iART Rock asking and ampling under Rocks . on Ma Prepared on behalf of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ‘ GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PRGFBSSIONAL PAPER l08| 1» 19 ROCK PUSHING AND SAMPLING UNDER ROCKS ON MARS VIKING SCIENCE TEST LANDER This full—scale model with fully operational lander camera and surface-sampler subsystems was installed adjacent to a large sand box representing the area in reach of the surface sampler. The Science Test Lander was used during the mission to develop and verify sur— face-sampler commands. Circular S-band radio antenna of lander is 0.76 meter across. Lo- cations of cameras and surface-sampler subsystems are shown in figure 1. Rock Pushing and Sampling Undér Rocks on Mars By H. J. MOORE, S. LIEBES, JR., D. S. CROUCH, and L. V. CLARK GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1081 Prepared on behalf of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1978 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR CECIL D. ANDRUS, Secretary GEOLOGICAL SURVEY H. William Menard, Director Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Rock pushing and sampling under rocks on Mars (Geological Survey Professional Paper 1081) “Prepared on behalf of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.” Bibliography: p. 20-21 1. Life on other planets. 2. Mars (Planet)--Geology. 3. Viking Mars Program. 1. Moore, Henry J. 11. United States. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. III. Series: United States. Geological Survey. Professional Paper 1081. QB54.R518 574.999’23 78-13085 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Goyernment Printing Office Washington, DC. 20402 Stock Number 024-001-03008-6 FRONTISPIECE. FIGURE TABLE 1. 1. CONTENTS Page Abstract ______________________________________________ 1 Introduction ____________________________________________ 1 Surface Sampler Subsystem components ___________________________ 2 Stereophotogrammetry ______________________________________ 3 Science Test Lander _______________________________________ 5 Criteria for rock selection ____________________________________ 6 Rock-pushing strategy _____________________________________ 10 Sampler motor currents and rock movement _________________________ 11 Sampling results _________________________________________ 14 Scientific \ alue __________________________________________ 17 Summary and conclusions ____________________________________ 18 References cited __________________________________________ 20 ILLUSTRATIONS Page Viking Science Test Lander. Diagram of a Viking lander showing Surface Sampler Assembly components and camera locations _________________________________________________ 2 Surface-sampler collector head _______________________________________________ 2 Schematic illustration of a Viking lander showing location of cameras, sampler arm or boom, and Lander Aligned Coordinate System _________________________________________ 3 Schematic illustration of interactive video-stereophotogrammetry station _____________________ 3 Stereopair of pictures of Notch rock after nudge ____________________________________ 4 Plot of fifth V-Profile from the left in figure 5 _____________________________________ 5 Graph showing range uncertainty with horizontal range for paired 0.04° resolution images ___________ 6 Plan view of Viking Lander 2 and status of sample field at end of Primary Mission ________________ 7 Camera 2 picture showing first rocks considered for pushing _____________________________ 8 Chart showing factors, scores, and weightings used in selection of rocks _______________________ 8 Graph showing estimates of weights of rocks that could be pushed _________________________ 9 Chart showing additional considerations for selection of rocks ____________________________ 11 Pictures showing sequences of events at “Bonneville Salt Flats” ____________________________ 13 Sequence of pictures showing history of Badger (rock 3) _______________________________ 14 Plan view showing movement of Badger (rock 3) ____________________________________ 15 Sequence of pictures showing Notch (rock 7) ______________________________________ 16 Plan view showing movement of Notch (rock 7) ____________________________________ 17 V-Profile along sampler arm azimuth of 201° showing surface and original location of Badger (rock 3) _ _ _ _ 18 TABLES Page Sampler sequences used for rock pushing and sampling under rocks ________________________ 12 Comparison of scientific results from samples acquired from under rocks and samples directly exposed to the atmosphere and sun __________________________________________________ 19 11 p (firms .1. \Dij ROCK PUSHING AND SAMPLING UNDER ROCKS ON MARS By H. J. MOORE,1 S. LIEBES, JR.,2 D. S. CROUCH,3 and L. V. CLARK“ ABSTRACT Viking Lander 2 acquired samples on Mars from beneath two rocks, where living organisms and organic molecules would be pro- tected from ultraviolet radiation. Selection of rocks to be moved was based on scientific and engineering considerations, including rock size, rock shape, burial depth, and location in a sample field. Rock locations and topography were established using the comput— erized interactive video-stereophotogrammetric system and plot- ted on vertical profiles and in plan view. Sampler commands were developed and tested on Earth using a full-size lander and surface mock-up. The use of power by the sampler motor correlates with rock movements, which were by plowing, skidding, and rolling. Provenance of the samples was determined by measurements and interpretation of pictures and positions of the sampler arm. Analytical results demonstrate that the samples were, in fact, from beneath the rocks. Results from the Gas Chromatograph-Mass Spectrometer of the Molecular Analysis experiment and the Gas Exchange instrument of the Biology experiment indicate that more adsorbed(?) water occurs in samples under rocks than in samples exposed to the sun. This is consistent with terrestrial arid environments, where more moisture occurs in near-surface soil un- der rocks than in surrounding soil because the net heat flow is to- ward the soil beneath the rock and the rock cap inhibits evapora- tion. Inorganic analyses show that samples of soil from under the rocks have significantly less iron than soil exposed to the sun. The scientific significance of analyses of samples under the rocks is only partly evaluated, but some facts are clear. Detectable quan- tities of martian organic molecules were not found in the sample from under a rock by the Molecular Analysis experiment. The Biol- ogy experiments did not find definitive evidence for Earth-like liv- ing organisms in their sample. Significant amounts of adsorbed water may be present in the martian regolith. The response of the soil from under a rock to the aqueous nutrient in the Gas Exchange instrument indicates that adsorbed water and hydrates play an im- portant role in the oxidation potential of the soil. The rock surfaces are strong, because they did not scratch, chip or spall when the sampler pushed them. Fresh surfaces of soil and the undersides of rocks were exposed so that they could be imaged in color. A ledge of soil adhered to one rock that tilted, showing that a crust forms near the surface of Mars. The reason for low amounts of iron in the sam- ples from under the rocks is not known at this time. US. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, Calif. 2Department of Genetics, Stanford University Medical Center, Stanford University, Stanford, Calif. 3Martin Marietta Corp., Littleton, Colo. ‘NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, Va. INTRODUCTION During the Primary Viking Mission,5 Lander 2 ac- quired soil samples from beneath two rocks, where any living organisms and organic molecules would be protected from ultraviolet radiation. The acquisition of the samples required that the rocks be pushed away exposing the surface beneath them. Pushing rocks by remote control amid a dense field of other rocks (Shorthill and others, 1976; Moore and others, 1977a) some 363 million km away is a complex feat. Few peo- ple expected such a profusion of rocks on Mars, and the soil sampler was not designed for pushing rocks. Some of the rocks presented obstacles to the sampler and others were targets; consequently a detailed accu- rate knowledge of the topography and rock locations within reach of the sampler was mandatory for suc- cessful operations. The purpose of this paper is to (1) describe the pro- cedures used to push the rocks and the problems en- countered, (2) show that the samples did, in fact, come from under the rocks, and (3) indicate the scientific value of acquiring samples from under the rocks. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors are indebted to the National Aeronau- tics and Space Administration and countless individ- uals who made the Viking Mission a resounding success. The Viking Project was managed by James S. Martin and his staff at NASA Langley Research Cen- ter, Hampton, Virginia and the Viking landers were built by the Martin Marietta Corp., Littleton, Colo. Work was partly performed under NASA order L~ 9714 (H. Moore) and contract NAS—1—9682 (S. Liebes). 5 The Primary Mission is defined by the interval of time from the landing of Viking 1 on Mars, 20 July 1976, to 11 November 1976; the Viking spacecraft have continued to oper- ate during the Extended Mission which ends in April 1978 (Soffen, 1976). 2 ROCK PUSHING AND SAMPLING UNDER ROCKS ON MARS SURFACE SAMPLER SUBSYSTEM COMPONENTS One of the major subsystems aboard the two Viking Landers is the Surface Sampler Subsystem (frontis- piece and fig. 1). This subsystem was designed to ac- quire, process, and deliver surface material samples to the Biology, Molecular Analysis, and Inorganic Analy- sis experiments and to provide support for the Surface Physical and Magnetic Properties investigations (Sof- fen and Snyder, 1976). Biological analyses are con- ducted using three instruments (Klein and others, 1972, 1977): (1) Pyrolitic Release, (2) Labeled Release, and (3) Gas Exchange. The Gas Exchange instrument measures gases evolved from soil in the presence or absence of an aqueous nutrient, using gas chromato- graphy. Molecular analyses are conducted using a Gas Chromatograph-Mass Spectrometer (GCMS) (Bie- mann and others, 1976, 1977). Inorganic analyses are conducted using an X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometer (XRFS) (Clark and others, 1976). The Surface Sampler Subsystem consists of four major components: (1) the Acquisition Assembly, which acquires the samples and delivers them to the desired experiments; (2) the GCMS Processor, which receives samples from the Acquisition Assembly, grinds the material to a particle size less than 300 um, and delivers metered l-cm3 samples to the GCMS; (3) S-band radio antenna X- ray fluorescence funnel Biology processor Nominal sampling field ~12 m2 Integral gimbal Boom housing Furlable boom Collector head ’ 9R Eiected shroud Surface-sampler control asembly (internally mounted) f . at; UM!" lld FIGURE 1.—Surface Sampler Assembly components and camera 10— cations. the Biology Processor, which accepts samples from the Acquisition Assembly, sieves the material to a par- ticle size less than 1,500 um, and delivers metered 7-cm3 samples to the Biology experiments; and (4) the Control Assembly, which receives digital commands from the spacecraft computer and controls the oper- ation of and handles the data from the other three components. Samples are delivered to the XRFS through a funnel with a 1.25-cm screen. The Acquisi- tion Assembly, with its control electronics, and the spacecraft computer were the major components in- volved in the rock-pushing sequences. The Acquisition Assembly consists of a boom unit and collector head. The boom unit consists of (1) an extendable and retractable furlable boom capable of extending the tip of the collector head to a maximum of 3.45 m from the boom housing and (2) an integral gimbal capable of 288° horizontal (azimuth) move- ment and 74° vertical (elevation) movement. The col- lector head (fig. 2) consists of a stationary lower jaw for digging into the surface and a movable upper jaw for retaining the sample. The collector head can deliv- er a bulk sample directly to the appropriate experi- ment in the upright position, or it can be rotated 180° and the upper lid (in the inverted position) vibrated at 4.4 or 8.8 Hz to deliver the sample through a 2-mm sieve in the collector head lid. The Surface Sampler Subsystem is automatically controlled by the spacecraft computer and Surface Sampler control electronics. Typical sampling se- quences generally require that 40—100 discrete com- mands be executed; the longest sequence to date required the execution of 344 commands. Real-time command control and camera monitoring of the boom is impossible due to the one-way radio transmission time between Earth and Mars, which was about 20 Surface contact switch Rotation position switch (internal) 180° rotation Solenoid actuator] motor (internal) (200011) teeth Lid 180° head ' rotation Backhoe retainer / //Lid-open .. ,3 indicator ‘ switch Secondary sample 0 5 CENTIMETERS 10 retention area L—J—l—l—A—gl—A—l—A—l Temperature sensor (external) FIGURE 2.—Surface-sampler collector head. STEREOPHOTOGRAMMETRY 3 minutes during the Primary Mission. Therefore, the entire sequence to be executed must be generated and verified on Earth, transmitted to the spacecraft, and stored in the lander’s computer until the specified ex- ecution time. When the sequence is executed, the computer sequentially transmits each coded digital command and waits a specific interval of time (pre- computed to allow sufficient time for execution) be- fore issuing the next command. If the command is not successfully completed, or a “no-go” signal is gener- ated by an unsafe operation, the computer terminates power to the Surface Sampler and stops the sequence until corrective commands are transmitted from Earth. Surface samples are acquired by moving the boom to the desired azimuth and extension distance and lowering it until the collector head contacts the sur- face. At that point, the collector head pivots about a ball joint, which activates a switch and terminates the downward movement. Sampling is then carried out by opening the collector head lid, extending the boom forward 15—20 cm, closing the lid, and delivering the sample to the desired experiment by another series of commands. STEREOPHOTOGRAMMETRY The prompt generation of accurate and suitably for- matted topographic information was a prerequsite for choosing sample sites and rocks to be pushed and for planning sampler sequences. An interactive comput- erized video-stereophotogrammetric system (Liebes and Schwartz, 1977) was used for this purpose. The system, created to support the Viking Lander Imaging Team and to serve general project needs, was devel- oped by one of the authors (Liebes) in collaboration with A. A. Schwartz of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. The primary input to the system was the digitally encoded imaging data returned by the Viking lander cameras (Huck and others, 1975; Mutch and others, 1972). Figure 3 schematically illustrates the nominal locations of the camera photogrammetric reference points, the placement and articulation of the surface sampler boom or arm, and the alignment of the Lander Aligned Coordinate System. The stereophotogrammetry system consists of three basic elements: (1) computer hardware, (2) computer software, and (3) a stereo station. The computer hard- ware is that of the Interactive Image Processing Fa- cility (Levinthal and others, 1977) at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. A computer software applica- tions program, called RANGER, supports the system. The stereostation is illustrated schematically in figure 4. A pair of video monitors face one another from op- posite ends of a table. Images displayed on the moni- tors are simultaneously viewed through a centrally located scanning stereoscope. The left and right mem- bers of a stereoimage pair are routed, under the con- trol of RANGER, to the left and right video monitors, respectively. The stereoscope enables a photogram- metrist to fuse the image pair into an apparent three- dimensional image of the martian scene. Camera geometric calibration files developed by M. R. Wolf of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (Patterson and others, 1977) help RANGER to accurately associ- ate a viewing vector in the Lander Aligned Coordinate Y 0.905111 (NOTE: E = COMMANDED ARM EXTENSION) Q" E - SAMPLER ARM ARM A2 REF 6} , T 10° , z ' SAMPIER ARM <9 .822 m . 0.470 m a 0.411 m 0 / 0.41mi“ 11V CAMERA 2 . CAMERA 1 Is 11 0.215 m ‘ ‘ 7 P0025 m J —l.143m E2 \ \\_..\.~\ v‘\\i.\‘§‘ *‘ f :1: -Y X X FIGURE 3.—Schematic illustration of a Viking lander indicating lo- cation of cameras, sampler arm or boom, and Lander Aligned Coordinate System. NOMINAL LANDING ' PLAIIE 583 m “1.300 m l MODIFIED MODIHLD MODIFIED 80111.13 21101.01 0011116. M%NIIOR STEREOSCOPE %N|TOR FIGURE 4.—Schematic illustration of interactive video-stereophoto- grammetry station. Video monitors rest on table. Left and right camera stereoimage data are directed from computer to left and right monitors, respectively. Three-dimensional cursor is con- trolled by trackball device (TB). Video image routing and ana- log image are controlled by switchbox (SB). 4 ROCK PUSHING AND SAMPLING UNDER ROCKS ON MARS 1 System with each image point. RANGER provides the photogrammetrist with an artificial “3-space mark” consisting of an appropriately coupled pair of point cursors overlayed on the two video images. The pair of marks fuse to produce a single mark in the apparent three-dimensional image. The photogrammetrist can move the mark in a continuous manner through the martian scene. RANGER can be commanded to con- strain the mark to any surface, which enables the pho- togrammetrist to generate arbitrary profiles of the relief such as elevation contours, vertical profiles, transverse profiles, etc. Support for the sampler activities was invariably provided in the form of sets of profiles (called V-Pro— files) representing the intersections of the martian re- lief with planes containing the azimuth axis of the sampler boom. The profile data were stored in com- puter data sets. Products consisted of photographs of the stereoimage pairs and overlaid profiles, and plots of the V-Profiles. Figure 5 illustrates a stereopair re- corded after the sampler nudged Notch rock. The white lines represent 10 profiles that were generated along boom azimuth intervals of 0.5° to quantify the results of the nudge, to provide a basis for planning the subsequent attempt to displace Notch substan- tially, and to acquire a sample for Biology from be- neath the rock. Figure 6 is a plot of the fifth profile from the left in figure 5. Sets of such V-Profiles en- abled constraints such as the area accessible ito the sampler (sample field) and detailed rock shapes to be established. The commands required to execute any desired sequence would be determined directly from these plots (Clark and others, 1977). The profile for- matting program (implemented by R. N. Philips of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory) operated under multi- parameter control that permitted variable grid inter- vals, measurement systems, and scales. Full-size V- Profiles were frequently plotted to aid modeling of sample areas in front of the Science Test Lander, which is discussed in the following section. The cameras can record at resolutions of either 0.04° or 0.12°. The curves in figure 7, which illustrates theoretical uncertainty of range, apply to a pair of 0.04° images. Uncertainties will be two times as great when one image is at 0.04° and the other is O.12° reso- lution, and three times as great for a pair of 0.12° reso- lution images. Uncertainty at any field point is here defined to be the radial dimension in plan view of the diamond-shaped region of overlap of wedges radiating out from each of the cameras, with wedge apex angles equal to the camera resolutions. Error caused by the calibration data and by thermal movement of the FIGURE 5.—Stereopair of pictures of Notch rock after nudge. Notch rock is about 25 cm wide and 11 cm high. Profiles (white lines) are in planes radiating from the azimuth gimbal axis spaced 0.5° apart. These reproductions have been subjected to differential enlarge- ment and relative rotation to facilitate stereoviewing. Sampler boom visible at top with its shadow below. Vertical bar in left image is artifact of transmission. cameras and shifts of the lander amount at most to SCIENCE TEST LANDER 0.06° of image displacement, suggesting that a reason- able measure of operational ranging error is typically that shown in the figure. Within the stereoportion of the sample field, this uncertainty is typically about 2 or 3 cm. SCIENCE TEST LANDER An important simulation facility was available at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory during the Viking mis- sion for developing and verifying all of the commands to be executed on Mars by the Viking surface sampler. V R©FULE DRY/TIME 7529‘4/050005 CUMMQNDED QZIMUTH QNGLE 105.00 ED) 1.5-1 L2.RUSC.$45882.SQSBBQ.L1292.JNBUl IDENT 18 1 11 , I v 1 , . Ti H ., . I , v T w], 1' v C3 C3 O C3 C) C)\ C3 C) E) 0’ 5 o m (3 m o C.) O m m (‘0 V“ F‘ — "\1")_Q [if L) Z _ _ U7 Q (I I — X ’_ -2m /?_O'0 J Inc: 1 1 1 1 l 1 1 I l 1 1 I 1 1 1 l I 90 . 85 80 75 1 LIRC‘S Z—RXIS (INCHIESJ 1 ' 100 1 90 80 70 LQCIS Y—RXIS (INCHEF‘SJ 1 1 1 | 1 - 1 1 44,. . 1 120 110 100 90 QZIMUTH ClMBRL 9X15 [lNCHE‘SJ FIGURE 6.—Plot of fifth V—Profile from the left in figure 5. Gaps in profile correspond to regions not visible to both cameras. Note that the fillet at the base of the rock was not disturbed during the nudge. Sampler commands of azimuth, extension, and ele- vation required for subsequent rock push and sample acquisi— tion were derived from such plots. The “range data set name” for the family of profiles appears beneath the Julian day and time in the top margin. The “IDENT” number designates the particular profile member of the set. The boom azimuth asso- ciated with the profile plane is indicated in the upper right corner. The X, Y, and Z coordinate scales appear in the plot JPL/IHRGE ”ROCESSXNG LRSURRTDHY margins. The Y and Z scales plotted on the V-Profile are azi- muth-angle dependent (see fig. 3). The perpendicular distance in the Y—Z plane from the axis of the azimuth gimbal is indi- cated at the bottom. Each of the concentric curves denotes the position of the collector head tip at a given extension distance; that is, the curve the tip would describe as the boom is raised and lowered. These curves are here labeled with the associated extension distance (in inches). The diagonal fan of rays indi- cates the path of the collector head tip as the boom is extended at the indicated elevation angles. 6 ROCK PUSHING AND SAMPLING UNDER ROCKS ON MARS HORIZONTAL RANGE, m 1 01 102 103 / .100 0% 10’ 10° 10 r . . . N 60° AZ 80° AZ ._. o H > N 1 ¥ HORIZONTAL ‘ RANGE ._ c1 REF 02 0° AZ H o o N ‘10. HORIZONTAL RANGE UNCERTAINTY, cm HORIZONTAL RANGE UNCERTAINTY, m 10'1 I I . . . I . . . I I I I 10'3 101 102 3 4 105 10 10 HORIZONTAL RANGE, cm FIGURE 7.—Range uncertainty with horizontal range for paired 0.04° resolution images. The key element of this facility, the Science Test Lander, was a full-scale Viking lander with fully oper- ational cameras and surface sampler (frontispiece). The Science Test Lander was installed adjacent to a large sandbox which represented the area on Mars within reach of the sampler (the sample field). The subsystems were manually controlled by test equip- ment and, in the case of the surface sampler, by a small programmable computer. Two 10-kw tungsten- carbide lights were available for simulating martian lighting conditions during imaging tests. Computer control of the sampler was essential to simulate and validate each sampler sequence. The se- quences could thus be witnessed by scientists as well as engineers and managers responsible for assuring the safety of the sequence. The computer also pro- vided data like that which would be returned during execution of the sequence on Mars. Surface-sampler data include commanded and achieved boom posi- tions, discrete measurements of motor current and temperature, and switch positions. Although the sur— face-sampler data do not contain any timing informa- tion, it was possible to determine timing from a detailed analysis of the lander computer’s memory as a continuous timed-tagged record of command and data traffic. This record permitted determination of the rates of travel of all motors, considered a measure of subsystem health. It was also a valuable diagnostic tool for understanding anomalous behavior of the sampler subsystem, and it was especially useful for evaluating the results of rock-pushing sequences. After the landing of Viking Lander 1 on July 20, 1976, the Science Test Lander was configured to simu- late as closely as possible the conditions at the site. The modeling was done by personnel of the US. Geo- logical Survey using the images returned from the lander and photogrammetric analyses of the images. A sand mixture was used for the soil, and the simulated rocks were made of styrofoam. An accurate represen- tation of the surface topography including rock loca- tions was considered essential to developing and verifying safe and meaningful sampler sequences. Support imaging was also validated using the Science Test Lander. The real-time imaging display was par- ticularly useful during the modeling work. The Science Test Lander was reconfigured after the landing of Viking Lander 2 on September 3, 1976. Simulation of the second landing site took on an add- ed importance when it was decided to search for mar- tian organic matter and biota by acquiring samples from under rocks instead of from the exposed surface material. This necessitated an extensive program to develop rock-push sequences. The sample field was carefully surveyed for candidate rocks that met cer- tain scientific and boom-capability criteria. Three rocks were selected for the sampler to attempt to move. Full-scale V-Profiles and contour maps of the target rocks were provided to the NASA/ Manned Spacecraft Center’s Lunar Receiving Labo- ratory, which prepared two models of each rock (one of plaster of paris and the other of epoxy resin) simu— lating extremes of their estimated weights on Mars. The rocks were positioned in front of the Science Test Lander using full-scale V-Profiles. These rocks were used in exhaustive tests to develop the proper tech- niques for rock pushing. CRITERIA FOR ROCK SELECTION Rocks that were eligible for pushing were limited to the sample field (fig. 8), which was defined using sam- pler extensions less than 279 cm (110 in.), angles of boom elevation greater than —38.1°, and boom azi- muths between 90° and 250° (fig. 3). This excluded a number of promising rocks because they were either too far away, too close to the spacecraft, or on the left edge of the sample field. Five rocks (Nos. 1 through 5 in figs. 8 and 9) were considered first because they had been imaged by both cameras in high resolution early in the mission, whereas high-resolution coverage in stereo was not available in other areas. Each rock was rated from 1 to 4 in each of 11 factors, and each factor was weighted by importance. The eleven factors were defined as follows: (1) R01- lability: Was the rock deeply buried or near the sur- face so that it would move when pushed? (2) Obstructions: Were there objects behind the rock that might interfere with its motion? (3) Size: Was the weight of the rock small enough for it to be moved? (4) CRITERIA FOR ROCK SELECTION / OPEN FRACTUHES/ IMETER FOOTPAD 1 PPT SAMPLEF£ my“: /’ ‘ \s. ’ PHYSICAL \ / / PROPERTIES1 2 MR \ ALPHA , 8.0THER \ .~ ansa , / Axons? I BIOLOGYI a)“ J.’ /an3 2%..BIOLOOY 2 ,7. NOTCH BETA , —~/ /IMOVED) / @m A I ‘\ / PURGE BIOLOGY 3 / SITES VIKING LANDER 2 ROCKS (ONLY SELECTED ROCKS ARE SHOWN). ROCKS 1 THROUGH 8 WERE CANDIDATES FOR MOVING. LARGE ARROWS FOR ROCKS 3 AND 7 INDICATE DIRECTION MOTION; DASHED LINES INDICATE ORIGINAL POSITION. ROCK A WAS STRUCK BY FOOTPAD 3 DURING LANDING. SHROUD WAS EJECTED FROM SUR- FACE SAMPLER, STRUCK ROCK B; THE SURFACE AT C, AND CAME TO REST AT D. ARROWS‘INDICATE TRACE OF FLIGHT PATH ON SURFACE DURING LANDING. I I @ SURFACE ERODED BY ENGINE Z I/I 1/77 ENGINE 3 NORTH FIGURE 8.—Plan view of Viking Lander 2 and status of sample field at end of Primary Mission. Locations of selected rocks, sample acquisition trenches, and efected shroud are shown. Plane of plan view is paral el to upper surface of Ian Accessibility: Were there objects in front of the rock that would interfere with the ability of the surface sampler to reach the rock or the area exposed after it moved? (5) Grippability: Was the character of the sur- face of the rock such that the surface sampler would not slip off? (6) Breakability: Would the rock break when moved? (7) Purchase: Was the shape and orien- tation of the rock on the surface favorable for moving? (8) Sampleability: Would the exposed surface be easily sampled? (9) Visibility: Would the exposed sur- Original positions and positions of rocks 3 and 7 after pushing are indicated. der ody (spacecraft Y—Z plane). face be visible to the cameras? (10) Surface area: Would the newly exposed area be large enough to col- lect samples unmixed with surface materials previ- ously exposed to solar ultraviolet radiation? (11) Iconoclasticity: Were there any emotional reasons why the rock should be moved? Each factor was weighted by relative importance (fig. 10), and surface area, visibility, and sampleability received the largest weightings because of their scien- tific importance. Large surface areas reduce the 8 ROCK PUSHING AND SAMPLING UNDER ROCKS ON MARS I. 3, ‘ ‘ . , “ " * f , a i FIGURE 9.—Camera 2 picture showing first rocks considered for pushing: (1) 10L, (2) Mr.‘ Toad (3) Mr. Badger, (4) Mr. Rat, and (5) Mr. Mole. Rock 6 (Bonneville) was considered for pushing later m the missmn. Dimens1ons of rocks given 1n figures 10 and 12. NAME I NUMBER FACTOR RAJv'TNG ICL Mr. TOAD Mr. BADGER Mr. RAT Mr. MOLE 1 2 3 4 5 1. Roliability 4 3 (12) 4 (16) 3 (12) 2 (8) 1 (4) 2. Obstructions 3 3 (9) 4 (12) 4 (12) 4 (12) 4 (12) 3. Size 4 3 (12) 4 (16) 4 (16) 4 (16) 1 (4) Mass 16.7 kg 11.5 kg 11.5 kg 9.9 +kg 25.9 +kg 4. Accessibility 3 4 ('12) 2 (6) 4 (12) 4 (12) 4 (12) 5. Grippability 2 3 (6) 4 (8) 4 (8) 3 (6) 4 (8) 6. Breakability 1 3 (3) 3 (3) 3 (3) 1 (3) 2 (2) 7. Purchase 2 2 (4) 4 (8) 3 (6) 4 (8) 1 (2) 8. Sampleability 5 4 (20) 2 (10) 2 (10) 4 (20) 4 (20) 9. Visibility 5 4 (20) 2 (10) 1 (5) 4 (20) 4 (20) 10. Surface Area 5 4 (20) 1 (5) 2 (10) 2 (10) 3 (15) cm2 (cm) 648(18 x 36) 225(15 x 15) 360(24 x15) 306(18 x17) 810(30 x 27) ll. lconoclasticity 1 4 (4) l (1) 1 (l) l (1) l (1) TOTAL SCORE 122 95 95 116 100 (140 IS PERFECT) FIGURE lO.—Factors, scores, and weightin 3 used in selection of rocks to .be moved for acquiring samples under rocks. Rock 1 (ICL) recelved the highest scores because of arge weightlng of scientifically Important factors: surface area, visibility, and sampleability. Iconoclasticity, a humorous factor, did not affect the outcome. CRITERIA FOR ROCK SELECTION 9 chances of mixing and contamination of the under- rock sample with material that had been exposed to the sun. Good visibility allows an opportunity to as- sess the results of the sampling. Sampleability is the fundamental scientific requirement. The three rocks nearest the spacecraft (ICL, Mr. Mole, and Mr. Rat,6 in figs. 8 and 9) received high scores in visibility and sampleability because the newly exposed surfaces would be favorably oriented to the cameras and the surface sampler if they moved (fig.10). Because of their location and orientation on the surface, their surface areas could be determined. ICL clearly had the largest surface area—18 cm at right angles to the surface-sampler azimuth plane and 36 cm along it, so that the chances of acquiring an unmixed sample from beneath it would be good. Rocks farther from the spa- cecraft generally had low scores, partly because of their location and partly because of their orientation on the surface, which reduced the observer’s ability to estimate the dimension of the rock away from the spa- cecraft. Mr. Toad (rock 2) had the smallest estimated surface area because of its narrow base (fig. 9); consid- ering width alone, it was too small. Visibility and sam- pleability were scored low because Toad was relatively far from the spacecraft, and the upper surface of the rock was barely visible, showing it was tilted away from the spacecraft. Mr. Badger (rock 3) had low scores for the same reasons. The visibility score for Badger was lowest of all because its orientation indi- cated the exposed surface would be difficult to view and dimensions difficult to estimate. Evidence for this unfavorable orientation was fourfold: (1) V-Profiles showed the surface adjacent to the rock was inclined and could not be viewed, (2) the upper surface of the rock was invisible, (3) the visible upper edge of the rock was convex upward and parallel to a crude layer- ing midway in the rock, and (4) the undersurface of the rock was visible at the tip nearest the spacecraft. This orientation resulted in low scores for samplea- bility and a conservative estimate of its dimension in a direction away from the spacecraft. Rock size (weight) and rollability were the chief en- gineering considerations. Estimates of the weight of rock that could be pushed were made assuming fric- tional sliding (fig. 11). For frictional sliding and boom angles constrained by the local surface and sampler capabilities, rocks as heavy as 90 and 160 Newtons (N) could be pushed. If moderate plowing occurred, the weights might be about 40 N less. Rock weights were 5 Names were assigned to rocks in order to aid memorization of the geometry of the sample field. Rocks 2 through 5 were named after characters in Kenneth Grahame’s book The Wind in the Willows (1961), and others were simply named. The origin of the name of rock 1 (ICL) is noted later, in footnote 7. WEIGHT OF ROCK, Ibs IO 20 30 40 .40 I I | F: w tone ——1— cos e—sme rano -35— w 9 F , ‘ cl "/ ’30 V '3 r” W / (FSin6+w)tcn<;z .6 / BOOM DE-ELEVATION ANGLE, deg N WEIGHT OF ROCK THAT CAN BE PUSHEDASSUMING SLIDING FRICTION 0,, (ran 9 : 0.6, F : 30 lbs) l l I I I 20 40 60 80 ICC 120 140 160 180 WEIGHT OF ROCK, NEWTONS FIGURE 11,—Estimates of weights of rocks that could be pushed by the sampler assuming frictional sliding. estimated from the dimensions, shapes, and an as- sumed density of 3,000 Kg/m3. Such a density is rea- sonable for massive mafic rock (Baird and others, 1976) but is somewhat excessive if the rocks are, in fact, vesicular. As an example, ICL’s estimated weight was about 62 N assuming an ellipsoidal shape and should have moved provided that excessive plowing (because of burial) would not be required. With the exception of Mr. Mole (rock 5), the other four rocks would move if excessive plowing was not required. Mole was not only heavier than about 97 N, but it was also deeply buried (fig. 9) and would require plowing; thus it received low scores on rollability and size. Toad was clearly the most rollable because of its small base compared to its upper part. Mr. Rat (rock 4) appeared to be partly buried. In the other factors, only Toad scored low in accessibility because Mole and Rat would interfere with sample acquisition. ICL scored low in obstructions because there were two small rocks behind it. The curved and relatively smooth surfaces of Rat and ICL indicated the surface-sampler collec- tor head might slip while pushing, but there were some pits on the surface so that the teeth of the collec- tor head would probably grip and stay with the rock. Because many of the rocks appeared to be vesicular, it was possible that they might be fragile and break if they did not move when the sampler pushed them. Thus, partly buried rocks, such as Rat and Mole, re- ceived low scores in breakability. High scores for pur- chase were given to Toad and Rat because their large height-to-base ratios would provide mechanical ad- vantage for rolling. In contrast, Mole scored low be- cause of its small height-to-base ratio. The fact that Badger was tilted away from the lander resulted in a relatively high score for purchase. 10 ROCK PUSHING AND SAMPLING UNDER ROCKS ON MARS The weighted scores tipped the balance in favor of ICL rock as the first choice. Here, the factors weighted on scientific goals were important. ICL’s high score in “iconoclasticity,” a factor introduced to help many tired members of the Viking Flight Team retain their sense of humor and relax, did not affect the outcome.7 Subsequent rock selections considered the same 11 factors as well as others (fig. 12). Bonneville (rock 6) and Notch (rock 7), two of three new candidates, were selected to be nudged (fig. 8). Bonneville had moved previously during a sample acquisition for the Inor- ganic Analysis experiment, and the surface that would be exposed after it moved would be shaded at the planned time of sample acquisition for Biology. The rock was in an area where the boom housing obscured the field of view of camera 1, and so there was no ster- eoscopic coverage. Notch won out as the push candi- date because its location was well-known, its shape provided favorable grippability, its location provided good visibility, and the surface in front of it was not disturbed by previous acqusitions (as was the case for Bonneville), which reduced chances of contamination. Surface area, visibility, and sampleability were ample for Notch. ROCK-PUSHING STRATEGY The Acquisition Assembly was not designed for moving rocks on Mars. Therefore, when the request was made to obtain samples from under rocks after the Mars landing, appropriate sequences using the ex- isting capabilities of the Acquisition Assembly had to be developed rapidly. Two ways of moving rocks were considered: (1) posi- tioning the collector head on the rock in such a man- ner that the backhoe could be used to drag the rock when the boom was commanded to retract and (2) po- sitioning the collector head in front of the rock and pushing the rock forward by extending the boom. The boom can push or pull with a force of approximately 178—213 N before the motor load capability is ex- ceeded causing decoupling of its magnetic clutch. Tests using the Science Test Lander indicated the pushing technique was the most feasible. The major difficulty encountered was the accuracy required to push the rock at an optimum point judged from imag- ing to be the center of gravity. The command resolu- tion of the boom is 0.6° in azimuth and elevation, and 0.6° cm in the extend and retract directions. Addition— 7 ICL rock was named after an acronym for Initial Computer Load. Prior to landing, the spacecraft computers had stored commands for an automatic mission in the event that the lander could not he commanded. Had this occured, the spacecraft would have tried to collect a sample from a point just beyond ICL, but would have failed. Thus, ICL was an “iconic clast" that deserved to be pushed. ally, gear backlash and gravitational and thermal de- flection of the boom increased the possible aiming inaccuracies. Although the gravitational deflection could be calculated, the thermal bending of the thin- walled steel boom could not be predicted with suffi- cient accuracy to guarantee that the collector head would not contact the surface in front of the rock and push exposed surface material into the sample site during the forward thrust. A strategy of rock pushing was ultimately selected that provided the best way to move the rock without contaminating the sampling site. The accuracy of azi- muth positioning was improved by comparing the boom-command coordinates of previously excavated trenches with the V-Profile azimuths of the center- lines of the trenches measured using the camera ster- eoimages. Appropriate command corrections were made as required. The azimuth backlash effect was predictable because the lander is tilted 8.2° in a west- erly direction (Shorthill and others, 1976; fig. 8). Thus, the azimuth backlash consistently produced ac- tual boom azimuths that were about O.6° smaller than the commanded azimuths. Backlash in the extend and retract directions was negligible. The relatively large potential errors in the elevation axis (boom thermal bending, gravitational deflection, and overtraveling after motor cutoff) were eliminated by first command— ing the boom to the surface until movement was ter- minated by actuation of the ground contact switch. This command was followed by an elevate command which was controlled by timing rather than by posi- tion achieved. Knowledge of the elevation rate of travel enabled calculation of the time required to lift the collector head tip above the surface a known amount. This technique nullified the effect of boom deflections in the upward direction. The final se- quence adopted for the mission consisted of the fol- lowing steps generally performed over a period of 10— 15 Martian days: 1. Swing the boom to the desired azimuth (as deter- mined from V-Profile data and corrected for cali- bration and lander tilt). 2. Extend the boom such that the tip would be posi- tioned approximately 2—3 cm in front of the rock after lowering it (as determined from V-Profile data). 3. Deelevate the boom to activate the surface contact cutoff switch. 4. Elevate the boom (usually for 1—2 seconds) to posi- tion the collector head at the correct vertical posi- tion in front of the rock. 5. Extend the boom approximately 7—8 cm to verify “moveability” of the rock by subsequent imaging and boom telemetry data. SAMPLER MOTOR CURRENTS AND ROCK MOVEMENT 11 NAME/NUMBER Mr. RAT BONNEVILLE NOTCH OTHER 4 6 7 8 SIZE Width 18 cm 22 cm 25 cm 25 cm Depth 17 cm 15-22 cm 25 cm 25 cm Height 11 cm 5-6 cm 11 cm 13 cm Mass 9.9 kg 6-8.4 kg 10.7-20.3 kg 9.5-19.1 kg ADVANTAGES Appears to have Appears to be moved du ring unbu ried XRFS Sol 30 dig Has V-Profile Has V-Profile data Has V-Profile data stereo- stereoscopic cover- data stereoscopic scopic cove rage age coverage Newly exposed area shaded at 0600 DISADVANTAGES Near lCL Monoscopic coverage Rock along SSAA rock (1) which Area in front of gimbal axis didn‘t move rock "messed-up" presents possible Partly buried by GCMS (Sol 21) hazard and XRFS (Sol 29, 30)trenches lconoclasticity 1 0 0 0 FIGURE 12.——Additional considerations for selection of rocks to be nudged or pushed for the second sample acquisition beneath a rock for the Biology Experlment. 6. Position the boom such that the rock and collector head could be stereoimaged and subsequent V- Profiles could be generated showing the new posi- tion of the rock. 7. Position the collector head at the new relative posi- tion (steps 1 through 4). 8. Extend the boom 20—25 cm (depending on dimen- sions of rock) to completely displace rock from original site. Verify rock movement by imaging and repeat steps 7 and 8 if required. 9. Perform a backhoe sequence at the original site of the rock to remove possible exposed material, fol- lowed by performance of a normal sampling se- quence. Details of the rock-push sequences used on Mars are listed in table 1. SAMPLER MOTOR CURRENTS AND ROCK MOVEMENT Motor currents, inferred from variations in lander bus currents, were sampled at a rate of 4 kilobits per sec- ond in the engineering data format (Format 5). This resulted in a current sample every 0.19 seconds and a current resolution of 0.039 amperes. Typical motor currents have a base current of about 0.2 amperes, normally a high current transient at motor start, a no- load condition during a gear transfer, and then a rise in current due to extension. Currents are converted to force by subtracting the base current of 0.2 amperes from the total motor current measurements, calculat- ing the wattage from known voltages (typically 31.8 Vdc) and then using calibration data (Crouch, 1976) which gives ~20 Newtons/watt. Thus, the resolution in force is about 25 N. Motor currents during nudging, pushing, and sam- pling correlate with movements of the sampler and the rocks as viewed and measured using the pictures. This correlation is vividly illustrated by the Sol 29 ac- quisition for the Inorganic Analysis experiment (fig. 13). The acquisition stroke extended to the buried base of Bonneville, which was displaced upward about 0.4 cm as shown by comparison of pre- and post-sam- ple pictures of the rock. The surface sampler extends at a rate of about 1 in. (2.54 cm) per second. The dura- tion of high current (m 6.7 s, fig. 13) represents an ex- tension near 6.7 in. (17 cm), which is in good 12 ROCK PUSHING AND SAMPLING UNDER ROCKS ON MARS TABLE 1. Sample seq ucnccs used for rock pushing and sampling under rocks [Engineering units are reported in inches because of use during mission and in final surface- sampler report (L. V. Clark and others, 1977). CW, clockwise; CCW, counterclockwise as viewed in fig. 8; est., estimated] Command Position Rock Sol‘ description achieved Comments ICL 30 Azimuth CW _______ 186.6° To nudge rock. Extend __________ 75.4 in. Est. distance to rock 77.4— 780 in. Deelevate _______ (—) 33.2° Surface contact. Elevate _________ (—)30.6° By timing. Extend __________ 78.6 in. Sampler commanded to 83.1 in.; motor clutched: est. force 200 N. Rock did not move. Badger 34 Azimuth CW _______ 201.1” To push rock, first try. Extend __________ 84.4 in. Est. distance to rock 87.4 in. Deelevate _______ (—)30.6° Surface contact. Elevate _________ (—)30.0° By timing. Extend __________ 96.5 in. Rock translated, tilted, and rotated; surface sampler de- flected CW and went under rock. Retract __________ 82.0 in. Trench produced because rock leaned on surface sam- pler. Badger 37 Azimuth CW _______ 200.5° To push rock, second try. Extend __________ 89.1 in. Est. distance to rock 90.6 in. Deelevate _______ (-)29.4° Surface contact. Elevate _________ (-)28.1° By timing. Extend _________ 101.2 in. Rock at extension of 97—98 in. along 200.5"; may have had larger tilt during push than afterwards. Badger 237 Azimuth CW _______ 201.1" To acquire sample. Extend __________ 93.0 in. Est. distance to rock 95 in. Deelevate _______ (-)28.8° Surface contact. Retract __________ 84.1 in. Trench to clear away any surface contaminants. Elevate _________ (")2075" Extend __________ 87.0 in. Deelevate _______ (--)30.0° Surface contact. Bonne- Extend __________ 93.6 in. Sample acquisition. ville 45 Azimuth CW _______ 217.5" To nudge rock. Extend __________ 99.1 in. Sol 29 XRFS extension of 99.4 in. moved rock. Deelevate _______ (-)25.6° Elev. indicates surface sam» pler contact on rock. Elevate _________ (-)26.2° Images show collector head tilted back and on rock. Extend _________ 103.0 in. Rock fell back after exten- sion. Points on front surface moved 1 cm upward. Notch 45 Azimuth CCW ______ 105.8° To nudge rock. Extend __________ 84.1 in. Est. distance to 86.2 in. Deelevate _______ (-)23.1° Surface contact. Elevate _________ (—)22.4° By timing. Extend __________ 87.8 in. Left edge of rock displaced about 1.5 in. (3.8 cm). Notch 51 Azimuth CW _______ 106.4° To push rock. Extend __________ 86.7 in. Est. distance to rock 87.7-88 in. Deelevate _______ (—)21.8° Surface contact. Elevate _________ (—)21.8° By timing. Extend __________ 98.0 in. Rock translated and rotated clockwise. Notch 51 Azimuth __________ 107.1° To acquire sample. Extend __________ 93.6 in. Deelevate _______ (-)20.5° Surface contact. Retract __________ 78.1 in. Trench to clear away debris. Elevate _________ (”)15-5" Extend __________ 88.0 in. Deelevate _______ (-)21.8° Surface contact. Extend - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 7 _ 94.6 in. Sample acquisition. ‘ S01 is martian day from start of mission; day of touchdown is Sol 0. The duration of a martian day is about 24.65 hours. 2 Sequence was repeated because of failure to obtain level full indication; achieved ele- vations were (-)29.4° and (-)30.6° for surface contacts; level full indication was ob- tained prior to second delivery. Elevation increase indicates shallow 1.2 in. (3 cm) depth for sample trench. agreement with the commanded extension of 6.4 in. (16.3 cm). Thus, the increase in current at the end of the Sol 29 sample acquisition is certainly due to the interaction of the surface sampler and soil with Bonneville rock. The current increase corresponds to a force of about 50 N, a value about twice the esti- mated weight of the rock (22—31 N). At a deelevation angle of —29°, the horizontal component of force is about 44 N. Because the rock moved upward, a lifting force of about 22-31 N was required. The horizontal force vector along a line sloping 30° toward the sur- face sampler is 37.5 N, and its vertical component is 22 N, or near the estimated weight of the rock. During the nudge of Bonneville, surface contact was made on the rock as shown by the deelevation angles (table 1) and by the pictures (fig. 13), which show the collector head resting on the rock after it extended. The high motor currents during the last part of the nudge lasted about 0.2 seconds, which represents about 0.5 cm of travel. This is consistent with about 1 cm upward motion on the face of the rock which was estimated from the pictures and suggests a pivot point on edge of the rock, which is about half as high as wide, farthest from the spacecraft. After retraction, the rock returned approximately to its prenudge posi- tion causing debris from plowed material in the rim of the previous trench to fall into that trench (fig. 13). ICL, the first choice candidate, did not move, as demonstrated by comparing8 prenudge and postnudge images taken by the same camera, photogrammetric measurements, and motor currents. Relatively small motor currents were measured for about 3 seconds, after which they rose to a value corresponding to a force of about 200 N above the normal extension cur- rent. The current duration compares favorably with the estimated 2—2.5-in. (5—6.4 cm) distance to the rock. Two hundred Newtons is close to the decoupling force for the sampler motor (178—213 N). The maxi- mum horizontal component of force on ICL was 153— 183 N. Because ICL was estimated to weigh 62 N, only about 67 N should be required to push it if simple slid- ing is assumed (see equation in fig. 11). If the sin 0 term in the equation is ignored, 37 N should be re- quired to push the rock. Thus ICL must be cemented or more deeply buried than initial interpretations in- dicated. It is noteworthy that there was no evidence for chipping, spalling, or scratching of ICL as a result of the attempt to push the rock. The individual teeth of the lower jaw of the collector head have an area near 1 mmZ, and so stresses of the order of 108 N/m2 were exerted by the collector head. Thus, it appears that the surface of the rock is strong. aViewing of two pictures taken of the same object at different times by one camera is a sensitive way of detecting motion of the object. SAMPLER MOTOR CURRENTS AND ROCK MOVEMENT 13 SOL 21 SOL29 SOL30 SOL 45 SOL 45 GCMS SAMPLE XRFS SAMPLE XRFS SAMPLE NUDGE POST-NUDGE ACQUISITION TRENCH (1st PASS) TRENCH (2nd PASS) MOTOR CURRENTS 0.2 - 150 0 2 150 3 ‘2 3 9 u: 100 O (I 100 O a: 0,1. —— _ l I; :1 o1 — E 50 50 2 r Lu 5— in < z < z 0 I I I I I I I l 0 0 0 o 4 8 o 5 TIME (sec) TIME (sec) SAMPLE (SOL 29) FIGURE 13.——Sequence of events at “Bonneville Salt Flats.” Bonne- ville (rock 6) is just beyond surface sampler in the left picture (Sol 21). Left picture shows sampler acquiring sample for the Molecular Analysis (GCMS) experiment on Sol 21. Next pic- ture shows trench formed during the first pass of acquisition for XRFS on Sol 29; comparison of pre- and post-acquisition pictures shows Bonneville was displaced 0.4 cm upward; motor currents show increase at end of acquisition stroke and corre- spond to upward displacement of rock. The Sol 30 picture Despite the initial setback of ICL, the sampler moved on to Badger (chosen over Toad). The weight of science considerations was relegated to lesser im- portance, a marginal decision in view of reduced visi- bility and sampleability. More importantly, Badger moved in a complicated way (figs. 14 and 15). Motor currents for the Sol 34 push of Badger correlate with the results. The rock was about 3 in. (7.6 cm) from the collector head tip at surface contact, which correlates with the duration of initially low currents (3 s). This was followed by large currents for 2.5 seconds, corre- lating with the estimated translation of 2.6—2.8 in. (6.5—7.0 cm), which may have been accomplished by NUDGE (SOL 45) (center) shows the second pass acquisition for XRFS; note trench has been cleaned of platy debris. Sol 45 picture (to right) shows collector head on Bonneville during nudge; note trench produced on Sol 30 is still clear of debris. Final picture at right shows sampler (upper center) and Bonneville after nudge; note debris propelled into trench by rock falling into its original position. Trenches are about 10 cm across. Motor cur- rents for nudge (lower right) near end of stroke are larger than those for beginning of sample acquisition. tilting, rather than sliding. Subsequent currents oscil- late and correlate with the interval during which the sampler slipped down off the rock surface causing the rock to lean on it as it completed its extension (fig. 14). Most of the measured 69° counterclockwise rotation of the rock probably occurred in this last interval. Be- cause the rock was leaning on the sampler as it re- tracted after the push, the collector head dug a trench along an azimuth oblique to the commanded azimuth. Badger did not move far enough on the first push, therefore a second push was executed on Sol 37. Un- fortunately, motor currents were not obtained during this push. The pictures show two smooth tracks where 14 ROCK PUSHING AND SAMPLING UNDER ROCKS ON MARS SOL 0 PRE—PUSH SOL 34 1st PUSH FIGURE 14.—Sequence of pictures showing history of Badger (rock 3). At left is rock prior to first push on Sol 34. Next picture (Sol 34) shows Badger leaning on sampler which is fully extended and has been driven clockwise (to right); a small unplanned trench in front of rock was produced during push. Center pic- ture (Sol 34) shows the trench excavated as sampler retracted; azimuth of trench is oblique to azimuths through gimbal axis. the rock simply slid on the surface. The Sol 37 push was followed by a sample acquisition. Motor currents for this acquisition are relatively low and oscillatory when compared with other acquisitions (compare figs. 13 and 15). As noted above, the orientation of the surface with respect to the sampler was not expected to be favor- able because it sloped away from the lander. Thus, the small motor currents measured during sampling are compatible with shallow trenching (z 3.5 cm deep) through an irregular surface inclined away from the lander. The nudge and push of Notch (rock 7), followed by the acquisition, was the culmination of the under-the- rock sampling activities during the Primary Mission (figs. 16 and 17). On Sol 45, Notch was nudged by pushing on a protuberance on the left edge of the rock so that it would rotate to avoid early exposure. As planned, Notch rotated about an axis on the right cen- ter side of the rock. This movement displaced the pro- tuberance about 3.8 cm (figs. 5, 6, and 16). The motion may have been jerky, judging from the oscillating mo- tor currents. The push before sunrise on Sol 51 was accompanied by about 47° of rotation and 95—105 in. (24—27 cm) of translation. The duration of high motor currents was about 10.5 seconds. A rapid rise in motor SOL 34 POST—1st PUSH GCMS SOL 37 SAMPLE TRENCH SOL 37 POST—2nd PUSH Note thin “water line” ledge of soil adhering to left side of rock. Fourth picture (Sol 37) shows Badger after second push; note skid marks produced by sliding. Final picture shows second pass acquisition trench for sample under Badger; note floors of retraction trench (to clear contaminants) and acquisition trench are not visible because local surface slopes away from observer. Only end of sample trench is visible. currents within 1 second shows that the sampler con- tacted the surface within 1 in. (2.5 cm) of the rock. Motor currents for the push were about 50 N larger than those during the sample acquisition. Periodi- cally, they were 75—100 N larger. This may be com- pared with the estimated weight of the rock (40—76 N). Since the higher estimate assumed a rectangular rock, it is probably too large. The lower weight allows for rounded edges but may be somewhat low. For sim- ple sliding with a friction coefficient of 0.6 and using the equation of figure 11, a rock weighing 31 N could be pushed. If the sin 0 term, which allows for an in- crease in normal force by the sampler, is ignored, a rock weighing 40 N could be pushed. At times forces as large as 100 N were exerted and may correspond to some plowing, which is seen to be the case from the pictures. SAMPLING RESULTS Judgment on the provenance of the samples was rel- atively straightforward for Notch rock because it ful- filled the criteria of surface area, visibility, and sampleability, but this was not the case for Badger. The surface beneath Notch could be viewed directly on high-resolution pictures taken by both cameras. Direct views showed that the trenching designed to SAMPLING RESULTS 15 INITIAL POSITION INTERMEDIATE FINAL POSITION ,"' \ SURFACE SAMPLER It \ CONTROL AZIMUTH , 201° ' 201° VISIBLE PART OF ROCK INFERRED ROCK SAMPLE \g -~ ACQUISITION 44 /~&—' TRENCH .4“ mi, 3 .4 RETRACTION i”; TRENCH 6.5 -7.ocmf ‘wch 12 -15cmf ’20°T|LT O 0 ”69° 17° MR. BADGER ROTATION ROTATION MOTOR CURRENTS m 0.2 10533 ”0.2 15° 2 E’ JL_LI'U'J‘U' .n.r <3 * mo 0 o 50 Eo'lilrru Jim?“ §°I .nJTI—Lr 50% I—l—l—gJ—J OITTITTTIIITTTIOZ 0 OZ 0 5 10 0 5 SCALE (centimeters) TIME (sec) TIME (sec) PUSH (SOL 34) FIGURE 15.—P1an view showing movement of Badger (rock 3). Left is Badger before movement; note view shadow and area of in- ferred rock; 201° is azimuth through sampler gimbal axis; a and b are points on rock. Center, Badger after first push; dot- ted line is original position; note short trench excavated by surface sampler while extending to rock; large trench pro- duced during retraction while Badger leaned on surface sam- clear away possible contamination was successful and that the acquisition occurred in the correct place. Achieved positions of the sampler were in complete accord with interpretations of the pictures. For the sample beneath Badger, judgment was at best diffi- cult. Visibility and sampleability were not as favor- able as at Notch because of the slope of the surface. The situation was more seriously affected by the post- sample acquisition pictures, one of which was a low- resolution (blue diode) picture and the other a high- resolution picture. Both were taken at low sun eleva- tion angles, which caused extensive shadowing. The chief evidence that the sample came from beneath the rock was provided by comparing the history and loca— SAMPLE (SOL 37) pler; note trench is oblique to commanded azimuths; arrows below indicate motion; motor currents show approach to rock (0.6—4 s); the push (4—6.5 s); and push while Badger leaned on surface sampler (6.5—12.6 3). Last diagram shows final position of Badger; trench to clear contaminants; acquisition trench; arrows indicate motions; motor currents below are unusually low for sample acquisition. tions of the rock along the azimuth axis of the sampler gimbal with achieved commands (fig. 18). Since this comparison indicated the sampler achieved the cor- rect positions, the best estimate was that the sample did indeed come from soil originally beneath the rock. The outcome indicates that the low rating given to sampleability was appropriate. Two acquisition se— quences were automatically performed because a “level full” signal‘was not obtained immediately after the first acquisition. Such a signal was obtained dur- ing the second acquisition sequence just before sieving of the sample into the Molecular Analysis soil delivery system. Analytical results of the samples by the Molecular 16 _ ROCK PUSHING AND SAMPLING UNDER ROCKS ON MARS as» w .. , « SOL 34 PRE-NUDGE SOL 45 POST-NUDGE H... m, ,4 SDI. 51 POST-PUSH AND A00. FIGURE 16.—-Sequence of pictures showing Notch (rock 7). At left is rock prior to nudge on Sol 45. Next picture shows rock after nudge; note small displacement at protuberance on left side of rock. Third picture shows Notch after push and sample on Sol 51; note backhoe trench walls, plowing marks, and sampled area, which was originally under rock. Analysis Experiment and Biology Experiment are compatible with the judgment that the samples came from beneath the rocks. The amount of water evolved during heating from 50—200°C of material from be- neath Badger is much larger (0.2 percent) than that evolved from the sample exposed to the sun and heated in one step to 200°C (~0.05 percent)(Biemann and others, 1977). Heating of both samples to 350°C and then 500°C evolved comparable amounts of water during each heating step (Biemann and others, 1977). The results of the Gas Exchange instrument of the Bi- ology experiment are also compatible with relatively large amounts of water. Evolution (desorption) of N2, Ar, 002, and 02 from soil humidified in the presence of the nutrient in the Gas Exchange Instrument varies inversely with the mean water content of the original sample environment (Oyama and Berdahl, 1977). Re- duced desorption of N2, Ar, and 002 from the sample under Notch is attributed to larger amounts of ad- sorbed water (Oyama, 1977). Reduced 02 evolution is attributed to the hydration of alkaline-earth and a1- kali-metal superoxides to produce hydrated perox- ides. By terrestrial analogy, larger amounts of water should be expected under rocks (Moore and others, 1977b). Field and laboratory studies show that soil be- neath rocks in a field of soil in an arid environment has detectably more adsorbed water at depths of 2.5— 5.0 cm than soil exposed to the sun and atmosphere (Jury and Bellantuoni, 1976a, b). These studies indi- cate the net heat flow is toward the soil beneath the rocks, and so water vapor moves under the thermal gradient toward the area beneath the rocks. The rock cap inhibits evaporation. Also, ultraviolet radiation may dehydrate exposed soils (Huguenin, 1976). SCIENTIFIC VALUE 17 BIOLOGY ”NOTCH” ROCK ACQUISITION A. SEQUENCES I. NUDGED ON SOL 45 2. PUSHED ON SOL 51 3. SAMPLE ON SOL 51 3 0m 0. BACKHOED TO CLEAN AWAY POSSIBLE CONTAMINATION - WITH EXPOSED SURFACE MATERIALS b. COLLECTOR HEAD ELEVATED I8.0° UP TO REACH ACQUISITION POSITION AND PREVENT CONTAMINATION c. ACQUISITION OCCURRED IN NEWLY EXPOSED SURFACE ORGINALLY UNDER ROCK B SAMPLER PROCEDURES AND RESULTS WERE OUTSTANDING —- ESTIMATED TO BE BETTER THAN 90% OF SAMPLE FROM UNDER ROCK + Z L ’ o 20 4o 60 cm 2.5m . IIISCI:14|| FINAL POSITION I LE OF NOTCH ROCK /24\ ORIGINAL POSITION \/ \‘2 OF NOTCH ROCK ' / l REGION OF SAMPLE . I ACQUISITION o\ \ .\ \\ \ '. ’ \ \ . - - . . REGION OF \hc -\.._-.\:.\\ -. BACKHOEING 2.0m \-\\:;j‘ I l 3.0m 2.0m\\_./ 1.0m 4—— + YL MOTOR CURRENTS o N Ln 0 0.2 J1— Ea. O AMPERES .0 o L 8 8 NEWTONS AMPERES I 5 0 TIME (sec) NUDGE (SOL 45) T T T 5 TIME (sec PUSH (SOL 51) ISOm 02 I50 2 - "‘ —n- 1000 Q I005 505 gm! __ 50 E z < “2‘ I I I l I0 0 0 IO 0 l 5 TIME (sec) SAMPLE (SOL 51) FIGURE 17.—Plan view showing movement of Notch (rock 7). Short dashed lines indicate original position of rock, solid line indicates final position of rock. Arrows show motion of rock. Motor currents are plotted at bottom. Note motor currents during push (center) are larger than those for nudge (left) and sample (right). SCIENTIFIC VALUE The scientific value of the samples from under the rocks was considerable (see table 2). 1. There was no evidence for large quantities of or- ganic molecules in the sample from the sun- shielded soil beneath Badger (Biemann and others, 1977). 2. Results from the Biology experiments did not pro- duce convincing evidence for Earth-like living or- ganisms that thrived in the protected environment beneath Notch (Horowitz and others, 1976, 1977); the possibility for life on Mars has not been ex- cluded, however (Levin and Straat, 1976, 1977 ). 3. Results of the Inorganic Analysis experiment indi- cate substantially less iron in the samples from un- der Badger and Notch than in samples exposed to the sun and atmosphere (B. C. Clark and others, 1977). The reason for the difference in iron content is not understood at this time; it may be the result 18 ROCK PUSHING AND SAMPLING UNDER ROCKS ON MARS 75in 09° INITIAL COLLECTOR HEAD AT POS'T'ON STARTOFACQUISITION mm Ma /r\ X ,c: a w?) WEEKS“ RC MR. B\ADGER SURFACE\SAMPL/ER / AZIMUTH 201° lll\llllll IIIIIIIII 105 100 95 90 85 DISTANCE FROM GIMBAL AXIS (INCHES) FIGURE 18.—V-Profile along sampler arm azimuth of 201° showing surface and original location of Badger (rock 3), location after Sol 34 push, and location after Sol 37 push. Surface sampler collector head is at position just before acquisition stroke; sample area and backhoe trench areas indicated by arrows. Sloping lines indicate deelevation angles; arcs are sampler extensions. of sedimentation of magnetite-rich fine material from the atmosphere (Pollack and others, 1977) on exposed surfaces but not on covered surfaces. 4. The large amount of water (for Mars) evolved dur- ing heating of the sample from under Badger to 200°C may represent adsorbed water. If this is the case and Mars is like the Earth, adsorbed water may be present at greater depths, where it is cooler. Such a result lends strong support to models of Mars and its atmosphere requiring adsorbed water (Fanale, 1976). 5. The response of the exposed and shielded soils to the Gas Exchange instrument is providing valuable insight on the chemical environment at the surface of Mars. 6. The surface sampler did not scratch, chip, or spall the rocks, showing their surfaces are hard. 7. Color pictures were obtained of freshly exposed soil beneath Badger as well as the underside of the rock. 8. The “water line” ledge of soil adhering to the side of Badger (fig. 14) provides clear evidence of a near- surface crust. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The dense field of rocks on Mars was not antici- pated before the Viking landings, and pushing rocks was not in the plans. Successful pushing of the rocks and sampling from the newly exposed soils beneath them required the development of imaginative proce- dures based on a thorough understanding of scientific requirements and the variables related to the surface sampler. Of equal importance was an accurate knowl- edge of the locations of the rocks within the sample field. The endeavor to collect samples from under rocks was entirely successful. Four lines of evidence support this: (1) The pictures show that samples came from soils originally beneath the rocks; (2) the sampler po- sitions indicate that samples came from soils origi- nally beneath the rocks; (3) by terrestrial analogy, SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS TABLE 2.—Comparison of scientific results from samples acquired from under rocks and samples directly exposed to the atmosphere and sun Exposed Exposed Observed quanitities Under-rock samples samples Experiment or items samples (Lander 2) (Lander 1) Comments Biology: Gas Exchange __predicted Ar(nmols) _____ 39 49 62 Predicted and observed found Ar __________ 6 4 13 nanomoles (nmols) of predicted N2 _________ 60 76 96 gas desorbed by hu- found N2 _________ 13 30 83 midification (Oyama predicted 02 _________ 2.7 3.4 4.4 and Berdahl, 1977; ta- found 02 _________ 70-270 190 790 ble 2). Differences in predicted C02 ________ 6,110 7,750 9,800 the Ar and N2 found found C02 ________ 6,110 7,750 9,800 in samples are attrib- uted to amount of ad- sorbed water vapor, which is largest for un- der-rock sample and smallest at VL—l site; amount of 02 evolved attributed to reaction of water vapor with superoxides and per- oxides; 02 from un- der—rock sample probably near 70 nmols; low 02 evolved because there was more water under Notch (rock 7). _ “C02 (disintegrations — — — — — — — — — Results from this instru- per minute). ment are poorly un- derstood at this time; a biological interpre- tation of results is un- likely (Horowitz and others, 1977). Pyrolytic Release Labeled Release _ _ _ , “C02 (counts per Results from this instru- minute). — — — — — — — — — ment are consistent with a biological re- sponse and restrict possible chemical re- actions that might produce the results (Levin and Straat, 1977). Molecular Analysis _ _ Water (percent) No organic compounds related to the soil of heated to- 50°C <0.01 — — — — — — Mars were detected; 200°C 0.2 0.05 ——— water analyses for 350°C 0.3 0.3 — — — Lander 1 were omitted 500°C 0.8 1.0 --— because they are, at 500°C 0.6 0.25 — — — best, crude estimates (Biemann and others, 1977). __ Iron (percent) __________ mus—12.8 14.2 12.7—13.1 Data on samples from under rocks not yet available; sample from under Badger (rock 3) contains 18 percent less iron than exposed samples at VL—2 site; sample from under Notch (rock 7) con- tains 10 percent less iron than exposed samples at VL—2 site (B. C. Clark and oth- ers, 1977); values for under-rock sample taken as 10 and 18 percent less than 14.2 percent. Inorganic Analysis 19 20 ROCK PUSHING AND SAMPLING UNDER ROCKS ON MARS TABLE 2.—-Comparison of scientific results from samples acquired from under rocks and samples directly exposed to the atmosphere and sun—Continued Exposed Exposed Observed quanitities Under-rock samples samples Experiment or items samples (Lander 2) (Lander 1) Comments Physical properties: Rock strength _____ Pictures and forces inferred from motor currents. Soil structure (crust) _______ Pictures of disturbed rocks. Pictures of rock and soil. Lander Imaging Color more adsorbed (?) water should be in soils under rocks than in soils exposed to the sun; (4) soils from under the rocks contain less iron than those exposed to the sun and atmosphere. The larger amount of water evolved during heating to 200°C from soil beneath the rock than from soil ex- posed to the sun and atmosphere as well as the Bio- logy experiment results on the sample from under a rock lends strong support to theories requiring storage of water and volatiles in the martian regolith. Eventu- ally, the results may lead to a reasonable assessment of equilibrium conditions between the water vapor in the atmosphere and the water in the regolith. Al- though not understood at this time, the difference be- tween the amount of iron in soils from under the rocks and soils exposed to the sun and atmosphere should be explicable. REFERENCES CITED Baird, A. K., Toulmin, Priestley, III, Clark, B. C., Rose, H. J., Jr., Keil, Klaus, Christian, R. P., and Gooding, J. L., 1976, Minera— logic and petrologic implications of Viking geochemical results from Mars: Interim report: Science, v. 194, p. 1288—1293. Biemann, Klaus, Oro, John, Toulmin, Priestley, III, Orgel, L. E., Nier, A. 0., Anderson, D. M., Simmonds, P. G., Flory, Donald, Diaz, A. V., Rushneck, D. R., and Biller, J. A., 1976, Search for organic and volatile inorganic compounds in two surface sam- ples from the Chryse Planitia region of Mars: Science, v. 194, p. 72—76. ICL (rock 1) did not scratch, chip, or spall when forces of 200 N and stresses near 105N/m? were exerted on it; this indicates rock is strong and does not have a weak weathered rind. Ledge of soil adhering to Badger (rock 3) proves the existence of thin crust near surface. Color data not reduced; there are no obvious differences in color be- tween under-rock and exposed soils. Biemann, Klaus, Oro, John, Toulmin, Priestley, III, Orgel, L. E., Nier, A. 0., Anderson, D. M., Simmonds, P. G., Flory, Donald, Diaz, A. V., Rushneck, D. R., Biller, J. E., and Lafleur, A. L., 1977, The search for organic substances and inorganic volatile compounds in the surface of Mars: Jour. Geophyisesearch, v. 82, p. 4641-4658. Clark, B. C., Baird, A. K., Rose, H. J., Jr., Toulmin, Priestley, III, Christian, R. P., Kelliher, W. C., Castro, A. J., Rowe, C. D., Keil, Klaus, and Huss, G. R., 1977 , The Viking X-Ray fluores- cence experiment: Analytical methods and early results: Jour. Geophys. Research, v. 82, p. 4577—4594. Clark, B. C., Baird, A. K., Rose, H. J., Jr., Toulmin, Priestley, III, Keil, Klaus, Castro, A. J., Kelliher, W. C., Rowe, C. D., and Evans, P. H., 1976, Inorganic analyses of Martian surface sam- ples at the Viking landing sites: Science, v. 194, p. 1283—1288. Clark, L. V., Crouch, D. S., and Grossart, R. D., 1977, Viking ’75 project summary of primary mission surface sampler oper- ations: Viking Flight Team Document VFT—019, 477 p. Crouch, D. S., 1976, PTC surface sampler boom loading test with Format 5 and SSCA TM data: Martin Marietta Corp. Letter SST—17870—DSC dated 25 June 1976. Fanale, F. P., 1976, Martian volatiles: Their degassing history and geochemical fate: Icarus, v. 28, p. 179—202. Horowitz, N. H., Hobby, G. L., and Hubbard, J. S., 1976, The Vi- king carbon assimilation experiments: Interim report: Science, v. 194, p. 1321—1322. 197 7, Viking on Mars: The carbon assimilation experiment: Jour. Geophys. Research, v. 82, p. 4659—4662. Huck, F. 0., McCall, H. F., Patterson, W. R., and Taylor, G. R., 1975, The Viking Mars Lander camera: Space Sci. Instrumen- tation, v. 1, p. 189—241. Huguenin, R. L., 1976, Mars: Chemical weathering as a massive volatile sink: Icarus, v. 28, p. 203—212. Jury, W. A., and Bellantuoni, B., 1976a, Heat and water movement under surface rocks in a field of soil: 1. Thermal effects: Soil Sci. Soc. America Jour., v. 40, p. 505—509. 1976b, Heat and water movement under surface rocks in a field of soil: II. Moisture effects: Soil Sci. Soc. America Jour., v. 40, p. 509—513. REFERENCES CITED 21 Klein, H. P., Lederberg, Joshua, and Rich, Alexander, 1972, Bio- logical experiments: The Viking Mars Lander: Icarus, v. 16, p. 139—146. Klein, H. P., Horowitz, N. H., Levin, G. V., Oyama, V. I., Leder- berg, Joshua, Rich, Alexander, Hubbard, J. S., Hobby, G. L., Straat, P. A., Berdahl, B. J., Carle, G. C., Brown, F. S., and Johnson, R. E., 1976, The Viking biological investigation: Pre- liminary results: Science, v. 194, p. 99-105. Levin, G. V., and Straat, P. A., 1976, Viking labeled release biology experiment: Interim results: Science, v. 194, p. 1322-1329. 1977, Recent results from the Viking Labeled Release ex- periment on Mars: Jour. Geophys. Research, v. 82, p. 4663— 4667. Levinthal, E. C., Green, William, Jones, K. L., and Tucker, Robert, 1977, Processing the Viking Lander camera data: Jour. Geophys. Research, v. 82, p. 4412—4420. Liebes, Sidney, Jr., and Schwartz, A. A., 1977, Viking ’75 Mars Lander Interactive computerized Video Stereophotogram- metry system: Jour. Geophys. Research, v. 82, p. 4421—4429. Moore, H. J ., Hutton, R. E., Scott, R. F., Spitzer, C. R., and Shorth- ill, R. W., 1977a, Surface materials of the Viking landing sites: Jour. Geophys. Research, v. 82, p. 4497—4523. Moore, H. J., Leibes, Sidney, Jr., Crouch, D. S., and Clark, L. V., 1977b, Rock pushing and under-rock sampling on Mars: Com- mittee on Space Research (COSPAR) meeting, XXth, Tel Aviv, Israel, 7—18 June 1977, Proc., p. 131. Mutch, T. A., Binder, A. B., Huck, F. 0., Levinthal, E. 0., Morris, E. C., Sagan, Carl, and Young, A. T., 1972, Imaging experi- ment: The Viking Lander: Icarus, v. 16, p. 92—110. Oyama, V. I., 1977, The gas exchange experiment: Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) meeting, XXth, Tel Aviv, Israel, 7-18 June 1977, Proc., p. 124. Oyama, V. I., and Berdahl, J ., 1977 , The Viking Gas Exchange Ex- periment results from Chryse and Utopia surface samples: Jour. Geophys. Research, v. 82, p. 4669—4676. Patterson, W. R., III, Huck, F. 0., Wall, S. D., and Wolf, M. R., 1977, Calibration and performance of the Viking Lander Cam- eras: Jour. Geophys. Research, v. 82, p. 4391—4400. Pollack, J. B., Colburn, David, Kahn, Ralph, Hunter, June, Van- Camp, Warren, Carlston, C. E., and Wolf, M. R., 197 7, Proper- ties of aerosols in the Martian atmosphere, as inferred from Viking Lander imaging .data: Jour. Geophys. Research, v. 82, p. 4479—4496. Shorthill, R. W., Moore, H. J., Hutton, R. E., Scott, R. F., and Spitzer, C. R., 1976, The environs of Viking 2 Lander: Science, v. 194, p. 1309—1318. Soffen, G. A., 1976, Scientific results of the Viking missions: Sci- ence, v. 194, p. 1274-1276. Soffen, G. A., and Snyder, C. W., 1976, The first Viking mission to Mars: Science, v. 193, p. 759—765. Thermal Effects of Large Bodies of Intrusive Serpentinite on Overlying Monterey Shale, Southern Diablo Range, Cholame Area, California By K. J. MURATA, T. w. DIBBLEE, jR., and J. L. DRINKWATER GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1082 UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE,WASHINGTON: 1979 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR CECIL D. ANDRUS, Secretary GEOLOGICAL SURVEY H. William Menard, Director Library of Congress catalog-card No. 79-600034 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Ofiice Washington, D. C. 20402 Stock Number 024-001-03213-9 CONTENTS Page Abstract 1 Introduction 1 Acknowledgments 2 Factors that affect transformation of silica and their bearing on sample selection Preliminary indications of temperature anomalies in siliceous shale caused by serpentinite. Geology and tectonics of the Cholame area Degrees of diagenesis ___________ General aspects _____ Regional diagenesis ____________ Warmspot diagenesis ....... . Intrusive serpentinite as a source of heat ................................................................................... References cited ................................................. N) \IOSO‘UIOJODODOD ILLUSTRATIONS [Plates are in pocket] PLATE 1. Aeromagnetic and generalized geologic map and silica mineralogy of the McLure Shale Member of the Monterey Shale East of the San Andreas fault near Cholame, California. 2. Map showing areas of disordered cristobalite and ordered cristobalite and (or) quartz in the McLure Shale Member of the Monterey Shale east of the San Andreas fault near Cholame, California. 3. Vertical-intensity ground magnetic and generalized geologic map and silica mineralogy of the McLure Shale Member of the Monterey Shale east of the San Andreas fault near Cholame, California. 4. Idealized cross sections, magnetic profiles, and silica mineralogy of the McLure Shale Member of the Monterey Shale east of the San Andreas fault near Cholame, California. Page FIGURE 1. Graph showing relation of d( 101) spacing of cristobalitic porcelanite to depth of burial, to correlative temperature, and to threefold structural categories of cristobalite. ............. 2 2. Map showing geographic features of studied area and comparison area to north _ 4 III THERMAL EFFECTS OF LARGE BODIES OF INTRUSIVE SERPENTINITE ON OVERLYING MONTEREY SHALE, SOUTHERN DIABLO RANGE, CHOLAME AREA, CALIFORNIA By K. J. MURATA, T. W. DIBBLEE, JR., and J. L. DRINKWATER ABSTRACT The Monterey Shale, here of Miocene age, is widely distributed east of the San Andreas fault around Cholame, Calif, at variable distances from the fault and from bodies of intrusive serpentinite. The basal part of the siliceous McLure Shale Member of the Men terey Shale contains disordered and intermediate cristobalite throughout the region except in restricted areas where it contains ordered cristobalite and (or) microquartz. The formation of micro- quartz required diagenetic temperatures at least 15°C above the general ambient of 65°C, and areaswhere the shale contains such microquartz and associated ordered cristobalite are termed “warm spots.” The two largest warm spots are situated on or close to major magnetic anomalies previously described and inter- preted in terms of large subsurface bodies of serpentinite. Warm water of the kind known to have altered and mineralized ser- pentinite elsewhere in the Coast Ranges probably warmed the overlying Monterey Shale sufficiently to bring about the trans- formation of cristobalite into microquartz. The presence of disordered cristobalite in shale adjacent to the San Andreas fault suggests that movements along the fault have not induced a sustained rise in temperature of even a few degrees in the shale. INTRODUCTION The diagenetic silica minerals of the middle Ter- tiary Monterey Shale of California are sensitive indi- cators of the temperature to which the shale has been subjected either through burial or hydrothermal alteration. The original metastable opal of diatom frustules in the shale eventually becomes trans- formed into stable quartz through intermediate cris- tobalite, and rates of transformation are strongly dependent on temperature. Exceptionally thick (>2.0 km) sections of the Monterey Shale well illus- trate this temperature dependency by the presence of diagenetic quartz in the deepest and hottest zone, diagenetic cristobalite in an overlying zone of inter- mediate depth and temperature, and unaltered biogenic opal in the shallowest and coolest zone (Bramlette, 1946; Murata and Larson, 1975). The Monterey and other siliceous shales were source beds for much of California’s petroleum, so information on the progressive diagenesis of the silica component of the shales may throw light on the transformation of associated organic matter into petroleum. The proportions of diatom frustules, clay, and other constituents in the original sediment of the Monterey Shale varied greatly, from virtually pure diatomite through diatomaceous mud to mud. Diato- mite alters diagenetically to bedded chert, a rela- tively pure silica rock, either cristobalitic or quartz- ose, which is dense and vitreous. The more common diatomaceous mudstone alters to porcelanite, a silica-cemented rock of either mineralogy which is less dense and vitreous than chert and is minutely porous so as to have a matte luster like that of un- glazed porcelain (Bramlette, 1946). Mudstone alters to ordinary clay shale, which was not used in our studies because of its low content of diagenetic silica minerals. The above definitions of chert and porcela- nite, based on texture rather than mineralogy, have been useful in describing the field relations of sili- ceous shale. Both chert and porcelanite are so fine grained that their mineralogy cannot be determined in the field but must be determined in the laboratory by means of X-ray diffraction or other laboratory procedures. Whole-rock X-ray patterns of samples classified by us as chert in the field indicate that they are roughly more than 90 percent by weight diagenetic silica (either cristobalite or microquartz), and those classi- fied as porcelanite about 70-90 percent. These limits are approximate because the diffractive power of diagenetic silica minerals is a function not only of their abundance but also of their grain size and degree of structural order, and because comparison standards for the X—ray estimates are perforce made by diluting “average” cristobalite (d(101)~4.08A) or microquartz with clay shale. Reconnaissance mineralogic study of the Mon- terey Shale by us during the past several years in many parts of California has shown that although opaline or quartzose samples predominate at some places, on a statewide basis cristobalitic chert and porcelanite are by far the most common. The same is true even among older siliceous formations, such as the Eocene and Oligocene Kreyenhagen Shale and 2 THERMAL EFFECTS OF SERPENTINI'IE ON MONTEREY SHALE, CALIF. the Upper Cretaceous and Paleocene Moreno Shale, in which a higher proportion of quartzose samples might be expected. Cristobalite, like the zeolites, was once considered a rare mineral in California that was confined mostly to volcanic rocks, but it is now known to occur as a major component of the widely distributed bodies of siliceous shale. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We thank the ranchers of the study region for their courtesy in allowing us access to their lands. Helpful advice regarding the geology of serpentinite and mercury deposits was received from E. H. Bailey, R. G. Coleman, R. A. Loney, and D. E. White. R. W. Boyer and Marjorie G. Jones helped greatly with the laboratory work, and Elizabeth F. Murata assisted with the field work. FACTORS THAT AFFECT TRANSFORMATION OF SILICA AND THEIR BEARING ON SAMPLE SELECTION The overall rates of polymorphic transformation of silica are controlled primarily by temperature, as shown by the field relations described above and by the results of many laboratory investigations (Heydemann, 1964; Ernst and Calvert, 1969; Mizu- tani, 1970; Bettermann and Liebau, 1975; and Oehler, 1976, among others). Composition of the host sedi- ment is also a factor. For example, the transforma- tion tends to be accelerated in calcareous sediments (Lancelot, 1973; Garrison and others, 1975; and Keene, 1975). This effect is well illustrated by the faster conversion of cristobalite to quartz in the cal- careous facies than in the clayey facies of deep-sea Cretaceous sediments from the North Pacific (Keene, 1975). Similarly, the initial change of relatively pure diatomite into cristobalitic chert proceeds more rapidly than does the change of associated diatoma- ceous mudstone into cristobalitic porcelanite (Mul- ryan, 1936; Kastner and others, 1977). This early effect of clay and other impurities persists in the sub- sequent structural ordering of cristobalite, in which the d(101) spacing of chert tends to be about 0.01A larger than that of associated porcelanite. In using siliceous shale as a means of studying the diagenetic history of a sedimentary basin, these complications must be minimized by rejecting carbonate-rich mate- rial through field tests with acid and by selecting porcelanite of roughly the same content of a dia- genetic silica mineral through the criteria of texture and hardness. When first formed from opal, cristobalite has a disordered structure that gradually changes into the ordered structure of alpha-cristobalite (Floerke, 1955; Jones and Segnit, 1971). During the ordering proc- ess, the d(101) X-ray spacing of cristobalite contracts at a temperaturedependent rate from 4.11 to 4.04A (Murata and Nakata, 1974; Mitsui, 1975; Mizutani, 1977), as exemplified by porcelanite (fig. 1) from the Monterey Shale of the Temblor Range, Calif. The changing d(101) spacing provides a continuous dia- genetic scale for siliceous shale over the temperature range of approximately 50°-80°C. Lateral rather than vertical variation of d(101) spacing is of moment in a regional study of a bed of siliceous shale. Thus, vertical variations of the kind shown in figure 1 must be held to a minimum by col- lecting as much as possible from a single strati- graphic zone. A 100-m-thick bed of fairly uniform composition deposited over a large area would be ideal because such a bed is not thick enough for the d(101) spacing of its cristobalite to vary much (<0.01A) vertically. For purpose of further discus- sion, diagenetic cristobalite is subdivided into three structural categories and ranges of d(101) spacing, Top of Monterey Shale 200 '- 400 — 600*- -—60 800 — _ DEPTHJN METERS 1000 - 1200 — 1a0 ISOTOPIC TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS I400 ‘— . — 80 _ STRUCTURAL CATEGORIES OF CRISTOBALITE Disordered l 1600—[ Ordered I Intermediate I | l I 1 I I | 1 I 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 4.11 4.12 d(101) SPACING 0F CRISTOBALITE, IN ANGSTROMS FIGURE 1.—Relation of d(101) spacing of cristobalitic por- celanite to depth of burial, to correlative temperature, and to threefold structural categories of cristobalite. Based on samples from Temblor Range, Calif. (Murata and others, 1977). DEGREES ()F DIAGENESIS 3 namely, disordered, 4.115-4.086A; intermedi- ate, 4.085—4.061A; and ordered, 4.060—4.040A (fig. 1). PRELIMINARY INDICATIONS OF TEMPERATURE ANOMALIES IN SILICEOUS SHALE CAUSED BY SERPENTINITE The first indication that a large body of serpen- tinite might affect the diagenesis of an adjacent sili- ceous shale was found in a recent regional study by us of the Marca Shale Member of the Upper Creta- ceous and Paleocene Moreno Shale. The Marca Shale Member (Payne, 1951) is a relatively thin (100- 200 m), widely distributed Upper Cretaceous siliceous unit that crops out from Coalinga (comparison area, north part of fig. 2) to and beyond Vallecitos and to the north and west of the Ciervo Hills. Over a total distance of 120 km sampled by us, the unit is cristo- balitic except for an interval 20 km long adjacent to the north margin of the New Idria serpentine piercement (Eckel and Myers, 1946), where it is quartzose. The higher temperature (>80°C) appar— ently sustained by the quartzose interval cannot be ascribed to the Marca Shale having been buried deeper there than elsewhere. A second area where serpentinite may have affected the diagenesis of siliceous shale is a zone about 3 km wide and 35 km long extending from southeast of Smith Mountain to somewhat beyond Priest Valley (also in comparison area of fig. 2). The siliceous rock here is the Miocene Monterey Shale in an unusual setting dominated by Mesozoic Franciscan rocks and accompanying serpentinite. The Monterey Shale either lies directly on the Franciscan Forma- tion and serpentinite or is separated from them by a few hundred meters of Cretaceous to middle Miocene sedimentary rocks (Pack and English, 1915; T. W. Dibblee, J r., unpub. maps). Of the 35 samples of por- celanite collected over the area, 33 are quartzose and 2 are ordered cristobalitic, with a d(101) spacing of 4.06A. Here, also, the prevalence of quartzose shale cannot be explained in terms of excessive depth of burial under younger sediments. These indications were sufficiently encouraging for us to undertake a closer study of the relations between the serpentinite and siliceous shale in an area around the village of Cholame and east of the San Andreas fault (bottom part of fig. 2) where the Monterey Shale and Franciscan rocks with accom- panying serpentinite crop out in many places. The area is a southern extension of the above-mentioned regions already examined by us, and its geologic and geophysical aspects have been studied in detail by one of us (T. W. Dibblee, Jr.) and others. GEOLOGY AND TECTONICS OF THE CHOLAME AREA The complex geology of the Cholame area (pl. 1) has been studied by Bailey (1942), Stewart (1946), Marsh (1960), Dickinson (1966a, 1966b), Hanna, Burch, and Dibblee (1972), and Dibblee (1974), among others. Highly sheared Franciscan sedimen- tary and volcanic rocks of Mesozoic age and bodies of serpentinite are overlain by strongly folded Creta- ceous and Tertiary sedimentary rocks and locally deformed Quaternary valley deposits. The axis of the Diablo Range divides the area into two parts of contrasting sedimentology and tec- tonics. In the northeastern part, the Franciscan rocks and accompanying serpentinite are generally separated from Monterey Shale by a great thickness of intervening Mesozoic and Cenozoic rocks, so that, except in Avenal Canyon at the northwest end of McLure Valley syncline, there is little chance of any interaction between serpentinite and the Monterey Shale. In the southwestern part, the cover of later rocks is much thinner over the Franciscan, so that serpentinite and the Monterey Shale occur close together at many places. Folding and faulting of strata are more intense here than in the northeast area, probably because of proximity to the San Andreas fault (Hill and Dibblee, 1953; Dibblee, 1966; Dickinson, 1966b; Harding, 1976). Serpentinite of the Cholame area seems to have been intruded cold (<500°C) into major fault zones (Bailey, 1942), and it crops out in the form of trains such as those that mark the Aido Spring thrust fault, 10 km east of Cholame. The large exposure of serpen- tinite in Table Mountain, 20 km north of Cholame, is highly sheared extrusive serpentinite (Dickinson, 1966a) that forms a carapace over feeder dikes and a major elongate intrusive body (Hanna and others, 1972). Sampling of porcelanite in the Monterey Shale of the Cholame area was restricted to the basal part of the siliceous McLure Shale Member as mapped by Dibblee (1974, and unpub. maps). In the laboratory, each sample was first characterized by means of a whole-rock X-ray diffractogram, and those found deficient in diagenetic silica minerals were elimi- nated. The d(101) spacing of the cristobalitic samples was then determined by using the (1011) peak of added quartz as internal standard (Murata and Larson, 1975). DEGREES OF DIAGENESIS GENERAL ASPECTS Of the total of 121 samples collected from the Cholame area, none contains opaline remains of 4 THERMAL EFFECTS OF SERI’ENTINITE ()N MON'I‘EREY SHALE. (IALlF. o , 120°45' 30’ 15’ 120°oo' 36 30 l \l l u 4 O 0 LL 0 ’6‘ 0/7- '0 ab 08 O U 0 i—‘O /y, "‘ ( Z Z (S “15’? {/t\ m 22 z 4/ <|“‘ / 6‘ \ m 6‘ ,0/ 11, ‘V \ 6:9 xo \I 3 ¢ 4’, “07 Go / 7/ A {99 — L 7(( 6‘ j. oalinga I. / O l 00/ 3 *° 6° ‘2? (f9 4—57} {376‘ (6/14 / 4/1, ’ EXPLANATION 360 6‘19 oo 7 0°, \ /? ——————— \ /'\,\\ ’9 s5P/Q/ Contact of piercement / /OG — r4 \ / VL‘V _ l~ Fault 0 8(8 “ {A 9% 6‘9 ‘ ~- M00 \/0 4/ Iarktleld’o NTAI/V 9 _ KLNfl‘Qs SAN LUIS OB F0 CO KERN CO figure 2 O 5 1O 15 20 KILOMETERS FIGURE 2.—Ge0graphic features of area studied (outlined by heavy line) and comparison area to north. diatoms, 107 are cristobalitic, and 14 are quartzose. exposed to a minimum temperature of about 50°C The total absence of unaltered remains of diatoms (approximate temperature derived from fig. 1). On suggests that the Monterey Shale here was generally the other hand, the occurrence ‘of quartzose samples DEGREES ()F DIAGENESIS 5 only in restricted serpentinite—rich sections of the area, to be discussed below, suggests that the maxi- mum temperature was generally less than 80°C. In the further discussion of diagenesis we distinguish between regional diagenesis, seen in broad areas of disordered and intermediate cristobalite, and local- ized warm-spot diagenesis, seen in areas dominated by ordered cristobalite and associated microquartz. The crystallinity index of the quartzose samples (Murata and Norman, 1976) is uniformly low, rang- ing from 1.6 to 2.4 with a mean of 2.1. REGIONAL DIAGENESIS An overall index of regional diagenesis, useful for comparing different parts of the region and for com- paring the Cholame region with other regions, can be stated in terms of the d(101) spacing of 94 samples collected outside of the warm spots; this spacing ranges between 4.064 and 4.105A. The average value is 4.083A, which falls high in the range for inter- mediate cristobalite and corresponds to a diagenetic temperature of 65°C (fig. 1). Among samples of disordered and intermediate cristobalite that characterize regional diagenesis, the distribution of disordered cristobalite indicates places where the depth of burial of the Monterey Shale was the shallowest. Large areas of disordered cristobalite (pl. 2) are found in the syncline east of the village of Parkfield and in the area of Packwood Creek, 24 km northwest and 27 km southeast of Cholame, respectively, and in three small patches in between. The only known occurrence to the east of the main axis of the Diablo Range is a small area near Devils Den. This prevalence of disordered cristobalite of shallower burial in the southwestern part is reflected in the greater index of regional diagenesis (average d(101) spacing of samples with disordered and intermediate cristobalite) of 4.085A, corresponding to a temperature of 62°C there, com- pared to 4.078A and a temperature of 70°C for the northeastern part. The index for the southwestern part would be even greater and the temperature lower if some allowance could be made for samples in the immediate vicinity of the more extensive warm spots. The disordered cristobalite of the Parkfield syncline also indicates that warm spots are not likely to develop in siliceous shales underlain at shallow levels by “basement” Franciscan rocks that are poor in serpentine (cross section A—A’, pl. 4). The d(101) indication that the general depth of burial was shallower in the southwestern part agrees with the known lesser thickness there of post- Monterey marine formations, as shown in cross section A-A’ (pl. 4). The irreversibility of the dia- genetic trend toward smaller d( 101) spacing makes it very unlikely that the overburden atop the Monterey to the southwest was ever as thick as to the northeast. The lesser overburden in the southwestern part was probably the consequence of the more frequent and intense tectonic activity there throughout the Tertiary (English, 1919; Henny, 1927; and Dickinson, 1966b), which resulted in lesser net accumulation of sediment. The Monterey Shale that bears disordered cristo- balite in the southwestern part might also throw light on thermal characteristics of the San Andreas fault. Such shale occurs at various distances from the fault (pl. 2), 7-9 km away in the area of Packwood Creek, 5—7 km away at the southeast end of the Park- field syncline, and virtually in contact with the fault toward the northwest end of the syncline. But no systematic spatial variation of the d(101) spacing with distance from the fault is evident in these occur- rences. Thus, movements on the San Andreas fault apparently have not generated a sustained rise in temperature of even a few degrees in adjacent shale, a conclusion in harmony with the lack of well-defined heat-flow anomalies near large strike-slip faults of California (Henyey and Wasserburg, 1971). WARM-SPOT DIAGENESIS “Warm spots” are areas in which the shale con- tains mostly ordered cristobalite or microquartz indicative of exposure to a higher temperature than shale of adjacent areas. A major warm spot occurs in the northeastern part around Avenal Canyon (pl. 2) and is here called the Avenal Canyon warm spot. Two others occur in the southwestern part, one north of the Antelope Grade on highway 46 and the other southwest of Jack Canyon and Barrel Valley. The latter elongate area is referred to as the Palo Prieto warm spot because of its relation to the Palo Prieto magnetic anomaly, previously described and named by Hanna, Burch, and Dibblee (1972). The possibility that the Avenal Canyon warm spot was caused by tectonic deformation is suggested by the localization of the spot at the constricted north- west end of the McLure Valley syncline, where strata dip vertically in comparison to dips of 50°—75° in the more open parts. A vertical dip of strata is commonly thought to denote rather severe deformation, but whether there is a commensurate generation of heat and rise of temperature during such deformation is unknown. Elsewhere, such as the southwest side of Vallecitos (upper part of fig. 2), siliceous shale dips vertically or is even overturned (Pinkerton, 1967) but it contains disordered cristobalite with d(101) of 4.09A. Thus, there is no consistent relation between 6 THERMAL EFFECTS OF SERPENTINITE ON MONTEREY SHALE. CALIF. the silica-indicated stage of diagenesis and the attitude of the host bed. There is also no indication that the McLure Shale Member was once buried more deeply in the Avenal Canyon warm spot than in immediately adjacent areas. Similar negative conclusions hold for the Palo Prieto warm spot, so the origin of such spots cannot be explained in terms of any extraordinary mechanical- thermal effects of deformation or of excessive depth of burial of the shale. Both the Avenal Canyon and the Palo Prieto warm spots are situated within areas of major magnetic anomalies (pl. 1 and 3), which Hanna, Burch, and Dibblee (1972) have ascribed to large subsurface bodies of serpentinite. The warm spot north of Ante- lope grade on highway 46, while just outside the Palo Prieto magnetic anomaly, is probably an offshoot of the Palo Prieto warm spot. The aeromagnetic data (pl. 1) were obtained through a flight pattern of seven traverses 6 km apart parallel to the San Andreas fault; the middle flight line followed the surface trace of the fault. The ground magnetic survey (pl. 3) covered the [southern part of the area in greater detail and located the Palo Prieto anomaly more accurately than the aero- magnetic survey. The position of the Palo Prieto warm spot is seen to coincide with the zone of maxi- mum intensity within the serpentinite-generated magnetic anomaly (pl. 3). Thus, in agreement with previous observations at the New Idria piercement and the Smith Mountain-Priest Valley region, sili- ceous shale of the Cholame area shows abnormally advanced diagenesis wherever it overlies large bodies of serpentinite. The way warm spots are situated with respect to subsurface bodies of serpentinite is well shown in the two cross sections A-A’ and B—B’ (pl. 4. after Hanna and others, 1972). Cross section B-B’ happens to pass through a gap in the outcrop of the Monterey Shale within the Palo Prieto warm spot (pl. 2), so it is neces- sary to consider all samples 2.5 km on either side of B—B’ in order to show how the degree of silica dia- genesis varies along the entire section. The maximum and minimum degrees of diagenesis along the section are shown in plate 4 under the heading, “Silica mineralogy and d(101) spacing of cristobalite.” Like- wise for section A—A’, the indicated maximum and minimum degrees of diagenesis are based on samples from a zone 2.5 km on either side of the section. A body of intrusive serpentinite warming nearby rocks is roughly comparable to an igneous intrusion causing contact metamorphism, although the rise in temperature of the affected rock would be far less. The temperature of the average cristobalitic shale of the Cholame area need have been raised only to about 80°C from an ambient temperature of about 65°C and held at 80°C for 250,000 years in order for cristobalite to be transformed into quartz (Ernst and Calvert, 1969). At 100°C, 36,000 years would have sufficed for the transformation. INTRUSIVE SERPENTINITE AS A SOURCE OF HEAT The following discussion of the ways in which intrusive serpentinite could warm adjacent rocks is based mostly on the highly sheared serpentinite of Table Mountain. This rock is believed to have been serpentinized at depth and, before its intrusion and extrusion during the Pliocene and Pleistdcene orog- eny, was injected and stored within the Franciscan Formation (Dickinson, 1966a). The outcrop area of the serpentinite, shown in plates 1 and 3, represents about half of the relatively small volume (2.0 km3) of serpentinite that reached the surface and formed a carapace over a large tabular intrusive body of ser- pentinite with an average width of 4.0 km and a total volume of roughly 600 km3 (Hanna and others, 1972). We shall use the spatial relations between the intru- sion and the Monterey Shale of the Avenal Canyon warm spot as depicted in section A-A’ (pl. 4) to compute the thermal effects of the intrusion. The computed results will tend to err on the low side, because the section happens to cut the intrusion where it is abnormally thin (0.6 km). The initial temperature of the intrusion is roughly determined from the following considerations. If the serpentinite rose quickly from a place of storage at depths of 10—14 km (the latter being the maximum depth considered in pl. 4), the initial temperature could have been around 300°-450°C, based on a geothermal gradient of 30°C/km (Moses, 1962). Existing data on serpentinization of ultramafic rocks further suggest that most serpentinite of orogenic zones probably formed in the temperature range of 100°-300°C (Coleman, 1971; Coleman and Keith, 1971). Thus, 300°C seems to be a reasonable initial temperature for the Table Mountain intrusion. Lovering (1955) and J aeger (1959) have computed temperature changes that are induced in a country rock through conduction of heat from a quickly intruded igneous dike. Their equations were adapted to the serpentinite intrusion by eliminating latent heat of fusion and by assuming that the thermal conductivity and diffusivity of serpentinite were equal to or greater than those of the country rock (J aeger, 1959, table 1, fig. 1). If the initial temperature of the intrusion were 300°C, the greatest distance at REFERENCES CITED 7 which the temperature of the country rock would be raised 15°C above the ambient of 65°C would be about 1.2 km from the edge of the intrusion. This result is a crude approximation, but it suggests only a marginal chance for the Monterey Shale of Avenal Canyon, which is 1 km from the dike, to become hot enough to form quartz solely by heat conduction through intervening rock. On the other hand, the larger size of the Palo Prieto intrusion (pl. 4, section B—B’) makes it more likely that the temperature of the overlying Monterey Shale would be raised sufficiently by conducted heat alone. Another way that the Table Mountain serpentinite could have heated overlying rocks is by the intrusion serving as a conduit for hot water rising from depth. The former existence of a hot water system at Table Mountain is indicated by the extensive post-emplace- ment alteration of the serpentinite to silica-carbonate (magnesite) rock, which in turn became the host rock for substantial deposits of mercury (Bailey, 1942; Bailey and others, 1964). The production of silica- carbonate rock involved solutions with temperature in the range of 15°C to 100°C (Barnes and others, 1973); only solutions hotter than 80°C would be pertinent to the origin of a warm spot. Avenal Canyon mine, a prospect for mercury, is situated within the warm spot, but no commercial production is recorded for the mine. Estimates of temperature of formation of mercury deposits fall mostly in the range of 50°C to 280°C (Bailey and Everhart, 1964; White, 1967; Dickson and Tunell, 1968). Fluid inclusions in quartz associated with mercury deposits of the McDermitt Caldera, Nevada- Oregon, yield depositional temperatures of 195°- 205°C (Rytuba, 1976). Offshoots from the intrusion (section A—A’, pl. 4) could have channeled hot rising waters toward Avenal Canyon to create the warm spot and to accelerate the cristobalite-micro- quartz transformation there. Hanna, Burch, and Dibblee (1972) found that the geophysical data required the intrusion to dip to the northeast, and this dip makes the intrusion pass under Avenal Canyon, thereby greatly increasing the chance of any fluid emanating from the intrusion to warm the overlying Monterey Shale. With warm waters flowing mostly through a limited number of channels for a limited time, the warming of a siliceous shale could be rather uneven compared to the more uniform warming by rock-conducted heat and could result in fluctuation in silica mineralogy to the extent seen within the major warm spots. The warm spot of Palo Prieto probably originated much in the same way as that of Avenal Canyon. These results suggest that should interest ever develop in locating hidden bodies of serpentinite (perhaps in a search for mercury deposits) in areas containing siliceous shale, a study of the silica mineralogy of the shale would be a useful supplement to magnetic surveys. Finally, brief comments will be made on three minor warm spots (marked by ordered cristobalite or microquartz), two along Reef Ridge and one at the southeast end of the Parkfield syncline (pls. 2 and 4). The single quartzose sample from the extreme north- western part of Reef Ridge is the southernmost repre- sentative of the previously mentioned quartzose shale that is predominant in the Smith Mountain- Priest Valley area. The lone sample of ordered cristo- balite at Big Tar Canyon may have been affected by a unique hydrothermal event that cemented the underlying sandstone of the Temblor Formation with analcime. The two samples from the Parkfield syncline bearing ordered cristobalite are anomalous. Their situation at the end of syncline and along a major fault may have subjected them to mild local- ized heating of some kind. REFERENCES CITED Bailey, E. H., 1942, Quicksilver deposits of the Parkfield district, California: US. Geol. Survey Bull. 936-F, p. F143—F169. Bailey, E. H., and Everhart, D. L., 1964, Geology of quicksilver deposits of the New Almaden district, Santa Clara County, California: US. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 360, 206 p. Bailey, E. H., Irwin, W. P., and Jones, D. L., 1964, Franciscan and related rocks, and their significance in the geology of western California: California Div. Mines and Geology Bull. 183, 177 p. Barnes, Ivan, O’Neil, J. R., Rapp, J. B., and White, D. E., 1973, Silica~carbonate alteration of serpentine: Wall rock altera- tion in mercury deposits of the California Coast Ranges: Econ. Geology, v. 68, p. 388-398. Bettermann, P., and Liebau, F., 1975, The transformation of amorphous silica to crystalline silica under hydrothermal conditions: Contr. Mineralogy and Petrology, v. 53, no. 1, p. 25-35. Bramlette, M. N., 1946, The Monterey Shale of California and the origin of its siliceous rocks: U.S. Geol. Prof. Paper 212, 57 p. Coleman, R. G., 1971, Petrologic and geophysical nature of ser- pentinites: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 82, no. 4, p. 897-918. Coleman, R. G., and Keith, T. E., 1971, A chemical study of serpen- tinization—Burro Mountain, California: Jour. Petrology, v. 12, no. 2, p. 311-328. Dibblee, T. W., Jr., 1966, Evidence for cumulative offset on the San Andreas fault in central and northern California, in Geology of northern California: California Div. Mines and Geol. Bull. 190, p. 375-384. 1974, Geologic map of the Shandon and Orchard Peak Quad- rangles, San Luis Obispo and Kern Counties, California, showing Mesozoic and Cenozoic rock units juxtaposed along the San Andreas fault: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Inves. Map I-788, scale 1162,500. Dickinson, W. 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Pleistocene Pliocene Miocene Cretaceous and Holocene and Pleistocene and Pliocene and Eocene Miocene UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1082 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PLATE 1 R.14E. 25' R.15E. 20' R.15E. R.16E. 15' R.16E. 10' R.17E.- ... Y7 R. 17E. 5’ E. 120°0Q’ _ l 3600 l ' ’ / \L \ \g ,//>/\\/: ‘(LA‘ |/\/\\ \/._\ \\’/\/\ \ , \ L _ l \ \L\\ \/,\ \. \]:\/\/ (\l: l\/,/\ / //\\,\ \/\/’\/\/ \T/T/i i/\ \ \ T. 22 S. T. 233. 55’ T. 23 S. T. 24 S. T.24S. T. 258. EXPLANATION Qs Surficial deposits QUATERNARY Q1 Landslide deposits E QT ; <2: < o E "' Z [-‘ < {-11 Paso Robles and Tulare Formations J 33 : Mainly valley deposits E“ 8 T. 25 S. T. 26 S. TP Sedimentary rocks Contact > Approximately located 40’ (x _\ s _______ ........ [-i g Fault Monterey Shale [—i Dashed where approximately located; short dashed where inferred; dotted where concealed. Arrows indicate relative horizontal movement Ts .A._A._.L__L._A__A...A...L Thrust fault Sedimentary rocks Dashed where approximately located; dotted where concealed. Sawteeth on upper plate 4—3_____ 4‘ I ., . V' _i M T. 27 s. Anticline Showing crestline and direction of plunge. Dashed where approximately located —<—l————— Plutonic and metamorphic rocks Syncline SILICA D(101) Showing troughline and direction ofplunge. MINERALOGY IN ANGSTR’OMS TK CRETA- CEOUS AND TERTIARY Miogeosynclinal rocks gr CRETA- CEOUS AND OLDER Dashed where approximately located D l \')7_ O Disordered 41 15-4335 , )1 f /\/ cristobalite l _ /\~ l U) . Franciscan rocks U D Q @ @Intermediate 4085—4061 a 8 cristobaljte U) Q L) < Z < 300 a: < [_. / D m . O Ordered 4.060-4.04O um *" 5 Aeromagnetic contours cristobalite Showing total in tensity magnetic field of the earth, in T. 27 S gammas, relative to arbitrary datum. Hachures in— . Quartz — — — T 28 S Ultramafic r ocks . _ dicate closed areas of lower magnetic intensity. Con— Largely serpen tmtte tour interval 20 gammas Note: Value 4 is omitted from . . _ . D(101) spacing shown on map Regional magnetic gradient of 9 gammas per mile in the direction N. 160 E. has been removed 0 I from the original data R. 17 E. 5' R. 18 E. 120°88’30 filnterior—Geological Survey, Reston, Va.—1979~G78256 SCALE 1:125 000 . GeophySics and geology from Hanna, Burch, and Dibblee (1972) O 5 10 15 KILOMETERS | I I l | | | See plate 4 for cross sections AEROMAGNETIC AND GENERALIZED GEOLOGIC MAP AND SILICA MINERALOGY OF THE McLURE SHALE MEMBER OF THE MONTEREY SHALE EAST OF THE SAN ANDREAS FAULT NEAR CHOLAME, CALIFORNIA UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1082 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PLATE 2 I I 0 I R.14 E. 25’ R.15 E. 20 R.15 E. R.16E. 15 R.16E. 1O R.17E. Y7 R.17 E. 5 E. 120193.000, /\/J\"] \__1[/1\//\<,\J,: Q I f 1 I I \l’\)‘/ //-\r/ ‘, \\7\l\L/‘/\— “1?: QUE/7 , w ‘/\ /’/\ ~ / \\/\/’/ 7‘/\\ \\‘t\ / \ A \ \ \/ {\/\/1\/\/\\\ \Qf/IY/(l /\\\//‘\ IVY/INC \ l\/"/\f\// 41:» :’\1\\\: :1 \/‘\1:./\\ \‘(\L\ «"39“? \ “VD/7 ’51‘ / \I\ \ \ / /\\’ ’ 1/, /\/\l,/1,\ /'\’\\/l'\vl \\\\—’\ / l\/1‘ \\,‘/ ’//\/)\/ l I- //\\\/\/\\‘/\1\’7 \ ’ \ // //\'/\|/795r1/~‘ \‘~ — \ T 223 4g§vfxéfic “Q ~ I '_—— 1/~ If»: // //\/l\ \ [\x 1235. ‘ Q —,L\/>,:/}\ /‘/1\ VMWK" \/\,/1 — ‘ / / SYNCLINE 55' —- Avenal Canyon warm spot \ \,\ / / ’/v\;)c/L‘\ 54/7 vDD‘fT \//,"/‘\T>,: \\ / .0 / : T. 238. T.24S. 120°30’ \ . ..'1’ ‘. MM? \ \ . I W 0y]? 05 6g. lbflb 00/ ‘. Tm / ‘ ‘Q’TK 5 ‘ ' ”P V I T. 24 s. \ 25' R. 14 E‘ EXPLANATION r. 25 s. Qs Surt'icial deposits Pleistocene and Holoeene TK QUATERNARY Q1 A Orchard Peak Landslide deposits Cholame . E 22 0 >" g g QT :3: <2: , u) 13 0 <1'. G 20 o g: 0 ~< Z Ed .2 m E E-' < DJ E :0 Paso Robles and Tulare Formations E} : Mainly valley deposits 1" 8’ T. 25 S. R. 15 E. Tp and Pliocene r—“bfi r—‘J% fq/g—w Miocene Sedimentary rocks Monterey Shale Contact App roxima tely located 40' ‘— R. 16 E. Fault Dashed where approximately located; short dashed where inferred; dotted where concealed. Arrows indicate relative horizontal movement TERTIARY Miocene f_k—\ r—‘*—_ " _\ Ts .A_A_A__A__L_A...A...L Sedimentary rocks Thrust fault Dashed where approximately located; dotted where concealed. Sawteeth on upper plate —<——t—————— Anticline Showing crestline and direction of plunge. Dashed where approximately located fl r. 26 s. (2)1 T. 27 s. TK Cretaceous and Eocene CRETA- CEOUS AND TERTIARY Miogeosynclinal rocks gr E S Q E1 —4——_*—_____ LL} 0 Z O m ‘5 < 51 Plutonic and metamorphic rocks U . m- Synclliir: t. l SILICA D(101), r n 0 an e. Showmg "W '"e a” .’ ‘30 ’0 f” g MINERALOGY IN ANGSTROMS Dashed where approximately located 0 Disordered 4.115—4.086 cristobalite Franciscan rocks L) E) O @Intermediate 4085—4061 10, a Q 8 Area dominated by ordered cristobalite < \ I I: 239 a \ ’ \ \ / , I | I\ .- 023:1? :Ié/Xz/ \’ A \ ' | I- IWA I L : ~/\\\/\//\lw / / |/|\/' \ /l3\/:/IL\\/\,>L\\.\\‘:IL\/\\,Q\I: /l //\\I\1/\‘/\\’\\ <,/\\IL\/‘/‘ g < \‘/\/\\\\/’/ ’ V /’|’l \/ \/\'\/I/‘/’/LI\‘/r‘/“ ”J \/ i\/\7\ L; I\ ‘ 7“ /\\\/\ ’/\\\'\ T \/L\ /I\—-"‘I\I\I\ \ \/’ ‘rx/ / ‘\/ ’w|\\/\\\\l"\ /I\/\//\ /\ /\\ \\/~ I\ //\’§> \ 5 U) u. \/I\/\/x/V//L/.~\,\//\I/\«/\ (/I/_\_I /\/‘L,/\/L/L / ///\\/,/L ~\—\L \/‘,/§ \/l:’ \“\///lL\'/7\\/—-L‘\\/\\//L\I\’//:‘\\’\/\l\I/\I \\—/ /L/\\I\/:/\”‘/L\/ék\/l\\1 ~Il\ » \l \ __ / _ , / x “ / f L L \/ / \ / \ II I I I ELI/JéésxcmfiLyraIYv~ / (I! /\///~'L l‘/ /l\ \\ \//\\\/\\ \ um I- LU (I /‘I/r /\\ “I // / \l\// \1\/\/\/I/\/‘\/ / //\/\\A1/\\/’\l /—/\\\\/ /\\/I‘ / \\/\\\/\/ /\\T#,~/\\/\I /&> \ Lu E I QIV‘I ’«j‘i‘flu \.:'>-\’« ”\‘m‘T/V 7 0 fI ? <01in<7I‘\/\/II~:IJL"‘:T/LI7I— ~,f\/L7<’ (I, \/\\//:\/7I \ E o I z //\\\/\/‘/\,1/\ *1» lfiQflU/DVWI’Q<\\/’/\7‘/’IL\/5r ',\j\ \’—\~“{\‘L’\\/\‘\7\/ ‘—\:I/\//L \VYQL‘Q/© O _! I <(I/\//l I/',/I\//\-I(I I/i/\//\/*/\"/\L\‘//I\\a "I‘ /\/\IJI/ Ii \/\<\‘/I:l \//\/\i:\:/I\/\1/\\l //\/(j/\ :|5\/ ;,I’{\ /I/‘\/_/\\ \/ \\/\/\//\\\/\/\/H/\/g ¥ 8 _ :4 I ZI\/\‘/I/\\/I\/#“/ I ,\/// \I/ L/ \ /.\\L\//I'\I/\I/\/:,,\“ \/ \,/ ;L_7— /\\IL // \I / \/ \/ L/‘g/L\ /I I I 3‘: \/I\):I:I/I/‘I:I'\7xi\ 1:43I/I115\I>’—\\>’\\<—\7w'm, WSW 7705’>/3IV‘O/I>I/5\\>3> I I:\’7\ VJ/ \NAI‘,»)’§,\:\\‘_7\\’/;\>/\—\/CI//L\7\/7/\L\/'\\ \\:/’9/‘\//,1\/.‘\/|"/Z/I'L /\/\//\L/I/\/L/ I~\\ x/L\/\\7\//I7\/|\/T/T(I/\ >_\/’/\7\7\\:/L\/_\ \>I7;/\\:\1/\\:\///:l /_\/\:7 (ICU)\\\I\/;'/\I;’L/\/\\/\<<§ /:\/‘7/\:I\,\’I\L/,\L' :C/F/P/T/T/K \7 I;‘\:I\_/\:\\: (Ur:\\i:\\:l\fl\<\,/\’L\’ LVL\~I\\/\I/ ’\~~L /‘\’\ /\ /\/‘—/~ II \\\/”\ ‘E \ \E‘\/\~ -7/ / ~f//\. 10 - I/\//\‘\f/)\i/‘\’/\LV_> //\///\/I "/'\/\‘>{‘//L\,’/)\»/\\/‘\/“‘ /I\'\/ \'<1//p\:/\‘/~/L§J>‘\I/\‘\///1\/LJ\L/\_I\ \\L\\\;\ I '/~ >\\ \/§\T//| /I\|:/T\li|/\ ’\I:/L\ \/L\/\\/I /H _\/\I \/ \//\/ I/ \/ \I L//\\ \/ / / \\/\///\‘/ /—/’ //\\/\:\’/\l/\‘/\,\ /\l/~ \\//' ~\’\/_ I, \/\w If,\/\‘\,\\/ I////I \ ~ » I\/ /\/\I\f \/v:/‘ (/\\\l\/,\/\/ \\I /\>X L ,/ -/’ \ \/\//‘~’ ‘\’\/\5\ L! T/\ v/ / \/ \\\ \/ \L—F-’ _ 12— l/\‘/:I\I\\‘/\>Ix’i>'\7<)7\Ii\L/’\/\‘/,':/\4l\/:|\‘“(17/70 ,7\//\'\/II,//\‘/L\ S/I:/:\ f \f/iL/f/(‘H/V/l/\\/‘:\//\I>I/\\/I/\1/> L \ \‘~ "2—” “L /\,~\ L\_ /— /\g L. / _\\¥L\;~ \ L\/\ ~//\’ / I\/I/\I/’\/’\/'*/\\//i\/ /L\/:I\L\C‘<«C\/‘\/\/:\\/”\\/\ /1’I'):’\/\”/\ LACE/(I I/\/\//\\\/I‘L\/\—\\/\'/\I/3\F 'I—\L/\\/\/V\’/\/\:l/<'\‘l/\I‘ /\/\\’ /—\ ‘\//\/\ \/::\ \Ir\I//\-/\,,/\‘/\L\7;QQI,\7:/_\:\ ’/":\II\//“/7<7I,\\‘-|\1/\//\j\/\‘Ll/\I’\//\’I< /T//\//’\//\7\/_/L-/I/QCQ/ /\I:I 1730:9750 (L: 7\"/\\:/l __\I \’/I\‘\\/:/, L\7—/\‘L\/\l:/\/\/\ / /://\/f\/\L\/TL/L)«/J L—/\L//\/_\r /L /\«/ \7_L/\/ ’/;/§/:;/\~r\ /\ \/\L\\:\,’\/\-/‘L\//\I\/ {r./r\/I7R\/\/\\//,<‘ \/\,\ 14 — /\/’\/\ /\\'\\\ /L\ \'\ HIV/1V7 Md? I/\//\/’\I \\‘/‘//\\/"‘i/\Q\’\I ’yi’/V\L\/\/\’IV7\‘/\‘/ \/\~//_//\"I\l\/~\/\/\//\/\’“:L 1” \'/‘I’/\/\\/:'I\ — 14 log/2 " ”JON/woe I_:/7‘::I/\’L\JF\D.> 3(chIII/W’rV/q—p/\/\\:\I\7\:\7v’/.\:.I7 / 1\I>‘:I~ /I /\/~/I7\>\L/‘.\\J©1vi\/?L\7rv» I \ EXPLANATION {U I C a) M g 5 m >- 0 "g 0 Q5 [-I 0: B Bi ‘2 ”3 g 5 <2: G) . . . a I SurfICIal deposits 0 4007 E 400 > AEROMAGNETIC ANOMALY 0) >4 05 q) :1 QT m < E 8 4 ad 4007 “ 400 . 3 VERTICAL—INTENSITY GROUND MAGNETIC ANOMALY a) 'i J M I; 5 Monterey Shale m , H (I) ‘0 3 < <( :1 E 200~ L200 E a E 2 TS <( <( (3 (D . Scdlmentary rocks m 3 >4 0) I 0 _ 4 0 §g g TK f5 3 a; Palo Prieto 3 ‘T‘ 0 L” 9 Z I" 4’ LI: . . c4 “'4 < Ix warm spot (3 Mlogeosynclmal rocks 0 U I3 SILICA MINERALOGY AND _ . d(101) SPACING OF MaXImum 4.079 (9 (94.073 4.0880 4.090 0 gr E g Q E CRISTOBALITE “-1 0 Z 0 Minimum 02 . @4064 4.071 (9 4.064 (9 . a: 5 <1: _I T PALO PRIETO QT T4 BARREL Os Plutomcandmetamorphic rocks 9 0 SW Q Qs\PASS um\~ VALLEY ANTELOPE VALLEY , Qs Qg NE . L, I — ——’-‘ ’~/ " “ ’ I///\/ SEA LEVEL ,L? / \HIV _/ MC) TK \ . SEA LEVEL ;/\L:A:I,\ s //“ /\/l\ \\\\‘~/\~~ \ /\\l\ L__/ x L L / / xx§<>f\,\ \ ~\I/I /l m kf \/\ \’L/§\\\/\\I" f \ é , D In ‘\/fi\/\:I:\/\/,’~L/3 \ TK “(k I I’ranciscunrocks B O L. ,‘L \\,,/\\I:/\’_\ TK \ \\\ 5% :I III I\/II/I~\’:“\>//‘I/L‘//\/ 51x I <2% ,\I\LL\,\_ \/\ ' 0d< 2 \ A ~ A L» %x I m I 2 fi/ 2 E //|‘\/I \/\I‘“ I\‘/I V '—I CEP‘QQA—jv/I/il/J/I‘Q ’(le/LR :\/\ /\,\§ um I / 5 \ \ ——\ ’ I I/ / \:I\>|\/\’L\\/\I\ll\ LUV/705‘“ \ \L’ly (7/ I \l/\l <13§ | Ultramafic rocks “I ”L »/’ \"\\/\ \ \/ L? ‘/I~ .. 7\ [\l/\\I\)T\<'\/I\’/\/‘l//|:C\<‘/:\I$s /,\/L\7\\’l\/L\§\ I Largelyxerpentmtte 7 \\\/l/\ ’\\’\/§’\7\7IL\‘1“”: _ \/\Iv\,/ my, 4 4 7= \/I7\/L\\\I1:/:/L\LIL /\ x/pC/_/|\I\’/\/\I<\<§I ‘OL§L\’\7\_/|\/l\ \I1/‘\/’\&5‘\\ I)!” 4769/ / / I)’;p‘/~ ’::I \Q/ \\ //\)/«/ \I:\/ \\ \ \\/L\/’ \7’ /\/ “ \1/ \‘k \_\/\1/ / \ \/\ / / / /\/\/\/\ll\l \/L\/I/\\_I/_\ \/\/T/\\/ \Z QCQ§I\ , w 5 _ / /)‘/\f\‘/\/C/\l// \£\L7/\/\<\\/R\I:I/_I:T\\: \Q:\//C\/\\fi\L 6 m n: ,r /// (Rn /»\\ in: \ \/\‘/I;‘\/\/:/\/ /\\/\\/:I:I\ \f/L‘ O 7 CC Lu 5 / ‘an \/ \‘\//_—\‘ ’\\\/\ —/ \\\ I/\/I \/\/\I’ LU I— ’ ' /\L\/\/-\fA\//I\\L Lu 3 // / /%> as: 07: cm. a *3/307IIIwe“ E SILICA Dam), IN ’ / \ \ / / /\_ ——/\/ / / " \// LI // / \,\ )//>\1\/L/\//\:_/ I/Cf r J/ :/ ‘\I:\I~I\/\—\.\T)1/\‘I\/‘ ;<—I//\/:' :3 MINERALOGY ANGSTROMS _ , L ,— /\ / L >4 8 ‘ / / //I\C/\:\/L/\:I\L\l/\7 \’/\ If: //\\/I\/ I /\\‘:/ :l/\f.#:\:\\/ 8 ¥ / . \ I \/ L , /\ L / _, '. // // noII/IaI/‘wax I O Dwdercd 4415-4086 // / / “\1‘):‘\"/\\/”('l/l/I‘SUIq/VQ/V/I/\l\:[ I_\//I:‘\ cristobalitc / L\L \~I L\ \ ‘ / z /\ WM/ @\/‘\/\\\ \7\’/T\/~‘C \_ ‘>U/\‘/\I:'\i/\‘L\I\/\\:I\ ’ l\/\ L\‘\/\ILI Q—iz—f/L/Jy/g/‘x; ' 10 _ // // 2 / \ \IF/I:I\/I\ ,j\\/\IL‘,\\,\/I\/\C\/L\/\’ 10 G Illtcrmcdlate 4085—4061 / /_‘/I/\ /L’\’\\I/\ \/\:/"/\//\/\ ' ' / / / \I/ \7\I/‘7\7‘\\\\/‘\\’/ I\.<’/\\ I>\ msmbame " — \ \/ -/ \ / / / \\\_/\I /I’/ \ ”I/I/\‘/\/I\'\’\7’f’d<\f\<;\ \U/‘(x/ lynx/x” T 235 T.23S. ‘ l’ ‘ VJ // - .24. c T. s. T.24S. 120°30' T. 24 S. 25’ T. 25 S. R. 14 E‘ EXPLANATION r. 25 s. \ Qs Q) E R. 15 E. g g Surficial deposits <2: Q) 8 a 3’ m i 3' B E 45' 2 :: 1 r m 0 >4 g S QT m E a.) w 0 <2 G o 0 ._. ad .2 5 .2 i— 3: m E: E? Paso Robles and Tulare Formations E] : Mainly valley deposrts l“ a T. 25 S. T. 25 S. T. 26 S. T. 26 S. R. 15 E. 2 2 Tp ._ N ”—- 2 T . D" Sedimentary rocks Contact > Approximately located 40' 06 _\ E _____.._._ ........ P if] Fault o Monterey Shale [—4 Dashed where approximately located; short dashed 5 where inferred; dotted where concealed. Arrows Q 3 indicate relative horizontal movement 2 TS A_A_A__.L._L_A...A...L Sedimentary rocks Thrust fault Dashed where approximately located; dotted where concealed. Sawteeth on upper plate a ' E m __._ _ Q C 8 {4.} 0 Z M £3 a: o a: :4 <1: 2‘ E m . . U U 1.1.} Anticline U Miogeosynclmal rocks {— Showing crestline and direction of plunge. Dashed where approximately located :gj «———+———— Plutonic and metamorphic rocks Syncline SILICA Showing troughline and direction ofplunge. CRETA- CEOUS AND OLDER D(101), Dashed where approximately located MINERALOGY IN ANGSTROMS 171“)? O Disordered 4.115-4.086 , )1 f /\7 cristobalite I —/\‘ 1 U) . FranciSCaH rocks U D Q Intermedlate 4085-4061 a 8 cristobalite m G <1 2 U m < E 700 0 / D m . Ordered 4060-4040 um ._. a: , . 'Magnetlc contours . cristobalite U Showmg vertical mtenszty magnetic field of the earth, 7 in gammas, relative to arbitrary datum. Hachures . Quartz _ _ _ T' 2 S Ultramafic rOCks indicate closed areas of lower magnetic intensity, T- 28 S Largely serpentinite Contour interval 50 gammas Note: Value 4 is omitted from D(101) spacing shown on map Regional magnetic gradient ol‘15 gammas per mile in the direction N. 16° E. has been removed from I o , the original data R. 17 E. 5, R. 18 E. 12000353,30 . filnterior—Geological Survey, Reston, Va.—1979—G78256 SCALE 1-125 000 Geophysics and geology from Hanna, Burch, and Dibblee (1972) o 5 1o 15 KILOMETERS l l I I See plate 4 for cross sections VERTICAL-INTENSITY GROUND MAGNETIC AND GENERALIZED GEOLOGIC MAP AND SILICA MINERALOGY OF THE MCLURE SHALE MEMBER OF THE MONTEREY SHALE EAST OF THE SAN ANDREAS FAULT NEAR CHOLAME, CALIFORNIA , w”; > new. I} ‘ “‘1 79$” Environmental Implications of Element Emissions from Phosphate-Processing Operations in Southeastern Idaho By R. C. SEVERSON and L. P. GOUGH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1083 Element concentrations in plants and soils near point sources of contamination and their possible eyj’ects on plant and animal health UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON21979 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR CECIL D. ANDRUS, Secretary GEOLOGICAL SURVEY H. William Menard, Director Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Severson, Ronald Charles, I94 5— l‘lnvironmental implications of element emissions from phosphate-processing operations in southeastern Idaho. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1083 Bibliography: p. 19 1. Soil pollutionildaho. 2. Phosphate industry—Environmental-aspects—Idaho. 3. Plants, Effect of pollution on. 4. Trace elements, I. Gough, L. P., joint author. II. Title. [11. Series: United States Geological Survey Professional Paper [083. TD878.S48 628.5’5 78—8949 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, US. Government Printing Office Washington, DC. 20402 Stock Number 024—001—03196—5 CONTENTS Page Abstract ................................................ 1 Results of analyses ...................................... Introduction ............................................ 1 Significance of emission-related element distributions . . Acknowledgments ....................................... 1 Element concentrations in plants ..................... . . Element concentrations in soils ....................... Collection and analySIS of data ............................ 1 Correspondence between elements in plants and soils ' . . Sampling design ..................................... 1 Environmental implications .............................. Sampling media ..................................... 2 General impact of element emissions on health ......... Plants .......................................... 2 Emission-related surface contamination of vegetation . . Soils ............................................ 3 Impact of element emissions on plant health ........... Sample preparation and chemical analysis ............. 3 Impact of element emissions on animal health .......... Statistical analysis .................................. 4 Summary ............................................... Estimating element burden in soils .................... 5 References cited ......................................... FIGURE TABLE 0143me 10. 11. 12. ILLUSTRATIONS . Rose diagram showing annual wind-direction distribution at Pocatello and Soda Springs, Idaho ....................... . Map showing location of sampling sites along transects near Pocatello and Soda Springs, Idaho ....................... . Photograph of the elemental-phosphorus plant and the vegetation near Pocatello, Idaho .............................. . Photograph of the diverse rocks and soils north of Soda Springs, Idaho ............................................. . Graphs illustrating typical relations between element concentrations in a sampling medium and distance of sampling site from phosphate-processing operations .................................................................... . Diagram of major pathways in the natural migration of trace elements from phosphate-processing emissions ........... TABLE S Common and scientific plant names used in this report ............................................................. . Analytical methods and their detection limits for element analyses in plants and soils ................................ . Detection ratios for selected elements that have some values below the limits of determination ........................ . Regression statistics for elements and ash in plants sampled near Pocatello, Idaho ................................... . Regression statistics for elements and ash in plants sampled near Soda Springs, Idaho ............................... . Regression statistics for elements in soils sampled near Pocatello, Idaho ............................................ . Regression statistics for elements in soils sampled near Soda Springs, Idaho ........................................ . Comparison of the estimated concentrations of selected trace elements in big sagebrush, cheatgrass, and bluebunch wheatgrass at distances of 3 km from phosphate-processing sites at Pocatello and Soda Springs, Idaho ............ . Estimated element concentrations in surface soils northeast (downwind) of phosphate-processing sites near Pocatello, Idaho, and average concentration of elements in soils as reported in the literature ................................ Correlations between element concentrations in plants and in A-horizon soils along transects beginning near phosphate- processing sites at Pocatello and Soda Springs, Idaho ......................................................... Toxicity of selected elements to plants and animals ................................................................ Chemistry of washed and unwashed bluebunch wheatgrass samples collected 2 km downwind from an elemental-phos- phorus plant, Soda Springs, Idaho ........................................................................... III Page 6 6 7 11 12 14 14 16 17 17 18 19 Page O‘CONJ q 13 13 14 16 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS OF ELEMENT EMISSIONS FROM PHOSPHATE-PROCESSING OPERATIONS IN SOUTHEASTERN IDAHO By R. C. SEVERSON and L. P. GOUGH ABSTRACT In order to assess the contribution to plants and soils of certain elements emitted by phosphate processing, we sampled sagebrush, grasses, and A- and C-horizon soils along upwind and downwind transects at Pocatello and Soda Springs, Idaho. Analyses for 70 elements in plants showed that, statistically, the concentration of 7 environmentally important elements, cadmium, chromium, fluorine, selenium, uranium, vanadium, and zinc, were related to emissions from phosphate-processing operations. Two additional elements, lithium and nickel, show probable relationships. The literature on the effects of these elements on plant and animal health is briefly surveyed. Relations between element content in plants and distance from the phosphate-processing operations were stronger at Soda Springs than at Pocatello and, in general, stronger in sagebrush than in the grasses. Analyses for 58 elements in soils showed that, statistically, beryllium, fluorine, iron, lead, lithium, potassium, rubidium, thorium, and zinc were related to emissions only at Pocatello and only in the A horizon. Moreover, six additional elements, copper, mercury, nickel, titanium, uranium, and vanadium, probably are similarly related along the same transect. The approximate amounts of elements added to the soils by the emissions are estimated. In C-horizon soils, no statistically signifi- cant relations were observed between element concentrations and distance from the processing sites. At Soda Springs, the nonuni- formity of soils at the sampling locations may have obscured the relationship between soil-element content and emissions from phosphate processing. INTRODUCTION In phosphate processing, the mechanical operations of grinding, sorting, and drying, as well as the chemical and thermal processes of calcination and beneficiation, may release into the atmosphere the potentially toxic and therefore environmentally impor- tant elements cadmium, chromium, fluorine, lead, lithium, mercury, nickel, selenium, silver, uranium, vanadium, and zinc. Ore stockpiles, slag, and settling ponds can also serve as sources of wind-blown con- taminants and, therefore, we consider processing sites and not strictly stack emissions as the source area of emitted elements. Except for fluorine (University of Idaho, 1955—74), no studies have been made to evaluate the contribution, if any, of these elements to local plants and soils in the southeastern Idaho phosphate-processing areas. Therefore, we conducted this study in May 1975 to assess the impact of element emissions on selected plants and soils by comparing the element concentrations in samples with distance of sampling sites upwind and downwind from these operations at Pocatello and Soda Springs. Our second goal was to delineate zones of maximum influence along selected transects. Our final goal was to apply our findings to the analysis of potential, but unproven, effects of the emitted elements on the present and future health of plants, animals, and humans located within the zones of influence. Interest in the health-related aspects of biologically active trace elements has expanded greatly during the past 30 years. Comparisons of data from the present study with examples of trace-element toxicity to plants and animals reported in the literature (for exam- ple, Cough and Shacklette, 1976) suggest the potential health effects of element emissions from phosphate processing. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS For preparing samples and performing chemical analyses, we thank David Bickford, W. E. Cary, Nancy M. Conklin, Johnnie M. Gardner, T. F. Harms, A. W. Haubert, R. G. Havens, Claude Huffman, Jr., L. M. Lee, R. E. McGregor, V. M. Merritt, H. T. Millard, Jr., C. S. E. Papp, Ida Price, L. B. Riley, V. E. Shaw, J. A. Thomas, R. E. Van Loenen, and J. S. Wahlberg. We also thank George VanTrump, J r., for his valuable ser- vice in computer programing, J. J. Connor, A. T. Miesch, and H. T. Shacklette for their critical reviews and helpful suggestions throughout the study, and R. W. White (deceased) for assistance in mineral iden- tification. COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA SAMPLING DESIGN Sampling was designed to determine whether the ele- ment content of selected plants and soils decreased 1 2 ELEMENT EMISSIONS FROM PHOSPHATE-PROCESSING OPERATIONS IN SOUTHEASTERN IDAHO systematically with increasing distance from process- ing sites at Pocatello and Soda Springs, and if so, which decreases could be demonstrated at an accept- able confidence level. Transects originating at and ex- tending in two directions from the processing sites were established in relation to the predominant wind vectors (fig. 1). At Pocatello, the predominant winds are from the southwest; at Soda Springs, the frequency of winds from the southeast and northwest is about equal. Six points representing ideal sampling locations were selected along each transect at increasing geometric intervals away from the processing sites, the nearest point being 2 km, and the farthest, 64 km. The actual locations (fig. 2) deviated from the preselected points according to the availability of the desired sampling media. At each location, paired samples of two plants and two soil horizons were col- lected within 100 m of each other. SAMPLING MEDIA PLANTS Sagebrush Steppe (Kiichler, 1964) is the dominant plant community in the eastern Snake River Plain near Pocatello and in the valleys around Soda Springs. The phosphate-processing sites are in this community, and ranching and dryland farming are also concentrated here. At Pocatello, we collected basin big sagebrush, Z FIGURE 1.—Annual wind-direction distribution at Pocatello and Soda Springs, Idaho. Numbered scale indicates the percent frequency for a given wind direction. Modified from Cramer and Bowers, 1974. the dominant shrub, and cheatgrass, the dominant an- nual grass (fig. 3). (See table 1 for scientific names of plants cited by common name in this report.) At Soda Springs, the sagebrush we collected included some mountain big sagebrush and some basin big sagebrush. Because of differences in the overall climate of the two areas and because samples were col- lected in early spring, cheatgrass was not found at Soda Springs; however, bluebunch wheatgrass was abundant and was sampled. When we collected the lat- ter samples, we could not positively identify the grass species because there were no diagnostic fertile culms. However, a return visit to the exact collecting sites by one of us (Gough) in September 1976 enabled us to con- firm that the analysis samples were primarily bluebunch wheatgrass and some rough fescue. Paired samples of sagebrush and grass were col- lected at each sampling location at both Pocatello and Soda Springs (fig. 2), except at the sampling location in an agricultural-residential area 3 km north of Pocatello where sagebrush was absent. Samples included the terminal 8 to 12 cm of the stems (including leaves and flowers) of sagebrush at Pocatello and Soda Springs, the leaves, stems, and flowers of cheatgrass at Pocatello, and the leaves and stems of the bluebunch wheatgrass at Soda Springs. Only plants that appeared to be healthy were sampled. 113°[JO' 30’ 112°00’ 30’ 111°00’ I | l i 43° 00’ 42° 30' 0 10 20 3U 4U 50 KILOMETEHS i EXPLANATION l Phosphateprocessing sites N‘8A Sampling site—Number indicates approximate distance in kilometers from phosphate-processing sites FIGURE 2.—Location of sampling sites along transects near Pocatello and Soda Springs, Idaho. COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA FIGURE 3.—Elemental-phosphorus processing plant at Pocatello,Idaho. Vegetation in the foreground is almost exclusively big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) and cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum). Photographed May 16, 1975. SOILS Paired samples of both A- and C-horizon soils, defin- ed according to traditional usage (US. Department of Agriculture, 1962, p. 173—188), were collected at each sampling location. The paired samples from the C horizon were combined at each location in the field to yield one sample. The A horizon was sampled by removing plant debris from the surface of the ground and excavating with a garden spade to a depth of about 5 cm. The C horizon was sampled by hand auger- ing to the necessary depth and saving, to the extent possible, the centermost part of the auger core. Depth of sampling of this horizon was controlled by the character of the soil at individual sites—at places samples were as shallow as 50 cm where the underlying rock was near the surface or where the composition of the parent material changed. Most C-horizon samples were from depths of 80 to 100 cm. Soils sampled along the transects near Pocatello are remarkably uniform. These soils developed from relatively unweathered aeolian sediments derived from the Snake River flood plain, and they range in thickness from less than 50 to more than 200 cm (Lewis and others, 1975). Conversely, the soils near Soda Springs are highly variable in character (Youngs and others, 1925). Those sampled had developed on such varied parent materials as limestone residuum, aeolian sediments, basalt, valley-fill material of stream origin, and colluvium (fig. 4). SAMPLE PREPARATION AND CHEMICAL ANALYSIS Plant samples were cleaned, pulverized, and dry ash- ed. Cleaning consisted of agitation in tap water, follow- ed by ultrasonic agitation in deionized distilled water. After cleaning, the samples were dried in an oven at about 38° C and were then pulverized in a Wiley mill to pass through a 1.3-mm-mesh screen. The pulverized samples were dry ashed in a muffle furnace at 500° C for about 24 hours, and the ash was used for analysis of most elements. Pulverized samples were prepared for fluorine and selenium analysis by wet digestion. 4 ELEMENT EMISSIONS FROM PHOSPHATE-PROCESSING OPERATIONS IN SOUTHEASTERN IDAHO TABLE 1.—Common and scientific plant names used in this report Common name Scientific name Alfalfa .................... Medicago sativa L. Anemone ................. Pulsatilla patens (L.) Mill. Barley .................... Hordeum vulgare L. Bean, navy ................ Phaseolus vulgaris L. Beet ...................... Beta vulgaris L. Bluegrass ................. Poa sp. Bog bilberry .............. Vaccinium uliginosum L. Cabbage ........ . . . Brassica oleracea var. capitata L. Cheatgrass ..... . . . Bromus tectorum L. Corn ...................... Zea mays L. Citrus .................... Citrus sp. Fescue, rough ............. Festuca scabrella Torr. Fireweed .................. Epilobium angustifolium L. Gumweed ................. Grindelia aphanactis Rydb. Lettuce ................... Lactuca sativa L. Oats ...................... Avena sativa L. Pea ....................... Pisum sativum L. Poppy ................. Papauer macrostomum B. et H. Princesplume ............. Stanleya pinnata (Pursh) Britt. Sagebrush, basin big ....... Artemisia tridentata Nutt. subsp. tridentata Artemisia tridentata subsp. vaseyana (Rydb.) Beetle Sagebrush, mountain big . . . Soybean .................. Glycine max Merr. Sweetpea ................. Lathyrus sp. Tomato ................... Lycopersicum esculentum Mill. Turnip .................... Brassica napus L. Violet .................... Viola sp. Wheat .................... Triticum spp. Wheatgrass, bluebunch . . . . Agro‘fyron spicatum (Pursh) Scribn. an Smith Analyses of these two elements are expressed on a dry- weight basis, whereas all other analysesare expressed on an ash-weight basis. The mineralogy of the wash residue from samples of bluebunch wheatgrass, collected 2 km northwest (downwind) of the elemental-phosphorus plant at Soda Springs, was examined by X-ray diffraction techni- ques. The dry residue was ground using a mortar and pestle and the resulting powders were X-rayed on a dif- fractometer using CuK, radiation. Diffraction patterns were recorded for each powder over a 20 range of 2° to about 55° at a rate of 2° per minute. Soil samples were dried under forced air at ambient temperature, and the dried material was passed through a 2-mm—mesh sieve. The minus—Z-mm fraction was further ground to pass a 100-mesh sieve (150 pm openings), and this material was used for all analytical determinations. All sample preparations and analytical determina- tions for both plant and soil materials were done in US. Geological Survey laboratories at Denver, Colo. The analyses of plant materials followed the pro- cedures for specific analytical methods, other than emission spectrography, described by Harms and Papp (1975). Soil analyses followed the X-ray fluorescence procedures described by Wahlberg (1975), the neutron activation procedures described by Millard (1975), and the atomic absorption spec- troscopy procedures described by Huffman (1975). Meyers, Havens, and Dunton (1961) described the emission spectrography analytical technique used for both plants and soils. Table 2 lists the analytical method and the detection limit for each element in each sampling medium. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS The error associated with sample preparation and analysis was evaluated by examining duplicate analytical determinations from splits of samples that were randomly selected from the complete sample suite. All samples of plants or soils, including the splits, were then placed in a randomized sequence and submitted for analysis. Analysis of the samples in this sequence randomizes any systematic bias that may result from the analytical and sample-handling pro- cedures. Analysis of variance was then used to estimate the relative error variance due to sample preparation and analysis, according to the technique of Miesch (1967). Sample preparation and analysis caus- ed excessive error variance in the data for lead and molybdenum in plants and for antimony, arsenic, barium, boron, germanium, lanthanum, phosphorus, scandium, strontium, yttrium, and zirconium in soils (Severson and Gough, 1976); these elements were not examined further. Some elements in plant and soil material were not detectable by the analytical methods used. If an ele- ment was not detectable in one-fourth or more of the total number of plant or soil samples, the data were not examined further in this study. If an element was not detected in only a few samples of either plants or soils (table 3), the concentration of the element in these samples was considered to be equal to seven-tenths of the lower detection limit. (The justification for these substitutions is discussed by Severson and Gough, 1976.) Variations of element concentrations in plants and soils, relative to distance from each phosphate- processing site, were examined by linear regression. The regression model was of the form: long= bo+ bllogloD where X is the concentration of the element, D is the distance from the processing site, and b0 and b1 are, respectively, the regression constant and regression coefficient. The statistical significance of each regres- sion was determined by analysis of variance pro- cedures (for example, Davis, 1973, p. 192—204). Coeffi- cients of determination between log element concentra- tion and log distance provide estimates of the propor- COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA 5 FIGURE 4.—Diverse rocks and soils characteristic of the area north of Soda Springs, Idaho. Loess agricultural soils (foreground) as well as soils derived from the weathering of basalt (middleground) and limestone (background) are common. Photographed May 18, 1975. tions of the total variance in concentration that is associated with distance from the processing sites. The covariation between logarithms of element content in plant and soil samples among the sample locations along each of the transects was estimated by the product-moment correlation coefficient. Figure 5 illustrates the types of relations between concentrations and distances that were observed along the transects upwind and downwind of the processing sites. Figure 5A shows element concentration in a single sampling medium decreasing with increasing distance from the processing site along both upwind and downwind transects. The regressions that describe these relations are statistically significant at a pro- bability level of 0.05. This type of relation provides strong evidence that the elevated element concentra- tions in a sampling medium close to the processing site are related to emissions. We consider these relations to be “significant.” Figures 5B and 50 show element concentrations in a sampling medium decreasing significantly with in- creasing distance from a processing operation along only one transect; the other transect shows a non- significant increase or decrease in element concentra- tion with distance. This distribution pattern is prob- ably related to element emissions from the processing site and is considered “important.” Figures 5D and 5E show element concentrations in- creasing significantly with increasing distance from the processing site along one transect. An increase in concentration with distance does not describe ac- cumulation of wind-related emissions from processing operations; therefore, these relations are “unimpor- tant” in this study and probably are intrinsic to the natural environment. ESTIMATING ELEMENT BURDEN IN SOILS We estimated the approximate concentrations of elements added to the soil by phosphate-processing operations along transects showing statistically significant relations between element content in soil 6 ELEMENT EMISSIONS FROM PHOSPHATE-PROCESSING OPERATIONS IN SOUTHEASTERN IDAHO TABLE 2.—Analytical methods and their detection limits for element analysis in soilplants and soils [Elements in plants determined on ash. except as indicated. LLD. lower limit of determination expressed in parts per million; AA, atomic-absorbtion spectroscopy; COL, colorimetric: FLU. fluorimetric; IF, induction furnace: NA, neutron activation; SIE, selective ion electrode; SQS, multielement semiquantitative spectrography; and XRF, X-ray fluorescence, (...), not determined] Plants Soils Elements Method LLD Method LLd A1 ........ SQS ...... 100 XRF ...... 10,000 B .......... SQS ...... 20 SQS ...... 20 Ba ........ SQS ...... 2 SQS ...... 2 Be ......... ........ SQS ...... 1 C ..................... IF ........ 500 Ca .................... XRF ...... 1,000 Cd ........ AA ....... 2 ........... Co ......... AA ....... SQS ...... 3 Cr ......... SQS ...... 1 SQS ...... 1 Cu ........ SQS ...... 1 SQS ...... 1 F‘ ......... SIE ...... 1 SIE ...... 10 Fe ......... SQS ...... 10 XRF ...... 1.000 Ga ........ .. ........ SQS ...... 5 Hg ................... AA ....... .01 K .................... XRF ...... 1,000 Li ......... AA ....... 4 AA ....... 5 Mg ........ SQS ...... 20 XRF ...... 300 Mn ........ SQS ...... 1 XRF ...... 1 Na ........ AA ....... 25 AA ....... 100 Nb ........ ........ SQS ...... 10 Ni ......... SQS ...... 5 SQS ...... 5 P .......... COL ...... 100 XRF ...... 2,000 Pb ........ SQS ...... 1o SQS ...... 10 Rb ........ ........ AA ....... 1 Se1 ........ FLU ...... 01 XRF ...... 1 Si ......... AA ....... 100 XRF ...... 10,000 Sn ......... ........ XRF ...... 10 Sr ......... SQS ...... 5 SQS ...... 5 Th ................... NA ....... 1 Ti ......... SQS ...... 2 XRF ...... 2 U ......... FLU ...... 4 NA ....... 1 V .......... SQS ...... 7 SQS ...... 7 Yb ........ SQS ...... 1 SQS ...... 10 Zn ......... AA ....... 20 AA ....... 10 Zr ......... SQS ...... 10 SQS ...... 1o ‘Determined on dried plant material. TABLE 3,—Detection ratios for selected elements in plants and soils at Pocatello and Soda Springs, Idaho, that have some values below the limits ofdetermination [Detection ratio, number of samples in which the element was found in measurable concen- trations relative to the number of samples analyzed: leaders (..), element not included in the study of a given sampling medium] Plants Soils Big Bluebunch Element sagebrush Cheatgrass wheatgrass A horizon C horizon Be ...... 49:50 22:25 Cd ..... 48:48 19:24 26:26 50:50 25:25 Co ...... 48:48 21:24 21:26 50:50 22:25 Hg ..... 50:50 23:25 Mn ..... 48:48 24:24 26:26 50:50 24:25 Mo ..... 48:48 23:24 26:26 Nb ..... 49:50 22:25 Ni ...... 48:48 16:24 21:26 50:50 25:25 Pb ..... 48:48 23:24 26:26 50:50 25:25 Zr ...... 48:48 21:24 22:26 and distance. The estimation method was first used by Miesch and Huffman (1972) and was described in detail, as applied to this study, by Severson and Gough (1976). Using the processing site as the center of the circle of influence, the estimation is made by in- tegrating the regression equation over a pie-shaped segment of the circle between two distances from the processing site. RESULTS OF ANALYSES SIGNIFICANCE OF EMISSION-RELATED ELEMENT DISTRIBUTIONS Tables 4, 5, 6, and 7 present results for all elements included in this study in both plants and soils along upwind and downwind transects at Pocatello and Soda Springs. The first two columns under a sampling medium contain estimates for the intercept (b0) and slope (b.) of the regression line for a specific consti- tuent. A negative slope indicates that the element con- centration tends to decrease with increasing distance from the processing site. Conversely, a positive slope indicates a tendency for the element concentration to increase with distance. The third column of tables 4, 5, 6, and 7 shows the probability that the slope of the regression line is ac- tually zero. We consider as significant a probability of 0.05. The fourth column in the tables presents the pro- bability that the departure of the data from the linear regression model could have arisen by chance. Pro- babilities greater than the critical value of 0.05 in- dicate that the linear model is not appropriate at this level of significance. The fifth column gives the coefficient of determina- tion between element concentration in each sampling medium and distance. This value is a measure of the proportion of the total variation in the dependent variable, in this case, log element concentration, that is accounted for by the regression. For example, a value of 0.75 indicates that 75 percent of the observed varia- tion in element concentration is accounted for simply by distance from the processing site. The following classes were established to determine important relations between concentration of an ele- ment in a sampling medium and emissions from phosphate-processing operations: (1) “Significantly related,” where negative regression slopes were signifi- cant at a probability of 0.05 for both downwind and up- wind transects and a coefficient of determination equal to or greater than 0.50 was observed for one of the two transects; (2) “of probable importance,” Where a significant negative regression slope and a coefficient of determination equal to or greater than 0.50 were RESULTS OF ANALYSES 7 Upwind Downwind Z 00 . I I i , 9 I i . . '_ . E E Significant i Significant LU I U . z . i . O ‘ / \ 1 U (D I . g 0 L,,, . i i 50 1O 1 10 50 DISTANCE, IN KILOMETERS A CD . 7 I r i i I . , i I a i i Not significant i Significant Significant I Not significant I Z . o I ‘ ; i i I : OI i i . i i i i 1 i |_ 50 10 1 10 50 50 10 1 10 50 2 B C LU D Z O on I U I I I I I I I o i I (3 Not significant Significant I Significant \ Not significant 0 i i I I m I i i I 50 10 1 10 50 50 10 1 10 50 DISTANCE, IN KILOMETERS FIGURE 5.—Typical relations between element concentrations in a sampling medium and distance of sampling site from phosphate processing operations. Trend line significance noted in figure. A, Important and related to phosphate processing. B, C, Important and probably related to phosphate processing. D, E, Not related to phosphate processing. observed for one of the two transects. Also considered to be important in soils were a few elements for which the regression was significant at a probability level of 0.10 or whose coefficients of determination were less than 0.50. The reasons for these exceptions will be discussed under “Element concentrations in soils.” ELEMENT CONCENTRATIONS IN PLANTS Of the 23 elements listed in table 4, six in sagebrush at Pocatello (cadmium, chromium, fluorine, uranium, vanadium, and zinc) possessed significant negative regression slopes and acceptable coefficients of deter- mination along both downwind and upwind transects. These elements, therefore, meet our criteria as being significantly related to phosphate-processing opera- tions. Selenium probably should also be added to this list because the downwind regression slope was signifi- cant and the upwind slope was important at the 0.07 probability level. Two additional elements, nickel and phosphorus, are of probable importance because they possess significant negative slopes as well as accept- able coefficients of determination along only one—the downwind—transect. 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RESULTS OF ANALYSES 1 1 wind transect; they have, however, lower than accept- able coefficients of determination. At Soda Springs (table 5), seven elements in sagebrush (cadmium, chromium, fluorine, selenium, uranium, vanadium, and zinc) are significantly related to phosphate-processing operations. Lithium and nickel show significant negative regression slopes and acceptable coefficients of determination along the downwind transect but not along the upwind transect; therefore, they are considered to be importantly associated with the processing operations. Phosphorus and sodium may also be important for they too show significance only along the downwind transect; however, they lack sufficiently high coefficients of determination. In the bluebunch wheatgrass samples, cadmium, fluorine, selenium, uranium, vanadium, and zinc are significantly related to the phosphate-processing operations. The only other element of poSsible impor- tance is chromium; however, along the upwind transect its negative regression slope is not signifi- cant, whereas along the downwind transect its negative slope is significant but its coefficient of deter- mination is unacceptably low. Overall, seven elements in plant tissue (cadmium, chromium, fluorine, selenium, uranium, vanadium, and zinc) are significantly associated with phosphate- processing operations. Two additional elements, lithium and nickel, show frequent importance. Phosphorus and sodium may also reflect the impact of the phosphate operations, but unlike the first nine elements, which demonstrate importance along several transects and in a variety of plants sampled, these two show only questionable infrequent importance. Although basically the same elements are involved in important relations at Pocatello and Soda Springs, there appear to be, in general, higher concentrations of these elements in the plants sampled at Soda Springs. This condition may be due either to differences in climate, phosphate-processing activity, element availability, and plant species or varieties, or to com- binations of all these factors. Table 8 compares the relative concentrations of these elements to be ex- pected in the plants at Pocatello and Soda Springs 3 km from the processing sites, according to the regres- sion equations. At Pocatello, where the downwind vector is greater than the upwind vector (fig. 1), many more downwind samples than upwind samples showed associations between elements in plants and the phosphate opera- tions. At Soda Springs, however, the two main wind patterns, which are opposite but of about equal fre- quency, suggest that the effect of emissions on plants should reflect the somewhat stronger influence of the TABLE 8.—Comparison of the estimated concentrations of selected trace elements in big sagebrush, cheatgrass, and bluebunch wheatgrass at distances of 3 km from phosphate-processing sites at Pocatello and Soda Springs, Idaho. [Estimated concentration values (parts per million, in ash, except as indicated) were calculated using regression equations from tables 4 and 5. Leaders( ..... ), relation between element concentration in plant material and distance was not significant. Values in parentheses indicate that the relation is of questionable significance] Estimated concentrations Estimated concentrations in big sagebrush in grass Soda Springs Pocatello (bluebunch Element l‘ransect Pocatello Soda Springs (cheatgrass) wheatgrass) Cd .......... downwind 78 130 (9) 78 upwind ...... 23 38 ...... 18 Cr .......... downwind . .. 400 270 (50) (62) upwind ...... 77 117 ............ F‘ .......... downwind .. . 360 100 70 45 upwind ...... 43 28 ...... 29 Li ........... downwind ...... 16 ............ upwind .............................. Ni .......... downwind 48 28 ............ upwind .............................. Se‘ .......... downwind . . . .35 .64 .22 .80 upwind ............ (.16) (.08) 30 U ........... downwind 12 7 ...... 5 upwind ...... 3 3 ...... 2 V ........... downwind . .. 460 510 ...... 170 upwind ...... (95) 150 (33) 77 Zn .......... downwind .. . 920 1,870 ...... 890 upwind ...... 520 (760) ...... 390 'Concentrations determined on dry weight of material analyzed. wind from the southeast. Table 5 shows that this is generally true, particularly for the chemical data on grasses. Still, concentrations of emission-related elements were generally higher downwind than upwind at both sites (table 8). Furthermore, the concentrations of cadmium, chromium, fluorine, uranium, vanadium, and zinc calculated for plants from the regression equa- tions were unusually high 3 km from the processing operations, as compared with similar plant materials sampled in the Powder River Basin of Wyoming and Montana (Gough and Severson, 1976). Emissions from the phosphate operations, therefore, contributed substantial quantitites of certain trace elements to the plants that were sampled. ELEMENT CONCENTRATIONS IN SOILS Tables 6 and 7 present regression statistics for 28 elements in soils from the transects near Pocatello and Soda Springs, respectively. As discussed earlier, im- portant relations between the concentrations of an ele- ment in soil and distance from processing sites are recognized as those that (1) show a statistically signifi- cant decrease in element concentration with increasing distance along at least one of the two transects, and (2) have a coefficient of determination of at least 0.50. Nine elements (beryllium, fluorine, iron, lead, lithium, potassium, rubidium, thorium, and zinc) in 12 ELEMENT EMISSIONS FROM PHOSPHATE-PROCESSING OPERATIONS IN SOUTHEASTERN IDAHO A-horizon soils downwind of the Pocatello operations (table 6) meet our criteria for being importantly related to processing-plant emissions. Six additional elements (copper, mercury, nickel, titanium, uranium, and vanadium) have regression lines whose slopes are significant at the 0.10 probability level and have coeffi- cients of determination less than 0.50. Of these 15 rela- tions, departures from the linear model are nonsignifi- cant at the 0.10 probability level for 4 elements (beryllium, fluorine, mercury, and thorium). Therefore, for 11 of the 15 relations, a more complicated model might better describe the relation between element concentration and distance. In A-horizon soils upwind of the Pocatello operations (table 6), only two elements (iron and zinc) meet our criteria for being importantly related to processing-plant emissions. In A-horizon soils downwind of the Soda Springs operations, only calcium meets our criteria; upwind, there are no elements that we consider importantly related to phosphate-processing emissions. Most rela- tions in A-horizon soils attributable to Pocatello processing-plant emissions occur in the transect which, according to the wind patterns shown in figure 1, are downwind of the emission sources and hence reflect the typical primary path of airborne emissions in this area. The Wind patterns at Soda Springs sug- gest that processing-plant emissions should appear in A-horizon soils along both transects. However, because of the soil variability at Soda Springs, element concentrations were not interpreted as being significantly related to distance from the emission sources. Along all transects, only five elements in C-horizon soils meet our criteria for being important. We believe, however, that these element concentrations are not associated with processing operations because it is im- probable that the precipitation in this area (about 50 cm annually) could have transported them through the soil profile to the C horizon in sufficient quantities since the processing factories began operations (about 50 years ago) to account for the statistically signifi- cant relations. Therefore, these relations are probably intrinsic to the natural environment (fig. 5). Table 9 lists the estimated accumulations of those elements that presumably reflect processing-plant emissions in the soils near Pocatello, as well as the estimated average concentrations of selected elements in surface soils reported in the literature. The ac- cumulation estimates are based on the linear regres- sion model that describes the relationship between the logarithm of element concentration in soil and the logarithm of distance from the emission source. These element concentrations are total concentrations and may not represent in direct proportions the amounts of elements available to plants or subject to movement by percolating water. Table 9 includes nickel, uranium, and vanadium even though they do not meet our criteria for determining important relations. These elements are included because the slopes of their regression lines are significant between 0.05 and 0.10 probability levels and because they are demonsrated to be important in both sagebrush and cheatgrass along the same transect. Of the 12 elements in table 9, we consider fluorine, vanadium, and zinc to be present in unusually large amounts in the upper 5 cm of soil close to the processing plants. CORESPONDENCE BETWEEN ELEMENTS IN PLANTS AND SOILS Table 10 indicates for each transect the correlations between element concentrations in plants and total ele- ment concentrations in A-horizon soils and their levels of significance. Eleven elements (chromium, copper, fluorine, iron, lead, lithium, magnesium, nickel, uranium, vanadium, and zinc) showed correlations that are significant at the 0.10 probability level between soil and at least one plant species along at least one sample transect. A significant correlation may reflect a sensitive plant response to soil variation or direct in- troduction of airborne emissions to both plant and soil, or both. Iron, lithium, magnesium, and lead showed signifi- cant correlations between soil and sagebrush but not between soil and grasses at both Pocatello and Soda Springs. However, the correlations were observed for the upwind transects only (table 9), and it is unlikely, therefore, that these relations reflect emissions from processing operations. Also, it is not possible to generalize that the concentrations of any of these elements in plants are due entirely to extraction of the elements from the soils because there are no consistent correlations for any single element among all transects. We have discussed elsewhere the prediction of ele- ment concentrations in either plants or soils by using correlations between the fluorine and zinc concentra- tions in plants and the total concentrations of elements in soil along the downwind transect at Pocatello (Severson and Gough, 1976). We also discussed the dif- ficulty of using such relations for prediction purposes at Soda Springs (Gough and Severson, 1976). Other investigators have also reported the general lack of relation between element concentrations in plant ash and the total element concentration in soil. Shacklette, Sauer, and Miesch (1970) noted that the correlations between element concentrations in the ash of parts of trees or garden vegetables and the total ele- RESULTS OF ANALYSES 13 TABLE 9.—Es timated element concentrations in surface soils northeast (downwind) of phosphate- processing sites near Pocatello, Idaho, and average concentration of elements in soils as reported in the literature [Element concentrations (in ppm) between selected distances (in km) are calculated by intergration of prediction equations using the appropriate regression estimates for slope and intercept in table 6; estimates for background concentration represent the arithmetic means of element concentrations in surface soils sampled in this study 32 and 64 km northeast of Pocatello; percent variation explained is an estimate of the proportion of the total variation in element concentration along a transect that is ac- counted for by the regression; averages from the literature are arithmetic means and represent soil and surficial material from the conterminous United States; leaders ( ..... ), no data availiable] Present Study Estimated concentration between Other studies‘ selected distances Estimated Percent variation (average Element 1—2 km 24 km 4-16 km 16-64 km background explained concentration) 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.1 1.1 58.1 1 1,040 880 650 460 480 59.9 400 21,300 20,200 18,500 16.800 16.800 51.0 25,000 19,300 18,600 17,700 16,600 16,700 76.3 23.000 25 23 20 18 18 64.4 25 26 24 20 16 19 27.4 20 28 25 20 16 16 75.2 20 86 80 69 60 61 57.9 13.9 12.5 10.3 8.3 8.3 70.9 ..... 3.4 3.2 2.8 2.4 2.8 35.4 1 10 98 82 63 78 28.1 76 120 102 76 55 58 76.3 54 'Shacklette. Boerngen, Cahill, and Rahill (1973); Shacklette, Boerngen. and Keith (1974); Shacklette, Boemgen. and Turner (1971); Shacklette, Hamilton, Boerngen, and Bowles (1971). TABLE 10.—Correlations between element concentrations in plants and in A-horizon soils along transects beginning near phosphate- processing sites at Pocatello and Soda Springs, Idaho [r, product-moment correlation coefficient between logarithms of concentration; N, number of sample pairs; ”, ‘, indicate significance of the correlation at the 0.01 and 0.05 probability levels respectively; (.. .). no data availiable] Pocatello Soda Springs Northeast (downwind) transect Southwest (upwind) transect Northwest (downwind) transect Southeast (upwind) transect Bluebunch Bluebunch Big sagebrush Cheatgrass Big sagebrush Cheatgrass Big sagebrush wheatg'rass Big sagebrush wheatg'rass Element r N r N r N r N r N r N r N r N A1 ...... 0.03 5 -0.37 6 0.39 6 0.10 6 0.48 6 -0.25 6 0.74 7 0.73 7 Co ...... -.34 6 -.25 6 .30 7 .64 7 Cr ...... .85 5 .76 6 .13 6 -.53 6 -.85* 6 -.83* 6 -.53 7 “.04 7 Cu ..... -.46 5 .32 6 0 6 0 6 .89* 6 -.52 6 -.05 7 .16 7 F ....... .95* 5 .99** 6 —.29 6 -.33 6 -.84* 6 -.84* 6 .10 7 .17 7 Fe ...... -.24 5 -.15 6 .67 6 -.13 6 -.13 6 .10 6 -.79* 7 .64 7 Li ...... .47 5 -.11 6 .89* 6 -.42 6 -.51 6 .32 6 .12 7 .58 7 Mg ..... -.09 5 .61 6 .24 6 .23 6 -.41 6 .83* 7 -.12 7 Mn ..... -.03 5 .41 6 -.16 6 .52 6 .09 6 .18 7 .14 7 Na ..... .03 5 .46 6 -.19 6 -.12 6 ’.72 6 -.01 6 .67 7 .21 7 Ni ...... .78 5 .59 6 .94** 6 .52 6 -.70 6 .03 6 .29 7 .34 7 Pb ..... .13 5 -.48 6 -.87* 6 -.62 6 -.03 6 —.23 6 -.14 7 .17 7 Si ...... -.39 5 .48 6 .60 6 -.22 6 .07 6 -.25 6 .17 7 -.18 7 Ti ...... -.19 5 —.39 6 .75 6 0 6 .22 6 .15 6 “.38 7 .67 7 U ...... .93* 5 .86* 6 .49 6 .14 6 -.79 6 -.58 6 -.30 7 -.29 7 V ....... .80 5 .76 6 .40 6 -.09 6 -.57 6 -.18 6 .03 7 .06 7 Zn ...... .96"“'l 5 .87* 6 .77 6 .80 6 -.80 6 -.59 6 .82* 7 .34 7 ment concentration in soil in a study in Georgia were inconsistent, were not reproducible, and probably resulted largely from chance. J. A. Erdman (botanist, U.S. Geol. Survey, oral commun., 1976) reported no good correspondence between chemistry of plant ash and total element concentration in soil for 29 elements in sagebrush and soil in the Powder River Basin of Wyoming and Montana. This lack of correspondence between soil and plant chemistry is not surprising. Mitchell (1964, p. 342) reported that no two plant species growing in the same soil will necessarily extract the same quantity of an element. Furthermore, he reported that the element uptake by a single plant species varies if the plant is grown in different soils. Soil properties, such as pH, organic-matter content, microbial population, oxidation-reduction potential, and water regime, cer- tainly affect the element availability in soil and in- fluence the absorption of elements by plants. In addi- tion, the gross composition of the soil, the total concen- 14 ELEMENT EMISSIONS FROM PHOSPHATE-PROCESSING OPERATIONS IN SOUTHEASTERN IDAHO tration of the element of interest, its concentration relative to that of other elements, and its composi- tional form or forms also affect the amount of the ele- ment available to, and absorbed by, a plant species. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS GENERAL IMPACT OF ELEMENT EMISSIONS ON HEALTH Having assessed the elements contributed to selected plants and soils by emissions from phosphate- processing operations and having delineated zones of maximum influence along selected transects, we now apply the results of this study to an analysis of the potential, but unproven, effects of the emitted elements on the present and future health of plants and animals within the zones of influence. Such an applica- tion must be approached with caution because little is known about the biologic responses to chronic chemical insult at the molecular level. In the following discussion, we speculate on a few potential health ef- fects, keeping in mind the constraints originally impos- ed on the study by its design and major purpose. Table 11 summarizes information from the literature on the toxicity of elements, determined to be important in this study, on plant and animal health. We did not at- tempt to review the literature relative to human health. A very important aspect of element toxicity is the in- teraction between the elements. Bowen (1966) listed six basic mechanisms of toxic action of elements within the cell; these are their ability to (1) inactivate enzymes, particularly by the more electronegative metals such as copper, mercury, and silver (these metals are highly reactive with the amino, imino, and sulphydryl groups in proteins and thereby render them inactive); (2) function as antimetabolites (arsenate and chlorate substitute for phosphate and nitrate, respec- tively); (3) form stable precipitates or chelates with essential metabolites (aluminum, beryllium, scandium, titanium, yttrium, and zirconium react with phosphate); (4) catalyze the decomposition of ATP (adenosine triphosphate); (5) combine with the cell membrane and thereby affect its permeability (gold, cadmium, copper, mercury, lead, and free halogens af- fect the transport of sodium, potassium, and organic molecules across membranes); and (6) replace struc- turally or electrochemically important elements TABLE 11.-—Suspected and known toxic effects of selected elements in plants and animals On plants On animals Element Under natural conditions Under man-induced conditions Under natural dietary conditions Under man-induced dietary conditions Cadmium . . Not demonstrated (Fleischer and Moderate (Brooks, 1972), 3 ppm Cd in plant Not demonstrated (Fleischer and Moderate to high (Allaway, 1968). Suspect- others, 1974). Chromium . Probable. Growth of only certain species on serpentine soils (Brooks, 1972); excessive Ni, unfavorable Mg2Ca ratios, and deficiency of Mo may be limit- ing factors (Vanselow, 1966). Soil from “poison spots" in Ore- gon contain as much as 2—3 per- cent chromic oxide (McMurtrey and Robinson, 1938). Fluorine . . . Unusual. Plants growing in acid soils have accumulated toxic levels of F (Allaway, 1968), tissue caused growth depression (no spe cies mentioned)‘ (Allaway, 1968). Growth reduction when nutrient solution con- tained 0.2 ppm—beets, beans, turnips; 1 ppm—corn, lettuce; 5 ppm—tomato, barley; 9 ppm-cabbage (Page and others, 1972). Severe (Brooks, 1972), moderate (Allaway, 1968), Cr in the form of chromates partic- ularly toxic (McMurtrey and Robinson, 1938). 1,370—2,740 ppm Cr in soil caused chlorosis in citrus; 10—15 ppm Cr (as K2Cr107) in nutrient solution toxic to bar- ley (Mertz, 1974a). 4—8 ppm Cr in leaves of corn was toxicz (Soane and Saunder, 1959). Moderate when absorbed through the roots (Bowen, 1966). 30—300 ppm F in plant tissue generally reduced growth (depend- ing on species and conditions)‘; 200 ppm F in mature leaves of citrus associated with reductions in yield and growth‘; <200 ppm F in tops of alfalfa caused no toxic effects‘ (National Research Council, 1971). others, 1974), Not demonstrated (Underwood, 1971). Unusual. Lethal fluorosis of sheep and other livestock reported following volcanic eruption on Iceland (Thor- arinsson, 1970). Endemic fluorosis reported from areas where drinking water contained unusually high F (Underwood, 1971). ed of killing a horse-80 ppm Cd in liver, 410 ppm Cd in Kidney (Lewis, 1972). 30—60 ppm Cd in diet of sheep for 191 days reduced growth and feed intake (Doyle and others, 1972), 45 ppm Cd in diet of rats for 6 months caused slight toxic symptoms (Underwood, 1971). Of little significance (Mertz, 1974a). Toxic- ity low (Allaway, 1968). 30—40 mg/kg (ppm) zinc chromate lethal to calves with- in 1 month, about 20 times that amount lethal to cows; 30 ppm Cr in liver diag- nostic of Cr toxicity“. Potentially carcin- ogenic (Bowen, 1966). 50 ppm in diet as- sociated with growth depression in exper- imental animals (Underwood, 1971). Moderate (Allaway, 1968). Ambient air pri- mary source of F in forage as F not read- ily absorbed through roots (National Re~ search Council, 1971). Concentration of F in dietary dry matter above which nor- mal performance may be affected: beef or dairy heifers, 40 ppm; horses, 60 ppm; finishing cattle, 100 ppm; broiler chick- ens, 300 ppm; breeding hens, 400 ppm: turkeys, 400 ppm (National Research Council, 1974). ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS 15 TABLE 11.—Suspected and known toxic effects of selected elements in plants and animals—Continued On plants On animals Under natural conditions Under man-induced conditions Under natural dietary conditions Under man-induced dietary conditions . Unusual. Citrus appears sensitive to an Li concentration in soil of about 12 ppm (Mertz, 1974b). Nickel ..... Probable, Growth of only certain species on serpentine soils (Brooks, 1972); excessive Cr. unfavorable MgZCa ratios, and deficiency of Mo may be limiting factors (Vanselow, 1966). Ape- talous forms of anemone grow- ing over nickel silicate deposit (Malyuga, 1964). . Probable. Toxic to most plants (McMurtrey and Robinson, 1938). Only certain species grow on seleniferous soils (Can- non, 1971). . Probable. Long-term low-level na- tural radiation from pitchblende outcrops suspected as cause of deformities in fruit of hog bil- berry, and of flower color varia- tion in fireweed (Shacklette, 1962, 1964). Variation in flow- ers of princesplume growing over carnotite (Cannon, 1960). . Unknown. Zinc ....... Probably none (Allaway, 1968). Flower modifications in poppy growing in soils high in Zn (Malyuga, 1964). Chlorosis of plants growing in Zn peat un- derlain with sphalerite and dolomite (Cannon, 1955), Slight (Brooks, 1972). Many crops suscep- tible to “injury” when Li is applied to soil in form of soluble salts (McMurtrey and Robinson. 1938). Many plants tolerant of “high” Li levels (Mertz, 1974b). Toxic to citrus when Li concentration in soil (as LiZSO.) was 2—5 ppm and in leaves 140— 220 ppm’ (Aldrich and others, 1951). Severe (Brooks, 197 2). Toxic to plant growth (McMurtrey and Robinson, 1938). Poison- ous to plants even at relatively “low" con- centrations; 40 ppm in tomato toxic, 150 ppm stopped growth‘ (Sauchelli, 1969). 12-246 ppm Ni in leaves of corn toxic, 14- 34 ppm Ni in leaves of tobacco toxic‘ (Scene and Saunder, 1959). Moderate (Brooks, 1972). 700 ppm Se in wheat caused no effects when sulfur con- tent of plant high, <250 ppm Se caused Chlorosis of leaves when sulfur content was low‘ (Trelease and Beath, 1949). Chlorosis and dwarfing of gumweed when grown in seleniierous test plots (Cannon, 1964). Toxic at levels of 50-100 ppm‘ (Allaway, 1968). Ability to absorb Se highly variable among species (Ganje, 1966). Moderate (Brooks, 1972). Abnormal flowers noted on princesplume grown in test plots having a radiation source (Cannon, 1960). Moderate (Brooks, 1972). Stunting of plants grown in test plots treated with sodium vanadate (Cannon, 1960). With “very low" levels of V in nutrient solutions plant growth was depressed (Allaway, 1968). >2 ppm V in tops probably toxic to peas and soybeans” (Pratt, 1966). Moderate (Brooks, 1972). “Large" quan- tities in soil toxic to plants (McMurtrey and Robinson, 1938). Chlorosis of leaves of sweetpea, tomato, bluegrass, and violet when grown in nutrient solutions con- taining zinc acetate (Cannon, 1955). About 150 ppm Zn in leaves of corn, soy- beans, wheat, barley, and oats appeared to be toxic; about 200 ppm in citrus leaves is toxic‘ (Sauchelli, 1969). >50 ppm Zn in navy bean decreased yields‘ (Melton and others, 1970). 2,000 ppm Zn in cer- tain bryopbytes produced no apparent toxic effects5 (Shacklette. 1965). Unknown. Probably none. Relatively nontoxic (Underwood, 1971), like Zn, Mn, and Cr. Toxic effects by 3—5 ppm Se in forage produced in “animals" (Oldfield, 1974). 4 ppm Se is tolerance limit in forage plants used for cattle and sheep‘ (Sullivan and Garber. 1947, cited by Sauchelli, 1969). Water con- taining 0.5 ppm Se potentially dan- gerous (Ganje, 1966). Unknown, either from its chemical or radiation properties. Unknown. Probably none (Allaway, 1968). Of little significance (Mertz, 1974b). Moderate to low (Allaway, 1968). 700 ppm Ni in diet depressed growth of chicks; 1.600 ppm Ni depressed growth of young mice; 1,000 ppm Ni had no effect on rats or monkeys (Underwood, 1971). Potenti- ally carcinogenic (Bowen, 1966). High. >4—5 ppm Se in animal diets gen- erally depressed growth rates (Allaway, 1968). Soils having >0.5 ppm Se regar- ded as potentially hazardous to live- stock; 10—15 ppm Se in diet of swine produced selenosis within 2-3 weeks (Underwood. 1971). Unknown, either from its chemical or ra- dia tion properties. Moderate (Allaway, 1968). >20-25 ppm V in diet caused growth depression in chicks; 25 ppm V in diet of rats was toxic, 50 ppm caused diarrhea and mortality; relative toxicity of five elements to rats when fed 25 ppm diets: As1,000 ppm Zn in diet (as ZnCOJ of weanling pigs depressed growth and caused arthritis and inter- nal hemorrhage; 4,000 ppm, mortality high; 1.000 ppm Zn in diet of lambs re- duced gains, 900 ppm Zn in diet of feed- er cattle reduced gains (Underwood. 1971) ‘Concentrations assumed to be determined on the ashed material. ‘Concentrations determined in the dried material. 3A. A. Case. clinical veterinarian, University of Missouri, written common, 1977. ‘Concentrations assumed to be determined on the dried material. 5Concentrations determined on the ashed material. 16 ELEMENT EMISSIONS FROM PHOSPHATE-PROCESSING OPERATIONS IN SOUTHEASTERN IDAHO (lithium replaces sodium, cesium replaces potassium). Figure 6 illustrates the major paths traveled by elements emitted into the air from phosphate- processing operations. Soils and ground water are more stable reservoirs for these elements; however, the elements may be incorporated into animals and humans either directly through the air or by first pass- ing into vegetation that is then consumed. In an agronomic system, the food chain terminates at the herbivore level (if humans as omnivores are not con- sidered) and can result in the concentration of elements in animal tissue. If there is no physiological mechanism to eliminate these elements, acute or chronic pathological symptoms may develop. Relative toxicity, however, depends on many interrelated fac- tors, which we will discuss shortly. Monitoring the concentration of these elements in forage plants is an important method of predicting the quality of animal health. ANIMALS HUMANS VEGETATION GROUND WATER / \ SOILS E SURFACE WATER \ / TRACE ELEMENTS IN AIR FIGURE 6,—Major pathways in the natural migration of trace ele- ments from phosphate-processing emissions. EMISSION-RELATED SURFACE CONTAMINATION OF VEGETATION The influence of washing on the element concentra- tion in vegetation was determined from a suite of washed and unwashed grasses. We collected 24 samples of bluebunch wheatgrass within a 100-m radius 2 km downwind of the elemental-phosphorus plant at Soda Springs. We washed one-half of these samples, using the methods discussed earlier, and then submitted for analysis these samples, along with the transect study samples, in a randomized sequence. Of the 24 elements reported from washed and un- washed grass in table 12, 13 occurred in significantly greater amounts (probability level <0.05) in the un- washed samples than in the washed samples. Washing removed aluminum, boron, cadmium, chromium, fluorine, iron, lead, nickel, selenium, silver, titanium, uranium, and zirconium. Of these 13 elements, aluminum, iron, titanium, and zirconium may be more closely linked to local dust contamination than to the processing-site emissions. The remaining nine elements are known constituents of the local phosphate rock and probably reflect, in one form or another, the elemental-phosphorus operation; of these elements, the concentrations of cadmium, chromium, fluorine, nickel, selenium, and uranium were identified in this study as increasing in sagebrush and grasses toward the phosphate-processing operations. Fluorine and silver are of particular interest because the un- washed grass samples contained more than three times more fluorine and almost three times more silver than did the washed samples. TABLE 12.——Chemistry of 24 washed and unwashed bluebunch wheatgrass samples collected 2 km downwind from an elemental- phosphorus plant, Soda Springs, Idaho [Values determined on plant ash, except as indicated. Values are in parts per million (ppm), except as indicated. Detection ratio is the number of samples having measurable proper- ty relative to the number of samples analyzed for that property; significance of F values were determined using 1 and 11 degrees of freedom of the numerator and denominator mean square, respectively; ‘, significant F value at the 0.05 probability level (critical value of 4.84),”, significant F value at the 0.01 probability level (critical value of 9.65). The number of samples having a measurable amount of each constituent is the same as the number of samples analyzed for that constituent, except for Ag, for which 22 samples had measurable amounts and Zr, for which 23 samples had measurable amounts] Geometric mean Washed Unwashed Constituent grass grass F value Ashl ....... 6.7 8.6 34 ** Ag ........ 2.7 6.1 92 ** A1l ........ .54 1.4 117 ** B .......... 70 100 20 ** Ba ........ 340 400 1.5 Ca1 ........ 4.5 3.9 0.8 Cd ........ 57 82 13 ** Cr ......... 78 200 55 ** Cu ........ 72 66 2 F‘-2 ........ .0050 .0167 155 ** Fe‘ ........ .35 .74 41 ** Mg‘ ....... 1.4 1.0 11 ** Mn ........ 320 320 0 Mo ........ 22 21 0 Ni ......... 16 28 22 ** P .......... 11,300 12,400 2 Pb ........ 79 110 21 ** Se2 ........ 1.3 1.6 7.4 * Si ......... 390,100 380,400 0 Sr ......... 250 190 8 * Tl‘ ........ .020 .054 41 ** U ......... 4.1 6.1 14 ** V .......... 230 280 3 Zn ......... 920 920 0 Zr ......... 29 54 8.3 * ‘Values in percent 2Value determined on dry materal. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS 17 The presence of apatite, shown by X-ray diffrac- tograms of the dried plant-wash residue, suggests that the concentrations of calcium and phosphorus should, like fluorine, have differed significantly in washed and unwashed samples. The fact that they did not is possibly because these two elements are major consti- tuents of the plants that were studied, and any addi- tional amount present on the unwashed samples prob- ably is relatively small compared to the total content of these elements in the plants. Although the washed samples in this comparison study were more rigorously cleaned than they would be in nature, animals grazing near the processing opera- tions following a heavy rain may be less likely to con- sume high levels of certain potentially toxic trace elements such as cadmium, chromium, fluorine, nickel, and silver. This comparison also demonstrates that precipitation may account for the highly variable fluorine values obtained on different sampling dates in the University of Idaho studies (University of Idaho, 1955—7 4). The great differences observed in our study between washed and unwashed plant samples ex- emplify the need to consider carefully the objectives of any sampling program conducted near a point source of emissions. The analysis of washed samples reveals the presence of elements largely incorporated by the plants—the type of information necessary to deter- mine the concentrations of elements, suspected to be related to some emission source, that are potentially toxic to the plants. The analysis of unwashed forage plants, however, is more important in veterinary tox- icology, but such analysis should consider the frequen- cy of natural cleansing mechanisms (relative to sam- pling times). IMPACT OF ELEMENT EMISSIONS ON PLANT HEALTH In this report we correlate elevated levels of seven elements in vegetation as being significantly associated with phosphate-processing operations. Table 11 lists cases described in the literature where these and two additional elements, considered to be im- portant in this study, have been demonstrated to be toxic to plants under both natural and man-induced conditions. (Table 1 lists the scientific names of the plants mentioned by their common names in table 11.) Of the nine elements considered in table 11, chromium, nickel, and selenium generally are most tox- ic if absorbed from the soil. Fluorine, which is moderately toxic to plants if absorbed through the roots, is highly toxic if absorbed through foliage. The remaining five elements (cadmium, lithium, uranium, vanadium, and zinc) have little toxic effect under natural conditions. Radiation from uranium ore, however, was thought to have caused mutations in plants (Shacklette, 1962, 1964). Even under man- induced conditions, the relative toxicity of these last- mentioned five elements is considered to be low. In this study, we did not attempt to identify specific plants having symptoms of element toxicity. The con- centrations of toxic elements in plants presented in table 8 may be compared to levels of toxicity given in table 1 1. Several interdependent extrinsic and intrinsic factors influence relative element toxicity: (1) the genetics of the plant involved (differences being found even between varieties), (2) the availability of the emission-related elements to the plant, (3) the distance from the processing operations, and (4) the climate of the area. The values in table 8 indicate that, of the nine elements suspected as being contributed to vegetation 3 km from phosphate-processing operations, only chromium and zinc have concentration ranges known to be toxic to some plants. Fluorine may also affect plants but probably only along downwind transects. As discussed earlier, relatively high values for these elements occur only within about 4 km of the process- ing sites. Outside this zone, element concentrations in tissue are probably not sufficiently high to produce toxicity symptoms. Even if conditions favor the development of toxicity symptoms in plants near the processing operations, the exact cause of the symptoms would remain uncer- tain. For example, Brewer (1966, p. 181) stated: “Although fluoride toxicity symptoms are relatively characteristic, a number of other factors, such as ex- cessive salts, extreme moisture stress, and certain mineral deficiencies, will produce similar symptoms. For this reason, visual diagnosis must usually be con- firmed by chemical analysis of the leaves or other plant tissues.” IMPACT OF ELEMENT EMISSIONS ON ANIMAL HEALTH Since the early 1950’s, farmers and ranchers have charged that the health of the livestock grazing near phosphate-processing operations at Soda Springs was being affected (Ben Gomm, U.S. Bureau of Land Management, written commun., 1976). Losses from fluorosis have been documented, and financial set- tlements for individual animals and, in some cases, whole herds have been made. All occurrences of fluorosis were reported from locations relatively near the processing plant and presumably were the result of the ingestion of forage having high concentrations of fluorine. Studies by scientists of the University of Idaho College of Agriculture (University of Idaho, 1955—74), have confirmed the existence of high levels of fluorine in alfalfa and grasses and certain cultivated 18 ELEMENT EMISSIONS FROM PHOSPHATE-PROCESSING OPERATIONS IN SOUTHEASTERN IDAHO plants near the processing sites at Pocatello and Soda Springs. Comparison of tables 8 and 11 shows that fluorine may have concentrations in sagebrush and cheatgrass that are high enough to produce fluorosis in horses and cattle. Of the other elements, cadmium may be suffi- ciently high to affect the growth of sheep. The concen- trations of chromium, vanadium, and zinc are high and under certain circumstances could be toxic. The con- centrations of lithium, nickel, selenium, and uranium are relatively low in the plants sampled and probably pose an insignificant health hazard. As with plant toxicity, the potential toxicity of these elements to grazing animals in the area depends on several factors: (1) the species and feeding habit of the animal (horses and sheep are more likely than cattle to consume contaminated soil as well as plants); (2) the animal’s diet (a diet of predominantly perennial, as op- posed to annual, plants likely would contain higher concentrations of the contaminants; supplemental feeds imported from outside the area would lessen the impact of locally grown forage); (3) the distance bet- ween animal grazing and emission source (an animal grazing more than 8 km from a source is unlikely to consume highly contaminated forage); (4) the season of the year (contaminants are more likely to be concen- trated in forage plants at the end of the growing season than at the beginning), (5) the general activity of the phosphate-processing operations through time; (6) the winds and their influence on the distribution of emis- sions, which tend to settle out more downwind than up- wind; and (7) the amount, form, and frequence of precipitation, which may wash and therefore dilute the surface contamination of forage. SUMMARY 1. The concentrations of several elements in plants and soils tend to increase nearer the phosphate- processing operations. The southwest wind vector at Pocatello is the predominant vector; therefore, we found most of the significant relations between concen- trations and processing emissions along the northeast (downwind) transect. At Soda Springs, both transect directions had strong wind vectors, although the wind is more frequent from the southeast. In the plants sampled near Soda springs, we found significant rela- tions along both transect directions, but the more significant ones were along the northwest transect; in the soils, relations may have been obscured by the variability of the soil materials sampled. 2. The concentrations of cadmium, chromium, fluorine, selenium, uranium, vanadium, and zinc in plants were significantly associated with phosphate- processing operations. Lithium and nickel had fre- quent importance, and phosphorus and sodium had in- frequent and questionable importance. Cadmium, chromium, fluorine, uranium, vanadium, and zinc had unusually high concentrations within 4 km of the pro- cessing sites. Concentrations of fluorine and uranium were highest at Pocatello; those of cadmium and zinc were highest at Soda Springs. Element content in plants decreased most precipitously within about 4 km of the processing sites and continued to decrease steadily but less dramatically as far as 16 to 32 km from the sites. 3. In general, sagebrush reflected higher concentra- tions of element emissions from the processing opera- tions than did grasses. 4. In the A-horizon soils along the northeast (down- wind) transect at Pocatello, beryllium, fluorine, iron, lead, lithium, potassium, rubidium, thorium, and zinc are interpreted as being significantly related to phosphate processing. Southwest (upwind) of Pocatello, the concentrations of iron and zinc in A-horizon soil decreased with increasing distance from the emission sources, but we believe that only zinc is possibly associated with the emissions. 5. Both transects at Soda Springs showed many con- flicting relations in A-horizon soils, the element con- centrations in some cases increasing with increasing distance from the emission sources; in others, decreas- ing. Because of these conflicts, we could not determine with confidence which relations, if any, were caused by the processing emissions. 6. We interpret all relations in C-horizon soils along all transects as not being caused by processing emis- sions. 7. We could discern no clear patterns for relations between the content of any element in the ash of plants and the total concentration of that element in A-horizon soils for any transect at either study area. Therefore, we could make no generalizations about plant uptake of emission-related elements from the soil or about the availability of these elements to plants. 8. Of the nine elements (cadmium, chromium, fluorine, lithium, nickel, selenium, uranium, vanadium, and zinc) commonly added to vegetation near phosphate-processing operations, the concentrations of only chromium, zinc, and possibly fluorine are within the ranges documented as being toxic to some plants. These high levels generally occur only down- wind and within 8 km of the processing operations. In this study, however, we did not try to identify in- stances of toxicity of these or any other elements in the plants studied. REFERENCES CITED 19 9. Of the same nine elements commonly added to vegetation near the processing sites, we speculate that only cadmium and fluorine may be present in suffi- ciently high concentrations, at some times and under certain circumstances, to be toxic to grazing animals. However, chromium, vanadium, and zinc concentra- tions are also high, and these elements could potential- ly be toxic. Of these five elements, only fluorine has been positively implicated with adverse effects on animal health. As in the soils, the high concentrations of these five elements are generally downwind and within 8 km of the processing operations. Additional studies are needed to assess adequately the effects of element emissions from phosphate processing on animal and human health. 10. By comparing the chemistry of washed and un- washed grass samples collected 2 km downwind of an elemental-phosphorus plant at Soda Springs, we discovered that the unwashed samples had significant- ly higher concentrations of 13 elements, most of which are considered to be environmentally important. Periodic cleansing by rainfall may alter appreciably the concentration of elements consumed by grazing animals. 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N ., 1925, Soil survey of the Soda Springs—Bancroft area, Idaho: US. Dept. Agriculture, Ser. 1925, no. 6, p. 8-13. QU.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE; 1979—677-026/55 75 7 DAYS Sporomorphs from the jackson Group (Upper Eocene) and Adjacent Strata of Mississippi and Western Alabama GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1084 Sporornorphs from the Jackson Group (Upper Eocene) and Adjacent Strata of Mississippi and Western Alabama By NORMAN O. FREDERIKSEN GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1084 Taxonomy and stratigraphic ranges of I 74 types of spores and pollen grains UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1980 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR CECIL D. ANDRUS, Secretary GEOLOGICAL SURVEY H. William Menard, Director Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Frederiksen, Norman 0 Sporomorphs from the Jackson Group (upper Eocene) and adjacent strata of Mississippi and western Alabama. (Geological Survey professional paper; 1084) Bibliography: p. Supt. of Docs. no.: I 19.16:1084 1. Palynology—Mississippi. 2. Palynology—Alabama. 3. Paleobotany—Eocene. I. Title. II. Series: United States. Geological Survey. Professional paper; 1084. QE993.F73 561’.13’09762 78—606149 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, US. Government Printing Office Washington, DC. 20402 Stock Number 024-001-3258—9 CONTENTS Metric-English equivalent“ Abstract Introduction Previous studies Acknowledgments Stratigraphy Claiborne Group Jackson Group Vicksburg Group Jackson Group contacts Claiborne-Jackson contact — ------------------------------------- J ackson—Vicksburg contact ------------------------- Correlation with standard microfossil zones ---------------------- Palynology Methods Sampling and preparation —-— -------------------------------- Type specimens Methods of analysis Distribution of the sporomorphs- ------------------------------- Systematic descriptions Genus Laem'gatosporites ----------------------.- ------------------ Laem'gatosptm'tes haardtiin- Genus Polypodiisparonites -------- Polypodiispm'onites afaws ---- Microfoveolatosporis pseudodentam .................... Genus Schizaea Schizaca tenuism'am ...................................... Comavispmites discites ................................. Genus Cyathea Cyatlwa? stavensis -——-— ........ Genus Gleichem'idites ....................... Gleicheniidites senonicus ............................... Genus Lygodium Lygodz'um labmtum ............ Genus Lygodiumspm-ites ............ Lygodiumsporites adrienm's .............................. Lygodiumsporites? cf. L. adn’enm's ............... Genus Toroisparis Toroispm'is (1de 47’ Tomispcm's longitora ............. Tomisporis postregulam's ................................ Genus Ctenopteris Ctenoptm‘s? elsikii ................................ Genus Undulatispm‘tes ___________________________ Page S coooqqqmcnw ou—u—w—n Palynology—Continued Systematic descriptions—Continued Genus Granulatispon'tes ------------------------------------- GmnuLatispmites luteticus -------------------------- — Genus On 4a Osmunda primm — ------------------------------------- Genus Pte'ris Pteris dentam Genus Bullaspo’ris Bullaspms' sp Genus Cicam'cosispon'tes ...................................... Cicatflcosispmites dorogensis ---------- Cicam'cosispon'tes embrymwlis ........................ Cicatricosispm‘ites parado'rogensis ...................... Genus Lycopodium Lycopodium Ct, Lycopodium hamuLatum ................................. l/ycopodium heskenwnsis --- Lycopodium venustum — .................................. Genus Selagimlla Selagimalla perinata --—--__-----------------__.._-________ Selaginella sp. A ......................................... Selagimlla Sp. B ......................................... Genus Sphagnum Sphagnum antiquasporites —-----_-----------------__---__ Sphagnum austmlum ..................................... Sphagnum sterem'des ------ Sphagnum Mangulamm .................................. Genus Stereisptm'tes Stereisporites megastereoides -——---———-----..-----__-.-___ Stereispm‘ites woelfersheimnsis ......................... Genus Podocarpus Podocanms? cappulatus ................................. Podocanms nu ’ e Genus Pityospm'ites Pityospofites Wfoliaformis----—--—--—--——------------- Genus Pinus Pinus cembmefamis -------—----_--.-----------__----..-___ Pinus labdtwa Pinus tenuextim -----—---—---—------------------.---.____ Genus Picea Picea gmmiivescip’ites ...................................... Genus Cedrus C edms pinifm-mis -------—--—---—-.--------------_---_______- Genus Tsuga Tsuga ignicula Genus Sequoiapollenites ...................................... Sequoiapollenites lapillipites .......................... Genus Cupressacites Cupressacites hwtipites -——-_-—-a_----_--_..__. _______ Genus Ephedra Ephedm clavicfistata— ........................... Ephedm exigum n. sp— .............................. Ephedra " ,zmlca Ephedm? Wamfm-mis ....................... III Page IV Palynology—Continued Systematic descriptions—Continued Genus Gramim'dites Graminidiws g'ramineouies ............................... Genus M ilfordia M ilfln‘dia imerta ---------—————..m............________...._ M ilfordia minim -------——--—-----------_------__-------.-__ Genus Aglaareidia Aglam‘eidia cyclops -------------——————————-------------..--_ Aglao'reidia pristina -----«----------------.-------------.__ Genus M omip’ites Momipites coryloides ....................................... Momip'ites microfoveolatus ............................... Genus Platycarya Platycarya sp Genus Tn'pm'opollenites ......................................... Tn'pm'opollemtes? maternus ............................ Genus I/udwigm Ludwigia oculus-mctis ———————————————————————————————————— Genus Proteacidites Proteacidites? laxus ........................................ Genus Casuarinidites ............................................ C usuafinidites discrepans ............... Casuarinuiites cf. C. granilabmtus ____________________ Genus TMtfiopollenites .................................. Tmm'opollem‘tes? aff. T. amboratus --- Tn'atn'opollemltes proprius -————--——---..------------.--___ Genus Tn'vestibulopollenites .................................... Tflvestilmlopollenites engelhardtii ———————------------.-_ Genus Betula Betula? sp Genus Plicapollis Plicapollis spatiosa ----———————-———-------------.-___.,__---__ Genus Thomsonipollis ............................................ Thomsonipollis magm'fica ................................ Genus Carya Carya simplex Carya veripites Genus Alnus Alnus vem Genus Planem Planera? thompsom'am —————————------..----------___-_--_ Genus M y'r'iophylluh -----------—---—---------------------_--_____ Myriophyllum sp ............................................ Genus Pte’rocarya Pterocarya stellata ---—----—-------------------______________ Genus Juglcms Jugltms nigripites ........................................... Genus Juglanspollenites ....................................... Juglanspollenites infrabaculatus ........................ Genus Celtis Celtis tschmiyi Genus Parsonsidites Parsonsidites conspicuus .................................. Genus Malvacipollis M alvacipollis tschudyi ..................................... Genus Amcolosidites ----------- Anacolosidites sp ---------- Genus Chenopodipollis ------ C Mmpodipollis sp --------——---—----------------____________ Genus Lymingtonia Lymingtoma cf. L.rhetm~ --——-------------------_---_______ Genus M onosulcites Monosulcites asymmetricus .............................. CONTENTS Page Palynology—Continued Systematic descriptions—Continued Genus Confe'rtisulcites -----------------------------__--------____ C onfefiisulcites fusifo’rmis ---—---------—-_-----_-----...-_ Genus M onocolpopollem‘tes -————————------- M omcolpopollenites tranquillus ........................ Genus Sabal Sabal Cf. S. granopollemtes ............................... Genus Arecipites Arecipites columellus—---—————————-------------...-_________ Genus Calamuspollem'tes ............ C alamuspollemtes eocemcus —----------------_.---___--__ Genus Liliacidites Liliacidites trims ............................................ Liliam'dites m'ttatus _________________________________________ Genus N ypa N ypa echimta Genus Dicolpopollis Dicolpopollis sp Genus Cupuweroidaepollenites ............................. Cumliferm'daepollenites liblarensis .................... Cuwlifero'idaepollenites cf. C. selectus ---------- —- Genus Cassia Cassia certa Genus Foveom'colpites -——————————-----------------.----...-__---_ Fweotricolpites prolatus —---------_----------------------- Genus Qwrcoidites QWcoidites immoenus --——-—————-—-------------__________ Quercoidites microhenwbii Genus F Taxinoipollem'tes ________________________________________ meimipollemtes medius ----------_--------------------- meimipollenites cf. F. scoticus -- meinoipollenites variabilis ———————------_---_----_______ Fmacinoipollemtesv Spp ..................................... Genus Platanus Platanus occidentaloides n. sp ___________________________ Genus Saliacipollenites ............................................ Salixipollenites pawns n. sp ............................. Genus F, ' n meinus? pielii n. sp ------------------------------------- Genus Rousea Rtmsea artmeosa ------------------------ .— Rousea milifem n. Sp .................................. Genus Ace’r Aver? sm'atellum ........................................... Genus S triatopollis Sm'atopollis terasmaei -------_---------------------.------ Genus Polycolpites Polycolpites sp Genus C umliferoipollenites -----------————------.---------____ Cupuliferoipollemtes Sp --___--------------------_--_-___ Genus Chrysophyllum ........................................... Ch'r'ysophyllum brevisulcatum ----- Genus Cyrillcweaepollenites -——---—---—-————— ---- Cyrillaceaepollenites kedvesii n. sp ---- Cyrillaceaepollenites megaexactus ————— Cyrillaceaepollenites? ventosus ......................... Genus Siltaria Siltaria pacata Siltaria cf. S. scabrieactima .............................. GEnus Araliaceoipollemtes ................... Araliaceoipollemtes granulatus --------- Araliaceoipollenites megapom'fer n. sp -- Araliaceoipollenites profundus n. sp ................. Palynology—Continued Systematic descriptions—Continued PLATES 8—16. FXGURE Genus Foveom‘colpon’tes-------_--.--------.-------_---_________ Foveom'colporites Sp ....................................... Genus I lex I lex infissa n. sp ------—-——————--——------.---------_-________ I leac media Genus Verrutricolporites ________________________________________ Vewutricolporites cmciatus n. sp--- Vemtricolporites ovalis .................................. Vemt’r'icolpom'tes tenm'cmssus n. sp ................. Genus N uxpollenites ................................ Nuxpollenites Sp ........................... Genus N yssa Nyssa kmschii Genus N yssapollemtes ............ Nyssapollem’tes pulvinus ................................. Genus Rhoipites Rhoipites angustus n. sp ................................. Rhoipz'tes latus n. sp ----------- Rhoipites Subprolatus n. sp .............................. Genus H omiella Homiella genuina .......................................... Homiella modica ....... Homiella sp. A Homiella spp Genus Capnfoliipites ............................ Caszoliipites incertigmndis n. sp— C apVifOliipites tantulus n. sp ........................... Genus Lom’cerapollis ------------------—--—-------—-------_---_-- Lonicerapollis sp -------------------------------------------- Genus Ailanthipites Ailtmthipites berryi ---------------------------------------- Genus Retitrescolpites ---- Retitrescolpites sp ------------------------------------------ Genus Alangiopollis Alangiopollis sp --------------------------------------------- Genus M yrtaceidites -------------- Myrtaceidites purvus ----------------------- CONTENTS References cited Palynology—Continued Systematic descriptions—Continued Genus Cupanieidites ............................................. Cupam'eidites orthoteichus - Genus Boehlensipollis ........................................... Boehlensipollis hohlit‘ ...................................... Genus Gothamlpollis Gotham'pollis cockfieldenst‘s -__—--------------.----____-- Genus Bombacacidites ........................................... Bombacacidites nacimientoensis --———-------------____- Genus Tilia Tih'a instmcta Genus Intramporopollem‘tes .................................. Intmtriporopollenites stavensis n, sp—-_____---------- Genus Reticulataepollis ......................................... Reticulataepollis reticlavata n.sp -----—----- Reticulataepollis cf. R. intergranulata-—--—_____----- Genus Symplocos Symplocos arcuata n. Sp .................................. Symplocos ceciliensis ............. Symplocos contracta n. sp ------ Symplocos gemmata n. sp ------- _ Symplocos jacksoniana ---- Symplocos tecta n. sp---- Symplocos? thalmanm'i .................................. Symplocos sp Genus N udopollis Nudopollis temmalis ..................................... Genus Tetracolporopo'llemtes .......................... Tetracolporopollenites brevis n. sp --------- -— Tetracolporopollenites [esquereuxianus —-- -— Tetracolporopollenites megadolium -- TBtTlICOZpO’rOpollenites Sp ................ Genus Foveostephanocolporites .............. FOWOStephanOCOZporites bellus n. sp—---------————__—s Genus Ericipz'tes Ericipites aff. E. em'cius __________________________________ E’ricipites Tedbluffensis n. sp------------—-————-—.-——---- ILLUSTRATIONS [Plates follow index] 1—3. Pteridophyte spores. 4. Bryophyte and pteridophyte spores and gymnosperm pollen grains. 5—6. Gymnosperm pollen grains. 7. Gymnosperm and angiosperm pollen grains. Angiosperm pollen grains. Correlation diagram showing stratigraphic and geographic positions of sampled sections _-.-..----------------..------------------. Map showing the sampling localities in Mississippi and western Alabama 1 2. 3. Chart showing the relative positions of standard microfossil zones at Little Stave Creek, Clarke County, A1a_ ............. 4 Chart showing maximum observed ranges of selected sporomorph species in the Jackson Group and adjacent strata of Mississippi and western Alabama 5—8. Charts showing relative-frequency distribution of: 5 Cupuliferoipollenites spp M omipites co'ryloides 6. 7. Quercoidites microhem'icii 8. Quercoidites immoenus V Page 58 58 59 59 Page {001% VI TABLE 1. Published studies on sporomorphs from the upper part of the Claiborne, the Jackson, Groups of the gulf coast 2. Relative-frequency categories Locality Register CONTENTS TABLES Page and the lower part of the Vicksburg 19 CONVERSION FACTORS 11 Metric unit Inch-Pound equivalent Metric unit Inch-Pound equivalent Length Specific combinations—Continued millimeter (mm) = 0.03937 inch (in) liter per second (L/s) : .0353 cubic foot per second meter (m) : 3.28 feet (ft) cubic meter per second : 91.47 cubic feet per second per kilometer (km) : .62 mile (mi) per square kilometer square mile [(ft-‘i/s)/mi2] [(m3/8)/km2] Area meter per day (m/d) : 3.28 feet per day (hydraulic conductivity) (ft/d) square meter (m?) = 10.76 square feet (ft2) meter per kilometer ._ 5.28 feet per mile (ft/mi) square kilometer (km?) 2 .386 square mile (mi?) (m/km) hectare (ha) : 2-47 acres kilometer per hour .9113 foot per second (ft/s) 11) olume m/ V meter per second (m/s) : 3.28 feet per second cubic centimeter (cm3) : 0.061 cubic inch (in3) meter squared per day : 10.764 feet squared per day (ft2/d) liter (L) : gtlsgii cullfic inChesft) mZ/d) (transmisslvity) cubic meter (m3) : . 1 cu c eet ( 3 2 ~1‘ 11 cubic meter : .00081 acre~foot (acre-ft) 0113513???” per second 22'826 m1 :figafifidfns per day cubic hectometer (hm3) : 10.7 acre-feet . . _ 9 . liter : 2.113 pints (pt) cubicfimeter per minute 264 .. gallons per minute (gal/min) liter 2 1.06 quarts (qt) (“P/mm) . liter : .26 gallon (gal) liter per second (L/s) : 15.85 gallons per minute cubic meter 2 00026 mlligfjngfié‘iglons (M331 01' liter per second per : 4.83 gallqnslperinainfléte per foot b' : . b b : meter [(L/s)/m] [ ga /m n / ] cu m meter 6290 arrels (bbl) (1 b 1 42 gal) kilometer per hour : .62 mile per hour (mi/h) Weight (km/h) meter per second (m/s) : 2.237 miles per hour gram (g) : 0.035 ounce, avoirdupois (oz avdp) gram per cubic : 62.43 pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3) gratin t (t) = 1.0332 poundmavoiiggugggslbglb avdp) centimeter (g/cm3) me ric ons = . ons, S 01‘t , ram er s uare : 2.048 2 metric tons : 0.9842 ton, long (2,240 lb) g centlimetelr (Hem?) pounds per square fOOt (lb/ft ) . - - gram per square 2 .0142 pound er s uare inch lb in2 Spec1fic combinations centimeter P ‘1 ( / ) kilogram per square : 0.96 atmosphere (atm) centimeter (kg/cm?) Temperature kilogram per square .98 bar (0.9869 atm) . o centimeter degree Celsms ( C) = 1.8 degrees Fahrenheit (°F) cubic meter per second : 35.3 cubic feet per second (fta/s) : ( m3/S) degrees Celsius (temperature) [(1.8>< °C) +32] degrees Fahrenheit SPOROMORPHS FROM THE JACKSON GROUP (UPPER EOCENE) AND ADJACENT STRATA OF MISSISSIPPI AND WESTERN ALABAMA By NORMAN O. FREDERIKSEN ABSTRACT This palynological study is based on 71 outcrop and core samples of the Jackson Group and adjacent strata from the type area of the group in western Mississippi and also from eastern Mississippi and western Alabama. The Jackson Group consists entirely of marine strata in the region of study. It includes the fossiliferous greensands of the Moodys Branch Formation at the base and the calcareous Yazoo Clay at the top. One hundred seventy-four sporomorph (spore and pollen) types are known from the Jackson Group and adjacent strata in the area of study; all but four of them were observed by the writer. The 174 types are assigned to 74 form genera, 37 modern genera, and 25 new species. Eleven species of pollen grains appear to have accurately determined restricted stratigraphic ranges within the sequence studied. Parsonsi- dites conspicuus Frederiksen and Ericipites aff. E. ericius (Potonié) Potonié have first occurrences (range bottoms) at the base of the Jack— son Group. Aglaoreidia pristimt Fowler has its first occurrence near the top of the Jackson. Eight species have last occurrences at or just below the top of the Jackson Group. These are Casuarinidites cf. C. granilabratus (Stanley) Srivastava, Chrysophyllum brevisulcatum (Frederiksen) n. comb., Cupam'eidites orthoteichus Cookson and Pike, Symplocos gemmata n. sp., Nudopollis temimlis (Pflug and Thom- son) Elsik, Sabal cf. S. gmmpollem'tes Rouse, Caszoliipites tantalus n. sp., and Nypa echimta (Muller) n. comb. From the upper part of the Claiborne Group up through most of the Jackson, the dominant sporomorph types are Cupuliferoipollemtes spp., Momipites cmloides Wodehouse, Cuwliferoidaepollenites lib— larensis (Thomson) Potonié, Momipites microfoveolatus (Stanley) Ni- chols, Quercoidites microhem-icii (Potonié) Potonié, and Amliacem'pol— lem'tes granulatus (Potonié) n. comb. All these were probably produced by trees of the Juglandaceae and Fagaceae. Relative frequencies of each of these pollen types fluctuate little within the interval from the upper part'of the Claiborne to near the top of the Jackson. Near the top of the Jackson Group, there is a rapid rise to dominance or near dominance of the sporomorph assemblages by Quercoidites immoenus (Takahashi) n. comb. (Fagaceae, Dryophyllum or Quercus). This re- mains the dominant sporomorph species through the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. 0n the basis of these range and relative-frequency data for spores and pollen grains, the Jackson Group is divided into two zones. Zone I includes the upper part of the Claiborne Group and all but the upper- most part of the Jackson Group; zone 11 includes the uppermost part of the Yazoo Clay and extends into the overlying Vicksburg Group. The two zones and the boundary between them can be traced from western Mississippi to western Alabama. Sporomorph data support evidence from physical stratigraphy and from other fossils that only a minor dis- conformity is present between the Claiborne and Jackson Groups in this region. In western Mississippi, the zone I-zone II boundary is below the minor disconformity separating the open marine Yazoo Clay from the uppermost lagoonal part of that formation. Sporomorph data agree with faunal evidence that no unconformity is between the Jack- son and Vicksburg Groups in eastern Mississippi. No sporomorph-bear- ing samples were available from the uppermost part of the Yazoo Clay at Little Stave Creek in western Alabama; however, samples from above and below the uppermost part of the Yazoo show that the zone I-zone II boundary either coincides with, or is slightly below, the un- conformity separating the Jackson and Vicksburg Groups there. The information on sporomorph ranges and relative frequencies sug- gests that the flora and the vegetation of southeastern North America changed little from late middle Eocene time until almost the end of the late Eocene. Then, perhaps because of a change in climate, some spe- cies disappeared from the regional flora, and one or several species of the Dryophyllum-Quercus complex (represented by the pollen species Quercoidites inamoenus) became dominant members of the coastal- plain forest. INTRODUCTION The Jackson Group includes most or all of the upper Eocene strata on the gulf coast. This study is concerned with the Jackson in its type area of western Mississippi and from there eastward into western Alabama. Facies changes along the coast make detailed correlations diffi- cult within the group, and it was hoped that investigation of the sporomorphs might provide new biostratigraphic information. The strata immediately underlying and overlying the Jackson were also studied to determine whether the Jackson differs palynologically from the ad- jacent strata. The specific purposes of the investigation were to iden- tify and illustrate the sporomorph species present in the Jackson Group and adjacent strata, to describe and name the new species, to determine the geologic ranges of the species and their relative frequencies at different levels within the sequence studied, and to use the range and relative-frequency data to zone the Jackson Group and to differentiate it from the underlying and overlying units, if possible. PREVIOUS STUDIES Tschudy (1973, p. B2—B3) discussed many of the pre- vious studies on the Eocene palynology of the gulf coast. Papers, excluding abstracts, that have the most rele- vance to the present work are listed in table 1. Photomi- crographs of the Eocene sporomorphs appear in many papers, but little taxonomic work has been published on late Eocene and Oligocene sporomorphs from the gulf 1 2 SPOROMORPHS, JACKSON GROUP AND ADJACENT STRATA, MISSISSIPPI AND ALABAMA TABLE 1,—Published studies on sporomorphs from the upper part of the Claiborne, the Jackson, and the lower part of the Vicksburg Groups of the gulf coast Units studied within the upper Author part of the Claiborne, Locality and Remarks Jackson, and lower date part of the Vicksburg Groups Claiborne Group, Claiborne Bluff, Gray (1960) --------- Seven species illustrated; list given Gosport Sand. Ala. of modern genera represented. Claiborne Group, Miss., locality Engelhardt Many species illustrated. Cockfield Forma— 5a of this paper. (1964a). tion. Claiborne Group, Miss., locality Engelhardt One new species of Gothanipollis described Cockfield Fonmation 5a of this paper. (1964b). and illustrated. Vicksburg Group -------- Texas -------------- Scull and others Sporomorphs used as paleoenvironmental (1966). indicators. Claiborne Group, Texas -------------- N.C. Elsik, in List given of modern genera represented. Yegua Fonnation, and Jackson Group, Moodys Branch Fonna— tion. Claiborne Group -------- Tex., La., Miss., Ala. Claiborne Group, Claiborne Bluff, Gosport Sand. Ala. Jackson Group, Miss., localities Yazoo Clay. 1, 2, and 3 of this paper. Claiborne and Jack- Tex., La., Ark., Groups. Miss., including localities 1, 3, and 5a of this paper . Soc. Econ. Paleon— tologists and Mineralogists, Gulf Coast Section (1967). Fairchild and Ranges and illustrations of important Elsik (1969). spormorphs given. Penny (1969) ———————— Discusses the paper of Gray (1960). Tschudy and Van Many species illustrated. Loenen (1970). Tschudy (1973) ------ Ranges, illustrations, and descriptions of important sporomorph types given. TABLE 1 .—-Published studies Units studied within the upper part of the Claiborne, Jackson, and lower part of the Vicksburg Groups STRATIGRAPHY 3 on sporomorphs from the upper part of the Claiborne, the Jackson, and the lower part of the Vicksburg Groups of the gulf coast—Continued Locality Author and date Remarks Claiborne, Jackson, and Vicksburg Groups. Claiborne and Jack- son Groups. Claiborne and Jack- son Groups. Same localities as this paper. Texl, La., Miss., Ala. Tex., La., Ark., Miss., Ala. Frederiksen (1973). Elsik (1974a) _______ Elsik (1974b) _______ 22 new species described and illustrated. Description and illustration of several species assigned to Nothofagus. Ranges, illustrations, and descriptions of important sporomorph types given; Claiborne and Jack- Tex., La., Ark., son Groups. Miss., including localities 1, 3, and 5a of this paper. emphasis on Claiborne Group; discussion of paleoecological significance of the sporomorphs. Tschudy (1975) ------ Many species named, described, and illus— trated; ranges given. coast; except for Tschudy’s (1973, fig. 2) range chart, no previous attempt has been made to zone the sequence from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Much of this work was completed at the University of Wisconsin and submitted as a doctoral dissertation under the supervision of Dr. L. J. Maher, Jr. I am grateful to Dr. Maher for his encouragement and counsel. The field— work, much of the sample preparation, and the computer analyses were supported by the Mobil Research and De- velopment Corporation while I was employed at Mobil’s Field Research Laboratory, Dallas, Tex. Gratitude is ex- pressed to the Mississippi Geological Survey for making core material available to me. I thank R. H. Tschudy, US. Geological Survey, and Alfred Traverse, J. W. Be- bout, and H. T. Ames, all of Pennsylvania State Univer- sity, for critically reading the manuscript. STRATIGRAPHY From Mississippi to Florida, the Jackson Group rep- resents deposition during a single transgression of the sea that probably lasted throughout late Eocene time 4 SPOROMORPHS, JACKSON GROUP AND ADJACENT STRATA, MISSISSIPPI AND ALABAMA 8 a. E 8 Mississippi Alabama “J 6 (I) I I Lu 2 95 | I E "J 3 Q . I I 38 9, 5 Forest HIII Sand I Red I Bluff Clay 09 7:: a I I -' _i > g I I O I l I I I l I 4 8 I 2 I I I Shubuta I Member | ' I Lu 3 i I Ocaia E: I 9 l Pachuta Mari Member 8 cc) Yazoo Clay I I \ Lu 3’" I 7 Cocoa Sandi Member 0: g I LImestone E j I I 5 ' I I | North Twistwood Creek Member | 1 I l I ' i i l Moodys I Branch I Formation _ | I I ? 5 6 l a“ a? ' 8% 5 :1 Cockfield Formation I Gosport Sand _ «D a: 20 5 Q 11 u! 0 % FIGURE 1.—Correlation diagram showing stratigraphic and geographic positions of sampled sections (see also fig. 2). Locality numbers corre- spond to those in the Locality Register. Thicknesses of units not to scale. (Toulmin, 1955; Fisher, 1964). The Jackson sediments covered those of the upper part of the Claiborne Group, which consist mainly of nonmarine deltaic and coastal- plain deposits (Cockfield Formation) from Texas to east- ern Mississippi and of correlative, nearshore marine to nonmarine sediments (Gosport Sand) in eastern Missis— sippi and Alabama (fig. 1). The sea became generally deeper during Jackson time along the present outcrop belt of Mississippi and western Alabama (Huff, 1970). As the sea retreated at the beginning of Vicksburg time, the Forest Hill deltaic and coastal-plain sediments were de- posited in Mississippi and western Alabama, and Red Bluff marine clays and marls were deposited in eastern Mississippi and Alabama. The Claiborne Group is approximately equivalent to the middle Eocene of Europe, the Jackson Group to the upper Eocene, and the Vicksburg Group to the lower Oligocene (the ages are discussed in the section, Corre- lation with Standard Microfossil Zones). The Jackson strata become generally less elastic and more calcareous from Texas, where they are largely sand, to Florida, where they are all carbonates (Murray, 1961). This change is due to increasing distance eastward from the rivers supplying the elastic sediments. This pat- tern in deposition, however, cannot be observed in all places. In the Mississippi-Alabama area, the late Ter- tiary central Alabama uplift caused erosion of the normal outcrops and exposed downdip (more calcareous) facies of the Jackson and other strata in the new outcrop belts (Toulmin, 1955). The Little Stave Creek section in south- western Alabama (10c. 11, figs. 1—2) is on the upthrown side of the Jackson fault, and the section exposed there is about 24—32 km southwest of the normal outcrop belt of the Jackson Group. Similarly, exposures of the lower part of the group on the Jackson dome in Jackson, Miss. (10c. 5) are 32—40 km downdip from the normal outcrops of these strata and from where they were sampled at Ya- zoo City (loc. 1). STRATIGRAPHY 5 90° 89° \HQLIMES AITALA __ _ 32° — SIPPI 11115315 ALAB l 2 9369' Q ' “ 9‘} , CHOCTAW E’ AWN ,.§J£!‘T | COPIAH ’ l ' . l H ’3 l I ' I I \gpvchON ‘s . I l JEFFERSON \ \ LINCOLN LAWRENCE] DAVIS I WAYNE WASHINGTON . CLARKE MONROE 0 1'0 20 30 4'0 50 KILOMETEHS l l l 1 IT I l I o 10 20 30 40 50 MILES FIGURE 2.—Map showing the sampling localities in Mississippi and western Alabama. Locality numbers correspond to those in the Locality Register. CLAIBORNE GROUP In Mississippi and Alabama, the upper part of the Clai- borne Group consists of the Cockfield Formation 0n the west and the Gosport Sand on the east; these two for- mations are at least partly time equivalents. Cockfield Formation—Typical Cockfield Formation consists of gray to brown, carbonaceous, limonitic, poorly sorted clay, shale, silt and sand, and thin lignite beds. The sediments of all lithologies contain plant material; Chawner (1936, p. 78) noted the abundance of palm leaves in the Cockfield at its type locality in Louisiana. Local variations in both thickness and lithology are the rule, and the sequence appears to represent a typical del- taic and coastal-plain deposit according to Rainwater (1960, fig. 7). Thin marine interbeds and lenses appear in the upper part of the Cockfield at several localities in eastern Texas and western Louisiana and also in eastern Mississippi. This interval is interpreted as consisting of delta-top and brackish-water to marine bay, lagoon and coastal marsh deposits (Hendy, 1948, p. 26; Treadwell, 1954). A Cock- field facies has been traced into Alabama in the form of nonmarine interbeds into the Gosport Sand. The Cock- field is about 240 m thick in western and central Texas, 69—168 m thick in western Mississippi, and about 15— 31 m thick in eastern Mississippi (Tourtelot, 1944; Horst- man and Gardner, 1960, p. 10; Murray, 1961,.fig. 6.41; Moore, 1965, fig. 6). Gosport Sand—The Gosport is recognized as a for- mation only in Alabama and Georgia. The upper green- sand part of the Claiborne interfingers with nonmarine lignitic clay and sand in eastern Mississippi and in west- ern to central Alabama; by convention, the whole upper part of the Claiborne complex is termed Cockfield For- mation in Mississippi and Gosport Sand in Alabama. The Gosport is 7.6-12.2 m thick in westernmost Alabama and thins to 1.5—6.1 m just to the east in Clarke and Monroe Counties (Blanpied and Hazzard, 1938, p. 312— 314; Chawner, 1952; Toulmin, 1955, fig. 4, and 1962, p. 20; Ivey, 1957, p. 54). 6 SPOROMORPHS, JACKSON GROUP AND ADJACENT STRATA, MISSISSIPPI AND ALABAMA The Gosport Sand of western and central Alabama consists of several lithofacies bodies (Blanpied and Haz- zard, 1938; Tourtelot, 1944; MacNeil, 1946, p. 3436; Toulmin and others, 1951, p. 103—104, 109—119). They are listed below in descending order: Thicknesa (meters) 3. Finely interbedded marine and nonmarine strata ------ 0—6.1 2. Fossiliferous greensand------------—---—-----—-------------——-- 0.9—12.2 1. Nonmarine, Cockfield-type clay and sand --------------- 0—13.4 Lithofacies 3 pinches out eastward in Monroe County, Ala. (Ivey, 1957, p. 54), and both lithofacies 1 and 3 pinch out downdip. At Little Stave Creek, only the greensand (lithofacies 2) is present; the latter is considered to be a beach and nearshore marine deposit (Gardner, 1957, p. 583—584). JACKSON GROUP In Mississippi and western Alabama, the Jackson Group includes, in ascending order, the Moodys Branch For— mation and the Yazoo Clay; the Yazoo Clay is divided into four members in eastern Mississippi and western Alabama (fig. 1). The type section of the Jackson Group is in Jackson, Miss. (loc. 5); exposures in eastern Missis- sippi and western Alabama form a reference section. Moodys Branch Formation—The Moodys Branch Formation consists of a mixture of quartz sand, glaucon— ite, and fossils in a marl matrix. The lower part of the formation is a greenish-gray, fine— to coarse-grained, marly, very glauconitic sand; the upper part is lighter colored, more marly, finer grained, and less glauconitic. The Moodys Branch is as much as 13.7 m thick in western Mississippi, but it thins to 1.8 In over the Jackson dome (Moore, 1965, fig. 6). It is 3.0—6.1 m thick in most of eastern Mississippi and western Alabama (Toulmin and others, 1951, p. 121; Huff, 1970, p. 21). The formation has a gradational contact with the Yazoo Clay in Missis- sippi; the boundary is placed where the sand, glauconite, and macrofossil contents of the Moodys Branch become small. The contact is sharper but still conformable in western and central Alabama. Yazoo Clay.—The Yazoo Clay in western Mississippi consists of greenish-gray, slightly to very calcareous, slightly sandy and micaceous clay. The clay is largely nonbedded, but some thin lamination'is present. Several ledge-forming marl or limestone bands are present. The Yazoo varies from sparsely to very fossiliferous (mostly thin-shelled pelecypods and gastropods). The equiva- lents of the Yazoo Clay are 300 m thick in the Rio Grande embayment, are 120—150 m thick in Louisiana and west— ern Mississippi, and thin to 46 m at the Mississippi-Ala- bama line; the formation generally maintains this thick- ness of 46 m until it merges into the Ocala Limestone in central Alabama (Murray, 1961, fig. 6.44). The formation is divided into four members in eastern Mississippi and western Alabama. In ascending order, these are the North Twistwood Creek, Cocoa Sand, Pa- chuta Marl, and Shubuta Members. North Twistwood Creek Member. —Fresh strata of this member have been cored in eastern Mississippi (locs. 6 and 7). These cores show that the member varies from a marl to a calcareous clay and is yellowish- to greenish- gray, slightly silty to sandy, sparingly glauconitic, and slightly to very micaceous. The member contains fora- minifers, fragments of thin-shelled pelecypods, and fish scales. Bedding is lacking or irregular. The member re- mains very much the same in western Alabama, although marl and limestone bands appear in the unit at the Ala- bama River. The North Twistwood Creek is 6—18 m thick in eastern Mississippi and 15—18 m thick in west- ern Alabama; it thins to 12.5 m at Little Stave Creek and to about 9 m at the Alabama River (Toulmin and others, 1951, p. 121; Chawner, 1952; Toulmin, 1962, p. 18; Huff, 1970, p. 40—46). Cocoa Sand Member—The Cocoa Sand Member is a massive, bluish—gray sand that ranges from very fine grained to medium grained. It is clayey, micaceous, cal- careous, and fossiliferous. Glauconite is present at some localities (for example, at Shubuta Hill and Little Stave Creek). At Little Stave Creek, the member is a very sandy, glauconitic marl. The fossils appear to be of two assemblages, (1) mostly echinoids, and some bryozoans and corals, and (2) pelecypods, gastropods, and fish teeth. The Cocoa is a lenticular body. It is 18.3 m thick in the type area of westernmost Alabama, is 7.6 m thick in south-central Clarke County, Miss, and either lenses out westward or becomes very clayey and merges with the North Twistwood Creek Member in western Clarke County, Miss. (Hendy, 1948, p. 26; Toulmin and others, 1951, p. 121; Toulmin, 1955, fig. 4). The member also thins rapidly southward and eastward from the type area; it is 1.8 m thick at Little Stave Creek. Pachuta Marl Member—This member is quite uni— form in lithology throughout eastern Mississippi and western Alabama. It is a massive, light yellowish-, bluish-, or greenish-gray marl that is quite sandy, slightly to very glauconitic, and very fossiliferous; fossils con- tained are Chlamys spillmani (Gabb), bryozoans, and fucoids. A sandy, glauconitic, fossiliferous limestone band marks the base of the member. The Pachuta ranges from 1.5 to 7 .6 m in thickness in eastern Mississippi and west- ern Alabama (locs. 6, 7, 9, 11, this report; Cheetham, 1963, p. 7; Huff, 1970, p. 56—57). The member has been traced as a calcareous band as far west as Yazoo County, STRATIGRAPHY 7 Miss, where it apparently is about 25.9 m above the base of the Yazoo Clay (Thomas, 1948, p. 18; Murray, 1961, fig. 6.44). Shubuta Member—In eastern Mississippi and west- ernmost Alabama, the Shubuta is a greenish-gray clay that is silty to sandy, glauconitic, slightly micaceous, and calcareous; most of the quartz sand and glauconite grains are near the base. The member becomes more calcareous and glauconitic eastward in Alabama. At Little Stave Creek, it is mostly a greenish-gray marl that is sandy, fossiliferous, and very glauconitic. The member is a lime- stone in Monroe County, Ala., and to the east (MacNeil, 1946, p. 43). The Shubuta contains an exceptionally di- verse fauna of ostracodes and foraminifers, rather abun- dant bryozoans and pectens, and a species of small coral (Flabellum sp.). This fauna suggests deeper water than during Cocoa-Pachuta time (Gardner, 1957, p. 585; De- boo, 1965, p. 12; Huff, 1970, p. 65). The Shubuta Member is 25.6 m thick at the type local- ity in eastern Mississippi (loc. 9) and thins rapidly to 8— 11 m near the Mississippi—Alabama State line and to 2.1 m in Monroe County, Ala. (Mississippi Geol. Soc., 1948, opposite p. 32; Hendy, 1948, p. 27; Toulmin and others, 1951, p. 122; Deboo, 1965, p. 20). Toward the west it thickens rapidly; the Shubuta equivalent is 107—122 in thick in western Mississippi and makes up the great bulk of the Yazoo Clay in that part of the State (Murray, 1961, fig. 6.44). VICKSBURG GROUP The lower part of the Vicksburg Group in Mississippi and Alabama consists of the Forest Hill Sand 0n the west and the Red Bluff Clay on the east; these formations are at least partly correlative with each other. Forest Hill Sand—The Forest Hill Sand is very simi- lar to the Cockfield Formation in its lithology and depo— sitional environment. It is also very much like the Cock- field because it intertongues with marine strata in eastern Mississippi and western Alabama. The Forest Hill consists of gray to brown sandy clay, silt, and silty, very fine grained to fine-grained sand. Virtually all the sediments are micaceous and carbona- ceous; lignite is present as beds as much as 0.9 m thick (MacNeil, 1944, p. 1318) and also as interlaminae with clay, silt, and sand. Calcareous streaks are present but are probably rare in various parts of the formation in western Mississippi (Monroe, 1954, p. 71—74; MacNeil, 1944 and 1946). Rather rare marine to brackish—water phytoplankton occur in at least the lower part of the For- est Hill (Frederiksen, 1969). The formation appears to be a deltaic and coastal-plain complex. The Forest Hill is generally 23—46 m thick across the whole width of Mississippi. The formation, especially in its lower part, interfingers with the Red Bluff Clay in eastern Mississippi; the Forest Hill then thins rapidly near the Mississippi-Alabama State line as it wedges out over the Red Bluff, reflecting the progradation of the Forest Hill deltaic and coastal plain during early Vicks- burg time (MacNeil, 1944, p. 1318—1321; Monsour, 1948, p. 8; Luper, in Luper and others, 1972, p. 29—31; May, 1974, p. 63—64). The formation is 15 m thick in western- most Alabama (Tourtelot, 1944), and is 3 m thick in northeastern Washington County (Deboo, 1965, p. 21); it is absent 13 km to the east-southeast at Little Stave Creek. Red Bluff Clay.—In eastern Mississippi and western- most Alabama, the Red Bluff is a greenish-gray clay that is silty, glauconitic, calcareous, and very fossiliferous; fossils contained are mainly mollusks and bryozoans, but foraminifers, ostracodes, and plant fragments are also abundant. In the area of the Tombigbee River, the Red Bluff is a yellowish-gray glauconitic marl. The formation is 3—9 m thick in easternmost Mississippi (May, 1974, p. 58), reaches a maximum thickness of about 11 m in west- ernmost Alabama (MacNeil, 1944, p. 1321), and thins, as it becomes more calcareous, to 4.0 m at Little Stave Creek. JACKSON GROUP CONTACTS The lower and upper contacts of the Jackson Group are important to this palynological study in several ways. First, some question exists whether the Jackson is bounded at its top and base by unconformities; palyno- logical evidence may contribute toward answering this question. Secondly, the study may help to clarify whether palynomorphs were reworked from the Claiborne Group into the Jackson, or from the Jackson Group into the Vicksburg Group, that is, whether the recorded ranges of some of the palynomorph species may be too long. CLAIBORN E—jACKSON CONTACT From eastern Texas to southeastern Alabama, the contact between the Claiborne and Jackson Groups is at the base of the Moodys Branch Formation. This contact is thought by many stratigraphers to represent a re- gional disconformity marking the base of deposits formed during a regional marine transgression. Many features characterize the boundary between the Moodys Branch and the underlying formations at out- crops along the northern gulf coast. 1. In Mississippi, the contact of the Cockfield with the Moodys Branch is normally between two different lith- otypes, the underlying nonmarine to marginal marine dark-gray clay of the Cockfield and the overlying greensand of the Moodys Branch. In Alabama, both 8 SPOROMORPHS, JACKSON GROUP AND ADJACENT STRATA, MISSISSIPPI AND ALABAMA the Gosport Sand and the Moodys Branch Formation are composed mainly of greensand, and different workers have placed the formation boundary, and thus the group boundary, at different levels within the greensand sequence. However, at some localities, clay interbeds are present in the Gosport, whereas they are absent from the Moodys Branch. 2. The contact is wavy to very irregular. The uneven- ness of the contact suggests erosion; however, irregu- lar bedding planes are also present within the Gosport and the Moodys Branch, and only minor scouring may be responsible for the undulation. 3. Burrows extend from the Moodys Branch down into the Cockfield and Gosport at almost every outcrop where the contact is exposed. At locality 5b, the bore— hole at Riverside Park, Jackson, Miss., the upper 3.0 m of Cockfield Formation is completely contaminated with burrow fillings of Moodys Branch material. For that reason, the Cockfield at Riverside Park was sam- pled from the outcrop (loc. 5a). Burrows are also com- mon within both the Gosport and the Moodys Branch; thus, they are not only a contact phenomenon (Thomas, 1942, p. 81; Stenzel, 1952a, p. 31). 4. Phosphatic nodules are characteristic of the basal part of the Moodys Branch. 5. Fossils have not been very useful in defining the Clai- borne-Jackson boundary along the northern gulf coast. Where the uppermost part of the Cockfield Formation contains marine interbeds, the megafaunas and micro- faunas of these strata are distinctly Jackson in aspect, and probably the only reason for any faunal change across the contact is the change of facies from brack- ish-water sediments below to normal marine strata above (Blanpied and Hazzard, 1938, p. 313; Stenzel, 1940, p. 871—894, and 1952b, p. 38; Hendy, 1948, p. 26; Blake, 1950, p. 174; Treadwell, 1954, p. 2314— 2315, 2319). Similar evidence comes from plant mega- fossils; Berry (1924, p. 29) stated that the flora of the Cockfield Formation was very similar to that of the Jackson Group. Swift (1968, p. 444) pointed out that “Unconformities of transgressive sequences commonly occur within the basal beds of the sequences, not below them. Such un- conformities, called ravinements, separate basal marsh, lagoon, estuarine, and beach deposits from overlying ma— rine sands.” The lower contact of the Jackson Group is an excellent example of a ravinement. Slightly deeper erosion probably accompanied the Moodys Branch transgression where marginal marine beds are lacking from the uppermost part of the Cockfield (for instance, at locs. 5, 6, and 7) than where they are present. Frag- ments of Cockfield clay are abundant in the lower part of the Moodys Branch, and the basal sands of the Moodys Branch probably were derived largely from eroded and winnowed uppermost sediments of the Cockfield (Rain- water, 1964, p. 220; Huddlestun, 1966, p. 41). However, faunal and megafloral evidence suggests that only a dia- stem or minor disconformity is present at the Claiborne- Jackson contact. jACKSON-VICKSBURG CONTACT The Yazoo Clay-Forest Hill Sand contact varies from sharp to gradational in Mississippi. At many localities, no upper sediments of the Yazoo are present that would represent deposition during withdrawal of the Jackson sea. In these places, a minor disconformity must exist between the middle to outer neritic part of the Yazoo and the nonmarine part of the Forest Hill. Where a transition interval consisting of regressive, shallow-marine, or la- goonal sediments (as at 10c. 4) exists at the top of the Yazoo, the Yazoo-Forest Hill contact is probably con- formable, but a minor intraformational disconformity is probably present between these regressive Yazoo sedi- ments and the typical Yazoo below. Evidence exists that a disconformity is between the Yazoo Clay and the Red Bluff Clay in some areas: 1. The contact is very irregular at some localities, espe— cially in eastern Mississippi and western Alabama, for instance at locality 8. However, similar erosion sur- faces also are present within the Red Bluff, and in much of Alabama and Florida, no obvious unconform- ity separates the two formations (Toulmin, 1969, p. 477). 2. Evidence from a variety of fossils suggests the pres- ence of a faunal discontinuity between the Yazoo Clay and the Red Bluff Clay at locality 11, Little Stave Creek; furthermore, the upper part of the Shubuta Member appears to be missing here, and the lower part of the Red Bluff appears to be present (Chee- tham, 1957, p. 93, footnote; MacNeil, 1966, p. 2355; Levin and J oerger, 1967; R. W. Barker, in Blow, 1969, fig. 25; Hazel, 1970). This faunal discontinuity corre- sponds to the Eocene-Oligocene boundary on the gulf coast. In eastern Mississippi, probably no faunal break exists between the Shubuta and the Red Bluff (R. W. Barker, in Blow, 1969, fig. 25; Hazel, 1970, p. 3247; Howe and Howe, 1971 and 1973, p. 630). 3. Reworked Yazoo Clay microfossils and even megafos— sils have been reported by many workers as being in at least the lower half of the Red Bluff Clay at several localities in eastern Mississippi and western Alabama. Thus, at least some erosion must have taken place at the end of Yazoo time, and reworked Yazoo palyno- STRATIGRAPHY 9 morphs should be present in the lower part of the Red CORRELAT‘ON WITH STANDARD MICROFOSSIL ZONES Bluff .lUSt as reworked late Claiborne palynomorphs Figure 3 shows the planktonic foraminiferal and cal- should be expeeted 1n the lower part Of the Moodys careous nannoplankton zones that have been reported to Branch Formatlon. be in the upper part of the Claiborne, in the Jackson, and Planktonic Calcareous Group Formation Member foraminiferal nannoplankton Series zones1 zones2 Vicksburg Red G/obigerina NP . . P 18 . . 21 Ericson/a Oli ocene (lower Bl “ff “335i tap ur lens: 3 (lower subdisticha 3 Lowe r 9 part) Clay part) Cribro— Shubuta P16 hantkenina inf/ata _ _ _____?_ _ _ lsthmo/ithus PaChUta NP recurvus4 E Marl 19 o o c S g 3 Cocoa P15 G/obigerapsis U 3 Sand mexicana pper 7 2 __fi___ _?__ __ g North LLI Twistwood ? Creek __ ? _____ ______7 _____ Moodys Branch . Discoaster Truncorota/OIdes . . 5 P146 r 0 h r /- NP sa/panenSIs _ __ _?_ _ _ Claiborne G/obigerinita 17 6 - ? (upper 6:23” howe’ ' Middle part) V4Data from the Cocoa Sand, Pachuta Marl, and Gosport Sand in the Helicapontosphaera lzone assignments from work at Little Stave Creek by R. W. Barker (in Blow, 1969, fig. 25). ZStandard zonation according to Martini (1971). 3Data from ”Clarke County, Alabama," hence presumably from Little Stave Creek (Martini, 1969, p. 129; also mentioned by Martini, 1971, p. 761). Data on nannoplankton from the Red BluffCIay also recorded by Roth (1968, 1970) from St. Stephens quarry, Washington County, Ala., and by Bramlette and Wilcoxon (1967, p. 100) from eastern Missis- sippi. Shubuta Members ofthe Yazoo Clay at Little Stave Creekand St. Stephensquarry, by Levin and Joerger (1967). 5Nannoplankton data from the lower part of the Moodys Branch Formation at Montgomery Landing, Grant Parish, La., by Martini (1971, p. 759). 5The planktonic foraminifers ofthe Gosport Sand at Little Stave Creek indicate that the Gosport Sand belongs to the P14 zone (N.J. Tartamella, in Bybell, 1975, p. 186);‘calcareous nannoplankton place the units not to scale. campactaChiasmo/ithus grand/s zone of Gartner (1971), which Gartner (1971,fig. 1) considered to be approximately equivalent to planktonic foraminif- eral zone P14. Problems caused by differing deposi- tional environments and biostratigraphic provinces prevent adirect correlationofGartnerezonesat Little Stave Creek with the zones of Martini (Bybell and Gartner, 1972; Bybell, 1975). FIGURE 3.—Chart showing the relative positions of standard microfossil zones at Little Stave Creek, Clarke County, Ala. Thicknesses of 10 in the lower part of the Vicksburg sequence at locality 11, Little Stave Creek, Ala. The correlation of these zones with Tertiary series and stages of Europe is from Martini (1971) and Berggren (1972). The boundary between the middle and upper Eocene is uncertain even in the type region of northwestern Eu- rope, the age of the Auversian Stage or Substage being the chief bone of contention (Davies and others, 1975, p. 186—187). Berggren (1972, fig. 5) considered zones P 14 and NP 17 to be late middle Eocene in age; Martini (1971, p. 759) noted that the reference (type) sample for NP 17 is from the type section of the Bartonian of England, con— sidered by most workers to be late Eocene in age. It is quite possible that both P 14 and NP 17 straddle the mid- dle—upper Eocene boundary (Blow, 1969, p. 207; Martini, 1971, table 1). The top of zone P 14 may be within the North Twistwood Creek Member of the Yazoo Clay in- stead of at its base (R. W. Barker, in Blow, 1969, fig. 25). The top of NP 17 on the gulf coast is unknown, be- cause nannoplankton representing this zone have been reported to be found only in the lower part of the Moodys Branch Formation of Louisiana (Martini, 1971); nanno- plankton from the lower part of the Yazoo Clay of Loui- _ siana have been described by Gartner and Smith (1967), but unfortunately their sample contained only long-rang- ing species. In short, the boundary between the middle and upper Eocene may fall at the base of the Jackson Group, or it may be within the lower part of the Jackson, somewhere below the base of the Cocoa Sand Member of the Yazoo. An unconformity exists between the Yazoo Clay and Red Bluff Clay at Little Stave Creek, Ala., but this se- quence appears to be continuous in eastern Mississippi. Planktonic foraminiferal zone P 17 is present in the upper part of the Shubuta Member of the Yazoo at its type 10- cality (loc. 9; R. W. Barker, m Blow, 1969, fig. 25). Berg— gren (1972, fig. 3) correlated the P 17—P 18 boundary with the Eocene-Oligocene boundary of Europe, but this correlation may not be exactly correct; Blow (1969, p. 211) stated that the Eocene—Oligocene boundary may be within the upper part of P 17 or within the lower part of P 18. Evidence also exists that the upper part of the Shubuta Member at its type locality may belong to cal- careous nannoplankton zone NF 21, which would mean that the Eocene-Oligocene boundary would fall within the Shubuta and not at its top (Stefan Gartner, in Howe and Howe, 1973, p. 630). This determination is based on negative evidence, that is, the lack of the Eocene marker Discoaster barbadiensis Tan Sin Hok in the upper part of the Shubuta (Gartner, 1971, p. 105). In short, it is not yet clear whether the Eocene-Oligocene boundary is within the Shubuta Member or at the top of the member in eastern Mississippi. N 0 studies have been published SPOROMORPHS, JACKSON GROUP AND ADJACENT STRATA, MISSISSIPPI AND ALABAMA on the position of the Eocene-Oligocene boundary in western Mississippi. PALYNOLOGY METHODS SAMPLING AND PREPARATION Sampling—Samples were collected from six outcrop localities and from cores taken at six localities (figs. 1— 2; Locality Register). Both outcrop and core material were collected from one of the sites, Riverside Park in Jackson, Miss. Outcrop samples were collected after the outcrop had been cut back several centimeters to expose a fresh surface. The individual samples were about fist size or somewhat larger, depending on how hard it was to get a sample. In fairly hard material like the marls at Little Stave Creek, the best method was to cut out a block by driving in a chisel all around the block until it could be pried out. The cores were sampled in wafers about 2—5 cm thick. Locality Register—The individual localities and sec- tions are described in the Locality Register. For most purposes in this study, the sections have been grouped into three long sections, each including the whole Jack— son. The western and eastern Mississippi sections are composites; the western Alabama section is a continuous one from locality 11 at Little Stave Creek in Clarke. County (see figs. 1, 5—8). ‘ Macemtion and slide-making procedures—The sam- ples were processed with cold concentrated HCl, then with 70 percent HF; they were washed several times with solutions of Darvan 41 or Joy household detergent to break down and remove fine organic matter, treated briefly with concentrated HNO3, or with HN03, plus KC103, washed several times with weak NH4OH, and centrifuged twice in ZnClz solution (specific gravity, 165—20). The float fraction was stained with Safranin O and mounted on cover slips with Clearcol or Natrosol. The cover slips were cemented to slides by Paraplex or Elvacite 2044. TYPE SPECIMENS The slide designations show the sample number, the maceration letter (some of the samples were processed several times to get the best results), and the slide num- ber. For example, the slide designation 10558 A—l in— dicates sample 10558, maceration A, and slide 1. The co- ordinates listed in the holotype descriptions and the plate ‘Any trade names in this publication are used for descriptive purposes only and do not con- stitute endorsement by the US. Geological Survey. PALYNOLOGY Locality Register [M.G.S., Mississippi Geological Survey] 11 Depth below top Loc. Location Stratigraphic units of local sec— Remarks No. and sample numbers tion to sample or to top of unit Feet Meters 1 Yazoo City. Jackson Group Type locality of the Yazoo Clay, M.G.S. Yazoo Clay --------- 30 9.1 which in this area is about borehole, 10672 ---------- 32 9.8 500 feet (152 m) thick (Mellen, SE%SN%SE8 10675 —————————— 70.5 21.5 1940, p. 19—20). Electric log sec. 32, 10676 ---------- 100 30.5 reproduced by Moore and others T 12 N , 10678 —————————— 140 42.7 (1964, fig. 4). R. 2 w., 10680 ---------- 180 54.9 Yazoo Moodys Branch County, Miss. Formation ———————— 188 57.3 Claiborne Group Cockfield Formation 214 65.2 2 M.G.S. borehole Jackson Group Cores were described by Moore AF—40, 25 feet Yazoo Clay --------- 8 2.4 (1965, p. 132). The Yazoo (7.6 m) north 10863 —————————— 32 9.8 Clay is here about 485 feet of east-west 10864 ---------- 42 12.8 (148 m) thick, and the cored gravel road in SN%SE%NN% sec. 5, T. 7 N., R. 1 w., Hinds County, Miss. Yazoo begins within 10 feet (3.0 m) of the Yazoo Clay-Forest Hill Sand contact (Monroe, 1954, pl. 2; Bicker, 1965, p. 4). 12 SPOROMORPHS, JACKSON GROUP AND ADJACENT STRATA, MISSISSIPPI AND ALABAMA Locality Register-Continued Depth below top Loc. Location Stratigraphic units of local sec- Remarks No. and sample numbers tion to sample or to top of unit Feet Meters 3 Near Cynthia, Jackson Group The top of the pit is probably about Miss., Jackson Yazoo Clay --------- 0 0 50 feet (15.2 m) below the Yazoo Ready-Mix Co. 10649 ---------- 10 3.0 Clay-Forest Hill Sand contact; clay pit, l10650 —————————— 20 6.1 the Yazoo Clay is here 380-400 SWkNEank 10653 ---------- 35 10.7 feet (116—122 m) thick sec. 36, T. 7 N, 10656 ---------- 65 19.8 (Monroe, 1954, pl. 2; Bicker, 1965, R. 1 w., Hinds pl. 4). Photographs and descrip- County, Miss. tions of the locality were provided by Priddy (1960, figs. 9, 27, 29), Geol. Soc. America, Southeastern Sec. (1964, p. 8), Moore (1965, figs. 11, 14), and Parks (1965, figs. 6-7). 4 Forest Hill. Vicksburg Group Type locality of the Forest Hill M.G.S. borehole Byram Formation Sand. The electric log, a photo- AF—8, Glendon Limestone graph of the cores, and a SEkSEkNEk sec. Member ————————— 6 1.8 description of the section in the 22, T. 5 N., Marianna Limestone hole appeared in Moore (1965, R. 1 w., Hinds Mint Spring Marl figs. 16, 17,p. 117). County, Miss. Member --------- ? ? Forest Hill Sand——— 18 5.5 110620 —————————— 27 8.2 PALYNOLOGY 13 Locality Register—Continued Depth be1ow top Loc. Location Stratigraphic units of 1oca1 sec- Remarks No. and samp1e numbers tion to samp1e or to top of m, Feet Meters Vicksburg Group--Con. Forest Hi11 Sand——Con. 10625 ---------- 52 15.9 10627 ---------- 63 19.2 Jackson Group Yazoo C1ay --------- 69 21.0 110629 ---------- 69 21.0 110630 —————————— 71 21.6 10631 ---------- 72 22.0 10632 ---------- 77 23.5 5a Riverside Park expo- Jackson Group Reference 1oca1ity for sure NW%NW% sec. Yazoo C1ay --------- 0 0 the Moodys Branch Formation. The 36, T. 6 N., Moodys Branch section was described by E. H. R- 1 E-, Hinds Formation -------- 10 3.0 Rainwater (in Soc. Econ. Pa1eon- County, M155- C1aiborne Group to1ogists, Minera1ogists, Gu1f Cockfie1d Forma- Coast Section, 1960) and Huff tion ............. 26 7.9 (1970, p. 22-23). 14958 ---------- 29 8.8 14959 ---------- 32 9.8 5b Riverside Park. Jackson Group The e1ectric 109 and samp1e descrip- M.G.S. boreho1e Yazoo C1ay --------- 9 2.7 tions were given by Moore (1965, AF-17, 800 feet 10635 ---------- 19 5.8 fig. 9 and p. 122). (244 m) from west 10637 ---------- 29 8.8 1ine and 750 feet 10639 ---------- 39 11.9 14 SPOROMORPHS, JACKSON GROUP AND ADJACENT STRATA, MISSISSIPPI AND ALABAMA Locality Register—Continued Depth be1ow top Loc. Location Stratigraphic units of 10ca1 sec- Remarks Nm mdsmw1enwmms fiontosmmm or to top of unit Feet Meters Jackson Group-—Con. (229 m) from north Moodys Branch 1ine of sec.36, Formation -------- 43 13.1 T. 6 N., R. 1 E. 10641 —————————— 49 14.9 Jackson, Hinds ‘10642 —————————— 54 16.5 County, Miss. 10643 ---------- 58 17.7 C1aiborne Group —————— 65 19.8 Cockfie1d Formation 58.5 17.8 110645 __________ 65 19.8 6 Near Rose Hi11, Jackson Group 0.5 mi (0.8 km) southwest of the M.G.S. boreho1e Yazoo C1ay type 1oca1ity of the North in NEaNEaNEa Pachuta Mar1 Twistwood Creek Member of the sec. 11, T. Member --------- 0? 0? Yazoo C1ay. The e1ectric 109 was 3 N., R. 12 E., North Twistwood reproduced by Huff (1970, fig. 7) Jasper County, Creek Member-~— 17 5.2 and the cores were described by Miss. 10657 ---------- 20—21. 6.1-6.6 N. H. Moore (in Huff, 1970, 10658 ---------- 30—31. 9.1-9.6 p. 255). 10659 ---------- 40—41. 12.2-12.7 10660 ---------- 50—51. 15.2—15.7 10661 ---------- 60-61. 18.3-18.8 Moodys Branch Formation -------- 64 19.5 10662 ---------- 70-71. 21.3-21.8 10663 ---------- 80-81. 24.4—24.8 PALYNOLOGY Locality Register—Continued 15 Depth below top Loc. Location Stratigraphic units of local sec- Remarks No. and sample numbers tion to sample or to top of unit Feet Meters Claiborne Group Cockfield Formation 88 26.8 7 Barnett. M.G.S. Jackson Group 2.5 mi (4.0 km) south—southwest of borehole in SN%NE% Yazoo Clay the type locality of the Pachuta sec. 30, T. 2 N., Shubuta Member—-- 3.5 1.1 Marl Member of the Yazoo Clay. R. 14 E., Clarke Pachuta Marl 3.4 The electric log and partial sec- County, Miss. Member --------- 11 tion description appeared in Huff 14974 ---------- 18-20 5.5-6.1 (1970, p. 256-257 and fig. 12). North Twistwood Creek Member-—— 22 6.7 110690 —————————— 46 14.0 110692 —————————— 56 17.1 Moodys Branch Forma— tion ------------- 81 24.7 110696 —————————— 86 26.2 Claiborne Group Cockfield Formation 95 29.0 8 Near Hiwannee, expo— Vicksburg Group Reference locality for the Red Bluff sure in the cut- Red Bluff Clay ----- 12 3.7 Clay. The section was illustrated bank on the east 10525 ---------- 14 4.3 and described by the Mississippi side of the Chick- 10529 ---------- 26 7.9 Geological Society (1948, stop 9, asawhay River, 10530 ---------- 28 8.5 opposite p. 34), by E. w. Brown Nwaswa sec. 28, Jackson Group and N. J. Huff (in Soc. Econ. T. 10 N., R. 7 N., Yazoo Clay Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Wayne County, Shubuta Member-—- 30 9.1 Gulf Coast Section, 1963) and by Miss. 10531 ---------- 31 9.5 Huff (1970, p. 61, 63). 16 SPOROMORPHS, JACKSON GROUP AND ADJACENT STRATA, MISSISSIPPI AND ALABAMA Locality Register—Continued Depth beiow top Loc. Location Stratigraphic units of Tocai sec— Remarks No. and sampTe numbers tion to sample or to top of unit Feet Meters 9 Shubuta Hi1], expo— Vicksburg Group, Type Tocaiity of the Shubuta Member sure in NgNw9 Red Biuff ciay ----- 0 0 of the Yazoo Ciay. The section sec. 10, T. 10 N., Jackson Group R. 7 N., Ciarke Yazoo Ciay County, Miss. Shubuta Member-—— 11 10512 —————————— 71 10513 —————————— 75 114967 —————————— 82 10515 —————————— 88. Pachuta Mari Member --------- 95 14971 ---------- 100 Cocoa Sand Member --------- 101 10 ShiToh Creek, expo- Jackson Group sure in 5N9 sec. Yazoo CTay 18, T. 10 N., Cocoa Sand R. 5 N., Wayne Member --------- 0 County, Miss. 14972 ---------- 31 North Twistwood Creek Member--- 48 11 Littie Stave Creek, Vicksburg Group 3.5 miTe (5.6 km) Marianna Limestone— 30 was described and iTTustrated by the Mississippi Geoiogicai Society 3.4 (1948, stop 8, opposite p. 32) and 21.6 by Huff (1970, p. 60—61 and figs. 23.2 15, 16). 25.0 27.0 29.0 30.5 30.8 The section was described by the Mississippi Geoiogicai Society (1948, stop 14, opposite p. 35) 0 and by Huff (1970, p. 43-44). 14.6 The most thorough description of 9.1 the section was by TouTmin (1962). PALYNOLOGY Locality Register—Continued 17 Depth be1ow top Loc. Location Stratigraphic units of 1oca1 sec— Remarks Nm mdsmmenmmus tmntOSMMe or to top of unit Feet Meters Vicksburg Group --Con. north of Jackson, Red B1uff C1ay ----- 90 27.4 See a1so Smith and others (1944) in secs. 20, 21, 10534 —————————— 91 27.7 and Bandy (1949, figs. 1, 2). 30, T. 7 N., ‘10435 ---------- 93 28.4 R. 2 E., C1arke 14960 ---------- 95 29.0 County, A1a. 10537 ---------- 101 30.8 Jackson Group Yazoo C1ay Shubuta Member---103 31.4 ‘10434 —————————— 104 31.7 14962 ---------- 110 33.5 14963 ---------- 117 35.7 Pachuta Mar1 Member --------- 120 36.6 ‘10433 ---------- 122 37.2 14964 ---------- 123 37.5 Cocoa Sand Member --------- 125 38.1 14965 ---------- 129 39.3 North Twistwood ‘ Creek Member--—131 39.9 10542 ---------- 136 41.5 10544 ---------- 146 44.5 110545 —————————— 153 46.6 10546 ---------- 157 47.9 10547 ---------- 169 51.5 18 SPOROMORPHS, JACKSON GROUP AND ADJACENT STRATA, MISSISSIPPI AND ALABAMA Locality Register—Continued Depth below top Loc. Location Stratigraphic units of local sec— Remarks No. and sample numbers tion to sample or to top of unit Feet Meters Jackson Group——Con. Moodys Branch Formation -------- 172 52.4 10548 —————————— 175 53.3 10549 —————————— 185 56.4 10551-1 ———————— 193 58.8 10553 ---------- 200 61.0 10555 ---------- 204 62.2 Claiborne Group Gosport Sand ------- 206 62.8 10556 ---------- 207 63.1 10557 —————————— 210 64.0 110558 —————————— 216 65.8 Lisbon Formation—--217 66.1 Tallahatta Formation -------- 364 111.0 1Sample not fully analyzed. explanations locate the specimens on the Zeiss micro- dinates for the center point of a 25.4- by 76.2-mm (1- by scope that I used at hIobfl Itesearch and I)eveloprnent 3-hL) standard nficroscope shde are 38.6 x 118.1 nun Corporation, Dallas, Tex. On this microscope, the coor- (horizontal >< vertical axes); the horizontal coordinates PALYNOLOGY 19 decrease toward the right edge of the slide and the ver- tical coordinates decrease toward the bottom edge of the slide. The coordinates can be converted, and the speci- mens can be located easily on any microscope having standard millimeter stage scales. The slides are on file at the National Center of the US. Geological Survey, Res— ton, Va. METHODS OF ANALYSIS One hundred fifty-six samples were collected. All these were processed, and 56 were fully analyzed. Additional data about the occurrence of species were also obtained from 15 more samples; information is based largely on photographed specimens. Analyzed samples were about 3—12 m apart through most of the sections, but some samples were less than 1 m apart, especially where the individual units are thin as at Little Stave Creek. At least one complete slide of each sample was scanned at about 200 X to establish the presence of the rarer spe- cies so that more reliable range data could be obtained. The data on species presence are biased because the slides containing very abundant specimens have more species represented than the slides containing relatively few specimens. This bias is not too important for pur- poses of the present study, however. The ranges are based on so many samples that the number of species in each sample does not matter very much, and most rare species are not important in characterizing the palyno- morph assemblages. Moreover, most of the slides contain thousands of grains each. Counts were made to determine the relative frequency of each species in each sample. Oil-immersion objectives were used, providing a total magnification of 675 X or 1,250 X. For most samples, at least three traverses were made across different parts of the cover slip on one slide; for a few samples, traverses were made across more than one slide. All specimens were identified if possible and recorded until'at least 100 (for most samples, 150—200) identified spores and pollen grains had been counted; sample 10632, from the upper part of the Yazoo Clay at locality 4, contained only 57 grains. Probably the number of pollen grains and spores that could not be identified was 5 percent or less of the total pollen-spore count. The relative frequencies are expressed in terms of categories such as “infrequent” and “occasional” to emphasize that they are only rough estimates of the true relative frequencies of each species in the samples; the categories are defined in table 2. However, on figures 5—8, the relative—frequency data are presented in the form of 0.95 confidence intervals for the true relative frequencies, calculated according to the formulas of Mosimann (1965; see also Maher, 1972). TABLE 2.-Relative-frequency categories Definition (to nearest Designation whole percent) ‘:1 "Infrequent" 1'5 "Occasional" 6‘20 "Common" 21-40 "Abundant" :>40 "Very abundant" Ranges and relative frequencies of the sporomorph taxa are based on data presented in my dissertation (Frederiksen, 1969, available from University Micro- films). In evaluating the accuracy of ranges, one needs to know the proportion of samples within the observed range in which the taxon was observed; in this paper, the information is provided in the Occurrence sections of the Systematic Descriptions as, for example, 9/41, meaning the taxon was observed in 9 out of 41 counted samples Within the taxon’s range. Very little modern pollen contamination was observed in the slides. Only about a dozen modern grains were rec- ognized altogether; these included one grain of Grami- neae and one of Chenopodiaceae, and the rest were Com- positae. DISTRIBUTION OF THE SPOROMORPHS The observed geologic range of each taxon found in this study is given in the Systematic Descriptions sec- tion. It was virtually impossible to distinguish between reworked specimens and indigenous ones except by knowing the ranges given in published studies of the 20 SPOROMORPHS, JACKSON GROUP AND ADJACENT STRATA, MISSISSIPPI AND ALABAMA taxa. Some species that were observed in the Jackson Group and adjacent strata have been reported to be pres- ent within the interval of Cretaceous to lower middle Eocene but not in the middle of the middle Eocene or higher. Some of these species were seen in samples in this study, and it is still not clear whether they were re- worked or not. Species that are more likely than others to be represented by reworked specimens include Mon- oleiotm'letes sp., Ephedm? lacvigataeformis (Bolkhovi- tina) n. comb., Casuam’nidites discrepans (Frederiksen) n. comb., Casuan’nidites cf. C. granilabmtus (Stanley) Srivastava, Plicapollis spatiosa Frederiksen, Thomson- ipollis magnifica (Pflug) Krutzsch, and Symplocos? thal- mannii (Anderson) n. comb. Figure 4 shows the observed stratigraphic distribu- tions of species that appear to have restricted ranges and that were observed in a reasonable number of counted samples. All these species are also present in some of the uncounted samples. Aglaoreidia pw‘istina Fowler has its first occurrence near the top of the Jackson. N ypa echin- ata (Muller) n. comb. has not been observed in samples from strata higher than about the middle of the Shubuta Member of the Yazoo. I observed the species in only eight samples (and Tschudy and Van Loenen (1970) also reported finding it in two samples of the Yazoo Clay), but its observed last occurrence (range top) may be close to the true one; in Europe, Nypa died out late in the Eocene or early in the Oligocene (Tralau, 1964, p. 24). Parsonsidites conspicuus Frederiksen, Casuafinidites cf. C. granilabratus (Stanley) Srivastava, and 0(1me— liipites tantulus n. sp. were recorded as being from a higher percentage of counted samples than the other spe- cies whose ranges are shown in figure 4, and their ob- served ranges are probably accurate estimates of the true ranges. P. conspicuus has been also found by Tschudy (1973, p. B17) to have its first occurrence at the base of the Jackson Group. Another group of species whose ranges are plotted in figure 4 consists of Ericipites aff. E. em’cius (Potonié) Potonié, Ckrysophyllum brevi— sulcatum (Frederiksen) n. comb., Cupam’eidites ortho- teichus Cookson and Pike, Symplocos gemmata n. sp., Nudopollis terminalis (Pflug and Thomson) Elsik, and Sabal cf. S. granopollem'tes Rouse. These six species were observed in a smaller percentage of counted sam- ples than species of the previously mentioned group. Therefore, the plotted ranges for species of the group of six may not be exactly the true ranges for these spe- cies. However, the pattern of all species ranges shown in figure 4 indicates that the main floral break in the se- quence from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg is at or near the top of the Jackson Group, and that the floral break at the base of the Jackson apparently is minor. The sporomorph assem- blages within the upper part of the Claiborne group change (Tschudy, 1973), but this change is less marked than the change at or near the top of the Jackson. Tschudy (1973, fig. 2) reported that five pollen types have last occurrences in the upper part of the Claiborne; I have found that four of these range at least to the top, or nearly to the top, of the Jackson. These four pollen types are Nudopollis terminalis (Pflug and Thomson) Elsik; Porocolpopollenites spp. (psilate-microreticulate) of Tschudy, which is synonymous at least in part with Symplocos contracta n. sp.; Quercoidites microhem'icii (Potonié) Potonié; and Porocolpopollemtes spp. (verru- cate) of Tschudy, which is synonymous at least in part with Symplocos gemmata n. sp. Figure 4 also implies that most late Eocene sporo- morph species in Mississippi and Alabama have long ranges. In fact, of the total 112 species that occur in 8 or more of the 71 counted and uncounted samples, 89 or 90 species‘are known to range at least from the upper part of the Claiborne to the lower part of the Vicksburg, in- clusive. 0f the 22/112 species apparently having re- stricted ranges within the sequence studied, only those whose ranges are shown in figure 4 were observed in enough samples that the ranges were considered reason- ably likely to be accurate. Two sporomorph zones have been identified in the se- quence from the upper part of the Claiborne to the lower part of the Vicksburg. Zone I includes all the strata from the upper part of the Claiborne to near the top of the Jackson. Zone II includes the uppermost part of the Ya— zoo Clay, at least the lower part of the Forest Hill Sand, and the entire Red Bluff Clay. Listed in order of decreasing mean relative frequency per sample, the most abundant sporomorph types in zone I are: Cupuliferoz'pollenites spp. Momipites coryloides Wodehouse Cupuliferoidaepollenites liblarensis (Thomson) Potonié Momipites microfoveolatus (Stanley) Nichols Quercoidites microhemicii (Potonié) Potonié Araliaceoipollenites granulatus (Potonié) n. comb. All these species of pollen grains were probably pro- duced by trees of Fagaceae and Juglandaceae. The changes in the relative frequencies of the sporomorph types within zone I are not regular or consistent; figures 5—7 show the data for three representative taxa, Cu- puliferoipollenites spp., M 0mipites coryloides, and Quercoidites microhemicii. The calculated relative fre— quency of a given species does vary within the zone, but 21 .2an 8 8: 3:5 :8 8393928 .nfian£< 3333 and Emmmmmmmaz mo 32$ ”—53an «Eu 9:80 somxofl. 23 E .36wa agofioxonm 382% mo $ng 32030 E:E§a2].v ".3505 PALYNOLOGY .wmcm. uwiomno 9: 55:5 E0: 695.. 095.30 an“ Egg? 69.5.. caimmnc 9: mwi Ewm 3:500 «in 35 295% E0: 33 Ear. “5:58 9: .0 55:5 E0: 332mm 3:58 St ‘0 33:38:: 95 E 9.62 mm “.5908: v Ewufia MEIR :_ men ma uwuhoowx m E835 mev E 9:5 mm “.090qu N .= 9.2 E0: moEEmm 03:38 95 E “523.20P ucmm coawoo tan 9; 689V gaps. rug 533 2.6920 , :0: ES“. Ewcxooo II I1 I .NI I. 50:95 w>uoo_>_ x35 vooémtsh 552 G A m H e r w team a e n o d «800 o x. m w u 1 :22 Sagan. 3 cl“ A 3:925 [y I: -l L- L >20 .35 no: A :3 m 95 552 E :23 325: 92. .033 m ucmw E: “was“. I965 w 6 S 0.0 93 S 1' . e 9 e o 3 J e e 3 a ue wq wN as un 94 5s .uu. my. mv a 9W mm o W w n mm Wm MW. w on. 3m. u a mm 2% W lfl d o P 1 u s o u u . d s o u. e O I. n a lo . n I. . I. d 0 O 3 nu. s U. W} u d mm 3 ma Wm. H. m Wu M. N w zo:.<_>_mou_ “505 $55 1 ll. 93 0/.0 20 90,. 9M. qP [.8 ”K. II. 3.. 8 w m. w. aw. Mm my. m” i. m. nm m. sm 3 .s. a as s g w n ms s 3 e a u a”. new 52p 5 S H 22 many of these variations are not statistically significant, as shown by the overlap of the confidence interval bars. Where fluctuations are significant, they do not form pat- terns of maxima or minima that can be correlated from one area to another. The variations from sample to sam- ple within stratigraphic units are greater than the vari- ations from unit to unit. Furthermore, no significant last occurrences and only two significant first occurrences of sporomorph species are within the zone (fig. 4). For these reasons, sporomorphs cannot be used for correla- tions within zone I, for instance, of the Pachuta Marl Member of the Yazoo from eastern Mississippi westward across the State. Two pollen species are important in defining zone II. One of these, Aglaoreidia pristina Fowler, is restricted to the zone II part of the sequence (fig. 4). The species is never more than 2 percent of any sample assemblage, but it has been observed in 9/13 of the counted samples from the zone. Additional data on the distribution of Aglaoreida spp. appear in the discussion of this genus in the Systematic Descriptions section. Quercoidites ina- moenus (Takahashi) n. comb. is the most abundant con; stituent of, and best marker for, zone II. It is “infre- quent” to “occasional” (rarely “common”) in most samples of zone I, whereas it is mostly “abundant” to “very abundant” in zone II (fig. 8). The first and last occurrences of species and the changes in the sporomorph relative frequencies coincide only in part with unconformities present between the Jackson and Vicksburg Groups or within the upper part of the Jackson (see the section, “Jackson-Vicksburg Contact”). The lowermost stratigraphic level known for zone II is about 13.7 m below the top of the Yazoo Clay in western Mississippi (loo. 2, sample 10864). In this area, the un- conformity is between the open marine shelf deposits of the upper part of the Jackson (loc. 2, samples 10864 and 10863) and the overlying lagoonal deposits (10c. 4, sam- ples 10632 and 10631) immediately below the Forest Hill Sand. Here the zone I—zone II boundary is placed below the unconformity, at the base of sample 10864, which has the lowermost occurrence of Aglaoreidia pristina in this area; however, the relative frequency of Quercoidites m- amoenus is only slightly higher in samples 10864 and 10863 than in the samples below (fig. 8). In eastern Mis- sissippi, the upper two-thirds of the Shubuta Member is represented by only one sample, which is from the very top of the member and which belongs to zone II; thus, no sporomorph samples are available from the uppermost part of zone I from eastern Mississippi, and the position of the zone I—zone II boundary here is unknown. Never— theless, the zone boundary in this area is definitely below the contact between the Jackson and Vicksburg Groups, and sporomorph data agree with fauna] evidence that no SPOROMORPHS, JACKSON GROUP AND ADJACENT STRATA, MISSISSIPPI AND ALABAMA unconformity exists between the groups there. At Little Stave Creek in western Alabama (10c. 11), evidence from other fossils indicates that the upper part of the Shubuta Member is missing. The unconformity is not obvious from inspection of figure 8, where. the relative frequency of Quercoidites inamoenus is seen to rise gradually from the upper part of zone I into zone II. The zone boundary was placed somewhat arbitrarily at the base of the “blue- gray clay” of Smith and others (1944). The only sample available from the upper 2.1 m of the Shubuta Member at Little Stave Creek (sample 10434) was nearly barren of palynomorphs. Thus, zone II may be present here at the very top of the preserved Yazoo Clay. It was impossible to determine how many, if any, of the sporomorphs recovered from the lower part of the Jackson Group had been reworked from the upper part of the Claiborne. Few, if any, species make a last ap- pearance in the lower or middle part of the Jackson, sug- gesting that if any Claiborne sporomorphs were re— worked into Jackson sediments, they were of species that range into the Jackson anyway, or else they were of species that continued to be contributed to the sediments throughout Jackson time. Whether significant numbers of Jackson sporomorphs were redeposited in the lower part of the Vicksburg Group is also unknown. As men- tioned in the section J ackson-Vicksburg Contact, calcar- eous microfossils reworked from the Yazoo Clay are com- mon in the lower part of the Red Bluff Clay in eastern Mississippi and western Alabama. Redeposited calcar- eous microfossils have not been recognized in the Forest Hill Sand to my knowledge. Below is a list of the 21 species that occur in the Jack— son Group and in the Red Bluff Clay, but that have not been observed in the Forest Hill Sand. It is possible that some or all of these species were reworked into the Red Bluff Clay, and that their true range tops are in the up- per part of the Yazoo Clay. Lycopodium heskemensis (Pflanzl) n. comb. Podocarpus? cappulatus 11. name Sequoiapollem'tes lapillipites (Wils. and Webst.) Krutzsch Milfordia minima Krutzsch Proteacidites? laxus Fred. Thomsonipollis magnified (Pflug) Krutzsch Cam/a veripites Wils. and Webst. Malvacipollis tschudyi (Fred.) n. comb. Cupuliferoidaepollenites cf. C. selectus (Pot.) n. comb. Cassia certa (Fred.) n. comb. Foveotm'colpites prolatus Fred. Siltam'a pacata (Pflug) n. comb. Silta'ma cf. S. scalm'extima Trav. PALYNOLOGY 23 Araliaceoipollemtes granulatus (Pet) 11. comb. Araliaceoipollenites megapomfer n. sp. Araliaceoipollenites profundus n. sp. Verrutricolpom‘tes ovalis (Pot.) n. comb. Homiella genuina (Pot.) n. comb. Homiella modica (Mamczar) n. comb. Ailanthipites berry/i Wodeh. Symplocos tecta n. sp. However, there are several reasons to believe that many of the above-mentioned species may actually range into the Vicksburg Group. First, sporomorph data are available from only two counted samples and one un- counted sample of Forest Hill Sand; thus, many of these species may be found to occur in the Forest Hill when more samples of the formation are examined. Second, the fact that a number of species have been observed to have last appearances at or near the top of the Jackson Group (fig. 4) shows that these species at least were not redeposited in the Vicksburg. In summary, the sporomorph species range and rela- tive-frequency data support evidence from physical stra- tigraphy and from other fossils in suggesting that there was little or no break in deposition from the late middle Eocene to the early late Eocene in Mississippi and west- ern Alabama. Several new angiosperm pollen types made first appearances at the beginning of Jackson time, but in general there was little apparent change in either the flora or the vegetation of southeastern North America from the late middle Eocene until almost the end of the Eocene. A change in the flora (species present) began late in Jackson time and apparently was completed be- fore the beginning of Vicksburg time. It was marked al- most entirely by the loss of species, either by emigration or extinction; little evidence exists for the introduction of new species, either by immigration or evolution. The change in the vegetation (the plant communities) also be- gan late in Jackson time. The main event was the rapid rise in abundance of a species of Quercus or Dryophyl- [um (represented by pollen of Quercoidites inamoenus), which apparently became a dominant member of the coastal-plain forest in southeastern North America by early in Vicksburg time. SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTIONS This section deals with the taxonomy of the sporo- morphs and summarizes the occurrence of each type in my material. Synonymies listed under the specific and subspecific names include only the most important ref- erences, that is, those where different names were used or where the description was emended. Also listed among the synonymies are references to specimens previously reported from the Jackson Group and adjacent strata of the gulf coast. Each new name is based on at least ten specimens un- less otherwise noted. In the descriptions, the word “de- sign” is used to designate the pattern on the exine that one sees in plan View. For instance, many tegillate ex- ines appear punctate or granulate in plan View even though the surface of the exine may be smooth (grana are smaller than coni, verrucae, etc., but larger than puncta, and they give an LO—effect; puncta are <0.5p,m in diameter and give an L0- and (or) an OL-effect). The appearance of the exine in optical section is also de- scribed. The grain sizes are mostly averages of several measurements made on each grain. For triangular grains, the three axes of the triangle were measured and aver- aged; for round or nearly round grains, the long and short axes were averaged. For oval grains, “size” means the length of the long axis. The size measurement in- cludes the ornamentation unless otherwise stated. One hundred seventy-four sporomorph types are listed in this section. These include 116 previously named spe- cies, 25 new species, and 33 sporomorph types that are not given formal specific names mainly because so few specimens have been found. One of the previously named species, Podocamus andiniformis Zaklinskaya, 1957, is given a new name, P.? cappulatus. Four of the 174 spo- romorph types were not observed by me but were re- corded by Engelhardt (1964a) as being present in the Cockfield Formation of western Mississippi and (or) by Tschudy and Van Loenen (1970) as being present in the Yazoo Clay of western Mississippi. Following is a list of the new species named in this paper: Ephedm exiguua n. sp. Platanus occidentaloides n. sp. Salixipollem'tes parvus n. sp. Francinus? pielii n. sp. Rousea monilifem n. sp. Cyrillaceaepollenites kedvesii n. sp. Araliaceoipollenites megapomfer n. sp. Araliaceoipollenites profimdus n. sp. I lex infissa n. sp. Vermtm'colporites cmciatus n. sp. Vemtricolporites tenuicmssus n. sp. Rhoipites angustus n. sp. Rhoipites latus n. sp. Rhoipites subprolatus n. sp. Capm'foliipites incertigrandis n. sp. Capm'foliipites tantulus n. Sp. Intratm'poropollemtes stavensis n. sp. Reticulataepollis reticlowata n. sp. Symplocos arcuata n. sp. SPOROMORPHS, JACKSON GROUP AND ADJACENT STRATA, MISSISSIPPI AND ALABAMA 24 SI OI oFI owl omI ooFI oFFI ONPI omFI ovpl om—I .comxouw «5 Ma 33 an... mm 85.5 .mEEmom 29:3 2: Beam ans—£8 >o=w=vubé>fiflwa 23 mo a2 2.5 8 “mi. flow we 3838 BE. .mwszwscwb $532 woe—«E53 05 .8.“ 35235 852.28 mad wfi Bonn mam dam mwfigefiofiotfiwggo me .853ng hoswswobéfia—og ngogm fianOId 552m 9—. >582 E0: cozuom macaczcoom .on 33:82 a 28:3» Ea: BEEES Cozumw mgwoqEOUN so: 8: .mi. 0.2580. «a 95:23 aEOo Cozumm 2725.50F owPL mmwth. a _ _ _ a _ . a A _ _ om />\>>>\20 oo~w>IIII II. u 5.62 I. . WI _ . m .I.. . ucmm I II . mooou \ I 09 III. I. . Emma: 0 . .I. . Encoun— >m_o 08.; IIIIAIII _ . . _ I 0 TL . u .l. . I 3.335 I 03 .I. . I TI_1|_[ m >20 ICON I . £5 E: I >30 005; .5932. Iomu .I. r I Ioom TI.. o TI. 0 I Iomm I I CO? .I. a TI. : I Iomv II" n I. :m@ . 5: sec“. 93%; 1 585; \<<<>\(>\<<25:qu 932$: .onEw—z cozwctou >05:me o>=m_mm cozmcto“. mDOmO m<_2_ mekm_ mehmw; 25 PALYNOLOGY 9.1 SI owl oml owl. on] owl. om] oorl. o_._.| ONFI 09.1 Ell. ompl ow _. I www.55— .:omxoan 05 mo 33 23 mm 83mm .mcoswwom macaw $5 33w mafia—8 zusoscmbézafiwu BE .8 £2 25 8 $3. gov .«o 2838 25. .mmmozwsvwb azuflou 3&2:st 2: .8.“ mug—SE woqmcwsoo mad 2: Beam mam .mwfiwSES mswafitefi mo camasniammv hocosvwawézufiwh MEBoSm Ezold auburn .5 >530. E0: :ozowm m=o=c_.EoUm Elm $2.80. a 225mm Ea: “USHER. 52.0mm ngQEOU N E9: 8368 :23 .mIF 33:80. «m 2283 mm $3950 F fl _ _ _ _ _ _ fl _ _ _ om {Egg/xi; . Eamow 22:80 9:35 fl n H o H . 59:95 I n #255 I u “rams. o TII. . w>uoo§ TI. m “50.2 I 1. TI. I I o ¥U¢LU I u 1|. . I . U095 T. . I TI. . I . 3:5... 1 cm I . T. . £32 I . >20 oo~m> Tl . I. Lmumr Tl. . 2.3 l. I . a6 8000 .I 09 TUI. u 55 vom I I «Sauna. >20 oo~w>\ \ \ \Wt \ I . Ti - I u I u l 232m I S; I 0 I (MA—T >20 loo~ rl. . can umm >20 08; 8.9.3.. I omm h HZmUmm—n. om mN o _ _ >05:qu 9:32". bwnEms. 5238.6“. m<_>_> FZwUmmm mm om mm o _ _ 55:59”. 3:23. .3822 :oumEBu N EEww—mwzz ZmMPw_ szkwm>> mDOmO SPOROMORPHS, JACKSON GROUP AND ADJACENT STRATA, MISSISSIPPI AND ALABAMA 26 SI SI ONI omI ovI omI owl onI omI omI 00—. I oSI ON—I ompl ovpi 051 our; mam—bus. .5933. 23 we was; 23 mm Egan @5363 Sufism 23 Bonn 3838 mocwzvmaézafiwh 93 mo £3 93 3 was.“ Eon. me 2838 0:8 .mwmocwsumb 9533 33833 23 mo mfiioufi 8229980 mad 23 33m gm .SQE§§§%§ $338.6»an .00 85:55va mucoscmbézuflwa wagoam anls 559m .5 >582 E9: :283 m:0::_Eoom .on «2582 5 £553 Eoc vw=uE8 cotuwm atmanoo N mi 33:80. E 228mm E0: USEEOu :oEmm 9509.50P fl _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ om />\>>\<\/\_>> “.3580 «50990 toawou H u o I. :ocmhm . 555 I mfimhommm‘ . 9:505. ”I..." 95022 I. . V390 IL" I. U025 I. l .I..... T...” .EE [8 .I. . >30 oo~m> T. 562 TI. . H u . cm H n > T wooow 2: I 20 \\\\\ c I .I. E5 8: a 83:81 >20 oo~a>1IIIA I In I flm TI. . 233.5 109 TI. . I Thu; >20 ICON TI. . :35 Ex I >30 oonm> cemxumfi Iomm I o I Ioom I. I o I Iomm I | oov .I. . I I I Iomv l... To Ucwm T.=_x§:£ 93%; I 0.235; /\/\<>\/>\/2\/>\/>2\/>>\zm_mm .mnEmS. coszLou. 35:59". 0256: 33:85. cos—WES”. geoscwi 9:230 cocmchou. , ASOmo m<_>__ 2mmhw_ ZImmeg 27 PALYNOLOGY oFI oFI owl. omI ovI omI owI owl omI oowI OFFI ONFI om—I ovFI ompl omFI mzmth. .5933 was ‘8 $3 2: ww EBaQ .mcosmmom @383 mg 255m 3538 zocwsvwééiuflg 2: mo d2 05 8 $3. meow Ho 3838 BE. .mwmoswszb 353$ 689:wa 25 a8 mEEBE menace—So mad 2: Beam gum .m:§o§a§ m8§8§§® mo :oE:£.Sm% moswsvwfi$>fiflomlw 559m .o—Iw $2282 an 2.263 .ml— $2.582 «m 2283 .3 3:80. E0: .528» maozczcoumu So: uw=nEoo :o_~omm mzmanOUN E0: vozaEOU c269. B_manoU_. _ _ _ 1 _ _ _ fi fi _ _ om />\\/>\< 22:80 9:256 I ton-moo rm o o m um 50:95 N mpfifimmm I hawk”. . 3.322 T. u _>_ Tn. n a xwth I c To . uoo>> To I T. r. .~m_>>._. I om . . n. >20 oo~m> T. 5:02 I. o 0 EN h" @080an I I so IIIII T. loop _ TIII. a rim Um: 53:09". >20 00~m> 1 I I h I. IT" I u 1 232m I amp I o I TITImLI; >30 I CON TI .35 Em I >20 oo~m> c0962. rl 0mm I o I I com Tl o I. I I own I I. 00.? I o I o I I omv .I. I I. . 28 .I. . ___I “$8“. 939.03 I ESE; >\<<>\/>>\/>>\<:m_mm .wnEwS. coszLou 3:369“. 0253* .wnEmS. :oszhou— >08:qu 33.2mm coszBm mDOm—O m<§> NEEmmfiwS mehw_ 2mmhwm>> 28 Symplocos contracta n. sp. Symplocos gemmata n. sp. Symplocos tecta n. sp. Tetracolporopollemtes brevis n. sp. Foveostephanocolpom'tes bellus n. sp. Ericipites redbluffensis n. sp. The 174 species and subgeneric groups are assigned to 111 genera, 74 of them being form genera and 37 being modern genera. By assigning a species of Eocene sporo- morphs to a modern genus, I indicate that the fossils are very similar to modern sporomorphs of that genus and are quite different from sporomorphs of any other genus as far as I know. For example, the pollen of modern Ephedm is completely distinctive as far as known, and I have assigned the Eocene Ephedra-like pollen grains to that genus. In using modern generic names within rea- son, I follow the lead of paleobotanists who routinely as- sign fossil leaves, fruits, and other plant organs to mod- ern genera (for instance, in Graham, 1972). An important reason for using names of modern genera where possible is that it is difficult to use sporomorphs in interpreting paleoecology and paleoclimatology unless the sporo— morphs can be linked to modern genera whose ecological and climatological requirements and limits are known. Some paleobotanists (for instance, Hughes, 1963; Dilcher, 1973, p.16) claim that the use of modern generic names makes a fossil flora appear more modern than it actually is, and that evaluating the true history of a genus is dif- ficult if misidentifications of sporomorphs are published. Thus, when botanists and paleobotanists compile lists of occurrences of modern genera in ancient floras, they must annotate each occurrence so that the reader can de- termine which kind of organ was used to identify the ge- nus, when and by whom the genus was identified, and whether a published illustration or description by which the reader can verify the identification is available. Oth- erwise, lists of modern genera (or lists of fossil genera and species, for that matter) are impossible to evaluate. Obviously, a generic identification is more likely to be correct if it is based on several kinds of organs than if it is based on only one. One taxonomic problem that could not be dealt with here is the question of when if ever the genus Pollem'tes became valid. In common with nearly all previous au- thors, I assume that this genus was valid in all the 1931 papers of Potonié, even though this may not be strictly true if it is decided that the genus was never properly described. According to the International Code of Botan— ical Nomenclature (Stafleu and others, 1972, Art. 43), a species is not validly published if the genus to which it is assigned was not valid at the same time or previously. SPOROMORPHS, JACKSON GROUP AND ADJACENT STRATA, MISSISSIPPI AND ALABAMA Genus LAEVIGATOSPORITES Ibrahim, 1933 Laevigatosporites baardtii (Potonié and Venitz) Thomson and Pflng Plate 1, figure 1 Sporites haardti Potonié and Venitz, 1934, p. 13, pl. 1, fig. 13. Laem'gatospon'tes haardti (Potonie’ and Venitz) Thomson and Pflug, 1953, p. 59, pl. 3, figs. 27438. Laem'gatosporites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 1, fig. 1. Affinity—This species could well represent spores from any or all of the following fern families: Aspidi- aceae, Aspleniaceae, Blechnaceae, Gleicheniaceae, Lo- mariopsidaceae, Polypodiaceae, Pteridaceae. Occurrence—Very widespread stratigraphically (at least Cretaceous to Holocene) and ecologically; in my ma- terial, the species is present in nearly all samples and is “infrequent” to “common.” Genus POLYPODIISPORONITES Potonié, 1931c Polypodii(?)—sporonites Potonié, 1931c, p. 556. Polypodiidites Ross, 1949, p. 33. Ve’r‘mcatospon’tes Thomson and Pflug, 1953, p. 59. Polypodiisporrites Potonié, 1956, p. 78. Remarks.—Jansonius and Hills (1976, card 2104) con- sidered that Polypodiisporonites is a valid generic name despite the peculiar way in which it was first written. Potonié (1966, p. 103) united Polypodiidites, Vemcato- sporites, and Polypodiisporites, considering them to be synonyms; Polypodiisporites and Polypodiispm'onites have the same type species, P. favus Potonié, 1931c. Polypodiisporonites afavus (Krutzsch) n. comb. Plate 1, figure 5 Vermcatosporites afavus Krutzsch, 19593., p. 209—210, pl. 41, figs. 460—462 (basionym). Vemcatosporites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 1, fig. 2. Remarks—What Thomson and Pflug (1953, p. 60, pl. 3, figs. 52—55; pl. 4, figs. 1—4) called Verrucatosporites favus (Potonié) Thomson and Pflug is not really V. favus but is probably Polypodiisporonites afavus. In P. afavus the verrucae are much smaller than in P. alienus (Po- tonié, 1931c) n. comb. and in P. favus Potonié, 1931c. Affinity—Probably Polypodiaceae, for instance, Mi- crogmmma. 0ccuwence.—“Infrequent” in 33/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Polypodiisporonites alienus (Potonié) n. comb. Plate 1, figure 2 Sporomtes alimms Potonié, 1931c, p. 556, fig. 1 (basionym). Vermcatosporites aliemos (Potonié) Thomson and Pflug, 1953, p. 60, pl. 3, figs. 46—51. PALYNOLOGY Polypodiispo'rites cf. P. favus R. Potonié, 1934. Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 70, pl. 1, fig. 7. Polypodiumspo'rites sp. Fairchild and Elsik, 1969, p. 83, pl. 37, fig. 1. Vermcatosporites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 1, figs. 4—6. Vemcatosporites spp. Tschudy, 1973, p. B16, pl. 3, figs. 23—24. Remarks—In this species, the verrucae are high and pointed, and there is little or no negative reticulum; in Polypodiispo'ronites favus Potonié, 1931c, the verrucae are low and broadly rounded, and a negative reticulum is present. Affinity—Similar spores occur in Oleandraceae (for instance, Nephrolepis), Polypodiaceae (for instance, Phlebodium), and Pteridaceae. Occurrence—Present in 49/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group; mostly “infrequent,” but “oc- casional” in a few samples from the lower and middle parts of the Yazoo Clay. This species evidently ranges down to the lower part of the Claiborne Group but is more consistently present in the upper part of the Clai- borne and above (Fairchild and Elsik, 1969, p. 83; Tschudy, 1973, p. B16). Polypodiisporonites favus Potonié Plate 1, figure 3. Polypodii(?)—‘spcrronites favus Potonié, 1931c, p. 556, fig. 3. Vemcatospo’rites favus (Potonié) Thomson and Pflug, 1953, p. 60, pl. 3, figs. 52—55; pl. 4, figs. 1-4 [misidentified]. Polypodiispom’tes favus (Potonié) Potonié, 1956, p. 78. Reticuloidospm‘ites favus (Potonié) Krutzsch, 1959a, p. 215, pl. 42, figs. 467—470. Affinity—Probably Polypodiaceae s. l. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” to “occasional” in 37/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus MICROFOVEOLATOSPORIS Krutzsch, 1959a Microfoveolatosporis pseudodentata Krutzsch Plate 1, figure 4 Microfoveolatosporis pseudodentatus Krutzsch, 1959a, p. 212, pl. 41, figs. 463—466. Microfoveolatospom’s cf. M. pseudodentatus Krutzsch, 1959. Engel- hardt, 1964a, p. 69—70, pl. 1, fig. 6. Microfoveolatosporis cf. M. pseudodentatus Engelhardt, 1964. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 1, fig. 3. Affinity.—Similar to Psilotum (Psilotaceae) according to Kedves (1969, p. 15, pl. 1, fig. 8) and Schizaea pusilla Pursh (Schizaeaceae) according to Engelhardt (1964a, p. 70). Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in 27/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. This species ranges down into the Paleocene (Elsik, 1968a, pl. 7, fig. 5). 29 Genus SCHIZAEA J. E. Smith Schizaea tenuistriata (Pflanzl) 1). comb. Plate 1, figure 6 Cicatficosospo’n'tes pseudodorogensis tenuistriatus Pflanzl, 1956, p. 239, pl. 16, fig. 5 (basionym). Remarks—The holotype of Cicatricososporites pseu— dodorogensis (pl. 4, fig. 13 in Thomson and Pflug, 1953) does not appear to have the forked lirae that are charac- teristic of S. tenuistriata. Krutzsch (1959a, p. 224) sug- gested that C. pseudodorogensis tenuistriatus be raised to species level. Affinity—Very similar to spores of Schizaea laevi- gata Mett. and S. penicillata Kunth. Occurrence—One specimen observed from the Moodys Branch Formation of eastern Mississippi. Genus CONCAVISPORITES Pflug in Thomson and Pflug, 1953 Concavlsporites discites Pflug Plate 1, figure 9 Concavisporites discites Pflug in Thomson and Pflug, 1953, p349, pl. 1, fig. 24. Affinity.—Possibly Gleicheniaceae. Occurrence—One specimen observed from the upper part of the Yazoo Clay of western Mississippi. Genus CYATHEA Smith Cyathea? stavensis (Frederiksen) n. comb. Plate 1, figure 7 Concam'sporites stavensis Frederiksen, 1973, p. 69, pl. 1, figs. 1—4 (basionym). Remarks—In this species, the inner surface of the ex— ine has an irregular network of grooves, usually includ- ing one that is parallel to the outline. Affinity—Very similar in all respects to spores of Cy— athea hildebrandtii Kuhn illustrated by Tardieu—Blot (1966, p. 115, pl. 9, fig. 9). Occuwence.—“Infrequent” in 16/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus GLEICHENIIDITES Ross, 1949 emend. Skarby, 1964 Gleicheniidites senonicus Ross, 1949 emend. Skarby, 1964 Plate 1, figure 8 Gleicheniidites senom'cus Ross, 1949, p. 31, pl. 1, fig. 3 Gleicheniidites senonicus Ross, 1949, emend. Skarby, 1964, p. 65—67, text-fig. 1, pls. 1—3. Gleicheniidites senom'cus Ross, 1949. Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 69, pl. 1, fig. 2. Gleicheniidites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 1, fig. 11. 30 Aflinity.—Gleicheniaceae, Gleichenia, or Dicmnop- teris (Skarby, 1964, p. 62). 0ccurrence.—“Infrequent” in 9/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group, mostly in western Missis- sippi. The species ranges down into the Cretaceous (Ross, 1949). Genus LYGODIUM Swartz Lygodium labratum Frederlksen Plate 1, figures 10—11 Lygodium? labratum Frederiksen, 1973, p. 69, pl. 1, figs. 5—10. Remarks—The exine in L. labmtum is foveolate, and the rays have prominent labra. Afi‘inity.—No genus other than Lygodium (Schizae- aceae) appears to have spores of this type. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in 8 or 9/56 counted sam- ples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group; not observed in sam- ples from eastern Mississippi. Genus LYGODIUMSPORITES Potonie’, 1956 Lygodiumsporites adriennis (Potonié and Gelletich) Potonié Plate 1, figures 12—13 Punctati-sporites adriennis Potonié and Gelletich, 1933, p. 521, pl. 2, figs. 14—15. Lygodiumspom'tes adriennis (Potonié and Gelletich) Potonié, 1956, p. 19. Leiotm'letes adriennis (Potonie and Gelletich) Krutzsch, 1959a, p. 57. Remrks.—Lygodiumspom'tes adriennis is a variable species and is here interpreted rather broadly as was done by Krutzsch (1959a). No attempt was made to break it into subspecies except for the form described as Lygodiumspom'tes? cf. L. adriennis. Affinity—Probably mainly Lygodium (Schizaeaceae). Occur-rema—Counted together with Lygodiumspor— ites? cf. L. ad'riennis, but L. adm‘ennis makes up the great bulk of the specimens and is by far the most abun- dant of the psilate, trilete forms in the section studied; “infrequent” to “common” in nearly all samples. Lygodiumsporites? cf. L. adriennis (Potonie’ and Gelletich, 1933) Potonie’, 1956 Plate 1, figure 14 Cyathidites mino'r Couper, 1953 [misidentified]. Engelhardt, 19643, p. 68-69, pl. 1, fig. 1. Cyathidites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 1, fig. 7. Description—Size 34—55 am, mean 45 um. Outline triangular, with slightly concave sides and broadly rounded corners; one side is often straight or slightly convex. Trilete; sutures open or closed; labra narrow if present at all; rays straight, ‘7é—% radius, typically % ra- SPOROMORPHS, JACKSON GROUP AND ADJACENT STRATA, MISSISSIPPI AND ALABAMA dius. Exine about 1.5 um thick, on some specimens only 1 ,um thick; endexine very thin. Exine psilate to infra- punctate. Some specimens have a large infra?-punctate to infra?-granulate contact area (pl. 1, fig. 14). Remarks.—In shape and length of rays, Lygodi- nmsporites? cf. L. adriennis has similarities to Lygodi- umspom'tes adriennis, Cyathidites minor Couper, 1953, and Cardioangnlina diaphana (Wilson and Webster, 1946) Stanley, 1965. Cyathidites minor has slightly more concave sides and longer rays on the average. Cardioan- gulina diaphana has shorter rays. Typical Lygodi- umspom’tes adm‘ennis has straight to slightly convex sides. It is difficult to distinguish consistently between Lygodinmsporites? cf. L. adriennis and L. ad'riennis, however, and both types were counted together. Affinity—Probably Cyatheaceae and (or) Lygodium (Schizaeaceae). Occurrence.—Counted together with Lygodiumspor- ites adm'ennis, which is by far the more abundant species of the two. Lygodiumsporites? cf. L. adriennis appears to be more conspicuous in the lower part of the section studied (Cockfield, Gosport, Moodys Branch) than in the upper part. Few specimens were observed in the Forest Hill Sand, although typical L. adm'ennis is quite abun- dant in this formation. Genus TOROISPORIS Krutzsch, 1959a Toroisporis aneddenii Krutmh Plate 2, figure 1 Toroisporis aneddeni Krutzsch, 1959a, p. 98, pl. 10, figs. 75—76. Remarks—This species has a thick exine, rather nar- rowly rounded corners, and gently concave sides. In con- trast, Toroispom's longitora Krutzsch, 1959a, has more or less straight sides and much more broadly rounded corners. In T. postregulcm's Krutzsch, 1959a, the tori wrap around the ends of the rays. Affinity.—-Adiantnm (Adiantaceae), Gleichenia (Glei- cheniaceae), and Cheiropleuria (Cheiropleuriaceae) all have similar spores. Occurrence—Two spec1mens observed from the Gos- port Sand at Little Stave Creek. Toroisporis longitora Krutzsch Plate 2, figures 2-3 Toroispom's longitorus Krutzsch, 1959a, p. 99—100, pl. 10, figs. 80— 84. A flinity. -Unknown. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in 8/56 counted samples; observed only in the Yazoo Clay and Forest Hill Sand. Toroisporis postregularis Krutzsch Plate 2, figure 4 Toroispm‘is postregularis Krutzsch, 1959a, p. 98, pl. 10, figs. 77—78. PALYNOLOGY Affinity—Possibly Dicksom’a (Cyatheaceae). Occurrence—One specimen observed from the Moodys Branch Formation of eastern Mississippi. Genus CTENOl’l‘ERIS Blume Ctenopteris? elsikii (Frederiksen) n. comb. Plate 2, figure 5 Undulatisporites sp. Elsik, 1968a, p. 294, pl. 8, fig. 4; pl. 10, fig. 6. Undulatisporites elsikii Frederiksen, 1973, p. 69—70, pl. 1, figs. 11— 12, 18 (basionym). Affinity—The outline (convex to slightly concave sides and narrowly rounded corners) and the long, sinuous rays, with high, closed lips, are both very similar to spores of several species of Ctenopteris (Grammitida— ceae) illustrated by Tardieu-Blot (1966, pl. 6, figs. 1, 3). Modern Ctenopteris is typically verrucate to scabrate, though often only weakly so. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in 10 or 11/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Also reported by Elsik (1968a) from the Paleocene of Texas. Genus UNDULATISPORITES Pflug in Thomson and Pflug, 1953 Undulatisporites concavus Kedves Plate 2, figure 6 Undulatisporites concavus Kedves, 1961, p. 134, pl. 7, figs. 3—7. Affinity—Unknown. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” to “occasional” in 8/56 counted samples; observed only in the Yazoo Clay and Forest Hill Sand. Undulatisporites sp. Plate 2, figure 7 Description—Size 30—37 pm (two specimens). Out- line round. Trilete, sutures closed; labra wavy, 0.5 mm wide and 4 mm high, extending 15—9/3 radius. Exine about 1.5 um thick, densely though somewhat indistinctly granulate to verrucate. Remarks—Undulatisporites sp. is distinguished by its rather short rays and granulate to verrucate exine. Affinity. —Unkn0wn. Occurrence—Two specimens observed, one from the Yazoo Clay and one from the Forest Hill Sand of western Mississippi. Genus MONOLEIOTRILETES Krutzsch, 1959a Monoleiotriletes sp. Plate 2, figure 8 Description—Size 23 x 24 am (one specimen). Out- line more or less round. Trilete, rays about 1/3 radius, bordered by slight lips. Exine 0.5 um thick, much folded, psilate. 31 Remarks.—Monoleiotriletes angustus Krutzsch, 1959a, is larger; M. gracilis Krutzsch, 1959a, is triangu- lar in outline. Monoleiotriletes sp. is morphologically very similar to Paleozoic spores placed in Calamospom, but it does not look reworked. Affinity—Unknown. Occurrence—One specimen observed from the upper part of the Yazoo Clay of western Mississippi. Genus PUNCTATISPORITES Ibrahim, 1933 Punctatisporites microadriennis (Krutzsch) n. comb. Plate 2, figure 9 Leiotn‘letes microadn'ennis Krutzsch, 1959a, p. 61-62, pl. 1, figs. 3— 7 (basionym). Remarks.—Krutzsch (1959a, p. 66—67) restricted Punctatisporites to punctate spores, that is, to spores having a rough or finely pitted outer surface of the exine. He placed smooth, round to triangular spores in Leiotri- letes. I prefer to follow the custom established by P0— tonié and Kremp (1954, p. 120, 123), according to which round, psilate to punctate spores are placed in Punctati- spo'm'tes and triangular, psilate to punctate spores are placed in Leiotm'letes. Affinity. —Unkn0wn. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in 8/56 counted samples; observed only from the Moodys Branch Formation to the Forest Hill Sand of western and eastern Mississippi; may also occur in the Cockfield Formation. Genus GRANULATISPORITES Ibrahim, 1933 emend. Potonié and Kremp, 1954 Granulatisporites luteticus (Krutzsch) n. comb. Plate 2, figure 13 Punctatisporites luteticus Krutzsch, 1959a, p. 68, pl. 4, figs. 25—26 (basionym). Remarks—The exine is granulate, not punctate, and thus the species belongs to Granulatisporites. Affinity—Very similar to spores of Acrostichum au- reum L. (Pteridaceae) illustrated by Nayar and others (1964, pl. 1, fig. 65) and Kremp (1967, pl. 1, fig. 8). Occurrence—One specimen observed from the upper part of the Yazoo Clay of western Mississippi. Genus OSMUNDA Linnaeus Remarks—The transfer of Baculatispom‘tes primar— ius (Wolff, 1934) Thomson and Pflug, 1953, to Osmunda results in the genus Baculatisporites Pflug and Thomson (in Thomson and Pflug, 1953; type species B. primarius) becoming a synonym of Osmunda. Osmunda primaria (Wolff) n. comb. Plate 2, figure 10 Sporites primarius Wolff, 1934, p. 66, pl. 5, fig. 8 (basionym). 32 Bacutatisporites primm'ius (Wolff) Thomson and Pflug, 1953, p. 56, pl. 2, figs. 49—53. Osmundacidites wellmam'i Couper, 1953 [misidentified]. Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 69, pl. 1, fig. 3. Osmumitwidites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 1, figs. 88-h. Occurrence.-——“Infrequent” in two samples of Yazoo Clay from western and eastern Mississippi, respectively. Also reported as being present in the Cockfield Forma- tion and the Yazoo Clay of western Mississippi by En- gelhardt (1964a) and Tschudy and Van Loenen (1970), respectively. Genus PTERIS Linnaeus Pteris dentata (Nagy) n. comb. Plate 3, figures 5—6 Omatisporites dentams Nagy, 1963a, p. 146, 148, pl. 1, figs. 3—6 (bas- ionym). Affinity—Similar to spores of a number of species of Ptem's illustrated by Tardieu-Blot (1963, pls. 4, 6, 9). Occurrence—One specimen observed from the Yazoo Clay of western Mississippi. Genus BULLASPORIS Krutzsch, 1959a Bullasporis sp. Plate 2, figures 11—12 Description—Size including bullae 48—57 pm (two specimens). Outline triangular with convex sides and rather pointed corners. Trilete, rays somewhat indis- tinct, sutures closed, labra 0.5—1 um wide, rays slightly wavy, extending 2/a to nearly full radius. Exine about 0.5 pm thick, wrinkled on both faces, psilate on proximal face. Distal face and equator densely covered with anas- tomosing, thick bullae 8—17um in diameter and 8—11 ,um high. Remarks.—Bullasporis sp. is distinguished by the fact that both the distal face and the equator are covered by many bullae. Afifim'ty.—Unknown. Occuwence.—Two specimens observed, one each from the Moodys Branch Formation of eastern Mississippi and the upper part of the Yazoo Clay of western Mississippi. Genus CICATRICOSISPORITES Potonie and Gelletich, 1933 emend. Potonié, 1966 Cicatricosisporites dorogensis Potonié and Gelletich Plate 3, figure 1 Cicamcosisporites do'rogensis Potonié and Gelletich, 1933, p. 522, pl. 1, figs. 143. Cicat’ricosispm‘ites dorogensis R. Potonié and Gelletich, 1933. Engel- hardt, 1964a, p. 69, pl. 1, fig. 4. Remarks. —This species name has traditionally been used for spores in which the lirae are continuous, whereas SPOROMORPHS, JACKSON GROUP AND ADJACENT STRATA, MISSISSIPPI AND ALABAMA C. paradorogensis Krutzsch, 1959a, has been applied to similar spores in which the lirae are coarsely foveolate. Afi‘inity.——Anemia or Mohm’a (Schizaeaceae). Occurrence—“Infrequent” to “common” in 40/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Cicatricosisporitos embryonalis Krutzsch Plate 3, figures 2—3 Cicatricosisporites embryonalis Krutzsch, 1959a, p. 174, pl. 36, figs. 376-378. Remarks—Spores of this species are smaller than those of C. dorogensis Potonié and Gelletich, 1933, and C. parado'rogensis Krutzsch, 1959a, and the lirae are less distinct. Krutzsch (1959a, p. 174) pointed out that at least some fossil spores assigned to C. embryonalis may be immature. Aflinity—Anemia or Mohria (Schizaeaceae). Occurrence—“Infrequent” in four counted samples from the Yazoo Clay of Mississippi and Alabama. Cicatricosisporites paradorogensis Krutzsch Plate 3, figure 4 Cicatn'cosispofites paradorogensis Krutzsch, 1959a, p. 172, pl. 35, figs. 3664171; pl. 36, figs. 372—373. Cicatricosisporites cf. C. paradorogmsis Krutzsch, 1959. Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 69, pl. 1, fig. 5. Affinity—Anemia or Mohm'a (Schizaeaceae). Occurrence.——“Infrequent” to “common” in 44/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus LYCOPODIUM Linnaeus Lycopodium couvexum (Frederiksen) n. comb. Plate 3, figures 7—8 Favoisporis convexa Frederiksen, 1973, p. 70 and 72, pl. 1, figs. 13— 17 (basionym). Affinity—In its outline, smooth proximal face, and broken negative reticulum on the distal face, this species is very similar to spores of Lycopodium phlegmam‘a L. illustrated by Nayar and Lata (1965, fig. 5). Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in five counted samples from western Mississippi; the species ranges from the base to the top of the Yazoo Clay. Lycopodium hamulatum (Krutzsch) n. comb. Plate 3, figures 9—10 Hamulatisporis humulatis Krutzsch, 1959a, p. 157—158, pl. 29, figs. 326—328 (basionym). Camarozo'nosporites hamulatis (Krutzsch) Krutzsch, 1963, p. 23. PALYNOLOGY Remarks—This species has an exine of uniform thick- ness, whereas in L. heskemensis (Pflanzl in Miirriger and Pflanzl, 1955) n. comb., the exine is thicker along the sides than at the corners. L. Immulatum is the type spe- cies of the genus Hamulatisporis Krutzsch, 1959a (which was reduced to subgeneric rank under the genus Cama- rozonospom'tes Potonié, 1956, by Krutzsch, 1963); there- fore, with the transfer of Hamulatispo'ris hamulatum [or Camarozonosporites (Hamulatispo’m's) hamulatum] to Lycopodium, Hamulatisporis becomes a synonym of Lycopodium. Affinity—Similar to Lycopodium inundatum L. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in a sample of Gosport Sand from Little Stave Creek and a sample of Moodys Branch Formation from western Mississippi. Lycopodium heskemensis (Pflanzl) n. comb. Plate 3, figures 12—13 Cingulatispom'tes heskemensis Pflanzl in Mu'rriger and Pflanzl, 1955, p. 87, pl. 5, figs. 1—3 (basionym). Camarozonospom'tes heskemensis (Pflanzl) Krutzsch, 1959a, p. 187— 188, pl. 38, figs. 413—421. Affinity—Very similar to Lycopodium cemuum L. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in 21 or 22/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. In eastern Mis- sissippi and western Alabama, the species occurs mostly in the Gosport Sand, Moodys Branch Formation, and lower part of the Yazoo Clay. Lycopodium venustum Frederiksen Plate 3, figure 11 Lycopodium venustum Frederiksen, 1973, p. 72, pl. 1, figs. 19—21. Remarks—The distinguishing features of this species are the delicate continuous muri and the very small tri- angular thickenings at the intersections of the muri. Occuwence.—“Infrequent” in seven counted samples from the lower part of the Yazoo Clay to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus SELAGINELLA Beauvois Selaginella perinata (Krutzsch and others) :1. comb. Plate 3, figures 14—15 I/usatispan's pe'rimztus Krutzsch and others, 1963, p. 98, pl. 30, figs. 10—11 (basionym). Selaginella sinuites Martin and Rouse, 1966, p. 185—186, pl. 1, figs. 7—8. Remarks—In this species a loose, much-folded, gran— ulate “saccus” having distinct trilete rays surrounds a psilate “central body.” 33 Occu'r'rence.—“Infrequent” to “occasional” in 35/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Selaginella sp. A Plate 4, figures 2—6 Description—Size excluding ornamentation, 24—30 am (three specimens). Outline rounded triangular; tri- lete, sutures closed, labra 0.7—1.5 ,um wide, wavy to nearly straight, extending 2/3—% radius. Exine probably about 1 am thick on proximal and distal faces, having irregular thickened zone (cingulum) 143 ,um wide around equator. Proximal and distal faces densely punctate to granulate. Distal face also with scattered, thick clavae, short baculae, and tuberculae, the elements 1.5—3 am in diameter and 1—4 um high. Scattered coni (10—20 of them) project from the equator; they are 1—3 am in di- ameter and 0.5—1.5 um high. Remarkafigelaginella sp. A differs from similar, pre- viously described form species that have been placed in the form genus Muerm'gerispom's Kurtzsch and others, 1963, by having mainly rounded elements (clavae, etc.) rather than spines and coni, and by the fact that these elements are only on the distal face and not on both faces. Affinity.——Similar to spores of Selagimlla biformis A1. Braun and S. flagellum Spring, illustrated by Erdt- man (1957, figs. 176, 178). Occurrence.—Known only from the Gosport Sand and the Yazoo Clay. Selaginella sp. B Plate 4, figures 7-10 Description—Size 35—42 am (two specimens). Out- line triangular with convex to nearly straight sides. Tri- lete, sutures closed, labra 0.5—1 ,um thick and 1.5—3 mm high, straight to slightly wavy, extending %—% radius. Exine 3—4 pm thick, distinctly infrabaculate in optical section; proximal face punctate to indistinctly reticulate in design and lacking coni; distal face distinctly reticu- late, with lumina about 1 ,um in diameter and muri about 0.5 gm wide; distal face also with scattered, pointed to rounded, pitted coni 2.5—5.5 am in diameter and 2—3 ,um high; equator thickly set with a ring of spines which vary from pointed to blunt to clavate, 34.5 um in diameter and 4—6.5 um high, slightly bulbous and pitted near the base. Remarks.—Selaginella sp. B is similar to previously described form species placed in the form genus Puste- chinospom's Krutzsch, 1959a, but it is distinguished by its triangular to rounded triangular outline and lack of coni on the proximal face. Occurrence—Two specimens observed in a sample from the upper part of the Yazoo Clay of western Missis- sippi. 34 Genus SPHAGNUM (Dill.) Ehrh. Sphagnum antiquasporites Wilson and Webster Plate 4, figure 11 Sphagnum antiquaspo'rites Wilson and Webster, 1946, p. 273, fig. 2. “Triletes psilatus” Ross, 1949, p. 32, pl. 1, fig. 12. Stereisporites psilatus Ross ex Thomson and Pflug, 1953, p. 53, pl. 1, figs. 75—80. Sphagnumsporites antiquasporites (Wilson and Webster) Potonié, 1956, p. 17. Remarks—Spores of Sphagnum antiquaspom'tes are small and have a narrow cingulum and short rays. Occurrence—Counted together with Sphagnum aus- tralum, S. stereoides, and Stereispom'tes woelfershei- mensis. Sphagnum antiquaspom'tes is “infrequent” in scattered samples; it probably ranges from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Sphagnum australum (Cookson) n. comb. Plate 4, figure 12 Triletes australis Cookson, 1947, p. 136, pl. 15, figs. 58—59 (bas- ionym). Sphagnites australis (Cookson) Cookson, 1953, p. 464. Sphagnumsporites australis (Cookson) Potonié, 1956, p. 17, pl. 1, fig. 8. Stere'ispon'tes australis (Cookson) Krutzsch, 1959a, p. 71. Remarka—Sphagnum australum, Sphagnum ster- eoides (Potonié and Venitz, 1934) Martin and Rouse, 1966, Stereispom'tes megaste'reoides Pflug in Thomson and Pflug, 1953, and Stereispom'tes woelfersheimensis Krutzsch, 1959a, are all about the same size and all have long rays, but the cingulum in the latter two species is broad, that in Sphagnum australum is intermediate in width, and Sphagnum stereoides has a narrow cingulum. Occurrence—Counted together with Sphagnum anti- quaspom'tes, S. stereoides, and Stereispon'tes woelfers- heimensis. Sphagnum australum is “infrequent” in scattered samples probably from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. It is less common than Sphagnum antiquaspor- ites. Sphagnum stereoides (Potonié and Venitz) Martin and Rouse Plate 4, figure 13 Sporites sterem'des Potonié and Venitz, 1934, p. 11—12, pl. 1, figs. 4—5. Stereisporites stereoides (Potonié and Venitz) Thomson and Pflug, 1953, p. 53, pl. 1, figs. 64—73. Sphagnumsporites stereoides (Potonié and Venitz) Potonié, 1956, p. 17. Sphagnum stereoides (Potonié and Venitz) Martin and Rouse, 1966, p. 184, pl. 1, fig. 3. Occurrence—Counted together with Sphagnum anti- quasporites, S. australum, and Stereispom'tes woelfers- heimensis. Sphagnum stereoides is rather rare in my SPOROMORPHS, JACKSON GROUP AND ADJACENT STRATA, MISSISSIPPI AIND ALABAMA material and is known definitely only from the Forest Hill Sand. Sphagnum triangularum (Mamczar) n. comb. Plate 4, figure 14 cf. Sphagnum-Sporites stereoides forma triangulam's Mamczar, 1960, p. 196, pl. 1, fig. 3 (basionym). Stereisporites triangularis (Mamczar) Krutzsch and others, 1963, p. 54, pl. 9, figs. 15—19. Remarks—This species is distinguished from Sphag- num antiquasporites Wilson and Webster, 1946, by hav- ing a triradiate thickening on the distal side. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in 6/56 counted samples; known only from the Moodys Branch Formation to the Forest Hill Sand in western and eastern Mississippi. Genus STEREISPORITES Pflug in Thomson and Pflug, 1953 Remarks.——The synonymy of this genus was discussed by Krutzsch and others (1963, p. 9). Stereisporites megastereoides Pflug Plate 4, figure 1 Stereispom'tes megastereoides Pflug in Thomson and Pflug, 1953, p. 53, pl. 1, fig. 74. Sphagnumsporites megastereoides (Pflug) Potonié, 1956, p. 17. Occurrence.—-“Infrequent” in two samples of Yazoo Clay from western Mississippi. Stereisporites woelfersheimensis Krutzsch Plate 4, figure 15 Stereispom'tes woelfersheimensis Krutzsch, 1959a, p. 72. Stereispon'tes stictus woelfersheimensis (Krutzsch) Krutzsch and oth- ers, 1963, p. 50, pl. 7, figs. 13—16. Affinity.—Possibly Sphagnum. Occurrence—Counted together with Sphagnum anti- quasporites, S. australum, and S. stereoides. In my ma- terial, Stereispom'tes woelfersheimensis is rather rare and is definitely known only from the Yazoo Clay of western Mississippi. Genus PODOCARPUS Persoon Podocarpus? cappulatus n. name Plate 4, figures 17—18 Podocarpus andiniformis Zaklinskaya, 1957, p. 105, pl. 2, figs. 3—7 (basionym), not Podocarpus anaimformis Bolkhovitina, 1956. cf. Podocarpus forma libella Doktorowicz-Hrebnicka, 1960, pl. 29, fig. 59. cf. Podocarpus forma unica Doktorowicz—Hrebnicka, 1960, pl. 29, fig. 60. Podocarpus sp. Rouse, 1962, p. 201, pl. 1, fig. 18. Abietineaepollenites cf. A. microalatus (R. Potonié, 1934) R. Potonié, 1951. Engelhardt, 19643, p. 70, pl. 1, fig. 9. Abietineaepollenites sp. (Diploxylon type). Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 2, ?fig. 9. PALYNOLOGY Remarks—In this species, the body wall is thin; the wings are only slightly wider than the body and nearly meet each other at the equator. Kremp and others (1960, p. 10—157) pointed out that Podocarpus andiniformis Zaklinskaya, 1957, is a homonym of P. andiniformis Bolkhovitina, 1956. Podocarpus? cappulatus is here pro- posed as a new name for Zaklinskaya’s species. The name refers to the well developed cappula in these grains. Affinity—In the arrangement and the relative sizes of body and wings, this species is similar to Podocanms standleyi Buchh. and Gray and P. acutifolius T. Kirk. However, in these and in most other species of Podocar- pus, the body sexine is very thick, whereas it is unusu- ally thin in P.? cappulatus. In pollen grains of Cedms, the wings are slightly wider than the body but are set rather far apart; as in Podocarpus, the body sexine is thick. In short, an affinity with Podocawpus is more likely than with Cedms, but because of the thin body exine in the fossil species, it carrot be assigned with cer— tainty to Podocarpus. Occurrence.——“Infrequent” in 34/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Podocarpus maximus Stanley Plate 4, figure 16 Podocarpus maximus Stanley, 1965, p. 281, pl. 41, figs. 1—8. Remarks—This species has wings that are sylves- troid and considerably wider than the body. The sexine of the body is cavate and wrinkled, the wrinkles forming rugulate patterns in plan view. Affinity—The wrinkled body sexine and the large size of the wings relative to the body are typical of many spe— cies of Podocarpus. In Cedms, the body exine is also thick, but it is not cavate. Furthermore, in C edms grains, the proximal roots of the wings characteristically merge with the body sexine; that is, no sylvestroid indentation is present at the proximal roots as in P. maximus. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in 23/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus PITYOSPORITES Seward, 1914 emend. Manum, 1960 Pityosporites Seward, 1914, p. 23—24, pl. 8, fig. 45. Pinus-pollenites Raatz, 1937, p. 15—16, pl. 1, fig. 12. Pityospo'n’tes Seward emend. Potonié and Klaus, 1954, p. 534—536, pl. 10, figs. 6—10. Pinuspollem'tes Raatz ex Potonié, 1958, p. 62, pl. 8, figs. 75—76. Pityosporites Seward emend. Manum, 1960, p. 14—15, pl. 1. Pityosporites longifoliaformis (Zaklinskaya) Krutzsch Plate 5, figures 1—2 Pinus longifoliaformis Zaklinskaya, 1957, p. 153, pl. 13, figs. 7—9. Pinus ponderosaefomis Zaklinskaya, 1957, p. 153—154, pl. 13, figs. 10—14. 35 Abietineaepollenites (Diploxylon type). Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 2, fig. 14. Pityosporites longifoliaformis (Zaklinskaya) Krutzsch, 1971, p. 16. Pityosporites ponderosaeformis (Zaklinskaya) Krutzsch, 1971, p. 17. Remarks—Zaklinskaya’s species Pinus lonngoli- aformis and P. ponderosaeformis are very similar to each other and intergrade. In this species, the wings are distinctly sylvestroid but are only slightly wider than the body; the sexine of the body is verrucate but not cavate as in Podocarpus maximus Stanley, 1965. Affinity—Probably Pinus; possibly Podocarpus. In Cedms, the wings are slightly wider than the body and are set rather far apart as in these fossils, but no sylves- troid notch is present at the proximal contacts of the body and wings. In Keetelem'a, the wings are set far apart and are distinctly sylvestroid, but they are less wide than the body, and the overall length of the grain is about 140 am, much larger than the fossils; grains of Keetele'ria are most similar to those of Abies. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in 15/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus PINUS Linnaeus Pinus cembraeformis Zaklinskaya Plate 5, figures 3—4 Pinus cemb'raeformis Zaklinskaya, 1957, p. 142—143, pl. 10, figs. 8— 13. Pityosporites cembraefomnis (Zaklinskaya) Krutzsch, 1971, p. 16. Remarks—The body exine in this species is verrucate but thinner than in Pityosporites longifoliaformis (Zak- linskaya, 1957) Krutzsch, 1971, and the wings are hap- loxylonoid to very slightly sylvestroid. Occurrence.——“Infrequent” in 8/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Pinus labdaca (Potonié) n. comb. Plate 5, figure 6 Pollem'tes labdacus Potonié, 1931b, p. 5, fig. 32 (basionym). Pityospom'tes labdacus (Potonié) Thomson and Pflug, 1953, p. 68, pl. 5, figs. 60—62. Abietineaepollenites sp. (Diploxylon type). Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 2, fig. 7. Remarks—In Pinus labdaca, the wings are distinctly sylvestroid, only slightly wider than the body; the cap- pula is wide, and the body exine is punctate and rather thin. Occurrence.——“Infrequent” to “occasional” in 51/56 counted samples. 36 Plnus tenuextimu Traverse Plate 5, figure 5 Pinus tenuextima Traverse, 1955, p. 41, fig. 8 (13—14). Remarks—This form is haploxylonoid, and the body exine is thin and punctate. Occuwence.—“Infrequent” to “common” in 53/56 counted samples. Genus PICEA A. Dietrich Picea grandivescipites Wodehouse Plate 5, figure 7; plate 6, figure 1 Picea grandivescipites Wodehouse, 1933, p. 488, fig. 10. ?Piceapollis grandivescipites (Wodehouse) Krutzsch, 1971, p. 22. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in 16 or 17/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus CEDRUS Trew Cedrus piniformis Zaklinskaya Plate 6, figures 2—3 Cedrus piuifomis Zaklinskaya, 1957, p. 134, pl. 9, figs. 1—4. Abietineaepollenites sp. (Diploxylon type). Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 2, figs. ?4, 8. Cedripites piuiformis (Zaklinskaya) Krutzsch, 1971, p. 24. Remarks—In this species, the wings are slightly less wide than the body and are set far apart. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in 8/56 counted samples; observed in samples only from the Moodys Branch For- mation to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group of west- ern and eastern Mississippi. Genus TSUGA Carriere Tsuga ignicula (Potonié) n. comb. Plate 6, figures 45 Sporonites igniculus Potonié, 1931c, p. 556, fig. 2 (basionym). Zonalapolleuites igniculus (Potonié) Thomson and Pflug, 1953, p. 66— 67, pl. 4, figs. 75—79. Tsugaepolleuites iguiculus (Potonié) Potonié, 1958, p. 48, pl. 6, fig. 51. Affinity.—“Tsuga diversifolia-Typ” of Rudolph (1936, p. 256, pl. 3, figs. 8—9). Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in two samples of Yazoo Clay from western Mississippi. Genus SEQUOIAPOLLENITES Thiergart, 1938 Sequoiapollenites lapillipites (Wilson and Webster) Krutzsch Plate 6, figure 7 Sequoia lapillipites Wilson and Webster, 1946, p. 275, fig. 9. Sequoiapolleuites lapillipites (Wilson and Webster) Krutzsch, 1971, p. 45. Affinity.—This species could represent Sequoia, Me- tasequoia, or Cryptomeria (Taxodiaceae). SPOROMORPHS, JACKSON GROUP AND ADJACENT STRATA, MISSISSIPPI AND ALABAMA Occurrence—“Infrequent” in three counted samples; observed only in samples from the Moodys Branch For- mation to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group in west- ern and eastern Mississippi. Genus CUPRESSACITES Bolkhovitina, 1956 Cupressacites hiatipites (Wodehouse) Krutzsch Plate 6, figure 6 Taxodium hiatipites Wodehouse, 1933, p. 493, fig. 17. Taxodiaceaepollenites hiatus (R. Potonié, 1931) Kremp, 1949 [misidentified]. Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 71, pl. 1, fig. 10. Inaperturopolleuites cf. 1. hiatus (R. Potonié) Thomson and Pflug 1953. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 2, figs. 5—6. Cupi'essacites hiatipites (Wodehouse) Krutzsch, 1971, p. 41. Remarks—This species includes the grains that most authors have assigned to Imperturopollenites hiatus (Potonié, 1931b) Thomson and Pflug, 1953. Originally, Potonié (1931b, p. 5) described Polleuites hiatus as being granulate to weakly reticulate, but the holotype appears to have a smooth surface. In later publications, Potonié (1934, p. 47, pl. 1, fig. 30, pl. 6, fig. 4; Potonié and Venitz, 1934, p. 69, pl. 5, fig. 29) emphasized that although the grains were flecked in design, the surface was smooth. Therefore I agree with Krutzsch (1971, p. 202) that the common, rough-surfaced, split taxodiaceous grains of the Upper Cretaceous and Cenozoic do not belong to I. hia- tus. However, by assigning Polleuites hiatus to Inaper- turopolleuites, Krutzsch implied that grains of that spe- cies have a ligula. No evidence exists in the papers of Potonié (1931b, 1934; Potonié and Venitz, 1934) that a ligula is present, and therefore, Polleuites hiatus, like Taxodium hiatipites, should be assigned to Cupi'essa- cites. Affinity.—Probably Taxodium or Glyptostrobus (Tax— odiaceae). Occurrence—“Infrequent” to “occasional” in 18 or 19/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Clai- borne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus EPHEDRA Linnaeus Ephedra claricristata Shakhmundes Plate 7, figures 2—3 Ephedra claricristata Shakhmundes, 1965, p. 226—227, fig. 10. Ephedra eocenica Shakhmundes, 1965, p. 219—220, figs. 2—3. Ephedripites (Distachyapites) tertiarius Krutzsch, 1970a, p. 156, 158, fig. 20; pl. 44, figs. 1—21. G’newceaepolle’nites eoceuipites (Wodehouse, 1933) R. Potonié, 1958 [misidentified]. Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 70, pl. 1, fig. 8. Ephedra sp. (distachya-type). F‘airchild and Elsik, 1969, p. 83, pl. 37, fig. 2. Ephedra sp. (type A of Steeves and Barghoorn 1959). Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 1, fig. 13. Ephedra type A of Steeves and Barghoorn, 1959. Tschudy, 1973, p. 817, pl. 4, figs. 22—23. Remarks—Krutzsch (1970a, p. 160) combined two of the species of Shakhmundes (1965)—Ephedi'a eoceuica PALYNOLOGY and E. clan'cristata—and considered the latter to be the senior synonym. He gave a size range of 33-45 am for this enlarged species. He then described a new species, Ephedripites tertiarius, which appears to differ from the redescribed Ephedra clan'cm'stata only in having a size range of 45—55 am. However, according to the original definitions of Shakhmundes (1965), Ephedra claricm's- mm and E. eocem'ca had size ranges of 33—38 am and 40—52 am, respectively. The size of Ephedripites ter- tiam’us is within the size range of the enlarged species E. clam'cristata, and therefore I consider all three species to be synonyms of each other. My specimens range from 30 to 56 pm in length and have four to six ribs. Ephedm eocem’pites Wodehouse, 1933, is larger and has a size range of 57—74 pm. Some specimens that I counted as E. clam‘cristata have a length:width ratio of considerably more than 2:1 (the illustrated specimen of Tschudy and Van Loenen (1970, pl. 1, fig. 13) has a length:width ratio of 2.621, and that of Engelhardt (1964a, pl. 1, fig. 8) has a ratio of 3:1), and theoretically these specimens should be assigned to Ephedra fusiformis Shakhmundes, 1965. Occurrence—“Infrequent” to “occasional” in 48/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. This species has the base of its range in the lower part of the Claiborne (Fairchild and Elsik, 1969, p. 83), but it prob- ably does not become consistently present until the top of the Claiborne (Tschudy, 1973, p. 317). Ephedra exiguua n. sp. Plate 7, figure 1 Gnetaceaepollenites sp. (Ephedm distachya type). Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 70, pl. 1, fig. 11. Description—This species is identical with Ephedra cheganica Shakhmundes, 1965, except that the latter is 56—59 um in size, whereas E. exiguua is 26—40 am (holotype, 26 um). Like E. chegam'ca, the specimens from the Jackson Group and adjacent strata are thick walled and unfolded, and the grooves have secondary branches. It is also characteristic of the gulf coast speci- mens that the secondary grooves from adjacent furrows meet at the tops of the ridges, so that the crests of the ridges are never flat but are cut by a series of notches formed by the secondary grooves. Holotype.—-Plate 7, figure 1, slide 10556 A-l, coordi- nates 25.3 x 113.6, Gosport Sand at Little Stave Creek, Clarke County, Ala. Remarks.—The specific epithet is Latin for “small.” Ephedripites lusaticus Krutzsch, 1961, is thin walled but similar in other respects. Occurrence—“Infrequent” in 19 or 20/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. 37 Ephedra hungarlca (Nagy) n. comb. Plate 7, figure 4 Ephedripites hungaricus Nagy, 1963b, p. 278, figs. 1—3, 12A (bas- ionym). Remarks—The ridges, furrows, and fine grooves in this species range from straight to slightly undulating. Nagy found one specimen measuring 19 x 47 am. My specimens are 28—55 mm in length, and their length:width ratios range from 1.9:1 to 30:1. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” to “occasional” in 16/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Ephedra? laevigataeformis (Bolkhovitina) n. comb. Plate 7, figure 5 Schizaea laevigataefomis Bolkhovitina, 1961, p. 29—30, pl. 6, figs. 1a—e (basionym). Ephedm voluta Stanley, 1965, p. 284—285, pl. 40, figs. 10—11. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in 5/56 counted samples; observed only from the Moodys Branch Formation and Yazoo Clay of western and eastern Mississippi. Possibly these specimens are reworked, because the species has previously been reported mainly from the Upper Creta- ceous and Paleocene. Fairchild and Elsik (1969, p. 84) reported that the species “ranges from the Upper Cre- taceous up through the Lower Tertiary [of the gulf coast]. It is most common in the uppermost Cretaceous and Midway and lower Wilcox sequence.” Genus GRAMINIDITES Cookson, 1947 Remarks—According to Krutzsch (1970a, p. 12), little if any difference exists between the genera Monoporor pollem'tes Meyer, 1956, and Graminidites. Graminidites gramineoides (Meyer) Krutzsch Plate 7, figure 6 Monopo'ropollemtes gramineoides Meyer, 1956, p. 111, pl. 4, fig. 29. Graminidites gmmineoides (Meyer) Krutzsch, 1970a, p. 15. Graminidites spp. Tschudy, 1973, p. B17, pl. 4, figs. 34—35. Description—Size of my specimens (mean of long and short dimensions), 19—36 pm, mean 30 um. Exine, 0.3— 0.5 um thick, considerably folded, usually crushed to an oval shape; nearly psilate but faintly punctate, granu- late, or verrucate; outline nearly smooth. Diameter of pore (of average-sized specimens) 1.7—2.5 mm; width of annulus 2.5—3 um. Remarks—Krutzsch (1970a, p. 15) pointed out that the original description and photomicrograph of Gramm- idites grammeoides are not clear enough to be sure of the morphology of the species. However, the Jackson specimens are more like Meyer’s species than any other and could well be conspecific. Graminidites gracilis Krutzsch, 1970a, is smaller and more sharply punctate. 38 Aflim’ty. —Gramineae. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in 8/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus MILFORDIA Erdtman, 1960 emend. Krutzsch, 19702 Milfordia Erdtman, 1960, p. 46. Monulcipollemtes Fairchild in Stover and others, 1966, p. 2—3. Restiom'idites Elsik, 1968a, p. 313. Milfordia Erdtman emend. Krutzsch, 1970a, p. 18. Milfordia incerta (Pflug and Thomson) Krutzsch Plate 7, figure 7 Inaperturopollenites incertus foveolatus Pflug and Thomson in Thom— son and Pflug, 1953, p. 66, pl. 5, figs. 31—35. Milfordia hypolaenoides Erdtman, 1960, p. 46—47, pl. 1, fig. 3. Milfordiu incerta (Pflug and Thomson) Krutzsch, 1961, p. 325. Restionaceae. Fairchild and Elsik, 1969, p. 83, pl. 37, fig. 5. Remarks—Taxonomy of this species was discussed by Krutzsch (1961, p. 325 and 19703, p. 72, 74). In contrast to the ulcus in Milfordia minima Krutzsch, 1970a, and in M. hungam'ca (Kedves, 1965) Krutzsch, 1970a, the ul- cus in this species is highly irregular in shape and has rough or even beaded edges. Affinity—Centmlepis (Centrolepidaceae) or Restion- aceae. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” to “occasional” in nine counted samples; it ranges from the Gosport Sand only to the top of the Yazoo Clay. Reported from the Clai- borne Group by Fairchild and Elsik (1969, p. 83). Milfordia minima Krutzsch Plate 7, figure 8 Milfordia minim Krutzsch, 1970a, p. 76, pl. 10, figs. 4—34. Monulcipollenites cf. M. confossus Fairchild in Stover, Elsik and Fair— child 1966. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 2, figs. 12a—b. Restio sp. Machin, 1971, pl. 2, fig. 14. Remarks—This species is smaller than Milfordia hungam'ca (Kedves, 1965) Krutzsch, 1970a; my speci- mens are 21—32 ,um in size. Affinity.—Joinvillea (Flagellariaceae) and several genera of the Restionaceae have similar pollen grains. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in 5/56 counted samples; observed only in samples from the Moodys Branch For- mation to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus AGLAOREIDIA Erdtman, 1960, emend. Fowler, 1971 Aglaoreidia cyclops Erdtman Plate 7, figures 9—10 Aglaoreidia cyclops Erdtman, 1960, p. 47, pl. 1, figs. b—c. Monoporopollenites sp. A. Machin, 197], pl. 2, fig. 15. Remarks—The photomicrograph does not show it well, but a fine reticulum does wrap around the ends of the grain in the specimen from my material (pl. 7, figs. SPOROMORPHS, JACKSON GROUP AND ADJACENT STRATA, MISSISSIPPI AND ALABAMA 9—10). In Aglaoreidia cyclops, the reticulum is coarse over much of the poriferous face and fine elsewhere, whereas in A. pristina Fowler, 1971, the maximum size of the lumina is found at the ends of the grain. Affinity.—Monocotyledonous, possibly Ruppiaceae or Potamogetonaceae according to Machin (1971, p. 856). Occurrence—Counted together with Aglaoreidia pm'stina Fowler; refer to that species. Aglaoreldia pristina Fowler Plate 7, figure 11 Aglaoreidia pristina Fowler, 1971, p. 141—142, pl. 1, figs. 1-2. Monoporopollem'tes sp. B. Machin, 1971, pl. 2, fig. 16. Occurrence—In my samples containing Aglaoreidia, the genus does not have a relative frequency of more than 1/ 100, and in most samples, its relative frequency is less than 1/10,000 (no more than a few specimens on a rich slide). Aglaoreidia cyclops and A. p'r‘z'stina were originally counted together. Later, specimens of the ge- nus were relocated; 10 of these were from zone II, and all 10 were of A. p’r‘istina. The single specimen from be— low zone II was from the Gosport Sand at Little Stave Creek and proved to be A. cyclops. This stratigraphic distribution is interesting because Fowler (1971) showed that in southern England the local range zone of A. cy- clops is above that of A. pm’stina; both are within the upper Eocene. The opposite seems to be true in the gulf coast, where A. pm‘stina ranges from the uppermost Eocene into the Oligocene and A. cyclops has been defi- nitely recorded as being from only the upper middle Eocene. Genus MOMIPITES Wodehouse, 1933, emend. Nichols, 1973 Momipltes coryloides Wodehouse Plate 7, figures 12—14 Momipites coryloides Wodehouse, 1933, p. 511, fig. 43. Engelhardtia sp. Fairchild and Elsik, 1969, p. 83, pl. 37, figs. 8—9. ?Momipites sp. (See M. cmyloides Wode. 1933, in Engelhardt 1964). Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 2, fig. 15. Tm'atriopollenites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 3, figs. 1—2. Triatm'opollenites sp. of the T. coryphaeus type (20p—3Qu). Tschudy, 1973, p. B16, pl. 4, figs. 12—13. Remarks—In most samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group, about 5—30 percent of the specimens of M omipites coryloides have one, or sometimes two, white streaks across the grain (pl. 7, figs. 13—14) that look superfi- cially like the pseudocolpi in grains of Platycarya. How— ever, in M. coryloides, the white streaks are generally less numerous than in Platycarya, and the streaks are usually short, only half the grain’s diameter or less. Fur- thermore, the white streaks are almost always bordered by folds, and at least in some grains, the white line next to a fold is an optical phenomenon like a Becke line and is PALYNOLOGY not really a thin streak. Such a phenomenon appears, for instance, in the photomicrograph of the holotype of En- gelhardtia spackmam'ana Traverse (1955, fig. 9 (27)) and in the illustration of Pollem'tes cowphaeus tetraexituum in Potonié and Venitz (1934, pl. 2, fig. 35). Affinity.—Engelhardtia group of the Juglandaceae (Engelhardtia, Oreomunnea, Alfaroa, and extinct but related genera). Most grains of M omipitzs coryloides are more like the Oreomunnea type than the Engelhardtia s. s. or Alfaroa types (refer to Kuprianova, 1965, pls. 27—28). Occuwence.—“Infrequent” to “abundant” in every sample; relatively less abundant in the uppermost part of the Yazoo Clay, Forest Hill Sand, and Red Bluff Clay than lower in the section studied here. Momipites microfoveolatus (Stanley) Nichols Plate 7, figures 15—16 Engelhardtim’dites cf. E. microcomphaeus (R. Potonié, 1931) Potonié, Thomson, and Thiergart, 1950. Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 76—77, pl. 4, fig. 44. Engelhardtia microfoveolata Stanley, 1965, p. 300—301, pl. 45, figs. 8— 13. Tm'atriopollenites sp. of the T. comphaeus type (13 u—18 u). Tschudy, 1973, p. B16, pl. 4, figs. 1—3. Momip’ites microfoveolatus (Stanley) Nichols, 1973, p. 107. Remarks.—Tschudy and Van Loenen (1970, pl. 3, figs. 3—7, 21) illustrated a variety of small triatriate grains, all of which are of types that I have included in M. mi- crofoveolatus. Jackson grains assigned to this species are small (14—25 ,um, rarely larger than 22 ,um), and most have straight to concave sides; most grains of M omipites coryloides Wodehouse from the same strata are larger (20—34 pm, rarely smaller than 23 um) and have convex sides. M omipites microfoveolatus is infragranulate rather than finely pitted as stated by Stanley (1965, p. 301). El— sik (1968b, p. 602) also pointed out that Engelhardtia- type pollen grains are “never punctate or foveolate ex- cept in degraded specimens.” Affinity.—E'ngelhardtia group (Juglandaceae). Occurrence.—“Infrequent” to “abundant” in every sample; generally less abundant in the uppermost part of the Yazoo Clay, Forest Hill Sand, and Red Bluff Clay than lower in the section, and usually less abundant than M omipites coryloides in any given sample. Genus PLATYCARYA Siebold and Zuccarini Platycarya sp. Plate 7, figure 17 Triatriopollenites cf. T. coryphaeus (R. Potonié, 1931) Thomson and Pflug, 1953. Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 78, pl. 4, fig. 47. Platycarya spp. Tschudy, 1973, p. B14, pl. 2, figs. 30—31 only. Description—0n the basis of four specimens (one of Engelhardt, 1964a, two of Tschudy, 1973, and one of mine), the size is 18—20 ,um. Oblate; outline rounded 39 triangular. Exine between apertures slightly less than 1 ,um thick; intectate; nexine very thin. Outer exine sur- face smooth; design infragranulate, probably owing to the roughness of the exine’s inner surface. Each hemi- sphere crossed by one or two long, curving, narrow (1— 1.5-um-wide) pseudocolpi, which may have upturned edges. Triporate, pores 1—2 pm wide, atrium 3—4 am wide; little or no annulus or tumescence present. Occurrence—One probable specimen of this species was observed from the Cockfield Formation at Jackson, Miss. Another specimen from the formation at the same locality was illustrated by Engelhardt (1964a, pl. 4, fig. 47). Elsik (1974b, fig. 3) showed Platycarya as ranging up into the basal strata of the Jackson Group in Texas. The present species ranges down at least into the upper part of the Wilcox Group (Tschudy, 1973, p. B14). Genus TRIPOROPOLLENITES Pflug and Thomson in Thomson and Pflug, 1953 Triporopollenites? maternus (Potonié) n. comb. Plate 7, figures 18—19 Pollem‘tes matemus Potonié, 1931b, p. 4, fig. 19 (basionym). Pollemtes gramfer matemus (Potonié) Potonié and Venitz, 1934, p. 23, pl. 2, fig. 45. Remarks—In the gulf coast specimen, the exine is distinctly granulate, there is virtually no splitting apart of the sexine and nexine at the apertures, the endopore is only slightly larger than the ektopore, and the sexine is slightly thickened at the apertures. This species can- not be placed satisfactorily in any existing genus. It is temporarily assigned to Tm'poropollenites because of its betulacoid morphology. It might be a four-pored variant of a normally three-pored pollen species. Affinity—Unknown. Occurrence—One specimen observed from the Gos- port Sand of Little Stave Creek. Genus LUDWIGIA Linnaeus Ludwigia oculus-noctis (Thiergart) n. comb. Plate 7, figure 20 Pollenites oculus noctis Thiergart, 1940, p. 47, pl. 7, fig. 1 (basionym). Jussiaea champlainensis Traverse, 1955, p. 66, fig. 12 (104). Corsimpollenites oculus noctis (Thiergart) Nakoman, 1965, p. 156, pl. 13, figs. 1%. Remarks—The hyphen between oculus and noctis was omitted in the papers by Thiergart (1940) and Na- koman (1965), but at least Thiergart intended it to be present (Ames and Kremp, 1964, p. 21—142). Jussiaea L. is a junior synonym of Ludwigia. L. (Willis, 1966, p. 594), of the family Onagraceae. Occurrence.-—“Infrequent” in 14/56 counted samples, from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. 40 Genus PROTEACIDITES Couper, 1953 emend. Martin and Harris, 1974 Proteacidites? laxus Frederiksen Plate 7, figures 21—22 Proteacidites? laxus Frederiksen, 1973, p. 72—73, pl. 2, figs. 1—4. Remarks—In their redescription and emendation of Proteacidites, Martin and Harris (1974, p. 109) noted that grains of this genus are tegillate, which is not true of P.? laxus. This species is characterized by its slightly convex sides, simple pores, and the coarse, loose reticu- lum to which the name refers. Affinity—Perhaps Symplocaceae or Palmae. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in 9/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus CASUARINIDITES Cookson and Pike, 1954 Casuarinidites discrepans (Frederiksen) n. comb. Plate 7, figure 24 Tn'poropollenites discrepans Frederiksen, 1973, p. 74, pl. 2, figs. 6—8 (basionym). Remarks.—This species is similar to North American species assigned to Casuam‘nidites by Srivastava (1972) in having the sexine much thicker than the nexine, and in the fact that short columellae are present below the thick, nearly structureless ectosexine; the columellae be— come slightly longer in the region of the pore. Affinity. —Unknown. Occurrence—Observed only in the North Twistwood Creek Member of the Yazoo Clay in eastern Mississippi and western Alabama; “infrequent” in two counted samples and also observed in one partially scanned sam— ple. Casuarinidites cf. C. granilabratus (Stanley) Srivastava Plate 7, figures 25—27 Corylus granilabrata Stanley, 1965, p. 293, pl. 43, figs. 17—28. Casuarinidites granilabratus (Stanley) Srivastava, 1972, p. 243—244, pl. 9, figs. 1—12; pl. 10, figs. 1—4. Remarks—These specimens are intermediate in mor- phology between C. granilabmtus and C. pulcher (Simp- son, 1961) Srivastava, 1972. They are rather thin—walled like C. granilabmtus, but they have little or no labrum, like C. pulcher. It is not clear whether the specimens in my material are reworked from the Paleocene or whether they represent a distinct species produced during late Eocene and early Oligocene time. Affinity—Unknown. Occurrence—“Infrequent” to “occasional” in 20 or 21/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Clai- borne Group through the Jackson Group; not observed in the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. SPOROMORPHS, JACKSON GROUP AND ADJACENT STRATA, MISSISSIPPI AND ALABAMA Genus TRIATRIOPOLLENITES Thomson and Pflug, 1953 Triatriopollenites? alf. T. aroboratus Pflug Plate 8, figures 1—2 Triatriopollenites arobomtus Pflug in Thompson and Pflug, 1953, p. 80, pl. 7, figs. 139—147. Extratriporopollenites cf. E. fractus Pflug in Thomson and Pflug, 1953. Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 78, pl. 5, fig. 53. Description—Size 28—31 pm (three specimens, in- cluding Engelhardt’s (1964a, pl. 5, fig. 53) illustrated specimen). Tricolporate? Oblate; outline triangular with slightly convex sides and rather pointed corners. Exine densely infragranulate to infrapunctate, surface nearly smooth. Exine about 1.5 lum thick along sides; sexineznexine ratio about 2:1. Sexine structureless to in- distinctly tegillate. On two specimens (pl. 8, fig. 1 and Engelhardt’s specimen), the sexine thickens gradually toward the apertures (tumescence), but on the third specimen (pl. 8, fig. 2), it thins slightly toward the ap- ertures. Interloculum, 0.5 nm wide. Atria very deep, about 4—7 ,um deep. Aperture type probably should be considered tricolporate rather than triporate; the aper- ture structure is like the notch at the feathered end of an arrow. Apertures 0.5—1 am in diameter, widening slightly inward; apertures 1.5—2.5 um deep. Remarka—These three specimens have not been grouped into a new species because the specimens vary in the change of sexine thickness toward the apertures. Tm'atm'opollenites aroboratus Pflug appears to be very similar, but its sexine and nexine are of equal thickness and the interloculum is narrower. Affinity—Unknown. Occurrence.—Three specimens known, one each from the Gosport Sand and Moodys Branch Formation at Lit- tle Stave Creek and the Cockfield Formation in western Mississippi. Triatriopollenitos proprius (Frederiksen) n. comb. Plate 7, figure 23 Myrica prop'm'a Frederiksen, 1973, p. 73—74, pl. 2, figs. 5, 9—11. Remarka—The photomicrograph of the holotype (pl. 7, fig. 23) does not show it well, but the atrium and the tumescence and tarsus pattern of the sexine are distinct in this species, and it is very similar to pollen of modern Myricaceae. According to Wodehouse (1935, p. 373), in pollen of Comptom'a “The pores may be equally spaced around the equator of the grain as in those of Myriad, but they are more often irregularly arranged, particu- larly when there are three when they are generally gath- ered into one hemisphere.” In Triatm'opolle’nites pro- pm'us, there is no tendency toward asymmetry of the pores, but asymmetry of pores is not strongly evident in the available slide of modern Comptonia pollen; in other respects, little difference exists among the pollen types PALYNOLOGY of modern Myrica, Gale, and Comptom'a. Because the Jackson species could represent any of these three gen— era, it is transferred to Triam'opollenites. An atrium may be present in My’rz'cipites speciosus Manum, 1962. HoWever, in the latter species, the exine thickening at the apertures is annulate rather than tumescent as in Triatm'opollenites promus. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” to “occasional” in 24/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus TRIVESTIBULOPOLLENITES Pflug in Thomson and Pflug, 1953 Trivestibulopollenites engelhardtii Frederiksen Plate 8, figure 3 Betulaceoipollenites cf. B. bituitus (R. Potonié, 1931) Potonié, 1951. Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 76, pl. 4, fig. 42. ?Betulaceoipollenites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 3, fig. 8. Trivestibulopollenites engelhardtii Frederiksen, 1973, p. 74—75, pl. 2, figs. 12—14. Remarks—This species has convex sides, a granulate exine, distinct labra, and very shallow vestibula, which however are crossed by indistinct columellae as in Cas- uarinidites. (Therefore the species is similar to at least some specimens of Casuarimdites granilabratus (Stan- ley, 1965) Srivastava, 1972. Whether the two species are conspecific remains to be determined, but C. granilabm- tus is typically atriate, whereas Trivestibulopollenites engelhardtii is vestibulate. Affinity—Probably Betula or Ostrya (Betulaceae). Occurrence—“Infrequent” in 15/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus BETULA Linnaeus Betula? sp. Plate 8, figure 4 Remarks—These specimens are very similar to pollen of modern Betula except that the labrum is higher, caus- ing the vestibulum to be very deep. The labrum and ves- tibulum of this species are similar to those of Trivestibu- lopollem'tes salebrosus Pflug in Thomson and Pflug, 1953. Occurrence—Two specimens observed in a sample of Red Bluff Clay from eastern Mississippi. Genus PLICAPOLLIS Pflug, 1953 Plicapollis spatiosa Frederiksen Plate 8, figure 5 Plicapollis spatiosa Frederiksen, 1973, p. 75, pl. 2, figs. 15—18. Remarks.-—Pflug (1953, p. 97) based his genus Plica— pollis largely on the presence of “endoplicae” in the ex- 41 ine. Skarby (1968, p. 20) showed that the “endoplicae” are only compression folds, and she placed Plicapollis into Synonymy with Extratm'poropollenites Pflug. How— ever, the triradiate compression folds in this and most other species of Plicapollis are very even in shape, and every grain of a given species seems to have them; thus, species of this genus are easy to recognize, and keeping Plicapollis as a separate genus appears to be worth- while. In her emendation of Extratflporopollenites, Skarby (1968, p. 25) stated that pollen grains of the lat- ter genus (including Plicapollis) have “intumescence fill- ings” as an essential feature. A reexamination of Pli- capollis spatiosa shows that an annulus and an endannulus are both present at each aperture, but no “in— tumescence fillings” can be observed. In this species, the exine stratification between apertures is obscure, and the exine there is 1—1.5 mm thick. At the apertures, the annulus and endannulus are each 1.5—3 um thick. It is characteristic of the species that the nexine bends about 90° at the aperture and thickens to become an end- annulus, forming the base of the diamond-shaped to len- ticular vestibulum. Affinity—Unknown. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in six counted samples from the lower part of the Yazoo Clay to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group and only in samples from west- ern Mississippi. This species has previously been re- ported as being present only in the Cretaceous of North America (Tschudy, 1975, pl. 9, figs. 15—24; Williams and Brideaux, 1975, pl. 42, figs. 6, 10, and references to other papers on p. 65—66). Therefore, specimens of the species from the Jackson and lower part of the Vicksburg may be reworked. Genus THOMSONIPOLLIS Krutzsch, 1960 Thomsonipollis magnifies (Pflug) Krutzsch Plate 8, figure 6 Intratriporopollem'tes magnificus Pflug in Thomson and Pflug, 1953, p. 88, pl. 9, figs. 112—124. Thomsonipollis magnificus (Pflug) Krutzsch, 1960, p. 55. Remarks—The synonymy of this species was dis- cussed by Elsik (1968b, p. 616). Affinity—Possibly Rubiaceae (Elsik, 1968b, p. 618). Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in five counted samples, ranging from the lower part of the Yazoo Clay to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. This species has pre- viously been reported from the gulf coast only from the Upper Cretaceous, the Midway and Wilcox Groups, and basal part of the Claiborne Group (Tschudy, 1973, fig. 2; Elsik, 1974b, fig. 2). Therefore, the specimens from the Jackson and Vicksburg Groups may be reworked. How- ever, all specimens observed in this material are in per— fect condition. 42 Genus CARYA Nuttall Caryn simplex (Potonié) Elsik Plate 8, figure 7 Pollenites simplex Potonié, 1931b, p. 2, fig. 4. Pollenites globiformis Potonié, 1931b, p. 2, fig. 5. Hicoria vi’r‘idi-fluminipites Wodehouse, 1933, p. 503, fig. 29. Subtriporopollenites simplex simplex (Potonié) Thomson and Pflug, 1953, p. 86, pl. 9, figs. 64—73. Cam/apollenites simplex (Potonié) Potonié, 1960, p. 123, pl. 7, fig. 162. Ca'rya simplex (Potonié and Venitz 1934) Elsik, 1968a, pl. 2, fig. 1; 1968b, p. 602, pl. 16, fig. 21—24. Carya sp. or Caryapollenites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 3, fig. 10. Polypoxopollenites sp. (?four-pored Caryapollenites). Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 3, fig. 17. Carya sp. (291.41%) Tschudy, 1973, p. B15, pl. 3, figs. 26—27 only. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” to “common” in 49/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. The maximum relative frequency is mainly in the lower part of the Vicksburg. Carya veripites Wilson and Webster Plate 8, figure 8 Carya veripites Wilson and Webster, 1946, p. 276, fig. 14. Caryapollenites cf. C. simplex (R. Potonié, 1931) Raatz, 1937. Engel- hardt, 1964a, p. 78, pl. 5, fig. 51. Caryn sp. or Cai‘yapollenites sp. cf. C. simplex (Potonié) Raatz 1937. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 3, fig. 11. Carya sp. or Camapollenites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 3, figs. 12a—b. Carya sp. (234—3951.) Tschudy, 1973, p. B15, pl. 3, fig. 25 only. Remarks—Two characters that may be used to differ- entiate species of Cargo pollen grains are the size of the pores and the distance of the pores from the equator. The holotypes of Pollenites simplex Potonié, 1931b, and Pol- lenites globifomis Potonié, 1931b, may have small pores, whereas the holotype of Cargo veiipites clearly has rather large ones. However, pore size is very diffi— cult to use consistently as a criterion when one needs to identify every Cow-ya grain to form-species level for the counts. Pore size even varies within individual grains; see, for instance, pl. 3, fig. 17 of Tschudy and Van Loe- nen (1970), where the upper right pore is distinctly smaller than the two lower ones. Therefore, I have dis— tinguished between Carya vei‘ipites and Cam/a simplex by the fact that the pores in the latter are closer to the outline than the pores in C. vexipites. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” to “occasional” in 21/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. The maximum relative frequency is in the lower part of the Vicksburg. SPOROMORPHS, JACKSON GROUP AND ADJACENT STRATA, MISSISSIPPI AND ALABAMA Genus ALN US Ehrhart Alnus Vera (Potonie') Martin and Rouse Plate 8, figures 9-10 Pollenites vems Potonié, 19312, p. 332, pl. 2, fig. 40. Polyvestibulopollenites vems (Potonié, 1934) Thomson and Pflug, 1953, p. 90, pl. 10, figs. 62—76. Alnipollenites vems (Potonié, 1934) Potonié, 1960, p. 129. Alnipollenites cf. A. vems Potonié, 1934. Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 79, pl. 5, fig. 57. Alnus verus (Potonié) Martin and Rouse, 1966, p. 196, pl. 8, figs. 69— 71. Alims sp. or Alm'pollenites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 3, figs. 18, 20, 26. Remarks—The synonyms of Alnus vem were listed by Martin and Rouse (1966, p. 196) and Srivastava (1972, p. 266). Occurrence.—“Infrequent” to “occasional” in 18/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus PLANERA J. F. Gmelin Planera? thompsoniana Traverse Plate 8, figures 11—12 Planera thompsoniana Traverse, 1955, p. 52, fig. 10 (53). Ulmus (cf. Zelkova). Gray, 1960, table 1 and fig. 1f. Ulmipolleiiites cf. U. undulosus Wolff, 1934. Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 79, pl. 5, fig. 58. Ulmipollenites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 3, figs. 16, 22, 25. Affinity—Gray (1960, fig. 1 and table 1) attributed this species to Ulmus or possibly Zelkova, whereas Traverse (1955, p. 52) had placed it in Planem. These grains have definite arci, typical of Planexa and Z elkova but not of U lmus. Berry (1924) identified leaves of Pla- nem in the Jackson Group but did not identify any me- gafossils of Ulmus or Zelkova. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” to “common” in 45/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. The maximum relative frequencies are mainly in the upper part of the Yazoo Clay and lower part of the Vicksburg. Genus MYRIOPHYLLUM Linnaeus Myriophyllum sp. Plate 8, figures 13—14 Description—Size 25 X 28 ,um (one specimen); ob- late? Exine, 2 pm thick between pores; nexine, every- where very thin; exine, psilate with scattered, small fov- eolae. Tetraporate; sexine, 5 pm thick at pores, forming annuli 10 ,um in diameter; pores, round, 3 am in diame— ter. Remarks—Halomgacidites txiomtus Couper, 1953, is triporate but otherwise quite similar. Myxiophyllum sp. PALYNOLOGY 43 may be conspecific with Myriophyllum ambiguipites Wodehouse, 1933. Occurrence—One specimen observed from the upper part of the Yazoo Clay of western Mississippi. Genus PI‘EROCARYA Kumh Pterocarya stellata (Potonié) Martin and Rouse Plate 8, figure 15 Pollenites stellatus Potonié, 1931b, p. 4, fig. 20. Polyporopollenites stellatus (Potonié) Thomson and Pfiug, 1953, p. 91—92, pl. 10, figs. 85—94. Polyatn'o-pollenites stellatus (Potonié) Pfiug, 1953, p. 115, pl. 24, fig. 47. Pterocmya vermontensis Traverse, 1955, p. 45, fig. 9 (29). Pte’rocaryapollenites stellatus (Potonié) Potonié, 1960, p. 132. Pterocaryapollenites vermontensis (Traverse) Potonié, 1960, p. 132. Pterocarya stellatus (Potonié) Martin and Rouse, 1966, p. 196, pl. 8, figs. 79—80. Multiporopollenites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 3, fig. 24. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in 12/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group in western and eastern Mis- sissippi. Genus JUGLANS Linnaeus Juglans nigripites Wodehouse Plate 8, figures 16—17 Juglans nigrip’ites Wodehouse, 1933, p. 504, fig. 31. Juglans sp. Fairchild and Elsik, 1969, p. 84, pl. 37, fig. 14. Multiporopollenites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 3, fig. 33. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in 30/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus JUGLANSPOLLENITES Raatz, 1937 Juglanspollenites infrabaculatus Frederiksen Plate 8, figures 18—19 Juglanspollem'tes infrabaculatus Frederiksen, 1973, p. 78—79, pl. 2, figs. 30—33. Remarks—Distinguishing features of this species are the presence of 15-20 foramina in combination with the distinct columellae of the sexine. Affinity. —Unkn0wn. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” to “occasional” in 28/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus CELTIS Linnaeus Celtis tschudyi (Elsik) n. comb. Plate 8, figures 23—25 Pollenites anulus (Potonié, 1931) Potonié and Venitz, [misidentified]. Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 79, pl. 5, figs. 60—61. 1934 Juglanspollenites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 3, figs. 29— 30. Multiporopollenites spp. Tschudy, 1973, p. B15, pl. 3, figs. 20—22. Nothofagus tschudyi Elsik, 1974a, p. 290, 292—294, pl. 1, figs. 1-5; pl. 2, figs. 1—9 (basionym). Cf. Nothofagus Dombeyi Type. Elsik, 1974b, p. 2, fig. 44. Remarks—The species is characterized by having four to eight pores, more or less equatorially arranged but some of them on a different plane than others; nexine thickens abruptly at the pore, forming an endannulus; the ectosexine and nexine also appear to split apart at the pore, this apparent split is due to a slight thickening of the endosexine there, forming an annulus which is less strongly expressed than the endannulus; pore, circular, or commonly, irregularly shaped, but not usually oval or boat shaped; margin of pore may be rough, uneven; outer surface of exine and pore canal generally meet to form a sharp right angle as seen in optical section, or the sexine overhangs the pore canal; surface of exine nearly smooth, design finely infragranulate to punctate to nearly psilate, exine weakly tegillate; the ratio ectosexinezendo- sexineznexine is 1:2:1. Every one of these features is typ- ical of modern Celtis pollen grains. No convincing evi- dence exists that this species is colpoidate and thus might be N othofagus. The pollen grains from the London Clay (Eocene) identified as Nothofagus by Sein (1961) were probably misidentified (van Steenis, 1962, p. 280). Apparently, a complete range of specimens exists from the holotype of Celtis tschudyi to the holotype of Celtis texensis Elsik, 1974b; that is, Celtis texensis appears to be an end member of the series of specimens constituting C. tschudyi. However, C. texensis was not clearly enough defined that it can be easily compared with C. tschudyi. I have observed only three specimens of C. tschudyi in my material; they measure 23, 24, and 29 am in diame— ter, respectively; all have four pores, two specimens hav- ing pores with rough margins; all three specimens are from the upper part of the Cockfield Formation and the Cockfield—Moodys Branch transition interval of western Mississippi. Genus PARSONSIDITES Couper, 1960 Parsonsidites conspicuus Frederiksen Plate 8, figures 21—22 Multiporopollenites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 3, figs. 31-32. Multiporopollenites sp. of the Dorstem'a type. Tschudy, 1973, p. B17, pl. 4, figs. 29—30. Parsonsidites conspicuus Frederiksen, 1973, p. 78, pl. 2, figs. 24—27. Remarks—This species is distinguished by its wide columellate annuli, which are punctate in design. Affinity—Probably not Chenopodiaceae, as sug— gested earlier (Frederiksen, 1973, p. 78). Similar to 44 grains in Apocynaceae (Couper 1960, p. 69), Balanophor— aceae (L. M. Cranwell, written commun., 1973), and Dorstenia (Moraceae; Tschudy, 1973, p. B17). However, at least in Dorstem'a contrajerva L., true annuli are probably lacking; the rings around the pores appear to be caused by actual detachment of the sexine from the nexine, with the detached sexine forming a hump over the flat nexine on either side of the pore in optical sec- tion. No columellae are present in Do'rstenia as they are in Parsonsidites conspicuus. Occurrence.——“Infrequent” in 22 or 23/56 counted samples; it ranges only from the lower part of the Moodys Branch Formation to the lower part of the Vicksburg. Group. Tschudy (1973, p. B17) also reported that he did not observe this species below the Jackson Group. Genus MALVACIPOLLIS Harris, 1965, emend. Krutzsch, 1966 Malvacipollis tschudyi (Frederiksen) n. comb. Plate 8, figure 27 ?Aff. Nothofagus sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 3, figs. 23, 27—28. Echiperipon'tes spp. Tschudy, 1973, p. B15, pl. 3, figs. 13—14. Echipe’riporites tschudyi Frederiksen, 1973, p. 75, 78, pl. 2, figs. 19— 22 (basionym). Remarks.—Potonié (1970, p. 138) reported that the holotype of the type species of Echiperiporites van der Hammen and Wijmstra, 1964, is inaperturate. Malvaci— pollis tschudyi is characterized by being stephanoporate and by having an exine that is tegillate, granulate, and rather finely conate. Affinity—Probably Malvaceae; however, Tschudy (1973, p. B15) noted a similarity to pollen grains of Picro— dendraceae. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in 10/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus ANACOLOSIDITES Cookson and Pike, 1954 Anacolosidites efflatus (Potonié) Erdtman Sporites efllatus Potonié, 1934, p. 37—38, pl. 1, figs. 17—18. Anacolosidites efllatus (Potonié) Erdtman, 1954, p. 804—805. Affinity.——Olacaceae, probably Anacolosa, Cathedra, or Ptychopetalum (Erdtman, 1954, p. 804). Occuwence.—This species was observed by Engel- hardt (1964a, p. 78, pl. 5, fig. 54) in the Cockfield For- mation; I did not find it. Anacolosidites sp. Plate 8, figure 20 Description—Size 17 um (one specimen); oblate or peroblate; outline triangular with slightly concave sides; SPOROMORPHS, JACKSON GROUP AND ADJACENT STRATA, MISSISSIPPI AND ALABAMA six-forate (three-diploforate), pores 2 am in diameter. Exine 1 am thick along sides and slightly thinner at cor- ners; weakly plicate; equatorial area of exine finely reti- culate, polar area (inside of plicae) evidently punctate to psilate (polar area on one side is missing). Remarks.—Anacolosidites sp. is characterized by its reticulate design and small size. Affinity.—Olacaceae, Anacolosa, or a closely related genus. Occurrence—One specimen observed from the Cocoa Sand Member of the Yazoo Clay at Little Stave Creek. Genus CHENOPODIPOLLIS Krutzsch, 1966 Chenopodipollis sp. Plate 8, figure 26 Aflimty.—Chenopodiaceae or Amaranthaceae. Occurrence—One specimen observed from the Moodys Branch Formation at Little Stave Creek. Genus LYMINGTONIA Erdtman, 1960 Lymingtonia cf. L. rhetor Erdtman Plate 9, figures 1—3 Lymingtom'a rhetar Erdtman, 1960, p. 47—48, pl. 2, figs. a—c. Lymmgtonia cf. L. rhetor Erdtman. Elsik and Dilcher, 1974, p. 77, pl. 29, figs. 123-125. Remarks—The size range of my specimens is 25 ,u.m?, 30-45 pm. Elsik and Dilcher (1974, p. 77) gave a size range of 28—32 ,um for their specimens of Lymingtom'a cf. L. rhetor, from the Claiborne Group of Tennessee, whereas Erdtman (1960, p. 48) reported that his speci- mens of L. rhetor were about 50 pm. Affinity. --Probably N yctaginaceae, Phaeoptilum (Erdtman, 1960, p. 48). Occuwence.—“Infrequent” in four or five samples from the Gosport Sand (and Cockfield Formation?), Ya- zoo Clay, and Forest Hill Sand, from western Mississippi to western Alabama. Genus MONOSULCITES Couper, 1953 emend. Potonié, 1958 similar to Monosulcites asymmetricus Frederiksen Plate 9, figure 4 Monosulcites asymmetricus Frederiksen, 1973, p. 79, pl. 2, figs. 23, 28—29, 34-35. Remarks—Grains included in this species are psilate, are typically asymmetrically oval, and have a boat—shaped sulcus that extends nearly the full length of the grain. M onocolpopollenites tranquilloides Nichols and others (May 1973) is, on average, slightly larger than Monosul- cites asymmet'ricus Frederiksen (April 1973), but other- wise the two species appear to be identical. PALYNOLOGY Afi‘im'ty.—Probably Palmae. This species is very sim- ilar to Oligocene pollen labeled Thrinaac by Machin (1971, pl. 2, fig. 11); however, modern pollen of Thrinaac urgen- tea Desf. is quite different, being distinctly reticulate. Occuwence.—“Infrequent” to “occasional” in 32/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus CONFERTISULCITES Anderson, 1960 Confertisulcltes fuslformls Frederlksen Plate 9, figure 11 Monosulcites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 1, fig. 9. Confertisulcites fusiformis Frederiksen, 1973, p. 79—80, pl. 3, figs. 6—8. Remarks—In this species, the grains are large, fusi- form, and psilate and have a long, narrow sulcus. Affinity—Possibly Magnoliaceae. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in 11 or 12/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the top of the Yazoo Clay, and possibly also in the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus MONOCOLPOPOLLENITES Pflug and Thomson in Thomson and Pflug,l953 emend. Nichols and others, 1973 Monocolpopollenites tranquillus (Potonié) Thomson and Pflug Plate 9, figure 5 Pollenites tranquillus Potonié, 1934, p. 51, pl. 2, figs. 3, 8. Monocolpopollenites tranquillus (Potonié) Thomson and Pflug, 1953, p. 62—63, pl. 4, figs. 24-37, 39-47. Palmaepollenites tranquil/us (Potonié) Potonié, 1958, p. 97, pl. 11, fig. 138. Monosulcites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 1, fig. 15. Remarks—The grains assigned to this species from my material are very similar to Potonié’s (1934, pl. 2, figs. 3 and 8) original middle Eocene specimens of Pol- lem'tes tranquillus, as redescribed by Krutzsch (1962, p. 270) and Nichols and others (1973). They are generally asymmetrical, one end being wider than the other; the exine is indistinctly tegillate and the surface is only slightly roughened, the design is weakly granulate, the sulcus usually extends only about three-fourths the length of the grain, and the ends of the sulcus are commonly rounded or flared. Affinity.—Krutzsch (1970a, p. 27) listed a number of palm genera having pollen grains similar to M. tranquil- lus; these genera now range from North America (Bra- hea) to the Indian Ocean and the southwest Pacific. He pointed out that an affinity of M. tranquillus with Phoe- m'x is not probable, because the latter is microreticulate. Occurrence—“Infrequent” to “occasional” in 39 to 41/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Clai- borne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. 45 Genus SABAL Adanson Saba] cf. S. granopollenites Rouse Plate 9, figures 6—8 Sabal granopollenites Rouse, 1962, p. 202, pl. 1, figs. 3—4. Remarks—These specimens have the same morphol- ogy as Sabal granopollenites, that is, they are coarsely to weakly granulate or finely reticulate, tegillate, and have the sulcus extending nearly the full length of the grain, with tapered ends and unthickened margins. The gulf coast specimens are smaller than Rouse’s, however. Rouse (1962, p. 202) gave a size range of 28—32 am for S. granopollenites, whereas the size range of my speci- mens is 15—29 um, and their mean size is 21 um. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” to “occasional” in 14/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the Yazoo Clay. Genus ARECIPITES Wodehouse, 1933 emend. Nichols and others, 1973 Arecipites columellus Leffingwell Plate 9, figures 9—10, 12 Saba/pollenites cf. S. convexus Thiergart, 1938. Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 71, pl. 2, fig. 14. Monasulcites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 1, figs. 10, 14. Arecipites columellus Leffingwell, 1971, p. 40—41, pl. 7, figs. 1—2. Description—In my material, the sizes of the speci- mens of this species are 28—42 pm; the mean size is 35 pm. The outline is oval to asymmetrically elongate, that is, the widest part is offset toward one end; ends are slightly pointed. The lengthzwidth ratios are 1.3:1—2.3:1; perhaps the broadly oval forms should be placed in a sep- arate species. Exine slightly more than 1 mm thick; ec- tosexine:endosexineznexine ratio about 325:3, columellae sharply defined. Design of exine distinct and finely reti- culate (lumina 0.5 pm in diameter or less) to granulate. Sulcus extends full length or nearly full length of grain, usually slightly opened along the whole length, or over- lapping, or rarely gaping. Remarks.—Arecipites punctatus Wodehouse, 1933, is slightly smaller and is less distinctly reticulate than A. columellus: In Saba/pollem'tes convexus Thiergart, 1938, the sulcus widens at each end. Affinity—The species is identical with modern pollen of Serenoa semlata (Michx.) (Palmae). Occurrence.-—“Infrequent” in 14/56 counted samples, from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus CALAMUSPOLLENITES Elsik in Stover and others, 1966 Remarks—I agree with Elsik (in Stover and others, 1966, p. 2; Elsik, 1968a, p. 312; Elsik and Dilcher, 1974, 46 p. 74) that the tiny pits in the exine of Calamuspollenites are alined in short rows. Therefore, there is some justi- fication for not merging this genus with Arecipites as was done by Nichols and others (1973, p. 248—250). Calamuspollenites eocenicus Elsik and Dilcher Plate 9, figure 13 Calamuspollenites eocem'cus Elsik and Dilcher, 1974, p. 74, pl. 28, figs. 66—67. Affinity. —Probably Palmae. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” to “occasional” in three or four samples from the Gosport Sand and the Yazoo Clay. Originally described specimens were from the Clai— borne Group of Tennessee. Genus LILIACIDITES Couper, 1953 Liliacidites tritus Frederiksen Plate 9, figures 14—15 Liliacidites variegatus Couper, 1953 [misidentified]. Engelhardt, 19643, p. 71, pl. 2, fig. 13. Liliacz'dites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 1, fig. 16. Liliacidites trims Frederiksen, 1973, p. 80—81, pl. 3, figs. 13—16. Remarks—It is characteristic of this species that the lumina are the same size on the distal side as they are on the proximal side; only the one or two rows of lumina along the sulcus may be somewhat smaller than the rest. Liliacidites trims is similar to Arecipites pseudocon- venous Krutzsch, 1970a, except that the latter has only scattered columellae and has slightly larger lumina. Are- cipites wiesaensis Krutzsch, 1970a, has very narrow (0.25-um-wide) muri. Contrary to my earlier opinion (Frederiksen, 1973, p. 80), Monosulcites sp. of Tschudy and Van Loenen (1970, pl. 1, figs. 10, 14) does not belong to Liliacidites trims but rather to Arecipites columellus Leffingwell, 1971. Affinity.—Very similar to modern pollen of Pseudo- phoemx sp. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” to “common” in 50/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Liliacidites vittatus Frederiksen Plate 9, figures 16—17 Liliacidites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 1, figs. 17—18. Liliacidites vittatus Frederiksen, 1973, p. 80, pl. 3, figs. 1—5. Liliacidites yeguaensis Elsik, 1974b, p. 93, pl. 1, figs. 14—15. Remarks.—Liliacidites vittatus appears to be identi- cal in all respects with Arecipites lusaticus Krutzsch, 1970a, except that in L. vittatus the muri are 1 ,um wide, whereas in A. lusaticus they are “zart” (slender, deli- cate; Krutzsch, 1970a, p. 102), only 0.5 gm wide. Affinity.—I suggested previously (Frederiksen, 1973, p. 80) that Liliacidites vittatus might have been pro— SPOROMORPHS, JACKSON GROUP AND ADJACENT STRATA, MISSISSIPPI AND ALABAMA duced by Myristica (Myristicaceae). However, a reex— amination of modern pollen of Myristica showed that the grains in this genus are quite different. Furthermore, pollen grains of Myristicaceae are too fragile to survive diagenesis (Muller, 1970, p. 419). Occurrence.—“Infrequent” to “occasional” in 22/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Also reported by Elsik (1974b, p. 93) to be present in the up- per part of the Claiborne and Jackson Groups of Texas. Genus NYPA van Wurmb Remarks.—Tralau (1964, p. 10) and Muller (1968, p. 11) have pointed out that Nypa is the only extant genus that has spinate zonisulcate pollen grains. Therefore, I consider Spinizonocolpites Muller to be a synonym of Nypa van Wurmb. Nypa echinata (Muller) n. comb. Plate 9, figures 18—21 Spinizonocolpites echinatus Muller, 1968, p. 11—12, pl. 3, fig. 3 (bas- ionym). Nymphaeaceae (see Monocolpopollenites nupharoides Kedves 1960). Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 2, figs. 1, 2a—b. Afiimty.—According to Muller (1968, p. 12), “This pollen species is identical in all respects with the pollen of the Recent Nypa fmticans.” Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in seven counted samples from the lower to the upper parts of the Yazoo Clay and from western Mississippi to western Alabama; also pres- ent in an uncounted sample from the base of the Gosport Sand at Little Stave Creek. See figure 4 and the discus- sion of the range of this species in the section Distribu- tion of the Sporomorphs. Berry (1924, p. 150) recorded Nipadites fruits from the Jackson Group of Texas. Genus DICOLPOPOLLIS Pflanzl, 1956 emend. Potonié, 1966 Dicolpopollis sp. Plate 9, figure 22 Description—One specimen found, 27 X 34 um in size (subprolate). Dicolpate, colpi 25 ,um long, slightly open, margins not thickened. Exine psilate, 2 ,um thick, sex- ine1nexine ratio 3:1. Remarks—Dicolpopollis simonii Pflanzl, 1956, is prolate to perprolate, has pointed poles, and is granu- late. Affinity.—Unknown. Occurrence—One specimen found from the Gosport Sand at Little Stave Creek. Genus CUPULIFEROIDAEPOLLENITES Potonié, 1960 Cupuliferoidaepollenites liblarensis (Thomson) Potonié Plate 9, figure 23 Pollemtes liblarensis Thomson in Potonié and others, 1950, p. 55, pl. B, figs. 26—27. PALYNOLOGY 4 7 Tricolpopollenites liblarensis (Thomson) Thomson and Pflug, 1953, p. 96, pl. 11, figs. 111—132. Cumlifbroidaepollenites liblarensis (Thomson) Potonié, 1960, p. 92, pl. 6, fig. 94. Tricolpopollenites liblarensis (Thoms.) Th. and Pf., 1953. Tschudy, 1973, p. B18, pl. 4, figs. 31—33. Remarks—A specimen similar to C. liblarensis is shown on plate 9, figure 24. Affinity—Probably Fagaceae (Potonié and others, 1951, p. 55); possibly Leguminosae in part (Thiergart, 1940, pl. 6, fig. 15). Occurrence—Present in every sample, mostly “occa- sional” to “common.” Cupuliferoidaepollenites cf. C. selectus (Potonié) n. comb. Plate 9, figures 25—27 Pollem'tes selectus Potonié, 1934, p. 95, pl. 5, fig. 33 (basionym). Tricolpopollenites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 4, fig. 7. Description—Size 17—28 am, mean 23 um. Subpro- late to prolate. Tricolpate. “Lolongate ora” formed by presence of slits along floors of colpi. Exine about 1 pm thick, psilate to weakly punctate. Remarks.—Cupul2feroidaepollenites selectus has dia- mond-shaped widenings of the colpi at the equator, with a suggestion of weakly developed lalongate ora as well. Thiergart (in Potonié and others, 1951, p1. C, fig. 21) considered specimens having a slit in the floor of the col- pus to belong to the same species as normally tricolpate specimens. I counted C. cf. C. selectus separately from C. liblarensis (Thomson) Thomson and Pflug to deter- mine whether it has any stratigraphic value; it does not seem to have any within the interval studied here. Aflim'ty.—Possibly Fagaceae. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” to “common” in 25/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus CASSIA Linnaeus Cassia certa (Frederiksen) n. comb. Plate 9, figures 28—29 Cupuliferoidaepollemtes certus Frederiksen, 1973, p. 81, pl. 3, figs. 9—12 (basionym). Remarks—Characteristics of this species are the rather small size (15—25 pm), the psilate exine, and the long, geniculate colpi. Affinity—Very similar to pollen of several species of Cassia (Leguminosae). Occurrence.—“Infrequent” to “occasional” in 19/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus FOVEOTRICOLPITES Pierce, 1961 Foveotricolpites prolatus Frederiksen Plate 10, figures 1—2 Foveotricolpites prolatus Frederiksen, 1973, p. 81, 84, pl. 3, figs. 17— 22. Remarks.—This species is characterized by its prolate shape, distinct tegillum, and long colpi that lack thick- ened margines. Affinity—Similar to modern pollen of Spartium jun- ceum L. (Leguminosae) illustrated by Planchais (1964, pl. 1, figs. 1—7). Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in 17/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus QUERCOIDITES Potonié, 1960 Quercoidimes inamoenus (Takahashi) n. comb. Plate 10, figures 3—8 Tricolpopollenites inamoenus Takahashi, 1961, p. 313, pl. 22, figs. 42— 49 (basionym). Quercoidites cf. Q. hmm'ci (R. Potonié, 1931) Potonié, Thomson, and Thiergart, 1950. Engelhardt, 19643., p. 71, pl. 2, fig. 15. Quercus sp. Fairchild and Elsik, 1969, p. 84, pl. 37, fig. 22. Tn'colpopollenites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 4, fig. 2. Quercus sp. Elsik, 1974b, pl. 4, fig. 116. Remarks—This species has a variable aperture struc- ture: 1. Simple colpi are most common (pl. 10, figs. 3—4). 2. Geniculi may be present (pl. 10, figs. 5—6). 3. Ora may be present in the form of slits in the floor of the colpi (pl. 10, figs. 7—8). 4. Both slits and geniculi may be present. Quercoidites inamoenus differs from Q. microhenm'cii (Potonié) Potonié in being coarsely granulate to verru- cate and in having a rougher surface of the exine in opti- cal section. Q. inamoenus is transferred to Quercoidites because the type species of Tm'colpopollemtes, T. par- mulam'us (Potonié, 1934) Thomson and Pflug, 1953, is psilate. Affinity.—Quercus or the extinct Dryophyllum (Fa— gaceae). Occurrence—Generally “infrequent” to “occasional” in zone I; “abundant” to “very abundant” in most sam- ples of zone II. Quercoidites microhenricii (Potonié) Potonié Plate 10, figures 9—10 Pollenites microhem‘ici Potonié, 1931d, p. 26, pl. 1, fig. V19c. Pollem’tes henrici microhem‘ici (Potonié) Potonié and Venitz, 1934, p. 27. Tricolpopollenites microhenn'ci (Potonié) Thomson and Pflug, 1953, p. 96, pl. 11, figs. 62—110. Quercoidites microhem‘ici (Potonié) Potonié, 1960, p. 93. 48 SPOROMORPHS, JACKSON GROUP AND ADJACENT STRATA, MISSISSIPPI AND ALABAMA Remarks.—Pflug (in Thomson and Pflug, 1953, p. 96) named two new subspecies of this species, calling them Tricolpopollenites microhenricii intragranulatus and T. microhenm'cii intrabaculatus. The specimen illustrated as plate 2, figure 61, in Potonié and Venitz (1934) is the type specimen of Quercoidites microhenm'cii according to Potonié (1960, p. 93). This specimen appears to be infra- granulate, without distinct columellae. Therefore, Tri- colpopollenites microhenm'cii intragmnulatus Pflug (in Thomson and Pflug, 1953, p. 96, pl. 11, figs. 80—110), which lacks distinct columellae, is a synonym of Quer- coidites micro/zemdcii microhenr’icii. The second subspe~ cies, Tricolpopollemtes microhenm'cii intrabaculatus Pflug (in Thomson and Pflug, 1953, p. 96, pl. 11, figs. 62—79) becomes Quercoidites microhenm'cii intrabacu- lotus (Pflug) n. comb. Many specimens of Q. micro/um- m’cii can be assigned easily to one subspecies or the other; on the other hand, the subspecies intergrade, and counting them separately was not practical. Some specimens of Quercoidites microhenricii are pseudo—orate, that is, they have a slit or ragged tear in the floor of each colpus and thus the colpus looks orate in side view. Such phenomena are common in modern Quer- cus grains. Afi’im’ty.—Probably Fagaceae, Quercus, or a'closely related genus (Thomson and Pflug, 1953, p. 96). Occurrence—“Infrequent” to “abundant” in every sample. Genus FRAXINOIPOLLENITES Potonié, 1960 Fraxinoipollenites medius Frederiksen Plate 10, figures 11-12 Framinoipollenites medius Frederiksen, 1973, p. 84, pl. 3, figs. 23— 27. Remarks.—This species includes grains of medium size (30—44 am) that are generally prolate and finely re- ticlavate. Affinity—Unknown, probably not Fraxinus (Ole- aceae). Occurrence—“Infrequent” to “occasional” in 20/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Fraxinoipollenites cf. F. seoticus (Simpson) n. comb. Plate 10, figure 18 Menispe’rmum scoticum Simpson, 1961, p. 453, pl. 17, figs. 1—4 (bas- ionym). Remarks—Specimens of this species in my material are 25-37 am in length and have broadly rounded poles and long, narrow, deep colpi. The grains are prolate, whereas Simpson’s specimens of Menispermum scoti- cum are subprolate. Affinity—Simpson (1961, p. 453) compared his speci- mens of Menispemum scoticum with M. daum'cum De Candolle (Menispermaceae), but the morphology of this species probably is not distinctive enough for it to be as- signed with confidence to only one modern genus. Occurrence—“Infrequent” to “common” in 24/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Fraxinoipollenites variabilis Stanley Plate 10, figure 13 Fraxinoipollenites variabilis Stanley, 1965, p. 306, pl. 45, figs. 29—35. Remarks.—Stanley’s specimens varied from prolate spheroidal to prolate. Most of my specimens are prolate, a few are subprolate. The grains of Tricolpopollenites haraldii Manum, 1962, are prolate but larger. Affinity.—Probably not Fraximts (Oleaceae). Occurrence.—“Infrequent” to “common” in 48/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Fraxinoipollenites spp. Plate 10, figures 14—17 BT—68, ??Rubiaceae?? Traverse, 1955, p. 75, fig. 13 (138). Tn'colpites sp. 3. Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 72, pl. 2, fig. 19. Tn’colpopollenites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 4, figs. 9, 14. Description—About 25—45 am long; prolate; tricol— pate, colpi extend nearly full length of grain; reticulate, the muri clavate in optical section, with lumina 0.5—1 am in diameter. Remarks—At least two and perhaps three or more species fitting this description were found in my mate- rial. These forms were difficult to separate consistently, and they were counted together. Although the speci- mens are fairly common, they still cannot be split into satisfactory species. Tricolpopollenites reticulatus Tak- ahashi, 1961, Tricolpopollenites vegetus (Potonié, 1934) Krutzsch, 1959a, and Hammelis scotica Simpson, 1961, all have smaller lengthzwidth ratios. Affinity—Probably produced by plants of several families. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” to “common” in 39/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus PLATANUS Linnaeus Platanus occidentaloides n. sp. Plate 10, figure 19 Tricolpites sp. 2. Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 72, pl. 2, fig. 18. Tricolpopollenites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 4, figs. 3—6, 10, ?12. Tricolpites n. sp. A (microreticulate) Tschudy, 1973, p. B13, pl. 2, figs. 11—12 only. PALYNOLOGY Description—Polar axis 26—35 am, equatorial axis (in polar view) 22—35 pan, holotype 31 am. Tricolpate. Spheroidal to subprolate; broadly rounded at the poles. Exine 1.25—1.5 pm thick including reticulum; “nexine”:“endosexine”:“ectosexine” ratio about 1 : 1.5 : 1. Lumina a little less than 0.5 am in diameter. Colpi extend 2/3—3/4 length of grain and are moderately deeply incised; colpi appear narrow in equatorial View but gape widely in polar view; edges of colpi very rough and sometimes beaded; margines thickened little if any. Holotype.—Plate 10, figure 19, slide 10558 A—l, co- ordinates 23.3x122.6,' Gosport Sand at Little Stave Creek, Clarke County, Ala. Remarks—Distinctive features of this species are the moderately large size, the spheroidal to subprolate shape, the fine reticulum, and, above all, the ragged to beaded edges of the colpi. Tetracolpate specimens of this species are fairly common. Grains of Platanus mullensis Simp- son, 1961, are prolate or nearly so, and it is not clear Whether the edges of the colpi are ragged. In Platanus scotica Simpson, 1961, the grains are also prolate, and they are so poorly preserved that little can be deter- mined about the exine characteristics. Affinity—Very similar to Platanus occidentalis L. except that the fossils are slightly larger and the colpi are slightly deeper than in the modern grains. Occurrence.——“Infrequent” to “occasional” in 37/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Appar- ently Platanus does not range below the uppermost part of the Claiborne on the gulf coast (Tschudy, 1973, fig. 2, upper part of range line for Tricolpites n. sp. A (micro- reticulate)). Genus SALIXIPOLLENITES Srivastava, 1966 Salixipollenites parvus n. sp. Plate 10, figures 20—27 Description—Size 15—24 am, mean 20 um, holotype 16 um. Tricolpate. Subprolate to prolate; broadly rounded at the poles. Exine about 1 pm thick including ornamen— tation. Reticulum medium coarse in relation to small size of grain—lumina are 0.5—1 ,am in diameter. Muri slightly less than 1 mm high and about 0.5 mm wide, clavate in optical section and distinctly simplibaculate in design. Colpi extend 2/3—3/4 length of grain, inner edges of colpi appearing thickened. Holotype.—Plate 10, figures 24-25, slide 10657 A—1, coordinates 31.0 x 110.9, North Twistwood Creek Member of the Yazoo Clay near Rose Hill, Jasper County, Miss. Remarks.—Salixipollemtes parzms is distinguished by its small size (parvus, Latin for “small”) and rela- tively coarse reticulum. Tricolpopollenites retiformis Pflug and Thomson in Thomson and Pflug, 1953, is more 49 finely reticulate. Salixipollenites discoloripites (Wode- house, 1933) Srivastava, 1966, and S. trochuensis Srivas- tava, 1966, are more spheroidal than S. parvus. Affinity—Very similar to modern grains of Olea (01e- aceae). In modern Framinus (Oleaceae), the grains are usually larger; in Salim (Salicaceae), they are more pro- late and are not flat-ended; and in Sambucus (Caprifoli- aceae), they are also more prolate. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” to “common” in 45/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus FRAXINUS Linnaeus Fraxinus? pielii n. sp. Plate 10, figures 28—32 Description—Size 24—33 am (five specimens), mean 28 ,um, holotype 23 X 26 um. Oblate; outline square, with sides slightly to moderately convex. Tetracolpate, colpi 1.5—3 am deep, margines lacking. Exine 1 [am thick; tegillate; ectosexinezendosexine:nexine ratio about 1:1:1; finely infrareticulate t0 finely infragranulate, the lumina or grana 0.3—0.5 am in diameter. Holotype.—Plate 10, figures 28—29, slide 10553 A— 1, coordinates 33.2 x 111.3, Moodys Branch Formation at Little Stave Creek, Clarke County, Ala. Remarks.—Fraxinus columbiana Piel, 1971, is oth- erwise identical, but its colpi are two to three times deeper than colpi in Framinus? pielii. Retitetracolpites brevicolpatus Mathur, 1966, has a much thicker exine. Affinity—As Piel (1971, p. 1915) pointed out, modern Francinus pollen has a coarser reticulum than Francimts columbiana Piel or F.? pielii. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in three counted and two uncounted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus ROUSEA Srivastava, 1969 Rousea araneosa (Frederlksen) n. comb. Plate 10, figures 33—34 Albertipollenites? araneosus Frederiksen, 1973, p. 84, pl. 3, figs. 30— 34 (basionym). Remarks.—This species is characterized by the rather large lumina and narrow muri of the reticulum and the broadly rounded ends of the colpi in most specimens. The one to two rows of lumina on either side of the colpus are only half as large as the rest of the lumina; therefore the species has been transferred to Rousea. Affinity.—Probably Bignoniaceae; the rounded ends of the colpi in Rousea araneosa are typical of reticulate, tricolpate grains in this family. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” to “occasional” in 21/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. 50 SPOROMORPHS, JACKSON GROUP AND ADJACENT STRATA, MISSISSIPPI AND ALABAMA Rousea monilifera n. sp. Plate 10, figures 35—37; plate 11, figures 1—3 Tricolpopollenites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 4, figs. 20a—b. Description—Size 36—45 um, mean 40 um, holotype 41 ,um. Tricolpate. Subprolate to prolate, rarely sphe- roidal; broadly rounded at the poles. Exine 0.5—1 um thick excluding ornamentation. Coarsely reticulate; muri 2—3 um high, clavate in optical section, heads of clavae rounded or more often radially elongate; muri 0.5—0.8 um wide and coarsely beaded in design (simplibaculate), the beads 0.7—1 pm in diameter, that is, of greater di- ameter than the width of the muri. Muri may be some- what discontinuous. Lumina about 2—3 ,um in diameter, except those near the colpi, which are only about 1 mm lumina polygonal to rectangular. Colpi deeply invagin— ated, extending nearly full length of grain, 0.5—2 um wide, with edges not thickened. Holotype.—Plate 10, figure 35, slide 10642 A—2, co- ordinates 20.0 x 117.8, Moodys Branch Formation at Jackson, Miss. Remarks—Rousea monilifem is characterized by its coarse reticulum and coarsely beaded muri (monile, Latin for “a string of beads”). Affinity—Very similar to Armeria (Plumbaginaceae); also similar to Amanoa (Euphorbiaceae) according to El- sik and Dilcher (1974, .p. 76, pl. 30, figs. 164—165). Occurrence.—-“Infrequent” in 10/56 counted samples from the Moodys Branch Formation to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus ACER Linnaeus Acer? striatellum (Takahashi) n. comb. Plate 11, figures 4—5 Tricolpopollenites striatellus Takahashi, 1961, p. 319, pl. 23, figs. 50— 51 (basionym). Remarks—This species is distinctly tegillate, the col- umellae appearing finely clavate in optical section; the design is finely striate, the lirae varying from finely re- ticulate to infragranulate to smooth. No geniculi are present, and most grains are prolate, in contrast to St’riatopollis terasmaei (Rouse, 1962) n. comb., where the colpi are distinctly geniculate and the shape is vari- able. Occuwence.—“Infrequent” to “occasional” in 16/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus STRIATOPOLLIS Krutzsch, 1959b Striatopollis terasmaei (Rouse) n. comb. Plate 11, figure 6 Striopollenites terasmaei Rouse, 1962, p. 212, pl. 4, figs. 30, 35 (bas- ionym). Remarks. —In this species, the lirae range from smooth to infragranulate to finely reticulate, and the shape var- ies from prolate to spheroidal. The colpi are geniculate, or else very weakly expressed ora are present. Potonié (1966) placed Sm'opollenites Rouse, 1962, into synonymy with Stm’atopollis. Aflim‘ty.—P0ssibly Acer (Aceraceae), Pmnus (Rosa- ceae), or Anacardiaceae. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” to “occasional” in 27/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the. lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus POLYCOLPITES Couper, 1953 Polycolpites sp. Plate 11, figures 7—8 Description—Size 40—42 pm (two specimens). Ob- late. Hexacolpate (possibly colporate, with the ora ob- scure in polar View), colpi 5—9 um deep, bordered by conspicuous thickenings that wrap around ends of colpi, thickenings 3.5—4 um wide and 2 um thick. Exine 1— 1.5 mm thick, punctate to coarsely granulate to verru- cate. Remarks.—Polycolpites viesenensis Krutzsch, 1961, has shallower colpi and is psilate. In Krutzsch’s (1961, p. 324) opinion, all oblate, “polycolpate” forms are proba— bly really polycolporate, including the type species of P0- lycolpites. Affinity—Unknown; somewhat similar grains occur in the Bruniaceae, Linaceae, and Pedaliaceae (Erdtman, 1952, figs. 38B, 143A, 183A) and in the Escalloniaceae (Cranwell, 1953, pl. 1, fig. 19). Occurrence—Two specimens observed from the lower part of the Yazoo Clay of western Mississippi. Genus CUPULIFEROIPOLLENITES Potonié, 1960 Cupuliferoipollenites spp. Plate 11 "i, mes 9—11 Cupulzferoipollenites cf. (7. a'mria‘Janws (Traverse, 1955) R. Potonié, 1960. Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 72—73, pl. 2, fig. 23. Castanea sp. Fairchild and Elsik, 1969, p. 83, pl. 37, fig. 6. Remarks—Specimens included here are oval to straight sided in outline and range from 10 to 23 um in s1ze. Affinity—Mainly Dryophyllum (an extinct genus of Fagaceae; Frederiksen, unpub. data, 1977); perhaps few of these grains were produced by Castanea and (or) Cas- tanopsis. Occurrence.—“Occasional” to “very abundant” in every sample. PALYNOLOGY 5 1 Genus CHRYSOPHYLLUM Linnaeus Chrysophyllum brevisulcatum (Frederiksen) n. comb. Plate 11, figure 12 Cupuhferoipollemtes brevisulcatus Frederiksen, 1973, p. 85, pl. 3, figs. 28—29 (basionym). Remarks—Distinctive features of this species are the small size (14—21 am), the prolate shape with straight sides and broadly rounded poles, the short colpi with la— longate ora, and the dark, thickened, circumequatorial band of exine. Affinity—A resemblance of this species to the Um- belliferae was noted in the original description (Freder- iksen, 1973, p. 85). However, it now seems clear that the species belongs to Chrysophyllum (Sapotaceae); see for instance, Graham and Jarzen, 1969, fig. 27. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” to “occasional” in 14/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the top of the Yazoo Clay. Genus CYRILLACEAEPOLLENITES Potonié, 1960 Cyrillaceaepollenites kedvesii n. sp. Plate 11, figures 13—18 Description—Length of polar axis 18—28 am, mean 24 um, holotype 25 um. Spheroidal or nearly so. Tricol- porate; colpi geniculate, narrow, extending nearly full length of grain, with thickened margines 0.5—1 ,u.m wide; ora lalongate, 1—2 am wide and as long as 6 ,um. Exine 1 ,um thick; ectosexine:endosexineznexine ratio 1:1.521, but columellae are not visible or are only faintly visible; design punctate to nearly psilate. Holotype.——Plate 11, figures 13—14, slide 10696 A—l, coordinates 35.0 X 124.6, Moodys Branch Formation at Barnett, Clarke County, Miss. Remarks.—The geniculus and lack of distinct columel- lae distinguish this species from subprolate to spheroidal species like Tm'colporopollenites labatlam'i Kedves, 1969, and Siltam'a pacata (Pflug in Thomson and Pflug, 1953) n. comb. The grains are larger on the average, the geni- culi are less sharply bent, and the ora are less slitlike than in previously described species of Cym’llaceaepol- lem'tes and in modern pollen grains of Cyrillaceae. Affinity. —Unknown. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” to “occasiona ” in 36/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Cyrillaceaepollenites megaexactus (Potonié) Potonié Plate 11, figures 19—22 Pollem'tes megaexactus Potonié, 1931d, p. 26, pl. 1, fig. V42b. Pollem'tes cingulum bmehlensis Thomson in Potonié and others, 1950, p. 56, pl. B, figs. 31—33. Tricolpo'ropollenites megaexactus bruehlensis (Thomson) Thomson and Pflug, 1953, p. 101, pl. 12, figs. 50—57. Cyrillaceaepollenites megaexactus (Potonié) Potonié, 1960, p. 102. . Cy’rillaceaepollenites cf. C. megaexactus. Tschudy, 1973, p. B17, pl. 4, figs. 1447. Remarks—The aperture structure is variable from grain to grain, as in modern pollen of Cyrillaceae; the ora vary from distinct and lalongate to very indistinct, ex- pressed only as a diamond-shaped widening of the colpi. My specimens have a polar axis of 14—22 nm, are almost invariably psilate, and are typically oblate to spheroidal. Affinity.—Cyrillaceae, Cym’lla and (or) Cliftom'a. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” to “common” in 49/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Cyrillaceaepollenites? ventosus (Potonié) n. comb. Plate 11, figures 23—24 Pollem'tes ventosus Potonié, 1931c, p. 556, fig. 15 (basionym). Pollenites ventosus Potonié. Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 79, pl. 5, fig. 59. Pollenites pseudolaesius* Potonié, 1931[b]. Fairchild and Elsik, 1969, p. 84, pl. 37, fig. 23. Tricolpon'tes sp. (cf. Pollem'tes ventosus Potonié 1934). Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 4, fig. 30. Tricolpom'tes sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 4, figs. 31—32. Cyrillaceaepollenites of the Pollem'tes ventosus type. Tschudy, 1973, p. B17, pl. 4, figs. 20, 21. Pol/(mites laesius type. Elsik, 1974b, pl. 4, fig. 115. Description—Grains of this species found in the J ack- son Group and adjacent strata may be described as fol— colporate, but the ora are obscure. Colpi extend 1/3—2/3 (generally about 1/2) the distance to the poles. Exine 0.5—0.8 pm thick, sexineznexine ratio 3:1, integillate to indistinctly tegillate, weakly punctate to coarsely gran- ulate; outer and inner surface smooth or rough. Most specimens have a compression fold that forms a dark, cir- cular to rounded triangular ring cut by the tips of the colpi. Remarks—Tschudy (1973, p. BI’D pointed out that gulf coast pollen grains .of this type have been assigned to both Pollem'tes ventosus Potonié and Pol/mites pseu- dolaesus Potonié. From Potonié’s papers (Potonié, 1931b, p. 4; 1931c, p. 556; 1934, p. 77—78; Potonié and Venitz, 1934, p. 37), it appears that Pollenites ventosus is small (13-20 am), has a thin exine (no thicker than 0.5 um), and is psilate to weakly punctate. Pollem'tes pseudolae- sus is larger (20—31 am, mainly about 30 am), has a thicker exine (about 1.5 ,um), and is punctate to granu- late, mainly granulate. It seems best to leave these as two separate species, distinguished on the basis of over- all size and exine thickness. Cyn‘llaceaepollenites? ven- tosus ventosus is psilate to weakly punctate, whereas *Spelling as given by Fairchild and Elsik (1969). 52 SPOROMORPHS, JACKSON GROUP AND ADJACENT STRATA, MISSISSIPPI AND ALABAMA many gulf coast specimens belong to an unnamed subspe- cies of C .? ventosus because they are punctate to granu- late. N o attempt has been made to count specimens of the two subspecies separately. Some specimens assigned to C.? ventosus may represent grains of Quercoidites microhem'icii (Potonié) Potonié that happen to lie in po- lar view. C .? ventosus is also difficult to distinguish from corroded specimens of Cyrillaceaepollenites megaexac- tus (Potonié) Potonié, which often lie in polar view. The genus Cyrillaceaepollenites was defined to include pollen grains that are psilate or nearly so (Potonié, 1960, p. 102); C.? ventosus is placed here because no more suita- ble genus is available. Affinity—Unknown, probably not Cyrillaceae. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” to “common” in 52/56 counted samples. Genus SILTARIA Traverse, 1955 Remarks—This genus is used here in a rather broad sense for species having tricolporate punctate grains. That is, the design is too fine for one to say that the grains are either reticulate or granulate. In Howie/la Traverse, 1955, Capnfoliipites Wodehouse, 1933, Ail- (mthipites Wodehouse, 1933, and Rhoipites Wodehouse, 1933, the grains are distinctly reticulate; in Amliaceoi- pollem'tes Potonié, 1960, they are distinctly granulate. Siluria pacata (Pflug) n. comb. Plate 11, figure 25 Tflcolporopollenites pacatus Pflug in Thomson and Pflug, 1953, p. 99, pl. 12, figs. 118—121 (basionym). Ailanthipites pacatus (Pflug) Potonié, 1960, p. 96. Remarks—This species is most similar to Cyrilla- ceaepollem'tes kedvesii n. sp., but in contrast to the lat— ter, S. pacata has distinct columellae and a sharply punc— tate design. Afi‘inity.—Probably Diospyros (Ebenaceae), though Kedves (1969, p. 27) suggested an affinity with Simar- oubaceae or Cornaceae. Occuwence.—“Infrequent” to “occasional” in 6/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Siltaria cf. S. scabn'extima Traverse Plate 11, figures 26—28 Siltaria scabriextima Traverse, 1955, p. 51, fig. 10 (50). Cupuliferoipollenites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 4, figs. 15—16. Remarks—The designation Siltam’a cf. S. scabm'ex- tima is used for grains that are prolate, are tricolporate with lalongate ora, are distinctly columellate, and have a punctate design. However, they are 25 um or less long, whereas S. scabriewtima is about 32 um long. Rhoipites pseudocmgulum (Potonié, 1931a) Potonié, 1960, appears to be similar to S. scabriextima, and the two species may be synonymous, but the morphology of the former is less well known than that of the latter. The originally illus- trated specimens of R. pseudocingulum (Potonié, 1931a, pl. 1, figs. 3-4) are 25 um and 27 am in length, respec- tively, and Thomson and Pflug (1953, p. 99) defined the species as being 25—40 urn. It is difficult to determine from the photomicrographs whether the original speci- mens of R. pseudocingulum are columellate or not. Thomson and Pflug (1953, p. 99) described the specimens that they attributed to this species as not having colu- mellae. However, when Potonié (1960, p. 101) reassigned Pollenites pseudocingulum to Rhoipites, he defined the latter genus as having an exine that is “fein infrareticu- la ,” which implies the presence of distinct columellae. Affinity—Possibly Rims (Anacardiaceae). Occurrence.—“Infrequent” to “common” in 21/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus ARALIACEOIPOLLENITES Potonié, 1960 Araliaceoipollenites granulatus (Potonié) n. comb. Plate 11, figures 29—30 Pollem'tes pseudocingulum granulatum Potonié, 1931a, p. 332, pl. 1, figs. 2, 6, 19, 24, 26—27 (basionym). Remarks—Plate 1, figure 6 of Potonié (1931a) is here— with designated the lectotype, as Potonié did not desig- nate a holotype. Rhoipites pseudocingulum (Potonié, 1931a) Potonié, 1960, is punctate or finely reticulate and is distinct from the granulate Araliaceoipollenites gran- ulatus, which is here raised to species level. A. granu— latus intergrades with H omiella, modica (Mamczar, 1960) n. comb. If the LO-pattern predominated or was equally as distinct as the OL-pattern, the specimens were as- signed to A. granulatus; if the OL—pattern was stronger, they were assigned to Homiella modica. Affinity—Unknown; possibly Fagaceae. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” t0 “abundant” in 50/60 counted samples. Araliaceoipollenites megaporifer n. sp. Plate 11, figures 31—32; plate 12, figure 1 T’ricolpom'tes sp. (?Araliaceoipollenites). Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 4, figs. 22a-b. Description—Size 14—29 mm, mean 23 um, holotype 26 um. Tricolporate. Subprolate to prolate, mostly pro- late; outline oval with rounded ends. Exine about 1 pm thick, columellate; sexineznexine ratio 221. In some spec- imens, the exine thickens from slightly less than 1 um at the equator to slightly more than 1 um at the poles be- cause of a thickening of the endosexine. Design granu- late; surface rough. Colpi very narrow and extending from three-fourths of the length of the grain to the full PALYNOLOGY 53 length; thickenings of colpi margines 0.3—1 um wide. Ora round, 2.5—4 am in diameter, extending beyond the colpi margines. Holotype.—Plate 11, figures 31-32, slide 10434 A—1, coordinates 41.3 X 124.7, Shubuta Member of the Ya- zoo Clay at Little Stave Creek, Clarke County, Ala. Remarks—This species appears to be very similar to Tflcolporopollenites microponfer Takahashi, 1961', ex- cept that in the latter the ora are smaller, not extending beyond the colpi margines. Affinity—Unknown. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” to “occasional” in 17/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group; Araliaceoipollenites profundus n. sp. Plate 12, figures 2—4 Tn'colpopollenites spp. of the T. henrici type. Tschudy, 1973, p. B16, pl. 4, figs. 10—11. Description—Size 33—58 am, mean 45 um, holotype 41 um. Tricolporate. Subprolate to perprolate, mostly prolate; outline lenticular with pointed to slightly flat- tened ends. Exine 1.5—2.5;Lm thick, tegillate; ectosexine 0.5 mm thick, endosexine 0.5—1.5;Lm thick, nexine about 0.25—0,5 um thick. Design distinctly granulate to coarsely punctate or finely reticulate. Culpi extending nearly from pole to pole, very narrow and deeply invaginated almost to the polar axis; ora round to lolongate, 4—6 am long, often indistinct. terized by its moderately large size, rather indistinct ora, and long, very deeply invaginated colpi (profundus, L. “deep”). Araliaceoipollenites edmundii (Potonié, 1931d) Potonié, 1960, and Camus bremanoirensis Simp- son, 1961, have shallower colpi. Yeguapollis colpomtus Elsik, 1974b, is similar in several ways to A. profundus, but in the former, the exine is thickened at the poles, the ora are more distinct, an endannulus is present, and the design is finer. Affinity.—Euphorbiaceae, very similar to Euphobia and Hippomane. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” to “occasional” in 22 or 23/56 counted samples from the Moodys Branch Forma- tion to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group; possibly present in the Cockfield Formation. The species ranges down to the Sparta Sand of the Claiborne Group (Tschudy, 1973, p. B16, pl. 4, figs. 10—11). Genus FOVEOTRICOLPORITES Pierce, 1961 Foveotricolporites sp. Plate 12, figures 5—9 Description—Size 46-54 am (three specimens). Pro- late; outline elliptical. Tricolporate; colpi narrow, ex- tending nearly full length of grain; ora lolongate, 0.5— 1.5 gm wide, 0.5—3 um deep, and 5—8 am long. Exine 2 um thick, tegillate, ectosexinezendosexine:nexine ratio 2:1:2. Foveolate, the foveolae about 0.3 am in diameter. Remrks.—Foveotricolporites rhombohedralis Pierce, 1961, is prolate spheroidal; Amliaceoipollenites profun- dus n. sp. is granulate to coarsely punctate, and the ora are rounder and less slitlike; Tricolpo’ropollenites hash- uyamaensis foveolatus Takahashi, 1961, is more broadly elliptical in outline, and the ora are round. Affinity—Quite possibly Cornaceae. Occurrence—Observed in three samples from the Forest Hill Sand of western Mississippi and the Red Bluff Clay of eastern Mississippi. Genus ILEX Linnaeus Ilex infissa n. sp. Plate 12, figures 10—14 Description—Size 19—28 am, mean 24 um, holotype 28 um. Prolate spheroidal to subprolate. Tricolporate; colpi narrow (0.5—1 um wide), rather deeply invagin- ated, extending nearly full length of grain, bordered on each side by thickenings 2 nm wide; ora distinct, lalon- gate, slitlike, 0.5 ,um wide and 3.5—5 um long, cutting through marginal thickenings of colpi. Exine 1.5—2 pm thick, sexineznexine ratio 2:1, densely clavate, the clavae 1.3—2 um long. Holotype.—Plate 12, figures 10—12, slide 10864 A— 2, coordinates 23.5 X 116.9, Yazoo Clay, Hole AF—40, Hinds County, Miss. Remarks—Ilene infissa is characterized by its distinct slitlike ora and the low ratio of polar axiszequatorial axis. The specific epithet (infissus, Latin, “cut through”) re- fers to the cutting of the ora across the colpi margines. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in five counted samples from the Gosport Sand of western Alabama and the Ya— zoo Clay of western Mississippi. Some specimens were also observed in a lignite sample from the type Forest Hill Sand (loc. 4). Ilex media (Pflug and Thomson) n. comb. Plate 12, figures 15—16 T’m’colporopollenites iliacus medias Pflug and Thomson in Thomson and Pfiug, 1953, p. 106, pl. 14, figs. 46—60 (basionym). Ilexpollenites cf. I . iliacus (R. Potonié, 1931) Thiergart, 1937.* Engel- hardt, 1964a, p. 73, pl. 2, fig. 22. Ilexpollenites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 4, figs. 19, ?18. Remarks—The holotype of I lex iliaca (Potonié, 1931c) Martin and Rouse, 1966, has massive elements and is more gemmate than clavate. Tricolporopollemtes iliacus medius has thin clavae and is here raised to species level and transferred to I lex. Pflug and Thomson (in Thomson *Date given by Engelhardt (1964a, p. 73) for a separate issue in 1937; journal was published in 1938. 54 SPCROMORPHS, JACKSON GROUP AND ADJACENT STRATA, MISSISSIPPI AND ALABAMA and Pflug, 1953) gave a size range of 25—45 pm for T. iliacus medius; my specimens have a size range of 15— 30 ,um. Occuwence.—“Infrequent” to “occasional” in 46/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus VERRUTRICOLPORITES van der Hammen and Wiimstra, 1964 Verrutricolporites cruciatus n. sp. Plate 12, figures 17—19 Tn'colporopollenites spp. Tschudy, 1973, p. B15, pl. 3, figs. 17—19? Description—Size 26—34 ,um, mean 29 um, holotype 31 um. Prolate; outline oval with rounded to slightly pointed ends. Tricolporate; colpi narrow, extending about four-fifths the length of grain, edges thickened little or not at all; ora distinct, lalongate, 143 um X 3—8 mm. Exine 1.5—2 ,um thick including ornamentation; sexineznexine ratio 1:1; verrucate, the elements irregular in design, about 0.5—1 ,um in diameter and 0.3—0.5 mm high; negative reticulum rather well developed. H0l0type.—Plate 12, figures 17-18, slide 10642 A— 2, coordinates 21.4 X 125.3, Moodys Branch Formation at Jackson, Miss. Remarks.—Vemt7‘icolporites cmciatus is character- ized by its lalongate ora and negative reticulum and by the fact that the colpi edges are not greatly thickened. The epithet cmciatus (Latin, “cross”) refers to the crosses made by the lalongate ora with the colpi. This species might be synonymous with Pollenites rauffii Po- tonié, 1931a, but the holotype of P. muffii is difficult to interpret. The forms called Pollenites pseudocingulum raufifii (Potonié) by Potonié (1934), from the type locality of P. rauffii, have round ora and thick colpi margines. These specimens may be different from the holotype of Pollenites muffii, and they are quite different from Ver- mtm’colpom'tes cmciatus. Pollem'tes navicula Potonié, 1931a, also has thick colpi margines. Aflinity.—Unknown. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” to “common” in 42/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Verrutricolporites ovalis (Potonié) n. comb. Plate 12, figures 20—21 Pollenites cingulum ovalis Potonié, 1934, p. 83, pl. 4, fig. 8 (bas- ionym). Tricolporopollenites sp. 5. Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 74, pl. 3, fig. 30. Tricolporate, rugulose-verrucose pollen. Fairchild and Elsik, 1969, pl. 37, fig. 18. Unidentified tricolporate pollen having relatively coarse verrucose-ru- gulose ornament. Elsik, 1974b, pl. 4, fig. 119. Remarks—This species is distinguished by the large size of the verrucae. In Pollem'tes cingulum Potonié, 1931d, the exine is granulate, and Vemtm’colpom'tes ovalis thus belongs to a different genus than P. cin- gulum. Affinity. —Unknown. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in two counted samples of Yazoo Clay; also observed in an uncounted sample from the Red Bluff Clay. Verrutricolporites tenuicrassus n. sp. Plate 12, figures 22—25 Description—Size 23—34 am (five specimens), holo- type 31 um. Prolate, outline oval. Tricolporate; colpi 0.5—1 um Wide, extending nearly full length of grain; ora lolongate, about 3 X 6 um. Exine 0.7—1.2 um thick at equator and 2—3 pm thick at poles; sexinemexine ra- tio 2—3:1; verrucate, the elements irregular in design, 0.5—1 mm in diameter and 0.2—0.5 um, high; negative reticulum present; exine may be indistinctly tegillate. Holotype.—Plate 12, figures 22—23, slide 10663 A—1, coordinates 18.0 X 115.3, Moodys Branch Formation near Rose Hill, Jasper County, Miss. Remarks—Vemtm'colporiteS tenuicmssus is charac- terized by having a thicker exine at the poles (crassus, Latin, “thick”) than at the equator (tenuis, Latin, “thin”) and by having lolongate ora. Affinity—Possibly Fagaceae. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in three samples from the Moodys Branch Formation and the lower part of the Ya— zoo Clay of Mississippi. Genus NUXPOLLENITES Elsik, 1974b Nuxpollenites sp. Plate 12, figures 26—27 Nuxpollem'tes sp. Elsik, 1974b, pl. 4, figs. 138—140. Description—In this species, the large verrucae are present over the whole exine, but they are larger and higher at the poles than at the equator. My specimen is 29 am in length overall. Remarks.—Nuxpollenites crockettensis Elsik, 1974b, has fewer but larger verrucae. Affinity—Possibly Phomdendron (Loranthaceae) ac- cording to Elsik (1974b, p. 100). Occuwence.—One specimen observed from the Gos- port Sand at Little Stave Creek. Elsik’s (1974b, pl. 4, figs. 138—140) specimen is from the Cook Mountain For- mation (middle Eocene) of Texas (W. C. Elsik, written commun., 1976). Genus NYSSA Linnaeus Nyssa kruschii (Potonie) n. comb. Plate 13, figure 1 Pollenites kmschi Potonié, 1931b, p. 4, fig. 11 (basionym). T'm‘colporopollenites kmschi (Potonié) Thomson and Pflug, 1953, p. 103, pl. 13, figs. 14—63. PALYNOLOGY Nyssapollem'tes cf. N. accessorius (R. Potonié, 1934) R. Potonié, 1950.* Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 74, pl. 3, fig. 33. Tetracolporites sp. Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 76, pl. 4, fig. 50. Nyssa sp. Fairchild and Elsik, 1969, p. 84, pl. 37, fig. 16. Remarks—This species has long colpi with broad sex- inal thickenings of the margines and also nexinal thick- enings around the ora; the ora form more than half a cir- cle in optical section and equatorial view; the reticulum is very fine. My specimens range from 21 to 42 um and thus include several subspecies of N. kruschiz' as defined by Potonié (1934) and Thomson and Pflug (1953). Occu’r’r‘ence.—“Infrequent” to “occasional” in 41/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. This species apparently ranges down into the Wilcox Group (Fairchild and Elsik, 1969, p. 84). Genus NYSSAPOLLENITES Potonié 1960 Nyssapollenites Potonié, 1960, p. 103—104. Nyssoidites Potonié, 1960, p. 104. Remarks—The validation of the genera N yssapollen— ites and Nyssoidites was discussed by J ansonius and Hills (1976, cards 1794—1795). The type species do not appear to be different enough to warrant placing them in separate genera. Nyssapollenites pulvinus (Potonié) n. comb. Plate 12, figures 28—29 Pollenites pulvinus Potonié, 1931b, p. 4, fig. 23 (basionym). Remarks.—P0llenites pseudocmciatus pantherinus Potonié, 1934, may be synonymous with this species. Affinity—Perhaps Nyssaceae or Cornaceae. Occuwence.—“Infrequent” to “occasional” in 20/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus RHOIPITES Wodehouse, 1933 Rhoipites angustus n. sp. Plate 13, figures 2—8 Tricolporopollemtes dolium (R. Potonié, 1931) Thomson and Pflug, 1953 [misidentified]. Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 73, pl. 2, fig. 21. Tricolporopollenites kmschii (Potonié, 1934) Thomson and Pflug 1953. Elsik, 1968b, p. 628, pl. 34, figs. 3a—b only. Description-Size 24—35 um, mean 29 um, holotype 32 um. Prolate spheroidal to prolate; outline oval to dia- mond shaped, poles rounded to somewhat flattened. Tri- colporate; colpi about three-fourths the length of the grain and very narrow (sides of colpi may be pressed to- gether), exine not thinned along colpi so that colpi walls appear very thick; ora distinct, round, 2—2.5 am in di- *Date given by Engelhardt (1964a, p. 74) is 1950; correct date is 1951. 55 ameter, endannuli apparently lacking. Exine 1 gm thick, minutely reticulate. Holotype.—Plate 13, figure 2, slide 10553 A—l, coor- dinates 45.5 X 118.0, Moodys Branch Formation at Little Stave Creek, Clarke County, Ala. Remarks—The specific epithet (angustus, Latin, “narrow, confined”) refers to the very narrow colpi in this species. Tricolporopollenites kmschii contortus Pflug and Thomson in Thomson and Pflug, 1953, probably has a different design and does not appear to have thick ex- ine around the colpi; Rhoipites bradleyi Wodehouse, 1933, apparently has lalongate ora and a slightly coarser infra?-reticulation. Nyssa kmschii (Potonié, 1931b) n. comb. is spheroidal to oblate, but otherwise it is similar to Rhoipites angustus in many respects. Aflinity.——Mastixia (Cornaceae) and Nyssa (Nyssa- ceae) are similar, but the modern grains of both genera are endannulate; Rhus barclayi Standley (Anacardi— aceae) is also similar. Occuwence.—“Infrequent” to “common” in 49/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. The species may range down into the Paleocene (see Elsik, 1968b, p. 628, pl. 34, figs. 3a, b). Rhoipites latus n. sp. Plate 13, figures 9—13 Tricolporopollenites sp 4. Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 74, pl. 3, fig. 29. Tm'colpopollenites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 4, figs. 13a—b. Tricolporites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 5, fig. 1. Tricolporopollenites n. sp. B (Part/wuocissus type). Tschudy, 1973, p. B17, pl. 4, figs. 18—19. Description—Size 34—44 ,um, mean 39 um, holotype 42 um. Prolate; outline oval. Tricolporate; colpi deep, narrow, extending nearly full length of grain, bordered by thickenings 1.5—2 um wide; ora distinct and round, slightly lalongate or slightly lolongate, 2.5—3.5 ,um in greatest dimension, wider than colpi and creating depressions in marginal thickenings. Exine exclusive of ornamentation 0.5—0.7 um thick. Exine reticulate; muri coarsely clavate in cross section, clavae 1.5 ,um high, thin baculae present between clavae; muri duplibaculate, 0.5- 0.8 ,um thick and wide; lumina polygonal to longitudi— nally elongate, 0.5—1.5 um >< 1—2.5 ,um. Holotype.—Plate 13, figures 9—10, slide 10662 A—l, coordinates 22.1 x 126.0, Moodys Branch Formation near Rose Hill, Jasper County, Miss. Remarks—The name (lotus, Latin, “wide”) refers to the wide muri in the species. Harm'ella secrete (Dokto- rowicz-Hrebnicka, 1960) n. comb. is typically subprolate in shape, has more lalongate ora and lacks wide marginal thickenings of the colpi; Harm'ella sp. A also lacks the marginal thickenings and has narrower muri; Tricolpo— ropollenites helmstedtensis Pflug in Thomson and Pflug, 56 1953, has an indistinct reticulum. Rhoipites cryptopoms Srivastava, 1972, has larger ora (3—4 pm in diameter) and is prolate to prolate spheroidal. Affinity—Tschudy and Van Loenen (1970, pl. 5, fig. 1) and Tschudy (1973, p. B17, pl. 4, figs. 18—19) noted a similarity of this species to pollen of Parthenocissus (Vitaceae). Occurrence—“Infrequent” to “occasional” in 44/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Rhoipites subprolatus n. sp. Plate 13, figures 14—16 Description—Size 23-33 um (five measured speci- mens), holotype 33 um. Subprolate; outline broadly oval. Tricolporate; colpi deep and very narrow, extending nearly full length of grain, bordered by thickenings 1— 1.5 pm wide; ora rather indistinct, round, 2-3 am in diameter, cutting part way into the marginal thicken- ings. Exine excluding ornamentation 0.5 pm thick. Ex- ine minutely reticulate; muri finely and densely clavate in optical section, clavae 1.5 gm high, muri 0.5 pm thick. Holotype.—Plate 13, figures 15—16, slide 10643 A—1, coordinates 34.4 X 121.0, Moodys Branch Formation at Jackson, Miss. Remarks—Rhoz'pites subprolatus is distinguished by its thick, very finely reticulate ornamentation and its subprolate shape (to which the specific epithet refers). A ffinity. —Unknown. Occurrence.——“Infrequent” in eight counted samples from the Gosport Sand to the Yazoo Clay. Genus HORNIELLA Traverse, 1955 Remarks—This genus includes prolate to spheroidal, tricolporate, reticulate grains with distinct, lalongate to round ora. In Capmfoliipites Wodehouse, 1933, the ora are rather obscure; Ailanthipites Wodehouse, 1933, in- cludes retistriate and striate grains; in Rhoipites Wode- house, 1933, the colpi are bordered by conspicuous thick- enings. Horniella genuina (Potonie') n. comb. Plate 13, figures 17—18 Pollenites genuinus Potonié, 1934, p. 95—96, pl. 5, figs. 22, 30—32, 34; pl. 6, fig. 34 (basionym). Tn'colporopollenites genuinus (Potonié) Thomson and Pflug, 1953, p. 105, pl. 13, figs. 69-85. Tm'colporopollenites hoshuyamaensis fossulatus Takahashi, 1961, p. 325, pl. 25, figs. 5—9 ( = T. hoshuyamaensis hoshuyamaensis Takahashi, 1961, according to Ames and Kremp, 1964, p. 21—113). Tn'colporopollenites sp. 3. Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 73-74, pl. 3, figs. 26—27. Affinity—In the Simarubaceae and Anacardiaceae, the reticulation is typically finer. Therefore, the species SPOROMORPHS, JACKSON GROUP AND ADJACENT STRATA, MISSISSIPPI AND ALABAMA has been assigned to Homiella rather than to Ailanthip— ites, even though the lumina are distinctly elongate par- allel with the polar axis. Engelhardt (1964a, p. 73—74) noted a similarity of this species with pollen of Belotia, Spamannia, and Triumfetta, all of the Tiliaceae. Occurrence—“Infrequent” in three samples from the Cockfield Formation of western Mississippi and the Gos- port Sand and Red Bluff Clay of western Alabama, re- spectively. Horniella modica (Mamczar) n. comb. Plate 13, figures 19—20 Pollem'tes modicus Mamczar, 1960, p. 220, pl. 14, fig. 205 (basionym). Remarks—This species is distinguished by its small size (about 20—25 am), rather fine reticulum, the indis- tinct, round to somewhat lalongate ora, and the deeply incised colpi. Affinity—Unknown; possibly Rutaceae, Anacardi- aceae, or Simarubaceae. Occurrence—“Infrequent” to “common” in 41/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Horniella sp. A Plate 13, figures 21—23 Rhoipites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 4, figs. 21a—b. Description—Size 24—39 am (four measured speci- mens). Subprolate to prolate; outline oval. Tricolporate, colpi extending nearly full length of grain, bordered by thickenings; ora distinct, circular, about 1.5 ,um in diam- eter, Wider than colpi; endannuli are present in the illus- trated specimen but not in the other specimens. Exine excluding ornamentation 0.5 to possibly 1 am thick. Ex- ine reticulate; muri clavate in optical section, clavae 1— 1.3 pm high; muri 0.4 um wide; lumina average about 1 um in diameter. Remarks.—Homiella sp. A is distinguished by its rather narrow muri and medium-sized lumina and by its small round ora. Pollenitesformosus Mamczar, 1960, has smaller lumina; Rhoipites latus n. sp. has wider muri; Capm'foliipites incefiigmndis n. sp. has larger and less distinct ora. Afi‘im’ty.—Pollen of several genera of Vitaceae, illus- trated by Straka and Simon (1967, pls. 124/I, figs. 1a—f, and 124/II, figs. la—c, 2a—c), are similar to Homiella sp. A in shape, ornamentation, and above all in the long, narrow colpi, with narrow, thickened margines and small, round ora with narrow endannuli. Occurrence—Counted together with Camfoliipites incertigmndis; definitely ranges from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. PALYNOLOGY Horniella spp. Plate 13, figures 24—25 Remarks—Some of these specimens probably repre- sent Homiella secreta (Doktorowicz—Hrebnicka) n. comb. (basionym: Pollem'tes secretus Doktorowicz—Hrebnicka, 1960, p. 115, pl. 44, fig. 239). Affinity—Very similar to pollen of Zamthoxylum (Rutaceae). Some may also have been produced by Ar- aliaceae. Occurrence—“Infrequent” in 12/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus CAPRIFOLIIPITES Wodehouse, 1933 Remarks—In this genus, the grains are prolate to spheroidal, tricolporate and reticulate (not infrareticu- late with a smooth surface as stated by Potonié, 1960, p. 97); the ora are rather indistinct in plan view, in contrast to Homiella Traverse, 1955, where the ora are strongly expressed. Caprifoliipites incertigrandis n. sp. Plate 13, figures 26—29 Description—Size 26—38 pm (nine measured speci- mens), mean 32 um, holotype 28 um. Prolate; outline oval. Tricolporate, colpi extending nearly full length of grain, bordered internally by thickenings about 1 um‘ wide; ora rather distinct and semicircular in optical sec- tion, indistinct in plan View, probably round to somewhat lalongate, expressed mainly as gaps in marginal thick- enings of colpi (pl. 13, figs. 26, 28), about 4-5 am wide. Exine including ornamentation about 1.3 mm thick; exine proper 0.3 pm thick. Exine reticulate; muri clavate in optical section, clavae 1 pm high; muri 0.3—0.4 um wide, lumina 0.5—2 am in diameter, averaging about 1 mm. Holotype.—Plate 13, figures 26—27, slide 14963 C—l, coordinates 28.4 X 119.8, Shubuta Member of the Ya- zoo Clay at Little Stave Creek, Clarke County, Ala. Remarks.—Capmfoliipites incertigmndis is charac- terized by its medium-sized lumina and rather narrow muri and by its large ora which are rather poorly ex— pressed in plan view (incertus, Latin, “obscure”; gran— dis, Latin, “large,” both referring to the ora). Tricol- poropollem'tes sp. 2 of Engelhardt, 1964a, probably be- longs to this species. Camfoliipites viridi-flumimls Wodehouse, 1933, is smaller; Homiella secreta (Dokto- rowicz-Hrebnicka, 1960) n. comb. has distinct, lalongate ora. Affinity—Unknown. Occuwence.——Counted together with H omiella sp. A; the two species together were “infrequent” to “occa- sional” in 11/56 counted samples. Camfoliipites incer- tigrandis is the more abundant 0f the two species and 57 probably ranges from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Caprifoliipitos tantulus n. sp. Plate 14, figures 1—2 Description—These grains match perfectly the de- scription of Capm'foliipites microreticulatus (Pflug and Thomson in Thomson and Pflug, 1953) Potonié, 1960, but they are only 14—19 pm in greatest dimension (holotype 14 um), whereas the size of C. microreticulatus was given as 18—30 pm. Holotype.—Plate 14, figure 1, slide 10637 A—2, coor- dinates 40.5 x 122.3, Yazoo Clay at Jackson, Miss. Remarks—The specific epithet (annulus, Latin, “so small”) refers to the small size of the grains in this spe- cies. The pollen grain illustrated by Tschudy and Van Loenen (1970, pl. 4, fig. 8) as Tricolpopollem'tes sp. probably belongs to this species. Camfoliipites tantulus intergrades morphologically with Salixipollenites par- vus n. sp., because in C. tantulus, the ora are small and may be indistinct. However, in C. tantulus, the grains are oblate spheroidal to prolate spheroidal, and the colpi are only one-half to two-thirds the length of the polar axis, whereas in S. pamus, the grains are subprolate to prolate, and the colpi are two-thirds to three-fourths the length of the grain. Affinity.—Possibly Viburnum (Caprifoliaceae). Occurrence.—“Infrequent” to “occasional” in 21/56 counted samples from the Cockfield Formation to the up- per part of the Yazoo Clay. Genus LONICERAPOLLIS Krutzsch, 1962 Lonicerapollis sp. Tricolpopoltem'tes sp. aff. Caprifoliaceae cf. Lonicem. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 4, fig. 17. Affinity—Pollen of three available species of modern Lonicem all have a shape, exine design and structure, and apertures similar to those of these fossils. However, pollen grains of Tm'osteum and Linnaea (also Caprifoli- aceae) are also similar (Krutzsch, 1962, p. 275). Occurrence—Reported by Tschudy and Van Loenen (1970) to be in the upper part of the Yazoo Clay of west- ern Mississippi. I have not seen the species in my mate- rial. Genus AILANTHIPITES Wodehouse, 1933 Ailanthipites berryi Wodehouse Plate 14, figures 3—6 Ailanthipites berry'i Wodehouse, 1933, p. 512, fig. 44. Tflcolpm'opollenites sp. 1. Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 73, pl. 3, fig. 25. 58 Remarks—Distinguishing features of this species are the prolate shape, the distinct, 1alongate ora, and the re- tistriate design. Affinity—Similar grains occur in Anacardiaceae (Lithraea, Rhus), Leguminosae (Aphanocalyx, Didelo- tia), Sapindaceae (Hamuuia), and Simarubaceae (Ail- anthus). Occurrence.—“Infrequent” to “occasiona ” in 19/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus RETITRESCOLPITES Sah, 1967 Remarks.—Potonié (1960, p. 95) emended the diagno- sis of Tricolpites Couper, 1953, restricting the genus to finely reticulate grains. Later, Belsky and others (1965, p. 75) again emended the genus, enlarging it to include both coarsely and finely reticulate forms. Srivastava (1969, p. 55) rejected the latter emendation. As a result, coarsely reticulate forms of oblate, tricopate pollen (that is, pollen having lumina greater than 1 ,um in diameter) are now placed in the genus Retitrescolpites. Retitrescolpites sp. Tricolpites thomasii Cookson and Pike, 1954 [misidentified]. Engel- hardt, 19643, p. 72, pl. 2, fig. 17. Tricolptm'tes sp. (?Anacardiaceae cf. Spondias. See Tsukada, 1964). Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 4, fig. 29. Remarka—This species does not belong to Tricolpites thomasii as suggested by Engelhardt (1964a), because the polar areas are distinctly reticulate like the rest of the exine, whereas in T. thomasii, the polar areas are nearly smooth. Occurrence.—Reported to be from the upper part of the Cockfield Formation and upper part of the Yazoo Clay of Western Mississippi by Engelhardt (1964a) and Tschudy and Van Loenen (1970), respectively. I have not observed the species in my material. Genus ALANGIOPOLLIS Krutzsch, 1962a Alangiopollis sp. Plate 14, figures 7—8 Description—Size 42—46 ,um (two specimens). Oblate spheroidal to suboblate; outline more or less round. Tri— colporate; colpi extend about two-thirds the distance to poles, bordered by thickenings 1—2.5 ,urn wide; ora round, 4—10 um in diameter. Exine excluding ornamen- tation 1 pm thick. Exine reticulate; muri clavate in opti- cal section, clavae 1.5 pm high, muri 0.5 um wide and duplibaculate; lumina 1—2 ,um in diameter. Remarks.—Alangiopollis javam'coides (Cookson, 1957) Krutzsch, 1962, is larger and has a finer reticulum; A. barghoomiana (Traverse, 1955) Krutzsch, 1962, is larger and has a coarser reticulum in which the lumina are radially elongate. The specimen called Alangiopollis SPOROMORPHS, JACKSON GROUP AND ADJACENT STRATA, MISSISSIPPI AND ALABAMA barghoomiana? by Krutzsch (1962, pl. 7, figs. 6—9) may belong to Alangiopollis sp. Aflinity.—Alangiaceae, probably Alangium. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in two to four samples from the Gosport Sand to the Yazoo Clay. Genus MYRTACEIDITES Cookson and Pike, 1954 Myrtaceiditos parvus Cookson and Pike Plate 14, figures 9—11 Myrtaceidites pawns Cookson and Pike, 1954, p. 206, pl. 1, figs. 27— 31. Myrtaceidites panms nesus Cookson and Pike, 1954, p. 206, pl. 1, figs. 2931. Myrtaceidites pa’r'vus anesus Cookson and Pike, 1954, p. 206, pl. 1, figs. 27—28. Cupam'eidites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 4, figs. 23—24. Remarks—Grains in this species are smaller than grains in Cupam'eidites orthoteichus Cookson and Pike, 1954, the corners are more broadly rounded, and the ex- ine is psilate to punctate rather than reticulate. Cookson and Pike did not designate a holotype for M. pawns. Plate 1, figure 29 of Cookson and Pike (1954) is herewith designated as the lectotype. Myrtaceidites parvus nesus thus becomes M. parvus parvus. A third subspecies ap- pears to be present in my material (pl. 14, fig. 11); this has polar islands that are sharply infra?-granulate and are not delimited by the colpi, which reach only to the edge of the islands. The three subspecies were counted together. Affinity—Probably Myrtus and (or) Eugenia (Myr- taceae). Occuwence.—“Infrequent” to “occasional” in 19/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus CUPANIEIDITES Cookson and Pike, 1954 emend. Chmura, 1973 Cupanieidites Cookson and Pike, 1954, p. 210, pl. 2, figs. 73—78, 83— 85, 87—89. Duplopollis Krutzsch, 1959b, p. 144, pl. 34, figs. 25—44; text-fig. 13. Cupanieidites orthoteichus Cookson and Pike Plate 14, figure 12 Cupam'eidites orthoteichus Cookson and Pike, 1954, p. 213, pl. 2, figs. 73—78. Duplopollis orthoteichus (Cookson and Pike) Krutzsch, 1959b, p. 145. Duplopollis myrtoides Krutzsch, 1959b, p. 145, pl. 34, figs. 25—44; text-fig. 13. Cupanieidites orthoteichus Cookson and Pike, 1954. Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 74—75, pl. 3, fig. 34. Duplopollis sp. Fairchild and Elsik, 1969, p. 84, pl. 37, fig. 19. Duplopollis sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 4, figs. 25—27. Remarks.——Krutzsch (1959b) designated plate 2, fig— ure 76, of Cookson and Pike (1954) as the lectotype of Cupanieidites orthoteichus. This specimen is an end member of the species, having distinct and almost coarse PALYNOLOGY 59 reticulation. My specimens are similar to all those of Cookson and Pike; that is, they range from sharply to very indistinctly reticulate. Krutzsch’s 'species Duplo- pollis myrtoides falls within this range of variation. Affinity—Specimens of this species from the Tertiary of southeastern North America undoubtedly represent Cupam'a (Sapindaceae) at least in part. Amyema suba- lata (De Wild.) Danser (Loranthaceae) is also very simi- lar (Van Campo, 1966, pl. 2, fig. 14). Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in 16/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the top of the Yazoo Clay. Genus BOEHLENSIPOLLIS Krutzsch, 1962 Boehlensipollis hohlii Krutzsch Plate 14, figures 13—14 Boehlensipollis hohli Krutzsch. 1962, p. 272, text-fig. 2; pl. 3, figs. 18—30. Remarks—This species is distinguished by its triangular shape with narrowly rounded corners, syncol- porate apertures, and granulate to punctate design. Affinity.—Elaeagnaceae. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” to “occasional” in 29/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group, espe- cially in Mississippi. Genus GOTHANIPOLLIS Krutzsch, 1959a Gothanipollis cockfieldensis Engelhardt Plate 14, figure 16 Gotham'pollis sp. 1. Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 75, pl. 3, figs. 35—37. Gothanipollis cockfieldensis Engelhardt, 1964b, p. 598—600, pl. 1, figs. 1—4. Gothanipollis sp. Fairchild and Elsik, 1969, p. 84, pl. 37, fig. 20. Gothanipollis sp. Tschudy, 1973, p. B16, pl. 4, fig. 4 only. Remarks—This species is triangular with straight to concave sides and blunt corners that have flaring tips; it is syncolporateand punctate to weakly granulate. Aflinity.—Perhaps Loranthus (Loranthaceae); similar to pollen of Loranthus eugenioides Humboldt, Bonpland, and Kunth illustrated by Kuprianova (1966, pl. 2, fig. 9). Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in 8 or 9/56 counted sam- ples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the Yazoo Clay. Genus BOMBACACIDITES Couper, 1960 emend. Krutzsch, 1970b Bombacacidites nacimientoensis (Anderson) Elsik Plate 14, figure 15 Bombacacidites nacimientoensis Anderson, 1960, p. 23, pl. 8, fig. 13. Bombacacidites nacimientoensis (Anderson, 1960) Elsik, 1968b, p. 620, pl. 22, figs. 1—2, 4. Bombacacidites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 5, figs. 17—19. Remarks—In this species, the outline is triangular with nearly straight sides and rather narrowly rounded corners; grain is planaperturate and has a reticulum that is rather coarse over most of the exine but becomes much finer at the corners. Affinity.—Probably Bombacaceae (Krutzsch, 1970b, p. 280). Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in 14/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus TILIA Linnaeus Tilia instructs (Potonié) n. comb. Plate 14, figures 21—22 Tiliae-pollenites instmctus Potonié, 1931c, p. 556, fig. 9 (basionym). Intratriporopollenites instmctus (Potonié) Thomson and Pflug, 1953, p. 89, pl. 10, figs. 14—23. Tiliaepollenites cf. T. instmctus (R. Potonié, 1931) Potonié and Venitz, 1934. Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 77, pl. 5, fig. 56. Tiliaepollemtes sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 5, figs. 16a—b. Remarks—This species is characterized by its rather large size, very fine reticulum, and broadly rounded tri— angular shape. Photographs of the holotype and other specimens of this species appear in Mai, 1961 (pl. 12, figs. 1-18). Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in 17/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus INTRATRIPOROPOLLENITES Pflug and Thomson in Thomson and Pflug, 1953 Remarks—Mai (1961, p. 58) showed that the genus Tiliae-pollenites Potonié, 1931b, must be rejected be- cause it is based on a modern grain of Tilia which became mixed in With the fossils. Intratriporopollenites stavensis n. sp. Plate 14, figures 17—20 Tiliaepollem'tes sp. Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 77, pl. 4, fig. 48. Tiliaepollenites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 5, figs. 13, ?lla—b, ?14—15. Description—Size 16-31 pm, mean 25 um, holotype 24 um. Tricolporate, rarely tetracolporate (pl. 14, figs. 19, 20). Peroblate; outline rounded triangular, occasion- ally nearly round. Exine 1 ,um thick including ornamen- tation; sexinemexine ratio 2—321. Sexine reticulate, the muri about 0.3 mm wide and slightly clavate in optical section, rising 0.5 pm or less above exine surface. Lu- mina polygonal, about 1 pm in diameter, with a small granum in the center of each lumen. Sexine slightly over- hangs apertures; colpi and ora 1—2 pm wide at equator; reticulum extends to edges of apertures. Nexine at the apertures thickens perpendicular to sexine; nexine (end- annulus) 1.5—2.5 um thick around vestibula, thinning slightly toward bases of vestibula. 60 SPOROMORPHS, JACKSON GROUP AND ADJACENT STRATA, MISSISSIPPI AND ALABAMA Holotype.—Plate 14, figure 17, slide 10547 A—2, co- ordinates 28.4 X 112.6, North Twistwood Creek Mem- ber of the Yazoo Clay at Little Stave Creek, Clarke County, Ala. Remarks—Tilt}; crassipites Wodehouse, 1933, is larger; Intratm'poropollenites neumarkensis Mai, 1961, has a thinner endannulus and a different aperture struc- ture; Bombacacidites reticulatus Krutzsch, 1961, also has a thinner endannulus, and it lacks the granum in the center of each lumen. Affinity—Probably Tiliaceae (a similar aperture structure occurs in Diplodiscus paniculatus Turczani— now); possibly Bombacaceae. Somewhat similar to Fre- montodendron (Bombacaceae or Sterculiaceae). Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in 36/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Genus RETICULATAEPOLLIS Krutzsch, 1959a Reticulataepollis reticlavata n. sp. Plate 14, figures 23—26 Description—Size 16—30 pm, mean 23 um, holotype 23 um. Tricolporate. Oblate; outline rounded triangular. Exine 0.5 pm thick; reticulate, the muri coarsely clavate in optical section, muri 0.5—1 um thick, clavae 1.5—2 ,u.m high, projecting slightly above muri; muri 1 um wide, lumina 1.5—2.5 mm in diameter. Colpi boat shaped, 5.5 ,u.m long and 1 pm wide; ora 1—1.5 pm in diameter; endannulus 3-5.5 pm in diameter. Holotype.—-Plate 14, figures 23—24, slide 10558 A- 1, coordinates 36.7 X 118.8, Gosport Sand at Little Stave Creek, Clarke County, Ala. Remarks—The specific epithet refers to the reticu— late design (reticulum, Latin, “net”) and the clavate op- tical section of the muri (claw/a, Latin, “c1ub”). In Reti— culataepollis intergranulata (Potonié, 1934) Krutzsch, 1959a (and its probable synonym Transdanubiaepollen- ites magnus Kedves and Pardutz, 1973), the surface of the lumina is granulate. Afi’inity.—Kirkia (Simarubaceae) is similar but has very long colpi. Krutzsch (1959a, p. 243) suggested a sim— ilarity to Euphorbiaceae. Ligustrum ovalifolium Hassk. (Oleaceae; illustrated by Aubert and others, 1959, pl. 1, figs. 14—17) is also very similar. Occurrence.——“Infrequent” in 10/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group and the Ya- zoo Clay. Reticulataepollis cf. R. intergranulata (Potonié) Krutzsch Reticulataepollis cf. R. intergmnulatus (R. Potonié, 1934) Krutzsch, 1959a. Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 72, pl. 2, figs. 20, 24. Remarks.—Engelhardt’s (1964a, pl. 2, figs. 20, 24) il- lustrated specimen from the upper part of the Cockfield Formation at Jackson, Miss., is very similar to Reticu- . lataepollis intergranulata, but it does not appear to have granulate lumina. I have not observed Engelhardt’s spe— cies in my material. Genus SYMPLOCOS Jacquin Remarks—Many species of Tertiary pollen grains have been assigned to the form genera Porocolpopollen— ites Pflug and Symplocoipollenites Potonié. The many studies now available on Holocene pollen grains have shown that no genera other than Symplocos have grains of the Porocolpopollemtes-Symplocoipollem'tes type. Erdtman (1952, p. 425) already pointed out that the pol— len type of Symplocos is unique. Therefore it seems jus— tified to transfer a number of fossil pollen species to the modern genus. Most species previously assigned to the Proteaceae from the Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary of North America probably belong instead to the Symplo— caceae (McLeroy, 1971, p. 96). The following species are transferred to Symplocos: Symplocos austella (Partridge) n. comb. Basionym.—Symplocoip0llem'tes austellus Partridge in Stover and Partridge, 1973, p. 258, pl. 17, fig. 20. Symplocos calauensis (Krutzsch) n. comb. Basianym.——P0rocolpopollenites calauensis Krutzsch , 1961, p. 318, pl. 4, figs. 94—98. Symplocos latiporis (Pflug and Thomson) n. comb. Basionym.—Porocolpopollenites latiporis Pflug and Thomson in Thomson and Pflug, 1953, p. 93, pl. 10, figs. 123—124. Symplocos microvestibulum (Krutzsch) n. comb. Basionym.—Porocolp0pollenites microvestibulum Krutzsch, 1961, p. 318, pl. 4, figs. 80—85. Symplocos orbiformis (Pflug and Thomson) n. comb. Basionym.—Porocolpopollenites orbzformis Pflug and Thomson in Thomson and Pflug, 1953, p. 94, pl. 11, figs. 24—26. Symplocos schwarzbachii (Weyland and Takahashi) n. comb. Basionym.—P0rocolp0pollem'tes schwarzbachi Wey- land and Takahashi, 1961, p. 101, pl. 43, figs. 41—42. Symplocos triangula (Potonié) n. comb. Basionym.—Pollenites tm’angulus Potonié, 1931a, p. 332, pl. 2, fig. 9. Symplocos vestibulofmmis (Pflug) n. comb. Basionym.—Porocolpop0llenitesvestibuloformis Pflug in Thomson and Pflug, 1953, p. 93, pl. 10, fig. 122. Symplocos vestibulum (Potonié) n. comb. Basionym.—Pollem'tes vestibulum Potonié, 1931a, p. 332, pl. 2, fig. 23. Symplocos arcuata n. sp. Plate 15, figures 1—4 Symplocoipollemtes sp. Fairchild and Elsik, 1969, p. 84, pl. 37, fig. 715. PALYNOLOGY Description—Size 26—30 um (six specimens), mean 28 um, holotype 26 um. Oblate or peroblate; outline tri- angular with convex sides. Tricolporate, colpi extending about one—third the distance to poles, not bordered by thickenings; ora obscure in polar view; vestibulum slit shaped in optical section because both sexine and nexine are arched outward at the apertures. Exine 1 pm thick excluding ornamentation, weakly tegillate, sexine:nexine ratio 1.5:1; at the apertures, sexine is about 1.3 Mm thick and nexine 1 am; thickening of exine at apertures (tu- mescence) produces darker exine color in aperture re— gion. Exine rugulate to verrucate, elements 0.5 um wide and 0.2—0.5 ,um high; no negative reticulum present. Holotype.—P1ate 15, figures 1-2, slide 10556 A—1, coordinates 31.5 X 114.0, Gosport Sand at Little Stave Creek, Clarke County, Ala. Remarks.—-Symplocos arcuata is characterized by having the nexine arched outward at the apertures (ar- cuatus, Latin, “bent like a bow”) so that the vestibulum is a slitlike arc or thin crescent in optical section; in most other species of the genus, the nexine is flat or arched inward at the aperture so that the vestibulum is more or less lens shaped in optical section. Symplocos austella (Partridge) n. comb. is similar to S. arcuata but is finely granulate. ‘ Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in three counted samples and present in one uncounted sample; it ranges from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Symplocos ceciliensis (Thiergart) n. comb. Plate 15, figure 5 Symplocos-pollenites vestibulum ceciliensis Thiergart in Potonié and others, 1950, p. 61, p1. C, fig. 35 (basionym). Symplocoipollenites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 5, figs. ?10, ?12. Remarks.—Symplocos ceciliensis is granulate to ver- rucate, whereas Symplocos vestibulum vestibulum (Po- tonié) n. comb. is rather finely granulate. The two forms are different enough that they can be considered sepa- rate species. Occm'rence.-——“Infrequent” in 13/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Symplocos contracta n. sp. Plate 15, figures 6—9 Symplocoipollem'tes sp. 1. Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 75, pl. 4, fig. 39. T’m’poropollem‘tes sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 3, fig. 13. Porocolpopollenites spp. Tschudy, 1973, p. B15, pl. 3, figs. 5—6. Description—Size 22—34 pm, mean 28 um, holotype 32 ,um. Peroblate; outline triangular with straight to slightly convex sides. Tricolporate. Exine finely foveo- late and tegillate; midway between apertures it is 1.5—2 61 pm thick. Nexine 0.5 pm, endosexine 0.7—1 um, ecto- sexine 0.3—0.5 mm; sexine thins gradually toward aper- tures, where it is 0.5—1 um thick. Colpi 1—2.5 mm long, lacking marginal thickenings; ora obscure; vestibula 0.5 am or less deep, typically slitlike in optical section. Holotype.—Plate 15, figures 6—7, slide 10556 A—1, coordinates 28.7 X 120.4, Gosport Sand at Little Stave Creek, Clarke County, Ala. Remarks—The specific epithet (contractus, Latin, “compressed, narrowed”) refers to the thinning of the sexine toward the apertures. In Symplocos vestibulum (Potonié, 1931a) n. comb., S.» triangula (Potonié, 1931a) 11. comb., and S. novae-angliae Traverse, 1955, the sex- ine does not thin toward the apertures; Symplocos jack— soniana Traverse, 1955, and S. scabripollinia Traverse, 1955, have concave sides. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in 29/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Symplocos gemmata n. sp. Plate 15, figures 10—14 Symplocoipollemtes sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 5, figs. 6a—b. Porocolpopollenites spp. Tschudy, 1973, p. B16, pl. 4, figs. 8—9. Description—Size 19—31 am, mean 26 ,um, holotype 29 um. Tricolporate. Oblate; outline triangular with strongly convex to nearly straight sides. Exine 1 um thick, sexineznexine ratio 2:1 except at apertures. Sexine indistinctly tegillate and rather sparsely to densely gem- mate to granulate, the elements typically varying in size on each specimen, from 0.3 to 1.5 um in diameter and to as much as 1 am in height. Ornamentation covers entire exine up to edge of apertures. Colpi 0.5—1 Mm wide at the equator, narrowing rapidly away from the equator; colpi very short, usually not extending beyond endannu- lus, often barely visible so that some grains look tripor— ate; colpi may be bordered by narrow (0.5-p.m-wide), smooth margines which wrap around ends of colpi. Shal— low vestibula present. Endannuli 2-3 am thick, with ora about 2.5 ,um in diameter; sexine does not thicken at apertures. Holotype.—Plate 15, figure 10, slide 10653 A—1, co- ordinates 20.4 X 125.3, Yazoo Clay near Cynthia, Hinds County, Miss. Remarks.——Symplocos gemmata is distinguished by its convex sides and gemmate to granulate ornamenta- tion. The specific epithet (gemmatus, Latin, “with buds”) refers to the ornamentation. Symplocos lati- pom's (Pflug and Thomson) n. comb. has straight sides and is more finely gemmate. Symplocos calauensis (Krutzsch, 1961) n. comb. has a distinctly columellate sexine, and the design between the gemmae is distinctly punctate. 62 Affinity—Similar to modern pollen of Symplocos aneityensis de la Rue, illustrated by van der Meijden (1970, pl. 6, figs. 14%). Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in 13 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the top of the Yazoo Clay. Symplocos jacksoniana Traverse Plate 15, figures 15—16 Symplocos jacksoniana Traverse, 1955, p. 73, fig. 13 (128). Symplocoipollenites jacksom'us (Traverse) Potonié, 1960, p. 107. Proteacidites sp. Engelhardt, 19643, p. 75, pl. 4, fig. 41. Symplocoipollenites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 5, fig. 9. Remarks—Thomson and Pflug (1953, p. 94, pl. 11, figs. 3—23) described and illustrated specimens that they attributed to Porocolpopollenites vestibulum (Po- tonié, 1931a) Thomson and Pflug, 1953 [ = Symplocos vestibulum (Potonié) n. comb. ] but that probably belong to Symplocos jacksoniamt. The holotype of S. vestibu- lum is granulate (Potonié, 19313, pl. 2, fig. 23; Potonié and others, 1951, p. 61; Potonié, 1960, p. 106—107), whereas S. jacksom'ana and the specimens of Thomson and Pflug are reticulate-rugulate-foveolate. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in six counted samples from the Cockfield Formation and the Yazoo Clay. Symplocos tecta n. sp. Plate 15, figures 17—20 Tricolporopollenites sp. 7. Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 74, pl. 3, fig. 32. Description—Size 26—34 um, mean 31 um, holotype 34 um. Oblate or peroblate; outline rounded triangular. Tricolporate; colpi extend one-third to one-half the dis- tance to poles, not bordered by thickenings; vestibula shallow, often slitlike in optical section, sometimes cov- ered by folds; ora obscure in polar view. Exine 3—4 pm thick midway between apertures; tegillate, ecto- sexinezendosexineznexine ratio about 2—4:1:1; sexine thins toward apertures. Exine infraverrucate to infraru- gulate, elements 0.5—1 um wide; very fine negative re- ticulum present. Holotype.—Plate 15, figures 17—18, slide 10663 A— 1, coordinates 23.3 x 112.8, Moodys Branch Formation near Rose Hill, Jasper County, Miss. Remarks.—Symplocos tecta is characterized by its thick tegillate exine (tectus, Latin, “covered” = tegillate) and fine infrareticulum. Aflnity.——Similar to modern pollen of Symplocos glauca Petelot, illustrated by van der Meijden (1970, pl. 2, figs. 4—7). Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in 9/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. SPOROMORPHS, JACKSON GROUP AND ADJACENT STRATA, MISSISSIPPI AND ALABAMA Symplocos? thalmannli (Anderson) 11. comb. Plate 15, figure 21 Proteacidites thalmanni Anderson, 1960, p. 21, pl. 2, figs. 1—4; pl. 10, figs. 9—13 (basionym). Aflinity.—Martin and Harris (1974, p. 111) pointed out that this species is brevicolporate and thus does not belong to Proteacidites. They also noted that Rouse (1962, p. 205) originally considered a similar or identical species, Proteacidites terrazus Rouse, 1962, to belong to Symplocos. Occurrence—These specimens may be reworked. The species has previously been reported from the upper- most Cretaceous but not from the Paleocene. On the other hand, it occurs in six Mississippi samples ranging from Cockfield to Forest Hill in age, and this distribution would be unusual if the grains were reworked. Hopkins (1967, pl. 4) observed the species in the upper Eocene- medial Oligocene sequence of Oregon. This species in- cludes specimens of rather simple structure and orna- mentation, and the grains may have been produced by different species or even genera of plants at various times during the Late Cretaceous and Tertiary. Symplocos sp. Plate 15, figure 22 Symplocoipollenites sp. 2. Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 75, pl. 4, fig. 40. Description—Size 30—31 ,um (three specimens, in— cluding Engelhardt’s illustrated specimen). This species is much like Symplocos contracta n. sp. except that it is punctate and faintly tegillate, whereas S. contracta is foveolate and more or less distinctly tegillate. Symplocos sp. may be synonymous with Symplocos schwarzbachii (Weyland and Takahashi) n. comb, although the latter is slightly larger (40—44 um) and is described as being “chegranat” (Weyland and Takahashi, 1961, p. 101); the illustration of the holotype suggests that the species is very finely granulate in design. Occurrence—Three specimens known from the Cock— field Formation and the Yazoo Clay of western Missis- sippi. Genus NUDOPOLLIS Pflug, 1953 Nudopollis terminalis (Pflug and Thomson) Elsik Plate 15, figure 23 Extratriporopollenites terminalis Pflug and Thomson in Thtmson and Pflug, 1953, p. 71, pl. 6, figs. 30—36. Nudopollis terminalis (Pflug and Thomson, 1953) Elsik, 1968b, p. 648. Nudopollis spp. of the N. temimlis type. Tschudy, 1973, p. B14, pl. 2, figs. 18—20. N udopollis aff. N. terminalis (Thomson and Pflug) Pflug, 1953. Tschudy, 1975, p. 16, pl. 8, figs. 16—25. PALYNOLOGY 6 3 Remarks.—-Pflug (1953, p. 161) is considered by most writers to be the author of the combination Nudopollis terminalis; however, according to the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (Lanjouw and others, 1966, Art. 33), in combining the specific epithet with Nudopol- lis, Pflug did not give “a full and direct reference * * * to [the basionym’s] author and original publication with page or plate reference and date.” Thus, the combina- tion was not valid in Pflug’s paper. Afl’inity.—Unknown. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in 15/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the top of zone I (nearly to the top of the Yazoo Clay). This species ranges down into the Paleocene of the gulf coast (Elsik, 1968b, p. 650; Tschudy, 1975, p. 16). According to Tschudy (1973, 1975) and Elsik (1974b; Elsik and Dilcher, 1974), Nudopollis terminalis does not range higher than the top of the Claiborne Group. However, these authors also pointed out that the species reaches its maximum relative frequencies in the upper part of the Claiborne; thus, it is not surprising that the species is now found to range well up into the Jackson. Genus TETRACOLPOROPOLLENITES Pflug and Thomson in Thomson and Pflug, 1953 Remarks—The synonymy of this genus was discussed by Potonié (1966, p. 172—173). Tetracolporopollenites brevis n. sp. Plate 16, figures 1—3 Sapotaceoidacpollenites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 5, figs. 4, 8a—b. Description—Size 24—42 pm, mean 32 um, holotype 31 um. Prolate spheroidal to prolate; sides straight to convex. Tetracolporate; colpi only one-half to two-thirds the length of grain, 0.5 gm wide or less, sometimes bor- dered by narrow thickenings; ora distinct, lalongate, about 2—2.5 am x 5—6 am. Exine 1.2—1.5 pm thick, nexine very thin; exine often slightly thicker in equato- rial region, producing darkened equatorial band. Exine psilate to faintly punctate. Holotype.—Plate 16, figure 1, slide 10675 A—l, coor- dinates 24.2 X 120.0, Yazoo Clay at Yazoo City, Miss. Remarks.—Tetracolporopollenites brevis is distin- guished by its short colpi (brevis, Latin, “short”) and psilate or nearly psilate exine. Affinity.—Sapotaceae, perhaps Bumelia. 0ccuwence.—“Infrequent” in 8/56 counted samples from the Moodys Branch Formation to the Forest Hill Sand in western and eastern Mississippi. Tetracolporopollenites lesquereuxianus (Traverse) n. comb. Plate 16, figure 4 Mani/loam lesquereuxiana Traverse, 1955, p. 70, fig. 12 (120—121) (basionym). Sapotaceoidaepollemtes lesquereuxianus (Traverse) Potonié, 1960, p. 109. Sapotaceoidaepollenites cf. S. manifestus (R. Potonié, 1931) Potonié, Thomson, and Thiergart, 1950. Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 76, pl. 4, fig. 49. Sapotaceoidwepollenites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 5, figs. 7a—b. Remarks—Grains in this species are generally sub- prolate, psilate to punctate, and tetracolporate and have rather long colpi and distinct lalongate ora. Affinity.—Sapotaceae, probably M anilka’ra at least in part. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” to “occasional” in 37/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. Tetracolporopollenitcs megadolium (Potonié) n. comb. Plate 16, figure 5 Pollem'tes megadolium Potonié, 1931a, p. 332, pl. 1, figs. 16, 25 (bas- ionym). Sapotaceoidaepollenites megadolium (Potonié) Potonié, 1960, p. 109. Tn'colpo'ropollenites sp. 6. Engelhardt, 1964a, p. 74, pl. 3, fig. 31. Tricolpo'rites sp. Tschudy and Van Loenen, 1970, pl. 5, fig. 5. Remarks.—Potonié described this species and its in- traspecific variations in detail (Potonié, 1934, p. 88— 89, pl. 4, figs. 32—34; pl. 5, figs. 2, 4, 5, 7, 9; Potonié and Venitz, 1934, p. 42, pl. 4, figs. 120, 122). Specimens from the Jackson Group and adjacent strata show the full range of variation described by Potonié. However, he in- cluded three— and four-colporate specimens in the spe- cies, and the former predominated; I have included only three-colporate specimens in this species and have placed the four-colporate specimens of similar type in the spe- cies Tetracolporopollenites lesquereuxianus (Traverse, 1955) n. comb. Potonié (1934, p. 88) reported a size range of 40—80 inn for T. megadolium from the Eocene, and he reported (in Potonié and Venitz, 1934, p. 42) a size range of 20—42 am for the species from the Miocene. Thus the size as well as the design and colpus-os relation- ships are quite variable in this species. My specimens were 27—54 mm, with a mean of only 35 ,um; most speci- mens were between 29 and 36 ,um. Pflug and Thomson (in Thomson and Pflug, 1953, p. 108) defined the genus Tetracolpo'ropollenites to include both three- and four- colporate forms, and Potonié (1960, p. 109) included Pol- lem'tes megadolium in his genus Sapotaceoidaepollen— ites, which is a synonym of Tetracolporopollenites. Aflinity.—Sapotaceae. Probably produced at least in part by the same plants as Tetracolporopollenites les- que’reuxianus (Traverse, 1955) n. comb. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” to “common” in 40/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. 64 Tetracolporopollenites sp. Plate 16, figure 6 Description—Size 18 x 21 am (one specimen); sub— prolate. Tetracolporate; colpi narrow, extending one-third the length of grain; ora lalongate, 1.5 X 4 pm, covered by thin bulging layer of exine. Exine 0.3 gm thick at poles, increasing to 0.5 gm thick at equator, resulting in darkened equatorial band. Exine indistinctly tegillate; design granulate. Remarks.—Tetmcolp0r0pollenites sp. is similar to the so—called Pollem'tes manifestus Potonié, 1931b, illus- trated by Potonié, 1934 (p. 86—87, pl. 4, figs. 24—31; pl. 6, fig. 26). This Eocene species of Potonié (1934) is not the same as the Miocene holotype of Pollem’tes manifes- tus described in Potonié, 1931b, and redescribed by P0- tonié and Venitz (1934, p. 41, pl. 4, fig. 117). Potonié and Venitz pointed out that the Miocene form (that is, true Pollem’tes manifestus) has longer colpi than the Eocene specimens. Thus the Eocene Pollem'tes mamfestus of Potonié (1934) should be a new species. My specimen has short colpi like Potonié’s Eocene “Pollem'tes manifes— tus,” and it is granulate like that species and like the true Pollem'tes mamlfestus. However, it is smaller, and it has a thinner exine and is subprolate, whereas Po- tonié’s Eocene specimens are prolate. Tetracolporopol- lenites manifestus (Potonié) Thomson and Pflug, 1953 (p. 110, pl. 15, figs. 35—43) is still another species, similar to Potonié’s Eocene “Pollem'tes manifestus” but psilate. The specimen that Fairchild and Elsik (1969, p. 83, pl. 37, fig. 7) labeled Sapotaceae(?) is similar to Tetracolpo- Topollem'tes sp. but is psilate. A ffim'ty. —Sapotaceae. Occurrence—One specimen observed from the Yazoo Clay of western Mississippi. Genus FOVEOSTEPHANOCOLPORITES Leidelmeyer, 1966 Foveostephanocolporites bellus n. sp. Plate 16, figures 7—12 Description—Size 25—36 ,um (four specimens), holo- type 36 ,um. Subprolate t0 prolate, with broadly rounded to flattened poles. Stephanocolporate (12 colpi), colpi ex- tending nearly full length of grain, 1 am wide; some of the colpi may widen to 1.5—2 pm wide at the ora; width of intercolpia at the equator 2—3 ,um. Edges of colpi not modified. Zonorate, thinning of exine forming a pale band 4—6 ,u.m Wide at the equator. Exine at poles 0.5—1 pm thick, thickening toward the equator, exine at edge of orate band twice as thick as at the poles; orate band formed by an abrupt loss of the inner half of the exine. Exine stratification rather obscure, tegillum lacking or columellae only faintly present; at the poles, ectosexinezendosexine:nexine ratio is apparently 1:221; near the equator, sexineznexine ratio is apparently 1:1, SPOROMORPHS, JACKSON GROUP AND ADJACENT STRATA, MISSISSIPPI AND ALABAMA and nexine is lacking in the orate band. Thus, most of the thickening of the exine from the poles toward the equa- tor is probably due to thickening of the nexine. Exine foveolate, the pits 0.5 pm in diameter, two to three.ir- regular rows of them present down each intercolpia] strip. Holotype.—Plate 16, figures 7—8, slide 10557 A—2, coordinates 25.0 x 119.6, Gosport Sand at Little Stave Creek, Clarke County, Ala. Remarks—The specific epithet bellus is Latin for “pretty.” Foveostepha'nocolporites limcostatus Leidel- meyer, 1966, may be zonorate, but it has a circumequa— torial bulge and is much larger. Aflinity.—Perhaps Polygalaceae. Occurrence—Known from the Gosport Sand at Little Stave Creek and the Cockfield Formation-Moodys Branch Formation transition zone and the lower part of the Ya- zoo Clay at Jackson, Miss. Genus ERICIPITES Wodehouse, 1933 Ericipites aff. E. ericius (Potonié) Potonié Plate 16, figures 13—14 Pollem'tes ericius Potonié, 1931a, p. 332, pl. 2, fig. 25. Ericz'pites ericius (Potonié) Potonié, 1960, p. 138. Description—Size of tetrad 25—36 am. Tetrad very compact, only slight indentations present in the overall outline where grains meet. Tricolporate; colpi one-half to two-thirds of the radius of individual grain; ora inconspic- uous, round, 1 ,um or less in diameter. Colpi of adjacent grains meet at the junctures of the grains two by two (Fischer’s rule). Exine 1—1.5 um thick, ectosexine: endosexineznexine ratio about 121.3:1; columellae appar- ently lacking 0r faintly visible; exine punctate. Remarks.—Krutzsch (1970c, pl. 54, figs. 1—6 and 7— 10) provided photomicrographs of the holotype and lec- totype, respectively, of Ericipites ericius and E. calli- dus (Potonié, 1931a) Krutzsch, 1970c. The holotype of E. em'cius may have a thicker exine than the J ackson-Vicks- burg specimens, but it is also possible that folds are pres- ent in the holotype which make the exine appear thicker than it really is; specimens attributed to E. ericius by Sontag (1966, pl. 69, figs. 2—4) have exines that are only about 1—1.5 mm thick. The holotype of E. en'cius has colpi that are slightly longer than one-half the radius of the individual grains, and the exine appears to be punc- tate. Colpi are not visible in the photomicrograph of the lectotype of E . callidus, but according to Krutzsch (1970c, p. 422), E. callidus and E. em‘cius may be synonyms of each other. The exine of the lectotype of E. callidus ap- pears to be weakly granulate in design, but columellae are only faintly Visible. The holotype 0f Ericipites acas- tus (Potonié, 1931b) Krutzsch, 1970c, appears to be sim- REFERENCES CITED 65 ilar in all respects to that of E. ericius. Sontag (1966, pl. 70, fig. 5) and Krutzsch (1970c, p. 422) interpreted E. acastus as including forms that have heavy folds along the junctures of the grains, but this is a characteristic of the specimen that Potonié (1931b, fig. 2) labelled Pollen- ites cf. acastus, and the holotype of E. acastus probably does not show this feature. In En'cipites lengisulcatus Wodehouse, 1933, the colpi are probably rather broad, but otherwise the grains may be similar to the Jackson- Vicksburg specimens; however, the morphology of E. longisulcatus is poorly known. The ora in Ericipites compactipolliniatus (Traverse, 1955) Potonié, 1960, are narrow and lalongate. Afi‘im’ty. —Probably Ericaceae. Occurrence.—“Infrequent” in 15/56 counted samples from the Moodys Branch Formation to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group; mostly in the upper part of the Ya- zoo Clay, Forest Hill Sand, and Red Bluff Clay. Ericipites redblufl'ensis n. sp. Plate 16, figures 15—18 Description—Size of tetrad 27—32 pm, mean 29 um, holotype 29 um. Distinct notches present in outline of tetrad where grains meet. Individual grains more or less spheroidal; outline of grain in polar View triangular with concave to convex sides. Tricolpate with definite geniculi and probably no ora, colpi extending nearly full length of grain or sometimes syncolpate. Colpi of adjacent grains probably meet fundamentally according to Fischer’s rule, but because the grains are syncolpate or nearly so, colpi of all four grains of the tetrad meet at or nearly at the center of the tetrad. Exine 1 pm thick, tegillate, ectosex- ine:endosexine:nexine ratio 1:2:1; sharply infragranulate to finely infraverrucate; outline rough. Holotype.—Plate 16, figure 15, slide 10529 A—l, co- ordinates 28.5 x 126.1, Red Bluff Clay near Hiwannee, Wayne County, Miss. Remarks.—Ericipites redbluffensis is characterized by its long, geniculate colpi and infragranulate to finely infraverrucate design. In Laxipollis lama (Traverse, 1955) Krutzsch, 1970c, the colpi of each grain in polar View form a triangle; in Ericipites redbluffensis, the colpi of individual grains in polar View form a “trilete mark.” Affinity. —Ericaceae? Occurrence—“Infrequent” to “occasional” in 13/56 counted samples from the upper part of the Claiborne Group to the lower part of the Vicksburg Group. 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Trudy, V. 6, 219 p., 17 pls. ’ INDEX [Italic page numbers indicate the beginning of descriptions and major references] Page Page A Aspleniaceae _______________________ 28 asymmetricus, Monoxulcites 44' pl. 9 Abietineaepollenfies ___________________ 35 aureum, Acrostichum ____________ 31 microalatus _ e- 34 austellus (-a.) , Symplocoipollem’tes 60 sp ___________ _ 34, 35, 36 Symplocoxg ___________________ 1- 60, 61 acastus, Ericipites __ 64 aust'ralis (-um) , Sphagn1tea 34 Pollenites __ 65 Sphagnum _____________ _ 34; pl. 4 accessorius, Nyssapollemtes __ 55 Sphagnumsporites 34 Acer _____________________ ___- 50 Stereispo'rites ___ 34 atriatellum _ _ 50: pl. 11 Triletes _____ 34 Aceraceae __________ ——-_ 510 Auversian Stage ____________________ 10 Acrostichum uureum _ _ 31 acutifolius, Podocarpus _ 35 Adiantaceae _________ 30 B Adiantum ___________ 30 6111116717118, Leiotriletes 30 Baculatisporitea prima’r1us ____________ 31, 32 Lygod1umspm‘1tes 30: pl. 1 Balanophoraceae __________ 44 Punctat1— spo'r1tes ______ ___- 30 barbadiensis, Discoaster 10 afmms, Polypodfispo’rom'tes __ _ 28, pl. 1 barclayi, Rhus ________________ 55 Verrucatosporites 28 barghoorniana, Alangiopollis 58 Aglameidia _____ ___ 38 Baltonian Stage (England) __ 10 cyclops - _____ 38; pl. 7 11611113, Foveostcphanocolporites __ 28,64; pl. 16 pr1st1na _ _ 20 22 38: pl. 7 Belotia _____________________________ 56 A1lanth1p1tes 52, 56, 57 berryi, A1lanth1'p1tes -23 57; pl 14 berryi 23 57; pl 14 Betuslu ____________ pacatus 52 41' pl. 8 Ailanthus ; _____ _ 58 Beluslaceoipollenites b1tu1tus 41 Alabama River _ _ 6 5p ___________________ 41 Alangiaceae _ __ _ 58 biformis, Selaginella ______ 33 Alangiopollis ______ _ 58 b1tu1tus, Betulaceoipollenites 41 barghoornitma . 58 Blechnaceae ______________ 28 javanicoides __ __- 58 Boehlensipollis _ 59 sp _________ 58; pl. 14 ha hl1'i _____ 14 Alangium ______________ _ 58 Bombacaceae __ 60 Albertipollenites araneosus _ 49 Bombacaciditcs __ 59 Alfaroa ___________________ _ 39 nacimientoensis _ 14 alienua, Polypod11'spo1‘o’n1tea _ 28; pl. 1 reticulams 60 Sporom'tes ______________________ 28 ___________ 59 Verrucatospm‘ites _ 28 bradleyi, Rhaipites 55 Al'nipollenites verus ___- 42 Brahea ________________ 45 sp ___________ 42 bremanoirensis, Camus ________ 53 Al'nus __ 42 breuhlens1s, Pollem'tes c1ngulum 51 vera _ 42; pl. 8 brevicolpatus, Retitetracolpites 49 SD — brevis, Tetracolporopollenites -_-_ 28,63; pl. 16 Amanoa ________ 50 brevisulcatum (-113) , Amaranthaceae _ ______ 44 Chrysophyllum _____ 20, 51; pl. 11 ambiguipites. Myriophyllum _ 43 Cupuliferoipalle‘n‘ites ____________ 51 Amyema subalata ____________________ bruehlens1s, Tjicolporopollenites Anacardiaceae ___ 0. 52, 55, 56, 58 megaexactus ____________ 51 Anacolosa ————————————— Bruniaceae Anacolos1d1tes 44 Bullasporis efflatus __ —- 44 sp ___ _________________ -. 114; D1. 8 Bumelia _________-____--_____-__---_ andiniformis, Podocarpus _ 23, 34, 35 anedden11,Toro1'spor1's _ __ 30; pl. 2 aneityensis. Symplocos 62 C Anemia _____________________ _ 32 anesus, Myrtaceidites pawns _ 58; pl. 14 Calamospom ________________________ 31 angustus, Monoleiotriletes __ ____ 31 Calamuspollenites _ 45 Rhoipites _____________ 23 55, pl. 13 eocenicus __- 46; pl. 9 antiquasporites, Sphagnum ___- 34;p1.4 calauensia, Porocalpopollemtes Sphagnumsparites _______ _-_ 34 Symplocos _______________ _ 64), 61 anulus, Pollen1te3 _____ _ 43 callidus, Ericipites ___________ 64 Aphanocalyx __ __ _ 58 Camarozonosporites hamulatis __ __ 32, 33 Apocynaceae _ __ 44 heskememis ______________________ 3 Araliaceae _______ __ 57 cappulatus. Podocarpus _ 22 23 34 pl. 4 Aral1ace01pollen1tes _ __ 52 Caprifoliaceae _________ 49 5 edmundii ___- __________ 53 Caprifoliipites ___- ______ 52, 56, 57 granulatus 20. 23, 52: pl. 11 11Lcert1g'ra11d1's - 23, 56, 57; pl. 13 megaporifer _ 2,3, 52; pls. 11, 12 microreticulatus _______ prufundus __________________ 23. 53; pl. 12 tantulua‘ ________ _ 210 57' pl 14 uraneosus (-a), Albertipollemtes _______ 49 viridi-fluminis ________ 57 12011820. ________________________ 49; pl. 10 Cardioangulina d1aphana __ 30 arcuata, Symplocos 23, 60; pl. 15 Carya __________________ 42 Arecip1tes _____________ simplex _ 42; pl 8 columellus _ 45 46; pl 9 verizn'tes 22, 42, pl. 8 lusaticus __________ sp ________________ 42 pseudoctm'uexus 46 Camayollem’tes 42 punctatus _____ 45 sp _________________ 42 wiesaenais _____ 46 01138111 ___- argentea, Thrinax 45 certa 22, 47; pl: 9 Armen'a ___________________ 50 Castanea arobo'ratus, Triatriopollenites 40; pl. 8 sp _ __ 50 Aspidiaceae __________________________ 28 Castanopsis ________________________ 50 Page Cusuarinidites ________________________ 40, 41 discrepant; ___ ___- 20, 40; pl 7 granilabrutus _ 20 40 41; pl 7 pulcher _____________ Cathedra ____________ --_ 44 cecilienais, Symplocos ________ -__ 61; pl. 15 Symplocos-pollenites vestibulum 61 Ced'ripites piniformis _________________ 36 Cedrus ______________ ___ 35, 36 piniformis _ 36‘; pl. 6 Celtia ________ 4.? tezensis - _ 43 tschudu1 _________ _ 43: pl. 8 cembraeformis, P111118 _ 35; pl. 5 P1tyosporites _____ 35 Centrolepidaceae . 38 Centrolepis ___________ 38 cernum, Lycopadium ______ certu (-148) , Cassia ________ _ 22, 47; pl 9 Cupulife'roidaepollenites ______ 47 champlainensis, Jusaiaea ___ 39 chegan1ca, Ephedra. ______ 37 Cheiropleuria ___- 30 Cheiropleuriaceae 30 Chenopodiaceae __ 43,44 Chenopod1pollis 44 __________ 44; pl. 8 Chlusmys spillmam _ Chrysophyllum _____________ brcv1sulcatum 20. 51' pl. 11 C1cat'ricos1spa'r1tes ______ dorogensis ___ _ 32; pl. 3 embryonalis _ _ 32:131. 3 paradorogensis _________________ 32; pl. 3 pseudodorogcnsis tenuiatriatus _____ 29 Cingulatisporites heskemensis _________ 33 cingulum breuhlensis,Pollen1£ea -_ 51 ovalis, Pollem'tes __________ ___ 54 Claiborne Group ______ _ 4, 5, 20, 22 claricristata, Ephedra _ _ 36; pl. 7 Cliftonia. _____________________________ Cockfield Formation of the Claiborne Group ...... 4, 5, 7, 23 cockfieldensis, Gotham'pollis ________ 59; pl. 14 Cocoa Sand Member of the Yazoo Clay ______________ 6, 10 colporatus, Yeguapallia _-_ __ 53 columbiana, 1711111111113 __ __ 49 columellus, Arecipites ________ 45, 46; pl. 9 compact1poll1n1atus. Er1c1'pites _____ 65 Compton1u ___________________ __ 40, 41 Concav1spor1tes 29 disc1tes ___ 29; pl. 1 sic/11911813 __ -_-- 29 concmvus, Undulatisporites 31; pl. 2 Confertisulcites _ 45 fus1formis 45; pl. 9 confossus, Monulcipollenites _ ___- 38 60113111011113, Parsonsidites ________ 20, 48; pl. 8 contortus, Tricolporopollenites Icruschii - contracta, Symplacos _____ 20, 28, 61, 62:111. 15 contrajerva, Dorstenia. ________________ convexa (-11m,-us), Favoisparis _ __ 32 Lycopodmm _______________ 32; pl. 3 Sabalpollemtes _____ 45 Cornaceae ____________ 52, 53, 55 Camus bremanoirensis Corsinipollenites oculus noctis _________ 39 caryloides Momipites ________ 20, 38. 39, pl. 7 Carylus granilabrata 40 coryphaeus, Tr1at1'1'opolle111'tes tetraexitu'm, Pollenites crass1p1tes, T1'l1'a ______________________ crockettensis, Nazpollcnites cruciatus, Verrutricolporites Cryptomeria cryptoporus, Rhoipites Ctenoptcris clsikii Cupan1eid1£es _________________________ mthoteichus sp _______________________________ 72 Cupressacites hiatipites 86'; pl. 6 Cupuliferaidaepollemtes _ 46 certus __________________ 47 liblaremis 20, 46; pl. 9 selectus 22 47; pl. 9 ____________________ 30 Cupuliferoipollenites _-__ 50, 52 b're’llisulcatus _ _ _ _ 51 insleyanus _ _ _ _____ 5I0 spp ___- _ 20 50; pl 11 Cyathea ____________ 29 hildebrandtii . 29 stavensis ______ 29; pl. 1 Cyatheaceae _______ ___ 30, 31 Cyathidites minor 30 sp ___________ 30 cyclops, Aglaoreidia 38; pl. 7 011714111 _____________ 51 Cyrillaceae _________ _- 51, 52 Cyrillaceaepollenites , ________ 51 kedvesii ________ megaexactus ventosus D dauricum, Menispermum ______________ 48 dentatus (-a) , Ornatisporites 32 Pteris _________________ 32: pl. 3 diaphana, Cardioangulina 3 Dicksonia _ _ 31 Dicolpopollis 46 simom'i _ 46 SD _______ 46; pl. 9 Dicrunopteris 30 Didelotia _____ 58 Diospyros ______________ 52 Diplodiscus paniculatua 60 discites, Concavisporitee __ _ 29; pl. 1 Discauster barbadiensis _____ 10 discolaripites, Saliacipallenites ______ 49 discrepans, Casuarinidites ,-__ 20, 40; pl 7 Triporopollenites _ _ _ __ _ distachya, Ephedra ____________________ 37 (Distachyapites) tertiarius, Ephedripitea ______________ 36 diversifolia, Tsuga _______ _ 36 dolium, Tricolporopollenitea __ 55 doragenais, Cicatricosispm‘itea _ _ 32; pl. 3 Dorstenia ___________________ -_- 44 contrajer'ua ___ 44 Dryophyllum ___ 23, 47, 5'0 Duplopollis ___ ___ 58 myrtaides _ 58 orthoteichus _ _ 58 sp ________________________ 58 E Ebenaceae ____________________________ cchinata (-113), Nypa _ 20, 46; pl: 9 Spinizonocolpites _ _____ Echiperiporites tschudyi _ 44 ____________________ _ 44 edmund1'1', Aral1aceo1'pollemtes _ _ 53 efliatus, Anacolosiditee _____ _ 44 Sporites __________ _ 44 Elaeagnaceae _____ 59 elsik1'1, Ctenopteris _ _ 31; pl. 2 Undulatisporites __ __ 31 embryonalis, Cicat'ricosispo'rites _ 32; pl. 3 Engelhm‘dtia ___________________ _ __ 39 microfoveolata 39 spackmaniana _ _ 39 ____________________ __- 38 engelhardtii, Trivestibulopollenites ___ 41; pl. 8 Engelhardtioidites microcoryphaeus -.__ 39 eocem'cus (-a),Calamuspollen1'tes ___ 46; p13 9 Ephedra. ____________________ ___ eocenim'tes, Ephedra ___- _ 37 Gnetaceaepollenites _ 36 Ephedra, ___________ _ 28, .96 cheganica __ ___ 37 claricristata 36; pl. 7 distachya _ 37 cacem’ca _ 36 coeenipites _ 37 exiguua _____ 23, 37; pl. 7 fusiformis __-_ 3‘7 hunga'rica _________ _ _ 37; pl. 7 laeuigataeformis 20, 87; pl 7 voluta _________ ___- 37 _________________ ___ 316 Ephedripitee hungaricus _ 37 lusaticus ________________ _ 37 (Distachyapites) tertiarius _ _ 36 Ericaceae ___________________ __ 65 Ericipites __ __ 64 acastus _ _ 64 callidus _________ _ 64 compactipolliniatus _______ 65 ericius _____________________ 20, 64, p1.16 INDEX Page Ericipitea—Continued ltmgiaulcatus _____________________ 65 redbluflensis ___ 28, 65: pl. 16 ericius, Ericipites 20, 64; pl. 16 Pollem'tes _ _ _ ______ 64 Escallonia ceae __________________ _ 50 Eugenia ________________________ _ _ 58 eugem'oides, Lo‘runthus _ _ 59 Euphobia _____________ 53 Euphorbiaceae ___ 50. 53, 60 exiguua, Ephedra ____ _ 23 37; pl. 7 Extratriporopollenites _ _____ 41 fractua ___________ -_ 40 termimzlis ___ 62 F Fagaceae ___________________ 47, 48, 50, 52, 54 Favoisporis convexa __- 32 favus, Polypodz'spo'rites Polypodiisporonites Reticuloidosporites Verrucatospo'rites Flabellum sp ________ Flagellnriaceae ______ flugellata,Selag1'nella Forest Hill Sand of the Vicksburg G10up __________ ,7 8,20,22,23 formasus, Pollem'tes ___________________ 56 fossulatus, Tricolporopollenites hashuyamaensis ___________ 56 foveolatus, Inaperturopollenites incertus __________________ 38 Tricolporopollenites hoshuyamaensis- 53 Foweostephanocolporites _______________ bellus _____________ liracostatus ___ Faveotricolpitea - prolatus ___- Foveot'ricolporites _ rhombohed’rah's sp _________________ fractus, Extratriporopollenites Fraxinoipollinites _____________ medius ________ scoticus variabilis spp _____ Framinus _______ calumbiana 1119111 ________ Fremontodendron fruticans. Nypa ________________ fusiformis. Confertisculcites ____ Ephedra _________________________ Gale _________________________________ 41 gemmata, Symplocos ____ _ 2‘0, 28, 61; pl. 15 genuina (-118), Horniella - _ 23. 56; pl. 13 Pollcnites ____________ _ 56 Tricolporopollenites ______ _ 56 glauca, Symplocos _____ _ 621 Gleichem'a. ________ ___ 30 Gleicheniaceae _ 28. 29, 30 Gleich eniidites _ _ - _ _ 29 senom'cus 29; pl. 1 ______________ __ 2B plobisformia, Pollem'tes _ 42 Glyptostrobus ______________ _ 36 Gnetacceacpolli‘nites eocem'pites _ 36 Sp Gospmt Sand of the Claiborne Group _ 4, 5, 7 Gothanipollis _'_ _______________________ 59 cockfieldemns _ 59; pl. 14 st) ___________ __ 59 gracilis, Graminiditea _ 37 Monoleiotrz'letes _ 31 Gramineae ________ -_ 38 gramineoides, Gram1 1' 37; pl. 7 Monoporopollenites ___- _ 37 Graminidites ___________ _ 37 gracilia ______ __ 3 gramineoides 37; pl. 7 sp __________ __ 37 Grammitidaceae _____________ 31 grandiveacipites, Picea _ .96 pls. 5, 6 Piceapollis ________________ _-__ gram'fer maternus, Pollem'tes __________ 39 granilabratus (-41) , Casuarinidites ___- 20, 40, 41; pl 7 Corylus _______________________ 40 granopollenites, Sabal _ 20, 45: pl. 9 Granulatisporites _ _ _ luteticus _________________ 31; p13 2 granulatus (-um),Arul1'aceo1'pol- enites __________ 20, 23, 52; pl. 11 Pollem'tes pseudocingulum _________ 52 Page Haloragacidites trioratus ______________ 42 amamelis scotica ____________________ 48 hamulatis (-um),Camarozonospor1'tes __ 32, 33 H umulatmpons ___________________ o32, 33 Lycopodium _______ 32; pl. 3 Hamulatisporis hamulatu -_ _ 32, 33 haraldii, Tricolpopollenites _ 48 Harpullia _________________________ 58 helmstedtensis, Tricolporopollenites 55 henric1,Querco1'd1'tea 47 Tricolpopollenites 53 microhenrici, Pollem'tea _____ _ 47 heskemensis, Camarazonosporites _ - 33 Cingulatisporitea 33 Lycopodium _________ 22, 33; pl. 3 11111111211123, Cupressacites __ 86; pl. 6 Taxodium ____________ _-_ 36 hiatus, Imperturopollenites - 36 Pollenites 36 Taxadiaccaepollenites ______________ 36 Hicoria viridi-fluminipites _ 42 hildebrandtii, Cyathea ___ 29 Hippomane __________ 53 hohl1'1', Boehlensipollis 59; pl. 14 Horniella. ___________ ___. 52, 56, 57 93111111111 _ 23, 56; pl 13 modica ___ 52 56' pl 13 secreta spp ___. sp. A _________________________ 56‘; pl 13 hoshuyamacnsis, Tr1colporopollem'tes hoshuyamaensis ___________ 56 foasulatus, Tricolporopollem'tes ___- 56 foveolatus, Tricolparopollenites -___ 53 hoshuyamaensis, Tricolpo'ropollenites 56 hungan‘ca (-113), Ephedm ___________ 37; pl 7 Ephedn'pites' 37 M1'lford1'11 ___________ 38 hypolaenoides, M1lford1a 38 I igniculus (-a), Sporo‘nites _____________ 36 Tsuga ___________ Tsugaepollcnites Zonalapollenites _ __ 3‘6 Ilex ________________ __ 58 11111011 ___ _______ 53 infissa . 12 me eiad __________ . 12 Ileacpollenites 1'l1'acus _ 53 sp ______________ _ 53 11111011 (-113), Ilex __ _ 53 Ilcxpollem'tes _________________ _ 53 1111116113 medius, Tricolporopollenites _ 53 1namoenus,Quercoid1'tes ______ 22, 23, 47; pl. 110 Tricolpopollenites _ ___ _________ 47 Inape'rturopollenites hiatus _ 36 invertus foveolatus ___- 38 incerta (-us),M1'lfwd1'a -_ 38:111. 7 foveolalus, Inaperturopollenites ___- 38 incertigra’ndis, Caprifolimites _ 23, 56, 57; pl. 13 infiasa, Ilex ____________________ 23, 53; pl. 12 infrabaculatus, Juglanspollenites ___- 4.9; pl. 8 insleyanus, Cupuliferoipollenites _______ 50 1118211101113 (-11), Intratriporopollenites _ 59 Tilia. __________________________ 59; pl. 14 Tfliaepollenites __________ 59 intergranulata, Reticulataepollis _______ 60 intrabaculatus, Tricolpopollenites microhen‘ricii _____________ 48 intragranulatus, Tricolpopollenites microhem‘icii _____________ 48 Intratriporopollenites ______ __ 59 instructus ______ _- 59 magnificus __ 41 neumarkensix _______ 60 1911112271913 ____________ 59; pl. 14 mundatum Lycopodmm ______________ 33 J Jackson dome, Mississippi ____________ Jackson Group ______ 3, 4, 6', 7, 8. 10, 20, 22, 23 jacksoniunm, Symplocos __ 61'. 62; pl. 15 jacksomus, Symplocoipollen ea ________ 62 javanicoides, Alangiapollis ______ -_ 58 Joimlillea ________________ __ 38 Juglandaceae _ _ 39 Juglans ______ __ 48 nigripites _ 43; pl. 8 _________ ___ 43 Jung/napollenites __- 43 infrabaculutus _ 4.9; pl. 8 sp ____________ 43 junceum, Spartium 47 Jussiaea _____________ 39 champlainensis ___________________ 39 kedves1'1, Cyrillaceaepollenites _ 23, 51, 52; pl. 11 Kirkia 60 Page kruschii, Nyssa ________________ 54, 55; pl. 13 Tricolporopollenites _______________ , contortus, Tr1colporopollem'tes _____ 55 L l'abatlanii, Tricolporopolle'nites labdaca (-113), P111119 Pityaspofltes Pollenites ______ labrutum, Lygodium laesiua, Pollenites ___ lae'uigata, Schizaea _______ laevigataefwmis, Ephedra. __ Schizaea. __________ Laevigatosporites hgardtii --- lapill1p1'tes, Sequoia __- Sequoiapallenites _______ latipofis, Poracolpopollenfies Symplocos ____ latus, Rhoipites _____ laxa (-118), Laxipollis _ Prateacidites __- Laxipollis lama Leguminosae ______ Leiotriletes adriennis _ microad'riennis ____________ lesquereuxiana (-118), Manillcara Sapotuceoidaepollenites Tetracalporopollenites libella, Podocarpus ___________________ 34 liblarensis, Cupuliferoidaepollenites 20,46; pl 9 Pollen1tes 46 Tricolpopollemtes _ _ 47 Ligust'rum o'ualifolium _ 610 Liliacidites ____________ 46 1111118 _____ 46; pl. 9 variegatus _ _ 46 vittatus _____ - 46‘; p1.9 yeguaensis __ 46 sp ________ - 46 Linaceae _ - 50 L1nnaea, ______________________________ 57 liracostatus, Faveostephanocolporites _ _ 64 Lithraea Little Stave Creek, Ala _ Locality register _____________ 10, 11 Lomariopsidaceae ______ - 28 longifoliaformia, P111118 35 P1iyospo1'1'tes ________ .95; pl. 5 longisulcatus, 131101111198 65 longitora, Toroispo'ris ___ 30; pl. 2 Lonicerapollis _____ _ 57 sp ________ _ 57 Loranthaceae _ - 54, 59 Loranthus ______ _ 59 eugen101des _ 59 Ludw1g1a _________ 39 oculus- noctis - 39; pl. 7 lusaticus, Arecipites _ __ 46 Ephedripites - - 37 Lusatispm‘is permatus _______ 33 luteticus, Granulatisporites 31; pl. 2 Punctatiapafites ______ _ _ 31 Lycopod1um ________ - _ 32 cernuum - _ - - 33 convexum ___ 32; pl. 3 hamulatum __ ---- 32; pl. 3 heskemensis 22 33; pl. 3 inundatu’m - - - 33 phlegmaria __ 32 venuetum _ 33; pl. 3 Lygodium ______ _ - - - 30 labratum _____ 30; pl. 1 Lygodmmspofites _ _ 30 adn'enm's ---- 30; pl. 1 Lymingtonia __ - 44 rhetor -- _____________ 44; pl. 9 M Maceration procedures ________________ 10 magnificus, Intratriporopollenites _ 41 Magnoliaceae ___________________ - 45 magnus, Transdanubiaepollenites _ 60 Malvaceae _____________________ _ 44 Malvacipollis _ tschudyi ________ 22 44; pl 8 manifestus,Pollen1tes _ - _ _ _ - _ - 64 Sapotaceo1daepollen1tes _ _ 64 Tetracolporopollenites _ - 64 Mam'lka'ra ______________ - 63 lesquereuxiana - 63 M astixia _____________ _ 55 maternus, Pollenites ___ - 39 Pollenites gran1fe1‘ _ _ 39 Triporapollenites ___ - 39; pl. 7 maximus, Podocarpus 35; pl. 4 med1¢1 (-113), Ilex ___- - 53; pl. 12 Frax1na1'pollenites -- _ 48; pl. 10 Tricolporopollenites _______________ 53 INDEX Page megadolium, Pollenites __________ - 63 Sapotaceoidaepollenites - - - _ 63 Tetracolporopollenites __________ 6.9; p]. 16 megaezuctus, Cyrillacuepollenites __ 51, 52; pl. 11 Pollenites ________________________ 51 bmehlensis, Tricolporopollenites ___ 51 megaporifer,Aral1aceo1'— pollem'tes ______ 23. 52, pls. 11, 12 megastereoides, Sphagnumsporites ______ 34 Stereisporites - 34; pl. 4 Menispermaceae 48 Menispermum dauricum - _ 48 scoticum ____________ _ 48 Metasequoia _______________ - 36 micraad'riennis, Leiotriletes _ 31 Punctatisporitea _______ - 31; pl. 2 microalatus, Abietineaepollen s ______ 34 microcowphaeus, Engelhardtioiditza ____ 39 micrafovcolata (-113), Engelha'rdtia ___- 39 Mamipites __________________ 20, 39; 111.2 7 M1crofo11eolatospor1s ______ paeudodentata - 29: p121 M1crogramma. _________________________ m1crohenric1, P0llen1tes 47 Pollenites henrici _ 47 Tricolpopollenites ___ 47 microhenricii, Querco1ld1tes __ 210, 47, 52; pl. 10 i'ntrabaculatus, Tricolpopollenites __ 48 intrugranulatus, Tricolpopollenites-_ 48 micropofifer, Tricolporopollenites _____ 53 microreticulatus, Cap'rifolfipites __ 57 microvestibulum, Porocolpopollenites _ 60 Symplocos ___________________ 60 Milford1a _______ 38 hungarica ___ 38 hypolaenoides - 38 111091111. ______ 33; pl. 7 minima _______ _ 22, 38; pl. 7 711111111111, Milfordia ______ _ 22, 38; p137 minor, Cyathidites _______ 1110111611 (-118), Horm'ella _ Pollenites __________________ 56 M oh'r1'11 _____ 32 Momipites _____________ 38 coryloides ______ 20, 38, 39; pl. 7 microfoveolatus ___ 20, 39; pl, 7 38 monilifera, Rousea __ M onocolpopollemtes - 45 nupharoides _-_- 46 tranquilloides 44 tranquillus - 45; pl. 9 Monoleiotriletes _ _ _ _ _ 31 angustus _ _ 31 aracilis _ _ _ _____ sp _____ 20. 31; pl. 2 Monoporopollem'tes __ p 37 gramineo1des _ _ 37 ____________ _ 38 Monasulcites _______ - 44 asymmetricus - 44; pl. 9 ____________ 45, 46 Monulcipollemtes _ 38 confossus ________________________ 38 Moodys Branch Formation of the Jackson Group Muerrigerisporis ____________ 33 mullensis, Plattmus ___ 49 Multipm’opollenites sp 43 Myrica _______________ -_ 40, 41 propria ________ 40 Myricimtes 81196103118 41 M yriophyllum ____________ 42 ambiguipites _________ --- 43 __________ 42; pl. 8 Myrissticu ___ 46 Myr isticaceae 46 Myrtaceae _ _ _ _ 58 Myrtaceidfies _ ___. 58 1111111113 _________ 12111-11115 (mews ncsus _________ purvua ________ myrtoides, Duplopollis _ M y'rtus _______________________________ N nacimientoensis, Bombacacidfles _____ 59; pl. 14 navicula, Pollenites --_- -_ 54 Neph'ro epis _______________ __ 29 neeus, Myrtaceidites pa’rvus _______ _ 58 neumarlcensis, Intratr1poropollem'tes ___ 60 7111111111123, Jugluns _________________ 43; pl. 8 noctis, Corsinipollemtes oculus _________ 39 North Twistwood Creek Member of the Yazoo Clay ___________ E, 110 Nothofagus __________________ 43 tschudyi __ 43 sp _________________ 44 11011119 (111911116, Symplocos ______________ 61 Page Nudopollis ______________________ 62 terminalis __210,(1‘2; pl 15 _______________________________ 62 nupharm'des, Monocolpopollenitea _ 46 Nuxpollenitea __________________ 54 croclcettensis _ _ 54 sp ________ 54; pl. 12 Nyctaginaceae - -- 44 Nymphaeaceae -- - 46 Nypa _______________ 46 echinata 20, 46; pl. 9 fruticans Nyasa ________________ lcruschii 5-4, 55; pl. 13 sp ------------ Nyssaceae ------ -- 55 Nyssapollem'tes _ -- 55 accessorius - ---- 55 1111111111113 __ 55; pl. 12 Nyssoiditcs ___________________________ 55 0 Ocala Limestone ---------------------- 6 occ1dental1's. Platanus __ ______ 49 occidentaloides,Plata71us ________ 23, 48; pl. 10 oculus noct1s,Cors1'n1pollem'tes ________ 39 noctis, Pollem'tes __________ _ 39 Ludwigia ---- - 39; pl. 7 Olacaceae - 44 Olca _______________ 49 Olcaccnc ______ - 48, 49 Oleandraceae _________________ _ 29 0171110111113, Porocolpopollenites _ 6‘0 Symplocos _________________ _ 60 Oreomunnea ____________ - 39 Ornatisporites dentatus ______ 32 orthoteichus, Cupanieidites ______ 20, 58; pl. 14 Duplopollis _______________________ 58 Osmunda _______ 31 primariu ___________ _ 31: pl. 2 Osmundaciditcs wellmanii ___ 32 sp ------------------- - 32 Ostrya. __-_ _ 41 ovalifoli11m,L1gustrum _ 60 oval1's, Pollenites 9111911111111 __________ 54 Verrutriwlporites __________ 23, 54: pl. 12 P pacatus (-11), Ailanthipites __ S1ltz111'a ____________ Tricolporopollenites _______________ 52 Pachuta Marl Member of the Yazoo Clay -------------- Palmae ------------------- Palmaepollenites tranquillua _ pan1culatus, D1plod1'scus ______________ pantherinus, Pollenites pseudocruciatus 55 paradorogensis, Cicatricosiaporites ___ 32; p]. 3 parmularius, Tricolpopollenites _______ 47 Parsonsiditea ------------------------- 43 canspicuus - 20, 43; pl 8 Parthenocissus ____________ 55, 56 1111111113, Myrtaceidites _____ Myrtace1d1tes parvus Saliacipollemtes 111193115, Myrtaceidites __ nesus, Myrtaceid'itea ____ --- 58 purvus, Myrtaceidites _ 58; pl. 14 Pedaliaceae ____________ 50 penicillata, Schizaea 29 perinatus (-11), Lusatispo‘ris 33 Selaginella ____________ - 33; p]. 3 Phaeoptilum _ 44 Phlebodium ___ 29 phlegmar1a1, Lycopodium 32 Phoenix ________________ 45 Phorn-'~'11d'rtm - 54 Picea __________________ 86 grandivescipites -_ 3/1' pls. 5, 6 Piceapollis grand1vescip1'tes _ 36 Picrodendraceae ______________________ 44 1712111, 1711111111113 ________________ 23, 49; pl. 10 piniformis, Ced’ripites - ------ 36 Cedrus __________ - 36; pl. 6 P111113 __________ ___ 35 cemb'raeformis __________________ .95; pl. 5 labdaca _________________________ 35; pl. 5 longifoliafo'rmis _ - .35 po’nderosaeformis _ tenuextima ________ P1nuspolle111'tes _________________________ 35 Pityosporites -------------------------- 35 cembraeformis - - 35 labdacus ________ __ 35 longifoliaformis -- - 35; pl. 5 ponderosaeformis -- -- 35 Planera _________ 42 thompsomana __________________ _42; pl. 8 74 Platycuryu __ sp _____ 39; pl. 7 Plicapollis -_ _____ 41 spatiosa ____ 210, 41; pl. 8 Plumbaginaceae _ _ 50 Podocarpus _____________________ 34, 35 acutifolius ___________________ 35 andiniformis _ _ 23, 34, 35 cappulatus _ » 23, 34; pl. 4 libella ____________ 34 maximus ________________ - 35; pl. 4 standleyi ____ 35 unica ___ _ 34 sp _ _ . _ 34 Pollem'tes _ _ _ _ 28 ucastus __ 65 anulus _ _ _ 43 cingulum bruehlensis 51 ovalis _______________ 54 coryphaeus tetraexituum 39 e‘ricius ____________________ 64 formosus 56 genuinus - 56 globiformis ________ 42 grunifer maternus 39 henrici microhenrici 47 hiatus ______________ 36 kruschi _ 54 labdacus _ 35 laesius ____________________ 51 liblarensis __________-__'___ 46 manifestus _ 64 maternus - . . 39 megadolium 63 megaexactus ___________ 51 microhenrici ___________ 47 modicus 56 nam'cula. ___ 54 oculus noctis ____ 39 pseudocingulum __________ 52 _aanulatum _________ 52 rauffi _________________ 54 pseudocruciatus pantherinus - 55 pseudolaesus ______________ 51 1211111111113 __________________ 55 Taufii _____________________ 54 secretus 57 selectus _ 47 simplex 42 stellatus ____________________ 43 tranquillus ________________ 45 triangulus 1 60 ventosus _ _ _ 5 1 verus ______ 42 vestibulum ________________ 60 Polyatrio-pallenites stellatus _________ 43 Polycolpitcs ________________ 50 viesenensis _ 50 SD ____________ - 50; pl 11 Polygalaceae ______ Polypodiaceae Polypodiidites __ Polypodiispwitcs _ _ 28 fav’us ________ _ 29 Polypodiisporonites __ _ _ 28 afavus __ _ 28; pl 1 alienus _ ____ _ 28; pl. 1 Polypodiumsporites sp ___ 29 favus ________________________ 28, 29; pl. 1 Polyporopollenites stellatus ____________ 43 sp _______________________ 42. Polyvestibulapollenites 1167113 42 ponderosaeformis, Pinus _______________ 35 Pityosporites _____ 35 Porocolpopollenites 60 calauensis ___ _________ 60 latiporis _h _ _________ 60 microvestibul m _ 60 orbiformis 60 schwarzbachi 60 vestibulaformis ______ 60 vestibulum __1_ 62 sp ____________________ _ 20, 61 postregularis, Toroisporis _ _ 90; pl. 2 Potamogetonaceae _ 38 primarius (-11) , Baculatisporites _ __ 31, 32 Osmunda ' . Sporites pristina, Aglaoreidia __________ 20,22, 38; pl. 7 profumlua, Araliaceaipollenites __ 23, 53; pl. 12 prolatus, Faveotricalpitea ________ 22, 47: pl. 10 propria (-118) , Myriam _ Triat'riopollenites ___ Proteaceae INDEX Page Proteacidites __________________________ 40 laxus ___ 22, 40; pl. 7 terrazus __ 62 thalmanni _ 62 s ......... _ 62 P11111113 _______________ _ 50 pseudocingulum, Pollem'tes _ _ 52 Rhoipitea ______________ _ 52 granulatum, Pollem'tes _ _ 52 11111171, Pollenites _______ _ 54 pseudocon’vexus, Arecipites __ __ 4‘6 pseudocruciatus pantherinus, Pollen tes 55 pseudodentata, Microfoveolatosporis __ 2.9;p1. 1 pseudolaesus, Pollem'tes __ 51 Pseudopheonix sp. 46 pseudodorogensis tenuistriatus. Cicat’ricososporites _______ 29 psilatus. Stereisporites ...... 34 Triletes __________ _ 34 Psilotaceae ___ _ 219 Psilotum ____ 29 Pteridaceae _ _________________ 28, 29, 31 Pteris ______ _ _ _ _ 32 dentata 32; pl. 3 Pterocarya. _. ___- 4.? stellata. _ 43; pl. 8 vermtmtenais _______________ _ 43 Ptcrocaryapollenites stellatus _ 43 vermontensia ______ _ _ 43 Ptychopetalum _____ 2 44 pulcher,Casuar1'nid1'tes ___________ 40 pulvinus, Nyssapollenites ___________ 55; pl. 12 Pollem'tes ________ ___- 55 Punctatisporites _ 31 adriennis _ 30 luteticus _1__ 31 microadriennis _____________ 31; pl. 2 punctutus, Arecipites _ 45 pusilla, Schizaea "1 _ 29 Pustechinosporis _____________________ 33 Q Quercoidites __________________________ 47 he'm'ici __ ________________ 47 inamoenus ,_ 22, 23, 47; pl. 10 microhenricii 20, 47, 52; pl. 10 Quercus ______________ 23, 47, 48 sp _______________________________ 47 R raufli, Pollem'tes _____________________ 54 Pollenitcs pseudocingulum 54 Red Blufl‘ Clay of the Vicksburg Group __________ 4, 7, 8, 10, 20, 22 redbluffe11s1's,E11'c1'p1'tes __ 28, 65; p1.16 Restio sp ____________________________ Restionaceae Restitmiidites reticlavata, Reticulataepollis _ Reticulatuepollis _____________ intergranulatu ___- reticlavata __________________ 23, 60; pl. 14 reticulatus, Bombacacidites _ _ __ 60 Tricolpopolleniles ______ 48 Reticuloidasporites favus ___ 29 retifarmis, Tricolpopollenites 49 Retitetrucolpites brevicolputus _ _ 49 Retitrescolpites _______________ 58 sp ——————————————— 58 rhetor, Lymingtania. - _ 44. pl. 9 Rhoipites _________________________ 52, 55, 56 unguatus __________________ 23, 55; pl. 13 b'radleyi ___ _____ 55 cryptoporus _ 56 latus ____________ 23, 55, 56: pl. 13 pseudocingulum 52 subp'rolatus _________________ 23, 56; pl. 13 'rhombohedralis, Faveotricolporites ______ 53 Rhus _ 52, 58 barclayi ___- _ 55 Rio Grande embayment, Mississippi _ 6 Riverside Park Jackson, Miss ___- _ 8 Rosaceae _ 50 Rousea _____ 49 araneosa __ ______ 49; pl. 10 manilifera _____________ 23, 50; pls 10,11 Rubiaceae 41, 48 Ruppiaceae 38 Rutaceae __ 56, 57 S Sabal ____________________ 45 granopollem'tes ___- _ 20, 45; p]. 9 Sabalpollenites convexus 45 salebrosus, Trivestibulopollenites ___ 41 Salicaceae ___________________________ 49 Salim: ________________________________ 49 Salixipollenites discoloripitcs pa'rvus _______ trachuensis _ _ Sambucus ____________ _ 49 Sampling, methods of _ 10 Sapindaceae __________ _ 58. 59 Sapotaceae ________________________ 51, 63, 64 Sapotaceoidacpallcnites lesque’reuxianus- 63 manifestus ________________________ 63 megadolium _ 63 sp ______________ 63 scabriextima, Silta'ria, ___ scabripollinia, Symplocos _ Schizaea ________________ laevigata ______ lac’uigataefo'rmis penicillata _______ p1tailla ______ tonuistriata , Schizaeaceae u- schwarzbachi, Po oco papallem'tes schwarzbach1'1',Symplacos _________ scoticus (-11, mm), Fraxinoipollenite _ 48; pl. 10 Humamelis ________________ _ 48 Menispermum _____ _ 48 sccrcta (-us), Horm'ella. . 57,57 Pollenites ___________ 57 Sclaginclla -1" 1 33 biformis ___ _ 33 flagellum _ -_ 33 116117111111 __ 33;pl.3 sinuitcs __ B selecstus, Cupuliferoidacpollcnites __ 22, 47; pl. 9 Pollcnites ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, senom'cus, Gleicheniidites Sequoia _________________ lapillipites -1 Sequoiapollenites _- lapillipites ___ Screnoa serrulata 1- 45 serrulata, Serenoa _ 45 Shubuta Hill 6 Shubuta Member of the Yazoo Clay ______________ 7,8,10,20,22 S1lta11'a ___________________ pacata. _______ 22 51, 52; pl 11 scabriextima. ___ 22, 52; pl. 11 Simarubaceae _____ 52 56, 58, 60 simonii. Dicolpopollis _ _____ 46 simplex, Carya ___- 42; pl. 8 Caryapollem'tcs - 42 Pollem'tes _________ _ 42 Subt'riporopnllenites s1mplex _ _ 42 simplex. Subtriporopollenites . - 42 sinuites, Selaginella ____________ _ 33 Slide-making procedures 1 - 10 spackmam'ana, Engelhardtia . 39 Sparmannia. __________________________ 56 Spartium junceum ____________________ 47 spatiosa, Plicapollis __ 20, 41; p1.4r 8 speciosus, Myricipites _____ Sphagm'tcs australis _ 34 Sphagnum ____________________________ 5'4 antiquasporites _________________ 84; pl. 4 australum ______ stereoides ____ triangularum . Sphagnumspan'tes antiquaaporites 34 austral1s ________________________ 34 megastereoides 34 stereozdes _______ 34 31111111111111 Chlamys 6 Spinizonocolpites ________________ 4‘6 cchinatus ____________________ 46 Spondias ________ 58 Sporites efflutus 44 haardti ______ 28 primarius ___________________ 31 stereoides _________________ 34 Sporom'tes alienus 28 igniculus ________ 36 standleyi, Podoca'rpus ..... 35 stavensis, Concuvisporites 29 Cyathea _____________ _ 29; pl. 1 Intratripm‘opollenites 23, 59; pl. 14 stellatus (-a), Pollem'tes ______ 43 Polyporopollem'tes __ 43 Polyatrio-pollem'tes _____ _ 42 Pterocurya _____________________ 49; pl. 8 Pterocaryapollenites _ _ _ Ster culiaceae ________ _ 60 Stereisporites _ _ 34 australig _ 34 megastereoides _________________ 34; pl. 4 psilatus _______ _ 34 stereoides _____ _ 34 slictus woelfersheimensw _ _ 34 triangularis _______________________ 34 woelfersheimensis _______________ 34: pl. 4 Page stereoides, Sphagnum _______________ 34; pl. 4 Sphagnumspo'rites _ __ 34 Sporites ________ _ 34 Stereispm'ites ___ 34 stictus waelfenheimensis, Stereisporites _ 34 striatellum (-us), Acer ____________ 50; pl. 11 Tricolpopollenites _ 50 Scriatopollis ________ __ 50 terasmaei _ 50; pl. 11 Striopollenites __ 50 terasmaei __-_ _ 50 subalata, Amyema ___ ______ 59 subprolatus, Rhoipites __________ 23, 56; pl. 13 Subtriporopollenites simplex simplex ___ 42 Symplocaceae _________________________ 40, 60 Symplocaipollenites _ _ 60 austellus ________ __ 60 jacksonius _ 62 ______ 60, 61, 62 Symplocas - - 60 aneityemis ___- _______ 62 arcuata __- _ 23 60; pl 15 austellu ___ ___- 60, calauensis _ ___- 610, 61 ceciliensis _________ 61; pl. 15 contracta 20, 28, 61. 62: pl. 15 gemmata _ __-_ 20, 28, 61; pl. 15 glauca _______________ 62 jacksonianu - 61, 62; pl. 15 latiporis _______________ 6‘0, 61 microvestibulum _ _ 60 novae-angliae _ 61 orbiformis ___- _ 60 scabripollinia 61 schwarzbachii _________ 60, 62 team _________ 23, 28, 62; pl. 15 thalmannii ___ 20, 62; pl. 15 triangula ___ ...... 60, 61 vestibuloformis ___ 60 vestibulum ______ _ 60, 61, 62 vestibulum _ 61 ____________________________ 62; p1.15 Symplvcos-pollemtes vestibulum ceciliensis ________________ 61 T tantulua, Caprifoliipites _________ 20, 57; pl. 14 Taxodiaceae __________________________ 36 Taxodiaceaepollenites hiatus _ 36 Taxodium _________________ _ 3-6 hiatipites ___ ________ 36 teem, Symplocos ___ 23, 28, 62; pl. 15 tenuextima, P111113 __________________ 36; pl. 5 tenuicrassus, Verrutriocolporites _ 23, 54; pl. 12 tenuistriatus (-a), Cicat'ricososparites pseudodorogensis __________ 29 Schizaea ______________ _ 29,- pl. 1 terasmaei, Striatopollis _ 50; pl. 11 Striopollenites ____________________ 50 terminalis, Extrat’riporopollenites _____ 62 Nudopollis ________ _ 2'0, 62; p1.15 terrazus, Proteacidites ________________ 62 tertiarius, Ephedripites (Distachyapites) 36 Tetracolporites 5p _____________________ 55 Tetracolparopollenitcs _ ______ 63 brem's ____________ 28, 63; pl. 16 lesque’reuxianus ______ _ 63; pl. 16 manifestus __________ ___ 64 megadolium _ _ 63;p]. 16 sp _____________________________ 64:p1 16 tetraexztuum, Pollem'tes coryphaeus ____ 39 teacensis, Celtis 43 thalmanni, Proteacidites ___ 62 thalmannii, Symplocos _ _- 20 62; pl 15 thomassi, Tricolpites ___- _______ 58 thompsanianu, Planera . 42; pl. 8 Thomsonipollis __________________ 4,1 magnificu ________________ 20, 22, 41: pl. 8 INDEX Page Thrimzx ______________________________ 45 argentca - 45 Tilia ___________ _ 59 crassipites 6‘0 instmcta __ 59; pl. 14 Tiliaceae ________________ __ 56, 60 Tiliaepollenites instructus _ 59 sp _________________ 59 Tombigbee River _____ 7 Toroisporis ______ _ _ _ 30 aneddenii 30; pl. 2 longitora __-_ _ 30; pl. 2 postregularis ___________________ 30; pl. 2 tranquilloides, Manocolpopollem'tes _ . 1 _ 44 tranquillus, Monocolpopollenites __ __ 45; pl. 9 Palmaepolle‘nites __________ _ _ - .45 Pollem'tes ________________ _ 45 Trunsdanubiaepollenites magnus __ 60 triangula. Symptoms __________ __ 60, 61 triangularum (-1'3) , Sphagnum 34; pl. 4 Stereisporites ______________ __ 34 triangulus, Pollenites __ __ 60 Triatriopollenites _ _ - 40 aroboratus _____ 40; pl. 8 coryphaeus ___- 38. 39 proprius ._ 40; pl. 7 3p ______ __ 38 Tricolpites _ _ _____________ _ _ 58 tlpwmasii _____________ _. . _ 58 __________________ _ 48. 49, 58 Tricolpopollenites haraldii _ 48 he11r1'c1' ________________ _ 53 inamoenua _ 47 liblarenais ___ - 47 microhcnrici _____________________ 47 intrabaculatus ________________ 48 intragranulatus _ _ 48 parmularius _________ _ 47 reticulatus _ 48 'retiformis - 49 striatellus - 50 vegetus . ______ 48 _________ _ 47, 48, 50, 55, 57 Tricolporites sp ___________ _ 51. 52, 55. 63 Tricolporopollenites dolium _______ 55 genuinus _____________ _ 56 helmstedtenais ___________ _ 55 hoshuyamaensis fossulatus _ 56 foveolatus ____________________ 53 hoshuyamaensis _______ 56 illiacus medius _____ -_ 53 Ic’ruschi ________ A- 54, 55 cmtartus _ _ _ 55 labatlan11 ________________ __ 51 megaexactus bruehlensis _ __ 51 microparifer _________________ 53 pacatus ._- ____________ 52 Trilcstes australis 34 psilatus ____________ _ 34 trioratus, Halo'ragucidites - 42 Triosteum ______________ _ 5’7 Triporopollem'tes ______ _ 39 discrepans - . _ 40 maternus _ _ 39; pl. 7 sp ____________ _ _ . 61 tritus, Liliacidites __ 40; pl. 9 Triumfetta __________ _ 56 Trivestibulopollenites . _ 4 1 engelhardtii _____ 41; pl. 8 salebrosus _____________ 41 trachuensia, Salixipollenites 49 tschudyi, Celtis ____________ _ 43; pl. 8 Echiperiporites _ 44 Malvacipollis _.- _ 22, 44; pl. 8 Nothafagus _. ___- 43 Tsuga _______________ _ .96 diversifolia _ 36 1'gm'cula ________________________ 36: pl. 6 Page Tsugaepollenites igniculus ____________ 36 U Ulm1polle111tes undulosus _____________ 42 sp _________________ 42 Ulmus _________ _ 42 Umbelliferae _ - 51 Undulatisporites ______ ___ 31 concavus _ 31; pl. 2 elsikii ___ ___ ____________________ _ 31; pl. 2 unduslosus, Ulmipollemtes _ ___ 42 11111'ca, Podoca’rpus ____________________ 34 V variabilis, Frazinoipollem'tes ________ 48; pl. 10 variegatus, L1l1'ac1'd1'tes _____ 46 vegetus, Tr1colpopalle111'tes 1. 48 ventosus, Cyrillaceaepollenites _______ 51; pl. 11 Cyrillaceacpollem'tes ventosus _ 51 Pollem'tes ____________________ 51 ventosus, Cyrillaceaepollenitcs 51 venustum, Lycopodium __________ _ 33; pl. 3 vera, Alnus __________ _ 42; pl. 8 veripites, Carya _________ ; . vermontensis. Pteroca'rya _ Pterocaryapollenites __ Vcrrucatosporites _____ afa’uus _______ alienus _ favus -__ sp _________________ Vwrutricolporites cruciatus ___- oualis _______ __ 23, 54:131. 12 tcnuicrassus ___- 23, 54; D1. 12 11113113, Alnipollenites _____ 42 Pollenites _______ Polyvestibulopollen es vsstibuloformis, Porocolpopollem'tes _ 23, 54; pl. Symplocos _______________________ vestibulum, Pollem'tes Porocalpopallenites Symplocos ________ vestibulum ____________________ ceciliensis, Symplacos-pollenites _ __ vestibulum, Symplocos ____________ 61 Vicksburg Group ____________ 4, 7, 8, 20, 22, 23 viesenensis, Polycolpites 50 Virburnum _______________ 57 viridi-fluminipites, Hicoria _____________ 42 viridi-fluminis, Caprifoliipites __________ 57 Vitaceae ____________________ 56 vittatus, Liliacidites . 46; pl. 9 volutu, Ephedra _______________________ 37 W wellmam'i, Osmundacidites _____________ 32 wiesaensis, Arecipites __________ 1uoeljcrshe1'mens1s, Stereispontes Stereisporites stictus ______________ Y Yazoo Clay of the Jackson Group _______ 6,7,8,10, 20, 22, 23 yeguaensis. Liliacidites _ 46 Yeguapollis colporatus _________________ 53 Z Zanthaxylum 57 chcha. __________ _ 42 Zonalapollenites 1g iculus _________________ 36 ck, ‘ MN. “flfifi rfifijfi v; w PLATES 1— 1 6 Contact photographs of the plates in this report are available, at cost, from US Geological Survey Library, Federal Center, Denver, Colorado 80225. PLATE 1 [Magnification X 1,000] FIGURE 1. Laevigatospon‘tes hmrdtii (p. 28). Slide 10696 A—l, coordinates 23.4 X 109.7 2. Polypodiisptmmites alienus (p. 28). Slide 10663 A—l, coordinates 34.4 x 117.8. 3. Polypodiisparonites favus (p. 29). Slide 10680 A—l, coordinates 39.4 X 123.6. 4. Microfaveolatospm‘is pseudode’ntata (p. 29). Slide 10627 A—l, coordinates 25.1 X 123.7. 5. Polypodiisporonites afavus (p. 28). Slide 10556 A—l, coordinates 37.4 x 127.3. 6. Schizaea tenuism'aw (p. 29). Slide 10663 A—l, coordinates 21.5 x 124.2. 7. Cyathea?stave1wis (p. 29). Holotype. Slide 10558 A—l, coordinates 35.7 x 123.1. 8. Gleichem'idites semmiws (p. 29). Slide 10864 A—2, coordinates 20.3 X 115.3. 9. Concavispon'tes discites (p. 29). Slide 10650 A—2, coordinates 34.1 X 122.2. 10—11. Lygodium labmtum (p. 30). Holotype. Slide 10656 A—2, coordinates 21.2 X 118.0. 12—13. Lygodiumspm‘ites adriemn's (p. 30). 12. Atypicalspecimenexceptthattheexineisslightlythinnerthanusual.Slide10620A—l,coordinates 16.0 X 110.1. 13. A specimen that is atypical of the species because it is more nearly round than triangular in outline. Slide 10558 A~1, coordinates 41.5 x 117.6. 14. Lygodiumsporites? cf. L. adrienm's (p. 30) Slide 10558 A—l, coordinates 26.4 X 115.4. PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1084—PLATE l GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PTERIDOPHYTE SPORES FIGURE 1. 10. 11—12. 13. PLATE 2 [Magnification x 1,000] Toroispon's aneddenii (p. 30) Slide 10556 A—l, coordinates 25.8 x 115.9. Toroisporis longitora (p. 30). 2. A specimen having slight thickenings of the exine at the corners. Slide 10620 A—l, coordinates 16.5 x 110.0. 3. Slide 10627 A—l, coordinates 30.7 x 116.3. Toroispm‘is postregulam's (p. 30). Slide 10696 A-l, coordinates 35.1 X 112.0. Ctenopte’ris? elsikii (p. 31). Holotype. Slide 10529 A—l, coordinates 31.3 X 111.7. Undulatisporites concmms (p. 31). Slide 10620 A—l, coordinates 18.7 X 121.7. Undulatispom'tes sp. (p. 31). Slide 10680 A—l, coordinates 17.9 x 109.5. Monoleiotriletes sp. (p. 31). Slide 10649 A—1, coordinates 26.0 x 111.0. Pumtatispo’rites microadriennis (p. 31). Slide 10680 A—l, coordinates 31.7 X 111.7. Osmunda primaria (p. 31). Slide 10649 A—l, coordinates 26.0 x 116.0. Bullaspo'ris sp. (p. 32). 11. Slide 10696 A—l, coordinates 17.8 x 119.5. 12. Slide 10649 A—1, coordinates 25.9 x 114.1. Granulatispofites luteticus (p. 31). Slide 10864 A—2, coordinates 31.0 X 126.0. PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1084—PLA'I‘E 2 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PTERIDOPHYTE SPORES FIGURE 1. 2—3. 7—8. 9—10. 11. 12—13. 14—15. PLATE 3 [Magnification x 1,000] Cicatricosispmites do'rogensis (p. 32). Slide 10637 A—l, coordinates 40.9 X 124.7. Cicatficosispo'rites embryonalis (p. 32). Slide 10676 A—l, coordinates 28.3 x 121.2. Cicatn'cosisporites paradorogensis (p. 32). Slide 10663 A—l, coordinates 25.1 X 119.5. Pteris dentata (p. 32). Slide 10678 A—2, coordinates 22.5 X 114.0. Lycopodium convexum (p. 32). Holotype. Slide 10650 A—2, coordinates 27.8 x 113.0. Lycopodium hamulatum (p. 32). Slide 10556 A—l, coordinates 44.1 x 115.7. Lycopodium venustum (p. 33). Holotype. Slide 10620 A-l, coordinates 25.5 X 118.5. Lycopodium heskemensis (p. 33). Slide 10663 A—l, coordinates 21.4 X 124.2. Selaginella perinata (p. 33). Slide 10657 A—l, coordinates 25.0 x 115.9. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1084—PLATE 3 FIGURE 1. 2—6. 7-10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17—18. PLATE 4 [Magnification X 1,000] Stereisporites megasterem'des (p. 34). Slide 10864 A—2, coordinates 14.3 X 123.6. Selagmella sp. A (p. 33). 23. Slide 10678 A—2, coordinates 18.3 X 120.9. 4—5. Slide 10676 A—l, coordinates 25.7 X 124.6. 6. Slide 10557 A—2, coordinates 40.2 X 123.6. Selagimlla sp. B (p. 33). 7—8. Slide 10864 A—2, coordinates 32.6 X 115.7. 9—10. Slide 10864 A—2, coordinates 35.2 x 109.9. Sphagnum antiquasporites (p. 34). Slide 10512 C—2, coordinates 35.0 X 118.0. Sphagnum australum (p. 34). Slide 10864 A—2, coordinates 13.8 X 113.0. Sphagnum stereoides (p. 34). Slide 10620 A—l, coordinates 15.5 X 122.1. Sphagnum triangulamm (p. 34). Slide 10680 A—l, coordinates 29.7 X 119.0. Stereispo'rites woelfersheimensis (p. 34). Slide 10656 A—2, coordinates 32.7 X 110.2. Podocarpus maximus (p. 35). Slide 10696 A—l, coordinates 24.3 x 118.1. Podocarp’us? cappulatus (p. 34). 17. Slide 10556 A—l, coordinates 44.7 X 124.1. 18. Slide 10864 A—2, coordinates 28.8 X 123.1. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1084—PLATl-I 4 BRYOPHYTE AND PTERIDOPHYTE SPORES AND GYMNOSPERM POLLEN GRAINS PLATE 5 [Magnification x 1,000] FIGURES 1—2. Pityospo’rites longifoliaformis (p. 35). 1. Slide 10680 A—l, coordinates 31.2 x 113.0. 2. Slide 10663 A—l, coordinates 20.0 X 115.6. 3—4. Pinus cembmfmmis (p. 35). Slide 10553 A—l, coordinates 45.5 x 120.5. 5. Pinus tenuextima (p. 36). Slide 10863 A—2, coordinates 25.0 x 112.9. 6. Pinus labdaca (p. 35). Slide 10637 A—2, coordinates 43.8 x 125.0. 7. Picea grandivescipites (p. 36). Slide 10680 A—l, coordinates 29.6 x 123.1. PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1084—PLATE 5 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY GYMNOSPERM POLLEN GRAINS PLATE 6 [Magnification x 1,000] FIGURE 1. Picea grandivescipites (p. 36). Slide 10529 A-1, coordinates 32.6 x 112.1. '2—3. Cedms pinifm‘mis (p. 36). 2. Slide 10863 A—2, coordinates 31.7 X 115.2. 3. Slide 10696 A—l, coordinates 21.0 x 120.8. 4—5. Tsuga igm'cula (p. 36). Slide 10653 A—l, coordinates 29.7 X 118.0. 6. Cupressacites hiatip’ites (p. 36). Slide 10864 Aw3, coordinates 17.8 X 120.1. 7. Sequoiapollenites lapillipites (p. 36). Slide 10529 A—l, coordinates 25.4 x 115.8. PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1084—PLATE 6 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 7 GYMNOSPERM POLLEN GRAINS PLATE 7 [Magnlfi' cation x 1,000] FIGURE 1. Ephedm exiguua n. sp. (p. 37). Holotype. Slide 10556 A—1, coordinates 25.3 x 113.6. 2—3. Ephedra claricristata (p. 36). Slide 10637 A—l, coordinates 27.4 X 126.7. 4. Ephedra hungarica (p. 37). Slide 10627 A—2, coordinates 22.8 X 116.4. 5. Ephedra? laevigataefomis (p. 37). Slide 10653 A—l, coordinates 13.6 X 118.9. 6. Graminidites gramineaides (p. 37). Slide 10643 A—l, coordinates 31.1 X 118.2 7. Milfordia incerta (p. 38). Slide 10557 A—2, coordinates 22.6 X 118.9. 8. Milfordia minim (p. 38). Slide 10545 A—l, coordinates 23.7 X 113.6. 9—10. Aglaoreidia cyclops (p. 38). Slide 10556 A—l, coordinates 22.5 X 113.6. 11. Aglaoreidia pristine (p. 38). Slide 10529 A—l, coordinates 28.9 X 126.0. 12—14. Momipites coryloides (p. 38). 12. Slide 10864 A-3, coordinates 18.0 X 113.7. 13. A specimen having two cracks or tears of the exine, superficially like pseudocolpi. Slide 14962 B—l, coordinates 31.3 X 115.3. 14. A specimen in which the fold is bordered by a white streak, superficially like a pseudocolpus. Slide 10639 A—2, coordi- nates 34.4 x 110.8. 15—16. Momipites micmfoveolatus (p. 39). 15. Slide 10557 A—2, coordinates 37.0 X 115.4. 16. Slide 10672 A—2, coordinates 35.1 X 116.3. 17. Platycarya sp. (p. 39). Slide 14959 A—l, coordinates 40.8 X 124.8. 18—19. Triporopollenites? mater’nus (p. 39). Slide 10556 A—l, coordinates 33.2 X 116.1. 20. Ludwigia oculus-noctis (p. 39). Slide 10863 A—2, coordinates 22.1 X 127.1. 21—22. Proteacidites? laxus (p. 40). Holotype. Slide 10637 A—2, coordinates 25.0 X 114.8. 23. Triatn'opollenites proprius (p. 40). Holotype. Slide 10531 A—l, coordinates 27.2 X 127.3. 24. Casuam'nidites discrepans (p. 40). Holotype. Slide 10690 A—l, coordinates 24.3 X 113.6. 25—27. Casuarim'dites cf. C. gramlabmtus (p. 40). 25. Slide 10545 A—l, coordinates 34.6 X 121.0. 26. Slide 10692 A—2, coordinates 22.3 X 109.5. 27. Slide 10692 A—2, coordinates 34.0 X 121.3. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1084—PLATE 7 GYMNOSPERM AND ANGIOSPERM POLLEN GRAINS FIGURES 1—2. 9—10. 11—12. 13—14. 15. 16—17. 18—19. 20. 21-22. 23—25. 26. 27. PLATE 8 [Magnification X 1,000] Triatriopollemtes? aff. T. arobo'ratus (p. 40). 1. Slide 10555 A—l, coordinates 34.3 X 119.7. 2. Slide 10557 A—2, coordinates 36.8 X 126.3. Tfivestibulopollem‘tes engelhardtii (p. 41). Holotype. Slide 10637 A—2, coordinates 40.1 X 113.4. Betula? sp. (p. 41). Slide 10529 A—l, coordinates 21.7 X 112.0. Plicapollis spatiosa (p. 41). Holotype. Slide 10863 A—2, coordinates 38.7 X 118.0. Thomsonipollis magnifwi (p. 41). Slide 10656 A—2, coordinates 21.8 X 121.8. Carya simplex (p. 42). Slide 10534 A—l, coordinates 19.5 X 112.0. Carya vem‘pites (p. 42). Slide 10863 A—2, coordinates 40.0 X 119.0 Alnus vem (p. 42). 9.- Slide 10557 A—2, coordinates 22.2 X 117.2. 10. Slide 10557 A—2, coordinates 22.9 X 126.1. Planem? thompsom'am (p. 42). 11. Slide 10531 A—l, coordinates 19.4 X 126.3. 12. Slide 10435 A—l, coordinates 38.2 X 122.4. Myriophyllum sp. (p. 42). Slide 10649 A—l, coordinates 25.8 X 1.19.4. Pteroca’rya stellata (p. 43). Slide 10620 A—l, coordinates 25.0 X 110.5. Juglans nigm'pites (p. 43). Slide 10627 A—2, coordinates 23.3 X 124.3. Juglanspollenites infrabaculatus (p. 43). Holotype. Slide 10558 A—1, coordinates 26.9 X 121.1. Amcolosidites sp. (p. 44). Slide 14965 A—l, coordinates 39.8 X 119.6. Parsonsidites conspicuus (p. 43). Holotype. Slide 10627 A—2, coordinates 20.9 X 120.9. Celtis tschudyi (p. 43). 23—24. Slide 14959 A—2, coordinates 28.0 X 112.8. 25. Slide 10642 A—2, coordinates 34.3 X 116.4. Chenepodipollis sp. (p. 44). Slide 10553 A—1, coordinates 25.0 X 120.5. Malvacipollis tschudyi (p. 44). Holotype. Slide 10545 A—l, coordinates 34.3 X 113.2. PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1084—PLATE 8 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 25 ANGIOSPERM POLLEN GRAINS PLATE 9 [Magnification X 1,000] FIGURES 1—3. Lymingtonia cf. L. rhetor (p. 44). 1—2. Slide 10627 A—l, coordinates 17.5 X 124.1. 3. Slide 10863 A—2, coordinates 25.7 X 115.1. 4. Monosulcites asymmetricus (p. 44). Holotype. Slide 10558 A—l, coordinates 43.4 X 120.5. 5. Monocolpopollem'tes tranquillus (p. 45). Slide 10557 A—2, coordinates 25.0 X 127.2. 6—8. Sabal cf. S. granopollenites (p. 45). 6. Slide 10556 A—l, coordinates 23.2 X 123.2. 7. Slide 14959 A—2, coordinates 28.3 X 117.4. 8. Slide 14959 A—l, coordinates 32.0 X 120.3. 9—10,12. Arecipites columellus (p. 45). 9. A specimen with a more broadly oval outline than is typical for the species. Slide 10620 A—l, coordinates 21.0 X 110.8. 10. Slide 10558 A—l, coordinates 37.7 X 124.7. 12. Slide 10558 A—l, coordinates 37.1 X 116.9. 11. Confertisulcites fusifor'mis (p. 45). Holotype. Slide 10650 A—2, coordinates 27.1 X 123.0. 13. Calamuspollemtes eocenicus (p. 46). Slide 10557 A—2, coordinates 20.4 X 116.0. 14—15. Liliacidites tritus (p. 46). Holotype. Slide 10558 A—l, coordinates 34.6 X 115.3. 16—17. Liliacidites m'ttatus (p. 46). Holotype. Slide 10627 A—l, coordinates 17.7 X 109.6. 18—21. Nypa echimta (p. 46). 18—19. Slide 10672 A—2, coordinates 32.5 X 118.5. 20. Slide 10558 A—l, coordinates 34.4 X 118.8. 21. Slide 10653 A—l, coordinates 32.8 X 113.7. 22. Dicolpopollis sp. (p. 46). Slide 10558 A—l, coordinates 23.0 X 113.8 23. Cupulzferoidaepollenites liblarensis (p. 46). Slide 10675 A—l, coordinates 31.3 X 125.6. 24. Cumliferoidaepollenites cf. C. liblarensis (p. 47). Slide 10675 A—l, coordinates 26.0 X 123.6. 25—27. Cumliferoidaepollenites cf. C. selectus (p. 47). 25—26. Slide 10558 A—l, coordinates 43.2 X 120.4. 27. Slide 10637 A—2, coordinates 40.1 X 123.0. 28—29. Cassia certa (p. 47). Holotype. Slide 10558 A—1, coordinates 36.2 X 115.2. PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1084 —PI,ATE 9 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ANGIOSPERM POLLEN GRAINS FIGURES 1—2. 3—8. 9—10. 1 1—12. 13. 14—17. 18. 19. 20—27. 28432. 33—34. 35437. PLATE 10 [Magnification X 1,000] Fooeotn'colpites prolatus (p. 47). Holotype. Slide 10663 A—l, coordinates 16.2 X 122.1. Quercoidites immenus (p. 47). 3—4. A specimen having simple, straight colpi. Slide 10529 A—l, coordinates 33.2 X 112.4. 5—6. A specimen having geniculi. Slide 10627 A—2, coordinates 28.2 X 120.3. 7—8. A specimen having slitlike “lolongate ora.” Slide 10553 A—l, coordinates 34.1 X 114.2. Quercoidites microherm'cii (p. 47). 9. Slide 10556 A—l, coordinates 24.1 X 119.9. 10. Slide 10544 A—2, coordinates 34.1 X 118.2. Fraximipollenites medius (p. 47). Holotype. Slide 10663 A—l, coordinates 16.9 X 118.7. Framinoipollenites vam'abilis (p. 48). Slide 10637 A—2, coordinates 40.7 X 122.1. Fraxinoipollenites spp. (p. 48). 14. Slide 10556 A—l, coordinates 24.8 X 116.7. 7 15. Slide 10663 A—l, coordinates 14.5 X 117.4. 16—17. Slide 10620 A—l, coordinates 19.1 X 120.6. meimipollenites cf. F. scoticus (p. 48). Slide 10637 A—2, coordinates 30.0 X 114.7. Platanus occidentaloides n. sp. (p. 48). Holotype. Slide 10558 A—l, coordinates 23.3 X 122.6. Salixipollenites pamus n. sp. (p. 49). 20—21. Slide 10544 A~2, coordinates 34.2 X 124.9. 22—23. Slide 10553 A—l, coordinates 38.9 X 118.5. 24—25. Holotype. Slide 10657 A—l, coordinates 31.0 X 110.9. 26—27. Slide 10534 A—l, coordinates 25.0 X 124.4. meinus? pielii n. sp. (p. 49). 28-29. Holotype. Slide 10553 A—l, coordinates 33.2 X 111.3. 30. Slide 10627 A—2, coordinates 28.1 X 126.2. 31-32. Slide 10558 A—l, coordinates 24.1 X 122.4. Rousea amneosa (p. 49). Holotype. Slide 10656 A—l, coordinates 31.9 X 108.9. Rmea monilifem n. sp. (p. 50). 35. Holotype. Slide 10642 A—2, coordinates 20.0 X 117.8. 3637. A specimen having discontinuous muri. Slide 10547 A—2, coordinates 19.1 X 120.7. PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1084—PLATE 10 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ANGIOSPERM POLLEN GRAINS PLATE 11 [Magnification X 1,000] FIGURES 143. Rousea monilifera n. sp. (p. 50). A specimen having the colpi less deeply invaginated than usual for the species. Slide 10545 A—l, coordinates 36.0 X 118.5. 4—5. Acer?str1'atellum (p. 50). Slide 10650 A—2, coordinates 25.0 X 115.0. 6. Striatopollis terasmaei (p. 50). Slide 10637 A—2, coordinates 43.1 X 126.3. 7—8. Polycolpites sp. (p. 50). 7. Slide 10635 A—2, coordinates 28.8 X 119.7. 8. Slide 10637 A—l, coordinates 27.3 X 123.8. 9—11. Cumliferoipollenites spp. (p. 50). 9. Slide 14962 B-I, coordinates 34.0 X 115.5. 10. Slide 14960 A—l, coordinates 34.0 X 113.7. 11. Slide 10557 A—2, coordinates 25.2 X 118.6. 12. Chrysophyllum brem‘sulcatum (p. 51). Holotype. Slide 10645 A—2, coordinates 29.6 X 115.0. 13—18. Cyrillaceaepollenites kedvesii n. sp. (p. 51). 13-14. Holotype. Slide 10696 A—l, coordinates 35.0 X 124.6. 15—16. Slide 10641 A—2, coordinates 21.1 X 118.4. 17—18. Slide 10696 A—l, coordinates 27.4 X 117.0. 19—22. Cyrillaceaepollenites megaexactus (p. 51). 19. Slide 10637 A—l, coordinates 31.8 X 121.9. 20. Slide 10637 A~2, coordinates 39.8 X 125.2. 21—22. Slide 10643 A—l, coordinates 22.3 X 112.9. 23—24. Cyrillaceaepollenites? ventosus (p. 51). 23. Slide 10653 A—l, coordinates 20.4 x 125.3. 24. Slide 10661 A—2, coordinates 29.8 X 119.6. 25. Siltaria pacata (p. 52). Slide 10696 A~1, coordinates 24.2 X 113.1. 26—28. Siltan'a cf. S. scabriextima (p. 52). 26—27. Slide 10435 A—l, coordinates 32.4 X 122.0. 28. Slide 10637 A—2, coordinates 39.9 X 110.5. 29430. Araliaceoipollenites granulatus (p. 52). Slide 10435 A—l, coordinates 27.7 X 120.6. 31$2. Araliacem’pollenites megaponfer n. sp. (p. 52). Holotype. Slide 10434 A—l, coordinates 41.3 X 124.7. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1084—PLATE 11 y ANGIOSPERM POLLEN GRAINS FIGURE 1. 5—9. 10—14. 15—16. 17—19. 20—21. 22—25. 26—27. 28—29. PLATE 12 [Mayiifimtion X 1,000] Araliaceoipollenites mgapom'fe'r n. sp. (p. 52). Slide 10637 A—2, coordinates 39.0 X 126.0. Aralmceodpollem’tes profundus n. sp. (p. 53). 2. Holotype. Slide 10678 A—2, coordinates 18.0 X 124.1. 3—4. A specimen having very deeply invaginated colpi and indistinct ora. Slide 10662 A—l, coordinates 31.4 X 112.1. Foveotricolpo'rites sp. (p. 53). 5—6. Slide 10625 A—l, coordinates 22.3 X 116.2. 7—9. Slide 10627 A—2, coordinates 20.0 X 114.0. Ilex infissa n. sp. (p. 53). 10—12. Holotype. Slide 10864 A—2, coordinates 23.5 X 116.9. 13—14. Slide 10557 A—l, coordinates 34.1 X 121.3. Ileac media (p. 53). Slide 10558 A—l, coordinates 35.8 X 120.8. Vemtricolpo'rites cmciatus n. sp. (p. 54). 17—18. Holotype. Slide 10642 A—2, coordinates 21.4 X 125.3. 19. Slide 10637 A—l, coordinates 28.7 X 113.8. Vemtm'colpo’rites ovalis (p. 54). Slide 10435 A—l, coordinates 26.0 X 126.5. Vemtn’colpm‘ites tenuicrassus n. sp. (p. 54). 22—23. Holotype. Slide 10663 A—l, coordinates 18.0 X 115.3. 24—25. Slide 10637 A—l, coordinates 25.0 X 116.4. Nuxpollenites sp. (p. 54). Slide 10558 A—1, coordinates 36.3 X 125.7. Nyssapollenites pulvinus (p. 55). Slide 10558 A—l, coordinates 23.3 X 117.1. PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1084—PLATE 12 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ANGIOSPERM POLLEN GRAINS 1. 2—8. 9—13. 14—16. 17—18. 19—20. 21—23. 24—25. 26—29. PLATE 13 [Magnification X 1,000] Nyssa kmschii (p. 54). Slide 10663 A—l, coordinates 35.6 X 117.0. Rhoipites amustus n. sp. (p. 55). 2. Holotype. Slide 10553 A—l, coordinates 45.5 x 118.0. 3—4. Slide 14972 A—2, coordinates 22.4 x 123.2. 5—6. Slide 10639 A—2, coordinates 29.4 X 125.5. 7—8. Slide 10643 A—l, coordinates 26.1 X 124.8. Rhoipites latus n. sp. (p. 55). 9—10. Holotype. Slide 10662 A—l, coordinates 22.1 x 126.0. 11—13. Slide 10662 A—l, coordinates 21.5 X 113.3. Rhoipites subprolatus n. sp. (p. 56). 14. Slide 10556 A—l, coordinates 28.8 X 116.6. 15—16. Holotype. Slide 10643 A-l, coordinates 34.4 X 121.0. Homiella genuim (p. 56). Slide 10557 A—2, coordinates 23.9 X 114.2. Hmm'ella modica (p. 56). Slide 10515 B43, coordinates 31.4 x 118.6. Ho'rm'ella sp. A (p. 56). Slide 10558 A—l, coordinates 34.4 X 115.2. Ho'miella sp. (p. 57). Slide 10637 A—l, coordinates 23.2 X 127.6. Camfoliipites imefiigrandis n. sp. (p. 57). 26—27. Holotype. Slide 14963 C—l, coordinates 28.4 X 119.8. 28—29. Slide 10650 A—2, coordinates 25.3 X 121.1. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1084—PLATE 13 ANGIOSPERM POLLEN GRAINS FIGURES 1—2. 3—6. 7—8. 10. 11. 12. 13—14. 15. 16. 17—20. 21—22. 23—26. PLATE 14 [Magnification X 1,000] Cam'foliipites tantulus n. sp. (p. 57). 1. Holotype. Slide 10637 A—2, coordinates 40.5 X 122.3. 2. Slide 10637 A—2, coordinates 39.9 X 113.4. Ailanthip’ites berryi (p. 57). 3—4. Slide 10556 A—l, coordinates 39.2 X 124.4. 5—6. Slide 10663 A—2, coordinates 27.4 X 114.8. Alangiopollis sp. (p. 58). Slide 10556 A—l, coordinates 24.2 X 117.3. Myrtaceidites poms amsus (p. 58). Slide 10864 A—2, coordinates 28.0 X 127.2. Myrtaceidites pawns parvus (p. 58). Slide 10627 A—2, coordinates 27.3 X 121.7. Myrtaceidites pawus subsp. (p. 58). Slide 10657 A—l, coordinates 29.9 X 113.8. Cupam'eidites orthoteichus (p. 58). Slide 10643 A—2, coordinates 31.0 X 114.3. Boehlensipollis hohlii (p. 59). 13. Slide 10435 A—l, coordinates 24.9 X 119.3. 14. Slide 10663 A—1, coordinates 21.9 X 117.6. Bombacacidites nacz'mientoensis (p. 59). Slide 10512 0—], coordinates 28.5 X 124.1. Gothanipollis cockfieldensis (p. 59). Slide 14963 C—1, coordinates 35.9 X 123.8. lntratriporopollenites stavensis n. sp. (p. 59). 17. Holotype. Slide 10547 A—2, coordinates 28.4 X 112.6. 18. Slide 10557 A—2, coordinates 28.1 X 122.4. 19—20. Slide 10529 A—1, coordinates 30.0 X 113.4. Tilia instmcta (p. 59). 21. Slide 10531 A-l, coordinates 26.3 X 109.0. 22. Slide 10627 A—2, coordinates 21.9 X 112.3. Reticulataepollis reticlavata n. sp. (p. 60). 23—24. Holotype. Slide 10558 A—l, coordinates 36.7 X 118.8. 25—26. Slide 10657 A—l, coordinates 29.0 X 117.7. PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1084—PLATE l4 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ANGIOSPERM POLLEN GRAINS FIGURES 1—4. 6—9. 10—14. 15—16. 17—20. 21. PLATE 15 [Magnification X 1,000] Symplocos arcuata n. sp. (p. 60). 1—2. Holotype. Slide 10556 A—l, coordinates 31.5 X 114.0. 3—4. Slide 10556 A—1, coordinates 29.8 x 127.5. Symplocos ceciliensis (p. 61). Slide 10663 A—1, coordinates 25.3 X 114.4. Symplocos contracta n. sp. (p. 61). 6—7. Holotype. Slide 10556 A—l, coordinates 28.7 X 120.4. 8—9. Slide 10663 A—l, coordinates 23.3 X 110.5. Symplocos gemmata n. sp. (p. 61). 10. Holotype. Slide 10653 A—l, coordinates 20.4 X 125.3. 11—12. Slide 10637 A—l, coordinates 26.9 X 122.5. 13. A specimen with barely perceptible colpi. Slide 10660 A—1, coordinates 17.4 X 118.2. 14. Slide 10661 A-2, coordinates 22.2 X 110.0. Symplocos jacksomana (p. 62). Slide 14959 A—2, coordinates 36.3 X 114.6. Symplocos tecta n. sp. (p. 62). 17—18. Holotype. Slide 10663 A—l, coordinates 23.3 X 112.8. 19—20. Slide 10663 A—l, coordinates 18.2 X 117.4. Symplocos? thalmannii (p. 62) Slide 10650 A—2, coordinates 32.8 X 121.5. Symplocos sp. (p. 62). Slide 10631 A—l, coordinates 28.7 X 111.5. Nudopollis teminalis (p. 62). Slide 10558 A—l, coordinates 31.4 X 113.9. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 10847PLATE 15 22 ANGIOSPERM POLLEN GRAINS FIGURES 13. 7—12. 13—14. 15—18. PLATE 16 [Magnification X 1,000] Tetracolporopollemtes brevis n. sp. (p. 63). 1. Holotype. Slide 10675 A—l, coordinates 24.2 X 120.0. 2—3. Slide 10637 A—2, coordinates 39.5 X 113.9. Tetracolpo'ropollenites lesque’reuxianus (p. 63). Slide 10637 A—2, coordinates 20.9 x 113.0. Tetmcolporopollenites megadolium (p. 63). Slide 10556 A—l, coordinates 40.5 X 116.3. Tetracolpo'ropollenites sp. (p. 64). Slide 10650 A—2, coordinates 13.8 x 124.9. Foveostephamcolpcm'tes bellus n. sp. (p. 64). 7—8. Holotype. Slide 10557 A—2, coordinates 25.0 X 119.6. 9—10. Slide 10637 A—2, coordinates 31.3 x 117.4. 11—12. Slide 10643 A—2, coordinates 38.9 X 128.0. Ericipites aff. E. ew'icius (p. 64). Slide 10529 A—l, coordinates 22.2 X 114.0. En'cipites redbluflensis n. sp. (p. 65). 15. Holotype. Slide 10529 A—l, coordinates 28.5 X 126.1. 16—17. Slide 10529 A—1, coordinates 31.4 x 113.0. 18. Slide 10529 A—l, coordinates 35.5 X 122.0. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1084—PLA'I‘E 16 16 ANGIOSPERM POLLEN GRAINS *U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 19790— 311-344/17 RETURN EARTH SCIENCES LIBRARY 7.9.!» ”Q..§qflh.§9iemi$§.'i9: 342-29.??? Leachate Plumes in Ground Water From Babylon and Islip Landfills, Long Island, New York By GRANT E. KIMMEL and OLIN C. BRAIDS GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1085 Prepared in cooperation with the Snflolk County Department of Environmental Control UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON: 1980 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR CECIL D. ANDRUS, Secretary GEOLOGICAL SURVEY H. William Menard, Director Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Kimmel, Grant E. Leachate plumes in ground water from Babylon and Islip landfills, Long Island, New York. (Geological Survey professional paper ; 1085) Bibliography: p. 37—38. Supt. of Docs. no.: I l9.16:1085 1. Water, Underground~Pollution—NeW York (State)—Suffolk Co. 2. Sanitary landfillstew York (State)—Suffolk C0. 3. Soils— New York (State)—Suffolk Co.—Leaching. 4. Plumes (Fluid dynamics) 1. Braids, O. C., joint author. II. Suffolk Co., N. Y. Dept. of Environmental Control. III. Title. IV. Series: United States. Geological Survey. Professional paper ; 1085. TD224.N7K55 628’.445 79-607796 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Oflice Washington, DC. 20402 Stock Number 024-001-03274-1 CONTENTS Page Page Abstract ___________________________“-1"; ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 1 Chemical and physical properties of leachate plumes—Con. Introduction ________________________________________________ 1 Composition of plumes ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 11 Alteration of ground water by landfill leachate __________ 1 Major components __________________________________ 11 Purpose and scope of report ______________________________ 1 Minor components 1111111111111111111111111111111111 20 Location of study ______________________________________ 2 Babylon plume ________________________________________ 21 Hydrology __________________________________________________ 2 Islip plume ____________________________________________ 25 Ground-water flow system ______________________________ 2 Ground-water temperature ______________________________ 26 Recharge ______________________________________________ 2 Density ________________________________________________ 28 Hydrogeology __________________________________________ 3 Viscosity ______________________________________________ 28 Quality of native and ambient ground water ______________ 7 Flow and dispersion of leachate plumes ______________________ 31 Description of landfills ______________________________________ 9 Flow __________________________________________________ 31 Babylon ________________________________________________ 9 Dispersion model ______________________________________ 33 Islip __________________________________________________ 10 Comparison of plumes __________________________________ 35 Chemical and physical properties of leachate plumes __________ 10 Summary and discussion ____________________________________ 36 Methods of study ______________________________________ 10 References cited ____________________________________________ 37 ILLUSTRATIONS {Plates are in pocket] PLATE 1. Specific conductance in and near the plume of leachate-enriched ground-water downgradient from Babylon landfill. 2. Hydrochemical sections through the plumes of leachate-enriched ground-water at Babylon and Islip landfills, Long Island, New York. 3. Specific conductance in and near the plume of leachateenriched ground-water downgradient from Islip landfill. Page FIGURE 1. Map of Long Island, New York, showing location of Babylon and Islip landfills ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 2 2. Hydrographs of water-table wells at Babylon and Islip landfills, 1972—74 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 4 3. Map showing water table in April 1974 and location of wells in vicinity of Babylon landfill ________________________ 5 4. Map showing water table in January 1974 and location of wells in vicinity of Islip landfill ________________________ 6 5. Maps showing hydraulic conductivity at selected public-supply-well stations in vicinity of Babylon and Islip landfills 8 6. Photograph of Babylon landfill ________________________________________________________________________________ 10 7. Photograph of Islip landfill ____________________________________________________________________________________ 10 8. Map showing bicarbonate concentrations at C-depth wells in vicinity of Babylon and Islip landfills ________________ 13 9. Map showing sulfate concentrations in ground water in and near leachate plumes at Babylon and Islip landfills 1,1, 15 10. Map showing chloride concentrations in vicinity of Babylon plume ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 16 11. Graph showing relations of sodium and chloride content in leachate plume at Babylon ____________________________ 17 12. Maps showing nitrate concentrations as percentage of total nitrogen in water from B-depth wells at Babylon and C-depth wells at Islip -______ ______________________________________________________________________________ 18 13. Stiff diagrams showing concentration of chemical constituents of water from selected wells in Babylon and Islip plumes 19 14. Maps showing organic carbon concentration in upper glacial aquifer at selected sites in vicinity of Babylon and Islip landfills, April 1972 ______________________________________________________________________________ 22 15. Maps showing temperature of water in upper glacial aquifer in vicinity of Babylon and Islip landfills ______________ 29 16. Temperature profiles from wells in vicinity of Babylon and Islip landfills ________________________________________ 30 17. Graph showing change in density with temperature for sodium chloride solutions of different strengths and for water 30 18. Graph showing variation of kinematic viscosity with temperature for sodium chloride solution and for water ________ 30 19. Idealized diagram showing leachate movement and dispersion in ground water beneath a landfill __________________ 33 III IV CONTENTS TABLES Page TABLE 1. Fifteen-year (1951—65) mean seasonal and annual precipitation for Long Island, New York ________________________ 3 2. Chemical analyses showing native quality of water in the upper glacial aquifer in study area ______________________ 9 3. Letter code for well-screen depths ______________________________________________________________________________ 11 4. Chemical analyses of leachate-enriched ground water in study areas ____________________________________________ 12 5. Chemical analyses of solutions derived from incinerator ash ____________________________________________________ 12 6. Chloride concentrations in upper glacial aquifer at Babylon landfill ______________________________________________ 17 7. Concentration of cations in samples from Islip and Babylon plumes ______________________________________________ 17 8. Maximum concentration and occurrence of minor chemical constituents in the upper glacial aquifer in both study areas 20 9. Specific conductance of samples at well site B35 ________________________________________________________________ 23 10. Chemical analyses of ground water along lateral edge of plume at Babylon ______________________________________ 24 11. Composition of water from well B113D—107 ____________________________________________________________________ 25 12. Water levels in wells at site I19 ______________________________________________________________________________ 26 13. Chemical analyses of water from selected wells in and near Islip plume ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 27 14. Chemical analyses of water from wells 1300—82 and I30D— 120 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 28 15. Dissolved-solids concentration (sum) in selected wells in plume near Babylon and Islip landfills ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 33 16. Values of dispersion coefficient for plume at Babylon after 22 years (8,000 days) of traveltime ______________________ 35 17. Estimated acreage of Babylon and Islip landfills from 1938 to 1973 ______________________________________________ 36 CONVERSION FACTORS AND ABBREVIATIONS OF UNITS Factors for converting U.S. customary units to metric units are shown to four significant figures. However, in the text the metric equivalents are shown only to the number of significant figures consistent with the values for the US. customary units. U.S. customary units Multiply by Metric units acres 0.4047 hectares (ha) feet (ft) .3049 meters (m) cubic feet (fti‘) .02832 cubic meters (m3) feet per day (ft/d) .3049 meters per day (m/d) feet squared per day (fth) .01075 centimeters squared per second (cmz/sec) gallons (gal) gallons per day per square foot (gal/d) /ft2 gallons per foot (gal/ft) gallons per minute (gal/min) gallons per minute per foot inches (in) miles (mi) cubic yards (ydi‘) degrees Fahrenheit (OF) 3.785 liters (L) .041 meters per day (m/d) 12.418 liters per meter (L/m) .06309 liters per second (US) 25.40 millimeters (mm) 1.609 kilometers (k) .7646 cubic meters (m3) .5556 degrees Celsius (°C) LEACHATE PLUMES IN GROUND WATER FROM BABYLON AND ISLIP LANDFILLS, LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK By GRANT E. KIMMEL and OLIN C. BRAIDS ABSTRACT Landfills operated by the Towns of Babylon and Islip in southwest and central Suffolk County contain urban refuse, incinerated gar- bage, and scavenger (cesspool) waste; some industrial refuse is depos- ited at the Babylon site. The Islip landfill was started in 1933, the Babylon landfill in 1947. The landfills are in contact with and dis- charge leachate into the highly permeable upper glacial aquifer (hy- draulic conductivity 190—500 feet per day). The aquifer is 74 feet thick at the Babylon landfill and 170 feet thick at the Islip landfill. The leachate-enriched water occupies the entire thickness of the aquifer beneath both landfills, but hydrologic boundaries retard downward migration of the plumes to deeper aquifers. The Babylon plume is 1,900 feet wide at the landfill and narrows to about 700 feet near its terminus 10,000 feet from the landfill. The Islip plume is 1,400 feet wide at the landfill and narrows to 500 feet near its ter- minus 5,000 feet from the landfill. Hydrochemical maps and sections show the distribution of the major chemical constituents of the plumes. The most highly leachate-enriched ground water obtained was from the Babylon site; it contained 860 mg/L (milligrams per liter) sodium, 110 mg/L potas- sium, 565 mg/L calcium, 100 mg/L magnesium, 2,700 mg/L bi- carbonate, and 1,300 mg/L chloride. Sulfate was notably absent or in low concentration in most parts of both plumes. Nitrogen in plume water was mostly in the form of ammonium, and concentrations as high as 90 mg/L were found; concentrations of nitrogen as N in the plume were less than 10 mg/L. As much as 440 mg/L iron and 190 mg/L manganese were found in the leachate-enriched water. Sam- ples were also tested for arsenic, boron, cadmium, cobalt, chromium, copper, mercury, nickel, lead, selenium, strontium, and zinc. Boron was more or less ubiquitous and was found in concentrations as high as 2 mg/L. Organic carbon was found in concentrations as high as 2,250 mg/L in the most highly leachate-enriched water but atten- tuated rapidly to less than 20 mg/L. Dissolved-solids concentrations near the landfills were between 400 and 3,000 mg/L at Babylon and between 500 and 1,500 mg/L at Islip. Ground-water temperatures near the landfills exceed those in am- bient water by as much as 7°C at Babylon and 16°C at Islip. Heat contributed by the landfills was mostly dissipated with 0.4 mi of the landfill, but at Islip, the warm leachate-enriched water extended 0.5 mi downgradient. The entrance of leachate into the less dense ground water as pulsa- tions after rainfall may explain the presence of high leachate en- richment near the bottom of the aquifer. A comparison of the physi- cal characteristics of leachate-enriched ground water with those of ambient water suggests that the downward movement of leachate results from its greater density. Simulation of the movement and dispersion of the Babylon plume with a mathematical dispersion model indicated the coefficient of longitudinal dispersion to be about 60 ftz/d (feet squared per day) and the ground-water velocity to be 1 ft/d. However, the velocity deter- mined from the hydraulic gradient and public-supply wells in the area was 4 ft/ d; this velocity would cause a plume four times as long as that predicted by the mathematical dispersion model. At the Islip site, the plume was one-third the length calculated on the basis of the age of the landfill. The shortness of the plumes has not been ex- plained; it may be a result of the leachate’s having been too dilute to form a plume during the early years of the landfills. INTRODUCTION ALTERATION OF GROUND WATER BY LANDFILL LEACHATE Reports of ground-water alteration from landfills in humid environments (Hughes and others, 1969), semihumid environments (Andersen and Dornbush, 1968) and arid environments (State of California, 1954) generally conclude that landfill leachate deteri- orates ground-water quality, sometimes even where the landfill is hundreds of feet above the water table (Apgar and Langmuir, 1971). Deterioration of ground water and surface water by leachate from solid-waste landfills has become a prob- lem of general concern. Where precipitation causes leachate to seep from a landfill to ground water, the ‘ high dissolved-solids concentrations and injurious sub- stances in the solution may adversely affect local water supplies. The deterioration of water resources, especially of public drinking supplies, can threaten the health and economy of an area. The drinking water for most of Long Island is pumped from a large ground—water res- ervoir separated from the mainland by saltwater, and this reservoir is the source of freshwater for several million inhabitants over about 80 percent of the island. Contamination by wastewater and other materials de- posited on or beneath the land surface is a major con- cern in the management of Long Island’s ground-water reservoir (Perlmutter and Koch, 1971, 1972). Deteri- oration of ground water by landfills on Long Island was surmised but undocumented until this study. PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF REPORT In 1971, a cooperative program between the US. Geological Survey and the Suffolk County Department of Environmental Control was established to investi- 2 LEACI—IATE PLUMES IN GROUND WATER, BABYLON AND ISLIP LANDFILLS, LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK gate the deterioration of ground water on Long Island from solid-waste landfills. The study evaluated the type and extent of leachate enrichment caused by two active, long-established landfills in the Towns of Babylon and Islip. Wells were installed, and water samples were analyzed to obtain data for a 3-year period in order to map the chemical properties and movement of leachate in the area of the landfills. The purpose of this report is to describe the effect of these landfills on the Long Island ground-water reservoir, to evaluate, to the extent possible, the chemical effect of landfill leachates on the ground water, and to investi- gate the flow characteristics of ground water and leachate in the region of the landfills. The interpreta- tions of leachate formation and movement may be ap- plicable to similar hydrogeologic settings elsewhere. LOCATION OF STUDY The landfills selected for this study are operated by the Towns of Babylon and Islip, in the south-central part of Long Island, New York. The landfills are 4.6 mi and 3.9 mi respectively, north of Great South Bay (fig. 1). The Babylon landfill is surrounded by cemeteries and some light industry; the Islip landfill is surrounded by unused land as well as some light industry. Babylon had a population of 287,000 and Islip 300,000 in 1973 (LILCO, 1974.) Most of the population growth has been since 1950. Babylon has about four times as much industry as Islip; however, most of the industry of both towns is a fabrication type that yields little decomposable refuse to landfills. HYDROLOGY GROUND-WATER FLOW SYSTEM A southward-sloping wedge of unconsolidated sediment underlies the entire island and overlies crys- talline bedrock (Veatch and others, 1906). These sediments provide an extensive fresh ground-water reservoir. A regional ground-water flow system, recharged by precipitation, extends from the ground- water divide near the center of the island outward toward saltwater, which surrounds the island. Throughout the island, shallow ground water dis— charges into nearby stream channels. South of the cen- ter of the island, ground water in the upper part of the system discharges directly into Great South Bay (fig. 1), but that in the lower part of the system may dis- charge by upward leakage into the bays and ocean. Generalized descriptions of the ground—water reservoir are given in Cohen, F ranke, and Foxworthy (1968) and McClymonds and Franke (1972). RECHARGE The ground—water reservoir is recharged by precipi- tation that infiltrates the soil, which is generally very permeable. Long Island receives an average of 3—4 in. of precipitation monthly throughout the year, but most of the recharge probably takes place in the cool, non- growing season. As shown in table 1, precipitation is only slightly higher in the cool season than in the warm season. During the warm season, from April through September, nearly all precipitation is con- \. \\ ‘\. < .\ ‘. \ 41° « , I NEW JERSEY l ,_' . \ \ Brookhaven lit/V , WHunting‘l’ Smith- \‘ K , : \ ton I town \ U $1: g I r~‘_"1L __‘ C 0 ’ ' . r’TISllpK— I . ' ' i , NASSAU x,,— . ; ‘ QUEENS ) COUNTY ,’ SU’IF F O L | \COUNTY. L. l I I Babylon 73° . 72 20 25 MILES 0 5 1015 20 25 30 35 KILOMETERS FIGURE 1.—Location of Babylon and Islip landfills. HYDROLOGY 3 TABLE 1.—Fifteen-year (1951 —65) mean seasonal and annual precipi- tation (in inches), Lon Island, New York [From Miller and rederick, 1969] Period Babylon Islip October 1—March 31 __________________________________ 24 23 April 1—September 30 ________________________________ 23 20 October 1—September 30 ______________________________ 47 43 sumed through evapotranspiration, and generally ground-water recharge is negligible. During summer storms, however, several inches of precipitation may recharge the ground-water reservoir, especially through landfills, which lack significant vegetation and may have highly permeable surfaces. Between 5 and 10 percent of the cool season’s precipi- tation is snow (Miller and Frederick, 1969), but the snow usually does not stay long and is not a significant aspect of the hydrologic system. The amount of precipitation infiltrating to the ground-water reservoir throughout the island is esti— mated to be 23 in. annually, with possibly 25- to 50- percent error (Cohen and others, 1968, p. 45). HYDROGEOLOGY The southern half of Long Island consists of a plain mantled by outwash associated with the terminus of a Wisconsinan-age glacier. The outwash plain is under- lain by deposits of stratified sand containing some gravel. The landfills studied are on the outwash plain about midway between the center of the Island and Great South Bay. Both landfills are about 60 ft above mean sea level. The outwash deposits are 90 and 210 ft thick at the Babylon and Islip sites, respectively. The saturated part of the outwash is called the upper gla- cial aquifer (Cohen and others, 1968). The distance be- tween land surface and the water table is less than 30 ft at both sites. The water table fluctuates with local recharge from precipitation and with regional south- ward movement of ground water. Hydrographs of water levels in wells near the landfills show the extent of these fluctuations (fig. 2). At both sites, the landfill deposits are at or near the water table; consequently, there is no significant zone of aeration beneath the landfill, and the water table undoubtedly rises into the landfill at times. , Normally the water table recedes during the warm months, presumably because most of the precipitation during the growing season is consumed through evapotranspiration before it reaches the water table and also because some water is removed from the upper glacial aquifer by pumping and by transpiration. Re- charge does occur during very wet periods of the warm months, though. In June 1972, 9.1 in. of rain fell near the Babylon landfill, and, as a result, the water level in July was 0.8 ft higher than it had been in May. In the early summer of 1973, the upper glacial aquifer was again recharged because rainfall from April through July was 20 percent above the long-term average of 19 in. The following fall and winter were drier than usual, so the water table fell through the first half of 1974 with only a minor rise in late winter. Water levels near the two landfills during the 3-year study period fluc- tuated 6 ft at Babylon and 4 ft at Islip. During the study period, the water table was be- tween 12 and 18 ft below land surface at the Babylon site and between 12 and 16 ft below land surface at the Islip site. The water table (figs. 3 and 4) has a gradient of 0.0021 at Babylon and 0.0016 at Islip, except where intercepted by streams. The land surface slopes uni- formly toward the south shore. In the Babylon area it intersects the water table at the headwaters of San- tipogue Creek, about 2 mi south of the Babylon landfill, and, in the Islip area, at the headwaters of Brown Creek, 1.5 mi south of the landfill. In the area investi- gated, regional ground-water flow in the upper glacial aquifer is essentially parallel to the water table. In the area investigated, the upper glacial aquifer, which lies between the water table and the Gardiners Clay or the Magothy aquifer, consists of coarse quartz sand, a small amount of heavy minerals, and some gravel. Quartz grains are generally coated with iron oxide, which probably has considerable sorptive ca- pacity (S. Ragone, written commun., 1972). The deposit appears unusually uniform for outwash. Beds of mate- rials finer than sand size were not found in the aquifer at any of the 34 Islip sites or the 35 Babylon sites drilled. Auger cuttings indicate that the outwash deposits at the two sites are lithologically similar. At Babylon, the outwash deposits are underlain by Gardiners Clay, which consists of 10— 13 ft of silty, gray clay. This deposit was found at every site where drill- ing was at least 90 ft deep and is very likely to be present everywhere in the area of Babylon that was studied. It is a barrier to the downward movement of water because of its low hydraulic conductivity. A cross-sectional analog model study of Long Island (Franke and Getzen, 1976) indicated a vertical hydrau- lic conductivity of 10‘2 ft/d for the Gardiners Clay. The top of the upper glacial aquifer is considered to be the water table, which fluctuates by at least 5 ft at both sites (fig. 2). At the Babylon landfill, the bottom of the aquifer is well defined by the top of the Gardiners Clay about 90 ft below land surface. At the Islip site 3 he clay is not present, but at site I— 19 (fig. 4), augering revealed gray, silty, micaceous fine sand 187 ft below the floor of the landfill, or 203 ft below land surface. A gamma-ray log of the hole shows a lithologic change LEACHATE PLUMES IN GROUND WATER, BABYLON AND ISLIP LANDFILLS, LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK 52 I I I I I I | I l | | I I I | I | I I I I I I I | I I | | | I I I I I I | 51 I /\ I | I I fie“ BZ3A— A I 50 I I I / \I 15 49 _ I I I 48 I I I | ._I d I I g > 47 I I “J L_I,J I I —' < I / Well B1A—28\ I \ a LU m 46 _ I I " 14 Z 5 44 I I g E: W | < .— I I 3 LIJ Lu 3 43_ / I | \13 5 Z I I E _ Z _,~ 42 —_ E III Lu 39 > I I Z I I 3 E 38 ' | E g I Well l4B—46 I 2- I I 3 37 I I I / Ff I 36 ” 4: I — 11 I / Well 1513—46 \ 35 I I l/ I I I 34 I I I I 33 I I J I | I I I | | I I l l | | I I I I I I | I I I I | | | I I I I | JFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJASOND 1972 1973 1974 FIGURE 2.—Hydrographs of water-table wells at Babylon and Islip landfills, 1972—74. 170 ft below the pit floor. This fine—grained deposit seems to act as a hydrologic boundary; therefore, the bottom of the upper glacial was placed at 186 ft below land surface. The thickness of the upper glacial aquifer varies slightly with the altitude of the water table; it was 74 ft and 170 ft thick at Babylon and Islip, re- spectively. The Gardiners Clay is overlain by a grayish-green sand that contains clam shells; the clay pinches out somewhere between 1 and 1.4 mi south of the landfill. This deposit is about 3 ft thick at site B—15 (fig. 3), 1.4 mi south of the landfill. Although this deposit may be closely related to the Gardiners Clay, its hydraulic conductivity is closer to that of the overlying outwash HYDROLOGY 40°44' ' 6 pb WEE my. MONA}! 1e: . ,- MIN.» ,- ”3;..." altitude of water table, April 1974. Dashed where approximately located. Contour interval 1 foot. Datum is mean sea level 592% 0 WATER WELL—Large number is well site identification, small number is water level, in feet ""”’ LANDFILL DEPOSITS / \ HIII 40°42' — 0 \ 1/2 MILE 0 .5 KILOMETER 1 Base from US. Geological Survey Hydrology by G. E. Kimmel, 19 74 Amityville 1:24 .000. 1 96 9 ; Bay Shore West 1:24.000. 1969 FIGURE 3.—-Water table in April 1974 and location of wells referred to in text in vicinity of Babylon landfill. LEACHATE PLUMES IN GROUND WATER, BABYLON AND ISLIP LANDFILLS, LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK 5. 73°04' | (.1.— r‘1 370 _ ,1.) 75. - 17 :‘"’Iu _ ___ ”I, .1- '5 2’ 14 nlrgl‘lQ‘Hlllli 3§,§ :36.l: “ '___\_. I I116 - 4y, I ulHII 6 __ cK13 11 -- 35 ‘P . :ch 35.7 / . fi' ' My ' . 352 15 315 ) Ll _. ll .. . _ 4 53 . , . 127 331 - _ ‘, . , 335 I 0 \. a: : , 3 6 I . ‘- ‘ - - ,U: 126 ' ' l '0 '31'5 .V. - . 31.8 18 31. L—4 a 33H— ' . '9‘" . n ... I on I .III ' 31.8 31-8l-l . , [3 D < m \_J EXPLANATION ‘—20'—' WATER-TABLE CONTOUR—Shows al- titude of water table, January 1974. Contour interval 1 foot. 20 mean sea level 134 O WELL—Large number is well-site identi- 2 7 '9 fication; small number is water level, in 2 feet J (i \I I I I, 4 I I ,\ LANDFILL DEPOSITS h 20 i Datum is \\ _-L-L——"“ 0 1/2 MILE 0 .5 KILOMETER l H L—T—fi ' 1 Base from U.S. Geological Survey Hydrology by G. E. Kimmel. 19 74 Patchogue 1:24 .000. 196 ’l -_. 15‘ FIGURE 4.—Water table in January 1974 and location of wells referred to in text in vicinity of Islip landfill. deposits, therefore, it is included in the upper glacial streams, ground-water flow in the upper glacial aquifer aquifer in this report. is nearly horizontal (gradient about 0.002). This is Except near points of ground-water discharge to supported by the observation that hydraulic heads, HYDROLOGY 7 measured at wells of different depths at the same site and at many locations in both areas, were virtually identical. ' The hydraulic conductivity of the upper glacial aquifer was studied regionally by McClymonds and Franke (1972) with specific—capacity tests from wells. They used the relation proposed by Theis, Brown, and Meyer (1963, p. 332): K x 2,000 (Q/s)L where If = average hydraulic conductivity of mate- rials opposite the well screen, in gallons per day per foot squared, Q/s = specific capacity of the well, in gallons per minute per foot of drawdown, and L length of the well screen, in feet. The constant factor 2,000 was found to be average for conditions on Long Island. Values of hydraulic conduc- tivity contoured on maps (McClymonds and Franke, 1972, pl_. 1) indicate that the average hydraulic conduc- tivity (K) in the area of the Babylon and Islip landfills is about 2,000 (gal/d)/ft2 or 270 ft/d. In the upper glacial aquifer south of the Babylon landfill, there are seven public-supply wells at four sta- tions and, in the vicinity of the Islip landfill, five public-supply wells at two stations (fig. 5). These wells partly penetrate the‘aquifer, and screens are set near the bottom of the aquifer. About 35 percent of the aquifer is screened at Babylon and about 25 percent at Islip. Specific capacities ranged from 17 to 104 gal/ft of drawdown when the wells were new. A computer analysis by T. E. Reilly (written com-'- mun., 1976) to determine the vertical and horizontal hydraulic conductivity took into consideration the par- tial penetration of the aquifer and used a 10:1 ratio of horizontal to vertical hydraulic conductivity. This ratio seems valid for regional models (Getzen, 1975; Franke and Getzen, 1976, p. 78). Where data were available from more than one supply well at a given station, only data from the well with the highest specific capacity were used; it was assumed that wells with the higher value would indicate more accurately the hydraulic conductivity in the area because those with lower val- ues could be reflecting screen losses or other losses due to variations in well construction. Hydraulic conduc- tivities obtained from three stations at Babylon and two stations at Islip are given in figure 5. Data from the two wells at the Albans Road station near Babylon were not included because their specific capacity was 17 and 18 gal/ft —only 20 percent of the next lowest value in the area. This amount suggests that the data from the wells would not accurately reflect the hydrau- lic conductivity at the well site. Values of hydraulic conductivity ranged from 470 to 500 ft/d for the Babylon area and from 190 to 360 ft/d for the Islip area (fig. 5). The values for the Babylon area are about twice the values obtained by the method used in McClymonds and Franke (1972), and those values probably more nearly reflect the hydraulic conductiv- ity in the area of the landfill than those of McClymonds and Franke. Fine-grained deposits in the Magothy aquifer (Cohen and others, 1968) occur directly beneath the Gardiners Clay at Babylon and the outwash deposits at Islip. The Magothy aquifer is composed of beds of sand, silt, and clay and is between 800 and 1,000 ft thick in the area. At Babylon, water in the Magothy is currently (1974) 3 ft below the water in the upper glacial aquifer at the site of the Babylon landfill; it is probably lower because of public-supply withdrawals. Samples from 9 ft of drilling below the Gardiners Clay at Babylon indicate that the Magothy aquifer consists of lignitic and micaceous, silty, fine to medium sand. Pyrite is associ- ated with the lignite. Observation wells of the kind used in this study that are screened in the Magothy aquifer at Babylon yield very little water—1 to 2 gal/ min. The average hydraulic conductivity of the Magothy aquifer in the region of the two sites is esti- mated to be 50 ft/d (McClaymonds and Franke, 1972). Although one hole is hardly sufficient to characterize the Magothy in the report area, logs for the three public-supply-well stations near Babylon (fig. 5) indi- cate that the sampling point was characteristic of the top of the Magothy in that area. QUALITY OF NATIVE AND AMBIENT GROUND WATER Fresh, uncontaminated ground water—native ground water—generally contains only small amounts of dissolved mineral matter on Long Island. Water from several wells in the vicinity of the landfills (table 2) had dissolved-solids concentrations of 51 mg/L (mil- ligrams per liter) or less, which indicates a chemical character close to that of native ground water in at least some parts of the upper glacial aquifer. In native ground water on Long Island, the concen— tration of individual species of the major cations (cal- cium, magnesium, sodium, potassium) and anions (bicarbonate, sulfate, chloride) is usually less than 10 mg/L, and only minor amounts of other ions are pres- ent. However, the quality of ground water in this re- gion has been altered to various degrees, mostly by cesspool and septic-tank wastewater; thus, the ambient water in areas affected by landfill leachate can be dif- ferent from native water. Analyses of water samples listed in table 2 (well 10- cations are shown in figs. 3 and 4) indicate that during the time'of sampling (1972—73), the ground water in some places was of essentially native quality. Sub- 8 LEACHA'I‘E PLUMES IN GROUND WATER, BABYLON AND ISLIP LANDFILLS, LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK 73°10' 73°05' Islip Bohemia E o ‘92? 360 0 i : Church St '3 \I 9; 190 0a Babylon 1:. 73°25' 73°20' 2 40°45' 40°45' $ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \\ \ Tenny Ave \ \\ Sawyer Ave 470° ‘5' 0 Albany Ave - 500O EXPLANATION Tenny Ave 4700 WELL STATION—Number is hydraulic conductivity, in feet per day Q \ LANDFILL LOCATION—Dashed line 40040, T“ shows approximate extent of ground- WOU : : water contamination from landfill AT. \i GRE o 1 2 3 4 5 MILES Base from US. Geological l l | l l | Survey State base map, I l l l I l I 1:500,000, 1974 O 1 2 3 4 5 6 KILOMETERS FIGURE 5,—Hydraulic conductivity at selected public-supply-well stations in upper glacial aquifer in vicinity of Babylon and Islip landfills. sequent and previous samples from shallow wells Il5A—28 and I7A—33 indicate intermittent contamina- tion by domestic wastewater rich in ammonia, nitrate, calcium, sodium, sulfate, and chloride. Contamination of the ground water by domestic and possibly other kinds of wastes and by road salt has also altered the regional quality of the ground water to various de- grees. The chemical character of water in the region of the plumes created by landfill leachate can be inter- mediate between that of plume water and native wa- ter. Although identification of the source of altered water is not always possible, leachate-enriched water in areas affected by the landfills generally has a much greater dissolved-solids content and hence a greater specific conductance than ambient ground water. At Islip, regional alteration of water in the top part of the upper glacial aquifer has increased the dissolved-solids concentration to as much as 120 mg/L and the specific conductance to as much as 200 ,umho (micromho). Consequently, at Islip a specific conduc- tance greater than 200 itth in the top of the aquifer indicates leachate enrichment. In the bottom part of the aquifer, where regional enrichment from domestic waste is small, a specific conductance as low as 60 ,umho could indicate leachate-enriched water, and there the definition of areas of leachate-enriched water is even better than near the top of the aquifer. Water samples from the Babylon area indicate that water from the upper glacial aquifer has been altered through Virtually its entire depth by domestic waste. Only one sample, from well B17C—68 (table 2 and fig. 3), was of native quality. Specific conductance of the water in the upper glacial aquifer around the toe, or end, of the Babylon plume commonly ranged from 200 to 400 umho. Because ambient ground water in the area of the plume seldom exceeded 400 umho, this value was taken as the basis for detection of the leachate plume at Babylon. The concentrations of trace elements given in table 2 were assumed to be those of native water because no DESCRIPTION OF LANDFILLS 9 TABLE 2.—Chemical analyses showing quality of native water in the upper glacial aquifer in study areas Constituents and characteristics B170468 Well No. and date of sample collection IlC—99 ISA—28 I7A—33 ISA—25 I34D— 130 2—9—72 3—9—72 2—17472 11—16—73 2—24—72 5—16—73 10—19—73 Major constituents (mg/L) Silica (SiOz) ________________________________________________________ 13 12 7.9 4.6 6.1 6.0 14 Iron (Fe), total ______________________________________________________ 2.2 .1 .05 .58 .05 .15 .21 Manganese (Mn) ____________________________________________________ .04 .07 .0 .0 .02 .10 .02 Calcium (Ca) ________________________________________________________ 4 2 2.0 3.5 5.0 1.7 2.2 2.2 Magnesium (Mg) ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, . ____________________ 1. 0 .8 1.8 1.7 .8 .9 1.2 Sodium (Na) ________________________________________________________ 4. 7 4.0 5.6 4.5 3.5 3.7 4.0 Potassium (K) ______________________________________________________ .70 .4 1.5 .6 .6 .4 .5 Bicarbonate (HCO3 ) __________________________________________________ 16 10 9.0 7.0 2.5 3.0 15 Sulfate (804) ________________________________________________________ 8. 0 .5 13 10 7.5 8.0 .4 Chloride (Cl) ________________________________________________________ 6. 7 7.0 6.7 6.2 5.5 6.0 4.5 Fluoride (F) __________________________________________________________ .0 .1 .0 .1 .0 .6 .2 Nitrate as N ________________________________________________________ 27 .20 80 .54 .10 ______ .03 Nitrite as N ________________________________________________________ .02 .005 .24 .0 .002 ______ .0 Ammonla as N ______________________________________________________ .13 .04 .54 .01 .080 ______ .01 Nitrogen, organic as N ______________________________________________ .29 .35 .45 .09 .520 .0 .0 Phosphorus, as P _____________________________________________________ .04 .06 .28 .0 .10 .0 .01 Trace elements (Mg/L) Arsenic (As) ________________________________________________________ 0.0 3 11 0.0 0.0 ____________ Copper (Cu) __________________________________________________________ 0 O 0 0 0 ____________ Lead (Pb ____________________________________________________________ 4. 0 .8 4.0 0 2 ____________ Mercury (Hg) ________________________________________________________ < .5 <.5 <.5 .8 .8 ____________ Nickel (Ni) __________________________________________________________ 2. 0 4.0 4.0 ______ 7 ____________ Selenium (Se) ________________________________________________________ 0.0 2.0 .0 ______ 8 ____________ Zinc (Zn) ____________________________________________________________ 20 .0 40 30 20 0 50 Other characteristics Dissolved solids (sum, mg/L) __________________________________________ 47 33 51 36 28 29 34 Specific conductance (umho/cm at 25°C) _______________________________ 66 45 73 72 43 46 73 pH __________________________________________________________________ 6. 8 6.7 6.4 5.9 5.4 5. 3 7. 2 Tem erature (°C) ____________________________________________________ 11 11 13 12 11 11 11 Dept of screen below water table (ft) _________________________________ 65 67 12 13 14 14 110 comparisons for these elements were available. Cop- BABYLON per, which was not found in any of the native-quality samples, is virtually ubiquitous in ground water en- riched with septic-tank waste (table 8) in the Towns of Babylon and Islip. DESCRIPTION OF LANDFILLS The Babylon and Islip landfills have been described in Kimmel and Braids (1975). The Babylon site con- tains about twice as much refuse as the Islip site even though it is 14 years younger. Both landfill sites have incinerators, both were used for gravel-mining opera- tions before deposition of refuse, and both accumulated about the same kind of refuse. Scavenger waste, which is the collected effluent from septic tanks and cesspools, was discharged at both sites. In summary, the Babylon landfill had a much greater rate of accumulation than the Islip landfill. Refuse has been deposited at the Babylon site in three separate piles. A photograph of the site (fig. 6) shows two piles; a third has been partly removed and is not distinguishable in the photograph. The third pile was the original refuse heap and is about 500 ft east of the incinerator building. The north pile was completed in 1965, but some refuse has been added since. The southeast pile is currently (1974) active and is being. built northward into the sand and gravel mining oper- ation (large pond in photo). Sand and gravel is exca- vated to depths of at least tens of feet below the water table in the northeast and southwest quadrant of the site. Currently (1974), only noncompostable rubbish is deposited below the water table, but other types of ref- use may have been deposited there previously. About 40,000 gal/d of scavenger waste was treated to some extent in a facility on the west side of the site and 10 LEACHATE PLUMES IN GROUND WATER, BABYLON AND ISLIP LANDFILLS, LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK FIGURE 6.——View of Babylon landfill, looking south. Incinerator facility is at right. Sand-and-g'ravel operation, center left, is in water-table pond. Scavenger-waste-facility ponds are to the front and right (north and west) of large refuse pile in center. Photo- graph taken June 13, 1974. was then discharged into lagoons along the north and west parts of the site. These lagoons are above the water table and drain poorly because their bottoms have become clogged with sludge. Periodically, bottom sludge was excavated from the lagoons and placed over the landfill refuse. The refuse was at least 60 ft thick and possibly as much as 80 ft thick except in the earliest pile, which was about 30 ft thick in 1974. The total volume of ref- use in 1974 was estimated to be 2.3 X 106 yd“. The landfills were covered with sand and gravel and, more recently (1973), with sewage sludge. Compaction oc- curs both naturally and by the weight of heavy equip- ment being driven over the surface. The refuse comes from homes and light manufactur- ing. Much of the domestic garbage was incinerated be- fore deposition on the landfills. A large part of the manufacturing refuse consists of plastics or other inert material. The landfill operation began in 1947; it cov- ered 25 acres in 1973. ISLIP The Islip landfill occupies a pit from which sand has been mined. Landfilling reportedly began in 1933, and, by 1938, the landfill covered a little less than 1 acre. At that time there was no incinerator, but a 1947 aerial photograph shows an incinerator building and 1.5 acres of refuse. In 1973, refuse covered 17 acres, mostly in the north part of the landfill site. A narrow strip of refuse covering about 2 acres was deposited on the south side of the pit in 1972. A photograph of the site (fig. 7 ) shows the extent of the landfilling as of 1974. Most of the main pile of refuse was about 40 feet thick, with gently sloping sides. The refuse is similar to FIGURE 7.—View of Islip landfill, looking north. Incinerator facility is at center left with large smokestack. Old incinerator beyond it (to north) has stack without smoke. Sand and gravel is not currently (1974) mined here, but a gravel-washing operation is at lower right of landfill. Water-table ponds are in right center. Pho— tograph taken June 13, 1974. that in the Babylon landfill, but scavenger waste, which was once discharged here, has not been dis- charged since the late 1960’s. The landfill is covered with sand and has some grassy vegetation on the north side. The infiltration rate is probably high. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LEACHATE PLUMES METHODS OF STUDY Ground-water quality near and downgradient from the landfills was determined by installing 2-in. wells screened at various depths. A letter-and-number code was used to indicate screen setting, well depth, and water-quality data on maps. Well numbers are pre- ceded by B or I (for Babylon or Islip) and are followed by a screen-depth code letter and the well depth. Table 3 gives the letter code for the screen settings. For example, in well B2C—86, B2 indicates Babylon site 2, and C—86 indicates that the'well is screened at some interval between 60 and 80 ft below the water table and is 86 ft deep. Some wells have 3-ft screens, others have 4-ft screens. At Babylon, 90 wells were installed at 40 sites, and, at Islip, 76 wells were installed at 34 sites. In addition, water samples from 26 firewells at Babylon supplemented the water-quality data, and water-level measurements from 80 firewells supplemented measurements from 2-in. wells. The firewells were installed prior to this study for fire pro- tection and consist of 4-in.-long screens that bottom at 45 ft. The firewells were screened at B depth (table 3). The designation BFW in this report indicates Babylon firewells. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LEACHATE PLUMES 11 TABLE 3,—Letter code for well-screen depths Depth of screen setting below average water table (in ft) Letter code Babylon wells Islip wells 0 — 20 5 *15 ,,,_ 16728 30—40 30744 47~ 57 50 7 60 60~SO 65787 H, 94 7 114 123— 146 l186 ‘One well at site 19. Sampling of the ground water for chemical analysis began in the winter of 1972 and was continued annu— ally through 1974. Water from most wells, therefore, had three chemical analyses as well as several ad- ditional analyses for pH and conductivity. Chemical analyses for inorganic species were made at the US. Geological Survey laboratory in Albany, N.Y. Analyses of 91 water samples for total organic carbon were made at the Geological Survey laboratory in Denver, Colo. In 1973 and 1974, concentrations of ni- trate and ammonium were analyzed at the Geological Survey in Mineola, N.Y., by specific—ion electrodes. Procedures for sampling were predicted on the as- sumption that removing as much water as possible in a short time would flush the well bore, pump, and hoses and would thus minimize contamination from the sampling equipment and well. Yields of as much as 60 gal/min were attained.Withdrawals for some samples were large enough that water could have come from as much as 6 ft beyond the well screen. It is assumed that, because of the high hydraulic conductivity and uni- formity of the aquifer, withdrawals of this magnitude did not significantly distort the shape of the leachate plume. Techniques for preservation of nitrogen species in water samples between the time of sampling and the time of analysis have been questioned in recent years. Several procedures were selected for this study on the basis of current information. Variations included chill- ing at the sampling site, adding mercuric chloride as a preservative, analyzing the nitrogen components of the sample within 3 days of sampling, and analyzing ni- trate and ammonium by specific-ion electrode. Results from the electrode method differed significantly from the standard laboratory-analysis results at times, es— pecially at very low concentrations. COMPOSITION OF PLUMES MAJOR COMPONENTS Leachate-enriched ground water is characterized by enhanced concentrations of most ions that form‘the bulk of dissolved solids in regional ground water. Thus, the concentration of cations sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), calcium (Ca+2), and magnesium (Mg+2)———and of anions chloride (Cl‘),bicarbonate (HCOg’), and sulfate (SO4‘2)—in leachate plumes are higher than in am- bient water. These ions are dissolved directly from re- fuse by percolating water and are released from the organic matrix by biological decomposition. Results of chemical analyses of leachate-enriched water are given in table 4. The landfills consist of incinerator ash, uninciner- ated refuse, and scavenger waste (septic-tank and cesspool contents). Unincinerated refuse includes dem— olition waste, compostable materials, metals, textiles, and plastics. As part of the effort to identify the source of the components of leachate, 50-gram samples of fresh in- cinerator ash were taken from both landfills and were placed in distilled water for 4 weeks to simulate the leaching of ash by rainwater. The suspension was then filtered and analyzed (table 5). Because rainwater con- tains some dissolved solids (about 20 mg/L at Mineola, Long Island, N.Y.) and is characteristically acidic (pH about 5), this method is not exact, but the low concen- tration of soluble material and the considerable amount of HCO; that dissolved out of the ash samples strongly suggest that, chemically, the distilled water is similar enough to rainwater to justify its use in these tests. In the Babylon ash sample, Ca+2 and HC03‘ were the major ions present, with 425 and 1,160 mg/L, re- spectively. In the Islip ash sample, the ion pair Ca+2and SO4‘2 were the dominant cation and anion, with 275 and 500 mg/L, respectively. The analyses in- dicate that all major components of leachate-enriched water were also major components of ash leachate, al- though the SO,” concentration in the plumes was erratic. Minor amounts of zinc were detected in the samples. Because the incinerator ash, which readily contributes ions when placed in water, constitutes a large proportion of the refuse in both landfills, it is assumed that it is also a major chemical contributor to landfill leachate. The pH of ambient water in the upper glacial aquifer in the Vicinity of the landfills has been found to be as high as 7.2 (well 134D—130, table 2), but it is commonly about 5. In the plume water, it is about one pH unit higher than that generally found in ambient water. The pH range of leachate-enriched water at Babylon was from 4.9—7.3 and at Islip was from 4.6—6.8. BICARBONATE Bicarbonate was the dominant anion in most of the leachate-enriched ground-water samples. Its concen- 12 LEACHATE PLUMES IN GROUND WATER, BABYLON AND [SLIP LANDFILLS, LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK TABLE 4.—Chemical analyses of leachate-enriched ground water in study areas Well No. and date of collection Babylon landfill Islip landfill Constituents and characteristics BlBB—69 B128C778 BlZC—70 BezBFW B35C~67 IIQB~61 123E~144 ISD722 130Dri20 773774 7—31—74 543773 772644 7—29774 871~74 6—25773 8713~74 8—9~74 Major constituents (mg/L) Silica (SiOZ) ____________________________________ <1 8.9 5.3 4.1 8.8 11 7.1 14 16 Calcium (Ca) __________________________________ 100 93 ---- 0 _--- 0 ---- 20 ____ lg/Ioafnesium (Mg) ________________________________ 28 53 22 8.8 5.5 17 55 7.3 6.2 ium (Na) ____________________________________ 700 280 160 120 43 68 260 170 39 Potassium (K) __________________________________ 110 16 25 29 5.3 52 75 3 1.1 Bicarbonate (H003) ____________________________ 898 277 426 208 54 392 1,010 59 31 Carbonate (C03) ________________________________ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Alkalinity as CaCO3 ____________________________ 737 227 349 171 44 322 828 48 25 Sulfate (804) ____________________________________ 100 19 61 36 60 26 57 150 74 Chloride (Cl) ____________________________________ 910 410 200 150 55 92 400 150 29 Fluoride (F) ____________________________________ .3 .1 .2 0 0 .4 .2 0 .1 Bromide (Br) ____________________________________ .15 4.2 ___- .85 .6 1.3 ____ 2.3 .36 Nitrate (N03) ___________________________________ 2.2 2.7 .05 1.6 .67 .69 .34 1.1 .45 Nitrite (N02) ____________________________________ ___- -_-_ 0 ---- __- --- .17 ____ ---- Nitrogen, ammonia as N _________________________ 43 7.8 35 15 5.3 14 12 0.08 0 Minor constituents (ug/L) Arsenic (As) ____________________________________ 14 1 ____ O ____ 29 ---- 2 ---_ Boron (B) ______________________________________ 2,500 770 1,000 780 300 690 1,200 430 240 Copper (Cu) ____________________________________ 0 20 -_-_ 10 ---- 0 __-- 0 ____ ad (Pb) _________________________________ 1 0 _--- 0 ____ 6 --__ 0 ---- Selenium (Se) _____________________________ 1 1 ---- 2 ---- 0 ---- 2 ---- Strontium (Sr) __________________________________ 680 1,400 ---- 160 180 370 ____ 230 130 Zinc (Zn) ______________________________________ 20 80 10 10 --- 10 190 10 H" Aluminum (Al) ________________________________ 0 5O _--- O ---_ 0 ____ 20 ____ Iron (Fe) ______________________________________ 24,000 1,200 210 180 1,200 39,000 3,400 100 110 Other characteristics Dissolved solids - Residue at 180°C (mg/L) ______________________ 2,300 1,220 652 508 219 490 1,560 555 223 Calculated (mg/L) ____________________________ 2,475 1,030 778 486 230 575 1,548 539 196 Hardness as CaCO3 (mg/L) ______________________ 370 450 213 120 65 210 676 60 61 Noncarbonate hardness (mg/L) __________________ 0 220 0 0 21 -_-_ ---- ---- ---- tration ranged from 2,700 mg/L (analysis from well B3C—86, January 1972) near the Babylon landfill to about 50 mg/L near the toe of the plume at Babylon (fig. 8), which was about the maximum concentration of bicarbonate in ground water altered by domestic TABLE 5.—Chemical analyses of solutions derived from incinerator ash Babylon ash Islip ash Constituents mg/L meq/L mg/L meq/L Silica (SiOz) ________________ 20 ---- 1.5 ____ Calcium (Ca) ________________ 425 21.21 275 13.72 Magnesium (Mg) ____________ 61 5.02 18 13.72 Sodium (Na) ________________ 11 .48 37 1.61 Potassium (K) ______________ 77 1.97 11 .28 Bicarbonate (H003) __________ 1,160 19.01 260 4.26 Sulfate (SO4) ________________ 300 6.25 500 10.41 Chloride (Cl) ________________ 210 5.92 38 1.07 Fluoride (F) ________________ .7 .04 .4 .02 Nitrate (N03) as N .......... 0 .00 .1 01 Ammonia (NH4) as N ________ 6.5 .46 ____ _--- Copper (Cu) ________________ 0 ---- .02 -___ Zinc (Zn) ____________________ .15 ____ .09 --- waste in the Babylon area. At Islip, bicarbonate con- centrations ranged from 1,010 mg/L (well 123E—144, table 4) near the landfill to about 30 mg/L near the toe of the plume. Ambient water near the top of the Islip plume was somewhat altered but was of virtually na- tive quality near the bottom part of the plume. The top part of the plume was distinguishable by bicarbonate concentrations greater than 20 mg/L. Bicarbonate is one of the best indicators for tracing the leachate plumes. It is derived from the leaching of incinerator ash (table 5), anaerobic decomposition of organic matter, and dissolution of carbon dioxide. The mechanism of bicarbonate formation in incinerator ash is not understood, but it probably is related to incom- plete combustion of organic matter before it is doused with water. An example of anaerobic decomposition is provided by butyric acid, a common microbial metabo- lite: 2CH3CHZCOO’ + H2O —> 5CH4 + 002 + 2HC03‘ (1) where methane, carbon dioxide, and bicarbonate are CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LEACHATE PLUMES BABYLON 40°44' ISLIP 73°os' \ . V III/ll /’/ I. ’0 ' 201;“ “2 Y A < , ~ ‘ l"! - l/IIXSIIHI& ‘ 7 0"” I . 626 . 40°46' .5 lKlLOMETER EXPLANATION —-—400— LINE OF EQUAL SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE, JANUARY 1974—Shows extent of leachate con- tamination at B-depth (Babylon) and C—depth (Islip). Conductance in micromhos per centimeter at 25° C 0 WATER WELL—Number is bicarbonate concentration, in mg/L. a indicates sample collected in 1973; b indicates sample collected in 1972; all others were collected in July and August 1974 >u‘.‘l{< LANDFILL DEPOSITS FIGURE 8.—-Bicarbonate concentrations at C-depth wells in vicinity of Babylon and Islip landfills. 13 14 LEACHATE PLUMES IN GROUND WATER, BABYLON AND ISLII’ LANDFILLS, LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK the products (Lawrence, 1971, p. 173). Dissolution of carbon dioxide in water C02 (eq) + H2O :— H2C03 (2) H2C03 + H20 r, H3O+ + HCO3’ (3) yields carbonic acid (eq. 2), which dissociates to hy- dronium and bicarbonate ions. The concentration of carbonic acid in equation 2 is proportional to the par- tial pressure of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere in contact with water. Inside the landfills, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide is much greater than normal because carbon dioxide is part of the organic decompo- sition process (eq.1), therefore, the equilibrium (eq. 2 and 3) is shifted to the right, producing more bicarbon- ate. Together, these sources of bicarbonate result in concentrations many times greater in leachate than in ambient ground water. SU LFATE The distribution of sulfate in the plume is shown in figure 9. The sulfate probably comes from solutions of incinerator ash that travel aerobically (table 5) to ground water. Thus, sulfur that originates in the sul- fate form is transported to the ground-water body un- changed. Unincinerated organic refuse that was de- composing aerobically would also contribute sulfate. The combination of an aerobic environment, suitable bacteria, and a carbonaceous substrate provides an en- vironment favorable for the reduction of sulfate to sulfide. These conditions are found in the interior of refuse piles and continue for several feet beneath and beyond in the ground water. These conditions also favor reduction of iron to the more soluble ferrous state. The presence of iron and sulfide under conditions of low oxidation-reduction potential and near-neutral pH results in the precipitation of ferrous sulfide, which removes these ions from solution. The wide range in sulfate concentration in leachate-enriched ground water near the landfills may result from this chemical reduction and from ion precipitation. Iron concen- trations as high as 440 mg/L and sulfate concen- trations as high as 290 mg/L were found in the plume; iron concentrations were generally higher than sulfate concentrations. The sulfur, after reduction to sulfide, is chemically bound; this fact may account for the low sulfate content at many locations near the landfills. Incinerator ash and cesspool and septic-tank ef- fluents are other major sources of sulfate in the leachate (table 5), and the uneven distribution of in- cinerator ash in the landfill may be another reason for the wide variation in sulfate concentrations in leachate-enriched ground water near the Babylon landfill. However, even where the plume is highly en- riched with leachate, the sulfate concentration is likely to constitute less than 15 percent of the total anions (fig. 9). In the Babylon plume, the proportion of sulfate to total anions increases to approximately 30 percent as the plume water moves downgradient (fig. 9). Simul- taneously, bicarbonate becomes diluted relative to sul— fate, further increasing the sulfate percentage. Sulfate concentration in both plumes is variable, but in ambient ground water it is much lower at Islip than at Babylon. Concentrations greater than 10 mg/L at Islip probably indicate leachate enrichment (fig. 9). CHLORIDE As shown in table 6, chloride concentrations in leachate-enriched water at Babylon in 1973 were as high as 1,300 mg/L—five times the recommended drinking-water limit (US Public Health Service, 1962). Chloride concentrations mapped in figure 10 are listed in table 6. Chloride is a conservative ion; that is, it does not interact appreciably with other chemical species in ground water and the sediments. The high correlation coefficient of sodium to chloride at Babylon, 0.99 (fig.11), suggests that both ions are conservative and that chloride would be a good ion for tracing leachate if secondary sources could be subtracted from existing concentrations in ground water. The close cor- relation between chloride concentration and specific conductance further indicates that chloride is conserv- ative and a constant contributor to the conductance of the water compared with other ions in the water (corre- lation coefficient is 0.783). Because of this property (see section on “Dispersion Model”), chloride concentration is useful for calculation of the dispersion coefficient for the aquifer. MAJOR (JA'I‘IONS Maximum concentrations of the cations Na+, K+, Ca”, and Mg+2 at the two sites given in table 7. The analyses for these ions show heterogeneity in the addi- tion of these constituents to ground water. Concen- trations of cations plotted against conductance had a correlation coefficient of 0.8 for sodium at both sites and of 0.77 for calcium and 0.8 for magnesiinn at Babylon, whereas concentrations of calcium, mag- nesium, and potassium had correlation coefficients of less than 0.7. The major cations are contributed by leachate in a nonuniform way, thus, at high concen- trations there is considerable scatter in the correlation of ions and conductivity. Water samples taken outside the plumes were not included in the statistical analyses. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LEACHATE PLUMES BABYLON 40°44' .-3/\V \\ \ /~' ,1 ,——-—‘——~—» ~ "AL. w» xt ”/Z__£gve;gfiggn 1L :“fl . C, #7 :‘L W // 3 3g;2§- "V W 3) 145/6“ :34}7/ ,7, A51} \\ \: /-:::"‘” {while I '1 1%; Cu 40°4s' l l KILOMETER EXPLANATION —400-— LINE OF SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE, JANUARY 1974—Shows extent of leachate contamination at B-depth (Babylon) and C-depth (Islip). Conductance in micromhos per centimeter at 25° C 9 0 WELL AND SULFATE CONCENTRATION— '2) Concentration in milligrams per liter. Number in parentheses is sulfate as percentage of total anions in 1973. >;.‘.'{< LANDFILL DEPOSITS FIGURE 9.—Su1fate concentrations in ground water in and near leachate plumes at Babylon and Islip landfills. 15 16 LEACHATE PLUMES IN GROUND WATER, BABYLON AND ISLIP LANDFILLS, LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK INTERMEDIATE WELLS (Ii-depth) V5 1000 2000 3000 FEET DEEIPVELLS (C we // : -i! 4- . IF. .p/V, / / o A . EXPLANATION LINE OF EQUAL CHLORIDE CONCENTRATION, 1974— Dashed where approximately located. Interval 50 and 100 milligrams per liter WATER WELL—Small number and letter are well identification; large number is chloride con- centration LANDFILL DEPOSITS I J I 500 METERS FIGURE 10.—Chloride concentrations in ground water in vicinity of Babylon landfill plume. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LEACHATE PLUMES 17 TABLE 6.—Chloride concentrations in upper glacial aquifer at Babylon landfill [In milligrams per liter] Well-site Medium-depth wells Deep wells No, (B depth) (C depth) 1972 1973 1974 1972 1973 1974 160 1300 340 130 950 910 CCC. 99 88 CCCC 2O 19 240 290 190 380 220 580 12 12 C__C CCC. CCCC CCCC 220 200 120 220 360 260 9.5 13 C CiCC C__ CCCC GS 68 33 14 170 280 1 CCC CCCC C CCC 120 130 160 21 180 180 31 27 24 12 15 25 140 140 160 170 200 190 20 __C CCCC C C CCCC C C 27 27 C __ C CCCC CiC 57 __CC CC C 61 67 1 20 20 C C C__ CCCC C C 12 CCCC C C _ _ CCCC CCC 31 CCC. CCCC CCC CCC CCCC 39 43 41 CCC- 1CCC CCCC 36 C__C CC C CCCC CCC CCC 45 42 _ C C... C CC CCC 42 44 42 35 43 46 57 48 59 58 45 55 C C 46 4O CCC. CCC CC C 31 CCC_ CCC CC C C 31 CCC C C C CC _ C C 72 71 C _ CCCC CCC C 31 CCC C _ iCCC CC C C 150 150 C C CCCC C C 50 51 C CCCC C C 50 47 C C CCC C C 110 77 CCC CCC C_ C C _ 22 70 CC. C C C CC 47 C CCC- C C 300 230 C C_1C CCC 160 170 C 240 CC 60 59 39 51 52 56 61 40 35 CCC C C 90 95 C C 13 20 190 190 270 300 NITROGEN COMPOUNDS Nitrogen is present in refuse as a component of organic matter. It is especially available in unincin- erated garbage and scavenger‘waste. Upon decompo- sition of organic matter, proteinaceous nitrogen is converted to nitrate under aerobic (oxidizing) condi— tions or to ammonia under anaerobic (reducing) condi- tions. Because anaerobic conditions prevail in landfills, ammonium-nitrogen is the major nitrogen species in leachate. Ammonium can be produced from pro— teinaceous wastes by microbiological decomposition as follows: 0.33 C4H60N (protein) + 0.073 HCO;; + 0.64 H209 0.33 NH+4 + 0.14 CHgCOO’ + 0.13 CH3CH2 COO— + 0.193 C02 + 0.133 CHgCHzCH2COO" (4) (McCarty, 1971, p. 102). Carbon dioxide produced in this reaction dissolves in water to create more bicarbonate (eq. 2 and 3). The organic acid thus pro- duced are easily metabolized and probably remain in solution for only a short time. Ammonium concentrations as high as 46 mg/L (well 119C—96, 6/20/73) were found’ near the Islip landfill, and as high as 90 mg/L(well B3B—51, 5/20/73) near the 1800.00 1 1 1600.00— # 1400.00— “ 1200.00 1000.00 800.00 600.00 400.00 200.00 l l I l 1 600.00 300.00 1000.00 1200.00 1400.00 x FIGURE 11.—Relations of sodium and chloride content in leachate plume at Babylon. 0.00 i 0.00 200.00 400.00 Babylon landfill. Data are insufficient to determine the concentration gradient at Islip, but the ammonium concentration at Babylon between the landfill and site B12 (fig. 3) ranged from 35 to 90 mg/L and tapered off to about 10 mg/L near the toe of the plume. Nitrate-nitrogen is present in refuse such as lawn cuttings and other vegetable matter. When leached through reducing zones, it may be denitrified to nitro- gen gas; this may explain the low nitrate concen- trations in leachate plumes near their point of origin where reducing conditions prevail. Nitrate as a per- centage of total nitrogen increases downgradient to about 40 percent of the total nitrogen near the toe of the plumes (fig. 12). Contamination from septic tanks TABLE 7.——Concentration of cations in samples from Islip and Babylon plumes, in milligrams per liter [Location of sampling sites is shown in figs, 3 and 4] Date Cations Well of collection N34 K' Ca” Mg” Islip: 121E—146 CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC 1171&73 ‘560 11 45 26 123E— 144 CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC 6—25—73 260 '75 '180 '55 Babylon: B1Bv50 CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC 4~19~73 ‘860 65 170 36 BlC~69 CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC 'C 74 3-74 700 ‘110 100 28 B3Cv86 CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC 1725772 290 30 ‘565 ‘Maximum concentration at landfill. 18 LEACHATE PLUMES IN GROUND WATER, BABYLON AND ISLIP LANDFILLS, LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK BABYLON 40°44' ISLIP , ,fl I!!!L ‘,§§ a} are \ to/ ./\ g!%;/, 5,.x It? 1; v t ,, ' / . / / if??? " ‘5 I, V 9,6 LSc :‘l/ \ ,1‘ \ n- \\ \ \/ 145‘." V «‘f <\ | .5 1 KILOMETER EXPLANATION —-40 —- LINE OF EQUAL PERCENTAGE, 1973-Number is ratio of nitrate to total nitrogen as percentage. Interval: l, 9, and 30 percent 5'4 0 WATER WELL—Number is percentage nitrate (as N) of total nitrogen in sample >. .é LANDFILL DEPOSITS FIGURE 12.—Nitrate concentrations as percentage of total nitrogen in water from B-depth wells at Babylon landfill and C-depth wells at Islip. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LEACHATE PLUMES 19 at Babylon, and possibly oxidation of ammonium to nitrate, cause the increase in nitrate content downgradient from the landfill. Within the plumes, nitrate concentrations did not exceed the recommended limit (US. Public Health Service, 1962) of 10 mg/L as nitrogen. Outside the plume at Babylon, the limit was equaled or exceeded in 11 samples. SUMMARY OF MAIOR COMPONENTS Stiff diagrams of the major ionic components of leachate-enriched water (fig. 13) show that the chemi- cal character of plume water changes between the ref- use pile and the toe of the plumes. Generally, water highly enriched with leachate was the sodium bicarbon- ate type, but in many samples, calcium and chloride were equally dominant or exceeded the sodium and bicarbonate concentrations. Toward the toe of both plumes, bicarbonate was greatly attenuated relative to the other major ions. Bicarbonate concentration, which tends to change directly with pH, decreases as the pH falls below about 6 and would also be expected to de- crease in the more acid ambient water. Attenuation of other ions toward the toe may take place by chemical reactions such as oxidation of ammonium to nitrate or by sorption on the hydrous iron oxide coating of the sand grains and clay components of the sediments. The proportion of sulfate appears to increase downgradient at both sides, possibly as a result of oxidation of an unknown, reduced form of sulfur, and at Babylon it is increased by local domestic waste contamination. The character of leachate-enriched water is modified by enrichment from other sources, particularly at the Babylon site. The Stiff diagrams for the Babylon plumes (fig. 13) represent C-depth wells, but analyses of samples from wells at this depth outside the plume show that ambient water was enriched by septic-tank and cesspool waste and was not significantly different MILLIEQUIVALENTS PER LITER MILLIEQUIVALENTS PER LITER 15 10 5 o 5 1o 15 20 25 20 15 10 5 o 5 1o 15 20 25 30 35 l | | | l l l l l | | I l L J J WELL 19C WELL SC E ISLIP WELLS . E BABYLON WELLS WELL 3B WELL 128C WELL 23E WELL 12C WELL 8D WELL 150 Na+ + K+ — — HC03— Na+ + K+ —— — H003— M9+2 _ _ 504—2 Mg+2 __ _ 504—2 Ca+2 — — C|_ Ca+: — — CI“ NH4+— —No3‘ —No3— WELL 30D Dissolved WELL 35c Dissolved solids ‘solids Well | Depth (ft) mg/L Well Depth (ft) mg/L 19c 96 350 3c 71 2170 313 71 800 128C 78 1150 23E 144 1550 12c 70 780 8D 132 430 15c 67 280 300 122 250 35c 67 210 FIGURE 13.—Concentration of chemical constituents of water from selected wells in Babylon and Islip plumes. 20 LEACHA'IE PLUMES IN GROUND WATER, BABYLON AND ISLIP LANDFILLS, LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK from highly dispersed leachate-enriched water such as that found in well B35C—67 (fig. 13). Thus, some of the changes in the chemical character of water that take place downgradient from the Babylon landfill may re— sult from enrichment by outside sources. At the Islip site, however, ambient water at the depths of samples given in figure 13 differs significantly from leachate-enriched water. Changes in the chemical character of water in the plume (fig.13) relate either to initial differences in plume-water qual- ity (leachate entering the ground water) or to some attenuating chemical effect on the leachate-enriched water as it moves through the aquifer. Although chloride is the most obviously attenuated ion except for bicarbonate at the Islip site, the linear-correlation co- efficient for the sodium-to-chloride ratio is 0.99 for all Islip plume-water analyses; this coefficient suggests that the mass of the chloride ion is conserved as the water moves through the aquifer. The chloride concen- tration in well 130D—120 (fig. 13) was low relative to that of the other ions, probably because of differences in the initial concentration of the leachate. MINOR COMPONENTS A suite of trace elements, including most of the common heavy metals, was included in the chemical analysis of ground water from the study sites. The ele- ments, with their maximum concentrations and the percentage of samples in which they were detected, are listed in table 8. IRON AND MANCAN ESE The heavy metals that were found in highest concen- trations and frequencies in the leachate plumes were iron and manganese. Their concentrations exceeded the US. Public Health Service (1962) recommended TABLE 8.—Maximum concentration and occurrence ofminor chemical constituents in the upper glacial aquifer in both study areas Percentage of samples having concentration Maximum concentration above detection (micrograms per liter) level All Plume All Plume samples samples samples samples Constituent Arsenic ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 'll 7 32 47 Boron ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ., , , . '2.500 ‘2,500 95 93 Bromine ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 4.2 4.2 100 100 Cadmium ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 1 3 4 Cobalt ,,,,,,,, , 370 370 52 58 Chromium (VI) W ,,,,,,,, , 10 10 10 7 Copper ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 10 50 34 41 Iron ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, I440,000 '440,000 99 98 Mercury ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 4 4 23 18 Manganese ,,,,,,,,,,,,, '190,000 '190,000 81 88 Nickel ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 27 7 69 73 Lead , , , , H, 70 28 94 87 Selenium.,,,., , H, , Hi” "1.1.1.“... ..,,.'38 '38 83 81 Strontium . . . . . ._.1,400 1,400 100 100 Zinc WW "fl, . _ ..7.Hfifififlflflfififlfi220 180 78 80 'Exceeds U.S. Public Health Service (1962) recommended drinking-water standards. standards of 300 and 50 mg/L, respectively, throughout most of the plumes and the surrounding areas. Concen- trations of iron as high as 440,000 mg/L at pH 6.9 (ta- ble 8) and of manganese as high as 190,000 mg/L at pH 6.3 were found in water from well B3C— 86 at different times. The iron and manganese concentrations at this and other wells varied through an order of magnitude from time to time. During the study period at well B6C—78 (fig. 3), 3,000 ft south of the refuse pile, iron content ranged from 320 to 690 mg/L, and manganese content ranged from 80 to 600 mg/L. Although well B6C—78 was in highly leachate-enriched water (con- ductance ranged between 1,600 and 2,100 ,umho), iron and manganese concentrations were about equal to those in ambient water in the Babylon area. Because the concentration of these constituents throughout much of the plume was no greater than in ambient water, they apparently were reacting with the aquifer by sorption or were removed by precipitation with other unknown chemical species or bacteria in the aquifer. The high concentrations of iron and manganese in ground water near the landfills suggest that these con- stituents are largely derived from the refuse. Ad- ditional iron may be added from the glacial outwash sediments, which are coated with hydrous oxides of iron that can contribute iron under the reducing condi- tions present in the plume water. The sand and gravel 0f the upper glacial aquifer, typically orange-brown from the hydrous oxide coating, was gray for a few hundred feet beyond the landfills where leachate en- richment was severe; this condition suggests that the iron in the formation has been stripped away by the leachate-laden water. BORON Boron was present in both plumes and reached a maximum concentration of 2,500ug/L (table 8). Be- cause its concentrations were higher in plume water than in ambient ground water, it too may be used to define the plumes. It occurs as the highly soluble and conservative borate anion, which accounts for its rela- tively high concentration and frequency. Boron enters the ground water from septic-tank effluent; therefore, its concentration near the toe of the Babylon plume equals that of ambient water. Although most of the boron in leachate probably comes from laundry prod- ucts, small amounts could also be contributed by refuse such as printing inks, ceramics, and rubber. SELENIUM AND ARSENIC These elements occur as the anions selenate and arsenate. Both species are soluble and, as anions, are CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LEACHATE PLUMES 21 not adsorbed on materials in the aquifer. Selenium oc- cured in higher concentrations and was more prevalent than arsenic (table 8) because selenium is used in common products such as rubber and ink, whereas ar- senic, which occurs chiefly as a contaminant in impure phosphorus and selenium salts, is used mainly in toxic products such as insecticides and rodenticides and therefore is not deposited in appreciable concentrations in the landfills studied. OTHER HEAVY METALS The heavy metals cadmium, chromium, cobalt, cop- per, mercury, nickel, lead, strontium, and zinc were all detected (table 8). Some of the cobalt and zinc was con- tributed by the landfill. Concentrations of the remain- ing metals were no higher in the plume than in am- bient water. Cobalt was found in concentrations as high as 370 ,ug/L in water from well B3C—86 and 21 ug/L in water from well BIB—69. Elsewhere in leachate-rich water, cobalt was undetected or in very low concentrations. Zinc concentration was generally higher in leachate-enriched water (180 ,u.g/L, well B3C—86) than in ambient water, but at some locations in ambient water, zinc concentrations approached those found in the plumes. Lead was the most frequently found heavy metal; it was detected in 94 percent of the samples (table 8). The high percentage of samples containing lead may reflect the ubiquitous dispersion of lead into the atmos- phere and soils by combustion of tetra-alkyl lead in fuels (Page and others, 1971; Chow and Earl, 1970). The generally low concentrations of heavy metals in leachate can be attributed to their occurrence in refuse primarily in the elemental (metallic) state. In the ele- mental form, heavy metals are virtually insoluble in water and are not readily changed to a soluble state; therefore, water percolating through refuse is not likely to dissolve more than trace quantities. Moreover, heavy-metal ions have a greater affinity for exchange on soil and sediment colloids than protons or monovalent cations. Thus, heavy metals are likely to be adsorbed from solution by organic or clay colloids and, to a slight degree, by hydrous iron oxide coatings on the sediment. Chelates formed with organic acid and phenolic ligands produced in the decomposition process are probably the major transport mechanism of heavy metals through the landfill materials. Potential ligands are among compounds reported by Robertson, Toussaint, and Jorque (1974, p. 33, 34, and 37) in land- fill leachate. ORGANIC (ZARBON Organic carbon analysis can be used to estimate the organic contribution in ground water from waste wa- ter. For this purpose it is superior to BOD (biochemical oxygen demand) because it gives a truer measure of organic matter in solution (Malcolm and Leenheer, 1973). One disadvantage of this method is that it can— not be used to identify the specific organic compounds present; however, it is a good indicator of the amount of organic matter available for further analysis. Identifi- cation of individual organic compounds was not under- taken in this study. The concentration of organic carbon at various points in the upper glacial aquifer in April 1972 is shown in figure 14. Ground water outside the plume contained as much as 5 mg/L organic carbon, probably as a result of septic-tank waste. Organic carbon con- centrations as high as 2,250 mg/L were found in water from well B3C—86. Although other samples from the plume contained considerably less organic carbon, the data suggest that organic carbon concentrations greater than 5 mg/L are indicative of plume water. Except near the Babylon landfill, where organic carbon concentrations were relatively high, organic carbon concentrations in the plumes were less than 22 mg/L. The lower part of the plume at Islip, which contained the highest dissolved-solids concentration, was not sampled for organic carbon. Some compounds in the highly contaminated water are volatile, as indicated by a strong odor. Much of the organic matter is of low molecular weight and consists of decomposition and metabolic products resulting from the intense microbial activity in the refuse (Robertson and others, 1974). Undoubtedly some of the organic carbon comes from soluble organic materials in the landfill, such as detergents, solvents, and petro- leum products. The rapid attenuation of organic carbon in the plume is not surprising. Bacteria in the plume decompose sol- uble organic materials and thereby remove organic carbon from the plume water, and other polar organic compounds (molecules having functional groups with positive or negative charges) may be adsorbed on the surfaces of minerals in the aquifer. Together, these phenomena effect a net removal of organic matter from the leachate-enriched ground water. BABYLON PLUME As described earlier in the section on the “Quality of Native and Ambient Ground Water,” the plume of leachate-enriched water south of the Babylon landfill can be delineated where specific conductance is greater than 400 ,uth (pl. 1). From 1947 or 1948 (when leachate was probably first generated by the landfill) to 1974, the plume advanced southward 10,000 ft (3,000 m) to Farmingdale Road (site B35, pl. 1). The already 22 LEACHATE PLUMES IN GROUND WATER, BABYLON AND ISLIP LANDFILLS, LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK BABYLON 40°44' 4 3 N 9 8‘ £9 9 1 ISLIP cc)" 3 / f I 73°05 ' A A f‘k") ’ 40°47' Qt ’\ , OR/AL , 1 z 'y . _ z "I ‘1 3 , _.§ 3);? “, :o.s‘ A 3 z ” a :‘gggker‘Aw ’\\l: a _. ‘ __, , l V I .5 1 KI LOMETER EXPLANATION —400—-—— LINE OF EQUAL SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE, JANUARY 1974—Shows extent of leachate enrichment at B-depth (Babylon) and C-depth (Islip). Conductance in micromhos peI centime- ter at 25° C 0 WATER WELL—Number is organic carbon concentra- tion in April 1972, in milligrams per liter at A, B, C, and D-depth respectively; D—depth is at Islip only. Dash (—) means no sample collected at that depth ;,‘l','|’< LANDFILL DEPOSITS NOTE: (0 is used as zero on map to distinguish from well symbol rat-IE FIGURE 14.fl0rganic carbon concentration in upper glacial aquifer at selected sites in vicinity of Babylon and Islip landfills, April 1972. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LEACHATE PLUMES 23 degraded quality of ambient water in this region pre- cludes tracing the leachate-enriched water at lower solute concentrations. Leachate-rich water sinks to the bottom of the aquifer beneath the landfill, and the con- centration of leachate in the plume varies with depth and distance from the refuse pile (pl. 2A). Downgradi- ent, the top of the plume was below the water table so that ground-water quality at shallow depths was not significantly affected. For example, water at well B128A—7 was of native quality because no septic-tank waste or other waste was in that area to alter water near the water table. At its terminus near the head- waters of Santapogue Creek, the top of the plume was at least 30 ft below the water table in 1972. The better quality of water above the plume was due to the infil- tration of precipitation in the region south of the land- fill. The specific conductance of ground water at the toe of the plume (site B35) is shown in table 9. The increase in conductance in water from well B35A—25 since the summer of 197 2 may be the result of sewer construc- tion in the area south of site B35, during which time frequent dewatering near the water table from 1972 to 1974 may have disturbed ground-water flow paths suf- ficiently to bring water of higher conductivity from the deeper part of the aquifer up to the shallow level of the well screen in B35A—25. During the study period (1971-74), no significant increase in specific conduc- tance was observed at well site 35. This apparent lack of increase reflects both the dispersion of the leachate- enriched water and the presence of domestic waste in the ground water, which together obscure the subtler changes in conductance during leachate dispersion. Thus, significant changes in specific conductance at the plume front would require a longer observation period to become apparent. Near the refuse pile, the bottom of the plume was 1,900 ft wide (pl. 2A, section B—B’), and the top was a few hundred feet narrower, even though the west side of the landfill has been widened somewhat by a gravel-excavation pond that dilutes the leachate- enriched water. Conductance of ground water near the landfill indicated that leachate enrichment of water in the plume varies (pl. 1). TABLE 9.—Specific conductance ofground-water samples at well site B35 [In umho/cm at 25°C} Well No. Date B35A725 B35l¥46 B35C767 04—07v72 360 350 10~26—72 ,, 380 410 06—0f‘r73 ,1, 380 400 12—2&73 ,, 410 340 07— 29— 74 315 450 At some locations, the concentrations of dissolved constituents changed over the period of study. Water near the bottom of the aquifer at well B8C—75 (pl.1) had a specific conductance of 140 ,umho in February 1972 and 1,000 ,umho in July 1974. Specific conduc- tance of water near the top of the aquifer, at well 8A, decreased from 420 ,umho to 230 ,u.mho during the same period. High nitrate concentrations (as much as 8.8 mg/L as N) suggest contributions from septic-tank con- tamination in shallow ground water at this site. Water from well B8C—75 in July 1974 was unusual in that only the sodium chloride concentrations were high; al- though no source for the salt is known in the area, it is likely that it originates somewhere other than the landfill. The irregular, stepped outline of the east side of the plume reflects the eastward growth of the landfill and the subsequent'discharge of leachate east of the initial solid-waste pile (fig. 10 and pl. 1). The location of the lateral steps in the plume at C depth was obtained by extrapolation of the change in water quality with time. For example, the increase in chloride concentration in water from deep wells (table 6 and 10) indicates the plume’s movement past sites 10 and 8 during the period of investigation, and this movement downgra- dient from sites 10 and 8 (especially B10C—78) can be attributed to the rate and direction of ground-water flow. The chloride content (table 6) and other data (table 10) indicate that the plume lacked measurable lateral dispersion. Comparison of samples from the edge of the plume (table 10) with those from outside and the center of the plume indicates that the quality of water at the edge was either close to that of ambient water or that the characteristics of plume water cannot be distin- guished at these well sites. Near its terminus, the Babylon plume was about 700 ft wide. Throughout most of the plume, specific conductance ranged between 2,000 and 1,000 ,umho but decreased abruptly at the edges. In the last 2,000 ft of the plume, specific conductance decreased gradually. Pockets of more concentrated leachate-enriched water apparently occur at various places in the plume; their shape and extent, as depicted by lines of equal conductance, are generalized (pl. 2A). Although the contours are not precise, they provide an indication of the degree of leachate enrichment. The lateral placement of the 400-11.th equal conductance line is probably accurate to within several hundred feet, for the lateral limits of the plume appear to be well defined by the ground- water-flow path. Well B113D—107 (pl. 1) was installed to-determine the quality of water in beds of silty, fine sand at the top of the Magothy aquifer. Although a 3-foot drop in head ISLAND, NEW YORK 1 C’DH m.© 03 EN v—i Saw 5 wbmm N I—(H Hnww Q m Qdd H A.m cum on wmA mm ...................... mm x: ............ 00mm em 82381 .wocgodwaou 050me om .............. :38 $253: 2: ........ 2:5 2&8 Ezommfi ”moEmeaomAmfio .850 Nvfi .......... 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AA vo. 3. pm. mA mA NA N w «w CA as NA :13 lb «blmmlh mhlmlm mbé‘fi vhtmmlh mamwm Bummhm Rammhm grammwvm wm \OA Am vblmmlh mAVImAAm Nb AWN IA wvfimm mozmtguflmfi ”558:8 no 33v “Em .oZ :35 “vGN $535300 ROUND WATER, BABYLON AND ISLIP LANDFILLS, LON( I HATE PLUMES IN ( LEA( 24 T3: 5m mEEmAEE 5 20553352 3:3ka mm? ~9me M283 x833 wasohwke mmmbatd AdoNEmAOIdA Bash CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LEACHATE PLUMES occurs across the Gardiners Clay at this location, indi- cating a downward gradient, characteristics of leachate were not found in water in the uppermost part of the Magothy. Analyses of water from this well, re- sults of which are given in table 11, show that the dominant cation is calcium and the dominant anion is bicarbonate. Although similar ionic relationships can be found in leachate-enriched water, the concen- trations in well B113D—107 were very low and virtually the same as, or only slightly greater than, in native water (table 2). Moreover, sodium and chloride concentrations, which are usually high in leachate- enriched water, were at about the level of native water in well B113D—107. Conductivities as much as twice that of native water in the upper glacial aquifer and the relatively high bicarbonate concentration may be characteristic of native ground water in this part of the Magothy aquifer. In any case, the results of analyses shown in table 11 do not indicate enrichment of the Magothy aquifer by landfill leachate. TABLE 11.—C0mposition of water from well BI 13D—107 [Constituents in milligrams per liter unless otherwise noted] Date of collection Constituent 2725—74 743—74 Major Constituents: Silica (SiOz) ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 20 17 Aluminum (Al), ug/L ________________________________ 80 Iron (Fe), ug/L ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 1,100 Manganese (Mn), ,ug/L ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 60 Calcium (Ca) __________________________________ 10 11 Magnesium (Mg) ______________________________ 3 9 4.0 Sodium (Na) __________ 7.0 Potassium (K) ........... 1.0 Bicarbonate (HCOa) ..... 54 Alkalinity total as CaCO:; ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 33 44 Sulfate ($04) __________________________________ 8.0 2.4 Chloride (Cl) __________________________________ 12 9.4 Fluoride (F) __________________________________ .0 .1 Bromide (Br) ________________________________________ .1 Nitrate (N03) as N ____________________________ .01 1.00 Nitrite (N02) as N ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, .04 ,,,,,,,, Nitrogen, ammonia, total as N ________________ .01 1.25 Nitrogen, total as N __________________________ .39 ________ Trace Elements: Arsenic (As), #g/L ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 2 Boron (B), ug/L ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, Copper (Cu), ug/L ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 0 Lead (Pb), ug/L ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 1 Selenium (Se), ug/L ,,,,,,,,,,, t ,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 1 3 Strontium (Sr), ,ug/L ________________________________ 90 Zinc (Zn), [Lg/L ______________________________________ 100 Other Characteristics: Alkalinity total as CaC03 ______________________ 33 44 Dissolved solids: Residue at 180°C ____________________________ 107 84 Calculated __________________________________ 81 80 Hardness as CaCOa ____________________________ 41 44 Noncarbonate hardness ________________________ 8 0 Specific conductance, umho/cm at 25 “C __________________________ 112 130 pH __________________________________________ 7.0 8.1 1Data obtained by specific ion electrodes. 25 ISLIP PLUME The plume of leachate-enriched water emanating from the landfill at Islip is illustrated on plates 2 and 3. Directly below the landfill, the plume permeated the entire aquifer, as at Babylon. The main body of the plume extended 5,000 ft downgradient from the origi- nal landfill. At the landfill the plume was 1,400 ft wide. An eastern lobe of the plume (pl. 1) reflects recent eastward extension of the landfill. Water from well IlC—95 indicated that leachate-enriched water had not yet penetrated the full thickness of the aquifer below the eastern part of the landfill, and that therefore, the bottom of the plume was probably not more than 70 ft below the water table (section D—D’, pl. ZB). The greatest concentration of dissolved solids was in the ' western part of the plume, near the bottom of the aquifer. From section D—D’, a tongue of the plume 500 ft wide extended 4,100 ft downgradient (south) at a depth of from 60 to 130 ft below the water table (section E—E’, (pl. 23). Leachate-enriched ground water flows in the direc- tion of the hydraulic gradient (normal to the water- table contours, fig. 4) from beneath the landfill; there- fore, the water of highest conductance (up to 1,100 ,umho, AA-depth wells, pl. 3) west of the refuse deposi- tion was probably contaminated from a source other than the landfill. Water from wells along the west end of section D—D’ (pl. 23) ranged from a completely sodium chloride character (I21E—146) to a sodium- calcium, chloride-sulfate character (wells 122AA—41, 122C—98). Sulfate, which is usually low in water highly enriched with leachate at Babylon, was the dominant anion in two of the wells in this locality. The relatively high sodium, chloride, and sulfate concentrations and the low iron and manganese concentrations (generally 0.3 mg/L) suggest that the wells at site 22 tapped water altered by a source other than the landfill. That source may be road salt stored in piles 1,230 ft upgradient from section D—D’ or from an unknown discharge from the incinerator, also directly upgradient. The bottom of the Islip plume was determined from water samples taken at site 11 in 1972 and site I19 and 18 in 1973. In 1972, dissolved-solids concentration of water from well IlC—99 was 33 mg/L (table 2). Unfor- tunately, the well was destroyed by the addition of more refuse in 1972, so no further sampling at this site was attempted. If the shape of the plume did not change signficantly after 1972, the base of the plume is probably about as shown on section D—D’ (pl. 23). Site 119 (section C~C’, pl. 23) was installed in 1973. At well 119E—167, the conductance was 390 11.th in June 1973 and 410 11.th in January 1974; the conduc— tance at 119F—206, screened 39 ft lower, was 55 11.th in October 1973 and in February 1974. Water levels 26 from site 119 wells, given in table 12, showed head decreases of as much as 0.2 ft between the E and F screen depths. The water levels indicated no significant upward or downward gradients above the E-depth screen, whereas below it, a downward vertical compo- nent of flow existed. Because leachate enrichment was not apparent at the lower screen setting, it is concluded that the beds of silty, fine sand between the two screens (see section on “Hydrogeology”) formed a hydrologic boundary sufficient to retard downward passage of wa- ter. Wells at site I8 did not fully penetrate the upper glacial aquifer. The conductance at screen depth E (section E—E’, pl. 2B) approached the limit for detec- . tion (200 ,umho); thus, the bottom of the plume was drawn at that depth about 150 ft below land surface. The outline of the plume (pl. 3) shows that the sides do not extend beyond the streamline of ground-water flow from the extremities of the landfill. Evidence for this restriction on the width of the leachate-enriched zone and for its placement between 60 and 130 ft below the water table was obtained through wells shown in section E—E’ (pl. 23) and from well I27D—180 (pl. 3). Analyses of water from wells along this section are given in table 13. Water from well sites Ill, I26, I31, and 132 showed no evidence of alteration specifically by landfill leachate. Well 18B—46, screened above the de- lineated leachate plume (pl. 28), contained a sodium chloride-type water that was unusually high (for plume water) in nitrate (3.9 mg/L) and low in bicarbonate (7 mg/L). Water from well I8C—99 con— tained a sodium-type water, also high in chloride and bicarbonate, but low in nitrogen and with ammonia (0.52 mg/L) exceeding nitrate (0.34 mg/L) in one analysis. The deeper water seemed to be enriched by leachate, the shallower by domestic waste. The conduc- tance of water from 18C—99 also exceeded 400 ,umho, which was unusually high for water enriched by domestic waste in this locality; thus, the top of the plume was placed between 46 and 99 ft,the depths of the two well screens. Evidence for lateral restriction on the width of the plume was also shown by water analyses from wells I26D—130, 127D—130, I31C—87, and 133D—119 (table TABLE 12.—Water levels at site 119 Screen setting Altitude of water table, Well below water in feet above mean sea level table (ft) .k 1717774 3—14474 371$74 I ism—61:: _____ 3e40 36.117‘ 36.12 36%"'7 I 19C—96 __________ 72—76 3613 36.13 36.21 "1. 142— 146 36.16 36.07 36.18 I 19F—206 ________ 183~ 186 35.95 35.91 36.04 Level F minus level E ...... 0.21 A 0.16 0.14 LEACHATE PLU MES IN GROUND WATER, BABYLON AND ISLIP LANDFILLS, LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK 13, pls. 2B and 3). These wells were screened either outside the plume (I26D—130, 127D—130, I31C—87) or on its periphery (I33D—119). Water from wells I26D— 130 and 127D—130 was of virtually native character, and that from well 131C—87 had a somewhat elevated sulfate concentration and conductance, which could in- dicate slight domestic-waste enrichment. The analysis from well 133D—119 indicates dilute (dispersed) leachate-enriched water near the edge of the plume; this water was enriched in sodium, calcium, sulfate, chloride, and bicarbonate, and it was similar in chemi- cal character to that in the plume at site 8. The analyses indicated that lateral spreading of the leachate-enriched water could not be much greater than that shown on pl. 3 and pl. 2B and that the edges of the plume were directly downgradient from the landfill area, as was the situation at Babylon landfill. Movement of plume water near its periphery was noted in several wells during the course of this study. For example, conductance of water at well 16C—99 was 210 ,u.mh0 in November 1972 and 520 ,uth in January 1974; conductance of water from well I5C—98 was 47 ,umho in January 1972, 324 Mmho April 1972, and 750 ,umho in in August 1974. Water quality near the toe of the plume, however, did not change significantly dur- ing the period of measurement. The analyses given in table 14 for water from wells I30C—82 and I30—120 (pl. 3) indicate that in areas where plume water was highly dispersed and diluted, more than 1 year of observation would be necessary to reveal significant changes in water quality. GROUND-WATER TEMPERATURE Biological activity in the organic material of the landfill elevates temperatures in leachate. In other studies, temperatures as high as 74°C (Stutzenberger and others, 1970) and 68°C (Fungaroli and Steiner, 1971) were found in composting refuse subject to aerobic digestion; however, Stutzenberger, Kaufman, and Lassin (1970) found that after an initial high period of several weeks, temperatures fell to 40°—55°C, presumably after conditions had become anaerobic. Fungaroli and Steiner (1971) found temperatures in the range of 15°—25°C under similar anaerobic condi- tions. Warm leachate flowing from the composting ref- use would naturally raise the temperature of ground water with which it came into contact. Ground-water temperatures near the Babylon and Islip landfills are indicated in figure 15. Heat gen— erated in the landfill and carried out by the leachate causes a rise in ground-water temperatures beneath and downgradient from the landfills. In the area adja- cent to the south sides of the Babylon landfill, the tem- perature rise was about 7°C; at Islip it was about 16°C. 27 CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LEACHATE PLUMES .wmvohuflo :2 358me N3 wmmbmnaww .mN\HOmmHQ mmN va pm pm mm 3“ mmH ”mofimimfigmso .850 RH ..... ow ........... ow ...... ow ““““ omN ..... 8H ........................ HE: ”Cmv 82385 ONHV omm 0N ow c on on ow o omv omH omN omN mm ................. HR: Am: Exam 3.” MN vHow. No o ...... mo. me." No we.” o Nu.“ Nm. ...... pH. ‘‘‘‘‘ Z ma «Eczema 5&6sz H5." N Wm“ m6 Him ...... Hmm ““““ MN. H.HN 0 mu.” «m. ah H.v ......... Z mm 296 89qu Hm ..... m. ........... we. ...... NH. ...... mN ...... NH .......................... HR: .29 2:8on o N H. v. N. H. 0N. H. ON 0 ON. N. 3. N. o ................. Q: @2555 mm 3 HH HH od 3 Hm wH Hv omH 03 mm mm Nm mm ““““““““““ :9 @2820 mm an m.w H: wH N S mH mH omH omH ooH ow md NH 1-----11, .... HqOmv Sufism mN N OH 0H m w o v wH wN wv mm mm mN 9m od ......... 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EEK x23: kc wmmaHuEHx HUBSSKDIMH EEC. 3:253:00 28 LEACHATE PLUMES IN GROUND WATER, BABYLON AND ISLIP LANDFILLS, LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK TABLE 14.—Chemical analyses of water from wells I30C—82 and I30D»120 [Concentrations in milligrams per liter unless otherwise noted] Well No. and date of collection Constituents ISOCe 82 IBOD— 120 an Characteristics 6~29473 &9— 74 10— 19—73 8—9— 74 Major Constituents: Silica (Si0,) ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 8.2 6.8 ,,,,,,,,,, 16 Iron (Fe), mg/L ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 12 30 110 110 Manganese (Mn), mg/L ,,,,,,,,,,,, 4O 50 50 20 Calcium (Ca) ,,,,,,,,, 8 1 9.6 15 14 Magnesium (M 3 1 4.6 6.9 6 2 Sodium (Na) ,,,,, 28 24 34 39 Potassium (K) ,1, 12 10 1.8 1 1 Bicarbonate (HCOa), 13 7 36 31 Alkalinit as CaCO;. 11 6 30 25 Sulfate (g 4) ,,,,,,, 63 70 74 Chloride (Cl) _____ 29 19 29 29 Fluoride (F) ,,,,, ,2 0 .1 Bromide (Br) ,,,,,,,,,,,, ,28 ___________ .36 Nitrate (N03) as N 1, 3.2 2.8 .47 45 Nitrogen, ammonia as N _ 4.1 2,6 .07 0 Boron (B), mg/L ,,,,,,,,,,,, . ,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 250 310 160 240 Strontium (Sr), mg/L ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 40 ,,,,,,,,,,, 130 Other Characteristics: Dissolved solids: Residue at 180°C ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 166 176 191 223 Calculated ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 179 141 250 196 Hardness as CaCOa ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 33 43 66 61 Noncarbonate hardness ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 22 37 36 35 Specific conductance (,umho/cm at 25°C) ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 294 295 325 340 pH ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 6.0 5.1 6.5 5.8 This difference could be due to well location rather than any major difference in the temperature of the landfills. When the highest temperature, 27.7°C, was recorded at site 119, refuse was being deposited within a few feet of the well site. If this refuse were undergo- ing rapid decomposition, warm leachate would be en- tering the ground—water near the well site, whereas at Babylon, where the wells were not as close to the land- fill, some of the heat may have dissipated before reach- ing them. Temperatures were measured with an un- derwater thermistor at 2-foot intervals from the water table down to 170 ft (fig. 16). The thermal gradient was most pronounced at site I19. As water moves away from the landfill, the vertical temperature gradient de- creases, as indicated by the difference between tem— perature profile for wells B113D—107 and Il9F—206 (fig.16). Heat from the leachate was dissipated within less than 0.4 mi downgradient from the Babylon landfill, but at Islip some heat was retained downgradient as far as site I8 (fig. 15), 0.5 mi from the landfill. At this site, the temperature of water from well I8C—99 was 5°C warmer than that from wells both above and be- low. Nearly the same temperature difference was noted on several occasions when the wells were pumped. In December and January 1973, when all but a few of the measurements in figure 15 were made, water near the water table was 1°—2°C higher than water deeper in the aquifer. The water table was declining from the previous May high owing to lack of recharge (fig. 2), but the cooler winter precipitation apparently had not yet reached the water table. DENSITY Water with a high dissolved-solids concentration of several thousand milligrams per liter is more dense than water of the same temperature with a low dissolved-solids concentration. Thus the water of greater density will move downward through the lighter ambient water by gravity. Below the landfills, 'the temperature of ground water is sufficiently ele- vated to lower its density to approximately that of the cooler ambient ground water. It is possible, therefore, for warm water of high solute content to have the same density as cool (10°C) native water. The effect of tem- perature on the density of sodium chloride solutions of varying strength is shown as a curve in figure 17. Sodium chloride solutions have properties of density similar to those of sodium bicarbonate solutions, sea water, and probably also leachate. For example, a 10,000-ug/L solution of sodium chloride at 40°C is slightly less dense than native ground water at 10°C (fig. 17). Solutions having higher concentrations of sodium chloride (or leachate, presumably) are more dense than native water at 40°C or lower. It is conceiv- able that warm leachate-enriched water with a dis- solved-solids concentration as high as 30,000 mg/L may be more dense than cool, native ground water by as much as two parts in a hundred. De Laguna (1966, p. E11) found that water exceeding the density of pure water by 3.5 parts per thousand moved downward through pure water contained in a beaker of sand. Thus, however slight the difference be- tween density of leachate and ambient ground water is, it may be enough to cause downward movement of leachate through the aquifer if warm, leachate-rich water is in excess of about 10,000 mg/L dissolved solids. VISCOSITY Temperature has a much greater effect on the viscosity, or resistance to flow, of water than it does on its density. The influence of Viscosity on ground—water flow is shown by its effect on hydraulic conductivity: K=L mm (5) where K = hydraulic conductivity, k = intrinsic permeability, a property of the aquifer framework, g = acceleration due to gravity m = absolute viscosity, and p 2 density CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LEACHATE PLUMES BABYLON 40°44' ‘13 ‘1. a! _ 3 E a i ISLIP I 73°05' ‘I\ n I\ ' 40°47' ORIAL 11 P I _ ‘ I — 3, \25’01 — 2 - I; _-Z '—13 U“ 2 ¢}1 3 20 . / 21 O 17 11 20 15 ,13 . 100 13 ‘2 I' . JL 12— " 13 II " -— 10 I 1:! :5 ~. . I, , .1 \K‘ v ' sr 1—1 w— , ’A W . ._ > o _ 10 9-‘49 __9;al_ I l _ ) ' l _ < .15 N— _—_ l- o .5 lKILOMETER N am 8 \r; . o. : \/ ‘ I 40°46' -\/ 3 a 2 EXPLANATION — 5 “lil- ; .. 5m"? 12 13 —400— LINE OF EQUAL SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE, ‘ :. JANUARY l974—Shows extent of leachate ' enrichment at B-depth (Babylon) and C-depth ///27 1} (Islip). Conductance in micromhos per centimeter .-_' 9 at 25° C ' : 1:0 WATER WELL—Numbers are ground-water temper- :_'_'. g ature in period Decemberl973—January 1974, in _': 2 degrees Celsius at A, B, C, D, and E-depths respectively; D and E-depths are at Islip only. Dash (—) means no data at that depth :).'|'{< LANDFILL DEPOSITS FIGURE 15.—-Temperature of water in the upper glacial aquifer in vicinity of Babylon and Islip landfills. 30 LEACHA'I‘E I’LUMI‘IS IN GROUND WATER, BABYLON AND ISLIP LANDFILLS, LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK Watertable 0 0 —2 10 — ~4 27.7 20 ——6 *8 30 — 10 40 ——12 —14 5° _—16 _ m I— 50 _ 18 E w —20 E _22 E Z. z ”j 80 —— 24 u; _| E —26 a 90 —_ I- E 28 E '2 100 —— 3° 2 g —32 3 9 110 234 E L" a m I 120 w— 36 m I- I it ‘38 I: uJ Q 130 —40 CI —4 140 — 2 —44 150 M46 —48 160 _ ‘50 170 —— 52 —54 180 — *56 190 I I I | I I | | | I I | | | i I | | | 58 10 15 20 25 30 TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS FIGURE 16.—Temperature profiles in August 1974 from wells in vicinity of Babylon and Islip landfills. Location ofwells is shown on plate 2. The intrinsic permeability and acceleration of gravity are considered constant in this discussion. The quo- tient of m/p, the kinematic Viscosity, is the actual mea- sure of resistance to flow. This is graphed in figure 18 for solutions of sodium chloride and for pure water in the temperature range 10°—40°C. The kinematic viscosity of water decreases by about half from 10°— 40°C, but the addition of a strong electrolyte (in this case sodium chloride) to the water stabilized the kinematic Viscosity at 0.01 stokes. Kinematic viscosity differs by as little as 4 percent between a sodium chloride solution with 6,000 mg/L at 10°C and one with 1 .03 1.02 F 1.01 "- 1.00 — DENSITY, IN GRAMS PER CUBIC CENTIMETER l I l I I I 10 15 20 25 3o 35 4o TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS 0 .99 FIGURE 17.—Change in density with temperature for sodium chloride (NaCl) solutions of different strengths and for water. Data from Washburn (1926, V. III). 0.014 r — 0.013 — 0.012 — 0.011 — 15,000 mg/L Sodium chloride solution 0.010 — 0.009 — 0.008 — KINEMATIC VISCOSITY, IN STOKES 0.007 — l l I I l 10 15 2o 25 30 35 4o TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS 0.006 FIGURE 18.—Variation of kinematic Viscosity with temperature for sodium chloride solution and for water. Values of kinematic viscosity were calculated from density and viscosity data in Washburn (1926, V. III) and Weast (1972). FLOW AND DISPERSION OF LEACHATE PLUMES 31 30,000 mg/L at 40°C. The change in kinematic Viscosity for a solution of sodium bicarbonate is twice that of sodium chloride, but the effect is still small. Because a strong electrolyte tends to stabilize the kinematic viscosity through a wide range of tempera- tures, it was concluded that when the solute content of water is high, as in leachate-rich water, the hydraulic conductivity does not significantly vary from cold to warm regions of the aquifer, but the density difference between ambient and leachate-rich water may be suffi- cient to cause the leachate to sink to the bottom of the aquifer. FLOW AND DISPERSION OF LEACHATE PLUMES Although dispersion of the plumes into ambient ground water of somewhat similar chemical quality makes the exact extent of leachate-enrichment uncer- tain, the practical limits of detection—400 and 200 ,umho at the Babylon and Islip sites respectively— probably define the lateral extent of the plume accu- rately. The characteristic of dispersion, explained further on, describes the distribution of leachate en— richment near the edges of the plume, and dispersion was found to be greater in the primary flow direction than laterally. Regardless of what dispersion patterns and conduc— tances are used to delineate the plumes, water—quality data indicate that the plume lengths do not correspond with those predicted from estimated ground-water vel- ocity and the lengths of time since the beginning of landfill operation. The plume at Babylon is twice the length of the Islip plume; yet the Islip landfill is re- ported to be 14 years older than the Babylon landfill. Although the rate of ground-water flow is probably somewhat greater at Babylon, the water-quality data seem to suggest that the Islip landfill did not produce detectable quantities of leachate until some time after its inception. The following discussion analyzes the re- lation of leachate dispersion to ground-water flow pat- terns beneath and downgradient from the landfills. FLOW The quantity and composition of leachate from land- fills are determined by many factors, the major ones of which are thickness, areal extent, and age of the land- fill; cover and compaction of refuse; and climatic re- gime. Composition of the refuse and biological activity within it also influence the composition of the leachate. With the exception of unusual industrial wastes, the kinds of refuse that go into municipal landfills are fairly similar from place to place. Because no unusual refuse is deposited at the landfills studied, the deter- mining factors in leachate composition at Babylon and Islip are probably the same as those at other landfills in similar environments. To calculate initial concentrations of leachate and predict its movement, it is necessary to quantify the infiltration and dilutiOn factors. Most of the liquid frac- tion of the leachate comes from infiltration of precipita- tion on the landfill. Because the landfill surfaces are probably more permeable than the surrounding ter- rain, rate of recharge through them is probably greater than the annual average of 23 in. estimated for Long Island. Although it is possible that recharge through the landfill could be as much as 40 in. per year, an average rate of 30 in. annually seems reasonable. The 25 acres of the Babylon landfill would then capture about 2.7x 10" fti’, and the 17 acres of the Islip landfill would capture 1.9 X 106 ft“ of precipitation annually and would also yield this amount of leachate. The es- timated volume of ground water flowing annually below the landfills is 48 X 106 ft3 at Babylon and from (25—46) X 106 ft3 at Islip.l If the leachate were dis— persed evenly throughout the aquifer beneath the landfills, the ratio of leachate to ground water would be 1:17 at Babylon and between 1:13 and 1:25 at Islip. If recharge through the landfills were greater than in surrounding areas, a ground-water mound might form beneath the landfills that would cause a vertical component of flow greater there than elsewhere, and this could also result in downward movement of the leachate beneath the landfills. Despite the likelihood of greater recharge through the landfills than through surrounding areas, no mounding of the water table be- neath the landfill was observed. Careful measurements of the water table in wells at various depths near the landfill indicated no shift in the water-table contours that could be attributed to increased recharge through the landfills (figs. 3 and 4). If mounding occurred, it would cause an observable lateral flow of ground water away from the landfill. Because no lateral spreading of leachate-enriched water from the landfill was ob- served, greater recharge through the landfills and the consequent mounding are probably not significant causes of downward movement of leachate at either landfill. The shape of the plumes beyond the landfill area is determined by the regional flow of ground water, which is horizontal and southward—normal t0 the water- table contours in figures 3 and 4. Infiltration of precipi- tation outside the leachate’s point of entry into the aquifer forms a body of water over the plume that is not enriched by leachate.This added water does not depress the plume, but only overlies it, and therefore it is not a ‘Annual volume of underflow = hydraulic conductivity (in ft/d) X gradient >< area (in ft”) X 365 days. Thus, At Babylon: 500 ft /d X 0.0021 x(1,800 ft. x 70 ft) x 365 d= 48 x 106 ft“, and At Islip: (190 to 360 ft/d) x 00016 X (1,300 ft x 170 ft) x 365 d = (25 to 46) x 106 ft"i 32 factor in the plume’s presence at the bottom of the aquifer just south of the landfill. Probably the main reason that leachate enrichment was highest near the bottom of the aquifer beneath the landfill is that the heavier, leachate-rich water sinks by gravity as it moves out of the refuse, and not because it is displaced downward by freshwater from the surface. Infiltration of precipitation downgradient from the landfill is suffi- cient, though, to account for a few feet of freshwater over the plume at well B128A—7 (pl. 2A, section A—A ’) about 2,000 ft south of the Babylon landfill. The leachate-enriched water differs from the am- bient ground water mainly in its high dissolved-solids content (or greater density) and its higher tempera- ture. It was pointed out in the section on “Viscosity” that the kinematic viscosity of leachate is not greatly different from that of ambient ground water, regard- less of the temperature differences, because its electro- lyte content decreases the effect of temperature; hence the flow characteristics of the fluid are probably much the same as that of ambient water. It is likely, though, that in spite of its elevated temperature, the leachate is somewhat more dense than ambient water and would thus have a downward driving force or vertical gra- dient in addition to that provided by whatever mound- ing was created by the increased recharge through the landfill. Because only a small amount of mixing with ambient water would be needed to equalize the density and thereby prevent the downward movement of leachate through the aquifer, it is concluded that rela- tively little mixing does, in fact, take place before the leachate reaches the bottom of the aquifer. Leachate could not flow directly from the landfill base to the bottom of the aquifer without interfering with the continuity of the regional flow of ground wa- ter. Because the water-table contours give no evidence that the regional flow is disturbed by the inflow of leachate at the landfill, it is assumed that the leachate flows out of the landfill as pulsations of high-density fluid after periods of recharge, and moves as pockets, or slugs, diagonally downward through the regional ground-water flow lines toward the bottom of the aquifer. Their vertical movement is more rapid than their horizontal flow, otherwise they would not reach the bottom of the aquifer beneath the landfill but would be strung out downgradient from it. As the pockets of high-density leachate move downward, they alter the surrounding ground water and produce plumes of leachate-enriched water throughout their vertical course (pls.1 and 3). It is assumed that the pockets of leachate tend to retain their original den- sity, otherwise there would be insufficient density gra- dient to carry them downward, and the most leachate- rich water would not be near the bottom of the aquifer. LEACHA'I‘E PLUMES IN GROUND WATER, BABYLON AND ISLIP LANDFILLS, LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK Some mixing does take place in the upper part of the aquifer, though, which accounts for the leachate en- richment in the middle and upper parts of the aquifer. The movement of leachate is depicted in figure 19. Ground water underflowing the landfills mixes with pockets of leachate sinking though the aquifer so that plumes of diluted leachate are formed. Concentration of leachate is high near the bottom of the aquifer, but it probably varies greatly from time to time. After an initial formation period, the concentration of leachate probably does not fall below a relatively high value near the downgradient side of the landfill (C0 in fig. 19). The time necessary for the pockets of leachate to reach the bottom of the aquifer is less than that necessary for ground water to flow from the upgradient to the downgradient edge of the landfill. An average velocity of ground water moving through the aquifer can be estimated from the relationship where u = average ground-water velocity, K = hydraulic conductivity, 1' = hydraulic gradient, and n = porosity. With an assumed effective porosity of 0.25 at both sites, hydraulic conductivity of 470 ft/d at Babylon and 190—360 ft/d at Islip, and a gradient of 0.0021 at Babylon and 0.0016 at Islip (see section on “Hydrogeol- ogy”), the average ground-water velocity is 4.0 ft/d at Babylon and from 1.2—2.3 ft/d at Islip. At these average velocities, the time of travel for ground water from the upgradient edge to the downgradient edge of a refuse pile 1,000 ft across would be 0.7 year at Babylon and up to 1.4 years at Islip (using u: 2 ft/d at Islip.) After the plume is formed, the concentration estab- lished in the region of initial concentration is assumed to remain more or less constant. The distance from the source to the dispersed fronts of plumes observed in this study was great enough that, generally, fluctua— tions in dissolved-solids concentration in the CU region would tend to balance out, but pockets of more highly enriched ground water did occur. Chloride concen- trations discussed in the later section, "Dispersion Model,” are based on this concept of leachate—plume formation. As a result of the pulsating nature of leachate enter— ing the ground water, the concentration of dissolved constituents has a wide range near the head of the plume. Observed values of dissolved-solids concentra- tion at the sampling points in the main part of the plume at Babylon and Islip are given in table 15. The FLOW AND DISPERSION OF LEACHATE PLUMES 33 TABLE 15.—Dissolved-solids concentration (sum) in selected wells in plume near Babylon and Islip landfills [In milligrams per liter] PRECIPITATION ' : ‘ Well 1972 1973 1974 \l/ \‘V V Babylon Wells BIA—28 ______________________ 1,260 1,170 1,140 BIB—50 ______________________ 642 3,070 1,340 B1BB—69 ____________________ 702 2,530 2,480 B3A—30 ______________________ 289 9.11 _______ 6 96 BBB—51 ______________________ 743 1,400 ' 7 B3C—86 ______________________ 2,780 2,170 1,440 \ % B113BFW __________________________ 1,110 1,020 " ‘ "’777/777/777/‘1777nh / 331113233:::::::::::::::::::::::::: 3%; """" 6' 92 311400—92 ________________________ 796 __________ 1972—74 Average _________________________________ 1,278 Islip Wells EXPLANATION I3AA—45 ______________________ 530 948 1,160 777777777 HYDROLOGIC BOUNDARY $113120 ---------------------- g2; ------- 7~ éé ---------- \\ LINE OF EQUAL DILUTION—Number i353; ———————————————————————————— 3:3 393 \:’3’2‘0‘- is dilution faCtOI (see ‘6’“ seam“ 119E—167::::::::::::::: 217 425 -- “Flow of Leachate”) 120AA—36 __________________________ 484 674 l REGION OF APPROXIMATELY UNI- 3923112 ——————————————————————————— 135133 22: Cue FORM CONCENTRATION-Coisini- 121E—146 :I:I:::::::: 1:510 1,346 tial concentration of leachate-enriched 1972—74 Average ____________________________________ 753 ground water at downgradient side of landfill ——> DIRECTION OF GROUND-WATER both sites are virtually the same, and, at both sites, the FLOW LEACHATE POCKET—Direction of flow and idealized shape of high-density leachate pocket —V— , WATER TABLE W LANDFILL DEPOSITS FIGDRE 19.—Leachate movement and dispersion in ground water beneath a landfill. data show that the concentration at one sampling hori- zon (well BIB-50) increased as much as fivefold in a 1-year period. Dissolved-solids concentrations ranging between about 400 and 3,000 mg/L at Babylon and 200 and 1,500 mg/L at Islip are indicated. Dissolved-solids concentrations of from 10,000 to 20,000 mg/L are re- ported to have been observed after 1 to 2 years of refuse emplacement in controlled studies of landfill materials (Fungaroli and Steiner, 1971; Rovers and Farquhar, 1973). If these high concentrations are typical for landfills and are necessary to produce the density dif- ference between ambient ground water and leachate, the concentrations in table 14 suggest that leachate is diluted considerably between the landfill and the ob- servation wells used in this study. Hydrologically, the two landfill sites are similar in many respects. Hydraulic conductivity at both sites was found to range from 190 to 500 ft/d, and porosities are probably quite similar also. Sand samples from lithology from top to bottom of the aquifer is fairly homogeneous. Furthermore, the shape of the plumes and their lack of lateral dispersion indicate similarity of the aquifer at the two sites. The regular spacing and uniformity of the water—table contours south of the landfills (fig. 3 and 4) suggest that the upper glacial aquifer has a fairly uniform hydraulic conductivity be- cause regional variations in hydraulic conductivity would produce irregularly spaced potentiometric con- tours. The sinking of leachate-enriched ground water directly below the landfill indicates that the ratio of vertical to horizontal hydraulic conductivity is not rel- atively great; for example, Getzen (1975) and Franke and Getzen (1976), in a verified electric-analog model Of ground-water flow on Long Island, obtained a ratio Vof 10:1 for the upper glacial aquifer, but a ratio of 40:1 for the underlying Magothy aquifer. DISPERSION MODEL The fate of solute flowing into a saturated, perme- able medium in relation to the dispersion phenomena is discussed comprehensively by Bear (1972). A math- ematical treatment of dispersion phenomena is given in Ogata and Banks (1961) for a simple hydrologic sys- tem with one-directional flow. The ratio of Observed concentration at the front (dispersed) part Of the plume to the initial concentration is related according to the equation: .6 34 LEACHA’I’E PLUMES IN GROUND WATER, BABYLON AND ISLIP LANDFILLS, LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK i : 1 erfc fl (6) CO 2 2 VDt whereC = concentration of tracer at observation point, C0 = initial concentration of tracer at source, D = coefficient of dispersion, e c = complementary error function (l-erfl eff = error function, t = time since tracer was released, u = average ground-water velocity, and x = distance from s6urce of tracer to observed concentration (C). The coefficient of dispersion, as determined in labora- tory studies for ideal conditions, is usually on the order of 1 fth (Ogata and Banks, 1961). Few determinations of the dispersion coefficient for actual field conditions have been made, but the field coefficient has been found to be several orders of magnitude higher than the laboratory coefficient in at least some cases (Bre- dehoeft and Pinder, 1973; Pinder, 1973). Assumptions of the dispersion equation are that (1) the contaminant is a vertical, planar source at x: 0 that began discharging into the full thickness of the aquifer at the initial time, (2) the initial concentration of the contaminant is known, (3) contaminant concen- tration at x = 0 has remained constant through time, (4) the aquifer is homogeneous and isotropic, and (5) contaminated water has the same flow characteristics as ambient water. Although the hydrologic situation at Babylon does not fully meet these conditions, the simi- larity was considered adequate for application of the dispersion equation to the plume in the upper glacial aquifer. The initial concentration, C", must be estimated within reasonable limits. Chloride concentrations for the deep, north part of the plume were as high as 1,000 mg/L (fig. 9); however, values greater than 300 mg/L occured at scattered locations and seem to be the result of chloride slugs of greater than average concentration resulting from either the inhomogeniety of the refuse, the addition of new refuse, or undetermined factors. Accordingly, initial leachate concentrations of between 200 and 300 mg/L were used. With this range in initial concentration, the dis- persed front of the plume extends from the 200- or 300- mg/L line to the 50-mg/L line of equal chloride concen- tration and beyond (fig. 10). Chloride concentration, given in table 5, was used as a tracer to evaluate dis- persion. Because the bottom part of the plume seems to have the greatest concentration of leachate, it is as- sumed that the chloride concentration near the bottom more nearly approaches the one-dimensional model de- scribed above (eq. 6). Therefore, chloride data from the deeper part of the plume were used. The chloride- concentration values given in table 6 for wells B120— 70, B15C—77, and B35C—67 were decreased because waste from domestic sources in the surrounding area adds chloride to the overall concentration. The data suggest (fig. 10) that background chloride content con— tributed by cesspool sources was about 20 mg/L at well B12C—70, 30 mg/L at B15C—77, and 40 mg/L at B35C—67. Chloride concentrations for 1973 were available for all three wells, and, accordingly, the val- ues given in table 8 for 1973 were reduced by these amounts and were then used to calculate the dispersion coefficient. If 4 years are allowed for formation of the leachate and its entry into ground water beneath the landfill, traveltime for the Babylon plume from the south side of landfill pile 1 (pl. 1) to its 1973 position is 22 years (1951—73). The dispersion equation (eq. 6) relates the spread of the dispersed front [(x—ut)>0, (x—ut)<0] to the strength in the region of initial concentration (C0). The equation states that where the initial concentration is reduced by 50 percent, x = at or the distance to the observation point divided by the traveltime is equal to the average ground-water velocity. If this landfill-leachate situation can effectively be modeled by equation 6, it should be possible to verify the ground—water velocity calculated from the hydrau- lic conductivity and, thereby, have a better estimate of the regional hydraulic conductivity. On the other hand, if the hydraulic conductivity estimated from the dispersion equation (eq. 6) is not close to that estimated from well-test data, then either or both methods may have a faulty premise. From trials of a range of initial concentration be- tween 200 and 300 mg/L and the following field data, the dispersion coefficient was calculated (table 16). For this range in initial concentration, the region of initial concentration extends from the initial landfill (pile 1) to a point just north of site B12 (fig. 10) where the dispersed front begins. The concentration gradient shown by the contours 0n the map in figure 10 falls between 6,000 and 10,000 ft from the initial landfill. Accordingly, the concentration range of 200 to 300 mg/L (C0), distances from the initial refuse pile to the corresponding locations of 0.5 CO (ut from fig. 10), and adjusted chloride concentration from wells B12C—70, B15C—77, and B35C—67 (C from table 6), were used to determine the coefficient of dispersion. With these initial concentrations, the dispersion co- efficient ranges between 350 and 50 ftz/d (table 16). The dispersion coefficients are most similar at wells B12C—70 and B15C—77 at an initial chloride concen- tration of 200 mg/L. Thus, an average dispersion coeffi- cient of about 60 fth is indicated. Higher values of the FLOW AND DISPERSION OF LEACHATE PLUMES 35 TABLE 16.—Values of dispersion coefficient for plume at Babylon after 22 years (8,000 days) of traveltime Distance from Chloride con- Dispersion coefficient ft2/d) Concentration ( Well source to well centration adjusted (ft) (mg/L) (mg/L) Initial concentration 300 mg/L 250 mg/L 200 mg/L B12C— 70 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 6,200 200 180 350 190 70 B15C—77 ______________ 8,400 67 37 120 80 50 B35C—67 ______________ 10,300 45 5 170 140 120 Traveltime (at) for corresponding initial concentration ________ 6,800 7,200 7,600 dispersion coefficient determined by the chloride con— centration from well B35C—6’7 probably indicate that the chloride value used for this site is too high, even though reduced by 40 mg/L, because of the addition of domestic sewage. The dispersion coefficient for well B35C—67 coincides with those of the northerly wells only if the effective chloride concentration is reduced to about 1 mg/L. In a nearby area, a dispersion coefficient equivalent to 100 fth was used (Finder, 1973, p. 1665), which is reasonably close to the 60 fth estimated above. At the rate of movement determined by the disper- sion model, the 200-mg/L chloride concentration should reach Sunrise Highway (site 35) by the year 2010 and be near the shoreline by the year 2040. De- pending on the depth to which ground-water inflow to streams affects the ground-water gradient around San- tapogue Creek, the leachate-enriched water may or may not flow into Santapogue Creek. Pluhowski and Kantrowitz (1964, p. 48—50) found that seepage to streams had no effect on regional flow below about 5 ft along Champlin Creek, whose hydrologic relations are similar to those of Santapogue Creek, 8 mi to the west. Thus, because the leachate-enriched water is generally 5 ft or more below the water table, the plume may not affect the quality of water in Santapogue Creek. As a tracer moves through a porous medium, the lateral, or transverse, dispersion is less than longitu- dinal dispersion and is possibly in the same order of magnitude as ionic diffusion in sandy materials (Ogata and Banks, 1964, p. hG9). At least part of the lateral dispersion of leachate-enriched water has been obscured by a gradual widening of the plume at its source. Leachate produced when the landfill was young is probably now (1974) in the vicinity of well B15, where the plume is 700 ft wide, as opposed to only a few hundred feet at the source. Thus, a few hundred feet of lateral dispersion may have taken place. However, the west sides of the Babylon and Islip plumes extend di- rectly downgradient from the west sides of the land- fills, which have remained fixed as the landfills grew eastward (pls. l and 3). Water analyses (tables 10 and 13) do not show measurable amounts of leachate- enriched water beyond about 200 ft west of the bounda- ries shown on plates 1 and 3. COMPARISON OF PLUMES The average velocity of ground water (u) in the re- gion is determined from the dispersion model by the time of travel (ut) for the nonsorbing component, di— vided by the time for the component to flow from the source to a location where the concentration is 50 per- cent of the initial concentration. At the Babylon site this is u_t = _7_.@Q_ , or about 1 ft/d t 8,000 This velocity is exceeded fourfold by the average ground-water velocity of 4 ft/d estimated for Babylon from the hydraulic conductivity and gradient. (See sec- tion on "Hydrogeology.”) This range in velocities casts doubt on the validity of one or the other method of determining ground-water velocity. Data are insufficient to provide, independently, a dispersion coefficient at the Islip site. The range in ground-water velocity at Islip, based on the hydraulic conductivities obtained from wells in the area (see sec- tion on ‘Hydrogeology’) is from 1.2—2.3 ft/d. If we as- sume an initial chloride concentration of 200 mg/L, the 50-percent concentration of 100 mg/L occurs at well 18D—122, 3,400 ft south of the landfill. The calculated time of arrival of this concentration at this site is from 1,500—2,800 days, or 4—8 years after initial leachate formation—which is 28—32 years short of the time of arrival estimated from the age of the landfill (36 years), even if 4 years are allowed for the formation and accumulation of leachate below the landfill. Even when water quality at the most distant part of the plume (5,000 ft) is used as a tracer, the time needed to form the entire Islip plume, as measured in 1973, is only about 11 years, or about a third that expected from the age of the landfill. In order for the present length of the plume to conform to the assumed time of initial leachate production, the hydraulic conductivity 36 LEACHATE PLUMES IN GROUND WATER, BABYLON AND ISLIP LANDFILLS, LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK would have to be one-third less than the value found from the analysis of partially penetrating wells. It seems reasonable to assume that, in a region such as Long Island, where precipitation produces leachate from landfills, leachate would enter the ground-water system within about 2 years after the landfill began if the refuse were in contact with the water table and that the landfill would continue to yield leachate throughout its period of operation and beyond. Al- though the amount and concentration of leachate pro- duced is related to the size and thickness of the landfill, the length of the plume is determined by the amount of time that leachate was being discharged and by the ground-water velocity, not by the size of the landfill. If the size of the landfill were to increase with time, the head of the plume would become wider but the plume’s rate of advance should not increase. Neither the Babylon nor the Islip landfill’s pattern of growth is known in detail, but a general concept can be gained from aerial photographs. Table 17 gives the ac- reage occupied by the landfills at various times, as es- timated from aerial photographs and from recent maps. The data indicate that the Babylon landfill has grown rapidly in comparison to that at Islip. The ground-water-velocity estimates given by the dispersion model are clearly not in accord with those obtained from independent aquifer data. If the ground-water velocity of 4 ft/d calculated from the hy- draulic conductivity at Babylon is nearly correct, it suggests that the determination of ground-water veloc- ity on the basis of 22 years of plume movement (at 1 ft/d) may be in error and that a plume was not produced until many years after the landfill began. However, the accuracy of ground-water velocity is difficult to evalu- ate. It may be that the conditions assumed for the dis— persion model are not matched by actual field condi- tions and also may not be appropriate for evaluation of the effect of landfills on the ground water. The dispersion-model analysis suggests that the landfills may not have yielded leachate until several years after they were started. Although the Babylon landfill grew rapidly during the 1950’s as the town’s population was expanding, the landfill still covered only about 1 acre in 1953 (table 14), 6 years after it began. Ground-water TABLE 17.—Estimated acreage of Babylon and Islip landfills from 1938 to 1973 Year Babylon Islip 1938 ________________________________ 0 0.7 1947 ________________________________ O 1.5 1953 ________________________________ 1.1 __________________ 1961 ____________________________________ 5.2 1969 ____________________________________ 10.2 1972 ________________________________ 23 14 1973 ________________________________ 25 17 velocities determined at both landfills from hydraulic- conductivity data indicate that the plumes are both only 5—8 years old. It was learned in this study that the time of travel for leachate plumes from landfills is difficult or impossible to predict without data on the time of entrance of leachate into the aquifer. Unless the public-supply wells from which the hydraulic conductivity was esti- mated are in locations where the hydraulic conductiv- ity is unusually high, or the plumes occupy regions of particularly low hydraulic conductivity, or the landfills did not yield leachate until recently, the discrepancy between leachate-plume movement and ground-water velocities determined both from well data and the dis- persion model at Babylon and Islip cannot be explained with the data at hand. SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION The two plumes of leachate-enriched ground water have been determined by specific conductance to ex- tend at present (1974) 10,000 ft and 5,000 ft, re- spectively, from the initial landfill areas in the towns of Babylon and Islip. The highest major cationic con- centration measured in the plumes was 860 mg/L Na+, 565 mg/L Ca”, 100 mg/L Mg”, and 110 mg/L K+. The highest major anionic concentration measured was 2,700 mg/L HCO3‘ and 900 mg/L Cl‘. Sulfate concen— trations as low as 6 mg/L and as high as 290 mg/L, were found in leachate-rich solutions near the landfills. The low sulfate concentration probably results from the prevalent reducing conditions there. Most nitrogen in leachate-enriched water occurs as ammonium and was found to be as high as 90 mg/L. Nitrate did not exceed 10 mg/L, or 40 percent of the total nitrogen, in the plume. Iron concentrations as high as 440 mg/L and manganese as high as 190 mg/L were found near the landfills, but these concentrations decreased within about 3,000 ft of the landfills. Boron, common in the upper glacial aquifer in the areas studied, was found in 95 percent of all samples and in 95 percent of all leachate-enriched water samples. It occurs in concen- trations as high as 2.5 mg/L in leachate-enriched water near the landfills, but values above 0.5 mg/L are indic- ative of plume water. Nickel, lead, selenium, stron- tium, and zinc were also found in most leachate— enriched water samples tested. Only selenium, at 38ug/L, exceeded the US. Public Health Service (1962) recommended drinking-water standards. As much as 2,250 mg/L organic carbon was found in one water sample near the Babylon landfill, but most samples contained less than 20 mg/L organic carbon. Leachate-enriched ground water was found to be as REFERENCES CITED 37 much as 18°C warmer than ambient ground water near the landfills, but this effect was dissipated within a short distance of landfills. The plumes are confined to the upper glacial aquifer. Downward movement of the leachate-enriched water is restricted by a clay layer (the Gardiners Clay) at Babylon and by silty sand at Islip. The upper glacial aquifer is 74 ft thick at Babylon and 170 ft thick at Islip but the plume at Islip is not significantly thicker than at Babylon. The plumes are overlain by freshwa- ter downgradient from the landfills. At Babylon, the plume occupies almost the full thickness of the aquifer, and it has higher concentrations of dissolved material for a greater distance downgradient than the plume at Islip. The distribution of ions and particulate matter in plume water at the Babylon and Islip landfills results from several processes within the landfills and the ground-water system. Among these are (1) recharge from precipitation at the landfill, (2) sorption, desorp- tion, and biological activity in the landfills, (3) mixing of leachate and incoming ground water, (4) sorption of dissolved and particulate matter in the aquifer, (5) changes in physical properties of the water, which influence its hydraulic characteristics, and (6) disper- sion of the contaminants. The sinking of leachate- enriched ground water and the lack of lateral disper- sion in ground water downgradient from the landfills studied may be typical for landfill leachate plumes in hydrogeologic conditions similar to those at Babylon and Islip; namely, (1) the landfill is essentially con— tiguous with the water table in a highly permeable aquifer that has relatively uniform vertical hydraulic conductivity, (2) recharge through the landfill is rapid, and (3) ground-water velocity below and around the landfill is relatively uniform. The chemical quality of leachate-enriched water is improved by dilution and by sorption of suspended organic material on the aquifer framework. Slower ground-water movement than an- ticipated and possibly delayed formation of leachate in the landfills limits the spread of leachate in ground water. The plumes are not only shorter than predicted from two independent determinations of ground-water movement, they also have no observable lateral disper- sion, even though longitudinal dispersion is extensive. The movement of leachate to the bottom of the aquifer may be typical of aquifers of high hydraulic conductivity. A zone of aeration between the bottom of the landfill and the water table would probably significantly alter the conditions surrounding the movement of leachate into the ground water and would significantly change the chemistry and characteristics of flow of the leachate before it joined the ground water. Such a condition might result in leachate enrichment only near the water table. Although no evidence of faster recharge through the landfill was obtained, downward movement of leachate through the aquifer may result partly from recharge being greater through the landfill than through the surrounding area and partly from density differences between leachate and ground water. Impedance of recharge by covers of poorly permeable materials on the landfills might significantly alter the production of leachate, reduce ground-water alteration significantly, and restrict leachate to the top part of the aquifer. Data presented in this report show the extent to which the quality of ground water has been changed by landfill leachate at two sites on Long Island. The change is serious near the landfill. As the water moves away from the landfill, dilution and sorption of the leachate-rich water reduce the severity of the change, but the size of the leachate-enriched region will in- crease for many years after the accumulation of refuse ceases. Leachate formation could be reduced by cover— ing the landfill, but little can be done to reduce leachate enrichment of the ground water once it has begun. It would seem advisable to cover or seal new and old landfills to minimize the productiOn of leachate so that little or none can enter the ground water. REFERENCES CITED Andersen, J.R., and Dornbush, J.N., 1968, Quality changes of shal- low ground water resulting from refuse disposal at a gravel pit: Brookings, S. Dak., Rept. on Proj. SR1 3553, 41 p. Apgar, M.A., and Langmuir, Donald, 1971, Ground-water pollution potential of a landfill above the water table: Ground Water, v. 9, p. 76—96. Bear, Jacob, 1972, Dynamics of fluids in porous media: New York, American Elsevier Publishing Co., 764 p. Bredehoeft, J.D., and Pinder, G.F., 1973, Mass transport in flowing groundwater: Water Resources Research, v. 9, no. 1, p. 194—210. Chow, T.J., and Earl, J.L., 1970, Lead aerosols in the atmosphere: increasing concentrations: Science, v. 169, p. 577—580. Cohen, Phillip, Franke, O.L., and Foxworthy, B.L., 1968, An atlas of Long Island’s water resources: New York Water Resources Comm., Bull. 62, 117 p. De Laguna, Wallace, 1966, A hydrologic analysis of postulated liquid-waste releases, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Suffolk County, New York: US. Geol. Survey Bull. 1156—E, 51 p. Franke, O. L., and Getzen, RT, 1976, Evaluation of hydrologic prop- erties of the Long Island ground-water reservoir using cross- sectional analog models: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file rept. 75— 679. Fungaroli, A. A., and Steiner, R. L., 1971, Laboratory study of the behavior of a sanitary landfill: Jour. Water Pollution Control Federation, V. 43, no. 2, p. 252—267. Getzen, R. T., 1975, Analog model analysis of regional three- dimensional flow in the ground-water reservoir of Long Island, New York: US. Geol. Survey open-file rept. 75—617, 154 p. Hughes, G. M., Landon, R. A., and Farvolden, R.N., 1969, Hy- drogeologic data from four landfills in northeastern Illinois: En- vironmental Geology Notes, no. 26, 42 p. 38 LEACHA’I‘E PLUMES IN GROUND WATER, BABYLON AND ISLIP LANDFILLS, LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK Kimmel, G.E., and Braids, O. C., 1975, Preliminary findings of leachate study on two landfills in Suffolk County, New York: US. Geol. Survey Jour. Research, V. 3, no. 3, p. 273—280. Lawrence, A. W., 1971, Application of process kinetics to design of anaerobic processes, in Anaerobic bological treatment processes: Pohland, F. G., ed.: Washington, DC, Am. Chem. Soc., Ad- vances in Chemistry Ser. 105, p. 163—189. LILCO, 1974, Population Survey 1973: Long Island Lighting Com— pany, Mineola, N.Y., 47 p. McCarty, P. L., 1971, Energetics and kinetics of anaerobic treatment, in Pohland, F. G., ed., Anaerobic biological treatment process: Washington, DC, Am. Chem. Soc., Advances in Chemistry Ser. 105, p. 91—107. McClymonds, N. E., and Franke, O. L., 197 2, Water-transmitting properties of Long Island’s aquifers: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 627—E, 24 p. Malcolm, R. L., and Leenheer, J. A., 1973, The usefulness of organic carbon parameters in water quality investigations: Inst. En- vironmental Sci. Proc., p. 336—340. Miller, J. F., and Frederick, R. H., 1969, The precipitation regime of Long Island, New York: US Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 627—A, 2 1 p. Ogata, Akio, and Banks, R. B., 1961, A solution of the differential equation of longitudinal dispersion in porous media: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 411—A, 7 p. 1964, The spread of a dye stream in an isotropic granular medium: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 411—G, 11 p. Page, A. L, Ganje, R. J., and Jashi, M. S., 1971, Lead quantities in plants, soil, and air near some major highways in southern California: Hilgardia, v. 41, no. 1, p. 1—31. Perlmutter, N. M., and Koch, Ellis, 1971, Preliminary findings on the detergent and phospate content of the waters of southern Nassau County, New York, in Geological Survey Research, 1971: US. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 750—D, p. D171—_D177. 1972, Preliminary hydrogeologic appraisal of nitrate in ground water and streams, southern Nassau County, Long Is- GPO 689-14 3 land, New York in Geological Survey Research, 1972: US Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 800—B, p. B255—B235. Pinder, G. F., 1973, A Galerkin-finite element simulation of ground water contamination on Long Island, New York: Water Re- sources Research, V. 9, no. 6, p. 1657—1669. Pluhowski, E. J., and Kantrowitz, I. H., 1964, Hydrology of the Babylon-Islip area, Suffdlk County, Long Island, New York: US. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 1768, 119 p. Robertson, J. M., Toussaint, and Jorque, M. A., 1974, Organic com- pounds entering ground Water from a landfill: U.S. Environmen- tal Protection Agency, Environmental Protection Technology Ser. 660/2-74-077, 47 p. Rovers, F. A., and Farquhai', G. J., 1973, Infiltration and landfill behavior: Jour. Environmental Eng. Div., Am. Soc. of Civil En— gineers Proc., v. 99, no. EE5, p. 671—690. State of California, 1954, Report on the investigation of leaching of a sanitary landfill: State Water Pollution Control Board, no. 10, 91 p. Stutzenberger, F. J., Kaufman, A. J., and Lossin, R. D., 1970, Cel- lulolytic activity in municipal solid waste composting: Canadian Jour. Microbiol., v. 16, no. 7, p. 553—560. Theis, C. V., Brown, R. H., and Meyer, R. R., 1963, Estimating the transmissibility of aquifers from the specific capacity of wells, in Methods of determining permeability, transmissibility and drawdown: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 1536—I, p. 331—341. Veatch, A. C., Slichter, C. S., Bowman, Isaiah, Crosby, W. 0., and Horton, R. E., 1906, Underground water resources of Long Is— land, New York: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 44, 394 p. Washburn, E. W., 1926, ed., International Critical Tables: New York, McGraw Hill, v. 111. Weast, R. C,, 1972, ed., Handbook of chemistry and physics: Cleve- land, Ohio, The Chemical Rubber Co. US. Public Health Service, 1962, Drinking water standards, 1962: US. Public Health Service Pub. 956, 61 p. PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1085 Prepared in cooperation with the UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR SUFFOLK COUNTY DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL PLATE 1 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY A-DEPTH WELLS (0_20 FEET BELOW WATER TABLE) B-DEPTH WELLS (30—40 FEET BELOW WATER TABLE) C-DEPTH WELLS (60—80 FEET BELOW WATER TAILE) 73°22'30” ..73°22'30">I ; I; V ‘JLIJMWWMIQULV_1IEKI§\ ... (a / lz. JL.£LJL.JLJLJ§~JLJLWJL;;;§§ ... - [I/ , j, .5LEANLWJLWJLWII:JLJL-.JI:;;:;:§~ . ,r" ' I, l‘ 2’! \ \< /£ .1{_.. “""":::::::”"‘lx 211...“... E‘ E /L—-—--w ‘‘‘‘‘ 11' """"""" ;::::::IxJLM”gjLWY-J _ ’ CU c)“ C "nigger; “717157;.“ ‘w/ cumeflgeéwnfifl - 3C. - Jr“ “L “hr 1 :“gfiwfim ....... r" . . .. v/ . : L/ .1. ' \\ \ t :1. . . I \\ / . \\ / , ,_ . - — ’/ l '- - . ....W . // \\\\ . . y c. e use I a \ ‘\ I" / V I . \ . . Jr \\" I V -... N D. . eiuese \ @\ p: :se . I Y {L} I... . I e C\ - I eizse / 0 ”(Wk )m {h .. 0° ' ’, ’ ' I w. ‘ / \ ‘ Z «a , ' ----—-- 4 44 / \ //// \\ . . , x m\ / \ . \, x r I / \ ’ ‘ . -‘ I. K 5" _. ’ \ \J/ ‘ . . ¢ ’ ’ I I ”2-7.2?“ / ‘ ‘ , -,- 517:? , r . ,.//’ x ,’ _ K” " \ ”e/ 4571 \V/\<\ r L, . _. r I . '/' l / \ J I /\<\ EXPLANATION —50——— WATER-TABLE CONTOUR—Shows alti- tude of water table, April 1974. Dashed where approximately located. Contour interval 1 foot. Datum is mean sea level. \ ‘ _ . . - ' , . x _ —2000— LINE OF EQUAL SPECIFIC CONDUC- .1 '\ , -. - _ ~ . x f I ‘ ' . . . ; V TANCE, DECEMBER 1973—Dashed where , “K , . a. V "- / ~ N. 7014., \\ A . u‘ ‘ I , - J ; . I _ ' ' .. approximately located. Interval 600 and my” WATER WELL—Large number is well 1000 micromhos. ' . V ”I * . 4 ”A. , -’ ’ A 'I . / V ‘~.3.~ ‘ . ,. .- . _ I . I v A/ \\ f . _ \\ K"- \ h '1 3AV9' I" » ' = i I, I h I H , ’7' ' \\ “I" \\ I “s ' ' ‘ “ I I . a k ' \ . Ch ‘ ‘ . ' ‘~ . ’ S m ’ I i ‘ ’ . l / . \‘ A \. ’ ‘ * 350 > » - ‘ . . ’ . ' ' « . , " I site identification, small number is specific / \ .’ l i v '- ' I _ ' . ' , ' _ » . QC“ _ w / \ ' ,’ _ " \ ,/ - , . ‘ ' Q ' _, ‘ ‘ . , ‘ \ conductance in micromhos per centimeter \> / \ \ g - ‘u I - , l -. . . I -' ; ' ' - X // \ \ “\ . .\ ’) \f _ ' . _ I ‘ . .‘ ' , . at 25° C. All samples were collected in IKE .7 \ ‘ . ' .4 _ 4 I l 1 L ._ 4 MN 'A A ~ . ' * a.- .fi‘xyfl, \ i 9 \IX ".1 ' a4." /4 - , ‘ " , ' i I I ‘ I December 1973 except those noted by * £9 \\ .. ' a; ‘ /\ 0" - A ‘1‘ ,‘ ,, V ' 4 . » \ . . . ’.. I . , ; . I ‘ Depth from which conductivity was obtained is indicated by screen depth . letter (see table 2) above map. SCALE1.12,000 \llllllll/ 0 VI: J MILE -,I I I I I I I I\— LANDFILL DEPOSIT I F I | | o .5 1 1.5 KILOMETERS B——B’ LINE OF HYDROCHEMICAL SECTION RInteriOr-Geological Survey, Reston, Va.—l980-W78315 SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE IN AND NEAR THE PLUME OF LEACHATE-ENRICHED GROUND WATER DOWNGRADIENT FROM BABYLON LANDFILL UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR Prepared in cooperation with the PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1085 VERTICAL EXAGGERATION X 2 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SUFFOLK COUNTY DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL PLATE 2 >‘t z 2 ‘1 2|“ - O 3 A: In.) D ’Z in § In: E 8 E O I m In N ’ F EET METERS A | 511 a A 150 40 — REFUSE E R ‘03 E g — 3° _ E a 5 I: s 9 3 S “0‘3 E 9‘3 ‘ ‘°° 20 w ' W T m m a? re m :5; E — so 10— 1700 \\ \——150- A ——-———*70 A____ “‘ ‘“ L _ COARSE 1500 ***1400 a ——— _ ——.:‘_—_—_':_—_—:_—_—__ ——————— 400 ~_‘_ 290»A ___________________ SEA LEVEL — SAND /li°_°_B _____ 2 000 _____ 19‘1" ———————— 930 3'"— ,-— 1500 3) 860 B ————————— fig ’33 ~— SEA LEVEL 10— 150° 150° C / 230° c \ 1100-c~ “““““ 620 c 340 c — ‘ \ \ 330 C 50 20 SILTY FINE SAND CLAY __ l | | | EXPLANATION | I ——200— — LINE OF EQUAL SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE, K\\ A‘BABYLON DECEMBER l973—Dashed where approximately \\\ located. Interval 600 and 1000 micromhos \ \\\ 3 WELL SITE—Large upper letter and number is well- \i '1‘ site identification. A, B, C indicate screen depths | A 1700 (see table 2). Numbers opposite screen depth B 8 n q. B' B 1500 are specific conductance in micromhos per centi- METERS a N \— ‘.I E m 0.3 ,\ FEET C 1600 meter at 25° C. All samples were collected in _. m .— 33 m m m m m 100 December 1973 except those noted by * T . ___L1L1 . . ‘__,.— 50 1°_ 31205 660-A ééggiQEi-slggjé 33%in ‘\—§ggA A140 — _V__ WATER TABLE SEA LEVEL — 510\‘»3/ \ \ \ ’ B 3150 — SEA LEVEL r...~.v..,-,v....... c ,3 .00 C 1600 c 2700 c, 960C "Mun“ 10 450 110 ._ D \ 50 o 1000 2000 3000 FEET {32323332323ng REFUSE 20 _ SILTY FINE SAND CLAY .. I I I | I II | | 0 200 400 600 800 METERS VERTICAL EXAGGERATION X 4 z o'. 2l Flo. 9”“ o D I- . 0 Lu 3' a} I I C' METERS l m v I o FEET 30 _ REFUSE ‘2 i3 ‘1‘ 9 3 (2 E _ 100 20 — '9'0'6’6’6'6'6'9'9'0'9'0' ~ - , _ 10 ‘ 'zozozezezozozozo::........ v ___55_ _A__ ,' _ 50 SEA LEVELH \\\\ moo-BA: £13332 1400‘AA“§‘~:—-3fi%ffl_::‘\\_ v SEA LEVEL L \ \ \\__ -910-—c ‘\ ~-_200 ————————————————————————————————— \ _ 1o \ \\ —————— , \\ o ___20 00/ / 310 »c \\ 50 20..— \ \ ——————————— 410LE D 1\0: \f 2 0] £0) /10 ”1"” 500/ 400 D 340 D \ 40 D — 30— \\ COARSE SAND \\\__ \_..:_:_:‘—.——._<—’———-—’"2'40~E J — 100 40 ~______..______________——-—== _______________________________________________________________ i 50— SILTY SAND 12°": _ 150 I I l l l I i /J EXPLANATION / / / // B-ISLIP /// ~ —200—— LINE OF EQUAL SPECIFIC CON- // 0/ DUCTANCE, JANUARY 1974‘ i I Dashed where approximately ‘ I located. Interval 300, 500,and | g: 1000 micromhos : El: ‘2 WELL SITE—Large upper letter and l 31: number is well-site identification. D II D' E l l AA 1300 A, B, C 1ndicate screen depths (see METERS N ‘_ o m FEET METERS N w I FEET B 800* table 3). Numbers opposrte screen _ ‘— 0') .- "‘ . . . 30 j <3 13 g g T REFUSE — f 100 30 S ‘2 2‘ c_o g (2 g 100 depth are spe01flc conductance in 12: _ V .v . . M. _ 50 23 _ M 50 D 100” micromhos per centimeter at 25° C. AAzsor _ .9 A // 1 45 A A1 ‘ SEA LEVEL — B400 _‘AA ”00 lg%___lOA 1300AA /// _ SEA LEVEL # 280 ‘B 260 B *éilg Q SEA LEVEL 1 samples collected in January _ \ _12 8003 __,,L./ _ _ _ _______ 1974 except those noted by* 10 .. I 0033 /1000 /// 10 515° \\C*98°_#——\ / /500 /c 40* 50 120vvc /430 C_5 \ 140 c 8° C 50 SZ 20 — \ / E \ ’1000 /’ //’ * 20— 700 D 00 WATER TABLE COARSE SAND\ \ \ 300 // D// 00’ 70-13 I ___J D 400 30— \\\_=___:__—::____/ /2 — 100 30a \200 E / COARSE SAND 100 ,w---,.". \ _______ / _____ / h’o’o’o’o’o’o’o’fi 4" 4° — zozozozoezozozozoe REFUSE 50 SILTY SAND _ 150 50 SILTY SAND [: 15° “Mun“. o 500 1000 1500 2000 FEET I | | I | I I ' I I I I I T 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 METERS filnterior-Geological Survey, Reston, Va.—1980-W78315 HYDROCHEMICAL SECTIONS THROUGH THE PLUMES OF LEACHATE-ENRICHED GROUND WATER AT BABYLON AND ISLIP LAN DFILLS, LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Prepared in cooperation with the SUFFOLK COUNTY DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1085 PLATE 3 AA -DEPTH WELLS (16—28 FEET BELOW WATER TABLE) 0. 4046J .‘II... . IUOIUDI. W 5.5—? I. . 4:2. . 40° 46’ B-DEPTH WELLS (30—44 FEET BELOW WATER TABLE) i||lIIl 8 - / al‘ I: D 2 'FE \umrmg ‘3/1900 \3 “E L--- n I /I|I:C\3\‘1\810|(l)|llll\l\l(& - 400 22%018\|I‘56HH|H\|Q\;\ Base from US. Geological Survey Patchogue 1:24,000, 1967 SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE IN AND NEAR THE PLUME OF LEACHATE-ENRICHED ' . ”p1 ~51 W 1‘ ”i i O——O c-DEPTH WELLS (65—87 FEET BELOW WATER TABLE) illllII/ Lj-g \lllHIlII llll/ COCO-III 0......- _..____.A II. 3" SCALE 1 :12,000 1/2 l 1.5 KILOM ETERS D -DEPTH WELLS (94—114 FEET BELOW WATER TABLE) 73°05' \ \\\ [Illll I3 1000Y/\l I l\ \ - - I :2 I ‘7'000 ‘ P . n U I . u . - r1 / /II)\)\\\ E-DEPTH WELLS (123—146 FEET BELOW WATER TABLE) 73°05' P I 2 E g . .r— IE 2 I g 121 3300 ..3/\ X ' 126 .70 fl .IIIII _._._._.——- III-I..- 0......- —_-—_—r\ ITO—I“ L 0 (21,]. /c I j I EXPLANATION —35——- WATER-TABLE CONTOUR—Shows altitude of water table, January 1974. Contour interval 5 feet. Dat- um is mean sea level —200—-— LINE OF EQUAL SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE, JANUARY l974—Dashed where approximately located. Interval 300,500, and 1000 micromhos. '27 0 WATER WELL—Large number is well site identi- 80 fication, small number is specific conductance in micromhos per centimeter at 25° C. All samples were collected in January 1974 except those noted by *. Depth from which conductivity was obtained is indicated by screen depth letter above map. Con- ductance in parentheses (340) means value is from higher (A) or lower (BB) level than indicated by depth letter (see table 2) LANDFILL DEPOSITS \lllllllll/ /|I|I|I||\\ D D’ LINE OF HYDROCHEMICAL SECTION GROUND WATER DOWNGRADIEN T FROM ISLIP LANDFILL firInterior—Geological Survey, Reston, Va.—1980-W78315 Regional Metamorphism in the Condrey Mountain Quadranglo, North-Central Klamath Mountains, California By PRESTON E. HOTZ GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1086 UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON: 1979 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR CECIL D. ANDRUS, Secretary GEOLOGICAL SURVEY H. William Menard, Director Library of Congress catalog-card No. 79-600048 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, US. Government Printing Office Washington, DC. 20402 Stock Number 024-001-03160-4 CONTENTS Page Page Abstract __________________________________ 1 Amphibolite facies ____________________________ 12 Introduction ________________________________ 2 Foliated amphibolite ________________________ 12 Greenschist facies ____________________________ 2 Nonfoliated amphibolite ______________________ 14 Condrey Mountain Schist _____________________ 2 Chemical composition _______________________ 15 Quartz-muscovite schist. ___________________ 6 Metasedimentary rocks ________ L ______________ 15 Chemical composition __________________ 6 Age __________________________________ 17 Actinolite-chlorite schist ___________________ 6 Mafic and ultramafic rocks _______________________ 17 Chemical composition __________________ 7 Serpentinite ————--—————-——,— _______________ 17 Metamorphosed granitic (?) I‘OCk ______________ 7 Gabbro and pyroxenite _______________________ 19 Age and correlation ______________________ 8 Age __________________________________ 20 Metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks of the Plutonic rock3_______’ ________________________ 20 western Paleozoic and Triassic belt ______________ 9 Pyroxene quartz diorite and granodiorite ____________ 20 Metavolcanic rocks. ______________________ 9 Granitic rocks ___________________________ 21 Chemical composition __________________ 10 Age __________________________________ 23 Metasedimentary rocks ____________________ 11 Structural and metamorphic relations ________________ 23 Age and correlation ______________________ 11 References cited _____________________________ 24 Stuart Fork Formation _______________________ 11 | ILLUSTRATIONS Page FIGURE 1. Generalized geologic map of Condrey Mountain quadrangle and vicinity ________________________________ 3 2. Geologic map of Condrey Mountain quadrangle and parts of Seiad Valley and Hornbrook quadrangles ______________ 4 3. Graphs showing N a20 and CaO relative to SiOz for greenschist from Condrey Mountain Schist_______-_'_ ________ 8 4. AFM diagram of metavolcanic rocks and amphibolite from Condrey Mountain and Hornbrook quadrangles and greenschist from Condrey Mountain Schist ______________________________________________ 8 5. Graphs showing Na20 and C210 relative to SiO2 for metavolcanic rocks from Condrey Mountain and Hornbrook quadrangles ____________________________________________________________ 1 1 6. Photomicrographs of amphibolite, foliated and nonfoliated ________________________________________ 13 7. Diagram of amphiboles in metavolcanic rock and amphibolite from the Condrey Mountain and Hornbrook quadrangles. _________________________________________________________ 14 8. Graph showing change in cation content of amphibolite at contact with serpentinite _________________________ 19 TABLES Page TABLE 1. Chemical analyses and CIPW norms of quartz-muscovite schist from the Condrey Mountain Schist. _______________ 6 2. Chemical analyses, CIPW norms, and modes of greenschist from the Condrey Mountain Schist __________________ 7 3. Chemical analysis, CIPW norm, and mode of albite-quartz-muscovite-epidote schist _________________________ 9 4. Chemical and spectrographic analyses and CIPW norms of metavolcanic rock ____________________________ 10 5. Chemical and spectrographic analyses, CIPW norms, and modes of amphibolite ___________________________ 16 6. Chemical and spectrographic analysis and CIPW norm of quartz-biotite phyllite ___________________________ 17 7. Chemical analyses of serpentinite and magnesian schist _________________________________________ 18 8. Chemicalanalyses illustrating metasomatic reaction at serpentinite-amphibolite contact.--_____-____--___;__-18 9. Chemical analyses, CIPW norms, and modes of gabbro, pyroxenite, and pyroxene quartz diorite. _________________ 2O 10. Chemical and spectrographic analyses, CIPW norms, and modes of rocks from the Vesa Bluffs and Ashland p1utons. _____ 22 III REGIONAL METAMORPHISM IN THE CONDREY MOUNTAIN QUADRANGLE, NORTH-CENTRAL KLAMATH MOUNTAINS, CALIFORNIA By PRESTON E. HOTZ ABSTRACT A subcircular area of about 650 km2 in northern California and southwestern Oregon is occupied by rocks of the greenschist metamorphic facies called the Condrey Mountain Schist. This greenschist terrane is bordered on the east and west by rocks belong- ing to the amphibolite metamorphic facies that structurally overlie and are thrust over the Condrey Mountain Schist. The amphibolite facies is succeeded upward by metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks belonging to the greenschist metamorphic facies. The Condrey Mountain Schist is composed predominantly of quartz-muscovite schist and lesser amounts of actinolite-chlorite schist formed by the metamorphism of graywacke and spilitic vol- canic rocks that may have belonged to the Galice Formation of Late Jurassic age. Potassium-argon age determinations of 141:4 my. and 155:5 m.y. obtained on these metamorphic rocks seem to be incom- patible with the Late Jurassic age usually assigned the Galice. The rocks that border the amphibolite facies are part of an exten- sive terrane of metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks belonging to the western Paleozoic and Triassic belt The metavolcanic rocks include some unmetamorphosed spilite but are mostly of the greenschist metamorphic facies composed of oligoclase (An15_20) and actinolite with subordinate amounts of chlorite and clinozoisite- epidote. The interbedded sedimentary rocks are predominantly argil- lite and slaty argillite, less commonly siliceous argillite and chert, and a few lenticular beds of marble. On the south, high-angle faults and a tabular granitic pluton separate the greenschist metavolcanic terrane from the amphibolite facies rocks; on the east, nonfoliated amphibolite is succeeded upward, apparently conformably, by metasedimentary rocks belonging to the greenschist metavolcanic terrane. In the southern part of Condrey Mountain quadrangle, an outlier of a thrust plate composed of the Stuart Fork Formation overlies the metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks. The Stuart Fork in this region is composed of siliceous phyllite and phyllitic quartzite and is believed to be the metamorphosed equivalent of rocks over which it is thrust. In the Yreka-Fort Jones area, potassium-argon determina- tions on mica from the blueschist facies in the Stuart Fork gave ages of approximately 220 my (Late Triassic) for the age of metamor- phism. Rocks of the amphibolite facies structurally overlie the Condrey Mountain Schist along a moderate to steeply dipping thrust fault. The amphibolite terrane is composed of amphibolite and metasedimentary rocks in approximately equal amounts accom- panied by many bodies of serpentinite and a number of gabbro and dioritic plutons. Most of the amphibolite is foliated, but some is non- foliated; the nonfoliated amphibolite has an amphibolite mineralogy and commonly a relict volcanic rock texture. The nonfoliated am- phibolite occurs on the southern and eastern borders of the amphibo- lite terrane between the areas of foliated amphibolite and the overly- ing metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks. Hornblende and plagioclase (An30_35) are the characteristic minerals, indicating that the rocks are of the almandine-amphibolite metamorphic facies. The metasedimentary rocks interbedded with the amphibolites include siliceous schist and phyllite, minor quartzite, and subordinate amounts of marble. Potassium-argon age dates obtained on hornblende from foliated amphibolite yield ages of 146:4 and 148: 4 m.y., suggesting a Late Jurassic metamorphic episode. Mafic and ultramafic rocks are widespread in the amphibolite ter- rane but are almost entirely absent from the area of greenschist facies metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks. The ultramafic rocks, predominantly serpentinite, occur as a few large bodies and many small tabular concordant bodies interleaved with the foliated rocks. The ultramafic rocks include harzburgite and dunite and their serpentinized equivalents. In the Condrey Mountain quadrangle, probably more than 90 percent of the ultramafic rocks is serpen- tinized. Most of the serpentinite is composed of antigorite formed by metamorphism of serpentinized ultramafic rocks; it is not known whether the metamorphism was of the same episode as that which produced the enclosing amphibolite facies. Some of the serpentinite has been converted to tremolite-, talc-tremolite-, and talc-carbonate rocks. Numerous small bodies of quartz-bearing hornblende gabbro and hornblende pyroxenite are closely associated with some of the serpentinite. The age of the mafic and ultramafic rocks is uncertain, but they occur as pendants in granitic plutons of Late Jurassic age. The numerous discontinuous bodies of mafic and ultramafic rock scat- tered throughout the terrane of amphibolite facies rocks suggests a melange, and the association of serpentinite, gabbro, and pyroxenite with amphibolite and siliceous metasedimentary rocks suggests that this assemblage may be part of a dismembered ophiolite suite. rIlavo large granite plutons, the Ashland and the Vesa Bluffs, range in composition from hornblende gabbro and diorite to quartz diorite; they contain some granodiorite, and alaskitic rock in minor amounts. The Ashland pluton is mainly in Oregon; its southern part is in the northeastern Condrey Mountain and northwestern Hornbrook quad- rangles of California. The Vesa Bluffs pluton, a south-dipping tabu- lar body in its western part, occurs between the amphibolite facies on the footwall and a hanging wall of greenschist facies metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks in the southern Condrey Mountain and southwestern Hornbrook quadrangles. Both plutons enclose roof pendants of serpentinite and pyroxenite or gabbro. Potassium—argon age determinations on hornblende and biotite from these plutons range from 166:5 to 144 :4 m.y.; biotite ages, with one exception, are younger, having a range of 144 :4 to 147 :4 my; concordant ages of 146:4 and 147:4 m.y. from hornblende and biotite, respectively, were obtained from only one sample, rock from the Ashland pluton. The contact between the Condrey Mountain Schist and the overly- 2 . REGIONAL METAMORPHISM, CON DREY MOUNTAIN QUADRANGLE, KLAMATH MOUNTAINS, CALIF. ing amphibolite and associated metasedimentary rocks is clearly a fault, undoubtedly a thrust modified at many places by high-angle faults. The relation between the higher grade metamorphic rocks and the lower grade metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks is less well defined. Northwest of the Condrey Mountain quadrangle, metavolcanic rocks overlie metasedimentary rocks belonging to the amphibolite facies, probably along a fault. In the southern Condrey Mountain quadrangle, high-angle faults, serpentinite bodies, and the southward-dipping tabular Vesa Bluffs pluton separate the two terranes. No well-defined contact has been recognized on the east; nonfoliated metavolcanic rocks of the amphibolite facies are suc- ceeded upward conformably by fine-grained metasedimentary rocks that are overlain by metavolcanic rocks of the greenschist facies, apparently with a gradual decrease in intensity of metamorphism stratigraphically upward. A fault that occurs between the foliated and nonfoliated amphibolite may have been the original discon- tinuity between foliated amphibolite and the metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks. During a Triassic tectonic episode, the Stuart Fork Formation, which lies between metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks of the western Paleozoic and Triassic belt and lower Paleozoic rocks of the eastern Klamath belt, was metamorphosed under low— temperature—high-pressure conditions of the lawsonite-glaucophane (blueschist) metamorphic facies. Thrusting of the Stuart Fork Forma- tion over the metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks probably took place during the Triassic and may have continued or have been re- newed in the Jurassic. INTRODUCTION Throughout most of the area occupied by the western Paleozoic and Triassic belt in the Klamath Mountains, California and Oregon, the rocks are regionally metamorphosed to the greenschist facies. In the north-central part of the Klamath Mountains, the belt contains rocks belonging to the almandine-amphibolite facies. Other areas of moderate to high-grade metamorphism are known elsewhere in the Klamath Mountains (Kays, 1968, 1970), but this area in the north-central part of the province west and northwest of Yreka is the most extensive (fig. 1). Parts of the area of higher grade metamorphism in California have been mapped in detail by Barrows (1969), Hotz (1967), and Medaris (1966) and in reconnaissance by Pratt (1964); in Oregon, the area is included in reconnaissance maps of the Grants Pass and Medford 30-minute quadrangles (Wells, and others 1940; Wells, 1956) and larger scale studies of small areas by Engelhardt (1966) and Hein- rich (1966). A circular area of approximately 650 km2 on the California-Oregon border, north of the Klamath River, is occupied by highly foliated low-grade schist. The schist is of two main types, quartz-muscovite schist, commonly graphitic, and actinolite-chlorite schist, herein named the Condrey Mountain Schist. Rocks of amphibolite metamorphic facies are in thrust-fault contact with the Condrey Mountain Schist on the east, west, and south (figs. 1, 2). The area occupied by the higher grade metamorphic rocks contains many large and small bodies of ultramafic rock. The amphibolite facies rocks are succeeded outward, and apparently upward in most places, by weakly metamorphosed vol- canic and sedimentary rocks. At some places, the change is abrupt as a result of faulting; at other places, the transition is gradual. In the area of lower grade rocks, ultramafic rocks are absent. The weakly metamorphosed volcanic and sedimentary rocks are part of the western Paleozoic and Triassic belt, a broad continuous north-south-trending belt that constitutes the most extensive lithologic subdivision in the Klamath Mountains province. GREENSCHIST FACIES Rocks of the greenschist facies include the Condrey Mountain Schist, metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks of the western Paleozoic and Triassic belt, and the Stuart Fork Formation. CONDREY MOUNTAIN SCHIST The rocks that occupy the subcircular area mainly north of the Klamath River are here named the Con- drey Mountain Schist for a peak of that name (sec. 11, T. 47 N., R. 10 W) in northwestern Condrey Mountain quadrangle. The type locality is designated the expo- sures on the south side of the Klamath River between Dona and McKinney Creeks (secs. 8 and 9, T. 46 N., R. 9 W) (fig. 2). The principal reference locality is desig- nated the exposures along a ridge from Condrey Mountain to the saddle between West Fork of Beaver Creek and Wards Fork (NEM; sec. 29, T. 48 N., R. 9 W). Exposures in the valley of Elliot Creek (T. 48 N ., R. 10 and 11 W), northwest Condrey Mountain, and northern Seiad Valley quadrangles, are considered a supplemen- tary reference locality. This schist is largely consti- tuted of quartz-muscovite schist, commonly graphitic, and actinolite-chlorite schist. Of the two, quartz— muscovite schist is more abundant; greenschist occurs mainly on the borders of the schist outcrop area adja- cent to the contact with amphibolite facies rocks. The following mineral assemblages have been ob— served: quarts-muscovite-(albite-chlorite-graphite); quartz-albite-muscovite-epidote-(chlorite); quartz- albite-actinolite-chlorite—epidote; albite-actinolite- chlorite- epidote—(quartz-muscovite). All are stable mineral assemblages of the quartz-albite-muscovite— chlorite (chlorite zone) subfacies ('Ihrner, in Fyfe, and others, 1958, p. 218) of the greenschist facies. An un— usual rock with the mineral assemblage glaucophane- Condrey Mountain GREENSCHIST FACIES 123°00' 122°45' .\ \ \I/\/ _,_ Id , \ .4)? . )7 \ A L N MW -— I\ - -4. -\ 109m". —l<’_/|:ll ‘Z‘ITI‘I’ ’l/f, “7‘ II‘ 42‘00' e |/\ /\ ‘ \u ‘111?‘>r 1'1" I 41°‘5' 0 10 20 KILOMETERS l___é—__l EXPLANATION SEDIMENTARY AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS Eastern Klamath belt 3 . cn a s :2 - n. S 3-1 O Hornbrook Formation D 3 a: m Siltstone phyllite, chert, Marine sedimentary rocks 5 U U and limestone \\§ /// 9 lGNEOUS ROCKS .c (”0 Albite-epidote Quartz—muscovlte and 3' E : amphibolite actinolite ~chlorite schist '0 a Granitic rocks Western Paleozoic and Triassic belt 6 E mm a $ Ultramafic rocks Amphibolite, siliceous Greenstone, chert, < May be Ordovician phyllite and schist, argillite, and minor 2 near Yreka quartzite, and marble limestone i— Ci Z w J: < w A 2 Stuart Fork Formation B ________ Phyllitic quartzite, siliceous o phyllite, metabasalt, minor if] Da hadC0:tact_ limestone, and locally, blueschist < S w ere inferred a. _ _ Central metamorphic belt Fault Dashed where inferred ___A_L Thrust fault Amphibolite, impure marble, Sawteeth on upper plate calcareous and siliceous schist DEVONIAN FIGURE 1,—Genera1ized geologic map of Condrey Mountain quadrangle and vicinity. SILURIAN OR JURASSIC PERMIAN OLDER AND TRIASSIC 4 REGIONAL METAMORPHISM, CONDREY MOUNTAIN QUADRANGLE, KLAMATH MOUNTAINS, CALIF 123°00' 122°45, ++‘ + 40 . 200 ALI ///1_ 4 n” // \\;,\\ ”xx” \\//u 1/" //\\”\ \\// ’4 § ‘l/II\\Il//\‘“n” \\ \\,,§l| III, \ VI , + + + ¢ + + + ‘+ I + + ; 4 ¢ +++++CRAGGY¢ ¢ + MOUNTA|N+ 4, 41°45‘ FIGURE 2,—Geologic map of Condrey Mountain quadrangle GREENSCHIST FACIES METAMORPHIC ROCKS Greenschist facies Condrey Mountain Schist Quartz-muscovite schist and actinolite-chlorite schist HIM]! Metavolcanic and metasedimen- tary rocks of the western Paleozoic and Triassic belt Stuart Fork Formation Siliceous phyllite and phyllitic quartzite c s" 0 a: é” A J ( 4—: N r ++J \ 5o++ Upper lurassnc I J U- RASSIC I PALEOZOIC AND TRIASSIC (?) Contact Dashed where Inferred Fault Dashed where Inferred _'_v_ Thrust fault Sawteeth on upper plate he“) 09‘ x: m v. H .I o\ l 1 n x 7 I L n n x 3>A 3A . 7 I I . l \ \ EXPLANATION 3 ‘§ h 0 Hornbrook Formation as Amphibolite facies Nonfoliated amphibolite iii Foliated amphibolite Siliceous schist, phyllite, quartzite and minor marble 37 I / v L__1__J CRETACEOUS I J PLUTONIC ROC KS +++++ + Granitic rocks Mostly diarite and quartz diorite lv 4 P:(L74 Pyroxene quartz diorite MAFIC AND ULTRA- MAFIC ROCKS Gabbro and pyroxenite ,s , 9 / ,:=u,§ ,, , :- PALEOZOIC AND TRIASSIC (?) Serpentinite and magnesian schist ‘ \ / a P rad’ eCr X a as aggv v20-66 Table 4 Table 5 Table 5 Table 7 Table 8 Table 10 and granodiorite — J U RASS IC PERMIAN AND (OR) TRIASSIC A Analyzed specimens of Condrey Mountain Schist; Tables 1, 2,and 3 V Metavolcanic rocks; 0 Foliated amphibolite; V Nonfoliated amphibolite; o Quartz-biotite phyllite; Table 6 A Serpentinite and magnesian schist; x Amphibolite-serpentinite reaction; - Gabbro and pyroxenite; Table 9 n Granitic rocks; and parts of Seiad Valley and Hornbrook quadrangles. 42°00' 41°45‘ 6 REGIONAL METAMORPHISM, CONDREY MOUNTAIN QUADRANGLE, KLAMATH MOUNTAINS, CALIF. epidote-quartz-albite-(chlorite-sphene), found locally, contains no lawsonite and hence also belongs to the greenschist facies despite the glaucophane content. QUARTZ—MUSCOVITE SCHISI‘ Quartz-muscovite schist is the most common variety of the Condrey Mountain Schist. The common mineral assemblage is quartz-muscovite-(albite-chlorite- graphite). This schist is a gray to brownish-gray, in some places bluish-gray, fine-grained rock with a well-developed schistosity along which the rock readily splits, revealing shiny cleavage surfaces coated with muscovite. Thin lenticular white microcrystalline siliceous laminae alternate with dark micaceous laminae. Brown iron-oxide pseudomorphs of pyrite as much as 5 mm in diameter are fairly common. The rocks are very uniform in appearance, grain size, and composition over wide areas. They have no obvious compositional layering except for podlike lenticular bodies of white quartz less than 2.5 cm to 5 to 7.5 cm thick and several centimeters long that occur irregu— larly parallel to the schistosity. Quartz, the dominant mineral of the schist, occurs as lenticular laminae of elongate anhedral interlocking grains that show obvious strain shadows in cross- polarized light under the microscope. Albite is generally sparse or absent; where present, it has a habit similar to the quartz except in fine- grained mica-rich laminae in some specimens where it occurs as subhedral porphyroblasts with major di- ameters of 0.7 to more than 2.5 mm. In one specimen, the albite porphyroblasts contained parallel trains of carbonaceous dust in their central parts; rims are of clear albite in the pressure shadows of the metacrysts. The dust trains occur at an angle to the rock foliation, which has a slight tendency to wrap around the crys- tals; this tendency indicates that there was further movement in the direction of the schistosity after crys- tallization of the porphyroblasts. Muscovite, the most abundant micaceous mineral, occurs in alternating laminae with the quartz and as thin folia between some of the quartz grains. Com- monly a few flakes and irregular masses of chlorite accompany the muscovite. Chlorite may have a porphyroblastic habit in some specimens where it is oriented with its cleavages at a slight to moderate angle to the schistosity, along which slight movement has caused crinkling and development of an incipient secondary cleavage of the porphyroblasts. The dark color of this schist, whose major mineral components are light colored, is imparted by a perva- sive black dust, apparently carbon concentrated in the micaceous folia. Many specimens of quartz-muscovite schist contain no other accessory minerals, but some contain a few prismatic grains of actinolite and granules of clinozois- ite. Sphene, apatite, and brown tourmaline may be minor accessories in some. CHEMICAL COM POSITION The quartz-muscovite schist is undoubtedly a metasedimentary rock. Although recrystallization has destroyed all vestiges of original structures and tex- tures and no relict textures can be seen microscopically, the mineralogy, especially the occurrence of graphite, is compatible with derivation from a sedimentary rock, perhaps a fine-grained sandstone. Chemical analyses of two samples of quartz-muscovite schist are given in table 1. ACTINOLITE-(ZHLORITE SCHIST Actinolite-chlorite schist—believed to be the metamorphosed equivalent of basaltic tuffs and flows, TABLE 1.—Chemical analyses and CIPW norms of quartz-muscovite schist from the Condrey Mountain Schist [Chemical analyses by rapid methods; analysts: P L. D. Elmore, S. D. Botts, Gillison Chloe, Lowell Artis, and Hezekiah Smith. Sample localities shown in fig. 2] Sample No. 12063 114-62 Chemical analyses (weight percent) Si02 ____________________________ 69.8 73.6 A1203 __________________________ 13.5 11.9 Fe203 __________________________ 1.3 .90 FeO ____________________________ 4.3 3.0 MgO ____________________________ 2.7 1.9 CaO ____________________________ .45 .73 N820 ____________________________ 1.9 2.0 K20 ____________________________ 1.6 1.5 HzO— __________________________ .16 .07 HzO + __________________________ 3.1 2.2 TiOz ____________________________ .79 .67 P205 ____________________________ .24 .22 MnO ____________________________ .05 .04 C02 ____________________________ < .05 .71 Total ______________________ 100 99 Sp. gr. (bulk) ____________________ 2.73 2.74 CIPW norms (percent) q ______________________________ 45.8 52.5 c _________________________________ 8.4 7.0 or ______________________________ 9.5 8.9 ab ______________________________ 16.1 17.0 an ______________________________ .66 — iii ____________________________ 4— 7 7— ______________________________ 12. . 01" ______________________________ _ _ mt ______________________________ 1.9 1.3 il ______________________________ 1.5 1.3 ap ______________________________ .57 .52 cc ______________________________ — .79 mg ______________________________ — .70 NOTE—12063 Quartz-(albite)-muscovite-chlorite schist. East of Dog Fork, NE% NE% sec. 25, T. 48 N., R.10 W 114-62 Quartz—muscovite schist, Center sec. 9, T46 N., R9 W. GREENSCHIST FACIES 7 constitutes a distinctive variety of the Condrey Mountain Schist. It occurs in a wide continuous belt between quartz-muscovite schist and the amphibolite facies metamorphic rocks in the northern part of Con- drey Mountain quadrangle (Hotz, 1967) and as narrow discontinuous bodies elsewhere, both along the bound- ary with the higher grade rocks and interbedded with the quartz-muscovite schist. It is fine grained, greenish gray to grayish green, and varies from very uniform to finely laminated with thin flattened lenticular laminae alternately rich in ferromagnesian minerals and al- bite. Textures are crystalloblastic schistose; the aver- age grain size ranges from 0.05 mm to 1.0 mm. Original textures and structures have been mostly obliterated by recrystallization. Some have a faint compositional layering that suggests laminae of sedimentary origin, and a few contain ovoid twinned albite phenocrysts that may be pseudomorphs of plagioclase and clots of chlorite and actinolite that possibly represent original phenocrysts of mafic minerals. The mineral assemblages quartz-albite-actinolite- chlorite-epidote and albite-actinolite-chlorite- epidote-(muscovite) are common. A fine—grained rock with a bluish tinge seen in one place has the as- semblage glaucophane-epidote-quartz—albite-(chlorite), but this assemblage is unusual. Sphene is a ubiquitous minor accessory, occurring as tiny, droplike granules, typically enclosed in chlorite and the amphibole. Apa- tite is present in trace amounts. The quartz content is variable but generally small; quartz is absent from some samples. Quartz occurs with albite, commonly as blebs within the feldspar, but it is also intergrown with it in grains of similar habit; it may also occur in small segregated lenses. Some flakes of muscovite have been observed in nearly all specimens. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION Chemical analyses of three samples of greenschist, given in table 2, show them to be basaltic in composi- tion. Owing to their relatiVely high N320 and low CaO content, they plot in the spilite field on 8102- Na20 and SiOz—CaO diagrams (fig. 3) Hamilton, 1963). On an AFM plot (fig. 4), they are similar to the metavolcanic rocks and amphibolites in the area that surrounds the window of schist but they have a slightly lower iron and higher magnesia content than most of the samples. MET—\MORI’HOSEI) GRANITIC (P) ROCK A small indefinite body of albite-quartz—muscovite- epidote schist (not shown in fig. 2) occurs in the West Fork of Beaver Creek along the contact between greenschist and amphibolite. Megascopically, it is a TABLE 2.-—Chemical analyses, CIPW norms, and modes of greenschist from the Condrey Mountain Schist [Chemical analyses by rapid methods, analysts: P. L. D. Elmore, S. D. Botts, Gillison Chloe, Lowell Artis, and Hezekia Smith. Sample localities shown in fig. 2] Sample No. 113-62 121-63 12-60 Chemical analyses (weight percent) SiOz ______________________________ 49.6 50.3 51.3 A1203 ______________________________ 15.3 16.4 15.9 Fean ______________________________ 3.8 4.1 3.2 FeO ________________________________ 6.3 5.4 5.4 MgO ______________________________ 7.9 6.8 5.7 CaO ________________________________ 8.1 8.5 8.3 N320 ______________________________ 4.0 4.2 5.1 K20 ________________________________ .22 .14 .39 HzO A ______________________________ .22 .10 .07 HzO+ ______________________________ 3.1 2.5 2.1 Ti02 ______________________________ 1.0 1.1 1.3 P205 ______________________________ .10 .12 .12 Mn0 ______________________________ .21 .15 .18 002 ________________________________ 39 <.05 1.1 Total ___4___.' __________ 100 100 100 Sp. gr. (bulk) __________________ 2.96 2.91 2.93 CIPW norms (percent) 1.3 .8 2.3 33.8 35.6 43.1 23.1 25.6 19.3 5.8 6.7 5.9 13.0 12.8 8.4 4.7 3.8 3.2 11.2 12.7 11.3 12.4 10.5 6.2 4.7 2.9 4.1 1.9 .94 1.7 5.5 6.0 4.6 1.9 2.1 2.5 .24 .28 .28 .89 — 2.5 Modal analyses (volume percent) Albite ______________________________________ 38 32 Actinolite __________________________________ 21 35 Chlorite ________________________________ 15 11 Epidote __________________ A _ _ _ 23 15 Sphene __________________ _ 2 4 Muscovite A _ _ _ _____ 3 Calcite ____________________________________ — .7 Apatite ______________________________________ — .1 NUI‘E—llS-GZ Greenschist, 815% sec. 14, T46 N., R.10 W 121-63 Greenschist, Elliot Creek, east edge SEVa, sec. 23, T48 N., R.10 W. 12-60 Greenschist, West Fork Beaver Creek, eastern part, sec. 1, T47 N., R9 W. light-colored, medium-grained schistose rock with visible quartz, feldspar, and white mica. It has large irregular to augen-shaped feldspars and looks like a metamorphosed granitic rock. Under the microscope, the rock is seen to be com- posed of anhedral, clear, untwinned albite and quartz. The albite is vaguely rectangular and has a slight pre- ferred orientation; the quartz is in anhedral interstitial bodies, inclusions, and veinlets. Muscovite occurs in roughly parallel flakes and folia that give the rock its faint foliation. Minor quantities of chlorite, epidote, and sphene are present. A chemical analysis of this rock, presented in table 3, is somewhat puzzling, for it is unlike that of most gra- nitic rocks. SiO2 is very high; A1203 is relatively low, MgO is somewhat high. Alkali content is rather low for 8 REGIONAL METAMORPHISM, CONDREY MOUNTAIN QUADRANGLE, KLAMATH MOUNTAINS, CALIF. I- Z 7 I I I LU U Spilite /Keratophvre/ O: 6 _ _ 'i‘ '1': 5 _ 12 - 60. / / ,1 g 121 -63. ”I./’//’ LLI 4 _ 113 - 620” l’ ‘ e _ 3 /”/ Andes“ I E 3 Swan I I _ b: ’ a I I ///’ 2 — ’// _ ,_ I, 2 ’/"L’ O //’ _ U 1 ‘ 0 MN 0 I I I z 45 50 55 60 65 SiOZCONTENTJN WEIGHT PERCENT E 14 I I I '-'-' \ U \ $12 - \ \ - a. \\\Ba~5‘a/t \I\ I; 10 — 1 \ I \ _ 2 60 \ n \ 9 121 63» ‘79s], \ m 8 — o \ _ g 113 — 62 \ \\ I \\ I: \ \ \\ 5 4 \ \ \x Z \\\\r\at0phyre\ 8 2 — “\\‘\ — g o I I I U 45 50 55 so 65 SiOz CONTENT,|N WEIGHT PERCENT FIGURE 3.—Na20 and CaO relative to SiOz for greenschist from Condrey Mountain Schist (from data given in table 2). Classification from Hamilton (1963, p. 71). a plutonic rock of this SiOz content, and NaZO is more than twice as abundant as K20. The rock may be tron- dhjemitic, although normative quartz and orthoclase seem too high. Perhaps this unusual rock is an intrusive of the same general age as the other granitic rocks in the area 5 140 my.) and locally has been metamorphosed con- temporaneously with the Condrey Mountain Schist. AGE AND CORRELATION Potassium-argon age determinations on muscovite and whole-rock analyses gave dates of 141 my (Lan- phere and others, 1968) and 155:3 m.y. (Suppe and Armstrong, 1972), respectively, for the Condrey Mountain Schist. The age of metamorphism is there- fore Late Jurassic, but the age and correlation of its protolith among known lithologic units of the region is somewhat speculative. The overall lithology and composition of the Condrey Mountain Schist are indicative of the formation of these metamorphic rocks from sedimentary rocks and 2F9203+ F90 + MnO EXPLANATION A Metavolcanic rocks [I Nonfoliated amphibolite O Follated amphlbolite I Greenschist N320 + K20 Mgo FIGURE 4,—AFM diagram of metavolcanic rocks and amphibolite from Condrey Mountain and Hornbrook quadrangles and greenschist from Condrey Mountain Schist. subordinate amounts of spilitic volcanic rocks. The Stuart Fork Formation (Davis and Lipman, 1962) has been regarded as a possible correlative (Medaris, 1966), and the style of deformation in these two terranes is similar, but the metasedimentary rocks of the Stuart Fork are predominantly metachert. Furthermore, elsewhere the Stuart Fork is thrust over rocks of the western Paleozoic and Triassic belt, whereas here the schist underlies amphibolite that is beneath rocks of that belt. Suitable parental rocks might be found among some of the Mississippian, Triassic, and Juras- sic rocks of the eastern Klamath belt, but the struc- tural problems inherent in explaining their relative positions seem almost unresolvable. Suppe and Armstrong (1972) thought that the Con- drey Mountain Schist of this report resembled the South Fork Mountain Schist, and they concluded there- fore that this schist was metamorphosed Franciscan rocks, noting, however, that the date of 155 my they obtained is slightly older than any available F rancis— can dates. If these are metamorphosed Franciscan rocks, a structural difficulty exists, for in the Klamath Mountains the Galice Formation lies structurally above Franciscan rocks and the South Fork Mountain Schist and structurally below the western Paleozoic and Triassic belt. It would be difficult to account for the occurrence of a window of Franciscan with no interven- ing Galice. The Galice Formation is of suitable lithology and is structurally below the western Paleozoic and Triassic GREENSCHIST FACIES 9 TABLE 3 . —Chemical analysis, _CIPW norm', and mode of albite-quartz—muscovite-epidote schist [Chemical analyses by rapid methods; analysts: P. L. D. Elmore, S. D. Botts, Gillison Chloe, Lowell Artis, and Hezekiah Smith. Sample locality shown in fig. 2] Sample No. 113-63 Chemical analysis (weight percent) Modal analysis (volume percent) Quartz ___________________________________________________ 3 1.6 Albite _________________________________ 41.7 Muscovite . A __________________ 16.9 Chlorite __-, _____________________________ 1.4 Epidote a” _____________________________________ 6.6 Sphene __________________________________________________ .7 Garnet __________________________________________________ . 1 NOTE—113433 West Fork Beaver Creek, line between secs. 1 and 2, T49 N.. R, 9 W. belt elsewhere. The area of Condrey Mountain Schist is only about 25 km east of a reentrant of the Galice at Happy Camp, where Klein (1976) found sedimentary and volcanic rocks of the Galice grading upward into a greenschist facies overridden by amphibolite-grade rock along a thrust fault. The Galice seems to be a suitable protolith structurally as well as lithologically, although its apparent youthfulness (Oxfordian and Kimmeridgian) is incompatible with the metamorphic age of Condrey Mountain Schist. As fossils are not abundant in the Galice and its stratigraphy is poorly known, there may conceivably be parts of the forma- tion older than the metamorphic episode. METAVOLCANIC AND METASEDIMENTARY ROCKS OF THE WESTERN PALEOZOIC AND TRIASSIC BELT Metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks are almost continuously exposed along the Klamath River from the overlap by rocks of the Cretaceous Hornbrook For- mation 6 km northeast of the mouth of the Shasta River (fig. 2) to the confluence of Empire Creek with the Klamath River, a distance of about 18 km. South of the Vesa Bluffs pluton, metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks occur as metavolcanic rocks with interbedded chert, slate and phyllite with subor- dinate amounts of volcanic rock, and interbedded chert and argillite with minor greenstone (Hotz, 1967). Along the Klamath River, metavolcanic rocks crop out from the overlap of Cretaceous sedimentary rocks westward to Croy Gulch, 4 km west of the mouth of Shasta River (fig. 2). Between Croy Gulch and Dead- man Gulch, 7 km to the west, rocks that crop out are mostly metasedimentary. From Deadman Gulch to the body of ultramafic rocks, rocks exposed are predomi- nantly metavolcanic. METAVOLCANIC ROCKS The metavolcanic rocks are characteristically gray to greenish gray and fine grained to microcrystalline, but locally porphyritic. They are mostly massive and virtually structureless; in some places planar struc- tures are made apparent by variations in composition or grain size. Some are clearly volcanic breccias; pillow structures are recognizable in some exposures but are not common. The least metamorphosed metavolcanic recks of the Klamath River section are to the east; they are repre- sented by specimens of spilite from road cuts on the north side of Klamath River at the junction with Shasta River (table 4, sample no. 2-64) and fragmental basalt from exposures on Paradise Craggy about 4 km southeast of the junction (table 4, sample no. 20-66). These rocks are characterized by the coexistence of un- altered clinopyroxene, albite, and chlorite. There is no alteration of the pyroxene to amphibole, but minor amounts of chlorite occur interstitial to the groundmass albite and pyroxene. Veinlets of carbonate are commonly accompanied by prehnite, and the rock may contain a few small amygdules of calcite rimmed by pale-green chlorite. Except for these occurrences of unmetamorphosed spilite, the metavolcanic rocks in nearby Shasta Can- yon and westward through the Klamath River canyon to the contact with the ultramafic rocks are composed mainly of sodic plagioclase, actinolitic amphibole, minor amounts of chlorite, biotite, and clinozoisite- epidote, accessory sphene, and variable amounts of cal- cite; typically, opaque accessories are present in very small amounts or absent. To a large extent, the origi- nal textures and structures are preserved. The plagioclase most commonly ranges from oligo- clase (Ammo) to oligoclase-andesine (Anao); an excep- tional few specimens have feldspar as sodic as albite. Plagioclase commonly occurs as clear subhedral to 10 TABLE 4.—Chemical and spectrograpic analyses and CIPW norms of metavolcanic rocks [Chemical analyses by rapid methods; analysts: P. L. D. Elmore, S. D. Botts, Gillison Chloe, Lowell Artis, James Kelsey, and Hezekiah Smith. Semiquantitative spectrographic analyses by W B. Crandell, Chris Heropoulos and Carolyn Pickett. Sample localities shown in fig. 2] Sample No. 75-62 20-66 16-61 264 132-64 Chemical analyses (weight percent) 453 45.7 48.1 50.6 53.5 14.2 13.0 15.0 15.0 13.7 .7 5.0 1.2 .66 .55 10.3 6.4 9.0 7.4 6.5 4.3 12.2 5.7 9.5 10.9 8.3 7.2 9.3 7.4 9.5 4.2 2.3 4.9 3.8 3.1 .55 1.1 1.4 .91 .16 .07 .5 .08 .20 .07 3.5 3.8 1.5 3.4 1.1 2.4 2.2 2.6 .87 .23 .49 .35 .39 11 .04 .19 .18 .14 .15 .13 6.0 .08 .85 .14 .06 Total ............ 100 99 100 100 99 Sp. gr. (bulk) ____________ 2.82 2.99 2.99 2.95 2.71 Semlquantltatlve spectrographic analyses (Ppm) 100 200 300 300 70 150 100 0 0 o 50 70 70 50 30 200 700 500 500 1500 70 70 150 150 500 15 15 10 10 7 100 30 0 0 0 50 30 10 0 0 200 300 100 150 300 70 0 10 70 0 30 30 30 50 50 0 0 5 15 0 1000 300 500 200 200 300 150 300 200 200 50 20 2o 15 7 5 2 2 1 5 0 200 150 100 30 7 CIPW norms 5.7 _ ~ _ _ 5.7 _ — _ _ 3.2 6.5 8.3 5.4 .94 35.5 19.6 27.1 32.2 26.2 .2 22.0 14.8 21.2 23.0 — — 7.8 _ — — 4.6 9.8 5.8 9.8 — 3.6 5.2 3.6 6.4 — .5 4.2 1.8 2.7 10.6 15.2 — 3.8 16.8 14.7 2.2 A 1.9 7.0 — 8.2 6.3 11.4 2.8 k 1.3 5.6 6.3 1.3 1.0 7.3 1.7 .96 .8 4.6 4.2 4.9 1.6 .44 1.2 .83 .92 .26 .1 13.6 .18 1.9 .32 .14 NOTE—Name and location of specimens: 75-62 Variolitic spilite. Klamath River Road, SE‘A, sec. 16, T46 N., R.7 W, Hombrook uadran le. 20-66 Fragments] asalt. aradise Craggy, Hombrook quadrangle. 16-61 Spilite. NWVq, sec. 5, T45 N., R.8 W., Condrey Mtn. quadrangle. 2-64 Spilite. Klamath River Road, SW‘/4, sec. 18, T46 N., R6 W., Hombrook quadrangle. 132-64 Fragmental basalt. Empire Creek, S. part NW‘A, sec. 36, T42 N., R.8 W, Hombrook quadrangle. anhedral relict phenocrysts that are clouded in some specimens. Faint twinning lamellae are preserved in some specimens, but in many the original phenocrysts have been partly to wholly recrystallized to a mosaic of anhedral untwinned grains with the outlines of the original phenocrysts preserved. Plagioclase in the groundmass of some specimens preserves the outlines of original lath-shaped crystals, but most of the groundmass feldspar has been recrystallized to anhed- ral granules intergrown with and penetrated by acicu- lar actinolite. Pale-green actinolite, the most abundant mineral in REGIONAL METAMORPHISM, CONDREY MOUNTAIN QUADRANGLE, KLAMATH MOUNTAINS, CALIF. these rocks, occurs as matted needles in the groundmass, as anhedral matted porphyroblasts, and as euhedral to subhedral fibrous masses (uralite) that pseudomorph original pyroxene phenocrysts. Uncom~ monly, original pyroxene is preserved in the central part of actinolite phenocrysts. West of Cayuse Gulch, in rocks that were probably originally tuffaceous, actino- lite has a subparallel orientation. Chlorite is common but not abundant. It is inter- grown with plagioclase and actinolite in the groundmass of the metavolcanic rocks. West of Cayuse Gulch, pale-brown biotite in small flakes occurs with actinolite and plagioclase. Chlorite partly replaces biotite and, to a lesser extent, actinolite, hence is prob- ably a retrograde mineral. Clinozoisite and epidote are not abundant in any of these rocks, and they are absent from some specimens. Clinozoisite tends to be more abundant. Both occur as small granules in the groundmass, as grains enclosed in feldspar, and in a few places, as veinlets. Sphene, ubiquitous as a minor accessory, occurs as very small grains or clusters of grains and gray translucent masses. It may or may not be accompanied by fine opaque dust and grains. Carbonate is fairly common as irregular and lenticu- lar masses, some of which are clearly relict amygdules. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION Chemical analyses of five representative specimens of metavolcanic rocks from the Klamath River canyon and vicinity in the Condrey Mountain and Hornbrook quadrangles are presented in table 4; they are classified according to their plotted positions on dia- grams of SiO2 relative to Na202 and CaO (fig. 5). They have the composition of spilite and basalt, except for no. 132-64, which, owing to its higher SiO2 content, is andesite. They have a moderate water content relative to terrestrial basaltic rocks, an expectable feature con— sidering their low-grade metamorphic state. These rocks have a lower content of CaO than ocean floor basalts (Cann, 1971; Kay and others, 1970); Na2O is distinctly higher than in basalt in samples 16-61, 2-64, and 75-64, about the same in sample 20-66. K20 is higher than in basalt, except for sample 132-64 (table 4). Total iron (as FeO) and A12 03 are about the same. The higher NaZO content and lower CaO are possibly the result of spilitization of basaltic lavas. Amounts of Ti02 and P2 05 are greater than in ocean floor basalts in samples 20-66 and 16—61, about the same in 2—64, and markedly lower in the andesite, sample 132-64. Sample 75-62, a variolitic spilite, is somewhat un- usual because of its high CO2 content. The rock has abundant carbonate in microscopic vesicles; the low GREENSCHIST FACIES 11 '— Z 7 I I I LIJ U Spilite / Keratophyre/ II 5 _ _ W / l / 53 5 _ .16 — 61 / / //_ 4 1/’//I’ _ 3 _ ,//” Andesi‘e l E 3 _ aasaIt I .132 ’64 I _ I; 20 -66 E O i l ////’ I- 2 ' L///’/ ‘ 6 ,,,,// U 1 - _ ON 63 o I I I z 45 so 55 60 65 SIOZ CONTENT,|N WEIGHT PERCENT '- 14 z I | I LIJ \\ O \ E12 — Ba \ - g \ 38/ 132 A64 ‘_ \\ 16 61\[\ I10 — ?(\\ I \\ — g .75 -62 \ 4 new \\I\ "3‘ 8 *020 — 66 \e \\ ‘ 64\ \\i \\ E 6 ,_ ‘\\ \_ I—~ \ \ \\\ Z \ :2 4 '~\‘\Spmre \\ \ ‘ Z ‘~“\£er‘atophyre\ O 2 _ ‘\“ _ o ~~‘ O W 0 | I | o 45 50 55 60 65 Si02 CONTENT,IN WEIGHT PERCENT FIGURE 5.—NaZO and CaO relative to Si02 for metavolcanic rocks from Condrey Mountain and Hornbrook quadran- gles (from data given in table 4). Classification from Hamilton (1963, p. 71). Fe203 and high FeO content combined with relatively low CaO suggest that not all the carbonate is as calcite, and may include a considerable component of siderite. M E'I‘ASEDIMENTARY ROC KS The metasedimentary rocks are predominantly dark-gray to black argillite and slaty argillite; they contain a few thin interbeds of siliceous or cherty argil- lite and microcrystalline recrystallized chert and a very few thin lenticular beds of marble. Some of the argillaceous rocks are also calcareous. East of approximately the longitude of Cayuse Gulch, the metasedimentary rocks are composed mainly of microcrystalline quartz, muscovite, and car- bon. Very pale green to colorless chlorite is a fairly common accessory mineral, and hazy albitic feldspar and actinolite are locally present. Calcite is abundant in some layers. West of Cayuse Gulch, the rocks are similar, but pale-brown biotite is a fairly common constituent in— stead of chlorite, which, where present, appears to be mainly a retrograde mineral that replaces biotite and actinolite; some layers are rich in calcite; others are dark and carbonaceous. Some layers that probably were tuffaceous are made up of a foliated matrix of actinolite, biotite, and granular plagioclase that wraps around relict plagioclase phenocrysts. Near the mouth of Empire Creek, gray, massive to thick-bedded, sugary-grained microcrystalline quart- zite crops out on both sides of the river. These rocks, probably recrystallized chert, are composed mainly of very finegrained to microcrystalline quartz; some specimens contain minor amounts of biotite; others contain parallel-oriented fibers of tremolite. Fine- grained to microcrystalline quartz-biotite schist occurs as thin interbeds in some of the quartzite, probably representing originally argillaceous layers. AGE AND CORRELATION These metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks are continuous with similar rocks in the central and south- ern Klamath Mountains that are part of the western Paleozoic and Triassic belt (Irwin, 1960, 1966).Similar rocks in southern Oregon were included in the Apple- gate Group of Late(?) Triassic age (Wells and others, 1949; Wells, 1956; Wells and Peck, 1961). In the south- ern Klamath Mountains, the belt includes fossiliferous limestone lenses of Permian and Triassic age (Irwin, 1972), and a limestone lense northeast of Yreka that has yielded Late Permian (Ochoan)fossils (Elliott, 1971). Discovery that some of the cherts in this belt contain Triassic and Jurassic radiolarians has been used as evidence that at least some of the limestone bodies are blocks floating in a Jurassic melange (Irwin, 1977; Irwin and others, 1977). STUART FORK FORMATION A small area of Stuart Fork Formation shown in the southern part of the region of figure 2 is an outlier of a thrust plate that occurs farther south in the Yreka-Fort Jones area (fig. 1) (Hotz, 1973). It is the north end of a small klippe that overlies metavolcanic and meta- sedimentary rocks of the western Paleozoic and Trias- sic belt. The rocks are contorted siliceous phyllite and phylli- tic quartzite composed of fine-grained recrystallized quartz and discontinuous plicated micaceous laminae composed of muscovite, pale biotite, and chlorite. Lo- cally there are small amounts of actinolitic phyllite. Where these rocks occur to the south in Fort Jones and Yreka quadrangles, they commonly contain lawsonite and a blue sodic amphibole. 12 REGIONAL METAMORPHISM, CONDREY MOUNTAIN QUADRANGLE, KLAMATH MOUNTAINS, CALIF. The Stuart Fork has been correlated with rocks in the western Paleozoic and Triassic belt (Davis and Lipman, 1962; Davis and others, 1965; Davis, 1968). A Middle to Late Jurassic age has been postulated for metamorphism of the Stuart Fork on the basis of lim- ited potassium-argon age determinations ranging from 133 to 158 m.y. for samples collected in the southern Klamath Mountains (Lanphere and others, 1968). In the Yreka-Fort Jones area, age determinations of ap- proximately 220 m.y. (Middle Triassic) were obtained on mica from three samples of blueschist (Hotz and others, 1977). AMPHIBOLITE FACIES The Condrey Mountain Schist is bordered on the east, north, and west by a terrane in which the rocks are of the amphibolite facies (figs. 1, 2). The higher grade metamorphic rocks structurally overlie the Con- drey Mountain Schist along a moderate to steeply dip- ping fault. In contrast to the schist, which is devoid of plutonic rocks and has only a few small bodies of ser- pentinite, the terrane underlain by rocks of the am- phibolite facies contains many bodies of ultramafic rock and some gabbroic and dioritic plutons. Approxi- mately equal amounts of amphibolite and metasedimentary rocks occur in this terrane in the Condrey Mountain and western Hornbrook quadrang- les. Rocks of the two types are to some extent interbed- ded, but extensive tracts are predominantly of one or the other (fig. 2). Most of the amphibolite is foliated, but some of it is massive and resembles a metavolcanic rock (fig. 6A), even to retaining a porphyritic texture (fig. 63). TWO kinds of amphibolite, foliated and nonfoliated, are de— scribed here and are shown separately on the geologic map (fig. 2). FOLIATED AMPHIBOLITE Megascopically, the foliated amphibolite ranges from very fine to medium grained and is commonly lineated. In many specimens, the foliation is made apparent by segregation of plagioclase and mafic minerals into par- allel layers. In exposures that have no visible layering and no micas, the schistosity may not be Visible; under the microscope, a preferred orientation of hornblende that defines a planar structure can usually be seen. Many amphibolites have a lineation made apparent by parallel orientation of hornblende prisms that lie in the plane of foliation. The texture is crystalloblastic and the rocks are mostly fine grained (fig. 6C,D). Equant xenoblastic plagioclase is intergrown with subhedral to euhedral nematoblastic hornblende. Plagioclase grains range in size from approximately 0.02 to 0.1 mm, most com- monly around 0.06 mm; hornblende prisms are 0.05 to 0.5mm long, most commonly about 0.1 with a length- to-width ratio of 2.5:1 to 4:1. Commonly, the rocks have a more or less well-developed layering or streaking caused by alternating plagioclase and hornblende-rich layers. Most laminae are very narrow, generally a mil- limeter or less in width, discontinuous or lenticular. Recrystallization has essentially obliterated original textures and structures, but in many specimens relict phenocrysts of plagioclase and hornblende can be iden- tified. The original plagioclase phenocrysts are com- pletely recrystallized to a polyhedral mosaic with sub- rectangular boundaries. Some specimens are porphyroblastic. The metacrysts are most commonly coarser hronblende grains, but porphyroblasts of plagioclase occur. ' Foliated amphibolite has a simple mineralogy. Its principal components are hornblende and plagioclase, characteristic of the almandine-amphibolite facies. Sphene and an opaque black metallic mineral are common minor accessories. Other minerals that may be present, usually in subordinate amounts, are epi- dote group minerals, clinopyroxane, mica (usually bio- tite), quartz, and calcite. Plagioclase is somewhat more calcic than in the non- foliated amphibolite. It ranges from approximately An25 to An55, in most specimens it is AnaMs. The composition in pyroxene-bearing amphibolites is more calcic, in the range An4m55. Most of the grains of plagioclase are clear and inclusion-free. Commonly they are untwinned; a few may show twinning lamel- lae under crossed-polarized light. Some may show sim- ple progressive zoning; most do not. Hornblende in thin section is almost always strongly colored and commonly has a blue-green pleochroic color in the Z direction; from specimen to specimen, it may range from green to brown. Hornblende that has a brown pleochroism commonly occurs in amphibolite specimens that contain pyroxene and a more calcic plagioclase; the pyroxene and more calcic plagioclase are indicative of a slightly higher metamorphic grade. The pyroxene in some of the amphibolite is colorless to very pale green nonpleochroic diopside that occurs as anhedral granules intergrown with plagioclase and hornblende, generally occurring in laminae accom- panied by plagioclase with subordinate hornblende. In a few specimens, pyroxene was observed to occur as anhedral porphyroblasts. Very minor to trace amounts of biotite occur in some FIGURE 6.— Photomicrographs of amphibolite. A, B, Nonfoliated variety showing randomly oriented hornblende and relict porphyritic texture. C, D, Foliated variety showing well- developed preferred orientation of hornblende. AMPHIBOLITE FACIES 13 14 REGIONAL METAMORPHISM, CONDREY MOUNTAIN QUADRANGLE, KLAMATH MOUNTAINS, CALIF. of the amphibolite, but it is not usually present. Anhedral, droplike granules of sphene are common. Sphene may range from trace amounts to as much as 4 or 5 percent volumetrically and commonly is as abun- dant as 1.5 to 2 percent; it is absent from some specimens. Grains of unidentified black opaque metal— lic grains, probably magnetite, are ubiquitous, ranging from trace amounts to as much as 1.5 percent. Quartz, calcite, and chlorite may be present in minor quan- tities in some specimens. Garnet is notably absent from the foliated amphibolite. Only one specimen, obtained from float, contained pink andraditic garnet. Typically, either epidote or clinozoisite is absent from the foliated amphibolite. Some specimens contain trace to very minor amounts of epidote, and some contain clinozoisite that, in each sample examined, is retrog- rade from the alteration of plagioclase. NONFOLIATED AMPHIBOLITE N onfoliated amphibolite occurs on the south and east borders of the amphibolite terrane, largely between the areas of foliated amphibolite and the terrane occupied by metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks of the western Paleozoic and Triassic belt. Adjacent to the large serpentinite body in the south- eastern part of the amphibolite terrane and in small areas in the southern part, the mafic rocks have a mineralogy characteristic of the amphibolite facies yet they retain many original textural features of metavolcanic rocks. In general, the rocks are massive and unfoliated, though completely recrystallized, ex- cept locally where they may have a fine—grained com- positional layering possibly inherited from originally tuffaceous rocks. Characteristically, there is no well- developed preferred orientation of the minerals. These rocks are characterized by the occurrence together of plagioclase and hornblende and the absence or occur- rence in very minor amounts of epidote group miner- als; hence they are of the almandine-amphibolite facies. Plagioclase in these rocks ranges in composition from approximately Anzs to A1135. It occurs as small anhedral crystalloblastic grains in the groundmass in- tergrown with hornblende, as granoblastic pseudomorphs of original phenocrysts, and as unre— crystallized subhedral to euhedral relict phenocrysts. The recrystallized grains are seldom twinned. Some of the relict phenocrysts are polysynthetically twinned. Composition of the relict phenocrysts is apparently the same as the recrystallized plagioclase in the groundmass. Hornblende rather than actinolite is the amphibole of these rocks. In thin section the hornblende is light colored but slightly darker than the actinolite of the greenschist facies rocks. Characteristically, its pleo- chroism is: (x), colorless to pale greenish yellow; (y), pale yellowish green; (2), pale green, commonly with a faint blue tinge to pale blue green. On a ,8—2Va plot (fig. 7), these amphiboles lie in the hornblende field. Unlike actinolitic amphibole, they are not fibrous in habit, but rather are well-formed prismatic. The hornblende is randomly oriented and commonly mat- ted; in some specimens, a slight tendency toward paral- lel alignment is apparent. Some of the hornblende is pseudomorphous after original pyroxene phenocrysts. Uncommonly, some of the hornblende pseudomorphs have a small central core of relict augite. Most of these rocks contain no epidote-group miner- als; a few specimens contain minor amounts of either clinozoisite or epidote, minerals that seem not to occur together in the rock. Epidote is possibly more common. .Some of the clinozoisite occurs with chlorite in veinlets that cut the rock. The presence of epidote minerals may indicate that some of these rocks are transitional be— tween the upper greenschist facies and the amphibolite facies. In some, it may indicate retrograde metamor- phic reactions. Sphene, apatite, and a black opaque mineral which is presumably ilmenite-magnetite are common minor accessories in these rocks. The sphene occurs as very small anhedral droplike granules. The black opaque minerals are fine grained and may occur as fine granules, irregular skeletal and spongy bodies, or fine rodlike grains. Apatite commonly occurs as long slen- der needles and as stubby subhedral crystals. Pale-brown biotite occurs in minor to trace amounts 90° . 'D A . El A . A _ 80 P A . 3 O 1“, E] w .1 O 0 70° _ D d z 4 U r: 3: 9, :1. ¢ c» . o EXPLANATION 1‘9 0 3 60° _ A Metavolcanic rocks . _ E] Nonfoliated amphibolite O Foliated amphibolite Cl 1 1 1 l 1.64 1.65 1.66 1.67 1 .68 1.69 REFRACTIVE INDEX (beta) FIGURE 7.—Diagram of amphiboles in metavolcanic rock and am- phibolite from Condrey Mountain and Hornbrook quadrangles. Boundary line from Holdaway (1965). AMPHIBOLITE FACIES 15 in some specimens but it is not a common accessory. Pale chlorite, which is present in a few specimens, is absent from most specimens. In the few samples exam- ined, it could not be certainly determined whether it is a relict or a retrograde mineral. Calcite, which is very uncommon, occurs in a few specimens as veinlets and as ovoid bodies that probably are relict amygdules. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION It is apparent from analyses of six samples of foliated amphibolite and six of nonfoliated amphibolite (table 5) that chemically they are practically the same, the main difference being the lower water content of the more strongly metamorphosed foliated amphibolite. The average content of the oxides is very similar; that of the total alkalis and TiO2 is identical. On an AFM plot (fig. 4), both amphibolites occupy essentially the same field; the foliated variety is somewhat more re- stricted. The close similarity in composition between the two varieties strongly suggests that rocks of the same type were involved and that the metamorphism was essentially isochemical except for the loss of H20 in the formation of the foliated amphibolite. Relative to metabasalt and spilite of the less strongly metamorphosed volcanic rocks east and south of the amphibolite terrane (fig. 2; table 4), the SiOZ content of amphibolite (table 5) has a narrow range and H20 and CO2 are low. The amphibolites have a more constant total alkali content, the average K20 is lower, and the CaO is notably higher. A contrast in TiO2 content is apparent: in all the analyses of amphibolite, TiO2 is less than 2 percent; in three of the metavolcanic rock samples, TiO2 content is greater than 2 percent. The AFM plot (fig. 4) illustrates the somewhat narrower compositional range of the amphibolite relative to the metavolcanic rocks. METASEDIMENTARY ROCKS Metasedimentary rocks are interbedded with am- phibolite in the Condrey Mountain quadrangle. They occur in a belt east of Beaver Creek and east of the north-northeast leg of the Klamath River between Lit— tle Humbug Creek and Beaver Creek. The belt extends northward from the northern boundary of the Vesa Bluffs pluton to the northern boundary of the quad- rangle and beyond into Oregon, becoming dominant over amphibolite northward. These metasedimentary rocks underlie the large eastern body of serpentinite and largely overlie the foliated amphibolite, although there may be some intertonguing of the two units. The contact between the metasedimentary rocks and the underlying amphibolite is occupied at many places by a thin tabular body of serpentinite. Another belt of metasedimentary rocks occurs east of the serpentinite belt, extending from Lumgrey Creek to the east fork of Beaver Creek, where it joins with the northern area of metasedimentary rocks. Some smaller lenticular bodies of metasedimentary rock are interbedded with the amphibolite. The metasedimentary rocks are mainly siliceous schist and phyllite, minor quartzite, and subordinate amounts of marble in discontinuous thin beds and lenses. The siliceous rocks are most commonly dark gray, less commonly light, fine grained, and finely foliated. Individual minerals cannot usually be recognized megascopically, although porphyroblastic grains of pink garnet are easily recognized where they occur. Where fine-grained biotite is abundant, it imparts a dusky red-purple coloration. In places where the rocks attain medium grain size, individual constituents are more easily seen. Under the microscope, these rocks are seen to be crystalloblastic and finely foliated with a well- developed planar structure, both compositional and as produced by the parallel orientation of platy minerals. As the average grain size is commonly about 0.05, very fine, most of these rocks are more properly classed as phyllites. Medium-grained schistose varieties in which the grain size is 1—4 mm are much less common. A common variety is quartz-biotite phyllite; quartz- biotite schist is less common. Some are quartzo- feldspathic rocks, the feldspar generally being an un- twinned sodic plagioclase; potassium feldspar may occur in some varieties. Other phases commonly pres- ent include muscovite, pink almandine garnet, and re— trograde chlorite. An opaque mineral, probably magnetite, tourmaline, and apatite are ubiquitous minor accessories, and sphene is present in some. Al- mandine garnet commonly forms small porphy- roblasts, conspicuous in hand specimens. Muscovite also forms porphyroblasts, commonly poikiloblastic, but typically recognizable only in thin section. A vari- ety of quartzo-feldspathic phyllite observed in thin sec- tion but not recognized megascopically contains hornblende in addition to biotite. Another common metasedimentary rock type is dark gray to black, commonly sooty appearing, very fine grained, and phyllitic. Lighter quartzose laminae and lenses are commonly visible. The microscope shows that these rocks are composed of fine polyhedral quartz, colorless mica, and abundant graphite. Biotite and fine colorless fibers of tremolite may be present in small amounts. Fine-grained pyrite was recognized in some specimens. Fine-grained finely foliated quartzite is somewhat 16 REGIONAL METAMORPHISM, CONDREY MOUNTAIN QUADRANGLE, KLAMATH MOUNTAINS, CALIF. TABLE 5.—Chemical and spectrographic analyses, CIPW norms, and modes of amphibolite [Chemical analyses by rapid methods; analysts, P. L. D. Elmore, S. D. Butts, Gillison Chloe, Lowell Artis, James Kelsey, Hezekiah Smith, and J. L. Glenn. Semiquantitative spectro- graphic analyses: samples 3, 5, 6. 9, 12 by W. B. Crandell; 2, 4 by Chris Heropoulos; 1, 7, 8, 11, 19 by Carolyn Pickett. Sample localities shown in fig. 21 Foliated amphibolite Nonfoliated amphibolite Sample No. 106—62 32—63 22—63 91—63 3—64 10 4 61—61 74—61 65—62 19—62 49—61 34—64 Chemical analyses (weight percent) Si02 ______________ 49.1 49.1 49.5 49.6 50.4 50.9 46.2 48.4 49.2 49.7 49.8 50.0 A1203 ______________ 14.0 16.4 18.0 17.8 13.8 13.8 17.2 20.1 16.1 18.8 14.8 14.8 F8203 ______________ 5.0 3.4 1.6 1.0 7.1 1.6 1.8 2.8 1.0 2.4 1.6 .71 FeO ________________ 8.8 8.0 6.6 8.5 9.7 8.5 8.1 7.6 7.1 8.7 9.2 10.9 MgO ______________ 5.0 4.9 4.0 5.5 6.8 7.5 6.8 4.5 7.7 4.6 7.9 6.7 CaO ______________ 11.3 11.3 15.2 10.7 9.7 9.7 11.3 10.0 11.9 10.6 8.7 8.4 NazO ______________ 2.2 3.4 2.2 3.6 3.6 3.3 4.0 2.1 2.7 2.4 3.7 4.2 K20 ______________ .70 .53 .45 1.2 .40 .63 .64 .64 .80 .44 .47 .14 H20— ______________ .04 .05 .06 .02 .08 .09 .06 .36 .10 .21 .12 .04 H20+ ______________ .93 .76 .56 .74 .92 1.2 1.4 2.3 1.3 1.6 1.4 1.3 Ti02 ______________ .20 1.6 .51 1.0 1.8 1.7 .99 .63 1.3 .70 1.1 1.9 P205 ______________ .11 .19 .13 .12 .16 .21 .13 .21 .16 .12 1.0 .22 MnO ______________ .24 .20 .15 .13 .20 .16 .20 .17 .12 .15 .18 .17 002 ________________ <.05 <.05 .21 .06 .05 .05 1.3 <05 .16 <05 <05 11 Total ________________ 100 100 99 100 100 99 100 100 100 100 99 100 Sp Gr (bulk) ________ 3.09 — 3.01 3.02 3.02 2.99 2.99 2.97 3.02 3.08 — 3.00 Semiquantitative spectrographic analyses (ppm) B __________________ — —— — —— — — — 30 — 30 -— — Ba __________________ 100 50 200 70 20 100 200 300 150 150 70 70 Co ___________________ 30 50 30 50 30 7O 70 30 50 30 5O 30 Cr __________________ 200 300 50 500 200 500 700 30 500 30 500 700 Cu __________________ 30 50 300 50 30 70 150 200 50 150 20 50 Ga __________________ 20 15 10 15 10 10 15 15 10 15 15 10 Ni __________________ 70 100 30 100 70 20 300 30 100 30 150 100 Pb __________________ 20 — —— —— — 7O 15 500 5 50 15 — Sc __________________ 30 50 30 50 30 50 50 30 30 30 50 30 Sn __________________ — — — —— 5 15 15 30 — — — — Sr __________________ 300 200 500 500 100 150 1500 1000 150 1000 700 100 V .................. 300 200 200 200 200 200 300 300 200 300 300 200 Y __________________ 50 50 10 30 30 30 30 15 15 15 30 20 Yb __________________ 5 5 1 3 3 3 3 2 1.5 1.5 3 2 Zr __________________ 150 100 15 50 50 50 70 50 50 20 70 50 CIPW norms (weight percent) q ____________________ 4.7 — 0.35 — — —— — 2 2 —— 1 6 — —— c ____________________ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ .— or ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 4.1 3.1 2.7 7.1 2.4 3.7 3.8 3.8 4.7 2.6 2.8 .83 ab .................... 18.7 28.8 18.6 23.9 30.5 27.9 21.8 17.9 22.8 20.3 31.6 35.5 an ___________________ 26.4 28.0 37.9 28.9 20.3 21 0 27.1 43.8 29.5 39.1 22.6 21.1 ne __________________ —~— —— — 3.6 — — 6.5 — — —— — —— wo ____________________ 11.6 11.3 14.7 9.6 11.0 10.6 8.3 2.0 11.5 5.2 8.5 7.7 en __________________ 12.5 7.5 10.0 4.8 11.0 14.6 4.6 11.3 8.7 11.4 7.4 6.0 fa ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 9.2 5.9 10.2 4.7 8.8 9.2 3.3 11.0 4.7 13 1 5.3 6.0 f0 111111111111111111 — 3.3 — 6.3 4.1 2.9 8.6 — 7.3 —— 8.8 7.5 fa ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, — 2.9 — 6.7 3.6 2.0 6.8 — 4.3 — 6.9 8.2 mt ................... 7.3 4.9 2.3 1.5 3.0 2.3 2.6 4.1 1.5 3.4 2.3 1.0 11 ___________________ 3.8 3.0 .97 1.9 3.4 3.3 1.9 1.2 2.5 1.3 2.1 3.6 ap .................... .74 .45 .31 .28 .38 .50 .31 50 .38 .28 .24 .52 cc __________________ — —— .48 .14 .11 .11 2.9 — .36 —— — .25 Modal analyses (volume percent) Plagioclase 11(A4n) 33(A37) 34(A55) (A35) 35(A35) 34(Ass) 10(A35) 36 16(Aa2) 23 23(An25) 38(An32) Hornblende 8( 51 37 58 60 78 56 60 46 73 73 Clinopyroxene —— 13 21 fi — — — —— — — — — Biotite — --— —— — — — — 3 — — ~—- — Sphene 2 1.5 .7 —— 5 2 2 — 6 — 1 — Apatite —- tr .1 - — .5 — — — —— <.5 ———-— Opaque 1 .5 .3 —— 2 .2 — 2 2 1 —— 4 Epidote-clinozoisite 4 9 7 —— — .7 2 tr 20 25 3 .3 Carbonate — —— .4 —- tr * 4 -— — —— —— — Chlorite -~ —— _— —— tr .3 5 2 5 4 1 .3 Sericite — — — —— tr 2 —— —— 1 ~—— —— — NOTE—10662 South side Klamath River, NEl/q, sec. 6, T46 N., R.8 W Condrey Mountain quadrangle. 32— 63 SE‘ASW‘A, sec. 9, T. 47 N., R. 8 W. Condrey Mountain quadrangle. 22— 63 North part NE‘A, Sec. 17, T. 47 N., R. 8 W Condrey Mountain quadrangle. 91—63 South central part SW‘A, sec. 31, T. 48 N. R. 8 W. Condrey Mountain quadrangle. 3—64 McKinney Creek, 813%, sec. 16, T. 46 N., R. 9 W Condrey Mountain quadrangle. 10(‘r64 Beaver Creek, line between sec. 24, T. 47 N., R. 9 W., and sec. 19, T. 47 N., R. 8 W. Condrey Mtn. quadrangle. 61761 SEW», sec. 17, T. 46 N., R. 8 W. Condrey Mountain quadrangle. 71961 SE‘A, sec. 24. T. 46 N., R. 9 W Condrey Mountain quadrangle 65—62 Lumgrey Creek, N part sec. 35, '1‘. 47 N., R. 8 W. Hornbrook quadrangle. 79'62 South side Klamath River, SEl/A, sec. 1, T. 46 N., R. 8 W. Hornbrook quadrangle. 49—61 SWV4NWV4, sec. 8, T. 46N., R. 8 W. 34—64 South side Klamath River, SEl/a. sec. 4, T. 46 N., R. 8 W. Condrey Mountain quadrangle. MAFIC AND ULTRAMAFIC ROCKS less common but nevertheless frequently observed. Fine (0.01—0.1 mm) polyhedral crystalloblastic quartz is the principal constituent, but colorless mica is ubiqui- tous and minor pale biotite may be present. Tour- maline, fine-grained opaque magnetite, and apatite are usually present. Stilpnomelane was observed in sev- eral thin sections of quartzite, where it commonly has a sheaflike radiating habit with the blades lying across the rock foliation. One specimen of quartzite contained a blue amphibole, probably crossite, and epidote in laminae with magnetite. An uncommon variety is cal- careous quartzite composed of intergrown quartz and calcite accompanied by minor amounts of tremolite. The thin beds and lenses of marble are composed predominantly of crystolloblastic calcite that ranges from fine to coarse grained. The marble is generally quite pure but it may contain some impurities, seldom more than about 10 percent. These include quartz, white mica, and some carbonaceous material. At one place an impure marble has been metamorphosed to a silica-carbonate rock composed of coarse diopside poikilitically enclosing calcite and a few blades of tre- molite. The only metasedimentary rock analyzed is a sample of garnetiferous quartz biotite phyllite; the analysis is presented in table 6. AGE Rocks herein assigned to the amphibolite facies in the Seiad Valley quadrangle have been considered pre-Mesozoic by Rynearson and Smith (1940); Medaris (1966) tentatively correlated them with the Salmon TABLE 6.-—-Chemical and spectrographic analysis and CIPW norm of quartz-biotite phyllite [Chemical analysis by rapid methods; analysts: P. L. D. Elmore, S. D. Botts, Gillison Chloe. Lowell Artis, and Hezekiah Smith. Spectrographic analysis by Carolyn Pickett. Sample locality shown in fig. 2] Chemical analysis Semiquantitative CIPW (weight percent) spectrographic norms analysis (ppm) (percent) SiOz ________ 58.3 Ba ____________ 700 q ____________ 16.6 A1203 ______ 15.8 Be ____________ 1 c ____________ 5.1 Fe20; ______ 1.0 Ce ____________ 500 or ____________ 14.2 FeO ________ 10.4 C0 ____________ 10 ab ____________ 28.0 MgO ________ 2.0 Cr ____________ 20 an __________ 7.3 CaO ________ 2.7 Cu ____________ 70 en ____________ 5.0 NazO ________ 3.3 Ga ____________ 20 fs ____________ 15.7 K20 ......... 2.4 La ____________ 100 mt __________ 1.5 I-hO— ________ .10 Nb ____________ 50 i1 ____________ 3.2 HzO+ ________ 1.2 Ni ____________ 30 ap ____________ 2.2 Ti02 ________ 1.7 Pb ____________ 15 P205 ________ .93 Sc ____________ 20 MnO ________ .14 Sr ____________ 300 C02 ........ <.05 V ____________ 100 ____ Y ____________ 50 Total .......... 100 Yb ____________ 5 Powder Zr ____________ 300 density - - _- 2.90 NOI‘E.—Quartz-plagioclase-biotite-slmandine phyllite (CM—~58—61), Road, south side Klamath River, SW‘A. sec. 4, T. 46 N., R. 8 W. 4’ 17 and Abrams Formations of the south-central Klamath Mountains. Wells (1956) interpreted them to be metamorphic equivalents of the Upper Triassic Apple- gate Group, and Hotz (1967) considered them to be the metamorphic equivalent of the western Paleozoic and Triassic belt. Isotope analysis of hornblende from two samples of amphibolite from the Condrey Mountain quadrangle yielded ages of 148 and 146 my. (Lanphere and others, 1968). These ages suggest metamorphism during the Jurassic rather than an older metamorphic episode represented by the Salmon and Abrams Formations. MAFIC AND ULTRAMAFIC ROCKS SERPENTINITE In both the Condrey Mountain and Seiad Valley quadrangles, there is a direct relation between the dis- tribution of ultramafic rocks and the occurrence of amphibolite-grade rocks (figs. 1,2). Bodies of ultramafic rocks occur widely in the areas of amphibolite but are absent from the areas of weakly metamorphosed vol- canic and sedimentary rocks. A few small tabular bodies of serpentinite are infolded with the Condrey Mountain Schist. The association of ultramafic rocks with amphibolite-grade metamorphism continues south of Seiad Valley quadrangle in the Scott Bar quadrangle in the Marble Mountains (Pratt, 1964) and persists northward into Talent quadrangle, Oregon (Wells, 1956). The amphibolite-grade rocks in the Condrey Mountain quadrangle are in general structurally below the main ultramafic body, but many small dis- continuous tabular bodies of serpentinite occupy ridges and summits in the area. Tabular concordant bodies of serpentinite are interleaved with the metemorphic rocks and in places are found at the contact between metasedimentary rocks and amphibolite. In the Seiad Valley quadrangle, the ultramafic rocks apparently occur beneath as well as above the higher grade rocks (Medaris, 1966; Barrows, 1969). A characteristic struc- tural feature of the ultramafic bodies throughout the area of high-grade metamorphism is their concordance with the large-scale planar structure of the metamor- phic rocks. Discordant dikelike bodies are very rare. The typically curvilinear form of many of the serpenti- nite bodies, especially in the Condrey Mountain quad- rangle, is produced by erosion of gently dipping thin concordant serpentinite bodies. The ultramafic rocks include harzburgite and dunite and their serpentinized derivatives. Surbordinate amounts of wehrlite and lherzolite occur in an ul- tramafic complex in the Tom Martin Creek area of 18 REGIONAL METAMORPHISM, CONDREY MOUNTAIN QUADRANGLE, KLAMATH MOUNTAINS, CALIF southeastern Seiad Valley and northeastern Scott Bar quadrangles (Barrows, 1969). Harzburgite and its ser- pentinized equivalent are by far the most common ul- tramafic rocks. In the Condrey Mountain quadrangle, probably more than 90 percent of the ultramafic rocks are serpentinized, even the~large body north of the Klamath River in the eastern part of the quadrangle. Much of the serpentinite is not sheared, even the smaller bodies, except locally along faults and some contacts. In many places, however, thin tabular bodies of serpentinite in the metamorphic terrane are con- verted to schistose talc-actinolite rock. Serpentinite in the Condrey Mountain quadrangle has not been extensively studied petrographically; sev— eral specimens have been examined in thin section and some X-ray studies were made. Primary minerals of the ultramafic rock are seldom preserved; in all the specimens examined, only relict olivine was seen. Some of the serpentinite is composed of a web of chrysotile-lizardite mixture, minor brucite, and very minor amounts of olivine; some consists entirely of an- tigorite. Most commonly the serpentinite is composed of antigorite with minor amounts of chrysotile- 1izardite. Magnetite, formed by the release of iron from olivine during serpentinization, is a common secondary mineral in all the serpentinite. A carbonate mineral, probably magnesite, is present in small amounts in some specimens, and talc and tremolite may be present in minor amounts. Antigorite is the metamorphic equivalent of lizardite, chrysotile, and brucite (Page, 1966; Trommsdorff and Evans, 1974). Presumably these antigoritic serpentinites were formed by the metamorphism of previously serpentinized ultramafic rocks. It is not certain if the metamorphic episode was the same as that which produced rocks of the amphibo— lite facies that enclose the serpentinite. At many places in a narrow zone adjacent to the contact with the enclosing metamorphic rocks, the ser- pentinite has been converted to fine-grained tremolite rock and talc-tremolite schist. One of the largest of these bodies is south of the Klamath River east of Lit- tle Humbug Creek. In this body, the rock is schistose and very fine grained and is composed of variable amounts of talc, tremolite, and magnesite. Within it are fine-grained unsheared nodular masses of talc and magnesite. When seen in thin section, serpentinite that megascopically appears to be unaltered adjacent to talc-carbonate rock shows considerable replacement by talc and carbonate. The alteration of serpentinite to talc-carbonate rock (table 8) is accomplished almost entirely by carbon- dioxide metasomatism accompanied by loss of water (Chidester, 1962). Talc—tremolite schist (table 7) is pos- sibly formed from serpentinite by the addition of TABLE 7.—Chemical analyses, in weight percent, of serpentinite and magnesian schist [Rapid rock analyses by P. L. D. Elmore, Samuel Botts, and Lowell Artis. Localities shown in fig. 2] Sample No. 39—61 8&64 82—64 76—64 8102 ______________________ 37.5 38.5 17.7 56.2 A1203 ____________________ .46 .40 .40 2.8 Fean ____________________ 3.1 4.2 .89 .81 FeO ______________________ 2.7 2.6 5.1 4.9 MgO ______________________ 39.2 35.3 39.2 23.5 CaO ______________________ .12 2.7 .22 7.1 Na2O ____________________ .12 .12 .05 .30 K20 ______________________ .00 .00 .00 .11 H204 ____________________ .66 .72 .03 .14 H20+ ____________________ 11.9 11.4 1.5 3.7 T102 ______________________ .05 .03 .03 .07 P205 ______________________ .02 .02 .02 04 MnO ______________________ .22 .17 .22 17 002 ______________________ 3.5 3.8 34.8 09 Total ________________ 100 100 100 100 sp gr (bqu) ______________ 2.66 2.53 2.98 2.90 NOI‘E.—39—61 Serpentinite with minor magnesite, sec. 10, T. 46 N., R. 8 W 83—64 Serpentinite with relict olivine, magnetite, and minor talc, S. Edge sec. 8, T. 46 N, R. 8 W 82-64 Unsheared talc-carbonate rock S. edge sec. 8, T. 46 N., R. 8 W 76—64 Tremolite-talc schist, extreme NE‘A sec. 7, T. 46 N, R. 8 W TABLE 8.—Chemical analyses, in weight percent. illustrating metasomatic reaction at serpentinite-amphibolite contact [Rapid rock analysis by P. L. D. Elmore, Samuel Botts, and Lowell Artis. Sample localities shown in fig. 2] Clinozoisite Amphibolite metasomatite Serpentinite Sample no. 12%64 125—64 126—64 122764 121—64 SiOz __________________ 57.8 55.4 36.6 42.6 40.7 A1203 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 13.4 12.6 21.8 23.2 1.6 Fean __________________ .63 .86 3.6 3.5 4.6 FeO ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 6.7 8.4 10.2 3.7 2.7 MgO ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 6.0 6.9 6.9 2.5 37.8 CaO ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 7.6 7.6 13.7 21.9 .09 NazO ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 5.6 4.5 .25 .25 .05 K20 ____________________ 35 .10 08 09 00 H207 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, .09 .18 .11 09 .41 H2O+ ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, .81 1.7 4.5 14 11.6 TiOz ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 64 1 1 1.3 33 02 P205 __________________ 07 11 .04 09 02 MnO ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 15 21 .21 19 11 C02 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, < 05 09 .11 08 12 Total ,,,,,,,,,,,, 100 100 99 100 100 Sp gr (bulk) ,,,,,, 2.88 2.89 3.17 3.22 2.72 NOTE.*A11 specimens located in SWVa sec. 19, T. 47 N, R. 8 W 124—64 Retrograded amphibolite 2m from contact (albite-hornblende-sphene). 125764 Retrograded amphibolite ~15 cm from contact (albite-chlorite- actinolite-sphene). 126—64 Clinozoisite metasomatite at contact sphene). 122~64 Clinozoisite metasomatite at contact tremolitesphene-trace of garnet). 12l~64 Serpentinite 1m above contact. (clinozoisite-chlorite-tremolite- (clinozoisiteminor chlorite< alumina and silica from the adjacent schist or am- phibolite accompanied by loss of magnesia and water from the ultramafic rock. The metamorphism that pro- duced the talc-tremolite rocks probably postdates the earlier regional metamorphism. At many places it ap- MAFIC AND ULTRAMAFIC ROCKS pears to be related to faulting between the higher grade country rocks and serpentinite. Contact effects of the ultramafic rocks are not appar- ent in most places. Where such effects have been ob- served, they are generally not extensive. Adjacent to an ultrarnafic complex in Seiad Valley quadrangle, amphibolite is recrystallized to pyroxene granulite and hornblende-pyroxene granulite; yet such contact metamorphic effects are absent from another peridotite body in the same area (Medaris, 1966). One‘very lo- calized occurrence of pyroxene granulite less than a meter in width occurs adjacent to a thin serpentinite body in northern Condrey Mountain quadrangle. Barrows (1969) noted that greenschist facies rocks have been converted to amphibolite next to an ul- tramafic complex in southeastern Seiad Valley quad- rangle. Another kind of metamorphic phenomenon was ob- served in the Condrey Mountain quadrangle where amphibolite adjacent to a thin concordant serpentinite body has retrograded to a greenschist facies albite- chlorite-actinolite rock as much as 2 m from the con- tact, and a clinozoisite-tremolite rock has been formed at the contact. This is a postmetamorphic metasomatic reaction involving movement of A12 03 and CaO from the amphibolite toward the contact with concomitant loss of alkalis and some SiO2 in the same direction. The main contribution from the serpentinite side is a slight increase in H20 (table 8; fig. 8). GABBRO AND PYROXENITE Numerous small bodies of gabbro and pyroxenite are associated with serpentinite in an area of amphibolite facies rocks north of Klamath River and east of Beaver Creek. These mafic bodies have forms similar to the serpentinite bodies. They occur with the metasedimen- tary rocks and amphibolite and as apparently transgressive bodies in serpentinite, although they may be in part interlayered with the serpentinite. These bodies are composed of both gabbro and pyroxe- nite; gabbro is more abundant, the pyroxenite gen- erally occuring as localized bodies with indefinite boundaries within the gabbro. More specifically, the rocks are quartz-bearing hornblende gabbro with sub- ordinate pyroxene and hornblende clinopyroxenite. The gabbro is a mesocratic to melanocratic (CI 43—73) fine- to medium-grained rock composed pre- dominantly of hornblende and plagioclase. Clinopyroxene may or may not be present as a minor constituent; most commonly, it occurs as relicts en- closed by hornblende. The plagioclase is labradorite (Anao), and may be zoned as sodic as andesine (An40); in many specimens, the plagioclase is gray and saus— Clinozoisite Amphibolite Metasomatite Serpentinite I l l r I 10.0 . o '\ ,1 _. \- \ - _ a; .__,.—-\P—F":."“‘I— 1....\ V '\ \/ _ .— Ca o— :7 _____ \ 4.\\ \ /&\\ _ _ ,, _ 4- \ '— H / \\ \*\ )\ \ _ l— _ \ \K */ l \\ 'l 2 \ o/ l. \ LU _ . l \ a E \ \. \ \ o \ \_ \ U — \ \ \\ - z . 9 \ ‘-‘ \\ F. . < \ \ ‘. 0 1'0 \ ‘- -AI _ I \ l .1 _ \‘ \ a _ \ i l K \ , - l _ P_ ,_ fl‘ " _ — \‘ \‘ _ \‘ \ _ l _ \\ \' \\ j\ \\ ‘ 0.1 \ i. _ I ‘ l _ _ \ l _ _ \\ - ._ Na, Ca ‘5 _ .05 I I 1 I to 0.0 1 124-64 125-64 126-64 122-64 121-64 SAMPLE NUMBER FIGURE 8.—Change in cation content of amphibolite at contact with serpentinite. suritized; in some, the plagioclase may be mostly re- placed by clinozoisite. Small quantities of biotite occur in some specimens. Some specimens contain as much as 8 percent quartz. Besides clinozoisite, late-stage al- teration products include small amounts of chlorite and sericite. A somewhat unusual variety of gabbro in the Condrey Mountain quadrangle contains as much as 15 percent Clinopyroxene, relict hypersthene amount— ing to 0.5 percent, and 13 percent biotite in addition to hornblende, plagioclase, and a trace of quartz. Two analyses of quartz-bearing gabbro are presented in table 9, Nos. 52—63 and 59—63. One of them (59—63), a porphyritic gabbro intermediate between gabbro and hornblende pyroxenite, is nearly 60 percent amphibole, nearly 10 percent Clinopyroxene, and nearly 20 percent 20 REGIONAL METAMORPHISM, CONDREY MOUNTAIN QUADRANGLE, KLAMATH MOUNTAINS, CALIF. TABLE 9.—Chemical analyses, CIPW norms, and modes ofgabbro, pyroxenite, and pyroxene quartz diorite [Chemical analyses by rapid methods; analysts: P. L. D. Elmore, S. D. Botts. Gillison Chloe, Lowell Artie, and Hezekiah Smith. Sample localities shown in fig. 2] Chemical analyses (weight percent) Sample No. 27—63 52—63 59-63 53—63 26—63 49.5 50.9 52.1 53.6 57.9 13.8 14.8 10.7 4.6 14.9 .0 2.5 1.2 .92 1.2 .8 9.0 6.4 5.7 6.2 .6 6.6 11.7 15.5 6.1 .4 9.5 12.6 15.5 7.9 .6 2.4 1.7 .73 2.5 .44 1.2 .82 .58 1.2 .12 .23 34 .20 .16 .2 1.3 1 1 .76 52 .4 1.2 78 .30 84 .60 .35 16 .16 34 .21 .21 15 .15 13 100 100 99 100 2.95 2.93 2.98 2.98 — CIPW norms (percent) 1.8 1.3 —— 1.7 11.6 2.6 7.1 4.8 3.4 7.1 13.5 20.3 14.4 6.2 21.2 29.2 28.1 19.1 7.6 25.9 9.8 7.8 17.7 28.5 4.6 5.5 4.2 12.2 20.8 2.7 3.9 3.3 4.1 5.1 1.8 15.9 12.2 16.4 17.8 12.5 11.3 9.5 5.5 4.4 8.2 _ _ .4 _ _ _... _ ,1 _ _ 1.44 3.6 1.7 1.3 1.7 2.6 2.3 1.5 .57 1.6 1.4 .83 .38 .38 .80 Modal analyses (volume percent) 31mm ................ 0.3 3 2 —- 12 agioclase __._ 40 31 19 7 49 Hornblende -_. 48 48 58 60 4 Clinopyroxene .... 4 — 9 32 15 rthopyroxene - - - . — -- —— — 8 Biotite ........ .6 —— —- -- 16 Sphene ........ —- 3 .3 .2 — O aque _. .7 .3 tr —- .1 C lorite ________ .1- 6 3 1 .4 — Clinoz-epidote _ _ - — 10 7 — — Sericite ________ tr 2 3 — — Apatite ._....._.1..._.: — NUTE.-—27-63 Hornblende-pyroxene gabbro south part SW%, sec. 3. T47 N.. R.8 W 52—63 Altered hornblende-quartz bearing gabbro west central part, SW‘A sec. 59—63 Poighgri‘lic hbrnb ende-Wroxene-quartz bearing gabbro SW part NEW 53—63 Hgfriblilidi' :l?n§5y§ox8enite dike N part say. sec. 33, T. 48 N., R. 8 w 26—63 Biotita-hornblendepyroxene quartz diorite SWV. 515% sec. 3, '1‘. 47 N. R, 8 W plagioclase. An analysis of hornblende gabbro with a trace of quartz and a small amount of clinopyroxene is given in table 9, No. 27—63. Hornblende pyroxenite is commonly a grayish-green medium-grained hypidiomorphic to allotriomorphic granular rock, locally with a subporphyritic "spotted” appearance. It has a color index above 90 and is mainly composed of hornblende and clinopyroxene with less than 10 percent plagioclase. The plagioclase is consis- tently saussuritized. Hornblende commonly amounts to about 60 percent and encloses—poikilitically in some specimens—colorless clinopyroxene. Typically, the hornblende is pleochroic from pale brown to color- less; some is pale green. Sphene and apatite are pres- ent in amounts less than 1 percent. Chlorite, which amounts to less than 1 percent, partly replaces hornblende. Analysis of a sample of hornblende clinopyroxenite (53—63) is given in table 9. AGE There is no direct evidence for the age of the serpen- tinite except for its occurrence as pendants in the Ash- land and the Vesa Bluffs granitic plutons; the pendants indicate that emplacement of the ultramafic rocks oc- curred before intrusion and crystallization of the granitic rocks in Late Jurassic time. The close associa- tion of serpentinite with rocks of the amphibolite facies suggests that both ultramafic and metemorphic rocks were involved in the episode of deformation and metamorphism. The Seiad ultramafic complex of Medaris (1966) and the Tom Martin ultramafic complex of Barrows (1969) were emplaced tectonically at high temperatures during a period of deformation and re- gional metamorphism. In the Condrey Mountain quad- rangle, the presence of numerous small discontinuous bodies of serpentinite scattered throughout the terrane of amphibolite rock facies is suggestive of a melange. The association of serpentinite with amphibolite de- rived from basaltic rocks accompanied in places by quartzite that may represent original chert suggests that these rocks may be part of a dismembered ophiol- ite suite. This concept is strengthened by the occurr- ence in the same terrane of gabbro and pyroxenite bodies similar in form and habit to the serpentinite. A Permian and Triassic ophiolite has been recognized in the Preston Peak area (Snoke, 1977), approximately 65 km west of the Condrey Mountain quadrangle. This ophiolite has been displaced and now rests in thrust fault contact on metasedimentary rocks of the Late Jurassic Galice Formation. Indirect evidence suggests that the ultramafic rocks in the Condrey Mountain quadrangle belong to an ophiolite of Permian and (or) Triassic age. In the Seiad Valley quadrangle, the ul- tramafic rocks may represent peridotite emplaced as hot diapirs. PLU'IlONIC ROCKS Several bodies of plutonic rock are intrusive into rocks of the amphibolite terrane and the lower grade metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks. None in- trude the Condrey Mountain Schist. PYROXENE QUARTZ DIORITE AND GRANODIORITE An irregular body of plutonic rock ranging from quartz diorite to granodiorite in which pyroxene is the most abundant characterizing accessory crops out in the northeast Condrey Mountain quadrangle south- west of the Ashland pluton. Its extent eastward in the Hornbrook quadrangle is unknown. A body of hornblende gabbro lies between it and the Ashland pluton, which intrudes the gabbro. Although the gab- PLUTONIC ROCKS 21 bro and pyroxene quartz diorite are in contact, their relative ages are uncertain. Field relations suggest that the bodies are gradational into one another The rock is mesocratic (CI 30—40) fine grained with an hypidiomorphic granular texture. Unlike the gab- bro and hornblende pyroxenite associated with ul- tramafic rocks and amphibolite, the plagioclase is clear, unaltered, and zoned normally with cores of labrado- rite (An60) and rims of andesine (An40). The rock con- tains about 12 percent quartz and may have as much as 10—13 percent potassium feldspar, although the analyzed sample did not contain any. Subhedral pyroxene is the chief mafic mineral, amounting to 12 percent to nearly 19 percent in the specimens examined microscopically. The pyroxene is colorless augite and hypersthene. Green hornblende (4 to approximately 12 percent) forms reaction rims on the pyroxene; biotite (approximately 7—16 percent), commonly with a large central grain of magnetite, occurs as isolated irregular-shaped flakes or as partial replacements of hornblende. Apatite, sphene, and black Opaques are common minor accessories. An analysis of a specimen of hornblende biotite pyroxene quartz diorite (No. 26-63) is given in table 9. A potassium-argon age of 152 my. has been obtained (M. A. Lanphere, oral commun., 1970) on biotite from a sample of the pyroxene quartz diorite represented by analysis 5, table 9. This date was obtained by rerun- ning a sample that earlier (Lanphere and others, 1968, table 4, No. 31) yielded an age of 133 my. GRAN ITIC ROCKS Granitic rocks in the Condrey Mountain and Hornbrook quadrangles include the Vesa Bluffs pluton in southern Condrey Mountain and southwestern Hornbrook quadrangles and the Ashland pluton in northeastern Condrey Mountain and the northwestern Hornbrook quadrangles, California and the greater part in Oregon. The Vesa Bluffs body is relatively small, 19 km2, whereas the Ashland pluton—400 km2, has batholithic proportions. The plutonic rocks .include hornblende gabbro and diorite, quartz diorite, granodiorite, and minor quantities of alaskitic rock. Many plutons of similar size and composition occur elsewhere in the Klamath Mountains (Hotz, 1971). The Vesa Bluffs pluton is a narrow elongate pluton oriented east-west in southern Condrey Mountain and southwestern Hornbrook quadrangles. In the Condrey Mountain quadrangle, the pluton is a southward- dipping tabular body with amphibolite facies rocks in the footwall and a roof of weakly metamorphosed vol- canic and sedimentary rocks. In the Hornbrook quad- rangle, it loses its apparently tabular form and be- comes a steep-sided trangressive body. The western three-fourths of the pluton is composed predominantly of hornblende diorite and gabbro with local areas of quartz diorite. The eastern one-fourth of the pluton is quartz diorite. A small body of alaskite of quartz monzonite composition intrudes the quartz diorite on Craggy Mountain (fig. 2). A small roof pendant of ser- pentinite occurs in the western end of the pluton west of Dona Creek. The boundary between the predomi- nantly dioritic western three-fourths of the pluton and the eastern quartz diorite cannot be determined, as ex- posures are poor; it may be either a gradational or an intrusive contact. The Ashland pluton crops out mainly in Oregon. It is not well known in California and has been studied mainly in reconnaissance in Oregon (Wells, 1956). It is a steep-sided transgressive body that appears to be composed mainly of quartz diorite and granodiorite. In northeastern Condrey Mountain quadrangle, it in- trudes hornblende gabbro and has small roof pendants of serpentinite and hornblende pyroxenite. Gabbro and diorite in the Condrey Mountain quad- rangle are mesocratic (CI. 40—60) granitic rocks that contain plagioclase. The plagioclase is commonly so saussuritized that its composition is uncertain; there— fore classification of the rock as gabbro or as diorite is doubtful. The tendency is to classify the darker rocks as gabbro. The principal mafic mineral is green hornblende that may contain traces of relict clinopyroxene. Minor amounts of chlorite partly replace the hornblende, and some epidote-clinozoisite is generally present. Minor accessories include sphene, apatite, and an opaque oxide, probably ilmenite-magnetite. Quartz is not gen- erally a constituent but it may be present in minor amounts, as much as 5—6 percent. Analyses of three samples of gabbro, diorite, and quartz-bearing gabbro from the Vesa Bluffs pluton (Nos. 20-62, 99-64, 100-64) are given in table 10. The quartz diorite is leucocratic to mesocratic (CI. 11—35) granite rock. In contrast to the gabbro and dior— ite, plagioclase is generally only slightly altered and shows normal compositional zoning from as calcic as labradorite in the central parts of crystals to rims of sodic andesine. Small amounts of potassium feldspar are recognizable in some specimens. Quartz is an es- sential constituent. Green hornblende is commonly the predominant mafic mineral; biotite generally oc- curs in lesser amounts. Many specimens, however, con- tain biotite and hornblende in nearly equal amounts, and in some, biotite is the more abundant. Other min- erals present in minor amounts include apatite, chlo- rite, and a member of the epidote-clinozoisite group. Black opaque minerals constitute less than 0.5 percent; 22 REGIONAL METAMORPHISM, CONDREY MOUNTAIN QUADRANGLE, KLAMATH MOUNTAINS, CALIF. TABLE 10.—Chemical and spectrographic analyses, CIPW norms, and modes of rocks from the Vesa Bluffs and Ashland plutons [Chemical analyses: No. 116—38, conventional analysis by F. S. Grimaldi; all others, rapid analyses by P. L. D. Elmore, S. D. Botts, Gillison Chloe, Lowell Artis, and Hezekiah Smith. Semiquantitative spectrographic analyses: samples 2, 3, 10 by W B. Crandell; 4, 6, 7, 8, 9 by R. E. Mays; 11, 11 by Carolyn Pickett; 8 by Chris Heropoulos. Sample localities shown in fig. 2] Sample No. 20—62 99—64 100—64 28—60 116—38 118—63 109— 63 7—67 77—63 89—64 29—60 108—63 Chemical analyses (weight percent) SiOz ________________ 46.5 50.9 53.9 55.7 57.85 60.0 61.1 62.3 63.3 63.5 64.2 74.6 A1203 ______________ 18.0 18.7 16.2 16.5 17.57 17.2 17.2 16.3 15.8 16.4 16.9 14.6 Fe203 ______________ 2.9 1.4 2.4 3.9 1.98 1.7 2.6 1.3 1.3 .79 2.4 .53 FeO ________________ 8.5 6.3 5.7 4.6 5.22 4.5 3.4 3.2 3.0 4.1 2.7 .16 MgO ________________ 6.2 4.5 5.4 5.2 3.42 2.9 2.3 3.3 3.4 2.0 1.9 .26 CaO ________________ 10.9 10.5 10.0 8.7 7.06 6.8 7.5 5.4 6.1 4.6 6.2 .10 NazO ________________ 2.7 3.5 2.7 2.0 3.27 2.8 3.2 3.5 3.9 3.9 2.8 4.7 K20 ________________ .50 1.0 1.1 .89 1.29 1.4 1.1 2.9 1.4 2.5 1.6 4.6 H20— ______________ .07 .19 .09 .13 .07 .19 .10 .05 .20 .12 .11 .12 HzO+ ______________ 2.2 1.6 1.3 1 7 .33 1.7 .95 .54 1.0 1.2 1.0 .65 TiOz ________________ .94 .73 .65 62 1.04 .39 .29 .66 48 .49 .33 .04 P205 ________________ .36 .18 15 30 .36 .23 .35 .35 26 .14 .17 .01 MnO ________________ 21 .14 16 16 12 .15 .14 .13 10 .15 .14 .03 C02 ________________ < 05 .19 11 <.05 14 <.05 <.05 <.05 17 .05 <.05 <.05 Total __________ 100 100 100 100 99.72 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Sp. Gr. (bulk) __ 3.02 2.94 2.92 2.93 — 2.77 2.78 2.77 2.75 2.73 2.79 2.56 Semiquantitative spectrographic analyses (ppm) B __________________ 30 — — — — — — 20 15 <30 — Ea __________________ 200 300 500 500 -— 700 500 1000 700 1000 1000 100 e __________________ — — — — — — — — — — 3 Co __________________ 30 30 20 20 — 15 15 20 10 10 15 ~— Cr __________________ 20 70 30 30 — 7 17 70 30 20 20 2 Cu __________________ 700 15 100 200 — 70 70 50 50 10 30 5 Ga __________________ 15 15 10 15 — 15 15 15 15 10 15 15 La __________________ — — — ~ — — — 50 — — —— — Nb __________________ — —— — — — — —— 10 — —— — — Ni __________________ 30 50 50 15 — 5 5 50 10 <30 — —- Pb __________________ 20 — — — -— —- -— 20 20 — 30 — Sc __________________ 30 30 30 20 — 15 15 20 15 10 15 — Sr __________________ 1000 700 500 1000 —— 1500 1000 1000 1500 500 1500 70 V __________________ 300 200 200 200 — 150 150 100 100 100 150 — Y __________________ 30 7 10 15 — 15 15 20 20 7 20 — Yb __________________ 3 — 1 2 — 2 2 2 2 —- 2 1 Zr __________________ 30 30 10 70 — 50 70 15 100 70 100 100 CIPW norms (percent) q ____________________ — — 5.8 14.7 12.63 17.6 19.2 14.5 17.9 16.4 25.1 29.1 c ____________________ — — — —— — — — — — — — 1.7 or __________________ 3.0 5.9 6.5 5.2 7.62 8.3 6.5 17.2 8.3 14.8 9.5 27.2 ab __________________ 22.8 29.6 22.8 16.9 27.67 23.7 27.1 29.6 33.0 33.0 23.7 39.8 an __________________ 35.5 32.4 28.8 33.4 29.45 30.2 29.3 20.2 21.5 19.9 28.8 4 di-wo ________________ 6.8 7.2 8.0 3.2 .98 .8 2.3 1.8 2.5 .7 .35 di-en ________________ 3.7 3.8 4.8 2.2 .53 .4 1.3 1.1 1.6 .3 .21 — di-fs ________________ 2.9 3.2 2.8 .8 .41 .4 .9 .55 .73 .4 .12 — hy-en ________________ 1.9 3.3 8.6 10.7 7.98 6.7 4.4 7.1 6.8 4.7 4.5 6 hy-fs ________________ 1.5 2.8 5.0 3.7 6.05 6.1 3.0 3.4 3.1 5.9 2.6 — f0 __________________ 6.9 2.9 — — -—- — — — — — — — fa __________________ 5.9 2.7 — — — —— — — — — — — fit __________________ 4.2 2.0 3 5 5.6 2.87 2.5 3.8 1.9 1.9 1.1 3.5 .5 m __________________ —- — — — —— — — —— — — .2 il __________________ 1.8 1.4 1.2 1.2 1.98 .74 .55 1.2 .91 .93 .63 .08 ap __________________ .85 .43 .36 71 .85 .54 .83 .83 .62 .33 .40 .02 cc __________________ — .43 .25 — .32 — — — .39 .11 — — sphene is sparse or absent, and typically zircon is pres- ent in traces. Analyses of representative samples of quartz diorite from the Vesa Bluffs and Ashland plu- tons are given in table 10. - Granodiorite is not so abundant as quartz diorite and in most places has not been mapped separately. In gen- eral, it is lighter than quartz diorite; its color index is less than 10 although it may have as much as 25 per- cent mafic constituents. Potassium feldspar, including both orthoclase and microcline, amounts to about 13—20 percent in the specimens studied. Hornblende, biotite, and to a minor extent muscovite, are the mafic minerals. Biotite may be predominant; in some specimens, it is the only mafic mineral except for minor STRUCTURAL AND METAMORPHIC RELATIONS 23 TABLE 10.—Chemical and spectrographic analyses, CIPW norms, and modes of rocks from the Vesa Blufis and Ashland platens—Continued Sample No. 20—62 99—64 100—64 28—60 116—38 118—63 109—63 7—67 77—63 89—64 29-60 108—63 Modal analyses (volume percent) Quartz ______________ 0.7 1 6.5 12 14 16 17 13 18 22 24 33 K-feldspar __________ — — — — — 1.3 — 16 tr 5 1 24 Plagioclase __________ 441 591 43 32 56 56 57 48 54 52 51 40 Homblende __________ 46 37 43 25 26 14 9 13 14 13 4 — Biotite ______________ — —— — — 4 8 11 9 10 7 13 — Muscovite (sericite) __ — — — — -— —— 1.3 —— -— — .5 2.4 Sphene ______________ 6 .5 .2 -— — — — .3 .1 — -— — Apatite ______________ .5 .5 .3 .5 tr .3 .3 tr tr .2 — Zircon ______________ — —- —— —— tr — —-— tr tr tr — — Opaques ____________ .6 .1 — .3 .1 tr 8 tr tr 1 .5 — Chlorite ____________ 3.2 2.4 .3 10 —- 3 — 1 .9 3 —— —— Epidote-clinozoisite __ 4 2 .8 6.5 21 — 2.3 — —- 1 6 — — ‘Plagioclase completely saussuritized. NOTE— 20-62 Homblende gabbro, Grouse Greek, center, west edge sec, 31, T46 N., R.8 W., Condrey Mtn. quadrangle, 99-64 Homblende diorite, Barkhouse Creek, eastern part sec. 26, T46 N., R.9 W, Condrey Mtn. quadrangle, 100-64 Homblende quartz-bearing gabbro, Barkhouse Creek, SE‘A, sec. 6, T46 N., RB W., Condrey Mtn. quadrangle. 28-60 Altered hornblende quartz diorite, Rider Gulch, eastern part sec. 34, T46 N., R8 W., Condrey Mtn. quandrangle. 116-38 Biotite hornblende quartz diorite, West Branch Long John Creek, Talent quadrangle, Oregon (not shown in fig. 2). 118-63 Biotite hornblende quartz diorite, Dona Creek, S. part sec. 20, T46 N., R9 W., Condrey Mtn. quadrangle. 109-63 Homblende biotite quartz diorite, The Cragg'ies, NE‘A, sec, 27, T46 N, R.8 W., Condrey Mtn. quadrangle. 7-67 Biotite hornblende granodiorite, center, 319%, sec. 18, T39 S, R,1 E., Ashland quad., Oregon (not shown in fig. 2). 77-63 Biotite hornblende quartz diorite, Hungry Creek, NE‘A, sec. 33, T48 N., R.8 W., Condrey Mtn. quadrangle. 89-64 Biotite hornblende quartz diorite, Line between secs. 5 and 8, T45 N., R9 W, Condrey Mtn. quadrangle. 29-60 Homblende biotite quartz diorite, Vesa Bluffs, W. part sec. 22, T46 N., R.8 W., Condrey Mtn. quadrangle. 108-63 Alaskite of quartz monzonite composition, E. part sec. 27, T46 N., R.8 W, Condrey Mtn. quadrangle. secondary chlorite. The rock contains apatite and opaque metallic minerals in minor amounts and traces of zircon. Analysis of a sample of granodiorite from the Ashland pluton is given in table 10, No. 7-67. Alaskite of quartz monzonite composition on Craggy Mountain in the eastern part of Vesa Bluffs pluton has no hornblende or biotite. It is composed principally of plagioclase, quartz, and potassium feldspar with minor amounts of white mica. An analysis of a sample of the rock from Craggy Mountalin is given in table 10, No. 108-63. AGE Potassium—argon ages have been determined for the Vesa Bluffs and Ashland plutons. For the Ashland plu- ton, concordant ages of 146 and 147 :4 my. were ob- tained on hornblende and biotite, respectively, from a sample in Condrey Mountain quadrangle (Lanphere and others, 1968); two determinations on hornblende from a sample of quartz diorite collected near Ashland, Ore., yielded ages of 160:5 my. and 166 :5 my, whereas biotite from the same sample gave an age of 144:4 m.y. (Hotz, 1971, fig. 10). Discordant ages of 160: 5 my. and 146:4 m.y. were obtained on hornblende and biotite, respectively, from a sample of quartz diorite from the Vesa Bluffs pluton (Lanphere and others, 1968). In all the mineral pairs except one from the Ashland pluton, hornblende,with a spread of 13 my, yields a somewhat older age than biotite; bio- tite is younger and has a range of only 3 my. In View of the narrower range of the biotite ages and the concor- dance with hornblende in one sample, the biotite ages of 144—147 m.y., which correspond to Late Jurassic time, are assumed to be the approximate age of crystal- lization of the pluton. STRUCTURAL AND METAMORPHIC RELATIONS The Condrey Mountain Schist is structurally be- neath the higher grade amphibolite and associated metasedimentary rocks. The contact is undoubtedly a thrust fault, probably modified in many places by high-angle faulting. In some places a thin gently dip- ping tabular body of serpentinite occurs at the contact, and at a few places far out in the central part of the quartz-mica schist terrane, a few small thin sheets of serpentinite overlie and are infolded with the schist (fig. 1); these sheets are probably remnants of more continuous serpentinite that may have occurred be- tween the schist and the overriding amphibolite ter- rane. The structural and metamorphic history must ex- plain the absence of ultramafic and plutonic rocks in the window of Condrey Mountain Schist and the con- centration of these rocks in the amphibolite facies zone. The absence of serpentinite, except for the few rem- nants infolded with the schist, is strong evidence that the thrusting that juxtaposed these two terranes was later than the episode of ultramafic rock emplacement. These serpentinite remnants, possibly at or near the 24 REGIONAL METAMORPHISM, CONDREY MOUNTAIN QUADRANGLE, KLAMATH MOUNTAINS, CALIF. contact with the underlying amphibolite, may have been emplaced cold at the time of thrusting. In general, the change from rocks of the amphibolite facies to overlying metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks of the greenschist facies to the east and west is less well defined. Westward, in the Seiad Valley quad- rangle and the southern part of the Ruch quadrangle, Oregon (fig. 1), metasedimentary rocks belonging to the amphibolite facies are overlain by metavolcanic rocks, probably along a fault (N. J Page, written com- mun., 1976). In the southern Condrey Mountain quad- rangle, faults and serpentinite bodies separate the two terranes, and the roughly tabular southward-dipping Vesa Bluffs pluton occurs between amphibolite facies rocks and greenschist facies metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks. No well-defined contact be- tween nonfoliated metavolcanic rocks of the amphibo- lite facies and those of the greenschist facies has been recognized east of the large eastern ultramafic body in eastern Condrey Mountain quadrangle. The non- foliated amphibolite that occurs east of the serpenti- nite is succeeded upward, apparently conformably, by fine-grained greenschist facies metasedimentary and metavolcanic rocks of the western Paleozoic and Trias- sic belt. The biotite isograd in metasedimentary rock is approximately 3 km east of the main serpentinite body. There appears to be a gradual decrease in the intensity of metamorphism stratigraphically upward east of the easternmost ultramafic bodies. The significant break in the Condrey Mountain quadrangle between the terranes of foliated and non- foliated amphibolite is north of the Vesa Bluffs pluton, where a gently dipping contact interpreted as a fault separates them. In Little Humbug Creek, the fault is partly occupied by gently dipping tabular serpentinite bodies. The western part of the fault is intersected by the Vesa Bluffs pluton. The northern continuation of the fault may be the nearly east-west steeply dipping fault south of and parallel to the Klamath River east of the mouth of Beaver Creek. North of the Klamath River, the identity of the break becomes lost beyond the place where the east-west-trending fault is intersected by the large eastern serpentinite body. This break may have been the original discontinuity between foliated amphibolite and the metavolcanic-metasedimentary rock terrane. The association of ultramafic rocks and amphibolite is fairly common worldwide. Some geologists have as- cribed the amphibolite to contact metamorphism of basaltic rocks by the ultramafic intrusions (Challis, 1965; Green, 1964). Williams (Williams and Smyth, 1973) regards amphibolite associated with ultramafic rocks in Newfoundland as contact dynamothermal au- reoles related to obduction and transport of ophiolite slices. In the Condrey Mountain quadrangle, the oc- currence of numerous discontinuous metamorphosed serpentinite bodies interlayered conformably with the foliated amphibolite is indicative of simultaneous de- formation and metamorphism of disrupted ophiolitic rocks, possibly a melange. The potassium-argon age of the amphibolite is in general agreement with the age of the plutonic rocks; either the metamorphism and plutonism were simultaneous events or the metamorphism was earlier than the plutonism and the potassium-argon ages were modified by heat of the in- trusions. As both samples of dated amphibolite were taken about 5 km from the Vesa Bluffs and Ashland plutons, it seems unlikely that they would be affected by later heating. Clearly for the Condrey Mountain Schist and the amphibolite facies to be brought together, these rocks of contrasting lithologies have been juxtaposed by large-scale horizontal displacements. The ages of metamorphism of the amphibolite and schist are ap— proximately the same, suggesting that at about the time in the Late Jurassic the metamorphism of the amphibolite took place, sedimentary and minor amounts of volcanic rock, probably of the Galice For- mation, were overthrust by the amphibolite or dragged beneath it. Penetrative deformation and heating caused by deeper burial, possibly together with the higher temperature of the overthrust sheet, resulted in metamorphism of rocks below the thrust sheet to form the Condrey Mountain Schist. An earlier tectonic—metamorphic episode under low— temperature high-pressure conditions is represented by phyllite of the Stuart Fork Formation, which con- tains blueschist of Triassic age (220 my.) in the Yreka-Fort Jones area (Hotz and others, 1977). Here the Stuart Fork occurs adjacent to serpentinite of Or- dovician (7) age, which is between lower Paleozoic rocks of the eastern Klamath belt and metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks of the western Paleozoic and Triassic belt. Thrusting of the Stuart Fork over these rocks probably took place during the Triassic metamorphism and may have continued or may have been renewed in the Jurassic. REFERENCES CITED Barrows, A. G., 1969, Geology of the Hamburg-McGuffy Creek area, Siskiyou County, California, and petrology of the Tom Martin ultramafic complex: California University at Los Angeles, PhD. thesis, 301 p. Cann. J. R., 1971, Major element variations in ocean floor basalts: Royal Society London Philosophical Transactions, v. A268, p. 4957505. Challis, G, A,, 1965, High temperature contact metamorphism at the Red Hills ultramafic intrusion—Wairu Valley—New Zealand: Journal Petrology, v 6, no. 3, p. 395—419. REFERENCES CITED 25 Chidester, A. H., 1962, Petrology and geochemistry of selected talc- bearing ultramafic rocks and adjacent country rocks in north- central Vermont: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 345, 207 p. Davis, G. A., 1968, Westward thrust faulting in the south-central Klamath Mountains, California: Geological Society America Bulletin, v. 79, no. 7, p. 911-934. Davis, G. A., and Lipman, P. W, 1962, Revised structural sequence of pre-Cretaceous metamorphic rocks in the southern Klamath Mountains, California: Geological Society America Bulletin, V. 73, p. 1547-1552. Davis, G. A., Holdaway, M. J., Lipman, P. W., and Romey, W. D., 1965, Structure, metamorphism, and plutonism in the south-central Klamath Mountains, California: Geological Society America Bulletin, v. 76, no. 8, p. 933—965. Elliott, M. A., 1971, Stratigraphy and petrology of the Late Cretace- ous rocks near Hilt and Hornbrook, Siskiyou County, California, and Jackson County, Oregon: Oregon State University, Corval- lis, Ph.D. thesis, 171 p. Engelhardt, C. L., 1966, The Paleozoic-Triassic contact in the Klamath Mountains, Jackson County, southwest Oregon: Ore- gon University, Eugene, M. A. thesis, 98 p. Fyfe, W. S., 'Iurner, F. J ., and Verhoogen, John, 1958, Metamorphic reactions and metamorphic facies: Geological Society America Memoir 73, 259 p. Green, D. H., 1964, The metamorphic aureole of the peridotite at the Lizard, Cornwall: Journal Geology, V. 72, no. 5, p. 543—563. Hamilton, Warren, 1963, Metamorphism in the Riggins region, west- ern Idaho: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 436, 95 p. Heinrich, M. A., 1966, Geology of the Applegate Group, Kinney Mountain area, southwest Jackson County, Oregon: Oregon University, Eugene, M.A. thesis, 107 p. Holdaway, M. J ., 1965, Basic regional metamorphic rocks in part of the Klamath Mountains, northern California: American Mineralogist, v. 50, p. 953—977. Hotz, P. E., 1967, Geologic map of the Condrey Mountain quadrangle and parts of the Seiad Valley and Hornbrook quadrangles California: U.S. Geological Survey Geological Quadrangle Map GO—618, scale 162,500. 1971, Plutonic rocks of the Klamath Mountains, California and Oregon: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 684—3, 20 p. 1973, Blueschist metamorphism in the Yreka-Fort Jones area, Klamath Mountains, California: US. Geological Survey Journal Research, v. 1, no. 1, p. 53—61. Hotz, P. E., Lanphere, M. A., and Swanson, D. A., 1977, Triassic blueschist from northern California and north«central Oregon: Geology, V. 5, No. 11 p. 6594663. Irwin, W. P., 1960, Geological reconnaissance of the northern Coast Ranges and Klamath Mountains, California, with a summary of the mineral resources: California Division Mines Bulletin 179, 80 p. 1966, Geology of the Klamath Mountains province, in Bailey, E. H., ed., Geology of northern California: California Divison Mines and Geology Bulletin 190, p. 16—38. 1972, Terranes of the Western Paleozoic and Triassic belt in the southern Klamath Mountains, California: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 800—C, p. C103—C111. 1977, Ophiolitic terranes of California, Oregon and Nevada, in North American ophiolites: Oregon Department Geology and Mineral Industries Bulletin 95, p. 75—92. Irwin, W. P., Jones, D. L., and Pessagno, E. A., Jr., 1977, Significance of Mesozoic radiolarians from the pre-Nevada rocks of the southern Klamath Mountains, California: Geology, v. 5, no. 9, p. 557—562. Kay, R. W, Hubbard, N. J ., and Gast, P. W., 1970, Chemical charac- teristics and origin of oceanic ridge volcanic rocks: Journal Geophysical Research, v. 75, p. 1585—1613. Kays, M. A., 1968, Zones of alpine tectonism and metamorphism, Klamath Mountains, southwestern Oregon: Journal Geology, v. 76, p. 17—36. 1970, Mesozoic metamorphism, May Creek Schist belt, Klamath Mountains, Oregon: Geological Society America Bulle- tin, v. 81, p. 2743—2758. Klein, C. W., 1976, Thrust faulting in the Klamath Mountains, northwest California—evidence at Happy Camp for the origin of the schists of Condrey Mountain: Geological Society America Abstracts with Programs, v. 8, no. 3, p. 388. Lanphere, M. A., Irwin, W. P., and Hotz, P. E., 1968, Isotopic age of the Nevadan orogeny and older plutonic and metamorphic events in the Klamath Mountains, California: Geological Society America Bulletin, V. 79, p. 1027—1052. Medaris, L. G., 1966, Geology of the Seiad Valley area, Siskiyou County, California, and petrology of the Seiad ultramafic com- plex: California University at Los Angeles, Ph.D. thesis, 359 p. Page, N. J ., 1966, Mineralogy and chemistry of the serpentine group minerals and the serpentinization process: California Univer- sity, Berkeley, Ph.D. thesis, 351 p. Pratt, W. P., 1964, Geology of the Marble Mountain area, Siskiyou County, California: Stanford University, Stanford, Calif, Ph.D. thesis, 116 p. Rynearson, G. A., and Smith, C. T., 1940, Chromite deposits in the Seiad quadrangle, Siskiyou County, California: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 922, p. 281—306. Snoke, A. W., 1977, A thrust plate of ophiolitic rocks in the Preston Peak area, Klamath Mountains, California: Geological Society America Bulletin, v. 88, p. 1641—1659. Suppe, John, and Armstrong, R. L., 1972, Potassium-argon dating of Franciscan metamorphic rocks; American Journal Science, v. 272, no. 3, p. 217—233. 'Irommsdorff, Volkman, and Evans, B. W., 1974, Alpine metamorph- ism of peridotitic rocks: Schweizerische Mineralogische und Pet- rographisehe Mitteilungen V. 54, no. 2—3, p. 333—354. Wells, F. G., 1956, Geology of the Medford quadrangle Oregon- California: U.S. Geo]. Survey Quadrangle Map GO—89, scale 1296,000. Wells, F. G., and others, 1940, Preliminary geologic map of the Grants Pass quadrangle, Oregon: Oregon Department Geology and Mineral Industries, scale 1296,000. Wells, F. G., Hotz, P. E., and Cater, F. W., 1949, Preliminary description of the geology of the Kerby quadrangle, Oregon: Oregon De- partment Geology and Mineral Industries Bulletin 40, 23 p. Wells, F. G., and Peck, D. L., 1961, Geologic map of Oregon west of the 121st meridian: U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Geologi- cal Investigation Map I~325. Williams, Harold, and Smyth, W. R., 1973, Metamorphic aureoles beneath ophiolite suites and alpine peridotites: tectonic implica- tions with west Newfoundland examples: American Journal Sci- ence, v. 273, p. 594—621. (>16 7? P 4, E5344 ”’ ’0“ 7 DAYS Y OI: SEP 2 01979 MAINE COASTAL STORM AND FLOOD OF FEBRUARY 2, 1976 Report prepared jointly by the US. Geological Survey and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration US. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 0 US DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE U. 2;} DEPOSITQ H _, we so 3979 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1087 am 5 SEP if; I l _ ”Supra“, YLjI‘I’D‘ III-RY \""i \f‘ III-19:“! MAINE COASTAL STORM AND FLOOD OF FEBRUARY 2, 1976 By R. A. MORRILL, U.S. Geological Survey, and E. H. CHIN and W. S. RICHARDSON, National Weather Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1087 Report prepared jointly by the US. Geological Survey and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON: 1979 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR CECIL D. ANDRUS, Secretary GEOLOGICAL SURVEY H. William Menard, Director UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE JUANITA M. KREPS, Secretary NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION Richard A. Frank, Administrator Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Morrill, R. A. Maine coastal storm and flood of February 2, 1976. (Geological Survey professional paper ; 1087) Bibliography: p. 1. Bangor, Me.—Flood, 1976. 2. Bangor, Me.—-Storm, 1976. 3. Storm surges—Maine—Bangor. 1. Chin, Edwin H., joint author. II. Richardson, William Shelby, 1943— joint author. III. United States. Geological Survey. IV. United States. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. V. Title. VI. Series: United States. Geological Survey. Professional paper ; 1087. GB1388.4.M2M67 551.4’8 78—606076 For sale by Superintendent of Documents, US. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 Stock Number 024—001—03188—4 FOREWORD The U.S. Geological Survey and the National Weather Service have a long history of cooperation in monitoring and describing the Nation’s water cycle—— the movement of water as atmospheric moisture, as precipitation, as runoff, as streamflow, and as ground water, and finally, through evaporation, its return to the atmosphere to begin the cycle over again. The cooperative effort has been a natural blending of technical talent and responsibility. The National Weather Service is the Federal agency responsible for monitoring and predicting atmos- pheric moisture and precipitation, for forecasting riverflow, and for issuing warn— ings of destructive weather events. The U.S. Geological Survey is the primary agency for monitoring the quantity and quality of the earthbound water re- sources, including both ground water and surface water. This report represents another step in the growth of our cooperative ef- forts. The working arrangement has been accelerated by many major flood dis- asters that have struck the Nation in the last few years, including hurricane Agnes in 1972, which has been called the worst natural disaster in the United States. Hundreds of lives have been lost, thousands of people have been made homeless, millions of acres of land have been inundated, and several billions of dollars in property damage in urban and industrial areas have been caused by floods. A tidal storm surge along the coast of Maine, February 2, 1976, caused by hurricane-force winds, resulted in a water-surface elevation more than 10 feet higher than the predicted astronomical tide at Bangor, Maine. The business section of Bangor was severely damaged. Roads, docks, and beaches along the coast between Eastport and Brunswick were also heavily damaged. These disasters emphasize the need for increased knowledge and respect of the force and flow of floodwater. The documentation of the flood in Bangor, Maine, in February 1976 should aid the understanding of such flood disasters and will help improve human preparedness for coping with future floods of similar catastrophic magnitudes. /./(}7ww,/r @féfmm JOSEPH S. CRAGWALL, JR. GEORGE P. CRESSMAN Chief Hydrologist Director U.S. Geological Survey National Weather Service Department of the Interior Department of Cemmerce III PLATE FIGURE TABLE NH CONTENTS Page Glossary VI English-metric equivalents VI Abstract 1 Introduction 1 Acknowledgments 1 Study area 1 Meteorological setting 3 Storm damage 8 Hydrologic data 8 Drainage areas and streamflows 8 Observed high-water marks 9 Bangor flood 10 Historical flood accounts 1 2 Summary 16 References 17 ILLUSTRATIONS [Plates are in pocket] Map showing area of report and location of flood-elevation sites, coastal Maine. Map of downtown Bangor, Maine, showing inundated area and flood data sites. Page Map showing location of study area in downtown Bangor, Maine 2 Map showing the 500-mb analysis and surface low and fronts at 1900 EST, February 1, 1976 ------------------------------------------- 4 Map showing the 12-hour surface pressure change ending 0700 EST, February 2, 1976 5 Map showing the sea-level pressure pattern, storm track, winds, and fronts along the east coast at 0700 EST, February 2, 1976 6 Graphs of observed storm surges at Bar Harbor, Rockland, and Portland, Maine ‘ 7 Photograph showing effects of the storm downeast, West J onesport, Maine 10 Map showing the geographical configuration of Penobscot Bay 13 Photographs showing the flooding in downtown Bangor, Maine: 8. Floodwaters at highest point, Kenduskeag Plaza 14 9. Strong currents hampering rescue attempts, Kenduskeag Plaza 15 10. Motorist rescued from strong flood currents in Kenduskeag Plaza 16 TABLES Page Gaging station records for Penobscot River at Veazie Dam, Veazie, Maine Gaging station records for Kenduskeag Stream near Kenduskeag, Maine _ 9 Comparison of coastal high-water elevations resulting from storm of February 2, 1976, and predicted high tides ----------------- 1 1 Descriptions and locations of documented high-water marks in Bangor, Maine 17 Locations and descriptions of documented coastal high-water marks 17 VI MAINE COASTAL STORM AND FLOOD OF FEBRUARY 2, 1976 GLOSSARY Astronomical tide.—The tide due to the attractions of the sun and moon in contrast to a meteorological tide which is caused mainly by wind and atmospheric pressure. Cubic feet per second (ft3/s).—The rate of discharge. One cubic foot per second is equal to the discharge of a stream of rectangular cross section 1 foot wide and 1 foot deep, flowing at an average velocity of 1 foot per second. It equals 28.32 liters per second (Us) or 0.02832 cubic meters per second (m‘Vs). Cyclone.-—An atmospheric low-pressure system around which the wind blows in a counterclockwise direction in the Northern Hemi- sphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. Dewpoint (or dewpoint temperature).—The temperature to which a given parcel of air must be cooled at constant pressure and constant watervvapor content in order for saturation to occur. Drainage area of a stream at a specific location.—The area, meas- ured in a horizontal plane, which is enclosed by a topographic divide. Drainage area is given in square miles (miz). One square mile is equivalent to 2.590 square kilometers (kmz). Exceedance probability.—The probability that a peak discharge will be exceeded as an annual maximum in any given year. Extratropical low (extratropical cyclone).—Any cyclone-scale storm that is not a tropical cyclone, usually referring only to the migratory frontal cyclones of middle and high latitudes. Flood peak—The highest value of the stage or discharge attained by a flood. Gust—A sudden brief increase in the speed of the wind. Hurricane.—A severe tropical cyclone (windspeed 64 knots or higher) in the North Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, and the Eastern North Pacific off the west coast of Mexico. Jetstream.—Relatively strong winds concentrated within a narrow stream in the atmosphere. K index.—A measure of the airmass moisture content and stability, K = (Tam—Two) ‘l’ Tasso _ (Tmo—TdJoo), T and T4 are temperature and dewpoint, respectively, in degrees Celsius (°C); subscripts de- note pressure levels. Knot.—A velocity of one nautical mile per hour. Lifted index.—Difference in degrees Celsius between the observed 500-millibar (mb) temperature and the computed temperature which a parcel characterized by the mean temperature and dewpoint of the 50—mb-thick surface layer would have if it were lifted from 25 mb above the surface to 500 mb. Mean low water.—The average level of low water at a place over a 19-year period. Millibar (mb).—A unit of pressure equal to 1,000 dynes per square centimeter (dyn/cm”). National geodetic vertical datum of 1929 (NGVD).—Formerly called “sea level datum of 1929.” A geodetic datum derived from a general adjustment of the first order level nets of both the United States and Canada. In the adjustment, sea levels from selected tide stations in both countries were held as fixed. The year indicates the time of the last general adjustment. This datum should not be confused with mean sea level. Nautical mile.—A distance of 6,080.20 feet (1.853 km). Precipitable water.—The totalatmospheric water vapor contained in a vertical column of unit cross-sectional area extending between any two specified surfaces: in this report, from the surface up to the 500- mb level. Spring tide.—The tides occurring about the times of new and full moon when the range is the greatest. Storm surge—The departure of water level from the normal astro- nomical tide, due to meteorological effects. Time of day is expressed in 24-hour time—Eastern standard time (EST) is used in this report. For example, 1:30 am. is 0130 EST, 1:00 pm. is 1300 EST. Tropical storm.—Tropical cyclone with winds 34 to 63 knots. Trough—An elongated area of relatively low atmospheric pressure. ENGLISH-METRIC EQUIVALENTS [The following factors may be used to convert U.S. customary units published herein to the International System of units (51)] Multiply U.S. customary units by to obtain SI units Miles (mi) _________________________ 1.609 Kilometers (km). Square miles (mi?) __________________ 2.590 Square kilometers (km2). Cubic feet per second (ft3/s) __________ .02832 Cubic meters per second (ms/s). Feet (ft) ___________________________ .3048 Meters (m). Inches (in.) _________________________ 25.4 Millimeters (mm). Feet per mile (ft/mi) ________________ .1894 Meters per kilometer (m/km). Knots _______________________________ 1.852 Kilometers per hour (km/hr) . Inches of mercury at 32°F (in Hg) ___ 3.38638 Pascal (Pa). Bar _________________________________ 100 Kilopascal (kPa). MAINE COASTAL STORM AND FLOOD OF FEBRUARY 2, 1976 By R. A. MORRILL, U.S. Geological Survey, and E. H. CHIN and W. S. RICHARDSON, National Weather Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ABSTRACT A business section of Bangor, Maine, was flooded with 12 feet (3.7 m) of water on February 2, 1976. The water surface elevation reached 17.46 feet (5.32 m) above national geodetic vertical datum of 1929 (NGVD), approximately 10.5 feet (3.2 m) above the predicted astronomical tide at Bangor. The un- usually high water resulted from a tidal storm surge caused by prolonged, strong, south-southeasterly Winds which occurred near the time of astronomical high tide. Winds exceeded 64 knots off the New England coast. The re ulting flood was the third highest since 1846 and is the first (1 cumented tidal flood at Bangor. This report documents the meteorological and hydrologic conditions associated with the flooding and also contains a brief description of storm damage from Eastport to Brunswick, Maine. Included are flood elevations in the city of Bangor and along the coast of Maine east of the Kennebec River. INTRODUCTION The purpose of this study is to document the third highest known flood in Bangor, Maine, to summarize re- ports of storm damage, to tabulate flood elevations along the coast of Maine, and to discuss the meteorological and hydrological conditions associated with the flooding and storm damage. The flood data will aid in investigations of future storms which affect the coast of Maine and will be useful in minimizing flood damages. Analysis of me- teorological and hydrologic data associated with the in- tense February storm indicates that the major cause of the flooding at Bangor was the combination of storm surge and high astronomical tide. The storm surge which was generated on the open coast and in the Penobscot Bay was funneled by strong south—southeasterly winds up the Penobscot River to Bangor. Flooding was not confined to Bangor. The effects of the storm surge ex- tended along the coast of Maine from Eastport to a point southeast of Brunswick. Previously recorded floods at Bangor had been attributed to streamflow or backwater from debris or ice jams. The flood peak occurred on February 2, 1976, at ap- proximately 1130 hours Eastern Standard Time (EST) and receded 1 hour later. The following day, the rivers were well within their normal channels but floodmarks remained visible. The US. Geological Survey (USGS) obtained elevations of some floodmarks and marked oth- ers for future leveling. Elevations of marked points were obtained in May 1976 by Design Planners of Middletown, N.Y., under contract to the USGS. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Wind speeds and directions at Bucksport, Maine, were obtained from the St. Regis Paper Company. Tide data were furnished by the National Ocean Survey (NOS), National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra- tion (NOAA). The map of the Bangor area was provided by the city of Bangor. Photographs were furnished by the Bangor Daily News. Estimates of flood damages were obtained from the Maine Office of Civil Emergency Pre- paredness. STUDY AREA The study area consists of a section of coastal Maine extending from Eastport to a point southeast of Bruns— wick, a distance of 170 air miles (274 km). This part of the Maine coastline (see pl. 1) is indented with numerous estuaries and bays. Data points along the coast were located for the most part in estuaries away from the open ocean, but some were on rocky peninsulas and near beaches. Bangor, the third largest city in Maine, is located at the head of the Penobscot River estuary about 20 miles (32 km) inland from Penobscot Bay at the confluence of Kenduskeag Stream and Penobscot River (fig. 1). Ban- gor is the retail-wholesale distribution center for a six- county area of eastern and northern Maine, and its down— town is a hub of commercial and service activity. Most of the city’s nonresidential structures are located down- town, where approximately 4,000 people are employed. The major parking facilities for this area are on flood plains along Kenduskeag Stream. The one-quarter- square-mile study area was confined to the downtown 1 2 MAINE COASTAL STORM AND FLOOD OF FEBRUARY 2, 1976 68°50’ ‘ 53°45 GLENBURN ’/ ,/— —/’/l’/’/ [{3 015 I 1‘ 1 l :13 I ?KILOMETEHS / ’/ ‘ 0 V2 2 MILES \ \ \ \ \ \ \\ HERMON \ l \\ 44°50 — \ Urban area MAINE BREWER EXPLANATION Downtown study area on plate 2 FIGURE 1.—Map showing location of study area in downtown Bangor, Maine (see pl. 2), and inset showing area covered on plate 1. METEOROLOGICAL SETTING 3 section, which is divided by Kenduskeag Stream and bor- dered on the south by the Penobscot River. METEOROLOGICAL SETTING The extratropical cyclone that passed over eastern Maine on February 2, 1976, originated in the Gulf of Mexico. An incipient low which was over Louisiana on January 31, 1976, migrated eastward over the gulf and then cut through the Florida panhandle. At 1300 EST, February 1, the low was located over Georgia and it had a central pressure of 997 millibars (mb). It then began to accelerate and steadily deepen. At 1900 EST, with its associated cyclonic circulation well organized, the low reached the Carolinas with a 986-mb central pressure. The polar jetstream was located over the Atlantic States and was oriented from North Carolina to Maine. The 300—mb winds over the Atlantic Coast were from the southwest and reached a speed of 130 knots off the Maine coast. A very deep upper air trough extending from the Lake Superior region to Florida (fig. 2) placed the At- lantic States under a trough-to-ridge upper air contour pattern. East coast and maritime cyclones will intensify if cer—’ tain conditions are fulfilled. Three conditions that govern their intensification are: (1) the location of the low center relative to the 500—mb contour pattern, (2) the 500-mb windspeed over the low, and (3) the 500-mb temperature gradient northeast of the low. George (1960) presented graphs for quantitative prediction of intensification. The conditions favorable to intensification are: (1) the low is under an open 500—mb contour and ahead of a trough, (2) the 500—mb windspeed over the low is strong, and (3) the temperature gradient extending from the low in the northwest quadrant is moderate. These conditions were all fulfilled at 1900 EST, February 1. The upper air contour gradients over the Eastern United States further increased by 0700 EST, February 2, indicating the presence of a strong upper airflow and strong steering for the low. For example, at Portland, Maine, at 1900 EST, February 1, the observed winds at 15,100 feet (4,602 In) above the surface had a direction 220° and a speed of 64 knots; 12 hours later at 0700 EST, February 2, the windspeed at the same height increased to 106 knots from a direction of 191°. From the Carolinas, the low raced rapidly toward New England. At 0100 EST, February 2, it was off the New Jersey—Delaware Coast and its central pressure had dropped to 975 mb. At this time gale winds were reported by ships offshore. By 0700 EST, February 2, the low had already reached Maine with a central pressure of 964 mb and was still deepening. An explosive drop in surface pressure ex- ceeding 32 mb in the 12 hours ending at 0700 EST, Feb- ruary 2, was observed over eastern Maine (fig. 3). This was matched by corresponding upper level height de— creases of 492 ft (150 m) at 500 mb, 689 ft (210 m) at 700 mb, and 787 ft (240 m) at 850 mb. At Bangor, Maine, surface pressure fell another 7.8 mb in the subsequent 4 hours. Caribou, Maine, had a record low pressure of 957 mb on February 2, while Wiscasset, Maine, reported an unofficial 945 mb. Winds became increasingly strong and reached hurri- cane force (over 64 knots) off the New England coast be- ginning in the morning of February 2. The merchant ship American Concord at 39.8° N., 69.5° W., was battered by 85-knot winds and 40-foot (12.2-m) waves. The Esso New Orleans observed 7 O-knot winds with 30—ft (9-m) sea waves at 403° N., 69.6° W. The US. Ocean Weather Station “Hotel” at 38°00’ N., 71°00’ W., also recorded a windspeed of 70 knots at 0700 EST, February 2, which was a maximum compared with the February mode of 22 knots for the station. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) environmental data buoys lo- cated at 40°06’ N., 73°00’ W., and 38°42’ N., 73°36’ W., both had maximum observed winds for the month at 07 00 EST, February 2. Many inland stations in eastern Maine experienced the highest wind of the storm in late morn— ing. For example, Augusta, Maine, had a sustained windspeed of 30 knots with gusts to 56 knots at 1140 EST, and Bangor, Maine, had 40—knot winds gusting to 80 knots at 1000 EST. It should be noted that the ob- served wind direction at Bangor was between 150° to 190° for a 6—hour period prior to 1200 EST. A ship’s re- port off the Maine coast at 0700 EST, February 2, also indicated that the wind was from 170°. Southerly wind also persisted over the Penobscot Bay for a considerable period after 0700 EST. Strong south and south-southeast winds, 40 to 50 knots, associated with the intense low pressure system (fig. 4) which was located about 45 miles (72.4 km) northwest of Portland, “piled up” water along the Maine coast. The storm surge reached a maximum height at Portland of 3.6 feet (1.1 m), Rockland 3.7 feet (1.1 m), and Bar Harbor 5.5 feet (1.7 m) between 1000 and 1100 EST on February 2, about 2 hours before the time of astronomical high tide (see fig. 5). The astronom— ical high tides at these locations were about 1.0 foot (0.30 In) higher than normal because spring tides occurred only a few days earlier. Storm precipitation over Maine was concentrated in a 24-hour period ending 0700 EST, February 2. An analy- sis of stability and moisture content at the beginning of this period showed that the amount of precipitable water over Maine ranged from 0.32 inch (0.81 cm) at Portland to less than 0.22 inch (0.56 cm) over the northern region. The average relative humidity over Maine was between 70 and 85 percent. The lifted index, an indication of at- mospheric stability, is the difference in degrees Celsius between the observed 500—mb temperature and the com— 4 MAINE COASTAL STORM AND FLOOD OF FEBRUARY 2, 1976 “‘" “‘" .. rm 4 ,W ,1, It" 14" :/,‘ .z’ ‘W y 21* ' -, ‘-;-7;Za-%+a _\\- 7 l i1 1005 - q) l- ‘H y cu C’. 1900 EST, February 1, 1976. 2.—The 500-mb analysis and surface low and fronts at FIGURE METEOROLOGICAL SETTING 5 §§ Z 08‘, 9 “CD. [— Nm , / . . EI" {,1 v . 5:7 . ‘ z} ~- . . :3 I. I ‘ 0 N g V \ ' ‘- , . _ .' , ‘_‘ . > 0 \. \ v V » V 0 ‘ ' . . o . ‘> \o‘f ‘ ' V . V ' .‘ ~ I ‘N. . .$'\ V . . . . n? x 3 \ V . r» ‘ P ‘ . c , . '3’ , , (f V MAINE COASTAL STORM AND FLOOD OF FEBRUARY 2, 1976 100° 90° ° ° °_ 50° APPROXIMATE SCALE 120,000,000 EXPLANATION Isobars in millibars ‘A—_‘—’ Cold front ——.—-—- Warm front FIGURE 4.—The sea-level pressure pattern, storm track, winds, and fronts along the east coast at 0700 EST, February 2, 1976. The central pressure of the storm system was approximately 956 mb. The arrow indicates the storm track. METEOROLOGICAL SETTING 8 l BAR HARBOR ZF/W l ROCKLAND M STORM SURGE, IN FEET O 6 I PO RTLAN D A/J/J 0 \ W _2 _ _ 31 1 2 _ 3 JANUARY FEBRUARY FIGURE 5. —Observed storm surges at Bar Harbor, Rockland, and Portland, Maine, January 31—February 8, 1976. Arrows indicate times of astronomical high tides. puted temperature of a parcel characterized by the mean temperature and dewpoint of the 50—mb-thick surface layer if it were lifted from 25 mb above the surface to 500 mb. Areas with lifted index greater than +4 are consid- ered as stable. At 0700 EST, February 1, this index was greater than 22 over Caribou, Maine, and 20 over Port- land, Maine. Another measurement of atmospheric static stability and air mass moisture content is given by K In- dex: K = (Tsso—Tsoo) + Td,850 — (T700 _Td.700) where T and T01 are the temperature and dewpoint in degrees Celsius, respectively, and the subscripts denote the pressure level in millibars. A K Index greater than 35 is associated with numerous thunderstorms (less than 20, no thunderstorms). The 0700 EST, February 1, K Index was —8 over Caribou, Maine, and 7 over Portland, Maine. The calculated K Index for Portland for 0700 EST, February 2, was less than 5. This high atmospheric stability impeded the develop- ment of local convective storms. With the lack of con- vective thundershowers, the cyclone passage over Maine brought steady frontal precipitation, covering consider- able area in the form of widespread rainfall that changed to snowfall in the mountains. The areal average 24-hour precipitation ending at 0700 EST, February 2, was ap- proximately 0.79 inch (2.01 cm) over the northern one- third of Maine and 1.77 inches (4.50 cm) over the south— ern two-thirds of Maine. Precipitation on February 2 at Bangor and Augusta, Maine, was 1.46 inches (3.71 cm) and 1.81 inches (4.60 cm), respectively. Compared with the 1-year 24-hour rainfall value of 2.36 inches (5.99 cm) 8 MAINE COASTAL STORM AND FLOOD OF FEBRUARY 2, 1976 over southern Maine (Hershfield, 1961), these amounts were not uncommon. In general, storm rainfall was not a contributing factor to the flooding at Bangor. By 1300 EST, February 2, the low had passed through Maine and was centered over eastern Quebec with a 953- mb central pressure. The low continued to move north- ward and by 1900 EST, February 2, it was located near Labrador. Heavy sea and high swell conditions prevailed for several more days in the northwestern Atlantic Ocean. STORM DAMAGE Storm damage due to the rapidly moving intense ex- tratropical storm which raced across Maine on February 2, 1976, occurred from Eastport to Brunswick. Total damage estimated by the Maine Office of Civil Emer- gency Preparedness was $2.6 million; no deaths were reported. The locations of the cities and communities af- fected are shown in plate 1. A building and adjacent pier were blown into the bay at Eastport, blocking boat traffic in and out of the town dock. At West Quoddy Head, high surf washed out the underpinnings of a wharf. Hurricane-force winds accompanied by rain hit Stonington on Deer Isle in late morning. At the Little Deer Isle—Deer Isle causeway, waves hammered the breakwater and sent spray about 60 feet (18.3 m) into the air. Water rushed across the causeway, scouring out large potholes and clogging the roadway with mounds of seaweed and flotsam. A 360—foot (llO-m) Japanese freighter, M usashino M am, anchored in Penobscot Bay, was blown aground near Searsport shortly after 0600 EST, February 2, and was refloated at high tide on Feb- ruary 15, with the aid of tugs. The city of Bangor, Maine, located 19 miles (30.6 km) inland, suffered considerable flood damage. About 200 motor vehicles were submerged and many downtown businesses were inundated. Beach erosion was heavy particularly at Popham Beach near the mouth of the Kennebec River. HYDROLOGIC DATA DRAINAGE AREAS AND STREAMFLOWS Bangor is at the confluence of Kenduskeag Stream and Penobscot River. The drainage areas of Kenduskeag Stream and Penobscot River are 213 mi2 (552 kmz) and 7,720 mi2 (20,000 kmz), respectively. The Penobscot River is tidal below the dam at Bangor. In the estuary, the mean tide is 6.5 feet (2.0 m) above mean low water, and the range of tide averages 13.1 feet (4.0 In), increas- ing to a spring range of 14.9 feet (4.5 m). Streamflow data during the flood period are given in tables 1 and 2. The exceedance probability for peak flow of Kenduskeag Stream during this period was approxi- mately 0.90, indicating that the amount of water flowing TABLE 1.—Gaging station records for Penobscot River at Veazie Dam, Veazie, Maine Location: Lat 44°49’55” N., log 68°42’05” W., Penobscot County, at dam 1 mile southwest of Orono-Veazie town line. Drainage area: 7,764 mi2. Source of record: Furnished by Bangor Hydro-Electric Co. Remarks: Flow of Feb. 6, 1976, was less than a mean annual peak (exceedance probability less than 0.995). Date Mean discharge (ft3/s) Jan. 24 8,600 25 8,800 26 8,300 27 8,500 28 11,400 29 16,000 30 20,500 31 20,800 Feb. 1 21,500 2 21,800 3 22,200 4 24,400 5 26,900 6 28,500 7 27,100 8 25,200 9 23,500 10 22,400 11 19,200 12 18,200 13 15,400 has a 90 percent chance of being equaled or exceeded as an annual maximum in any given year. During the period January 31 (1600 EST) to February 3 (1200 EST) the water in the stilling well of the tide gage was frozen and no stage readings were obtained. Daily discharge for this period was estimated as explained in table 2. On the Penobscot River at Veazie Dam (just upstream from Bangor) the peak flow had an exceedance probability less than 0.995. The flows of the two rivers during the flood period were in themselves insufficient to have caused the flood at Bangor. A river pilot who brought an oil barge to Bangor re- ported ice floating in the estuary on the day following the flood, February 3; however, he reported no evidence of any serious ice jams between Bangor and the open ocean. On February 3, a USGS field person observed that the ice cover was intact on the Penobscot River upstream of the Bangor Dam, and on Kenduskeag Stream upstream of Six Mile Falls (located 6 miles (9.7 km) upstream from mouth). He concluded that the small amount of ice seen in the Penobscot River downstream of Bangor was shore ice from the bays and marshes in the estuary. There was some minor flooding from ice jams at the mouths of several small streams that flow into the estuary. Peak water-surface elevations were HYDROLOGIC DATA 9 TABLE 2.——Gaging station records for K enduskeag S tream near K enduskeag, M dine Location: Lat 44°53'48” N., long 68°53’04” W., Penobscot County, on right bank 300 ft upstream from highway bridge and 2.9 mi south of Kenduskeag. Drainage area: 178 mifl. Period of record: October 1941 to current year. Gage: Water-stage recorder. Datum of gage is 91.94 ft above national Average discharge: 33 years (1941—74), 321 fta/s, 24.49 in./yr. Extremes: Period of record: Maximum discharge, 6,400 ft3/s, Sept. 12, 1954 (gage height, 14.83 ft); minimum daily, 1.0 fta/s, Sept. 30, 1948, Aug. 8, 1965. Remarks: Stage-discharge relation affected at times by ice. Maximum dis- charge on Feb. 2 was 2,010 ftn/s. This flow is less than a mean annual geodetic vertical datum of 1929. peak flow (exceedance probability was less than 0.90). Jan. 27 Jan. 28 Jan. 29 Jan. 30 Jan. 31 Gage Gage Gage Gage Gage Time height Discharge height Discharge height Discharge height Discharge height Discharge (EST) (ft) (ftS/s) (ft) (ft3/s) (ft) (ftfl/s) (ft) (ftu/s) (ft) (ftfl/s) 0200 ___ ___ 4.49 540 7.01 1,620 7.53 2,250 7.60 1,710 0400 ___ ___ 4.65 611 7.14 1,710 7.55 2,190 7.60 1,680 0600 1-- ___ 4.83 675 7.27 1,800 7.64 2,140 7.60 1,640 0800 ___ ___ 5.01 755 7.34 1,880 7.65 2,090 7.60 1,600 1000 ___ _ __ 5.22 863 7.40 1,950 7.65 2,040 7.60 1,560 1200 -__ ___ 5.42 958 7.45 2,040 7.64 2,000 7.60 1,540 1400 ___ ___ 6.13 1,040 7.15 2,120 7.62 1,940 7.60 1,510 1600 3.63 324 6.15 1,130 7.19 2,200 7.62 1,900 ___ 1,480 1800 3.78 347 6.34 1,230 7.40 2,300 7.60 1,860 _ __ 1,450 2000 3.94 387 6.49 1,320 7.50 2,350 7.60 1,820 _ __ 1,420 2200 4.12 425 6.70 1,440 7.55 2,380 7.60 1,780 ___ 1,390 2400 4.29 483 6.86 1,550 7.51 2,320 7.60 1,740 ___ 1,360 Mean dis- charge 1,010 2,060 1,980 1,530 Feb. 1 Feb. 2 Feb. 3 Feb. 4 0200 ___ 1,340 ___ 1,320 ___ 1,870 8.92 1,510 0400 __ _ 1,310 _ __ 1,380 ___ 1,840 8.92 1,490 0600 _ __ 1,300 _ __ 1,550 _ __ 1,810 8.92 1,460 0800 ___ 1,290 ___ 1,690 ___ 1,780 8.92 1,440 1000 ___ 1,270 ___ 1,810 ___ 1,750 8.92 1,420 1200 ___ 1,260 ___ 1,920 ___ 1,720 8.92 1,410 1400 ___ 1,240 ___ 1,980 8.76 1,680 ___ ___- 1600 ___ 1,220 ___ 2,010 8.86 1,640 ___ ____ 1800 ___ 1,200 ___ 1,980 8.90 1,610 ___ ___- 2000 ___ 1,200 ___ 1,950 8.91 1,580 ___ ___- 2200 ___ 1,200 ___ 1,920 8.91 1,560 ___ ___- 2400 ___ 1,240 ___ 1,900 8.91 1,540 ___ ____ Mean dis- charge 1,260 1,780 1,700 NOTE: No gage height available from 1600 EST, Jan. 31, to 1200 EST, Feb. 3. Discharge estimated on basis of recorded range in stage, weather records. inspection of control, and hydrographic comparison with other nearby stations. determined at some of these locations (see table 5). Based upon the foregoing information, ice jams were not a major factor causing the Bangor flooding. OB SERVED HIGH-WATER MARKS Immediately following the storm of February 2, 1976, floodmarks near highways and buildings were marked by the US. Geological Survey. Third-order levels were run to floodmarks in June 1976. Figure 6 shows a flooded highway bridge in West Jonesport and illustrates the difficulties of determining accurate flood elevations. The timing of the storm surge with respect to high tide was an important factor contributing to the flood magnitude. If the storm had hit the coast during low tide, flooding would have been much less severe. The flood peak at Bangor, however, occurred about 1 hour before the time of high tide. Two distinct peaks were observed at Machias, one at about 1100 EST and the second, a higher surge about 1200 EST, which coincided with high tide there. The times and heights of the astronomical high tide at Bangor and 62 coastal data-sites were computed from table 2, Tide Tables 1976 (National Ocean Survey, 1975b, p. 206). Table 5 gives the surveyor’s description of the 62 coastal floodmarks, and plate 1 shows their locations 10 MAINE COASTAL STORM AND FLOOD OF FEBRUARY 2, 1976 FIGURE 6.—The storm downeast, West J onesport, Maine. This photograph (Bangor Daily News, 1976) is typical of the effects of the wind and wave action associated with the storm. This location is in Washington County where a small stream normally flowing from left to right empties into a tidal estuary. Photograph courtesy Bangor Daily News. on a foldout map. Comparison of observed high-water marks (which are referenced to NGVD) t0 astronomical high tides (which are referenced to mean low water) re- quired a datum conversion. For example, the astronom- ical high tide for site No. 41, Southwest Harbor, on Feb- ruary 2 was 10.50 feet (3.2 m) above mean low water. Subtracting the datum conversion factor of 4.93 feet (1.50 m) gives a predicted high tide of 5.57 feet (1.70 m) ' above NGVD. Where an observed high-water mark was located between two sites listed in the tide tables, a da— tum conversion factor was estimated. Table 3 contains observed coastal high—water elevations resulting from the storm of February 2, 1976, and predicted astronom- ical high tides. All elevations are in feet above NGVD. BANGOR FLOOD The very strong south-southeasterly winds which had been blowing for 5 to 6 hours over open water and along the major axis of the Penobscot Bay were the major cause of the storm surge in the bay and at Bangor. Other factors which were involved in the generation and mod- ification of the storm surge in the bay were the inverted barometer effect, shoreline configuration, and bathy- metry. The bay surge was further modified as it made its way up the funnel-shaped Penobscot Bay (fig. 7) to the mouth of the Penobscot River and on to Bangor. On the morning of February 2, shoppers and office- workers left their cars in parking lots along Kenduskeag BANGOR FLOOD 11 TABLE 3.—ComparisorL of observed coastal high-water elevations resulting from storm of February 2, 1.976, and predicted astronomical high tides [Measurements are in feet above national geodetic vertical datum of 1929] Observed high- Predicted Station water eleva- high tide Difference No. Location tion (feet) (feet) (feet) Remarks 1 ______ Small Point Beach ______________________ 12.80 5.27 7.53 Wave action. 2 ______ Popham Beach __________________________ 9.90 4.87 5.03 Wave action. 3 ______ Reid State Park _________________________ 13.37 4.67 8.70 Wave action. 4 ______ GeorgetOWn ______________________________ 7.27 6.10 1.17 ____________ 5 ______ Westport ________________________________ 7.09 5.16 1.93 ____________ 6 ______ Wiscasset _______________________________ 7.68 5.33 2.35 ____________ 7 ______ Damariscotta ____________________________ 8.15 5.14 3.01 ____________ 8 ______ Waldoboro _______________________________ 8.45 5.18 3.27 ____________ 9 ______ Long Cove _______________________________ 8.20 5.00 3.20 ____________ 10 ______ Spruce Head _____________________________ 10.94 5.10 5.84 Wave action. 11 ______ Thomaston ______________________________ 8.68 5.17 3.51 ____________ 12 ______ Camden Harbor __________________________ 8.41 5.10 3.31 ____________ 13 ______ Lincolnville ______________________________ 8.57 5.10 3.47 ____________ 14 ______ Belfast, Marshall _________________________ 10.23 5.71 4.52 Wave action. 15 ______ Belfast, Northport town line _____________ 11.96 5.71 6.25 Wave action. 16 ______ Belfast __________________________________ 8.93 5.71 3.22 ____________ 17 ______ Searsport at railroad crossing _____________ 12.93 5.30 7.63 Wave action. 18 ______ Prospect ________________________________ 12.46 6.20 6.26 ____________ 19 ______ Frankfort _______________________________ 11.98 5.80 6.18 ____________ 20 ______ Frankfort Plains ________________________ 11.43 5.80 5.63 ____________ 21 ______ Frankfort Village: Average _______________________________ 12.28 5.80 6.48 ____________ Bridge ________________________________ 12.82 5.80 7.02 ____________ P01e __________________________________ 11.73 5.80 5.93 ____________ 22 ______ Winterport ______________________________ 12.68 6.50 6.18 ____________ 23 ______ Winterport ______________________________ 17.13 6.50 10.63 Ice jam. 24 ______ Hampden at Ferry site ___________________ 15.06 6.70 8.36 ____________ 25 ______ Hampden at Edgecomb residence __________ 15.44 6.70 8.74 ____________ 26 ______ Bangor at Barret Tar “pier” ______________ 16.66 6.90 9.76 ____________ 27 ______ Bangor at Boyd Street “railroad crossing” __ 17.88 6.90 10.98 ____________ 28 ______ Bangor Pool _____________________________ 18.67 6.90 10.12 ____________ 29 ______ Bucksport _______________________________ 11.56 5.80 5.76 ____________ 30 ______ Verona __________________________________ 11.29 5.80 5.49 ____________ 31 ______ Castine _________________________________ 9.16 5.20 3.96 ____________ 32 ______ Penobscot-West __________________________ 8.39 5.30 3.09 ____________ 33 ______ Penobscot-East ___________________________ 8.91 5.30 3.61 ____________ 34 ______ North Brooksville ________________________ 7.85 5.60 2.25 ____________ 35 ______ Sedgwick-Deer Isle _______________________ 9.52 5.40 4.12 ____________ 36 ______ Sedgwick ________________________________ 9.51 5.40 4.11 ____________ 37 ______ Blue Hill ________________________________ 9.42 5.46 3.96 ____________ 38 ______ Surry ___________________________________ 8.76 5.50 3.26 ____________ 39 ______ Ellsworth: 10.97 5.50 5.47 ____________ Average _______________________________ 10.90 5.50 5.54 ____________ Tree __________________________________ 10.90 5.50 5.54 ____________ Pole __________________________________ 11.04 5.50 5.40 ____________ 40 ______ Bar Harbor _____________________________ 9,39 5.64 3.75 ____________ 41 ______ Southwest Harbor ________________________ 8.23 5,57 2.66 ____________ 42 ______ Mt. Desert ______________________________ 9.23 5.60 3.63 ____________ 43 ______ Winter Harbor ___________________________ 9.57 5.40 4.17 ____________ 44 ______ Milbridge, Wyman Road __________________ 9.91 6.00 3.91 ____________ 45 ______ Milbridge _______________________________ 10.48 6.00 4.48 ———————————— 46 ______ Cherryfield ______________________________ 10.48 6.00 4.48 ____________ 47 ______ Harrington, Water Street ________________ 11.39 6.10 5.29 ____________ 48 ______ Harrington ______________________________ 10.10 6.10 4.00 ____________ 49 ______ Addison _________________________________ 10.44 6.20 4.24 ———————————— 50 ______ South Addison ___________________________ 10.87 6.20 4.67 ____________ 12 MAINE COASTAL STORM AND FLOOD OF FEBRUARY 2, 1976 TABLE 3.—Comparison of observed coastal high-water elevations resulting from storm of February 2, 1976, and predicted astronomical high tides—Continued [Measurements are in feet above national geodetic vertical datum of 1929] Observe high- Predicted Station water eleva- high tide Difference No. Location tion (feet) (feet) (feet) Remarks 51 ______ J onesport _______________________________ 11.59 6.05 5.54 ____________ 52 ______ J onesboro _______________________________ 11.00 6.80 4.20 ____________ 53 ______ Machias ________________________________ 12.91 7.06 5.85 ———————————— 54 ______ East Machias ____________________________ 13.16 7.06 6.10 ____________ 55 ______ East Machias ____________________________ 12.10 7.06 5.04 ____________ 56 ______ Whiting _________________________________ 12.27 7.10 5.17 ———————————— 57 ______ Cutler __________________________________ 11.33 7.29 4.04 ____________ 58 ______ Lubec ___________________________________ 13.96 9.40 4.56 ———————————— 59 ______ Dennysivlle ______________________________ 13.83 10.10 3.73 ____________ 60 ______ Dennsyville ______________________________ 12.60 10.10 2.50 ____________ 61 ______ Perry ___________________________________ 12.06 9.80 2.26 ____________ 62 ______ Calais ___________________________________ 13.44 10.60 2.84 ____________ Stream unaware that their cars might soon be under water. The flood waters rose very quickly; it was esti- mated that it took less than 15 minutes for the water to reach its maximum depth of over 12 feet (3.7 m) (ap- proximately 10.5 feet (3.2 m) above predicted astronom- ical tide) in the Kenduskeag Plaza after the stream flowed over its normal banks. Officeworkers could see the rising waters, but many could not get to their cars. By 1130 EST the flood had submerged approximately 200 motor vehicles. Several people were caught by the flood as they tried to move their cars and had to be rescued. Figures 8, 9, and 10 show the extent of flooding in the Kenduskeag Plaza during rescue attempts. The two bridges joining Bangor and Brewer were closed for a short time in the early afternoon because of the high water level of the Penobscot River. Plate 2 is a large- scale contour map that shows the inundated area of downtown Bangor. Flood damage estimates in the downtown area were reported by the Maine Office of Civil Emergency Pre— paredness at more than $2 million. Much of the damage was in flooded basements and in the cellar vaults of sev- eral downtown banks. There was a power loss in the area and electrical damage sparked at least two fires. No deaths from the storm were reported. Because the unusually high water in Bangor occurred suddenly, was of short duration, and involved a large volume of water, it was considered to be a “flash flood.” The predicted (astronomical) high tide for Bangor on February 2, 1976, was due at 1225 EST, but the flood crest occurred about 1 hour before high tide (1130 EST) and the rivers receded to within their banks soon after high tide. Elevations of floodmarks in Bangor were determined by the US. Geological Survey. Table 4 lists the flood- mark elevations and describes their locations. Plate 2 shows the floodmark locations on a large-scale map of downtown Bangor. HISTORICAL FLOOD ACCOUNTS Except for the 9-month period (March—November 1970) when the National Ocean Survey (NOS) operated a tide gage at Bangor, no systematic records have been kept at Bangor for the Penobscot River. However, in- formation concerning floods on the river often received attention in newspaper articles, books, etc. In 1964, these data were assembled and published in the US. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1779—M, “His- torical Floods in New England” (Thompson and others, 1964). The following excerpts from that paper and other sources refer to the Penobscot River. 1807 PENOBSCOT RIVER IN MAINE (FEBRUARY 17) “An ice jam formed below Bangor Village raising the water 10 to 12 feet higher than was known be- fore” (Thompson and others, 1964, p. M14). 1846 PENOBSCOT RIVER IN MAINE (MARCH 29) “The flood resulting from the storm of March 25— 28 was very destructive in the Penobscot River, ow- ing to the breaking up of ice of great thickness and to the formation of ice jams. The ice jam at Bangor was HISTORICAL FLOOD ACCOUNTS 69°10’ 69°00’ 50' 40' 44°50’ ‘ 1 I l BANGOR 40'— BUCKSPORT 30'— ' BELFAST a” ' 20'— -\ I Cg QQ /\ ‘7 m 0 53 Q 0 CAMDEN D 0 0 CM ‘0 g a 0 Q7 ° “7% § Q o , 44°10; Q, c Q O 000 o g #0 Q 0 D p ROCKLANgD {:3 $5 a? 0 ‘ (”3 41 1:75 1 I W APPROXIMATE SCALE 1:482,000 0 5 1O 15 20 KlLOMETERS 0 5 10 MILES FIGURE 7.——Geographical configuration of Penobscot Bay. 13 14 MAINE COASTAL STORM AND FLOOD OF FEBRUARY 2, 1976 FIGURE 8.—Floodwaters at highest point, Kenduskeag Plaza, Bangor, Maine. This photograph (Bangor Daily News, 1976) shows the depth and area of the downtown flood. The normal channel of the Kenduskeag is between the two light posts on the left, and footbridge guardrails are shown inundated near the center of the photograph. The normal flow is from right to left. Photograph courtesy of Bangor Daily News. called the greatest in 100 years” (Thompson and oth- ers, 1964, p. M24). 1853 PENOBSCOT RIVER NEAR WEST ENFIELD, MAINE (NOVEMBER 13) “The Penobscot River was the highest for 20 years. ' Kenduskeag Village Dam carried away with one life lost” (Thompson and others, 1964, p. M27). 1866 PENOBSCOT RIVER AT TREAT’s FALLS, MAINE (SPRING) “During the ‘heavy freshet’ in the spring of this year Mr. Hiram F. Mills, a well-known hydraulic en- gineer, reported the flow * * * as 96,000 second-feet” (Thompson and others, 1964, p. M35). 1869 PENOBSCOT RIVER AT OLD TOWN, MAINE (OCTOBER) “* * * River rose 9 feet ** *” (Thompson and oth- ers, 1964, p. M37). 1870 PENOBSCOT RIVER BASIN IN MAINE (FEBRUARY) “The Kenduskeag River was reported to be 8 feet over the highway near Six Mile Falls. No serious dam- age occurred along the Penobscot River itself” (Thompson and others, 1964, p. M45). HISTORICAL FLOOD ACCOUNTS 15 FIGURE 9,—Strong currents hampering rescue attempts, Kenduskeag Plaza, Bangor, Maine (Bangor Daily News, 1976). In the center of this photograph, a young woman stranded in her car is being rescued. At this location Kenduskeag Stream is channelized between parking areas on both banks. The stream normally flows between the guardrails in a left-to—right. direction. Photograph courtesy of Bangor Daily News. 1887 PENOBSCOT RIVER IN MAINE (MAY) “Where the track of the M.C.R.R. runs between Bangor and Vanceboro the water has covered the rails to a depth of several feet* * * ” 1901 PENOBSCOT RIVER IN MAINE (APRIL 10) “This flood was the greatest on record * * * up to this time, with a maximum discharge at Bangor of 115,000 second—feet” (Thompson and others, 1964, p. M63). 1909 RIVERS IN MAINE (SEPTEMBER) “* * * the rain began last Wednesday when an un- usual downpour for several days previous caused the Penobscot, St. Croix, Passadumkeag, and Pleasant Rivers to overflow their banks and rapidly rise to freshet pitch. The City of Calais bore the brunt of the trouble” (Thompson and others, 1964, p. M64). 1923 PENOBSCOT RIVER IN MAINE (MAY 1) “1923, May 1. This flood the largest of record in the Penobscot River Basin * * *” (Thompson and others, 1964, p. M65). 16 MAINE COASTAL STORM AND FLOOD OF FEBRUARY 2, 1976 FIGURE 10.—Motorist rescued by boat from strong flood currents, Kenduskeag Plaza, Bangor, Maine. This photograph (Bangor Daily News, 1976) shows the flooding of the parking area near the Merrill Trust Company building. The normal stream channel is in the foreground with flow from left to right. Photograph courtesy of Bangor Daily News. 1936 PENOBSCOT RIVER AT BANGOR (MARCH 21) “Flood crest stage at 15.4 feet, at Peoples Fish Market, right bank” (Grover, 1937, p. 377). 1976 PENOBSCOT RIVER AT BANGOR (FEBRUARY 2, 1976) “Elevation 17.46 NGVD” (average of 10 readings taken in the downtown section of Bangor by US. Geo- logical Survey, see table 4). SUMMARY An extratropical storm caused extensive damage Feb— ruary 2, 1976, along the coast of Maine from Eastport to a point southeast of Brunswick. Water surface elevation in downtown Bangor reached 17.46 feet (5.32 m) (NGVD), approximately 10.5 feet (3.2 m) above predicted astro- nomical tide. The depth of water in Kenduskeag Plaza, Bangor, was more than 12 feet (3.7 m). The flood in Bangor was due to a combination of strong, prolonged, south—southeasterly winds and high astronomical tides. Storm rainfall, ice jams, and stream— flow were not major factors causing the flood. Winds off the New England coast exceeded hurricane force. Sustained windspeed at Bangor reached 40 knots with gusts up to 80 knots. The storm surge reached a maximum height of 3.6 feet (1.1 m) at Portland, 3.7 feet (1.1 m) at Rockland, and 5.5 feet (1.7 m) at Bar Harbor, about 2 hours before the time of the astronomical high tides. REFERENCES 17 TABLE 4.—Descriptions and locations of documented high-water marks in Bangor, Maine, for storm of February 1, 1.976 [High-water mark No. corresponds to station No. on plate 2; elevation is in feet above national geodetic vertical datum of 1929] High-water No. Elevation Description and location 1 ____________ 17.45 Marked debris line on upstream exterior wall of Viner Shoe Co. building on Front Street. 2 ____________ 17.45 Marked debris line on upstream side of retaining wall of Maine Central Railroad bridge on right bank of Kenduskeag Stream. 3 ____________ 17.44 Marked debris line on inside of downstream plate girder on right side of Maine Central Railroad bridge over Kenduskeag Stream. 4 ____________ 17.16 Marked debris line on outside of downstream plate girder on right side of Washington Street bridge over Kenduskeag Stream. 5 ____________ 17.46 Marked debris line on outside of upstream plate girder on right side of Washington Street bridge over Kenduskeag Stream. 6 ____________ 17.51 Marked debris line on stream Side of parking-lot attendant’s building on west side of Kenduskeag Plaza. 7 ____________ 17.46 Marked debris line on column supporting first floor of Merchant’s National Bank; the third column from Kenduskeag Stream. 8 ____________ 17.55 Marked debris line on rear door of Bangor Savings Bank in Kenduskeag Plaza. 9 ____________ 17.57 High-water mark on riverside wall of State Street Merrill Trust Bank building. 10 ____________ 17.50 High-water mark on wall under construction of new Merrill Trust building. Total damages reportedly were about $2.6 million. In the downtown area of Bangor, damages were estimated at more than $2 million. No lives were lost. In Bangor, about 200 motor vehicles were submerged and many business establishments were flooded. Beach erosion was particularly heavy at Popham Beach, near the mouth of the Kennebec River. REFERENCES Bangor Daily News, 1976, Special edition, Tuesday, February}, 1976, Bangor, Maine. / George, J. J ., 1960, Weather forecasting for aeronautics: New York, Academic Press, 673 p. Grover, N. C., 1937, The floods of March 1936, Part 1, New England rivers: US. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 798, 466 p. Hershfield, D. M., 1961, Rainfall frequency atlas of the United States: Technical Paper No. 40, U. S. Department of Commerce, Weather Bureau, 115 p. National Ocean Survey, 1975a, Tide and current glossary: U.S. De- partment of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 25 p. 1975b, Tide tables 1976, High and low water predictions, east coast of North and South America including Greenland: US. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 297 p. Thompson, M. T., Gannon, W. B., Thomas, M. P., Hayes, G. S., and others, 1964, Historical floods in New England: US. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1779—M, p. M1—M105. TABLE 5.——Locations and descriptions of documented coastal high—water marks for storm of February 2, 1976 [Station Nos. correspond to those in table 3 and plate 1] Station No. Location and description 1_~_-Phippsburg at Small Point Beach—red paint mark on ledge about 175 feet west of fence by “Kelp Shed.” 2----Phippsburg at Popham Beach—painted circle on seaward end of granite wall at entrance to Fort Popham. Wall is 40 feet seaward from sign “Fort Popham.” 3____Georgetown at Reid State Park, main beach—red paint mark on ledge on south side of rocks, nearly in line with bathouse. 4____Georgetown———red paint mark on stonework of sec- ond bridge from Georgetown on far bank from Post Ofl‘ice on north side about 10 feet from bridge and 8 feet down from curbing of bridge. 5----Westport—red paint mark on ledge 100 feet from culvert through approach to new Westport bridge. 6__-_Wiscasset, lumber mill yard by highway bridge—— red paint mark on concrete slab 100 feet south of US. Route 1. 7----Damariscotta—red paint mark on granite boulder on south side of boat launch; entrance is the private road to Barrol’s Point (Jack’s Point). 8____Waldoboro at West Waldoboro, on State Highway Route 32 toward Round Pound—first road to left at end of road, 0.5 mile beyond inn on dirt road, between second and third camp at set of three “Keep Out” signs. Red paint mark on granite outcrop. 18 MAINE COASTAL STORM AND FLOOD OF FEBRUARY 2, 1976 TABLE 5.——Locations and descriptions of documented coastal TABLE 5.—Locations and descriptions of documented coastal high-water marks for storm of February 2, 1976~Continued [Station Nos. correspond to those in table 3 and plate 1] Station N 0. Location and description 9----St. George at Long Cove, on State Route 131, going toward Tenants Harbor—0.3 mile south of Long Cove Road, ledge outcrop on left side of high- way. Red paint mark on gneiss outcrop, 60 feet from Central Maine Power Pole No. 264 in front of Mackie’s house. 10____South Thomaston at Spruce Head—0.3 miles east on Lobster Lane Road from junction with State Route 73 going toward SpruCe Head Island, near Lobster Lane Bookstore, 45 feet from Central Maine Power pole No. 85. Red paint mark on granite boulder near sea on right side of road. 11----Thomaston—red paint mark on downstream left abutment of Maine Central Railroad bridge over St. George River. 12____Camden at Camden Harbor—red paint mark 12 inches up harbor from tidal gage piling near pole P5153, near tie—~up of square rigger. 13----Lincolnville, on municipal dock—red paint mark on piling 2 feet below dock toward shore. 14u___Belfast, Marshall Wharf, Eastern Maine Towage Co.—red nail in storehouse building in back of office, 85 feet from wharf edge. 15----Belfast-Northport town line—red nail in 8—inch ash tree on Little River on right bank 100 feet from US. Route 1A. 16____Belfast——red mark painted on left abutment of lower highway bridge over Passagassawakeag River just upstream of railroad bridge on road to State Route 141 on upstream side of bridge. Mark is 2.3 feet below bridge seat. 17----Searsport at Bangor and Arrostook Railroad yard—painted red mark on southeast corner post of cyclone fence around electric supply to cat- walk pier. 18____Prospect on State Route 174, near junction U.S. 1A—red nail on downstream side of third guard- rail p05t from left. 19____Frankfort near US. Route lA—red nail in cherry tree, 35 feet from sign “Howard L. Mendell, Wild Life Management Area, State of Maine.” 20____Frankfort Plains, 0.4 mile north of high-water mark No. 19—painted red mark on downstream right guardrail post (near bottom of cross rail). 21----Frankfort Village—red paint mark on right abut- ment of green bridge 1A mile below dam. Also red nail on base of electric light pole No. 8, just upstream from green bridge. 22____Winterport, five miles south of Hampden-Winter- port town line at old mill site now occupied by Roger Johnson, Contractor—two red nails in the green-shingled shed; one at upstream back wall on corner away from river, and one in windowsill on wall away from river, 3 feet above ground level. high-water marks for storm of February 2, 1976—Continued [Station Nos. correspond to those in table 3 and plate 1] Station No. Location and description 23____Winterport, 0.3 miles south of Winterport—Hamp- den town line marker—~red nail in Bangor Hydro- Electric pole No. 1187, 50 feet from center line of bridge headed toward Hampden on US. Route 1A on right side of road, across from King’s residence. 24____Hampden at ferry site just downstream from Peter Edgecomb’s house (see description No. 25 on Ferry Road)—red paint mark on 8-foot fir tree 20 feet in front of house near dock. 25____Hampden, near Ram Island, 1.5 miles below the narrows and near buoy No. 22—marked high water on home of Peter Edgecomb, red paint mark on the foundation on the upstream side. 26____Bangor at Barret Tar “Pier” near Route I—95 en- trance from Hampden Road—two red nails in electric pole at river edge of dock, 10 feet from pier. One nail in “No Smoking” sign, one on back of pole. 27 ____Bangor at foot of Boyd Street at Hancock Street— red nail in 4-inch elm, 50 feet from Bangor Hydro-Electric pole toward Orono, 1,600 feet up- stream from railroad bridge. High-water mark is about 1 foot over Maine Central Railroad tracks (main line). 28____Bangor at Bangor Pool—nail painted red on tele- phone pole 10 feet from Bangor Hydro-Electric pole No. 28, 50 feet upstream from culvert. High—water mark is about 2.7 feet below crown of highway near culvert. 29____Bucksport—red nail on light pole just bankward of St. Regis Meterological Station near munic- ipal dock. Water was 11/2 feet over this dock February 2, 1976. 30____Verona at Verona Point, by Central Maine Power pole No. 5 in back of “Deering farmhouse”—red nail in 6-inch hornbeam tree. Wash line might indicate wave action. 31____Castine, town pier 20 feet in front of Capt. John’s Restaurant—red paint mark on drainspout. 32____Penobscot on State Route 175, 0.4 mile west of Penobscot—USGS high-water mark disk in base of cut-off utility pole on right downstream of small brook that enters northern bay of Bagaduce River. 33____Penobscot on State Route 175, 0.2 mile east of Penobscot—USGS high-water mark disk in base of fifth guardrail post from left downstream side of culvert at small brook that enters north- ern bay of Bagaduce River. 34____Brooksville, 0.3 mile east of North Brooksville— USGS high-water mark disk in base of utility pole No. 537 on left downstream bank of Baga- duce River. Also mark on 6-inch iron pipe that is the northeast foundation support of shed about 100 feet from the marker in the utility pole. Mark is 2.5 feet above granite footing. MAINE COASTAL STORM AND FLOOD OF FEBRUARY 2, 1976 TABLE 5.——LocatiorLs and descriptions of documented coastal high-water marks for storm of February 2, 1976—Continued [Station Nos. correspond to those in table 3 and plate 1] 19 TABLE 5.—Locatiorzs and descriptions of documented coastal high-water marks for storm of February 2, INC—Continued [Station Nos. correspond to those in table 3 and plate 1] Station No. Location and description Station No. Location and description 35----Sedgwick—USGS high-water mark disk 2.75 feet below top of concrete footing on northeast corner of Deer Isle bridge over Eggemoggin Reach. 36----Sedgwick—nail in base of utility pole No. 47 on right downstream side of causeway at Benjamin River. 37____Blue Hill, on left downstream side of Mill Stream, about 100 feet below culvert on State Route 176—nail driven in side of shop building of Babson and Duffy Plumbing and Heating, lo- cated 2 feet from left side of door as you enter building; oil slick on third clapboard from bot- tom of building. 38__-_Surry, 1.7 miles east of bridge over Meadow Stream on east shore of Contention Cove—USGS high-water mark disk in base of first post of white picket fence about 200 feet from State Route 172. 39----Ellsworth on Water Street on left bank of Union River, about 0.1 mile below U.S. Route 1—USGS high-water mark disk in base of elm tree be- hind body shop of Morrison Chevrolet. Also disk in base of parking lot light pole, same site. 40____Bar Harbor, 0.4 mile south on State Route 3 of bridge over Mount Desert Narrows, on Western Bay side of causeway—USGS high-water mark disk in 4-foot spruce tree about 30 feet west of of shoulder of road. 41___-Southwest Harbor—USGS hgh-water mark disk in top timber curb of U.S. Coast Guard pier. Marker is just right of the most right-hand parking space for U.S. Coast Guard Brindle, just below con- crete deck of pier. 42----Mount Desert, 0.1 mile east on State Route 198 on junction State Routes 102 and 198 in Somes- ville—USGS high-water mark disk in stump about 75 feet off shoulder of road on left bank of Somes Harbor. 43----Winter Harbor, 0.1 mile west of junction State Route 186~USGS high-water mark disk in southwest corner of 20-by-20-foot shed across road from town garage, just west and across road from gas station. 44____Milbridge, junction U.S. Route 1 and Wyman Road—USGS high-water mark disk in northeast corner of storage barn across road from Wyman Canning Company office. 45____Milbridge—USGS high-water mark disk in base of New England Telephone and Telegraph pole No. 10 on east side of U.S. Route 1 causeway over Narranguagus River. 46____Cherryfield—USGS high-water mark disk in base of triple elm on right bank of Narrang'uagus River about 150 feet downstream from U.S. Route 1 bridge and across road from Tracy’s Motel on left bank of small brook. 47----Harrington—USGS high-water mark disk in north- west side of office building on right side of door casing on rear door, about 3 inches above sill. Building is located on Water Street between street and small stream about 100 feet below second culvert on right bank. 48____Harrington—on Ripley Neck Road, 3 miles south of junction U.S. Route 1, on downstream side of bridge over Mill Creek in the second course down from top of 6- by 14-inch timbers. 49____Addison—USGS high-water mark disk in south- east corner of Smith’s Clam Shop on left bank of West Branch of Pleasant River just below bridge. 50----Addison at South Addison—USGS high-water mark disk on southeast corner of building on D. W. Look & Son wharf about 3 feet above wharf on Eastern Harbor. 51----Jonesport—USGS high-water mark disk in base of easternmost light pole of parking lot at pub— lic boat landing, about 0.1 mile of State Route 187. 52____Jonesboro—USGS high-water mark disk on Bangor Hydro-Electric pole No. 1609 on right bank of Beaver Brook, 10 feet downstream from Roque Bluffs Road culvert, 0.1 mile east of junction U.S. Route 1. 53----Machias—marker on front of Sears store on U.S. Route 1. USGS high-water mark disk located at right side of garage door about 1.5 feet from door sill. 54____East Machias—USGS high-Water mark disk in parking lot 13 feet from southwest corner of Post Office. 55----East Machias—two USGS high-water mark disks in southeast corner of Dwelleys’ store about 100 feet north of Post Office. 56____Whiting, 3.5 miles west of North Cutler—PK nail in USGS high-water mark disk in right down- stream bankward side of wing wall on Holmes Stream. 57____Cutler, on 90° turn of State Route 191 in built-up area of Cutler—USGS high-water mark disk in left post (against building) bracing walkway to building reading “Farris Wharf.” 58____Lubec—USGS high-water mark disk in A. W. Pike’s boathouse behind U.S. Custom House left side of Campobello Island bridge, in right water side of doors about 2 inches above floor sill. 59____Dennysville on old U.S. Route 1, just off U.S. Route 1——USGS high-water mark disk on lower edge of fourth clapboard up on small house on left bank of Dennys River upstream from U.S. Route 1. 60____Dennysville on old U.S. Route 1—USGS high-water mark disk in utility pole No. 6 on left bank of Dennys River 300 feet upstream from small house. 20 MAINE COASTAL STORM AND FLOOD OF FEBRUARY 2, 1976 TABLE 5.—Locations and descriptions of documented coastal high-water marks for storm of February 2, 1976—Continued [Station Nos. correspond to those in table 3 and plate 1] Station No. Location and description 61----Perry—USGS high-water mark disk in cut-off utility pole at old bridge site on left bank of Little River 200 feet upstream from new bridge on U.S. Route 1. 62_-__Calais, on Elm Street behind water treatment plant on right bank of St. Croix River—USGS high- water mark disk in cut-ofl" utility pole on stream- ward side of treatment plant outfall. fiU.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: W79 0— 281-359/50 PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1087 PLATE 1 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR GEOLOGICAL SURVEY EXPLANATION Indicates a high water mark at 1.17 feet above predicted high tide at station 4—see tables 3 and 5 Scale 1:500,000 1 inch equals approximately 8 miles 10 O 10 20 3O 40 MILES i—i i—i l—i i—i i—i l-—-—-—-—l F——————-—i i 10 O 10 20 3O 40 50 KILOMETERS WH—fl l———-—i i———:i National geodetic vertical datum of 1929 Base from US. GBOIOQICHI Survey State Of Maine map. INTERIOR—GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, RESTON, VA71978~W78339 Compiled 1958, revised 1973 MAP SHOWING AREA OF REPORT AND LOCATION OF FLOOD—ELEVATION SITES, COASTAL MAINE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1087 PLATE 2 SQUARE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 68°46’ i V 1 i Li 9‘ Lu 9‘9 0: 51 17, Gig E I\ E U) ‘36‘ Q 0) E 3 § e fl: ox sTREET \ ~ 8 ' a , "’ °° a; 17.55 I ll L W E L“ E E m 0') 1‘. (’3 8 STREET HANCOCK ‘ \ if “2» ° ‘1 g E V) W Lu K “35‘ § 3: 59 Z \\ HA YMARKET 20 / 20 TREET WASHINGTON / ” ——44°48’ 6 \ \ is: an I i 10 , 6 {5s /\/ )0 / 6‘ .U m z O {D ‘3 / o /r" A D RAILROA 15 L CENTRA m m M _ MA % m . 1o 6 EXPLANATION Area inundated by tidal floodwater A High—water mark in feet above national w geodetic vertical datum of 1929 at station 4 (see table 4) 68°46’ i PT i 7 T 7 if if 77' WT}iiiifiOLtfiAtriso’rii/ETHESKWVE‘QTW Source: City of Bangor Engineering Department, 1:1200, 1976 SCALE .1400 Nationai Geodetic Vertical Datum I 120 60 D 120 240 360 480 600 720 FEET i——-«i 1———i 1 ' i———i i 60 30 0 60 120 180 240 METERS i———1 i ' i CONTOUR iNTBVAL 5 FEET MAP OF DOWNTOWN BANGOR, MAINE, SHOWING INUNDATED AREA AND FLOOD DATA SITES