Flowers large, pure white. Summer. Trinidad, 18*24. S. insignis. — Sepals and petals creamy-white, spotted red; lip of the same colour spotted with purple. September. Quito, 1S2G. S. oculata.—Flowers pale yellow dotted with purple, and having two large purple eye-like spots on the hypochil. Summer. Brazil, 1S29. S. tigrtna.— Flowers very large, pale yellow, transversely barred and blotched with dark purple and chocolate. Summer. Xalapa, 1836. S. Ward it.—Sepals and petals rich orange-yellow; lip dark purple at the base. Summer. Central America, 1836. Thuxia.--A small genus of herbaceous plants, having slender stem-like pseudobulbs, and bearing upon their summits a small pendulous raceme, furnished with large deciduous bracts. Pot culture with peat and sphagnum. Temperature, summer, 753 to 85°; winter, 65° to 70°. T. alba has terminal pendulous 6-S-flowered racemes; the perianth pure white, and the lip streaked with purple and lilac. July. East Indies, 1836. T. Bcnsomv has large flowers, in 6-8-llowered racemes; the perianth bright reddish-purple, white towards the base; the lip purple in front; disk yellow, white at base. May and June. Rangoon. TrichopiltA.—Pseudobulbous plants, bearing a single coriaceous leaf; but producing handsome flowers from the base of the bulb, in great abundance. Tot culture. Peat and sphagnum. Temperature, summer, 65° to 75°; winter, 60* to p5°. T. crisjia.— reduncle 2-3-flowered; sepals and petals red, margined with white; lip deep crimson and strongly crisped in front. May. Central America, 1S62. This species flowers twice a year. T. picta. —Flowers solitary, yellow, spotted in front with reddish-brown. August. Chiapas, I860. T. —reduncle 1-2-flowered; the flowers fragrant; perianth white spotted with pale red; lip large, white mottled with bright rose. March. Costa Rica, 1850. T. tortile.—Sepals and petals brown and yellow, much twisted; lip white dotted with red; blooms at various seasons. Mexico, 1835. Uropedium.—The plant referred to this genus has all the appearance of Cgpripedium caudatum; but in place of the pouch-like lip of that plant it has a broad flat membranous lip. It requires the same treatment as Cgpripedium. Temperature, summer, 653 to 75°; winter, GO3 to 65°. The species, which is named IT. Lindem\ has 1-flowered peduncles; the sepals pale yellow, streaked with reddish orange or green, the petals of the same colour but lengthened out into tails 18 inches long, and the lip of the same shape but broader. May and June. New Grenada, at 8500 feet elevation. 1849. Yaxda. — Handsome epiphytes, having erect stems, longTHE STOVE AND FORCING HOUSE. 893 distichous leaves, and large fragrant flowers. Pot culture with sphagnum. Temperature, summer, 75° to 85°; winter, 65° to 70°. V. Ba terna nni. —Plant very stately; leaves coriaceous; raceme erect, 12-20-flowered; sepals and petals golden yellow spotted with crimson, bright purple behind; lip crimson. Summer. Philippines, near the sea, 1845. V Bcnsoni.—Raceme erect, lax, 12-15-flowcred; sepals and petals white outside, within yellowish-green dotted with reddish-brown; lip violet and white. Summer. Rangoon, 1866. V. ccerulea.—Raceme erect, 5-20-flowered; flowers large, sepals and petals light blue, lip deep blue; very distinct and handsome. Autumn. Sylhet, 1849. V. coerulescens.—Raceme erect, 10-20-flowered, the flowers medium-sized; sepals and petals pale blue outside, lilac on the face; lip small deep blue. Summer. Burmah, 1870. V. insignis.—Raceme short, 4-7-flowered; sepals and petals white outside, bright brown within; lip rosy-purple. Summer and autumn. Moluccas, 1846. V. Boxburghii.—Raceme erect, 3-S-flowered; sepals and petals chequered with white and purple; lip blue, or in some varieties red. July and August. Northern India, 1810. F. suavis.—Raceme 7-14-flowered; flowers fragrant, china white spotted with rich brown and purple; lip deep violet. Summer. Java, 1847. F. teres.—Leaves terete; raceme erect, 3-7-flowered; flowers large; sepals and petals white tinged with red and yellow; lip of the same colour freckled with crimson. Summer. East Indies, 1828. The variety Andersoni has more abundant, brighter coloured flowers. F. tricolor.—Raceme 5-12-flowered; sepals and petals white outside, blotched within with yellow and brown; lip deep rose. There are numerous varieties of this species, all of them beautiful. Spring and summer. Java, 1847. Zygo pet alum.—Pseudobulbous epiphytes, producing large showy flowers; they are specially useful on account of their winter-blooming properties. Pot culture, fibrous peat. Temperature, summer, 653 to 75s; winter, 60° to 65°. Z. brachypetalum.—Sepals and petals reddish-brown tinged with green; lip violet veined white. December. Brazil, 1844. Z. Mackagi.— Raceme erect, many-flowered; sepals and petals brown tinged with green; lip large, lilac. Winter. Brazil, 1825. Z. maxilla re.—Raceme flexuose, few-flowered; sepals and petals green tinged with brown; lip deep blue. September. Brazil, 1829. Z. rostratum.—Scape few-flowered; sepals and petals greenish-yellow; lip large, white, streaked with rosy-pink. Blooms at various times. Demerara, 1827. V. H. G. III.—STOVE FERNS. The ferns that require more or less stove heat to grow them in are much more numerous than those that will succeed with greenhouse treatment; and amongst them are many of the most beautiful. The ffeneral treatment that stove ferns need is essentially different from that of flowering plants, inasmuch as they never require a course of very dry treatment, as in the case of the latter, to ripen up the wood and induce a disposition to bloom. To submit ferns to a process of this kind would in most cases be fatal, as they cannot endure to become dry at the root, or to be placed in too dry an atmosphere. Their beauty depends upon their fresh, green, healthy leafage; and if they were subjected to the drying influences that many flowering plants require when at rest, this would be damaged or destroyed. Nevertheless ferns, like blooming plants, will not do to be kept always growing; they want rest during the winter, to induce which the temperature must be lowered down to the point that will not excite growth. The charm they possess consists in their unapproachable elegance, their beautiful fresh green appearance, and their wonderfully diverse formation. These properties they have in a degree not equalled by any other family of plants. The great difference there is in their size and general character admits of their being grown and used in many different ways. The following selection comprises some of the best and most useful ferns for general purposes; but the list could be very much extended Acropiiorus.—Elegant plants, related to Davallia, but distinguished by having the indusium fixed only by the base. The fronds are mostly decompound, the veins free; the sori globose, with a sub-orbicular indusium attached by its base. They are very easily managed, potted in rough peat and sand with the addition of a little turfy loam, the pots well drained, and liberally supplied with water. The deciduous kinds require it more sparingly when at rest, yet even at this time they must not be allowed to get quite dry, as has been sometimes ! erroneously advised. | A. ajfinis.—Fronds tripinnatifid, triangular, 9 to 18 inches , long, the segments finely divided; deep green; rhizome stout, scaly, creeping on the surface. Borneo. A. cheer ophgllus.—Fronds tripinnate, triangular, 12 to 24 inches high; segments pinnatifld; pale green tinged with reddish-pink when young; rhizome stout, scaly. East Indies. A. immersus.—Fronds deciduous, bi-tripinnate, deltoid, 1 to 2 feet long, soft yellowish-green; pinna? long, acuminate; sori prominent on the upper side. East Indies, 1849. Acrostic hum.—The only species belonging to this genus is a sub-aquatic plant, distinguished by its naked sori, its uniformly reticulated veins without free veinlets, and by the receptacles occupying the whole under surface of the upper pinna?, which are slightly contracted; rhizome decumbent. Pot in loam and peat and partially submerge in water. A. aurcum has the fronds pinnate, 2 to 6 feet or more in height; pinna? lanceolate, brilliant green; fertile pinna? slightly contracted, and wholly soriferous beneath. The many variations from the normal type are probably the result of climatic influence. Tropics generally, 1815. Adiantum.—This genus contains perhaps more truly beau-tiful and decorative species than any other. They are popularly known as maiden-hair ferns, and are distinguished by their marginal sori, which is linear or oblong and indusiate, the indusium resupinate. The veins are forked, with free venules; stipes and racliis black and shining in the majority. A. cardiochleena.— Fronds decompound, 1 to 3 feet high; pinna? 6 to 8 inches long, pinnules dimidiate, fertile on the superior edge; bright green. Tropical America, 1862. A. caudatinn.--Frond pinnate, pendulous, proliferous at the apex; pinna? downy, 6 to 18 inches long, of a gray-green colour. East Indies. Suitable for basket-culture. A. colpodes.— Fronds tripinnate, 2 feet long; pinnules roundish in the young state, rich rosy-pink, changing with age to deep green. Tropical America, 1864. A. continuum.—Fronds tripinnate, glabrous, membranous, spreading, 1 to 2 feet long, broadest in the middle; pinnules rhomboid, cuneate at the base, the lowest pinnule of each pinna covering the rachis; bright green. West Indies, 1855. The variety Flemingii is very dense growing and a fine decorative plant. A. cristatum.—Fronds bipinnate, triangular, lowest pair of pinna? again divided; pinnules dentate at the edges, obliquely ovate; deep green; stipes dull black, scabrous. Jamaica, &c., 1844.894 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. A. cultratum.—Fronds tripinnate, 1 to 2 foot long; pinnuBs obliquely rhomboid, large and truncate at the base; indusium renifonn, bright scarlet; a grand species. Brazil, Ac. A. cuneatum.—Fronds quadripinnate, 10 to 18 inches high, curving in a most elegant manner; the pinnules small, mostly wedge-slmped, deep green; the stipes and rachis shining black. Brazil, 1820. One of the most useful and universally grown of all small decorative ferns, and suitable either for a hot oi* moderately cool house. A. cur vat-urn.—Fronds tripinnate, 1 to 2 feet in length; pinnules curved, oblong, obtuse, rich green; stipes and rachis slightly downy. Brazil, Ac., 1841. A. farleyensc.—Fronds quadripinnate, 1 to 3 feet high, very broad and massive, drooping; pinna) large, brilliant green, deeply fringed, the margin developed as if cristate; the noblest of its genus. Barbados, 1SG5. A. Feci—Fronds tripinnate, scamlent, dull green; rachis and stipes clothed with ferruginous hairs. Mexico, 18GG. A. intermedium.—Fronds bipinnate, 1 to 2 feet high; pinnules somewhat oblong, cuneate at the base, slightly serrate on the edge; rachis clothed with ferruginous hairs. Tropical America, 1824. A. lunulatum.—Fronds deciduous, proliferous at the apex, pinnate, G to 12 inches long; piifnake petiolate, lunate, bright green. East Indies. Suitable for basket culture. A. macrophyllum.—Fronds pinnaJB, 10 to 20 inches long, erect; pinna; large, bright red in the young state, changing to deep green with age. West Indies, 1703. A. Peruvian urn.—Fronds tripinnate, pendent. 1 to 3 feet long; pinmc trapezoid, 2 to 3 inches long, brilliant green; a noble fern. Peru, 18G8. A. pulverulentiun.—Fronds bipinnate, broadly ovate, 1 to 2 feet high; pinnules membranous, oblong-dimidiate, shining green; stipes and rachis clothed with ferruginous hairs. Tropical America, 1793. A. tenerum.—Fronds tripinnate, 1 to 2 feet or more high; pinnules obtuse, toothed on the edges, smooth, brilliant green. Tropical America, Ac., 1703. A. trapeziformc.—Fronds quadripinnate, 1 to 3 feet high, broad; pinnules large, trapezoid, serrate, intense green; awry handsome species. West Indies, Ac., 1703. A. villosum.—Fronds bipinnate, 12 to 18 inches high; pinnules somewhat oblong, trapezoid; sori forming a continuous marginal line; colour shining green. West Indies, 1775. Aglaomohpiia.—A small genus differing from Drynaria in little else than by having the upper soriferous pinfiai contracted; rhizome,stout,llesliy, clothed with brown chaffy scales. Pot in rough fibrous peat and sand. A. Mcyenianum has the sterile fronds sessile, cordate below, lobed on the upper edge, rigid, 3 to G inches high; fertile fronds pinnatiiid, coriaceous, sterile below, contracted and fertile above, 1 to 3 feet high; dark green. East Indies, Ac., 1872. Alsophila.—A large genus of arborescent ferns, of which, however, few species have yet been introduced to European gardens; sori naked, or sometimes surrounded with chaffy scales, which cause it to appear as if partially involucrate; veins forked, free; receptacle globose, elevated; caudex stout, arborescent. Pot in loam and peat in equal parts, adding a little sand; drain well and supply liberally with water, both to the roots and in the atmosphere. Alsophilas love shade. A. armuta. —Fronds tripinnate, 3 to G feet long, segments deeply divided, light green; stipes and rachis white, spiny, and sparingly furnished with white chaffy scales; stem slender. Tropical America. A. aapera.—Fronds bipinnate, broadly lanceolate, 12 to 14 feet long; pinna) linear-lanceolate, pinnatiiid; segments linear-oblong, serrate at the edges, light green; stipes and rachis furnished with short stout spines. West Indies, Ac. A. ylauca.—Fronds bipinnate, broadly lanceolate, G to 12 feet long; pinna) deeply pinnatiiid, shining green above, very white beneath; crown and stipes densely clothed with large white chaffy scales; caudex slender, attaining 40 to GO feet in height. Philippines, 18C»0. A. pruinata.—Fronds tripinnate, ovate-lanceolate, 2 to 5 feet long; segments dentate, entire at the edges, light green above, glaucous below; stipes and rachis furnished with soft woolly hairs; caudex arborescent. Tropical America. A. radens.—Fronds bipinnate, 4 to G feet long; segments oblong-obtuse, 1 to 2 inches long, bluntly serrate, bright green; stipes and rachis furnished with blackish scales, spiny at the base; caudex arborescent. Brazil, Ac. A. Tcenitis.—Fronds bipinnate, smooth, 3 to 6 feet long; pinnules lanceolate, coriaceous, 1 inch long, rich green; sori continuous, intramarginal; stipes densely clothed with large dark brown chaffy scales; caudex arborescent. Brazil, 18G2. Amphidesmium.—This genus bears close resemblance to Alnophila, from which, however, it may be distinguished by its criniferous sori, which are round, and each vein frequently bears two to four sori; they are quite destitute of involucre; veins mostly simple, sometimes forked at the base; caudex decumbent. Pot in peat and loam adding a little sand, and supply liberally with water. A. blechnoidcs has the fronds pinnate, glabrous, 4 to G feet long, of a dark shining green; stipes pale reddish-brown. Trinidad, 18G4. Anemia.—Interesting dwarf, OsjnmuZa-like plants, with the sterile branches usually pinnate or bi-tri-pinnate, the two basal lateral branches being erect and wholly soriferous; veins forked, free. Pot in rough peat and sand with a little loam. A. adiantifolia.—Sterile frond or branch bipinnate, triangular, spreading, G to 18 inches high, deep green. Jamaica, Ac., 1703. A. cheilanthoides.— Sterile fronds bipinnatifid, G to 10 inches high; segments finely divided, dark green; stipes and rachis tomentose. Brazil, Ac. A. collina.—Sterile frond pinnate, 6 to 12 inches high; pinna) entire, obtuse, slightly hairy on the surface, deep green; stipes and rachis clothed with ferruginous hairs. Brazil, 1S29. A. Dregeana.— Sterile frond pinnate, G to 12 inches high; pinna) dark green; rachis tomentose. South Africa. A. mandioccana.—Sterile frond pinnate, 10 to 15 inches high; pinna) entire, eared at the base, upwards of 1 inch long, dark green; rachis clothed with long ferruginous hairs. Brazil. Anemidictyon.—This genus is distinguished from Anemia by its reticulated (not free) veins. In other respects they resemble each other and require the same treatment. In A. Phyllitidis the fronds are 12 to 30 inches long, the sterile ones pinnate, the fertile ones erect, densely soriferous; pinna) ovate-lanceolate, 4 inches long, deep green. There are several other forms of this species, of which the most distinct are fraxinifolium, longifolium, and laciniatum. West Indies, Ac., 1820. A NTROPiiyum.—Singular ferns, having simple coriaceous fronds; sori naked, mostly sunk in the frond; veins uniformly reticulated, and as the receptacles are situated upon the sides of the anastomosing veins, the sori is more or less reticulated. Pot in spongy peat and sphagnum moss, or they may be fastened upon blocks and treated as epiphytes. A. cayennense has the fronds somewhat spatliulate, 6 to 12 inches long, dark green. Tropical America. In A. coriaceum the fronds are linear-lanceolate, 10 to 18 inches long, the sori conspicuous but slightly reticulated. Ceylon, 18G2. Aspidium.—Bold-growing handsome ferns, distinguished by their rotundate sori and orbicular peltate indusia, the receptacles com pi tat- the primary veins pinnate, and the venules eompoundly anastomosing. In some species the indusium becomes renifonn, and these have been separated, and a distinct genus (Sagenia) made of them. Pot in loam and peat in equal parts, adding a little sand to keep it porous. A. cicutariiun—syn. Sage nia cicutaria.— Fronds bipinnatifid, 1 to 2 feet high; pinna) broad, margins SenateJ pale green; sori numerous, bold. Jamaica, 1820. A, macrophyllinn—syn. Sagenia macrojdiylla.—Fronds pinnate, 2 to 4 feet high, terminal; pinna) large, sessile, the lower pair auriculate on the inferior margin, pale green. Tropical America, 1810. A. Pica—syn. Sagenia Pica.—Fronds pinnatiiid, 1 to 2 feet high, 4 to G inehesbroad; puna)broad and entire, bright green; sori brown, conspicuous; stipes shining black. Mauritius. A. repandam—syn. Sagenia repanda.—Fronds dissimilar,THE STOVE AND FORCING HOUSE. 895 sterile ones pinnate, coriaceous, oblong-acuminate in outline; pinna? drooping, the lower pair pinnatilid, bright green; fertile contracted, repand, 1 to 3 feet high. Malay islands. A. tn'/oliatum.—Fronds pinnate, usually one pair and a terminal pinna; lower pinna? lobed on both edges, margins crenate, 1 to 2 feet high, dark green. The typical form of Aspidium. Tropical America, 17(39. Asplexium.—This large genus contains many truly ornamental species; they are characterized by their forked or pinnate free veins, and their oblong or linear oblique sori, with the indusium of the same form. Tot in peat and sand, and drain well. A. alatum.— Fronds pinnate, racliis winged, proliferous at the apex, 10 to 15 inches long, bright green. Tropical America, 18G4. A. Belanyerisyn. A. Veitchianum.—Fronds bipinnate, broadly linear in outline, 12 to IS inches long; pinnules linear obtuse, deep green; rachis bearing bulbils; colour deep green. Java. A. eaudatum.— Fronds pinnate, lanceolate, slightly pendulous, 1 to 3 feet long, G to S inches broad; pinna? long, deeply lobed, dentate and sharply tapering towards the apex. East Indies, etc. A. cicutarium.—Fronds subtripinnate, lanceolate, 10 to IS inches long, light green; pinna? lanceolate; pinnules euneate, finely divided. Jamaica, Ac., 1S20. A. erectum.—Fronds pinnate, linear-lanceolate, G to 12 inches high; pinna? oblong, deeply incised, the lower ones triangular, bright green; sori in pairs upon each pinna; stipes and rachis black, channelled above. Bourbon. A. Fabiamon.—Fronds tripinnate, pendulous, viviparous on the upper surface, 2 to 3 feet long, dark green; pinnules finely divided. Mauritius and New Caledonia. A. formosum.— Fronds pinnate, linear-lanceolate, 10 to IS inches long, bright green; pinna? opposite, deeply incised on the superior edge. Tropical America, Ac., 1S22. A. he ter oca rpum.—Fronds pinnate, 10 to 18 inches long, dark green; pinna' oblong-obtuse, dentate, and soriferous on the superior edge; stipes and rachis ebeneous. Tropical America. A. laserpitiifolium. —Fronds tripinnate, broadly lanceolate, acuminate, 1 to 3 feet long; pinnules euneate, bright green; stipes and rachis black; caudex erect, scaly. East Indies, Ac. A. longissiniuu\. —Fronds pinnate, 2 to 4 feet long, elongate-lanceolate, proliferous at the apex; pinna? horizontal, 2 to 3 inches long, aurieled; stipes blackish. A very excellent basket fern. Java, 1670. A. monanthenmm.—Fronds pinnate, erect, linear-lanceolate, bright green, 6 to 12 inches long; pinme oblong-dimidiate; sori large, one sometimes two on each pinna; stipes and racliis brown. Tropical America, Ac., 1790. A. myrvjphyllmn.—Fronds tripinnate, broadly lanceolate, proliferous at the apex, dark green; pinnules small, very elegant. West Indies, Ac., 1800. A. rachirhizoa.—Fronds bi-tri-pinnate, broadly lanceolate, proliferous at the apex, 1 to 2 feet long, deep green; stipes and rachis winged, ebeneous. Brazil, Ac., 1SG0. A. rhizophorui/i.—Fronds bipirmatifid below, pinnate above, pendulous, proliferous at apex, 12 to 18 inches long, light green; stipes and rachis black. Jamaica, Ac., 1793. A. serra.—Fronds pinnate, lanceolate, 1 to 2 feet long; pinna? pendulous, lanceolate acuminate, coriaceous and serrate on the margins, dark green; stipes and rachis furnished with brown scales; rhizome creeping. Brazil, 1844. A. civiparum.—Fronds tripinnate, broadly lanceolate, viviparous on the upper surface, G to 12 inches long; segments small, linear, dark green. Mauritius, 1820. Blechnum. — Handsome robust ferns, having simple or forked veins and free clavate venules. Distinguished from Lomaria by having the sori and indusia intra marginal. Pot in equal parts loam and peat, with a little sand added; supply liberally with water. B. brasiliense.—Fronds bold, pinnate, lanceolate, 2 to 4 feet in length; pinme decurrent, linear-lanceolate, G to 8 inches long, deep green; stipes furnished with black chaffy hairs; caudex stout, erect. Brazil, 1834. B. #rac<7. solida.—Fronds three to four times divided, triangular, 12 to 18 inches long; pinnules coriaceous, oblong-acute, deeply cleft and dark green; rhizome stout, densely clothed with brown woolly scales. Malay Archipelago, 1844. D. tenuifolia.—Fronds erect, bi- or tri-pinnatifid, ovate-lanceolate, 1 to 2 feet high, coriaceous, bright green; segments narrowly cuneate and truncate; sori usually single, sometimes produced in pairs. East Indies, &c. Deparia.—In this curious fern the globose marginal sori, included in shallow pedicellate cysts, exserted from the margin, as in Cionidium, are the distinguishing features, the veins being simple. Pot in loam and peat in equal parts, and add a little sand. In D. prolifera the fronds are pinnato-pinnatifid, glabrous, somewhat triangular, proliferous at apex, 1 to 3 feet long, springing from a stout decumbent caudex; pinna) deeply pinnatifid, oblong-acuminate, the lobes obtuse; stipes scaly. Sandwich Islands. Didymck iil.ena.—The species referred to this genus has an erect arboreous vernation, fiabellately forked free clavate veins, springing from an excentric costa, and elliptical, marginal sori, with liippocrepiform indusia. Pot in rough peat and sand, and supply liberally with water; for if allowed to get dry the jointed pinnules will all drop out. The only species is D. lunidata; it has bipinnate, coriaceous, deep green fronds 1 to 6 feet long; the dimidiate pinnules articulated with the rachis, which, with the stipes, is densely clothed with large brown scales. Tropical America, Ac., 1S28. Diplazium.—The plants included in this genus are closely allied to Asplenium, the most distinctive character being the twin sori, situated back to back on opposite sides of the same vein. Some of them are of bold habit, and extremely ornamental. Culture the same as Asplcnium. D. alternifolium.—Fronds pinnate, 12 to 18 inches high; pinna) ovate, 3 to 5 inches long, dark green above, paler below; sori bold. Java. D. grand if olium.—Yronds pinnate at the lower part, pinnatifid above, 1 to 2 feet long; pinna) alternate, entire, 3 to 4 inches long, dark shining green above; sori bold and conspicuous. Tropical America, 1793. D. Shepherdi.—Yionds bipinnatifid, ovate-acuminate, 12 to 18 inches high, bright green; segments obtuse and dentate; caudex erect. West Indies, 1822. D. striatum.—Fronds bold, bipinnate, broadly lanceolate, 3 to 5 feet high, light green; segments obtuse, slightly toothed; caudex erect, stem-like. Tropical America, 1793. D. sylvaticum.—Yvonds pinnate, broadly lanceolate in outline, glabrous, 1 to 3 feet high, deep green; pinna) narrow, acuminate, somewhat cordate at the base, and crenate on the edges. East Indies, etc. D. zei/lanicum. —Fronds pinnate below, pinnatifid above, 6 to 12 inches high, light green; stipes and rachis profusely hirsute or scaly. Ceylon. Doryopteris.—A small genus, having close affinity with P ter is and Litobrochia. The fronds are coriaceous, with obscure, uniformly reticulated veins, and marginal and continuous sori. The species are easily cultivated in peat and sand, in well-drained pots. D. collina.— Fronds palmate, coriaceous, 6 to 10 inches high, three to five lobed; segments obtuse in the sterile fronds, lanceolate when fertile, bright green; stipes black. Brazil, Ac. D. nobilis.— Fronds when young simple, entire, sagittate, becoming palmate when mature, 12 to 18 inches high, coriaceous, bright green with a broad band of white up the centre of each segment. Brazil, 1860. D. palmata.— Fronds palmate; segments narrow and distant, coriaceous, proliferous in the sinus at the apex of the stipes, 10 to 12 inches high, dark green above, paler below. Brazil, Ac., 1821. D. sagittafolia.—Fronds entire, sagittate, erect, coriaceous, 6 to 12 inches high, bright green above, paler below; stipesTHE STOVE AND FORCING HOUSE. 897 black. Brazil, 1S41. A finely developed form of this is called D. A Icy on is. Dkynaria.—A small well-marked genus of epiphytal ferns, with pinnate veins, and compoundly anastomosing venules, forming mostly hexagonal areoles. The sori are naked, round, or sometimes, by confiuence, elongated; the fronds pinnatifid or pinnate, mostly dimorphous, on a stout and lleshy rhizome, clothed with large chaffy scales, l’ot in rough fibrous peat, or fix upon a block of wood with sphagnum moss. D. corona ns.—A noble species; fronds pinnatifid, erect, 2 to 4 feet high, 1 to 2 feet broad, with a dilated base, pale green; the sori forms a single oblique line between the principal veins, and sometimes becomes contluent. East Indies and Malacca. D. diversifolia.—Sterile fronds sessile, cordate at the base, deeply lobed on the upper edge; fertile fronds pinnate, pendulous, 2 to 4 feet long, pale green; sori large, forming a boss or umbo on the upper surface of the pimue. Malay Archipelago, Ac., 18(30. D. niorbillosa.—Fronds pinnatifid, erect and rigid, 1 to 5 feet high, sometimes nearly 2 feet broad, pale green; rhizome thick and fieshy. Malay Archipelago. D. querd folia.—Sterile fronds sessile, cordate-ovate, deeply lobed, 5 to 0 inches high; fertile fronds pinnatifid, rigid, 1 to 2 feet high; the pinna; dark green. East Indies, Ac. Elaphoglossum.—Simple fronded ferns belonging to the Acrostichece, characterized by their superficial, naked, universal sori, and simple or forked free clavate veins. The fertile fronds are smaller than the sterile ones, and the plants extremely interesting and easily cultivated, if potted in peat and loam, adding sufficient sand to keep the whole porous, and supplied liberally with water. The West Indian E. cuspidat>.un has the sterile fronds linear-oblong, (3 to 8 inches long, densely clothed, more sparingly on the upper side, witli golden reddish chaffy scales. E. Ilenninieri, called the eel fern, has pendulous, coriaceous fronds, from 1 t< > 3 feet long, 2 to 3 inches broad, deep green, shaded with a lustrous metallic blue; introduced from Trinidad in 1^(33. In E. scolopendrijolium, from Brazil, the fronds are oblong-lanceolate, 12 to IS inches long, pale green, furnished on the margins and stipes with brown chaffy scales. E. squamosum has the fronds elliptical, 4 to 6 inches long, about 1 inch in 1 ngth, densely clothed when young with large white chaffy scales, which become deep reddish-brown with age. West Indies, Ac. There are numerous species, very variable in character. Feea.—A small genus resembling Trichomanes, distinguished from it by its dimorphous fronds; and requiring similar culture. F. spicata has the sterile fronds pinnatifid, prostrate, 2 to 6 inches long, intense black green; fertile fronds erect, contracted, rachiform, bearing the urceolate involucres in a distichous manner upon the racliis; caudex erect. West Indies, Ac. Gleichenia.—This genus contains many truly beautiful plants, characterized by their dicliotomously branched fronds, linear pinme and small orbicular (often revolute) segments. In the case of the species jdaced by some authors in the genus Mertcnsia the segments are larger, linear, and plane (not orbicular), and to thi3 section all the stove species belong. Pot in peat, loam, and leaf-mould, adding sufficient sharp sand to keep the whole porous; drain well, as they enjoy an abundant supply of water, and also require ample space for the rhizomes to creep over. G. dichotmna. — Fronds several times dicliotomously branched, 1 to 0 feet long; pinnfc pinnatifid, linear, G to 8 inches long and 2 inches wide; ultimate divisions linear, plane, bright green, slightly glaucous below. Tropics. G. /•ircatu. —Fronds dicliotomously divided, 1 to G feet long; pinme pinnatifid, G to 10 inches long, lanceolate, acuminate; segments plane, linear-obtuse, dull green above, slightly pubescent beneath. West Indies. G. pectinata.—Fronds dicliotomously forked, 1 to 4 feet high; pinme pinnatifid, lanceolate; segments plane, bright green, very glaucous beneath, similar to G. dichotoma but less branched and robust, and more glaucous. West Indies. G. 2)Ubcscens. — Fronds several times dichotonuously branched, 1 to 8 feet long; pinnae linear-lanceolate, G to 10 inches long; ultimate segments plane, dark green above, clothed below with a pale brown pubescence. Brazil. Goniophlkbium.—A genus of polypodioid ferns, including many very elegant species. It is distinguished by peculiarities in its venation, chielly by the lower anterior venule being free and soriferous, and the rest angularly anastomosing. The fronds are pinnate or pinnatifid, in some few species simple, entire. Pot in rough fibrous peat, adding a little loam and sand; drain well and water abundantly at the root. G. colpodes.—Fronds pinnate in the lower part, pinnatifid above, broadly lanceolate, 1 to 2 feet long; pinme linear-lanceolate, sessile, deep green. Venezuela. G Lepidopteris. —Fronds pinnate, lanceolate, 12 to 18 inches high; pinme sessile, oblong-obtuse, dark green, clothed with white ciliated hairs; sori bold and conspicuous, deep red. Tropical America. G. squamatuin. — Fronds pinnate, lanceolate, 1 to 2 feet high, and about G inches broad; pinme and stipes densely clothed with ciliate ferruginous scales. West Indies. G. subauriculatum,—Fronds pinnate, pendulous, 5 to 10 feet long; pinmeentire, smooth, bright green; sori immersed, forming raised bosses or papilla; on the upper side; a charming basket fern. Malay Archipelago. G. verrucosuni.—Fronds pinnate, pendulous, 4 to Gfeet long; pinme G to 8 inches long, oblong-acuminate, bright green; sori large, immersed, forming raised bosses on the upper side. Philippine Islands, Ac. Gonioptekis.—In most respects this genus is similar to Polypodiv.ni, its chief point of distinction being the anastomosing of the lower venules, which are joined and form an acute angle, producing an excurrent vein from the apex. Pot in loam, peat, and sand; drain well and water freely. G. asplenioides.—Fronds pinnate, lanceolate, 10 to 12 inches long; pinme alternate, coarsely lobed, oblong-obtuse, cordate at base, slightly pubescent, deep green; sori conspicuous, yellowish-brown; rhizome creeping. Jamaica, Ac., 1841. G. crcnata.-Fronds pinnate, 10 to 18 inches high; pinna; 4 to G inches long, 1 to 2 inches broad, evenly crenulate on the edges, rich bright green. West Indies. G. rcfracta.—Fronds pinnate, 1 to 2 feet high, 5 to G inches broad; pinme oblong-acuminate, bluntly lobed, the lower pair turned the reverse way (refracted), vivid green. Brazil. G. reptans.—Fronds pinnate, pendulous, proliferous at the apex, G to 12 inches long; pinme deltoid or oblong-obtuse, light green. Pretty for a basket. Jamaica. Gymnogramma. — This genus contains many extremely handsome mostly evergreen plants, distinguished by their free forked veins and linear sori, destitute of an indusium. The most beautiful of the species have the under side of the fronds densely covered with a farinose powder of a white or golden colour, which has given rise to the popular name of gold and silver ferns. The genus contains two annual species—G. leptophylla ami G. cluerophylla, the first having almost a world-wide distribution, and coming into the British Isles, having been found in the Island of Guernsey. The latter is a West Indian species. Plant in peat, loam, and sand, providing ample drainage. They enjoy strong heat and an abundant supply of water; but the fronds must not be wetted, or the farinose powder will be washed off and give the whole plant a most woebegone appearance. G. chrysophylla. —Fronds bipinnate, 10 to 20 inches long or more; pinnules deeply lobed, deep green on the upper side, densely clothed beneath with a rich golden farino-e powder. This species varies extremely from the spores. West Indies. G. chrysophylla Parsonsii.—Fronds bipinnate, erect, the ends of the pinnules and apex of fronds beautifully crested; colour as in the normal state. Garden variety. G. Jlexuosa.—Fronds scandent, the rachis zigzag; pinnules divided into slender segments, rendering it very elegant, bright green on both sides, entirely destitute of the farinose I>owder so characteristic of this genus. Tropical America. G. 1j Ilenninieri.—Fronds bipinnate, spreading, triangular, pinnules finely divided, seldom exceeding 10 inches in length, 57898 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. pale green above, covered below with a dense yellowish gold-coloured farinose powder; a rare species. Guadeloupe. G. Pearcei.—Fronds tall, four times divided, broadly triangular; pinna? divided into narrow linear segments, bright green above, slightly dusted below with a white farinose powder; stipes brown. Peru. G. peruviana argyrophylla.—Fronds bipinnate, ovate, broad at the base, spreading, 12 to 24 inches long; pinnules broad and rounded, the upper as well as the under side densely clothed with a white farinose powder. Tropical America, 1855. G. pulchclla.— Fronds finely divided, 10 to 20 inches high, 0 to 10 inches wide at the base, bright green above, clothed below with a pure white farinose powder; stipes black. Venezuela, 1854. G. sulphurea.—Fronds 6 to 10 inches long, bipinnate, spreading; pinna? distant; pinnules slightly lobed, bright green above, clothed below with a dense sulphur-yellow farinose powder. Jamaica. G. tartarea.—Fronds bipinnate, spreading, 1 to 2 feet long; pinnules obtusely lobed, heavy green above, densely covered below with a pure white farinose powder; stipes black. Tropical America. G. trifoliata.—Fronds bipinnate, 2 to 4 feet high; pinna? trifoliate, the segments linear, dark green above, sparingly clothed below with white (sometimes yellow) farinose powder. Jamaica. G. TVettenhalliana.—Fronds bipinnate, somewhat arched, the apex spreading into a dense corymb, and the ends of the pinna? all crested, light green above, clothed below with a sulphur-coloured farinose powder. Garden variety. IIemioxitis.—A small genus of dwarf-growing ornamental ferns, principally distinguished by their uniformly reticulated veins and sori. Pot in peat, loam, and sand in equal parts; drain well and supply abundantly with water. II. cordata, from the East, has the fronds simple, entire, cordate, deep green above, paler below, when sterile proliferous in the sinus, the stipes black, and the rhizome creeping; while the West Indian and South American II. palmata has the fronds palmate, with oblong crenulate segments, hirsute on both sides, the sterile fronds proliferous, spreading, and the fertile ones erect, as also is the caudex. IIemitelia.—Noble arborescent ferns, distinguished from Cyathea by their half Kip-shapes involucre, and by the basal venules becoming curved or arcuately anastomosed. Independently of these characters, however, they are mostly recognizable by their large broad coriaceous fronds. Pot in loam, peat, and sand. These plants enjoy strong heat, and an abundant supply of moisture, both to their roots and in the atmosphere. II. grand if alia.—Fronds pinnate, ovate-lanceolate, 6 to 8 feet long; pinna? 10 to 12 inches long, lanceolate-acuminate, sessile, pinnatifid; segments obtuse, somewhat falcate, bright shining green; sori forming a continuous intramarginal band round each segment; stipes aculeate; caudex about 6 feet high. West Indies. II. horrida.—Fronds bipinnate, ovate-lanceolate, 6 to 10 feet long; pinna? sessile, pinnatifid almost to the base; pinnules subfalcate, acuminate, bright green above, paler below; stipes and racliis scaly and armed with strong spines; caudex arborescent, 10 to 12 feet high. West Indies, 1843. II. Karstcniana.—Fronds pinnate, broadly lanceolate, 3 to G feet long; pinna? obtusely lobed, 10 to 12 inches long by 2 inches in width, brilliant green; caudex arborescent. Venezuela, 1862. II. specioxa.—Fronds pinnate, 6 to 10 feet long; pinna? serrate on the edges, 10 to 15 inches long, dark green; sori almost marginal; stipes and racliis clothed with long brown scales; caudex arborescent. Tropical America. IIumata.—Dwarf evergreen ferns, allied to Davallia, but forming a characteristic group. The fronds are coriaceous, pinnatifid, the sori vertical, the rhizome creeping, and clothed with hair-like scales. Cultivation same as Davallia. II. alpina.—Fronds bipinnatifid, triangular in outline, 2 to 3 inches high, dark green. Borneo. II. heterophylla.—Fronds dissimilar; sterile simple, entire, oblong-acuminate, 3 to 6 inches high, about 1 inch wide; fertile frond much narrower, sinuato-pinnatifid; involucres reniform, seated on the crenatures of the lobes; rhizome clothed with brown hair-like scales. Malay Archipelago. II. pedata.—Fronds bipinnatifid, deltoid, coriaceous, 3 to 0 inches high, dark green; margins of fertile segments crenate; rhizome slender, creeping. Malay Archipelago. Hymexodium.—Only one species of this acrostichoid genus, II. crinitum, has hitherto been introduced to cultivation. It is distinguished by its large simple fronds, uniformly reticulated veins, leaving large areoles without venules, and naked sori, covering the whole of the under side of the fertile frond, which is more or less contracted. The sterile fronds are coriaceous, obtusely ovate, 12 to 18 inches long and 9 inches broad, the upper side and edges furnished with long black hairs; the stipes is densely clothed with long black hairs; and the rhizome is decumbent, clothed with black hairs. West Indies, Ac. Pot in rough peat and sand, supply liberally with water, and keep the atmosphere well charged with moisture, to prevent the margins from becoming brown. IIymenophyllum.—This genus is very closely allied to Trichomanes, from which, however, it is distinguished by its involucres, which for the most part consist of two valves, instead of being entire and cup-shaped. In texture and general appearance as well as in cultivation it exactly agrees with Trichomanes. II. asplenioides.—Fronds smooth, pinnatifid, 2 to 4 inches high; lobes obtuse, pale green, bearing a single involucre upon the apex of each lobe; rhizome creeping, wiry. West Indies, Ac. II. caudiculatum.—Fronds smooth, tripinnatifid, 6 to 18 inches high, broadly lanceolate, the primary divisions and apex of frond lengthened into tail-like appendages, dark green and shining; rhizome slender, creeping; stipes winged. Brazil. II. ciliatum.—Fronds sub-bipinnate, 2 to 4 inches high; pinnules much divided, the segments linear-obtuse, profusely clothed with tawny hairs, especially at the margins; rhizome wiry, creeping; stipes and rachis winged throughout. West Indies, Brazil, Ac. II. cruentum.—Fronds smooth, simple, entire, broadly lanceolate in outline, 3 to 6 inches high, bright green when young, changing with age to reddish-brown; rhizome very slender, creeping; stipes terete, long and slender. Cliiloe. II. hirtellam.—Fronds tripinnatifid, broadly oblong, G to 12 inches high, 2 to 3 wide; segments linear, colour ferruginous green, caused by the numerous tawny hairs with which they are clothed; involucres obliquely cuneate, partially sunk in the margin. Jamaica. II. hirsutum.—Fronds pinnate, 1 to 3 inches high; pinna? sessile, linear, entire, obtuse, densely hairy, pale green; rhizome creeping, thread-like. West Indies, Ac. II. scriceum.—Fronds pinnate, linear-oblong, 10 to 24 inches long, pendent; pinna? deeply laciniated, entirely covered with dense ferruginous woolly hairs; rhizome creeping, slender. Tropical America, West Indies, Ac. IIymenostachys.—This genus differs from Trichomanes in its dissimilar sterile and fertile fronds, thus evidently approaching Feea, from which, however, it is distinguished by its reticulated (not free) veins. Cultivation same as Trichomanes. II. elegans has sterile pinnatifid fronds, 4 to 8 inches high, proliferous at the apex, broadly lanceolate; segments serrate at the edges, bright shining green; fertile frond narrow, entire, longer than the sterile, the involucres sunk in the margin; caudex ca?spitose. West Indies, Ac. Uypolepis.—A small genus, having very little but habit to distinguish it from Cheilanthes. The rhizome is stout, creeping, the veins free, the sori round, marginal, indusiate. situated on a crenule of the reflexed segment. Pot in rough peat and give plenty of surface room. II. repens is a handsome, free-growing plant, with tripinnate fronds 2 to 4 feet long; pinnules lanceolate-acuminate; segments linear-obtuse, pin-natifid, pale green, the surface furnished with light hairs; stipes and rachis brown; rhizome stout. West Indies, 1825. Lastkea.—A large group of aspidioid ferns, containingTHE STOVE AND FORCING- HOUSE. 899 many very ornamental species, with free veins and globose sori, covered by reniform indusia, attached by the basal sinus. Tot in equal parts of peat and loam, with a little sand added; water liberally. L. augesccns.—Fronds pinnate, broadly lanceolate, 2 to 4 feet high; pinna? narrowly lanceolate, sessile, deeply toothed at the edge, pale green, slightly pubescent; rhizome creeping. Tropical America. L. chi'ysoloba.—Fronds pinnate, 10 to 15 inches high; pinna? deeply pinnatifid, dark green; sori conspicuous, bright red. Brazil. L. deltoidea.—Fronds erect, pinnate, G to 12 inches high; pinna? on the upper half large, deeply pinnatifid, acuminate, those on the lower half contracted to half the size of the others, deltoid, becoming smaller as they descend, dark green above, paler below; rhizome creeping. Jamaica, &c. L. patens. — Fronds pinnate, broadly lanceolate ill outline, 1 to 3 feet long; pinna? sessile, lanceolate, deeply pinnatifid; segments somewhat falcate, acute, pale green, slightly pubescent; stipes erect, furnished at the base with some large light-coloured chaffy scales. Tropical America, 1784. L. recedens.—Fronds deltoid, tripinnate, pubescent, 1 to 2 feet high; pinnules oblong, deeply pinnatifid, pale green. Ceylon, Ac. L. strigosa—syn. L. crinita. —Fronds pinnate, 1 to 2 feet long; pinna? pinnatifid, sub-opposite, broadly lanceolate, dark green, the segments oblong or falcate; stipes furnished at the base with long black chaffy scales. Mauritius. Linds-EA.—The Lindsceas have somewhat the aspect of Adiantums, but lack the black polished stipes, and differ in their fructification. The fronds vary from pinnate to bi- or tripinnate, and most of the species have dimidiate pinnules. The sori are linear or oblong, on a sub-marginal receptacle, and with the indusium opening on the exterior side. These plants are somewhat difficult to cultivate, but are well deserving any extra attention required. For soil use loam, peat, and sand in about equal parts; but very little soil is necessary; extra drainage and a humid atmosphere are essential. L. cultrata.—Fronds pinnate, narrowly lanceolate, 3 to 9 inches high, pale green, very fragrant; pinna? dimidiate, upper edge lobed, bearing the oblong sori. It varies considerably in form. East Indies. L. guia nensis.—Fronds two to three times divided, 12 to IS inches high; pinna? dimidiate, obtuse, bright green; sori continuous. Guiana, Ac. L. stricta.—Fronds usually bipinnate, G to 12 inches high; pinna? dimidiate, recurved, pale green. In some forms this species is pinnate, at other times it becomes tripinnate. Tropical America, Ac. L. trapeziformis.—Fronds bipinnate, 2 to 3 feet high; pinme G to 9 inches long; pinnules broad, obtusely falcate, bright green; sori continuous upon the superior margin; stipes stout, straw-coloured. Tropical America, AA'est Indies, Ac. Litobrochia.—A group closely allied to Ptrris, but readily distinguished by its uniform reticulated veins. The plants require the same treatment as Ptcris. L. denticulata.—Fronds pinnate, 1 to 2 feet high, rich green; pinme decurrent; ends of the segments sharply serrate. Brazil. L. leptophylla. — Fronds hi-tri-pinnate, 12 to 18 inches high; segments finely divided, bright green; sori marginal, red. Brazil. L\ macroptera.—Fronds bipinnatifid, 10 to 20 inches high; segments broad, rich green. Brazil. L. podophylla.—Fronds tripartite, 3 to 5 feet high, including the stout erect stijjes; segments pinnatifid, bright green. AVest Indies. LoMAKIA. -This genus is nearly allied to Blechmnn, but differs from it in having marginal sori. For culture see Blech n am. L. a tie mm ta. —Frondg d imorphous, sterile, pinnatifid, lanceolate, 10 to 20 inches high; pinme alternate, tapering to a sharp point, dark green; fertile fronds contracted; stipes smooth; caudex slender, erect. Mauritius. L. L'Jferminieri.—Fronds pinnate, 0 to 10 inches long, nearly equal in width above, the basal pinme much attenu- | ated; pinna? dccurrent with a blunt apex; fertile fronds contracted; colour when young rich red, changing with age to green; eaudex slender, erect, stem-like. Tropical America. L. onocleoides.—Fronds pinnatifid, broadly lanceolate, 1 to j 2 feet long or more; pinna? membranous, broad at base, tapering upwards to a fine point, deep bright green; fertile fronds contracted; caiulex slender, erect, stem-like. AVest Indies. Lygodictyon.— This genus differs from Lygodium only in its veins being uniformly reticulated, instead of being forked and free. Cultivation same as Lygodium. In L. Fosteri the ! fronds are bipinnate, diehotomously divided, seandent, the length indefinite; pinna? broadest at the base, bright green. Polynesian Islands. Lygodil'M.—Elegant climbing ferns, remarkable for their conjugate or digitate or palmate fronds. The veins are free, extending beyond the margin, and there forming compressed distichous sporangiferous spicula?. Pot in peat, loam, and : leaf-mould, adding a little sand; they enjoy copious supplies of water. L. jlexuosinn grows to an indefinite length, and has sub-bipartite lanceolate pinna?, G to 9 inches long, bright i green; sori arranged in spikelets on the margins. East Indies, Ac. Xepiirodium.—Aspidioid ferns, distinguished from their allies by having a reniform indusium, and by the lower pair of ! venules, sometimes more, being connivently anastomosing, which latter peculiarity separates them from Lastrea, while j from Polystichum they may be known by their reniform, not peltate indusia. For cultivation see Lastrea. X. articulation.—Fronds pinnate, smooth, lanceolate, 1 to | 4 feet high; pinna? linear-lanceolate, deeply serrate, bright | green; stipes light brown. Ceylon, 1840. X. cyatheoides.—Fronds pinnate, broadly lanceolate, 1 to 3 feet high; pinna? large, deeply serrate on the edges, light green. Sandwich Islands. X. Hookerii.—Fronds pinnate, linear-lanceolate, 1 to 3 feet ■ long; lower pinna? deltoid, the majority elongate, tapering to a point; edges bluntly toothed, pale green. East Indies. X. truncatum,—Fronds pinnate, broadest in the middle, j acuminate; pinna? lanceolate, deeply and obtusely lobed, dark green. East Indies. X. pteroides.—Yronds pinnate, 1 to 3 feet long; pinna? deeply lobed, linear-lanceolate, petiolate, deep green, the segments obtuse; sori submarginal. East Indies, 1847. X. unitum.—Fronds pinnate, 1 to 3 feet high; pinna? deeply pinnatifid, 4 to G inches long, linear-lanceolate, obtusely crenate, slightly pubescent below, vivid green. Tropical America, 1793. X. venustum.— Fronds pinnate, 1 to 3 feet high; pinna? lanceolate, 5 to 6 inches long, serrate on the edges, deep green; stipes scaly. Jamaica, Ac. Xepiirolepis.—A genus of elegant plants, distinguished by | their forked veins and free clavate venules, the superior basal one being fertile, the receptacles terminal, and the indusium reniform or subrenifomi. The fronds are pinnate, and the i pinme articulated with the rachis; rhizome erect, producing numerous slender wiry stolones, which bear fasciculate crowns. On account of their sloloniferous character they : require abundant surface room, and consequently are admir-: ably adapted for planting on lock work. For soil use good rough loam and peat; supply abundantly with water, as on account of the articulated pinme they do not bear drought with impunity. X. davaliioides—Yvonds pinnate, pendent, 2 to 4 feet long, usually bearing from forty to sixty pairs of pinme; sterile ones lanceolate, tapering to a point, 4 to 5 inches long, deep green; fertile pinme confined to the upper portion of the frond, much contracted and elongated, crenate on the edges, and bearing a single sorus on each erenature. East Indies, Java, 1852. X. ensifolia.—Fronds pinnate, lanceolate, 2 to 3 feet long; pinme acuminate, truncate, with serrate margins and auricu-late base, bright green. Java, Ac. X. exaltata. — Yvimds pinnate, linear-lanceolate, glabrous, 2 to 4 feet or more long, pale green; pinna? oblong-acute, the superior base auriculate; stipes slightly scaly. Tropical America, 1793.900 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. X. hirsutula.—Fronds pinnate, lanceolate, 2 to 3 feet long; pinna> oblong-acuminate, slightly auricled at the base, 2 to 3 inches long, dark green; stipes clothed with ferruginous hairs. East Indies, etc., 1823. X. pectinata.—Fronds pinnate, linear-lanceolate, 1 to 2 feet long and 1 inch wide; pinna) oblong, serrate, the superior base auriculate, about 100 pairs to each frond, pale green. Brazil, etc., 1820. X. tuberosa.—Fronds pinnate, linear-lanceolate, 2 to 4 feet long; pinna) oblong, superior base auriculate, serrate; stipes and raehis furnished with ferruginous hairs; rhizome bearing tubers. East Indies, etc. X. vndulata.—Fronds deciduous, pinnate, linear-lanceolate, 1 to 2 feet long; pinna) oblong acuminate, serrate, superior base auriculate, pale green; sori large and conspicuous; rhizome producing tubers, from which the fronds are annually reproduced. "West Africa, 1844. XoTnocHL.ENA.—Xeat, compact, and extremely handsome ferns, many of them clothed on the under side with a dense coating of farinose powder; the sori are, however, marginal. They are not ditiicult to cultivate, but require considerable attention, especially during winter, at which season their fronds must not be wetted, as the long woolly hairs with which many of them are clothed retain the moisture so long that the plants become disfigured. Fot in fibrous peat and sand, using lumps of sandstone in the soil. X. jlavcns.—Fronds tripinnate, G to 10 inches long; pinnules distant, roundish, bright green above, clothed below with a dense covering of golden farinose powder; sori marginal, jet black; stipes and raehis jet black, and very slender. Tropical America, 185G. X. nivea.—Fronds tripinnate, 6 to 12 inches high; pinnules roundish, dark green above, furnished beneath with a dense covering of pure white farinose powder; sori marginal, black; stipes and raehis black. Tropical America. A', rufa.— Fronds pinnate, drooping, 10 to 20 inches long; pinna) somewhat oblong and pinnatifid, light green above, densely clothed beneath with white woolly scales. Tropical America, 1841. X. sinuata.—Fronds drooping, 1 to 2 feet long, pinnate; pinna) broad, deeply lobed, deep green above, furnished below with a dense covering of white or tawny woolly scales. Mexico. X. trichoma no ides.—Fronds drooping, 12 to 18 inches long, pinnate; pinna? oblong, crenate on the edges, deep green above, clothed below with a quantity of white or tawny stellate scales, amongst which is interspersed a white farinose powder. West Indies. Ole ax dr a.—A small genus of ferns, very nearly allied to Last re a, yet from their distinct habit forming a natural and characteristic group; sort globose, situated near the costa; indusium reniform, attached at the sinus. The fronds are simple and entire, and spring from either a creeping or erect shrub-like rhizome. Pot in rough fibrous peat, and provide ample surface for the rhizomes to spread over; they enjoy an abundant supply of water. O. art iev lata.—Fronds simple, linear-lanceolate, 10 to 15 inches long, pale green; rhizome creeping. Mauritius, Ac. O. neriiformis.—Fronds simple, lanceolate, arranged in a verticillate manner, membranous, G to 12 inches long, brilliant green; stipes articulated; rhizome frutescent, clothed with brown chatfy scales. East Indies, Ac., 1848. O. nodosa. — Fronds simple, lanceolate, 10 to 15 inches long, bright green; stipes and raehis ebeneous; rhizome creeping, clothed with ferruginous scales. West Indies, 1848. Olfeksia.— A small genus, nearly allied to Elaphoglossum, its chief distinguishing feature being the presence of a vein parallel to the margin uniting the forked veins which spring from the costa. Pot in strong loam and peat, and supply liberally with water. In O. cervina the fronds are dimorphous; the sterile one pinnate, glabrous, light green, with large oblong tapering pinna'; the fertile bipinnate, erect, with contracted wholly sporangiferous pinna; rhizome creeping, clothed with ferruginous chatfy scales. West Indies, Ac., 1841. Phlebodium.—Bold-growing ferns, having creeping scaly rhizomes, and large coriaceous pinnatifid or subpinnate fronds, having the venules reticulated, forming irregular shaped areoles, producing two to three excurrent veinlets, upon the combined apices of which the sori are situated, the costal areoles being vacant. These plants having stout fleshy rhizomes require ample surface room. Pot in rough fibrous peat. P. areolatum.—Fronds pinnatifid, almost cut down to the racing, 1 to 2 feet long; segments narrow, lanceolate, pale bluish-green above, glaucous below; sori forming a single row on each side the costa; stipes reddish brown. Tropical America, Ac. jP. aureum.—Fronds pinnatifid, 2 to 6 feet high; the segments obtuse, wavy, bluish-green; sori forming a double row on each side the costa; rhizome clothed with large ferruginous scales. Tropical America. P. sporodocarpam.—Fronds broad and deeply pinnatifid, very glaucous on both surfaces, 2 to 3 feet high, the segments long and narrow; rhizome densely scaly. Mexico. P. pulvinatum.—Yronds deeply pinnatifid, 1 to 3 feet high, the upper side very glaucous; sori numerous, golden yellow. Brazil. Fig. 391. Platycerium Willinckii. Platycerifm.— Distinct epiphytal ferns with naked sori, and anastomosing venules, having free veinlets within the areoles. The fronds are dissimilar—dimorphous, the sterile ! thick, spongy, imbricating, sessile, the surface clothed with : stellate hairs; the fertile ones forked, articulate, the sori I occupying large unequal patches on the under side of the | lobes. These plants thrive well in baskets placed in rough I peat and sphagnum, they also form beautiful objects if fas-' tened to a large broad block of wood and hung up in the stove. They will thrive in pots, but this is the least interesting method of growing them. P. alcicorne, elk’s-horn fern.—Sterile fronds imbricating, nearly round, upper edge lobed; fertile one stipitate, erect, several times diehotomously forked, leathery, the sori amorphous near the tip of the fronds. This species although placed here will also thrive in a warm greenhouse. East Indies, New South Wales, Java, 1808. P. hi forme.—sterile fronds imbricating, forked on the upper edge; fertile ones elongated, several times branched; segments long, strap-shaped, the fertile lobes reniform. stalked. Borneo, Ac. P. grande. —Sterile fronds broad and imbricating, 1 to 2 feetTHE STOVE AND F011CIXG HOUSE. 901 in diameter, deeply lobed on the upper edge, rounded below; fertile several times branched, rising from the sinus of the barren ones, 1 to 3 feet long, the sorus occupying the upper edge of the disk. Malay Archipelago, Ac., 1842. P. Stemmaria.—Sterile fronds sessile and sub-ascending, almost eutire, 1 to 2 feet in diameter; fertile simple, two to three times forked, widening upwards, coriaceous, the sorus V-shaped extending up the side lobes. West Africa, 1S4S. P. Willinckii (Fig. 391).—Sterile fronds sessile, erect, imbricated, deeply dichotomously lobed, 12 to IS inches high; fertile ones in threes, pendent, 24 feet long, dichotomously divided into long narrow segments, which are fertile near the tips. Java, 1873. roLYBOTRYA.—A small group of highly-developed acrosti-choid ferns, having large dimorphous, free-veined fronds, which proceed from a scamlent squamose rhizome. Pot in peat and loam, and train the seandent stem upon a block of wood or the dead trunk of a tree-fern. P. caudata.— Sterile fronds bipinnate, 2 to 3 feet long, 12 to 18 inches broad, acuminate, the pinnules broad, dentate, bright green; fertile frond with spike-like segments, wholly sporangiferous. West Indies, Ac. P. osmundacea.—Sterile fronds tripinnate, 2 to 3 feet long, the pinnules broad, deep green; fertile fronds contracted, wholly sporangiferous. Tropical America. Polypodium.—This genus as now understood is characterized by its free veins, and globose or ovate naked sori, the receptacles being terminal. Pot in loam, sand, and peat. P. Paradisece.—Fronds pinnate, broadly lanceolate, slightly pubescent, 1 to 3 feet long; pinna) sessile, decurrent, horizontal, dark green; sori conspicuous, golden yellow; stipes and rachis dark brown; rhizome creeping. Tropical America, 1841. P. pectinatum.—Fronds pinnate, lanceolate, 1 to 2 feet long; pinna) sessile, decurrent, linear, horizontal, dull green; sori uniserial; stipes and rachis black; rhizome creeping. West Indies, Ac., 1793. P. Schkuhrii.—Fronds pinnate, lanceolate, C to 12 inches long, tapering somewhat suddenly from about the middle; pinna) sessile, linear, horizontal, pale green; stipes and rachis black, sparingly furnished with small scales; sori conspicuous, yellow. West Indies. Polysticiium.—This group has much affinity with Lastrca, but differs in having orbicular peltate indusia in association with the free veins. Culture as in Lastrca. P. denticulatum.—Fronds tripinnate, triangular, spreading, C to 12 inches long; pinna) broad; pinnules finely divided, dentate, dull green; stipes and crown clothed with large black scales. Jamaica, 1859. P. co nil folium.—Fronds tri-quadri-pinnate, deltoid, 1 to 3 feet long; pinnules broadly oblong, deeply divided, cuneate at base, spinose on the edges, deep green; sori large, conspicuous; stipes and rachis copiously furnished with brown hairs. Ceylon, Ac., 1841. P. triangulum.— Fronds pinnate, linear-lanceolate, 1 to 14 foot long; pinme broadly oblong, mucronate, auriculate on the superior base, dark green; stipes and rachis densely scaly. Jamaica, 1838. The variety laziun is very handsome, with the pinna) more divided. PTERIS.—An extensive diversified genus, the plants mostly of vigorous habit, and characterized by forked veins which are united by the marginal receptacle upon which the sori are situated, forming a continuous band; indusium continuous. The robust growing kinds form a beautiful groundwork for the natural fernery. Plant in peat, loam, and sand, and supply liberally with water. P. aryyraia.—Fronds pinnate, 1 to 4 feet high; pinna) deeply pinnatifid, the lowest pair again divided, silvery white along the centre, the margins vivid green. East Indies. P. axpcricavlis.—Fronds bi-tri-pinnate, 10 to IS inches high, deep green; stipes red and asperous. East Indies. P. semipinuata.—Fronds erect, pinnate, 1 to 2 feet long; pinme pinnate on the lower side only, deep green. East Indies. P. tricolor. —Fronds pinnate, 1 to 2 feet long; pinna) pinna- tilid, basal pair branched, vivid green at the edge, banded within with silvery white, the centre purplish red. .Malacca, Sciliz.EA.—Curious and extremely interesting plants, distinguished by their linear, simple or llabellate fronds and paniculate fructification, borne upon the apex of the segments, forming a beautiful crest to the frond; veins free. Tot in rough peat and loam, drain well, and supply abundantly with water; in fact these plants equally with Trichomanes require a moist atmosphere. S. dichotoma. —Fronds dimorphous,dichotomously branched; sterile ones llabellate, G to 18 inches high, 3 to 9 inches broad; the segments forked, linear, acute, dark green; fertile ones small, contracted, bearing the sori in a double crest on the apex of the stipes. South Sea Islands. S. elegans.—Fronds llabellate, more or less divided, G to 18 inches high, 3 to 9 broad; fertile fronds narrower, bearing on the apex of each segment a double-rowed crest of sori. West Indies, Ac. StexosemiA. —An acrostichoid genus, distinguished by having the lower venules anastomosing to form elongated costal areoles, whilst the superior venules are free. The fertile fronds are much contracted and the receptacles occupy the entire under surface. Tot in peat, loam, and sand. In S. aurita the sterile fronds are 6 to 12 inches high, ternately divided, the divisions deeply lobed, viviparous at the base, deep green; fertile fronds erect, with the segments linear and wholly sporangiferous; vernation fasciculate. Java, Ac. Tiiamxopteris. —Boll asplenioid evergreen ferns, with staple fronds, having the general appearance and characters of Asplcnium, but distinguished from that genus by having a transverse sub-marginal vein which unites the apices of the oblique veins rising from the costa; sori unilateral, situated on the anterior side of the venules. Tot in rough fibrous peat and sphagnum moss; drain well and supply liberally with water. When the young fronds are rising the atmosphere must be kept moist and the fronds untouched, as they are extremely delicate. T. australasica.—Fronds simple, erect, elliptic-lanceolate, 2 to 4 feet high, 3 to G inches broad, bright shining green; rachis black, sharply keeled below. Although placed in this section it will succeed also in the temperate house. New South Wales. T. Xidus.—Fronds simple, 2 to 4 feet high, 3 to G inches broad, continuing nearly the same breadth from base to apex, dark green; rachis bluntly rounded below. East Indies, Ac. Thyrsoptkris.—One species only is included in this genus, and this in the barren state is not unlike a robust growing Davallia; rhizome decumbent, short and stout; sori involu-crate, globose, the involucres entire, cup-shaped, and petiolate; veins free. Pot in sand, peat, and loam; drain well, and supply liberally with water. T. elegans.—Fronds supradecompound, glabrous, coriaceous, 3 to G feet high, brilliant green; the fertile pinme are contracted, and form dense thyrsoid sporangiferous panicles, consisting of the cup-shaped involucres without the usual connecting lamina; stipes and rachis stout, crinite at the base. Juan Fernandez. Trichomanes.—The species of Trichomanes, with those of Ilymenophyllum, bear the popular name of filmy ferns, on account of the peculiarly membranous and pellucid nature of their fronds. The veins are simple, free, with terminal sori surrounded by cup-sliaped or tubular involucres, the receptacle often extending beyond the mouth of the involucre. In tlie cultivation of these plants it must be borne in mind that although they may be natives of warm countries the natural position of most of them is in very moist and shady places, often at considerable elevations, and thus they do not require the amount of heat generally accorded to plants from more exposed positions in the lowlands. The caespitose kinds should be potted in rough peat and chopped sphagnum moss, to which may be added some sharp sand and a few moderate sized lumps of sandstone, whilst those with creeping rhizomes should be provided with branches, stems of tree-ferns, or some suitable surface over which they may spread themselves. All the species require a closer and moister atmosphere than902 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. can be supplied under ordinary circumstances in the stove or greenhouse, and consequently bell-glasses or Wardian cases must be called in to their aid. T. alatxnn.—Ca?spitose; fronds tripinnatifid, lanceolate, C to 12 inches high, pale green. West Indies. T. cinccps.—Caudex erect; fronds 10 to 20 or more inches high, decompound, broadly triangular, deep metallic green; involucres large and prominent. West Indian Islands. T. angustatinn.—Stem slender, creeping; fronds lanceolate, 3 to 0 inches high, pinnate; pinme deeply divided into narrow segments, the bright green cup-shaped involucres sunk in the frond. West Indies, Ac. T. attenuation.—Fronds pinnatilld, 6 inches high, broadly lanceolate; segments membranous, light shining green; stipes hairy. West Indies. T. auriculatinn.—Fronds bipinnatifid, sessile, the lower segment eared; deep sea green, membranous, pellucid. Java. T. Bancroftii.—Fronds pinnatifid, triangular, 6 to 8 inches high; segments crisp, bright green; stipes winged to the base. Jamaica, AM T. crinitum.—Fronds pinnate, ovate-lanceolate, 3 to G inches high, membranous, pale green; stipes and whole frond densely hairy. Jamaica, Ac. T. crispum.—Fronds pinnate, 6 to 8 inches high; pinna) sessile, linear-oblong, obtuse, membranous, brilliant green; involucres situated at the apex of segments. Tropical America, West Indies, &c., 1851. T. jioribundinn.—Fronds pinnate; sterile fronds broad, the pinna) spiny at the edges and proliferous at apex; fertile ones narrower, the pinna) 2 to 3 inches long; involucres exserted, forming a beautiful continuous fringe; caudex erect. Tropical America, West Indies, &c. The variety Vittaria has simple ribbon-like fronds, 12 to IS inches high and about 1 inch broad. T. javanicum.—Fronds pinnate, G to 12 inches high; pinna) entire, obtuse, intense deep green; caudex ca?spitose; stipes hairy. Java, Ac. T. Kra/usU.— Froffls pinnate, 3 to G inches long; pinna) deeply incised, dark green; involucres sunk in the margin; caudex thin and wiry, creeping, hairy. West Indies, Ac. T. Kaulfussii.—Fronds pinnatifid, 8 to 12 inches high; segments lanceolate, obtusely lobed on the margin, dull green; involucres sunk, mouth spreading; caudex stout; stipes hairy. West Indies, Ac. T. Luschnatianum.—Fronds bipinnate, sessile; pinna) sessile; the ultimate segments deeply and finely incised, deep green; caudex scandent. Brazil, Ac. T. membranaceinn.—Fronds simple, 2 to 3 inches high and 1 to 2 inches broad, sessile, roundish, with margins often incised, deep shining green. West Indies, Ac. T. Plmna.—Fronds narrow, tri-quadri-pinnate, G to 12 inches high; pinna) cut into hair-like segments, crossing each other and producing a beautiful feathery frond, bright green; involucres small, cup-shaped; receptacle much exserted; caudex erect. Borneo. T. pgxidfennn.—Fronds two to three times divided; segments linear, deep shining green; caudex creeping. This species is widely distributed, and varies much in length and breadth of frond. Tropics. T. rigid inn.—Fronds decompound, triangular, 6 to 12 inches high; segments finely cut, deep sea green; caudex erect; stipes wiry, half the length of frond. Brazil, New Grenada, West Indies, Ac. T. scandens.—Fronds bipinnate, ovate-acuminate, 12 to IS inches high; pinna? lanceolate, bipinnatifid, pale green; caudex creeping; stipes aud rachis clothed with ferruginous hairs. Jamaica. Ac. T. m'niu^inn.—Fronds pinnatifid, lanceolate, 3 to 9 inches long, membranous, pale green, almost transparent; lobes obtuse with hairy margins; involucres sunk in the margin; receptacles exserted. West Indies, Ac. T. trichoideum.—Fronds tripinnate, 3 to 10 inches high; segments numerous and hair-like! lively green; involucres stipitate; receptacles exserted. Tropical America, West Indies, Ac. [Ileat.—In the cultivation of stove ferns there is one thing that should always be especially guarded against—that is, the use of more heat than is necessary to promote growth in a way so as to exemplify their true character, by a sufficient development of their parts. This is a mistake very often committed, the result of which is soft, weak fronds, liable to become brown and unsightly much before the time for natural decay. Ferns that are grown too hot are also more than ordinarily liable to the attacks of insects, which in a high temperature breed upon them apace, the soft nature of the growth produced under such conditions being also ill calculated to bear the necessary applications to destroy the insects. Shade.—Stove ferns, almost all, in a state of nature grow in moist, shady places, and it is necessary in their culture to supply them with these essentials; but it often happens that they are carried to excess, the effects of which are similar in their consequences to those that proceed from keeping them too hot. Nothing is more common than to see a fern-liouse with fixed shading remaining on all the summer; this is altogether wrong; it is not the exclusion of light they require, but simply shading from the sun. With few exceptions they should never be shaded when the latter is not on them; neither should the atmosphere be kept too moist, as this also produce! the worst effects in causing tender, weak growths. The practice of keeping the atmosphere of a fern-liouse akin to a vapour-bath cannot be too much condemned. These plants also frequently suffer through an insufficiency of air, which is equally injurious, and induces an elongated weak condition of the fronds. From close observation of their culture, we have come to the conclusion that to grow ferns well they must not be subjected to more heat, shade, moisture in the atmosphere, or exclusion of air, than is absolutely needful to induce a reasonable amount of growth. Where they are hurried on the result is never satisfactory. Construction of Fern-house.—In the construction of fern-houses mistakes are often committed by making them too dark. Where this is so there is no remedy; whereas, if the opposite condition were present, it would be an easy matter to use extra shading. We should advise that fern-houses, so far as the admission of light goes, should, when possible, be in no way differently constructed from those intended for plants of other descriptions. The size may be varied according to circumstances. The principal thing to observe is, in the selection, to employ such varieties as are by their natural habit adapted to each particular house. To introduce very w. h. G.THE STOVE AND FORCING HOUSE. 903 large growing arborescent species into a small house, where there is an apparent constant struggle in the plants to get through the glass, is wrong, and spoils the effect, which might have been good if such kinds had been employed as were proportionate in size to the structure. There is no more beautiful object in the whole vegetable kingdom than a stately tree-fern, with a tall straight stem, surmounted by an ample spreading head. Yet plants like this are only suitable for a large lofty house; and here it is usual to make the plants produce as far as possible a natural effect by planting all, or a portion of them, out in undulating beds composed of earth, intermixed with natural or artificial stone, arranged according to the taste of those concerned. "Where the house is large enough to convey an air of sufficient room the effect is fine, and unequalled by any other assemblage of plants we can bring together under glass; but even in the largest fernery there is one of the most noble species, Cyathea medullaris, that should have its roots confined in a box or tub, or it will get so big as to encroach upon and overhang everything near it. The tub it is grown in can easily be plunged so as to give it the appearance of being planted out. Plants in Tubs.-—The practice of confining the roots to check exuberant growth may be advantageously employed with tree-ferns. Generally in houses of moderate size there is also this advantage attending it—that the arrangement can be altered when required to obviate continuous sameness, or to relieve any plants that require more room, or are getting unduly encroached on by others. Plunging the tubs can always be managed without difficulty, and so arranged the appearance is quite the same as when planted out. In the case of large ferns that have their roots confined in a small space, they may be kept in a vigorous healthy condition for years by the use of manure water. Some years ago there was a general impression that ferns would not bear manure water, whereas there are few plants that are more benefited by it. The rich deep green it imparts to the fronds, as well as the great increase in their size and quantity, are soon seen where it is used. We are not acquainted with any plants that can thus be kept in a healthy condition for so long a time, when the roots are cramped with little soil to grow in, as ferns. Planting Out.—In preparing the beds for planting out ferns it is essential that the drainage should be efficient on account of the quantity of water they require. Peat soil of a fibrous nature answers best for them; it should have a good quantity of crocks, broken bricks, or coal cinders mixed with it, and a moderate amount of sand added to keep the whole in an open porous state. General Treatment in Pots.—In the pot culture of stove ferns, including their propagation from spores, by division of the roots, or by layering some that have creeping rhizomes, the treatment requires to be the same as advised for greenhouse ferns, the difference in the requirements of this section being principally as to temperature. The varieties of Gymnogramma require more heat than most species, not bearing so low a temperature in the winter season as many. They also like a drier atmosphere at all times; the temperature for them through the winter should be about 00° by night, with an increase of 5° in the day. As this is considerably more heat than is needed by the majority of ferns, it is better to remove the gymnogrammas to a warmer house during the winter, than to keep up a heat for them alone that would be injurious to the general occupants of the fernery. For other .species the temperature need not be higher than 50° by night, with 5° more by day, through the months of November, December, January, and February, during which time it is desirable to keep the whole at rest. About the end of February or the beginning of March all should be gone over; the drainage of any that may be defective put to rights, and those that want it repotted, using, as in the case of the greenhouse species, fibrous peat in a lumpy state, with a good sprinkling of sand, and a liberal admixture of broken crocks charcoal or coal cinders. In respect to pot-room, that will be determined according to the nature of the kinds grown. All those that have creeping rhizomes will naturally need more room for these to spread than such as are of more compact habit. It is not advisable to use too large pots for ferns in general; not that the majority will not bear plenty of root-space, provided the soil is of a sufficiently open porous nature, but with most kinds it is not necessary; and pots larger than requisite do not improve the appearance of the plants. They should always be potted before growth commences, as any interference with the roots afterwards, usually has the effect of causing the partially-developed fronds to grow deformed. By the middle of March the increase of solar heat will be such as to start many into growth, and the night temperature may be raised 3° or 4°, with a little more moisture in the atmosphere, and air given during the day-time. The thermometer may be allowed to run up to 70° by the end of the month in bright weather, shading theGAEDENEE’S ASSISTANT. 901 house when the sun is upon it. Plants of Gymno-gramma that have been in warmer quarters for the winter may now be brought back. As the days get longer the night temperature should be allowed to get up to 60° or 05°, and through the summer months it will often be higher than this without fire-heat. After really warm weather sets in a little air may, with advantage, be left on all night. Tree-ferns will iioav and through the summer months be benefited by syringing every afternoon. Gymnogrammas of different kinds which have their surface covered with golden or sih'er powder cannot bear moisture overhead, consequently should never be syringed; but other ferns in general may have a moderate sprinkling once a Aveek or so, to free them from dust and gi\*e them a fresh appearance. It is not Avell to syringe ferns daily overhead, as it has always a tendency to make them soft and not able to bear fumigating for the destruction of tlirips. As the season advances admit sufficient air to solidify the fronds as they progress; and towards autumn, Avlien the greater portion will show signs of completing their growth, giA'e still more in the day, and also a little in the night, so as to harden the Avliole up before winter, using less moisture in the atmosphere, and reducing the temperature doAvn to the point indicated for the winter season. Watering.—This, as already alluded to, is an important matter with all ferns, but more especially stoA'e species, which are naturally softer and more impatient of any deficiency of moisture at the root during the growing season; and although, unless carried to an extreme, it may not be fatal, still it usually turns the fronds broAvn, and gixTes the plants an unsightly appearance that they do not get the better of until they haA'e made fresh growth. Water should always be given at or about the temperature of the house the plants are in. Insects.—Scale, mealy bug, tlirips, and aphides Avill all live on most ferns, and unless kept in check Avill do serious harm. If a plant is found affected with white scale it is better to destroy it at once, as the chances of exterminating the pest by the use of sponge and brush are so remote, and any insecticide that will kill the scale Avill also kill the plant: so to prevent its spreading “stamping out” is the best plan. Luckily this species is not very common upon ferns. Mealy bug and broAvn scale must be kept under by sponge and brush during the groAviug season, for Avhilst the fronds are young and tender they Avill not bear crashing with any mixture strong enough to kill the insects. While the plants are at rest, during the autumn ami winter months. is the best time to eradicate these pests. We lniA^e found a preparation, sold under the name of “Abyssinian Mixture,” the most effectual for the destruction of these insects upon all plants of a nature not calculated to bear any strong liquid-dressing to kill animal life. Most ferns Avlien quite at rest will bear this mixture used at a strength of 5 oz. to the gallon, and by repeated and thorough applications it will destroy the insects. Tlirips and aphides, Avliich latter only affect the young fronds, can be destroyed by fumigating Avith tobacco, not used too strong, but repeated until the intruders are got rid of. t. b.] IV.—ORXAAIENTAL PALAIS. Of late years our gardens liaA-e received large accessions of palms, those princes of the x’ege-table Avorld, which are certainly among the most effective of all decorative plants, being in the small state charming ornaments for the draeving-room and the dinner table, and, Avlien someAvhat larger, amongst the most useful and efficient of Avhat are called in general terms ornamental-foliaged plants. The greater part of them are stoA'e plants, but there are some Avhich bear greenhouse treatment, and many of them are sufficiently enduring, Avlien the young groAvth is fully matured, to stand in the temperature of a room, if they are Avintered and alloAved to make their growth in a Avarm house. The hardier kinds, and also the special treatment required, are pointed out under the several genera in the following select list of some of the more desirable of the ornamental species. In making a selection from the rich store of material iioav a Available, our purpose will be to indicate those particular kinds which are either the most beautiful or best suited to the requirements of cultiA'ators. We shall range our selection under the tAvo heads of pinnate-leaved and palmate-leaved species. §1. Pinnate-leaved Palms. Akeca.—This genus contains many x-ery elegant species, all erect-growing plants, characterized liy having pinnate leaves, and unisexual flowers borne upon a branched spadix; the male blooms have a six-parted perianth, the females a superior one-seeded ovary, whilst the fruit is a drupe, inclosed in a more or less thick fibrous covering. These plants when young should be grown in a mixture of loam and peat in equal parts, adding some sharp sand to keep it porous; as they attain age, however, less peat should be given. A. alba.—Stem slender, unarmed, attaining a height of 20 feet or more, and bearing a beautiful head of plume-like leaves from 0 to S feet long. In a young state the plant is very graceful, the leaves being very feathery and bright green on both sides, whilst the foot-stalks are white, forming an agreeable contrast. It is specially useful for table decoration. Mauritius. I A. aurea.—This has also a slender stem and is a gracefulTHE STOVE AND FORCING HOUSE. 905 plant, bearing long pinnate dark-green leaves, the petioles and stem being rich orange yellow; the contrast of colour is very beautiful, and it forms a charming companion plant to the preceding; it is, however, rather more tender in constitu-tian. Seychelle Islands. i lutescens.— Ail elegant and useful plant for all purposes of decoration, attaining considerable altitude, but equally beautiful in all stages of its growth. The stem and slender petioles are yellow, dotted and freckled with gray and black, whilst the plume-like leaves are rich shining green. It may be used in any position in the house where elegant plants are required, the dinner table included, and also becomes a splendid ornament in the plant stove, and an equally elective object in the exhibition tent. To these quail ties it adds a hardy constitution, and suffers with impunity a considerable amount of rough usage. Mascaren Islands. A. nionostachya.— This is truly a miniature tree; it rises upon a slender stem, seldom exceeding the size of an ordinary walking-cane or a lady’s riding-whip, and bears a compact head of leaves, from 6 to 12 inches long; the pinnre are broad, with prannorse ends, the apical pinna} deeply bifid; colour deep green. A beautiful plant for indoor decoration and j hardy in constitution. Australia. A. rubra.—A beautiful companion plant for A. lutcscens, j having the same general outline, but in this species the segments of the leaves are longer and the young leaves come up a rich deep red, changing with age to dark green, leaving the red colour in the petioles only. Where plants are required for general decorative purposes this species cannot be dispensed with. Mauritius. Arenga. — Bold-growing majestic palms, which are extremely handsome in a young state; they are known also by the name of Saguerus in some gardens. Flowers unisexual, produced upon separate spikes on the same plant; spikes pendulous, produced from between the leaves; sepals broad, imbricating; petals narrow; fruit three-seeded, inclosed in a thin covering of fleshy tissue of an acrid nature. Tot in loam and peat, adding some sharp sand; drain well and water abundantly. A. saccharifcra.— A handsome bold-growing plant, attaining a height of 30 to 40 feet; leaves large and plume-like; leaflets narrow’ dark green. The base of the petiole is enveloped in a mass of black stiff fibres, called gomuti by the Malays, and which is largely used for ropes, and also in the manufacture of brushes and various ornaments. A great quantity of toddy and also of sugar are obtained from this plant, and in consequence it is largely cultivated in India. It forms a handsome plant in our stoves when young. Indian Archipelago. Astrocaryum.—These plants are characterized by their (mostly) slender stems, bearing long spines, the leaves being pinnate and fringed with stiff hairs or prickles; the spadix branched, bearing unisexual liowers, the males occupying the upper and the females the lower portion of the branches; the fruit is a yellow druj>e; spathes stout, woody, and prickly. Pot in good loam and leaf mould with some sharp sand added. Like all spiny palms they enjoy an abundant supply of water. Increase by seeds and suckers. The species here enumerated form splendid objects in the plant stove, but are scarcely suitable for the purpose of indoor decoration. A. acaule.—This species is destitute of an arborescent stem, but produces a large crown of slender spreading leaves, measuring from 3 to 0 feet or more in length; pinme arranged in clusters, narrow, pendent, and deep green. The whole plant is abundantly armed with long flat black spines. A common plant on the banks of the Rio Negro. A. Murumv.ru.— A noble palm, with a stem usually 10 to 15 feet high, somewhat slender, and together with bases of the sheathing petioles, densely armed with stout, black, depressed spines, 0 inches in length; leaves pinnate, 3 to G feet or mure long: pinme broad, bright green above, silvery white below. It is a very desirable plant for the decoration of the plant stove. Found on the banks of the Amazon, and in moist sandy hollows in the forests in the neighbourhood of that river. A. rostratum.—A taller growing jdant and less formidable in its appearance than the last; stem 20 to 30 feet high, densely armed with black spines, 2 inches long, as also are the sheathing petioles; leaves 4 to S feet long, terminal pinna much the largest and deeply bifid; colour a bright rich green on the upper side, white beneath. Native of Brazil. Attalea. — A genus of lofty-grow’ing, handsome palms, from which numerous articles of commerce are obtained. They are not very rapid growers from seed under cultivation, but their broad, deep-greeu, plume-like leaves render them valuable acquisitions where ornamental plants are grown. They are characterized by their fruit, which hangs in large clusters, each nut containing three seeds, which is peculiar to the members of the present genus. Tot in loam and peat, and supply abundantly with water. A. Cvhuiie.—A fine bold-growing species, becoming a lofty tree and requiring a long time to grow from seed into its true character; we therefore should recommend it (and indeed the other species included here also) to those only who possess ample accommodation. For the temporary decoration of large halls or ball-rooms nothing can be finer. Stem stout; in a young state, and indeed for several years, the leaves are entire, broad, plaited, attaining a height of 5 to G feet, and bright green. When, however, the plant assumes its true character the leaves become pinnate and spreading, bearing several dozen pairs of pinna) 1 to 2 feet long, rendering the plant a truly majestic object. Its large nuts are extensively used in the manufacture of toys. Central America. A. j'tm if era.— Similar in general appearance to the preceding, possessing, however, very distinct characters in a mature state, and always of a more vivid green in a young state. The plant yields piassaba fibre for broom making; the seeds are imported under the name of coquilla-nuts, and are used in many ways for our domestic comfort, such as for forming egg-cups, handles for doors and umbrellas, and many other purposes too numerous to mention. Brazil. A. nucifera, from New Grenada, is sufficiently hardy to be I used in the open air in shady places during the summer months. A. spcciosa (PI. XXI.).—A species of elegant habit, the straight cylindrical stem rising to a height of 50 or GO feet, crowned with the pinnated leaves, the narrowr rigid leaflets of which are so disposed as to give the leaves almost a pectinate appearance. In the young state the leaves are somewhat erect. Bactris.—A genus comprising for the most part low-grow-ing, slender plants, but in some cases forming stout stems and attaining a considerable height. They cannot claim to rank with the handsomest of palms, although when young they are of an ornamental character; and as they produce suckers freely there is no difficulty in maintaining a stock of young plants. One peculiarity of the various species is the persistent character of the leaves, which do not fall off when dead, but hang down loosely round the stem. They have pinnate or bilobed leaves, the stems being more or less clothed with formidable spines; and the spathe being double and sheathing, the male and female flowers being produced upon the same spike. The fruit is a one-seeded drupe, mostly small, inclosed by a fibrous pulp. Pot in loam, peat, leaf-mould, and sand in about equal parts, and supply abundantly with heat and water. B. baculifera.—Luaves 2 to G feet long; petioles profusely clothed with long and sharp needle-like, brown spines, upwards of 1 inch long; pinna) clustered, 6 to 12 inches long, 1 to 2 inches broad, bright green on the upper, but paler on lower surface. An elegant stove palm. South America. B. jlavispina.—Leaves pinnate, deeply bifid at the apex; pinme clustered, 6 to 12 inches long and about 1 inch broad, dark green; petioles sheathing, densely clothed with sharp spines, which are yellow tipped with black. Brazil. B. integrifolia.—An elegant species with slender reed-like stem, producing a small crowrn of entire dark-green leaves, which are deeply bifid at the apex; petioles sheathing, densely armed with long, flat, black spines. It can be used with beautiful effect for table decoration, but should not be kept out of the stove for any length of time. Rio Negro.90G GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. B. simpUcifrons.—Somewhat resembling the preceding, but even more slender; stem reed-like, seldom in a state of nature exceeding 5 to 6 feet in height, bearing a crown of about six leaves, which are entire, deeply bifid, and rich green; petioles profusely clothed with short spines. It is a very elegant plant, extremely ornamental in the stove, though not fitted for general indoor decoration. Rio Negro. B. tenuis.—Stem reed-like, bearing a small crown of graceful pinnate leaves; pinna) usually three to four pairs, beside the terminal one, which is broad and deeply bilobed; petioles sheathing and armed with fiat black spines. Rio Negro. Calamus.—An extensive genus of eastern palms, for the most part having slender reed-like stems. All are exceedingly handsome as young plants, but as they attain size and age they assume the lial.)it of climbers, scrambling over the forest trees to enormous lengths, being enabled to ascend by the long whip-like extremities of the leaves, which are armed with recurved spines. From various members of this family are obtained the enormous quantity of canes used for the bottoms of chairs, of which some 6,000,000 to 7,000,000 are imported annually; the best dragon’s blood, Malacca canes, tfcc. As a genus Calamus is so nearly allied to Dannonorops, that we unite them. They are characterized by their pinnate leaves and by their ilowers being densely clustered together upon branching spikes, each branch having a separate spathe, which, however, is not always sufficiently large to wholly inclose it; the species in which the spathe is sufficiently large to wholly inclose it belong to Dannonorops. Pot in loam and vegetable mould, and supply very freely with water. Increase by seeds and suckers. C. adspersus.—Remarkably slender and elegant, the stem in young plants being about the size of a small reed; pinna) 6 or 7 inches long; petioles about the same length, furnished with small black spines and sheathing at the base; colour light green. Its slender, graceful character renders it a charming subject for decorations where a more dense and massive growing species could not be used. Indian Archipelago. C. asperrimus.—A bold and handsome plant, which when young is well adapted for table decoration, and as it attains age and size forms a fine object in the plant stove, from whence it may be taken to decorate the ball-room or hall without showing any sign of suffering. The leaves are from 1 to 12 feet in length; piniue usually between 1 and 2 feet long on the full sized leaves, and about an inch broad; they have a graceful pendent habit, and are soft green in colour, the upper surface furnished with two parallel rows of stout hair-like spines, whilst the sheathing petioles are completely covered with an armour of stout black spines, giving it a very formidable character. Northern India. C. cilia ris.—A rare species, whose slender and graceful habit cannot fail to render it a universal favourite. Stem erect; petioles sheathing, clothed with a woolly down, through which protrude many short stout spines; leaves plume-like, pale green, clothed with soft hairs. Indian Archipelago. C. Draco.—The dragon’s-blood calamus, is a very handsome, bold-growing, distinct species, suitable in either a small or large state, for indoor decoration. Stem erect, somewhat stout; petioles sheathing and densely armed with long, stout, flat, black spines; leaves from 1 to 6 feet in length, according to age, recurved, the pinnules having a pendent character, which gives the whole plant a very majestic, plume-like appearance; colour deep rich green. Indian Archipelago. C. jlagellum.—This plant, the reem of the Lepchas, can be very highly recommended from the decorative point of view. Stem slender, bearing leaves G or 8 feet in length in a state of maturity, in young specimens proportionately smaller; petioles sheathing, densely armed with stout spines, which are white and swollen at the base, the points being jet black; pinnules G to 12 inches long by 1 inch in breadth, pendent, rich deep green, the upper surface with two parallel lines of white hairs. It is found growing up to an altitude of 3500 feet, and is consequently very hardy. Sikkim. C. Imperatrice Marie (PI. XXI.).—An ornamental species of recent introduction. The leaves are drooping and have the racliis extended into a spiny point, while the stalk and sheathing petioles are furnished with spines. Philippine Islands. C. Jcnkinsianus.—k robust-growing plant of great beauty either for purposes of indoor embellishment or the decoration of the plant stove. Stem somewhat stout; petioles only partially sheathing, chestnut brown at the base, and armed with long and stout black flat spines; pinnules 12 inches long and 1 inch in breadth, pendent, intense deep green. Found in the dense forests of the Terai, Sikkim. C. melanochcetes.—A charming plant with a slender, erect stem; petioles sheathing and armed at the base with long, sharp, slender spines, which are brown at the points, but green and swollen at the base; pinna) drooping, dark bright green. An elegant table plant. Indian Archipelago. C. palernbanicus.—A somewhat stout, bold-growing, handsome plant, forming a grand specimen with age, either in the plant stove or on the exhibition table, and in a young state having few rivals for indoor or table decoration. Stem stout; petioles sheathing, armed with stout, reflexed spines, which are deep brown when young, but change to dark green with age; whole plant plume-like; pinna) long, pendent. Java. C. plumosus.—Amongst a bevy of beauties it is scarcely possible to select one as the most beautiful of all, yet we are inclined so to speak of this palm, for it is a truly grand plant. Stem somewhat slender; petioles sheathing and profusely armed with long, stout, white spines, which are tipped with black; segments long and pendent, produced into tail-like points at the ends; colour intense green. It is indispensable either for home or exhibition purposes. East Indies. C. schizospathus.—Stem erect, from 5 to 10 feet high; petioles sheathing, armed with long black spines; leaves G to 12 feet long; segments 1 to 2 feet long, dark green and very elegant. It is known to the Lepchas by the name of rong, and grows at from 500 to 1000 feet altitude in Sikkim. C. viminalis.—An elegant plant for indoor decorative purposes. Like all the members of this genus it becomes serviceable very soon after it springs from the seed. Stem slender; petioles sheathing at the base, where they are densely armed with long, flat, white spines; leaves plume-like, 1 to 2 feet long; segments narrow, some 6 inches long, pendent, pale green. Indian Archipelago. Caryota is a remarkable and extremely ornamental genus of palms which may at once be identified by their bipinnate leaves, the leaflets of which have the appearance of being bitten (prannorse). The flower spikes are dense and 10 to 12 feet long, but never appear until the tree has reached maturity, when the first spike springs from the apex; after this a bunch of inflorescence comes out from the axils of the leaves alternately downwards, until the bottom leaves are reached, when the tree dies. The various species are well deserving the attention of amateurs and gardeners, although when they become large they require a great deal of space. When too large to be conveniently accommodated indoors we should advise their being planted outdoors in the summer months, where they would produce a splendid tropical effect, and smaller specimens being started afresh for indoor purposes. Pot in loam and sand; drain well, water liberally, and keep free from scale by frequent washings. C. Cumingii—The dwarfest of the species, the stem seldom exceeding 8 to 10 feet in height, and, together with the petioles, being entirely unarmed; leaves bipinnate, spreading, on mature specimens from 3 to G feet long, and 3 to 4 feet broad, leathery in texture; pinnules sessile, tapering to the base, with broad prannorse ends; colour deep green. Philippine Islands. C. furfuracca.—A grand plant for general purposes of decoration, and also for the exhibition table, attaining a height of 30 to 40 feet. The leaves are bipinnate, 6 to 9 feet long; petioles and racliis clothed with a more or less dense rusty tomen-tum; pinnules sessile, somewhat rhomboid, with broad praj-morse ends, dark green on both surfaces. There are various forms of this species. Western Java and Sumatra. C. propinqua.—A rare species, but undoubtedly the handsomest in the genus. Stem some 30 feet or more high; leaves when mature about S to 10 feet long, less spreading than inTHE STOVE AND FORCING HOUSE. 907 the previously named kinds, but ascending; pinnules closely set, sessile, tapering to the base, and very finely serrated on their pnemorse edges; deep green on both sides. Java. C. urem.—A tall spreading species, often attaining a height of 50 to GO feet; leaves G to 1*2 feet long; pinnules somewhat cuneate, erose, coriaceous, dark green in colour, and 4 to 8 inches or more long. It is a highly ornamental plant in a small state. Found in various parts of India. CatoblasTUS.—New Grenada plants, nearly allied to Iriartea, but differing from them in several material points; they attain to a considerable altitude, and mostly grow in company. The roots are stilt-like and elevate them some distance from the ground, which gives a peculiar appearance. The leaves are pinnate, the flowers unisexual, the sexes borne upon separate spikes. The seeds are marked in the interior like a nutmeg. The stem is stout, marked with circular scars. Pot in loam and sand and plunge in a tank of water. C. rdbustus is a beautiful object in the plant stove, but cannot be recommended for purposes of general decoration. Its stem is cylindrical, unarmed; leaves pinnate, with bright green, sessile, broad segments, praunorse or erose at the ends; apical pinna' much the largest. An elegant plant for exhibition purposes. New Grenada. CeroXYLoX.—Stately and magnificent plants, whose afhnity is with Iriartea, from which genus they are distinguished by their large spatlie, which entirely covers the flowers; these are sometimes perfect, while those of Iriartea are always imperfect; calyx and corolla three-parted, fruit one-seeded. Pot in loam, adding a little vegetable mould and sharp sand; water liberally. C. andicolal—This is a noble and majestic species, and may be used for the temporary decoration of halls or sunny rooms, Ac., but is much better left in the plant-stove. In a young state, like the species of Attalea, it produces simple leaves only, which are of an intense deep green above and silvery white beneath; with age, however, they become pinnate, bearing numerous pairs of pinme. New Grenada. Cham.£Ik>rea.— A somewhat extensive genus, containing many extremely handsome species, nearly all of which are well deserving of cultivation, being serviceable for indoor decoration during the winter months. All are natives of South America, where they form dense masses of underwood in the virgin forests, and cultivators should bear this in mind, as it is a proof they enjoy shade. They form slender reedlike stems, which are deeply marked with circular scars; leaves pinnate or bilobed; flowers unisexual, and borne upon separate plants, produced upon long, branching, or simple naked spikes, which in some instances become extremely ornamental. The stems are made into walking-sticks, and I the young tops cooked and eaten as a vegetable. Pot in spongy peat and a little loam, and treat abundantly with water. C. Areuberjiana.—Stem erect, slender; leaves pinnate, 2 to 3 feet long, with broad, droojnng, bright green pinme, 0 to | 12 inches long, having the points caudate. An extremely handsome plant, forming a beautiful object for table decoration and also for general purposes in the plant stove. Guatemala. C. destnoncoid.es— syn. C. scandens.—Leaves 2 to 3 feet long; pinme some 12 inches long, rather narrow, pendent, dark green; petioles and slender stem somewhat glaucous. An elegant plant, and one that in a young state is admirably adapted for indoor decoration; with age, however, it assumes I a climbing habit, and should then be trained upon a rafter or pillar in the plant stove. Mexico. C. elegans.—Stem somewhat stout; leaves pinnate, drooping, 2 to 4 feet long, with the bright green pinme G to 9 inches long; petioles broadly sheathing at the base. A most beautiful plant for all purposes of decoration. Mexico. C. Ernexti-Augusti.—Stem 6 feet high, slender; leaves 2 to 3 feet long, upwards of 1 foot broad, deeply bifid at the apex; flower spikes long, bright orange scarlet, rendering the plant extremely ornamental. New Grenada. C. fjlancifolia.—Stem very slender; leaves 2 to 4 feet long, with very narrow, dark green, slightly glaucous pinme; its beautiful plume-like habit renders it well suited for table | decoration while young, and a valuable addition to the plant stove as it attains age. Guatemala. C. gra mini folia.—Stem very slender; leaves plume-like, 2 to 4 feet long, with very narrow dark glaucous olive green pinme 1 foot long. This is perhaps the most elegant of the whole genus. Costa Rica. C. microphylla.—Stem very slender; leaves pinnate, 6 to 12 inches long, with slightly ovate pinme, 4 inches long, deep green, caudate at the apex. It is a perfect gem, and becomes fruitful when only a few inches high. The elegant crown of leaves which this pigmy tree carries renders it very effective for indoor decoration. Brazil. C. Warmericiczii.—Stem slender; leaves pinnate, recurved, 2 to 3 feet long, with broad bright green pinme, especially the apical one, which is deeply bifid, sessile at the base, and tapering to a point. Guatemala. C. Wendlandii.—Stem slender; leaves 2 to 3 feet long; the pinna) sessile, tapering to a point, about 12 inches long and 2 inches broads bright shining green. This is the hardiest and best for all purposes of indoor decoration. Mexico. Fig. 392. Cocos.—The most popular, or at least the best known of palms, on account of the immense numbers of the fruits of one species (C. nucifera) which are annually brought to this country and sold under the name of cocoa-nuts. This particular species is not, indeed, well known in our gardens, inasmuch as it proves somewhat difficult to cultivate, as it evidently prefers the sea coast to any inland locality. There are other and smaller growing kinds, however, which should be in every collection, as they are neither difficult to obtain nor cultivate. As a genus Cocos is distinguished by its long plume-like pinnate leaves; its unisexual flowers produced upon the same spike, the calyx in both sexes, as well as the corolla, being three-partite. The fruit is mostly egg-shaped, but three-sided, containing a single seed, surrounded by a rough fibrous husk, which in the case of C. nucifera is a valuable article of commerce. They are shade-loving plants, and should be potted in a mixture of loam, peat, and sand; water should be given liberally, and an occasional top-dressing of sea-weed will be found highly beneficial, especially to the large-growing kinds. C. elegantissima.—A superb small-growing species, but very rare in cultivation; stem slender, bearing a magnificentGARDENER’S ASSISTANT. 908 crown of beautifully recurved bright green pinnate leaves; in general terms it may be said to resemble C. Weddelliana, differing, however, in its bright cheerful colour. Brazil. C. plumosa.—A tall-growing species, attaining a height of 40 to 50 feet; stem and petioles smooth, supporting a crown of very long, finely-cut, plume-like leaves; the pinmc are clustered together, 1 to 2 feet long, 1 inch in breadth, deep green on the upper side, glaucous below. Whether for growing indoors, in the flower-garden during summer, or kept permanently in the stove, it is equally beautiful. C. Weddelliana (Fig. 392).—Stem slender, the slender petioles inclosed at the base in a network of black fibres; leaves elegantly recurved, plume-like, the drooping pinna) long, very narrow, dark blackish-green above, glaucous beneath. Unquestionably one of the most ornamental palms ever introduced, Rio Negro. There are several other very ornamental species of this genus, bearing some resemblance to C. plumosa of which may be named the following:—C. Jlexuosa, C. Ilomanzoffiana, C. schizophylla, C. botryophora, and C. butyracea. Elais.—A small genus, but one of special importance, including as it does the West African oil-palm, the produce of which is largely imported into this country. They are characterized by the male and female flowers being borne in distinct heads, and mostly upon different trees; these flower-heads when young are completely enveloped in a double spathe; fruit somewhat three-sided, angular, inclosed in a tissue of fleshy fibres. Pot in loam, peat, and sand in about equal proportions, and water liberally. E. guineensis.—This species yields the oil so largely imported from the western coast of Africa; independent of this, however, it is a very ornamental plant in a young state, and although it enjoys strong heat, it bears with impunity a considerable amount of rough usage, and is therefore well adapted for general decorative purposes. As a young plant it produces spreading, pinnate, dark green leaves, the apical pinmc being very broad, which gives it a massive appearance, distinct from most other plants of the same size. Geonoma.—Small-growing palms, nearly all of them exceedingly handsome, esj)ecially in a young state; they form a sort of underwood in the virgin forests of the western hemisphere, and are never found growing in the open. The majority rise upon slender stems, marked at short intervals with rings or scars; flowers unisexual, borne upon the same plant, but not always upon the same spike, the males in pairs or in threes, the females singly. The ringed stems are imported for walking-canes. Tot in spongy peat and loam in the proportion of two of the former to one of the latter; add a little sand, drain well, and water freely. Although extremely useful for table decoration, and the embellishment of the drawing-room, they should never be used in a permanent manner, as such an attempt generally results in the loss of the plant, since they have not the necessary hardiness of constitution. G. congest a.—Stem slender, seldom exceeding the thickness of one’s finger; leaves 1 to 2 feet long, increasing in width from the base upwards, pinnate or entire, in the latter case deeply bifid at the apex, bright light green in colour; a very handsome and useful species. Central America. G. cleg a ns.—A splendid stove ornament, or exhibition plant; stem reed-like; leaves 9 to 12 inches long, pinnate, the apical pinna) very broad and deeply bilid; the remaining pinna) are usually two to three pairs, broad and sessile; colour when young pink, changing to bright shining green. Brazil. G. gracilis.—A very elegant species, having few rivals as a dinner-table plant; the petioles are very slender; leaves pinnate, producing many pairs of long, narrow, pendulous, dark green pinna), which render it one of the most ornamental of the whole genus. Costa Rica. G. niacrostac/iys.—A dwarf compact-growing plant of great beauty as a stove ornament; stem slender; petiole scaly at base; leaves 10 to 15 inches long, pinnate; pinna) broad, lengthened out into long tail-like points. In a young state the leaves are deep red, they however with age become deep green. River Amazon. G. Martiana—syn. G. Secmanni.—A rare and beautiful species, with a short rather stout stem, producing a large crown of entire leaves, which are narrow at the base, widening upwards, and there deeply bifid, the whole surface much plaited; when young the leaves are bright crimson, changing, however, with age to an intense deep green. A charming ornament of the plant stove. Central America. G. Porteana.—Leaves pinnate, 1 to 2 feet long; pinna) sessile, distant, pendulous, long and broad, the terminal one deeply cleft, rich deep green. It makes a very handsome table plant. River Amazon. G. procumbens.— Stem stout, 10 to 15 feet high; leaves pinnate, 2 to 4 feet long; pinna) pendent, giving the whole leaf a plume-like appearance, 10 to 12 inches long, 1 to 2 inches broad, deep green; a fine stove ornament. Costa Rica. G. pumila.—A very beautiful plant for table decoration; petioles terete, sheathing, supporting large, broad, deeply bilobed, bright green leaves, which often become irregularly pinnate. New Grenada. G. Schottiana (Fig. 393).—Stem slender; petioles long, arching, and sheathing at the base; leaves pinnate, 2 to 3 feet long, with long pendulous pinna), tapering to a tail- Fig. 393. like point; colour deep green. It forms a splendid ornament on the dinner-table, but should not long remain out of the stove. Brazil. G. undata.—Stem stout; petioles sheathing,inclosed in a network of brown fibres; leaves irregularly pinnate, 3 to 4 feet long, with broad, much-plaited, deep green pinna), the apical lobe deeply cleft. One of the largest of the genus. Tovar. 11Y oph o li be.—A small genus of handsome-growing palms, hitherto only found in the island of Mauritius or its dependencies. They have tall stems which become swollen at the base as they attain age; flowers unisexual, borne on separate plants, and occasionally but rarely on the same spike. Pot in loam and peat in equal parts, adding a little sharp sand; drain well and water freely. II. a ma ricaulis — syn. A reca spedosa. — Stem stout, unarmed; leaves erect, pinnate, 4 to G feet or more long; pirnne broad, closely set, deep green; petioles stout and massive, glaucous, deep maroon, having a deep red line extending down the back. It is a very desirable and handsome stove species. Mascaren Islands.THE STOVE AND FORCING HOUSE 909 II. indicci.—Stem slender, swollen below, unarmed; leaves pinnate, spreading, 2 to 12 feet long, with bright green pinna', 1 to 2 feet long, and about 2 inehes broad; an elegant stove plant, rare, and quite distinct from the species usually found in gardens under the names of II. indica, II. lute seen*, and A/vea lutescens. Mascaren Islands. II. Versgfmmeltii — syn. Areca VerschajTeltii.—Stem stout and massive, whole plant unarmed; leaves pinnate, erect when young, ultimately spreading, 4 to 6 feet long, with acuminate dark green pimue, 1 to 2 feet long, and 1 inch broad; petioles triangular at the base, sheathing, having a bright orange-coloured band along the back. Mascaren Islands. Jl'B-EA.—A solitary but extremely handsome species, forming a tall stem, supporting a splendid crown of leaves; it is, moreover, very hardy, and therefore may be used with advantage in the open air during the summer season; Mowers unisexual, produced upon the same spike. Tot in two parts loam to one part leaf-mould and peat, and one part sand; water freely. J. spectahilis.—An elegant plant, suitable for all purposes of decoration, even in the open air during the summer months, but one which yet has not obtained the amount of favour to which it is entitled among the palm growers of Europe, its comparatively slow growth perhaps tending to depreciate its otherwise good and useful qualities. Stem unarmed; petioles sheathing, enveloped in a network of coarse brown fibres; leaves pinnate, spreading; pinna) produced in pairs, diverging from the base, deep green. It is called the coquito palm in its native country. Chili. Kentia.—The species of this genus were formerly classed under Areca, from which, however, they may be distinguished by the ovary being one-celled, and lacking that peculiar nut-meg-like structure so characteristic of Arcca; and by the young plants always having a decumbent growth. Pot in loam, peat, and sand, in about equal parts. They require ample root accommodation and an abundant supply of water. As the members of this genus are somewhat widely spread, it will naturally follow that some differences of temperature will need to be observed in their cultivation. Many very beautiful species have not yet been introduced to Europe; one in particular, Kentia procera, a native of New Guinea, which attains a height of from GO to 90 feet, bearing upon its slender cylindrical stem a magnificent head of dense plume-like leaves, will be a splendid acquisition to our stoves. K. Baueri—syn. Areca Baueri.—An extremely handsome pinnate-leaved species, which, although seldom 20 feet in height, forms a tolerably stout stem, and bears a dense head of leaves, which are of a rich deep green colour. In a young state it is admirably adapted for table and room decoration generally, and it is easily obtainable. Norfolk Island. K. Belmoreana.—An elegant species, producing spreading | pinnate leaves of great beauty; the peculiar crisp appearance of the pinme adds considerably to its attractions, and has obtained for it the name of the curly palm. It is alike valuable as a table decorator, an exhibition plant, or as a permanent stove ornament. Lord Howe’s Island. K. Fosteriana.—Although somewhat similar to the preceding in a young state, it becomes abundantly distinct with age; it is a more massive plant, of robust habit, producing long ami broad pinnate leaves of a deep green, and is admirably adapted for all decorative purposes. Lord Howe’s Island. K. mpida—syn. Areca .sap id a.—One of the most ornamental of all our greenhouse palms; its pinnate leaves are very finely divided, the segments being pendulous and of a bright cheerful green colour; a most elfective and ornamental plant for any purpose of decoration. New Zealand. MaloRTIEa.- A small genus of slender, dwarf, elegant palms, admirably adapted for cultivation in the dwelling-house or for table decoration. They are characterized by their slender reed-like stems and simple branching spikes of unisexual Mowers. Pot in peat and sand, adding a little rich loam; as the plants increase in age, water freely. 31. jra til ls.—This species bears in some collections the erroneous name of Gemmam feneatrata, the latter specific name referring to the peculiar slits or window-like holes in the pinna). The stem is very slender, seldom exceeding a height of 2 to 3 feet even in old specimens; petioles slender, supporting a dark-green blade, which is irregularly divided into segments having a toothed margin. A very elegant plant for table decoration. Guatemala. 31. .simplex.—In habit and stature resembling the preceding species, but differing in its entire leaves, which are biMd at the apex and dentate on the edges; an elegant little tree for the decoration of the dinner-table or a lady’s boudoir. Costa Rica. Martinezia.—Elegant palms of moderate size, the trunks and leaf-stalks being armed with long and sharp black spines. The leallets are broad and wedge-shaped, erose on the edges; the flower spikes are simply branched, inclosed in a double spathe, the outer one densely clothed with black spines; the flow ers unisexual, produced on the same spike, each having a three-parted calyx and petals. Tot in sandy loam and peat, and water abundantly. They enjoy a hot humid atmosphere, and although extremely beautiful objects in the plant stove are not suitable for indoor decoration. 31. Lindeniana.—This species in general appearance resembles Canjota, the peculiar-shaped segments with their prremorse edges being very similar. In other respects it is abundantly distinct, for whilst in Canjota the stems are unarmed, they are here densely clothed with long black spines, and the leaves in Caryota are twice divided, while in the case of 3lartinezia they are simply pinnate; the pinna) of the present species are large and closely set, and are, moreover, of a rich I green colour. Peru. (Exocarpus.—Nearly allied to Euterpe and characterized by their peculiar erect, stiff Mower spikes, which are inclosed in a double woody spathe, the inner one completely enveloping the spike when young, but eventually opening and falling entirely away; Mowers unisexual, growing together upon the same spike. Pot in loam and peat in equal parts. The ' species are superb stove ornaments, but not available for general decorative purposes. (E. Baccaba.—Stem 50 to GO feet high, smooth and unarmed; leaves long and plume-like, with long, pendulous, and dark green pinna); in the older plants the pinme become more j clustered. It is a bold and handsome species. Dry forests of the Amazon. (E. Batava.—Nearly allied to the preceding, differing in never having its pinme clustered together, and also in having its sheathing petioles armed with long spines. It is found in company with it. Q], minor.—This is an elegant little palm, the leaves being very feathery, dark green above, white below. Valuable as a stove ornament or for exhibition purposes. Rio Negro. O x eos PE rm A.—A small genus, the members of which are nearly allied to Arcca, from which they may be readily distinguished by their ijendulous spikes, which are enveloped in a double spathe; Mowers unisexual, produced on the same I spike, on the lower portion of which one female is situated between two males, while towards the apex they stand in pairs. Pot in peat and loam in equal parts; water freely. 0. Van Iloutteana.— Although this plant cannot be recommended for indoor decoration it forms a splendid ornament in the stove, and, if required for exhibition purposes, becomes a very telling plant, for it is as rare as beautiful. The stem and sheathing petioles are dull red, profusely armed with long, black, needle-like spines; leaves plume-like, the pinna) being pendulouS'and rich deep green on both sides. Java. OreodoXA.—Cabbage palms, so called on account of the delicious vegetable which the young undeveloped leaves afford when cooked. The stems are stout at the base, but taper upwards and attain a considerable height; flow er-spikes inclosed in a double, thick, woody spathe; Mowers unisexual, furnished at the base with numerous small bracts. Pot in loam, adding a little peat and sand for the young plants. O. oleracca.—Stem slender, unarmed; leaves finely divided and very plume-like. As a young plant it can scarcely be excelled for table decoration, and it will stand without injury a long time in the dwelling-house, whilst as it attains size it forms a beautiful ornament in the stove. West Indies.910 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. O. regia.—A slender-growing plant and worthy of a place in every collection for the beautiful effect it produces as a table plant. We have never under cultivation seen it handsome when large, but in its wild habitats it forms a remarkably graceful and handsome tree. Cuba. Phosnix.—'The date-palm of commerce is typical of this genus, which consists of handsome and tolerably hardy plants, some species attaining considerable altitude, whilst others scarcely form any stem. The flower-spike is produced from between the leaves; flowers unisexual and borne upon separate plants, the calyx of both sexes cup-shaped and threetoothed, the corolla tliree-petaled. The fruit is one-seeded, the seed hard, having a groove down the front, and covered with a thick and sweet fleshy husk. Pot in rich loam and peat, adding a little sand; drain well and water abundantly. P. dactylifera. — Although a common yet an extremely ornamental plant, and so hardy that it may be used for all purposes and in almost any situation, standing unharmed even in the open air through the summer months; leaves pinnate, the pinna) being narrow, rigid, and bright green. Independent of its ornamental character it is interesting as yielding the dates of commerce, which, although only known to us as a luxury, are a main stay of life among the Arabs. Northern Africa, &c. P. reclinata.—A bold-growing species, producing a majestic appearance. When in a mature state the leaves are broad, pinnate, spreading, and, as its name implies, inclining downwards; pinna) narrow and bright green. It is an extremely ornamental plant of hardy constitution. South Africa. P. sylvestris.—This species resembles P. dactylifera in most particulars, but in addition to the ornamental characters of that species the leaves are more spreading, and the pinna) narrower and more distant. It is a highly decorative palm of a hardy character. East Indies. P. tenuis.—A species of recent introduction and most elegant aspect, with the habit of P. dactylifera. Its long, pendulous, dark-green pinna) lend a charm to the general outline possessed by no other species of the genus yet introduced to cultivation. It cannot be too highly recommended for all decorative purposes. East Indies. P. rujncola.—One of the most elegant of the smaller palms, with a stem 20 feet high, and spreading arching leaves, which are pinnate with a slender rachis and short dilated sheathing petiole. The long narrow segments become gradually reduced to spines near the base, the rachis being connivently winged and the segments also connivently folded. East Indies. Ptyciiosperma.—A genus comprising many beautiful plants, mostly of robust constitution, and therefore eminently adapted for all purposes of decoration. Few of the species have at present been introduced; amongst those which will be valuable in our collections we may enumerate the following:—P. Rumjdiii, P. saxatilis, P. angustifolia, and P. append iculat a, which are natives of Amboyna and New Guinea. The plants are unarmed; flower-spikes inclosed in spatlies and produced from below the leaves; flowers unisexual, both sexes upon the same spike; the upper branches bearing only male blooms, whilst the lower branches produce both, one female flower sitting between two males. The greenhouse kinds thrive admirably in the open air during the summer months, producing a very fine effect; and they may at all times be employed with advantage for indoor decoration. Pot in loam, leaf-mould, and sand in about equal proportions whilst young; as they increase in size, however, the leaf-mould and a portion of sand may be dispensed with; drain well and water liberally. P. Alexandra!.—Stem somewhat slender, attaining a height of 40 to 50 feet; whole plant destitute of spines; leaves long, beautifully recurved, bearing numerous pairs of long, bright-green pinna), which, however, when first developed, are reddish pink. As a young plant this species bears a somewhat dense and compact crown of leaves, rendering it especially valuable for indoor decoration. Queensland. P, Cunninghamii— syn. Scaforthia clegans.—Similar in character to the preceding but more plentiful and therefore more extensively used; whole plant smooth; leaves pinnate, plume-like, and bright green. It is invaluable as an indoor decorative species, or out doors in the summer months. P. rupicola.—A more tender plant than either of the preceding, but well deserving a place in every stove; it may, indeed, if required, be used to ornament the dinner-table, but it can scarcely be recommended as a permanent indoor plant. Stem slender, smooth; leaves divided into broad segments, which with the petioles when young are bright crimson, changing with age to dark green. Ceylon. § 2. Palmate or Fan-leaved Palms. Acanthorriiiza.—A small genus of very ornamental plants, nearly related to Chamcerops, from which, however, they differ in having their leaves divided into broad segments quite down to the ligule, and the peculiar spiny roots which surround the base of the stem. These plants are very ornamental either in the conservatory or in the subtropical garden during summer. Pot in loam and sand, and water freely. A. stauracantha.—Stem erect; petioles unarmed; leaves deep green above, grayish white beneath, palmate, or divided into several broad segments, the divisions extending quite down to the ligule or point of insertion. As a young plant it is extremely useful as a room decorator, and in a larger state forms a grand ornament in the greenhouse, whilst during summer it may be used with advantage in the subtropical garden. Mexico. A. }Varscewiczii.—Stem stout; in general appearance resembling the preceding, but distinguished by its much longer petioles and larger leaves, which, although divided into segments quite down to the ligule, yet retain a nearly circular form, and are of a bright green above, white beneath. It forms a magnificent specimen, but is scarcely so hardy as A. stauracantha, thriving best in a cool stove. Central America. Brahe A.—A small genus which has been separated from Chamcerops and is introduced here on account of the species quoted below, which has been referred provisionally to it. Brahea is characterized by its hermaphrodite flowers, its imbricating sepals, and its six stamens, which grow together into a little cup round the ovary. B. filamcntosa.—This plant, referred here provisionally, may prove to belong either to Chamcerop>s or Sabal, both of which are more or less furnished with the long thread-like filaments which are such a conspicuous feature in this species. Mr. Linden calls it a Pritchardia. Stem slender, the bases of the petioles enveloped in a mass of netted fibres; leaves palmate, plaited, and divided into narrow segments about a third of their length; from the edges of these segments are developed long, thread-like, pendent filaments, which give the whole plant a remarkable and beautiful character. It will undoubtedly become a great favourite for all purposes of decoration. California. Chamcerops.—The plants comprising this family are for the most part comparatively dwarf in habit. Their general characteristics are the presence of fan-like leaves, supported upon slender petioles, which are more or less armed at the edges with sharp spines, and which have their bases enveloped by coarse netted fibrous tissue, which in many instances is utilized in various ways, such as the making of hats, brooms, coats, «fcc.; the flowers are produced in panicles, and consist of a three-parted calyx and corolla, with six to nine stamens, connate at the base. They are plants of robust constitution, and are admirably adapted for general purposes of decoration. In a young state they form elegant table or window plants, and thrive in the atmosphere and temperature of the dwelling-house, bearing up against the effects of gas with impunity. In a large state they are extremely ornamental either in the conservatory or subtropical garden in the summer months. One species indeed, C. Fortunei, has proved itself hardy in mild parts of the three kingdoms. Pot in two parts loam, one part peat, and one part sand; drain well and supply liberally with water. C. excelsa.—Stem 20 to 30 feet high when mature; petioles slender, 3 to C feet long, armed on the edges with small spines; the fan-shaped plaited leaves are erect, and split into deep segments; colour dark green on both sides. It is a veryTHE STOVE AND FORCING HOUSE. 911 useful plant for all purposes of decoration, either large or small. East Indies. C. iwfunei. —Steito 12 to 15 feet high, stout, profusely clothed with a network of dark brown fibres; petioles slender, unarmed; leaves plaited, divided into broad segments, extending about half-way down; colour dark green. This plant is often confounded with the preceding, from which, however, it is abundantly distinct. It is a valuable addition to a collection either in or out doors, being nearly or quite hardy. Northern China. C. humilis.—An elegant and very interesting species, from being the solitary member of the family growing in Europe. There are numerous varieties, which differ much both in height of stem and general outline; some forms never become more than dense bushes, whilst others attain a height of some 20 feet. Stem slender, furnished with a coarse netted fibre which envelops the base of the slender petioles; these are usually from 2 to 4 feet long, armed on the edges with stout spines. The leaves are plaited, divided for about a third their length into narrow segments, which stand erect; colour grayish-green on both surfaces. It withstands rough treatment with impunity, and cannot be too highly recommended to lovers of plants for its general decorative qualities. The principal varieties are known by the names of C. gracilis, C. arborescens, C. rnacrocarpa, and C. inelanocantha. Europe and North Africa. C. Martiana.—This species is unfortunately seldom met with. The stem is slender, 20 to 30 feet high, furnished with a profusion of dark brown netted fibres; petioles slender, 2 to 3 feet long, armed at the edges with small spines, and clothed in a young state with a short woolly tomentum; leaves erect, almost circular, the segments being very regular and narrow, dark green on the upper side, glaucous beneath; a superb greenhouse palm. Northern India. L AT an I A.— Extremely handsome plants, even in a young state, and therefore specially serviceable to the cultivator. They are all natives of the African islands, and must not be confounded (as is often the case) with the genus Livistona. The flower-spikes are partially inclosed in stout spathes, produced from the base of the crown of leaves; flowers three-sepaled and three petaled, the male and female borne upon separate trees. Pot in two parts of loam, one of peat, and one of sand; water liberally, and supply abundantly with heat. L. aurea.—Stem 15 to 20 feet high when mature; petioles stout, unarmed, rich yellow, bearing large plaited palmate leaves 3 to 4 feet in diameter and bright shining green in colour. This is a distinct and handsome ornament amongst stove plants. Island of Rodriguez. L. Commersoni.— In habit and stature this resembles the preceding species, differing, however, in having the margins of the segments of the leaves of a rich deep red, whilst the ground colour is bright green; in a young state the leaves are entirely deep red. Round Island, Mauritius. L. rubra.—The preceding species is often found in collections under this name; the true L. rubra, however, has deep crimson petioles, whilst the leaves also are of a deep bronzy green. It is an extremely ornamental plant, and somewhat rare. Mauritius. Licuala.—A small genus of very elegant palms, which have not found the favour amongst plant-growers which they deserve. They are characterized by their fan-shaped leaves, being in most instances divided into broad segments quite down to the ligule, and by their three-parted flowers being perfect. Pot in loam, peat, and sand, and supply heat and moisture in abundance, or they will apj>ear starved. L. acutijida.—Stem slender, bearing a small head of beautiful, much-parted, fan-like leaves, of an intense green. As an exhibition plant or ornament of the stove it is highly to be recommended, either when young or in a more mature state; but on account of the great heat and moisture which this and indeed all the species luxuriate in, they cannot be used for indoor decoration without great risk. The stems of this plant grow from 5 to 0 or 8 feet high, and form the handsome walking-canes imported to this country under the name of Penang lawyers. Pulo-Penang. L. clegans.—Stem slender; petioles 2 to 3 feet long, furnished at the edges with formidable black spines; leaves fanshaped, much plaited, with pramiorse segments, which are divided quite down to the ligule; colour bright green; a very attractive plant. Sumatra. L. horrida.—Petioles erect, stout, and armed on both edges with long, stout, black spines; leaves plaited, much divided, of an intense green colour; a much bolder-growing plant than the preceding species. Java. L. 2Jdtata.— In many respects this resembles L. horrida; it is, however, a smaller-growing plant, and the petioles are not so profusely armed with spines; the fan-shaped leaves are much plaited, prannorse, and deep green. Java. Livistona.—A widely-distributed genus, including in its ranks many extremely ornamental species, of robust and hardy constitution, rendering them useful for decorative purposes. The flower-spikes are branched and bear perfect flowers. They are all strong robust-growing plants, and should be potted in the greater part loam; in a young state, however, a little peat and sand may be added with advantage; drain well and supply very liberally with water. L. altissima.—Stem stout when mature; petioles 1 to C feet long, armed on the edges with stout recurved spines, which are blackish-brown towards the base of the petioles; the upper part of the stem is furnished with a profuse network of brownish woody fibres; blade of the leaf large, fan-shaped, much plaited, divided into narrow bifid segments; colour bright cheerful green; an extremely beautiful plant. Java. L. australis.—Petioles long and slender, profusely armed at the edges with stout dark brown spines, and having their bases inclosed in a profusion of netted fibres; blade of the leaf nearly circular, much plaited, divided round the edge into narrow, shallow segments, intense deep green in colour. Few palms can surpass this for general usefulness, whether required for indoor decoration or as an ornament in the conservatory, or indeed in the open air during the summer months. In a mature state it is said to attain a height of 100 feet. Australia. L. chi) tens is [PI. XX.].—This plant will in all probability be better known by the erroneous name of Latania borbonica, from which genus its small one-seeded fruit exclude it. The petioles are long and stout, rounded below and armed at the edges with short recurved spines, their bases inclosed in a tissue of netted fibres; blade of leaf large, fan-shaped, the segments pendent round the margin, rendering it very graceful in appearance; colour bright shining green. It is equally adapted for indoor decoration or the embellishment of the conservatory; whilst during summer it forms no mean ornament in the subtropical garden. China. L. Iloogcndoipii.— Stem stout; petioles inclosed at the base in a dense tissue of brown netted fibres, and armed at the edges with formidable dark brown spines; blade of leaf very large, almost circular, much plaited, intense green, divided into segments round the margin. It requires stove heat, and is perhaps one of the finest of its race in cultivation. Java. L. Jenkinsiana. —Petioles long, armed with stout recurved spines; leaf large, divided at the margin into broad segments of a deep green colour. When mature the plant assumes noble proportions. Sikkim Himalaya. L. oliveeformis.— A bold-growing species, much resembling L. altissima in a young state; it may, however, be distinguished from that species by its reniform leaves, which are divided into pendulous segments round the margins. It is an extremely ornamental plant in the stove. Java. Phcenicophokium.—The fine palm referred to this genus is a magnificent ornament in the stove, but cannot bear exposure to a low temperature. Pot in peat and loam, adding a little sand; pot loosely (not firm); drain well, and no amount of heat and moisture will hurt the plant. The broad undivided leaves of this genus and of Verschajfcltia do not strictly agree with either the pinnate or palmate leaved series. I*, sechdlururn—syn. Stevensonia- grand/[flora, Areca scchel-larura.--Stem stout, and, as well as the broad sheathing petioles, densely armed with sharp black spines 4 inches long; blade of the leaf entire, much plaited, 0 to 10 feet912 GARDENER'S ASSISTANT. lony:, the edges cut into small tooth-like segments; colour dark green spotted with orange. There is a variety entirely destitute of these spots bearing the name of P. viridifolia. Undoubtedly one of the most majestic palms ever introduced. Seychelles. Rhapis.—A small genus of slender-stemmed palms, bearing branched flower-spikes; flowers sometimes perfect; on some plants the two sexes on separate branches, whilst others produce the sexes upon separate plants. They cannot be too highly recommended, as their small size and elegant outline render them charming objects at all times, and their hardy constitution will allow of their being used even in the open air during the summer months with great advantage. Pot in loam and peat in equal parts, adding a little sand at discretion. Ji. jlabelliformis (Fig. 304).—Stem slender; petioles slender, sheathing at the base, and firmly enveloped in a network of brown fibres; leaves flabellate, divided into narrow’ deep green segments, which are pramiorse, and serrate at the apex. Fig. 394. A most beautiful little species, which from its small size can be easily accommodated. The walking-canes imported to this country under the name of ground rattans, are said to be the stems of this species. China. li IiunuUs.—This rare species is even more handsome than iil jlabeUiforinis, from which it ditfers in having larger leaves, the segments becoming pendulous and of an intense deep green. Japan. Sabal.-Noble palms, distinguished by their large fanshaped leaves, which are much plaited, whilst from the edges of the segments are produced long thread-like fibres; flower-spike branching, the flowers perfect. When mature these plants attain truly gigantic proportions, and rival the members of the eastern genus Conjpha— which latter has not been here introduced, on account of the very slow growth of the plants from seeds, on which account they are not desirable objects for decorative purposes. Although the species of Sabal enjoy abundance of heat, yet so strong and robust are they, that during the summer months they may be used either in the subtropical garden, the conservatory, or any part of the dw’elling-house where noble ornaments are required; but they are too massive for table decoration. These plants should be grown when young in strong heat, in order to develop as rapidly as possible their true character; and when they have arrived at a suitable size cooler treatment may be resorted to with advantage. S. Blackburniana.—This superb species attains gigantic proportions w hen mature. The leaves are very large, much plaited, divided round the margin into narrow pendent segments, of a glaucous green colour; round the ligule is a large white triangular mark, which readily distinguishes this species. West Indies. S. umbraculifera.—Similar in size and habit to the preceding; it is, however, entirely dark green, and not glaucous, neither has it the peculiar white marking round the ligule. West Indies. Thrinax.—A genus containing many beautiful species, all of which are valuable, even in a very small state, for decorative purposes. They are distinguished by their six-parted calyx, no corolla, six to twelve stamens joined at the base, and a single stigma, the flower-spikes being produced from the axis of the leaves, and inclosed in numerous spathes. The species cannot be too highly recommended, since they develop their fan-shaped leaves very early after germination; whilst their petioles being slender, and their leaves much divided into segments, they are peculiarly light and elegant w hen used for table or other decoration in the dwelling-house, where large-growing or massive plants could not be tolerated. On the other hand, it must be understood that these plants do attain considerable size, and wiien too large for the purposes previously mentioned, form splendid ornaments in the stove. When young they are best potted in about half peat and half loam, adding a little sand; as they attain age, however, loss peat will suit them best; drain w7ell and water freely. T. cirborea.—Stem slender; petioles erect, enveloped at the base in a thick fibrous network; the leaves are large, bright green above, silvery below, divided into broad bifid segments almost down to the ligule, which is a distinctive mark of this species. West Indies. T. graminiflora. —An elegant small-growing species, admir-ably adapted for table decoration; the petioles are very loug and slender; whilst the fan-shaped leaves, which are very finely divided round the margin, are bright green above> glaucous beneath. West Indies. T. Miraguana.—This species is somewhat more massive in growth than others of the genus; but although not so well adapted for indoor decoration, it has few’ superiors as a stove ornament. The stem is medium-sized; petioles slender, and enveloped at the base in a network of fibres. The leaves are nearly circular, dark green above, silvery white beneath, the margins split into narrow* segments. Cuba. T. multijlora.—A rare and truly beautiful plant, the stem of which, when mature, is 10 to 20 feet high; petioles long and slender, furnished at the base with a mass of white woody fibres. The large plaited leaves are divided about half their length into narrow segments, which become pendulous, adding materially to its beauty; they are bright green on the upper side, silvery white below. Central America. T. parvijlora.—A species well adapted for indoor decoration. Stem slender, as also are the very long petioles; leaves large, divided about half-way down into narrow segments; colour bright green on both sides. Trinidad, &c. T. radiata—syn. T. elegans[PI. XX.].—This species is a very handsome and graceful plant, with a slender stem, swollen at the base; petioles long, slender, orange-yellow, as also is the ligule; leaves almost circular, divided into long pendulous segments, which are dark green above and below. West Indies. Verschaffei.tia.—These fine palms are nearly allied to rhcvnicojjhoriinn, and like it require strong moist heat, but although scarcely to be surpassed in magnificence for stove decoration, they cannot be subjected to rough treatment with impunity. Soil same as for Phanucophoriinn. They are neither fan-leaved nor pinnate in the strict sense. V. melanochivtcs.—Stem slender; petioles sheathing, armed with long, needle-like, black spines; blade of leaf 1 to 4 feet long, entire, deeply bilobed at the apex, and deep green on both surfaces. Seychelles. V. sjdendia—syn. lie gel ia majestica, R. princeps.—X never-THE STOVE AND FORCING HOUSE. 913 to-be-forgotten palm; its stem is slender, and with the petioles densely armed with very long needle-like, black spines; leaves entire, 2 to 6 feet long, deeply cleft at the apex, and having the edges slightly divided into obtuse segments; colour- vivid green. Seychelles. Palms are amongst the easiest of all plants to cultivate, provided they have the degree of heat which they individually require, for in addition to this requirement, the chief points in their cultivation are thorough drainage, and an abundant supply of water. They cannot bear to be dry at the root at any season, but especially when growing freely, for in a state of nature they mostly grow on river banks or in humid places, frequently in the water. The kind of compost best suited to each genus has been already indicated. As a general rule, a compost of one part loam, one part peat, and one part good well-decomposed vegetable mould, with abundance of sand, is suitable to them. Palms do not bear overpotting, but will grow and flourish much better in comparatively small pots, if watering is properly attended to. w. h. g. V.—FORCING-HOUSE FOR FLOWERS. The demand for early flowers has so much increased during the last few years, that a forcing-house has become a necessity in most gardens. In cases where such a house is only required for flower-forcing for a period of about six months, it may be turned to good account as a cucumber or melon house for the remainder of the year. The situation in which such a house is placed is of great importance. It should be sheltered as much as possible, especially from the northeast quarter, whence cold winds usually prevail during the first two or three months of the year; nevertheless it should not be so shut in that the air cannot reach it. In very cold and exposed districts a lean-to house placed against a south wall will be found to be very suitable for this object; but as a general rule a span-roofed house will be found the most desirable. Its size must be regulated according to the supply of plants and flowers required. The annexed diagram (Fig. 395) represents in section, a house .36 feet long, 16 feet wide, and 8 feet 6 inches high. It should have a division across the centre, so as to admit of one part being kept cooler. The internal fittings of the house are simple. It has a tank (c) 3 feet wide and 10 inches deep round the sides of the house built of brick and cement, through which the liot-water pipes pass. It is necessary that a strong earthen pipe should be built in the wall of the tank at the point where the hot-water pipe is to enter. The hot-water pipe is then passed through the earthen one, and caulked in with rope and red and white lead; this prevents the tank being cracked by the expansion of the liot-water pipe. A flooring of slate or boards is placed over the tank on which to place the plunging material (b). Small slate slides are inserted so as to allow the moisture to pass into the body of the house Fig. 395. when required. At the division of the house a stoji-cock is inserted in the flow pipe, so as to regulate the heat in the cool part. A separate flow and return pipe is carried round the house, between the plunging material and the plate of the front lights (e), the two sets of pipes being made to work independently of each other. A stage 5 feet wide (a), on which to stand large plants, which do not require bottom-heat, runs through the centre with a pathway (d) on each side. Hanging shelves (/) are placed over the pathways to accommodate small or dwarf plants, or plants requiring much light. The house should be furnished with ventilators round the wall, the air being carried through earthen drain-pipes passed under the tank. For top ventilation small sliding lights are used. Preparation of the Plants, &c.—Flower-forcing is frequently very improperly conducted. The plants are too often taken from the borders, thrust into pots, and set to work in the forcing-house without being properly prepared to stand against the excitement they are to be subjected to. The flowers produced under such treatment are small, and very often deformed; or, if the plant itself is required for decorative purposes, their short duration is disappointing, and the advantages derived from them are very inadequate to the labour expended on them. On the other hand, if the plants had been properly prepared, and submitted gradually to the higher temperature which is necessary, they would have flowered more satisfactorily, and the flowers would have lasted as long as in the case of plants which bloom at their natural season. The plants should also receive proper attention after they have done flowering, both as to watering and hardening off. There is another matter as injurious as excessive and too rapid forcing, and that is, careless potting. 58914 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. We frequently see plants for forcing potted so that the pots are filled to the rim with soil, so that it is quite impossible for the roots to get a proper supply of wTater. Nothing could be more injurious than such a practice. There should always be sufficient space left, according to the size of the plant, to give it a good watering, which should be a depth of 4 inch for the smallest pots, varying up to 2 inches for the larger ones. The end of September is about the time when forcing is usually commenced; consequently the house should then be got in readiness. The pipes and water tank should be examined, and if anything requires repairing it should be done by that time, so that nothing should be disturbed after forcing has commenced. When the house is first closed for work it will be necessary to ventilate, so as to keep the temperature at about 50° by night and 60° by day. These general observations will be followed by special remarks on the principal kinds of plants employed. Azaleas.—The azalea is one of the most tractable and useful plants for forcing which we possess, whether for the cut flowers, or for the plants to be employed for decorative purposes. Before the plants are taken into the forcing-house they should be thoroughly cleared of tlirips and red spider, for which purpose there is nothing better than washing with soft-soap and tobacco water, in which every part of the plant should be dipped or syringed. When the atmosphere is kept sufficiently charged with moisture for the health of the plants the insects will not be troublesome. In selecting the plants for forcing, those furnished with the most prominent buds should be taken first. To have azaleas in flower in December the plants must be started the last week in September or the first in October; and in order to keep up a succession of blossoms, a few must be taken into the forcing-house every month. As soon as the flowers are past, they must be taken back into heat to enable them to complete their growth; and when the young shoots have fairly started, they must be repotted should they require it, although the plants may be kept in health, and will flower for two or three successive years without repotting. The same plants should be selected for another season; and these having set their buds by June, may be placed out of doors to ripen and harden. The Azalea amcena grandi-flora, with pink flowers, is a useful kind, as are also the old white called Fielder’s White, Gem, Coronata, and the Queen—all of which are good sorts for the first batch. The hardy Ghent azaleas form a beautiful set of hardy shrubs, producing large trusses of flowers; they also possess a great variety of colour, which gives them increased value for decorative purposes. Although these plants are hardy, they should be grown in pots when they are intended for forcing, receiving the same treatment as the Indian azalea. Some of the English varieties are also very handsome. A. sinensis is an excellent sort for forcing on account of its beautiful orange-coloured flowers, and requires very little excitement to get it into flower. A. mollis and its various coloured varieties also make very fine forcing shrubs. Rhododendrons.—The hardy rhododendrons are amongst the most showy of the plants suited for the conservatory or drawing-room, and if they are treated with care after flowering, the same plants will last for years. As soon as they have flowered the seed pods must be picked carefully off, and the plants protected until all risk of injury from frost has passed, as of course, from having been subjected to a high temperature, the young growth buds will have started, and in this state the plants will be very susceptible of injury. In May, turn the balls out of the pots into a bed of peat, placing them at such a distance apart as will enable them to make a season’s growth, cutting back any branches that need it so as to secure well-formed plants. They must be well watered, and care must be taken that the water penetrates the ball. They need to be examined at short intervals through the summer, and whenever found to be getting dry should receive a good soaking of water. In very dry seasons a mulching of half-decayed manure will save a deal of labour in watering. By the autumn they will have set their buds, and may be taken up and repotted; a thin slice taken off their roots, so as to fit them to the size of the pot, will not do them any injury, but they should be stood in a shaded place, and syringed, for a week or so. The plants make a better growth, and set their buds better, when thus planted out, than when kept in pots. Any plants that have only partially set for bloom are not worth taking up, but what buds they have should be picked off to strengthen them for the next season. The greenhouse rhododendrons are admirably adapted for winter decoration, requiring the cool end of the forcing-house. They are all very beautiful, and some of them are very fragrant. R. jusminijlorum, white; R. Princess Royal, rose; R. Princess Alexandra, pinkish white, and R. Princess Helena, pink, with many others of similar origin, are admirably adapted for bouquet making. They are easily cultivated if good fibrous peat and sand is used for potting them in, and care is taken not to overpot them, for in that state they will grow away and not flower, or else will get into a sickly condition at the root. Roses.—The rose requires more preparation inTHE STOVE AND FORCING HOUSE. 915 order to have good plants and fine blossoms than most other hardy plants. A rose shonld be three years old before it is forced; after that time, if care be taken of the plants, they will hist and go on improving for years. The plants should be on their own roots; when worked on the manetti stock, the suckers are often troublesome. The rose is easily propagated by cuttings of lialf-ripened wood [ taken from plants which have been forced; if taken with a heel so much the better. They shoidd be inserted in 5-inch pots filled with turfy loam and leaf-mould, and plunged in bottom-heat; and as soon as the cuttings are rooted they should be potted ofif, using the same mixture as ! was used for the cuttings, and plunging them again in bottom-heat. A frame placed on a dung bed, covering the dung with (! inches of cocoa fibre refuse, in which to plunge the pots, is ' a most convenient and suitable place for them, | but plenty of air must be given to them daily, I and as soon as they are established, if the weather is favourable, the lights should be taken ! off altogether. By the autumn they should be good plants, and may be wintered in a cold frame protected from frost. Cut them back to two eyes in January; very little water should be given until they begin to grow, and as soon as they have fairly started they should be repotted. As soon as they have become re-established after potting, the weather being favourable, they may be plunged out in the open border, giving plenty of water. Any flower-buds that may appear should be picked off. In the autumn, when the wood is ripe, they must be again protected in a cold pit or house, and again pruned in January, cutting away all the small useless wood, shortening the strong wood to three or four eyes, and plunging them out again in the open ground. About midsummer they should be repotted, using good turfy loam and cow-dung, with a little powdered brick rubbish or charcoal, to keep the soil open, in order to enable the water to pass freely through. Some of the delicate tea-scented roses are the better for having a little leaf-mould added to the loam. They should be again plunged out in the open air, and will not require potting again until they have flowered. By giving the plants their final shift in June it enables them to make a good growth, and to furnish the pot with roots before the autumn, and consequently, if proper attention has been paid to watering and to syringing during their season of growth, they will now l ie in good condition for forcing. Some of the teas may be allowed to flower in the autumn if there is any demand for them. The plants should be pruned according to the i time at which they are required to be in bloom. | For instance, plants required to bloom at Christmas should be pruned not later than the first week in October; and they must be brought very gradually on, allowing three months for them to make their growth and flower in. They require to be frequently smoked to destroy aphides, and the maggot must be diligently sought for and killed. It is impossible to lay down any general rede for pruning roses, as some kinds require much closer pruning than others of the same type; in this matter practice alone can give the knowledge required. Bouvardias.—The bouvardia is most valuable as a decorative plant; also for supplying cut flowers. There are many varieties, but those of decided colours, such as scarlet and white, are the most useful. They are easily propagated. Cuttings taken off in April, inserted in pots filled with sandy peat, and plunged in bottom-lieat, will strike in a few days. As soon as they are rooted pot them off into 3-incli pots in a mixture of three parts peat to one of loam and silver sand; (place them in a temperature of 55° to 65°, syringe them frequently, and repot them as soon fts tli« roots are through the soil, using two parts peat or leuf-mould, one of loam, and one of old manure; give them plenty of air in the day, closing them early in the afternoon, and stop them two or three times to form them into nice bushes. They must be frequently fumigated to keep them free from the green-fly and the black-fly, which are very troublesome to them. The more liberally they are treated the finer their flowers will be. With the heat of the coolest part of the forcing-house they may be had in flower from October until spring. Lilacs.—The Persian lilac (Si/ringa persica) is a useful ornamental shrub to force, and easily excited into flower. The variety of S. vulgaris called Charles X. is also forced largely by the French for the flower-market; the spikes of flower are more compact than the Persian, and when blanched they come much whiter than any other. The common purple, S. vulgaris, is also useful for blanching. The plants should be potted, as soon as the leaf falls, in any good free garden soil, selecting those that are well set with buds; it is not an off-hand easy matter to distinguish between shoot-buds and flower-buds, but on close examination it will be found that the difference is as great as that between the wood-bud and flower-bud of the peach, the flower-buds being globose and more plump than the wood-buds. The plants may be taken into the house in October, and a few must be placed in heat every three or four weeks to keep up a succession. As soon as the flowering is over they may be cut back and planted out,916 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. giving them two seasons’ growth to make good plants for forcing again; they will amply repay for the time that has been given them. The best means for blanching the flowers of the lilac, which, so treated, has a very chaste and lovely appearance, is to place it in a heated shed from which every ray of light can be excluded. A temperature of 60° must be maintained with a moist atmosphere. Some good stable dung and leaves mixed together should be placed in the shed, and must have two or three turnings previous to the plants being put in. It will be found that this heating material will greatly assist the blanching process. Various Flowering Shrubs.Deutzia gracilis is a useful plant for forcing; indeed there is scarcely any one that equals it. When grown in the shape of a cone it makes a charming decorative plant, and it is also valuable for cut flowers. For bouquets the sprays should be cut just as the flowers begin to expand. The plant is easily propagated by cuttings of the young shoots, which should be taken as early as it is possible to get them; insert them in pots filled with loam and leaf-mould, having half an inch of sand placed on the top; plunge the pots in bottom-heat; and pot ofl' into a mixture of turfy loam, leaf-mould, and sand. They should be kept in a warm pit until the growth is finished, when they should be hardened off, and turned out of doors. These will be but small plants the first year. They must be grown a second year to make good plants for forcing; for this purpose, repot them about midsummer, and plunge them out of doors in a shaded border. At the end of August expose them to the sun. The coolest part of the forcing-house will be warm enough to start them in, for if placed in too great a heat they will go blind. The double-flowered Prunus sinensis is a useful free-blooming plant, the flower's being snowy white; this is very valuable as a decorative plant, but not sufficiently lasting as a cut flower. The Prunus is easily propagated from cuttings, and should have much the same treatment as recoin-mende*d for the Deutzia, only that it requires continued exposure to the sun when making its growth. The double-flowered scarlet peach is very showy, and does not require a high temperature to bring it into flower. Spirea prunifolia Jlore-pleno, Weigela alba grandiflora, Vibunium Opulus sterile, the double guelder rose, and Viburnum Tinus, the laurustinus, are all well adapted for forcing. The latter especially is most valuable when grown as a standard for the conservatory. If placed in the coolest part of the forcing-house, as closely as possible to the glass, the dowel's come large and pure white, and when placed in the conservatory they maintain their whiteness. Dielytra.—Amongst herbaceous plants,Zfie/^ra spectabilis is one of the most beautiful; its exceedingly graceful habit and its beautiful delicate rose-coloured flowers make it a charming decorative plant either for conservatory decoration or vases; it is also useful for cutting, and has not an equal as a pendent flower when used in the cornucopia or ordinary vase. This plant must not be hurried into flower, otherwise its flower-spikes will be spindly and worthless. To grow it successfully, an inverted pot should be placed over the crown until it has made a growth of 10 or 12 inches long, which brings the flower-spikes well up above the foliage; the inverted pot must be gradually removed, to inure the plants to the light. It requires plenty of water while it is making its growth. When the shoots die down less water must be given. Spircea and Astilbe.-—The white feathery ffs-tilbe barbata, formerly known as Spircea japo-nica, and Hoteia japonica, together with the rose-coloured Spircea palmata, are useful plants for forcing, since they produce large spikes of flower, and are well adapted for use either as decorative plants or as cut flowers for bouquets or vases. A. barbata (japonica), having white flowers, is much grown for market. When the flower's are past the plants should be hardened off and planted out in the open ground, attention being paid to watering them. In the autumn they must be taken rrp and repotted, selecting those with the strongest crowns. When growing they require a great quantity of water. November is early enough to start tlrenr. The rosy-pink S. palmata, will rrot bear hard forcing. Lily of the Valley.—This modest plant when well flowered excites universal admiration; but to grow it successfully the roots must be specially prepared for forcing. They must be planted out in a well-prepared border—one with an east aspect is the best for them, so that they may be shaded from the mid-day sun. The soil should be a good loam, with manure trenched in. Plant the crowns an inch apart in rows 10 inches asunder', keep them free from weeds, and continue to water them well in dry weather until the leaves die off. They must not be disturbed until the second year. Some of the crowns may be strong enough to flower the second year, but they would be all the better to have another season’s growth. About October as many as are required may be taken up for potting, selecting the strongest crowns; those that are considered not strong enough should be replanted again out of door’s, arrd these will furnish plants for another year.THE STOVE AND FORCING HOUSE. 917 Those ■which are required for decorative purposes should be potted an inch apart in different convenient sized pots. If required only for cut flowers they may be planted in boxes. Any common garden soil will suffice for them during the short time they should be in pots. Inverted pots or boxes should be placed over the crowns, until the spikes show above the leaves; afterwards they should be gradually exposed to the light. They should not be hurried too much early in the season. Hyacinths, &c.—As few plants tend to enliven a conservatory more than these through the dull winter months, they deserve all the care a good cultivator can bestow on them. The Homan variety is especially useful for cut flowers, and being a good white it is very useful for bouquet making; when the bulbs are planted five or six together it is very useful for decorating. The single varieties are at all times preferable for forcing, although the blossoms of the double varieties, when stripped off the spikes and wired, come in useful for the bouquet-maker. If they are required to flower early, some of the Roman variety should be procured as soon as possible in September, and batches of the other kinds should be potted in succession from September to November. The narcissi and tulips are also useful for forcing, and should be similarly treated. The best soil for all these and other similar bulbs, is a mixture of two parts tui’fy loam, one of leaf-mould, and one of old cow-dung, with enough coarse sand to keep the soil open; good drainage is indispensable, and for single bulbs 5-inch pots are large enough. After potting place them under a north wall, covering them with 6 inches of cocoa fibre refuse or old tan, and allow them to remain until their pots are well filled with roots. By the end of October some of them will be found sufficiently rooted to be taken into the cool part of the forcing-house. On removing them an inverted pot should be placed over the bulbs for a few days, which will help the flower-spikes to get up clear of the leaves. The pot must be gradually removed, and the bulbs must be placed as near the light as possible; and they must be very gradually forced, or the spikes will become drawn. Tuberoses,—The tuberose^ Polyanthes tuberosa, is much prized on account of its fragrance. Like the hyacinth, the imported roots produce by far the finest flower-spikes. Get them as soon as they can be procured, selecting only the large well-ripened bulbs, pot them singly in 5 or 6 inch pots, according to their size, in a soil one-half peat, and one half loam and dung in equal parts, and plunge them in the hottest part of the house. Give one watering and no more until they begin to grow, but afterwards plenty of water must be allowed them. As soon as the flower-buds appear remove to the cooler house. Hippeastrums.—These, better known by the older name of Amaryllis, form one of the most gorgeous families of plants under cultivation. They are of easy culture, and where a moderate collection is grown, and a proper selection made, they may be had in flower from October until June. They succeed best when potted rather firmly in >a soil composed three parts turfy loam and one of peat and old cow-dung, with some coarse sand, all well mixed together. The pots must be well drained, and in potting the bulb must be buried half way down its thick part. II. aulicum is the first to flower; it should be placed in the forcing-house in October, and if brought out in a good heat the flowers will come a bright scarlet; there is an impression abroad that two varieties are in cultivation, but this arises from the plant sometimes getting too cold a treatment, when the flowers come of a brick-dust colour. Being a native of Brazil, it should have a temperature of 55° to G5°, and plenty of moisture when growing. The varieties of the II. pardinum and II. Leopoldii (Fig. 385) sections flower during the spring months. Hydrangeas.—These are very useful plants for the conservatory. Cuttings struck in the spring will during the summer make nice plants for flowering the following season. The cuttings should be placed singly in 3-inch pots in bottom-heat, and will soon be rooted sufficiently for repotting into 5-inch pots, giving them turfy loam and sand, and plenty of water. After the growth is made, expose them to the sun and air to ripen their wood. They may be placed in heat in November, and as soon as the head of flower shows itself, place the pots in pans of water. They may also be propagated in the following way:— Take cuttings from plants in August, or as soon as the buds have become hard; put them singly in 5-inch pots, plunge them in a slight bottom-heat, care being taken not to excite them into growth, or they will be useless. The growth from these buds produces flowers. The II. Ilor-tensia, which is usually pink but by special culture becomes blue, is the most useful; and a new white variety of it named Thomas Hogg will also be a good conservatory plant. II. OtaJcsa is another fine and showy sort. Tree Carnations, &c.—The tree carnation is a useful plant for forcing, if placed in the cool end of the house. The plants must be propagated, and started in the usual manner, and proper attention must be paid to their growth through the summer. They are very subject to mildew towards the autumn, and liberal dustings of sulphur must918 GAEDENER’S ASSISTANT. therefore be given them, for if the mildew be allowed to spread over them the plants will be worthless. Pinks are useful for bouquets, and so easily cultivated that a few might be propagated every season for forcing; but they must be brought on very gradually. Pelargoniums.—There are a great many fine varieties of pelargoniums that are very valuable for winter flowering. These should be selected in the spring, and grown on through the summer. The flowers must in this case be picked off the plants until September. They should receive their final shift in July. The double-flowered varieties are especially useful for bouquets and also for general purposes of decoration. Cactie—The various flowering Cacti, as Cereus, Phyllanthus, and Epipliyllum, are most beautiful and ornamental plants when in bloom. When required for forcing they should be encouraged to complete their growth as early in the spring as possible; and in the summer they must be fully exposed to the sun. The roots should be kept moist, but not wet. The varieties of Epi-phyllum truncatum, when grafted on the Pereskia at a height of a foot to 18 inches from the pot, are when in flower objects of great beauty. As they are very liable to get infested with scale, they must be thoroughly cleaned previous to their being placed in the forcing-house. When plants have proper attention and are kept in a growing state, very few insects trouble them. Nevertheless the green-fly will be almost certain to show itself, especially on the different soft-wooded plants, but frequent fumigations with tobacco-smoke will keep them down. If red spider should show itself the plants infested should be washed with tobacco water and soft-soap; it is not a safe practice to put sulphur on the hot pipes in a house where so many plants with tender foliage are growing, but if the syringe is applied freely there is little fear of its making its appearance, or obtaining any permanent lodgment. g. b. CHAPTER XXXI. FLORAL DECORATIONS. It may be of interest to explain at the outset the meaning and introduction into the English language of the word “ floral.” It is of course tolerably well known that it comes from the Latin “ flos,” or flower, which in the plural form is “flores” (flowers); but it is not so generally known that the Bomans derived their word “flos” from the Greek noun “phlox,” which means a flame. Now the Greeks called a flower “ anthos,” the original meaning of that word being the chief part of anything; and without doubt the flower is the most important part of a plant, since upon its well-being depends the preservation of the existence of the species. But the Bomans were not such matter-of-fact people; they were impressed with more poetical ideas; and they compared the blossoms of plants to flames of fire, and selected, in “ flos,” a word which signified “ that which shines forth as a flame.” About 500 years after the building of Borne (which was about 250 years before the birth of Christ) there died in that city a woman of bad character, named Flora, who had made a large fortune, which she left to the people of Borne. They made her a goddess, and committed to her care and keeping the whole of the vegetable kingdom. They also instituted a festival in her honour, and the holidays and games which attached to this festival were called “ Floralia.” And hence, anything connected with these festivities in honour of the goddess Flora was designated “ Floralis,” of which our English adjective “ floral ” is the equivalent. Begarding the word “ floral ” in its widest meaning, we shall treat of Floral Decorations in the sense of the application of plants and portions of plants (leaves, flowers, and fruits) to ornamental purposes. The subject maybe conveniently ranged under the three following heads:— Personal Decorations.—This includes all those floral ornaments worn or used by ladies, such as hand-bouquets, breast or dress bouquets or sprays, wreaths, coronets, and sprays for the hair, &c.; and by gentlemen, in the form of button-hole bouquets and coat-flowers. Domestic Decorations.—This is a wide field, and embraces the ornamentation of tables for meals, and tables at which meals are not served, of walls, of sideboards, of doorways, of vdndoivs, of mantelpieces, and other parts of the house. Ecclesiastical Decorations.—This heading includes all the different parts of a church which admit of being florally treated, such as the font, read ing-desk,pulpit, chancel, arches,galleries, walls, monuments, <&c. Upon this latter branch of the subject we do not propose to enlarge; but after some general remarks on the preparation of flowers for decorative purposes, we shall describe the details of personal and domestic decorations as fully as space will permit. I.—PREPARATION OF FLOWERS. Selection and Collection.—Consideration should in the first place be given to the gathering andFLORAL DECORATIONS. 919 preparing of the various objects used in floral decorations, so as to make the most of, and turn to the greatest advantage, the materials at our disposal. If the decorator is at liberty to go into the garden and greenhouse, and cut what he chooses, he should make his selection of flowers and foliage from amongst those kinds which will look best in the vases which he is required to fill. But if a certain collection of cut flowers is placed in his hands, he ought to be allowed to choose what vases he will use to show them off. Nothing tends more to mar the effect of floral arrangements than putting flower’s into vases that are not suitable for them; and many a gardener and decorator has been blamed, by those who knew no better, for results over which he had no control, because of the restrictions and limitations under which he worked. Flowers should be used as soon as possible after they have been cut. Or perhaps it would be better to say, that flowers should not be cut until they are wanted; though this latter assertion may often need considerable modification. If it be a wet or gloomy day, flowers may be gathered at any hour; but if it be a bright day, they ought not to be cut while the sun is shining on them. If they are wanted for evening use, they should not be cut until at least an hour after the sun has gone down; and if required at an earlier hour of the day, they should be cut in the morning, before the sun is far above the horizon. After being gathered, their stalks should be put into water as soon as possible; and if the cut surfaces have had time to get dry, a thin slice should be removed by a diagonal cut with a sharp knife just before they are put into water. This is of more importance if the flowers have been gathered either by breaking them or cutting them with a pair of scissors. It is impossible to collect flowers in either of these two last mentioned ways without a certain degree of pinching; and that of necessity closes the tubes and cells of the stem, and prevents its properly taking up the water; whereas by a clean sharp oblique cut the mouths of the vessels are left in the best possible condition for the absorption of the water. Flowers and foliage should be kept in a cool damp dark place, away from dust and draughts. It is also much better to keep them in several small vessels, rather than crowded together in one large vessel. Although some flowers require no further preparation than the removal of such portions as will not be either ornamental or useful in the arrangement for which they are destined, yet there are many, and these principally of a delicate character, which need special attention before they can be made available for decorative purposes. The necessary tools for a flower-worker are gum, wires, a strong pair of short-bladed sharp-pointed scissors, and a good knife. Gum.—The best is that made by dissolving finely pounded white sliell-lac in spirits of wine. Methylated spirits are equally good for the purpose, and much cheaper, but their odour is somewhat objectionable at first; this, however, quickly goes otf, after exposure to the air in the flower. The sliell-lac should be put into a large jar, and frequently shaken up in the spirits until it is all dissolved; its solution is expedited by keeping it in a warm place. When made, it should be of the consistency of rich milk or thin cream; and it should be kept well corked in a cool place, a little being taken out occasionally as wanted. The most convenient method of using it is to pass a brass-wire (gauge 21) through the centre of the cork of a strong vial about 3 inches high by I}, inch diameter, which should have a moderately wide mouth, and be filled about half full; if the cork is greased before putting it in, it will be less likely to stick fast. The wire should reach nearly to the bottom of the bottle. 1 Vires.—Professional florists use three kinds of iron wires, and amateurs who do not mind soiling their fingers while at work cannot do better than use the same; for even if they were to use brass, or copper, or silvered or gilt wires, they would still be obliged to wash their hands afterwards. Iron is much the cheapest, but it has the drawback of soiling with rust the insides of glass and other vases; and this rust is not easily removable without using some strong acid. “ Stubbs ’’ is the technical term for pieces of soft iron wire, gauge 21, cut into convenient lengths, usually 6 to 8 inches long. These are used for artificial stalks to flowers that have short stalks, or none at all; also for giving suppoi’t to flowers and leaves that are liable to droop, or that will not without assistance maintain a natural curve. “ Binding wire” is a finer kind of soft iron, gauge 28: it is convenient to keep this cut into lengths of 8 and 16 inches; its name explains its most ordinary use. “ Camellia ivire” is a hardened iron wire, bright like steel, and rather larger than the last, being gauge 25. It is kept in 8-inch lengths, and is used only for camellias and other large flowers. In addition to these, it is desirable to have at hand some still stronger soft iron wire, gauges 11 and 16, or thereabouts; and also some of the finest hair-like copper wire, which is useful for binding in the case of very small or very delicate flowers. Gumming.—This is an aid which is very quickly learned,and wants but little practice. Caremust be920 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. taken to avoid taking up too much gum at a time on the wire, since the less gum that can be used (provided that there be enough to fasten the flower) the better. Many flowers are. liable to drop their corolla after they have been cut, and it is to prevent this that gum is chiefly used. Gum is sometimes applied outside and sometimes inside the corolla, to keep it from falling off. Flowers with separate petals, like pelargoniums, only require a single drop in the centre of the flower. Flowers with a tubular corolla, like the jasmines, must be gummed round the outside of the corolla. With large delicate flowers, such as azaleas, it is desirable to gum them both outside and inside the corolla; or else to gum them inside twice, the second application being made after the first is quite dry. Wiring.—The simplest form of wiring is when a leaf, say a fern frond, requires support. Hold the frond in the left hand with its pinnules towards you, and the stalk from you; lay an 8-inch stubb under the stalk; take in the right hand a 16-incli length of binding wire, and begin, at an inch from the end, to bind the stubb to the stalk, until you get to the end; then turn the frond round, with its foliage away from you, and bind together tightly, but not too tightly, the stubb and the stalk, until you come to the end of the stubb. But do not leave off there; go on binding round the stalk or midrib as far up towards the point of the fern as you may think needful. By so doing you will be able to curve the frond into any form you may desire; whereas, otherwise, you would very probably have found the frond sticking out or curving over just where you most particularly wished it not to do so, in the vase or bouquet. The wiring of a rose-leaf shall next be described as this is a leaf much used in small bouquets, and the mode of wiring it will answer for many other kinds of leaves. Begin with the terminal leaflet; take a short piece of binding wire, and make it smooth and straight by drawing it two or three times across the back of a knife; lay the leaf on your left hand, with its face downwards and its point towards the left; use the wire as if it were a needle, take two stitches close to the midrib of the leaflet and under two of the strongest branch-ribs (or veins); force the wire on until its point reaches the apex of the leaflet, but not farther; keep it in its place by twisting the other end of the wire once or twice round the stalk of the leaf. If this is neatly done the stitches will not be noticed by any ordinary observer. Proceed in the same way with each leaflet; but, instead of carrying its wire all the way down the leaf (as in the case of the apical leaflet), only carry it down to where the leaflet joins the main rib of the leaf, and there secure it by one or two turns round the main rib and the wire of the apical leaflet. A rose leaf prepared in this way may be curved or twisted in almost any direction, and will remain in that position as long as the leaf is kept fresh-For very small rose leaflets it will often be found sufficient, instead of taking two stitches through the leaf, to pass the point of the wire through the upper face of the leaflet near the base, and to bring the point through the leaflet again within £ inch of the apex, where it may proceed from, or rather lie upon, the upper face for ^ inch. For wiring camellia flowers the fine hardened iron wire should alone be used. These flowers need great care in handling, since their petals are easily bruised or cracked, and the slightest injury causes a brown mark, which spoils their beauty. Camellias would be much more easily handled if they were cut with a few inches of stem to each; but this is rarely done, because it entails the loss of a flower on that branch for the following year. Camellias therefore generally come into the hands of the florist without stalks; and a stalk must be provided for each flower before it can be used in any way. To do this, place in the hollow of the left hand a thick piece of soft cotton wadding, about the size of the palm of the hand; turn the flower over with its face upon the wadding, and then grasp the flower firmly with the tips of the fingers and thumb of the left hand, as close as possible to where the flower-stalk was. Having some camellia wires ready, pass three or four of them, one at a time, horizontally and at equal distances apart, between the fingers, through the heart of the flower, as nearly as possible half-way between the face of the flower and the point where it was broken off from its stalk. When the wires have been passed so far through the flower that the ends project equally all round, turn the flower back on to the collected tips of the fingers and thumb of the right hand; then pass the left hand, half closed, firmly over the ends of all the wires, and so bend them down until they can all be collected together under the flower, where a few turns with a piece of binding wire will secure them, and convert them into a useful artificial stalk, to which for some purposes it is desirable to add a piece of hazel or other twig, which should be added before the binding wire is used. Wiring roses (flowers) is done in the same way as wiring camellias; only there is no occasion to handle them with cotton wadding, and in most instances binding wire will be found stiff enough to go through the flower. If not, then camellia wires may be used. Bouvardias, jasmines, primulas, double zonalFLORAL DECORATIONS. 921 pelargoniums, and many other small flowers, may be secured by passing down through the centre of each a fine wire, the other end of which 1ms been curved into a very small semicircle; when you feel this hook catching firmly into the flower, out of sight, then twist the other end round, or bind it to the stalk of the flower. A pair of small round-nosed pliers will be found useful, as a ready means of quickly hooking the ends of the wires, when a number are likely to be wanted. Orchid blooms never look so well as when presented before the eye with the lip hanging down. But if an orchid flower is given to a florist who is not acquainted with the habit of its growth, or Inis never examined the structure of the blossoms in that singular order of plants, it is “ long odds against ” the flower getting mounted and fixed in a natural manner. In order to accomplish this nicely two short pieces of stiffish wire should be bent to the proper curve, and these should be placed one on each side of the ovary (or thickened stalk below the flowers), and bound together with fine wire close up to the flower. The size and stiffness of the wires used must, of course, depend upon the size of the flower for which it is required. Small orchids, resembling insects, look best when mounted on a wire-spring, which causes them to dance about with the slightest movement. Wire-springs are easily made, by tightly and closely winding a piece of camellia wire round any strong wire, say gauge 11, and slipping off the coil, which can then be pulled out to the required length. II.—PERSONAL DECORATIONS. Hand-bouquet.—This is usually considered to be a very simple and easy thing to make; and so it is to those who have been taught how to do it properly; while those who, fancying it a thing that anybody with taste can do, try for the first time to tie up a presentable nosegay, will be very likely, after finding that the flowers won’t go where they ought, or won’t stay in their places when they get there, to give up the undertaking as one of those mysterious arrangements which “ no fellow can understand.” As well might a cook pretend to serve an omelette, or to boil rice, who had never seen it done by an experienced person. Any one can go into a well-furnished garden or conservatory and cut a nosegay, and many are able to arrange the flowers as they cut them, with the colours nicely harmonized or contrasted, and the blossoms relieved and set off with a proper proportion of foliage. But such a nosegay will present the following shortcomings: it will be clumsy and uncomfortable to hold; it will keep fresh but a very short time in the hand; and the blooms are certain to be crowded and squeezed together. On the other hand, in a properly made bouquet the flowers are not crowded, they keep fresh for many hours without flagging, and they are easily held by a small hand. In order to manage this nicely, the flowers and foliage must nearly all be carefully “ wired and mossed.” The manner in which wiring is done has already been explained. “ Mossing ” consists in binding around the stem of each flower, after it has been wired, a small quantity of long moss, and fastening it with fine wire. Professional bouquet-makers do not take the trouble (and cannot spare the time) to moss every flower; they add a little moss from time to time as they go on with their bouquet; but amateurs and those who have not constant practice will find it will repay them to moss every stem. Like all other floral arrangements, the best bouquets are those which present the most pleasing combinations of the smallest quantity of materials, without carrying out the theory to the extent of poverty. Gardeners generally are under the impression that the moi-e flowers they can squeeze into a circle of a given size the better the quality of the bouquet. Whereas the qualifications in a hand-bouquet are, that it should be small to grasp, light to carry, pleasing (and not glaring) to the eye, grateful (and not sickly) to the nose, graceful and elegant (not crowded) in its arrangement, and composed of flowers and leaves that will keep fresh for at least six hours without water (or rather without more water than the moss will hold), when exposed to the dry atmosphere of a hot room. Much time will be saved in bouquet-making, as in most other branches of art, by thinking beforehand. The size of the bouquet being determined, the number and grouping of the flowers must be thought of, and just that number with one or two over of each kind must be wired and mossed, and put into tall jars of water. These jars should then be put away in a cool dark cupboard until all other preparations are completed. In like manner the fern fronds or other foliage should be wired, mossed, and put away until wanted. This gives the moss around the stems time to soak up as much water as it will hold, and refreshes the flowers and foliage. When everything is ready, take a bunch of long moss (that has been standing in water for a few hours) about the size of the wrist, and put into the middle of it the central flower of the bouquet, binding it round with strong thread, of which long pieces should be conveniently at hand. If the quantity of moss bound round each flower be regulated by the size of the flower, every922 GARDENER'S ASSISTANT. additional flower that is placed round the central flower of the bouquet will be kept far enough off from every other flower to prevent crowding; and should more moss be seen between the flowers than looks well, it can easily be hidden (and the appearance of the bouquet improved) by sticking in afterwards small fronds of fern that have been wired but not mossed. Proceeding in this way to add and bind together foliage and flowers until the bouquet is of the intended size, a fringe of delicate fern fronds should form the edging, to which may be added lace, perforated paper, satin bows and ends, &c., “ at discretion,” though perhaps the greatest discretion is manifested when all these non-floral adjuncts are omitted. In all cases the stem of the nosegay should be inserted into a wicker or metal bouquet-holder, to prevent the glove being soiled by the damp, and the bouquet should be pinned or otherwise fastened into the holder. Some persons find it convenient to use a frame of wire, like that depicted in the accompanying engraving (Fig. 396). It certainly has advantages Fig. 396. in enabling the arranger to make the most of a few flowers, and in keeping flowers from crowding together, which in the usual way would be done by wiring the stalk of each flower and bending it out to the proper angle. It is therefore a convenience to the amateur, who can get these frames made for him and thus to a great extent saves himself the trouble of “ stubbing ” every flower and leaf. If made of hard silvered or brass wire there is no risk of rusting the glass, if the bouquet is worth putting into a vase of water after the party is over; and further, the same frame may be used again and again. The diameter of the largest circle is 4 inches, of the next 3 inches, and of the smallest 2 inches; and the distance from the smallest circle to the bottom of the handle, where the two wires cross, is inches. The size of the wire should be gauge 17, and the circles should be fastened to the cross wires by soft wires of the same metal, of gauge 24. The engraving sufficiently explains how this is to be done. It is a matter of importance that a ball-room or bridal bouquet should safely reach its destination, whether the distance be long or short. Fig. 397. Bouquet-makers in London use square boxes made of thin deal, in which they tightly pack the lower part (or handle) of the bouquet with paper shavings, obtained from the stationers. The floral part is surrounded and thickly covered with sheets of cotton wadding; and if this is not enough to fill the box, more paper shavings are added until it is quite full. Bouquets packed in this way are daily sent many hundreds of miles, and arrive safely and fit for use two days afterwards. Amateurs, however, would naturally prefer some contrivance which would entail less trouble, and to meet this want the accompanying engravings (Figs. 397,398) may be of use. Any ingenious basket-maker in the country would, after seeing the engraving, be able to make a bouquet-holder of the size and shape required. This form is much used by the nurserymen at Bordeaux, and was first figured in the Revue Horticole in 1873. By tying a piece of string round the handle of the bouquet, and passing the ends through the lower part of the bouquet-holder, the bouquet can be securely fastened (outside) into its case, and may then be tossed about without much fear of injury. If it is going a long journey, it would be advisable to line the lid with cotton wadding. A much better form of bouquet-holder has beenFLORAL DECORATIONS. 923 introduced by Messrs. Barr & Sugden, of King Street, Co vent Gardens; this is made of tinned-iron, and japanned black outside; and the bouquet is fastened in by a peg through the handle. The Fig. 398. closely-fitting lid, preventing evaporation, keeps the flowers fresh for a long time. It would be an improvement if it were japanned white. Goat-flowers and Button-hole Bouquets.—The former of these two terms is applied to that form of decoration for the coat which consists of a rosebud, gardenia, picotee, or any other single flower, arranged with its own foliage or with fern fronds. The latter term is used for a combination of several kinds of flowers and foliage. Amongst the many beautiful flowers that are suitable for these purposes, there are comparatively few that will last long without being carried in water or wet moss. For keeping coat-flowers alive the best plan is to put them into a glass or metal tube; and the following dimensions will be found to be generally useful: tube 2l inches long, and flattened, not round; longest diameter of tube inside § inch, shortest diameter inside j inch. For carrying coat-flowers in wet moss (when a tube cannot be had), it is best to cover the stalks and moss with a piece of oiled silk of the following size: length inches, width at top 2 inches, width at bottom 1 inch. After this has been wound round it should be secured with a piece of thread or fine wire. In whatever way flowers are worn in the coat, it is always advisable to have a small fob or pocket of black silk, sewn on to the under side of the lappet of the coat, so that the bouquet may at once go into its proper place, and remain there without risk of falling out. Floral Head-dresses.—These consist of either wreaths, coronets, sprays, or single flowers. A wreath goes all round the head; a coronet is worn on the top of the head in front; a spray is worn on the side of the head; and if it is long enough to hang down below the ear, the spray is called a droop. Single flowers, or a branch of flowers (such as an orchid with several blooms on it), may or may not be mounted on wire according to circumstances, and may often be put into a tube of water, the tube being concealed in the hair. All other forms of floral ornaments for the head must be arranged upon wires, amongst which wet moss should be worked in to keep the flowers fresh as long as possible. All such floral decorations should be made up as expeditiously as possible, should be sprinkled from the finest rose of a small watering-pot, and after being shaken gently, should be put away in an air-tight box, or wrapped up in cotton wadding until they are required for use. A lady’s-maid who takes a pride in her work naturally likes to see her mistress return from a party with her ornaments and decorations looking as fresh and in as good order, if possible, as at the beginning of the evening. A gardener can do much towards the attainment of this end, by selecting flowers that are not overblown, and foliage that is not too young or too soft; but especially by impressing upon the lady’s-maid that the floral head-dress must be the very last ornament to be fixed on, and that the longer it can be kept in its box the better will it look at the end of the evening. Wreaths look best when made of flowers of an uniform size, and large flowers should not be used. In making coronets it is usual to place the largest flower in or near the middle, and to use smaller flowers towards each end of the head-dress. For a spray, the largest flower in it should be nearest to the front of the head, with smaller flowers further back; and if it is to terminate in a droop, that should be made of some light dependent flower, or of foliage only, such as climbing fern or variegated honeysuckle. In selecting flowers for the hair preference should be given to those of a thick fleshy character, since they look well out of water for the longest time. The following are amongst the best kinds: —camellias, roses, stephanotis, orchids generally, kalosanthes, hyacinths, double pelargoniums, water lilies, white and orange lilies, lapageria, Himalayan rhododendrons, eucharis, narcissus, lily of the valley, and agapanthus.924 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. In choosing foliage great discrimination is necessary, particularly amongst ferns, of which gleichenias, davallias, and adiantums are the most lasting; but of these, only those fronds that are thoroughly matured should be used. Better than any fern fronds are the leaves of Lomatia pro-pinqua, a beautiful greenhouse evergreen shrub. III.—DOMESTIC DECORATIONS. Forms of Vases.—If it be required that vases should be ornamental as well as useful, or in other words, that they should look pretty when they have no flowers in them, a great variety of forms may be found in London glass-shops, and many of them are very elegant; and if to these forms be added the variations in colour of glass and in style of engraving, cutting, and moulding of the outer surfaces, the choice, if not quite endless, is sufficient to satisfy any reasonable person. Gold, silver, china, and other vases may also be used; but flowers generally look better in glass than in vases made of any other material. As a general rule, the more ornamental the form of the vase the less is it suitable for tasteful arrangements of flowers; not but what some few elegantly-shaped vases show off floral decorations exceedingly well, but then generally, when the flowers are arranged, much if not all of the form of the vase is concealed. Every vase partakes more or less of one of two forms, a bowl or a trumpet, a saucer or a posthorn, a soup-plate or an old-fashioned tall champagne glass. These primary forms vary in height, breadth, and depth to almost an endless extent. Perhaps the simplest forms of flower-vases ever made are the two shown in the annexed engraving (Fig. 399), and called “multiple vases.” They are to be had of Messrs. James Powell & Sons, glass-blowers, Whitefriars, London, by whom they were made from a drawing furnished by the writer. One is a trumpet-shaped vase 10 inches high, the diameter of both top and bottom being exactly 3 inches. The other is a saucer 7 inches in diameter, and 2 inches deep. The saucer has both inside and outside a circular projecting ridge, 3 inches in the clear, so that the trumpet will stand in the saucer without moving out of its place, or the saucer will stand firmly on the top of the trumpet. There are notches in the edge of the foot of each trumpet which afford a means of wiring together two of the trumpets, foot to foot and thus forming a stem 20 inches high. Having at hand a quantity of each of these two forms of glasses, it is evident that vases of almost any size may be built up, provided the table on which they are to be arranged is firm and steady. The engraving shows a vase built up of fifteen saucers and five trumpets in the following manner; and the explanation will be Fig. 399. more readily understood by commencing at the top:—A trumpet stands in a saucer, which latter rests upon a trumpet standing upon an inverted saucer; this inverted saucer stands upon the edges of three saucers, arranged in a triangle, at 2 inches off from each other. Up to this point two trumpets and five saucers have been employed, and the arrangement as it now stands will be found a very convenient size for general purposes; though, if it is to be placed in the centre of a dinner table, care must be taken to use only a few flowers, and these of a light character, in the upper saucer, lest the arrangement should interrupt the view across the table. Proceeding with the description of the engraving, the three saucers last mentioned are elevated upon three trumpets, which stand upon three inverted saucers; and they rest upon a base formed of six saucers arranged in a circle around one in the middle. A vase of this size looks well upon a side-board, or in the centre of a round dining table of not less than 7 feet in diameter.FLORAL DECORATIONS. 925 When vases are required for special purposes, the subject of proportion becomes important. Bv this is intended, not only proportion in the different parts ef the vase, so that its outline may Fig. 400. be pleasing to the eye when not furnished with flowers; but also proportion in reference to the size of the table upon which it is to be used, and to the size of the other objects which are to occupy the same table. There are some forms of vases that look well in a drawing-room which are quite unsuitable for a dining-table; while of the many beautiful forms of dinner-table vases now to be met with, there is probably not one that would be out of place in a drawing-room or a boudoir, provided that the table upon which it is to be placed is of appropriate size and that the surroundings are suitable. The annexed engravings (Figs. 400, 401) represent an exceedingly useful form of vase for many purposes, and for most kinds of flowers; but as it is generally sold with the parts made in different proportions to those here indicated, attention will be necessary to the following statement of dimensions. The pedestal is 5 inches high, and its foot is 5 inches in diameter. Into this pedestal is screwed a trumpet-vase 17 inches high and 5 inches across the top; thus making the whole height of the vase 22 inches. Upon the upper part of the pedestal rests a thick glass collar containing six holes, into any of which can be placed the two kinds of branches indicated as A and b, of which three of each are provided. The top of the branch-vase a is 9 inches above the table, and the lowest part of Fig. 401. Diagram showing mode of arranging the Branch Vases. its supporting arm descends to 3|r inches from the table; its rim is 3^ inches across, and its edge is 3i inches from the central stem. The top of the branch-vase b is 7 inches, and its lowest point is 2h inches above the table; its rim is 3 inches across, and its edge is 2 inches from the central stem. The principal reason why this vase is particularly recommended is its great convertibility; and this is a matter of importance to those of limited means, or with limited accommodation in the china-closet or glass cupboard. The diagram shows the two sets of three branch-vases arranged alternately; but from the nozzles of the branches being all of one size this arrangement admits of various modifications, depending upon the place where the vase when furnished is to be used, and the kind of flowers with which it is wished to decorate it. Thus, if it is to go in the centre of a table, three or six branches must be used, or it may be used without any branches, and the foot might then stand in a soup-plate or other round dish. If three branches be used, they must all be of one form, as it would destroy the symmetry of the vase on a table to use two of a and one of b. But if it is proposed to use it on a side-board, where it only requires to be “ dressed to one face,” there is then the option of employing either six, five, three, or two branches at one time. If wanted for a92G GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. mantlepiece, it would probably be found best to use one of B between two of A, which would bring the three branch-vases nearly in a straight line. For a still narrower shelf a pair of either A or b placed opposite to each other would be found to be the best arrangement. About seventeen years ago a form of flower-vase was introduced by Messrs. Dobson & Pearce, of St. James’ Street, London, from a design furnished by Mr. March of St. James’ Palace, which has probably been more generally used than any other kind, and which has been called the “ March” vase. It consisted originally of two shallow glass dishes, one about 12 and the other about 9 inches in diameter, the smaller one being raised about 18 inches above the larger one, and the two being connected by a straight rod of glass of the thickness of one’s finger. Various modifications of this simple arrangement have from time to time appeared, the variations consisting chiefly in differences in the size of the dishes, in the distances at which they are fixed from each other (or in other words in the length of the stem), and in the number of the dishes, of which three, four, or five are sometimes found in one vase. The most important improvement in the “March” vase was in raising the lower dish from 2 to 4 inches above the table, in regulating the length of the stem so that the bottom of the upper dish should be from 20 to 22 inches above the table, and in screwing into the upper dish a trumpet-vase about 9 inches high. This vase has so frequently been used of late years at those flower-shows where I competitions for prizes offered for table-decora- i tions have taken place, that it is now generally known under the name of the “Exhibition” vase. Jrrangcrncnts of Floicers in Poses.—Although | beautiful groupings of flowers are often made by persons naturally possessed of good taste, yet it cannot be denied that those who have cultivated their abilities, who have thought out the reason why some floral arrangements are pleasing while other groupings fail to satisfy or even offend their eyes, who have determined for themselves what to do and what to avoid, and who have mentally if not in writing reduced their cogitations to rules for their own future guidance—these persons (who, by the way, are more numerous than the world at large is aware of) have a great advantage over others who have not paid any attention to the subject. To them the following remarks will no doubt be of but little value, though to others it is hoped that they will prove useful. Supposing, for convenience of illustration, that the flowers are to be arranged in an Exhibition Yase (that is, with a dish at the foot, a dish half-way up, and a trumpet at the top), the flowers should first be assorted according to their sizes, because the largest flowers should go in the bottom dish, the lightest flowers at the top, and those of medium size in the middle dish. While this rule is an important one generally, it must not be too stringently adhered to; for it is well known that a few light flowers amongst the heavy ones at the base of a vase are often a great improvement, while one or two flowers of medium size amongst the light ones help to give character and force to the top of a vase. Next, the flowers should be assorted according to their colours, and those which will not group well with the majority of the flowers should be put aside for use in another vase. Having secured colours that will harmonize or contrast well, the next division must be into the different shades of colour, because the darkest shades should be used below, and the lightest in the top of the vase. It often happens that shade of colour must be allowed to be of more consequence than size of flower, and that small flowers of a dark shade, placed in bold masses at the bottom of a vase, look well under larger flowers of a paler shade placed higher up in the arrangement. Another point to be remembered is, that flowers of a similar form group together much better than when two or more forms are mixed. The accompanying engraving (Fig. 402) serves to illustrate all these principles in the artistic arrangement of flowers. The base is furnished with fronds of various kinds of bold ferns, and with trailing pieces of Cissus discolor. Amongst these are flowers of Eucharis amazonica, and trusses of the crimson crassula (Kalosanthes coccinea). Amongst these stand two short trumpet-shaped vases containing allamanda blossoms. The middle dish contains Yallota purpurea> Dipladenia holiviensis, and Stephanotis floribunda, mixed with and fringed by maiden-hair fern and JDavallia tenuifolia. In the top are red and white bouvardias, mixed with the useful grass Gymnothrix latifolia, and fringed with drooping pieces of Jfyrsiphyllum asparagoides. It will be noticed here first, that the sizes of the flowers diminish from the bottom to the top, and that the size of the foliage decreases in the same way. Next it will be observed that only one colour (red) is used besides white (the pale yellow allamandas looking nearly white by artificial light); and that the deep intense shade of the trusses of kalosanthes are fitly placed below the fleshy and paler vallota, although the blossoms of the latter are very much larger; while the delicate tubes of the red bouvardia appropriately carry the colour to the top of the arrangement.FLORAL DECORATIONS. 927 Mixed with the latter is the white bouvardia, which colour finds itself repeated in the next dish with the stephanotis, and also with the white dipladenia, which finds a still bolder represen- Fig. 402. tative in the lowest dish in the beautiful eucharis. It only remains now to call attention to the similarity in form of the flowers used, inasmuch as they are all more or less of a tubular and trumpet shape. Arrangement of Fruit in Dishes.—There is no form of vase or dish in which fruit looks better than in a glass basket, with or without a handle. It has often been said that fruit never looks so well as when decorated with the leaves of the plant which produced it, and no doubt this may be generally true as long as those leaves can be kept alive and in a natural form, but only so long. It is therefore usual to dress most fruits with leaves of thick substance, because they are likely to keep their form for a longer time out of water, and hence the use of such objectionable foliage as that of ivy, laurel, and aucuba. For melons, grapes, and tree fruits there are no leaves more suitable or prettier than those of the variegated sycamore. For strawberries and bush fruits there is nothing better than maiden-hair fern, fronds of which should be inserted into slender glass tubes, 2 or 3 inches long, and filled with water, these tubes being hidden under or amongst the fruit. Fine-apples should be decorated with their own leaves. It is not advisable to mix fruit and flowers together as a rule. If it should be thought expedient under any circumstances to add flowers to foliage in arranging dessert it would be wise to limit the flowers to those of a white colour, and to keep them alive in tubes of water. A rrangement of Fruit and Flowers inone Vase.— In the event of its being wished to do this the fruit should always be arranged in the bottom part and the flowers in the upper part of the vase. Flowers have a far lighter appearance than fruit, and consequently they should never be placed beneath it. Decoration of Dinner-tables. — In order to secure an effect that shall please a critical eye it is very important that the vases in which the flowers are to be arranged should be suitable in size and suitable in form. The size of the vases must depend upon and be regulated by the size and form of the table; if the vases are too large a heavy effect will result, if the vases are too small the arrangement will appear poor and wanting in character, no matter how well the flowers are put in. Again, the form of the vases must be such that when decorated with flowers there shall be nothing to interfere with the guests seeing every one seated at the table: Those who have much to do with arranging flowers on dining-tables will find it convenient to provide themselves with a light stick 20 inches long, having a mark upon it at 15 inches from one end. Decorations that are not higher than 15 inches above the table will not interrupt the sight; and when tall vases or small standard plants are used, there must be nothing in the upper part of them which hangs lower than 20 inches from the table. The slender stems of plants and of tall glass vases, if there are not more than two or three of them on a table, are not objectionable to the diners even when they are entwined with some light and elegant creeper; at the same time the less that there is to obscure the sight between 15 and 20 inches above the table the better. If there is to be any speech-making after dinner any decoration higher than 15 inches should be avoided. At dinner parties which do not exceed sixteen in number it is advisable to have only one well-928 GARDENER’S ASSISTANT. arranged large vase placed in the centre of the table, and to make every other ornament upon the table (whether floral or otherwise) subordinate to that central vase. This arrangement is more artistic than the common plan of putting on tliree large vases in the middle line of the table. If the table should be so long as to require three principal ornaments it is better to use a pair of elegant palms (or other plants with finely divided foliage), one at each end; they serve to set off the floral arrangements in the central vase much better than two other flower vases would. Whether fruit should form a portion of the decoration of a dinner-table is questioned by those who prefer to have their fruit presented to them fresh from a cool room. If it is to be used as a feature in the ornamentation of the table, the best way is to arrange a mixed collection of fruit in moss around the bottom of a graceful palm as the central decoration; and to have a vase of flowers at each end of the table. In this case a duplicate set of fruit should be handed round, to save pulling to pieces the centre ornament. If it is preferred to put on two or four dishes of fruit, which is to be eaten after dinner, it is advisable to have prepared previously the same number of low vases of flowers, which should fill the places of the fruit-dishes as soon as the latter have been taken off the table. In this way a change is introduced in the effect of the decorations, instead of leaving so many vacant places in the arrangements, or instead of (still worse) putting back the half-empty and disordered dishes of fruit. The subject might be greatly extended, so far as personal and domestic decorations are concerned; while our limited space precludes any description of the other branches of Flox-al Decoration. w. T.INDEX Aaron’s beard, 650. Abele, 042. Abelia triflora, 045; uniflora, 045. Aberdeen, mean temperature of March at, i. Abies alba, 003; canadensis, 003: Dou-.glasii. 003; exeelsa, with Clanbrassi-liana and other dwarf varieties, 003; exeelsa, Bfgmy varieties of, for winter bedding. 77S; Menziesii, 003; Morinda, 063; nigraJ 003; orientalis, 003; rubra, 003; Smithiana, 003. Abraxas grossulariata, 405, 408. Absorption through spongioles (illust.), 4. Abutilon Boule de Xeige, 780, 848; bra-siliense, 785; Thompsoni, 780, 785; Van Houttei aureum, 785; vexillarium aureum, 7&0, 7s5, v. igneum, 850. Abyssinian mixture for destroying insects on plants. 904. Acacia affinls, 81*2; armata, S4S; deal-bata, 850; Drummondii, S48; Juli-brissin, 785: lophantlm, 785, S50; pu-bescens, 850; Riceana, 850. Acacia, false, 643; rose, 043, 051. Ac.'ena microphylla, 705. Acalypha tricolor, 881. Acantholimon glumaceum, 705. Acanthorrhiza stauracantha, 910; War-scewic-zii, 910. Acanthus latifolius, 785; longifolius, 785; spinosissimus, 7b5. Acarus telarius, 458, 607. Acer campestre, 038; circinatum, 638: colchicum, 038. 039, c. rubnim, 639; cordifolium, 039; cucullatum, 639; dasycarpum, 038; dissectum, 639; erio-carpum, 038; hetum, 039, 1. rubrum, 039; Lobelii, 639; macrophyllum, 039; monspessulanum, 639; Negundo, 042; palmatum, 039; pennsylvanicum, 039; pictuin, 638, 039, p. rubrum, 039; pla-tanoides, 039, 802, p. albo-variegatum, 039, p. laciniatum, 039; polymorphum, 039, 045; Pseudo-Platanus, 039, 802, P. erythrocarpum, 639, P. flavo-variega-tum, 039, P. lutescens, 039, P. purpur-ascens, 039; rubrum, 639; saccharinum, 039; septemlobum, 639; striatum, 039; t atari cum, 039. Acers for chalk soil, 802. Acetic acid evolved during germination, 14. Achillea ageratoides, 705; aurea, 090; Clavenna), 705; Eupatorium, 090; rosea, 090; umbellata, 705. Achimenes for conservatory summer decoration, 860; soil for, 806; potting tubers, 806; supply of water, 806; red spider injurious to, 800; manure-water for, 800; increase by scaly tubers, 800; storing tubers for the winter, 806; planting in wire-baskets for suspending, 800; select varieties of, 807. Acid, phosphoric, 22; sulphuric, 22. Acids, formation of, 10. Aconitum Cammarum, 690; japonicum, 090; sinense, 090; versicolor, 690. Acorns Calamus, 720. Acroclinium roseum, 723. Acrogens, 0. Acrophorus aftinis, 893; chaerophyllus, 893; hispidus, 858; immersus, 893. Acrophyllum venosum, 848. Acrostichum aureum, 893. Actinidia polygama, 000. Adam’s needle, 704. Adenandra fragrans, S4S; speciosa, 848. Adenophora communis, 090; stylosa, 090. Adiantopsis radiata, 895. Adiantum afline, 858; assimile, 858; Ca-pillus-Veneris, 732; cardiochlacna, 893; eaudatum, 893; colpodes, 858, 893; con-cinnum, 893, c. Flemingii, 893; crista-tum, 893; cultratum, 894; cuneatum, 858, 894; curvatum, 894; farleyense, 894; Feei, 894; formosum, 858; glaucophyl-lum, 858; hispidulum, 858; intermedium, 894; lunulatum, 894; macrophyllum, 894; pedatum, 732; peruvianum, 894; pulverulentum, 894; reniforme, 858; scabrum, 858; sulphureum, 858; tenerum, 894; trapeziforme, S94; villo-sum, 894. Adiantums, the most lasting of ferns for the hair, 924. Adonis vernalis, 090. JEchmea fulgens, 878; Marire Regina?, 878. .Egeria tiiuiliformis, 408. Aerides afline superbum, 887; crispum, 887; Fieldingii, 887; Lobbii, 887; odora-tum majus, 887, o. purpurascens, 887; Quinquevulnera, 887; virens, 887. Eschynanthus Boschianus, 87S; splcn-dens, 878. Esculus califomica, 039, 045; coccinea, 039; llippocastanum, 039; indica, 039; macrostachya, 045; Pavia, 039, 045, P. humilis, 039, 645, P. laciniata, 039, 045, P. pendula, 645; rubicunda, 039; rubra, 039. Ethusa Cynapium (illust.), 236. Agapanthus umbellatus, 852, u. albi-llorus, 852. Agaricus campestris, 551. Agave americana, 785, 855, a. medio-picta, 855, a. variegata, 855; Bessereri-ana (illust.), desc. pi. 15;* gemini flora, 855; Ilookerii, 785; Keratto, 785; potatorum, 785; Richardsii (illust.), desc. pi. 15. Agaves, American, suitableness for elevated positions, 784; unfitness for associating with Arundo and Osmunda, 784; for conservatories, 812; fitness for associating with Yuccas, 784; select lists of large, medium-sized, and small sorts, 855. Ageratum mexicanum, 723; mexicanum and its varieties, 780. Aglaomorpha Meyenianum, 894. Agriotes, 223; lineatus, 258, 279; ob-scurus, 258, 279; sputator, 258, 279. Agrostemma coeli rosa, 730. Agrostis nebulosa, 723; plumosa, 723; pulcliella, 723. * These references indicate the pages of descriptions of plates at the commencement of the volume. Agrotis exelamationis (illust.), 102, 176, 223, 258, 279; segetum (illust.), 102,176, 223, 258, 279. Ailantus glandulosa, 039. Ajuga alpina, 705; reptans purpurea, 780, 792. Akebia quinata, 659. Albumen, 12. Alburnum, 5. Alder, 039; black, 050. Alders for chalk soil, 802. Alecost, 145, 198. Alexanders, habitat, uses, and culture of, 145. Aleyrodes prolctella, 175. Alisma Plantago, 720. Alkaline salts, absorption of, by soils, 37. Allamanda Chelsoni, 878; grandiflora, 878; nobilis, 878. Allium ascalonicum, 267; Cepa, 227; fis-tulosum, 227; Porrum, 217; sativum, 205; Schumoprasum, 197; Scorodopra-sum, 202. Allosorus crispus, 732. Allspice, Carolina, 046. Almond, 039, 045; uses and culture of, 458; select varieties of, 458; soil for, 459; stock for, 459. Almonds for chalk soil, 802. Alnus cordifolia, 039; glutinosa, 639, g. aurea, 039, g. imperialis, 639, g. laciniata, 039, g. quercifolia, 639, g. ru-bronervia, 039. Alocasia illustris, 881; Jenningsii, 881; Lowii, S8l; macrorrhiza variegata, 881; metallica, 881; Veitchii, 881; zebrina, 881. Aloe ciliaris, 855; plicatilis, 855; variegata, 855. Aloe, American, 785, 855; fan, 855; partridge-breast, 855. Aloes as window plants, 808; lists of large, medium-sized, and dwarf sorts, 855. Aloysia citriodora, 045. Alpine plants, hardy, selection of, 705; for the flower garden, 018. Alpinia vittata, 881. Alsophila armata, 894; aspera, 894; australis (illust.), desc. pi. 15, 785, 858: capensis, 858; exeelsa, 785, 858; glauca, 894; Leichardtiana, 858; pruinata, 894; radens, 894; Tamitis, 894. Alstrmmeria aurantiaca, 714; Pelegrina. 714. Alt era an th eras for carpet bedding:-amabilis, 791, 792, a. latifolia, 791, 792; am02iia, 791, 792, a. spectabilis, 791, 792; magnifica, 791, 792; paronychi-oides, 791, 792, p. major, 791, 792; for summer bedding, 780; contrast of Sedum anglicum with, 795. Althsea frutex, 649. Althaea rosea, 749. Altica concinna, 207, 278; consobrina. 175, 278; exoleta, 258; nemorum, 163, (illust.) 278; obscurella, 278. Alumina, 21, 27, 28; silicate of, 27, 28. Alyssum gemonense, 779; maritimum 59ALY8SU M 930 ARMERIA variegatum, 781, 792; montanum, 705; olympicum, 700; saxatile, 090, 779. Alyssum, white, 779. Amaranthus caudatus, 723; hypochon-driacus, 723; melaiicholicus ruber, 723, 781, m. tricolor, 781; salicifolius, 781; speciosus, 723. Amaryllis Belladonna, 711, 852; John-soni, 852, J. psittacina, 852; Leopoldii, 874; lutea, 718; vittata, 852. See also Hippeastnim. Amber, sweet, 049. Amberboa moschata, 723; odorata, 723. Amblyeephalus interruptus, 207. Amelanchier alnifolia, 045; Botryapium, 045; canadensis, 045; tloribunda, 045; flnrida, 645; ovalis, 045; sanguinea, 045; vulgaris, 045. American blight (illust.), desc. pi. 20. American garden, 020, 008; edging for walks in, 009. American plants, 008; culture of, 008; soil suitable for, 008; conditions necessary to successful growth, 070; propagation of, 030, 070. Amlierstia nobilis, 878. Ammobium alatum, 723. Ammonia, 17; derivation of nitrogen from, by plants, 17; caustic, amount absorbed by soils, 37; as manure, 00; the chief source of nitrogen, 00; means of preventing the escape of, from urine, 51. Ammoniacal liquor from gas-works as manure, 55. Amorpha fruticosa, 045, f. Lewisii, 045. Ampelopsis bipinnata, 000; hederacea, 000; quinquei'olia, 000; lloylei,000; ser-janirefolia, 000; tricuspidata = Veitchii, 000. Amphidasis pilosaria, 384, 415. Amphidesmium blechnoides, 894. Amygdalopsis Lindleyi, 045. Amygdalus communis (illust.), 458, 039, 045; liana, 045; orientalis, 045; Eersica, 439, 039; pumila, 040. Anagallis, calendarial directions, xxxiii. Anagallis indica, 723; tenella, 721. Ananassa 1’orteana, 881; Mordilona, 581; sativa (illust.), 578, 581, s. variegata, 881. Anbury (illust.), 279. Anchusa italica, 090. Andromedaarborea, 074; floribunda, 074; mariana, 074; polifolia and others, 071; racemosa, 073; speciosa, 075. Androsace Chamrejasme,70(>; lanuginosa, 700; sarmentosa, 700; villosa, 700. Anemiaadiantifolia, 894; cheilanthoides, 894; coll ilia, 894; Dregeana, 894; man-dioccana, 894. Aneniidictyon Thyllitidis, 894, P. frax-inifolium, 894, P. laciniatum, 894, P. longifolium, 894. Anemone apennina, 090; coronaria, 090, 701, 779; Ilalleri, 700; Ilepatica, 090; hortensis, 090, 779; japonica, 090, j. alba, 090, j. Ilonorine Jobert, 090; Pulsatilla, 090; vernalis, 700. Anemones, improvement in, 701; soil and manure for, 702; time and mode of planting, 702; how to water, 702; taking up and storing, 702; propagation of, 703; preparation of seed for sowing, 703; varieties, select list of, 703. Anethum graveolens, 200. Angelica, calendarial directions, xi, xix, xxiii, xxxi. Angelica Archangelica, 145. Angelica, habitats, uses and culture of, 145. Angelica tree, 040, 785, 78G. Angles of hour-lines, with meridian,table of, 105; table for setting of, onground, 100. Angrrecum citratum, 887; eburneum, 887; sesquipedale, 887. Anguloa Clowesii, 887; Ruckeri, 887; uniflora, 887. Animal and vegetable life, mutual interdependence of, 10. Animal refuse advantageously used as manure, 54. Anise, calendarial directions, xv. Anise, habitats, uses and culture of, 140. Aniseed, habitats, uses and culture of, 140. Anisoplia horticola, 383, 415, 458. Anisopteryx pometaria, 384. Annuals, half-hardy, raising in heat, 722; selection of hardy and half-hardy, 721; preparation of soil for sowing, 722; supports for, 722; how to sow, 722; regulating the llowering season of, 722; space for, 722; soil for, 722; half-hardy species, 722; regulation of period for sowing, 722; how to select, 723; select list of, 723. Anomatheca cruenta, 714, 852. Antennaria dioica minor, 700; margarit-acea, 090; tomentosa, 700,779, 781. 792. Anthcmis Aizoon, 705; nobilis, 194; tinc-toria, 090. Anther, 11; sessile, 11. Anthericum Liliastrum, 090. Anthomyia beta?, 103; brassiere, 175; Ce-paruin, 235, (illust.) desc. pi. 21; guava, 279; lactucre, 223; radicum, 279. Anthonomus pomorum, 383, 415. Anthriscus Cerefolium, 194. Anthurium crystallinum, 881; magnifi-cum,881; Scherzerianum(illust.), desc. pi. 13y (illust.) 878, S. album, 878. Antirrhinum,calendarial directions,xxii, xxix. Antirrhinum majus, 724, 737, 781. Antirihinum, introduction and improvement of, 737; preparation of soil for, 738; propagation of, 738; best varieties of, 738. Antrophyum cayennense,S94; coriaceum, 894. Ants, 458; injurious to stove plants, 886. Aphelandra aurantiaca Roezlii, 881; cris-tata, 878; Roezlii, 878; variegata, 881. I Aphelexis macrantha purpurea, 848, m. rosea, 848; rupestris, 848. Aphides on apple-trees, 383; on bouvar-dias, 874; on calceolarias, 844; on cinerarias, 840, 841; on dracrenas, 877; on fuchsias, 843; on greenhouse ferns, 804; on hippeastrums, 875; on Jerusalem artichokes, 210; on lettuces, 223; on peach-trees, 458, 408; on roses, 915; on soft-wooded greenhouse plants, 854; on stove ferns, 904; on stove plants, 880; in orchard house, 489. Aphis brassiere (illust.), 175, 279; cerasi, 434; dauci, 182; fabre (illust.), 159; lloris-rapre, 279; humuli (illust.), 208; lanigera, 382; rapre, 258, 279. Aphis-brush, Bull’s (illust.), 99. A pi eras, 850. A plum graveolens, 187. Aponogeton distachyon, 719. ! Apples, love, 224; uses and culture of, 272; varieties of, 272. | Apple, thorn, 725. I Apples, composition of ashes of fruit, 19; of tree, 18; uses and culture of, 350; select varieties for dessert and kitchen use, 350, 300; dessert, table showing the months in which they are in use, 305; kitchen, table showing the months in which they are in use, 300; dessert sorts suitable for culinary purposes, 300; sorts adapted for espalier training. 300; selection for cottage gardens, 300; selections of the best dessert and kitchen,300, 307; sorts succeeding as standards or espaliers in north of England and Scotland, 307; sorts deserving a wall in the north of England and Scotland, 307; supplementary ] descriptive list of, 307; dilferent modes of propagating, 368; raising stocks for grafting, 308; propagation by seeds, 308, by cuttings, 309, by suckers, 309, by layers, 309, by grafting, 309, by budding, 370, by inarching, 370; choice of situation, 370; soil for, 371; preparation of ground for, 371; season for planting, 372; standards, management of, 373; dwarf bushes, management of, 370; dwarf pyramids, management of, 370; cordons, management of, 377; simple lateral cordons (illust.), 378; bilateral cordons (illust.), 378; espaliers, management of, during first season, 379, during second season, 379, during third season, 379; wall-trees, management of, 380; gathering and storing the crop, 380; diseases injurious to:—canker, 381, mildew, 382; insects injurious to, 382; remedies against, 382. Apple-borer, 384. Apricots, uses and culture of, 434; classification, 434; select varieties, 434; propagation, 435, budding, 430, grafting, 430, seeds, 435; soil and situation for, 430; pruning, 437; training, 437; disbudding, 438; thinning the fruit, 438; protection of blossoms, 439; diseases injurious to, 439; insects injurious to, 439; forcing, 559; Dutch mode of, 559; record of temperatures to which subjected, 500. Aquatics, hardy, 718. Aquilegia aurea, 090; californiea, 691; glandulosa, 090; truncata, 091; vulgaris, 090. Arabis albida, 691, 779, 793, a. variegata, 793; blepharophylla, 779; crispata, 091; lueida, 700, 779, 793, 1. variegata, 793; petrrea, 700. Arabis, blue, 691. Arads, necessity of shade and moisture for, in summer bedding, 784. Aralia canescens, 7S5, 786; chinensis (illust.), 045; crassifolia, 812,851; dac-tylifolia, 812; elegantissima, 881; Guil-foylei, 881; lieteromorpha, 812; japonica, 050, 785, 780, 851; papyrifera, 050, 780, 812; pubeseens, 812; pulchra, 780; quinquefolia, 851; reticulata, 881; Sie-boldii, 785, 780, 812, 851; spinosa, 040, 785, 780; trifoliata latifolia, 812; Veitchii, 881. Aralias as subtropical plants, 784; for conservatories, 812. Araucaria Balansre, 786; Cookii, 786, C. robusta, 851; elegans, 851; excelsa, 780, 812, 851; Goldieana, 780; imbri-cata, 003; llulei, 780. Arauja, 000; albens, 602. Arbor vitre, American, 007; Chinese, 003; Siberian, 007. Arbor vitre as a hedge for shelter, 637; flourishing on chalk soils, 801. Arbours of weeping ash, or weeping elm, on a light framework of iron, 027; position of, 628; covering for, 028. Arbutus, species of, 071; Amlrachne, 644, 052; liybrida, 044, 052; procera, 044, 052; Vnedo, 044, 052. Archangelica ofiicinalis (illust.), 145. Arctostaphylos alpinus, 671; Uva-ursi, 071. Ardisia crenulata, 878, c. alba, 878. Arcca alba, 904; aurea, 904; Baueri, 909; lutescens, 905, 909; monostachya, 905; rubra, 905; sapida, 909; sechellarum, 911; speciosa, 908; Versclialfcltii, 909. Arecas for summer bedding, 780. Aren aria balearica, 700; montana, 706; purpurascens, 700. Arenga saccharifera, 905. Aretia Vitaliana, 700. Aristolochia Gigas, S78; ornithocephala, 878; Siplio, 000; Sipho for draping old ruins and stems, 780. Aristotelia Macqui, 052. Armeniaca vulgaris, 434. Armeria eephalotes, 691; maritima, 781.ARRANGEMENT 931 BEAN Arrangement of flowers in vases, 926; of fruit in dishes, 927; of tubular flowers (iliust.), 926. Arrowhead, 720. Artemisia Abrotanum, 053, A. tobolski-anal 053; Absinthium (iliust.), 280; Draeuneulus, 270; judaiea, for contrast, 793; maritima, 280; pontica, 280; Stel-leriana, 793. Artichoke, Jerusalem, calendarial directions, ii, vii, xii, xlvii. Artichokes, Jerusalem, uses and culture of, 209; properties of, 209; composition of, 209; nutritive value compared with potatoes, 210; insects injurious to, 210. Artichoke, calendarial directions, ii, xi, xv, xxxi, xlii. Artichokes, habitats, uses and culture of, 146; select varieties of, 146; composition of ashes of. 19; protection and preservation of, 147; to increase size of heads, 147. Artocarpus Cannoni, SSI. Arundinaria falcata, 646; for bedding, * 7S6. Arundo, effect of contrast with Gunnera, in subtropical gardening, 783; con-spicua (iliust.), 691, 696, 786; conspicua for the American garden, 669; Donax, 786; Donax as a hardy subtropical plant, 784, D. variegata, 781,812; Plirag-mites, 786. Asclepias tuberosa, 691. Ash, varieties of, 641; weeping, for arbours, 627. Ash, mountain, 643; for chalk soil, S02; for sea-side planting, 796. Ashes as manure, 54; sifted, as a deodor- j izer of night-soil, 49. Ashes of plants, table showing composition of, 18. Ashpit-:, water in, to preserve fire-bars, 521. Asparagus, calendarial directions, ii, vii, I xi, xv, xix, xxiii, xlii; forcing, iii, viii, j xiii, xliii, xlviii. Asparagus officinalis, 147. Asparagus, composition of ashes of, 18, \ 19; manured with soot, 47; habitats, ! uses ami culture of, 147; soil and situation for, 148; propagation of, 148; preparation of ground for, 148, Behrens’ mode of, 149, Errington’s mode of, 149; artificial manures for, 149; management of, after planting, 150; mode and season for planting, 150; cutting, 154; duration of plantation of, 154; how to save seed of, 155; insects injurious to, 155; forcing, 535, Lindegard’s method,535, mode adopted at Paris, 535, Frogmore plan of, 536; to obtain asperjes vertex, 536; pits for, \ 537; Behrens’ mode of culture, 153, i Lherault’s mode, 152, Beaton’s mode, 153. Asparagus beetle, 155. Asparagus knife, 73. Aspect of flower-garden, CIO. Aspen, 642. Asperula azurea setosa, 724; cynanchica, j 706. Asphodel, bog, 721; giant bog, 692; ! white, 691. Asphodelus sestivus, 691; albus, 691; ra- j mosus, 691. Aspidiotus conchiformis, 332; ostreiefor- 1 mis, 415. Aspidistra lurida variegata, 852. Aspidium cicutarium, 894; macrophyl- ! lum, 894; Pica, 894; repandum, 894; trifoliatum, 895. Asplenium Adiantum-nigrum, 732; ala-turn, 895; alternans,732; angustifolium, 732; appendiculatum, 858; Belangeri, 895; bulbiferum, 858; canariense, 859; caudatum, 895; cicutarium, 895; c-orn-pressum, 858; dimorphum, 858; ebcn-eum, 732; erectum, 895; Fabianum, 895; flabellifolium, 858; flaccidum, 858; j fontanum, 732; formosum, 895; furca-tum, 859; germanicum, 732; Hemion-itis, 858; heterocarpum, 895; lanceola-tum, 732, 1. microdon, 732; laserpitii-foliuni, 895; longissimum, 895; luci-dum, 858; marinum, and its varieties, 732; monanthemum, 858, 895; myrio-phyllum, 895; obtusatum, 858; palma-tuin, 858; polyodon, 858; praunorsum, S58; rachirhizon, 895; reclinatum, 859; rhizophorum, 895; serra, 895; tenellum, 859; Trichomanes, and its varieties, 732; Yeitchianum, 895; viviparum, 895. | Assimilation of food of plants, 22. Aster alpinus, 706; bessarabicus, 691; grandillorus, 691; longifolius formosus, 691; novae angliie, 691; ramosus, 706; versicolor, 706. I Aster, China, 724. ; Asterocephalus, 702; parnassia?, 706; Webbianus, 706. Astilbe barbata ( = japonica), treatment of, as forcing plant, 916. Astragalus arenarius, 691; dasyglottis, 691, 706; Hypoglottis, 706; maximus, 691; monspessulanus, 691, 706. Astrocaryum acaule, 905; Murumuru, 905; rostra turn, 905. Astyages hemcrobiclla, 410. Astyages, large pear-tree, 416. Ataccia cristata, 878. Athalia spinarum, 278. Athous ruficaiulis, 279. Athyrium Filix-hemina, and its varieties, 733, F.-f. acrocladon, 733, F.-f. Fri-zellia*, 733. F.-f. plumosum, 733, F.-f. Yictorhe,733;Goringianum pictum,733. Atragene alpina, 660. Atriplex Halimus, 653; as screen plant by sea-side, 799; hortcn>is, 235. Attalea Cohune, 905; funifera, 905; nu-cifera, 905; speciosa, 905; (iliust.), desc. pi. lo. Aubrietia Campbcllii. 706, 779, 793; del-toidea, 691, 706, 779, 793, d. Mooreana, 706;grandillora, 691, 706,779;purpurea, 793. Aucuba himalaica, 653; japonica, 653. Aucuba japonica for planting in towns, 804; green and variegated, with berries, for winter bedding, 773; Indian, 653; polliniferous varieties, 653; berry-bearing varieties, 653; yellow-berried, 653. Auricula, calendarial directions, vi, x, xiv, xviii, xxii, xxvi, xxix, xxxiii, xl, xlv. Ii. Auriculas, introduction of, 738; parts of the flower, 739; division or classification, 739; pill and truss of, 739; alpine, 739, 742; self, 739, 742; propagation of, 739; soil for,composition of, 739; general culture of, 740; frame for, 740; season of growth in, 740; pots for, condition and size of, 740; Dr. Horner’s treatment, 740; diseases of, 740, 742; repotting, 740; summer situation for, 741; winter treatment of, 741; spring treatment of, 741; treatment during the blooming season, 741; Lightbody’s system of potting, 741; how to save seed, 742; artificial impregnation of, 742; rot in the root, 742; canker in the root, 742; select list of varieties, 742. Avens, mountain, 708. Avenues of trees, for shelter, 109; should be formed of one kind of tree, 802. Averruncator (iliust.), 71. Axe, 72; grubbing, used in forming drains, 122; grubbing or mattock, 65; hoe, 65. Axis, ascending, 3; descending, 3. Azalea, calendarial directions, x, xxix. Azalea annena, 672, a. grandiflora as forcing plant, 914; arborescens, 671; calen-dulacea, 671; indicans a forcing shrub, 914; mollis (iliust ), 671: mollis as forcing plant, 914; nudiflora, 671; pontica, 671; sinensis, 671; sinensis as forcing plant, 914; viscosa, 671. Azalea indica, origin of, 828; thrips and red spider as pests of, 828; select varieties of, 829; propagation of, 829, 830; soil and potting, 830; stopping, training, and cutting-back, 830; house for, 831; necessity of light for, 831; temperature for, 831; watering, 831; insects injurious to, 831. Azalea flowers, how to gum, 920. Azaleas, Ghent, 669; hardy, select English and Ghent varieties, 672; hardy Ghent, as forcing plants, 914; insects injurious to, 914; treatment of, previous to forcing, 914. Azara dentata, 653; Gilliesii, 653; miero-phylla, 653. B. Baccliaris halimifolia, 653. Bactris baeulifera, 905; flavispina, 905; integrifolia, 905; simplicifrons, 906; tenuis, 906. Balaninus nucum, 4S3. Balantium Culcita, 859. Balm, calendarial directions, vii, xi, xv, xxxi. Balm, habitat, uses and culture of, 155. Balsam, calendarial directions, xviii, xxii. Balsam, 727. Balsam ita vulgaris, 198. Bamboos, hardy variegated, 781; for bedding, 786. Bambusa aurea (iliust.), desc. pi. lf>, 786; edulis, 786; falcata ( = Thanmocalamus Falconeri), 646; Fortunei, 781, F. variegata, 786; gracilis, 786; japonica, 646, 786; Metake, 646, 786; nigra, 786; Si-monii,786; viridi-glaucescens, 646, 786. I Baptisia australis, 691. Barbarea pnccox, 198. Barbe de capucin, 195, 196. Bark, 5, 6; inner, 6; inner, importance of junction of, in grafting, 305; outer, 6. Barkeria elegans, 888; Skinneri, 888; spectabilis, 888. Barometer, 92; Casella’s agricultural and cottage (iliust.), 96; Standard (iliust.), 93; wheel, 95. Barrow, hand (iliust ), 79; market-garden (iliust.), 79; navigator’s, 78; water (iliust.), 78; wheel (iliust.), 78. 1 Bartonia aurea, 724. Basalt, composition of, 27. I Basil, calendarial directions, xv, xix, xxiii; forcing, viii, xxi. j Basil, uses and culture of, 155; species of, 155; forcing of, 537. Basket ferns, stove, 896, 897, 900. , Basket plants for conservatory, 813. | Baskets, 85; barge, 86; bushel, 86; deep oval, 86; gathering, 86; half-sieve, 86; hamper or packing, 86; large round, 86; sieve, 86; willow, 85, 86. i Baskets, glass, with or without handle, for arrangement of fruit, 927. Baskets, ornamental, in conservatory, 810. Batatas, culture of, 558. I Bay, sweet, 645, 657. i Bayberry. 657. I Bead plant, 709. Bean, bog, 721. Bean, kidney, calendarial directions, xvi, xx, xxiii, xxvii; forcing, iii, viii, xiii, xvii, xxi, xxxv, xxxix, xliii, xl viii; scarlet runner, calendarial directions, xx, xxiv. Bean, French or kidney, composition of ashes of, 19; uses of, 210; select varieties of, 211; soil, manure, and situation for, 213; season for sowing, 213; culture of, 214; gathering the crop of, 214; to save seed of, 214; insects injurious to, 214; forcing of, 548; best sorts for forcing, 548.BEAN 932 BROUSSONETIA Bean, calendarial directions, ii, vii, xi, xv, xix, xxiii, xxvii, xlii, xlvil Bean, garden, duration and habitat of, 155; select varieties of, 156; composition of ashes of, 156; soil for, 156; manure for, 157; cultivation of, 157; gathering of, 158; insects injurious to, 159; steeping seeds to accelerate germination, 158; crops to precede and succeed, 282, 283. Bean flowers destroyed by humble-bees, 159. Bean seeds destroyed by mice and weevils, 159. Beard’s patent system of glazing (illust.), 508. Beaucarnea, as a conservatory plant, S12; glauca latifolia, S51; recurvata, 812. Bedding, selection of plants for effective arrangements in, 778; removal of withered flowers and decayed leaves from, 778; late blooming plants disadvantageous in spring bedding, 779; carpet, 790. Bedding out, various combinations included in, 777. Bedding plants, choice of, dependent on situation, subsoil, Arc., 777; influenced by seasons, situations, soils, and other conditions, 777; soil and manure for, 777; season for turning out, 777; spring and summer, 777; blending and contrasting colours of, 778; pegging down or pinching to control height of, 778; winter, reserve plot for, 778; propagation of, by division, 779; adapted for summer, 780; disadvantages of ordinary, for mosaieulture, 791. Beds in flower-garden, formation of, 614; to keep filled through winter, 778. Bee, humble, destroying bean flowers, 159. Beech, varieties of, 641; wood and seeds of, composition of ashes of, 20. Beech-trees, for chalk soil, 802. Beet, calendarial directions, xi, xv, xix, xxiii, xxxi, xxxviii. Beet, garden, roots and tops, composition of ashes of, 19,160; habitat, uses and culture of, 159; select varieties of, 159, 162; how to save seed of, 162; insects injurious to, 162; place in rotation cropping, 282; ornamental leaved, for summer bedding, 781, 786, 787. Beet, Chilian, 787; sea, 159; leaf, 162. Beetle, asparagus, 155; bean-grain, 248; carrion, 163; click, 279; Colorado (illust.), desc. pi. 22; pea, 248; red-footed, 415; rove. 258, 279; turnip, 278. Beet-root, 159; composition of, 160. Begonia boliviensis, 872; Evansiana, S72; Pearcei grandiflora, 852; roseo-alba, 852; Yeitcliii, S52. Begonias, tuberous-rooted, hybrid varieties of, 781, 852. Begonias, flowering, origin of, 872; propagation of, by cuttings, S72; soil for, 872; temperature for, during autumn and winter, 872; selections of the best kinds, 872. Begonias,fine-leaved, contrastof, amongst ferns, 872; propagation of, by leaf-cut-tings, S72; soil for, pot plants, 872; temperature for, 872, 873; manure water for, 873; insects injurious to, 873; selections of distinct kinds, 873. Bell-flower, 706. Bell-glasses. Pilkington’s (illust.), 99; for cuttings, 302. Beilis perennis, 779, p. aucubscfolia, 779, 793. Belts and clumps of trees for shelter, 109. Benthamia fragifera, 653. Berberidopsis corallina (illust.), 659. Berberis Aquifolium, 653; aristata, 646, 653; Bealii, 653; Darwinii, 653; dulcis, 653; empetrifolia, 653; fascicularis, 653; Eortunei, 653; glumacea, 653; ilicifolia, 653; japonica, 653; nepalensis, 653; nervosa, 653; pinnata, 653; repens, 653; stenopliylla, 653; vulgaris, 479, 646, v. purpurea, 646. Berberry, uses and culture of, 479; select species of, 479, 646; ash-leaved, 654. Berry, silver, 648. Bertolonia superbissima, 881; Van Hout-tei, 881. Beta chilensis, 781; Cicla, 159, C. varie-gata, 781, 787; maritima, 159; vulgaris, 159. Betula alba, 640, a. laciniata, 640, a. pen-dula, 640, a. p. Youngii (illust.), 640; papyracea, 640. Biennials, hardy and half-hardy, selection of, 721, 731; how to select, 723. Bigarreautiers, 428. Bignonia eapreolata,660; Chamberlaynii, 878; grandiflora, 850; radicans, 662; venusta, 878. Bilberry or Blaeberry, uses and culture of, 479, 675. Bill, hedge or pruning, 72. Billbergia Moreli, 878; vittata, 878. Bill-hook (illust.), 72. Biota orientalis, 663, o. aurea, 663, o. aurea for winter bedding, 778, o. ele-gantissima for winter bedding, 663,778, o. japonica, 663, o. semperaurescens, 663. Birch, 640. Birch-trees appropriate near ornamental water, 634; for chalk soil, 802. Birds on peas, 248. Bladder-nut, 651. Blade of leaf, 8, 9. Blaeberry, uses and culture of, 479. Blechnumbrasilieuse, as a bedding plant, 787; for the conservatory, 812, 895; gracile, 895; Lanceola,S95; longifolium, 895; occidentale, 895; orientale, S95; Spicant, and its varieties, 733. BlighS on beans, 159; American, 382; fire, 414; frozen sap, 415; pear-tree, 414. Blistered leaves, 457. Blood manure, dry, liquid, or as a compost, 47; analyses of saline matters in the ashes of, 47. Blubber, compost, as manure, 47. Bluebells, 718; for spring carpet beds, 792. Bocconia eordata, 698; japonica, 693. Bog-bean, 721. Bog soil, nature and formation of, 33. Boilers, 521:—saddle, 521; Gray's corrugated saddle (illust.), 521; Lobjoit’s saddle (illust.), 522; gold medal flued saddle (illust.), 522; Witley Court, 522; Dunbar’s climax, 522; Cannell’s Victoria hot-water circulator,522; Stevens’ improved Cornish (illust.), 523; Tren-tham (illust.), 523; Monro’s cannon (illust.), 523; Ormson’s upright tubular Cornish (illust.), 524; Weeks’ duplex upright tubular (illust.), 524; Deards' centrifugal (illust.), 525; Deards’ amateur’s champion heating apparatus (illust.), 526; portable, and furnace (illust.), 525; corrugated, 525; proper size of, 526; setting of, 526. Bombyx clirysorrhoea, 384; dispar, 384. Bone-dust, quick action of,as manure, 48. Bones as manure, 48; of ox, analysis of, 48; broken, a lasting manure, 48; conversion of phosphates into superphosphates, 48; dissolved in sulphuric acid as manure, 48; dissolved, water required for dilution of, 49; quantity of acid absorbed in dissolving, 49. Borage, calendarial directions, xi, xv, xix, xxvii, xxxi. Borage, habitat, uses and culture of, 163. Borago officinalis, 163. Borders for fruit-trees, 128. Borecole, calendarial directions, xi, xv, xix, xxiii, xxvii, xxxi. Borecole, habitats, uses and culture of, 163; select varieties of, 163; care necessary in saving seed, 165; place in rotation cropping, 282. Boronia Drummondii, 848; pinnata, 848; serrulata, 848. Boston, mean temperature of March at, i. Botrytis parasitica (illust.), 280. Bougainvillea glabra, 879; spectabilis, 879. Bouquet, qualifications of a good hand, 921; how to make properly, 921, 922; to keep fresh when made, 921; preparations for making, 921; non-floral adjuncts to, when completed, 922; edging of fern fronds for, 922; fastening into bouquet-holder to prevent glove-soiling, 922; frame of wire for (illust.), 922; how to pack a ball-room or bridal, to travel safely, 922; how to fasten to bouquet-holder for safe travelling, 922, 923; button-hole, how to keep in place, 923. Bouquet-holder, wicker or metal, 922; half-opened wicker (illust.), 922; closed, containing bouquet (illust.), 923; japanned, 923. Bouvardia jasminiflora (illust.), 873. Bouvardias,native country of,873; blooming of, in winter, 873; propagation of, by cuttings in winter and spring, S73, 915; potting of, 873; soil for, 873; temperature and shade for, 873; treatment for autumn flowering, S73; treatment for winter and spring flowering, S73; selections of the best kinds, 874; insects injurious to, 874,915; as forcing plants, 915; treatment of, previous to forcing, 915; wiring, for bouquets, 920. Bowling-greens, formation of, 632; position and preparation of, 632; surroundings of, 632,633; conversion of, in winter into skating-grounds, 632. Box-elder, 642. Box-thorn, 662. Box-tree, 644, 654. Brachycome ibericlifolia, 724. Brahea filamentosa, 910. Bramble, 651, 662; uses and culture of, 480; select species of, 480. Branching, mode of, as a guide to method of propagation, 636. Brassica campestris Rutabaga, 276; Xa-pus, 276, X. oleifera, 262; oleracea:— acephala, 163, Botrytis cauliflora, 183, Botrytis cymosa, 165, bullata gemmi-fera, 169, bullata major, 265, capitata, 171, capitata rubra, 172, Caulo-rapa, 215; Rapa, 276. Brassicas for winter bedding, 7S1. Bread-fruit tree, fine-leaved variety of, 881. Brickdust for striking cuttings, 299. Bridgesia spicata, 659. Brier, sweet, 651. I Brinjal, Chinese, 546; French mode of culture, 546. Briza gracilis, 724; maxima, 724. Broccoli, calendarial directions, ii, xi, xv, xix, xxiii, xxvii, xxxi. I Broccoli, heart and leaves, composition of ashes of, 19; habitats of, 165; select varieties of, 165; culture of, 167; protecting and preserving in winter, 168; when to cut, 168; to save seed of, 169; insects injurious to, 169; curd of, 168; place in rotation cropping, 282. ! Brodirca coccinea (illust.), 715; grandiflora, 714. , Bromelia Ananas (illust.), 578. 1 Bromine, 22. | Broom, butcher’s, 658; English, varieties of, 647; Portugal, 648; Spanish, 651; suitable for banks of ornamental water, 634. Brooms, garden, 68. Broughtonia sanguinea, SS8. I Broussonetia papyrifera, 640.BRUCHUS CARUM Bruchus tlavimanus, 150; grailarius, 159, | 248; pisi, 248. Brugmansia Knightii, 848; sanguinea, | 787; suaveolens, 787, 848; suaveolens l as a conservatory flowering plant, S12. . Brusli, Bull's aphis, 90. Brussels, mean temperature of March at, i. Brussels sprouts, ealemlarial directions, vii, xi, xix, xxiii, xxvli, xxxi. Brussels sprouts, habitat and culture of, 199; select varieties of, 170; time of sowing, 170; planting, 170; place in rotation cropping, 282. Bryanthus erect us, 072. Buckeye, red, 039. Buckshorn plantain, uses and culture of, 170. Buckthorn, sea, 049; use of, as screen fence by sea-side, 798. Budding:—shield (illust.), 313; T, 313; inverted T*(illust.), 315; square shield (illust.), 315; llute (illust.), 310; ring (illust.), 310; American shield, 310; propagation by, 313, 030. Buddleia globosa, 054; Lindleyana, 054. Buds, adventitious, 304; tlower, 10; leaf, 8; leaf, swelling of, 23; how to know trees by their, 035. Buffalo-berry, 051. Bug, mealy (illust.), desc. pi. 10; on Dra- | ca?nas, &77; on Eucharis, 870; on pineapple, 588; on stove ferns, 904; on stove plants, 880; on vines, 008. Bugs, plant, on the potato, 258. Bulb, scaly (illust.), 7; tunicated (illust.), i. Bulbocodium vemum, 715. Bulbs, propagation by, 291; selection of, 714; soil for, 714; transplanting of, 714; early-blooming hardy, for winter and spring bedding, 778; hardy, in tlower-garden, 010, 017; popular, 701; spring-flowering, for window gardens, 808; treatment of, after putting, 808. Buonapartea juncea, 855. Buphthalmum cordatum, 092. Bupleurum fruticosum, 054. Burchellia capensis, 879. Burlingtonia Candida, 8S8; decora, 888; fragrans, 888. Burnet, calendarial directions, vii, xi, xv. Burnet, uses and culture of, 170. Burning bush, 048. Bush-trees in orchard house, 488. Butomus uinbellatus, 720. Butter-and-eggs, 771. Butterflies injurious to cabbage, 175,279. Butterwort, 710, 721. Button-hole bouquets, how to keep in place, 923. Buxus balearica, 044, 054; sempervirens, 044, varieties of, 054, s. rosmarinifolia for winter bedding, 778. Byturus tomentosus, 471. c. Cabbage, calendarial directions, ii, vii, xi, xvi, xix, xxiii, xxvii, xxxi, xxxiv, xxxviii, xlii; red, calendarial directions, xi. Cabbages, uses and culture of, 171, 173; select varieties of red, 172; select varieties of white, 171; tree (illust.), 104; thousand-headed, 104; soil for, 172; sowings of, 173; cultivation of, 173; propagation by cuttings, 175; selection of, for seed, 175; insects and diseases injurious to, 175; place in rotation cropping, 282. Cabbage, turnip, uses and culture of, 210; varieties of, 210. Cabbage-flea, blue, 175. Cabbage-leaf plant-louse, 175. 93 o O Cabbage leaves, composition of ashes of, 19, 172. Cabbage-moth, 175. Cabbage-roots, diseases of, 170. Cabbages from cuttings, 175. Cacti, treatment of, as forcing plants, 918; insect injurious to, 918; nightblooming, 850, 871. Cactus, old man, 857; niglit-blooming, treatment of, 871. Caladium esculentum, 787. Caladiums as coloured - leaved stove plants, 875; temperature for tubers of, ! when at rest during winter, 875; in- I creased by division of spring growth, 875; temperature for, in spring, 875; soil and drainage for, 875; potting of, 870; summer and winter temperature for, 870; insects injurious to, 870; selections of choice, 870. Calampelis scaber, 725. Calamus adspersus, 900; asperrimus, 900; ciliaris, 900; Draco, 900; flagellum, 900; Imperatrice Marie, 900, (illust.) desc. pi. 15; Jenkinsianus, 900; melanoclne-tes, 900; palembanicus, 900; plumosus, 900; schizospathus, 900; viminalis, 900. Calandrinia discolor, 724; speciosa, 724. Calanthe Masuca granditlora, 888; Veitchii, 888; veratrifolia, 888; vestita luteo-oculata, 888, v. rubro-oculata, 888. Calceolaria, calendarial directions, vi, x, xiv, xviii, xxii, xxvi, xxix, xxxiii, xxxvi, xl, xlv, li. Calceolarias as decorative greenhouse plants, 843; native country of, 843; shrubby and herbaceous groups, 843; herbaceous varieties, treatment of, 844; . propagation of, by cuttings and seed, 844; soil for, 844; insect injurious to. 844; shrubby, treatment of, S44; as summer-bedding plants, 781, S44. Calendar of Garden Operations, i-xlviii. Calendula oflieinalis, 224, 724. Calico bush, 073. Calla palustris, 720. Calliopsis, 724, 725. Callisteplms hortensis, 724, 781. Calluna vulgaris, 073. Calophaca wolgarica, G4G. Calothyrsus californica, 045. Caltha palustris, 721. Calycanthus floridus, 040; occidentalis, 040; pnccox, 040. Calyptrostigma Middendorfiana, 048. Calystegia pubescens, 092. Calyx, 10; monophyllous, 10. Camassia esculenta, 715. Cambium, 1, 5. Camellia, calendarial directions, xxix, xxxiii. Camellias, introduction of, 820; select varieties of, 820; propagation of, 821; soil for, 821; potting of, 822; temperature for, 822; watering of, 823; liquid manure for, 823; situation for, 823; pruning of, 823; insects injurious to, 824; for the conservatory, 812. Camellia-flower, wiring of a, 920. Campanula barbata, 700; Burghali, 092; carpatica, 092, 707; celtidifolia, 092; floribunda, 700; fragilis, 700; garganica, 700; glomerata, 092; isophylla, 700; lactifiora, 092; latifolia, 092; mac-rantha, 092; Medium, 731; muralis, 700; nobilis, 092; persicifolia, 092; pulla, 707; pumila, 707; pyramidalis, 092, 852; Rapuncuius, 201; sarmatica, 092; sibirica, 731; soldanelheflora, 092; tenella, 092; turbinata, 092, (illust.) 707; Van Houttei, 092; Waldsteini, 707. Campanulas as window plants, 807. Campion, moss, 712. Campsidium filicifolium, 881. Camptosorus rliizophyllus, 733. Canary creeper, 730. Candle plant, 850. Candytuft, 050, 097, 709, 720, 779. Canker, 414; on the apple, 381; remedies for, 381. Canker-worm, 384. Cannabis sativus, 7S7. Cannas as subtropical plants, 7S4; for summer bedding, 781, 787; grouping of dark-leaved with Chdea, 790; harmony of foliage of green with Funkia Siebol-diana, 783. Canterbury bell, 731. Caprifolium italicum, 001. Capsicum, calendarial directions, xix, xxiii; forcing, viii, xiii, xvii. Capsicum, 177; annuuni, 537; baccatum, 537; dulce, 537; frutescens, 537; gros-sum, 537. Capsicums, forcing of, 537; select species and varieties for, 537. Caragana Altagana, 040; arborescens, G4G; Chamlagu, 040; frutescens, 040; miero-phylla, 040; pygnuva, 040. Caraway, calendarial directions, xi, xvi. Caraway,‘uses and culture of, 177. Carbon, how assimilated, 15. Carbonates, origin of, 10. Carbonic acid, 27, 2S; importance of, as plant food, 10; formation of, during germination, 15, 10; decomposition of, by solar light in leaves, 17, 25. Cardamine trifolia, 707. Cardoon, calendarial directions, ii, xi, xvi, xix, xxiii, xxvii, xxxi, xxxiv,xxxviii, xlii. | Cardoons, uses and culture of, 177; varieties of, 177; soil for, 178; planting, 178; when to sow, 178; recipe for cooking, 179; to save seed, 179; .Fleming's mode of culture, 178. Carex pendula, 721; Pseudo-Cyperus, 721. I Carica aurantiaca, 881. Carnation, calendarial directions, vi, x, xiv, xviii, xxii, xxix, xxxvi, xl, xlv, li. Carnations, origin and introduction of, 743; bizarre, 743, 744; flake, 743, 744; propagation of, 743; soil for, 7-13; general culture of, 744; potting, 744; select lists of, 744; tree, 745; perpetual flower-i ing, culture of, 745; layering, 743; clove, 743; pipings of, 743; treatment of tree, for forcing, 917. Carpet lied ding, 790; in Victoria Park (illust.), desc. pi. 1U; in Hyde Park (illust.), desc. pi. 1U; at Crystal Palace (illust.), desc. pi. 1U; advantagesof,791; effect of neutral-tinted plants in, 791; attractions of, through diversity of designs, 791; importance of arrangement of colours in, 791; classified and select lists of plants for, 791, 792; blue-leaved plants for, 791; carmine-leaved plants for, 791; crimson-leaved plants for, 791; glaucous-leaved plants for, 791; greenleaved plants for, 791; orange-redleaved plants for, 791; purple-leaved plants for, 791; white-leaved plants for, 791; yellow-leaved plants for, 791. Carpet beds, soil for, 792; necessity of care in preparing ground for, 792; how to prevent the sloping edges from washing down, 792. Carpinus Betulus, 040. Carpocapsa pomonana, 384, 415. Carrot, calendarial directions, ii, vii, xi, xvi, xix, xxiii, xxvii, xxxi, xxxviii; forcing, iii, viii, xvii. Carrots, uses and culture of, 179; select varieties of, 179; soil and manures for, 180; sowings of, 180; taking the crop, 181; to save seed, 182; insects injurious to, 182; M. Vilmorin’s experiments to ameliorate, 179; forcing of, 537; best sorts for forcing, 537; place in rotation of crops, 282. Carrot plant-louse, 182. Carrot roots and tops, composition of ashes of, 19. Carum Carui (illust.), 177.CARYA 934 CICHORIUM Carya alba, 640; amara, 640; olivtcfomiis, 640. Caryota Cumingii, 906; furfuracea, 906; propinqua, 906; sobolifera, 787; urens, 787, 907. Case, wall, 515. Cassandra calyculata, 672. Cassia corymbosa, 848. Cassida nebulosa, 163. Cassiope tetragona, 672. Castanea vesea, 486, 640, v. aureo-varie-gata, 640. Castor-oil plants for summer beds, 789. Catalpa bignonioides, 640, 787, b. aurea, 640,787; Bunge i, 640; syringiarfolia, 640, 787. Catananclie ecerulea, 692, c. bicolor, 692. Caterpillar, red-bud, 415. Catoblastus robustus, 907. Cat’s ear, mountain, 706. Cat’s tail, 721. Cattleya Acdaiulifc, 888; amethystoglossa, 888; Dowiana, 888; exoniensis, 888; la-biata, 888; lobata, 888; Mossire, 888; Skinneri, S88; superba, 888; Triame, 888; 'NVageneri, 888; Walkeriana, 888; Warneri, 888. Cauliflower, calendarial directions, ii, vii, xi, xvi, xix, xxiii, xxvii, xxxi, xxxiv, xxxviii, xlii; forcing, viii, xiii, xvii, xliii, xlviii. Cauliflowers, uses and culture of, 183; select varieties of, 183; soil for, 184; time for sowing, 184; Barnes’ mode of culture, 185; Bailey’s mode of culture, 186; when to cut, 1S7; preserving from frost, 187; seed saving, 187; composition of ashes of heart of, 19; place in rotation cropping, 282. Ceanotlmsamericanus, 654; azureus, 654; dentatus, 654; tloribundus, 654; Lobbi-anus, 654; papillosus, 654; rigidus, 654; thyrsiliorus, 654; Yeitcliianus, 654. Cedar, creeping, 664; deodar or Indian, 663; of Lebanon, 663; Mount Atlas or silver, 663; .Japanese, 663; prickly, 664; red, 664; white, 664. Cedrus afrieana, 663; argentea, 663: atlan-tiea, 663; Deodara, 624, 663; Libani, 663. Celeriac, calendarial directions, xi, xvi, xxiii, xxvii, xxxi. Celeriac, uses of, 193; culture of, 194. Celery, calendarial directions, ii, vii, xi, xvi, xx, xxiii, xxvii, xxxi, xxxiv, xxxviii, xlii, xlvii; forcing, viii, xiii, xvii. Celery, uses and culture of, 187; select red and white varieties, 187; soil for, 1SS; sowings of, 18S-; preparation of ground for, 189; planting in trenches, 189; planting in beds, 190; blanching of, 191; protection of, in winter, 193; seed saving, 193; insects and diseases injurious to, 193; composition of ashes of, 19; flavour of, alfected by light, 26; place in rotation cropping, 283. Celery, knob, 193; turnip-rooted, 193. Celery fly (illust.), desc. pi. 21. Cells, amylaceous (illust.), 3; containing raphides (illust ), 3. Cellulose, 1; formation of, 15. Celsia cretica, 731. Celtis australis, 640; occidentals, 640. Centaurea babylonica, 692; candidissima, 787, 793; Clementei, 852; Oyanus, 724; depressa, 724; gymnocarpa, 787, 793; maerocephala, 692; montana, 692; ra-gusina. 781, 787, 793, 852, r. compacta, 787, r. plumosa, 787. Centaury, 708. Centigrade scale of temperature, 88. Centipedes, 258, 279. Centradenia rosea, 879. Centrantlms macrosiphon, 724; ruber, 724. Centrostemma multiflorum, 879. Cephalaria tatarica, 692. Cephalotaxus drupacea, 663; Fortunei, 663. Cephalotus follicularis, 852. Cerastium alpinum, 707; arvense, 793; Bieberstieni, 707, 793; tomentosum, 707, 779, 781. Cerastiums for sloping edges of carpet beds, 792. Cerasus Avium, 427; Caproniana, 427; Chanuecerasus, 646; duracina, 427; ja-ponica, 646, j. multiplex, 646; Juliana, 427; Lauroeerasus, 654, L. caucasica, 654, L. colchica, 654, L. rotundifolia, 654; lusitanica, 654, 1. myrtifolia, 654; Mahaleb, 640; semperflorens, 640; vulgaris flore-pleno, 640. Ceratodactylis, a greenhouse fern, 860. Ceratopteris thalictroides, an aquatic stove fern, 895. Cercis canadensis, 640; chinensis, 640; japoniea, 640; Siliquastrum, 640. Cereus grandiflorus, 871; MacDonaldia?, 871; speciosissimus, 8<1. Cereus, treatment of, as forcing plant, 918; insect injurious to, 918; as conservatory climbers, 855; erect-habited, select, 856. Cerisiers, 428. Cerostoma xylostella, 279. j Ceroxylon andicola, 907. Ceterach oflicinarum, 733. Cetonia aurita, 279. Ceutorliynchus assimilis, 279; contractus, 278; pleurostigma, 176, (illust.) 279; sulcicollis, 176. Clnerophyllum lmlbosum, 194. Chafer, garden, 383, 415, 458. Chain, measuring, 74. Chalk, 16; as manure, 57; composition of, 57, 800. Chalk soils, trees for, 800. Chanuecyparis, 663, 666; sphreroidea, 664. Chanuedorea Arenbergiana, 907; des-moncuides, 907: elegans, 907; Ernesti-Augusti, 907; glaucifolia. 907; gramini-folia, 907; microphylla, 907; scandens, 907; Warscewiczii, 907; Wendlandii, 907. Chama'ledon procumbens, 672. Channepeuce Oasabona? as a bedding plant, 788; diacantha, 788. Chanurrops arboresccns, 911; excelsa, 788,910; Fortunei, 788, 911;filamentosa. 910; gracilis. 911; humilis, 788, 911; macrocarpa,911: Martiana,911;melano-cantha, 911; Palmetto, 788; sinensis, 788. Chamomile, calendarial directions, xii, xvi. | Chamomile, uses and culture of, 194; varieties of, 194. Charcoal as a manure. 16, 54; fertilizing properties of, 54; utility of, for mixing with other manures, 54; property of preventing smell and the escape of ammonia, 45; as a deodorizer of night-soil, 49; for striking cuttings, 299. | Chard, 146, 147. Chaste-tree, 652. Cheilanthes alabamensis, S59; argentea, 859; Borsigiana, 895; eapensis, 859; euneata, 895; elegans, 895; farinosa, S95; fragrans, 859; frigida, 895; hirta, 859; microphylla, S59; pteroides. 859; pulveracea, 895; radiata, 895; Sieberi, 859; spectabilis, S95; tenuifolia, 859; viscosa, S95. Cheiranthus alpina, 692, 779; Cheiri, 779; Marshallii, 692, 779. Chelone barbata, 692; Lyoni, 692. Chenoi^odium Quinoa (illust.), 259. Chernies, pear-tree, 415. Cherry, forcing, calendarial directions, v, x, xiv, xviii, xxii, xxv, xlv, 1. Cherries, classification of, 428; French classification of, 427; select varieties of, 428, 431; varieties for cultivation as standards, 431; selection for a south wall, 431; for a north wall, 432; varieties suited for a cottage garden, 432; propagation of, 432; budding of, 432; grafting of, 432; soil for, 432; situation for, 432; preparation for planting, 432; pruning, 432, 433; training, 432, 433; pruning and training the Morello, 433; protection from birds and other depredators, 433; diseases injurious to, 434; insects injurious to, 434; for chalk soil, 802; uses and culture of, 427; forcing of, 560; temperature for, 561; soil for pot-culture, 561; watering of, 561; best varieties for, 561; fruit and stalk, composition of ashes of, 19. Cherry, 646; bird, 642; cornelian, 640, 647; double-flowered. 640. Cherry-houses, 505. Cherry-tree, composition of ashes of, 18. Chervil, calendarial directions, vii, xii, xvi, xx, xxiii, xxvii, xxxi, xxxiv, xxxviii. Chervil, uses and culture of, 194; varieties of, 194. Chervil, bulbous-rooted, uses and culture of, 194; season for sowing, 194. Chestnut, horse, 639; scarlet-flowered horse, 639. Chestnut, sweet or Spanish, 640; uses and culture of, 486; varieties of, 486; propagation of, 486; collecting the fruit, 486; composition of ashes of, 19. Chickpea, uses and culture of, 197; varieties of, 197. Chickweed, mouse-ear, 707. Chicory, calendarial directions, xvi, xx, xxvii, xxxi; forcing, iii, xxxix, xliii, xlviii. Chicory, uses and culture of, 195; varieties of, 195; blanching, how to cultivate for, 195; Fleming’s mode of culture and blanching of, 195; to save seed of, 197; forcing of, 538; witloof (illust.), 53S; forcing of witloof, 538; French mode of culture, 196. Chilies, forcing of, 537; select kinds of, 537. Chimonanthus fragrans, 646, f. grandi-flora, 646. China aster, 724. Chionantlius virginica, 646. Chisel, 72; grafting, 72. Chiswick, mean temperature of March at, i. Chives, calendarial directions, vii, xii, xxxviii. Chives, uses and culture of, 197. Chlorine, 22. Chloris barbata, 724; cucullata, 724; elegans, 724; radiata, 724. Chorozema cordatum splendens, S48; Lawrenceanum, 848; spectabile, 850; varium Chandlerii, 848. Chrysanthemum, calendarial directions, xiv, xviii, xxii, xxvi, xxxvi, xl, xlvi. Chrysanthemum carinatum, 724; coron-atum, 724; tricolor, 724: indicum varie-gatum, 793; sinense,745; Sensation, 793. Chrysanthemums, 745; origin and introduction of, 746; Japanese varieties of, 746; dwarf pompon, 746; soil for, 746; propagation of, 746; after-culture in pots, 746; potting up from the open ground, 747; culture of, in borders, 747; varieties, select list of, 747, 748: dwarf varieties of, for summer bedding, 781. Clirysobactron Hookeri, 692, 721. j Chrysomela betula?, 279; decemlineata (illust.), desc. pi. 22. I Chrysurus aureus, 727. Chysis bract esc ens, SS8; Limminghei, SS8. Cibotium Menziesii, 895; regale, 896; Schiedei, 896; princeps, 896. Ciboule, 197, 229. Cicely, sweet, uses and culture of, 270. Cicer arietinum (illust.), 197. Cichorium Endivia, 203; Intybus (illust. \ 194.CINERARIA 935 CRASSULAS Cineraria, calemlarial directions, vi, x, xiv, xviii, xxii, xxvi, xxix, xxxiii, xlv, li. Cineraria maritiina, 781, 71)3, m. compact a, 793. Cinerarias,necessity of moist atmosphere for, 840; propagation of, hy seed and suckers, 840; inability of, to bear forcing, 840; season and manner for sowing, 840, 841; soil for, 840; potting off, 840; treatment during growth, 840; watering, 840, 841; selection of, for seed, 841; insects injminus to, 841; as a green- i house plant, jfe. Cinerarias as decorative greenhouse plants, $39. Cionidium Moorei, S90. Cissus argentea, 882; discolor, 882, Cistus cyprius, 054; incanus, 054; lada-niferus, 054; laurifolius, 054; populi* folius, 054; purpureus, 054. Cistus, gum, 054. Citron, treatment of, 838. Citrus Aurantium as an ornamental greenhouse plant, 835; Limonum, 838; niediea, 838. Cladrastis amurensis, 040; lutea, 040. Clarkia pulchella, 724, p. integripctala, 724, p. pulcherrima, 724. Clary, calemlarial directions, xii, xvi. Clary, uses and culture of, 197. Clay, 27, 28; proportion of, in soils, 30; composition of, 31; burned, as an ameliorator of heavy land, 55; burned, for striking cuttings in, 300; retention of water by. 31; effects of iron oncolours of, 31; grafting, 312. Clay soils, improved by burning, 43; j ameliorated by sand, 43; mode of burning, 55; improved by lime, 50. Cleft grafting (illlist.), 309. Clematis alpina, 000; azurea, 001; Flatn-mula. 000; tlorida. 000; Fortunei, 001; Hemlersoni. 001; indivisa lobata, 850; Jackmanni.ooi; Jackmanni and others, for summer bedding, 781; lanuginosa, varieties of, 001; montana, 001; orien- ; talis, 001; patens, varieties of, 001, 85o; | patens, var. Stella(illust.), desc. pi. 13; sibirica, 000; Sieboldii, 001; Viorna, 601; Vitalba, 001; Viticella, 001. Clematis, sweet, for rooteries, 020; as an arbour climber, 027. Clerodendron Balfourianum,879; Bmigei, 040; fallax, 879; fuetidum, 046; fra-grans, 879. C'lethra alnifolia, 072; arborea, 072. Clianthus Dampieri, 852;magnificus, 850; puniceus, 001. Climbers, propagation of, 630; hardy and free-*_rr<>wi]]•_:. for towns, 038; hardy woody, selection of, 059; for chalk soils, SOI; conservatory, 813 ; greenhouse, selection of, 850. Clintonia pulchella, 724. Clisiocampa neustria, 384; americana, 384. Cloches, Pilkington’s, 99. Cloudberry, 480. Clover, composition of ashes of, 18. Cloves, 7. Clubbing in cabbages, &c., forms of (illust.), 170. Club-rush, lake, 720. Coal, coking, composition of, 517; beating power of, 517; mineral, constituents of, 517. Coal ashes as manure, 54. Coat flowers, how to keep alive, 923. Cobfea scandens, 724, 850. Coccus adonidum, 58$,008; brom elite, 588; vitis, 00s. Cochlearia Armoracia, 203. Cochliostema Jacobianum, 879. Cocoa-nut, 907. Cocos elegantissima, 907: nucifera, 907; plumosa, 903; Weddelliana (illust.), 908; botryophora, 908; butyracea, 908; tiexuosa, 90S; llomanzoffiaiia, 908; schizophylla, 908. Cudogyne corrugata, SSS; cristata, 888; Gardneriana, 888; Lowii, 888; pan-durata, 888; speciosa, 888. Coffea arabica aureo-variegata, SS2. Coffee beans, composition of ashes of, 19. Coffee-tree, 802; Kentucky, 041. Colax jugosus, 888. Colchicum autumnale, 715; speciosum, 715; tessellatum, 715. Coleus Yeitehii, 781; V'erschaffeltii, 781, 793. Coleus, propagation of, by cuttings, 877; potting of, 877; soil for, 877; size of pots for, 878; night temperature for wintering, 878; insect injurious to, 878; select list of varieties of, 878. Coleworts, when to sow, 173. Collar or neck of a plant, 4. Collier, 159. Collinsia bicolor, 724; corymbosa, 725; graiulillora, 725; multicolor, 725; verna, 725. Collomia coceinea, 725. Colorado beetle (illust.), desc. pi. 23. Colours, complementary, 778; elementary, 778; triad of elementary, 778; compound or composite, 778; simple, 778; association of, 778; combination of, 778; contrasts of, 778; primary, 778; greater effect and loss of, by approximation, 778; improvement of, by vicinity of white, 778. Coltsfoot, variegated, for bedding, 790. Columbine, 090. Colunmea splendens, S79. Colutea arborescens, 046. Comaropsis trifoliata, 707. Combretum purpureum, 879. Compasses, ground, 75. Compass plant, 702. Composts, formation of, 54. Comptonia aspleniifolia, 047. Concrete, use of, in forming fruit-tree borders, 133; formation of, for garden walls, 492. Con if era?, list of, for chalk soils, 800; not suitable for chalk lands,802; bushy, propagation of, 030; symmetrical branching, propagation of, 030; soil for cuttings of, 030; hardy, selection of, 603; addition of, for variety with foliage plants, 784; success of, when growing under protection from gales by seaside, 798. | Connective, 11. Conservatories, 500; Gray’s (illust.), 500; < h'lnson’s (illust.), 507; Beard’s (illust.), 509. Conservatory, relative position with residence, 509; character of, 809; aspect for, 809; necessity of shelter for, 809; importance of light, 009; suitability of materials in constructing, 810; form and size of, 810; proper modes of ventilating, 810; arrangement of warming apparatus in, 810; extent of heating surface for supply of temperature in, 810; summer shading of, 810; interior arrangements for, 810; paving walks in, 810; vases, mirrors, fountain, baskets, and statuary in, 810; drainage of, 811; depth and composition of borders, 811; relative position of plants in, 811; use of pot plants in, 811; smaller decorative plants for side benches, 811; list of choice palms for, 811; treatment of palms in, 812; cycads as decorative plants for, 812; dracienas for isolated planting in,812; araliasfor, 812; plants best suited for primary features in, 812; tree-ferns suitable for, 812; flowering plants in pots for, 812; special flowering plants for: —luculias, 812, camellias, 812, acacias, 812, pittospor-ums, 812, brugmansias, 812; special climbing or trailing plants for:—lapa-gerias, 813, tacsonias, 813, passifforas, 813; pillar plants suitable for: trache-lospermum, 813, jasminums, 813; roof plants suitable for, 813; plants adapted for pendent wire-baskets during the various seasons in, 813. Conservatory plants, culture of, 809. Convallaria bifolia, 092; majalis, 092. Convolvulus Batatas, 553; major, 729; mauritanieus, 781; minor, 725; tricolor, 725; double-flowered, 092. Coprolites as manure, 58. Coprosma Baueriana variegata, 793, 851. Coquilla-nuts, 905. Corb ill aria tenui folia, 771. Oorchorus japonica, 049. Cordon trees in orchard house, 488. Cordyline australis, 054,781,851; Banksii, 054; imlivisa, 054, 851. Cordylines, 877; as hardy plants, 054; australis for summer bedding, 781. See also Drctccena. Corema alba, 072. Coreopsis aurieulata, 693; Drummondii, 725; tinctoria, 725. Coriander, calendarial directions, vii, xii, xxxiv. Coriander, uses and culture of, 197. Coriandrum sativum (illust.), 197. Coriaria myrtifolia, 047. Cork-tree, 045. Conns (illust.), 7; propagation by, 291. Corn, Indian, 730. Cornflower, 724. Corn salad, calendarial directions, xii, xvi, xx, xxiii, xxvii, xxxi, xxxiv, xxxviii. Corn salad, uses and culture of, 198; varieties of, 198. Cornus alba, 047; circinata, 647; florida, 040; mas or mascula, 040, 047; rugosa, 047; sanguinea, 047. Corolla, 10; niom.petalous, 10. Coronet as part of floral head-dress, 923; how to compose, 923. Coronilla Emerus, 047; glauca, 848; iber-ica, 707; minima, 707. Correa Brilliant, 848; cardinalis, 848. Cortical integument, 6. Cortusa Matthioli, 707. Corydalis nobilis, 093. Corylopsis spicata, 647. Corylus Avellana, 480, 047, A. hetero-phylla, 047, A. purpurea, 047. I Coryplia australis, 788. Cossignia borbonica, 882. Cossus ligniperda, 382, 415, 434, 486, (illust.) desc. pi. 22. Costmary, uses and culture of, 193. Cotoneaster affinis, 040, 647; buxifolia, 055; frigida, 040, 047; marginata, 055; microphylla, 055,778; nummiilaria,647; rotimdifolia, 055; Simonsii, 047, 655; thymifolia,055; vulgaris,047; AV lie eleri, 055. Cotoneaster for rock-work, 020; for winter bedding, 778. Cotton seeds, as manure, 40. Cotyledons, 4; (illust.), 12. Cotyledons for bedding and edgings, 850. Cowberry, 075. Cow-dung, as manure, 52; as compared with horse-dung, 52. Crab, 350; cherry, 643; American, 643 ; Siberian. 043. Crambe maritima, 206. Cranberries, common, 073; uses and culture of, 479; American, uses and culture of, 479. Crane-fly, 170, 183; spotted, 223. Crane’s-bill, 095, 708. Crassulas, select list of drooping, for brackets in conservatories, 856; erect, 850; for bedding, 856; lactea for winter flowering in conservatories, 850.CRATAEGUS 93G DEPRESSARIA Crataegus, G47; arbutifolia, 057; coccinea, 040; crenulata, G55; Crus-galli, 040, C. sploiulons, G40; glabra,057; Oxyacan-tlia, G40, 0. Gumperii, G40; Pyracantlia, G55. Cress, calendarial ilireetions, xii, xvi, xx, xxiii, xxvii, xxxi, xxxiv, xxxviii; forcing, iii, ix, xiii, xliii, xlviii. Dress, American, calendarial directions, xi, xix, xxvii, xxxi. Cress, water, calendarial directions, xxxviii, xlii. Cress, American, uses and culture of, 109; garden, uses and culture of, 199; varieties of, 199; forcing of, 555; water, uses and culture of, 199; varieties of, 199; Indian, 209, 22G; wall, G91. Cricket, mole, 193. Crinum americanum, 879. Crioceris asparagi, 155. Crithmum maritinnim, 2G4. Crocus aureus, 715, 7G3; autumnalis, 715; biilorus, 779; Boryanus, 715; Cart-wrightianus, 715; Imperati, 715, 779; longitlorus, 715; luteus, 779; nuesiacus, 7157 nudillorus, 715; retieulatus, 779; serotinus, 715; Sieberi, 715; speciosus, 715; susianus, 715; Thomasii, 715; varie-gatus, 779; vernus, 715, 7G3, 779. Crocuses, improvement in, 7G3; autumn | and spring dowering, 715, 7G3; as a j permanent edging, 7G3; cultivation of, in borders, 7G3; eultivation of, in pots, 7G3; varieties, select list of, 7G3. Crocus, Indian, 892. Cropping, separate, 282; simultaneous, 282. Crops, change of, necessity of, 281; succession of, 281. Croton angustifolius, 882; Ilookerii, SS2; majesticus, 882; spiralis, 882; undu-latus, 882; Weismanni, 882. Crowbar, G9. Crowherry, G72. Crowea saligna, varieties of, S48. Crown-grafting (illust.), 310. Crown imperial, 715; as a spring-dowering decorative plant, 7G4, 779; treatment of, 704; should be planted deep, 7G4; soil for, 7G4; propagation of, 704; varieties, select list of, 704. Cryptogams, effects of, on rocks and stones, 28. Cryptomeria elegans, 003; japonica, 003. Cucumber, calendarial directions, xx, xxiii, xxvii, xxxiv; forcing, iv, ix, xiii, xvii, xxi, xxiv, xxviii, xxxii, xxxv, xxxix, xliv, xlix. Cucumbers, 200; composition of ashes of, 19; forcing of, 538; select varieties of, 539; propagation of, 540; soil and composts for, 540; seed-bed, preparation of, 541; times of sowing, 541; stopping growing points of, 542; fruiting-bed, preparation of, 542; watering of, 543; airing, 544; coverings for, 544; shading of, 544; pruning of, 544; dowering of, 544; crooked fruit, to prevent, 545; training of, 545; ridge, 545; hedgehog, 725. Cucumber house, use of dower-forcing house as, 913. Cucumber tree, 041. Cueumis dipsaceus, 725; erinaceus, 725; llexuosus, 725; Melo, 509; myrioearpus, 725; sativus, 538. Cueurbita aurantiiformis, 725 ; limonis, 725; maliformis, 725 ; maxima, 200; lfioschata, 200; Pepo, 200, 725; pyri-formis, 725. Cunninghamia sinensis, 004. Cupania iilieifolia, 882. Cuphea ignea, 781; platyeentra, 7S1. Cupressus erieoides, 000; glandulosa,GG4; Lambertiana, 004; Lawsoniana, 004, L. erecta viridis (illust.), 004; Mae-nabiana, 004; maeroearpa, 004; liutka-ensis, 004; thyoides, 004. Cupressus Lawsoniana, dwarf forms of, for winter bedding, 778; nutkaensis for winter bedding, 778. Curculigo reenrvata variegata, 812, 882. Curculio cuprous, 427. Curcuma ltoscoeana, 879. Curd of broccoli, 108. Curl, on potato, 258. Currant, 502, 050; dowering, 050. Currants, black, red, and white, 405; uses and culture of, 405; select varieties of, 400; propagation of, 400; situation for, 400; soil for, 400; pruning and training, 407; gathering the fruit, 408; insects injurious to, 408; forcing of, 508. Cuticle, 3, 8. Cuttings, propagation by, 297; selection of, 297; time of taking off, 297; preparation of, 298; tearing off with a heel, 298; ringing of, 298; substances in which to strike, 299; materials for use in striking, 300; insertion of, 300; regular temperature necessary for, 301; absorption of moisture by, 301; importance of light for, 302; bell-glasses, use of, for, 302; propagation of trees and shrill>s from, 030. Cyanophyllum magnificum, S82. Cyathea arborea, 890; australis, 812; Burkei, 812, 859; canaliculata, 890; Cunninghamii, 859; dealbata, 788, 812, 859; Dregei, 859; excelsa, 812; insignis, 890; medullaris, 812, 859; princeps, 812, 890; serra, 890; Smithii, 859. Cyathea dealbata for summer bedding, 788; medullaris, effect of condnement of roots in tub, 903. Cyeads, as subtropical plants, 784; as decorative plants for conservatory, 812. Cycas cireinalis, 788, S12, (illust.) desc. pi. 15; media, 812; Xormanbyana, 812; revoluta, 788, 812. Cyclamen Coum, 707; europauun, 707; persieum. 841, (illust.) desc. pi. 13; re-pandum, 707. Cyclamens, propagation of, by seed, 841; time for sowing, 841; soil for, 841; insects injurious to, 841; temperature for dowering plants, 841, 842. Cycnoches chloroehilum, 888; pentadac-tylon, 888; ventricosum, 888, v. Eger-tonianum, 888. Cydonia vulgaris, 410. Cymbidium eburneum, 888; Mastersii, 888. Cynara Cardimculus, 177; Scolymus, 140. Cynoglossum anchusoides, 098. Cynosurus cristatus, as a lawn grass, 029, 030. Cyperus longus, 721. Cypress, deciduous or bald, 007. Cypripedium barbatum superbum, 8S8; Calceolus, 093; caudatum, 888; Domi-nianum, 888; Eairrieanum, 889; Ilar-risianum, 889; hirsutissimum, 889; hvvigatum, 889; Lowii, 889 ; niveum, 889 \ Schlimii, 889; spectabile, 093; Stonei, 889; superbiens, 889; villosum, S89. Cyrtoceras reffexum, 879. Cyrtomium caryotideum, 733; falcatum, 133. Cyrtopodium punctatum, 8S9. Cystopteris bulbifera, 733; fragilis, 733; montana, 733. Cytisus Adami, 047; albus,G4S; argenteus, 047; capitatus, 047; elongatus, 047; fra-grans, 848; nigricans. 047; purpureus, 047; racemosus, 848; scoparius, 047; sessilifolius, 047. Czackia Liliastrum, 090. D. Dabeocia polifolia, 072, 073. Dactylis glomerata variegata, 781, 793, g. elegantissima, 793. Dactylopius adonidum (illust.), desc. pi. 19. Daddy-long-legs, destructive to cabbage roots, 170; to beet, 102. Damionorops, 900. See Calamus. Daffodils, 717, 780; homely, 771; dowering seasons of, 771, 772; trumpet forms of, 772; mock, 772; cultivation of, 772; soil for, 772; positions for, 772; for spring carpet beds, 792. Dahlia, calendarial directions, vi, x, xiv, xviii, xxii, xxvi. Dahlias, origin and introduction of, 7G4; improvement in, 704; propagation of, 704; division and grafting of, 705; soil for, 705; planting in open ground, 705; protection of dowers for exhibit ion, 705; taking up and storing, 705; insect enemies of, to entrap, 705; bedding, 705, 700, 781; bouquet, 705, 700; pompon, 700; varieties, select list of, 700. Dahlia variabilis, 704. Daisies for spring bedding, 778, 779, 793. Daisy, Chusan, 740; dog, 701; Michaelmas, 091; Swan River, 724; turdng, for carpet bedding, 794. Daisy-rake (illust.), 05. Daiechampia Roezliana, 879. Dandelion, uses and culture of, as salad-ing, 200. Daphne Cneorum, 055, 072; collina, 055; indica, 055, S48; japonica variegata, 848; Laureola, 055; Mezereum, 047; neapolitana, 055; pontica, 055. Darlingtonia californica, S52. Dart-moth, 170. Darwinia Hookerii, S4S; tulipifera, 848. Dasylirion acrotrichum plumosum, 851; glaucum, S51. Dasylirions as conservatory plants, 812. Datura ceratoeaula, 725; fastuosa, 725; meteloides, 725; Stramonium, 725; Ta-tula, 725. Datura as a greenhouse plant, S4S. Davallia aculeata, S90; bullata, 890; ca-nariensis, 859; dissecta, 890; divaricata, 890; elegans, 890; parvula, 890; pen-taphylla, 890; polyantha, 890; solida, 890; tenuifolia, 890. Davallias as durable ferns for the hair, 924. Deciduous trees should be at a distance from ornamental water, 034. Deciduous climbers, selection of, 000. Decorations, domestic, 918, 924; ecclesiastical, 918; doral, 918; personal, 918, 921; in pleasure-grounds, 027; architectural, in flower-gardens, 020; dinner table: height of, 927, number and size of, in proportion to guests, 92S, arrangement of fruit and palms in, 928. Decumaria sarmentosa, 001. Delphinium Ajaeis, 725; Barlowi, 093; Consolida, 725; elatum, 093; formosum, 748; nudicaule (illust.), 093. Delphiniums, improvement in varieties of, 748; cultivation of, 748; soil for, 748; effective bed of, 749; propagation of, 749; varieties, select list of single-tlowered,749; select list of double-flowered, 749. Dendrobium aggregatum majus, S89; albo-sanguineum, 889; barbatulum, 889; Bensoiuc, 889; Cambridgeanum, 889; chrysotis, 889; crassinode, 889; Dalhousianum, 889; densiflorum, S89; Devonianum, 889; Ealconeri, 889; Farmed, 889; formosum giganteum, 889; lituiflorum, 889; M*Cartliia\ 889; no-bile, 889; Parishii. 889; pulchellum, 889; superbum, 889, s. Huttoni, 889; AVardianum, 889. Dendrocliilum flliforme,SS9; glumaceum, 889. Demistadtia punctilobula, 733. Deparia prolifer a, 890. Depressaria applana (illust,). 183, 239; cicutella (illust.), 239; daucella, 183, 239; depressella, 183, 239.DESFONTAIN EA 937 ERAGROSTIS Desfontainea spinosa, 655; as a greenhouse plant, 8-48. Desmodium gyrans, the moving plant, 88*2. Deutzia corymhosa, 047; crenata, 647; Fort unci, 647; gracilis, 647; scabra, 647; staminea, 647. Deutzia gracilis as forcing plant, 916; propagation of, 916; soil for, 916; treatment of, previous to forcing, 916. Dewberry, 480. Dianthus alpiuus (illust.),707; arenarius, 707; asper, 693; barbatus, 731, 761; Caryophyllus, 742, 745, 755; chinensis, 725, 731, e. Heddewigii (illust.), 725, c. laciniatus, 725; deltoides, 693, 755; neglectus, 707; petrauis, 693, 708; plu-marius, 755; pulchellus, 708; superbus, 694. Diaspisostrereformis(illust.), desc. j»l. IS. Diastase, formation of, 14. Dibber, 67; potato, 68. Dichorisandra musaica, S82. Dicksonia antarctica for bedding, 788; antarctica and squarrosa for the greenhouse and conservatory, 812, 859; pilo-siuseula, 733. Dietamnus Fraxinella, 694. Dictyogramma japoniea, 733. Didymochhena lunulata, 896. Dietfenbachia Bausei, 882; eburnea, 882. Dielytra spectabilis,694; as forcing plant, 916; treatment of, during early growth, 916. Diervilla amahilis and its varieties, 647; canadensis, 648; lloribunda, 648; Mid-dendortiana, 648; multitlora, 648; pur-purata, 648; rosea, 648. Digitalis purpurea, 731, p. gloxiniieflora, 731. Dill, calendarial directions, vii, xii, xvi. Dill, uses and culture of, 200. Dillwynia rudis sanguinea, 848; splen-dens, 848. Dimorphanthus mandschuricus (illust.), 645. Dinner-table decoration, 927. Dion edulis, for conservatory adornment, 812. Diomea muscipula, 852. Dioscurea Batatas, uses and culture of (illust.), 2ol; M. Vilmorin’s mode of cultivation, 202; propagation of, 202; properties of, 201. Diospyrus Lotus, 640; virginiana, 640. Dipladenia amabilis, 879; Brearleyana, 879; Williamsii, 879. Diplaziuin alternifolium, 896; grandifo-lium, 896; lanceum, 734; Shepherdii, 896; striatum, 81X3; sylvaticum, 896; thelypteroides, 734; zeylanicum, 896. Diseases injurious to apples, 381, to apricots, 439, to cherries, 434, to pears, 414, to plums, 427. Dish, form of, for arrangement of fruit, 927. Disintegration of rocks, 28. Ditula angustiorana, 439. Division, propagation by, 291. Dock, great water, 720. Dock-weeder, 69. Dodecatheon Meadia, 694. Dogwood, common, 647. Dolphin-fly, 159. Doodia aspera, 859, a. corymbifera, 859; blechnoides, 859; caudata, 859, c. con-fluens, 860; linearis, 860; media, 860. Doronicum caucasicum, 694. Dorstenia argentata, 882. Doryopteris Alcyonis, 897; collina, 896; nobilis, 896; i>almata, 896; sagitta.*folia, 896. Doryphora decemlineata (illust.), desc. pi. 22. Draba aizoides, 708; Aizoon, 708. Dracama australis, 788, 812; Banksii, 812; cannrefolia, 788; congesta, 7SS; Draco, 788, 812, 851; imlivisa, 812; rubra, 788; uiubraeulifera, 788; Veitchii, 812. Dracamas, propagation of, by cuttings, 876; soil for, 876, 877; temperature for, 876; potting of, 877; summer and winter night temperature for,877; manure-water, when to use, 877; insects injurious to, 877; hardy, 654; selection of line varieties, 877; as conservatory plants, 812; as subtropical plants, 784. Draeoeephalum, 700; grandiflorum, 70S; peregrinum, 694; Ruyschianum, 694; sibiricum, 699. Dracophyllum graeile, S43. Drag, 65; dung drag, 65. Dragon’s blood, 906. Dragon-trees for bedding, 788. Drainage, land, Parkes’ experiments on, for size of bore requisite, 126; importance of, 40, 42; diagram representing philosophy of, 41; beneficial effects dependent on a law of nature, 128; necessary for palms, combined with abundant waterings, 913; of gardens generally, 117; of the flower-garden, 610; of the conservatory, 811; of the soil for stove ferns in pots, 903. Drain-gauges (illust.), 123. Drains, depth of, 126; intervals between, 127; direction of, 127; position of, at junction with main, 128; position of, at outfalls, 128; instruments used in forming (illust.), 122; box, formation of, 124; coupled, formation of, 124; covered, formation of (illust.), 124; main, various modes of forming, 126; open, formation of (illust.), 123; pipe-tile, formation of, 125; small stone or rubble, formation of, 124; stone, formation of, 124; tile, formation of (illust.), 124. Drip bar, Weeks’ iron (illust.), desc. pi. 17. Droop as part of floral head-dress, 923; how to make up, 923. Drosera angliea, 721; longifolia, 721; rotuiulifoiia, 721. Drosophila flava, 279. Dryas Drummondii, 703; octopetala,703. Drynaria coronans, 897; diversifolia, S97; morbillosa, 897; quercifolia, 897. Dublin, mean temperature of March at, i. Dundee, mean temperature of March at, i. Dung-drag, 65. Dungs, various, as manures, 52, 53, 54. Dusty miller for bedding, 793. Dutchman’s pipe, 660. Dwarf-foliage plants, use of, in carpet bedding, 791. E. Earth, dry, as a deodorizer of night-soil, 49. Earth-bank a good sea-side wind screen, 798. Earwigs, 458. Eccremocarpus scabra, 725. Echeveria gibbiflora, 793; glauco-metal-lica, 793; metallica, 793; pumila, 793; secunda glauca, 793. Echeverias, select list of large growing, 856; smaller-growing, for edgings, 856; winter-flowering, for pot-culture, 856; metallica and secunda for summer bedding, 781; as pot plants and for flower-garden purposes,856; as window plants, 803. | Echinacea intermedia, 694; serotina, 694. i Ecliinocactus, select lists of large and small species of, 856. Echinocereus, select list of species of, 856. Eehinopsis, the best flowering sorts, 856; valida, 856. Kchites nutans, 882. Eeliium pomponium, 731. Edelweisse, 709. Edging-iron, 67. Edinburgh, mean temperature of March at, i. Edwardsia grandillora, 648; microphylla, 648. Eel fern, 897. Egg plant, calendarial directions, xx; forcing, iii, viii, xiii, xvii, xxi, xxiv. Egg plant, 203; forcing of, 545; varieties of, 54(5; French mode of culture, 546. Elrcagnus angustifolia, 641, 648; argen-tea, 648; hortensis, 641, 648; japoniea, 655; longipes, 648; pungens, 655; re-liexa, 655; umbellata, 655. Elamgnus pungens variegata and other varieties, for winter bedding, 778. Elais guineensis, 908. Elaphoglossum cuspidatum, 897; Her-minieri, 897; scolopendrifolium, 897; squamosum, 897. Elder, 644; uses and culture of, 477; as undergrowth for exposed inland situations, 799; power of endurance as a screen by sea-side, 796; flourishing in towns, 804. Elecampane, uses and culture of, 203. Elgin, mean temperature of March at, i. Elk’s-horn fern, as a basket plant, 900. Elms, varieties of, 644; for chalk soils, 802; wood and bark, composition of ashes of, 20; Siberian, for towns, 802; weeping, for arbours, 627; wych, for sea-side planting, 796. Embothrium coccineum, 655. Embryo (illust.), 3, 12. Empetrum album, 672; nigrum, 672; ru-brum, 672. Einphytus cinctus (illust.), desc. pi. 22. Enceplialartos, 788; Altensteinii, 812 ; cycadifolius, S12; villosus, 812. Endive, calendarial directions, ii, xvi, xx, xxiii, xxvii, xxxi, xxxiv, xxxviii, xlii, xlvii; forcing, iii, viii, xvii, xxi, xxxix, xliii, xlviii. Endive, uses and culture of, 203; select varieties of, 203; sowings of, 204: to save seed of, 205; curled, 203; Batavian, 203; broad-leaved, 203; blanching of, 204; winter supply of, 205; forcing of, 546; French mode of, 547; composition of ashes of, 19; place in rotation cropping, 283. Endoearp, 12. Endosmose, 23. Engine, garden, 82; Ilannay and Dietrich* sen’s (illust.), 82; watering, 81. Epacris graiuliflora rubra and other varieties, 849. Ephedra altissima, 655; distachya, 655; monostachya, 655. Epicarp, 12. Epidendrum dichromum, 889, d. ama-bile, 889; macrochilum, 889, m. roseum, 889; nemorale majus, 889; prismato-carpum, 889; viteliinum majus, 889. Epidermis, 3, 8. Epigfea repens, 672. Epimediumcolchicum,694;macranthum, 694; pinnatum, 694; violaeeum, 694. Epiphyllum truncatum(illust.),871 ^election of the best varieties, 871; native country of, 871; propagation of, by cuttings, 871; by grafting on pereskia, 871; varieties of for winter blooming, 856; resting in autumn, 871; treatment of in summer, 871; temperature for blooming plants, 871; treatment of as a forcing plant, 918; insects injurious to, 871, 918. Episema coeruleocephala, 383, 415, 457. Equisetum Drummondii, 721. Eragrostis elegans, 725.ERANTHEMUM 938 FLOWER-GARDEN Eranthemum pulchellum, 879; marmor-atum, 882. Ereilla spicata, 059. Eremacausis, 29. Ergot, composition of ashes of, 20. Erica arborea, 072; carnea, 055, 072; ciliaris, 072; cinerea, 072; codonodes, 072; lierbacea, 009, 072; mediterranea hiberniea, 073; scoparia, 072; Tetralix, 073; vagans, 073; vulgaris, 073. Erica carnea for winter bedding, 778. Ericas as ornamental greenhouse plants, 824. Erigeron glaucus, 094, 708; purpureus, 094; Roy lei, 094, 708. Erinus alpinus, 708; hirsutus, 70S; liis-panicus, 708. Eriobotrya japonica, 055. Eriopliorum polystachyon, 721. Eriosoma lanigera (illust.), desc. pi. 20, 382; mali, 382. Eriostemon buxifolius, 849; neriifolius, 849; seaber, 849. Erodium ehamaidrioides, 708; petrieum, 708; Reichardi, 708. Ervum Lens (illust.), 218. Eryngium alpinum, 094; acpiifolium, 094; ametliystinum, 094; Bourgati, 094. Erysimum arkansanum, 725; asper, 725; Perolfskianum, 725, 779. Erysiphe communis, 248. Erythraia aggregata, 708. Erytlirina cristagalli, 788, 849; Hender-soni, 788; laurifolia, 788; Madame Belanger, 788; profusa, 788; ruberrima, 788; Rarcelii, 882. Erythrinas as subtropical plants, 784. Erythronium americanum, 715; dens canis, 715; lanceolatum, 715. Escallonia illinita, 055; macrantha, 055; pterocladon, 055; rubra, 055. Escallonia, power of, to withstand wind by sea-side, 798. Eschscholtzia californica, 720; crocea, 720. Eucharidium concinnum, 720, c. grandi-llorum, 720. Eucliaris amazoniea (illust.), 809; propagation of, by division of bulbs, 8(59; soil for, 809; drainage of pots for, 809; temperature necessary for, 809; season of growth for, 809, 870; season of rest for, 809, 870; insects injurious to, 870. Eumerus ameus, 235. Euonymus americanus, 048; atropur-pureus, 048; europicus, 048; japonicus, 050, j. latifolius, 050; radicans, 050, 059, r. variegatus, 781. Euonymus japonicus and its varieties, 793; as a sea-side screen, 790; power of, to withstand the wind by sea-side, 798. Eupatorium ageratoides, 094; cordatum, 094; melissoides, 094. Euphorbia Oyparissias, 094; fulgens, 879; jacquiniadlora, 879; Myrsinites, 095; splendens, 879. Eupteryx picta, 258; solani, 258. Eurya japonica, 050, j. variegata, 851; latifolia variegata, 050. Eurybia dentata, 050; Gunniana, 050; ilicifolia, 050. Evaporation in plants, 24. Evening primrose, 728. Evergreens, how and when to transplant, 035; soil and situation for, in towns, 803; pruning of, 338; appropriateness of, near ornamental water, 034; for seaside planting, 790. Evergreen climbers, hardy, selection of, 059. Everlastings, 720; annual, varieties of, 782; as greenhouse plants, 848, 849. Exhibitions of window pot-plants, 808; classification and registration for, 808. Exochorda grandiflora, 051. Exosmose, 23. F. Faba vulgaris, 155. Fabiana imbricata, 050. F-agus sylvatica, and its varieties, 041, s. pendula (illust.), 041, s. purpurea, 041, s. p. pendula, 041. Fahrenheit’s scale of temperature, 88. Fair Maids of France, 701. Fan-palms, necessity of shelter for, as summer bedding plants, 784. Farfugium grande, 852. Fatsia japonica, 050, 780; papyrifera, 050, 780. Fedia cornucopia), 280. Fiiea spicata, 897. Felspar, composition of, 27, 28; Albite soda, composition of, 27. Fennel, caleiularial directions, vii, xii, xvi. Fennel, uses and culture of, 205; varieties of, 205. Ferdinanda eminens (illust.), desc. pl.H; for bedding, 788. Fern, bristle, 737; climbing, for droopmaking, 923; eel, 897; elk’s horn, as a basket plant, 900; lilmy, 901; flowering. 735; gold, 897; hare’s-foot, 859; hare’s-foot, for baskets, 890; maiden-hair, 732; maiden-hair, as decoration for dishes of fruit, 927; parsley, 732: royal, 735; silver, 897; sweet,of the Americans, 047; whip-stick, of Australian colonists, 858. Fern, section of stem of (illust.), 0. Ferns,as manure for soils wan ting potash, 47; hardy, position for planting, 731; hardy, selection of, 731; large, sprinkling of requisite, 785; for conservatory basket-culture, 813; select, for the hair, 924. Ferns, greenhouse, cultivation of, 857, 803; selections of ornamental greenhouse, 858; greenhouse basket, 858, 859; atmospheric moisture necessary for, N03; medium quantity of shade requisite, 803; propagation of, from spores, 803; soil for sowing and potting, 803; treatment and temperature, 803; season for sowing spores, 803; pricking out and potting of young plants, 803, 804; propagation of, by division, and by layering points of rhizomes, 804; insects injurious to, 804; fumigation of, with tobacco smoke, 804; cases for, in rooms and halls, 804. Ferns, stove, general treatment of, S93; rest of, during winter, 893; selections of the best and most useful species, 893; stove basket, 893; disadvantages of too great heat for, 902; necessity of moisture and shade not being in excess, 902; construction of house for, 902; importance of light, 902; plunging tree-ferns in tubs, 903; treatment of plants of, in tubs, 903; benefit of manure water to, 903; planting out, 903; drainage for, 903; soil for, 903; general treatment of, in pots, 903; propagation of, 903; winter temperature for, 903; size of pots for, 903; time for potting, 903; watering, 904; insects injurious to, 904; daily syringing of tree, in summer, 904. Ferns, tree,suitable for prominent sitesin a conservatory,812; best grown in pots or tubs for conservatories, 812; supplying nourishment to, by frequently damping the stems, 812. Fernery, choice of site for, 731; construction of, 731; aspect for, 731; material for, 732: rough stone, 731, burrs, logs, and butts of trees, 732; style of planting in, 732. Ferula communis, G95; glauca, G95. Fes tuca duriuscula, 029,030; ovina glauca, 781; ovina tenuifolia as a lawn grass, 029, 030. Fibre, cellular, formation of, 15. Fibrils, 4. Ficus Carica (illust.), 502; Chauvieri (illust.), desc. pi. 15, 788; dealbata, 882; elastica, 882; elastica, for summer beds, 788; repens = stipulata, for covering greenhouse walls, 850. Fig, forcing, calendarial directions, v, ix, xiv, xviii, xxii, xxv, xxix, xxxiii, xxxvi, xxxix, xliv, xlix. Figs, composition of ashes of, 19; forcing of, 502; select varieties of, 502; propagation of, 503; soil for, 504; situation for, 504; mode of bearing of, 504; pruning of, 505; training of, 505; protection of, 507; forcing of, 507; potted trees, forcing of, 508. Fig, Indian, of South America, 857. Fig-houses, 505. Filaments, 11; vascular, descent of, from graft to stock, 300. Filmy ferns, stove, 898, 901; greenhouse, 800, 802; hardy, 734. Fingers and toes, disease (illust.), 279. Finochio, culture of, 205. Fir, 003; balm of Gilead, 005; silver, 005; spruce, 003. Firs as shelter and covert in exposed inland situations, 799. Fire-bars, to prevent the burning out of, 521. Fish compost as manure, 47. Fittonia argyroneura, 882; Verschaffeltii, 882. Fitzroya patagonica, 004. Flag, sweet, 720; yelluw water, 720. Flag-flower, 097. Flats, earthenware, 83. Flax, 098, 727; New Zealand, 789; toad, 098, 727. Flea, cabbage, blue, 175; hop, 207; turnip, 278. Fleur-de-lis, 097. Flies, maggots of, 279; maggots of, on potato, 258; trap for, 008. Flint, formation of, 28. Floral decorations, 918; preparation of flowers for, 918. Floral envelopes, 10. Floral head-dresses, various parts of, 923. Florists’ flowers, select, 737. Flower (illust.), 10; female, 11; hermaphrodite, 11; male, 11. Flowers, coat, how to keep alive, 923. Flowers, florists’, select, 737. Flowers, hardy popular, select, 737: select, for the hair, 923; how to know trees by, 035; for decorations, preparation of, 918; selection and collection of, 918; selection of vases for, 919; conditional hours at which to cut, 919; treatment of stalks of, directly after cutting, 919; for decorations,keeping of, previous to arrangement, 919: special attention needed by, to be made available, 919; tools necessary to work, 919; for bouquets, gumming of, 919, 920; wiring of, 920; how to wire, 920; wiring small, 921; arrangement of, in vases, 920; assortment of, by size, colour, and form, 920; arrangement of tubular (illust.), 920. Flowers and foliage in vases, decrease of size of, from bottom to top, 920; arrangement of colours of, 920. Flowers and fruit, arrangement of, in one vase, 927. Flower-forcing house (illust.), 913. Flower-garden, work in: January, v, February, x, March, xiv, April, xviii, May, xxii, June, xxv, July, xxix, August, xxxiii, September, xxxvi, October, xl, November, xiv, December, 1. Flower - garden, management of, 008; proper position of, 009; extent of, 009; disposal of available space, 009; aspect of, 010; preparation of ground, 010; drainage of, 010; influence of drainage in warming the soil, Oil; improvementFLOW ER-GATHERERS 939 GERANIUM of soil for, (ill: water-supply for, 611; styles of: geometrical (illust.), 01*2,777, picturesque, 012, symmetrical, 013, ancient, 012, architectural, 012, formal, 012. gardencsque, 013, irregular, 013, mixed,613, five symmetrical,013: formation of various-shaped beds iu(illust.), 613, 014: mode of constructing heds in (illust.), 615; planting of, 010; winter, spring, and summer, V>edders in, 010; reserve garden,017; subtropical garden, 017; hardy perennial garden, 017; hardy bulhsin. 017; soil for herbaceous plants, •> 618; rock-work in, 018; cultural advantages of, 018; alpine herbaceous plants on. 018; rocky mound for, 618; rock-work. materials for constructing, 010; rock-work, in imitation of natural strata, 010; rocks, sunken, on grass in, 020; stream or rivulet diverted by passing over rocky bed, 020; root-stumps, to cover mounds in, 020; ivies grown over root-stumps in, 020; roses and other creepers over root-stumps in, 020; decorations in, 020; statuary in, 020; vases in, 021; fountains and basins in, 021; geometrical. 777; avoidance of incongruity in geometrical, 777; choice of subjects for massing in geometrical, 777; dependent of taste, 777. Flower-gatherers, 73. Flowering plants for planting out in a conservatory, 812. Flower-worker, tools necessary for, 019. Flues, heating by, 517. Fluids, absorption of, by spongioles, 22; evaporation of, by plants, 24; passage of, through membranous tissue, 23. Fluoric acid. 27. Flute-budding (illust.), 316. Fly, sipple saw. B§: blade, injurious to boiivardiasflH carrot, 1>2. 230; celery flllust.), desc. pi. il, 103, 230; crane, injurious to beet, P12, 176,183,255; crane, spotted, 223; dolphin, 150; frog, 258; green, on bouvardias, 915, on eala-diums, S76, on calceolarias, 544, on cinerarias, 841, on cyclamens, 841, on melons, 575, injurious to soft-wooded forcing plants, Ols; hop, 207; hop-frog, 207; lettuce, 223; onion (illust.), desc. pi. 21, 235; brassy onion, 235; parasitic, 175; pea, 248; peach or poplar saw, 457; plum saw, 427; saw (illu-t.),desc. pi. 22; gooseberry and currant saw, 465; turnip, 278, on beet, 163; water-cress, 200; yellow and green, injurious to tropical orchids, 887. Fomiculum vulgare, 205. Fomusa pumila, 471. Foliage, select, for the hair, 924; selection of, lor vase decorations, 019; keeping of, previous to arrangement, 919. Foliage plants, tender, necessity of shelter for, in bedding, 784; suth-ring from dryness in atmosphere, 7s5; bright dwarf, for permanently effective carpet beds, 791. Food of plants, assimilation of, 22. Foot-pick used in forming drains(illust.), 122. Forcing department,work in: January, iii, February, viii, March, xiii. April, xvii, May, xxi, June, xxiv, July, xxviii, August, xxxii, September, xxxv, October, xxxix, November, xliii, December, xl viii. Forcing-house at Clove Hill (illust ), desc. pi. 76; for flowers (illust.),913; necessity of, 913; use of. as cucumber or melon house for part of the year, 913; situation of, 913; regulation of heat in, 913; ventilation of, 913, 914; mode of construction of, 913; preparation of plants for, 913; care requisite in potting plants for, 914; temperature of, 914; season to close, for use, 914. Forcing plants, insects injurious to, 918. Foreshortening, 337. Forest planting at the sea-side, 796. Forest-trees, modes of pruning, 338. Forget-me-not, 709, 721, 782; for spring bedding, 780. Fork, 65; Parkes’ steel digging (illust.), 66; tan (illust.), 66; dung, 66; parsnip or root (illust.), 238. Form of vases not to interfere with sight of visitors across the table, 927. Forsythia Fortunei, 648; suspensa, 64S, 661; suspensa for winter bedding, 778. Fortumva eliincnsis, 641. Fothergilla alnifolia, 648, 673. Fountains ami basins in flower-garden, 621; in conservatory, 810. , Fowls, domestic, dung of, as manure, 53. ! Fox-brush aerides, 887. I Foxglove, 731. Fragaria chilensis, 471; collina, 471; ela-tior, 471; grandillora, 471; vesca, 471; virginiana, 471. Frames, monthly work: January, vi, Eebruary, x, March, xiv, April, xviii, May, xxii, June, xxvi, July, xxix, August, xxxiii, September, xxxvi,October, xl, November, xlv, December, li. j Frame, garden, 498; wall, 515. ; Franciscea calycina, 879; confertiflora, 879; Limleni, 879. Francoa ramosa, 695; soncliifolia, 695. I Fraxinus excelsior, and its varieties, 641, e. pendula, 641; lentiscifolia, 641, 1. pendula, 641; Ornus, 641. Fremontia californiea, 648. French asparagus culture, 152. French bean. See llean, Kidney. Fringe-tree, 646. Fritillaria imperialis, 715, 764, 779; Me-leagris, 715; nigra, 715; pyrenaica, 715; tulipifolia, 716. Fritillary, 715. Fruit department, hardy, work in: January, iii, February, viii, March, xii, April, xvii, May, xx, June, xxiv, July, xxviii, August, xxxii. September, xxxv, October, xxxviii, November, xlii, December, xlvii. | Fruit (illust.), 11. Fruits, arrangement of, in dishes, 927; arrangement of, in table decorations, 928; bush ami tree, leaves to decorate dishes of, 927; conditions for keeping, 531; leaves suitable for decoration of dishes of, 927; wall, aspects for, 105. Fruit and flowers, arrangement of, in one vase, 927. Fruit, forcing, 559. Fruit gardens, aspect of walls for,103,105; site for. 100; shelter for, 108; soil for, 101, lo2; subsoil for, 102; form and extent of, 103, 108; formation of, 100, 110; supply of water for, 100; trees for shelter of, 109. Fruit-gatherers (illust.), 73. Fruit-preserver, 515. Fruit-protector, Ayres’ wall (illust.), 515. Fruit-room, 531; Moorman’s (illust.), 531; Rivers’, 532. Fruit-trees, ringing, 339. Fruit-trees in orchard-house, 488. Fruit-tree borders, depth of, 129; slope of bottom and surface of, 131; width of, 128; level of, relatively to rest of ground, 131; pavement of bottom of, 132; concreting foundations of, 133; soil for,135; turf for, 135; formation of, influenced by climate, 136; hard materials in soil of, 137. Fuchsia, calendarial directions, vi, x, xiv, xviii, xxii, xxvi, xxxvi. Fuchsia macrostemma, 648; inagellanica, 648; Riccartoni, 643. Fuchsia globosa, Golden Fleece, Meteor, and Riccartoni, for summer bedding, j 781. Fuchsias as window plants, 808; as decorative greenhouse plants, 842; native country of, 842; propagation of, from seed and cuttings, 842; soil for, 843; potting of, 842, 843; temperature for propagating, S42,843; insects injurious to, 843; treatment for autumn flowering, 843; pruning old plants, 843; select list of varieties of, 843. Fumigator, 79; Dean’s (illust.), 80; Brown’s, 80; Appleby’s, 80. Funkia albo-marginata, 695; aureo-ma-culata, 695; grandillora, 695; Sieboldi-ana, 695, 783, 788; subeordata, 695; undulata variegata, 695. Furnaces, 519. Furnace doors, Sylvester’s (illust.), 520. Furze, suitable for banks of ornamental water, 634; as a hedge for shelter, 637; double-flowered, 658. G. Gagea fascicularis, 716; lutea, 716. Gaillardia aristata, 695; Baiselari, 695; Drummondii, 726; picta, 726. Galanthus nivalis, 716,779; plicatus, 716, 779. Gale, sweet, 650, 721. Galega orientalis, 695; persica, 695. Galium alpicolum, 708; gnecum, 708. Galls on cabbage roots, 176. Garden, fruit and kitchen, formation of, 100, 110; form and extent of, 103, 108; shelter for, 108; choice of site for, 100; choice of soil for, 101, 102; supply of water for, 100; position of, in relation to house, 101; condition of subsoil for, 102; aspect of walls inclosing, 103, 105; how to liml aspect lines on ground, 106; trees for shelter of, 109. Garden, hardy perennial, 617; reserve, 617; subtropical, 617. Garden engine, 82. Gardenia as coat-flower, 923. Gardenia citriodora, 879; florida, 879, f. variegata, 882, f. Fortunei, 879; Stan-leyana, 379. Gardening, subtropical, 783; window, 804. Garden machines, 78; pots, 82; structures, 43!); tools, 64. Garden Operations, Calendar of, i-xlviii. Garden-swift, 223. Garlic, calendarial directions, vii, xii, xvi, xxvii, xxxi, xxxviii, xlii. Garlic, uses and culture of, 205. Garrya elliptiea, 656. Gas, heating by, 530. Gas-lime injurious while fresh, 55. Gas-tar valueless as manure, 56. Gas waste as manure, 55. Gas water, manurial value of, 55. Gasterias, selections of smooth and rough-leaved, spiral and distichousleaved species, 856. Gauges used in forming drains, 123. Gaultheria procumbens,673; Shallon,073. Ga/.aniasplendens, 781, s. variegata, 794. Genista alba, 648; hispanica, 651; radi-ata, 643; sagittalis, 648; tinctoria, 648. Gentian, 703; mountain, 695. Gentiana acaulis, 695, 708; asclepiadea, 695; cruciata, 695; lutea, 695; septem-fida, 703; verna, 708. Gentianella, 695, 708. Geometrical flower-garden (illust.), 613, 614; forms for flower-beds (illust.),.613. Geonoma congesta, 90S; elegans, 908; fenestrata, 909; gracilis, 908; macro-stachys, 903; Martiana, 908; Forteana, 908; procumbens, 908; pumila, 908; Sclmttiana(illust.), 908; Seemanni,908; undata, 908. Geophilus electricus, 258; longicornis, 258. Geothermometer, 90. Geranium anemonrefolium, 788; argen-teum, 708; caulescens, 708; einereum, 708; ibericum, 695; Lambertianum, 695; lancastriense, 695; sanguineum, 695; sylvaticum flore-pleno, 695.GERANIUM 940 HEAT Geranium, nettle - leaved, as a window-plant, 808. Germander, wood, 713. Germination, 12, 14; moisture necessary to, 12; nitrogen indispensable to, 12; chemical changes accompanying,14,15. Gesnera Cooperii, 879; Donkclaari, 879; exoniensis, 879. Geum chilense atrosanguineum, 095; montanum, 708. Gherkins, culture and forcing of, 545. Gilia acliillejcfolia, 720; capitata, 720; multicaulis, 720; tricolor, 720. Gillyflower, 743. Ginkgo biloba, 000. Girofler, or Giroflier, 743. Gladiolus brenchleyensis, 710, 782; by-zantinus, 700; cardinalis, 700; Colvillei, 700; floribundiis, 700; gandavensis, 700; psittacinus, 700; ramosus, 700. Gladiolus, improvements in the, 700; soil and situation for, 700; manure for, 700, 707; season for planting,700; decorative uses of, 707; pot culture of, 707; storing during winter, 707; propagation of, 707; raising from seed, 707; varieties, select lists of, 707. Glass and glazing for greenhouse, 815. Glauber’s salt as manure, 02. Glaucium plioeniceum, 720. Glazing,Beard’s patent system of (illust.), 508; Rendle’s patent system of^illust.), 509. Gleditschia triaeanthos, 041, t. inermis, 041, t. pendula, 041. Gleiehenia alpina, 734; circinata, 800, c. glauca, 800; Cunninghamii, 800, di-carpa, 800; dichotoma, 897; flabellata, 800; furcata, 897; hecistophylla, 800; pectinata, 897; pubescens, 897; rupes-tris, 800; semivestita, 800; Spelunca); 800. Gleichenias as lasting ferns for the hair, 924. Globularia cordifolia, 703; nana, 708. Gloriosa superba, 879. Gloxinia speciosa, 807. Gloxinias as decorative stove plants, 807; propagation of, from seed or leaves, 807; soil for sowing and potting, 807; temperature for seed pots of, S07; storage of bulbs of, in winter, 807; manure water for, 808; treatment of, in blooming season, 808; selections of good varieties, 80S. Glycine, 0G1. Glycyrrhiza glabra (illust.), 223. Glyptostrobus pendulus, 004. Gnaphalium lanatum, 782, 794. Gnat, spotted garden, 477; winter, 279. Goat-moth (illust.), desc. pi. 22. Goat’s-beard, 702. Gobbo, 147. Godetia Lindleyana, 720; reptans, 720; roseo-alba, 720; rubieunda, 720; Wliit-neyi, 720. Godwinia Gigas, 879. Golden feather, 729, 780, 782. Gold fern, 897. Gompholobium barbigerum, 849; poly-morphum splendens, 849. Gomuti, 905. Goniophlebium colpodes, 897; Lepidop-teris, 897; squamatum, 897; subauri-culatum, 897; verrucosum, 897. Goniopteris asplenioides, 897; crenata, 897; refracta, 897; reptans, 897. Gooseberry, 050; composition of ashes of, 19; uses and culture of, 459; select varieties of, 400; propagation of, 4(52; cuttings, 402; layering, 402; situation for, 403; soil for, 403; planting, 403; pruning, 403; insects injurious to, 405; forcing of, 508. Gordonia pubescens, 073. Gourd, calendarial directions, xx, xxvii; forcing, xvii, xxi. Gourds, 725; uses and culture of, 200; select varieties of, 200. Gourd, apple,725; bottle,727; gooseberry, 725; lemon, 725; orange, 725; pear, 725; siphon, 727. Graft, 304; modifying influence of stock on, 300. Graft and stock, affinity between, 300. Grafting, propagation by (illust.), 304; modes of, 304, 307:—whip (illust.), 307, splice, 307, tongue, 307, saddle (illust.), 309, cleft (illust.), 309, triangular-notch (illust.), 310, crown (illust.), 310, rind, 310, side (illust.), 310, herbaceous (illust.), 311, root, 312, by approach, 310; propagation of trees and shrubs by, 030. Grafting-clay, 312. Grafting-wax, 312. Grain, silver, of wood, 0. Grammanthes gentianoides, 726. Granite, composition of, 27, 28; effects of vegetation on, 28. Grapes, leaves to decorate dishes of, 927; select lists of:—black, 592, grizzly, 594, white, 594; selections for various purposes, 595. Grape-gatherer, 73. Grape-vine, 003. Grass, cotton, 721; feather, 703; hare’s-foot, 727; love, 725; pampas, 090; pampas, in American garden, 009; pampas, on banks of waiter, 719; of Parnassus, 710, 721; quaking, 724. Gravel, limestone, as manure, 59. Braves as manure, 48. Greenhouse, monthly wrork: January, vi, February, x, March, xv, April, xix, May, xxii, June, xxvi, July, xxx, August, xxxiv, September, xxxvii, October, xli, November, xlvi, December, lii. Greenhouses, 50G; lean-to, at Clandon Park (illust.), desc. pi. 16; Rendle’s patent(illust.), 509,510; Paxton (illust.), 510; Ormson’s paradigm (illust.), 512; Williams’ (illust.), 512; uses of,813; construction of, 814; position or site foi, 814; necessity of, and means of providing light for, 814; ventilation in, 814; material and height of stages in, 814; kind of glass for, 815; system of glazing for, 815; ventilation in roof of, 815; necessity of, and means of providing air for, 815; temperature for, 810; watering of plants in, 810; soils requisite for greenhouse plants, 817; propagation of plants for, 817; placing plants of, in the open air after completion of growth* 818; treatment when first exposed to open air, 818, 819; treatment previous to being placed out-of-doors, 819; stopping plants of, 819; pruning plants of, 819; time and extent of, 820. Greenhouse climbers, selection of, 850. Greenhouse ferns, cultivation of, 857; selections of ornamental, 858. Greenhouse plants, hard-wrooded, materials unfit for use in soil for, 851; select, 820; hard-wooded, select list of, 848; ornamental-leaved, selection of, 851; soft-wooded, selection of, 852; soft-wooded, cultivation of, 854; composition and condition or nature of soil for, 854; degree of light, air, and temperature necessary for, 854; necessity of non-crowding, 854; insects injurious to, 854; remedies for, 854. Greenovia aurea, 795. Greenstone, composition of, 27. Greemvecd, 048. Grevillea robusta, 851; rosmarinifolia, 851. Grevilleas for the conservatory, 812. Gritfinia hyacinthina, 879. Grindstone, 84. Griottiers, 428. Griselinia littoralis, 056; lucida, 656. Ground, levelling, 110; uneven, how to level, 112; how to level, with its own soil, 114; preparation of, for fruit-trees, 138; mode of trenching, 139. Ground-lines, instruments used in laying out, 74. Groundsel-tree, 653. Growth, starting of, by heat, 23; cause of cessation of, 20. Grub, raspberry-bud, 471; red. 427; surface, 258. Guano, proportion of, in mixtures, 50; various sources of, 50; as manure, 50; as a liquid manure, 51; mixed with wood-ashes as manure, 54; composition and analyses of Peruvian, 50. Guards for trees in avenues, 803. Guelder-rose, double, as forcing-plant, 910. Guigniers, 427. Gum in plum-trees, 427; in cherry-trees, 434. Gum for a flower-worker, how* to make, 919. Gumming in peaches, remedy for, 457. Gumming flowers, 919. Gum-tree, sour, 642. Gunnera scabra, 783, 788. Gymnocladus canadensis, 641. Gymnogramma cha}ropliylla, S97; chry-sophylla,897, c. Parsonsii, 897; flexuosa, 897; leptophylla, 897; L’Henninieri, 897; Pearcei, 898; peruviana argyro-phylla, 898; pulchella, 898; sulphurea, 898; tartarea, 898; trifoliata, 898; Wet-tenhalliana, SOS. Gymnogrammas, removal of, to warmer house during winter,903; never syringe, 904. Gynerium argenteum (illust.), desc. pi. Iky 690, 788; argenteum for the American garden, 009. Gypsophila elegans, 726; muralis, 726; paniculata, 090. Gypsum, composition of, 27; as a deodorizer of night-soil, 49; as a fixer of ammonia, 58; as a manure, 58. H. Habrothamnus elegans, S50. Ilfemanthus albiflos, 852; puniceus, S52. Halesia diptera, 041, 049; parviflora, 041; tetraptera, 041, 048. Ilalimodendron argenteum, 649. Ilalyoon of the Arabs, 148. Hamamelis virginica, 649. Hammer, garden, 69. Hand-glasses (illust.), 99. Hardivilla’s Xum£roteur (illust.), 98. Hardy alpine plants, 705. Hardy annuals, 721. Hardy aquatics, 718. Hardy arboreal and shrubby plants, 034. Hardy biennials, 721. Hardy bulbous and tuberous rooted plants, 714. Hardy herbaceous plants, OSS. Hardy popular and florists’ flow'ers, 737. Hardy w'oody climbers, 659. Hare’s-foot ferns, for baskets, S90. Ilart’s-tongue, 736. Ilaworthias, selection of sorts, S56; as conservatory pot-plants, 850. Hawihorn, 040, 047. Hay, composition of ashes of, 18. Hazel, varieties of, 047; as undergrowth for exposed inland situations, 799; wych, 049. ITeart-and-dart moth, 176. Heartsease, calendarial directions, x, xviii, xxii, xxvi, xxix, xxxiii, xl. Heartsease. See Pansy. Heartw’ood of trees, 5. Heat, absorption of, by soils, 3S; disad-HEATH 941 INSECTS vantage of too great, for stove ferns, 002; degree of] necessary for palms, 013; regulation of, in tiower-forcing house, 013. Heath, St. Dabeoc’s, 072. Heaths, 072; in American garden, 000. Heaths, Cape, as ornamental greenhouse plants, >21; selections for ditferent seasons, 824; descriptive list of, 825; propagation of. 820; potting of,820,827; soil for, 827; suitable house for, 827; necessity of abundant air for, 827; temperature proper for, 828; stopping, cutting-back, and training, S28; watering, 828. Heating. 510; by Hues, 517; by hot water, 510; by lime-kiln, 528; by tank system (illust.), 529; by steam, 520; by hot-air stoves, 530; by gas, 530. Heating apparatus, judicious placing of, in conservatory, 810; Cowan’s limekiln (illust.), 528. Heating surface for supply of temperature in conservatory, 810. Hedaroma, 848. Hedera Helix and its varieties, 659; al-gcriensis, 659; canariensis. 659; lb eg- | neriana,659; colchiea,027; dentata, 627 Hederas for spring bedding, 779; for covering arbours, 627; for summer bedding. 7>2; for towns, 804. Hedychium aurantiaeum, 7>9; Gardneri-amim, 7>9. Hedysarum alpinum, 696; sibirieum, 696; coronarium, 731. Helenium autumnale, 696. Helianthemums, selection of, 656, 709. Helianthus animus. 726; argyrophyllus, 726; euciimerifolius, 726; multiilorus fiore-pleno, 696; tuberosus, 2o9. Helichrysum arenarium, 690: braetea- j turn and its varieties, 726, 782; petio- j latum, 782, 794. Heliotropes for summer bedding, 7>2; ! Peruvian, cultuie of, 844; pot culture I of, >45, S53; select list of varieties, S45; propagation of, 845; soil for, 845; standard plants, 845. Helipterumbrachyrhynchum,726; Hum- I boldtianum, 726; incanum, 726; Sand- i fordi, 726. Helleborus atrorubens, 696; niger, 696, n. maximus, 696; orientalis, 090. Hemerocallis disticha, 090, S53; flava, ' 696; fulva, 696; graminea, 690. Hemionitis cordata, 898; palmata, 898. Hemitelia granriifolia,893: horrida, 898; ' Karsteniana, 898; speciosa, 898. Hemlock, ground, 667. Hemp for bedding, 787. Hepatica angulosa (illust.), 690, 779; tri- I loba. 696, 779. Hepialus humuli (illust ), 207; lupulinus, 223, 477. Herb patience, 207; uses and culture of, \ 239. Herbaceous grafting (illust.), 311; of resinous trees (illust.), 311. Herbaceous plants, early-flowering, 610; in flower-garden, 017; hardy, for winter and spring bedding, 778. Ilesperis matronalis, 782, m. flore-pleno, | 090; tristis, 731. Heuchera ribifolia, 696. Hexacentris mysorensis, 879. Hibiscus africanus, 726; Cooperi, 882; rosa - sinensis miniatus semiplenus, 879, r. puniceus, 879; syriacus, 649; Trionum, 720. Hickory, 640. Hieracium aurantiaeum, 697. Hippeastrum aulicum, 917; Leopoldii (illust.), 874, 917; pardalinum, 917. Hippeastrums as decorative stove-plants, 874; propagated by offsets, 874; ]>otting of, 874; drainage of pot-plants, 874; soil for,874. 917; temperature required by, 874, 875; summer and autumn treatment of, 875; overpotting to he avoided, 875; selections of the finest sorts, 875; forcing of, 917; insects injurious to, 875. Hippomane spinosa, S82. Hippophae rhanmoides, 649. Hippuris vulgaris, 720. Hoe,00; crane-necked (illust.), 06; draw, 00; Dutch, 07; Spanish or Vernon (illust.), 00. Hoe-axe, 05. Holbollia latifolia, 000. Holly as a hedge for shelter, 037; varieties of, 045, 050; green and variegated varieties of. 656; hedgehog, 650; for winter bedding, 77S; thick-leaved, for sea-side planting, 796. Hollyhock, calendarial directions, vi, x, xiv, xviii, xxvi, xli Hollyhocks,749; origin and improvement of, 749; soil for, 749; propagation of, 749, 750; after-culture of, 750; wintering of, 750; fungus affecting, 750; select varieties of, 751. Holm-oak, 645. Honesty, 731. Honey locust, 641. Honeysuckles. 649, 659, 6(51; evergreen or trumpet, (559; Dutch, 6(52; Erencli, 731; for arbours, (517; variegated, 782; variegated, for droop-making, 923. Hop, calendarial directions, xii. Hop, 6(51; uses and culture of, 207; composition of ashes of, 18; insects and disease injurious to, 207. Hop-hornbeam, 642. Hop-tree, 642. Horehound, calendarial directions, vii. TIorehound, uses and culture of, 208. Hornbeam, 640; as a deciduous hedge for shelter, (537; hop, 642. Hornblende, composition of, 27. Horns and hoofs as manure, 48. Horse-chestnut, 639; scarlet-flowered, 639. Horse-dung as manure, 52. Horse-radish, calendarial directions, ii, vii, xii, xlii. Horse-radish, uses and culture of, 208. Horsetail, 721. Hoteia japonica as forcing plant, 916. Hottonia palustris, 720. Hot water, heating by (illust.), 519. Ilot-water apparatus, patent divisional (illust.), desc. pi. 17; higli-pressure, 529. House, forcing, for flowers, 913. Ilouse-leek, 712; for carpet bedding, 795. Hovea Celsi, 849; pungens, 849. Hoyabella, 879; carnosa, 850, c.picta,882; iinperialis, 879; Paxtoni, 879. Humata alpina, 898; heteropliylla, 898; pedata, 898. Humea elegans, 723, 731. Ilumulus Lupulus, 207, 601. Humus or vegetable mould, 29, 33; proportion of, in soils, 30. Hunchback, 147. Hyacinth, calendarial directions, vi, x, xiv, xviii, xxxvi, xli, xlvi, li. Hyacinth, feather, 717; grape or starch, 717; common, 767. Hyacinths, origin of, 767; propagation of, 768; removal of offsets of, 768; to cause ail increased production of offsets, 768; culture in beds, 768; soils most suitable for, 768; screening the flowers from sun,768; storing the bulbs, 769; Dutch system of management, 769; pot-culture of, 769; soil for, in pots, 769, 917; to obtain succession of bloom, 769; growing in glasses, 769; use of charcoal in glasses, 769; varieties, select list of, 769; Roman early-flowering, 770; for winter ami spring bedding, 778; for spring bedding, 779, 792; as window plants, 808; general treatment of forced, 917; Roman, as forcing plants, 917. Ilyacinthus amethystinus, 716; candi-cans, 716; orientalis, 716, 767; orientalis for spring bedding, 779. Hybernia brumata, 383; defoliaria, 384. Hydrangea arborcscens, 649 ; cordata, 649; Hortensia and its varieties, 649, 849, 917, II. Thomas Hogg, 917; japonica, 849; paniculata, (549, p. grandi-llora, 649, 849; quercifolia, 649; Otaksa, as a forcing plant, 917. Hydrangeas as window plants, 808; propagation of, by cuttings, for forcing, 917; soil for, 917; treatment of, as forcing plants, 917. Hydrogen, 17. Hygrometers: DanielTs (illust.), 91; dry and wet bulb (illust.), 92. Ilymenodium crinitum, 898. Ilymenophyllum a*ruginosum, 860; as-plenioides, S98; bivalve, 860; caudi-culatuin, 898; ciliatum, 898; crispatum, 860; cruentum, 898; demissum, 8(50; dilatatum, 860; flabeilatum, 860; flexu-osum, 860; hirsutum, 898; hirtellum, 898; polyanthus, 860; pulehcrrimum, 860; scabrum, 860; serieeum, 898; tun-bridgense, 734; unilaterale, 734; val-vatum, 860. Ilynienostaehys elegans, 80S. Hyophorbe amaricaulis, 908; indica, 909; lutescens, 909; Verschafl'eltii, 909. Hypericum Androsjemum, 649; calyci-liuni, 656; ciliatum, 709; decussatum, 709; hircinum, (549; Kalmianum, (549; numimilarium, 709; prolilieum, 649. Ilypolcpis distans, 860; repens, 898; ten-uifolia, 860. Hyssop, calendarial directions, vii, xii, xvi. Hyssop, uses and culture of, 209; varieties of, 209. Ilyssopus officinalis, 209. i. Ibcris carnosa, 697, 709; corifolia, 697, 709; coronaria, 726; correiefolia, 697; Garrexiana, 656; gibraltariea, 656; odorata, 726; ITuitii, 709; saxatilis, (597; semperflorens, 656, 779; semper-virens, 656; umbellata, 726. Tee-house, construction of, 533; American (illust.), 533. Ice-plant, 728; for window gardens, 808. Idesia polycarpa, 641. Ilex Aquifolium and its varieties, 644, 656; balearica, 645; cornuta, 656; cre-nata, 656; latifolia, 645, 656; mader-ensis, 645; opaca, 656. Imantophyllum Aitoni, 853; miniatum (illust.), desc. pi. lo, 853, m. splen-dens, 853. Immortelles, 726. Impatiens Balsamina, 727; Jerdonise, 879. Implement-cleaner, use of, 69. Inarching, propagation by, 316; modes of (illust.), 316; sylvan (illust.), 317; propagation of trees and shrubs by, 636. Indian corn, culture of, 548, 730; varieties of, 548. Indian cress, 209, 226. Indian pink, 731. India-rubber plant for summer bedding, 788; for stoves, 882. Indigo, bastard, 645. Imligofera decora, 849. Insects injurious to:—apple, 382 ; apricot, 439; asparagus, 155; azalea, 831, 914; bean, 159; beet, 162; begonia, 873; bouvardia, 874, 915; broccoli, 169; cabbage, 175; cacti, 918; caladium, 876; calceolaria, 844; camellia, 824; carrot, 182; celery, 193; cherry, 434; cineraria,INSTRUMENTS 942 LAYERING 841; coleus, 878; cyclamen, 841; dra-cania, 877; epiphyllum, 871; eucharis, 870; forcing plants, 918; fuchsia, 843; greenhouse ferns, 804; hippeastrum, 875; hop, 207; kidney or French bean, 214; lettuce, 223; onion, 235; orange, 838; parsnip, 239; pea, 248; pear, 415; pelargonium, 835; plum, 427; potato, 25S; rose, 915; soft-wooded greenhouse plants, 854; stove ferns, 880, 904; tropical orchids, 887; turnip, 278; watercress, 200. Instruments, cutting, 09; garden, 09, 74; levelling, 111; meteorological, 87. Integument, cortical, 0. Inula crithmifolia, 205; Helenium, 203. Iodine, 22. Ionopsidium acaule, 727. Ipomcea Horsfalliio, 880; Learii, 879. Iresine acuminata, 794; Herbstii, 782, 794, II. aureo-reticulata, 782; Lindeni, 782, 799. Iris amoena, 097, 771; De Bergii, 097; filifolia, 770; flavescens, 097; germ anica, 097, 770, 771; Histrio, 770; juncea, 710; Ksempferi, 771; neglecta, 771; nudicau-lis, 097; pallida, 771; persica, 097, 710, 770; rseudacorus, 720; puniila, 097, 770; reticulata, 097, 770; squalens, 771; susiana, 097; variegata, 097, 771; xiplii-oides, 097, 710, 770; Xiphium, 097, 710, 770. Iris, English, 097, 710, 770; Spanish, 097, 710,770; bulbous,770; rhizomatous,770; soil for, 770, 771; flag, 770; early-fiower-ing, 770; bearded, 770, 771; Japan flag, 771. Iron, 22; oxide of, 28; peroxide of, 28; protoxide of, 28; sulphate of, as a deodorizer of night-soil, 49. IsolepU (gracilis) pygmrca, as a window plant, 808. I tea virginica, 049, 073. Ivies for rock-work and rooteries, 020; for covering arbours, 027; Algerian, 027; Oolchican, 027; Irish, 027; giant, 059; gold-variegated, 059; silver-variegated, 059; tree, 059; varieties of, 059; green and variegated, for winter bedding, 778, 79G; for spring bedding, and for vases in winter, 779; for summer bedding, 782; for sea-side planting,790; for towns, 804; as hanging window plants, 808. Ivy, German, as a window creeper, 808. Ixias, culture of, 710; select varieties of, 853. Ixora coccinea, 880; Colei, 880; javanica, 880; salicifolia, 880; Williamsii, 880. J. Jacob’s ladder, 701, 7S2. Jacquomontia violacea, 880. Jasmines, 001; gumming and wiring of, for bouquets, 920; bedding, 778. Jasminum Duchesse d’Orleans, 880; Sam-bae llore-pleno, 880. Jasminum fruticans, 049, 059. Jasminum grandiilorum as conservatory, wall, or pillar plant, 813, 830; nudi-caule (by error for imdiflorum), 001; nudillorum, 778; officinale, 001; pubi-gerum, 059; revolutum, 059. Jerusalem artichoke, uses and culture of, 209; properties of, 209; composition of, 209; nutritive value compared witli potatoes, 210; insect injurious to, 210. Jonquils, 771; Queen Anne’s double, 771; season for planting, 771. Jubcea speetabilis, 909. Judas-tree, 040. Juglans nigra, 041; regia (illust.), 483, 041, r. laciniata, 041. Juices, cellular, 1; milky, 2. Juli, 235. Julus londinensis, 258; pulchellus, 258, 279; terrestris, 258, 279. July-flower, 743. Juncus effusus spiralis, 721. Juniper, common, 004; Chinese, as a town plant, 804; frankincense, 004; Irish, 004; Irish flourishing on chalk soils, 801; Swedish, 004. Juniperus chinensis, 004; communis and its varieties, 004; communis flourishing on chalk soils, 801; drupacea, 004; dumosa, 004; excelsa, 004; japonica, 004; Oxycedrus, 004; prostrata, 004; recurva, 004; repens, 004; Sabina, 064; squamata, 604; thurifera, 604; Virginian a, 004. Justicia carnea, 880. K. Kadsura japonica, 659. Kales, habitats, uses and culture of, 163; select varieties of, 103; Jersey (illust.), 104; to save seed of, 105. Kalmia angustifolia, 073; glauca, 673; ■ latifolia and others, 073. Kalosanthes, fine varieties of, 853. Kaulfussia amelloides, 727. Kelp as manure, 03; analyses of, 64. Kennedya inophylla, 850; Marryattse,850. Kentia Baueri, 909; Belmoreana, 909; Eosteriana, 909; procera, 909; sapida, 909. Kerria japonica, 649. Kidney-bean, calendarial directions, xvi, xx, xxiii, xxvii; forcing, iii, viii, xiii, xvii, xxi, xxxv, xxxix, xliii, xlviii; scarlet runner, calendarial directions, xx, xxiv. Kidney-beans, culture of, 214; uses of, 210; select varieties of, 211; place in rotation of crops, 283; forcing of, 548. See also under Bean. Kitchen-garden work: January, ii, February, vii, March, xi, April, xv, May, xix, June, xxiii, July, xxvi, August, xxx, September, xxxiv, October,xxxviii, November, xlii, December, xlvii. Kitchen garden, site for, 100; soil for, 101; subsoil for, 102; aspect of walls, 103, 105; form and extent of, 103, 108; formation of, 100, 110; how to find lines for aspects of walls, 100; position of, 101; shelter of, 108; supply of wrater for, 100; trees for shelter of, 109; garden cropping, 281; quantities of seed required, 283; plants cultivation of, 144; plants, list of, arranged according to their natural orders, 144. Kleinias, for margins in bedding, 856; artieulata, 850; repens, 794; tomentosa, 794. Knife, asparagus (illust.), 73; budding (illust.), 70; grafting (illust.), 70; pruning (illust.), 09; vegetable, 70; peach-pruning (illust.), 452. Knife, necessary for a flower-worker, 919. Kniphofla, 703. Kudreuteria paniculata, 641. Kohl Rabi, calendarial directions, xvi, xx, xxvii. Kohl Rabi, or turnip-cabbage, uses and culture of, 210; varieties of, 210; early Vienna (illust.), 210. Koniga maritima variegata, 781, 792. L. Labels, lead, 98; parchment, 99; zinc (illust.), 99. Laburnum alpinum, 641; vulgare, 641; vulgare as a stock, 647; varieties of, 641. Laclienalia luteola, 853; pendula, 853; quadricolor, 853; tricolor, 853. Lactic acid evolved during germination, 14. Lactuca bracteata, 219; sativa, 219. Ladder, 85; jointed, 85; step, 85. Lady’s bower, 001. Lady's slipper, 093, 888. Lselia anceps, 889, a. Dawsoni, 890; au-tumnalis, 890; cinnabarina, 890; ele-gans, 890; majalis, 890; Perrinii, 890; purpurata, 890; superbiens, 890; Wal-lisii, 890. Lagenaria vulgaris, 727. Lagerstroemia indica, 849. Lagurus ovatus, 727. Lamarckia aurea, 727. Lambkill, 673. Lamb’s ear, 702; for carpet bedding, 795. Lamina of leaf, 8. Lamium maculatum, 697; Orvala, 697; rugosum, 697. Lampronia capitella, 468. Land, clover-sick, 281. Lantanas for summer bedding, 782. Lapageria rosea, 061, (illust.) desc. pi. 13; as a greenhouse or conservatory climber, 813, 850; soil for, 813; r. albiflora, 850, (illust.) desc. pi. 13. Larch, 665. Larch wood, composition of ashes of, 20. Lardizabala biternata, 059. Laria pudibunda, 207. Larix europcea, 665, e. pendula, 665; lep-tolepis, 065. Larkspur, 693, 725; rocket, 725. Lasiandra macrantha floribunda, S49. Lastrea rcmula, 734; atrata, 734; auges-cens, 899; clirysoloba, 899; crinita, 899; cristata, 734; decomposita, S00; decurrens, 800; deltoidea, 899; dilatata, 734, d. lepidota, 734; elongata, 860; erythrosora, 734; famisecii, 734; Filix-mas and its varieties, 734; glabella, 800; Goldiana, 734; liispida, 800; mar-ginalis, 734; montana and its varieties, 734; patens, 899; recedens, 899; remota, 734; rigida, 734; Sieboldii, 734; spinu-losa,734; Standisliii, 734; strigosa, 899; Thelypteris, 735; varia, 735. Latania aurea, 911; borbonica, 789, 911; Commersoni, 911; rubra, 911. Latex, 2. Lathyrusgrandiflorus, 097; latifolius, 697; odoratus, 727, 782. Lattice-plant of Madagascar, SS2. Laurel, Alexandrian, 054, 658; bay, 645; Caucasian, 037; cherry, 654; common, 637, 654; Greek, 054; mountain, 073; Portugal, 645, 054; Portugal, as a hedge for shelter, 037; sheep, 073; Versailles, 654; victor’s, 054; wood, 055. Laurels, formal annual pruning of, objectionable, 025. Laurus Benzoin, 649; nobilis, 645, 654, 657; Sassafras, 641, 049. Laurustinus, 65S; for winter bedding, 778; as a forcing plant, 910. Lavandula dentata, 657; Spica, 216, 657; Stcechas, 657; vera, 057. Lavatera arborea, suitable for screens by sea-side, 790; thuringiaca, 697. Lavender, calendarial directions, xii, xvir xxxiv. Lavender, 657; uses and culture of, 216; varieties of, 217. Lavender, cotton, 658; sea, 703, 713. Lawns, formation of, 028; drainage and levelling of soil for, 028; turfing, 629; sowing, 629; grasses suitable for, with quantities required per acre, (529; keeping, 030; mowing, 031; weeding, 031; sweeping, 631; removal of worm-casts on, 031,"032; draining of, by worms, 032; removal of moss from, 032. Lawrencella rosea, 727. Layering by bending in the earth (illust.), 294; by twisting, 294; by incision or splitting, 294; by tongueing or heel-LAYERS 943 LYTHRUM ing (illust.), 294; by strangulation or wiring, 295; by wringing (illust.), 295, 29(3; by piercing, 295; serpentine (illust.), 295; by insertion of growing point, 29(3; by circumposition (illust.), 296. Layers, propagation by, 293 ; propagation of trees ami shrubs from, 636. Leaf, 8; simple or entire (illust.), 9; compound (illust.),9; stipulate (illust.), 9; functions of the, 10. Leaf-buds, 7. Leaflet, 9. Leaf-stalk, 8. Leaves, evaporating power of, 24; and roots, reciprocal action of, 26; as manure, 45; to know trees by their, 635; propagation by, 303; selection of, for striking, 303; blistered, 457; injurious effect of a stiff gale by sea-side on, 798; liow to wire for bouquets, 920. Lecanium hesperidum (illust.), desc. pi. 19; hibeniaculomm (illust.), desc. pi. 19. Ledum latifolium, 673; palustre, 673. Leek, calendarial directions, vii, xii, xvi, xx, xxiii, xxvii, xxxiv. Leeks, culture of, 217; select varieties | of, 217; place of, in rotation of crops, 283. Lemon, treatment of, S3S. Lemon seeds, composition of ashes of, | 18. Lentils, uses and culture of, 218. Leontopodium alpinum, 709. Lepidium sativum, 199. Lepidozamia Peroffskiana for the conservatory, 812. Leptinotarsa decemlineata (illust.), desc. pi. 22. Leptochloa gracilis, 727. Leptosiphon androsaceus, 727; densiflo-rus, 727; luteus, 727; roseus, 727. Leptosyne maritima, 727. Leschcnaultia biloba major, 849; for-mosa, 849; intermedia, 849. Lettuce, Lamb’s, 216; uses and culture of, 198; varieties of, 198. Lettuce, calendarial directions, ii, vii, xii, xvi, xx, xxiii, xxvii, xxxi, xxxiv, xxxviii, xlii; forcing, iv, viii, xiii, xvii, xliii, xlviii. Lettuces, culture of,219; select varieties of cabbage, 219; select varieties of j cos, 220; main summer crop, 220; winter crop, 222; to save seed of, 223; insects injurious to, 223; composition of ! ashes of, 19; place in rotation of crops, ] 2^3; culture of, for forcing, 549; sorts for, 549; Parisian mode of, 550; blanch- , ing under cloches, 550. Leucojum festivum, 716; vemum, 710. Leucophyta Brownii, 794. Leucothoe axillaris, 673; floribunda,074; racemosa, 673. Level (illust.), 76; artillery foot (illust.), 77; spirit, 77; best for use in forming drains, 123. Level, table for height of apparent, above true, 111; how to work the ground surface to a, 114. Levelling ground (illust.), 110; uneven ground, 112; undulating ground, 113. Levelling instruments, 111. Leycesteria formosa, 649. Liatris pumila, 697; scariosa, 698. Liber, 6. Libocedrus chilensis, 665; decurrens (illust.), desc. pi. lit, 665, 667; tetragona, 665. Lice, plant, 279. Licuala acutifida, 911; elegans, 911; hor-rida, 911; peltata, 911. Ligeria speciosa, 867. Light, action of, in germination, 15; necessary to decomposition of carbonic acid, 16; changes effected by the action of, 25; specially necessary for plant- houses, 814, 902; necessary to secure robust condition of ferns, 863. Ligustrum coriaceum, 657; japonicum, 657; japonicum for winter bedding, 778; lucidum, 657; ovalifolium, 657; vulgare, 649, 657, v. italicum, 657, v. sempervirens, 657. Lilac, 652; Persian, 652; common and Persian, as forcing plants, 915; potting of, previous to forcing, 915; blanching flowers of, 916. Lilium auratum (illust.), 717, 853; bul-biferum, 716; candidum, 717; chalee-donicum, 717; colchicum,716; croceum, 716; daurieum, 716; eximium, 853; gi-ganteum, 853; Humboldtii, 717; Kra-meri, 853; lancifolium — speciosum, 853; Leichtlinii, 716, (illust.) desc. pi. IS: longitlorum, 717; monadelphum, 716; pardalinum (illust.), desc. pi. 13; Park-manni, 717; purpureum, 853; speciosum, 717, 853; superbum, 717; tenui-folium, 717; Thunbergianum, 716; tigrinum, 717; Washingtonianum, 853. Lily. 716; day, 696; leopard, 718; St. Bruno’s, 690; Scarborough, as a window plant, 80S; white water, 720; yellow water, 720. Lily of the valley, calendarial directions, xii. Lily of the valley, 692; treatment of, for forcing, 916; preparation of, for forcing, 916. Limatodes rosea, 890. Lime, 21, 27, 28, 29, 30; proportion of, in soils, 30; a valuable manurial agent, 56; from gasworks not desirable as manure, 55; a corrective of sour soils, 56; beneficial on clay soils, 56; suitable for mixed composts, 57; from magnesian limestone, injurious action of, on soils, 57; slaked, 56; carbonate of, 16; hydrate of, process of formation of, 56; phosphate of, as manure, 58; sulphate of, as manure, 58. Lime duster, 84. Limestone, composition of, 27. Lime-tree, cultivated species of, 644; for ehalK soils, 602; wood and bark, composition of ashes of, 20. Liming, improvement of soils by, 56. Limnanthes Douglasii, 727. Linaria alpina, 709; bipartita, 727; Cym-balaria, 727; C'ymbalaria as a hanging window plant, 807; dalmatica, 698; liepaticiefolia, 709; macroura, 727; purpurea, 698; vulgaris, 698. Lindelolia spectabilis, 698. Lindsjea cultrata, 899; guianensis, 899; stricta, 609; trapeziformis, 899. Line, how to level a, 111; how to slope a, uniformly, 112. Line and reel, garden, 74. Linmea borealis, 673, 709. Linum arboreum, 698, 709; flavum, 698, 709; grandiflorum, 727; narbonense, 698; taurieum. 709; trigynum, 849; usi-tatissimum, 727. Lippia citriodora, 645; nodiflora, 714. Liquidambar imberbe,641; orientalis,641; styraciilua, 641. Liquorice, calendarial directions, vii, xii. Liquorice, uses and culture of, 224. Liriodendron tulipifera, 641. Lithobius forcipatus, 258. Lithospermum fruticosum, 780; prostratum, 709, 780. Litobrocbia denticulata, 899; lcptophyl-la, 899; rnacilenta, 860; macroptera, 899; podophylla, 899; vespertilionis, 860. Liverpool, mean temperature of March at, i. Livistona altissima, 911; australis, 911; chi non sis (illust.), desc. pi. 15, 789,911; Hoogendorpii, 911; Jenkinsiana, 911; | olivieformis, 911. Llavea cordifolia, SGI. Lobelia, calendarial directions, xii. Lobelia bicolor, 727; cardinalis, 853; Erinus, 698, 727; fulgens, 698, 751; ig-nca, 698, 751; pumila, 727; ramosa, 727; syphilitica, 698; tenuior, 727. Lobelias, introduction and improvement in, 751; soil for, 751; treatment of, 751; cultivation of, in pots,751; propagation of, 751; raising from seed, 751; select varieties of, 752; for carpet bedding, 794; for summer bedding, 782; for greenhouse decoration, 853. Lobes of leaf, 9. Locust-tree, 643. Loiseleuria, 672. Lolium perenne tenue as a lawn grass, 629. Lomaria alpina, 735; attenuata, 899; australis, 861; bleehnoides, 861; capensis, 861; chilensis, 735; eiliata, 812, 861; cy-cadifolia, 812; discolor, 861; tluviatilis, 861; Eraseri, 861; gibba, 812, 861; Gil-liesii, 861; lanceolata, 861; L'Hermi-nieri, 899; magellanica, 812, 861; Hilda, 861; onocleoides, 899; Patersoni, 861; procera, 861. Lomatia elegantissima,851; heterophylla, 851; propinqua better than ferns for decorating the hair, 924; silaifolia, 851. Lomatias for the conservatory, 812. Lonicera belgica, 662; brachypoda, 659, b. aureo-rcticulata, 659, 782; Capri -folium, 661; flava, 661; flexuosa, 6(51; fragrantissima, 662; japonica, 659; Pcriclymenum, 662; quercifolia, 662; sempervirens, 659; sinensis, 659; Standi shii, 662; tatarica, 649; Xylosteum, 649. Loosestrife, purple, 720. Lophospermum Hendersoni, 727; scan-dens, 727. Lotus, tree, 640. Louse, cabbage-leaf, 175; carrot, 1S2; vine, 607. Love-apple, 224; uses and culture of, 272; varieties of, 272. [ Love-in-a-mist, 728. Love-lies-bleeding, 723. Lowea berberifolia, 651. Loxsoma Cunninghamii, 861. Lucerne, composition of ashes of, 18. ! Luculia gratissima for the conservatory, 812; as a stove plant, 880. Lunaria biennis, 731. i Luperus rufipes, 415. i Lupine, 727. Lupin us allinis, 728; Hartwegii, 727; luteus, 727; Menziesii, 727; mutabilis, 727, m. Cruckslianksii, 728; nanus, 728; polyphyllus, 698. Lycaste Deppei, 890; Skinneri, 890, S. virginalis, 890. Lychnis alpina, 709; chalcedonica, 698; coronaria, 731, c. hicolor, 731; diurna ilore-pleno, 698; Flos-Jo vis, 698; fulgens, 728; Haageana, 728; Lagascie, 709; Sieboldii, 728. Lychnis, scarlet, 698. Lycium barbarum, 662; chinense, 662; europfeum, 662; europamm as fence cover by sea-side, 797. Lycopersicum esculentum, 272; racemi-gerum, 272. Lycopods, importance of atmospherical conditions for, 863; as greenhouse plants, 864. Lygodictyon Fosteri, 899. Lygodiumiiexuosum, 899;palmatum,735. Lygus bipunctatus, 258; contaminatus, 258; solani, 258; umbellatus, 258. Lyonia ferruginea, 673; mariana, 674; racemosa, 673. Lysimachia Ephemerum, 698; Nummu-laria aurea, 794; verticillata, 698. Lythrum diffusum, 698; Salicaria, 720, 8. superbum, 698.MAACKIA 944 MULBERRY M. Maackia amurensis, 640. Mfiche d’ltalie, 198; mficlie ronde, 198. Machines, garden, 78; mowing, 80. Macleaya cordata, 698; japonica, 698. Madura aurantiaca, 641. Macrothyrsus discolor, 645. Macrozamias for summer bedding, 788; for conservatory adornment, 812. Madder root, composition of ashes of, 20. Madia seed, composition of ashes of, 18. Maggot, pea, 24S; injurious to roses, 915. Magnesia, 21, 27, 28; when useful as manure, 60; caustic, injurious to vegetation, 60. Magnolia acuminata, 641; Campbellii, 650; conspieua, 650; discolor, 650; glau-ea, 657; grandiilora, 645, 650, 657, g. exoniensis, 657; macrophylla, 641; purpurea,650, p. Lennei,650; Soulangeana, 650; tripe tala, 641; Umbrella, 641; Yu-lan, 650. Mahonia, 653. Maiantliemum, 692. Maiden-hair ferns, 732, 893. Maiden-hair tree, 666. Maize, 730; culture of, 547; varieties of, 548; for bedding, 790. Malacca canes, 906. Malcolmia maritima, 728; for spring bedding, 780. Mallet, garden, 69. Mai ope grandiilora, 728; trifida, 728. Malortiea gracilis, 909; simplex, 909. Malt-dust as manure, 46. 31 alus communis,350; lioribunda (illust.), 643. Malva Morenii, 60S; moscliata, 698. Mamestra brassica; (illust.), 175, 223. Mamillarias, arranged selection of, 857. Mammoth-tree, 667. Mandevilla suaveolens, S50. Manganese, oxide of, 22, 27; protoxide of, 28. Manures, 44; organic, 44; necessity of decomposition of, to become food for plants, 44; artificial, for asparagus.149; farm-yard, 53; green, 46; inorganic, 44, 54; judicious fermentation of, 53; organic, 44. Manure, liquid, 51; advantages of, in gardening, 51; mixture of, in cisterns, and uses of, by the Chinese, 52; for camellias, 823; for hard-wooded greenhouse plants, 852; benefit of, to ferns, 903. Maples, 63S; eagle’s-claw, 639; snake, 639; Japanese, 639; sugar, 639; bird’s-eye, 639; .Norway, for towns, S02. Maranta fasciata, SS2; lineata alba, SS2, 1. rosea, 882; Makoyana, 882; regalis, 882; roseo-pieta, 882; Yeitchii," SS2; zebrina, 882. Maraschino, 427. Mare’s-tail, 720. Marigold, calendarial directions, xii, xvi. Marigold, African, 730, 783; French, 730, 783; marsh, 721; pot, 724; uses and culture of, 224. Marjoram, pot, calendarial directions, xii, xvi; sweet, calendarial directions, xvi, xx; forcing, ix, xiii. Marjoram, uses and culture of, 224; cultivated species of, 225; common, 225; pot, 225; sweet or knotted, 225; winter sweet, 225. Marls as manorial agents, 58; chalk, 59; clay, 59; peaty, 59; sandy, 59; shell, 59; slaty or stony, 59. Marly soils, 33. Marrow, custard, 206. Marrubium vulgare, 208. Martinezia Lindeniana, 909. Marvel of Peru, 728. Masdevallia Ilarryana, 890; ignea, 890; Lindeni, 890; tovarensis, 890; Veitchi-ana (illust.), 890. Mastic L’llonnne Lefort, 313. Matthiola, 760, 780, 782; annua, 728; fenestralis, 731; grseca, 728; incana, 731; sempertlorens, 731. Mattock, 64, 65; used in forming drains (illust.), 122. Maxillaria luteo-alba, 890; venusta, 890. Maximowiczia chinensis, 662. Mazus Pumilio, 709. Meadow-saffron, 715. Mealy bug (illust.), desc. pi. 10. Mean temperatures, table of, i. Medinilla amabilis, 880;magnifica(illust.), 880. Medlar, uses and culture of, 418; select varieties of, 418; propagation of, by budding, grafting, or seed, 418; training of as standard, 418. Medulla, 5. Medullary rays, 6. Medullary sheath, 5. Medusa’s trumpet, 771. Melia Azedarach, 642; japonica, 642. Melianthus major, 7S9. Meligethes ameus, 279. Melissa oflicinalis, 155. Melittis Melissopliyllum, 698. Melon, forcing, calendarial directions, iv, ix, xiii, xvii, xxi, xxiv, xxviii, xxxii, xxxv, xxxix. Melon, history of, 569; select varieties of: green-lleshed, 570, scarlet-fleshed, 570, white-fleshed, 570; soil for, 570; making the beds, 571; manure for, 571; Fleming’s system, 571; sowing, 571; mode of planting, 572; pruning and training, 572; setting the fruit, 573; house culture of, 573; forcing of, 569; insects injurious to, 575; leaves to decorate dishes of, 927. Melon house, management of, 573; use of flower-forcing house as, 913. Membrane, cellular, 1. Menispermum canadense, 662. Mentha piperita, 225; Pulegium, 225; viridis, 225. Menyanthes trifoliata, 721. Menziesia coerulea, 673; ferruginea, 673; globularis, 673; polifolia, 673. Merisiers, 427. Mertensia dichotoma, S97; furcata, S97; peetinata, 897; pubeseens, 897. Mesembryanthemum cordifolium, 728, 782, c. variegatum, 794; crystallinum, 728; tricolor, 728. Mesembryanthemums for window plants, 808,857; as bedding plants, 857; select sorts for various purposes, S57. Mesospinidium sanguineum, S90; vul-canicum, 890. Mespilus germanica, 402, 41S; grandi-11 ora, 642; lobata, 642; Smithii, 642. Methonica superba, 879. Metrosideros florilmnda, 849. Meuin athamanticum, 698. Mezereon, 647. Mica, composition of, 27, 28. Mien slate, composition of, 27. Mica, talc, composition of, 27. Microlepia cristata, 861; platyphylla, S61; scabra, 861; strigosa, 861. Midrib of leaf, 9. Mignonette, calendarial directions, x, xxxiv, xxxvii, xii. Mignonette, 729; crimson-flowered, 729; white-flowered, 729. Mildew on the apple, 3S2; on heaths, S2S; on hops, remedy for, 208; on peas, remedy for, 248; on peaches, 457; on tree carnations, 917; on vines (illust.), 606. Millipedes, snake, 176, 183, 235, 258, 279. Miltonia Candida grandiilora, S90; Olow- esiimajor, 890; cuneata, 890; Regnellii, 890; spectabilis, 890, s. Moreliana, 890; Warscewiczii, 890. Mimulus cardinalis, 698; cupreus, 728, 752; guttatus, 728; luteus, 699, 728, 752; maculosus, 698, 728, 752; roseus, 698; tigrinus, 752; variegatus, 728. Mimulus, introduction of the, 752; crosses effected with, 752; duplex varieties of, 752; hose-in-hose-flowered, 752; propagation of, 752; growth of, in pots, 752; soil and manure for, 752. Miner, raspberry-leaf, 471. Mint, calendarial directions, vii, xii, xvi; forcing, iv, ix, xliii, xlviii. Mint, uses and culture of, 225; species of, 225; forcing of, 551; spear, 225; pepper, 225. Mirabilis Jalapa, 728. Mirbelia Baxterii, 849. Mirrors in conservatory, 810. Mistleto, 658; composition of ashes of, 20. Mitraria coccinea, 849. Moisture, amount necessary to germination, 12; in connection with planting, 322; requisite for greenhouse and stove ferns, 863, 902; excess of, not desirable, 902. Mole-cricket, 193. Molopospermum cicutarium, 699. Monarda didyma, 699; fistulosa, 699; purpurea, 699. Moneywort for carpet bedding, 794. Monkshood, 690. Monocluetum ensiferum, 849; sericum multiflorum, 849. Monstera deliciosa, for summer bedding, 790; as an edible fruit, 883; as a fineleaved stove plant, 883. Montagnrca lieracleifolia (illust.), desc. pi. iky 789. Moonseed, 662. Morcliella esculenta (illust.), 225. Morel, habitat and uses of, 225. Morina longifolia, 699. Morna nitida, 730. Morus alba, 642; nigra, 477, 642; rubra, 479, 642. Mosaiculture, 790. Moss, chopped, for striking cuttings in, 300; composition of ashes of, 20. Mosses, club, as greenhouse plants, S64. Mossing flower-stems for hand-bouquets, 921. Moths, surface-grubs of, 279. Moth, cabbage, 175, 223; codling, 384, 415; common dart, 223; dart, 162, 176; figure-of-8, 415, 457; figure-of-S, caterpillar of, 383; flat body, 1S3; gipsy, 384; goat, 4S6; goat, caterpillars of, 382, 415, 434; great yellow-underwing, 176; hawthorn pontia, 384; lieart-and-dart, 162, 176, 223; lackey, caterpillars of. 384; lunar-spotted pinion, 384; magpie, 465; mottled umbre, 384; otter or ghost, 207; pale brindled beauty, 3S4, 415; pea, 248; pear, 416; pear-tree blister, 416; pebble, 175; small ermine apple, caterpillar of, 3S3; white diamond-back, 279; winter, caterpillar of, 383; wood leopard, 383, 415,486; Y, 24S, 279; yellow-tailed, 384. Mother-of-thousands, a hanging window plant, 807. Mould, hop, 208. Mould, vegetable, or humus, 29, 33; analyses of, 34. Mountain spinach, 226, 235. Mouse, destructive to seed beans, 159. Moving plant, SS2. Mowing machine, SO; Green’s Silens Messor (illust.), 630; Green’s Royal Lawn Mower (illust.), 631. Mulberry, uses and culture of, 477: propagation of, 477; standard trees of, 478; varieties of, 642. Mulberry, paper, 640.MULCHING 945 ORCHIDS Mulching in connection with planting, 322; beireii111 to newly planted trees, 322. Murrain, potato, 253. Musa Cavendishiana, 8S2; eoceinea, 882; Ensete, 780; superba, 789; vittata, 882; zebrina, 789. Musas, necessity of shelter for, as summer bedding plants, 781. Musrari botryoides, 717, 7S0; monstro-sutn, 717; racemosum, 717, 780. Mushroom, forcing, calendarial directions, iv, ix, xiii, xvii, xxi, xxiv, xxviii, xxxii, xxxv, xxxix, xliii, xlviii. Mushroom, 220; forcing of, 551; preparation of spawn, 552; recipes for composition of spawn, 553; culture in ridges, 553; bouse for. construction of, 551; formation of indoor beds of, 554. Mussfcnda frondosa, 880. Mustard, calendarial directions, vii, xii, xvi, \x, xxiii, xxvii, xxxi, xxxiv; forcing, iv, ix, xiii, xliii, xlviii. Mustard, uses and culture of, 220; black, uses and culture of. 220; forcing of, 555. Mustard-seed, composition of ashes of, 18. Mutisia, 002; decuri ens, 850. Myosotis, 782; alpestris, 780; azorica, 780, 791; dissitillnra, 7so, 791; Impth*a-trice Kli/abetb, 791; palustris, 721; rupicola, 709, 791. Myriea cerifcia, 057; dale, 050,721; species of, 073. Myricaria germanica, 052. Myrrliis odorata, 270. Myrtle, 057; wax, 057; eandleberry, 657. Myrtus communis,057, c. llore-pleno,849. Mytilaspis pomorum (illust.), desc. pi. IS. N. Nail bag, 99. Nakdooii of tlie Persians, 118. Narcissi, pln*asant-eye,771;double white, 771; early (lowering Roman, 771; polyanthus, 771,772; mock, 771; butter-and-eggs, 771; orange pheenix, 771; pseudo, 771; divisional groups of, 771; structure of, 771; true, 771, 772; hoop-petti* coat, 771; time and mode of planting, 771; trumpet, 771; cultivation of, 772; soil for, 772; positions for planting, 772; treatment of, as forcing plants, 917; varieties of polyanthus, for spring blooming in pots, 772. Narcissus bicolor and its varieties, 771; billorus, 771; cernnus, 771; gracilis, 771; incomparabilis, 771; Jonquilla, 771; jnncifolins, 771; lobularis, 771; major, 771; mavimns, 771; minor, 771; minimus, 771. moschatuE 771; nanus, 771; itobilis, 771; obvallaris maximus, 771; odorus, 771; poeticus, 771; Pseudo-Narcissus, 771, 780; Tazetta and its varieties, 771; Telamonius, 771. Nardosmia fiagrans, 099. Nartliceium ossifragum, 721. Nasturtinni, calendarial directions, xii, xvi, xxxviii. Nasturtium ollicinale, 199. Nasturtium or Indian cress, 730, 783; uses and eulture of, 220; species of, 220; as a substitute for capers, 220; as a window creeper, 808. Nectarine, forcing, calendarial directions, v, ix, xiv, xviii, xxii, xxv, xxix, xxxiii, x.\xvi, xl, xliv, xlix. Nectarine, uses and culture of, 439; clas- silication of, 442: select varieties of, 412; treatment of, in orchard-house, 48S; forcing of, 575. See also references under reach. Negundo fraxinifolium, 642, 650. Nelumbium speciosum, 880. Nematus Ribesii, 405, 408; trimaculatus, 408. Nemophila atomaria, 728; discoidalis, 728; insignis, 728; insignis, for spring bedding, 780; maculata, 728. Nepenthes ampullacea, 882, a. picta, 882; distillatoria, 882; Dominiana, 8S2; Ilookerii, 882; hybrida maculata, 882; lanata, 882; Rattle si an a, 882; sanguinea, 882. Nepeta macrantha, 699; Mussinii, 699, Ml Iieichenbaehii, 699. Nephrodium articulatum, 899; cyatlie-oides, 899; Hookerii, 899; pteroides, 899 ; truncatum, 899 ; unitum, 899 ; venustum, 899. Nepbrolepis davallioides, 899; ensifolia, 899; exaltata, 899; hirsutula, 900; pec-tinata, 900; tuberosa, 900; undulata, 900. Nerium album plenum, 849; splendens, 849. Nertera depressa, 709; scapanioides, 709. Nerteras, contrast of, with sedums, 794. Nervures of leaves, 9; secondary, 9; tertiary, 9. Netting to protect fruit-trees, 434. Nettle, dead, 097. Nettle-tree, 040. New Zealand spinach, uses and culture of, 227. Nicotiana Tabaeum, 271; for bedding, 789. Nicotine, 272. Nidularium fulgens, 880. Nierembergia gracilis, 728, 782,853; rivu-laris (illust.), 710. Nigella damascena, 728; sativa, uses and culture of, 227. Nigger caterpillars, 278. Night-soil as manure, 49; composition and analysis of, 49; to deodorize, 49; value and cheapness of, 49; Chinese maimer of using, 49; preparation of, as poudrette, 49. Niphobolus Lingua, 801, L. corymbifer, 861; rupestris, 801. Nitre as manure, 01; cubic, as manure, 62. Nitrogen, 17; indispensable to germination, 13. Noctua pyralina, 384. Nothochhena canariensis, 8G1: Kekloni-ana, 801; Havens, 900; kevis, 801; lanuginosa, 801; Marantic, 735, 802; nivea, 900; rufa, 900; sinuata, 900; triclio-manoides, 900; vestita, 735. Nucleus of vegetable cells, 1. Numeroteur, Ilardiville’s (illust.), 98. N uphar ad vena, 720; lutea, 720. Nurse plants for trees and shrubs, 637. Nuts, uses and culture of, 480; select varieties of, 481; propagation of, 481; situation and soil for, 481; distance at which to plant, 481; pruning of, 482; gathering of, 482; storing of, 482; insects injurious to, 483. Nut, bitter, 640; co quill a, 905; pecan, 040. Nutmeg-tree, Californian, 068. Nympluea alba, 720; coerulea, 880; l)e-voniana, 880; odorata, 720; pygmsea, 720. Nyssa multiflora, 642; uniflora, 642. o. Oak, evergreen or holm, 658; varieties of, 043, 045. Oak wood and seeds, composition of ashes of, 20. Oca blanca, 235; oca colorada, 235. Ocymum Basilicum, 155; minimum, 155. Odontoglossum Alexandra? (illust.),desc. pi. 13, 890; citrosmum, 890; gloriosum, 890; grande, 891; Hallii, 891; hastila-bium, 891; lnsleayi, 891; luteo-pur-pureum, 891; membranaceum, 891; nievium majus, 891; Pescatorei, 891; Phala?nopsis, 891; pulchellum majus, 891; Roezlii (illust.), 891; Rossii majus, 891; triumphans, 891; Uro-Skinneri, 891; vexillarium, 891. (Enocarpus Baccaba, 909; Batava, 909; minor, 909. (Enothera anisoloba, 699; biennis, 273; eximia, 099; Lamarckiana, 728; macro-carpa, 699; marginata, 699; missouri-ensis, 699; odorata, 728; serotina, 099; taraxacifolia, 099; triloba, 728. Oidium Tuckeri (illust.), 000; of the hop plant, 208. Old man’s beard, 061. Oleandra articulata, 900; neriiformis,900; nodosa, 900. Oleaster, 641, 048. Olfersia cervina, 900. Omplialodes linifolia, 728; verna, 699. Oncidium ampliatum majus, 891; auro-sum, S91; Barkeri, 891; bifolium majus, 891; crispum,S91; cucullatum,891; exca-vatum,891; incurvum,891; Lanceanum, 891; leucochilum, 891; macranthum, 891; omitliorhynchum, 891, o. album, 891; Papilio majus, 891; sarcodes, 891; serratum, 891; varicosum Rogersii, 891. Oncosperma Van Iioutteana, 909. Onguent de St. Fiacre, 312. Onion, calendarial directions, ii, vii, xii, xvi, xx, xxiii, xxvii, xxxi, xxxiv, xxxviii, xlvii; forcing, iv, ix, xiii, xvii. Onions, uses and culture of, 227; select varieties of, 227; preparation of soil for, 229; manures for, 229; spring sown, 230; pickling, 231; large, 231; autumn sown, 232; Portuguese mode of culture, 232; transplanted, 232; planting small bulbs of preceding year, 233; production by offsets, 233; potato, cultivation of, 233; underground, cultivation of, 233; tree, cultivation of, 234; to save seed, 234; insects injurious to, 235; Welsh, 229; place amongst rotation crops, 283; forcing of, 555; bulb and stalk, composition of ashes of, 19. Onion-fly (illust.), desc. pi. 21. Onoclea sensibilis, 735. Ouychium japonic urn, 735; lucidum, 735. Ophrys, 717. Oporanthus luteus, 718. Opuntia, culture of, 857; selection of, for flowers and for fruit, 857. Orach, calendarial directions, xii, xxiii. Orach, uses and culture of, 235; varieties of, 235. Orach, sea, as screen plant by sea-side, 799. Orange-tree, introduction of, 835, 830; excellence of liome-grown fruit, 835; form of structures for growth of, 830; soil for beds for, 830; drainage of beds for, 830; bottom-heat beneficial to, 830, 837; means of applying bottom-heat to, 836, 837; treatment of, in pots or boxes, 837; pruning or training, 837; watering, 837; insects injurious to, 838; list of select sorts of, 838; composition of ashes of, 18; composition of ashes of fruit of, 18, 19; Japanese or Otaheite, treatment of, 838. Orange, mock, 050; Osage, 041. Orangery, 512. Orchard-house, 480; best form and position of, 487; artificial heat for, 487; in pots or planted out, 487; general treatment, 487; pyramid-trees, 487; cordon-trees, 488; bush-trees, 488; pot-trees, 488; surface dressing of pot-trees, 488; repotting of trees, 488; insects hurtful to trees in, 489. Orchids, calendarial directions, xiii. Orchids, tropical, general cultural remarks, 880; benefit of association with other plants, 880; variety of heat for, in three houses or divisions, 880, 887; variations of moisture and air necessary, 887; soil or materials for potting 60ORCHID 946 PEARS or blocking, SS7; drainage necessary for, 887; supply of water for, when growing, 887; insects injurious to, 887; removal of, to cooler positions when in tlower, 887; selections of the most desirable species for general cultivation, 887. Orchid blossoms, how to wire, 921. Orchis foliosa, 717; maculata, 717; mas-cula, 717. Orchis, bee, 717; fly, 717; spider, 717; swan, 8SS. Oreodaplme californica, 645. Oreodoxa oleracea, 909; regia, 910. Oreoselinum filicifolium, 699. Organizable matter of plants, 1. Organs, elementary, 1. Origanum heraeleoticum, 225; Majorana, 225; Onites, 225; vulgare, 225. Ormson’s paradigm greenhouse (illust.), 512. Ornamental water in pleasure grounds, j 033; form of, 034; planting the banks of, 033, 034; continuous supply essential to, 034; walks near, 034; care in introducing trees necessary, 034; weeping willow and birch admissible, 034. Ornithogalum umbellatum, 717; pyrami-dale, 717. Ornus europams, 041. Orobus hirsutus, 099; lathyroides, 099; vernus, 099. Oseille, 208. Osier, varieties of, 043, 044. Osmanthus Aquifolium, 057; ilieifolius, 057. Osmund royal, 735. Osmunda cinnamomea, 735; Claytoniana, 735; gracilis and others, for bedding by j water, 789; interrupta, 735; regalis, 735, r. cristata, 735; spectabilis, 735. Ostrya vulgaris, 042; virginica, 042. Otiorhynchus picipes, 159, 248; tenebri-cosus, 457, 477. Ourisia coccinea (illust.), 099. Ouvirandra fenestralis, 882. Ovary, 11. Ovules, 11. Oxalis Acetosella, 280; BowieiJ S53; cor-niculata rubra, for spring bedding, 780; tioribunda, 700, 710, 853; granulata, i 710; lasiandra, 700; lobata, 710. Oxalis crenata, uses and culture of, 235; varieties of, 235; composition of, 235. Oxalis Deppei, uses and culture of, 230; | as an ornamental plant, 853. Oxidation explained, 10. Oxides, formation of, 10. Oxycoceus macrocarpus, 479. 074; pa-lustris, 479, 073. Oxydendron arboreum, 074. Oxygen, 10; absorption of, during germination, 10; disintegration of rocks by the action of, 28; liberation of, by growing plants, 17; quantity necessary for germination, 14; withdrawn by animals ami given out by plants, 25. Oxylobium ellipticum, 849. Oxytelus rugosus, 279; sculpturatus, 279. Oxytropis eyanea, 710; montana. 710. Oyster-scale, pear-tree, remedy for, 415. p. Pachyphytum bracteosum. 794; roseum, 794; select species for geometrical bedding and marginal lines, 857; as succulent bedding plants. 857. Pa'onia albitlora, 700; fragrans. 700; Moil-tan, 700, 772; ollicinalis, 700, 772. Pivony. garden, 700; Chinese, 700; Mou-tan, 772; tree, 700, 772. Pieenies, introduction of, 772; herbaceous, select varieties of, 772; Mou-tan or tree, select varieties of, 772; accommodating nature of, 772; distant effect of, 772; cultivation of, 772; soil for, 772; propagation of, 772; injury to, by frequent division or removal, 772. Paliurus aculeatus, 650. Palms, cabbage, 909; Chusan, 788; co-quito, 909; date, 789, 910; West African oil, 908. Talms, culture of, 913; heat, drainage, and water necessary for, 913: general compost for, 913; potting and watering, 913; use of, in table decorations, 928; list of choice, for conservatory, 811; treatment of in conservatory, 812; ornamental, stove and greenhouse, 904; selections of ornamental: palmate or fail-leaved, 910, pinnate-leaved, 904; as subtropical plants, 784. Tampas-grass, varieties of, 7SS. l’anais batard, or Panais de Siam, 238. Pancratium fragrans, 8S0; illyricum,717; maritimum, 717. Pandanus elegantissimus, 8S3; javanicus variegatus, 883; utilis (illust.), desc. pi. h~>, 883; Vandermeersehii, 883; Veitchii, 883. Panicum altissimum, 789; capillare, 789; plica turn, 883. Pansy, 730. Tansies, origin of, 752; soil for, 752; culture of, in pots, 753; culture of. in beds, 753; top-dressing for, 753; Belgian or fancy, 753; bedding out, 753; show varieties, select list of, 753; fancy varieties, select list of, 754; for spring bedding, 780. Papaver alpinum, 710; bracteatum, 700; niulicaiile, 710; orientale,700; piloshift.] 700; Klueas, 729; somniferum, 729. Faris, mean temperature of March at, i. Parnassia asarifolia, 710, 721; caroliui-ana, 710, 721; palustris, 721. rarochetus communis, 710. Parrot tlower, 661. Parrotia persica, 642. Parsley, calendarial directions, iii, vii, xii, xvi, xx, xxvii, xxxiv, xlvii. Parsley, uses and culture of, 236; select varieties of, 237; saving seed. 237; foul s, 236; Hamburg, culture of, 237; Neapolitan, culture of, 237. Parsley fern, 732. Parsnip, calendarial directions, xii, xvi, xx, xxiii. Tarsnips, uses and culture of, 238; roots of, composition of, 238; select varieties of, 238; insects injurious to, 239; composition of ashes of, 19; place in rotation of crops, 283. I Passitlora Buonapartea, 880; Camphellii, 813; Clowesii, 813; cmrulea, 662, 813, c. racemosa, 850; Decaisneana, 880; Hartwegiana. 850: Imperatrice Eugenie,813,850: kermesina.880; Xeumanni, 662; onyehina, 850: pedunculata, 850; racemosa, 880; Raddiana, 880. Passion-flower, 662. Pastinaca sativa, 238. Patience, uses and culture of, 239. Patience dock, uses and culture of, 239. Paulownia imperialis. 642, 789. Pavetta borbonica, 883. Pavia edulis. 645; maerostachya, 645; j rubra, 639, r. humilis, 639, r. laciniata, | 639. Paxton’s houses (illust.). 510; pits, 510. Pea, calendarial directions, xvi. xx, xxiii, xxvii, xxxi, xlvii; forcing, iv, ix, xiii. I Pea, chick, 196; Egyptian. 19 I ing, 697; frame, 240; sugar, iii, vii, xii, xxxv, xlii, 7; everlast-243; sweet, Peas, races of: frame. 240: imperial. 241; marrow, 241: Prussian. 241; green marrow. 242; wrinkled white marrow. 242; wrinkled green marrow, 242; wrinkled blue marrow, 243; sugar, 243. Peas, uses of. 239; ripe seed, composition of, 239; ashes of, composition of, 240; select varieties of, 240; classification of, 240; selection of, 243; soil for, 244; manure for, 244; manured with soot, 47; general culture of, 244; earliest crops of, 245; rearing in pots, 246; main crops, sowings for, 247; late crops, 247; to save seed of, 248; insects injurious to, 248; place in rotation cropping, 283. Pea pods, composition of ashes of, 19. Peach, forcing, calendarial directions, v, ix, xiv, xviii, xxii, xxv, xxix, xxxiii, xxxvi, xl, xliv, xlix. Peaches and nectarines, uses and culture of, 439; classification of, 440; select varieties of, 440; propagation of: by budding, 444, by grafting, 445, by seeds, 444; soil for, 446; stocks for,444: peach, 444, almond, 445, plum, 445; situation for, 446; planting season for, 447; mode of bearing, 448; branch of, with fruit buds (illust.), 448; spur of, with fruit buds (illust.), 449; wood buds (illust.), 448; eyes of, double and triple (illust.), 448; pruning (illust.), 449-454; training, principles of (illust.), 449; fan training (illust.), 449; stopping (illust.), 453; pinching, 453; disbudding, 454; cordon training (illust.), 455; thinning the fruit, 456; gathering the fruit. 457: diseases injurious to, 457: insects injurious to, 457; sun burning, 457; treatment of, in orchard house, 488. Peaches, forcing of, 575; choice of trees for, 576; soil for, 576; pruning of, 577; temperature and general treatment, 577; pot plants best for early fruiting, 578. Peaches, double-flowered, 639; as forcing plants, 916. Peach-case, Ormson’s (illust.), 516. Peach-houses (illust.), 504. Pears, uses and culture of, 384; select dessert and kitchen varieties of. 384. 395; dessert, table showing the months in which they are in use, 396; kitchen, table showing the months in which they are in use, 397: varieties of, for orchard culture in England, 397; varieties of, for wall culture in England. 397; varieties for cultivation as pyramids on the quince, 397; varieties for cultivation as pyramids on the pear stock, or double-grafted on the quince, 397; varieties for bush culture, 398; varieties for cultivation as espaliers, 398; selection for cottage gardens, 398; selection of the best dessert sorts, 398; varieties for cultivation as standards in Scotland, 398; varieties for cultivation on walls in Scotland. 398; varieties for perry-making, 398; propagation of: from seed, 398, by cuttings, 400, by budding, 400, by grafting. 400: pear-stock for, 400; quince-stock for, and its advantages, 401, 402; hawthorn-stock for. 402; mountain-ash stock for, 402; medlar-stock for, 402; soil for, 402; situation adapted for, 402; distance between the trees in horizontal training (illust.), 403; pruning, principles pf, 404; training. 404; pinching in, 404; spur-pruning (illust.), 404; pyramid training (illust.), 405, 406; summer pruning and pinching, 406; Cappe’s mode of pinching shoots. 406; Du Bread's mode of pinching laterals. 406; De Jonghe’s mode of pinching laterals, 406; winter pruning of, 407: mode of training adopted at the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, 407; espalier training of, 407; distance between espalier-trained, 408; distance between horizontally-trained branches, 408: horizontally-trained, pruning of (illust.), 408; pinching and spur-pruning vigorous shoots (illust.). 409; cordon training of. 409: double oblique (illust.), 410, double vertical (illust.), 410, five-branched vertical (illust.), 411, horizontal, 410: dwarf-bush trees, 411; priming and training, against walls, 411; spur-pruning (illust.). 412; thin-PEAR 947 PINtJS ning tho fruit, 413; gathering ami storing fruit, 413; diseases injurious to, 414; insects injurious to, 415; treatment of, in orchard houses, 488; composition of ashes of, 19. IVar, prickly, of Southern Europe, 857. Pear-tree slug (illust.), desc. pi. 22. Peat soil as manure, 45; as an antiseptic, 45; how to render fertile, 45; as a deodorizer. 45; as a vehicle for manure, 45. 40; henetieial on magnesian limestone soils, 57; nature and formation of! 33; inert, improved by burning and by liming, 44. Peat-ashes as manure, 54. Peatcharcoal as an economizer of manure. 45; applied to sewage with advantage, 45. Peat marshes, may he made fertile, as in Prance, 45. Pebble-moth, 175 Pedicels, 10. Peduncles, 10. Pelargonium, calendarial directions, x, \v. \i\. xwi, xxix, xxxiv, xxxvii, li. Pelargonium imininans, 78*2; peltatum, 782; zonale, 782. Pelargoniums, classified lists of choice varieties, sil, 832; t 'apespecies of, 833; scented-leaved, >34; selection for pot-culture, 832; specimen plants of, 834; fancy varieties, treatment of, 835; propagation i.f, 833, 834, 835; soil for, 835; water and pot-room for, 835; as decorative plants, 831; as window plants, | 808; ivy-leaved, as hanging window’ plants, 808J bedding, 782; insects injurious to, 835; green-fly injurious to, | 83 1,835; treatment of, as forcing plants, 918 Pelargoniums, gumming flowers of, for bouquets, 92b; wiling double zonal, 021 Penang lawyers. Oil. Pennyroyal! e;ilemlarial directions, xii, xvi, \\\v; forcing, iv. Penny royal, 218; culture of, 225. I’entas earnea rosea, 880. I’entsteinon <’ob;ea, 700, 754; Digitalis, i 7oo; gentiaiioides. 754; Hartwegii, 754; , bunulis (illust.y 700; ovatus,700; Pal-meii.7"0; p luce ms, 700; speciosus, 700. I'eiitstenmus. 782; improvement in, 754; j cultivation of, 751; soil for, 754; pro- j pagatiou of, 754; raising seedlings of, \ 755; varieties, select list of, 755. Peperomia argynea, 883. Pepperidge, <>42. Peppermint, uses and culture of, 225. Perennials, hardy herbaceous: selection of, <>88, >ituation for, 088, soil for, 088, i drainage for, 080, arrangement of, as ! to height and colour, 080, staking, 080; ! popular: fibrous-rooted, 737, tuberous- j rooted, 701. Pereskia as stock on which to graft Epi-pliyllum truncatum and its varieties, '.♦is. Pericarp, 11 Perilla nankinensis, 729, 782, 794. Periploca gnuca, 002. Pcristeria data, 891. ivriwinkle, 058; as an edging for summer I beds, t83. Pernettya mucronata, 057; species of, 674. I’eronospora infestans (illust.), 259. Persilicic acid, 27. Persimmon, 040. Petals, 10. Petiole, 8, 9. Petri.*, cubic, as manure, 02. Petrocullis pyrenaica, 710. Petrocoptis, 700. Petroselinum sativum, 236. Petunia, calendarial directions, xix, xxii, xxxiv. Petunias, hybrid varieties of, 729; for summer bedding, 7S2; as decorative plants, 845; origin of, 845; propagation of, by cuttings, 845, by seed, 840; soil for, 845; select lists of varieties of, 840; as soft-wooded greenhouse plants, 853. Pluedon betulne, 279. Phajus gramlifolius, 891; Wallichii, 891. Phalama Vanaria, 405, 408. Phalrcnopsis amabilis, 892; grandiflora, 802; Luddemanniana,S92; Schilleriana, 892. Pharbitis liederacea, 729; hispida, 729. Phaseolus vulgaris, 210; multiflorus, 214. Philadelphus coronarius, 650; Gordon i-anus, 650; grandillorus, 650; graml i-florus for chalk soils, 802; inodorus, 650; latifolius, 650; speciosus, 650. Phillyrea angustifolia, 657; latifolia, 657; media, 657. Phlebodium areolatum, 900; aureum,900; imlvinatum, 1)00; sporodocarpum, 900. Phlomis frutieosa, 657; frutieosa for chalk soils, 802; llerba venti, 700; lunariiefolia, 700; Russelliana, 700. Phlox, calendarial directions, xxii, xxix. Phlox canadensis, 710; decussata, 700; Dnimmoiidii, 729, 782; froiulosa, 710, 780; Nelsoni, 710, 780; nivalis, 710, 780; omniflora, 700; panieulata, 700; reptans, 780: setacea, 780; Spenceri, 700; stolonifera, 780; subulata, 780; verna, 780. Phloxes, improvements in, 756; decussata section of, 756, 757; sulfrutieosa section of, 756. 757; propagation and cultivation of, 756; cultivation of, in pots, 756; manure-water beneficial to, 757; soil for potting, 757; raising seedlings of, 757; varieties, select lists of, 757; varieties, early-flowering, 757; varieties, late-flowering, 757. Phcenicopliorium secliellarum, 911; viridifolia, 912. Phoenix dactylifera, 789, 910; reclinata, 789, 910; rupicola, 1)10; sylvestris, 910; tenuis, 910. Phocnocoma prolifera, 849, p. Bamesii, 849. Phormium Colensoi variegatum and tenax variegatum for the conservatory, 812; tenax, 789. Phosphoric acid, 22, 27. Phosphorus, 22. Photinia arbutifolia, 657; serrulata, 657. Phygelius capensis, 700. Phyllanthus, treatment of, as a forcing plant, 918; insects injurious to, 918. Phyllocactus, as showy greenhouse flowering plants, 857; selection of species, 857; liability of roots of, to rot, 870; summer treatment of, 870; wintering, 870; selection of the best sorts, 870; propagation of, by cuttings, 870; soil for, 870; strong light necessary for, 870; drainage of pots for, 870. Phyllodoce ccerulea, 673. Phylloxera vastatrix (illust.), desc. pi. 19, 607. Physianthus albicans, 662. Physostegia imbricata, 701; speciosa, 701. Phyteuma Halleri, 710. Phytolacca decandra, 789. Phytomyza nigricornis, 248, 279. Piassaba fibre, 905. Picea amabilis, 605;balsamea,665;bracte-ata, 665; cephalonica, 665; grandis, 665; lasiocarpa, 665; Lowiana, 665; nobilis, 665; Nordmanniana (illust.), desc. pi. 1U, 665; Parsonsii, 665; pectinata, 665; Pichta, 665; Pindrow, 665; Pinsapo, 665; Webbiana, 665. Picea Nordmanniana and Pinsapo flourishing on chalk soils, 801. Pick, 64; common, 64; pickaxe, 64; mattock, 04. Pickaxe, 61. Piekfork (illust.), 65. Picotee, calendarial directions, vi, xiv, xxix, xl, xlv, li. Picotee, 742, 743; origin and introduction of, 743; propagation of, 743; layering, 743; pipings, 743; soil for, 743; general culture of, 744; pot treatment of, 744; varieties, select list of, 745; as a coat-tlower, 923. See also under Carnation. Picridium vulgare, uses and culture of, 248. Pieris cratcegi, 384. Pieris floribunda, 674; mariana, 674. Pietra fonghosa, 275. Pigeon’s dung as manure, 53. Pig’s dung as manure, 53; should be fermented to kill weeds, 53. Pillar plants for conservatory, 813. Pilocereus, an interesting greenhouse plant, 857; select sorts of, 857. Pimelea elegans, 849; Hendersoni, 841); hispida, 849; speetabilis rosea, 849. Pimpernel, 723. Pimpinella Anisum, 146. Pinaster, use of, by planting successive rows by sea-side, 798. Pincers, 69; numbering, 98. Pines as shelter and covert in exposed inland situations, 799; Austrian, 665; Austrian, as a protection from wind, 637; Bliotan, 666; Chili, 663; cluster, 665; Corsican, 665; Norfolk Island, for summer bedding, 786; pitch, 666; Scotch, 665; screw, 883; stone, 665; umbrella, 666; Weymouth, 666. Pine wood and seeds, composition of ashes of, 20. Pine-apple, forcing, calendarial directions, iv, ix, xiii, xvii, xxi, xxv, xxviii, xxxii, xxxv, xxxix, xliv, xlix. Pine-apple, fruit and top, composition <>f ashes of, 19; forcing of, 578; temperature of West Indies, table of, 579; natural temperature for, 579; bottom-heat for, 580,585; select varieties of, 581; propagation of, 583; soil for, 584; composition of soil used at Meudon, 5S4; soil used at Frogmore, 584; manures for, 584; temperature and general treatment, 585; moisture for, 586; Meudon system of cultivation, 587; Truffaut’s system of cultivation, 5S7; Hamiltonian system of cultivation, 587; insects injurious to. 588; insecticide for white scale, 588. Pine-apples at dessert should lie decorated with their own leaves, 927. Pine-stove at Brancepeth Castle (illust.), desc. pi. 10; at Cardiff Castle (illust.), desc. pi. 10. Pinguiculagrandiflora, 710,721; vulgaris, 721. Pink, calendarial directions, xxx, xxxiv, xxxvii. Pink, alpine, 707; Indian, 725, 731; rock, 693; sea, 691. Pinks, origin of cultivated varieties of, 755; soil for, 755; preparation of Vied for, 755; propagation of, 755; season for planting, 755; thinning the flowers, 755; forcing, treatment of, 755; varieties, select list of show, 756; varieties, select list of forcing, 756; treatment, as forcing plants, 918. Pinus austriaca, Cembra, and excelsa for pleasure-grounds, 624; austriaca as a protection from wind, 637; austriaca flourishing on chalk soil, 801; Laricio flourishing on chalk soil, 801. Pinus austriaca, 665; Banksiana, 065: Benthainiana, 666; Bungeana, 666, californica, 666; Cembra, 660; Coiil-teri, 666; densiflora, 605; divaricata. 605; excelsa (illust.), desc. pi. 1U, 666; flexilis,000; Fremontiana, 666; insignis, 666; Laricio, 665; Lindleyana, 666; macrocarpa, 606; maritima, 665; mono-phylla, 666; montana, 665; Montezuma), 666; monticola, 666; Mugho,PIOPIIILA 948 POTATOS 065; Pinaster, 065; Pinea, 665; pon-derosa, 060; Pumilio, 605; rigida, 006; rupestris, 005; Sabiniana, 000; Strobus, 000; sylvestris, 005; taurica, 005. Piophila apii, 193. Pipes, hot-water, flow, 519; return, 519; Eley’s patent fluted must.), 520; joints of, 527; requisite quantity of, 527, 528. Pipe-layer used in forniing drains (illust.), 123. Pistacia vera, 650. Pistil, 10, 11. Pisum sativum, 239. Piteher-plants, 8S2, SS3; New Holland, 852. Pith, 5, 6. Tits, monthly work: January, vi, February, x, March, xiv, April, xviii, May, xxii, June, xxvi. July, xxix, August, xxxiii, September, xxxvi, October, xl, November, xlv, December, li Pits, garden, 400; cucumber, 501; melon, 501; Paxton (illust.), 510; pine, 501; Meudon pine (illust.), 501; propagating (illust.), 502; Sibthorpe’s, 499; protecting, 500. Pittosporum lueidum, 812; Tobira, 657, 812; umlulatum, 057, 812. Plane, Corstorphine, (539; maple-leaved, for towns, 802; of Scotland, for seaside planting, 79(5; varieties of, 042. Plane, regularly inclined, how to form, 115. Planera Ricliardii, 042. Plants, age of, for transplanting, 318; changes effected in, by light, 25; choice of, by condition of soil, situation, Ac., 037; dhecious, 11; momecious (illust.), 11; food of, 15; kitchen-garden, cultivation of, 144; principal organs of, 1; table showing composition of ashes of, 18; indicative of soils:—argillaceous, 38, calcareous, 38, cold subsoil, 39, dry, 39, fertile, 39, peaty, 38, silicious, 38, wet, 39; grown as green manures, 40; water, selection of, 719; for the banks of a lake, selection of, 720; for an artificial bog, selection of, 721; moderate-sized, best for planting by the sea-side, 790; relative position of, in conservatory, 811. Plant-boxes, 83; M‘Intosh’s (illust.), 84. Plant-food, conditions necessary for its absorption, 15; organic and inorganic elements of, 15. Plant-housesat Kensington (illust.), dese. pi. 16; curvilinear (illust.), 498; lean-to, 497; range of, at Powerscourt (illust.), desc. pi. 17; ridge-and-furrow, 497; span-roofed, 497; unequal span-roofed (illust.), 497. Plant-juice proper, or sap, 24. Plant-juices, modifications of, by the influence of light, 20. Plant-louse, cabbage, 175; carrot, 182. Plant-nutrition, organs by which effected, 26. Plantago Coronopus, 170. Plantain, water, 720. Plantations, preparation of ground for, 030. Planing in pleasure-grounds, prepara-of soil for, 022; in flower-garden, 010. Platanus acerifolia a good town-tree, S02. Platanus acerifolia. 042; occidentalis, 042; orientalis, 642. Platycerium alcicorne, 900; biforme, 900; grande, 900; Stemmaria, 901; Willinckii (illust.), 901. Platycodon grandiflorum, 701. Platyerater arguta, 650; Sieboldii, 650. Platyloma atropurpureum, 802; Brownii, 802; Calomelanos, 802; cordatum. 802; faleatum, 802; flexuosum, 802; rotun-difolium, 802. rieasure-grounds, work in: January, v, February, x, Mareh. xiv, April, xviii. May, xxii, June, xxv, July, xxix, Au- gust, xxxiii, September, xxxvi, October, xl, November, xlv, December, 1. Pleasure-grounds, formation of, 621; arrangement of, 608; selection of trees for, 022; trees to be selected in contrast to style of architecture, 021; relative position of trees to residence, 021, 022; tree-roots beneflcial near dwellings, 022; preparation of ground for planting, 022; form and outline of trees employed in, 022; contrast of colour of foliage of deciduous trees in, 022; approach road, course and construction of, in, 022; position and making of walks in, 023; grouping of shrubberies in, 023; deciduous trees, how to use, 024; pines, groups of, recommended, 624; trees for masses, 024; timely thinning of temporary trees, 024; selection of permanent shrubs, 025; choice of fllling-in shrubs, 025; coniferous and taxaceou s trees adapted for, 025; annual pruning of laurels, aucuba, Ac., objectionable, 625; manuring evergreen shrubs, 025; rose-gar- I den in, 625; position of rose-garden in, 020; rose-temple (illust.), (520; Ameri- | can garden in, 020; preparing beds for, 020; formation of beds for American plants in, 027; decorations, architectural, 027; summer-houses, 627; arbours, 027; roses suitable for arbours, (527 ; Clematis for covering arbours, 027; vines and Virginian-creepers for arbours, 027; ivies for arbours, 627; arbours, summer-houses, Ac., position of, (528; temples, 028; lawns, 628; bowling-greens in, 032; ornamental water in, (>33. Plectrantlms fruticosus as a window plant, 808. Pleione humilis, 892; lagenaria, 892; ma-culata, 892; Reichenbacliiana, 892; Wallichiana, 892. rieroma elegans, 849. Pliers, 09; required by a flower-worker, 921. riums, uses and culture of, 419; select varieties of, 419; dessert, 423; kitchen, 423; selection of, 423; propagation of, by seed, 423, by budding, 424, by grafting, 424; raising, by layers and suckers for stocks, 424; soil for, 424; situation for, 424; planting, 424; pruning, modes of, 425; training, 425; gathering and preserving fruit of, 42(5; diseases injurious to, 427; insects injurious to, 427; composition of ashes of, 19; treatment of, in orchard house, 488; forcing of, 588; best varieties for forcing, 588. Plum, date, 040. Plumbago capensis. 850; rosea, 8S0. Plummet, 70. Plumule, 4, 12. Plusia gamma, 248, 279. l’oas as lawn grasses, (529. Podocarpus andina, 6(5(5; cliinensis, 666; coriacea, 6(5(5; japonica, 600; nubigena, 600. Poinsettia pulcherrima, SOS, p. alba, SOS, p. plenissima, 808. Poinsettias as decorative stove-plants, 8(58; propagation of, from cuttings, 808; soil for potting, 868; temperature for cuttings of, and for flowering, SOS; treatment of young plants, 808; hardening of, preparatory to flowering, 868; dwarf plants of, 809; treatment of old plants, 8(59. Pokeweed, Virginian, 789. Polemonium cooruleum, 701, c. variega-tum, 782. Pollen, 11. rolvantlies tuberosa as a forcing plant, 9i7. Polyanthus, calendarial directions, vi, xxx, xli. Polyanthus, 757; gold-laced, properties of, 757; cultivation of, in pots, 758; season for potting, 758; soil for, 758; wintering, 758; top-dressing for, 758; fancy, 758; cultivation of, in beds, 758; season for planting, 758; propagation, 758; raising from seed, 758; varieties, select list of, 759; for spring bedding, 780. Polybotrya caudata, 901; osmundacea, 901. Polycarpa Maximowiczii, 641. Polydesmus complanatus, 183, 235, 258, 279. Polygala acuminata, 849; Chamajbuxus, 057, 074; Dalmaisiana, 849; oppositi-folia, 849. Polygonatum japonicum, 701; multiflo-rum, 701. Polygonum amphibium, 720; Brunonis, 710; cuspidatum, 701, 7S9; Sieboldii, 701; vaccinifolium (illust.), 710. Polygramma decemliueata (illust.), desc. pi. 22. Polymnia grandis, 789. Polypodium alpestre, 735, a. flexile, 735; calcareum, 735; Dryopteris, 735; hexa-gonopterum, 735; Paradises, 901; pectin atum, 901; Pliegopteris,735; Robert-ianum, 735; Schkulirii, 901; vulgare, 730, v. cambricum, 736, v. cornubiense, 730. Polystichum acrosticlioides, 736; aculea-tum and its varieties, 730; angulare and its varieties, 736, a. grandiceps, 730, a. Holeanre, 730, a. Pateyi, 730, a. rotundatum, 730; capense, 862; conii-folium, 901; denticulatum, 901; falcin-ellum, 730,862; frondosum, 802; lepido-caulon,862; Lonchitis, 730; ordinatum, 802; proliferum, 802; setosum, 736; tri-angulum,901; venustum, 802; vestitum, 802. Pomegranate, 650. Pontia brassiere (illust.), 175, 279; napi, 175, 279; rapre, 175, 279. Pontia, hawthorn, 384. Poplars, 042; upright habit effective in pleasure-grounds, 021; for chalk soils, 802; new Canadian and Lombardy, for towns, 802. Foppy, 700, 710; opium, 729. Fopulus acladesca, 042; alba, 642; angu-lata, 642; balsamifera, 642; canadensis, 042, c. nova, 802; eandicans, 042; cor-difolia, 042; fastigiata, 642, 802; gran-didentata, 642; monilifera, 642; nigra, 042; pyramidalis, 042; suaveolens, 042; tremula, 042, t. pendula, 042. | Porphyry, felspathic, composition of, 27; syenitic, composition of, 27. Fortulaca grandittora, 729, g. Thellusoni, 729; oleracea, 259. Pots, garden, 82; sizes of, S2; blanching, 83; watering, 84; suitable for cuttings, 302; size of, for stove ferns, 903. j Pot-plants, use of, in conservatory, 811. • Tot-room for pelargoniums, S35. I Pot-treatment of stove ferns, 903. Pot-trees in orchard house, 488. Potash, 21, 27, 2S; carbonate of, 27; silicate of, 27, 28; absorption of. by clay, 37; as manure, 00: nitrate of, as manure, 01; silicate of, as manure, 01. Potato, calendarial directions, iii, viii, xii. xvi, xx, xxiv, xxvii, xxxv, xxxviii, xlii; forcing, iv, ix, xiii, xvii. Potatos, uses and culture of, 249; composition of tubers of, 19, 249; composition of ashes of. 19, 249; select varieties of, 250; soil for, 250; manure for, 250; propagation of, 252; mode of cutting, for sets, 252; time and manner of planting, 253; subsequent culture of, 256; early crops, to forward, 256; young, to obtain in winter, 256; taking up and storing, 257 ; light injurious to potato tubers, 257; seed tubers, 252; raising from seeds, 258; insects and diseases injurious to, 258; place in rotation of crops, 283; forcing of. 555; hot-bed culture of, 555; market-gar-rOTATO- APPLES 949 RHODODENDRONS deners’ method of, 555; pot-culture of, 55(j. Potato-apples, 25$. Potato murrain, 25$. Potentilla ambigua, 711; atrosanguinea, 701, 750; aurea, 711; fruticosa, 050; granditiora flore-pleno, 701; M‘Nabi-ana, 701; nepalensis, 701; nevadensis, 701 ; pyretiaiea, 701; speciosa flore-pleno. 701. Potentillas. improvement of, 759; cultivation of, 759; soil for, 759; surface dressing, 759; propagation of, 759; raising from seed, 759; select list of double-tlo\vered,759;of single-flowered, 759. Poterium Sanguisorba (illusfc.), 170. Potiron jaune, 200. Potting of greenhouse ferns, 863, 804; palms, 913; plants for flower-forcing house, 914; window plants, 805. Pottles, $7. Prickle (illust.), 8. Primrose, Chinese, calendarial directions, xxx. Primroses, Chinese, as decorative greenhouse plants, 83$; a light house essential to, S3S; propagation of, by seed, 83$, $39; soil for sowing, 839; potting seedlings, 839; soil for potting, 839; watering of, 839; treatment of, when in flower, $39; propagation of double, by cuttings, 839. Primrose, evening, 699, 72$. Primrose, tree, uses and culture of, 273. Primroses for spring beds, 780, 792. Primrose peerless, 771. Primula aeaulis umbellata, 757; Auricula. 73$; cortusoides, 711, c. amuena (illust.), 711; decora, 711; lielvetica, 711; japoniea, 711, $39; Munroi, 711; nivalis. 711; officinalis, 780; pedemon-tana,711; sc*otica,711; Sieboldii(illust.), 711; sinensis, 83$; veris, 780; vulgaris, 7^'). Primulas as decorative greenhouse plants, $3$, $39. Primulas, wiring, for bouquets, 920. Prince’s feather, 723. Prinos glaber, 65$; verticillata, 650. Pritchardia filamentosa, 910. Privet, varieties of, 649, 657. Propagation, various modes of, 288; of greenhouse ferns, 863, 864; of stove ferns by spores, root-division, or layering, 903; of trees and shrubs, 636. Prumnopitys elegans, 666. Prunella granditiora, 711; laciniata, 711. Prunes, preparation of, 426. Pruning, 330; effects of (illust.), 330,334; directions for (illust ), 331; neglected (illust.), 332; for kneed timber (illust.), 333; for straight timber (illust.), 333; objects of, 334; proper time for, 334; principles of (illust ), 335; unskilful, 337; the camellia, $23; evergreens, 338; forest-trees, 33$; conifers, 339; greenhouse plants, 819; the orange, 837; of roots, 339; trees and shrubs, points to consider in, 636. Prunus domestica, 419; lusitanica, 645; Padus, 642; sinensis, double-flowered, as forcing plant, 916; propagation of, 916; treatment of, previous to forcing, 916; triloba, 645; virginiana, 642. Pseudo-narcissi, 771. Psila nigricornis, 239; rosae (illust.), 182, 239. Psylla pyri, 415. Ptarmica vulgaris flore-pleno, 701. Pfelea trifoliata, 642. Pteris aquilina, 736; arguta, 862; argy-r;ea, 9ul; aspericaulis, 901; crenata, 862; cretica albo-lineata, 736; hastata, 862; Kingiana,; 862; longifolia, 862; scaberula. 736; semipinnata, 901; ser-rulata and varieties, 862; trernula,862; tricolor, 901; umbrosa, 862. Pterocarya caucasica, 642; fraxinifolia, 642. Pteromalus puparum, 175. Ptychosperma Alexandra}, 910; angusti-folia, 910; appendiculata, 910; Cun-ninghamii as a half-hardy palm, 910; Rumpliii, 910; rupicola, 910; saxatilis, 910. Puccinia malvacearum, 750. Pulmonaria angustifolia, 701; davuriea, 701; sibirica, 701; virginica, 701. Pultemea ericoides, S49; rosea, 849. Pulvinaria vitis (illust.), desc. pi. IS. Pumpkins, uses and culture of, 206; varieties of, 206. Punica Granatum, 650. Punnets, 86. Purslane, calendarial directions, xvi, xx, xxiv, xxvii. Purslane, uses and culture of, 259; varieties of, 259; forcing of, 556. Pyralis luscana, 415; rostralis, 207. Pyramid trees in orchard house, 487. Pyrethrum carneum, 701; Parthenium aureum, 729, 780, 782, 794; roseum, 701, 759; Tanacetum, 198; Tchihat-chewii, 794; uliginosum, 701. Pyrethrums, improvement in, 759; origin of double forms of, 759; cultivation of, 759; soil for, 759; propagation of, 760; raising from seed, 760; varieties, select list of, 760. Pyrus, 650; Aria for chalk soils, 802. Pyrus Aria, 643; astracanica, 643; Aucu-paria, 402, 643; baccata, 643; cerasifera, 643; communis, 384; eoronaria, 643; Cydonia, 416; domestica, 643; -Mains, 350; prunifolia, 643; Sorbus, 643; spec-tabilis, 643, s. floribunda, 643; tormin-alis, 643. Q- j Quartz, composition of, 27, 28. Quatre-dpices, 227. Quercus .Egilops, 643: Cerris, and its varieties, 643, C. fulhamensis, 643, C. Lucombeana, 643; coccinea, 643; con-cordia, 643; Ilex, 645, 658; nigra, 643; pedunculata, 643, 645; Robur and its varieties, 643, R. fastigiata, 643, R. pendula, 643; sessiliflora, 643; Suber, 645; virens, 645. ! Quicklime, 21; undesirable as a deodorizer of night-soil, 49; objectionable in composts, 54; valuable as manure on heavy soils, 56; production of, from carbonate of lime, 56. I Quinces, uses and culture of, 416; select varieties of, 416; propagation of: by seed, 417, by cuttings, 417, by layers, 417; pruning and training of, 417; soil I for, 417. Quince seeds, composition of ashes of, 18. Quinoa, uses and culture of, 259. R. Radicle, 4, 12. Radish, calendarial directions, iii, viii, xii, xvi, xx, xxiv, xxvii, xxxi, xxxv, xxxviii, xlvii; forcing, iv, ix, xvii, xliii, xlviii. Radish, uses and culture of, 260; select varieties of, 260; for winter, 261; sorts cultivated for pickling pods, 260; to save seed of, 261; rat-tailed, 261; forcing of, 556; best sorts for forcing, 556; root and top, composition of ashes of, 19. Rain-gauge (illust.), 96; Casella’s (illust.), 96. Rake, 65. Rammer, 68. Rampion, calendarial directions, xx. Rampion, uses and culture of, 261. I Range of glass, varied construction of, 514. Ranunculus, calendarial directions, vi, x. Ranunculus aconitifolius, 701; alpestris, 711; amplexicaulis, 701; asiaticus, 772; bullatus, 701; parnassifolius, 711. Ranunculus, globe, 703. Ranunculuses, origin and introduction of, 772; propagation of, 772; soil,season, and mode of sowing, 772, 773; soil anil situation for planting, 773; taking up and storing the roots, 773, 774; planting, season for, 773; general manage-ment, 773; protecting flowers of, 774; successive harvesting of roots as they ripen, 774; Persian section of, 774; Turban section of, 774; varieties, select list of, 774. Rape, uses and culture of, 262; forcing of, 555. Rape-dust as manure, 46. Raphanus sativus, 260; caudatus, 261. Raphides, 3. Raspberry, uses and culture of, 468; select varieties of, 468; propagation of, 468; situation and soil, 469; planting of, 469; mode of bearing, 4(59; pruning and training, 469; late-fruiting, treatment for, 470; diseases injurious to, 471; insects injurious to, 471; forcing, 588. Ratafia, 427. Rattans, ground, 912. Reaumur’s scale of temperature, 88. Red-spider (illust.), desc. pi. 17. Redwood, 667. Reeds, compo ition of ashes of, 18; as manure for vines, 47; for bedding, 786. Reel and line, garden, 74. Reem of the Lepchas, 906. Regelia majestica, 912; prineeps, 912. Registration of window pot-plants, far exhibitions, 80$. Renantliera coccinea, 892; Lowii, 892. Rendle’s patent houses (illust.), 509, 510; patent system of glazing (illust.), 509. Repotting trees in orchard houses, 488. Reseda odorata, 729. Retinospora ericoides, 666; leptoclada, 66(5; lycopodioides, 666; obtusa and its varieties, 066; pisifera and its varieties, 666; pisifera and other species for winter bedding, 778: plumosa, 666; squarrosa, 666. Rhamnus Alaternus and its varieties, 658. Rhapis flabelliformis (illust.), 912; humi-lis, 912. Rheum, 262; australe, 262; Emodi, 262. Rhipsalis, select sorts of, 857. Rhizobius helianthemi, 210. Rhizome (illust.), 7. Rhodanthe atrosanguinea, 729; Man-glesii, 729, -M. alba, 729, M. maculata, 729. Pdiodiola rosea, 711. Rhododendron altaclarense, 674; arbo-reum, 674; campanulatum, 674; cataw-biense, 674; caucasicum, 674; chrysan-thum, 674; ciliatum, 674; cinnamo-meum, 674; Dalhousianum, 849; daiiri-cum,674;Edgworthii,849;ferrugineum, 674; Gibsoni, 849; hirsutum, 674; jas-miniflorum, 849, 914; javanicum, 849; maximum, 674; Nuttallii, 849; ponti-cum, 658, 674; Princess Alexandra (illust.), desc. pi. IS; Princess Royal (illust.), desc. pi. IS; retusum, 849; Thompsoni, 849; Veitchianum, 849. Rhododendrons in American garden, 669; standard or tree-form (illust.), 669; propagation: by seeds, 670, by cuttings, 670, by layers, 670, by grafting 670; season for planting, 670; position for, 670; soil for, 670; layering of, 670; grafting and budding of, 671; inarching of, 671; renewal of soil for, 671; removal of seed-vessels from, 671; selection of hardy hybrid, 675; thickleaved, suitable for sea-side planting, | 796; unsuitableness of, for chalk soils, 602RHODORA SASSAFRAS 950 802; as town plants, 804; greenhouse, as forcing plants, 914; soil for potting, 914; treatment of, previous to forcing, 914; jasminitlorum and its varieties as forcing plants, 914. Rhodora canadensis, 675. Rhodothamnus Chamfccistus, 675. Rhodotypos kerrioides, 650. Rhopala australis, 812; corcovadensis, 812, 851; elegantissima, 851; Porteana, 812. Rhubarb, calendarial directions, viii, xii, xvi, xx; forcing, iv, ix, xiii, xliii, xlviii. Rhubarb, uses and culture of, 262; select species and varieties of, 262; blanching, 262; forcing of, 556; best sorts for, 556; stalk and leaves, composition of ashes of, 19. Rhus coecinea, 650; Cotinus, 650; elegans, 650; glabra, 650, g. laciniata, 650; suc-cedanea, 650; Toxicodendron, 650; typ-hina, 643; venenata, 650; vernix, 650. Rhus glabra and g. laciniata for bedding, 789. Rhynehites alliarise, 382; Bacchus, 383. Rhynchospermum jasminoides, 813, 851. Ribes aureum, 650; fuchsioides, 651; Grossularia, 459; nigrum, 465; niveum, 650; rubrum, 465; sanguincum, 650; speciosum, 651; uva crispa, 459. Ribs of leaves, 9. Rice-paper plant, Chinese, 786. Rice-paper tree, 656. Richardia icthiopica, 853; albo-maculata, 853. Ricinus Gibsoni, contrast of foliage in, 783; as a subtropical plant, 784; varieties of, 789; grouping of dark-leaved, 790. Rind, 6. Rind-grafting, 310. Ring-budding (illust.), 316. Road, approach, course, and construction of, 622. Robinia hispida, 651; Pseud-Acacia and its varieties, 643, P. Bessoniana, 643, 1\ Docaisneana, 643, P. monophylla, 643; viscosa, 643. Rocambole, calendarial directions, viii, xii, xvi, xxvii. Rocambole, uses and culture of, 262. Rochea falcata, 794; perfoliata, 794. Rochea, select species of, 857. Rock plants’ hardy selection of, 705. Rock-rose, 656. Rock-work in flower-garden, 618, 619, 620. Rockery, formation of, 705; rearrangement of, 705; soil for, 705. Rocket, 782; double, 696; night-scented, 731. Rocks, primary, soils yielded by, 26; table of elementary composition of, 27; chemical action on, 28. Rod, horning, 75; measuring, 74. Roella ciliata, 849. Roller, 68. Kondeletia speciosa, 880. Rong of the Lepclias, 906. Roofs, angle of elevation for (illust.), 494; ironwork used in Paxton, 511; rays rellected from, at various angles of incidence, 496; plants for conservatory, 813. Root, 3, 4; fibrous, 4, (illust.) 5; tap, 4; tuberous, 4, (illust.) 5. Root-grafting, 312. Root-pruning, 339. Root-stumps to cover mounds in flower-garden, 620. Root-suckers, propagation by, 292. Rooteries in flower-gardens, 620. Roots, absorption of water by, 22; cutting olf, from trees to be transplanted (illust.), 323; propagation by, 303; bene- ficial in soil near dwellings, 622; reciprocal action of with leaves, 26. Rosa alba, 683; alpina, 662, 684; arvensis, 662, 684; Banksiac, 662, 685; berberi-folia, 651, 685; bracteata, 685; centi-folia, 651, 683; damascena, 683; ferox, 651; gallica, 683; indica, 687; involu-crata, 685; lutea, 684; micropliylla, 685; moschata, 685; multiilora, 662, 685; pimpinellifolia, 651; rubiginosa, 651, 684; semperllorens, 687; sempervirens, 660. 685; spinosissima, 651, 684; sul-phurea, 651, 684. Rosary, formation of a, 678. Rose, calendarial directions, vi, x, xv, xix, xxii, xxvi, xxx, xxxiv, xxxvii, xii, xlvi, li. Rose, Star of Waltham (illust.), desc. pi. 13. Roses, 651; alba, 683; Austrian brier, 684; autumnal, 682, 685; Ayrshire, 662, 684; Banksian, 662, 685; berberry-leaved, 685; Bourbon, 686; Boursault, 662, 684; cabbage. 651, 683; Chinese, 687; Christmas, 696; climbing, for arbours, 627; damask, 683; damask perpetual, 685; yellow, 651, 684; Eglantine, 684; evergreen, 660, 685; fairy, 687; French, 683; gallica, 683; guelder, 652; hedgehog, 651; hybrid perpetual and other hybrids, 683, 685; Lawrenceana, 687; Macartney, 685; micropliylla, 685; miniature Provence, 683; moss, 651, 683; multifiora, 685; musk, 685; noisette, 687; of Sharon, 656; of the Alps, 674; perpetual Scotch, 685; perpetual moss, 685; pompon, 683; Provence, 651, 683; rock, 656, 708; Scotch, 651, 684; summer, (582, 683; sun, 656; sweet brier, 684; tea-scented, 687; varieties of, 683. Roses for rooteries, 620; propagation of, 675; seed-sowing, 675; cuttings, 676, 681, 915; potting of rooted cuttings, 676, 681; layering, 676; suckers, 676; budding, 676, 677; stocks for budding, 676, 677; grafting, 677; soil and situation for roses on their own roots, 677; planting, season for, 678; pruning, season for, 679, 681, 915; pruning, mode of, 679, 681; pegged-down, 680; pot culture, 681, 682; forcing, 681, 682; as forcing plants, 914; soil for forcing, 915; treatment of, previous to forcing, 682, 915; insects injurious to, 915. Rose-bud as a coat-flower, 923. Rose-chafer, 279. Rose-llowers,wiring of, for bouquets,920. Rose-garden, position of, 626; character of soil of, 626; soil, aspect, and position, 675. Rose-leaf, wiring of a, 920. Rose-root, 711. Rose-temple in pleasure-grounds (illust.), 626. Rosemary, calendarial directions, xvi. Rosemary, uses and culture of, 263, 658. Rosmarinus officinalis, 263, 658. Rouen, mean temperature of March at, i. Rowan-tree, 643. Rubus, 651; arcticus, 4S0; bill or us, 602; ciesius, 480; Channemorus, 480; corvli-folius, 480; fruticosus, 480, 662; glan-dulosus, 480; Idams, 468; laeiniatus, 480, 662; leucodermis, 662; nitidus, 480; nutkanus, 662; odoratus, 662; rliamni-folius, 480; spectabilis, 662; suberectus, 480. Rudbeckia, 694; fulgida, 701. Rue, calendarial directions, xii, xvi. Rue, uses and culture of, 263. Rumex Acetosa, 268; Hydrolapathum, 720; montanus, 268; Patientia, 239; scu-tatus, 268. Runners, 8; propagation by, 292. Ruscus aculeatus, 658; racemosus, 654, 658. Rush, flowering, 720; lake club, 720; screw, 721. Rust in carrot, 182. Ruta graveolens (illust.), 263. Ryegrass, composition of ashes of, 18. s. Sabal Blackburniana, 912; filamentosa, 910; umbraculifera, 912. Sabine wood, composition of ashes of, 20. Saccolabium ampullaceum, 892; Blumei majus, 892; curvifolium, 892; gigan-teum, 892; guttatum, 892, g. Iloifordi-anum, 892; retusum, 892; "violaceum, 892, v. Harrisonianum, 892. Saddle-grafting (illust.), 309. Sage, calendarial directions, xii, xvi, xx; forcing, ix. Sage, uses and culture of, 263; varieties of, 264. Sage, 701; Jerusalem, 657. Sagenia cicutaria, 894; macrophylla, 894; Pica, 894; repanda, 894. Sagittaria sagittifolia, 720. Saguerus saccharifer, 905. Sainfoin, composition of ashes of, 18. St. John’s wort, 709. Salading, small, forcing of, 555. Salisburia adiantifolia, 666. Salix alba, 643; babylonica, 643; caprea, 643, c. pendula, 643; fragilis, 643; pen-dula, 643; pentandra, 643; purpurea, 643; vitellina, 643. Sallows for sea-side planting, 799. Salpiglossis sinuata, 729; straminea, 729; variabilis, 729. Salsafy, calendarial directions, xii, xvi, xx, xxvii. Salsafy, uses and culture of, 264. Salt, as manure, 62; Voelckcr’s experiments as to quantity borne by various plants without injury, 62. Salt-tree, 649. Saltpetre as manure, 61. Salvia angustifolia, 853; argentea, 702, 794; azurea, 853; bracteata, 702; chain axlryoides, 853; chionantha, 702; ful-gens, 853; involucrata, 853; officinalis, 263; patens, 783, 853, p. alba, 853; Sela-rea, 197, 702; splendcns, 783. Sambucus nigra, 477, 644, n. aurea, 644, n. laciniata, 644; racemosa, 644. Sambucus, golden-leaved, as a hardy ‘ subtropical ’ plant, 784; nigra as screen-fence by sea-side, 797; as undergrowth for exposed inland situations, 799; nigra anil racemosa as nourishing in towns, 804. Samphire, calendarial directions, xvi. Samphire, uses and culture of, 264; golden, 265. Sancliezia nobilis variegata, SS3. Sand, proportion of, in soils, 30; improved by clay or marl, 43: calcareous, as manure, 59; silver, for striking cuttings, 299. Sandwort, Minorca, 706. Sanseviera zeylanica, SS3. Santolina Chanureyparissus, 658; incana. 658, 783, 794; squarrosa, 658. Sanvitalia procumbens, 729. Sap, descending or elaborated, 5, 24 changes of, 24; descent of, 26; channels for distribution of, 26; course of, 10; flow of, 23. Saperila bivittata, 3S4. Saponaria crespitosa, 711; calabrica, 729; caucasica, 702; ocymoides, 711; officinalis, 702. Sarcocarp, 12. Sarracenia Drummondii alba, 883, I). rubra, 883; flava maxima, 883, f. picta, 883; psittacina, 883; purpurea, 721, 853; variolaris, 883. Sash-bar, Beard’s patent (illust.), 508. Sashes, machinery for opening (illust.), desc. pi. 16. Sassafras officinale, 641.SATUREJA 951 SLATE Satureja hortensis, 265; montana, 265 Saucers or Hats, earthenware, 83. Savin, 664. Savory, caleiularial directions, xvi; winter, calemlarial directions, xii. Savory, uses and culture of, 265; summer, 265; winter, 265. Savoy, calemlarial directions, viii, xii, xvi, xx, xxiv, xxvii. Savoy, uses and culture of, 265; select varieties of, 265. Saw, 73; pruning (illust.), 73. Saw-dust as manure, 46. Saw-tly, rose (illust ), desc. pL 22. Saxe-Gothaia eonspicua, 666. Saxifraga aizoides, 712; Aizoon, 712, 704, A. minor, 704; Bucklandii, 712; ea?sia, 712; capillipes, 712; cordata, 702; eras-sifolia, 702, 7S0; euscuta?fomiis, 712; densa, 704; diapensioides, 712; liircu-lus, 712; Hostii, 704; hypnoides, 704; infundibulum, 712; japonica, 712; ligu-lata, 702; longifolia, 712; muscoides, 712; oppositifolia, 712; pectinata, 712, 704; pentadactylis, 712; purpurascens, 702; pygimea, 712; sarmentosa,712; sar-mentosa as a hanging window plant, 807; squarrosa,712; Straeheyi, 702; Tay-getta?, 712. Saxifrages, 702; for spring bedding, 780; for summer bedding, 783; mossy, for sloping edges of carpet beds, 702. Scab, on potato, 258. Scabiosa atropurpurea, 731; caucasica, 702; graminifolia, 702. Scabious, purple or sweet, 731. Scale insects (illust.), desc. pi. 18:— apple-tree mussel, 382, on cacti, 018, on camellias, 824, on citrus, 83S, on dracaenas, 877, on epiphyllums, 871, on hippeastrums,875; brown (illust.),desc. pi. 19, on t-ucharis, 870, on greenhouse ferns, 864, in orchard houses, 480, on pine-apples, 588, on stove ferns, 004, on stove plants, S86; vine (illust.), desc. pi. IS, 608; on tropical orchids, 887. Scales, bulb, 7; bud, 8. Scales, thermometrical, comparison of, 88. Scandix cerefolium, 104. Scarlet runner, calendarial directions, xx, xxiv. Scarlet runners, uses and culture of, 214; varieties of, 215; when to sow, 215; to preserve roots of, 215. Schivereckia podolica, 712. Schizrea diehotoma, 901; elegans, 001. Schizandra chinensis, 662. Schizanthus Grahami, 729; pinnatus,729; retusus, 729. Schizopetalon Walkeri, 729. Schizostylis coceinea (illust.), 717. Sciadophyllum pulchrum, 786. Sciadopitys verticil lata, 666. Sciara fucata, 279. Scilla amcena,717; amoenula, 717; bifolia, 717, 780; campanulata, 718; italica, 717; nutans, 718; peruviana, 718; sibirica, 717, 718, 780. Scion, 304. Scirpus lacustris, 720. Scissors for a ilower-worker, 919; grape (illust.), 72. Scolopendne, 258, 279. Scoloi>endrium vulgare and its varieties, 736. Scoops used in forming drains (illust.), 122. Scopula forfiealis, 175. Scorzonera, calendarial directions, xii, xvi, xx, xxvii. Scorzonera. uses and culture of, 266; his-panica, 266. Scrapers, 99. Screens, 84; for single plants or groups within sea-side grounds, 796; mixed, for sea-side shelter, 799. Screw-driver, use of, 69. Scurvy-grass, calendarial directions, xvi. Scythe, 72; Boyd’s self-adjusting, 73. Seaforthia elegans for summer garden, 790, 910. Sea-kale, calendarial directions, xii, xvi, xlii; forcing, iv, ix, xiii, xliv, xlix. Sea-kale, uses and culture of, 266; soil and situation for, 266; blanching, 267, 557; gathering the crop, 267; propagation of, 267; forcing of, 557; increased by the thongs or long pliable roots, 557; place in succession cropping, 283. Sea-side grounds, moderate-sized plants best in laying out, 796; coping of boundary wall to slope outwards, 796; screen border, breadth of, 796. Sea-side plants, 795. Sea-side planting, deciduous trees for, 796; evergreen trees for, 796; shrubs for, 796; recent records of, 798. Sea-weeds, composition of ashes of, 20; as manure, 46. Secateur (illust.), 72. Sedum acre, the best substitute for Sela-ginella in open-air beds, 795. Sedum acre, 795, a. aureum, 795, a. elegans, 783; album, 795; brevifolium, 712; carneum, 795, c. variegatum, 795; Ewersii, 712; farinosum, 712, 795; liis-panieum, 795; kamtschaticum, 712; Lydium, 712, 795; plumosum,712; prui-nosum, 712; spectabile, 702; Wallichi-anum, 712. Sedums, contrast of Xerterascapanoides with, 794; dwarf, for sloping edges of carpet-beds, 792. Seed, 11, 12. Seeds, chemical and physiological changes in germination of, 13; temperature necessary for germination of, 13, 15; quantities required for cropping the kitchen garden, 283; propagation by, 288; maturity of, 288; preservation of, 289; time of sowing, 289; stratification of, 290; preparation of, for sowing, 290; modes of sowing, 290; 1‘epys’ experiments on germination of, 290; utility of compost to promote vegetation, 291; propagation of trees and shrubs by, 636. Seed-sowing, 13. Selaginellas, stone-crop the best substitute for, in open-air beds,795; as greenhouse iilants, 864. Selaiulria atra, 416, 434. Sempervivum arachnoideum, 712, 795; nrboreum,795; arenarium,712; aureum, 795; Boutignianum, 712; calcaretim, 712, 780, 783, 795; californicum, 712, | 780, 783, 795; canariense, 795; glaucum, 712; gloliiferum, 712; liirtum, 795; mon-taimm, 795; Regina* Anmlia?, 712;tabu-liforme, 795; tectorum, 795. Sempervivums for carpet bedding, 795; as succulent greenhouse, and subtropical bedding or pot plants, 857; select sorts for beds, 857; select winterflowering species for pot culture, 857. Senecio eruentus and Tussilaginis as decorative greenhouse plants, 839; elegans, 729; Ghiesbreghtii, 790; inennus, 712; laciniatus, 790; mikanioides as a window creeper, 808; uniliorus, 712. Senna, bladder, 646; scorpion, 647. Sepals, 10. Sequoia gigantea, 667; sempervirens, 667. Service, true, 643; wild, 643. Sessile, 9. Shade requisite for greenhouse ferns, 863; for stove ferns, excess of, not desirable, 902. Shad-flower of the Americans, 645. Shading of conservatory in summer, 810. Shallot, calendarial directions, viii, xii, xvi, xxvii, xxxi, xxxviii, xlii. Shallots, uses and culture of, 267; varieties of, 268; place of, in succession of I crops, 283. Shanking in grapes, cause for, 607. Shears, grass-edging (illust.), 71; hedge (illust.), 70; parrot-bill (illust.), 70; pruning (illust.), 71. Shelf, grooved slate (illust.), desc. pi. 17. Shelter, necessity of, for conservatory, 809, for gardens, 108, for sea-side plants, 795. Shelter plants for trees and shrubs, 637. Shepherdia argentea, 651. Shield-budding ((illust.), 313; square (illust.), 315; American, 316. Shovel, 64; used in forming drains, 122. Shrivelling of grape-berries, cause for, 607. Shrubberies, grouping of, 623; preparation of ground for, 636. Shrubs for forcing, various flowering, 916; detrimental effect of sea-breezes and salt spray on, 795; suitable kinds for planting next the sea, 795, 796; how to place by the sea-side, 795; suitable for screens by the sea, 796; select, capable of withstanding the sea-breeze when slightly sheltered, list of, 797; for exposed inland situations, lists of, 799; well-drained soil for, 799; mulchings for, 799; shelter for, 799; time for planting, 799; for chalk soils, list of, 801; not available on chalk lands, list of, 802; late-leattng, best adapted for Scotch towns. 803; suited for northern towns and for general purposes, list of, 803, 804; suited mainly for towns situated south of the Trent, list of, 804; suitable for shady situations, 638; for roadside planting, 638; deciduous, how and when to transplant, 635; hardy deciduous, selection of, 645; deciduous and evergreen, that withstand the sea-breeze, select lists of, 797; evergreen, in pleasure-grounds, manuring, 625; addition of evergreen, for variety, with foliage plants, 784; evergreen, for seaside planting, 796; evergreen, for towns, 803; evergreen, soil and situation for, in towns, 803; deciduous, soil and situation for, in towns, 803; hardy evergreen, selection of, 652; hardy, 634; select, 636; propagation of, 636; necessity for sufficiency of room for permanent, 625; pi nning, 625, 636; transplanting large, 322; treatment of, when trailsjdanted, 635. Side-grafting (illust.), 310. Side-saddle plant, 721. Sieves, 84. Silene acaulis, 712; alpestris, 713; com-pacta, 731; Elizabethre, 713; exscapa, 713; fimbriata, 702; pendula, 729; pen-dula for spring bedding, 780; quadri-dentata, 713; Schafta, 713. Silica, 21, 27. Silicates, double, action of, on soils, 37. Silicic acid, 27, 28. Silpha opaca, 163. Silphium laciniatum, 702. Silver berry, 648. Silver ferns, 897. Sinapis alba, 226; nigra, 226. Siphonophora rosce (illust.), desc. pi. 21. Sisymbrium Nasturtium, 199. Sisyrincliium grandiflorum,702;striatum, 702. Sitona crinita (illust.), 248; lineata, 159, (illust.) 248. Situation of American garden, 626. Sium Sisarum, 268. Size of vases dependent on size and form of dinner table, 927. Skating-ground, bowling-green converted into, in winter, 632. Skimmia fragrantissima, 658; japonica, 658; oblata, 658; Veitchii, 658. Skirret, calendarial directions, xii, xvii. Skirret, uses and culture of, 268. Slaking lime, 56. Slate, mica, composition of, 27.SLIPS 952 STOVE Slips, propagation by, 292. Slope, uniform, how to form, 112,115. Slugs on peas, 248. Slug-worm, 416. Smilax aspera, 660. Smyntliurus solani, 258. Smyrnium Olusatrum, 145. Snails on peas, 248. Snake-millipedes, 159, 176, 183, 235, 258. Snapdragons, 724; introduction and improvement of, 737; propagation of, by cuttings, 738, by seed, 738; planting out, 738; preparation of soil for, 738; best varieties of, 738. Sneezewort, 701. Snowball-tree, 652. Snowberry, 651. Snowdrop, 716, 779. Snowdrop-tree, 641, 648. Snowllake, summer, 716; vernal, 716. Soapers’ ashes as manure, 59. Soapwort, double, 702. Sobralia macrantha splemlens, 892. Soda, 21, 27, 28; as manure, 61; nitrate of, as manure, 62; sulphate of, as manure, 62. # Sodium, chloride of, as manure, 62. Soils, absorption of heat dependent on colour, 38; absorptive power of, 36; action of double silicates on, 37; alkaline salts absorbed by, 37; analysis of, with a view to classification, 34; calcareous, analysis of, 33; calcareous, improved by clay and sand, 44; caustic ammonia absorbed by, 37; chalk, treatment of, before planting, 800; chalk, trees for, 800; chalk, trenching of, 800; chemical analysis of, 34; choice of plants by condition of, 637; classification of, 29; Schiibler’s classification, 30; clay, analyses of, 32; clay, improved by burning, 43; composition of, for soft-wooded greenhouse plants, 854; composition of: argillaceous or clay, 30, 31, calcareous, 30, 33, humus, 31, 33, loamy, 30, 32, marly, 30, 32, peaty or boggy, 33, sandy, 30, 32; constitution of, 26; depth and quality of, for trees, | 800; depth and composition of, in conservatory borders, 811; determination of the nature of, 34; earthy bases of, 26; evaporating power of, 38; experiments to test the impossibility of warming umlrained, 41, 42; for fruit-tree borders, 135; inert peat, improved by burning, 44; injured by lime made from magnesian limestone, 57; injured by magnesian limestone, remedy for, 57; improved by lime, 56; improvement of: by draining, 40, by alteration of its subsoil, 43, by increasing its depth, 43, by altering its texture, 43, by pulverization, 44; marly, analysis of, 33; mineral bases of, 26; nature of, indicated by vegetation, 38, 39; of fio\ver-garden,611;of fruit-tree borders, hard materials to mix with, 137; of Nile valley, analysis of, 32; organic, formation of, 29; physical properties of, 35; potash absorbed by clay, 37; power of, to retain water, 38; preparation of, for planting trees in towns, 803; saline bases of, 28; sandy, analyses of, 32; specific gravity of, 36; state and preparation of, for transplanting, 319; to counteract excess of humus in, 44; to increase the depth of, 43; unfit for hard - wooded greenhouse flowering plants, 851; variation in the weight of, 36. Soil for achimenes, 866, for American plants, 626, for azaleas, 830, for begonias, 872, for bouvardias, 873, for ealadiums, 875, 876, for camellias, 821, for cinerarias, 840, for conifers, pot-cuttings, 630, for cyclamens, 841, for epiphyllum, 871, for eucharis, 869, for fuclisias, 843, for gloxinias, 867, for heaths, 827, for heliotropes, 845, for liippeastrums, 874, 917, for hyacinths, 917, for hydrangeas, 917, for lily of the valley, 916, for oranges, 836, for orchids, potting or blocking, 887, for pelargoniums, 835, for petunias, 845, 846, for phyllocactus, 870, for poin-settias, 868, for primroses, 839, for stove ferns, 903, for tuberoses, 917, for tydjeas, 867. Solanine, composition of, 250. Solanum crinitum, 790; crispum, 662; giganteum, 790; laciniatum, 790; Lyco-persicum,272; macranthum,790; macro-phyllum, 790; marginatum, 790; Melon-gena (illust.), 545; robustum (illust.), desc. pi. 15y 790; tuberosum, 248, 558; Warscewiczii, 790. Solan urns as subtropical plants, 784. Solar radiation, tables of observations on progress of, 103. Soldanella alpina, 713; pusilla, 713. Sollya Drummondii, 850; lieterophylla, 850. Solomon’s seal, 701. Sonerila margaritacea, 883. Soot, analysis of, 47; as a manure for onions, 47; as a top-dressing to grass, 47; as dry or liquid manure, 47. Soot-water as a preventive to insect attacks, 47. Sophorajaponica, 644, j. pendula(illust.), 644; tetraptera, 648. Sophronitis grandiflora, 892. Sorrel, calendarial directions, xvii; forcing, xlix. Sorrel, uses and culture of, 268; species and varieties of, 268; forcing of, 558. Sorrel, w’ood, uses and culture of, 280. Southernwood, 653. Spade (illust.), 64; draining (illust.), 121; turf, 67. Sparaxis, select varieties of, 853. Spartiantlms junceus, 651. Spartium album, 648; junceum, 651; radiation, 648. Spathiphyllum pictum, 883. Specularia speculum, 729. Speedwell, 704, 713. Sphamogyne latifolia, 883. Sphinx atropos, 258; currant, 468. Spider, red (illust.), desc. pi. 17; destruction of, by sulphur fumes, 608; on achimenes, 866; on azaleas, 831, 914; on bouvardias, 874; on ealadiums, 876; on coleuses, 878; on cyclamens, 841; on dracaenas, 877; on forcing plants, 918; on fuchsias, 843; on soft-wooded greenhouse plants, 854; on liippeastrums, 875; on melons, 575; in orchard houses, 489; on tropical orchids, 887; on peaches, 458; on stove plants, 886; on vines, 607. Spider-wort, Virginian, 703. Spinach, calendarial directions, iii, viii, xii, xvii, xx, xxiv, xxvii, xxxi, xxxv. Spinach, uses and culture of, 269; varieties of, 269; soil for, 269; summer, 269; winter, 269; place amongst rotation crops, 283; composition of ashes of, 19. Spinach, mountain, 226, 235. Spinach, New Zealand, calendarial directions, xx, xxiii; forcing, xiii. Spinach, New Zealand, uses and culture of, 227. Spinacia oleracea, 269. Spindle-tree, 648. Spine (illust.), 8. Spiraea aria‘folia,651; Aruncus, 702; bella, 651; callosa, 651; Douglasii, 651; For-tunei, 651; grandiflora, 651; hyperici-folia, 651; japonica as a forcing plant, 916; Lindleyana, 651; Menziesii, 651; Nobleana, 651; opulifolia, 651; palmata (illust.), 702; palmata as a forcing plant, 916; prunifolia, 651, p.flore-pieno as a forcing plant, 916; salicifolia, 651; sorbifolia,651; tomentosa, 651; venusta, 702. Splice-grafting, 307. Spongioles, 4; as plant-feeders, 22; formation of, 26. Spores, 7; propagation of greenhouse ferns by sowing, 863. Spray as part of floral head-dress, 923; how to compose, 923. Spring bedding, 777; list of hardy plants for, 779; disadvantage of some plants for, 779; plants adapted for, 779. Spruce, black, 663; hemlock, 668; Norway, 663; silver, 663; white, 663. Spruce for flourishing on chalk soils, 801. Squash, 207. Stachys Corsica, 713; germanica, 702; lanata, 702, 783. Stachyurus prajeox, 651. Stage for plants, novel, at Canterbury (illust.), desc. pi. 17. Stakes, use of, in laying out grounds, 75. Staking desirable after planting, 322. Stalk, 10. Stamens (illust.), 10, 11. Stanhopea Bucephalus, 892; grandiflora, 892; insignis, 892; oculata, 892; tigrina, 892; Wardii, 892. Stapelia, select species of, 857. Stapliylea pinnata, 651; trifoliata, 651. Star of Bethlehem, 717. Star of the earth, 170. Starch as plant food in the seed, 14. Statice Ararati, 705; bellidifolia, 713; Besseriana, 703; brassicatfolia, 850; emarginata, 713; imbricata, 850; latifolia, 703; minuta, 713; liana, 713; pro-fusa, 850; tatarica, 703. Statuary in conservatory, 810; in flower-garden, 620. Stauntoiiia latifolia, 660. Steam, heating by, 529. Stellaria graminea aurea, 783. Stem, 3; acrogenous, 5, 6; endogenous (illust.), 5, 6; exogenous (illust.), 5. Stem-suckers, propagation by. 293. Stenactis speciosa, 703. Stenosemia aurita, 910. Steplianotis floribunda, S80. Steps, folding, 85. Sternbergia lutea, 718. Stevensonia grandiflora, 911. Stigma, 11. Stipa pennata, 703. Stipels, 9. Stipule (illust.), 8, 9. Stock, 304; affinity to graft necessary,306; influence of, on graft, 306. Stock, calendarial directions, xxxiv. Stock, Brompton, 731, 760; Cape, 760; East Lothian, 761; emperor or queen, 731; giant Cape, 731; intermediate, 728, 761, 782; large-flowered pyramidal German, 760; queen, 731,760; ten-week, 728, 782; Victoria, 728; Virginian, 728, 780; wallflower-leaved, 728. Stocks, improvements in, 760; summer, 760; winter, 760; seasons for sowing seed of, 760, 761; planting out, 760, 761; soil for, 760; varieties of, for spring bedding, 780. Stomates (illust.), 3, 8. Stone-crop, 712; for carpet bedding, 795; best substitute for Selaginella, 795. Stove, monthly work: January, vii, February, xi, March, xv, April, xix. May, xxiii, June, xxvi, July, xxx. August, xxxiv, September, xxx vii, October, xli, November, xlvi, December,lii. Stove, Shrewsbury’s gas (illust), 530. Stove and forcing houses, 864; Williams’ plant (illust.), 513; uninterrupted light necessary for, 865; span-roof best adapted for, 865; position of, 865; construction and ventilation of, 865; heating of, 865; heating of, by hot-air, 530; cistern for warm water, 865. 866; shading should be movable on rollers, 866;STOVE THYME cooler, or intermediate house, S66; tan-bed in, for bottom-heat, 865. Stove plants, soils for, 884; propagation of, 88.5; season for potting, 885; how to apply stimulants, 885; training of, according to habit, S85; heading down, proper seasoffl for, 885; tiring and air-giving, 885; watering of, 886; syringing in the afternoon, 886; manure water for, 886; insects injurious to, 886; best time to clear of insects, SS6; selection of miscellaneous, 878; selection of ornamental-leaved, 881; general culture of, 883; comparative influence of natural and artificial heat on, 883; keeping too cold in winter, 884; temperatures for,throughout the year, 884; summer treatment of, 884; ripening and solidifying the w'ood to secure blossoms, 884. Strata, how to cut through, in draining (illust.), 120. Stratiotes aloides, 720. Strawberry, forcing, calendarial directions, v, x, xiv, xviii, xxii, xxxiii, xlv, 1. Strawberry, uses and culture of, 471; select varieties of, 471; propagation of, 472; runners, 472; alpines, sowing, 472; situation for, 473; soil for, 473; planting,471; general treatmentof, 474; sterility of, 476; mulching, 475; abortive flowering of, 476; renewing plantations, 475; hlack eyed llowers, 476; gathering. 176; diseases injurious to, 476; insects injurious to, 476; forcing of, 589; earliest runners for, 589; philosophy of, 589; winter-protection of roots, 590; to prevent ingress of worms to pots, 590; temperature and treatment, 590; various inodes of preparing plants of, for forcing, 591; select varieties of. for forcing, 591; composition of ashes of, 19. Strawberry houses,505; Ingram’s (illust.), 506. Strawberry tree, 644, C52. Strawberries, leaves for decorating dishes of, 927. Strelitzia regime, 880. Streptocarpus (Jreenii, 880; Rexii, 880; Saundersii, 880. Structures, garden, 489; for growth of plants, 494; principal forms of plant, 490; miscellaneous, 531. Struthiopteris germanica, 737; Pennsylvania, 737. Style, 11. Styles of flower-gardenformal, 612; free symmetrical, 613; ancient, 612; architectural, 612; gardcnesque, 613; geometrical (illust ), 012; irregular, 613; mixed. 613; picturesque, 612; symmetrical, 613. Styrax officinale, 651. Subsoils, nature and composition of, 39; amelioration of, 39, 43; disadvantageous mechanical properties of, 40. Subtropical gardening, 783; absorption and retention of heat by wrell-drained soil for, 785. Subtropical plants in the flower-garden, 612; contrast in form of, 783; fitness of, for certain associations or situations, 784; geothermal culture of, 785; hardening off, before planting out, 785; importance of drainage for, 785; judicious arrangement of, 783; soil for, 785; select descriptive list of, 785. Succory, 270; uses and culture of, 195; blanching, 195; Fleming’s mode of culture and blanching, 195; French mode of culture, 196. Succulent plants, use of, in carpet bedding, 791; culture of, for pots and open air, 854; care requisite in regulating quantity of food, 855; knowledge necessary for successful culture of, 855; separation of some, from others, 855; shade for, in bouses, 855; selections of the best sorts, 855. 95 Q O Suckers, 8; propagation by, 292; propagation of trees and shrubs from, 636. Suckering-iron (illust), 68. Sugar-cane, composition of ashes of, 18. Sulphur, 22. Sulphurator (illust.), 80. Sulphuric acid, 22. Sultan, sweet, 723; yellow, 723. Sumach, stag’s-horn, 643; Venetian, 650. Summer bedding, 777; plants adapted for, 780. Summer houses, covering for, 628; timber used in construction of, 627; position of, 628. Sun-burning of peach-tree stems, 457. Sundew, 721. Sunflower, 726; double, 696. Sun rose, 656. Surface, advantage of irregularities of, 29. Sw'ainsoua galegifolia, 850; Osborni, 850. Sweet cicely, uses and culture of, 270. Sweet-peas, 782. Sweet-potatos, culture of, 558; French mode of, 558. Sweet-williams, 731; improvement in, 761; properties of, as a florist’s flower, 761; Hunt’s strain of, 761; auricula-eyed strain of, 761; raising, from seed, 761; soil for, 761; propagation of, by cuttings and by layers, 761; double, 761. Swift, garden, 223. Sycamore, common, 639; for sea-side planting, 796; for towns, 802,803; variegated, leaves of, as decoration for certain dishes of fruit, 927. Syenites, composition of, 27. Sylvan inarching, 317. Symphoricarpus racemosus, 651; glome-ratus, 652; vulgaris, 652. Syringa, 650; Emodi, 652; Josikasa, 652; persica, 652, p. laciniata, 652; ro-thomagensis, 652; vulgaris and its varieties, 652. Syringa persica and vulgaris as forcing plants, 915. Syringe, 80; Read’s patent (illust.), 81. T. T-budding, 313; inverted (illust.), 315. Tabermemontana coronaria flore-pleno, 880. Tacsonia Buchanani, 813; exoniensis, 813; ignea, 813, 850; insignis, 813; san-guinea, 850; Van Volxemii, 813, 850. Tagetes erecta, 730, 783; patula, 730,783; signata, 730, 783, s. pumila, 730. Talc mica, composition of, 27. Tallies, 97; cast-iron, 98; earthenware, 98; iron coated with zinc, 98; painted, ( 98; Seton’s (illust.), 98; terra cotta, 98. Tamarisk, 652; for sea-side planting, | 796; power of, to withstand wind by sea-side, 798; suitable for screen or fence by sea-side, 796, 798. Tamarix, 658; africana, 652; anglica, 652; gallica, 652; germanica, 652; gallica and germanica as screen plants by sea-side, 797; pentandra, 652; tetran-dra, 652. Tan as manure, 45. Tanacetum vulgare, 270. Tank system of heating (illust.), 529. Tansy, calendarial directions, viii, xii, xvii. Tansy, uses and culture of, 270; forcing of, 558. Tar, gas, valueless as manure, 56. Taraxacum Dens Leonis, 200. Tarragon, calendarial directions, viii, xii, xvii; forcing, iv. Tarragon, uses and culture of, 270; forcing of, 558. Taxodium distichum, 667, d. pendulum, 664; sempervirens, 667; sinense, 664. Taxus adpressa, 667; baccata and its varieties, 667, b. fastigiata, 667; canadensis, 667; cuspidata, 667; japonica, 666; tar diva, 667. Tea-tree, 662; New Jersey, 654. Tecoma oapensis, 850; jasminoides, 850; radicans, 662. Telegraph plant, 882. Telekia, 692. Tellima grand!flora, 703. Temperatures, table of mean, March, i. Temperature for greenhouse, 816; night, for greenhouse ferns, 863, for stove ferns at various seasons, 903, 904; of flower-forcing house, 914. Temples as garden embellishments, 628; materials for, 628; position of, in pleasure-grounds, 628. Tenthredo adumbrata (illust.), desc. pi. 22; rcthiops, 416; cerasi, 416; morio, 427; populi, 457; testudinea, 383. Tephritis onopordinis (illust.), desc. pi. 21, 193, 239. Terminalia elegans, 883. Testa, 12. Tetragonia expansa, 226, 270. I Tetranyclius telarius (illust.), desc. pi. 17. Teucrium aureum, 713; pyrenaicum, 713. Thalictrum aquilegifolium, 703; purpur-ascens, 703; rugosum, 703. Thamnocalamus Falconeri for bedding, 786; effect of contrast of foliage in subtropical gardening, 783. Thamnopteris australasica, 901; Nidus, 901. Theodolite, 77; for garden use, 77. Theophrasta imperialis, 883. Thermometers, 87; bark-bed or ground (illust.), 90; Phillips’ registering maximum (illust.), 90; Rothnie’s electric, 90; Rutherford’s day and night (illust.), 89; Six’s registering (illust.), 88. Thistles, herring-bone, 788. Thongs or sea-kale roots, 267. Thorn, box, 662; Christ’s, 650; cock’s-spur, 640; fire, 655; sallow, 649. Thorns, varieties of, 647; for chalk soil, 802; suitable for banks of ornamental water, 634. Thorn-apple, 725. j Thread, spiral, 2. Thrift. 781. Thrinax arborea, 912; elegans (illust.), 912; graminiflora, 912; Miraguana, 912; multiflora, 912; parviflora, 912; radiata (illust.), desc. pi. 15, 912. Thrips minutissima (illust.), desc. pi. 21, 258, on azaleas, 831, 914, on begonias, 873, on cyclamens, 841, on dracamas, 877, on eucharis, 870, on greenhouse ferns, 864, on hippeastrums, 875, on tropical orchids, 887, on peaches, 458, on stove ferns, 904, on stove plants, 886. Thuja Craigiana, 665; gigantea, 665, 667; Lobbii (illust.), desc. pi. J/#, 665, 6C7; Menziesii, 667; occidentalis and its varieties, 667; orientalis, 663; pygmsca, 666. Thuja gigantea, Lobbii, and occidentalis as hedge plants for shelter, 637; Lobbii flourishing on chalk soils, 801. Thujopsis borealis flourishing on chalk soils, 801; as a town plant, 804; dola-brata for winter bedding, 778; Stan-dishii for winter bedding, 778. Thujopsis borealis, 664; dolabrata, 667, d. variegata, 667; hetevirens, 067; •Standishii, 667. Thunbergia alata, 730, 880; Ilarrisii, 880; laurifolia, 880. Thunia alba, 892; Bensonfe, 892. Thyme, calendarial directions, xvii.THYME TYDJEAS Thyme, 713; uses and culture of, 270; lemon, 270; variegated, 783. Thymus alpinusj 713; azureus, 713; citrio-dorus, 270, c. aureus, 783; lanuginosus, 713; micans, 713; vulgaris, 270. Thyrsacantlius rutilans, 880. Thyrsopteris clegans, 901. Tiger-flower, 718. Tigridia conchiflora, 718; Pavonia, 718. Tilia alba, 644; americana, 644; argentea, 644; europa?a and its varieties, 644; liybrida superba, 644; mandschurica, 644; vitifolia, 644. Tillandsia Lindeniana (illust.), 881; mu-saica, SS3; tessellata, 883; zebrina, 883. Tinea Clerckella, 416; corticella, 471. Tipula maculosa, 223, 258, 477; oleracea (illust.), 162, 176, 18*3, 258; paludosa (illust.), 162, 258; rep tans, 200. Tissue, cellular (illust.), 1; cellular, of pith, 1; fibrous (illust.), 1; fibro-vascular, 8; formative, vegetable, 1; lati-ciferous (illust.), 2; vascular, 2. Toad-flax, 709, 727. Toad-fiower, 857. Tobacco, uses and culture of, 271; varieties of, 271; mode of curing, 271; Virginian, for bedding, 789. Tobacco leaf, composition of ashes of, 18. Todea africana, 862; hymenophylloides, 862; pellucida, 862; superba, 862. Tomato, calendarial directions, xx, xxiv, xxvii, xxxi, xxxviii; forcing, iv, ix, xiii, xxi. Tomatos, uses and culture of, 272; select varieties of, 272; propagation by cuttings, 273; forcing of, 558; for early crops, 558. Tongue-grafting, 307. Tools, garden, 64; bottoming (illust.), 121; necessary for a flower-worker, 919. Torenia asiatica, S81. Tornelia fragrans (illust.), desc. pi. 15, 790, 8S3; as an edible fruit, 883. Torreya californica, 668; grandis, 668; Myristica, 668. Tortrix angustiorana, 416; nigricana, 427; pisana (illust.), 248; quercana, 416; Woeberiana, 427, 457; long-horned, 416; plum-tree, 457. Towns, trees for, 802. Toxicophhea spectabilis, 881. Trachelospermum jasminoides, 851; as conservatory pillar plant, 813. Tradescantia virginica, 703; zebrina, 795. Tragopogon porrifolius, 264. Tragopyrum lanceolatum, 652. Trailers, propagation of, 636. Trailing plants for conservatory, S13. Training fruit-trees, 340:—curved or curvilinear, 343, fan (illust.),341, horizontal (illust.), 342, oblique (illust.), 342, upright or vertical (illust.), 343, wavy (illust.), 343, curvilinear, 343, Hayward’s mode of (illust.),344, Hitt’s mode of,344, Seymour’s mode of (illust.), 344, horizontal, with double stem (illust.), 345, horizontal, modification of (illust.),346, fan and horizontal combined (illust.), 346, Smith’s mode of, 347, stellate fan (illust.), 347, chandelier with branches oblique (illust.), 347, oblique singlestem, 347, cordon, 347, pendulous (illust.). 347, pyramid, 348, pyramid, with pendulous branches (illust.), 348, chandelier pyramidal (illust.), 348, balloon (illust.), 349, vase, with dwarf stem ami upright branches (illust.), 349, vase pyramid (illust.), 349, vase, with tall stem (illust.), 349. Transplanter, 68; Saul’s (illust.), 326; M‘Glashan’s small, 327; M'Glashan’s large, 32s; MTntosh’s improvements in, 329. Transplanting, principles of, 317; season for. 319. Transplanting trees, Perkins’ mode of, 954 324; Pratt’s mode of, 325; M'Nab’s mode of, 326; preparation of ball for (illust.), 329; season and preparation for, 635. Trap, composition of, 27. Tree of heaven, 639. Tree-ferns as subtropical plants, 784; advantage of confining the roots of, in tubs, 903; benefit of manure water to, 903; daily syringing of, in summer, 904; necessity of shade and moisture for, in bedding, 784. Tree-guards for avenues (illust.), 803. Tree-lifter, Jesse’s (illust.), 326; M‘Glash-an’s, 327; Sir H. Stuart’s, 327; Barron’s, 327; Mackay’s, 328. Tree primrose, uses and culture of, 273. Trees, beauty and study of, in winter, 634; coniferous, position of, in pleasure-grounds, 624; deciduous, how and when to transplant, 635; deciduous, in pleasure-grounds, contrast of colour in foliage of, 622; deciduous, should be at a distance from ornamental water, 634; deciduous, for sea-side planting, 796; detrimental effect of sea-breezes and salt spray on most kinds of, 795; for chalk soils, lists of, 800-802; for exposed inland situations: lists of, 799, well-drained soil for, 799, mulchings for, 799, shelter for, 799, time for planting, 799; for pleasure-grounds, selected in contrast to styles of architecture, 621; for towns, 802; hardy, 634; hardy deciduous, selection of, 638; hardy evergreen, selection of, 644; how to know, by bud, flower, and leaf, 635; how to place, by the sea-side, 795; in pleasure-grounds, relative form and outline of, 622; iron gratings around stems of,803; late-leafing best for Scotch towns, 803; newly planted, how to support, 796; not suitable for chalk lands, list of, 802; propagation of, 636; pruning of, 636; recognition of, from bark and buds, in winter, 634; relative position as to residence in pleasure-grounds, 621, 622; soil and situation for, in towns. 803; suitable kinds for planting next the sea, 795; suited mainly for towns situated south of the Trent, list of, 804; suited for the more northern towns and for general purposes, list of, 803; temporary, timely thinning of, necessary, 624; thriving in the locality, selection of, for pleasure-grounds, 622; transplanting large, preparations for, 322, 327, 329; transplanted, how to stake, 635; treatment of, when transplanted, 635; that thrive at the sea-side when well sheltered, select list of, 798; that withstand the sea-breeze, select list of, 797; that withstand the sea-breeze when slightly sheltered, select lists of, 797; select, 636. Tremandra ericrcfolia, S50; verticillata, 850. Trenching ground, mode of, 139. Triangular notch grafting (illust.), 310. Trichocera hiemalis, 279. Trichomanes ala turn, 902; anceps, 902; angustatum, 902; attenuatum, 902; auriculatum, 902; Bancrofts, 902; cri-jnitum, 902; crispum, 902; elongatum, 862; floribundum, 902, f. Yittaria. 902; javanicum, 902; Kaulfussii, 902; Krau-sii, 902; Luschnatianum, 902; mem-branaceum, 902; Plum a, 902; pyxidi-ferum, 902; radicans, 737; reniforme, 862; rigidum, 902; scandens, 902; si-nuosum, 902; trichoideum, 902; veno-sum, S63. Trichopilia crispa, S92; picta, 892; suavis, 892; tortilis, 892. Tricyrtis liirta, 703. Trifolium minus, 629, 630; repens, as a component of lawns, 629. Trillium grandiflorum. 718. I Tripluena pronuba 'illust.), 176, 279. Trisetum flavescens as a lawn grass, 629, 630. Triteleia Murrayana, 718; uniflora, 718. Tritoma Uvaria, 703, U. glaucescens,703 Tritonia aurea, 718, 834; capensis, 854; fucata, 854; longiflora, 854; rosea, 854. Trochostigma polygamum, 660. Trollius asiaticus, 703; daliricus, 703; europams, 703; giganteus, 703; napelli-folius, 703; sinensis, 703. Tropjcolum aduncum,730; azureum,S54; canariense, 730; Jarrattii, 854; Lobbi-anuni, 730, 783; majus, 226, 730, m. nanuni,730; minus, 226; pentapliyllum, 854; peregrinum, 730; speciosum (illust.), 703,854; tricolorum, 854; tuberosum, uses and culture of, 273. Trowel, garden, 68. Truffle, uses and culture of, 274; English or common, 274; Piedmontese, 274: Paris, 274; Tulasne’s monograph oi the, 275. Trumpet flower, 662. Tsuga Albertiana, 668; canadensis, 668; Mertensiana, 668; Pattoniana, 668. Tube, membranous, 2. Tuber ajstivum (illust.), 274; magnatum, 274; melanosporum, 274. Tubers, 7; propagation by, 291. Tubercules, 4. Tuberoses, treatment of, as forcing plants, 917; soil for, 917. Tuberous-rooted plants, popular, 761; selection of, 714. Tubs, wooden, 84. Tulip-tree, 641. Tulipa cornuta, 718; Eichlerii, 718; Ges-neriana, 774, 780; Greigii, 718, 776; ocu-lus solis, 718; suaveolens, 776, 780; sylvestris, 718. Tulips, 718; age of seedlings before blooming, 775; treatment of, as forcing plants, 917; bizarre, 775; broken or variegated tulips, 775; bybloemen, 775; seasons of blooming in pots, 776; early, decorative value of, in light rich borders, 776; early forcing and bedding sorts, select lists of, 776; exclusion of sun’s rays from buds of, 776; fabulous price of in olden times, 774, 775; feathered and flamed sorts of, 775; injury to, from wind, 776; means adopted to hasten the breaking of, 775; origin and introduction of, 774; planting, 775; propagation of, 775; rose, 775; season for taking off and planting offsets, 775; select lists of best show varieties, in classes, 776; self or breeder sorts, 775; situation and preparation of beds for. 775; soil for, 775; storage, 776; taking up the bulbs, 776; time and mode of planting, 775; variegation, how to induce, 775; winter and spring bedding, 778. Tupelo, 642. Turf-bank as protection from wind by sea-side, 799. Turf-beetle, 68. Turf-raser, 67; scraper, 67; spade, 67. Turk’s cap, 207. Turnip, calendarial directions, iii, viii, xii, xvii, xx, xxiv, xxvii, xxxi, xxxv. Turnips, uses and culture of, 276; select varieties of, 276; French, 276; Swedish, 276; Teltow, 277; soil for, 277; manure for, 277; sowing, 277; storing the crop, 278; to save seed, 278; insects and diseases injurious to, 278; place in rotation, 2S3; bulbs and tops, composition of ashes of, 18, 19. Tussilago Farfara variegata, 790; fragrans, 699. Tutsan, 649. Tydoeas as decorative winter blooming stove plants, S67; propagation of. from, scaly tubers, cuttings, and seeds, 807; potting soil and temperature for. b07; roots liable to decay if kept too cold when at rest, 867; manure water toTYFHA 955 WEATHER assist blooming, 867; select descriptive list of kinds of, 807. Typha angustifolia, 721; latifolia, 721. it. I Idea bipinnatiflda, 790. 1 lex, 058. I lmus campestris, 044, c. Berardi, 644. v. fastigiata. 644J c. viminalis, 644; lilnifolia, 044; glabra, (544; major, 644; montana, 044; pendult, 044; plumosa, 044; strirta, 044. lTlidergrowtli for exposed inland situations, 790. I line as manure, 61; composition and analyses of, 51. I’rnpedimn I.iinleni, 89*2. 1 tensils, garden, 82. I vulat ia perioliata, 703; sessilifolia, 703. v. Vaeeinium frondosum, 075; ligustrifol-inm, 075: M vi tillus, 479, 075; stamin-euiu, 675; \ itis liUea, 075. Valeriana on nueopia', uses and culture of, 280. \ all rianella erioearpa, 198; olitoria, 198. Yallota as a window plant, 808; purpurea (i 11 list ), dese pi. /5, 854. Vanda i*ati inanni, S9.3; Bensoni, 893; e.ernli-a. S93; m-rulescens, 893; insignia .s'.; Roxluirgliii, 893; suavis, 893; ten s, 893, t. Amiersoni, 893; tricolor, S'. 13. Vane. 97. Yanes-a <'-album, 207; Io, 207. Vases, variety of forms of, for domestic deeor-ations, 924: bowl. 924, trumpet, 921. sain ei’, 924. post-liuru, 924, soup- j plati, '.'21, old-fashioned tall chain- ; p i me glass, 924, multiple, composed I <•)' trumpet and sain er vases (illust ), ' ‘.'•’1; *'\planation of figure of multiple, 02i, iiiipoi tain e of proportion in, and otlu-r ohjeets on same table, 925; ap-propi lateness of. to dining-table and dra wing room, 925; convertible dinner- . table, sort loiial view of (illust ), 925; modi- of arrangement of branches (! 11u>f ), 925. varieties of uses for parts of. 925; tin* March, 926; the Exhibition, 920; arnine*‘uients of flowers in, 926; form of. for arrangement of fruit, 927: arrangement of fruit and flowers in one, ‘»27; necessity of suitable size and form in for decoration of dinner- ' tables. 927. Vases in conservatory, 810; in flower ! garden, 621 \ egi'table, forcing, 535. Vegetables manured with soot, 47. Vegrfables, '-u! iiiary, table of English I' reiieh a ud ih. rnian names for, 284-2 s,. V. getable tile-'- in farm-vard manure, 53. Vcg-Iahh* marrows, uses and culture of, | 206; varieties of, 206. Vrg'-l able refuse advantageously used as ; manure, 5k Vegetation, chemistry of, 14; effects of, • on granite, 28; state of, for transplant- i ing, 318. \ eiitilatiuii requisite in conservatory, 810; proper mod'-s of, in conservatory, 810; of I lower-forcing house, 913, 914. Ventilators. Voice’s, 510; Weeks’ hydro-calorie (illust.), dese. pi. 17. Venus’ ily-trap, 852. Venus’ looking-glass, 729. Venus’ navel wort, 728. Veratruin album, 703; nigrum,703; viride, 7ok Yerbasrum eupreum, 704; formosum, 704; plneniceuui, 704. Verbena, calendarial directions, xxii, xxvi, xxxiv, xxxvii, xli, xlvl! Verbena triphylia, 645; venosa for bedding, 847. Verbenas, select lists of varieties of, 848; for summer bedding, 783; as decorative plants, 846; origin of, 846; propagation by cuttings, 846, 847; pot culture of, 847; soil for, 847; mildew as a pest of, 847; summer culture of, in beds, 847; raising from seed, 847; slugs destructive to young plants of, 847; lemon-scented, 645. Verge-cutter (illust.), 67. Vernier, use of, on barometer (illust.), r 94. Veronica amethystina, 704; Amiersoni, 658, A. variegata, 783, 795; Clmmredrys, 713; crassifolia, 704; (Juthricana, 713; incana, 795; incisa, 704; lac tea, 713; Lindleyana, 658; peetinata, 713; prostrata, 713; pulchella, 704; repens, 713; salieiftdia, 658; satureuefolia, 704, 713; saxatilis, 713; speciosa, 658; taurica, 713; verhenacea, 713. Veronicas, broad-leaved hybrid varieties of New Zealand, for winter bedding, 778. Yerschatfeltia melanocluetes, 912; splen-dida, 912. Vessels, annular (illust.), 2; dotted, 2; moniliform, 2; spiral (illust.), 2. Viburnum Lantana, 652; macroceplia-lum, 652; Opulus, 652, O. sterile as forcing plant, 916, O. nanum, 652, (). variegatum, 652; plicatum, 652; Tinus and its varieties, 658; Tinus as forcing plant, 916. Vida argentea, 704; bijuga, 699; Faba, 155. Victoria regia, 881. Villarsia nymphieuides, 720. Vinca major, 658, m. aureo-reticulata, 658, in. elegantissima, 658, 783; minor, 658; rosea, 881, r. alba, 881, r. oculata, 8sl. Vincas for rock-work, 620. Vine, forcing, calendarial directions, iv, ix, xiv, xviii, xxi, xxv, xxviii, xxxiii, xxxv, xxxix, xliv, xlix. Vine, grape, 663: forcing of, 591; select varieties of, 592; sorts adapted for an open wall, 595; sorts for an early vinery, 595; sorts for a late vinery, 595; sorts for a greenhouse, 596; sorts for a stove, 596; propagation of:—by cuttings, 596, by eyes, 596, by coiling, 597, by green cuttings, 597, by layering, 597, by grafting, 597; out-door culture, 598; soil for, 598, 600; analysis of soil at Fontainebleau, 598; planting, 598, 601: training, 599, 003; Thomery mode of, 59s: pruning. 599,603; culture under glass, 509: depth and width of border, 599, 600; drainage, 000; bottoming the border, 600; temperature for, 601; mean temperature at Beyrout, 601; diary of vine forcing at Oak-hill, 601; ventilation, 602; watering and syringing, 602; pruning: long-rod system, 603, short-rod system, 604, spur system, 604; thinning the berries, 605; pot culture of, 605; diseases injurious to, 606; inserts injurious to, 607; section of stem (illust.), 6; composition of ashes of, 18; for climbers over arbours, 627; North American, for rooteries, 620. Vine scale (illust), dese. pi. 18. Vineries, 502; size of, 502; form of, 503; heating, 503; at Lambton Castle, 503; at Cl oven ford’s, 504; bottom-heat, 504; at ileckmondwike (illust.), dese. pi. 10; range of, at Bo werscourt Castle (illust.), dese. pi. 17. Viola altaica, 752; biflora, 714; cornuta, 730, 753, 780; cucullata, 704; grandi-flora, 752; lutea, 730, 753, 780,1. grandi-flora, 753; palmaensis, 704; pedata, 714; pennsylvaniea, 704; tricolor, 730, 752; tricolor for spring bedding, 780. Violet, calendarial directions, xxxiv, li. Violet, 714; dog-tooth, 715; water, 720. Virgilia lutea, 640; tinctoria, 640. Virginian creepers, 660; for arbours, 627; for rooteries, 620. Virginian stock, 728. Viscaria cceli rosa, 730; oculata, 730, o. cardinalis, 730. Viscum album, 658. Vitcx Agnus-castus, 652. Vitis odoratissima, 663; riparia, 663, r. odoratissima, uses of, 620; vinifera, 591, 663. Vriesia splendens, 881. w. Waitzia acuminata, 730; aurea, 730; corymbosa, 730; grandifiora, 730. Walks, fruit and kitchen garden:—position of, 140, wddth of, 140, upper and lower surface level of, 141, edging of, 141, bottoming of, 141, materials for forming, 141, maintaining porosity of, 142, surfacing of, 142, curve of, 143; table to show height of middle of, above sides, 143; in conservatory, paving, 810; fruit and kitchen garden, edgings for, 143; in pleasure-grounds, position and making of, 623. Walls, direction of, 489; materials for, 489; mode of construction of, 489; colour of, 489; height of (illust.), 489; thickness of, 490; foundations of (illust.), 490; solidity of, 490; construction of, 491; English bond (illust.), 491; Flemish bond (illust.), 491; hollow’ (illust.), 492; concrete, 492; copings for, 493; lined, 494; back, height of, above front, in hothouses, table showing angle of elevation according to width, 495; Ewing’s glass (illust.), 516; fruit, aspects for, 105. Wall-case, 515. Wall-cress, rock, 706. Wallflowers, 692, 779; early, 616. | Wall-frame, 515. Wall plants for conservatory, 813. Walnuts, uses and culture of, 483; select varieties of, 483; propagation of, 484; soil for, 483; grafting, 484; insects injurious to, 486; fruit for pickling, 485; varieties of, 641; composition of ashes of, 19. I Wandering Jew, a hanging w indow’j>lant, 807. Wasps, trap for, 608. Water, for striking cuttings, 300; absorbing power of, 15; absorption of, by roots, 22, 23; artificial arrangement of,718;disposal of banks near,7l8;plants appropriate for, 719; islands, position of, 719; bogs, formation of, 719; cold spring,