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An Annotated Siblioerophy
on Transracial, Transcultural,

and Nonconventional Adoption
and Minority Children

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES
Public Health Service * Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration

 

DOCUMENTS DEPAnT= scary

  
 
  
     

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PECIAL
4+ADOPTIONS:

An Annotated Bibliography
on Transracial, pibliography

and Nonconventional Adoption
and Minority Children

 

For Mental Health, Health, and Human Services Professionals

Developed by
S. Peter Kim, M.D.
"and the
American Academy of Child Psychiatry

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES
Public Health Service
Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration

National Institute of Mental Health
5600 Fishers Lane
Rockville, Maryland 20857

 

 
An annotated bibliography by the American Academy of Child Psy-
chiatry. Prepared by the Academy’s Subcommittee on Adoption of
the Children’s Rights Committee, under a contract (NO. 80-M-
028176101D) from the National Institute of Mental Health.

All material appearing in this volume is in the public domain and
may be reproduced or copied without permission from the Institute
or the authors. Citation of the source is appreciated.

 

DHHS Publication No. (ADM)81-1094
Printed 1981

 

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C. 20402
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Foreword gd

Special adoptions are receiving increasing, necessary attention
from service delivery practitioners and researchers. Today, trans-
racial, transcultural, and nonconventional adoptions are occurring
more frequently. These adoptions create special concerns and pos-
sible stresses for the adoptive parent(s) and for the child that are
greater than those experienced when the adopted child is similar
in type and background to the adoptive parent(s). Moreover, it has
been found that these concerns and stresses persist throughout the
child’s development, often, albeit in different form, into his or her
adult life.

Mental health, health, and human service professionals are often
in a position to offer anticipatory guidance and preventive coun-
seling, and many families turn to such professionals for help in time
of difficulty. It is therefore necessary for all interested professionals
to have as much information as possible in this new and growing
area of adoption. Although the research and other literature relating
to this area have increased in recent years, the publications of these
efforts appear in journals from many disciplines and in books that
might not be known to some professionals.

Special Adoptions: An Annotated Bibliography on Transracial,
Transcultural, and Nonconventional Adoption, and Minority Chil-
dren, is an effort on the part of the National Institute of Mental
Health (NIMH) to assist these families by making the relevant
literature available to professionals in a position to help. The lit-
erature review and preparation of this annotated bibliography were
done by the Subcommittee on Adoption of the Children’s Rights
Committee of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry with the
support of NIMH. This joint effort between NIMH and a professional
organization is another example of the quality of meaningful work
that can be accomplished when the Federal Government and profes-
sional communities work together.

iii
I hope that the professionals working with families who adopt
these special children will find this volume useful. If this book points
out gaps in our knowledge, I hope that research in public agencies
and universities will undertake the necessary studies to address the
unanswered questions.

Herbert Pardes, M.D.
Director
National Institute of Mental Health

iv
Contents

Page
FOreWOord .......oeeeeeeeiiiiiieeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee eee eee e eee iii
Preface .....oeeeeeieeiiiiiiiieeeeeeeeeeeeee ee eee eee eee eee areas vi
Editor's NOTE ..cooooviiiiiieeeeeeeee eee eee eee eee eee eases vill

Annotated Bibliography:

Part I: Transracial, Transcultural, and Nonconventional

Adoption, and Related Issues ...............cocu...... 1

Part II: Minority Children ...........ccccccoeevviiiiiinieieeiieee, 83
Author Index .....ccooeviiiiiiiiiiieeeeee eee 128
Subject INdeX .....ccccovveviiiiiiiieeeee 133
Preface

Since the early 1950s, the pattern of adoptions in this country has
changed considerably: from adoption within ones own racial back-
ground to transracial adoption; from infancy adoption to older age
adoption; from the adoption of normal children to the adoption of
children with physical and/or mental handicaps and/or children with
other special needs; and from adoption by married couples to adop-
tion by single parents. These changes have resulted in the growing
interest in adoption issues relating to the health, education, and
socioeconomic status of ethnic and cultural minority groups. During
this time, social, health, and mental health studies in these areas
were begun more vigorously.

Despite the growing research on adoption, references have been
either difficult to locate or seemingly sparse. A primary reason for
this is that these studies have been shared by scholars, workers,
and clinical child-care specialists from such divergent professional
orientations and backgrounds that their reports are widely scattered
among the literature of a variety of professional groups (e.g., child
psychiatrists, child psychologists, adoption agency social workers,
educators, linguists, lawyers, etc.).

Realizing this difficulty, the American Academy of Child Psy-
chiatry and the National Institute of Mental Health commissioned
a compilation of the existing studies in issues related to transracial,
transcultural, and nonconventional adoption and other various is-
sues concerning minority children. It is the Academy’s belief that
this compilation will be of significant assistance to all child health
and mental health care professionals and to interested others who
want to obtain information in these new areas of adoption—infor-
mation that will help them help the families and children.

In addition to Dr. Peter Kim, other people instrumental in the
development of this publication included Dr. Paul Adams, Chairman
of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry’s Committee on Chil-
dren’s Rights, and Drs. Stella Chess, Andre Derdeyn, Stephen
Hersh, Ake Mattsson, and Jeanne Spurlock, members of the Adop-

vi
tion Subcommittee, who endorsed the project, recommended anno-
tations, and reviewed the references. Ms. Toni D’Amore, research
assistant and coordinator, helped in the search, collection, and in-
itial screening of the literature.

Robert L. Stubblefield, M.D.
President
American Academy of Child Psychiatry

vii
Editor’s Note

In the search and selection of relevant literature, the following
methods were used: First, journals, monographs, and books pub-
lished during the last 25 years in the fields of adoption, child de-
velopment, pediatrics, psychiatry, psychology, social work, sociol-
ogy, and other specialty areas related to the subjects were
systematically checked. Second, various individuals consulting on
the project, including the members of the American Academy of
Child Psychiatry’s Subcommittee on Adoption, were invited to sub-
mit lists of references. Third, existing annotated bibliographies and
reference lists were used. These included ERIC, Psychological Ab-
stracts, Current Contents, and the Handbook of Asian American/
Pacific Islander Mental Health.

viii
Part I. Transracial, Transcultural, and
Nonconventional Adoptions, and Related
Issues
 

 

 

yo

 

 

 

 
1. Adams, J.E., and Kim, H.B. A fresh look at intercountry adop-
tions. Children 18(6):214-221, November-December 1971.

This discussion of intercountry adoptions covers current adoption
trends and legislation, research, problems of adjustment, benefits
and risks to family and child, the role of the agency, and the impact
of such practices in providing for the welfare of all children.

2. Ahmad, I. Adoption in India: A study of attitudes. The Indian
Journal of Social Work 36(2):181-190, July 1975.

Using data from a survey of 205 respondents belonging to two
localities in Delhi, an attempt is made to: (1) analyze the difference
in attitudes of the members of different religious communities to
the passage of comprehensive legislation on adoption, (2) assess
their attitudes toward adoption as such, and (3) explore the sources
people tap for support when contemplating adoption.

The possibility of adopting a child is likely to appeal to those who
do not have their own progeny. In seeking to adopt, people tend to
choose the child of a close relative or friend rather than one from
an orphanage or hospital. Such primordial factors as caste, religion,
and the child’s parentage are regarded as important determinants
of the child’s eligibility. People are disinclined to favor a highly
legal framework for adoption, though they are generally favorable
to the idea of the State passing comprehensive adoption legislation.
The significance of the religious factor on attitudes toward adoption
was sporadic and was neutralized by the social class background of
the respondents.

3. Aldridge, D.P. Problems and approaches to black adoptions.
Family Coordinator 23(4):407-410, October 1974.

Misconceptions about the adoption of black children and adoptions
by black families are discussed. The article suggests that the real
problem is not with the black children or the potential black parents
but rather with agencies in the field of adoption. Social agencies
need to devise new and different approaches for becoming more
responsive to the needs of black children. Policies and practices of
these agencies should be refocused and combined with the reorien-
tation and training of the staff members in the culture of black
families. An economic investment in new approaches to adoption is
vital.
A /

4. Allen, W.E. The formation of racial identity in black children
adopted by white parents. Dissertation Abstracts International
37(4-B):1888, October 1976.

All four families discussed here lived in predominantly white com-
munities. All parents had been reared in a white community and
had had little or no contact with minorities. They were all dedicated,

‘conscientious parents who wanted to provide a good home for the

black child, but all felt helpless in the face of racial prejudice directed
at their child and felt some guilt about their inability to protect the
child from this prejudice.

The black child living in a white community was seen in terms
of racial stereotypes. The community assumed black culture to be

| inferior in some ways and superior in others (for example, blacks
| are presumed to be sexually, musically, and athletically superior).

|
|
|

The child is confronted with subtle pressures to conform to white
assumptions, and he does not know how to deal with these pressures.
Often he may not even recognize them. Life in a white community
thus placed an undue burden on the black children in this study.
To maintain a sense of equilibrium, they spent unnecessary energy
warding off and dealing with the white community's skewed
perceptions.

No matter how competent and loving the parents were, they were
unable to protect the child completely from racial prejudice after he
left the protective sanctuary of the home. School and peer relation-
ships were equal in importance to the family as socializing agents
as the child grew older.

In terms of racial identity, the adoptees moved in one of three
directions: (1) true self-hate or an acceptance of the values of the
dominant group and a resulting belief in white superiority and black
inferiority; (2) acceptance of one’s blackness as a positive virtue,
without any element of self-hate; and (3) a mixture of self-hate and
self-acceptance, an ambivalent feeling about one’s racial identity,
with positive feelings about some aspects and negative feelings
about other aspects. Three of the adoptees fell into the third cate-
gory, and one fell into the first.

X5. Altstein, H., and Simon, R.J. Transracial adoption: An exami-

nation of an American phenomenon. Journal of Social Welfare
4(2-3):63-71, Winter 1977.

After considering the arguments for and against two types of

adoption schemes—traditional inracial adoption and transracial—
the authors examine the results of a recent study involving 204

4
white families who transracially adopted nonwhite children. The
parents are described; their reactions and experiences are reviewed;

and the racial attitudes and self-perceptions of the adopted children |

and their siblings are portrayed.

Analysis of the children’s responses indicates that the practice of |
transracial adoption has had a significant, perhaps even revolu- |

tionary, effect on the racial identity and attitudes of young black |

and white children. The findings do not offer any evidence that black

children raised by white parents acquire a preference for white over |

black. They show only that black children perceive themselves as
black as accurately as white children perceive themselves as white.

6. American Academy of Child Psychiatry. Warm Springs: A Case
Study Approach to Recognizing the Strengths of American Indian
and Alaska Native Families. Washington, D.C.: American Academy
of Child Psychiatry, 1980.

In November 1979, the American Academy of Child Psychiatry
convened on the Warm Springs Reservation, 150 tribal social service
and court workers, for a 3-day seminar to share insights, ideas, and
experiences dealing with Indian child welfare and adoption cases.
This training manual is the result of their efforts to develop fresh
approaches to resolving these cases.

This manual is designed to foster cooperative, coordinated ap-
proaches to resolving Indian child welfare cases. The manual is for
social and mental health workers, tribal judges and counselors, and
all those whose work brings them into frontline involvement with
Indian children, their families, and tribes. Basic, elemental ap-
proaches to child welfare cases which occur on reservations are
presented.

Three case studies involving neglect of an infant, custody of a
young child, and delinquency of a teenager are presented. The facts
have been drawn from actual cases and also from the knowledge
and experience of the child welfare workers who came to the Warm
Springs Seminar. The case studies do not, and could not, represent
all of the situations which tribal social service and court personnel
encounter. However, the situations chosen rank high on the roster
of types of cases which regularly challenge tribal workers.

Copies available at: American Academy of Child Psychiatry
1424 16th Street, N.W.
Suite 201A
Washington, DC 20036

For $5.00

|
7. Andrews, R.G. Adoption: Legal resolution or legal fraud. Family
Process 17(3):313-328, September 1978.

In a changing climate of greater openness about sensitive subjects,
less tension in discussing adoption can be a significant prophylactic
factor. However, if adoption records are unsealed by legislative acts,
the primary needs of the adoptive and biological parents can be
undermined by the needs of the adopted adult.

8. Andrews, R.G. When is subsidized adoption preferable to long-
term foster care. Child Welfare 50(4):194-200, April 1971.

This paper was presented at the Child Welfare League of America
Southwest Regional Conference at Fort Worth, Texas, 1970.

9. Austad, C.C., and Simmons, T.L. Symptoms of adopted children
presenting to a large mental health clinic. Child Psychiatry &
Human Development 9(1):20-27, Fall 1978.

The intake records of a selected sample of 33 children (ages 2 to
16 years), adopted in early infancy, are reviewed and their pre-
senting symptoms categorized. A majority of the children’s symp-
toms fell into the first 5 of 15 categories: oppositional behavior,
aggressive behavior, antisocial acting out, academic problems, and
problems with peers. While these symptoms are not uncommon in
nonadoptive clinic cases, the authors note an emphasis on the adop-
tive parents, disappointment and accusatory attitude toward these
children, as well as a high incidence of symptoms indicative of in-
terpersonal difficulties and problems in developing solid parental
attachments and self-control.

10. Bache-Wiig, B.J. Adoption insights: A course for adoptive par-
ents. Children Today 4(1):22-25, January/February 1975.

This article describes a class designed to meet the needs of adop-
tive parents through discussion, educational presentations by spe-
cialists, and group visits to hospital labor and delivery rooms.

11. Baran, A.; Pannor, R.; and Sorosky, A.D. Adoptive parents and
the sealed record controversy. Social Casework 55(9):531-536, No-
vember 1977.

This article describes the increasing number of adult adoptees
who are insisting that they have a constitutionally based civil right

6
to access to their sealed birth records, which would reveal the true
identity of their natural parents. There is the imminent possibility
of court cases to test the legality of present policies. It is suggested
that adoption agencies must begin to reevaluate their position in
regard to sealed records. The present standards of anonymity were
developed as a safeguard for all of the people involved in adoption;
however, a study is described which indicates that for many persons
these standards have been the cause of insoluble problems. The
authors conclude that the role of the agency as intermediary among
adoptee, natural parents, and adoptive parents should be considered
in a new, creative way.

12. Baran, A.; Pannor, R.; and Sorosky, A.D. Open adoption. Social
Work 21(2):97-100, March 1976.

This discussion examines the historical roots of adoptive practices
in the United States and suggests that the time has come for open
adoption to gain acceptance as an alternative to closed adoption.
Shifts in cultural patterns and the increasing numbers of adult
adoptees who are challenging the practice of sealing their birth
records have contributed to the need for reassessment of adoption
practices.

13. Barinbaum, L. Identity crisis in adolescence: The problem of
an adopted girl. Adolescence 9(36):547-554, Winter 1974.

One of the most difficult developmental tasks during the period
of late adolescence is that of dethroning one’s parents in order to
find new emotional ties outside the family. Guilt feelings about this
process make many adolescents escape into the defense mechanism
of daydreaming. Often fantasy families with superior attributes are
dreamed up by adolescents. Young girls are especially susceptible
to this kind of pseudo-solution to their identity crisis, since to them
the mother is their first love object as well as their feminine identity
figure. In the case of adopted children, an additional factor has to
be taken into account, namely the real uncertainty about one’s
origin.

The case history of a young adopted girl in Israel is presented.
This case history is preceded by a short description of Israeli adop-
tion practices, including legal aspects, matching of child to adopting
parents, and history-telling. At the onset of adolescence, the girl
realizes that she is of different ethnic background than that of her
parents (the parents came from Germany). She rejects her parents

7
and all they stand for and fabricates a pseudo-Moroccan identity for
herself with lapses into behavior disorders of various kinds. Most
of the energy needed for personal growth and preparation for a
career is used up by her frantic search for her biological parents.

Adoption should be studied more thoroughly, not only in the first
stages but also when the adoptee reaches adolescence. Whereas
there are some group meetings for prospective adopters and indi-
vidual counseling for adopting parents in the first year, nothing is
being done as yet for adopted adolescents and their parents.

14. Bass, C. Matchmaker, matchmaker: Older-child adoption fail-
ures. Child Welfare, 54(7):505-512, July 1975.

This article notes the increasing skill of social workers in pre-
paring the older child for adoption but claims that the degree to
which this skill is applied varies strikingly among agencies. Prep-
aration of the child, the selection of the adoptive family, the results
of a California survey of failed adoptions, and the wide gap of trust
seen between agency and family are discussed.

15. Bayerl, J.A. Transracial adoption: White parents who adopted
black children and white parents who adopted white children. Dis-
sertation Abstracts International 38(6-A):3280, December 1977.

This study explored similarities and differences between white
parents who had adopted white children and white parents who had
adopted black or mulatto children. The two types of adoptive parents
were compared in regard to selected background characteristics and
perceptions. Differences and similarities observed were described
and discussed in relation to the decision to adopt transracially or
inracially and in relation to issues concerning transracial adoption.

The total sample for this study included 15 transracially adoptive
parents and 15 inracially adoptive parents. Participants were se-
cured through the cooperation of a Council on Adoptable Children
and two county adoption agencies. All participants lived in or near
a large midwestern college town. Data were gathered from a per-
sonal data sheet, structured interview questions, and three testing
instruments: the Indices of Coping Activities, the Family Bond In-
ventory, and the Consequence Model Questionnaire. The data in-
cluded selected background characteristics of the respondents and
their perceptions of differences between adoptive and biological par-
enthood, patterns of relationships in their families, and positive and
negative consequences associated with transracial adoption.

8
The principal questions asked inracially and transracially adop-
tive parents regarded: (1) selected background characteristics, (2)
perceptions of differences between adoptive and biological parent-
hood, (3) perceptions of relationship patterns within their families,
and (4) perceptions of positive and negative consequences associated
with transracial adoption.

The two groups of adoptive parents were found to be similar with
respect to their average ages, average number of years married,
socioeconomic status, types of employment, and oldest adopted
child's sex. They were found to be dissimilar with regard to the
fathers’ levels of education, the presence of biological children in
the home, the respondents’ places of birth, the age at adoption of
the oldest adopted child, attendance at religious services, reasons
for adopting children, and concerns over the adopted child's identity
development.

The comparison of selected perceptions of the two groups of adop-
tive parents revealed that: (1) Both types of adoptive parents per-
ceived culturally normal patterns of interaction in their families,
(2) both types of adoptive parents perceived adoptive parenthood to
be considerably different from biological parenthood, and (3) the
transracially adoptive parents perceived the consequences associ-
ated with transracial adoption significantly more positively than
did the inracially adoptive parents.

One of the major conclusions of the study was that the background
characteristics that significantly differentiated inracially and trans-
racially adoptive parents may also have influenced their respective
decisions to adopt. Other major conclusions were that: (1) Neither
inracially nor transracially adoptive families are different from bi-
ological families, as indicated by parents’ perceptions of interaction
patterns within their families; (2) transracially adoptive parents
feel neither more nor less noble for having adopted a child than do
inracially adoptive parents; and (3) inracially adoptive parents view
transracial adoption as a “missionary activity.” Transracially adop-
tive parents view it as a means for self-fulfillment and an improve-
ment in the lot of adoptable children, which will ultimately result
in the betterment of society.

It was suggested that case study methodology may be the best
approach for research that addresses transracial adoption issues.

16. Beardslee, C. A mother’s reactions to the surgery of her adopted
son. Maternal-Child Nursing Journal 4(3):183-196, Fall 1975.

The article suggests that an individual’s psychic reactions to a
surgical procedure are determined by (1) the individual’s psychology

9
and the psychic situation, and (2) his/her interpretation of the mean-
ing of the operation. This premise is illustrated in the case of the
reactions of one mother to surgery on her adopted toddler, as man-
ifested during the course of 15 observation days.

17. Beasley, L.M. A typology of characteristics of adoptive parents
of native-born and non-native children. Dissertation Abstracts In-
ternational 37(5-A):3180A, November 1976.

This was a study of white adoptive parents of children designated
as “hard-to-place.” Its general purpose was to compare the charac-
teristics of adoptive parents of native-born, hard-to-place children
and non-native children.

Using an exploratory/descriptive research design, four conjectural
hypotheses were subjected to testing for verification or rejection, at
the .05 level of significance. Three were confirmed, and one was not
confirmed.

The study sample included 79 couples who had adopted from the
Lutheran Service Society of Colorado between 1972 and 1975. It
included 38 couples who had adopted native-born children and 41
couples who had adopted non-native children. The study question-
naire, mailed on March 1, 1976, included three components of in-
quiry which were considered to be essential in seeking the explor-
atory/descriptive relationship and information for the purpose of
this study.

Adoptive parents of hard-to-place children were found to be college
educated, in their first marriage, biological parents, homeowners,
and professionally employed. They preferred younger children of
another race and were found to adopt because of personal motiva-
tions rather than humanitarian concern.

18. Bellucci, M.T. Treatment of latency-age adopted children and
parents. Social Casework 56(5):297-301, May 1975.

The article describes group treatment for newly placed adopted
children 9 to 13 years old who had experienced at least five foster
home placements. The group therapy program enabled children and
adults to share angry and confused feelings that were threatening
to them.

19. Berman, L.A., and Jensen, D.R. Father-daughter interactions
and the sexual development of the adopted girl. Psychotherapy:
Theory, Research & Practice 10(3):253-255, Fall 1973.

10
Four case examples are presented which help to clarify the re-
lationship between the interaction of father and adopted daughter
and the daughter’s subsequent sexual development. They are dis-
cussed with reference to a theoretical model that views the roles of
daughters as similar to the behavior that will be required of them
as adults, while sons must unlearn their roles as they grow into
manhood.

20. Bieder, J. Reflections on those who adopt and adoption. Annales
Medico-Psychologiques 1(4):552-557, April 1971. (text in French)

This piece comments on the utility of a psychiatric examination
for those who wish to adopt a child. In France, a psychiatric inter-
view for adoptive parents is now required by law. Although this
procedure is often resisted by the candidates or by social organi-
zations, it is clearly in the best interests of the children to be adopted.
Experience has revealed that many motives other than the welfare
of the child, e.g., jealousy or conjugal mistrust on the part of the
prospective adopting parents, may prompt their candidacy. It is the
very principle of adoption, rather than the requirement for a vig-
orous examination of foster parents, that demands a careful critique
of selective adoption procedures.

21. Blacklock, D., et al. Older and Handicapped Children Are
Adoptable: The Spaulding Approach. Spaulding for Children, Chel-
sea, Michigan, 1974.

An adoption agency for difficult-to-place, handicapped, and older
children (infancy through 16-years-old) is described. The process
involves initial assessment of the child’s functioning and of the
family’s parenting capabilities and continued support after place-
ment. Placement histories of two handicapped children are pre-
sented. The adoption implications of blindness, cerebral palsy, cleft
palate, deafness, diabetes, mental retardation, perceptual handi-
caps, and spina bifida are reviewed.

22. Bonham, G.S. Who adopts: The relationship of adoption and
social-demographic characteristics of women. Journal of Marriage
and the Family 39(2):295-306, May 1977.

Until 1971, adoptions continually increased in the United States.
Adoptions have become less concentrated among women unable to

11
bear children, although they are still more likely to adopt than are
fertile women. There is broad normative support for adoption, and
about 4 percent of American women have adopted a child by the
time they are 45 years old. Women who adopt are found in all racial,
religious, and socioeconomic groups. Data are drawn from the fol-
lowing sources: Freedman, Whelpton, and Campbell’s Growth of the
American Family study (Family Planning, Sterility, and Population
Growth, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959); the 1973 National Survey
of Family Growth conducted by the National Center for Health
Statistics; and Federal statistics for 1957-1971, supplied by the
National Center for Social Statistics and supplemented by addi-
tional statistics for 1972-1974.

23. Bourgeois, M. Psychiatric aspects of adoption. Annales Medico-
Psychologiques 2(1):73-103, June 1975.

Adoption is of interest to psychiatry for both theoretical (e.g.,
genetic and psychopathologic study) and clinical (e.g., selection for
adoption) reasons. Although it is too simplistic to explain pathology
entirely by adoption, there appears to be a fairly common psycho-
pathology among adoptees, characterized by a history of maternal
deprivation and abandonment and by certain aspects of the adoptive
situation itself.

There is statistical evidence that adopted children receive more
pediatric and psychiatric examinations than other children. Adop-
tive parents show hyperconcern with the influence of heredity;
adoptees are overly concerned with fantasy about their natural par-
ents. The main hypotheses advanced for a pathogenesis of adoption
are persistence of the good-bad child cleavage, reinforced by reality
and fantasy (having two sets of parents), and the insecurity of adop-
tive parents about their role. Recommendations are offered for psy-
chiatric aid in the selection of either adoptive child or parents and
for guidance following adoption.

24. Boyne, J. A mental health note in adoption of school-age and
teen-age children. Child Welfare 57(3):196-199, March 1978.

This article argues that (1) the preadoption education/develop-
mental process must find ways to prepare parents for the possibility
that character disorders may be present in older adopted and foster
children, (2) adoption and fostercare workers and foster parents
should be trained and sensitized to detect these types of symptoms,
(3) “matching” criteria must become more sophisticated, and (4)

12
psychiatric and counseling help must be provided for older adoptees
in all adoptions.

25. Braden, J.A. Adoption in a changing world. Social Casework
51(8):486-490, October 1970.

A comparison of recent literature in the field of adoption with that
of 5 years ago shows that there has been a drastic change for both
the applicant and the worker. Innovations in family composition are
being discussed and accepted in many agencies, policies are chang-
ing, structures and administrative procedures are being stream-
lined, and new techniques in service are gaining support. It is felt
that most social workers in adoption today take a specifically in-
appropriate approach to the applicant. Most adoption caseworkers
have been trained or are supervised in traditional modes of casework
and are not personally motivated to take risks.

Characteristics of the workers are outlined: They are often middle-
age, middle-of-the-road conservative, and middle class. The appli-
cant generally has a well-functionioning ego, shows skill in com-
peting, is suspicious of the psychoanalytic approach, has no need for
the therapeutic relationship, and shows middle class propriety. The
worker needs to retain his professional status through control, is
pathology oriented, and needs to be needed. The effects of confron-
tation are outlined, and some potential remedies for the applicant-
worker relationship are suggested. It is stressed that, if the worker
allows for frankness and give-and-take in communication, use of
assets and acknowledgment of liabilities, and a sense of humor, he
can establish a model of positive communication.

26. Bradley, T. An Exploration of Caseworkers’ Perceptions of
Adoptive Applicants. Final Report. New York: Child Welfare
League of America, Inc., 1966.

This study sought to identify the criteria, used by adoption work-
ers in their evaluation of adoption applications, to discover whether
caseworkers have various applicant models for different groups of
children and to explore attributes or attitudes differentiating ac-
cepted and rejected couples.

Three public and five private agencies in a large Eastern met-
ropolitan area participated in the project. Approximately 400 parent
couples, 50 from each agency, were interviewed by 87 social workers
in the eight agencies. The 102-item caseworker’s rating form for
adoptive parents was evolved, pretested, and revised in consultation

13
with professionals in the adoption field. It was concluded that case-
workers were discriminating but that the range within which they
made their judgments was narrow. Therefore, their ability to predict
capacity to fill the parental role was questioned.

Three characteristics of couples seemed to be related to their ac-
ceptance by caseworkers—a positive overall effect, suitability for a
deviant child, and youth and a relatively recent marriage. Couples
were judged to be overall positive, marginal, poor, or unacceptable.
Those couples assessed as “better” were awarded “better” children,
and those who were “marginal” were awarded “marginal” or deviant
children. It was recommended that a replication of the study be done
and that some of the findings be validated. Suggestions for further
research, tabular information on different facets of the adoptive
process, the caseworker’s rating form for adoptive applicants, and
a bibliography are included.

27. Branham, E. One-parent adoptions. Children 17(3):103-107,
May-June 1970.

The Los Angeles County Department of Adoptions discusses its
policy of permitting one-parent adoptions for hard-to-place children,
which has proven to be successful so far in a review of 36 out of 40
cases. A longitudinal study is planned.

28. Bratfos, O.; Eitinger, L.; and Tau, T. Mental illness and crime
in adopted children and adoptive parents. Acta Psychiatrica Scan-
dinavica 44(4):376-384, 1968.

This article considers whether or not adults who have grown up
in adoptive homes are especially disposed to mental disorder. Two-
hundred-and-fifty persons born within an 11-year period and who
had grown up in adoptive homes were examined with regard to the
incidence of mental disorder and crime. The information derived
from the Central Register of oligophrenia, psychosis, and alcoholism;
from police files; and from the country’s clinical departments does
not indicate that adopted children differ in any special way from the
rest of the population. Whether any correlation could be found be-
tween mental disorder in adopted children and their adoptive par-
ents was also investigated. There was nothing to indicate that those
cases in which such problems were revealed in the adopted children
could be traced back to the adoptive parents.

29. Brown, E.G. and Brieland, D. Adoptive screening: New data,
new dilemmas. Social Work 20(4):291-295, July 1975.

14
This article presents a study of a key indicator of the validity of
the adoptive screening process—the level of agreement among case-
workers in their decision to accept or reject applicants. It was found
that worker agreement is not as high as is desirable.

30. Cadoret, R.J.; Cunningham, L.; Loftus, R.; and Edwards, J.E.
Studies of adoptees from psychiatrically disturbed biologic par-
ents—II. Temperamental, hyperactive, antisocial and develop-
mental variables. Journal of Pediatrics 87:301-306, 1975.

Temperament, hyperactivity, antisocial behavior, and develop-
mental milestones were assessed in two groups of adoptees by in-
terviewing the adoptive parents. One group (N=59), the “experi-
mental,” was born of psychiatrically disturbed biological parents.
The second group (N =54), the “control,” had psychiatrically “nor-
mal” parents. Infants in each group were separated from their bi-
ological parents at birth and had no further contact with them. Male
“experimental” adoptees had an excess number of temperament
traits characteristic of the “difficult” child, as well as an excess of
antisocial behaviors when contrasted with male control subjects. No
differences between control and experimental females were found
for these variables. The adoptees of both sexes who had “antisocial”
parents showed more hyperactive behavior than did adoptees of
“normal” parentage.

31. Cadoret, R.J.; Cunningham, L.; Loftus, R.; and Edwards, J.E.
Studies of adoptees from psychiatrically disturbed biological par-
ents: III. Medical symptoms and illnesses in childhood and ado-
lescence. American Journal of Psychiatry 133(11):1316-1318, No-
vember 1976.

Analysis of data gathered from interviews with adoptive parents
supports the hypothesis that female adoptees of antisocial biological
backgrounds might have higher percentages of somatic symptoms.
(Previous reports by Cunningham et al. [see PA, Vol. 54:7769] and
Cadoret et al. [1975] detail the selection of adoptees and the conduct
of the structured interview with the adoptive parents. Median age
of adoptees at the time of parental interview was 17 years.) The
authors compared female adoptees of antisocial parentage with male
and female controls, male adoptees of antisocial parentage, and male
and female adoptees whose biological parents had other psychiatric
conditions. They stress the importance of this hypothesis in the
diagnosis and management of childhood and adolescent “medical”
and behavioral problems.

15
32. Cadoret, R.J. Psychopathology in adopted-away offspring of
biological parents with antisocial behavior. Archives of General
Psychiatry 35(2):176-184, February 1978.

A study of 246 adoptees age 10 to 37 years who were separated
at birth from their biological parents were used to look at genetic
heritability of antisocial behavior and to delineate the extent and
quality of “antisocial spectrum” conditions. Each set of adoptive
parents was administered a structured questionnaire; and, if the
adoptee was over 18-years-old, he/she was administered a structured
interview. Evidence is presented for a genetic factor in adoptee an-
tisocial behavior and for the following as “spectrum” conditions: (1)
hysteria in adult females (Briquet’s syndrome) or multiple somatic
complaints without medical explanation in younger female subjects,
and (2) mood swings possibly associated with the symptom of audible
thoughts.

33. Cadoret, R.J., and Gath, A. Inheritance of alcoholism in adop-
tees. British Journal of Psychiatry 132:252-258, March 1978.

This study examined the incidence of alcoholism among 84 adop-
tees age 18 and older who were separated at birth from their bio-
logical parents and had no further contact with them. Alcoholism
was found more frequently in those subjects whose relatives in-
cluded an individual with alcoholism or in whom heavy drinking
had been noted. Adoptee alcoholism did not correlate with any other
diagnosis in a biological parent. Childhood socialized conduct dis-
order was significantly higher in those adoptees who later received
a diagnosis of alcoholism or suspected alcoholism and was positively,
but not significantly, related to heavy drinking or alcoholism in
parents. Age of adoptee, time spent in fostercare, age of biological
mother at the time of birth, socioeconomic status of adoptive home,
psychopathology other than algoholism in the biological back-
ground, and psychiatric or behavioral problems in the adoptive fam-
ily (i.e., parents or siblings) were all unrelated to adult alcoholism
in the adoptee.

34. Cadoret, R.J. Evidence for genetic inheritance of primary af-
fective disorder in adoptees. American Journal of Psychiatry
135(4):463-466, April 1978.

One-hundred-twenty-six offspring of psychiatrically disturbed
and normal biological parents, adopted at birth, were followed up

16
as adults. Interviews with adoptive parents and adoptees show that
the incidence of depression was significantly higher in the adoptees
whose natural parents had affective disorders (3 depressed of 8
adoptees) than in the remaining adoptees, whose biological parents
had other psychiatric conditions or were apparently psychiatrically
well (8 depressed of 118). Results suggest a genetic factor in affective
disorders.

35. Carey, W.B.; Lipton, W.L.; and Myers R.A. Temperament in
adopted and foster babies. Child Welfare 53(6):352-359, June 1974.

A study of adopted and foster babies indicates that greater or less
anxiety during pregnancy in their biological mothers does not have
an enduring effect on the infants’ temperaments. Lasting effects of
maternal anxiety on the infant appear attributable to continued
distress of a mother caring for the infant after delivery.

36. Chambers, D.E. Willingness to adopt atypical children. Child
Welfare 49(5):275-279, May 1970.

Willingness to adopt atypical children appears to be high for chil-
dren who are under 5 years of age, who are physically handicapped,
are slow learners, or are of American Indian or Spanish-American
parentage.

37. Chambers, D.E. The adoption of strangers. International Jour-
nal of Comparative Sociology 16(1-2):118-125, March-June 1975.

The most common form of adoption in the United States—the
adoption of nonrelative children through agencies—is not the most
common anywhere else in the world. It is not only those two char-
acteristics that make it unique. The most common form of adoption
in the United States differs from the most common form in all other
countries on one or more of the following counts: (1) In the United
States, adoption attempts to legally and administratively obliterate
a child’s natal identity; (2) it incorporates children into a kinship
group in which he is a stranger—in which he has no kin as estab-
lished by birthright; (3) it may involve marital pairs who already
have natal children; (4) it almost never involves young children,
particularly infants; and (5) more than one child can be adopted by
a marital pair.

17
In a search for historical antecedents for North American adoption
law and practice, it seems clear that it has not developed out of
English Common Law, since that body of law has actually been
hostile to the whole concept of the legal creation of nonconsangui-
neal kinship bonds. Legally sanctioned adoption first became pos-
sible in the United States in 1851, nearly 100 years before it was
legally sanctioned in England. Ancient Roman adoption practice
appears to have been a transitory, impermanent practice with little
resemblance in form or function to the modern North American
style. The legal system of South American countries contains all
four of the main types of legal adoption found in the contemporary
western world: (1) adoption that creates a parent-child relationship
between the child and the adoptor’s whole kinship group; (2) adop-
tion that creates a parent-child relationship between the adoptor
and adoptee, restricted in effect to those two or three individuals;
(3) gratitude adoption; and (4) adoption that formalizes a contract
between adults and a minor child, involving the adoptor’s obligation
for care and maintenance as well as “occupational training.” No
name changes are necessarily involved, and the obligation is often
transferable by inheritance.

38. Chappelear, E.M., and Fried, J.E. Helping adopting couples
come to grips with their new parental roles. Children 14(6):223-226,
1967.

This article describes the meetings of a group of new adoptive
parents to help them master their new roles and overcome their
anxieties. Five major criteria were covered: “(1) the difference be-
tween adoptive and biological parenthood, (2) helping a child to an
acceptance and understanding of his adoptive status, (3) the adop-
tive parents’ feelings toward the child’s biological parents, (4) the
adoptive parents’ feelings about illegitimacy, (5) letting persons out-
side the family know that the child has been adopted.” The majority
of couples responding found these meetings to be helpful, both to
them and to their children.

39. Chartrand, W.R. Applications of selected components of a cor-
respondence theory of cross-cultural adjustment to the adjustment
of white families who have adopted older children from Korea.
Dissertation Abstracts International 39(9-A):5749-5750A, March
1979.

The results of this work indicate that, although the Korean chil-
dren who were studied were found to compare unfavorably with

18
other transracial and inracial adoptees on personal and social ad-
justment measures on standardized personality tests, a large ma-
jority of the study families seemed at the time of the interviews to
be making successful adjustment. A cross-tabulation of the rela-
tionship between the summary adjustment score and variables de-
scribing the child, the parents, and the family indicates 30 statis-
tically significant relationships. T-tests on the same variables
significantly differentiate between the highest and lowest adjusting
groups of families and reveal an additional 28 significant relationships.

The findings point to the validity of a correspondence model of
cross-cultural adjustment; the adjustment process was greatly fa-
cilitated when correspondence occurred between the child’s needs
and his family’s reinforcer patterns and when the family’s require-
ments of the child corresponded to the child's response potentials.
Key components to attaining satisfaction and satisfactoriness in
these facets of correspondence centered more on the social-emotional
need dimension of the family relationships than on other compo-
nents. Although several families’ need structures resulted in vary-
ing degrees of dissatisfaction and unsatisfactoriness, this discorres-
pondence was, in several cases, mediated by the interface of the
personality styles of the child and the system dynamics of the family.

Although most of the families appear to have achieved success in
mediating the cultural and linguistic differences and are optimistic
about continued success in the adjustment process, an area of major
concern is noted. A majority of the families, advocating the primacy
of a “human identity,” are denying the importance of racial identity
and attempting to minimize its significance. Although many of the
study families believe it is important for the child to “know” about
his racial and cultural background—knowing the fact of its exist-
ence, few seem equipped to deal with the quality of the existence.
Parental attempts to deal with these more qualitative aspects seem
undermined by their rejecting attitudes toward differentness: that
parenting a child from another culture is not much different from
parenting a child of one’s own race; that no special qualities are
needed in order to be a white adoptive parent for an Asian child;
that a Korean child reared by white parents is not likely to have
problems in developing a sense of identity; and that a minority child
is sufficiently prepared for adulthood if given love and security by
his white adoptive parents.

40. Chema, R. Adoptive placement of the older child. Child Welfare
8:450-458, October 1970.

The importance of dealing immediately with the trauma of a
child’s separation from natural parents, siblings, and foster parents

19
is stressed. Placement techniques and procedures involving adoptive
parents, foster parents, and the child are described.

41. Chestang, L. The dilemma of biracial adoption. Social Work
17(3):100-105, May 1972.

The problem of finding permanent homes for the 8,000 homeless
black children in the United States is looked at in this article. Social
work’s solution has been biracial adoption; however, the dangers of
such an approach to both the black child and the white adoptive
parents are discussed. Although total abandonment of biracial adop-
tion is not advocated, it is concluded that in this society only black
families can assure an environment in which there is optimal op-
portunity for growth, development, and identification.

42. Chimezie, A. Transracial adoption of black children. Social
Work 20(4):296-301, July 1975.

This article examines the controversy about the transracial adop-
tion of black children by white parents. The argument for transracial
adoption appears to be based on two reasons: that the black com-
munity cannot provide the needed black adoptive parents and that
rearing black children in a white home will be better than rearing
them in an institution or foster home. The limitations of current
data on the adoption rates of blacks by blacks are examined, and
it is suggested that the benefits of white parents’ adopting a black
child at a younger age do not necessarily outweigh the disadvan-
tages of later adoptive failures. The issue of right of choice is also
discussed, and it is noted that no black consensus has been reached
on the question of black adoption. The psychosexual needs of the
child are discussed in relation to whether transracial adoption would
fulfill both the child’s present and future needs. It is concluded that
(1) transracial adoption may harm the black child in that he may
lose his sense of black identity and the ability to relate to other
blacks; and (2) until empirical studies are made of the adult per-
sonalities of white-raised blacks, placements of black children
should not proceed as though transracial adoption had already been
found to be beneficial. :

43. Chimezie, A. Bold but irrelevant: Grow and Shapiro on trans-
racial adoption. Child Welfare 56(2):75-85, February 1977.

20
This critique of the Grow-Shapiro study entitled “Black Chil-
dren—White Parents—A Study of Transracial Adoption” reviews
and unfavorably criticizes the study and suggests alternative ways
of approaching the topic.

44. Chimezie, A. Black identity and the Grow-Shapiro study on
transracial adoption. Journal of Afro-American Issues 4(1):139-152,
Winter 1976.

This paper evaluated the Grow-Shapiro study of transracial adop-
tion of black children by white parents and assessed its relevance
to the controversy over transracial adoption. It found that the study
failed to seriously address itself to the question of black identity
and its correlates—the crux of the adoption controversy. Some sug-
gestions are made about how to design and execute a study that
would be relevant.

45. Claeys, W. Primary abilities and field-independence of adopted
children. Behavior Genetics 3(4):323-338, December 1973.

The author administered a Flemish adaptation of the Science
Research Associates Primary Mental Abilities (PMA) Test and the
Children’s Embedded Figures Test to 42 male and 43 female adopted
children (mean age =6.5 years). Correlations between PMA subtest
scores and social class of the adoptive parents were generally low,
suggesting that the social class differences in the abilities of “own”
children are predominantly due to genetic factors. There was a gen-
eral increase in scores above the level expected, however, which was
thought to be due to the more stimulating environment provided by
adoptive parents. Field-dependence and the spatial subtest were less
affected.

46. Claeys, W., and Deboeck, P. The influence of some parental
characteristics on children’s primary abilities and field independ-
ence: A study of adopted children. Child Development 47(3):842-845,
September 1976.

The Children’s Embedded Figures Test (CEFT) and measures of
verbal ability, perceptual speed, quantitative ability, and spatial
ability were administered to Belgian children between the ages of
5 and 7 (33 males and 36 females) who were adopted early in life.
These child variables were correlated with the main factorial di-

21
mensions of the adoptive parents’ answers on the Parental Attitude
Research Instrument (PARI), with Buehler and Coleman’s (1964)
Life Goals Inventory (LGI), and with the adoptive mother’s child-
rearing practices, determined through an interview. The PARI di-
mensions were unrelated to children’s test performances. Reinforce-
ment of competition and independence, an interview variable, was
significantly related to several ability measures and to the CEFT,
especially in females. The significant corelations of some LGI di-
mensions with males’ and/or females’ primary abilities are inter-
preted in terms of the influence on the development of children’s
abilities of a future-oriented attitude toward learning and memory
and of a warm parent-child interaction.

47. Costin, L.B. Families by adoption. In: L.B. Costin, Child Wel-
fare: Policies and Practice. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1972, XII, 423
pages.

This chapter describes adoption agency process and changing
practices in adoption. The problem of children who are denied adop-
tion because of age, race, or impairment is discussed; and variables
that determine the successful outcome of adoptive placement are
outlined.

48. Crowe, R.R. An adoption study of antisocial personality. Ar-
chives of General Psychiatry 31(6):785-791, December 1974.

To test the hypothesis that heredity contributes to the develop-
ment of antisocial personality, a group of offspring born to female
offenders and given up for adoption in infancy was examined. Forty-
six probands and an equal number of control adoptees over age 18
were followed up and interviewed using the MMPI and other meas-
ures of psychopathology. A significantly higher rate of antisocial
personality was found among the probands than among the controls.
The non-antisocial probands were not more deviant than the con-
trols. The antisocial probands experienced certain unfavorable con-
ditions in infancy which may be related to the development of an-
tisocial personality, the most notable being the length of time spent
in temporary care prior to final placement. Although members of
the control group were equally exposed to the same conditions, they
did not develop a high rate of the disorder. Findings point to the
importance of interactions between genetic and environmental fac-
tors in the development of antisocial personality.

22
49. Cunningham, L.; Cadoret, R.J.; Loftus, R.; and Edwards, J.E.
Studies of adoptees from psychiatrically disturbed biological par-
ents: Psychiatric conditions in childhood and adolescence. British
Journal of Psychiatry 126:534-549, 1975.

Psychiatric problems were assessed in two groups of adoptees by
interviewing the adoptive parents. One group of 59 adoptees, the
“experimental,” were born of psychiatrically disturbed biological
parents; the other group, the “control,” of 54 adoptees had psy-
chiatrically normal biological parents at birth.

The incidence of psychiatric conditions requiring professional care
was significantly higher in the experimental than in the control
group (37 percent versus 14 percent). In the experimental group,
more males than females were diagnosed hyperactive. Some evi-
dence emerged of correlation of the type of psychiatric diagnosis of
the biological parent with that of the adoptee.

50. Deasy, L.C., and Quinn, O.W. The urban Negro and adoption
of children. Child Welfare 41(9):400-407, November 1962.

This study of the attitudes of blacks toward the adoption of black
children is based on interviews with potential adoptive couples in
Baltimore and Washington, D.C. The research sought to ascertain
the reasons for the very low adoption rate of black children in the
two cities. The sample consisted of 484 economically stable people
between the ages of 25 and 50 who had intact marriages and had
no children or only one child.

Data were obtained on socioeconomic and demographic charac-
teristics, on the extent of knowledgeability about adoption, and on
attitudes toward social agencies. Most respondents indicated that
they were more concerned about the physical and mental history
of the natural parents and about the health of the adoptive child
than about any other factors. When asked about the preferred
sources for adoption, respondents most frequently mentioned agen-
cies and relatives. Certain differences between the two cities seemed
to show up more clearly than socioeconomic status differences. It is
hypothesized that the basic lack of motivation to adopt may be
related to the values of the successful urban black.

51. Dembroski, B.G., and Johnson, D.L. Dogmatism and attitudes
toward adoption. Journal of Marriage and the Family 31(4):788-792,
November 1969.

Using Rokeach’s Dogmatism Scale and adoption attitude scale
administered to 113 college students, this study supports the hy-

23
pothesis that among males, dogmatism and intolerance toward areas
relating to adoption would be positively correlated. Negative cor-
relation for females suggests that emphasis on the maternal role
makes adoption attitudes an exception to Rokeach’s theory.

52. Dougherty, S.A. Single adoptive mothers and their children.
Social Work 23(4):311-314, July 1978.

This study presents the results of a questionnaire sent to 82 single
adoptive mothers of 121 children which sought to identify the char-
acteristics, problems, and needs of the families and to learn what,
if any, social services would be helpful to them. It was found that,
in general, the women had achieved a high level of personal ma-
turity, were successful and stable, recognized their own needs, and
had learned to build personal support systems. Recommendations
for social workers are included.

53. Dukette, R. Perspectives for agency response to the adoption-
record controversy. Child Welfare 54(8):545-555, September-Octo-
ber 1975.

Issues in the movement for increased accessibility of adoption
records are discussed in light of the changing function of adoption.

54. Egginton, M.L. and Hibbs, R.E. Termination of parental rights
in adoption cases: Focusing on the child: Journal of Family Law
14(4):547-580, 1976.

Most courts would agree that, in a custody dispute, the best in-
terests of the child should dictate the outcome; this rule applies
equally to adoption cases. In adoption cases, the rights of the bio-
logical parents are deferred to, unless they have forfeited those
rights by conduct causing the court to deem them “unfit.” As a
consequence of zealously safeguarding the rights of biological par-
ents, the courts may ignore the equally basic right of a child to grow
up in a growth-conducive environment. Rather than the “best in-
terests of the child” standard in adoption cases, it is suggested that
the courts find the “least detrimental alternative” for the child. This
standard would shift the emphasis from doing good to minimizing
harm. An initial step in implementing this approach is the reali-
zation that, from a child’s point of view, a “parent” may be someone

24
other than the biological parent. (The best interests exception is a
gray area in the law concerning adoptions.) The Uniform Adoption
Act offers guidelines for the relinquishment of parental rights and
the termination of the parent-child relationship. A hypothetical
statute is presented as a guide for implementing a best interests
exception in jurisdictions that do not presently ascribe to it.

55. Fanshel, D. Far from the reservation: The transracial adoption
of American Indian children. A study conducted under the auspices
of the Child Welfare League of America, New York, N.Y., 1972.

The objectives of this study were (1) to develop systematic knowl-
edge about the characteristics of couples who adopted American
Indian children and (2) to describe the experiences encountered by
the families and children for a 5-year period after the Indian children
were placed in adoptive homes. The experiences of 97 families who
adopted Indian children were studied. The full sample of adoptive
families was interviewed annually for 5 years. The first interview
was conducted jointly with the adoptive father and the adoptive
mother, while the second was designed to be carried out with adop-
tive mothers exclusively. The third interview was designed for the
father, the fourth for both the husband and wife, and the fifth for
adoptive mothers only. Each of several variables, such as religiosity
of adoptive family, political orientation, and child-rearing practices,
were subjected to statistical tests. It was found that the majority of
the Indian children and their adoptive families appeared to be well
adjusted, and it was recommended that the practice of transracial
adoption be continued and encouraged. Appendixes include (1) agen-
cies placing children through the Indian adoption project, (2) major
variables used in the study, and (3) a child progress scale.

56. Feldman, R.A. Social work, social welfare, and the American
family. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare 1(1):42-58, Fall
1973.

Expected trends in American family development during coming
years are discussed. Topics such as health and economic programs,
family service agencies, child welfare and daycare programs, and
fostercare and adoption services are explored. As a result of pre-
dicted trends concerning factors such as family size, family struc-
ture, and family malfunctioning, suggested alterations in future
social work and social welfare services are discussed.

25
57. Foster, H.H., Jr. Adoption and child custody: Best interests of
the child? Buffalo Law Review 22(1):1-16, Fall 1972.

Three aspects of child custody cases are discussed: (1) a “rule of
thumb complex,” (2) the belief that courts find factfinding and ad-
judication of such cases a painful process; and (3) the feeling that
judges generally do not have and are not given relevant psycholog-
ical insights that would aid decision. The “rules of thumb” of pa-
rental fitness and best interests of the child constitute the black
letter law of custody. Two highly publicized cases that are both seen
as “wrongly decided” and that were reversed by subsequent events
or legislation are examined: Painter v Bannister in Iowa and the
“Baby Lenore” case, in which a Florida court refused to give full
faith and credit to a prior New York decision and a later New York
decision overruled the earlier decision. In the Painter case, the
father was denied custody of his child in favor of the maternal grand-
parents, who were able to provide a more affluent home. In the
“Baby Lenore” case the natural mother, after having given the child
up for adoption, was first awarded custody and later denied custody
in favor of the adoptive parents who had cared for the child since
it had been 1-month-old. In the Iowa case there was no act or event
that had the effect of terminating parental rights. In the New York
case there was such an event—Baby Lenore’s surrender for adoption
through an agency. To better safeguard the interests of the child in
such cases, it is recommended that the child be independently rep-
resented by counsel.

58. Gallagher, U.M. The adoption of mentally retarded children.
Children, 151(1):17-21, 1968.

Several case histories of successful adoption of mildly retarded
children are presented. General criteria for adoptive parents and
the children are discussed.

59. Gallagher, U.M. Adoption resources for black children. Chil-
dren 18(2):49-53, March-April 1971.

The growing number of adoptions in this country, including ra-
cially mixed adoptions, attest to the general acceptance of adoption
as a way of bringing love to children in need of families of their own
and the satisfactions of parenthood to childless couples, single men
and women, and families who have room for one more.

26
60. Gallagher, U.M., and Katz, S.N. The Model State Subsidized
Adoption Act. Children Today 4(6):8-10, November-December 1975.

This article discusses the background, philosophy, and provisions
of the Model State Subsidized Adoption Act, which makes appro-
priate adoptions possible through public subsidy of children who
might not otherwise be adopted because of special circumstances
such as handicaps, race, and age.

61. Gallagher, U., and Katz, S.N. Subsidized Adoption in America.
(Children’s Bureau, DHEW; Office of Child Development, DHEW;
Office of Human Development, DHEW, Washington, D.C.) Report
No. DHEW-Pub-OHD-76-30087, August 10, 1976.

The Model State Subsidized Adoption Act, developed to supple-
ment existing State statutes, is presented in full, with accompanying
model regulations. The act is designed to help provide a child in
special circumstances with a permanent adoptive home. When ef-
forts to achieve placement without subsidy have failed, the act would
provide that the child be certified as eligible for subsidized adoption,
under the following conditions: physical or mental disability, emo-
tional disturbance, recognized high risk of physical or mental dis-
ease, age disadvantage, sibling relationship, racial or ethnic factors,
or any combination of these conditions. It is noted that certifying
the child as eligible for subsidy places emphasis on the child and
his needs rather than on the financial ability of the adoptive parents
to meet those needs. The text of the act is accompanied by a dis-
cussion of the background of subsidized adoption in the United
States. A supplementary section presents a comparison of the model
act with existing State laws. Tables are included.

62. Garbis, M.H. The Florida Bastardy Act—A law in need of
change. University of Miami Law Review 24(4):713-731, Summer
1970.

More than 318,000 illegitimate children were conceived in 1967,
despite the existence of new methods of birth control. The new
morality has led to an illegitimacy rate that has grown 16.9 per-
cent between 1940 and 1967. As the illegitimacy rate soars, so
do the associated costs. Recent statistics indicate that the Federal
government and various State governments contribute well over
$3,384,059,000 annually to children under the Aid to Families with
Dependent Children Programs. Bastardy or paternity laws have

27
existed for centuries to ease the burdens of illegitimacy. The prima
facie purpose of such acts is to determine paternity in order to compel
parents to support their children. The law thus seeks to convert a
moral obligation into a legal duty. However, it is felt that the law
has remained static and unresponsive to both changing prices and
changing sexual attitudes. The Paternity Act of Florida is examined
and criticized on these grounds. The paper examines the question
of whether paternity laws can reduce the problems of illegitimacy
and, if so, the ways in which such laws can best be made responsive
to the changing moral and economic conditions of society. Particular
emphasis is placed on the Florida Bastardy Act, with a view toward
revising the existing substantive and procedural law governing pa-
ternity actions in Florida. The problems of illegitimacy are two-fold:
On the one hand, it is necessary to understand the social problems
associated with illegitimacy, and, on the other, it is necessary to
determine the specific areas in which the law is deficient in coping
with the problems of the illegitimate child. Solutions discussed in-
clude abortion reform, birth control, adoption without consent, and
revision of the existing Paternity Act. A statutory reform is pro-
posed, but it is stressed that it is merely a compromise to ease the
economic burden facing the mother, the child, and the public. By
imposing more stringent liability on the father, or possible father,
it attempts to discourage immorality. By no means does the proposal
claim to solve the problem of illegitimacy, for that can only be
achieved through the prevention of births out of wedlock.

63. Gill, M. The foster care/adoptive family: Adoption for children
not legally free. Child Welfare 54(10):712-720, December 1975.

This article describes a program in which children not legally free
for adoption are placed with foster families committed to eventually
adopting them, although they are aware that the children may not
become legally free.

64. Glenn, J. The adoption theme in Edward Albee’s Tiny Alice and
The American Dream. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child 29:413-429,
1974.

This article argues that adoption influences personality devel-
opment and that artists who have themselves been adopted often
reveal their fantasies in their creative products. Two Albee plays
are examined and presented as support for this argument.

28
65. Goodridge, C. Special techniques in the group adoptive study
for children with special needs. Child Welfare 54(1):35-40, 1975.

A group study method developed by a private adoption agency for
couples interested in adopting children with special needs is de-
scribed in this piece. The program includes group meetings, self-
study homework, movies, slides, tapes, and extensive followup.

66. Grotevant, H.D.; Scarr, S.; and Weinberg, R.A. Patterns of
interest similarity in adoptive and biological families. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology 35(9):667-676, September 1977.

One-hundred-fourteen biologically related families and 109 adop-
tive families were administered the Strong-Campbell Interest In-
ventory. The protocols of 870 parents and their adolescent children
were scored on the six scales of J.J. Holland's Model of Interest
Styles (realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and con-
ventional). Biological parent-child correlations ranged from —.13
to +.40, with 15 of the 24 scale correlations achieving significance;
only two of the adoptive parent-child correlations were significant
(range from —.15 to +.25). Biologically related pairs were also sig-
nificantly more correlated than adoptive pairs for interest profiles.
Same-sex biological siblings were more similar to each other than
either opposite-sex sibling pairs or parent-child pairs. Pairs of un-
related children in the adoptive families were not too similar either
on Holland’s scales or on the profile analysis.

67. Grotevant, H.D. Environmental influences on vocational inter-
est development in adolescents from adoptive and biological fam-
ilies. Child Development 50(3):854-860, September 1979.

The author studied family influences on vocational interest de-
velopment by hypothesizing that parents with similar interests are
more likely to have adolescents who also develop those interests
than are parents whose interests are very divergent. Not to confound
genetic and environmental influences, the 844 parents and adoles-
cent children in 114 biologically related and 101 adoptive families
completed the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory. Parent-child in-
terest difference scores were regressed on parent-parent difference
scores (PPDIF), a dummy variable for family type, and the inter-
action between family type and PPDIF. For all parent-child pairs
except mother-son, greater PPDIF scores predicted greater parent-
child difference scores (indicating influence of family environment),

29
and there was no family type-PPDIF interaction (indicating that
the environmental influence was operating in both biological and
adoptive families). Evidence of genetic variance in interest styles
was also confirmed.

68. Grow, L.J., and Shapiro, D. Black Children-White Parents: A
study of Transracial Adoption. New York: Child Welfare League
of America, Inc. (sponsoring agency: Children’s Bureau, DHEW,
Washington, D.C.), Report No. -OCD-CB-59, 1974.

This study was designed to provide information about the out-
comes of transracial adoptions in response to a growing trend among
adoption agencies to place children across racial lines. The study
focused on 125 adopted black children and their white adoptive
families. The children ranged in age from 5 to 19 years (median
age=28.8 years) and had lived with their adoptive families from 2
years and 10 months to more than 18 years (median legnth of
stay = 7.2 years). The success of the transracial adoptions was as-
sessed by a series of 15 measures, including test scores, indices
developed from different types of data supplied by the parents, teach-
ers’ evaluations, and interviewer ratings. Data were obtained from
two interviews held at 1-year intervals. Success findings are re-
ported in terms of test scores; symptom scores; interviewer, parent,
and teacher evaluation; peer relations; and attitudes toward black-
ness. A typology of white families who adopt black children is also
presented. The general findings indicate that 77 percent of the trans-
racial adoptions may be seen as successful—a rate approximately
equal to that found in studies of conventional white adoptions as
well as those of older children and other racial groups. This study
is available from the Child Welfare League of America, Inc., Re-
search Center, 67 Irving Place, New York, N.Y. 10003.

69. Grow, L.J., and Shapiro, D. Adoption of black children by white
parents. Child Welfare 54(1):57-59, January 1975.

The article presents data collected over a 3-year period concerning
the success or failure of adoptions of black children by white parents.
The predominant picture is that of healthy and well-adjusted chil-
dren, aware of their heritage, living with parents who are highly
satisfied with their adoption experience.

30
70. Grow, L.J., and Shapiro, D. Transracial Adoption Today: Views
of Adoptive Parents and Social Workers. New York: Child Welfare
League of America, Inc., (sponsoring agency: Children’s Bureau,
DHEW, Washington, D.C.), Report No. -OCD-CB-59, 1975.

This study sought to examine the interaction of 38 pairs of white
adoptive parents of black children and their social agencies from
the viewpoint of the parents and agency workers. A secondary study
compared the characteristics of more recent transracial adopters
with those of 125 families who had adopted transracially in the past.
Results of questionnaires given to the 38 families and their social
workers showed that families were generally well satisfied with
their agency experiences. Discrepancies between reports of social
workers and parents suggested that communication barriers existed
and that many of the social workers had a somewhat limited un-
derstanding of the adoptive parents. The two sets of parents (present
group and past group) were found to be fairly similar in terms of
attitudes about transracial adoption and child rearing. Information
obtained from interviews between social workers and parents is
presented in addition to data on the demographic and social char-
acteristics, motivation for adoption, and attitudes on racial issues
of the adoptive families. A total of 155 adoption workers responded
to an attitude questionnaire focusing on transracial adoption and
related issues. In general, respondents agreed that transracial adop-
tion was an acceptable practice and a better alternative for black
children than indeterminate long-term fostercare. This study is
available from the Child Welfare League of America, Inc., Research
Center, 67 Irving Place, New York, N.Y. 10003.

71. Hargrave, V., et al. Where Love and Need Are One: A
on the Use of Subsidies to Increase Adoption of Black Children.
Illinois State Department of Children and Family Services, Spring-
field (sponsoring agency: Children’s Bureau, DHEW, Washington,
D.C.), Report No. -OCD-CB-71, 1975.

This booklet describes a State subsidy program designed to facil-
itate the adoption of black children in need of permanent homes.
Program participants were children, age 3 months to 17 years, living
in foster homes in Chicago and East St. Louis, Ill. Some of the
children had serious emotional and/or physical problems, but all
were free of significant ties to their parents and relatives. The major
components of the program were: (1) finding children who could

31
benefit from adoption, (2) providing direct services to children, (3)
locating and developing adoptive homes, (4) effecting adoptive place-
ments (with or without subsidy), and (5) conducting research on all
phases of adoption. Permanent nonfoster homes were found for
nearly 70 percent of the children: About 12 percent were assigned
to remain in planned, long-term fostercare because of strong ties
with foster parents who would not adopt. Adoptive homes could not
be found for 8 percent of the children. An extensive recruiting pro-
gram for adoptive parents was initiated, incorporating advertising,
door-to-door recruitment in black neighborhoods, and interaction
with foster parents. A discussion of the role of adoption subsidies
is included. Appendixes provide data tables and a casefinding
schedule.

72. Haring, B. Adoption trends, 1971-1974. Child Welfare
54(7):524-526, July 1975.

This article is a summary of the Child Welfare League of
America’s semiannual report on adoptions. Data, collected from 49
voluntary agencies over a period of 4 years, include demographic
variables of adopted children and of approved homes.

73. Hepworth, H.P. “Issues in Adoption and Foster Care.” Cana-
dian Council on Social Development. Ottawa (Ontario). Paper pre-
sented at the Child Welfare League of America Northwest Regional
Conference, Calgary, Alberta, June 5-8, 1977.

This speech presents an overview of issues and trends in the pro-
vision of fostercare and adoption services in Canada. The number
of children “in care” in Canada (in foster homes, institutions, or
adoptive homes) appears to have peaked around 1969 and declined
therafter. Information on contraceptives and the availability of
abortions are seen as possible factors in this decline. Two social
changes affecting adoptions are discussed: the increasing number
of divorces, remarriages, and subsequent adoptions by stepparents;
and the increasing number of unwed mothers who choose to keep
their babies. The subsequent problems of these illegitimate children
and of single-parent families in general are noted. According to the
statistics presented, the greatest proportion of children in care are
in foster homes. Reasons for the increasing demand for foster homes
include decreasing supply of foster parents, decreasing provision of
residential services, and changes in the characteristics of foster chil-
dren. The question of children’s rights is discussed; and it is sug-

32
gested that these rights must come before those of natural, foster,
and adoptive parents. It is also suggested that much of the work of
child welfare services derives from conditions of poverty and that
more carefully linked social policies are needed to improve these
conditions. Appended are tables of statistics on children receiving
various welfare services and on Indian population characteristics.

74. Herbenick, R.M. Remarks on abortion, abandonment, and
adoption opportunities. Philosophy & Public Affairs 5(1):98-104,
Fall 1975.

Arguments on abortion often stress two points: that abortions
necessarily involve loss of human life, and that they deny equality
of opportunity for parenthood. The possibility of fetal transplanta-
tion makes the first point not necessarily valid; the second assump-
tion, while true, suggests that abortions may be unjustifiable, since
they deprive persons of opportunities for parenthood to which they
should be entitled under equality of opportunity. If abortion is de-
fined as withdrawal of bodily support, it can be classified as parental
abandonment, with the fetal death an unavoidable byproduct, given
current technology. This situation suggests that the State could
validly claim custody of unwanted fetuses. Given firm declarations
of intent to abandon a fetus, the State could then bring it into the
range of children available for adoption. The mother would have to
be compensated for carrying it, and other legal provisions would
have to be made.

75. Hill. R.B. Informal Adoption among Black Families. National
Urban League, Inc., New York, New York Research Department
(sponsoring agency: Office of Child Development, DHEW, Wash-
ington, D.C.), July 1977.

This study of informal adoption patterns among black families
throughout the United States examines the role of the extended
family and the functioning of a kinship network that includes fos-
tercare of children by relatives other than parents. The study’s basic
mode of investigation was secondary analysis of existing data: quan-
titative national data from the U.S. Census Bureau and other
sources and qualitative data from a review and synthesis of research
studies in the area. Census Bureau sources are: (1) annual reports
(from current population surveys, 1969-1976) on household and
family characteristics and on marital status and living arrange-
ments, (2) data from the 1970 census, and (3) a public use sample

33
developed from the 1970 census to adequately represent families
involved in informal adoption. Included is a discussion of the past
and current significance of child welfare policies. Chapters describ-
ing various social and economic characteristics of the children and
families examine age, family relationships, family size and struc-
ture, and other reasons for adoption; comparison of one- and two-
parent families; rural-urban comparisons; and various economic fac-
tors. Recommendations for improving the quality of services relating
to black and other low-income children are made.

76. Horn, J.; Green, M.; Carney, R.; and Erickson, M.T. Bias
against genetic hypotheses in adoption studies. Archives of General
Psychiatry 32(11):1365-1367, November 1975.

Genetic factors are implicated in the cause of psychopathological
disorders whenever the incidence of disorder is greater among the
adopted-away offspring of affected parents than among those of con-
trol (unaffected) parents. The lack of information about most parents
who give their children up for adoption could result in the inclusion
of a substantial number of high-risk parents in the control group.
This situation could bias an adoption study against a genetic hy-
pothesis. MMPI scores of two groups of a total of 363 pregnant unwed
mothers were compared to those of two other groups: 28 married
pregnant women and 2,054 female 12th graders. Unwed mothers
had significant elevations on five of the nine clinical scales; eleva-
tions of psychopathic deviancy and schizophrenia were particularly
substantial. Results indicate a requirement to select control group
parents who are representative of the general population.

77. Howard, A.; Royse, D.D.; and Skerl, J.A. Transracial adoption:
The black community perspective. Social Work 22(3):184-189, May
1977.

The authors conducted a survey of 150 black households to ex-
amine black attitudes and beliefs about transracial adoptions. Re-
sults suggest that the majority of blacks do not oppose the idea of
transracial adoptions. The majority of respondents felt that it is
more important that a black child receive love from white parents
than be left in fostercare or in an institution. While the respondents
were concerned about the child’s possible loss of identification with
the black community, the needs of the individual child were seen
to be of prime importance.

34
78. Humphrey, M. Childless marriage as a basis for adoption. Men-
tal Health 25(4):17-18, 1966.

Children cut off from their ancestry need double protection
against the effects of marital discord in substitute parents. It is the
responsibility of adoption societies to see that, in seeking to adopt,
childless couples are motivated by a healthy and heartfelt desire for
children and not by neurosis or the stresses of marital disharmony.

79. Inker, M.L. Expanding the rights of children in custody and
adoption cases. Journal of Family Law (11):129-135, 1971.

Legal issues involved in child custody controversies are studied
through the case of “Baby Lenore.” It is noted that the Florida Court,
which ruled that the adoptive parents were to keep the baby, rec-
ognized the upheaval factor—a factor not considered by the New
York Court which had awarded the child to its natural mother. For
the Florida court, Baby Lenore became the primary party in the
proceeding. It is suggested that in such cases the court seek inves-
tigations and evaluations on adoptive parents by psychiatric testi-
mony, even when adoptions are not contested, in order to find out
whether the adoptive parents are fit. Such reports should be sought
especially when the original placement was not made through an
agency. A child’s interests in an adoption proceeding cannot properly
be ascertained without social and medical investigations. Such re-
ports are best presented to the court in an objective manner. More-
over, children in custody hearings should be given their own legal
counsel to assure fairness.

80. Jaffee, B. Adoption outcome: A two-generation view, Child
Welfare 53(4):211-224, April 1974.

A retrospective appraisal of the outcome of adoption is presented
by comparing perceptions of both adoptive parents and young adult
adoptees.

81. Jones, E.D. On transracial adoption of black children. Child -

Welfare 51(3):156-164, March 1972.

Transracial adoptions have been encouraged widely as a way to
meet the needs of many black children. This practice and the agency
philosophy behind it are challenged in the light of today’s social
realities.

35
82. Jones, L.W. Informal Adoption in Black Families in Lowndes
and Wilcox Counties, Alabama. Tuskegee, Alabama: Center for
Rural Development, Tuskegee Institute (sponsoring agency: Office
of Child Development, DHEW, Washington, D.C.), Report No.
OCD-CB-373, June 15, 1975.

This research deals with the legal, social, and cultural contexts
in which informal adoption of black children by adults takes place
in rural South Alabama. A total of 306 parent surrogates were
identified, interviewed, and compared on the basis of 10 socioeco-
nomic characteristics. Information was also collected on the number
of children informally adopted in each house, reasons for the adop-
tion, available alternatives to adoption, length of adoption period
designated, circumstances of the parent and the parent surrogate
when the child was taken in, characteristics of the child, and the
relationship of the child and parent surrogates with the natural
parents. Data were collected on the incidence of parental request
for retrieval of the child, on parental assistance in the care of the
child, on the adoption children’s physical and psychological condi-
tion, and on the parent surrogates’ knowledge of the legal adoption
system. Analysis of the data indicated that there was a high degree
of satisfaction and acceptance of the informal adoption arrangement,
that the children were accepted into the surrogate homes as natural
children, and that legal adoption was rarely considered or sought
by these rural people. It is noted that the stringent requirements
for legal adoption would deny many of the parent surrogates in this
study the opportunity to become adoptive parents. Improvements
in income, education, and health services are suggested as solutions
that would not impair the traditional social concern among such
people who assure children parental love and care.

83. Jones, M.L. Aggressive adoption: A program’s effect on a child
welfare agency. Child Welfare 56(6):401-407, June 1977.

This article discusses the development of a separate adoption unit
in the Cumberland County (Pennsylvania) Children’s Services Unit.
Established in 1972, the unit was designed to reduce the number
of children in long-term (2 years or more) fostercare by making
adoptive plans for as many as possible. Agency staff worked with
attorneys to determine the Federal and State laws regarding the
evidence needed to terminate parental rights. In the first 2 years
of the program, the total of fostercare was reduced from 27 percent
of the agency caseload to 18 percent, and this reduction was main-
tained for 3 years. The number of fostercare caseworkers in the

36
agency was also reduced, and services to children in their own homes
were increased. An increase in daycare services and increased man-
power in the protective unt have enabled these services to be more
effective in helping children in their own homes.

84. Jones, M.L. Preparing the school-age child for adoption. Child
Welfare 58(1):27-36, January 1979.

For the older child moving into adoptive placement, a careful and
knowledgeable preparation of both child and adoptive family is es-
sential for success.

85. Kadushin, A. Reversibility of trauma: A follow-up study of chil-
dren adopted when older. Social Work 12(4):22-33, 1967.

Ninety-one children adopted when 5 years of age or older, all of
whom became available for adoption as a result of court action ter-
minating parental rights because of neglect and/or abuse of the
children, were followed up. Despite the children’s early experience,
80-82 percent of the adoptions were assessed as successful. A review
of the literature indicates that such a supposedly atypical outcome
is encountered frequently. An effort is made to explain reversibility
of trauma on the basis of constitutional, sociological, and psycho-
logical factors.

86. Kadushin, A. A follow-up study of children adopted when older:
Criteria of Success. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry
37(3):530-539, 1967.

Followup interviews were conducted with the adoptive parents of
91 white, mentally and physically normal children who had been
placed for adoption when 5 years of age or older. Specific satisfactions
and dissatisfactions expressed by the parents were tabulated, and,
using only those items identified independently, a ratio of satisfac-
tion-to-dissatisfaction score was computed for each family. This was
one criterion of “success.” A second criterion was a composite score
of level of satisfaction in the total adoptive experience. Using these
criteria of outcome, comparison was made between the “success” of
adoptions of these older children with infant adoption studies. Adop-
tions of older children were shown to be as successful as infant
adoptions.

37
87. Kagi, C. Adoption of the at risk child in Western Australia.
Australian Journal of Mental Retardation 4(1):5-7, March 1976.

This article surveys the issues and problems of the placement for
adoption of an “at risk” child (the child who may be retarded or
present other problems) in Western Australia. The possible reper-
cussions of an incorrect placement are discussed, and the need for
a placement officer to be as informed as possible about the child’s
background, diagnosis of mental condition, and prognosis of devel-
opment is stressed. When an “at risk” child is placed, consideration
must be given to the ability of the adopting parents to cope with
the child’s possible mental retardation.

88. Katz, L. Transracial adoption: Some guidelines. Child Welfare
53(3):180-188, March 1974.

This article describes one adoption agency’s experiences and out-
lines the conditions essential to its success.

89. Katz, L. Older child adoptive placement: A time of family Crisis.
Child Welfare 56(3):165-171, March 1977.

The author maintains that the family crisis that inevitably follows
the adoptive placement of an older child can be surmounted if the
social worker applies techniques based on crisis theory and family
systems theory. In preparation for such a placement, emphasis
should be redirected so that focus is placed on the complete family
system rather than on the child alone. Such an approach is neces-
sary, it is argued, since the child will become a new family member
and will disrupt an established system of relationship, no matter
how effective the system has been in the past. Satir’s (1972) concepts
of homeostasis and family pain, the goals of crisis intervention, and
the usefulness of group work are examined in terms of their appli-
cation to the adoptive placement of the older child.

90. Kety, S.S. Mental illness in the biological and adoptive families
of adopted individuals who have become schizophrenic. Behavior
Genetics 6(3):219-225, July 1976.

In a sample of 5,483 adults who had been legally adopted early

in life by persons not biologically related to them, 33 were identified,
from mental hospital records, for whom a diagnosis of definite schiz-

38
ophrenia (chronic, latent, or acute) could be agreed upon by four
raters. An equal number of matched controls were selected from the
sample of adopted individuals who had never been admitted to a
mental hospital. Ninety percent of the living parents, siblings, and
half-siblings, both biological and adoptive, cooperated in an exten-
sive psychiatric interview permitting a consensus diagnosis by three
blind raters. Schizophrenia and uncertain schizophrenia were found
to be significantly concentrated in the population genetically related
to the schizophrenic adoptees. Their adoptive relatives did not differ
from the control populations in the prevalence of schizophrenic ill-
ness. While findings are consistent with a genetic transmission of
schizophrenia, it is emphasized that they are equally compatible
with a syndrome of multiple etiologies and different modes of genetic
transmission.

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91. Kim, D.S. How they fared in American homes: A follow-up
study of adopted Korean children. Children Today 6(2):2-6, March-
April 1977.

The author reports findings and recommendations from a study -

that assessed the self-concept during adolescence of 406 Korean
children who had been adopted by American families.

92. Kim, S.P.; Hong, S.; and Kim, B.S. Adoption of Korean children

by New York Area couples: A preliminary study. Child Welfare = ‘

58(7):419-427, July/August 1979.

Fifteen white couples who have adopted 21 Korean children (9
boys and 12 girls) were interviewed and asked to complete a ques-
tionnaire containing eight categories of questions as to general fam-
ily data, behavioral symptoms of the adopted children in retrospect,
and other data related to transracial adoption. All the families in
the study were classified in socioeconomic classes II and III. The
most common behavioral symptoms were temper tantrums and ex-
cessive crying in the children adopted before the age of 3 years, and
learning difficulty and withdrawing behavior in the children adopted
after the age of 3 years. Only one child required psychiatric treat-
ment. All children were reported to have been in good physical
health. There were no significant differences between boys and girls
in the incidence of the behavioral symptoms. Study data were com-
pared to the results of other studies. Several issues in transracial
and transcultural adoption are discussed, and areas for further lon-
gitudinal investigation are listed.

39

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93. Kim, S.P. Behavior symptoms in three transracially adopted
Asian children: Diagnosis dilemma. Child Welfare 59(4):213-224,
April 1980.

Three adopted Korean children; age 22-30 months, from white
middle-class American families, who were referred for psychiatric
evaluation due to severe behavioral symptoms, were studied. The
patient with the most severe case history is presented. The paper
reports the children’s behavioral symptom list, psychiatric findings,
data on parents, and treatment courses. The developmental psy-
chodynamics of the symptom manifestations and bicultural under-
standing of the children are discussed.

94. Kines, N. The characteristics of couples who adopt hard-to-
place children. Sociological Focus 5(4):41-73; Summer 1972.

This paper examines characteristics of parents of hard-to-place
children and the success of the adoptions. “Hard-to-place” children
are defined as those who are older than 2 years; children with phys-
ical, emotional, or mental handicaps; or those of a racial background
other than white.

A form letter was sent to 60 organizations throughout the country
which were listed by Opportunity (a program to broaden adoption
opportunities in Portland, Ore.) as promoting the adoption of hard-
to-place children. Roughly 20 organizations volunteered assistance.
Self-administered questionnaires were mailed to parents. The final
sample consisted of 206 sets of parents; the return rate was 56
percent. Respondents completed three soc-psychological scales: the
Rokeach nine-point Dogmatism Scale, the McCloskey Shortened
Conservatism Scale, and the Srole Anomie Scale. Frequency dis-
tributions were used to present a profile of the characteristics of the
parents and adoptive children. The data revealed that the vast ma-
jority of families (73 percent) adopted transracially and that the
transracially adoptive parent was the epitome of successful, well-
educated, white, suburban America. As was hypothesized, hard-to-
place children ended up with exceptional sets of parents. Among the
first transracially adopted child, about 31 percent were Oriental, 25
percent were black-white, and 20 percent were black. The two most
frequently chosen reasons for adoption were (1) desire to have a
family, and (2) compassion for children without homes. Fifty percent
of the sample claimed that problems were nonexistent; only 2.9
percent reported experiencing serious problems. Many transracially
adoptive parents anticipated difficulties relating to social life and
identity when the child grew older.

40
The vast majority of respondents (80 percent) rated their adop-
tions as “highly successful.” The cross-tabulations revealed that the
success of the adoption was positively correlated with the parents’
low degree of dogmatism and the presence of biological children in
the home prior to adoption. The following variables were not related
to the success of the adoption: education, income, occupation, degree
of conservatism or anomie, the frequency of Church attendance, the
importance of religion, the age of the parents when the child was
placed in the home, and the age of the child at placement.

95. Ladner, J.A. Mixed families: White parents and black children.
Society 14(6):70-78, September-October, 1977.

The author notes that the sparse amount of available data on the
outcome of transracially adopted children is far from conclusive and
suggests that a need exists for followup studies that will monitor
the psychosocial development of transracially adopted children as
they go through adolescence.

96. Lawder, E.A.; Hoopes, J.L.; Sherman, E.A.; Lawder, E.A.;
Andrews, R.G.; and Lower, K.G. A Follow-up Study of Adoptions:
Post-placement Functioning of Adoption Families. New York:
Child Welfare League of America, Inc., 1969.

This volume reports on the final phase of a research project to
study the effects of adoption on parental, child, and family func-
tioning. To provide a background for the study, the development of
adoption in the United States and the theory and practice of adoption
are discussed. The study asked three questions: (1) How adequately
do adoptive couples adjust to the responsibilities of parenthood fol-
lowing completion of adoption? (2) What information about the
adoptive parents and children which can be obtained before the
completion of the adoption is predictive of how the family will later
function? (3) What are the developmental patterns of adopted chil-
dren? A questionnaire was completed by 556 adoptive families, and
200 of the families were later interviewed. Analyses of the findings
are reported in detail. Case illustrations of adoptive families lend
substance and perspective to the reported findings by describing
both superior and poor family functioning. A section of the book
discusses the implications of the research findings for adoption prac-
tices. Appendixes include the questionnaire and interview schedules
and analysis of the data.

41
97. Lewis, D.O.; Balla, D.; Lewis, M; and Gore, R. The treatment
of adopted versus neglected delinquent children in the court: A
problem of reciprocal attachment? American Journal of Psychiatry
132(2):142-145, February 1975.

The authors investigated the discrepant treatment by a juvenile
court of adopted versus neglected delinquents. Adopted delinquents
received harsher dispositions in spite of the fact that neglected de-
linquents often faced more serious charges. The two groups are
compared in terms of family structure and the criminal and psy-
chiatric histories of their parents. None of these factors seems to
account for the adoptee’s harsher treatment. The authors hypoth-
esize that an interplay of late adoption, intrinsic vulnerabilities in
the children, and weakness of parental bonds accounts for the dif-
ferential outcomes.

98. Lifshitz, M.; Baum R.; Balgur, I.; and Cohen C. The impact of
the social milieu upon the nature of adoptees’ emotional difficul-
ties. Journal of Marriage and the Family 37(1):221-228, February
1975.

Thirty adopted children (age 6-13 years) and a matched control
group of biological children are examined in order to find differences
in developmental trends of symptomatology. Children referred to
a child guidance clinic and children reared within the kibbutz com-
munal educational system were examined. Clinic dossiers provided
information on parents’ characteristics and the child’s develop-
mental and behavioral manifestations. Children’s behavioral char-
acteristics were checked on a list of 132 items; a yes-no format was
used. The results show that kibbutz adoptees’ symptoms convey
feelings of insecurity and rootlessness, low concentration ability,
and restlessness, in contrast to the more aggressive interactions of
biological children. The kibbutz adopted children were found to dif-
fer from the city adopted children in the content of their difficulties.
Feelings of aloneness and insecurity become the more significant
characteristics of problematic adopted children reared within the
kibbutz system as they approach adolescene.

99. Lifton, B.J. Twice Born: Memoirs of an Adopted Daughter. New

York: Penguin, 1977, 281 pp.
The author describes her attempts to search for her natural par-

ents and discusses the effects of these experiences on her self-per-
spective and on the people around her.

42
100. Lindholm, B.W., and Touliatos, J. Development of a motiva-
tion and potential for adoptive parenthood. Psychological Reports
1976, 39 (3, pt. 1):743-748, December 1976.

The authors describe the development of a motivation and poten-
tial for adoptive parenthood scale, using the basic principles of psy-
chometric theory. The sample consisted of 530 adoptive families who
were served by 67 adoption agencies and 265 adoption workers. The
distribution of the scores and the reliability of the scale are reported,
and possible uses of the scale are suggested.

101. Madison, B.Q., and Schapiro, M. Black adoption—Issues and |
policies: Review of the literature. The Social Service Review
47(4):531-560, December 1973.

This article is an attempt to discuss developments in black adop-
tion from 1945 to the present. Special attention is given to efforts
of the social work profession to increase and improve adoptive ser-
vices for black children. These efforts are related both to the broad
social forces that influence this area of child welfare practice and
to quantitative outcomes. Factors that increase or decrease effec-
tiveness in reaching desired objectives are also analyzed. The agen-
cies will continue to face more minority children than they can
handle: “Agency efforts to increase and improve adoption for black
children . . . take place within larger societal forces . . . which exert
a powerful influence and which are not subject to agency control.”
This situation is also aggravated by the environment and by an
institutional racism that is still of destructive proportions. These
hard social facts lessen the hope that the percentage of black families
adopting children will increase manyfold in the foreseeable future.

102. McEwan, M.T. Readoption with a minimum of pain. Social
Casework 54(6):350-353, June 1973.

Readoption became necessary in a case where an emtionally de-
prived child was placed with a couple who were unable to cope with
the situation. The youngster’s natural mother was unwed and had
kept the child for 15 months prior to placing him for adoption. He
was catatonic, passive, and moody, placing a strain on the adoptive
parents and their children. It became necessary to change the place-
ment; however, transition was gradual. Preliminary meetings
among the two families and the child paved the way for eventual
success. The original placement was not viewed as a failure but

43
rather as an opportunity to ease the guilt of the original adoptive
parents and make a smooth adjustment for the adopted child into
his new home.

103. Meezan, W.; Katz, S.; and Manoff-Russo, E. Adoptions With-
out Agencies: A Study of Independent Adoptions. New York: Child
Welfare League of America, Inc., 1978.

The purposes of this national study of independent, non-agency
adoptions were: (1) to determine the experience of the parties in-
volved (biological parents, adoptive parents, agencies, intermedi-
aries, and law enforcement agents); (2) to identify agency policies,
procedures, and resources that deter agency adoptions and thus
encourage independent adoptions; and (3) to identify weaknesses in
State laws and regulations and their enforcement which allow
abuses of the inpendent adoption process to continue. The study
involved: (1) an analysis of adoption laws and regulations and their
enforcement in all 50 States; (2) a questionnaire survey of one vol-
untary and one public adoption agency in each State to obtain in-
formation on their knowledge of independent adoption; and (3) an
investigation of independent adoptions in five cities through per-
sonal interviews with adopting parents, biological mothers who re-
linquished children age 2 or under, and independent adoption fa-
cilitators. Major topics highlighted in the analysis included the role
of adoption agencies; adoptive parents’ concerns, their agency ex-
periences, fellings about adoption and the risk involved; the expe-
riences and concerns of the biological parents; the facilitators’ in-
volvement in the adoption field and with adoptive and biological
parents; laws on adoptive placement; responses of attorneys general/
district attorneys pertaining to the enforcement of State adoption
laws; and policy recommendations for legal and agency changes that
would reduce or eliminate the risks of independent adoptions. This
study is available from the Child Welfare League of America, Inc.,
67 Irving Place, New York, N.Y. 10003.

104. Meezan, W.; Katz, S.; and Manoff-Russo, E. Independent
adoptions. Child Welfare 57(7):450-452, July/August 1978.

This summary report of a 2-year study of independent adoptions
(without agencies) conducted by the Child Welfare League of Amer-
ica Research Center briefly describes the findings on the risks in-
volved for the children and the adoptive and biological parents,
relevant States laws, and agency policies that tend to turn away
applications for adoption.

44
105. Mikawa, J.K., and Boston, J.A. Psychological characteristics
of adopted children, Psychiatric Quarterly Supplement 42(2):274-281,
1968.

The authors administered a battery of tests (e.g., the Rosenzweig
Picture Frustration Test) and self-report measures to 20 normal,
nonrelated adopted 9- to 12-year-olds and to 20 normal, nonadopted
controls. School behavior ratings were also obtained, and similarity
of mother-child attitudes was assessed using interview techniques.
No significant differences were found between the two groups on
any of the measures used. Results indicate that the greater incidence
of emotional disturbance previously found among adopted children
is not caused by adoption itself but by consequent difficulties in
parent-child relationships.

106. Morin, R.J. Black child, white parents: A beginning biography.
Child Welfare 56(9):576-583, November 1977.

The author gives a personal account of the kind of biographical
information her adopted, black, 7-year-old son was using to develop
his personal identity, the biographical information he was imparting
to others, and the extent to which his social and personal identities
differed or coincided. It was observed that color identity (i.e., skin
color, social classification, and visibility), racial identity (i.e., Afro-
American, including ancestry and black heroes), and knowledge
about his adoption were key social facts for the child. His attitudes
were reflected in his many references to lexical, polysemous items
having to do with color and his references to his developing racial
identity. The child's identity revolved around interpersonal en-
counters with family, peers, and others. With the family, he was
open about discussing racial identity and adoption, but this openness
did not transfer to his interactions with peers and others. He showed
some anxiety when encountering new people, especially white
adults, but had developed close relationships with adults and chil-
dren from various ethnic backgrounds.

107. Morrison, J.R., and Stewart, M.A. The psychiatric status of
the legal families of adopted hyperactive children. Archives of Gen-
eral Psychiatry 28(6):888-891, June 1973.

The authors conducted interviews with the legal parents of 35

adopted hyperactive children and compared the parents’ psychiatric
diagnoses with those obtained in the authors’ previous study of

45
biological and control parents. The high prevalence of hysteria, so-
ciopathy, and alcoholism found in biological parents of hyperactive
children was not found in the adopting parents, nor were the latter
especially likely to have been hyperactive themselves. These data
are consistent with genetic transmission of the syndrome. A poly-
genic mode is postulated.

108. Munsinger, H. Children’s resemblance to their biological and
adopting parents in two ethnic groups. Behavior Genetics
5(3):239-254, July 1975.

The author tested the hypothesis that adopted children’s individ-
ual IQs are more related to the individual social status ranks of
their biological parents than to those of their adopting parents. Data
from 20 Mexican-American and 21 Anglo-American biological and
adopting families, in which the IQ score of the adopted child was
available show that (1) there was no significant selective placement
of these children in adopting homes, (2) there was no significant
correlation between the midparent social-education rank of the
adopting parents and their adopted children’s IQ, and (3) there was
a strong correlation between the midparent social-education rank
of the biological parents and their children’s individual intelligence
ranks.

109. Munsinger, H. The adopted child’s IQ: A critical review. Psy-
chological Bulletin 82(5):623-659, September 1975.

All reliable published data about the nature and nurture of
adopted children’s IQs are summarized, and conclusions are drawn
about the relative importance of heredity and environment on chil-
dren’s mental development. Any study that compares the central
tendency of adopted children’s IQs with a group mean of 100 IQ
points for a normal population cannot be taken seriously until sev-
eral methodological criteria have been met: (1) representative sam-
pling; (2) no differential loss of subjects over time; (3) accurate, age-
corrected information on biological and adoptive parents; (4) careful
attention to early separation and placement of children; and (5)
elimination of practice effects and regression to the mean artifacts.
Analysis of the resemblance between individual adopted children’s
IQ scores and their adoptive and biological parents’ mental abilities
shows that the adoptive parents’ home environment has only a mod-
est effect on their adopted children’s intellectual growth, while he-
redity and environment of the biological parents have a strong effect

46
on their own children’s intellectual growth. At present there is dis-
agreement about the precise values of genetic and environmental
effects on IQ, and several assumptions must be made before accurate
statistics can be derived. The available data strongly suggest that,
under existing circumstances, heredity is much more important
than environment in producing individual differences in IQ.

110. Nash, A.L. Reflections on interstate adoptions. Children To-
day, 3(4):7-11, July-August 1974.

This article examines the operations and philosophy of ARENA
(Adoption Resource Exchange of North America), a clearinghouse
organized and operated by the Child Welfare League of America to
help agencies find homes for their hard-to-place children.

111. Neilson, J. Placing older children in adoptive homes. Children
Today 1(6):7-13, 1972.

The author presents a philosophy and method for placing children
over 6 years in foster homes. Any child who needs a home is viewed
as adoptable. The relationship between the child and the social
workers is the basis for successful adoption, since it is the social
worker who becomes the liaison agent between the new family and
the child. Adoption is not the final outcome of this process but,
rather, the social worker’s plan for the child’s future, with adoption
being one alternative. Group discussions with potential families and
interviews with the child are held to acquaint both parties with the
adoption process. A “Life Story Book,” often written and illustrated
by the child himself, is a means of identifying crucial elements of
the child’s past and providing a basis of understanding and caring
for the child. The quality of the agency atmosphere, the selection
process, and supervision of the placement are also considered.

The article describes the older children’s unit of the adoption

services section, San Diego County of Public Welfare, San Diego,
Calif.

112. Neilson, J. Black homes for black children. Child Welfare
55(1):41-50, January 1976.

The author describes the development of a California-based adop-

tion agency, innovatively organized by black personnel, which was
established to meet the needs of the prospective black adopting

47
families. Established in 1971, the agency’s services include a coun-
seling program for teenage mothers; followup of disenchanted pro-
spective adoptive parents; and examination of special cases where,
under ordinary guidelines, clients would be denied adoption privileges.

iio. Newborg, D.D. Legal developments in New York State re-
garding the sealed adoption record controversy. Child Welfare
58(4):276-283, April 1979.

Information is given about recent decisions in New York courts
in cases involving the right of adult adoptees to inspect sealed adop-
tion records. The effect of these decisions is that any change in the
right of access to records must be brought about through legislation,
not through the courts.

114. Norvell, M., and Guy, R.F. A comparison of self-concept in
adopted and non-adopted adolescents. Adolescence 12(47):443-448,
Fall 1977.

The authors tested the hypothesis that adopted adolescents would
have more negative self-concepts than nonadopted adolescents.
Thirty-eight of 721 undergraduates sampled reported adoptive sta-
tus. For comparative purposes, a control group of 38 nonadopted
subjects was randomly drawn from the remaining respondents
matched for age, sex, race, and marital status. The Berger Self-
Concept Scale was administered to both sets of subjects. A compar-
ison of mean self-concept scores for adopted and nonadopted subjects,
using students’ for independent samples, showed no significant
difference.

115. Offord, D.R.; Aponte, J.F.; and Cross, L.A. Presenting symp-
tomatology of adopted children. Archives of General Psychiatry
20(1):110-116, 1969.

The authors examine the differences in presenting symptomatol-
ogy between adopted and nonadopted children referred to a child
psychiatry outpatient clinic. Subjects were 25 extrafamilial adopted
children and 25 children who were living with their biological par-
ents. The two groups were matched for time of referral and were
found to be equivalent by age, sex, race, education, and socioeco-
nomic level of the parents. Results suggest that adopted children
seen in a child guidance clinic are not more seriously disturbed than

48
nonadopted children seen, but that they are referred more often for
serious antisocial symptomatology. The presence and the severity
of the antisocial symptomatology are related to the age of adoption.
The later the age of adoption, the greater the frequency and severity
of the antisocial behavior.

116. O’Neill, M.M. Adoption: Identification and service. Child Wel-
fare 51(5):314-317, May 1972.

Collaboration of a public social service department and a public
adoption department demonstrated that it was possible to find per-
manent adoptive homes for many children who were in foster-care.

117. Paget, N.W. Closed-circuit television: A revolution in adoption
practice. Child Welfare 57(12):69-82, February 1978.

The use of video recordings of adoption practices at the Children’s
Home of Cincinnati is described. The recordings have become im-
portant aids to the staff in providing services to clients. They stim-
ulate discussion, bring realism into the helping process, and assist
both staff and clients in understanding the complex issues involved
in adoption. Use of the tapes has altered the way in which services
are rendered; and the results have been of value to the biological
parents, the child, and the adoptive parents.

118. Pannor, R., and Nerlove, E.A. Fostering understadning be-
tween adolescents and adoptive parents through group experiences.
Child Welfare 56(8):537-545, September-October 1977.

Short-term educative therapy was used with adoptive parents and
their adopted adolescents to examine some of the specific problems
of each group. Parents and children met separately for 4 weeks
during which they examined the normal problems of identity for-
mation that occur during adolescence, parents’ concerns about the
possible opening of sealed records, and the child’s wish to search for
the birth parents. Parents and children met in a joint session, and
it was found that the separate sessions had encouraged discussion
about topics that were frequently avoided: The children sensed that
raising certain questions threatened or embarrassed the parents
either because they aroused feelings the parents were unable to
handle or because the parents simply were not prepared to deal with
the questions.

49
119. Pannor, R.; Baran, A.; and Sorosky, A.D. Birth parents who
relinquished babies for adoption revisited. Family Process
17(3):329-337, September 1978.

This paper reports on research addressed to the attitudes and
feelings of birth parents years after they relinquished babies for
adoption. It discusses reasons for relinquishment, parental fantasies
about the child, parental interest in reunion with the child, and
parental feelings about opening the sealed records. The article ad-
vocates reunion and research.

120. Pepper, G.W. Interracial adoptions: Family profile, motiva-
tion and coping methods. Dissertation Abstracts 27(8-A):2621, 1967.

The author’s hypotheses in relation to the characteristics of the
adoptive couples were borne out. Couples who had adopted a child
of mixed racial origin were likely to be “more eligible,” that is, to
have better educations and higher incomes than the couples who
did not adopt across racial lines. While there was some variation in
motivation, the primary reason in both groups was the inability to
have children. However, a secondary reason with the mixed racial
group was “to help a child,” and with the nonmixed racial group,
“desire for a larger family.”

The majority of the couples who had adopted across racial lines
did not support the hypotheses. In contrast to “room-for-one-more”
applicants, they had not had children of their own but still adopted
a child of mixed racial background. This group, classified in the
study as “neo-traditional” applicants, seems to point to an important
resource for recruitment.

The parents who had adopted a child with ethnic background
similar to their own supported the hypotheses. They had not had
children of their own, adopted because they needed children, and
were classified as “traditional” applicants.

Sixteen indicators were used to assess the parents’ methods of
coping with role handicap. Of these indicators, the parents who had
adopted a child of mixed racial background used acknowledgment
of difference in 13 and rejection of difference in three. The parents
who had not adopted a child of mixed racial background coped by
acknowledgment of difference in five instances and by rejection of
difference in the remaining 11. These results supported the hypotheses.

Parents who adopted a child of mixed racial origin in 1964 seemed
to be “more eligible” applicants. Motivation was primarily related
to the inability to have children; but there was a tendency for these
parents to be aware of the needs of the child as well as of their own

50
needs, so that motivation was actually a combination of needing a
child and wanting to help a child. Parents who adopted across racial
lines coped with role handicap by acknowledging the difference be-
tween themselves and the biological family. The concept of role
handicap and the utility of the coping mechanisms need further
study.

121. Platts, H.K. Facts against impressions: Mothers seeking to
relinquish children for adoption. Children 17(1):27-30, January-
February 1970.

This article describes a questionnaire survey on agency policies
by the Los Angeles County Department of Adoptions which covered
1,513 cases.

122. Presser, S.B. The historical background of the American law
of adoption. Journal of Family Law 11(3):443-516, 1972.

The passage of adoption legislation in 24 States during the third
quarter of the 19th century raises three historical problems: (1) Why
was the Roman practice of adoption not incorporated into the com-
mon law? (2) Why did the American (and the English) legislatures
wait so long before passing adoption laws? (3) Since there had been
virtually no law on adoption for more than 1,000 years in the Anglo-
American system of jurisprudence, why were so many adoption stat-
utes passed in the United States in such a comparatively short time?

Tentative answers to these questions may be found by first ex-
amining the adoption law of ancient Rome and some earlier civili-
zations, then by comparing these to the medieval English law re-
lating to adoption and inheritance and the child-rearing methods
of that time to illustrate how children were brought up in a system
that did not permit legal adoption. Further insight may be gained
by evaluating the treatment of children in early America as it is
revealed in contemporary writings and recent historical studies to
see how this system operated in 17th and 18th century America
before children could be legally adopted. Finally, an examination
of the writings of the 19th century reformers working in child wel-
fare shows that the general adoption statutes, which followed earlier
“private” laws, grew out of these reformer’s efforts. It may be con-
cluded that (1) the Roman practice of adoption was not included in
the common law because the Roman social system needed an adop-
tion law that served the adopter, not the adoptee, with its chief aims
of continuity of the family and the perpetuation of family religious

51
rites; (2) the English and American legislatures waited for as long
as they did before passing adoption laws because it was not until
the late 19th century that old methods of child welfare proved in-
adequate. The putting-out system, which grew into the system of
indentures for apprenticeship and service, persisted in England un-
til the late 19th century and was brought over early to the United
States and continued here for some 200 years. With the advent of
industrialization and the influx of immigrants in the 19th century,
however, the educational and beneficial qualities of the master-serv-
ant relationship diminished as it became economically unfeasible;
and (3) because of the pervasiveness of the economic and social
conditions that gave rise to the movement for child welfare reform
and the scope of the efforts of the reformers, which included the
placing of many thousands of children in homes in many different
States, together with the widespread failure of public child-care
institutions, many States found it necessary, within a very short
period of time, to respond to this child placing with laws to facilitate
legal adoption.

123. Priddy, D., and Kirgan, D. Characteristics of white couples
who adopt black/white children. Social Work 17(3):105-107, July
1971.

The most significant finding of this study was that 58 percent of
the sample did not have children by birth at the time of adoption.
Another major finding was that half of these interracial placements
were agency initiated. Other findings are also discussed.

124. Rathbun, C., and Kolodny, R.L. A groupwork approach in
cross-cultural adoptions. Children 14(3):117-121, 1967.

This study concerns five sets of adoptive white parents of five pre-
adolescent Chinese girls from Hong Kong. The primary concern of
all of them was having to “prepare their Oriental child for the status
accorded a member of a minority group while simultaneously at-
tempting to help . . .[her] become emotionally a part of a family that
is part of the dominant majority.” There was also concern over the
conflicts of the children’s dual culture and racial background. The
group discussion approach, however, enabled all the parents to dis-
cuss their problems with people with the same or similar problems
and, thus, be better able to cope with them.

52
125. Reece, S.A., and Levin, B. Psychiatric disturbances in adopted
children: a descriptive study. Social Work 13(1):101-111, 1968.

The authors report a study of 30 nonrelative adopted children
referred to a psychiatric facility. Descriptive data are presented on
the adoption, the child's symptomatology, and the frequency of re-
quests for out-of-home placement. Potential difficulties in adoptive
placements are suggested for further study.

126. Robertson, D.C. Parental socialization patterns in interracial
adoption. Dissertation Abstracts International 35(8-A):5553-5554,
February 1975.

The present study focuses upon the extent to which deliberate
socialization is found in families that have adopted interracially and
the delineation of the socialization practices employed. Parental
attitudes about race relations and the deliberateness involved in
socialization are also assessed. In addition, parental reports on the
racial awareness and the dimensions of that awareness as mani-
fested by the child are examined.

The sample was selected from the population of white parents of
black or black-white adopted children in the Philadelphia and Bos-
ton areas. The cooperation of two voluntary organizations of parents
of adopted interracial children was enlisted in drawing the sample.
It was stipulated that the child under study had to be at least 2%-
years-old and to have been in the home for at least 1 year at the
time of the interview.

Preliminary interviews both with groups of parents and with in-
dividual parents were used in designing the final questionnaire
instrument. For the study itself, indepth interviews were conducted
with 70 mothers in their homes. The interview schedule consists of
open- and closed-ended questions and a series of hypothetical
situations.

Interracial adopters are found to share some distinctive charac-
teristics. They tend to be well educated, to hold relatively high
status jobs, to be of a liberal political stance, and to be politically
active. For the most part, they are able to produce their own children
and thus do not adopt from a need to complete their families. In-
terracial adopters are inclined to hold strong beliefs in the power
of the individual and his ability to control the events of his life.

A relatively small segment of the sample is engaged in deliber-
ately teaching the child to think of himself as black. These respond-
ents are likely to have black friends themselves and black playmates
for the child, to live in an integrated neighborhood, to be empha-

53
sizing black history and culture to the child, and to hold a philosophy
in which the child’s black identity is an important outcome of his
upbringing. In addition, these interracial adopters are more inclined
to perceive the child as black in appearance, more willing to confront
existing racial norms, and relatively pessimistic about the future
course of racial integration.

On the other hand, the majority of those interviewed are providing
little emphasis on the child’s blackness and are inclined to believe
in the power of the individual; they also do not want to confront
racial norms and tend to reflect optimism about the future course
of integration. The age of the child and the parents’ occupational-
educational status do not seem to be relevant factors in this con-
stellation of characteristics.

Parental reports about the child’s age and initial race awareness
correspond to the results from previous sociological studies in which
racial awareness was measured directly. Examination of the di-
mensions of racial awareness reported present in the child reveals
that the evaluative or preference component is relatively absent for
the adopted interracial children under study.

127. Rotherberg, E.W.; Goldey, H.; and Sands, R.M. The vicissi-
tudes of the adoption process. American Journal of Psychiatry
128(5):590-595, November 1971.

This article describes a child guidance center program that in-
cludes discussion groups for adoptive parents. The increasing aware-
ness of discrepancies between group observations and the practices
of many adoption agencies is noted. The necessity of studying the
dynamics of adoption and the conscious and unconscious forces in-
volved in the process are stressed. Collaboration between mental
health facilities and adoption agencies is necessary if primary pre-
vention in this important area is to succeed.

128. Russell, D.H., and Rosenberg, A.H. Single-parent adoptions.
New England Journal of Medicine 279(5):259-260, 1968.

Traditional adoption of children by two parents is contrasted to
adoption by one parent. The authors question whether the needs of
each child can be met in a single-parent adoption. Since no legal
prohibition against adoption by single, divorced, or widowed adults
exists, such adoption offers a possible solution to the growing need
for adoptive homes.

54

 
129. Saks, H.L. The functioning of adopted and biologic children
on the WISC. Dissertation Abstracts International 34(10-A):
6461-6462, April 1974.

Sixty-eight white subjects—15 adopted boys and 19 adopted girls,
and 17 biological boys and 17 biological girls—formed two study
groups of 34 children each. They had achieved their 8th but not
their 14th birthday and resided with at least one other child. Both
groups were comparable with respect to their full-scale IQ scores.
All adopted children had been placed by 4 months of age and knew
of their adoptive status. Agency-placed children totaled 16, and non-
agency totaled 18. The study involved 25 adoptive and 22 biological
families. The groups were also comparable as to parents’ religious
affiliation, education, and income level. The families were middle
and upper-middle class. More than half of the parents in both groups
attended college.

Two test instruments were used. The first, the WISC, provided 11
subtest scaled scores, which yielded three IQ scores: verbal, per-
formance, and full-scale. The second instrument, the Checklist, spec-
ified 17 kinds of maladaptive functioning and test protocol varia-
tions. When tallied, a Checklist raw score for each subtest and IQ
scale was obtained.

Two major hypotheses were developed as follows: It is expected
that there will be no significant differences between the adopted
and biological groups (1) on their WISC IQs or subtest scaled scores
or (2) on the Checklist scores. Four subhypotheses were added to
each by comparing the following subgroups: adopted boys to biolog-
ical boys, adopted girls to biological, girls, adopted boys to adopted
girls, and biological boys to biological girls.

The main finding of the present research showed that when non-
referred adopted children were compared to a similar group of non-
referred biological children on the WISC and Checklist, no intel-
lectual or behavioral differences emerged. The additional findings
of significant differences between the sexes within each group do
not detract from the major concern of the study, since these represent
differences that do not deal with adopted-biological comparisons.

130. Sandusky, A.L., et al. Families for black children: The search
for adoptive parents, II. Programs and Projects. Washington, D.C.:
Children’s Bureau, DHEW, Report No. -DHEW-0OCD-72-35, 1972.

This report is a collection of abstracts describing the salient fea-

tures of 20 adoption programs for children and infants of black and
biracial background; it attempts to delineate those program features

55
that appear to be associated with effectiveness. Information on each
program was collected by means of an unstructured interview with
individuals at various staff and administrative levels.

An account of each program is given under the following headings:
duration; auspices; purpose; staff involved; methods; community in-
volvement; publicity; intra-agency modifications or innovations; in-
ter-agency efforts; problems and obstacles encountered; steps taken
to solve problems, if any; factors reported as most helpful; and cost
to adoptive parent. Certain themes were recurrent in the summar-
ies: (1) The primary goal of all programs was to find adoptive homes
for black and mixed children. (2) the auspices of the programs varied
considerably. (3) Nearly all respondents gave top priority to involve-
ment of the black community in the development of programs, pol-
icies, and procedures. (4) State, county, and municipal departments
of public welfare play an important role in the workings of adoption
agencies. (5) Respondents stressed the importance of interagency
cooperation and coordination for effectiveness. (6) Limited funds and
staff account for restricted efforts to increase the number of adoptive
placements. (7) Most programs attempt to inform the public about
the magnitude and urgency of the need for adoptive homes, usually
through the use of mass media.

131. Sanford, M. A socialization in ambiguity: Child-lending in a
British West Indian society. Ethnology 13(4):393-400, October 1974.

A description and analysis of child-keeping and child dispersal
among the Creole and Carib of Belize, a West Indian people on the
Central American coast of the Caribbean, are presented. Child-lend-
ing covers practices such as fosterage, adoption, apprenticeship, and
temporary or permanent care of children by close kin.

Widespread child dispersal has been frequently noted by observ-
ers. The patterns of child dispersal appear to accompany matrifo-
cality among Afro-Americans, a family structure in which the
strongest and most enduring ties of affection and mutual cooperation
are between the mother and her children and within the sibling set,
rather than between the mating pair, the husband and wife. One
of the most important structural elements of this kind of family has
been thought to be the mother-child tie. The mother links one to a
body of kin, especially to one’s siblings. The physical contiguity of
genetrix to progeny is not considered necessary or even preferable.

It is rare to find children dispersed to non-kin. Of the children
being kept by others, 75 percent were kept by close kin. If a child
is kept by the close kin of his mother, neither she nor the collective
consider him “dispersed.” Of those children “given” to nonrelative

56

 
keepers, none were intended to be adoptions in the legal or custom-
ary sense. This kind of dispersal appears to be conceptualized as an
apprenticeship or clientship, not to learn any particular skill but
as an education or socialization in a different milieu or culture, with
the expectation that the child will some day return, bringing some-
thing useful to his parent. “A child who goes and does not return
is an ingrate.” Child-keeping and child dispersal can be seen as a
folk model expressing the importance of kinship ties and the ne-
cessity for the child to develop and maintain useful interpersonal
relationships and a personal network. This message embodies an
ambiguity, however: If the kin ties are unbreakable and dependable,
why the emphasis upon establishing the personal network? If it is
true that these people are socialized not only to particular ambi-
guities (a well-known phenomenon) but are socialized to expect and
to look for ambiguities at all levels of life, then this situation needs
immediate attention for its possible contribution to sociological and
anthropological theory.

132. Scarr, S., and Weinberg, R.A. IQ test performance of black
children adopted by white families. American Psychologist
31(10):726-739, October 1976.

The poor performance of black children on IQ tests and in school
has been hypothesized to arise from (1) genetic racial differences or
(2) cultural/environmental disadvantages. To separate genetic fac-
tors from rearing conditions, 130 black and interracial children
adopted by advantaged white families were studied. The socially
classified black adoptees, whose natural parents were educationally
average, scored above the IQ and the school achievement mean of
the white population. Biological children of the adoptive parents
scored even higher. Genetic and environmental determinants of
differences among the black and interracial adoptees were largely
confounded. The high IQ scores of the socially classified black adop-
tees indicate malleability for IQ under rearing conditions that are
relevant to the tests and the schools.

133. Scarr, S., and Weinberg, R.A. Intellectual similarities within
families of both adopted and biological children. Intelligence
1(2):170-191, April 1977.

This study examined the effects of genetic and environmental
factors on intellectual differences among children in a study of 101
families with both biological and adopted children. WAIS or WISC

57
scores of all family members and the educational level of natural
parents were used to estimate intellectual similarities among re-
lated and unrelated persons living together and apart. Comparisons
of correlations between related and unrelated siblings produced neg-
ligible heritability values, but the parent-child data suggested mod-
erate heritability for the children’s IQ differences. The high mean
values of the adopted children’s IQ scores and the high degree of
similarity among unrelated siblings suggested that 1Q scores are
more malleable than previously thought.

134. Schechter, M.D. A case study of an adopted child. International
Journal of Child Psychotherapy 2(2):202-223, April 1973.

A case history is presented to illustrate the role that adoption
played in the genesis and perpetuation of the patient’s emotional
problems.

135. Schiff, M; Duyme, M; Dumaret, A; Stewart, J; Tomkiewicz,
S; and Feingold, J. Intellectual status of working-class children

adopted early into upper-middle-class families. Science 200
(4349):1503-1504, June 1978.

School curriculum and IQ data were obtained for 32 working-class
children who were adopted early (before 6 months of age) into upper-
middle class families. These subjects were compared with a control
group of children of the same biological mothers. Failure rates ob-
served were far below those expected for the social class of birth or
observed in the control group. However, they were close to those
expected from the social class of adoption.

136. Schwartz, E.M. A comparative study of some personality char-
acteristics of adopted and non-adopted boys. Dissertation Abstracts
27(7-B):2518-2519, 1967.

A sample of 25 adopted boys and 25 nonadopted boys were given
a series of objective and projective personality tests, including the
Picture Q-Sort, Family Relations Test, a combination of the The-
matic and Children’s Apperception Tests, and figure drawings. In
addition, each of their parents was asked to fill out two self-admin-
istered questionnaires: The Semantic Differential and the Inter-
personal Check List. The boys were matched on the basis of age,
religion, socioeconomic status, sibling position, and verbal ability.

58
The average ages of the experimental and control groups were 9.42
and 9.58 years, respectively. All of the adopted boys had been placed
with nonrelated petitioners through agency sources before 6 months
of age and had been informed of their adoption by the parents be-
tween the ages of 2 and 4 years.

Hypotheses about the personality characteristics of adopted chil-
dren were drawn from the literature and tested by quantitative and
clinical interpretations of the test results. It was predicted that the
factor of adoption would have a negligible effect on these children,
since they were placed early in infancy and under the guidance of
a social welfare agency. No predictions were made regarding par-
ential responses to the self-administered questionnaires.

The results showed that there are considerable uncertainty and
anxiety concerning the permanence and reliability of object rela-
tions for many of the adopted children. Consequently, their approach
to social interaction involves defensive noninvolvement and, in some
cases, hypochondriacal withdrawal. The defensive functioning of the
adopted boys were characterized by excessive reliance on denial,
represssion, and phobic fears. This construction, overcontrol, and
fearfulness contrasted with the spontaneity and vitality of emotional
expression found in the boys within the nonadopted group. In terms
of parent-child interaction, the adopted boys associated fear and
anxiety with parental disapproval and tended to be inhibited in
expressing even mildly aggressive feelings toward parental figures.
Several trends in the data also suggested that male sex identity
may not be as well developed in the adopted boys as in their matched
controls.

Comparison of the parents’ responses to the questionnaires sug-
gested that the adoptive parents, especially the adoptive mothers,
have not as yet worked through their conflicts and feelings regarding
infertility and adoption.

The major conclusions drawn from these results were as follows:
(1) Despite the fact that these adopted boys were placed in their
adoptive homes in early infancy and through the facilities of a social
welfare agency, they appear to be more vulnerable to emotional or
psychiatric problems than the nonadopted child. (2) Conflicts re-
garding adopted status are intensified as a result of parental anx-
ieties concerning adoption, the child’s desire to know the facts of his
adoption, and the apparently inevitable problem of coping with the
original rejection of the natural parents. (3) Adoption agency prac-
tices generally offer adoptive applicants little opportunity to work
through their conflicts regarding adoption, since the evaluation
process may promote defensive efforts rather than a therapeutic
interaction. In addition, there is reason to question the policy of
some agencies to withhold information from the parents concerning

59
the child’s background. It may intensify the parents’ concerns re-
garding the child’s origins and deprive the child of the right to
accurate and complete identification of himself. Suggestions for im-
plementation of current agency practices and further research were
discussed.

137. Schwartz, E.M. The family romance fantasy in children
adopted in infancy. Child Welfare 49(7):386-391, July 1970.

Problems of identification behavior associated with the family
romance fantasy were not found to be characteristic of 25 adoptees
studied.

138. Schwartz, E.M. Problems after adoption: Some guidelines for
pediatrician involvement. Journal of Pediatrics 87(6): Part 1:991-994,
December 1975.

The author suggests that the pediatrician should take the initi-
ative in providing information to the parents of an adopted child
about the child’s future needs and reactions.

139. Scott, D.B. A Report on Characteristics of Registrants for
Adoption, Children Placed and Services Rendered by Adoption
Agencies. New York: Traveler's Aid—International Social Service
of America (sponsoring agency: Agency for International Devel-
opment, U.S. Department of State, Washington, D.C.; Children’s
Bureau, DHEW, Washington, D.C.), April 30, 1976.

This report briefly describes the Interagency Vietnam Adoption
Committee (IVAC) project and provides data on the children, fam-
ilies, and adoption agencies involved in the project. The IVAC project
set out to place black Vietnamese and black American Children in
black adoptive homes in the United States. As a result of that effort,
it was concluded that (1) there is an untapped reservoir of potential
black adopters in the United States; (2) placement of children takes
too long for both the orphans and the prospective adoptive parents;
(3) fees are a deterrent to finding black adoptive families; and (4)
because of the lack of black representation in adoption agencies,
there is prejudice against black adoptive parents even in the placing
of black children. More funding and regional adoptional planning
are among the recommendations made. Extensive supporting in-
formation is presented in three parts: Part one describes the two

60
phases of the project, intercountry adoptions and domestic adop-
tions; part two presents statistical data and comments on the source
and characteristics of adoption registrants and the children placed;
part three describes the work of adoption agencies that served IVAC
registrants. In addition, there are 24 tables of data as well as de-
scriptive and supportive documents in the appendixes.

140. Senzel, B., and Yeakel, M. Relationship capacity and ‘“ac-
knowledgement of difference” in adoptive parenthood. Smith Col-
lege Studies in Social Work 40(2):155-163, 1970.

The authors studies the implications of preadoptive statements
of 20 adopting couples about the kind of child they hoped to adopt.
Using a retrospective design, couples were seen in a semi-structured
interview calling for responses relative to parental preadoptive pref-
erences, the child’s place in the family, and parents’ relationship
capabilities as observed in an interview. A significant relationship
was shown between capacity for object relationships and “acknowl-
edgment of difference” as a coping mechanism. It appears that par-
ents’ capacities to relate well in a variety of situations may be a
crucial index of their ability to take on adoptive parenthood.

141. Sharrar, M.L. Some helpful techniques when placing older
children for adoption. Child Welfare 49(8):459-463, October 1970.

This article describes techniques that families adopting children
6-months-old or older might use to help communicate feelings of
love, continuity of affection, and permanence of the new home to
both verbal and nonverbal children. Songs and stories are included.

142. Shireman, J., and Watson, K.W. Adoption of real children.
Social Work 17(4):29-38, July 1972.

A 4-month adoption project that uses innovative techniques for
hard-to-place children is described. One-hundred-thirteen appli-
cants were randomly assigned to the regular department and 85 to
the project. No initial telephone interviews were conducted with
project applicants: Those who expressed interest were invited to the
agency for group or individual meetings. Applicants were shown
pictures of children awaiting adoption and were given information
about the project and a description of the adoption process. Appli-
cants who expressed an interest in any of the children were then

61
interviewed and discussed with the worker the child’s needs and his
probable effect on the family. The project succeeded in placing 19
children with 17 families; the department placed 32 children. The
project was more successful in transracial placements and in placing
older children (over 1 year of age). Results indicate that the project
applicants’ participation in the decisionmaking process was bene-
ficial to the placement of older children. The family characteristics,
the quality of placements, and the applicant and project team re-
actions are discussed.

143. Shireman, J.F., and Johnson, P.R. Adoption: Three Alterna-
tives. A Comparative Study of Three Alternative Forms of Adoptive
Placement. Chicago: Chicago Child Care Society (sponsoring
agency: Elizabeth McCormick Foundation, Chicago, Illinois),
1973.

This descriptive report covers the first phase of a 20-year longi-
tudinal study of black children adopted under 3 years of age by
black couples, white couples, and single persons. The sample of three
groups of approximately equal size was selected from the adoptive
placements of two private child welfare agencies between June 1970
and June 1972. The longitudinal study will be an assessment of the
family’s capacity to form close relationships and handle stress. The
material presented in the first phase report was gathered from case
records and interviews before, immediately after, and 2 months after
placement. Descriptions of the applicants, the children they adopted,
and their early adjustment as a family are included. Interesting
differences among the experimental groups are presented. For the
most part, the children in the study have had few problems and
seem to be developing well. Children and families with problems
are described, and statistics on interview item reliability are given.

144. Shireman, J.F., and Johnson, P.R. Single persons as adoptive
parents. The Social Service Review 50(1):103-116, March 1976.

Recently, social agencies have begun to place children for adoption
by single parents. The capacities of such homes to deal with the
stresses of family life or to handle the extra demands of the older
or handicapped child are unknown. This study, following a group
of single parents for the first 4 years of their lives with adopted
children, illustrates some of the satisfactions and problems of this
form of adoption. The homes are diverse in family structure, income,
occupation, and ability to meet the needs of the child. However,

62
some distinctive family patterns can be identified. More information
about these adoptions is needed to differentiate the applicant who
will become the remarkable capable parent from the applicant whose
child may later experience difficulties.

145. Silver, L.B. Frequency of adoption in children with the neu-
rological learning disability syndrome. Journal of Learning Dis-
abilities 3(6):306-310, June 1970.

A statistical study of 80 children with the neurological learning
disability syndrome (minimal brain damage) revealed that the in-
cidence of adoption in this group was almost four times that expected
in an equivalent but normal population. Ten of the 80 children in
the study were adopted children. All of them were adopted before
age 3 months and were adopted from nonrelatives. Six had been
adopted through a State agency; and one child had been adopted
through private negotiations. Because adoption agency personnel
were not able to release information on the preadoption history of
the children, only speculation on the significance of this information
is included in the paper.

146. Silverman, A.R., and Feigelman, W. Changing Family Pat-
terns and the Adoption of Minority Children. Presented at the An-
nual Meeting of the Eastern Sociological Association, Boston,
Massachusetts, March 1976. (Sponsoring agency: National Insti-
tute of Mental Health [DHEW], Rockville, Maryland; State Uni-
versity of New York Research Foundation, Albany, New York)

This study is based upon a mailed questionnaire taken from a
nationwide sample of adoptive parents and is part of a larger, on-
going study of contemporary trends in adoption. A question of in-
terest is whether those parents who have renounced more tradi-
tional conceptions of family life have become more receptive toward
hard-to-place children. It is hypothesized that political conservatism
and conventional religiosity would be incompatible with accepting
hard-to-place children. This was found to be true only in some cases,
such as in the adoption of black children. The findings suggest that
those parents in the forefront in assuming more contemporary fam-
ily lifestyles are more amenable to parenting minority children.
Also suggested is that the kind of child parents choose to adopt
closely reflects their values and institutional commitments. The
findings point to a general need to reevaluate the criteria employed
in placing stigmatized children. For instance, commenting on the

63
reported exclusion of couples with radical politics from the pool of
prospective adoptive parents for transracial placements, the study
suggests that these parents might in fact be among the most
appropriate.

147. Silverman, A.R., and Feigelman, W. Some factors affecting
the adoption of minority children. Social Casework 58(9):554-561,
November 1977.

Responses to a questionnaire mailed to adoptive parents indicate
that liberals and radicals appear most willing to adopt black chil-
dren. Conventionally religious persons (except Jewish respondents)
more frequently stated willingness to accept handicapped and re-
tarded children.

148. Simon, R.J. An assessment of racial awareness, preference,
and self identity among white and adopted non-white children.
Social Problems 22(1):43-57, October 1974.

This paper describes one aspect of a larger study of the experiences
of white families who have adopted transracially. It compares levels
of racial awareness, racial preferences, and racial identities between
two categories of children: nonwhite children adopted by white fam-
ilies and their white siblings who have been born into those families.
The data reported are based on interviews with 204 families in five
cities in the midwest, all of whom adopted at least one nonwhite
child. In total, 366 children between 3- and 8-years-old were inter-
viewed; 199 of them were adopted, and 167 were born to the parents.
The data suggest that, in families that have adopted transracially,
young children have a somewhat different perspective and a differ-
ent set of attitudes toward color, and presumably race, than children
who are reared in more typical family settings. Fewer of the white
as well as the nonwhite children in transracial homes associate
“white” with positive, attractive, and desirable characteristics that
other white and black children in our society do. The black children
perceive themselves as “negro” as accurately as white children per-
ceive themselves as “white.” The major findings are (1) that black
children who are reared in the special setting of multiracial families
do not acquire the ambivalence toward their own race that has been
reported in other studies and (2) that there is no significant differ-
ences in the racial attitudes of any of the categories of children.

64
149. Soeffing, M. Families for handicapped children: Foster and
adoptive placement programs. Exceptional Children 41(8):537-543,
May 1975.

Several diverse programs that promote adoptive and foster home
placement of handicapped children are summarized. Other programs
that work to support and serve the natural family so that the hand-
icapped might live at home are also described. A list of addresses
of the various programs is included.

150. Sommerlad, E.A. Aboriginal children belong in the aboriginal
community: Changing practices in adoption. Australian Journal of
Social Issues 12(3):167-177, August 1977.

The placement of aboriginal children has been the responsibility
of white social workers attached to State welfare agencies. Many
of these children have been fostered or adopted by white families
and have had little or no contact with the aboriginal community.
Aboriginal people are now voicing opposition to such practices and
are calling for an end to interracial adoption. They want the place-
ment of all aboriginal children to be in the hands of the aboriginal
community and are seeking to establish aboriginal placement agen-
cies. These and other demands were voiced by an aboriginal task
group at the recent First Australian Conference on Adoption.

151. Sone, C.S. A study of the relationship between parents’ marital
adjustment and their acceptance of adopted children of ethnically
different background. Dissertation Abstracts 28(10)A):4062, 1968.

In this study, the following instruments were used to measure
variables: the Porter parental acceptance scale, a modified short
marital adjustment scale originally developed by Locke and others,
and Warner's index of status characteristics. Out of 129 anonymous
mail questionnaires sent to American adoptive parents, 98 usable
returns were obtained. These pertained to 49 adopted sons and 49
adopted daughters whose average age was 5.3 years. The average
length of adoption was 3.9 years. The parents’ ages ranged from 24
to 59 years, with an average age of 39.29 years. The average length
of the marriages was 14.3 years. Sixty-four percent of the parents
had no children of their own. The mean number of children for each
family was increased by adoption from .69 to 2.3. Of the children,
42 percent were born in the Far East and the rest in the United
States. Approximately 87 percent were nonwhite, of which 44 per-

65
cent were American-Orientals. Of the couples, 77.6 percent were
white. Thus, the adoptive families were characterized by monorace,
birace, or multirace.

The sample was overrepresented by middle and upper class fam-
ilies in suburban communities; the median level of schooling was
18 years for the fathers. About 78 percent were engaged in profes-
sional or semiprofessional occupations, and 87 percent were Prot-
estants. It seems that the majority of adoptive parents were satisfied
with their children and that the children were likely to inherit the
fathers’ social status.

This investigation consisted in part of a replication of Porter’s
study. In comparison with his study, it appears that the present
findings substantiated the measurability of parental acceptance of
adopted children by means of the Porter scale.

Data analysis led to the following conclusions: (1) There is a mod-
erate positive relationship between adoptive fathers’ marital ad-
justment and their acceptance of adopted children, but there is no
relationship between the two variables for adoptive mothers. (2)
There are positive relationships between adoptive parents’ marital
adjustment and religiosity and between the parents’ religiosity and
their acceptance of adopted children. (3) There is no relationship
between parental acceptance of adopted children and racially
matched or unmatched circumstances of adoption. (4) There is no
significant difference between adoptive mothers’ and adoptive fa-
thers’ acceptance of adopted children. (5) Parental acceptance of
adopted children is not related to age of adoptive parents, length of
marriage, rural-urban background of adoptive parents, religious
affiliation, or sex of the child. (6) The adoptive parents who have
large families have a greater degree of acceptance of their adopted
children than do those with small families. (7) Adoptive parents’
socioeconomic status is positively related to their acceptance of
adopted children. (8) There is a significant relationship between
adoptive parents’ socioeconomic status and their expectations for
educational achievement of their adopted children, but their status
is not related to their expectations for occupational achievement of
adopted children. (9) There is a more significant increase in marital
happiness for adoptive mothers than for adoptive fathers following
adoption.

152. Sorosky, A.D.; Baran, A.; and Pannor R. The reunion of adop-
tees and birth relatives. Journal of Youth and Adolescence
3(3):195-206, September 1974.

66
An attempt was made to study the outcome of 11 cases of reunion
between adoptees and birth mothers. An increasing number of adult
adoptees are insisting that they have a constitutionally based civil
right to have access to their “sealed” birth records, which would
reveal the true identity of their natural parents. The majority felt
that they had personally benefited from the reunion, even though
in some of the cases the adoptees were disillusioned and disappointed
in their birth relatives. An adoptee may have many reasons for
feeling the need to search for more information on his birth parents
or to seek a reunion; in many cases, the true purpose remains un-
conscious. It would appear that very few adoptees are provided with
enough background information to be incorporated into their de-
veloping ego and sense of identity. Feelings of genealogical bewil-
derment cannot be discounted as occurring only in maladjusted or
emotionally disturbed individuals.

153. Sorosky, A.D.; Baran, A.; and Pannor, R. Identity conflict in
adoptees. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 45(1):18-27, Janu-
ary 1975.

A review of the literature and information gathered through in-
terviews with a large number of adoptees who have experienced
reunions with their birth parents indicate that adoptees are more
vulnerable than the population at large to the development of iden-
tity problems in late adolescence and young adulthood.

154. Sorosky, A.D.; Baran, A.; and Pannor, R. The effects of the
sealed record in adoption. American Journal of Psychiatry
133(8):900-904, August 1976.

Forty of 50 adult adoptees (41 female; median age of subjects =40
years) who had reunions with their birth parents found the expe-
rience satisfying. Only 10 percent of the birth parents reacted ad-
versely, although negative responses were somewhat more common
among the adoptive parents. Findings suggest that adoption prac-
tices, which in all but four States include permanent sealings of
birth records, should be changed to recognize the lifelong nature of
adoption. Recommendations include opening the records for adult
adoptees, creating agencies to be available to provide assistance and
counseling for all involved (adoptees, their adoptive parents, and
birth parents), and developing new adoption methods that would
not require biological parents to forever relinquish their child and
all knowledge of him/her at adoption.

67
155. Soule, M. Parental fantasies and the structuring of family
dynamics: The adoptive family as a clinical example. Revue de
Neuropsychiatrie Infantile et D’Hygiene Mentale de L’Enfance
20(1):5-7, January 1972. (English, German, and Spanish summaries)

This article outlines several stages in child development and as-
pects of the parent-child relationship and briefly notes the relevance
of the adoptive state and parental fantasies. The adoptive family is
considered to be a clinical example that is particularly well suited
to the study of how the mental attitudes of parents condition those
of the child and vice versa.

156. Starr, P.; Taylor, D.A.; and Taft R. Early life experiences and
adoptive parenting. Social Casework 51(8):491-500, October 1970.

The authors studied 340 couples with latency-age adopted children
regarding their characteristics at the time they adopted the child,
their own early childhood experiences, and their current parent-
child relationships. Responses were used to classify subjects into
two distinct groups, and a sample for intensive interviews was se-
lected from each. Early life experiences of the adoptive couples were
found to be only minimally associated with the performance as par-
ents. The adoptive couples tended to reinforce their own disciplinary
experiences as children with their adoptive child. No relationship
was found between the nature of infertility and performance as
parents. A substantial number of the children experienced behav-
ioral difficulties in school and at home.

157. Stephenson, P.S. The emotional implications of adoption pol-
icy. Comprehensive Psychiatry 16(4):363-367, July-August 1975.

This article discusses the controversy surrounding a proposed
Canadian Adoption Reunion Registry that would enable natural
parents to contact an adopted child after the child reached the age
of maturity; the literature on the psychological problems experi-
enced by biological and adoptive parents and the adoptee is also
examined. Some of the problems found to affect adoptive parents
were: (1) the lack of a physical or emotional preparation period in
waiting for the child, as is the case with parents during the preg-
nancy period; (2) the adopting parents’ sorrow about their own in-
adequacy; (3) coming to terms with their own and their adopted
child’s attitude toward illegitimacy; (4) telling the child of his adop-
tion; (5) problems related to prevalent cultural attitudes; and (6)
lack of ongoing support.

68
158. Stone, F.H. Adoption and identity. Child Psychiatry & Human
Development 2(3):120-128, Spring 1972.

Developmental identification processes from 6 months of age
through adolescence are discussed and related to the identity prob-
lems of adopted children. The “double bind” of adoption occurs when
adoptive parents are matched with the child on certain character-
istics (e.g., IQ) and yet encouraged to tell the child he is not their
own. If the child is told he is chosen, he may wonder what charac-
teristic determined the choice and may fear rejection if this per-
ceived quality (e.g., blond hair) disappears. Adoptive parents face
an increased risk of becoming “professional childrearers,” regarding
the child with intellectual curiosity instead of providing acceptance
and reality training. It is noted that three parties suffer loss in the
adoptive process: the mother who gives up her child, the child who
fantasizes but will never know his real parents, and the adoptive
parents who may unconsciously mourn the child they could not have
themselves.

)

#159. St. Denis, G.C. Interracial adoptions in Minnesota: Self- WW
concept and child rearing attitudes of Caucasian parents who |
have adopted Negro children. Dissertation Abstracts International
30(6-A):2633, 1969.

Based on a 10-year history of adoptive placement of black and
mixed children into white homes in Minnesota, a post hoc study was
conducted in order to analyze certain characteristics of these adop-
tive couples.

The total universe of white families who had adopted black chil-
dren in Minnesota during the years of 1958-1968 (the study group)
was compared on certain variables with a randomly selected group
of white families who had adopted white children during the same
period (control group).

The study group consisted of 147 couples and two single women,
involving a total of 167 children. The control group was made up
of 103 couples.

Initiated as a creative and innovative action, the adoption of a
black child by a white was postulated to be associated with a high
degree of self-concept on the part of the adoptive fathers and with
liberal childrearing attitudes on the part of the adoptive mothers.

The Adjective Check List (ACL) developed by Heilbrun and Gough
and the Parental Attitude Research Instrument (PARI) developed
by Schaefer and Bell were used to assess self-concept and childrear-

69
ing attitudes, respectively. Both tests, self-administered in this case,
were mailed to the two groups, with a return of 80 percent from the
study group and 69 percent from the control group.

Two hypotheses of no difference between the two groups on each
of the variables were formulated, and the data were submitted to
a test for an overall difference in means, using the Mahalanobid D2,
a form of multivariate discriminant analysis. Both hypotheses were
rejected; and the alternatives, that there are differences, were ac-
cepted. To see which of the scales (24 on the ACL and 23 on the
PARI) contributed to these differences, a univariate T test was done.
Only one scale on the ACL, the Lability scale, showed a difference
significant at the .05 level. However, of all the scales on the ACL,
this was the one that had “a high facet of ego strength,” which in
this study was congruent with self-concept; the study group obtained
a higher score on this variable.

On the PARI, 10 scales were found to be significantly different
at the .05 level, with the study group showing more liberal attitudes
on: Encouraging Verbalization, Seclusion of the Mother, Fear of
Harming the Baby, Strictness, Excluding Outside Influences, Dei-
fication, Approval of Activity, Intrusiveness, and Acceleration of
Development. In addition, the study group showed significantly
more favorable attitudes as measured by the Over-Possessiveness
and Hostility-Rejection clusters.

Appropriate statistical tests showed significant differences be-
tween the two groups on several demographic variables. Fathers
and mothers in the study group were older than those in the control
group and had been married longer. Study group families had more
biological children at time of adoption, but control group families
had more other adopted children. More of the study group children,
who were older than the control group children, had been placed
through public agencies. On the Hollingshead Two-Factor Index of
Social Position, 63 percent of study group families were in classes
I and II, compared with 32 percent of control group families. The
findings confirm the postulations of the study and show these in-
terracial adopters to be “highly eligible” according to the standards
followed at the time.

160. Sullivan, M. Task Force on Confidentiality in the Adoption
Program: A Report to the California State Department of Health.
Sacramento, California: California State Department of Health,
July 14, 1977.

This report contains the findings and recommendations of a task
force established to develop a comprehensive statement regarding

the confidentiality of adoption records and to define the scope of

70
information (background and/or identifying) to be shared with birth
parents prior to placement of a child for adoption, adoptive parents
at the time of placement, and adoptees upon request. The introduc-
tory section of the report contains a description of the events leading
up to the formation of the task force and a brief statement of task
force objectives. Section 2 presents a list of the 25 task force mem-
bers. In Section 3, issues that shaped the general background of
task force discussions are delineated. The 14 major findings of the
group are enumerated in Section 4, and the reactions of selected
birth parents to these findings are presented in Section 5. Section
6 contains recommendations made by the task force in four areas:
(1) access to nonidentifying information, (2) access to identifying
information, (3) adoption records, and (4) registration system. Sec-
tion 7 contains a summary statement.

161. Swenson, J.P. Supportive Care, Custody, Placement and Adop-
tion of American Indian Children: Special Questions and New An-
swers. A National Conference Sponsored by the American Academy
of Child Psychiatry (Bottle Hollow, Utah, April 19-22, 1977). Avail-
able from the American Academy of Child Psychiatry.

A focus on the developmental uniqueness of the American Indian
child and implications for supportive care, custody, placement, and
adoption was one of the major goals of this conference. Attendees
addressed the growing concern among Indian communities over the
loss of their children and the lack of child welfare services that
would preserve Indian families and afford them culturally sensitive
prevention and treatment attention. Two general sessions targeted
topics related to supportive care to the at-risk child, placement is-
sues, special settings for children, and review of the custody process.
Nine simultaneous small-group workshops following the general
sessions examined the issues in greater detail. The conferees con-
curred that: (1) Service network development, active involvement
of tribal councils, and mobilization of community support are vital
to the success of welfare services. (2) The main theme emerging
from the conference was the call for affirmation of tribal heritage
and the retention of cultural ties. (3) A comprehensive information
clearinghouse relating to all aspects of Indian social services is
needed. (4) Tribal control is a necessity for developing and main-
taining continuity of programs.

162. Tabler, N.G., Jr. Paternal rights in the illegitimate child:
Some legitimate complaints on behalf of the unwed father. Journal
of Family Law 11(2):231-254, 1971.

71
Court cases involving suits of illegitimate fathers for visitation
rights to their children are reviewed, and rulings denying such
rights are found to constitute unfair discrimination against the
unwed father. Problems of effecting legitimation without the
mother’s consent are dealt with. “Any other man, and any other
woman may enjoy parenthood without passing muster, but the
unwed father is allowed to be a father to his child only if he merits
the court approval.”

Even more troublesome is the general problem of the meaning
and effect of legitimation. By law or practice, the mother has an
absolute veto over legitimation. Therefore, her interests are para-
mount, completely overshadowing, if not obliterating, those of father
and child alike. In general, if a child is illegitimate, his mother will
be awarded custody as long as she is not demonstrably unfit. The
right of the father to consent to adoption is limited in State statutes.
The general rule among the States is that an illegitimate child may
be adopted without notice of the proceeding to his father. Some
recent Supreme Court decisions seem to indicate that classification
based on illegitimate parenthood should be constitutionally suspect.
An equal protection argument for the father can be made in terms
of his position relative to either the mother or a father of a legitimate
child. Generally, the law does not afford the unwed father the pro-
tection it gives either of these other two figures. The rights of the
unwed father can be argued in terms of the equal protection ar-
guments and the due process clause. A father who honors his pa-
rental duties should have the corresponding paternal rights.

163. Tec, L., and Gordon, S. The adopted child’s adaptation to
adolescence. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 37(2):402, 1967.

Problems that adolescence presents to all children and their fam-
ilies are exacerbated by adoption; the extent to which these children
are preoccupied by the theme of their adoption, the similarity of
symptoms, personality traits, and attitudes is observed as the adop-
tion syndrome.

164. Tizard, B., and Rees, J. A comparison of the effects of adoption,
restoration to the natural mother, and continued institutionaliza-
tion on the cognitive development of four-year-old children. Child
Development 45:92-99, 1974.

Sixty-five children age 4'%2 years who had spent their first 2—4
years in institutions were tested, and an assessment was made of
their behavior in the test situation. Twenty-four of the children had
been adopted and 15 restored to their natural mothers at a mean age
of 3 years; the remaining 26 were still in institutions. The mean
WIPPSI IQs of all groups were at least average; the adopted children
had significantly higher 1Qs, were initially more friendly, and were

72
less restless and distractible than the other children. The findings are
discussed in relation to the concept of institutional deprivation.

165. Tizard, B. Adoption: A Second Chance. New York: Free Press,
1977.

The author describes a comparative study of children who were
adopted, placed in foster homes, or returned to their natural parents
after spending up to 7 years in institutional care. The special prob-
lems of mixed-race children adopted by white couples and the dif-
ficulties of children in long-term foster homes were also examined.
It is suggested that attempts to restore the child to his/her natural
family may not be in the best interest of the child.

166. Van Why, E.W. Adoption Bibliography and Multi-Ethnic
Sourcebook. Open Door Society of Connecticut, Inc., 1977.

Designed for parents who have adopted or who contemplate adop-
tion, and for educational, legal, medical, social, and theological
professionals, this bibliography and sourcebook contains more than
1,250 citations relating to adoption. The book is divided into two
parts. The first section is a bibliography of articles, personal nar-
ratives, dissertations, books, audiovisuals, and bibliographices on
adoption. All aspects of adoption are included in the text, which
contains citations about black, Native America, handicapped, older,
and sibling adoptees; intercultural, international, and single-parent
adoptions; adoptive parents; and adult-adoptee organizations. Each
citation includes author, title, availability, price, and date of ma-
terial. Annotations describing the material are provided for many
of the citations.

The second part of the book is a comprehensive listing of items
that reflect African, Asian, Latin American, and Native American
heritages to help parents rear adopted children of different races.
Dolls, toys, games, greeting cards, calendars, audiovisuals, artifacts,
hobbies, programs and services, and bibliographies of children’s
books are listed. In addition, the text contains an alphabetical listing
of 130 sources and organizations in the United States and Canada
which provide information and services about ethnic groups. Var-
ious appendixes to aid in the use of the sourcebook conclude the

text.

167. Vieni, M. Transracial adoption is a solution now. Social Work
20(5):419-421, September 1975.

The author strongly argues for transracial adoption, considering
it to be an effective way to eradicate various problems facing black
children; she answers various objections raised against transracial

73
adoption. The important issue, the author maintains, is to provide
psychological care to many black children who need it badly.

168. Weider, H. On being told of adoption. Psychoanalytic Quar-
terly 46(1):1-22, 1977.

The author presents clinical data from the psychoanalyses of three
adoptees which document the deleterious effect of telling children
under 3 years of age about their adoptive status. It is concluded that
the knowledge and the experiences of being an adoptee impose the
need for defensive reactions that affect developmental process, cog-
nitive function, object relationships, and fantasy life.

169. Wieder, H. The family romance fantasies of adopted children.
Psychoanalytic Quarterly 46(2):185-200, 1977.

Despite the absence of psychoanalytic studies to support the po-
sition, family romance fantasies have been assumed to be similar
in form and function in both the adopted and the blood-kin child.
Personal observation and analyses of three adoptees, age 9, 17, and
27 years, reveal that knowing one is adopted results in modifications
of the fantasy and that certain types of adoptees seem incapable of
effectively creating the paradigmatic family romance fantasy.

170. Winich, M.; Meyer, K.K.; and Harris, R.C. Malnutrition and
environmental enrichment by early adoption. Science

= 190(4220):1173-1175, December 1975.

The authors examined the current status of 141 female Korean
orphans who were adopted during early life (less than 3-years-old)
by U.S. parents and who had, thereby, undergone a total change in
environment. Subjects were divided into three groups on the basis
of how their height and weight at the time of admission to the
Korean Adoption Service related to a reference standard of normal
Korean children of the same age: malnourished (Group 1), moder-
ately nourished (Group 2), and well nourished or control (Group 3).
Information on health, growth, nutrition, and family socioeconomic
background was obtained from subjects’ families by a checklist ques-
tionnaire, and IQ and school performance data were obtained from
schools.

Results show that all three groups have surpassed the expected
mean for Korean children in both height and weight, and all the
groups have reached or exceeded mean IQ values for American chil-
dren. Results for school achievement are similar to those for IQs,
although there was a significant difference between subjects in
Groups 1 and 3. Data suggest that, if a severely malnourished child
is subsequently to develop adequately, any program of environ-
mental enrichment must be of long duration. The select character

74
of the adoptive parents (primarily middle class) and the environment
they provided to the children are noted.

171. Witkin, L.J. Bridging the gap: Natural parents and adoptive
families. Social Work 16(4):95-97, October 1971.

Barriers between natural parents and adoptive applicants seem
to be lifting slowly. Innovations are described, but there is a lack
of consensus among social workers regarding the value of these new
approaches.

172. Work, H.H., and Anderson, H. Studies in adoption: Requests
for psychiatric treatment. American Journal of Psychiatry
127(7):948-950, January 1971.

This article observes that parents of adopted children frequently
seek psychiatric treatment for them. A study of 419 children at a
neuropsychiatric institute confirms this finding. It is proposed that
certain patterns of childrearing among adoptive parents contribute
to their adopted children’s difficulties.

173. Zastrow, C.H. Outcome of Black Children—White Parents,
Transracial Adoptions. San Francisco: R & E Research Associates; \
Inc., 1977.

This dissertation aims to identify the specific satisfactions derived
and difficulties encountered by white parents who adopted a pre-
school-age black child and to assess the overall outcome of white
couples’ black children adoptions. Two groups, a group of 82 white
parents who adopted a black child, and a matched comparison group
of white parents who adopted a child of their own race, were formed.
Data were obtained through family interviews and adoption records.
Specific interview questions addressed satisfactions and difficulties
of parents, reactions of friends and strangers, anticipations of future
problems, and suggestions for improvement of adoption procedures.
Results indicate that transracial placements are as successful, in
terms of parents’ satisfaction with their adoptive experience, as are
intraracial placements. A review of prior studies of the character-
istics of adoptive families is included, and interview forms for both
groups of parents are appended.

174. Ziemska, M. Personality and maternal attitudes of women
adopting children. Psychologia A Patopsychologia Dietata 4(1):73-84,
1969. (Russian summary)

75
The author investigated the attitudes of three groups of women:
30 who were adopting children, 30 with at least one emotionally
healthy child of their own, and 20 who had adopted children and
asked for guidance. Seventy-seven percent of the women adopting
children and 10 percent of mothers had gone through stress conn-
nected with maternity. It was found that, because of feelings of
inadequacy caused by their inability to have their own children, the
adopting women became overprotective mothers and showed exces-
sive emotional concentration on the child. In a study 1 to 2 years
after adoption, more normal, though still somewhat overprotective,
attitudes were found.

175. Adoption and Foster Care, 1975. Hearings before the Subcom-
mittee on Children and Youth of the Committee on Labor and
Public Welfare, United States Senate, 94th Congress, First Session.
Washington, D.C.: Congress of the United States, Senate Com-
mittee on Labor and Public Welfare, 1975.

This book contains the transcripts of four hearings of the Senate
Subcommittee on Children and Youth which considered the issues
of baby selling and adoption of children with special needs. Through
interviews with professionals in adoption and child welfare, attor-
neys, and parents, the committee explored the dimensions of the
problems as well as the existing and proposed Federal policies that
affect the adoption of children and their placement in foster homes.
Two hearings on baby selling examined the issue of human rights,
the extent and cost of black market adoptions (including the extent
of involvement of doctors and lawyers), and the problems with the
ways legal adoptions are handled. The two hearings on the adoption
of children with special needs focused on consideration of Senate
Bill 1593 (the proposed Opportunities for Adoption Act of 1975) in
addition to other existing and proposed Federal legislation. Official
statements of witnesses and numerous supporting documents sub-
mitted to the committee are included.

176. Adoption insights: A course for adoptive parents. Children
Today 4(1):22-25, January-February 1975.

This article describes a class designed to meet the needs of adop-

tive parents through discussion, educational presentations by spe-
cialists, and group visits to hospital labor and delivery rooms.

76
177. The Children of the State I: A Time for Change in Child Care.
Preliminary Report (a report prepared by the Temporary State
Commission on Child Welfare, State of New York, Albany, New
York), May 1, 1975.

This preliminary report of the Temporary State Commission on
Child Welfare identifies problems and offers recommendations for
improvement in the system of child welfare in New York State.
Information about the commission’s mandate and members is fol-
lowed by a review of the child welfare system in New York. The
report indicates that the entire system manifests a lack of compre-
hensive coordination and meaningful accountability. Specific topics
focused on are: preventive services, Social Services Law Section 358-
A, judicial foster care status, termination of parental rights, adop-
tion subsidy, statewide adoption exchange, and pending lawsuits.
A discussion of each topic includes a review of the existing practices
and the commission’s recommendations. Recommendations pertain-
ing to the existing practices, statutes, and conditions affecting the
care, custody, and rights of minors are also included. Later sections
discuss persons in need of supervision and juvenile delinquency in
some detail. Appendixes include a copy of the legislation introduced
at the request of the commission as of May 1, 1975, and a list of
public hearings held by the commission.

178. The Children of the State II (a report prepared by the Tem-
porary Commission on Child Welfare, State of New York, Albany,
New York), October 1976.

This second annual report of the Temporary State Commission
on Child Welfare accounts for the progress made toward resolving
the problems raised in the first annual report and summarizes the
present status of the commission’s projects—completed, in process,
and proposed. Among topics briefly discussed are preventive ser-
vices, the child welfare system, the rights of fathers of children born
out of wedlock, adoption subsidy, adoption services, barriers to
freeing children for adoption, sealed adoption records, juvenile de-
linquency, “persons in need of supervision,” and judicial decisions.
The four appendixes include copies of the selected 1975 and 1976
legislation referred to in the report and a table showing the status
of the Temporary State Commission on Child Welfare Legislation
from the 1975 and 1976 legislative sessions.

77
179. Children of the State: Barriers to the Freeing of Children for
Adoption. Final Report to the New York State Department of Social
Services Title IV-B, Research and Demonstration Project (a report
prepared by the Temporary State Commission on Child Welfare,
State of New York, Albany, New York), March 1976.

This report by New York’s Temporary State Commission on Child
Welfare discusses a study conducted to determine why the laws
pertaining to freeing and placing children for adoption and the ad-
ministrative machinery implementing these laws have failed and
recommends remedial action. The report is divided into three major
sections. Part I, “The Legal Basis for Termination of Parental
Rights,” discusses the current statutory framework for termination
of parental rights, presents a historical overview of the development
of the body of State law, sets forth major problems and issues, and
states the commission’s recommendations and rationale for legis-
lative change. Part II, “The Courts,” discusses the jurisdictional and
administrative problems encountered within the judicial system in
administration of termination and fostercare review statutes as per-
ceived by those consulted during the project; it also presents com-
mission recommendations to the State Department of Social Services
and the Office of Court Administration. Part III, “The Role of the
Agency,” details major concerns of social service personnel, attor-
neys, and judicial personnel and presents relevant commission rec-
ommendations. The five appendixes include a draft of proposed leg-
islation, copies of forms and other materials developed for the study,
and statistical data on agency activities in freeing and finding adop-
tive homes for children.

180. An Evaluation of the New York State Adoption Exchange.
Final Report (a report prepared by Welfare Research, Inc., Albany,
New York; sponsoring agency: New York State Department of So-
cial Services, Albany, New York), January 1976.

This paper describes a project designed to evaluate the New York
State Adoption Exchange, a program providing information on
adoptable children and families approved for adoption across the
State of New York. The first section of the paper describes the ra-
tionale for the development of the evaluation project. The second
section traces the problems of the Adoption Exchange from its in-
ception as a voluntary program in the 1950s to the present com-
pulsory exchange system. The next four sections of the paper present
the objectives, methodology, findings, and implications of the eval-
uation project. Using surveys of agencies and citizens involved in

78
the adoption process, the project’s findings emphasize the inade-
quacy of the current exchange and highlight the problem of placing
the school-age, black, or seriously handicapped children who rep-
resent the majority of children listed. Recommendations from the
project emphasize the need for recruiting families who are willing
to accept these children. The project also emphasizes the need for
increased interagency communication, increased communication
between adoptive parent organizations and social service agencies,
more skilled staff, and a more workable information system. The
paper includes tables and appendixes illustrating various aspects
of the exchange program and evaluation project.

181. An Evaluation of the Test of Regional Planning in Adoption.
Final Report (a report prepared by Welfare Research, Inc., Albany,
New York; sponsoring agency: New York State Department of So-
cial Services, Albany, New York), January 1978.

This report presents findings from the evaluation of the Regional
Adoption Program in New York, a program designed to recruit
adoptive families for hard-to-place children. Two hundred children
averaging 11 years of age constituted the project’s target population.
Nearly half of these children had a diagnosed medical problem, one
fourth had a diagnosed psychological problem, and more than half
showed a caseworker-noted behavoral problem. Of the 108 families
initially recruited, 61 continued on to a second group session in
which background information relevant to adoption of such children
was provided. Data from the analysis of the project children are
compared with data from the target population of Operation Place-
ment, a similar demonstration project in another geographic area.
The relationships between medical, psychological, or behavior prob-
lem conditions noted in the children and their length of time in
fostercare, their placement likelihood, and placement disruptions
are examined. The effects of the children’s sex and race on placement
likelihood are also examined. Data for project-recruited families are
compared to data for families who had been approved as potential
adoptive families by the agency prior to the inception of the Regional
Adoption Program. The two family groups are compared on: (1) age,
(2) education, (3) income, (4) parents’ employment, (5) the number
of children already in the family, and (6) process of matching with
an adoptive child. The mode of publicity most effective in recruiting
project families is also examined. Evaluation and program barriers
are described, and the feasibility of replicating the project is
discussed.

79
182. Focus on Adoption. New York: Child Welfare Information
Services, Inc., April 1977. Available from Child Welfare Informa-
tion Services, 200 Madison Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10016.

This report consists of three charts that present data on adoption
patterns in New York City in 1976. The report is based on quarterly
Child Welfare Information Service (CWIS) reports developed by
Fanshel and Grundy. Each chart is accompanied by a brief explan-
atory text and a summary of findings. The charts present data on
children still in care waiting for adoption, on the status of children
free for adoption at the beginning of the year to the final discharge
activity during 1976, and on the match between discharge objective
and actual final destination. A chart for comparing CWIS with other
agency data is attached as an appendix.

183. Immigration and Naturalization of Adopted Children. Report
(to accompany H.R. 12508), Committee on the Judiciary, House of
Representatives, 95th Congress, Second Session. Report No. 95-1301,
June 16, 1978.

This report from the Committee on the Judiciary of the House of
Representatives, 95th Congress, recommends passage of H.R. 12508
to amend the Immigration and Naturalization Act. The purpose of
H.R. 12508 is to establish uniform procedures for admission to the
United States of adopted or prospective adoptive children of U.S.
citizens and to remove the statutory prohibition on the approval of
more than two petitions filed by the same petitioner on behalf of
alien adopted children. The bill also facilitates the naturalization
of such children. Immigration requirements and procedures for
adopted children are specified in the analysis of the bill. Background
information, including a brief historical review of legislation on the
admission of adopted children, is provided. The report includes a
section-by-section analysis and reproduces favorable reports on sev-
eral bills incorporated into H.R. 12508.

184. International Catholic Child Bureau. The adoption of handi-
capped children, International Child Welfare Review 35:47-50, De-
cember 1977.

The conclusions and recommendations made at an international
conference for specialists on the adoption of handicapped children
are presented. It was concluded that the idea of adopting handi-
capped children is still far from being generally accepted; however,
the commonly held belief that only perfect children are suitable for
adoption is increasinglyly being challenged. Adoption has, in many

80
cases, contributed to improvement in the handicapped child’s con-
dition, particularly in the instance of mental retardation caused by
emotional deprivation. Research shows that a large number of hand-
icapped children have been successfully adopted in several countries
over the past 20 years and that the adoptive families—especially
the children of these families—have benefited from the integration
of the handicapped child into their midst. The primary recommen-
dations were: (1) that there be no restrictions with regard to adoption
as far as the children themselves are concerned, and (2) that hand-
icapped children be placed as young as possible in a family with a
view to adoption, regardless of prognostics: the qualifications orig-
inate not in the child but in the human resources and capabilities
of the adopting family.

185. Model State Subsidized Adoption Act and Regulations. Wash-
ington, D.C.: Children’s Bureau, DHEW, Report No. DHEW-OHD
76-30010, 1975.

This booklet presents the texts of the Model State Subsidized
Adoption Act and Model Regulations. Comments that expand and
explain most sections of the act are included. Subsidized adoption
provides reimbursement (after a child with special needs has been
placed for adoption) according to a prior agreement between the
adoptive parent(s) and the social agency. The agreement is to be
tailored to the child’s needs and may allow for specific medical, legal,
or other costs. It can be a monthly reimbursement for a limited time
or for an indefinite period. Provisions of the act include purpose,
eligibility, administration and funding, the subsidy agreement, and
appeals. The act is meant to be read in conjunction with the model
regulations, which amplify and interpret the provisions of the act.

186. Opportunities for Adoption Act of 1977. Hearing before the
Subcommittee on Child and Human Development of the Committee
on Human Resources, United States Senate, 95th Congress, First
Session, on S. 961 to Promote the Healthy Development of Children
Who Would Benefit from Adoption by Facilitating Their Placement
in Adoptive Homes, and for Other Purposes. Washington, D.C.:
Congress of the United States, Senate Committee on Human Re-
sources, April 4, 1977.

This document presents the proceedings of an April 4, 1977, hear-
ing before the Subcommittee on Child and Human Development of
the U.S. Senate Committee on Human Resources on the Opportun-
ities for Adoption Act of 1977. Included are the text of S. 961 and
statements, letters of support, and background material presented

81
to the committee. Pertinent articles from newspapers, law reviews,
and other sources are listed; but the texts are not included because
of copyright restrictions.

187. Proposed Plan for the Improvement of Foster Care and Adop-
tion Services. Washington, D.C.: Mott-McDonald Associates, Inc.
(sponsoring agency: Florida Department of Health and Rehabili-
tative Services, Tallahassee), March 1977.

This paper describes the 5-year Florida fostercare and adoption
plan, which was developed to facilitate the provision of more effec-
tive services to children needing full-time care outside the parental
home. The paper is divided into five chapters plus an introduction
and summary. The introduction outlines the problems facing the
social service agencies and the Department of Health and Rehabi-
litative Services (DHRS) in Florida. The introduction also reviews
the philosophy and priorities presented in the plan, the cost-effec-
tiveness implications, and strategies for providing more effective
services. The first three chapters of the paper outline the basic ob-
jectives of the plan and recommend actions on the parts of the DHRS
and of the State legislature. Chapter I discusses the primary objec-
tive of maintaining children in their own homes. Chapter II de-
scribes recommended strategies for increasing the number of adop-
tive placements for children. Chapter III discusses the plan’s
objectives for the placement of children in fostercare. Chapters IV
and V describe the support systems necessary for the success of the
plan: Chapter IV reviews current and recommended information
systems for DHRS, and Chapter V describes the need for a training
and staff-development system to increase the number of people with
specialized skills in social work and related fields.

188. Sale of Children in Interstate and Foreign Commerce. Hear-
ings before the Subcommittee on Criminal Justice of the Committee
on the Judiciary, House of Representatives, 95th Congress, First
Session, 1979.

These congressional hearings consist of public testimony before
the House Judiciary Committee’s Subcommittee on Criminal Justice
concerning proposed legislation designed to prohibit the sale of chil-
dren in interstate and foreign commerce. Much of the testimony
focuses on the increasingly widespread, marginally legal practices
of selling infants into adoption and privately arranging adoptions
for a fee. Problems of constructing precise legislative language to
criminalize and halt black-market baby sales are discussed. Also
included is testimony counter to the intent of the proposed legislation.

82
Part Il. Minority Children
189. Adair, A.V., and Savage J. Sex and race as determinant of
preferences, attitudes and self-identity among black preschool chil-
dren: A developmental study. Proceedings of the 81st Annual Con-
vention of the American Psychological Association, Montreal, Can-
ada 8:651-652, 1973.

The authors studied 72 3- to 6-year-old black preschool children
enrolled in a metropolitan daycare center. A series of questions was
developed to assess developmental trends in the relative importance
of race and sex for self-identity, attitudes, and preferences. The
stimulus material included four sets of eight pictures (equal num-
bers of black and white children and of males and females) mounted
on a circular magnetic cardboard. Each child ranked four of the
eight pictures in each set of pictures for each of eight questions. It
is concluded that sex exerts a greater influence on the self-inden-
tification process, attitudes, and social preferences of girls than boys,
with boys showing greater bias toward the race dimension. No clear-
cut developmental trends were found.

190. Adkins, D.C.; Payne, F.D.; and Ballif, B.L. Motivation factor
scores and response set scores for ten ethnic-cultural groups of
preschool children. American Educational Research Journal
9(4):557-572, 1972.

Fifteen-hundred-eighty-eight children age 39 to 76 months were
individually tested in 1969, using the Gumpgookie Test developed
by the three authors. The children represented 10 ethnic-cultural
groups. Asian-American children were represented in the Hawaiian
group (Hawaiians, Chinese-American, Japanese-American, Sa-
moan-American, Filipino-American, and white American, as well
as various combinations thereof) and the “Oriental” group (San
Francisco and Los Angeles). The 169 boys and 148 girls in those two
groups were lower socioeconomic status.

Five 2x 10 analyses of variance using a fixed-effects model with
unweighted means were performed. The 10 ethnic-cultural groups
differed significantly in total score on Gumpgookies. No sex differ-
ences were found, nor was there a significant interaction between
sex and ethnic-cultural group. The Mexican-American, Oriental,
American Indian, and Hawaiian samples had the lowest average
scores. On the Instrumental Activity Scale, the American Indian,
Hawaiian, and Mexican-American samples exhibited the lowest av-
erage scores, with the Oriental sample exhibiting average scores
that were higher than those three groups but lower than those of
the black urban and white rural samples. No generalizations rela-

85
tive to Asian-American/Pacific Islanders were reported for the
School Enjoyment Scale. On the Self-Evaluation Scale, the Mexican-
American, Oriental, American Indian, and Hawaiian groups had
the lowest mean scores.

191. Ager, L.P. Play among Alaskan Eskimos. Theory Into Prac-
tice, 13(4):252-256, October 1974.

The author observed play activities of Eskimo children over a 4-
month period. Play, while universal, is expressed in different games
and amusements in different cultures. Variations relate to differing
cultural values and role structures. Subjects were three female sib-
lings ages 11, 9, and 8; one male sibling age 3; a female cousin; and
various playmates of these five. Observations were informally made
by the author as a resident of the subjects’ home and a community
of 300 persons. In sociodramatic play, subjects adopted only Anglo-
American roles, even though traditional adult Eskimo roles abound.
Games of strategy (Monopoly, checkers, cards) and stories based on
movie themes are also replacing traditional games of physical skill
and folklore. These changes may reflect the adoption of Euro-Amer-
ican leadership roles where strategy and long-term planning are
more important than physical skill.

192. Allen, D.I., and Birch, D.R. Children’s Associations with Their
Own and Other Countries. Presented at the Annual Meeting of the
American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, Loui-
siana, February 1973. (Available from Faculty of Education, Simon
Fraser University, Burnaby 2, British Columbia, Canada.)

An in-progress report of a study exploring the nature and content
of children’s concepts of their own and other countries is presented.
Current literature on early development of concepts of other people
and places is reviewed, followed by a description of the open-ended
procedure adopted for gathering data. The test is being conducted
in Australia, Canada, and the United States and is being admin-
istered to approximately 400 children in grades one, three, and six.
Students are asked to write whatever they think in response to the
name of seven countries—England, China, Australia, Brazil, Can-
ada, Nigeria, and the United States. Responses are content-analyzed
with particular attention to number of items, egocentrism, primary
orientation, evaluative comment, and stereotypes. Analysis of par-
tial data from the United States and Canada produces findings that
differ from or modify previous investigations in this area, as noted

86
in tentative concluding remarks. A summary of responses used for
this analysis and 47 student responses are reproduced.

193. Allen, J.R. The Indian adolescent: Psychosocial tasks of the
Plains Indian of Western Oklahoma. American Journal of Ortho-
psychiatry 43(3):368-375, April 1973.

Adolescence is generally viewed as a time of psychosocial turmoil.
For the Native American Indian, this time of life brings forth prob-
lems of greater complexity than those of the adolescent of the dom-
inant culture. This paper describes the dilemma of the Indian ad-
olescent, who has moved from nurturance by and among his people
to schooling under the authority of the white man and who must
find an identity somewhere between two worlds in which he cannot
be whole.

194. Asante, M., and Andersen, P.A. Transracial ——
and the changing image of black Americans. Journal of Black Stud- Ne

ies, 4(1):69-80, September 1973. ER

Racial preconceptions affect our ability to understand and com-
municate with persons from different racial backgrounds. Several
recent studies are discussed, notably one by Krystal et al., which
maintains that, while parents of young blacks are “mostly assimi-
lationists striving for integration but attempting to adopt ‘white’
cultural symbols,” young blacks are moving into the “cultural plu-
ralist position, which is a combination of coexistence with white and
strong black consciousness.” In the minority are the separatists,
both traditionalists (accepting traditional American attitudes, be-
lieving in integration but unwilling to fight for it) and nationalists
(striving for dignity and Afro-American identity with the goal of
occupying land for a separate black society). There are many man-
ifestations of the new black awareness on all levels. An example is
African names for children. White and Richmond (1970) found “no
significant difference in self-steem for black and white children.
...” Dubey found that blacks in Cleveland had little preference for
black over white workers in professional fields. Most evidence in-
dicates a willingness to integrate. Meyer indicates violence, but this
figure does not increase, and many blacks interviewed claimed to
advocate only a “rhetoric of violence.” Two studies found that na-
tionalists and separatists were primarily “northern, Ur, disillu-
sioned activists” of low income. White images of blacks have also
changed: In 1933, the most common adjectives used for blacks were

87
I) ees

“superstitious,” “lazy,” “ignorant,” “happy-go-lucky,” and “musical”;
by the 1970s, they were “aggressive,” “impulsive,” “persistent,”
“argumentative,” and “emotional.” “Whites still perceive blacks as
somewhat inferior and definitely threatening.” These attitudes
impede communication; but, it is hoped changing black images and
stereotypes will bring about productive transracial communication.

195. Bauer, E.W. The migrant child and his psycho-linguistic prob-
lems. A.A.T.E.F.L. Newsletter 1(2):17-30, 1971.

Present attempts to integrate migrants linguistically and cultur-
ally into Australian society need to be improved. The migrant child
must be taught to learn how to learn, and learning experiences must
be structured to promote education in school subjects and commu-
nication with peers. There is a problem of acculturation; migrant
children must be taught to develop a differentiation mechanism to
bridge two cultural systems and two language systems. There must
be a systematic growth of cultural awareness, and the Australian
community must also recognize and accept foreign cultures. The
new concept of the pluralistic society should be adopted. Language-
learning and teaching-research centers should be established to
specialize in the study of problems in second-language learning;
applied linguistics; evaluation and development of curriculum, tests,
and teaching materials; and information coordination and
dissemination.

196. Baumheier, E.C., et al. Legal and Jurisdictional Problems in
the Delivery of Social and Rehabilitation Services—Child Welfare
Services on Indian Reservations. Denver: Denver University, Col-
orado Research Institute (sponsored by Children’s Bureau, DHEW,
Washington, D.C.), October 1975.

Focusing on child welfare programs, legal and jurisdictional prob-
lems concerning the delivery of social and rehabilitation services on
Indian reservations and the means of coping with them were ex-
plored through field research at 10 reservations in 8 States and
through library legal research. Child welfare services were defined
as including fostercare, adoption, daycare, protective services, and
certain institutional and homemaker services. Field research dis-
closed complex interagency relationships and patterns of service
delivery.

Three major recurrent legal and jurisdictional problems were un-
covered: conflicting legal interpretations about the roles and re-

88
sponsibilities of State or county offices in providing certain social
and rehabilitation services on reservations, State rulings that the
State cannot license facilities on reservations, and reluctance of
some State courts and institutions to honor tribal court orders. In
the long run, no final resolution of the basic jurisdictional tension
will be possible without major Federal legislation, probably includ-
ing amendments to the Social Security Act. Several alternatives
and recent legal rulings are discussed in detail. This report is avail-
able from the Center for Social Research and Development, Spruce
Hall, Room 21, University of Denver, Denver, Colorado 80208.

197. Baumbheier, E.C., et al. Indian Child Welfare: A State-of-the-
Field Study. Denver: Denver University, Colorado Research Insti-
tute (sponsored by Children’s Bureau, DHEW, Washington, D.C.),
July 1976.

The present state of American Indian Child Welfare was inves-
tigated via a review of published and unpublished literature; an
analysis of legislation, regulations, manuals, and other documents
concerning Federal and State Indian child welfare; mail surveys in
22 States with substantial Indian populations; field interviews at
19 sites, including 12 reservation sites, four urban Indian commu-
nities, one terminated tribe, one in Oklahoma, and one in Alaska;
case studies of programs of particular significance based on inter-
views and documents; and a mail survey focusing on graduate social
work programs. The four major types of agencies responsible for
providing child welfare services to Indians were the State-county
social service systems, Federal service system, Indian-run agencies,
and private non-Indian agencies. Of these, the State-county social
service systems and the Federal service system were the most active.
Barriers to the provision of Indian child welfare services included:
failure of State courts and institutions to recognize tribal court or-
ders, the licensing of institutions, interagency relationships, the
reluctance of many States to take into account the special problems
of providing services to Indians, the lack of Indian involvement, the
distance between county welfare offices and Indian reservations,
and failure to understand tribal cultures and to foster programs
operated by tribal governments.

198. Bennett, R.L., and Coombs, L.M. Effective education to meet
special needs of native children. Journal of American Indian Ed-
ucation 3(3):21-25, May 1964.

89
Rural Alaska is composed of very small communities, a situation
that complicates development of adequate educational programs.
Elementary education is provided through a large number of rela-
tively small village schools. Although some of these schools are too
small, most people agree that educating the youngsters in a boarding
school situation is not desirable. Since it is not feasible to offer a
comprehensive high school program in each small village, it becomes
necessary to establish and operate secondary boarding schools,
which are better able to meet the needs of the youngsters. The
Bureau of Indian Affairs, which operates these boarding schools,
has adopted the following educational goals by 1970—(1) 90 percent
of the native youth to graduate from high school, (2) 50 percent of
the native high school graduates to enter college, and (3) 50 percent
to go on to some other kind of post-high school vocational training.

199. Black, F.W. Factors related to human figure-drawing size in
children. Perceptual & Motor Skills 35(3):902, December 1972.

The author studied the relationships of CA, intelligence, actual
height, height as perceived by 100 learning disabled children with
the height of their human figure drawings. Significant corelations
were obtained between drawn figure height and CA, actual height,
and perceived height (p < .05, .01, and .05, respectively). Results
suggest that these variables are more importantly related to the
size of human figure drawings than are psychodynamic factors.

200. Blane H.T., and Yamamoto, K. Sexual role identity among
Japanese and Japanese-American high school students. Journal of
Cross-Cultural Psychology 1(4):345-354, 1970.

Sex-role identity was tested by administering the Gough (CPI)
feminity scales and the Franck Drawing Completion Test to 369
Japanese-American and white American high school students in
Hawaii and to 93 students in Japan. Japanese of both sexes were
more feminine on the two measures than either white American
group. Japanese-Americans were more feminine than the white
American group on the Gough scale, but no significant differences
were observed on the Franck test. The higher femininity of Japanese
males may be attributed to the distance of Japanese sex-role ideals
from Western notions of masculinity. Less femininity in Japanese
females was traced to a shifting of conceptions of femininity. Higher
Japanese-American femininity may be a subcultural expression
flowing from the historical origins of Japanese in Hawaii.

90
201. Blum, V.C. Quality Education for Inner-City Minorities
through Education Vouchers. Milwaukee, Wisconsin: Catholic
League for Religious and Civil Rights, February 1978.

Research would seem to indicate that black and other nonwhite
students in private schools are at or near the national norm in every
area and far ahead of their peers in public school. There have been
notable achievements in the education of black children by Catholic
and other inner-city private schools. But since these schools exist
in limited numbers and are largely tuition-supported, most black
parents do not have the opportunity to choose a high quality private
school for the education of their children. Our system of funding
education perpetuates the cycle of poverty for most poor black chil-
dren. A remedy for the gross inequities in educational opportunities
would be the adoption of education voucher programs. Vouchers of
monetary value issued by the government to all parents with school-
age children would provide black parents, and others, a real choice
in the education of their children, a choice that would enable them
to send their children to high quality public and private schools.

202. Bolling, J.L. The changing self-concept of black children: The
Black Identity Test. National Medical Association Journal 66:28-31,
January 1974.

This article is a preliminary report of a larger study examining
self-concept of black children from different national and cultural
backgrounds and the relationship between self-image and depres-
sive reaction. The paper is limited to presenting the validity sta-
tistics on the construct, the Black Identity Test (BIT).

The results point up three important facts: (1) The test has no
value below the 5-year level, (2) black identification increased with
age, and (3) clear sex differences can be seen in the degree of iden-
tification made by male and female subjects.

203. Carugati, F.; Palmonari, A.; and Ricci-Bitti, P.E. Structure
of identity among adolescents: An intercultural study. Bulletin de
Psychologie 31(1-2):107-115, 1977-78. (text in French)

Personal identity among adolescents was studied in relation to
the quality of their interpersonal relations, as assessed on the Italian
translation of the French questionnaire developed by Rodriguez-
Tome (1972). The results were compared with those of the French
subjects. Ninety-six boys and 114 girls in three age groups (64 age

91
At

12, 65 age 14, and 81 age 17) completed the questionnaire, which
yields three scales related to image of self (egotism, self-control, and
sociability) and four scales related to relations with individuals in
the environment (differentiation between self and parents and
peers, and integration with parent and peer groups). Correlational
analyses of questionnaire data by age group indicated age 14 as the
time of significant changes related to perceptions of self-identity and
interpersonal relations. Results replicated those obtained for the
French subjects, chiefly, that the process of individuation, expressed
through differentiation, increases with age and that the perception
of integration of self with family is stronger than that of integration
with peers.

“204. Chang, T.S. The self-concept of children in ethnic groups:

Black-American and Korean-American. Elementary School Jour-
nel 76:52-58, 1975.

Black-American and Korean-American children were adminis-
tered the Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale in an attempt
to study whether blacks and Korean-Americans differ in self-concept
and whether grade in school and sex are associated with self-concept.
Results indicated that Korean-American children had higher scores
on scales involving behavior, intellectual and school status, hap-
piness, and satisfaction. Black-Americans were higher on physical
appearance and attributes and popularity. There was a tendency for
self-concept scores to decrease from grade three to grade six. Girls
in both ethnic groups had higher scores and lower anxiety than
boys. Implications of this study are discussed.

205. Chao, R. Chinese Immigrant Children: Preliminary Report.
New York: Department of Asian Studies, the City College, City
University of New York, 1977.

The Chinese-American family is faced with poverty and disillu-
sionment, with the children typically left to fend for themselves,
since both parents must work to make ends meet. The problems
encountered by immigrants residing in suburban areas are, how-
ever, not as pressing as for those residing in Chinatown. Given the
diminution in importance of the family, the role of the schools has
become the most important influence and socializer for immigrant
children. Schools have begun to provide recreation, supervision,
meals, and referral for medical attention. The schools, however, face
cultural conflicts and language barriers. One of the major difficulties

92
faced by the community is that social institutions that were once
viable have become outmoded and obsolete, and new institutions to
replace the old have not evolved. Within Chinatown itself, one very
noticeable feature was “pervasive fear’—threats from Chinese-
American gangs and from other ethnic groups. Yet the immigrants
did not complain during the interviews and were determined to
succeed by dint of hard work.

206. Coates, B. White adult behavior toward black and white chil-
dren. Child Development 43:143-154, 1972.

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Twenty-four male and 24 female white adults used verbal state-
ments to train 9-year-old black or white male children on a discrim-
ination problem. Bogus information on the children’s performance
was given to the adults, and the dependent variable was the adults’
statements to the children. A sex of adult x race of child interaction
was found. Males were more negative with black children than with
white children, whereas there was a nonsignificant difference be-
tween the two races for females. On trait ratings of the children
following the training session, both males and females rated black
children more negatively than white children.

207. Crane, V., and Ballif, B.L. Effects of black or white adult
modeling with rule structure on adopting a standard for self-control

in black boys. Journal of Educational Research 70(2):96-101, No-—

vember-December 1976.

This study assessed the effects of modeling, modeling with rule
structure, and race of model on adopting standards for self-control.
One-hundred-eight 6- to 11-year-old black males were exposed to a
black or a white adult male model who consistently chose a self-
control response as a reaction to an intentional act of transgression
combined with either a rule statement (rule-structure group) or a
summary of the story (no-rule-structure group). Fifty-four subjects
in a control group were not exposed to a model.

Treatment consisted of exposure to modeling procedures and test-
ing over a 3-week period. Results indicate that modeling is an ef-
fective means of modifying verbal responses in black boys. A sig-
nificant interaction of race of model with repeated sessions indicated
that, from baseline to treatment sessions, black subjects exposed to
a black model increased in the number of self-control responses to
a greater degree than did black subjects exposed to a white model.
There were no significant differences between the self-control scores

93

xX
and rule-statement scores of the rule-structure and no-rule-struc-
ture groups. However, subjects in the no-rule-structure group as
well as in the rule-structure group gave more statements than the
control group. This finding is explained in terms of Aronfreed’s
(1969) concept of social facilitation.

208. Datcher, E.; Savage, J.E.; and Checkosky, S.F. School Type,
Grade, Sex, and Race of Experimenter as Determinants of the Ra-
cial Preference and Awareness in Black and White Children. Pro-
ceedings of the 81st Annual Convention of the American Psycho-
logical Association, Montreal, Canada, 1973, 8, 223-224.

The Clark and Clark Doll Test (1939) was administered to 240
school children to examine their racial awareness and preference.
The effects of several independent variables were examined: school
type (monoracial and multiracial), grade level (kindergarten, third,
and fifth grade), sex of child, and race of tester (black and white).

Black students preferred black dolls to white dolls, and white
children preferred white dolls to black dolls. However, white stu-
dents in multiracial schools preferred white dolls significantly less
than white children in monoracial schools. Results are interpreted
as an indication that the “black is beautiful” movement has facili-
tated positive self-identity among black children.

209. Dien, D.S., and Vinacke, W.E. Self-concept and parental iden-
tification of young adults with mixed Caucasian-Japanese paren-
tage. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 69(4):463-466,
1964.

This pilot study sought to demonstrate that there may be signif-
icant differences in both self-concept and concept of parents between
children of mixed parentage and children of homogeneous paren-
tage. Tests here concerned children of white fathers and Nisei moth-
ers. Relative to those of homogeneous parentage, children of mixed
parentage were hypothesized to score lower in self-ideal discrepancy.
It was additionally postulated that they would exhibit small total
discrepancy scores and that self-ideal discrepancy scores would be
correlated with discrepancies between the ideal self and same-sex
parent.

Subjects were eight males and seven females with white-Japanese
parentage, all students at the University of Hawaii. Age ranged
from 17 to 19 years. Two closely matched control groups were used,
one with white parents and the other with Japanese parents. Re-

94
cruited on a voluntary basis, subjects did not know the true nature
of the study prior to testing. Ratings of self, ideal self, father, and
mother were obtained from all three groups. The three hypotheses
were supported for males but not for females.

210. Dunkel, H.B. Second-Language Learning, 1948, 225 pages.

The major portion of this book discusses factors in second-lan-
guage learning, including age, intelligence, and background, pre-
vious linguistic experience, motivation, other student characteris-
tics, objectives, contact hours, the teacher, and materials. Attention
is given to the state of language learning, children and language
learning, elements of aural comprehension and speaking, and other
problems. An appendix includes the Persian materials used for the

controlled studies, resolutions adopted at the Chicago Language -

Conference of 1948, and a bibliography.

211. Durrett, M.E., and Radov, A.S. Changes in self-perceptions
of Head Start trainees. Elementary School Journal 72(6):321-326,
March 1972.

Sixty-two subjects completed the Bown Self-Report Inventory at
the beginning and end of each training session. Subjects were 95
percent female, age 20-60, educational attainment usually high
school graduation, and almost equally distributed among Mexican-
American, black, and white groups. They were almost equally di-
vided into three groups enrolled in 7-week training sessions. Groups
I and III showed a significant difference at the .05 level in the growth
of self-esteem. Group II showed, at the .05 level of significance,
growth in acceptance of or liking for children and parents and the
development of optimism for the future.

212. Entwisle, D.R., and Webster, M. Expectations in mixed racial
groups. Sociology of Education 47(3):301-318, Summer 1974.

The authors studied how the status characteristics of adults and
children affect adults’ ability to raise a child’s expectations of his
own performance on school-like tasks. Black and white second, third,
and fourth graders participated in a team story completion task
with middle class black and white young adult women serving as
experimenters. Subjects whose rates of volunteering items for the
stories were near the median were then assigned to either a second

95
story completion group in which they received strong positive re-
inforcement from the experimenter or to a control group in which
they listened to a story. All subjects then completed another team
story completion task.

White adults were effective in raising expectations of white or
black children in mixed racial work groups; black adults were ef-
fective with black children but not with white children in mixed
groups. Results, both consistent and inconsistent with previous find-
ings from homogeneous groups, are interpreted in terms of the chil-
dren’s relative socioeconomic position with respect to members of
their own race.

213. Epps, E.G. Socioeconomic status, race, level of aspiration and
juvenile delinquency: A limited empirical test of Merton’s concep-
tion of deviation. Phylon 28(1):16-27, 1967.

This study tests Merton's hypothesis that juvenile delinquency
results in part from a discrepancy between the prescribed “success”
goals of the society and the availability of such goals to certain
groups in society. Three-hundred-forty-six juniors from a Seattle
high school (159 whites, 111 blacks, and 76 Orientals) were asked
to complete an anonymous questionnaire, which included questions
on father’s occupation, delinquent behavior, and expected level of
educational attainment and occupational status. Occupation of the
father was taken as a measure of socioeconomic status, delinquent
behaviors were defined as acts that would be considered criminal
if committed by an adult, and level of aspiration was deduced from
the student’s expected level of education or occupational status.

The results tended not to support the Merton theory. There ap-
peared to be no relationship between delinquent behavior and so-
cioeconomic level. Blacks, considered the most disadvantaged group,
evidenced about the same amount of delinquency as the whites.
However, Orientals reported significantly less delinquent behavior.
A positive relationship was seen between socioeconomic level and
level of aspiration. Additionally, high aspiring lower status students
did not report significantly more delinquent behavior than low as-
pirants. The author concludes that Merton’s theory may not be ad-
equate to explain juvenile delinquency.

214. Fancher, E.P. Educating ethnic minorities: An American chal-
lenge. Negro Educational Review 25(1):51-61, January 1974.

The practice of stigmatizing children from minority families be-
cause they fail to adopt the culture of the majority is analyzed,

96
focusing on the irony that the schools, which have the responsibility
for acculturation, are as guilty as other elements of society in con-
demning the persons for whom their services have been a failure.

215. Fish, J.E., and Larr, C.J. A decade of change in drawings by
black children. American Journal of Psychiatry 129(4):421-426,
October 1972.

Comparison of human figure drawings made by black children
before 1960 with those made by black children after 1970 indicated
that more black racial indicators are included in current drawings.
These results suggest that black children are now more positively
aware and accepting of their racial and ethnic background than was
the case before 1960. The authors offer possible explanations.

216. Fong, S.L.M. Identity conflicts of Chinese adolescents in San
Francisco. In: Minority Group Adolescents in the United States,
Brody, E.B. ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1968.

A ghetto such as Chinatown may be viewed as a cultural island,
outside of which reinforcement for insular values is reduced. Further
vitiating family solidarity is parental insistence that their Ameri-
can-born children attend a Chinese school in addition to the con-
ventional American public school. Mandatory attendance at not one
but two schools has resulted in fatigue, truancy, or lackluster ac-
ademic performance. Among rebellious males, a passive-aggressive
complex frequently develops. In deference to parental authority, the
sons do attend Chinese school; yet, within the classroom, they re-
direct aggression against the teacher or academics generally. The
child’s progress in an American school is reflected by acquisition of
numerous skills, including greater mastery over English. As parents
gradually lose contact with their child, he/she begins to envy the
teacher to the point of absorbing mainstream culture and manner-
isms. Concomitant with a growing need for peer acceptance is a
trend toward polarization between the foreign-born and American-
born Chinese due to differences in language, values, and interests.
The university and church have been two institutions promoting
greater understanding between the groups. Self-identity problems
of foreign-born Chinese during the assimilation process are detailed.

217. Fong, S.L.M., and Peskin, H. Sex-role strain and personality
adjustment of China-born students in America: A pilot study. Jour-
nal of Abnormal Psychology, 74, 563-567 1969.

97
The migration of people from one society to another often results
in conflicts between traditional values and the values of the new
society, which, in turn, has implications for personality adjustment
and the development of sex roles during assimilation. The study
presented here examines the nature of these adjustments in natu-
ralized students and students with visa status attending school in
the San Francisco Bay area.

Twenty males and 21 females, either naturalized Americans or
permanent residents eligible for citizenship, were compared on the
California Psychological Inventory with 23 males and 22 females
on student visa status. Sixty-five percent of the students sampled
returned the CPI. The data indicate significant differences on 9 of
the 18 CPI scales. The naturalized students appeared to be more
self-confident, responsible, dependable, tolerant, and flexible in com-
parison to the visa students, who seemed to be experiencing a degree
of discomfort severe enough to impair their functioning in these
areas. It is suggested that citizenship, or at least the prospect of it,
encourages a personal commitment to the new society which facil-
itates well-being.

Lower scores for females on the socialization and good impres-
sion scales imply that females are either less aware of or simply
reject the socially desirable responses that would enhance their self-
esteem within their social group. Attending college or planning a
career is not seen by the Chinese community as socially desirable
for females. Interestingly, there was a significant interaction be-
tween sex and citizen status. It was found that naturalized females
scored higher on femininity than did the visa females. This is pre-
sumably due to the greater need for naturalized females to behave
in a way that appeases their parents. In contrast, the visa females
are better able to exhibit the unusual self-reliance Chinese women
must have in order to attain a higher education.

218. Fort, J.G.; Watts, J.C.; and Lesser, G.S. Cultural background
and learning in young children. Phi Beta Kappan 50(7):386-388,
1969.

In 1963, a sample of 320 first-grade children of Chinese, Jewish,
black, and Puerto Rican ancestry from lower and middle class homes
in the greater New York City area were administered the Diverse
Mental Abilities Test, which measured four areas of intellectual
capacity: verbal, reasoning, numerical, and space conceptualization.
Test items were presented orally; no reading or writing was required
of the child.

98
Middle class children performed better than lower class children
in all areas. Chinese children performed best on spatial tasks, least
well on verbal ones; reasoning and numerical were slightly lower
than spatial. Jewish children did best on verbal, followed by nu-
merical; and reasoning was slightly superior to spatial, their weak-
est area. Black children were most proficient on verbal and least
proficient on numerical, with reasoning and spatial relatively in-
termediate in strength. Puerto Rican children displayed the least
variation across the four areas. They were strongest on spatial and
weakest on verbal.

A study of 40 Chinese and black children in Boston replicated the
New York City findings. The differential development of abilities
among children of different ethnicity depends on parental values
that have been molded by societal expectations and on limitations
placed on the expression of certain abilities. In the case of Chinese
children, spatial activities and skills are encouraged. The Chinese
language is a highly spatial one; popular games involve spatial
manipulations, and most Chinese professionals are employed in spa-
tially oriented occupations, such as architecture and engineering.
By contrast, little emphasis is placed on verbal activities. On the
contrary, a talkative youth may be labeled a problem child in a
traditional Chinese home.

219. Fox, D.J., and Jordan, V.B. Racial preference and identifi-
cation of black, American-Chinese, and white children. Genetic
Psychology Monographs 88(2):229-286, 1973.

A review of the literature has revealed that the preference of
white children for their own race was generally more consistent
than racial preferences of nonwhites. The current study used Clark’s
test to generate a tri-racial group comparison of racial preference,
identification, and awareness. Three-hundred-and-sixty black, 360
American-Chinese, and 654 white children age 5 to 7 from inte-
grated or segregated schools in New York City were studied. For
blacks, the researchers found a significant reversal of previously
reported racial preference patterns; i.e., a majority of the black chil-
dren preferred and identified with their own racial group. American-
Chinese children showed significantly less own-race preference and
identification than either black or white children. White children’s
preferences generally remained unchanged.

The study found significant interactions between race, age, sex,
and the type of school for the own-race preference scores. For the
racial awareness and identification variables, a significant inter-
action of sex with the type of school was observed for some racial

99
groups. No relationship was established between academic achieve-
ment and own-race preference or identification for the black or
American-Chinese samples.

220. Golden, M.; Birns, B.; Bridger, W.; and Moss, A. Social-class
differentiation in cognitive development among black preschool
children. Child Development 42:37-45, 1971.

In a longitudinal study of 89 black children from different social
classes, while there were no significant socioeconomic status differ-
ences on the Cattell Infant Intelligence Scale at 18 and 24 months
of age, there was a highly significant 23-point mean IQ difference
on the Stanford Binet at 3 years of age between children from wel-
fare and middle class black families. The range in mean IQs of the
black children in the extreme socioeconomic status groups (93-116)
was almost identical to that obtained by Terman and Merrill in
their standardization sample of 831 white children between 2V2 and
5 years of age.

221. Greenwald, H.J., and Oppenheimer, D.B. Reported magnitude
of self-misidentification among Negro children: Artifact. Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology 8(1):49-52, 1968.

Methodological aspects of previous racial doll studies prompted
a replication with certain changes: White as well as black children
were given a choice of three, rather than two, different skin colors
with which to identify. The inclusion of an intermediate (mulatto)
alternative reduced black children’s misidentifications significantly.
Furthermore, there did not appear to be any significant difference
between white and black children’s misidentifications. The use of
a white comparison group and a wider range of response alternatives
suggests that there is nothing unusual about black children’s mis-
identifications. Subjects were 39 black and 36 white nursery school
children.

222. Halpern, F. Self-perception of black children and the Civil
Rights Movement. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry
40(3):520-526, April 1970.

The author describes black parents’ identification with or rejection

of the civil rights movement as a source of confusion to their chil-
dren, especially the middle class child whose father has “made it.”

100
For all black children, the movement provides a channel through
which to express positive or negative feelings for the parents.

223. Hartley, R.E. Children’s perception of sex preferences in four
culture groups. Journal of Marriage and the Family 31(2):380-387,
1969.

The author tested the hypotheses that children fail to perceive
culturally determined male-sex favoritism or general cross-sex pref-
erence among adults. The authors presented 5-year-old and 8-year-
old boys and girls from four culture groups a story involving adults’
choice of a boy or girl for adoption, to which subjects were asked to
supply the ending. In addition, they were asked to guess their own
parents’ choices in a similar situation, explaining their responses.
In three of the four sample culture groups, a trend toward perception
of preference for females became apparent.

The 408 subjects were 5- and 8-year-old males and females drawn
from white or Japanese-American families in Honolulu and Euro-
pean or Maori families in New Zealand. Their lower-middle or work-
ing-class origins ostensibly suggest more conservative rearing re-
garding sex roles and masculine superiority. On the basis of private
interviews with each child, it was concluded that: (1) Generally,
children in all four culture groups view adults as having parallel
sex preferences. (2) Even in traditionally male-dominant culture
groups, the male sex is not construed to be preferred over the female
sex. (3) Given situations where agreement in parental preference
is necessary, females are thought to be more preferred than males
in three of the four culture groups. (4) The tendency toward sex
centrism is more often displayed by 5-year-old children of both sexes
than by 8-year-old children.

The less sex-separated, more equalitarian cultures provide chil-
dren of both sexes more stable self-esteem. The need for a stance of
defensive male superiority has diminished in equalitarian culture
milieus.

224. Hepner, E.M. Self-Concepts, Values, and Needs of Mexican-
American Underachievers (or Must the Mexican-American Child
Adopt a Self-Concept that Fits the American School?). Paper pre-
sented at the American Psychological Association National Con-
vention, Miami, Florida, September 3, 1970.

The paper describes a study conducted to investigate value clus-
ters of Mexican-American and Anglo-American boys as related to

101
self-concept and to achievement, since it is the author’s belief that
typical elementary education does not meet the needs of Mexican-
American children. As noted, profitable remedies for the dilemma
of underachievement are not yet available because educators do not
understand the underlying causes of underachievement or may not
be willing to admit the failure of the schools. Specifically, the study
investigated differences and/or similarities in the value clusters of
three groups of boys (50 in each group) of similar ages, intelligence,
and socioeconomic status, differing only in reading achievement
and/or ethnicity. Among the conclusions drawn from the study were
that (1) significant differences in self-concepts, values, and role con-
ceptions exist between Mexican-American and Anglo-American
boys; (2) underachieving Mexican-American boys do not perceive
themselves more negatively than their better-achieving peers; and
(3) Mexican-American boys do not have lower occupational aspi-
rations than Anglo-American boys. Of equal importance are the
implications for development of more realistic and appropriate ed-
ucational and cultural school programs.

225. Hereford, C.F.; Selz, N.; and Stenning, W. A cross-cultural
comparison of the active-passive dimension of social attitudes. Re-
vista Interamericana de Psicologiia 1(1):33-39, 1967. (Spanish and
Portuguese summaries)

School children from Mexico City and Austin, Texas, were com-
pared on their responses to active and passive items drawn from the
social attitudes inventory. There were 50 children in each group,
equally divided by sex. All children were approximately 14-years-
old and from the upper middle socioeconomic level. The social at-
titudes inventory permitted not only measurements on the active-
passive dimension but also in terms of self-perception and self-ideal.
The results of an analysis of variance showed no difference in the
main effects of the country (Mexico-United States variable) or the
self-ideal factor. The combined sample did show a significant pref-
erence for active responses, which is probably best explained in
terms of their developmental stage, adolescence, and their upper
middle social class affiliation. The interaction between country and
the active-passive dimensions were also significant, with the United
States sample having higher active scores than the Mexican sample.
A closer examination of the data indicates that this difference is not
explained by the simple statement that North Americans are active
and Mexicans are passive. A more precise explanation suggests that
the United States sample prefers active responses, but the Mexican
sample uses both active and passive responses in approximately
equal numbers.

102
226. Hertzig, M.E., and Birch, H.G. Longitudinal course of mea-
sured intelligence in preschool children of different social and eth-
nic backgrounds. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 41(3):416-426,
April 1971.

The longitudinal course of measured intelligence in white middle
class and Puerto Rican working class children was examined at 3
and 6 years of age. Findings suggested that stability in IQ over this
time period was characteristic of both groups, with greater stability
manifested by the Puerto Rican than by the white children. No
evidence for deterioration of IQ with age in the disadvantaged group
was found. The data are considered in relation to problems of the
stability of IQ and its utility in the assessment of the effects of a
compensatory education program.

227. Hsu, F.L.K.; Watrous, B.G.; and Lord, E.M. Culture pattern
and adolescent behavior. International Journal of Social Psychia-
try, 7:33-53, 1961.

The Rorschach test was used to determine the personality struc-
ture of a Chinese-American sample in Hawaii (19 boys, 9 girls) and
a Chicago sample (14 boys, 10 girls) of American youth. Subjects
were all of normal intelligence, free from overt behavior problems
as assessed by their teachers, and maintained average academic
performance. The results indicated that the Hawaiian Chinese-
Americans have a respect for reality with a slight tendency to over-
rationalize; they tend to be “doers’ more than “dreamers.” Their
emotions appear to be smoothly integrated into their personality.
Chinese-Americans seem to be typically cautious, constricted, and
conventional when faced with a novel threatening situation. The
intellectual approaches of the two groups were similar, but the Chi-
cago group appeared to have more intellectual energy, while the
Hawaiians exploited their mental resources in a somewhat more
constructively ambitious manner.

Both the quantity and the quality of Hawaiian fantasy depart
from the American pattern. It is predominantly passive in nature,
which suggests a submissive acceptance of the environment. Chinese-
American incidence of creative imagination was found to be opti-
mally proportionate to level of drive. They exhibited a lower inci-
dence of autistic, pathological fantasy than the Chicago youths. The
Chicago sample showed more inhibitory wary behavior with respect
to other people. The Hawaiian sample showed more conformity to
parental wishes. A relative lack of juvenile delinquency among
Chinese-Americans is attributed to the situation-centered Chinese

103
lifestyle, unlike the individual-centered lifestyle of Americans. Be-
cause Chinese-Americans seek mutual dependence with circles of
fellow beings, they may enjoy considerable mental ease.

228. Hurh, W.M. Marginal Children of War: An Exploratory Study
of American-Korean Children, July 1967 (cf. ED 047781); synopsis
of paper was presented at the joint meeting of Midwest and Ohio
Valley Sociological Societies, May 3, 1969.

The nature and extent of the problems involved in the sociali-
zation of mixed-race children of American servicemen and Korean
women are discussed. Observations and interviews find the follow-
ing factors to be significant in constituting the social marginality
of such children: (1) the stigma of illegitimacy, (2) the mother’s un-
desirable occupation status (prostitution), (3) the children’s eco-
nomic and educational deprivation, and (4) physical differences, es-
pecially color of hair and skin.

American-Korean children are racial hybrids, but not cultural
hybrids, for they are socialized in the relatively homogeneous Ko-
rean culture and have no alternate course but to become part of the
ingroup. The often disastrous effect of being a racial hybrid on chil-
dren’s self-image and emotional development is discussed. These
children have rarely been adopted in Korea, largely because of cul-
tural attitudes favoring kinship lineage and because of social
apathy.

A multidimensional solution to the problem is proposed, which
involves an underlying attitudinal change on the part of the Korean
people, integration of these children into society, pooling of welfare
institution resources, and a stronger government role in child wel-
fare. Tables of the status of hybrid children in Korea and of inter-
country adoption are included.

229. Hurh, W.M. Marginal children of war: An exploratory study
of American-Korean children. International Journal of Sociology
of the Family 2(1):10-20, March 1972.

This study explores the nature and extent of the problems involved
in the socialization of “marginal children” born from American ser-
vicemen and Korean women. Research questions are based on sig-
nificant elements of the marginal-man concept and existing theories
on social marginality.

Methods employed were observations, unstructured interviews,
and the reexamination of statistical data and popular assumptions

104
about the social marginality of the hybrid generation. For future
research, specific hypotheses are developed: (1) Anticipatory social-
ization becomes dysfunctional for the American-Korean children.
(2) The social marginality of these children derives not primarily
from culture conflict or group antagonism as such but from a salient
set of social stigmas, representing abnormal, shameful, and out-
group ascription. (3) Among the marginal children, the black Ko-
reans carry the heaviest burden of these stigmas. (4) Domestic adop-
tion is considered most desirable to ameliorate the problems, but it
is limited by the traditional system of intra-kin preferential adop-
tion; the lack of socieconomically qualified adoptive parents; the
insular character of social ethos, which tends to discourage a gen-
eralized social welfare; and the cumbersome bureaucratic process.

230. Jamias, M.F.; Pablo, R.Y.; and Taylor, D.M. Ethnic awareness
in Filipino children. Journal of Social Psychology 83(2):157-164,
April 1971.

Filipino children’s self-perception was investigated in terms of
ethnic identity, and the authors assessed the accuracy with which
they recognized sketches of persons representing two important out-
groups, i.e., Americans and Chinese. Each of the 90 Tagalog male
subjects (6-, 8-, and 10-year-olds) was administered a picture-iden-
tification test designed to assess their ethnic affiliation. Results
demonstrate that the frequency of identifying with an ethnic group
increased with age and that children identified more often with their
regional group than with the national group. Subjects were more
accurate in recognizing Chinese pictures than those representing
Americans, implying that accuracy of racial perception is related
to frequency of contact with the group.

231. Jenkins, S., and Morrison, B. Identification of Ethnic Issues
in Child Welfare: A Review of the Literature. New York: School
of Social Work, Columbia University (sponsoring agency: Chil-
dren’s Bureau, DHEW), March 1, 1974.

The delivery of services to children of minority groups is hampered
by the lack of recognition of ethnic factors. Although often over-
looked, ethnicity is a key component in all phases of child welfare,
including the provision of homemakers, foster family care, insti-
tutional placements, and adoption. The study reported here is ex-
ploratory research with several preliminary goals. These are: to
identify the major issues of concern to members of ethnic minority

105
groups with regard to service delivery, to review proposals that move
in the direction of a multi-ethnic service system, to develop a ty-
pology defining commonalities in needs among ethnic groups, and
to propose standards for service delivery where factors of ethnicity
are involved.

The study is concerned with children of five minority groups:
American Indians, Asian-Americans, blacks, Mexican-Americans,
and Puerto Ricans. As a first phase of the research, the literature
of the past 10 years in professional journals, books, and unpublished
papers was reviewed. Part one of this paper refers to the four major
concerns discussed in the literature, with a section on each: elimi-
nation of myths, lack of recognition of cultural differences, lack of
appreciation of bilingualism, and threat to group survival. Part two
comprises three sections on proposals for change, including reedu-
cation and retraining, programing for cultural content, and changes
in the direction of a multi-ethnic service system.

232. Kee, D.W., and Rohwer, W.D. Noun-pair learning in four eth-
nic groups: Conditions of presentation and response. Journal of
Educational Psychology 65(2):226-232, 1973.

This study examines noun-pair learning efficiency for black,
Chinese-American, Latin-American, and white American children
as a function of presentation conditions and method of measurement
(verbal recall versus pictorial recognition). Five problem areas were
addressed: (1) determining noun-pair learning efficiency in four low
socioeconomic status ethnic groups, (2) isolating effective conditions
prompting elaboration in each ethnic group, (3) contrasting verbal
recall and pictorial recognition as measures of learning efficiency,
(4) assessing retention, and (5) evaluating the prevalence of learn-
ing-to-learn.

Participants were 160 second grade children from four low socio-
economic status communities in San Francisco. Each ethnic group
consisted of 20 males and 20 females. Subjects were tested on two
25-item paired associate lists. The pictorial portion of the experi-
ment was based on line drawings from the children’s first and second
grade books. Items on each test were divided into five separate
prompt conditions. Subjects were then individually examined by a
two-trial study-test method for each list used.

Findings in four of the five problem areas indicate that: (1) Learn-
ing efficiency was similar in all four groups. (2) Each ethnic group
evidenced manifest effects of both aural-verbal and visual-pictorial
prompts independent of the response method used to index learning.
(3) Significant learning-to-learn effects were found for each group.
(4) No group differences in forgetting were observed.

106
The data suggest that both verbal recall and pictorial recognition
provided accurate indices of prompt effects on learning for each
group. Because the response modes for the ethnic groups were sim-
ilar and mean population differences were lacking, the learning
aptitude of children from divergent ethnic backgrounds is held to
be equivalent.

233. Kinloch, G.C., and Borders, J.A. Racial stereotypes and social
distance among elementary school children in Hawaii. Sociology
and Social Research 56(3):368-377, 1972.

This study examined racial stereotypes and social-distance pat-
terns among Japanese-American, Chinese-American, and racially
mixed elementary school chilren in Hawaii. Given the economic and
occupational differences between various ethnic groups in Hawaii,
the socioeconomic differences and associated “characteristics” might
be assessable at the elemetary school level. All fourth, fifth, and
sixth grade students at an elementary school on Oahu were selected.
A total of 293 students participated, but only the data for 272 were
used in the analyses.

Fairly high levels of stereotyping and social distance were dis-
covered. Some stereotypes were generally accepted, while others
were associated with the racial origin of the respondent. Social-
distance patterns revealed low rejection of Japanese-Americans,
Chinese-Americans, and Hawaiian-Americans, in contrast to whites,
Filipino-Americans, blacks, and Samoans. Age, sex, and family size
were associated with both stereotyping and social distance.

234. Kuo, E.C. The family and bilingual socialization: A socio-
linguistic study of a sample of Chinese children in the United
States. Journal of Social Psychology 92:181-191, 1974.

The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test and the Hoffman Bilingual
Schedule, in conjunction with a battery of questionnaires on every-
day family life, were administered to 47 preschool Chinese children
in the Minneapolis-St. Paul area to determine family variables re-
lated to the relative bilingual proficiency of the child. The parents
of the children (25 males, 22 females) were born in China, highly
educated, and upper middle class. The 42 United States-born and
5 Taiwan-born children averaged 4 years of age.

It was observed that the child generally had greater facility with
Chinese than English when the basic language orientation of the
family was Chinese, when the parents spoke Chinese in interactions

107
with each other, and when the parents used more Chinese in reading
stories to the child. Greater proficiency in English was exhibited by
children whose parents were naturalized United States citizens and
who were inclined to serve more American food at home. Family
influence was noted to promote competence in Chinese rather than
to arrest the child’s development of English skills. A strong corre-
lation was established between the age of the child and the English
score. As time progresses, extra-familial persons become more cen-
tral to the satisfaction of the child’s needs such that the relative
influence of the family diminishes.

235. Kurokawa, M. Acculturation and childhood accidents among
Chinese- and Japanese-Americans. Genetic Psychology Monograph
79:69-159, 1969.

This extensive study of 151 Oriental children between 10 and 15
years of age examines the relationship between acculturation and
medically attended injuries or accidents. The sample was drawn
from children who had enrolled for at least 6 years in the Kaiser
Prepaid Medical Plan in the Berkeley and Oakland areas. Their
medical records were analyzed and sorted into one of three accident
groups: (1) high accident, three or more accidents; (2) medium ac-
cident, two accidents; and (3) low accident, one or no accidents. The
mothers were interviewed in order to determine their childrearing
practices and acculturation type. Three acculturation types were
developed: (1) acculturated children of acculturated parents, (2) ac-
culturated children of nonacculturated parents, and (3) nonaccul-
turated children of nonacculturated parents.

The extent to which the child is or chooses to be exposed to hazards
and his/her ability to cope with the hazards involved were related
to acculturation type and accident rate. It was found that accultur-
ated mothers were more likely than nonacculturated mothers to
rear the child so as to permit exposure to hazards. The acculturated
children were more likely than nonacculturated children to be in-
dependent and venturesome, which increased the probability of
being exposed to hazards. It was found that acculturated children
have more accidents than the nonacculturated children due to ex-
posure to hazards. However, children who have acculturation con-
flicts at home (type 2 acculturation) appear to have a higher accident
rate. Because of conflict at home, these children tend to have more
accidents engendered by their inability to cope with hazards en-
countered. In that nonacculturated children have few accidents, one
may hypothesize that this finding is due to a reluctance on the part
of the mother to bring them to the hospital. However, the hypothesis

108
that Orientals are reluctant to use medical facilities was not sub-
stantiated by study findings.

236. Kurokawa, M. Beyond community integration and stability:
A comparative study of Oriental and Mennonite children. Journal
of Social Issues, 25(1):195-212, 1969.

The discrepancy between the social system and the individual
personality system among Asian-American and Canadian Mennon-
ite children is examined for implications regarding optimal inte-
grated functioning. Medical records of 404 Asian-American children
under 15 from the Oakland-Berkeley area were analyzed to correlate
high- and low-accident groups with environmental or personal char-
acteristics. The Waterloo, Canada, study of 460 10-year-old Men-
nonite children sought to parallel the Asian-American research,
although covert rather than overt symptoms of maladjustment were
emphasized.

Mothers of children in both groups were administered question-
naires and interviews. All subjects were further divided into tra-
ditional, transitional, and acculturated subgroups. The author con-
tends that, for Asian-Americans as well as Canadian Mennonites,
an assumption of the integrated stability of their traditional social
systems is unwarranted. Inevitable exposure to the dominant so-
cieties has pushed each subcultural group toward change. Both
groups have adjusted their norms to conform to the material ethic
of the prevailing culture while still maintaining traditional values
in other areas. Such concessions may be adaptive on the structural
level of the social system; they have failed to support the integrated
stability of individual members. Transitional Asian and Mennonite
children revealed the largest number of maladjustment symptoms.
It is suggested that (1) members of a tightly knit social system may
be free from overt but not covert symptoms of maladjustment, and
(2) a high correlation exists between cultural conflict and mental
disturbance.

237. Lampe, P.E. Mexican-American self-identity and ethnic prej-
udice. Cornell Journal of Social Relations 10(2):223-237, Fall 1975.

A survey of 369 eighth grade Mexican-Americans was conducted
to investigate the relationship between an individual’s choice of an
ethnic-identifying term and the prejudice he feels toward other spe-

109
cific ethnic groups. On a questionnaire, subjects were asked to rank
in order of preference the following ethnic groups: Anglo, Mexican-
American, Jew, black, Oriental. (Subjects indicated when there was
no preference.) Subjects were also required to rank the same groups
according to inferiority. Results indicate that there was a relation-
ship between the ethnic self-identifying term selected by an indi-
vidual and his prejudices toward other groups. The greatest inci-
dence of positive prejudice was shown toward the respondent’s own
ethnic group. Generally, there was more prejudice expressed against
Jews and Orientals. Parochial school respondents tended to show
somewhat greater prejudice toward Jews. They also indicated “no
preference” more often than those in public schools.

238. Lefebvre, A. Self-concept of American Negro and white chil-
dren. Acta Psychologica Taiwanica 15:25-30, 1973.

The author hypothesized that urban black children have a lower
self-concept than their white counterparts. Forty black male seventh
and eighth graders from an all-black parochial school and 40 white
male seventh and eighth graders from an all-white parochial school
were matched in terms of age, IQ, and socioeconomic status. Both
groups were administered the Tennessee Self Concept Scale. Blacks
scored significantly lower than whites on total scores and the fol-
lowing scales: behavior, physical self, personal self, moral-ethical
self, identity, and self-satisfaction. Scores on the other subscales
were all in the expected direction.

239. Lewis, H.P., and Lewis, E.R. Written language performance
of sixth grade children of low socioeconomic status from bilingual
and from monolingual backgrounds. Journal of Experimental Ed-
ucation 33(3):237-242, 1965.

The written language performances of monolingual, Chinese bil-
ingual, and Spanish bilingual sixth grade girls and boys similar in
IQ, scholastic background, and social class were compared in a Cal-
ifornia community. The language performance task, which was writ-
ten in English, revealed that, in general, bilingualism does not
appear to have an effect upon written language performance. While
sex and bilingual-monolingual differences were found in specific
comparisons such as in grammatical errors, spelling, verbal output,
and vocabulary, the authors conclude that bilingualism may, in fact,
aid certain written skills.

110
240. Marwit, S.J., et al. Nonstandard American English of Socially
Disadvantaged Negro Children. Final Report. St. Louis, Missouri:
Missouri University (sponsor: Office of Education, DHEW), Oc-
tober 1971.

It has recently been noted that black children, especially those
of lower socioeconomic status, have a language system with phon-
ological and grammatical rules that differ in predictable ways from
the rules governing the standard English used by most white
Americans. Four features of black nonstandard American English
have been noted with predictable regularity: zero copula, singular-
ization of plural objects, zero possessive, and the use of “be” to rep-
resent time extension.

The present research attempted to validate empirically the ex-
istence of these distinguishing features by having two black and
two white examiners administer a task requiring 93 black and 108
white second graders to derive the present, plural, possessive, and
time-extension forms of nonsense syllables. In general, the results
support the hypotheses. For each dimension, white children supplied
more standard English endings and black children more nonstand-
ard endings. All results were relatively independent of subjects’
socioeconomic status. These findings suggest that most black chil-
dren approach the traditional school situation with a language sys-
tem whose grammar is different from, rather than deficient in re-
lation to, that of their white peers and that of the standard tongue
adopted by the school. It is recommended that more data be collected
and that the results, if consistent, be incorporated into future cur-
riculum development.

241. Miller, H.M. Tips on the Care and Adjustment of Vietnamese
and Other Asian Children in the United States. Washington, D.C.:
Children’s Bureau, DHEW, Report No. DHEW Publication No.
OHD-75-72, 1975.

This handbook provides information related to the physical,
emotional, and language problems that may face newly adopted
Vietnamese or Korean children and their adoptive parents. Cultural
differences among Vietnamese, Korean, and American families in
such areas as diet, sleeping, customs, clothing, childcare, commu-
nication, toilet habits, and schooling are explained in detail. Sug-
gestions are included for making necessary adjustment periods as
easy as possible. A comprehensive collection of general information
about possible health problems of the children, with particular em-
phasis on diseases unique to Asia, is presented.

111
242. Morland, J.K. Race Awareness among American and Hong
Kong Chinese children. In: Black Psyche: The Modal Personality
Patterns of Black Americans, Guterman, S.S., ed. Berkeley, Calif.:
Glendessary, 1972.

Results of a cross-cultural comparison show significant differences
between 4- to 7-year-old Hong Kong Chinese, white Americans, and
black Americans on racial preference and racial self-identity rat-
ings. Findings support the normative theory of racial prejudice.

243. Omalley, J.M., and Carlos, M. Overview of Current Strategies
of the Multicultural/Bilingual Division at the National Institute
of Education. Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American
Educational Research Association, San Francisco, California,
April 21, 1976.

The Multicultural/Bilingual Division at the National Institute of
Education (NIE) was established in January, 1975, as a reflection
of the increased attention to cultural and linguistic factors in ed-
ucation. The emergence of this interest in minority education pro-
grams and research can be traced through three phases of activity:
(1) adoption and management of projects transferred from the Office
of Education, and promotion of field-initiated research; (2) comple-
tion of 10 multicultural planning conferences and continuation of
support for selected projects; and (3) creation of the division, syn-
thesis of planning conferences, and completion of the first program
plan beginning to systematically focus on needs in the field. A new
conceptual framework proposes a definition of multicultural edu-
cation, identifies the relationship between multicultural and bil-
ingual education, and draws from the definition a statement that
information about cultural and linguistic communities should be
used in the development of instructional programs for children of
ethnic minority background of limited English-speaking ability. The
new framework also provides a structure for organizing and assign-
ing priorities to continuing and proposed division activities.

244. Parish, T.S., and Fleetwood, R.S. Amount of conditioning and
subsequent change in racial attitudes of children. Perceptual and
Motor Skills 40(1):79-86, February 1975.

The authors investigated whether increasing the number of con-
ditioning trials that associate the color black with positively eval-

uated words would serve to enhance the adoption of favorable at-

112
titudes toward Afro-Americans by 79 Euro-American kindergarten
children. Using William’s Preschool Racial Attitudes Measure II
(PRAM II) and Parish’s revised PRAM II, it was found that subjects
did adopt more favorable attitudes toward Afro-Americans as the
number of conditioning trials increased. Notably, this conditioning
was achieved without subjects being aware of the conditioning proc-
ess. Results are discussed in light of other recent findings.

245. Ramey, T., and Campbell, A. Parental attitudes and poverty.
Journal of Genetic Psychology 128 (1st half):3-6, March 1976.

To assess how lower class mothers perceive themselves and how
they differ in self-perception from other segments of the population,
Emmerich’s adaptation of the Parental Attitudes Research Instru-
ment (PARI) and Rotter’s Internal-External Control Scale (I-E) were
administered to 28 lower class black mothers of infants at high risk
for cultural-social retardation and to 34 mothers of same-age infants
drawn at random from the general population of a southern uni-
versity town. The lower class mothers differed significantly from the
general population mothers on both instruments, being more ex-
ternal in their perceived locus of control (I-E) and more authoritar-
ian, less hostile and reflecting, and less democratic in their self-
descriptions on the PARI scales. I-E and democratic attitude were
significantly negatively correlated with each other.

246. Rice, A.S.; Ruiz, R.A.; and Padilla, A.M. Person perception,
self-identity, and ethnic group preference in Anglo, black, and Chi-
cano preschool and third grade children. Journal of Cross-Cultural
Psychology 5(1):100-108, March 1974.

Color photographs of young male adults were shown to 72 pre-
school and 68 third grade white, black, and Chicano children. The
photographs depicted persons of the same ethnic groups as the chil-
dren. All subjects were able to discriminate between the photo-
graphs of the white and black males, but the preschool children
were unable to make the discrimination between the white and
Chicano photographs. All subjects indicated the appropriate pho-
tograph when asked which looked most like them. Among the pre-
school subjects, neither the blacks nor the Chicanos expressed sig-
nificant preferences for their own ethnic group, while a significant
number of whites selected the white photograph as the one they
liked the most. At the third grade level, only the Chicano subjects
displayed a strong preference for their own ethnic group.

113
247. Richmond, A.H. Language, Ethnicity and the Problem of
Identity in a Canadian Metropolis. Presented at the Ninth Inter-
national Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences
(ICAES), Chicago, Illinois, August-September, 1973, published
August 1973.

Metropolitan Toronto, when defined by its municipal boundaries,
has a population of more than 2 million people. A survey conducted
in 1970 showed that half of its 600,000 household heads were born
outside of Canada. Only 29 percent were native-born of native par-
entage. Immigrants and their children were adapting to a society
that deliberately adopted a policy of “bilingualism within a frame-
work of multiculturalism.” In this context, it is pertinent to ask how
people defined their own ethnicity and to what extent they identified
themselves with Canada as a whole or with various other national
or ethnic minorities.

Of those born in Canada, 39 percent described themselves as
“Canadian” and a further 10 percent as “Hyphenated Canadian.”
Only 14 percent of the foreign-born described themselves as “Ca-
nadian” and a further 7 percent as “Hyphenated Canadian.” Within
the Canadian-born category, age proved to be the single most im-
portant determinant of whether a householder described him- or
herself as “Canadian.” Other factors were membership of the nu-
merically dominant and prestigious “British” origin group, almost
half of whom preferred that description or a close synonym such as
“English.” Members of certain religious minorities, particularly the
Jewish, were unlikely to describe themselves as “Canadian.” Copies
of this paper are available from ICAES Office, 1126 East 59th Street,
Chicago, Ill. 60637.

248. Roberts A.; Mosley, Y.; and Chamberlain, M.W. Age difference
in racial self-identity of young black girls. Psychological Reports
37(3, pt. 2):1263-1266, December 1975.

Thirty 3- to 4-year-old and 30 6 to 7-year-old black girls were
shown three dolls that differed in skin color and/or hairstyle and
were asked to judge which doll looked like them, which doll was
prettiest, and which doll was ugliest. Although the majority of both
age groups identified with the black dolls, the older children dis-
played a more accurate racial self-identity. Subjects differed signif-
icantly in their perception of the ugliest doll: The younger group
selected the black doll wearing an afro hairstyle, while the older
group selected the white doll. Results are discussed in terms of the
role of greater experience with blacks and whites and a possible

114
overreaction to the “black is beautiful” feeling on the part of the
older group.

249. Robinson, M.B. Developing a Cultural Awareness Scale: An
Assessment of Sensitivity to Cultural Differences in Children from
the “Culture of Poverty.” Available from Xerox University Micro-
films, P.O. Box 1764, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106, Order No.
75-6297.

The purpose of this work was to develop an instrument that could
be used to: (1) assess teacher sensitivity to cultural differences that
could influence learning style in children from the culture of poverty,
(2) help teachers recognize and interpret classroom behaviors that
signal the presence of these cultural differences, and (3) help su-
pervisors ascertain the needs of teachers who work with children
from the culture of poverty.

Descriptive statements were collected regarding patterns of ma-
terial and behavioral arrangements adopted by persons in poverty.
These statements were classified and aligned to give a picture of the
culture and to provide a basis for the construction of items used in
the scale. From the item pool, 60 items were selected for a pilot
study. Three groups responded to the questionnaire: 20 social work-
ers, 25 experienced teachers, and 37 undergraduate seniors studying
elementary education. The final instrument consisted of 43 items
that were divided into two scales. Scale I included the first 33 items,
which were written to assess sensitivity to specific characteristics
of children from the poverty subculture. Scale II included the last
10 items, which were worded to ascertain the respondent’s feeling
about the school’s responsibility to children from the poverty sub-
culture. The final instrument was administered to 109 subjects.

250. Schwartz, A.J. The culturally advantaged: A study of Japanese-
American pupils. Sociology and Social Research, 55(3):341-353,
1971.

It is hypothesized that the high scholastic achievement of Japa-
nese-American students is due to the Japanese cultural values of
collective action and generation-based linear authority. To probe
the validity of the hypothesis, the author, in 1966, sampled 2,200
sixth, ninth, and twelfth grade students in 23 Los Angeles schools
from varying racial and socioeconomic backgrounds. Of this sample,
254 were Japanese-American. Through questionnaires, information
about family background, educational and occupational aspirations,

115
and value orientations was compiled. The four variables under study
tied to the attainment of academic success included: (1) the goals
toward which the individuals strive, (2) activities appropriate for
goal attainment, (3) the pupil’s perception of the feasibility of at-
taining his/her goals, and (4) mode and intensity of interpersonal
relations.

Eighty-five percent of the secondary school sample indicated that
they and their parents would like them to attend college; 80 percent
of the secondary school sample aspired toward upper white-collar
jobs. The Japanese-American and white American secondary school
samples were compared on the value orientation variables. Japa-
nese-American pupils were found to be more expressive in their
orientation toward school; more favorable toward formal school com-
pliance; and less oriented toward the future and their control over
fate. Japanese-Americans also showed higher occupational aspira-
tions. Achievement of Japanese-American pupils is related to high
faith in human nature, low independence from peers, low self-
esteem, and low instrumental orientation. The author concludes
that the overall findings support the hypotheses.

251. Sciara, F.J. Perceptions of Negro boys regarding color and
occupational status. Child Study Journal 1(4):203-211, Summer
1971.

The author examined whether the changed social milieu has re-
sulted in a greater acceptance of blackness. Seventy fourth grade
black males were administered the Projective Picture Inventory
(PPI), consisting of 36 photographs of adult black males judged to be
light, medium, or dark in skin color. Each subject was asked to select
one photograph he thought represented a person of a certain occupa-
tional group for each of six high-status and six low-status occupa-
tions. The null hypothesis was adopted that there would not be a
difference in the responses of subjects to the selection of pictures
representing blackness (dark skin) in the high and low occupational
groups. The null hypothesis was rejected at a high level of statistical
significance: High status jobs were ascribed to light negro males.
Methods by which a more positive acceptance of blackness can be
attained are discussed.

252. Scofield, R.W., and Sun, C.W. A comparative study of the
differential effect upon personality of Chinese and American child-
training practices. Journal of Social Psychology 52:221-224, 1960.

Whether differences in permissiveness of childrearing practices
between Chinese and white middle class parents can cause signif-

116
icant differences in personality development is explored, using the
Whiting and Child methodology. Subjects were 40 Chinese students
at Oklahoma State University, of whom 36 came from mainland
China, 3 from Malaysia, and 1 from Taiwan. Each subject was asked
to describe childhood training practices in his/her family, following
the Whiting and Child methodology. Primary foci were dependency;
aggression; and oral, anal, and sex concern. Cattell’s 16 PF Person-
ality Test was given to the 40 Chinese students. The result were
then compared to norms published for American college students
(N=604).

Relative to Americans, Chinese were characterized as more with-
drawn, shy, introverted, sensitive, suspicious, cold, aloof, schizo-
phrenic, and emotionally insecure. Because the sample was small
and unique, the authors caution against overgeneralizations about
the Chinese population at large. It was nonetheless concluded that
the severity of Chinese childrearing practices experienced by the
sample produced a significant difference in personality organization
from that of the American students. Similar Chinese-white Amer-
ican levels of compulsivity, rigidity of control, and sociability reflect
an absence of group differences in the severity of anal training alone.

253. Serafica, F.C., et al. Social Orientation as Evidenced in Reg-
ulatory Appeal Strategies: A Cross-Cultural Study. Presented at
the Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Devel-
opment, Denver, Colorado (April 10-13, 1975).

The social orientation of 60 American and 60 Philippine mothers
representing two levels of social class was assessed through the
verbal regulatory appeal strategies that they employed in five hy-
pothetical everyday situations involving their 4-year-old children.
Social orientation was assessed through the mother’s responses to
the Bearison and Cassel questionnaire for regulatory appeal strat-
egies. Each of the mothers’ regulatory phrases was classified as
person-oriented (expressing the feelings, thoughts, needs of a person
affected by the child's behavior) or position-oriented (expressing a
non-situation-specific rule of behavior in terms of the position
status or role of the child). Society was found to have a significant
effect on mother’s use of person-oriented versus position-oriented
statements, but its impact varied as a function of the mother’s ed-
ucational level. Situational variations also influenced the adoption
of a person versus a position orientation. This effect of situational
determinants was modified by the mother’s education. The results
were interpreted within the framework of Bernstein’s (1966) Theory
of Social Learning.

117
254. Simon, R.J. An assessment of racial awareness, preference,
and self-identity among white and adopted non-white children.
Social Problems 22(1):43-57, 1974.

The increasing number of white families adopting across ethnic
lines has aroused concern about the effects of transracial adoption
on the white and nonwhite children in those homes. This study used
a modified three-part Clark and Clark paradigm to measure levels
of racial awareness, preference, and identity among nonwhite chil-
dren (120 black, 37 Asian and Indian children) adopted by white
families and their white siblings (42 adopted and 167 born into those
families). Midwestern families with children ranging in age from
3- to 8-years old were investigated. A pre- and post-study interview
with both the children and their parents provided additional
perspective.

Results indicated that black children adopted in a multiracial
setting do not develop an ambivalence toward their own race as had
been reported in earlier studies. In addition, white children pre-
ferred their own race to a lesser degree than white children in
previous studies. No differences were found between the children’s
groups on racial awareness and racial identity variables. These find-
ings suggest that development in a multiracial environment con-
tributes to a decrease in the status of whites among children without
any corresponding decrement in racial awareness and ethnic
identification.

No definite conclusions concerning Asian-American children were
made due to the small sample size, the confounding of Asian and
Indian results, and the use of an inappropriate identity measure.

255. Smith, M.E. Progress in the use of English after 22 years by
children of Chinese ancestry in Honolulu. Journal of Genetic Psy-
chology 90:255-258, 1957.

This study compares English language usage among 50 Honolulu
Chinese children in the 1950s with a similar group of children tested
in 1933. The two groups were matched for total subject number,
age, ancestry, and agreement of distribution of fathers’ occupations
with the 1950 census. Participant age ranged from 36 to 60 months.

Group differences outside English language development sur-
faced: Social mobility as reflected by fathers’ occupations exhibited
an upward trend by 1950, and parental schooling was twice that of
the 1933 group. Better conditions for learning English could thus
be assumed. Although the 1933 groups spoke as much Chinese as
English at home, their preferred language at play was English, an

118
average of 82 percent English words being used. The English usage
of the 1933 group was less than that for the 1950 group. Not only
did the children mix two languages in the same sentence, but their
sentence construction was immature, replete with errors, and con-
tained improper verb conjugations. The excessively high error rate
for their age bracket was attributed to contamination exposure to
pidgin English. Only one bilingual child was discovered among the
1950 group; the average number of English words had increased to
98.7 percent, and the frequency of mixed sentences had diminished.
While the study points up the disappearance of bilingualism among
Chinese preschoolers in Hawaii, frequent exposure to pidgin English
continues to impede acquisition of correct English language skills.

256. Smith, M.E., and Kasdon, L.M. Progress in the use of English
after 20 years by children of Filipino and Japanese ancestry in
Hawaii. Journal of Genetic Psychology 99:129-138, 1961.

A 1938 study on the use of English in preschool children is com-
pared to a 1957 study that used the same population and age pa-
rameters. In the 1957 study, 50 children of Japanese ancestry, 50
Honolulu children of Filipino ancestry, and 51 rural children of
Filipino ancestry were scored on their use of English. All children
were between the ages of 42 months and 66 months. The children
were selected so that the distribution of their fathers’ occupations
was similar to that of the U.S. census. It was discovered that all
children in the 1957 sample spoke English 75 to 99 percent of the
time, only occasionally speaking the ancestral language. According
to the later study, preschool children of Japanese and Filipino an-
cestry are now rarely bilingual. Nevertheless, they may still hear
their grandparents or other adults speak the old-country language
at home.

257. Smith, S.; Barnes E.; and Scales, A. Counseling the black
child. Elementary School Guidance and Counseling 8(4):245-253,
May 1974.

The authors discuss the particular problems of counseling the
black child, indicating that black value systems are often totally
misunderstood, leading to ineffective counseling. A case in point is
presented to show related problems in our educational institutions.
An appreciation of black values, language, and problems of self-
awareness are emphasized.

119
258. Sollenberger, R.T. Chinese-American child rearing practices
and juvenile delinquency. Journal of Social Psychology 74:13-23,
1968.

The author assumed that the low delinquency rate reported
among Chinese-Americans was due to their childrearing practices,
their cultural values, and their familial structure. Sixty-nine
Chinese mothers were interviewed with the Spears, Maccoby, and
Levine Schedule. In addition, the investigator participated in the
daily life of Chinatown for 7 weeks. From the interview responses,
observation of familial relations, and many discussions with people
in the area, it would appear that the low delinquency rate, in spite
of environmental variables that should favor such behavior, may be
due to the following: (1) Through an abundance of nurturance and
protection during early childhood, a reservoir of security and trust
is built up, so that after the age of 6, when the rigid demands for
conformity are expected, they will be accepted with a minimum of
hostility. (2) From an early age, physical aggression is not only
discouraged but is, in fact, not tolerated. (3) The child comes from
a close-knit, integrated family. He is reared in an atmosphere of
mutual respect. Certain filial duties are expected of him, and, on
the other hand, the parents accept responsibility for his proper be-
havior. (4) Within the family, and within the community, the child
is continuously in contact with good models of behavior after whom
he patterns his own behavior.

+259. Spurlock, J. Problems of identification in young black chil-

dren—Static or changing? Journal of National Medical Association
61(6):504-507, November 1969.

This is a preliminary report of the young black child’s response
to his racial identity, as characterized by skin color. The purpose of
the ongoing study is to determine whether black children feel more
positively about their color since the growing emphasis on “black
consciousness.” Data, obtained from a small number of children,
suggest that socioeconomic issues are major determining factors.
Black children from stable families appear to feel more comfortable
about this racial identity than do children from unstable back-
grounds. This class factor is to be further evaluated.

260. Stevens, A.J. The acquisition of participatory norms: The case
of Japanese- and Mexican-American children in a suburban envi-
ronment. The Western Political Quarterly 28(2):281-295, 1975.

120
This article investigates the political socialization of children in
1970 at four Los Angeles County elementary schools. The suburban
predominantly white schools were selected on the basis of enroll-
ment of Mexican-American and Japanese-American students. Sub-
jects consisted of 551 white American children (75 percent of the
sample), 85 Japanese-American children (12 percent), and 93 Mex-
ican-American children (13 percent), all fifth, sixth, seventh, and
eighth grade students.

The children were administered a Personal Effectiveness Scale
plus a scale measuring civic duty and political efficacy. Both scales
were designed by the Survey Research Center at the University of
Michigan, the latter scale being a modification of the adult version.
It was demonstrated that Mexican-American children, compared to
white American children, scored lower on personal effectiveness and
political efficacy. They appeared not to have internalized the role
expectation associated with individual participation in politics. This
is true, independent of socioeconomic status. The Japanese-Amer-
ican children scored higher than the white American children on
personal effectiveness and political efficacy. Japanese-American
children accept white American norms of individual participation
in politics to even a greater extent than do white American children.
This trend appears to be even stronger when socioeconomic status
is controlled. It is suggested taht because of the characteristic con-
forming and conventional behavior of Japanese-Americans, the role
orientations of Japanese-American children are based on the ideal
rather than the real. That they surpass the white American chil-
dren’s level of political orientation comes, then, as no surprise.

261. Sweet, J.R., and Thornburg, K.R. Preschoolers’ self and social
identity within the family structure. Journal of Negro Education
40(1):22-27, Winter 1971.

The researchers administered their study instrument to 60 black
and 60 white 3- to 5-year-old subjects in order to study their com-
prehension of the family structure. The first task required that the
subject exhibit some ability to identify himself before he was ex-
pected to indicate his understanding of familial labels. Subjects
identified first with the members of the same sex and race. The
findings were in agreement with previous studies. Succeeding tasks
determined the subject’s ability to understand and verbalize his
knowledge of the family. Age was a significant factor: Five-year-old
subjects scored higher than 4-year-old subjects; and those who were
4-years-old scored higher than 3-year-olds at each age level. White
subjects scored significantly higher than balck subjects on familial

121
tasks. There was no significant difference between boys and girls
in the performance scores for this concept.

262. Thomas, A.; Hertzig, M.E.; Dryman, I.; and Fernandez, P.
Examiner effect in IQ testing of Puerto Rican working-class chil-
dren. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 41(5):809-821, October
1971.

The WISC scores of school-age Puerto Rican children were affected
by differences in examiner style between two examiners who were
equivalent as to sex, ethnicity, fluency in Spanish and English, and
clinical experience. A higher performance level occurred with ex-
aminer behavior that encouraged active participation, verbaliza-
tion, and repeated effort on the child’s part.

263. Tuddenham, R.D.; Brooks, J.; and Miklovich, L. Mothers’
reports of behavior of ten-year-olds: Relationships with sex, eth-
nicity, and mother’s education. Developmental Psychology
10(6):959-995, 1974.

Some 3,000 of 19,044 children born between 1960-1967, predom-
inantly at the Kaiser Foundation Hospital in Oakland, Calif., were
comprehensively evaluated at ages 5 and 10 for normal or abnormal
development. Ethnic division for the nonclinical sample age 9 to 11
was 2,212 white (65 percent), 641 black (23 percent), 117 Oriental
(4 percent), 79 Chicano (3 percent), and the remainder mixed or
unclassified. The minority sample was higher in socioeconomic sta-
tus than the typical urban minority population.

Data were drawn from a 20-minute interview with a parent, who
in 92 percent of cases was the mother. Changes in health and social
circumstances were discussed. The Children’s Behavior Deck, 100
IBM cards depicting a problem behavior or temperamental char-
acteristic, was presented to the informant, who would respond
“mostly true of the child,” “mostly untrue of the child,” or “uncer-
tain/not applicable.” A novel program was developed for machine-
processing the data. The children completed Progressive Matrices
or the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test.

Mothers, regardless of ethnic membership, were found to use dif-
ferent terms that distinguished their sons from their daughters.
However, divergent value systems emerged for each racial group.
Terms used by Oriental mothers in describing their sons’ behavior
include “talks too loud, shows off, doesn’t mind being seen undressed,
likes attention, fights to get his own way, likes athletics.” Girl items

122
include “doesn’t mind losing a game, often seems tired, speaks too
softly, is dependable.” Oriental mothers differ least from whites and
most blacks in patterns of characterizing their children. Oriental
and white mothers made more positive statements about their chil-
dren than did black mothers. While Oriental mothers frequently
saw their children as shy, self-effacing, and overcontrolled, closer
inspection of the data revealed distinctive subcultural influences.
On balance, the four groups of mothers resembled each other more
than they differed from one another, especially regarding the mood,
temperament, and energy level of their children.

264. Ward, S.H., and Braun J. Self-esteem and racial preference
in black children. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 42(4):644-647,
July 1972.

In the 1950s and 1960s, studies of racial preference of children
consistently showed black children to choose white models and to
reject black models. The present study of black children growing up
since 1963 indicates a reversal of this position. The authors interpret
their findings as a reflection of a more accepting incorporation of
racial identity and pride within the child’s self-concept.

265. Werner, E.E.; Simonian, K.; and Smith, R.S. Ethnic and socio-
economic status differences in abilities and achievement among
preschool and school-age children in Hawaii. Journal of Social Psy-
chology, 75(1):43-59, 1968.

This study probes for differences at three socioeconomic levels
among children from five ethnic groups in Hawaii along lines of
school achievement and mental abilities at ages 2 and 10. In Hawaii,
whites and Chinese are considered above average in socioeconomic
status; Japanese are middle class; and Portuguese, Hawaiians, and
part-Hawaiians are considered lower and lower-middle class. Six-
hundred-thirty-five children (253 Japanese, 180 part- and full-
blooded Hawaiians, 138 Filipinos, 46 Portuguese, and 18 whites)
born in 1955 on the island of Kauai in Hawaii were selected. Both
children and parents were part of the Kauai Pregnancy and Child
Study, a longitudinal inquiry into the outcome of all pregnancies
in the community, with followup tests at ages 2 and 10. During
followup, the authors examined how perinatal complications and
the quality of environment would affect child development prior to,
as well as during, school age. At age 2, subjects were given the
Cattell Infant Intelligence Scale and Doll’s Vineland Social Matu-

123
rity Scale. From 1965-1966 the subjects at age 10 completed the
SRA Primary Mental Abilities Test (Elementary Form) and the
Group Bender Gestalt Test. The mother and teacher of each subject
were interviewed to rate socioeconomic status, educational stimu-
lation, and emotional support of the family.

Results indicate that the social maturity of the children in the
five ethnic groups and the three socioeconomic levels do not differ
significantly. In intelligence, however, the Japanese, regardless of
socioeconomic status, scored higher than the other ethnic groups.
At age 10, white and Japanese children were found to have fewer
achievement problems than other groups. Whites exhibited no lan-
guage problems, while the Japanese had the smallest percentage
of language problems of all nonwhite ethnic groups. Similarly, the
Japanese had the smallest percentage of perceptual problems, while
whites showed the highest percentage. Japanese subjects had fewer
behavioral problems generally.

At age 10, ethnicity influenced both level and pattern of basic
mental abilities. On PMA EQ, whites scored higher than Filipinos
or Hawaiians. Although socioeconomic level produced pronounced
discrepancies in levels of basic mental abilities, it'did not account
for perceptual differences in the pattern of abilities between children
from below-average or average socioeconomic homes. White and
Japanese children received more educational stimulation and emo-
tional support at home than did other ethnic groups.

In conclusion, racial differences were not dependent on socioeco-
nomic status. At age 2, ethnic differences on the infant test were
already present. Variations in the patterns of mental abilities and
achievement were explained in terms of differential achievement
motivation or education stimulation received at home. Other factors
suggested are the use of a foreign language at home and different
childrearing practices. Japanese performance may be linked to the
importance the group assigns to education, disciplined work habits,
and esteem for intellectual pursuits.

266. Yee, L.Y., and LaForge, R. Relationship between mental
abilities, social class, and exposure to English in Chinese fourth
grades. Journal of Educational Psychology 66(6):826-834, 1974.

The study examined the relationship between the raw scores on
the Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), social class,
and exposure to English in 53 (24 males, 29 females) 9- to 10-year-
old Chinese-Americans in a private school in San Francisco. Social
class was defined on the basis of the residence, education, and oc-
cupation of the father or head of household. The variable, exposure

124
to English, was the result of a factor analysis of 30 variables assessed
via a parent interview. Parents were interviewed in English or in
Chinese, depending on the parents’ language facility. The WISC
was administered by the senior author to subjects who could “carry
on a normal conversation in English,” whose “understanding of the
English language [was] adequate for [their] age,” and who were
American born.

No statistically significant relationship was found between social
class and the 12 WISC subtests, the WISC overall total, the 6 WISC
verbal subtests, the WISC verbal total, or the WISC performance
total. Statistically significant relationships were found between so-
cial class and the 6 WISC performance subtests and exposure to
English and the WISC overall total.

267. Young, N.F. Independence training from a cross-cultural per-
spective. American Anthropologist 74(3):629-638, 1972.

This article considers the role of achievement of independence
training in Chinese immigrant and Chinese-American children liv-
ing in Hawaii. Twenty immigrant Chinese families and 32 Hawaii-
born Chinese families with sons 9- to 12-years-old participated. The
immigrant fathers were typically cooks and butchers, while Chinese-
American fathers were predominantly professionals. The mothers
were asked to complete a childrearing practice questionnaire as well
as a revised version of the independence training questionnaire
developed by Winter-bottom. Achievement motivation of the boys
was determined by their n-Ach scores derived from the TAT. Actual
achievement was determined by their school grades, teacher ratings,
preference for delayed gratification, and inclination toward inter-
mediate risk-taking.

The results indicated that measures of achievement, achievement-
motivation, and achievement-oriented behaviors did not differ sig-
nificantly between the Chinese-American and immigrant boys. An
examination of the independence training questionnaire revealed
that, despite socioeconomic differences between the two groups, im-
migrant and Chinese-American mothers reported similar sanc-
tioned and nonsanctioned behaviors for their sons. Compared to
previous data on white boys, Chinese mothers expected their boys
to achieve in social situations (e.g., interactions with their peers)
at a later age than did white mothers. However, in areas of academic
achievement and caretaking, Chinese mothers expected their sons
to achieve at the same age or earlier than white mothers did. The
early-age expectancy of achievement in some areas and late ex-

125
pectancy of achievement in others invalidate the utility of the in-
dependence training questionnaire as an instrument predicting
achievement behavior in Chinese boys. The validity of identifying
an optimal age for independence training is questionable. Cultural
values appear to be vital in determining maternal expectations of
achievement behavior.

268. Asian American history: De-mythifying textbooks. Bridge
4(3):20-32, July 1976.

This collection of “polar statements” was adopted from “Stereo-
types, Distortions, and Omissions in U.S. History Textbooks: A Con-
tent Analysis Instrument for Detecting Racism and Sexism,” which
was published in fall, 1976, by the Council on Interracial Books for
Children, Racism and Sexism Resource Center for Educators.

269. A centennial challenge for ALA—Human or anti-human values
in children’s books. Interracial Books for Children Bulletin 7(4):1-22,
1976.

For some years, groups such as the Council on Interracial Books
for Children (CIBC) have been urging librarians to take a second
look at children’s books previously regarded as classics and to eval-
uate them in the light of the new consciousness that acknowledges
the oppression of Third World peoples and women. On January 29,
1973, the Board of Directors of the American Library Association
(ALA) Children’s Services Division unanimously passed a resolution
calling for the reevaluation of library materials for childrens’ col-
lections. However, others—particularly ALA’s Intellectual Freedom
Committee—actively challenged the resolution. On February 2,
1973, the ALA Council adopted an IFC counter-resolution setting
forth the concept that sexism, racism, and other “isms” are ideas
that should not be censored. Furthermore, the Library Bill of Rights
was cited as prohibiting children’s librarians from assuming func-
tions different from those assigned to adult librarians. The CIBC
then published a position paper entitled “Censorship and Racism:
A Dilemma for Librarians.” On January 21, 1976, the IFC adopted
a statement in the form of a reply to that position paper, giving
reasons for their opposition. Comments on the IFC’s most recent
statement are given here.

126
270. Educational Needs of Children from Minority Groups. London:
Community Relations Commission, July 1974.

This paper proposes measures for policy implementation to meet
the educational needs of minority group children from “new com-
mon-wealth” (newly independent) countries residing in England.
An admission of the importance of education of these children, the
need for more resources to be made available to them, and the extent
to which these children’s needs and those of the indigenous com-
munity are similar are stated to be relevant considerations. The
main results of systematic research findings and experience in mul-
tiracial schools are given along with the main implications for action
and research. Specific recommendations submitted include requests
for additional resources from central government, the establishment
of a national policy for deprived urban areas, several programs for
local education authorities (such as advisory teams on multiracial
schools), and teacher training with the adoption of positive policies
to recruit and train professionals from minority backgrounds.

271. Some Hints to Work with Vietnamese Students. Phoenix: Ar-
izona State Department of Education, 1976.

This aid for teachers of Vietnamese children is an attempt to
identify the educational needs and describe the background of Vi-
etnamese students. Many of the educational needs of these students
are a result of the differences between U.S. culture and Vietnamese
culture, which is more than 1,000 years old. Because of the large
number of student needs, this brief aid addresses only a few general
areas of need such as language learning, grade placement, social
relationships, and school background. Statements about Vietnam-
ese culture are included to help the teacher select an appropriate
approach for Vietnamese students who are refugees from a tradi-
tional society that underwent evolutionary change due to contact
with the West. The degree of the students’ cultural differences is
dependent upon their background, for example, whether they had
been living in the city or in the countryside and whether they had
been intellectuals or illiterates. In working with the students, the
teacher is encouraged to adopt the appropriate approach for each
use. A bibliography is provided to indicate sources of further infor-
mation. Also included is a list of some institutional sources for fur-
ther information.

127
Author Index
(Numbers refer to citation numbers)

A

Adair, A.V. 189
Adams, J.E. 1
Adkins, D.C. 190
Ager, L.P. 191
Ahmad, I. 2
Aldridge, D.P. 3
Allen, D.I. 192
Allen, J.R. 193
Allen, W.E. 4
Altstein, H. 5
Andersen, P.A. 194
Anderson, H. 172
Andrews, R.G. 7, 8, 96
Aponte, J.F. 115
Asante, M. 194
Austad, C.C. 9

B

Bache-Wiig, B.J. 10
Balgur, I. 98

Balla, D. 97

Ballif, B.L. 190, 207
Baran, A. 11, 12, 119, 152, 153, 154
Barinbaum, L. 13
Barnes, E. 257

Bass, C. 14

Bauer, EW. 195

Baum, R. 98

Baumbheier, E.C. 196, 197
Bayer], J.A. 15
Beardslee, C. 16

Beasley, L.M. 17
Bellucci, M.T. 18
Bennett, R.L. 198
Berman, L.A. 19

Bieder, J. 20

Birch, D.R. 192
Birch, H.G. 226
Birns, B. 220
Blacklock, D. 21, 199
Blane, H.T. 200
Blum, V.C. 201
Bolling, J.J. 202
Bonham, G.S. 22
Borders, J.A. 233
Boston, J.A. 105
Bourgeois, M. 23
Boyne, J. 24
Braden, J.A. 25
Bradley, T. 26
Branham, E. 27
Bratfos, O. 28
Braun, J. 263
Bridger, W. 220
Brieland, D. 29
Brooks, J. 263
Brown, E.G. 29

C

Cadoret, R.J. 30, 31, 32, 33, 49
Campbell, A. 245
Carey, W.B. 35

Carlos, M. 242

Carney, R. 76
Carugati, F. 203
Chamberlain, M.W. 248
Chambers, E. 36, 37
Chang, T.S. 204

Chao, R. 205
Chappelear, E.M. 38
Chartrand, W.R. 39
Checkosky, S.F. 208
Chema, R. 40
Chestang, L. 41

128
Chimezie, A. 42, 43, 44
Claeys, W. 45, 46

Coates, B. 206

Cohen, C. 98

Coombs, L.M. 198

Costin, L.B. 47

Crane, V. 207

Cross, L.A. 115

Crowe, R.R. 48
Cunningham, L. 30, 31, 49

D

Datcher, E. 208
Deasy, L.C. 50
Deboeck, P. 46
Dembroski, B.G. 51
Dien, D.S. 209
Dougherty, S.A. 52
Dryman, I. 262
Dukette, R. 53
Dumaret, A. 135
Dunket, H.B. 210
Durrett, M.E. 211
Duyme, M. 135

E

Edwards, J .E. 30, 31, 49
Egginton, M.L. 54
Entwisle, D.R. 212
Epps, E.G. 213
Erickson, M.T. 76
Etinger, L. 28

F

Fancher, E.P. 214
Fanshel, D. 55
Feigelman, W. 146, 147
Feingold, J. 135
Feldman, R.A. 56
Fernandez, P. 262
Fish, J .E. 215
Fleetwood, R.S. 244
Fong, S.L.M. 216, 217
Fort, J.G. 218

Foster, H.H., Jr. 57
Fox, D.J. 219

Fried, J.E. 38

G

Gallagher, U.M. 58, 59, 60, 61
Garbis, M.H. 62

Gath, A. 33

Gill, M. 63

Glenn, J. 64

Golder, M. 220
Goldey, H. 127
Goodridge, C. 65
Gordon, S. 163

Gore, R. 97

Green, M. 76
Greenwald, H.J. 221
Grotevant, H.D. 66, 67
Grow, L.J. 68, 69, 70
Guy, RF. 114

H

Halpern, F. 222
Hargrave, V. 71
Haring, B. 72
Harris, R.C. 170
Hartley, R.E. 223
Hepner, E.M. 224
Hepworth, H.P. 73
Herbenick, R.M. 74
Hereford, C.F. 225
Hertzig, M.E. 226, 262
Hibbs, R.E. 54

Hill, R.B. 75

Hong, S. 92

Hoopes, J.L. 96
Horn, J. 76

Howard, A. 77

Hsu, F.LK. 227
Humphrey, M. 78
Hurh, W.M. 228, 229

I

Inker, M.L. 79

Jaffee, B. 80
Jamias, M.F. 230
Jenkins, S. 231
Jensen, D.L. 19

129
Johnson, D.L. 51
Johnson, P.R. 143, 144
Jones, E.D. 81

Jones, L.W. 82

Jones, M.L. 83, 84
Jordan, V.B. 219

K

Kadushin, A. 85, 86
Kagi, C. 87

Katz, L. 88, 89
Katz, S. 103, 104
Katz, S.N. 60, 61
Kee, D.W. 232
Kety, S.S. 90

Kim, B.S. 92

Kim, D.S. 91

Kim, HB. 1

Kim, S.P. 92, 93
Kines, N. 94
Kinloch, G.C. 233
Kirgan, D. 123
Kolodney, R.L. 124
Kuo, E.C. 234
Kurokawa, M. 235, 236

L

Ladner, J.A. 95
LaForge, R. 266
Lampe, P.E. 237
Larr, C.J. 215
Lawder, E.A. 96
Lefebvre, A. 238
Lesser, G.S. 218
Levin, B. 125
Lewis, D.O. 97
Lewis, E.R. 239
Lewis, H.P. 239
Lewis, M. 97
Lifshitz, M. 98
Lifton, B.J. 99
Lindholm, B.W. 100
Lipton, W.L. 35
Loftus, R. 30, 31, 49
Lord, E.M. 227
Lower, K.G. 96

M

Madison, B.Q. 101
Manoff-Russo, E. 103, 104
Marwit, S.J. 240
McEwan, M.T. 102
Meezan, W. 103, 104
Meyer, K.K. 170
Milkovich, L. 262
Miller, H.M. 241
Mikawa, J.K. 105
Morin, R.J. 106
Morland, J.A. 242
Morrison, B. 231
Morrison, J.R. 107
Mosley, Y. 248

Moss, A. 220
Munsinger, H. 108, 109
Myers, R.A. 35

N

Nash, A.L. 110
Neilson, J. 111, 112
Nerlove, E.A. 118
Newborg, D.L. 113
Norvell, M. 114

0

Offord, D.R. 115
Omalley, J.M. 243
O'Neill, M.M. 116
Oppenheim, D.B. 221

P

Pablo, R.Y. 230
Padilla, A.M. 246
Paget, NW. 117
Palmonari, A. 203
Pannor, R. 11, 12, 118, 119, 152, 153,
154
Parish, T.S. 244
Payne, F.D. 190
Pepper, G.W. 120
Peskin, H. 217
Platts, HK. 121

130
Presser, S.B. 122
Priddy, D. 123

Q

Quinn, O.W. 50

R

Radov, A.S. 211
Ramey, T. 245
Rathbun, C. 124
Reece, S.A. 125
Rees, J. 164
Ricci-Bitti, P.E. 203
Rice, A.S. 246
Richmond, A.H. 247
Roberts, A. 248
Robertson, D.C. 126
Robinson, M.B. 249
Rohwer, W.D. 232
Rosenberg, A.H. 128
Rosenberg, EW. 127
Royse, D.D. 77
Russel, D.H. 128
Ruiz, R.A. 246

S

Saks, H.L. 129
Sands, R.M. 127
Sandusky, A.L. 130
Sanford, M. 131
Savage, J. 189
Savage, J.E. 208
Scales, A. 256

Scarr, S. 66, 132, 133
Schapiro, M. 101
Schechter, M.D. 134
Schiff, M. 135
Schwartz, A.J. 250
Schwartz, E.M. 136, 137, 138
Sciara, F.J. 251
Scofield, R.W. 252
Scott, D.B. 138

Selz, N. 225'

Senzel, B. 140
Serafica, F.C. 253
Shapiro, D. 68, 69, 70

Sharrar, M.L. 141
Sherman, E.A. 96
Shireman, J. 142, 143, 144
Silver, L.B. 145
Silverman, A.R. 146, 147
Simmons, T.L. 9
Simon, R.J. 5, 148, 254
Simonian, K. 265
Skerl, J.A. 77

Smith, M.E. 255, 256
Smith, R.S. 265

Smith, S. 257

Soeffing, M. 149
Sollenberger, R.T. 258
Sommerlad, E.A. 150
Sone, C.S. 151
Sorosky, A.D. 11, 12, 119, 152, 153, 154
Soule, M. 155
Spurlock, J. 258

Starr, P. 156
Stenning, W. 225
Stephenson, P.S. 157
Stevens, J.A. 260
Stewart, J. 135
Stewart, M.A. 107
Stone, F.H. 158

St. Denis, G.C. 159
Sullivan, M. 160

Sun, C.W. 252

Sweet, J.R. 261
Swenson, J.P. 161

T

Tabler, N.G., Jr. 162
Taft, R. 156

Tau, T. 28

Taylor, D.A. 156
Taylor, D.M. 230
Tec, L. 163

Thomas, A. 262
Thornburg, K.R. 261
Tizard, B. 164, 165
Tomkiewicz, S. 135
Touliatos, J. 100
Tuddenham, R.D. 263

A

VanWhy, EW. 166
Vieni, M. 167
Vinacke, W.E. 209

131
Ww Y

Ward, S.H. 264 Yamamoto, K. 200
“Watrous, B.G. 227 Yeakel, M. 140

Watson, K.W. 142 Yee, L.Y. 266

Watts, J.C. 218 Young, N.F. 267

Webster, M. 212
Weinberg, R.A. 66, 132, 133
Werner, E.E. 265

Wieder, H. 168, 169 Z
Winick, M. 170

Witkin, L.J. 171 Zastrow, C.H. 173
Work, H.H. 172 Ziemska, M. 174

132
Subject Index
(Numbers refer to citation numbers)

A

Abandonment, 74
Aboriginal children (Australia), 150
Abortion, 74
Accidents, 235
Acculturation
Australian migrant children, 195
bilingual socialization, 234
and childhood accidents, 235
Chinese-American children, 205
and maladjustment, 236
role of schools, 214
Active-passive dimension of social atti-
tudes, 225
Adjustment of Asian adoptees, 39, 241,
271
Adolescents
Chinese-American, 216, 227
identity formation of adoptees, 13,
114, 118, 163
Native American, 193
parent-child interest similarities, 67
self-concept, 114, 203
sexual role identity, 200
socioeconomic status and delin-
quency, relationship, 213
Adopted children
affective disorders, 34
awareness of being adopted, 168
cognitive development, 164
effects of maternal anxiety on in-
fants, 35
effects of social milieu, 98
family romance fantasies, 137, 155,
169
field independence and primary abili-
ties, 45, 46
identity formation in adolescents, 13,
114, 118, 163

immigration and naturalization of,
183

intelligence, 108, 109, 129, 132, 133,
135

latency age, 18

medical illness, 31, 32

parent-child interest similarities, 66,
67

from psychiatrically disturbed biol-
ogic parents, 30, 31, 32, 48, 49, 107

psychological characteristics, 105,
125, 136

schizophrenia, 90

self-expression of artistic children, 64

sexual development, 19

treatment of delinquents, 97

Adoption

attitudes toward, 51

in Australia, 87

bibliography, 166

by black families, 3, 50, 75, 82, 101,
112, 139, 143

in Canada, 73

child lending, 131

children with minimal brain damage,
145

compared with restoration to natural
mother and continued institution-
alization, 164, 165

Congressional hearings, 175, 183,
186, 188

effects on malnourished children, 170

in France, 20

general issues, 56, 96, 116, 127, 138

handicapped children, 21, 36, 149,
184

hard-to-place-children, 27, 36, 47, 87,
110, 142, 175, 181

history of, 12, 37, 122

illegitimate children, 162

133
independent, 103, 104
in India, 2
intercounty, 1, 139
interstate, 110
in Korea, 228, 229
mentally retarded children, 58, 87
by Native Americans, 161
New York State reports, 177, 178,
179, 180, 181
older children, 14, 21, 40, 84, 85, 86,
89, 111, 141
open, 12
patterns and trends, 72, 146, 147,
182
psychiatric aspects, 23, 24, 28, 172
readoption, 102
retrospective appraisal, 80
single parent, 27, 52, 128, 143, 144
Spanish-American children, 36
State program, 187
subsidized, 8, 60, 61, 71, 185
of unwanted fetus, 74
See also Legal issues; Psychiatric as-
pects of adoption; Transracial
adoption
Adoption agencies
Interagency Vietnam Adoption Com-
mittee (IVAC), 139
policies, 3, 25, 47, 101, 112
programs for families with handi-
capped children, 149
programs to promote adoption and
foster care, 65, 83, 187
screening of adoption applicants, 26,
29
transracial adoption programs, 130
use of closed-circuit television, 117
Adoption Resource Exchange of North
America (ARENA), 110
Adoptive families, 96, 155
Adoptive parents
attitudes toward adopted children, 9
characteristics of transracial adop-
tion, 15, 68, 70, 94, 120, 123, 126,
146, 147, 151, 159
early life experiences of, 156
effects of maternal anxiety on in-
fants, 35
general issues, 10, 38, 65, 176
of hard-to-place children, 94
maternal attitudes, 174
motivation scale for, 100
problems, 157, 158
psychiatric examination for, 20

reaction to child’s illness, 16
relationship capacity, 140
relationship to child’s natural par-
ents, 171
screening process, 26, 29
typology, 15, 17, 22, 72, 78, 94, 120,
151, 174
Adult adoptees
alcoholism, 33
organizations, 166
reunion with birth parents, 152, 153,
154, 157
sealed records, access to, 7, 11, 12
search for natural parents, 99
Adult behavior
modeling, 207
white adults toward black children,
206
See also specific ethnic groups
Affective disorders, 34
Alaskan Eskimo children, 191, 198. See
also Native American children
Alcoholism, 33, 107
American Indians. See Native Ameri-
can children
Antisocial behavior. See Psychiatric as-
pects of adoption
ARENA (Adoption Resource Exchange
of North America), 110
Asian-American children
acculturation and maladjustment,
236
adolescents, 213
delivery of services to, 231
self-concept, 254
See also specific ethnic groups
Asian-Americans
myths and stereotypes, 268
perceptions of own children, 263
Associations with own and other coun-
tries, 192
Attitudes
of adoptive parents, 9
of college students toward adoption,
51
maternal attitudes of women adopt-
ing children, 174
See also Racial attitudes
Atypical children. See Hard-to-place
children
Australia, 192
aboriginal children, 150
adoption, 87
migrant children, 195

134
B

Baby selling, 175, 188
Bastardy laws, 62
Behavior problems. See Psychiatric as-
pects of adoption
Belize, 131
Best interest of child, issue, 54, 57, 79
Bibliography and source book on adop-
tion, 166
Bilingual children
declining number, 255, 256
socialization, 234
written language performance, 239
Bilingual education, 243
Biologic parents
adult adoptees’ reunion with, 152,
153, 154, 157
child’s restoration to, 164, 165
reasons for child relinquishment,
119, 121
relationship to child’s adoptive par-
ents, 171
Biracial adoption. See Transracial
adoption
Black adoption
general issues, 50, 139, 143
informal adoption, 75, 82
policies of adoption agencies, 3, 101,
112
Black Americans
modeling, 207
mothers, self-concepts of, 245
perceptions of own children, 263
racial attitudes toward, 194, 244
self-concept, 194, 211
Black children
adolescents, 213
behavior of white adults toward, 206
biracial adoption, 41, 42, 43, 44, 59,
68, 69, 70, 77, 81, 95, 123, 126,
143, 167, 173
black Vietnamese, 139
counseling needs, 257
delivery of services, to, 231
education opportunities, 201
1Q scores of adoptees, 132
learning abilities, 218, 220, 232, 261
nonstandard English, 240
racial awareness and preference, 208,
215, 242, 246, 264
racial identity of adoptees, 4, 5, 106,
126, 148, 254
self-concept, 189, 202, 204, 221, 222,
238, 248, 251, 259

significance of adult modeling for,
207
subsidized adoption, 71
Black market adoption, 175, 188
Books for children, 268, 269
Brain-damaged children, 145. See also
Hard-to-place children
Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), 198

C

Canada
Adoption Reunion Registry, 157
bibliography on adoption issues, 166
ethnicity and identity problems, 247
issues in adoption and foster care, 73
studies on children’s self-concepts,
192
Case studies of adoptees, 13, 93, 134
Caseworkers, 26, 29. See also Adoption
agencies
Chicanos
children’s self-identity, 246
parents’ perceptions of own children,
263
Child custody, 54, 57, 79
Child lending, 131
Child protection units, 83
Child-rearing practices
Chinese-American, 258, 267
Chinese parents, 252, 267
Filipino mothers, 253
Children
associations with own and other
countries, 192
expectations in mixed racial groups,
212
racial attitudes, 244
rights of, 73
See also Adopted children; Minority
children; specific ethnic groups
Children with special needs. See Hard-
to-place children
Child-welfare services
Asian-American children, 241
child protection, 83
day care, 83
delivery to minority groups, 231 ©
general issues, 53
Native American children, 196, 197
Chinese-American children
acculturation and childhood acci-
dents, 235
adolescent behavior, 227

1

135
bilingual socialization, 234
English language usage, 255
1Q, social class, and exposure to Eng-
lish, relationships, 266
learning abilities, 218, 232
motivation factor scores, 190
self-concept, 216, 217, 219
socialization, 205
stereotyping behavior, 233
in transracial adoption, 124
written language performance, 239
Chinese-American parents, child-rear-
ing practices, 258, 267
Chinese people
child-rearing practices, 252, 267
children’s race awareness, 242
personality adjustments of students
in America, 217
polarization with American-born
Chinese, 216
Civil rights movement, 222
Closed-circuit television, 117
Cognitive development
adopted children, 164
preschool children, 261
See also Intelligence; Learning
abilities
Community integration, 236

Confidentiality of adoption records, 160.

See also Sealed adoption records
Congressional hearings on adoption is-
sues, 175, 183, 186, 188
Counseling of black children, 257
Courts, treatment of juvenile delin-
quents, 97
Cross-cultural studies
active-passive dimension of social at-
titudes, 225
adolescent self-concept, 203
child-rearing practices, 252, 267
children’s perceptions of adult sex
preferences, 223
race awareness, 242
See also Testing

D
4

Day care services, 83

Delinquency. See Juvenile delinquency

Delivery of services to minority chil-
dren, 196, 197, 231

Depression, 34

Dimension of social attitudes, 225
Dogmatism, and attitudes toward adop-
tion, 51

E

Early life experiences of adoptive par-
ents, 156
Education
acculturation of minority children,
214
Alaskan Eskimos, 198
minority children’s needs, 270
multicultural and bilingual, 243
problems for Mexican-American chil-
dren, 224
scholastic achievement of Japanese-
American students, 250
teacher sensitivity to poor children,
249
Vietnamese children’s needs, 271
voucher programs, 201
Emotional problems of adoptees. See
Psychiatric aspects of adoption
England, educational needs of minority
children, 270
English. See Language
Environmental influences. See Heredity
and environment
Eskimo children, 191, 198. See also Na-
tive American children
Expectations in children’s mixed racial
groups, 212

F

Failure of older-child adoption, 14
Families
adoptive families, 96, 155
developmental trends, 56
parent-child interest similarities, 66,
67
Family romance fantasies, 137, 155,
169
Family structure, comprehension by
preschool children, 261
Field independence, 45, 46
Filipino-American children
English language usage, 256
mental abilities, 265
motivation factor scores, 190

136
Filipinos
child-rearing practices, 253
children’s ethnic awareness, 230
Florida, 62, 187
Foster Care
for children not legally free, 63
Congressional hearings, 175
effect of maternal anxiety on infants,
35
general issues, 56, 83, 187
for handicapped children, 149
longterm, problems of, 165
for older children, 111
subsidized adoption as alternative, 8
France
adolescent self-identity, 203
adoption in, 20

G

Genetic influences. See Heredity and
environment
Group study for adoption
adolescent problems, 118
general issues, 10, 38, 65, 89, 127,
176
group therapy, 18
transracial adoption, 124
See also Adoption agencies

H

Handicapped children
adoption of, 21, 36, 149, 184
See also Hard-to-place children
Hard-to-place children
adoption of, 27, 36, 47, 87, 110, 147
adoption bibliography, 166
adoption programs, 65, 142, 181
children with minimal brain damage,
145
general issues, 94, 175
handicapped, 21, 36, 149, 184
mentally retarded, 58, 87
See also Older children; Transracial
adoption
Hawaiian children
mental abilities, 265
motivation factor scores, 190
stereotyping behavior, 233
Head Start trainees, self-concept, 211

Health problems of Asian children, 241
Heredity and environment
bias against genetic hypotheses, 76
inheritance of alcoholism, 33
intelligence of adopted and biologic
children, 108, 109, 129, 132, 133,
135
interest similarities in families, 66,
67
learning abilities, 45
mental illness in adoptees, 28, 30, 31,
32, 34, 48, 49, 90, 105, 107, 115,
125
personality characteristics of adopted
children, 136
History
of adoption, 12, 37
of Asian-Americans, 268
Human figure drawing, 199, 215
Hyperactivity, 30, 49, 107
Hysteria, 32, 107

Identity formation. See Self-concept
Illegitimacy laws, 62
Illegitimate children, fathers’ rights of,
162, 178
Immigration requirements for adopted
children, 183
Independence training, 267. See also
Child-rearing practices
Independent adoption, 103, 104
India, adoption in, 2
Indians. See Native American children
Informal adoption, 75, 82
Institutionalization, compared with
adoption and restoration to natural
mother, 164, 165
Intelligence
environmental and genetic factors,
108, 109, 129, 132, 133, 135
exposure to English and social class,
266
1Q stability, 226, 262
racial differences and socioeconomic
status, 265
See also Learning abilities .
Interagency Vietnam Adoption Com-
mittee (IVAC), 139
Intercountry adoption, 1, 139
Interest similarities in families, 66, 67

137
Interracial adoption. See Transracial
adoption

Interstate adoption, 110

Israel, adoption in, 13

J

Japanese-American children
acculturation and childhood acci-
dents, 235
English language usage, 256
mental abilities, 265
motivation factor scores, 190
perceptions of adult sex preferences,
223
political orientation, 260
scholastic achievement, 250
self-concept, 209
sexual role identity, 200
stereotyping behavior, 233
Japanese children, 200, 209
Jewish adoptive parents, 147
Jewish children, 218
Juvenile delinquency
Chinese-Americans, low rate, 258
courts’ handling of, 97
and socioeconomic status, 213

K

Korea, adoption in, 228, 229
Korean-American children
adjustment of adoptees, 39, 91, 93,
170
adoption, 92, 241
self-concept, 204
status in Korea, 228, 229

Language
black American English, 240
English language usage of Asian-
American children, 255, 256
exposure to English and IQ scores,
relationship, 266
second language learning, 210
written language performance, 239
Latency-age adopted children, 18

Latin American children, 232, 239
Learning abilities
cultural differences, 218, 232
environmental and genetic factors, 45
of preschool children, 220, 261
See also Intelligence
Learning-disabled children, 199
Legal issues
adoption bibliography, 166
baby selling, 175, 188
bastardy laws, 62
children’s rights, 73
confidentiality of adoption records,
160
Congressional hearings and adoption
issues, 175, 183, 186, 188
delivery of child welfare services to
Indian reservations, 196, 197
historical antecedents of adoption
practices, 37, 122
independent adoption, 103, 104
intercountry adoption, 1
Native American adoption, 6
naturalization of alien adopted chil-
dren, 183
New York State reports on child wel-
fare, 177, 178, 179, 180
paternal rights of unwed fathers, 162
placement of children not legally
free, 63
reunion of adoptees with natural par-
ents, 157
sealed adoption records, 7, 11, 12, 53,
113, 154
state custody of unwanted fetus, 74
subsidized adoption, 8, 60, 61
termination of parental rights, 54,
57,179, 83, 179
Legitimation, 162

M

Maladjustment, and acculturation, 236
Malnutrition, 170
Maori children, 223
Marital adjustment, 151
Maternal anxiety, 35
Medical illness, 31, 32
Mennonites, 236
Mentally retarded children
adoption of, 58, 87
See also Hard-to-place children

138
Mexican-American children
delivery of services to, 231
motivation factor scores, 190
political orientation, 260
self-concept, 224, 237
Mexican-Americans, self-concept, 211
Mexican children, 225
Migrant children, 195
Minority children
aboriginal, 150
acculturation, 214
bilingual, 234, 239, 255, 256
delivery of services to, 231
educational needs, 270
expectations in mixed racial groups,
212
preschool, 190, 220, 261, 265
racial differences and socioeconomic
status, 265
See also Transracial adoption; specific
ethnic groups
Modeling, 207
Model State Subsidized Adoption Act,
60, 61, 185
Motivation factor scores for children,
190
Motivation for adoption. See Typology
of adoptive parents
Motivation scale for adoptive parents,
100
Multicultural education, 243

N

National Institute of Education, 243
Native American children
adolescents, 193
adoption of, 6, 36, 55, 161
delivery of services to, 196, 197, 231
Eskimos, 191, 198
motivation factor scores, 190
self-concept of transracial adoptees,
254
Naturalization of alien adopted chil-
dren, 183
Natural parents. See Biologic parents
Neglected children, treatment of delin-
quents, 97
New York State child welfare reports,
177, 178, 179, 180, 181
New Zealand, 223
Nonstandard American English, 240
Noun-pair learning, 232

0

Older children
adoption of, 21, 40, 84, 95, 86, 89,
111, 141
adoption failure, 14
One-parent adoption, 27, 52, 128, 143,
144
Open adoption, 12
Opportunities for Adoption Act, 175,
186

P

Pacific Islanders, 190
Parental attitudes
child-rearing practices, 252, 253, 258,
267
perceptions of own children, 263
and poverty, 245
Parent-child relationships, 155. See
also Adoptive parents
Participatory norms, 260
Paternity laws, 62, 162, 178
Pediatricians, 138
Persian language learning, 210
Plains Indians, 193. See also Native
American children
Play activities, 191
Political orientation, 260
Portuguese-American children, 265
Prejudice. See Racial attitudes
Preschool children
cognitive development, 220
comprehension of family structure,
261
motivation factor scores, 190
racial differences and socioeconomic
status, 265
Primary abilities of adopted children,
45, 46
Psychiatric aspects of adoption
adoptees from psychiatrically dis-
turbed biologic parents, 30, 31, 32,
48, 49, 107
affective disorders in adoptees, 34
alcoholism in adoptees, 33
awareness of being adopted, 168
bias against genetic hypotheses, 76
case studies, 13, 93, 134
effect of maternal anxiety on infants,
35

139
family romance fantasies, 137, 155,
169
general issues, 23, 24, 28, 115, 172
maternal attitudes, 174
psychological characteristics of
adopted children, 9, 98, 105, 125,
136
schizophrenia, 90
Psycholinguistic problems of migrant
children, 195
Puerto Rican children
delivery of services to, 231
1Q stability, 226, 262
learning abilities, 218

R

Race awareness and preference. See
Self-concept
Racial attitudes
of American and Chinese children,
242
toward black Americans, 194
changes produced by conditioning,
244
importance in self-identification proc-
ess, 189
of Mexican-American children, 237
Racial differences, and socioeconomic
status, 265
Racially mixed children
stereotyping behavior, 233
See also specific ethnic groups
Racism in children’s books, 268, 269
Readoption, 102
Regulatory appeal strategies, 253
Relationship capacity of adoptive par-
ents, 140
Relinquishment of child by biologic
parents, 119, 121
Retarded children
adoption of, 58, 87
See also Hard-to-place children
Retrospective appraisal of adoption, 80
Rule structure, 207

S

Samoan-American children, 190
Schizophrenia, 90

Screening process for adoption appli-
cants, 29
Sealed adoption records, 7, 11, 12, 53,
113, 152, 154, 160, 178
Second language learning, 210
Self-concept
adolescent adoptees, 13, 114, 118
adolescents, 114, 203
adoptees, 99, 152, 153, 158, 254
artistic children, 64
black adopted children, 4, 5, 44, 106,
126, 148, 254
black Americans, 194, 211, 245
black children, 189, 202, 204, 208,
215, 221, 222, 238, 242, 246, 248,
251, 254, 259, 264
Canadian study, 247
Chicano children, 246
children with mixed Caucasian-Japa-
nese parentage, 209
Chinese-American children, 216, 217,
219
Chinese children, 242
Filipino children, 230
Head Start trainees, 211
Korean adopted children, 91
Korean-American children, 204
Mexican-Americans, 211, 224, 237
Native American children, 193, 254
sexual role identity among Japanese
and Japanese-American adoles-
cents, 200
white Americans, 211
white children, 208, 209, 219, 221,
224, 238, 242, 246, 254

Sex

children’s perceptions of adult sex
preferences, 223
sexism in children’s books, 269
sexual development of adopted girls,
19
sexual role identity, 189, 200, 202,
217
Single parent adoption, 27, 52, 128,
143, 144
Social attitudes, 225
Social class
and black identity, 245, 251, 259
and child-rearing practices, 253
children’s perceptions of adult sex
preferences, 223
and cognitive development, 220
and intelligence of adopted children,
45, 135

140
and juvenile delinquency, 213
and learning abilities, 218, 266
and parental attitudes, 245
and racial differences, 265
teacher sensitivity to poor children,
249
Socialization
in ambiguity (child lending), 131
of bilingual children, 234
in interracial adoption, 126
by regulatory appeal strategies, 253
Social services, 56. See also Child wel-
fare services
Social workers, 25. See also Adoption
agencies
Sociodemographic characteristics. See
Typology of adoptive parents
South America, adoption in, 37
Spanish-American children
adoption of, 36
learning abilities, 232, 239
Stereotyping, 233
Subsidized Adoption, 8, 60, 61, 71, 177,
178, 185

T

Teachers, 249. See also Education
Teen-age children. See Adolescents
Temperament, 30, 35
Termination of parental rights, 54, 57,
79, 83, 179
Testing
adjustment in transracial adoption,
39
adoption, restoration to natural
mother, and continued institution-
alization, 164
bilingual socialization, 234
black identity, 202, 204, 208, 238,
251
cognitive development of black pre-
school children, 220
cultural background and learning
ability, 218
culture pattern and adolescent be-
havior, 227
effects of adult modeling on black
boys, 207
effects of child-rearing practices, 252
Filipino ethnic awareness, 230

Head Start trainees’ self-concept, 211
interest similarities in adoptive and
biologic families, 66, 67
1Q, social class, and exposure to Eng-
lish, 266
IQ of adopted and biologic children,
129, 132, 133, 135
Japanese-American identity, 209
Korean-American identity, 204
learning abilities, 45, 46, 232
marital adjustment and acceptance of
biracially adopted child, 151
mothers’ perceptions of own
children’s behavior, 263
motivation scores in minority chil-
dren, 190
motivation for transracial adoption,
159
parental attitudes and poverty, 245
political orientation, 260
psychological characteristics of
adopted children, 105, 136
racial attitudes, 244
racial awareness in transracial adop-
tees, 254
racial differences and socioeconomic
status, 265
self-concept of adolescents, 114
sexual role identity, 200, 217
written language performance, 239
See also Cross-cultural studies
Transracial adoption
Asian children, 241
Australian aborigines, 150
bilbiography, 166
black children, 4, 5, 41, 42, 43, 44,
59, 68, 69, 70, 77, 81, 95, 106, 148, ¢
167, 173 ’
black Vietnamese children, 139 \
children’s problems, 165
Chinese children, 124
effect on IQ scores, 132 f
general issues, 88, 143 -
Korean children, 39, 91, 92, 93, 170
and marital adjustment of adoptive
parents, 151 !
Native American children, 6, 36, 55,
161
programs, 130, 142
typology of adoptive parents, 15, 68,
70, 94, 120, 123, 126, 146, 147,
151, 159
Transracial communication, 194
Trauma of adoption, reversibility of, 85

141
Typology of adoptive parents
general issues, 15, 17, 22, 72, 78, 94,
120, 151, 174
transracial adoption, 15, 68, 70, 94,
120, 123, 126, 146, 147, 151, 159

U

Uniform Adoption Act, 54
Unwed fathers, 62, 162, 178
Urban blacks, adoption by, 50

A

Vietnamese children
adoption of, 241
black Vietnamese children, 139
educational needs, 271
Voucher programs, 201

Ww

White Americans
behavior toward black and white
children, 206

child-rearing practices, 253
modeling, 207

perceptions of own children, 263
racial attitudes, 194
self-concept, 211

White children

adolescents, 213, 227

behavior of white adults toward, 206

comprehension of family structure,
261

effects of child-rearing practices on,
252

1Q stability, 226

learning abilities, 232

motivation factor scores, 190

perceptions of adult sex preferences,
223

political orientation, 260

racial attitudes, 244

racial preference, 148, 208, 219, 242,
246, 254

scholastic achievement, 250, 265

self-identity, 209, 221, 224, 238

sexual role identity, 200

social attitudes, 225

standard English usage, 240

Written language performance, 239

@U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1981-352-236/8622

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