OF JUN 81983 ("L OAST RANGES TRATIG RAP HY FERTIARY '5 STUDIES [3 m U GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1213 COVER PHOTOGRAPH of benthic foraminifers from the Bear Creek area, Santa Cruz Mountains Studies in Tertiary Stratigraphy of the California Coast Ranges Edited by EARL E. BRABB GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1213 A series of closely related biostratigraphic studies that define the character, age, and correlation of microfossils from Tertiary rocks of the California Coast Ranges, as a basis for correlating with international stratigraphic standards UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON: 1983 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR JTXDIES (L VVAEF]; secretary GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Dallas L. Peck, Director Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Studies in Tertiary stratigraphy of the CaLifornia Coast Ranges. (GeoLogicaL Survey professional paper ; 1213) BibLiography: p. 78-82 Supt. of Docs. no.: I 19.16:1213 1. GeoLogyr stratigraphic--Tertiary. 2. Stratigraphic correLation-- Coast Ranges. 3. GeoLogy--CaLifornia. I. Brabb, EarL E., 1929- . II. Series: United States. GeologicaL Survey. ProfessionaL Paper‘ 1213. QE691.S78 551.7'8'097941 81-17864 AACR2 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, US. Government Printing Office Washington, DC. 20402 CONTENTS Page Introduction, by Earl E. Brabb 1 Stratigraphy—Continued Regional setting 2 Devils Den area .................................................... Paleogene benthic foraminiferal biostratigraphy and Mount Diablo area paleobathymetry of the central Coast Ranges of San Jose area . ....... California by W. A. Berggren and Jane Aubert .................. 4 Sveadal area . . Abstract 4 Age . . . Introduction ...... 5 Systematic paleontology . Sample material- 5 Locality descriptions Lodo Gulch area 5 San Jose area ........ Foraminiferal biostratigraphy. 6 Sveadal area ............ Paleobathymetry 12 Mount Diablo area Devils Den (aqueduct section) area ........................................................ 13 Devils Den area .. Foraminiferal biostratigraphy 13 Eocene to Miocene calcareous plankton from the Santa Cruz Paleobathymetry 13 Mountains and northern Santa Lucia Range, Santa Cruz Mountains 13 California, by Richard Z. Poore and David Bukry ............ Smith Grade—Empire Grade area 13 Abstract Lompico area ............... 19 Introduction ..... Summary 19 Afro Nuevo section Lower Tertiary nannoplankton biostratigraphy 1n the central Zayante Creek section Coast Ranges of California, by A. D. Warren ....................... . 22 San Lorenzo River section .. . Abstract . 22 Church Creek area . Introduction" 22 Discussion ..................... Devils Den (aqueduct) area ................. 22 Taxonomic notes ................... Lodo Gulch area 29 Calcareous nannofossils .. Media Agua Creek area ..... 32 Locality data ............ Comparison of the three areas- 33 Reference to illustrations of identified coccolith species The Paleogene of California—summary ............. 36 Upper Eocene to lower Miocene benthic foraminifers from Calcareous nannofossil biostratigraphy of the aleogene of the Santa Cruz Mountains area, California, the Santa Cruz Mountains, California by Bilal U Haq 38 by Kristin McDougall . Definition of the Lodo Formation, by Earl E. Brabb ........................ 39 Abstract .. ......... Abstract .......... 39 Introduction ........ Discussion ..................................................... 39 San Lorenzo River section, Large foraminifers of Eocene age from the Coast Ranges Zayante Creek section of California, by Alphonse Blondeau and E. E Brabb 41 Aflo Nuevo section ........ Abstract. . 41 Summary ........ Introduction ............ 41 Reference list of taxa Stratigraphy ...................... 41 References cited ...... Index .............................................................................................. ILLUSTRATIONS [Plates follow index] PLATE 1— 5. Benthic foraminifers from the California Coast Ranges 6. Large foraminifers from California 7. Planktic foraminifers from San Lorenzo Formation 8. Plankticioraminifers from Afro Nuevo and San Lorenzo River sections 9. Calcareous nannofossils from the Santa Cruz Mountains 10— 17. Benthic foraminifers from Santa Cruz Mountains III 61 61 61 62 69 70 72 74 78 83 15915 IV CONTENTS Page FIGURE 1. Map showing natural provinces of California and areas sampled ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ 2 2. Generalized paleogeographic map of California during early Tertiary ................... . .......................................... 3 3. Map showing provinces of California and localities where microfossils were collected .............................................................. 6 4—8. Diagrams showing: 4. Foraminiferal biostratigraphy of Lodo Formation at its type of locality in Lodo Gulch area ...................................... 8 5. Foraminiferal biostratigraphy in Devils Den (aqueduct section) area ................................................................................ 14 6. Foraminiferal biostatigraphy of Locatelli Formation, Smith Grade—Empire Grade area .............................................. 18 7. Foraminiferal biostratigraphy of Butano Sandstone in Lompico area ................................................................................ 20 8. Late Paleocene and early Eocene bathymetric history of Lodo Gulch and Devils Den areas ______________________________________ 21 9. Index map showing nannofossil localities ................................................................................................................................................ 22 10—15. Diagrams showing: 10. Relation between nannoplankton and planktic foraminiferal zones. _________________________ 23 11. Biostratigraphy of aqueduct section, Devils Den area ........................................................................................... 26 12. Biostratigraphy of Lodo Gulch area ........................................................................................ 32 13. Biostratigraphy of Media Aqua Creek area ...................................................................................................................... 34 14. Correlations of benthic foraminiferal stages to nannoplankton zones and subzones, Devils Den, Lodo Gulch, and Media Agua Creek areas ........................................................................................................................ 35 15. Correlation of Paleogene provincial benthic foraminiferal stages and calcareous microplankton zonations ........ 37 16. Geologic map showing Lodo Gulch sections .............................................................................................................................................. 4O 17. Map of San Francisco Bay region showing localities of large foraminifers ..................................................... 43 18. Geologic maps of southern San Jose area showing fossil localities ................................... 44 19. Geologic map and stratigraphic column for Sveadal area ............................................................................................. 45 20. Index map showing location of sections ............................................................................................................................. _. 49 21. Generalized stratigraphic column of Afro Nuevo section ................................................................................................................... 50 22. Diagram showing ranges of calcareous plankton in Afro Nuevo section .......................................................................................... 52 23. Stratigraphic column for north limb of Zayante Creek section ............................................................... 54 24. Stratigraphic column for San Lorenzo River section ................................................................................................................. 55 25. Diagram showing ranges of plankton and zone assignments for San Lorenzo River section. 57 26. Diagram showing lithostratigraphy and biostratigraphy of San Lorenzo River section .............................. ,, 58 27. Map showing areas examined for benthic foraminifers ........................................................................................................................ 62 28—34. Diagrams showing: 28. Stratigraphic relation of samples and benthic foraminiferal stages .................................................................................. 63 29. Age interpretations of San Lorenzo River section ......................................................................................................... 66 30. Stratigraphic distribution of diagnostic benthic foraminifers in San Lorenzo section ........................................ 67 31. Stratigraphic distribution of diagnostic benthic foraminifers in Zayante Creek section... 70 32. Stratigraphic distribution of diagnostic benthic foraminifers in the A50 Nuevo section .................. 70 33. Correlation of measured sections with benthic foraminiferal zones and stages .................................... _. 72 34. Ranges of benthic foraminiferal species ...................................................................................................................................... 73 TABLES Page TABI P. 1. Benthic foraminifers in the type of Lodo Formation, Fresno County, California ............................................................................ 10 2. Benthic foraminifers in the Devils Den (aqueduct) area .......................................................................................... 16 3. Nannoplankton from Devils Den and Lodo Gulch ..................................................................................... _ 30 4. Nannoplankton from the Paleogene of the Santa Cruz Mountains ...................................................................................................... 38 5. Large foraminifers from the California Coast Ranges .............................................................................................................................. 42 6. Coccoliths and resultant zone assignments for the Afio Nuevo section ........................................................................... 51 7. Planktic foraminifers in samples from Afio Nuevo section ...................... 51 8. Coccoliths and zone assignments for the Zayante Creek section .......................... 53 9. Coccoliths and zone assignments for the San Lorenzo River section ............................................................................................ 56 10. Planktic foraminifers and zone assignments for samples in the San Lorenzo River and Kings Creek sections ., . 59 11. Planktic foraminifers and zone assignments for Church Creek Formation, Santa Lucia Range ................................................ 59 12. Benthic foraminifers from the San Lorenzo River section ...................................................................................................................... 64 13. Key to field numbers and sample numbers ........................................................................................................... 67 14. Benthic foraminifers from Zayante Creek section ................................................................................................... 69 15. Benthic foraminifers from the A130 Nuevo area .......................................................................................................................................... 71 STUDIES IN TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY OF THE CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES INTRODUCTION By EARL E. BRABB The correlation of rocks of Paleogene age in Cali- fornia with those in Europe has had a long and complex history that can only be highlighted here. Kleinpell (1938, p. 168—181), in his classic work defin- ing Miocene benthic1 foraminiferal stages of Califor- nia, attempted to correlate faunas of California with those of western Europe and elsewhere. He pointed out that rocks usually considered lower Miocene in California are probably correlative with those con- sidered Oligocene in Europe. Schenck and Childs (1942) correlated the Vaqueros Sandstone of Califor- nia with the middle and upper Oligocene of Europe and elsewhere, based on the stratigraphic occurrence of Lepidocyclina. Their correlation was discussed extensively by a number of paleontologists in the same report. Some favored a Miocene age based on similarities of the Vaqueros molluscan fauna with the Burdigalian faunas of Europe, and on the appar- ent Miocene age of vertebrates from beds below the Vaqueros. Others argued that some of the mollusks in the Vaqueros were similar to those considered Oligocene in Trinidad, and that the percentage of living mollusks in the Vaqueros Sandstone (1—2 percent) was most similar to faunas of Oligocene age. These differences in opinion proved to be irreconcil- able in the attempt by the US. Committee on Stratig- raphy to provide a standard correlation chart for marine Cenozoic formations of western North Amer— ica (Weaver and others, 1944). Two standards had to be provided, one based largely on mollusks, echi- noids, and corals, and the other on benthic foramin- ifers. This dual classification has persisted almost to the present. 1In this report, benthic refers to the seafloor habitat, and benthonic refers to the foraminiferal stages based on benthic organisms. Likewise, planktic organisms, that is, free floaters and weak swimmers, are distinguished from the planktonic zones based on plankton. The validity of some California Tertiary stages based largely on benthic foraminifers has been ques— tioned in recent years. Pierce (1972) and Barron (1976) believed that the Delmontian Stage of Klein- pell (1938), for example, is coeval with the lower and middle part of his Mohnian Stage. Steineck and Gibson (1971), Gibson and Steineck (1972), Schmidt (1975), Bandy (1972) and Bukry, Brabb, and Vedder (1977) stated their belief that probably all of the California Paleocene and Eocene stages of Mallory (1959) are time-transgressive when compared to nan- noplankton and planktonic foraminifer zonations. Hornaday and Philips (1972), on the other hand, challenged some of these opinions. In order to further the study of the relation between California Paleogene stages based on benthic for- aminifers with zonations based on planktic foramin- ifers and nannoplankton, nine paleontologists were invited to examine the faunas from several Coast Range sections measured by Brabb, Clark, and Throckmorton (1977). The results of their investiga— tion were presented orally at a meeting of the Inter- national Subcommission on Paleogene Stratigraphy in Menlo Park, California on October 28, 1977. The talks were preceded by three days of field trips to the measured sections and were followed by a microscope workshop to debate the identification and age of the various faunas. The paleontologists were then encour- aged to submit papers for this volume, and all have graciously complied. Acknowledgments.—Professor Ch. Pomerol of the University of Paris, currently chairman of the» International Subcommission on Paleogene Stratig- raphy, provided the leadership and inspiration for a series of biostratigraphic meetings that began in Paris in 1968, continued in Germany in 1969 and in the Caribbean in 1973, and culminated in the 1977 California meeting. 1 2 STUDIES IN TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY, CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES REGIONAL SETTING The Paleogene faunas described in this report are from the California Coast Ranges (fig. 1). Most are from areas west of the San Andreas fault in the Santa Cruz Mountains of west-central California; a few are from areas east of the San Andreas fault from Mount Diablo to Devils Den. The Paleogene rocks west of the San Andreas fault rest either directly on crystalline metasedimentary and granitic rocks of the Salinian block or on sedimentary strata of Creta- ceous age. East of the San Andreas fault, the Paleo- gene rocks commonly’rest on Jurassic and Creta- ceous strata of the Great Valley sequence, which in turn are faulted against a complex tectonic assem- blage of Mesozoic sedimentary, metamorphic, and b. .' “$3 0° 0... $0.. 09' ....<\’\ 0.. . “VI 0 .0 .0 ‘0 .4 3".) o o o o o c-.——-— . o o a o o o — . . . . . \\ . . . . f I V \ \,\ )l\ \ ‘/ [I \I\ g \/’| a, ~,/-\I,I|\ 1\ mil)“ ’ ‘1 _’\:“>\; 1 \ s I Il‘:l . x z \\ \_/t .1 \ ll J. ‘ \:\ / \l \/\\\I ‘5 W“ /\’,I ’\/ U \ (I I \ \ ‘I i 7' I! ‘d \’/\’\’3 ,/ Ii”: [:1], “1—”: I I \ , 7 ,\ \x / /\\ -\ S ‘\ L ;<’\\ z ,_ 4’), 4:; 71‘. ’/:/\I: /\ 150 200 250 300 KILOMETERS I l l l I I I 50 100 150 MILES o—,—<:: mlANATION MAJOR GEOLOGIC UNITS Volcanic rocks Sedimentary rocks Sedimentary rocks Franciscan assemblage Mainly granitic rocks of Mesozoic age and } sedimentary ultiamafic and metamor- phic volcanic rocks of Paleozoic and Mesozoic age Granitic rocks of Mesozoic age, volcanic rocks of Cenozoic age, Precambrian rocks of all types including coarse» grained intrusive rocks and Paleozoic sedimentary and volcanic rocks, in places strongly metamorphosed AND AND PRECAMBRIAN PALEOZOIC MESOZOIC CENOZOIC PHANEROZOIC MESOZOIC '9 i II 6 = I Q / \ § a T ’_ 9;. \\§ L \ll stP‘U Z,\\ii;=\," 9 § gas”: 9‘IA 5 = ‘ w) ’ \\,¢M\\‘I/UI 3 § — M/xvmxmy‘ggyu a \4\~’\\“/7\,,:\ - J l/\//\ = ’\\\‘ V \\ ll\ 1/4 \—II\//" ”\ ’I*’7 I! . l/ a; \ =‘II:‘§I a s s\‘4 = -. ' § \\ § 4\ II. P \\ \ =/ \\ / ’\ II /I\\ \g // "ME: \\\\\"'="“//\5 ‘0 a”=i\”//\‘F*i r: = 41%,” ¢\\ \‘ §\\”I'§” =0 ”‘ a ’/ 5 =l /,~ gs I/_= \\"//: §’\\="D \\ \\ II =‘\ a?" ‘ a , QE§\\/I\;:’§¢=l/-,’ 7~ \ F IGURE 1.—Natural provinces of California, major geologic units and general location of areas sampled (modified from Hinds, 1952). MD, Mount Diablo; SJ, San Jose; SCM, Santa Cruz Mountains; LG, Lodo Gulch; DD; Devils Den. INTRODUCTION ‘ 3 GAR LOCK FAULT (present trace) I’O/ . / basin LaHonda , fbasin _ ::-\ MO’N _ Sierra>Madre\/\ / /basm)>\‘ : , . / San Rafael (San/ta Ynez / high I basin / / / .. 7 / U 50 100 150 200 250 KILOMETERS I . I . I I I I I J I I I . I I I I 0 SD 100 150 MILES FIGURE 2.-Generalized restoration paleogeographic map of California during early Tertiary, based on restoration of 305 km of late Cenozoic right-lateral slip along the modern San Andreas fault (from Nilsen and Clark, 1975). The present location of the Garlock fault and the following geographic features are included for orientation purposes: SAC, Sacramento; SF, San Francisco; BAK, Bakersfield; MON, Monterey; LA, Los Angeles; SD, San Diego; DD, Devils Den; LG, Lodo Gulch; MD, Mount Diablo; SJ, San Jose; SCM, Santa Cruz Mountains. 4 STUDIES IN TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY, CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES igneous rocks that are commonly referred to by petroleum geologists as Franciscan “basement.” The relation of Franciscan “basement” rocks to the gran- itic basement rocks along which they are juxtaposed by the San Andreas fault has long been one of the most intriguing and complex problems of California geology. A series of lectures edited by Nilsen (1977) gives a synopsis of the problems and some working hypotheses for the tectonic evolution of California during Mesozoic and Cenozoic time. The most signifi- cant concept for the purpose of this report is that the San Andreas and other northwest-trending strike- slip faults have displaced the Paleogene sequences hundreds of kilometers with respect to each other. The Santa Cruz Mountains, for example, were thought by Nilsen and Clark (1975) to have been opposite the Devils Den area, 250 km to the south, during the early Tertiary. The paleogeography of central California during the Paleogene is not well established. Most published analyses are not based on a firm biostratigraphic framework, so that rocks of middle Eocene age in one area may be compared with rocks of late Eocene age in another. There is also a problem with displace- ment of the Paleogene sequences along secondary lateral faults. Although extensive lateral displace— ment along the San Andreas has been considered true since the classic report by Hill and Dibblee (1953), many new lateral faults have been discovered that make paleogeographic reconstructions more complex. Nevertheless, much progress has been made, especially by a few geologists who have at- tempted to apply modern sedimentological concepts to understanding Paleogene depositional patterns. Nilsen (1977) and Dibblee (1977) provided extensive bibliographies listing many of these studies, and they also provided the synthesis that is summarized below. A generalized paleogeographic map of California during the early Tertiary, based on about 300 km of late Cenozoic right-lateral slip (fig. 2), shows that during the Paleogene the region between Devils Den and Mount Diablo was characterized by uplands in the Sierra Nevada, a linear basin in the area of the Great Valley in which a westward-thickening se- quence of marine strata was deposited, islands on the continental borderland that contributed sediments in local areas, and a trench and subduction zone in what is now the Pacific Ocean. The La Honda basin, where all October 1977 field trips took place, was part of a continental borderland, mostly at lower bathyal and abyssal depths with open connections to the ocean. PALEOGENE BENTHIC FORAMINIFERAL BIOSTRATIGRAPHY AND PALEOBATHYMETRY OF THE CENTRAL RANGES OF CALIFORNIA By W. A. BERGGREN‘ and JANE AUBERTZ ABSTRACT Paleogene foraminiferal assemblages of California have been examined from sections in the Lodo Gulch area, Fresno County; the Devils Den (aqueduct) area, Kern County; and the Smith and Empire Grade and Lompico areas, Santa Cruz County. Benthic foraminifers indicate that the Lodo Formation in its type area was deposited during a single sedimentary cycle (lasting about 10 million years) at depths ranging from lower neritic ‘Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Mass, and Brown University, Providence, R. I. 2Soc’iété National ELF-Aquitaine (Production) Centre Micoulau, 6400 Pan, France (somewhat shallower than 200 m) near its base and in its upper part to middle and upper bathyal (about 600 m) in its lower part. The Gredal Shale Member of the Kreyenhagen Formation in the Devils Den (aqueduct) section contains a rich planktic foraminifer- a1 fauna throughout and shows no evidence in its upper part of the neritic fauna present in the upper part of the type Lodo Formation. Middle bathyal depths (below 600 m) are suggested for the lower part of the Gredal and upper bathyal depths (above 600 m) for its upper part. The marked shallowing in these sections in Zone P9 is denoted by the local disappearance or sporadic occurrence of bathyal taxa (such as Nuttallides truempyi) with more extensive stratigraphic ranges elsewhere and coincides closely with a major eustatic sea-level fall recently delineated in seismic stratigraphy. PALEOGENE BENTHIC FORAMINIFERAL BIOSTRATIGRAPHY 5 The faunal assemblages from the Santa Cruz Mountains sec- tions consist of predominantly benthic agglutinated foraminifers (with minor calcareous benthic and planktic foraminifers) which are characteristic of flysch deposits formed at the distal margins of turbidite fans in water depths of 1—2 km. Whereas the calcareous benthic assemblages of the Lodo Formation and Gredal Shale Member in the Devils Den area contain numerous cosmopolitan elements, the agglutinated flysch faunas of these units and those in the Santa Cruz Mountains appear to be less cosmopolitan, that is, they do not appear to be closely related to Paleogene flysch faunas of the Carpathian Mountains of Europe or the North Atlantic. ' INTRODUCTION California contains one of the best developed and representative Paleogene sequences in North Amer- ica. Numerous studies have been devoted to the description of the foraminiferal faunas in this region (Martin, 1943; Israelsky, 1951, 1955; Mallory, 1959, 1970; Sullivan, 1962; Schmidt, 1970, 1975; Stine— meyer, 1976). In connection with the Field Conference on the Paleogene sponsored by the International Commis- sion on Paleogene Stratigraphy (October 1977) we were requested to make a preliminary study of pre- pared samples from four sections that represent a cross section of the California early Paleogene. The sections included: (1) the Lodo Formation at its type locality in the Lodo Gulch area, Fresno County; (2) the Lodo Formation, Avenal Sandstone, and Gredal Shale and lower part of the Point of Rocks Sandstone Members of the Kreyenhagen Formation in the Dev- ils Den (aqueduct section) area, Kern County; (3) the Locatelli Formation in the Smith Grade—Empire Grade area in the Santa Cruz Mountains, Santa Cruz County; and (4) the Butano Sandstone in the Lom— pico area in the Santa Cruz Mountains, Santa Cruz County (fig. 3). The last two areas were visited during the course of the field conference. Within the context of this preliminary analysis we have not been able to recognize and apply the Califor- nia Paleogene foraminiferal stages of Mallory (1959). Mallory’s stages are not time—stratigraphic units at all in the sense prescribed by the American Code of Stratigraphic Nomenclature or the International Stratigraphic Guide. These stages are better charac- terized as loosely defined assemblages of benthic foraminifers (faunules) and, as such, of ecologic rather than chrono-stratigraphic significance. In- deed, the California provincial stages are demonstra- bly time-transgressive (Steineck and Gibson, 1971; Poore, 1976; Bukry and others, 1977; see also Warren, 1977). Details of the stratigraphic sections from which our samples have been collected are presented in Brabb, Clark, and Throckmorton (1977). Acknowledgments.—This paper was presented, in considerably abbreviated form, at the Field Confer- ence on the Paleogene of California held at Menlo Park, Calif. in late October—early November 1977. We thank Earl E. Brabb and Joseph C. Clark (Indiana, Penn.) for providing the sample material upon which the investigation is based. Richard Z. Poore provided the Merle Israelsky foraminiferal collection from the type Lodo Formation on loan, and this proved extremely helpful to us. We thank Francis Saffon for the scanning electron micrographs pre- pared on the Cambridge Mark II instrument in the laboratories of Societe National Elf-Aquitaine (Pro- duction), Pau, France. This investigation is part of a joint project with the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (sponsored by Chevron, Exxon, Marathon, Mobil, and Shell Oil Companies) and Societe National Elf-Aquitaine (Production) devoted to Cenozoic benthic foramini- feral biostratigraphy and ecology. We wish to thank B. U. Haq and R. C. Tjalsma of Woods Hole for discussions on Paleogene stratigraphy and for review- ing the manuscript. SAMPLE MATERIALS Nineteen samples, collected by Earl Brabb and prepared by the US. Geological Survey, have been examined from the type section of the Lodo Forma- tion along Lodo Gulch (section TS, fig. 16 of Brabb, this volume). These samples were supplemented by a cursory examination of the Israelsky (1951) collection of 110 samples from two reference sections less than 1000 m south of Lodo Gulch. Fourteen samples collect- ed by Brabb have been examined from the Lodo Formation and the Gredal Shale, and the Point of Rocks Sandstone Members of the Kreyenhagen For- mation exposed in the Devils Den (aqueduct section) area, some 100 km southeast of the type Lodo. Fourteen samples collected by Earl Brabb and Joseph C. Clark have been examined from the terrig- enous arkosic sandstone and siltstone of the Locatel- li Formation and Butano Sandstone in the Smith Grade-Empire Grade and Lompico areas of the Santa Cruz Mountains. ‘ LODO GULCH AREA The type section of the Lodo Formation at Lodo Gulch (fig. 4) is in the Tumey Hills, Fresno County, on the west side of the San Joaquin Valley. It is one of the most important reference sections for lower Paleogene stratigraphy of California and has been the subject of several studies on foraminifers (Martin, 6 STUDIES IN TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY, CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES GREAT BASIN \ M OJ AV E \ DESERT \ \ ‘/34( I’ ,o (9174’ 8% 4,9 \/ 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 KILOMEIEHS Ch '94 L I I I l I I O 4/0 L I I ‘I I 619 o 50 100 150 MILES SALTO l \ TROU G H / 'J ‘- FIGURE 3.—Physiographic provinces of California and localities where microfossil assemblages were collected. 1, Lodo Gulch; 2, Devils Den; 3, Smith Grade—Empire Grade area; 4, Lompico. PALEOGENE BENTHIC FORAMINIFERAL BIOSTRATIGRAPHY 7 1943; Israelsky, 1951, 1955; Mallory, 1959; Schmidt, 1970) and calcareous nannoplankton (Bramlette and Sullivan, 1961). At its type section the Lodo is approx- imately 360 m thick and is of late Paleocene and early Eocene (planktic foraminiferal Zone P4—P9) age. It is unconformably underlain by the Cretaceous part of the Moreno Shale and is overlain by the Domengine Sandstone of middle Eocene age. Molluscan faunas collected near the base of the Lodo Formation some 700 m northwest of its type section are correlated by Smith (1975) with the Martinez Stage of the provin- cial molluscan standard of Weaver and others (1944), and with mollusks from the Bracheux Sandstone of Paleocene age in the northern Paris Basin. A potas- sium-argon date of 58.5 m.y. (Funnell, 1964, p. 188, item 113) from glauconite in the basal beds of the Lodo Formation provides a minimum age on the Planorotalites pseudomenardii and Heliolithus rie- deli Zones, within which the glauconite is situated (Bramlette and Sullivan, 1961; Schmidt, 1970). Additional details on the geologic and stratigraphic setting of the type Lodo Formation may be found in Israelsky (1951) and Schmidt (1970), and its relation to other Paleogene sections in central California is discussed by Schmidt (1975). FORAMINIFERAL BIOSTRATIGRAPHY The type Lodo Formation has been zoned with the aid of planktic foraminifers by Schmidt (1970), and our examinations have essentially confirmed his find- ings, including the probable presence of a short hiatus (or disconformity) between the Paleocene and Eocene about 50 m above the base of the type section at the Lodo Gulch (fig. 4). We did not find definitive evidence for the presence of Zone P6. The boundary between Zones P8 and P9 has been determined on the basis of the initial appearance of Subbotina inaequi- spira, S. frontosa, S. linaperta and Acarinina densa over the interval of samples 70-72 (Israelsky) and 1231 (Brabb). The top of the Lodo Formation is considered to lie within an interval equivalent to Zone P9, as differentiation between Zones P9 and P10 is often difficult, and planktic foraminifers diminish sharply in the upper 150 m of the type Lodo Forma— tion as a result of shallowing. Over 150 species of calcareous and agglutinated benthic foraminifers have been recorded from the Lodo Gulch section and the nearby Devils Den sec- tion some 100 km southeast of Lodo Gulch. Species of the calcareous genera Anomalinoides, Bulimina, Trifarina, Cibicidoides, and Lenticulina dominate these assemblages. Agglutinated taxa (including Bathysiphon, Rhabdammina, Haplophragmoides, Cyclammina, Karreriella, Dorothia, Silicosigmoilina, and Tritaxilina) occur throughout both sections and at some levels constitute almost the entire foramini- feral assemblage. The distribution of species identified in the Brabb samples in the type Lodo Formation is shown in Table 1. Generalized foraminiferal assemblages are shown in figure 4 based on the more common or characteristic elements occurring over a given strati- graphic interval. It should be borne in mind that these assemblages are based on an examination of only 18 samples collected by Brabb and the more closely spaced samples in the Israelsky collection. Characteristic features of the benthic foraminiferal fauna of the Lodo Formation include the following: 1. There is a sequential influx of new taxa through- out the section. 2. There is a marked faunal change (reduction or disappearance of taxa from below and replace- ment of taxa above) in the interval above 150—100 m below the contact of the Domengine Sandstone and the Lodo Formation (above Israelsky sample 70 and Brabb sample 1231). Planktic foraminifers (particularly the angulo—conical morozovellids) exhibit a marked reduction over this interval as well and become rarer toward the upper part of the Lodo Formation. 3. An essentially threefold faunal subdivision can be made (from bottom to top): (1) The lower 15 m (approx.) contains a fauna similar to that in the Midway Group, including Cibicidoides alleni, Osangularia plummerae, Anomalinoides danica rubiginosa, and species of Silicosigmoilina, Spiro- plectammina, Clavulinoides, and Ammodiscus. This interval corresponds essentially to Zone P4 and Israelsky samples 3—11. This interval is below the lowest sample (1251C) collected by Brabb, which is stratigraphically located between Israel- sky samples 13 and 14. (2) The interval from about 15 m to 200 m, between Israelsky samples 12 to 70, contains an assemblage characterized or domin- ated by various bulminids, anomalinids, osangu- lariids, aragonids, Nuttallides truempyi, Bathy- siphon, Rhabdammina, Cyclammina, Silcosigmoil— ina, and Clavulinoides. This interval corresponds essentially to Zones P5—P8. (3) The upper 175 m contains an assemblage characterized by various small cibicidids, anomalinids, bolivinids, Florilus florinense, Uvigerina elongata, Eponides primus, Cyclammina, and Trochammina. This interval presumably corresponds to Zone P9, although planktic foraminifers are sparse or rare over this interval. STUDIES IN TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY, CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES z E c E gugg RANGE OF SELECTED v < .1060 LITHOLOGY AND SAMPLE NUMBER BENTHIC FORAMINIFERS a: E I— 2 2 E 2 (“A 5 8 g 2 E |u.-_.u < 2 2 >0) u.| m 8 < -— . e 2 ‘1’ Sections A and TS x N E g EXPLANATION g m3 ‘1: 5 w e E E g 8 8 0 " :110 Claystone E 103 E Calcareous claystone Siltstone — 94 —— 74CB1221B 93 — _ (92), 91 _ 74CB1222A Sandstone 100 — 89 _ _ :2 E 85 _ W a g g g _ _i_ __ 84 Greensand ' 8 E N ,8 _4_ __ _ E c .. 83— — —“_1 S o 8 4°: g, E L: _‘— 82 g E? % § gig 3;:—_L_—=80 gSé .3 3°?) 1—‘_—_ 78 u E ° Q ‘5 g 0 c 77-' —‘_: 3 {SE 8 o ‘6 ~E .9 .—_._—‘-_—— 76 -~ 1': = c 75 é v1 .. 75-4.__—:74 35.8: .s 56: w ::-— 74CB1221E E ,3 § .§ § E 73 —:_—_._._—_ E Z: 3; E E E 71_:__—L_T;72 74ce1231 g — ——-— —— 70 o 69 -:.—‘-—;——~: § 3 :—_L—_‘ E _l _. __ _.. c 200 — 67 _:_._—‘-_*—6 74CB1231A, 74CB1221G g _:2— e = 65 _:.—L _—_— 74CB1231B n3 1:—— 74CB1221H 63 _:_L—_—_— 74CB1231C 5...:— 74CB1231D 6“}firsg4cs122u 59 “1 :i— 53 57 —:-:_u—‘-_— 74CB1231E 55 —‘ _‘—-_“ 56 T __‘.— 54, 74CB1231F 53 ‘I‘:"_‘— 52 E 23 ::..—‘__-——5° 74CB1231G 2 4s m _g B .s is 300 — E 20 18 17- 15 ___..._.:—1415 74CB1251D a 2 13 _—‘-. _ 74CB1251C § 2 11 — I W: (I) 9 c 2 z .2 E 9 366 — 5 a g 3 Moreno g5 Shale FIGURE 4.—Foraminiferal biostratigraphy and paleobathymetry of the Lodo Formation at its type locality in the Lodo Gulch area. The upper part of the section was sampled (small numbers) by Israelsky (1951, pl. 1, section A) along the first gulch south of Lodo Gulch. Samples collected by E. E. Brabb (74C31221B and others) are projected into this section from the type section of the Lodo Formation along Lodo Gulch. (section TS). The lower part of the section was measured (small PALEOGENE BENTHIC FORAMINIFERAL BIOSTRATIGRAPHY S 'm lectamminas . PALEOBATHYMETRY, BENTHIC FORAMINIFERAL ASSEMBLAGE 'N METERS PLANKTONIC WEST COAST NER'T'C BATHYAL FORAMI- EUROPEAN STAGES SERIES ulqu] UPPER | LOWER NIFERAL STAGE (MALLORY, AGGLUTINATED CALCAREOUS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ZONE 1959’ I I I I I | I I I Anomalinoides acutus Osangulan'a tenuioan'natq Epom'des prI'mus . Boliuina crenulata C yclammIna Bulimina whitei Flofllus flon'nense Uuigen'na elongate Trochammina Eponides pn'mus S Bulimina whitei lg ______________ Bolivina crenulata % _ f’grihe flafiflinie _______ Hoeglundina eocem'ca Anomalinoides acutus Bulimina whitei BolIvI'na crenulata Cibicidoides felix Clavulinoides _ ETTTIL'ISPTF _ : _ 5 _____ califomlcus Siphonina wilcoxensis a) Anomalinoides acutus _ __________ c Osan lan'a tenuican‘nara I 8 I§erz°3"_"'r_'w_"a°:°____l 3 z Osangulan'a tenuican'nata E 0 Vemeuih'na Ara nI'a ara nensis 8 I hiangulam 9° 9° , a m Loxostomoides applmae >- ; Spiroloculina lamposa >' c I e ,. E < —————————————————————————————— a 33 m Sniroplectammina Bulimina callahani nchardI Bulimina trinitatensis Anomalinoides aragonensis -------------- Cibicidoides fortunatus . Aragom'a aragonensis Gauolryma . Lomstomoides applim' c coalmgenSIs Osangularla tenuican'nata .g Tnfaflna caliform'ca E Spiroloculina lamposa m ~55LE7§EE FalTo—mi—cJ—s ‘ __ _N;u;lfid;?ru_a_nfin_ ______ gauldryimix coalingensis gsangzlarialdtenuicarinam Unconformity 7 ycamm na simiensis nom I’no’ as acutus A Ammodiscus glabratus Trifan'na califomica ““7"“ 7"” " ‘ 7‘ ”V‘7 W 7M7~I~ SIIIcosIgmoIIIna can omica —¢Ig¢algngt‘ry_eoge11iga_ _ __ _ .x‘ 8 * 'sfioEsfigfiofiiiaEJIEnficz _ Pleurostomella paleocenica c g rALnLngdLscLJSJIgblaiui rlfarina calI'fomica .g c q, ‘ em , , — “““““““ “ a: g E I (5?“ na'ZZ'Ai'SI-«l; \— I’Anomah‘noides danica rubiginosa\\ 5 E “- Amm iscus glabratus _/ Osangulan'a plummerae \_ FE C u, R. __EV_‘."11".'_'"L"’_5‘_’1‘L‘"i".f Epom'da heme" > is " Doroth' lod ‘ ’_'_TT.__.’___._ ______ \\ cmlulifi‘gigfcgfmflt -l ClblCIdOldes alien! DID-g _Sllioosigmolflna call/omica 2 _ U sample numbers) by Israelsky (1951, pl. 1, section B) along a small gulch about 300 m south of the mouth of Lodo Gulch. Samples collected by E. E. Brabb (74CB1251D and others) in this section are projected from still another section about 700 m north of Lodo Gulch. (section C). The location of all these sections is shown on figure 16 of Brabb (this volume). 10 TABLE 1,—Benthic foraminifers in the type Lodo Formation, Lodo Gulch, Fresno County, California STUDIES IN TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY, CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES uoueuozogq [Ela}!u!u1910} agmueld 0‘ D. |P8 P5 AHOTIVW 010MB 6‘ DunsopoN HOHDHO 78 NVWHSnO DOIUJOIHDD Duygowsgsooms- VNNVH 7g NVWHSOO sgsuafiuynoo 'H 'p sapyowfiquoldnH (HHHHVd ’8 NVWHSOC) SHIQDJSUH ‘ds ougwyng (NILHVW) #11ququ nuaquyng (.LLEIHEIVE) 78 NVWHSOOI SISUBXODIW DUHBBOIHEUV 88038 gplnma nynsopoN MIST-IVES] ~8 'dS UquISfiqmg INVWHSOO) mnwmno nuynugfimw NIlHVW .Ialmm DVD/nagpumfopald INVWHSOO) awawwnld nuawozsoms VNNVH 78 NVWHSOO DJDJBWDDOJOO ‘JBA Igunpzos DUIPIOME) WVG N31 Dildsmaiq Dug/mun; AHOTIVW mnlonuoa '19A :21an nuaugwyng NVWHSDC) DJDUDldISDq Duymuaa ABHHOW 78 AVMOTIVE) Iunqnuna Dugwglng SIAHVI’ 78 NVWHSDO Muuad 'V ‘}3 snosgpouuuv ‘dds sapgowb‘quo’dnH AXS'IEIVHSI sapyonauoguou 'H 'p sapgowBDJqdolde ANS-31880? moulds vuamuaa (HHOVLS) 0105,1415an Duglnwaa (NllE-IVW) ISPMD DuauynnlnA 'ds nugwynqoqols NVWHSOO Slsuamuum Dugwung HEDIHVd ’8 NVWHSnC) muanoow nugwyng 224an838 78 HEIHHVd SUBPUQdW! DUIWIIHH SfldOEIIS 78 NVWHSOO DWISSIJJHD Duywung (NIIHVW) SUP"! Sapyouynwouv (TIVLLDN) sysuauob‘mo sapgouyowouv x003 we), nuolnogpuoxjopald (AHOTIVW U!) SISUQADMPIW Dunnoyuaj ANDISHO‘P 01000 ougwyng (Nuavw) SIWOJIpIuoda sapzoquo DIS'IEIVHSI D3I11U93X3 DILIJOJOG (HHWWI’I'Id) “3119‘" 59PIOUIIDWOUV NILHVW prmpu nugwwmaaldondg AHOTIVW snoguxo/yva sapgouynnnlg SMNVE‘H ”WEI/3301 ‘9 'p Dugtixpnog Nliavw Mam»: ‘p S!sd0uynu;SpA (TIVLLnN) deaml sapmnunN 'IEISIMIO DJDBHIBJD/ DunsopoN aagvMHQS naugpunm nyosopoN (NILHVW) snmunuo; Sapgopyogqgo $5033 Sapgoxpuyrio sapgonawozsonqg $039318 ’8 NVWHSDD WIUBOOQ muaund ($8038) SmDUqun suvsxoPuo VNNVH 78 NVWHSDO DDIU3309 DUIWWDPQD'IH SHJOEIIS 78 NVWHSDO 011m ouynnlnA (TIOW 78 'IZ-ILHDH) xenon vunnanua7 INLLHVW) Jazwm saplopgogqlo (HEWWQ'Id) smnov sapgouunwouv 'ds Dugumqnlv )IOOI) DIDInfiunm numnauxaA AHOTIVW mmawooonow ougfixpnog NEDLLNVH nwnnqqns ouynuyfimw 'ds nuynpunlfiomag 'dds vuymuaa NIIHVW 30!?!I9P DIJDSOPON ‘dds ouynanuaj IMDEVWV'I) 0101mm nuynoyuaj I'IEISWI‘IO) anquyomIo Duynaguaj (MOI-18) é Haavam ouunayuaq (3—103) Dqunoopnasd nuunauua'] (3103) xauonopnasd ouynagua—I VNNVH 73 NVWHSQQ msoagpnu 121‘ vunonaw sgsdouynugSDA AHO‘I'IVW Doyluofgloa um vuanpn Dugmjyl (EIHOVISI llmldll’DSOJ/TE ‘7 'p nuunonuaq NHZLOHQ Dwauna 'v we vuyafiolnsuv INILHVW) was): sapgouvaouv (NIIHVW) vaaq '3 'p sapgoppgqgo 310:) 01an DUIIHOIJUB'] (HDIEIWEI 78 'IEIMIHOOI Mile: ‘7 '13 DUHHDIJUB'I 'ds sapguodg (ANOIQHO‘PI DUDHDSuDd Duywoasgdg AHOTIVW S.‘Sllal'illllfloa Jen s;suauos>pn_{ pugdxpnng) INVWHSQD) Ssuzfimqmm Duyvflg vl III ?| ?L?I I ?I IIII 9||I| I I I I IJIII I I I |IIII9I ?I IIII ||||||IIIIIIIIII |I|I I | IIII I III cfvl SlaflquEJO} 3gq1uag saldwes qqexg '3 1214B 1221 1222 12213 1222A 1221E 1231 1231A 12216 12313 1221H 1231C 1231D 1221J 1231E 1231F 12316 1251D 1251C TABLE 1,—Benthic foraminifers in the type Lodo Formation, Lodo Gulch, Fresno County—Continued PALEOGENE BENTHIC FORAMINIFERAL BIOSTRATIGRAPHY 11 uoueuozogq [exanugwmq amueld 0‘ 9- P8 P5 )IOOC) 519“?“193! 93P!D!Q!D 5111ng snwyd sapwodg HHOVLS wnpoduuv '7 'p vuynauua-I 'ds 011213553 310:) ”39511013 'M '13 0112113110}; HHDVMHOS snyosmaamd -:> '13? sappgqgg AHSSI‘IH Dsodwnl Dunnooloudg NVWHSQQ sysuauosapvf Duyuoqdyg x003 sgsualopaJB ouawozsomald (Enos) 3.18%qu]! snluoL-I 8039318 78 NVWHSDO .1310? ”WWW“. ssnag msoognon ouafio'l 8039315 ’8 NVWHSOO 0105mm? vugwynfl Nuuvw xual sapmqo EGDWHBH ’8 NVWHSOD 091U39°3 DIIBNJOUHJDW ‘ds ngqamoa SfHOC-JIS 78 NVWHSQO ”(011W DullDflQ NVWHSDD DJDUDId 'IEA ANDIQHO‘P suolnagqm nugpng (V1803) 03“"P0 WWWBJDW (138W09) Slsuafilaqum’l DUHBUBBOPON (HHOVMHOS) Wind?! DuuauafiomN NVAI'I'InS a WWW vuvlnomumiozaazd NNVWEINHOQ vwauumnw ‘0 '13 ouumuaa $039318 ’8 NVWHsno maul?! Duwdlowmdwv NI'IddV 78 NVWHSDC) 5!SU9UOS>IDD{ ouymuag EI'IVGSXHVQ ’8 NVWHSDZ) SISUBZBUWDW SBPPWD AHO’I’IVW avoqosys Duynugfimw ANOIHEO‘P M1015 DwmwBva NVWHSDO WWW-”Mm Duymuaa (ANDIQHOP) swnwwoa Duumuaa (138M109) 0113501 Duumnua'I 13810109 DUDDU'W ‘d ‘}D Dylvlnunld M003 yum)! ’IBA vunogxaw sysdouynuyfivA 'ds ougpun/SaoH NEDLLNVH omen 'd 'p ouawozsomald CICIOJ. 78 NVWHSDZ) 519U3l03149" DHDIHOWUOJJ AMS’IHVUSI nomuaaxa nngwoa (ANDISHO‘P) meow Duunanuaq NVWHSQQ ”sysuaDOJOD“ sappgqgo NEDUNVH 99001015 Duunpwsng (aawwma) 3NBUPJDB 'w 'p nuynufimw $8038 5.1111!!!) vunscpoN NILHVW 31811301001 sapguodg 'ds oumyog (NILHVW) Snwaq semapyolqgg NILHVW 1131mm: DUQSD'I MVHEIZH x0110] 01121.10}; (aawwmd) muofiala Duyofig AHOTIVW swuauom Duywwvaoaldoxgds (6961 AHOTIVW) ‘ds vuauunnlvA 'ds ouynpunlg ('I'IVLLON) sgsuauoSmn muoSmV 8039318 ’8 NVWHSDD mnuynamua; WOMBWSO AHOTWW avwoygw 'JBA sysuaopol ouyaflmn AHO'UVW nayuxofyoo ~1va naoaydxa nugayog 8039318 78 NVWHSOO sguqunsswa DUHBEWISV (AHOTIVW) 0193417“! ‘IPA (3102)) 011.1182 vuioxuasmj NVWHSFD 5!$U3X03l!m Duyuoqd;g NVWHSDZ) naguaooalnd 'd 'p ouawozsomald ($8038) sapgoumdmwouo WWIIMIDA (11VLLQN) sguuofymadsn sgsdouynugfioA AHHHOW ’8 AVMOTIVO snwzoundouds sappgqgo NILHVW SilquP WWHHQ NLLHVW mmm Duywyng (80:19318 78 NVWHSDD) smdasgssmo ”WOUNDWOUV (HHWWO‘Id) WWW“: Dunnouuaj 310;) mnfiuola ouyafimn .LLHHHVD 78 NVWHSOD 5151131111"?le Duyafimn (HHWWD'Id) aouyddn sapgowozsoxo'l SHELLVM 7g NVWHSOZ) snmaoaxa sapgowb‘quoldoH (6961 AHO'I’IVW U!) ‘dS 011913583 A8838 sysuagwgs ouwwppdg VNNVH 78 NVWHSQD 9"9!U39°3 uoqdysfiqmg (ANS—IHVHSI) 115 ””35909 SSOEIH mongmddn vuymuaa 9| 9| l J loll ?II ?I llIIII Illl Illlllllll ?| Illlillll EXPIANATION I Rare I Freq uent I Common sxauugmexo; 3119an saldwes qqmg '3 1214B 1221 1222 12218 1222A 1221E 1231 1231A 12216 12318 1221H 1231C 12310 1 1221J I'll] 1231E __J 1231F 12316 1251D 1251C 12 STUDIES IN TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY, CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES PALEOBATHYMETRY Strict interpretation of Paleogene paleobathymetry based on analogy with present-day faunal counter- parts is unreliable in View of demonstrable differ- ences in distributional patterns (Lohmann and Tjalsma, 1975; Tjalsma and Lohmann, 1975) and water mass structure (Douglas and Savin, 1973; Boersma and Shackleton, 1977). Nevertheless, local and regional geologic information, distribution pat- terns of taxa with geophysically controlled paleobathy- metry (Sclater and others, 1971; Berger, 1973), and distribution of associated faunal elements with a presumed stable ecology can be combined to allow a reasonable paleodepth estimate of special faunal associations. We interpret the paleobathymetric history of the type Lodo Formation in terms of a single sedimen- tary cycle in which the middle part of the formation (corresponding to Zones P5 to P8) was deposited at middle to upper bathyal depths (about 600 m), where- as the lower (Zone P4) and upper (Zone P9) parts were deposited near the neritic-bathyal boundary (above 200 m). The following line of reasoning has been used. 1. Faunas from the Midway Group have been shown (Berggren and Aubert, 1975) to represent a cosmo- politan fauna formed at neritic depths. An associa- tion of some Midway elements with somewhat deeper water elements is seen at depths interpret- ed as upper-middle bathyal in Tunisia (Aubert and Berggren, 1975) and Bavaria (Hillebrandt, 1962), but these elements are not observed in the lower (Zone P4) part of the type Lodo Formation. 2. In the succeeding 150 m (Israelsky samples 13 to 63; Brabb samples 1251C to 1231C, fig. 4) a number of forms appear that are restricted to this interval but which have longer stratigraphic ranges in lower bathyal-abyssal deposits in the ocean (R. C. Tjalsma, oral commun., 1977). These include Bulimina trinitatensis, Nuttallides truempyi, Anomalinoides aragonensis, Buliminella grata, Bulimina callahani (=orphanensis), Anomalina crassisepta, and Asterigerina crassaformis. In addition several species of the agglutinated genera Rhabdammina, Bathysiphon, and Cyclam- mina, normally associated with bathyal depos— its, appear within this interval as well. For example, Nuttallides truempyi is one of the dominant lower bathyal-abyssal taxa with an age range of Late Cretaceous (Maestrichtian) to latest Eocene (Laughton and others, 1972; Douglas, 1973; R. C. Tjalsma, oral commun., 1977). Its upper depth limit is not known with certainty, but it occurs in the late Eocene at DSDP (Deep Sea Drilling Project) Site 1 16 in middle bathyal depths (above 1000 m; Laughton and others, 1972). It does not occur in neritic (Midway type) faunas, and thus we suggest an upper depth limit of 500—600 m for this taxon, between upper and middle bathyal depths. Bulimina callahani (=orphanensis) has a stratigraphic range from Zones P6a to P8 (R. C. Tjalsma, oral commun., 1977; Berggren and Aubert, 1976) in oceanic sediments yet is essential- ly restricted to the upper half of Zone P8 in the type Lodo Formation. At Orphan Knoll (DSDP Site 111), B. callahani (= orphanensis) occurs in the lower Eocene with faunas from depths of more than 1 km. As with Nuttallides truempyi, its upper depth limit is suggested to lie near the upper- middle bathyal boundary (500—600 In). Upward shallowing is suggested by the nearly simulta- neous local termination or disappearance of these taxa in the middle part of the section about 190 m above the base (175 m below the top) of the Lodo Formation at a level that corresponds closely to the planktic foraminiferal Zone P8—P9 boundary (characterized by the initial appearance of Sub- botina frontosa = S. boweri, S. linaperta, S. inaequispira, and Acarinina densa) and their replacement by shallower water forms (cibicids, bolivinids, eponidids, Florilus, Valuulineria, and hispid uvigerinids of the elongata group character- istic of neritic depths: 50—200 m; Boersma, 1974). 3. A preliminary examination of the ostracode fauna in the Israelsky collections by R. H. Benson (Smith- sonian Institution, written commun., 1977) indicates the presence of Trachyleberidea and Cytherella, both typical of bathyal deposits, Argilloecia, and some allochthonous specimen of Loxoconcha. Krithe (with markedly open vesti- bule) suggests that oxygen ranged between 4.5 and 5.5 ml/l. Very small eye tubercles present on an Actinocythereis-like form suggest (to Benson) water depths not in excess of 600—800 in, in good accord with estimates made above. The presence of cyclamminids and Bathysiphon to the top of the type Lodo Formation at depths interpreted from other faunal evidence to have been near the shelf-slope break (about 200 In) suggest that the upper depth limits of these agglutinated benthic foraminiferal faunas were somewhat shallower dur- ing the Paleogene than during the Neogene and present day, perhaps because of the lack of a pronounced thermocline during this time. PALEOGENE BENTHIC FORAMINIFERAL BIOSTRATIGRAPHY 13 DEVILS DEN (AQUEDUCT SECTION AREA) The aqueduct section in the Devils Den area is located in Kern County some 100 km southeast of Lodo Gulch (fig. 3). Several hundred meters of Creta- ceous, Paleocene, and Eocene strata are exposed there (Brabb and others, 1977, fig. 37), of which only a part (fig. 5) has been selected for study. Our prelim- inary examination of the planktic foraminiferal fauna suggests that the sequence studied spans Zones P5 to P9 and may include P10. Zones P5 to P6 are represented only in a fault-bounded part of the Lodo Formation. Warren (1977) reported the presence of the calcare- ous nannoplankton Tribrachiatus orthostylus (NP12) to Nannotetrina quadrata (NP15) Zones in the aqueduct section. The presence of the Discoaster lodoensis (NP13) and D. sublodoensis (NP14) Zones in the lower part of the Gredal Shale Member of the Kreyenhagen Formation supports our assignment of this same interval to planktic foraminiferal Zones P8 and P9 (see also Wise and Constans, 1976). The upper 40-50 m of the Gredal Shale Member was placed by Warren in the Nannotetrina quadrata (NP15) Zone of middle Eocene age. In summary, the sequence studied in the aqueduct section of Devils Den is correlative with most of the type Lodo Formation. Planktic foraminifers (particularly acarininids and anguloconical morozovellids) are abundant and well preserved throughout the aqueduct section, in con- trast to those in the Lodo Gulch area. FORAMINIFERAL BIOSTRATIGRAPHY The benthic foraminiferal taxa recorded from the Devils Den (aqueduct section) area (table 2), form the basis for the assemblage subdivision shown in figure 5. The basic features of the assemblages that should be noted are as follows: 1. Faunal elements similar to those from the Midway Group are absent at the base of the sequence studied, that is, in the lowest beds of the Lodo Formation, whereas the Florilus—Eponides— Uvigerina assemblage is absent at the top. 2. The assemblages are nearly identical with those present in the middle part of the type Lodo For- mation at Lodo Gulch (Nuttallides truempyi, buliminids, osangulariids, anomalinids, cyclam- minids, Tritaxilina, Rhabdammina, Bathysiphon). 3. Several of the taxa that disappear near the bound- ary between Zones P8 and P9 in the Lodo Gulch area appear to range well into Zone P9 in the Devils Den (aqueduct section) area (N. truempyi, Anomalinoides crassiseptus, Asterigerina crassa- formis). 4. The upper part of the aqueduct section contains a fauna composed primarily of elements that range through a major part of the section: Rhabdam- mina eocenica, Bathysiphon eocenicus, Cyclam- mina simiensis, Haplophragmoides sp. cf. H. eggeri, H. excavatus, Tritaxilina colei, T. principiensis, Karreriella mediagucwnsis, Plectina cubensis, Anomalinoides crassiseptus, Cibicidoides fortun- atus, Lenticulina spp. PALEOBATHYMETRY The similarity of faunas in the aqueduct section with those in the Lodo Gulch area suggests similar water depths. The fact that some of the bathyal taxa (Nuttalides truempyi) range into Zone NP14 (equiv- alent to P9) and some (Anomalinoides crassiseptus, Asterigerina crassaformis) as high as NP15 (equiv- alent to P10) suggests that water depths were greater in the Devils Den area than in the Lodo Gulch area and that the shallowing near the boundary between Zones P8 and P9 in the Lodo Gulch area occurs within Zone P9 in the Devils Den area. The shallow- ing eliminated some of the taxa. Other taxa, however, persisted because the water depth was still well within their upper depth limit. It should be noted that Bulimina callahani (= Bulimina orphanensis) disap- pears near the boundary between Zones P8 and P9 in the Devils Den area as in the Lodo Gulch area, an apparent example of an evolutionary extinction as opposed to bathymetrically controlled local disappear- ance. A middle bathyal depth (below 600 m) is sug- gested for the Lodo Formation and lower part of the Gredal Shale Member in the Devils Den section, an upper bathyal depth (above 600 m) for the upper 40—50 m of the Gredal Shale Member, above the disappearance of N. truempyi. SANTA CRUZ MOUNTAINS Fourteen samples have been examined from the terrigenous arkosic sandstone and siltstone of the Locatelli Formation and the Butano Sandstone in the Smith Grade-Empire Grade and Lompico areas, respectively, of the Santa Cruz Mountains. SMITH GRADE—EMPIRE GRADE AREA The seven samples examined from the Locatelli Formation (Paleocene) span a stratigraphic interval of approximately 250 m (fig. 6). STUDIES IN TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY, CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES SCALE, IN METERS LITHOLOGY AND E. E. BRABB RANGE OF SELECTED SAMPLE NUMBERS BENTHIC FORAMINIFERAL TAXA FORMATION M EMBER Several hundred meters of covered section. Point of Rocks Sandstone estimated to be about 700 m thick Covered — 200 Massrve sandstone, minor shale Anomalinoida crussiseptus 74CB1291A- Asterigerina crassaformis 74CB1291— I Point of Rocks Sandstone Member (lower part) Greenish-gray siltstone 74CB1281M— _ Kreyenhagen Formation Nuttallides tmempyi Silicosigmoilina califomioa Oridorsalis umbonatus — Osangulan'a mexicana , Prominent sandstone bed Greenish—gray siltstone and mudstone Contorted beds laced with GYPSUM Greenish-gray siltstone, minor sandstone 74CB1281L- '~ Tnfan’na califomica 74C81281K-. - 100 Anomalinoides aragonensis Buliminella grate uar. conuoluta 74C31281J- ____.._-_____———————-—- Bulimina trinitatensis 30 cm glauconitic sandstone Gredal Shale Member 24 cm glauconitic sandstone Red and green siltstone, some sandstone 74C31281E—: I——Red beds—l Avenal Sandstone 76CB1633— _ 0 74C3128‘lD‘ — Bulimina callahani Spiroglyphus and Discocydina ‘ in glauconitic sandstone FAULT (Avenal Sandstone) Lodo ormatron \l A o E N 2 i SECTION REPEATED lHllll' FIGURE 5.-—-Foraminiferal biostratigraphy and paleobathymetry of the Devils Den (aqueduct section) area. l E Red and green siltstone Glauconitic sandstone 74CB1281 Kreyenhagen Formation Red and green siltstone 74C312 few sandstone beds Red beds—I some red siltstone, several thin sandstone beds Spiroglyphus and Discocyclina Greenish—gray siltstone Covered Glauconitic sandstone and siltstone Gredal Shale Member Mostly greenish-gray siltstonjl Avenal Formation Sandstone (upper part) 74CB1 Lodo PALEOGENE BENTHIC FORAMINIFERAL BIOSTRATIGRAPHY uoueuozogq [exanuywmq omueld ?P10 P5—P6 no 9‘ TABLE 2.——Benthic foraminifers in the Devils Den (aqueduct) area, Kern. County, California—Continued (VNNVH) Wop '3 ‘p ougwwnpfig (EHOVLS) Dpodnuv vuunauua'z AHOTIVW sgsuauofaa oumwomaldong 80:19318 ’8 NVWHSDC) 51““01995013 DUU35H31$V NVINHSDO DWUDIdJSDq DWIDluaa HEIMHVd ’8 NVWHSfiD WOOD-‘1"? DWWHHQ (MVHHZH) Dwapfiwvd saplopqo TIVLLnN ,Ialopswufi sappqu) AHHHOW ’8 AVMOTIVD SWOIDSW DUMHOQ AHOTIVW ”palm“! 'JEA ouuaz Duyoxuasmj (A8011VW U!) 'ds ”DuawznaID/xu 8039318 78 vaHsnD Slsuavzwfi nun/nalpumfoaoad NVWHSOD $19qu ';a samnapqowwv (x003) guJax 19/1 ouvagxaw sgsdouynufivA ((1001 ’8 NVWHSOO) msnfiun 'xea nqolanbuynb nyuaund SHBLVM ’8 NVINHSOO SNOW-”’3‘? SSPWWSWWOIWH (NEIMLNVH) ”50‘1015 “EA nqqyfi DUHWOIQ MNOIQHO‘P) "WW/0P" DUMWBBOPON NM'InOJ. mop sapzuoda 'ds sapgowoasoqug HOHDHZ) ’8 NVWHSnI) WWW!!!” DU!I!0W5!909!I!S‘ (80:19318 ’8 NVWHSDD) snidasFSW? 93P!0U!IDW0UV (ZEGfiWHC-IS ’8 HHW'IVd) $19015 WUSOPOUOHd!S (aawwmd) DJDUMJHJ ‘7 ‘p nuynauua'] HHMHVd ’8 NVWHSOD WWSWSUOG DUMHHQ ‘ ‘ds sgsdouynugfioA VNNVH >3 NVWHSDD snunsoaypnu 'JEA ounayxam sgsdouynULBDA sndoals ’8 NVWHSOO Slsualmvfi levwouv (8039315 ’8 NVWHSI’D) HIDWW ’d 'P DII3W°15°m91d ZEIGnWHElH ’8' NVWHsni) S!Sua!d!3lmd 011410100 SEFLVEI mamnqnz IPA Dwmaxqqo vuyafiolnSuV 'ds sapwnawozsomo (L ‘nou 'ds sapguodg (NI-ISSV'JD ’8 WVHVHD U!) '9 'dS ”P191110 HMOH sgsuaoynnw ‘3 'p nugpmqgg (HOHnHD) WOW Duymuua'l NVWHSOO fisuauwpv! 's )3 Dwuoqdzs (COOL ’8 NVWHsnO) vuvfivmmw Dyvlnfiuoso NVWHSQQ spuaoosnlan 'N "a DstOpoN NVWHSDD ooguaaoalod ouawoasomald ‘ds ”nuluas‘mnoaz” a (NILHVW) was)! saplouuvwouv (NNVWEINHOQ) suaSJanuoa '7 'p ouunouuaj NVWHSOO 0305“” 'N 'P DIIWOWON 'ds ouguongs 'ds manquomuog (aawwmd) Wall” ”PWPDWD 3103 mnfiuola DuuaSgnn NVWHSf‘D “Fall!!! '9 ‘p Dugwyng 'ds ougwyng 8802-18 ”WEI-"DI DunanID (TIVLLDN) WWW“? '3 ’99 ”EDMOND AHOTIVW WWII—‘33! 53!!”qu ZHanaflg 73 NVWHSDO sgsuaqna 'JEA sysuauozvln nuawozsomald NVWHSHD sysuaxoanm Duyuongs AHOTIVW nogwofyoa 'xeA Duanpn vuuuly J. VNNVH ’8 NVWHSOZJ 01013111030190 ‘JEA Hunplos Dugpgmfio HHlSVW ’8 NVWHSOD monbyqo ‘JQA sunlnogqm nugpgoMg NVWHSQQ nwgugw sapyuodg (NOlNOd ’8 NVWHSDO) sysuaxoo/ym 'V 'P DUHBSOIYIEUV NVWHSOD swuafimqspm "Woks HBXHVd suapuadw; Dugwyng NVAITIDS ”mull“ DHDInoypumJopald M339 madman Dumyog Ago-[‘jvw 01111130] 'IEA DJDJSGQWJBS nugwyng AHOTIVW oagmofilm 0112108609 1381/1119 WWW”! DHDIHUDId 3103 mm vuunmua-l (213 OVMHOS) wnpydal DuyauaSOpoN 1agwng sysuafixaquassany DuuauafiopoN NVWHSOO nuupomnnu 'y 'p nuunwng 'dds Dugwwnqoououog EGOWHEIH ’8 NVNHSnC) SW34”? WWld NVWHSnD oayuvuuafi nymmaa AHOTIVW 5!SUBJuawnuow ouauaun); SHNOI‘ ’8 HHMHVd sammvuv DJ!d30w019 2300141838 ’8 NVWHSnO sssuaqm DWJOJOG EHDVLS ospu; ouymwnpfig VNNVH ’8 vaHsno sysuafiunooo nwrixpnno (ANOISHOP) nunmosjund Dulwomdg g 'ds samnaoqowwv é AV‘INH Duaumumz nugwung (3103) WWW“! Dun/nSunso 9| I Rare B‘I’LANATION IllllllllJ Ill lLI 7| 9| 7| ll||||| III [Ill 11 ?l ?I III III | 1 I Frequent Slauuuumo; ogqxuag saldums qqexg ‘3 12738 _LJ_LJ 1231A 1291 1281M 1281L 1281K 1281J 1281H 1281E 1633 1281B 1281C 1281 1273A 1273 1272 I Common STUDIES IN TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY, CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES 18 .085 0136 EEG—@6080 5.8m demeaning 58025 mo zaawuwswbmofi .mSEEESShI0 550$ 08098 .0: 8.220 05250:: 2:? 68 o .80 .wcoumugm 5:: c. 28.5E22 2.00.8 Bwvs. ._mo ”Emu—Sam 2.80. w__mm2wawE .coEEOo 5sz 3032.098 0cm wEoEmat 2.20 mg 0 a. R Ema .000: :_ 02958.4. 53:55 E .29... .. 9 I0 0., 0... 20:95:00 30:03.3 0:30. “00520 9.0 F825. 9v» 3:03.38 0 «SEE 82:00.”. 8 EafimE 02.8 2.000 E305 ;m_>>o=o> — mwmown .90 3202.898 830:. 9 3.52.3th 39000:. @6533 Sm. m.E:_uoE as .3950 «3.52 .< .338 82:05.5 u:.=:uEu> 000030.25 S .w>_mmmE .39.... 0.505 I . o I 830:..0E0:< Em§=¥uE .0 .9 0530300 ..lI. .323. 8303.055 6:230:23 $.20... USEESQvEQEm. ..... $00238 m30£3£mu> mm to. .25 E £E§EEUE §:.3=B> .03 05.3506 .I n 00.0.30 5.08002 8.50.300 u:....0:.m..80=..w o d 0590800800 830:..2050 dam 80.0EmEcnoiuI 00.0 000.0 5_Em “ m m .A 382.53.... 80.05.0502... 3.8808 830:.mEfiQEuI .6 “mam .5. m6 0.3.0 uoEmcc: E0: 0080?... 370005 I W 09 I w £80§=Eu8 8300.035 0% 05582020. .I.II. 4. ed a. I . o I e H .II. .. m u IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII HII. w m .l.I. m. a %.II. u h|.II.. m 4H . W IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII :oEEOO 22.52.22 3089.96 HIIlIH. . . 05 5:9: 3082088005993: 08.8 |.I.ll. 969% uciiuumn 80.22.”. .__w>> .quEEE £5.09... 2 55 Ema .952 1H ..IM 2.58an M34556: 0.00:. c. m _ . . l . 8N I . . 03.9... 89.5 0.503 .maowomsE .535 55509 I . I 2.0.5.:0x 5030035. 0:..EEE .|.II. 09:39.00. 2.00.”. .0w.Q0..nm. .Sumtofi 0:.EE§I ;m_>>0__0> 0:00 on 550.5 52.52:; 200 Ucm ll..I @533... $0.0...EEEoot. 2053.5 .>m._m.w>=o .3300: 2.9me >055 808.. INIHIWIH $302808 fiEoEmEsnoicl I.Ill. mm .EEObztvmfiofi H €30.30 Illl. to. Ucm «38:53:. 80.0:=0Eo:< 0:.E§£§h .8..Eo.£uu 05:0... HIM mm anbraoR. 2.3.380 -9825 £25.53 c:..EEu.%0 IH.IIH I..| 8N L m S M N W. m30mm<0400._OI.:._ mlv. .m.__ Middle P10 102'“ 0 — —7 — P9 50 — - P8 _ ac) As.c, Devils Den (aqueduct) 8 3 area _ 8 3 P7 _J 1 — P6 Lodo Gulch area ‘—7——-—.7— 55 — g P5 _ u d) 8 E _ a D O. 4 P4 FIGURE 8.—Late Paleocene and early Eocene bathymetric history of Lodo Gulch and Devils Den (aqueduct) areas. N.t., Nuttallides tnwm- pyi; As.c., Asterigerina crassafomis; A.c., Ammlinoides crassiseptus; A.a., Armlinoides arugrmemis; B.g., Bulimimlla gram; B.t., Bulimina tfinitatensis. The large black “’1‘” refers to the last occurrence of the selected species; the vertical squares indicate a rare or sporadic occurrence of species. 22 STUDIES IN TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY, CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES LOWER TERTIARY NANNOPLANKTON BIOSTRATIGRAPHY IN THE CENTRAL COASTAL RANGES, CALIFORNIA By A. D. WARREN1 A BSTRACT Nannoplankton from the Devils Den, Lodo Gulch, and Media Agua Creek areas were correlated with Paleogene California benthic foraminiferal stages along the west side of the San Joaquin Valley. Based on nannoplankton chronology, the Ynezian Stage is of Paleocene and earliest Eocene age, the Bulitian, Penutian, and most of the Ulatisian Stages are of early Eocene age, and the upper Ulatisian and lower Narizian Stages are of early middle Eocene age. Estimated absolute ages for the tops of the Ynezian and Ulatisian Stages are 52 and 48 million years respectively. Data from this and previous studies on the lower and middle Tertiary of California indicate the relations of the provincial benthic foraminiferal stages to nannoplankton and planktic f0< raminiferal age and zonal assignments. The Paleogene of Cali- fornia includes, from oldest to youngest, the Cheneyan, Ynezian, Bulitian, Penutian, Ulatisian, Narizian, Refugian, and Zemorrian Stages. INTRODUCTION Calcareous nannoplankton are one of the most important fossil groups for correlation of marine deposits,particularly in the middle- and low-altitude areas of the world. The main purpose of this study is to examine the vertical distribution of calcareous nannofossils within the Paleogene California ben- thic foraminiferal stages as represented in three areas, Devils Den aqueduct, Lodo Gulch, and Media Agua Creek (fig. 9), along the west side of the San Joaquin Valley. Each of these areas contains expo- sures of marine sedimentary rocks which may be assigned to the Ynezian, Bulitian, Penutian, Ula- tisian, and Narizian provincial stages of Mallory (1959) based on vertical distribution of benthic foram- inifers. The secondary purpose of this paper is to reexamine the Paleogene of California by extracting from this and previously published studies a syn- thesis of the relations of the lower and middle Ter- tiary provincial stages to nannoplankton zonations and, in turn, to planktic foraminiferal zonations, which are in wide use today by biostratigraphers everywhere. The most commonly used nannoplankton and plank- tic foraminiferal zonations are those of Bukry (1973, 1A. D. Warren, Consulting Micropaleontology, Inc., 7202 Clairemont Mesa Blvd., San Diego, CA 95211. 1975), Martini (1971), Blow (1969), Berggren (1972), and Hardenbol and Berggren (1978). The relationship between these zonations is shown of figure 10. The series designations of Bukry (1973, 1975) will be followed in this report. Acknowledgments.—For providing samples and a measured section from the Devils Den (aqueduct) area, I thank D. W. Weaver. I am also grateful to J. H. Newell for much additional supplemental nannofos- sil data and discussion on the Lodo Gulch and Devils Den areas. DEVILS DEN (AQUEDUCT) AREA The aqueduct section in the Devils Den area, in sec. 34, T. 25 S., R. 18 E., Kern County, California, exposes approximately 300 In of fossiliferous marine sedimentary rocks (fig. 11). Rock units exposed there are, from oldest to youngest, the upper part of the Panoche Formation, Lodo Formation, Avenal Sand- stone, and Gredal Shale and Point of Rocks Sand- stone Members of the Kreyenhagen Formation. A fault approximately 210 m below the top of the exposure repeats the Lodo, the Avenal, and part of the Gredal. The aqueduct section was measured and collected in 1970 by D. W. Weaver, and his samples and stratigraphic column form the basis for data presented on this exposure. Geologic and locality maps for this area have been provided by Brabb, Clark, and Throckmorton (1977, figs. 36 and 38). Age assignments using the provincial benthic foraminiferal stages of Mallory (1959) are as follows (fig. 11): Samples PR-l to PR-26 are assigned to the lower Narizian Stage based on the presence of the following selected foraminiferal taxa: Alabamina wilcoxensis californica Mallory Anomalina crassisepta Cushman and Siegfus A. dorri aragonensis Nuttall Asterigerina crassaformis Cushman and Siegfus Bulimina corrugata Cushman and Siegfus Buliminella grata convoluta Mallory Caucasina schencki (Beck) Cibicides laimingi Mallory C. spiropunctatus Galloway and Morrey Vaginulinopsis asperuliformis Nuttall LOWER TERTIARY NANNOPLANKTON BIOSTRATIGRAPHY 42° 124° 123° 122° 121° 120° -?;—j--—-- -—-- -- -—l---——-——l— 42° ‘ 1r1’ T I O , ‘ . 511 s I s K I Y 0 U [ ‘ w ‘ . I LL‘ 1' MODOC , ‘8... xw/l".~_.*. ' -____...._..j 41° j “Jo. f 4—1 ' Iurek" \ I l i I . JP‘ 40° .——L_1 TEHAMA /\) W \‘ $1 _ . 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Loan: 22 £30: ED cm_~mc> mcoooflmm mm 82 3233:... 5883 8 m8 llllllllllll J Illmwwz ..... $§§ 9555: 3.5% :mZ 388:5 538an Gum—38.5 \ E NEZ 9.5858 manic—En: :mEEm cairn; mcmuom LO>>°4 ”CwUOW \\ ml IIIIIIIIIIIII L0>>OJ CN—uflcwfl WEQUON 50>>OJ 932 $8332 $88895 mm me 8565 wfimfl Emz Samoa gag. £38833 . 2“. 2&5 EuEQSBSm figs 5. 8:93 afiuu 53886 U SE a: 880m $12 895 35323.5 EERWEuZ 0 NE w _ . :muOm 3 :55. r IIIIIIIIIIII :33.» 3.33800 23:5. 5332 ”flaw mi 2% 5% 5.883 SEE: cantmm r IIIIIIIIIIII o {v.38 «E 2&2 $883.8 6.883 :8 _ fix .3.sz z_ IIIIIIIIIIII mmemme wwEmmem wwEwmem mZON wWWMm>flfiummMm :0 memm mZON mZONme\wZON m0 mewm w0<._.m m0 mem—w Gem: “EOXDDOO oz< 3mm: ZmEOOme :5: _ZFx<_2 A Ema: >m0._._mv5m mo .QZ< 40m2w0m<1 DZ< ANS: mewwmmm “.0 ZO_._.>O._ m2m00w4>0._m amt/x DwEEOS. ZO_._. ma. <><§ C. pelagicus Cylicargolithusflor" us Cyclococcolithus formosus . C. inuersus Cyclolithella inflexa ......... Dictyococcites hesslandii. ><>¢ ><>< ><>< Discoaster barbadiensis bi. J ><§ D: delicatus D. distinctus D. lodoensis ................................................... D. mirus XX X D. saipanensis Ericsoma subpertusa ................. Fasciculithus tympaniformis Helicosphaera seminulum Helzorthus concmnus Impiaster obscurus ?... Lithostromation perdu m Nannotetrina aff. N. cristata Pemma angulatum Pontosphem multipora P. plana Reticulofenestm dictyoda .................... 7 R. umbilica Rhabdosphera 3p. Sphenolithus moriformis S. orphonknolli u S. pr " S. aff. S. radians Thur , L u saxea X T. app. . ‘ X ............................................... Zygodtscus slgmotdes .................................. X Zygrlmblighus biiugatus .............................................................. X ................................................................ X ................................................................ X ne assrgnment NP5 NP12 NP14- NP14? NP15- n.d. NP16 NP16 n.d. NP19- n.d. n.d. NP15 13 15 15? 16 17 17 20 ‘Locatelli Formation. 2Butano Sandstone. “Twobar Shale Member of San Lorenzo Formation. DEFINITION OF THE LODO FORMATION 39 68CB202 from the Bear Creek area shows that the upper part of the Butano Sandstone is of middle Eocene (NP16 and NP17 Zones) age. Collection 76CB1451A from the Twobar Shale Member of the San Lorenzo Formation along the San Lorenzo River indicates that the lower part of this member is of middle Eocene (NP15 Zone) age. This collection also contains Neochiastozygus dubius frag- ments that may be reworked from older strata. The middle part of the Twobar Shale Member, represented by collection 68CB205 from the Bear Creek area, is of late Eocene (NP19 and NP2O Zones) age. Thus the boundary between the middle and late Eocene is probably within the Twobar Shale Member. DEFINITION OF THE LODO FORMATION By EARL E. BRABB ABSTRACT The section along Lodo Gulch, described in general terms by White (1940) and Martin (1943, section I—S), is the type section of the Lodo Formation. Sections along the first gulch south of Lodo Gulch (section A of Israelsky, 1951 and the so-called Lodo Gulch section of Schoellhamer and Kinney, 1953), along the second gulch south of Lodo Gulch (section I—X of Martin, 1943 and section B of Israelsky, 1951), and about 700 m north of Lodo Gulch (section C of Brabb, Clark, and Throckmorton, 1977) are reference sections. DISCUSSION The name Lodo, Spanish for mud, was proposed in an abstract by R. T. White (1938) for a small gulch in the Tumey Hills, about 75 km west of Fresno, Calif. (figs. 1 and 16, this report); the exact location of Lodo Gulch is shown on maps by Martin (1943, fig. 1) and Israelsky (1951, fig. 2). In this same abstract, White also proposed the name Lodo Formation for 350 m of predominantly claystone that rests, according to White, disconformably on the Moreno Shale and is overlain conformably by the Domengine Sandstone. Two years later, White (1940, fig. 1), in an expanded report, showed a generalized stratigraphic column for the Lodo Formation in Lodo Gulch. He used the term “type locality” for this section in both his 1938 abstract and his report, and it is clear from his descriptions that he intended this section to be the type section for the formation. This definition is accepted here as the type section of the Lodo (section TS, fig. 16, this report). Martin (1943), in a report that described foraminifers from samples collected by White, provided a figure entitled, “Sketch map of the Lodo Formation in the type area.” Taken literally, the map indicates that the type area includes all of the Lodo Formation in sees. 20, 28, and 29, T. 15 S., R. 12 E. This definition of the type area is accepted here (see fig. 16, this report). Some confusion has been introduced by authors who measured sections in the type area of the Lodo . raphic Formation but not in the type section along Lodo Gulch. According to the International Stratigraphic Guide (Hedberg, 1976, p. 26) and the Code of Stratig- Nomenclature (American Commission on Stratigraphic Nomenclature, 1961, p. 654), sections subsidiary to the type section (holostratotype) are re- ference sections. Martin (1943, fig. 1), for example, showed two sections (LS and I-X) as a composite type section of the Lodo. This definition is not accepted here. Martin’s section I-S is in Lodo Gulch and is the type section (TS, fig. 16, this report), but section I-X (section B, fig. 16, this report) is in the second gulch south of Lodo Gulch and is therefore here designated a reference section. The label “Lodo Gulch section” on the map by Schoellhamer and Kinney (1953) is misleading. This section (section A, fig. 16, this report) is not in Lodo Gulch, but is in the first gulch south of Lodo Gulch. The label on Schoellhamer and Kinney’s map led me to conclude wrongly that Israelsky’s (1951) section A (section A, fig. 16, this report) is along Lodo Gulch. Thus, section A on the stratigraphic column of Brabb, Clark, and Throckmorton (1977, fig. 42) is a composite of samples collected by me along Lodo Gulch, the type section, and samples described by Israelsky from section A, the first gulch south of Lodo Gulch. Section A of Israelsky is in the type area but is not the type section. The “Lodo Gulch section” of Schoellhamer and Kinney (1953) and section A of Israelsky (1951) are the same as section A of this report (fig. 16), which is here designated the principal reference section. Section B of Israelsky (1951), which gives supplemen— tary information on the lower part of the Lodo, is the same as White’s (1943) section I—X and section B of this report; it is a reference section. Section C of Brabb, Clark, and Throckmorton (1977, p. 105—109) also gives supplementary information on the lower part of the formation; it is the same as section C of 40 FHZE STUDIES IN TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY, CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES EXPLANATION -nl >- Alluwum n: d " ' 5 Nu ,3 Older aMuv-um :> . c , >- ‘ . 0: Terrace deposnts >§ Z ’0 I, <5 mm” —,_ ’z// E; Tulare(?)Fonnonon :10 ‘ 3 k “ > 0’: d V: k E // n / / /,/ ’j;///,/// // //!’///// Qiy// //// / // ‘1 /,//// / / /.j / /’ /// / m , /// .///// /// . ”0/ 3 ///// ,/////. / /// ,gg’K”//(/ / /// W _ O ' M / //-' /, / //// / =n==u= u: ””I ~42 6“” ”NW/5 ”N” 53E 0 / / ”H E 5 MorenoShole u ///// 5 ///./ ///// /////////// /§///M)=fi?;;’/////, V////////// / / //////// ,//// 1'16 1/ ///1 , lo I/ /// / , //,/ /////V;O/;j / / . ‘ / /’i\(’;:;.>“//// ////// / ,, / H/ //// W l/ ////(////////?§ // /I/ /‘ // w d/ / //// ///// //. // 500 n—fi—smfiW—H D 0 1000 2000 3000 FEET 7:40.“, ///// /// - / // / x, C;;:/:;’//’;/ _.-:/7/{{/w///%/ ////// z/ / ’//’ /"/’//:/T ///)/ / / - / //’///////// //// ////////‘/,,. / //fl’////7 kv/z/fl/A, //,//¢/§/// , I . U ’ H / / / N ’7’ ‘ Dashed where appronmale/y locofed ,4o;/7//1 L___ 0 Fault Approx/molely lacy/ed U.Upfhrawn side; o,down/hrown 51d! 4 I / ”gnu/xv Strike and am 01 beds / N/ ”No/W) 29 no IV Lines of measured sectionfiample number indicated at beglnnlng and end 0! sections ///,r/ ///1//// /// / , ,,///////’, ///,////i,w//)///// //////,'//. I ,/ ///////// ////"//'///7 / «x / w // Landslide no "//////,/,, // _ 49-3 \\ Monterey g 3: Formation a) $ 8 BE 2 a Temblor Formation Q (I) Z :3 < o KJs U LL! ._. U Serpentinite and 8 E sedimentary rocks 32 iii Q 0 Contact Fault Dashed where approximately located 0 A local' 3 KM T0 SVEADAL ¢ Sample “5’ [J .5 l KILOMETER U V‘ V2 MlLE Z >. U) 0 (D m E a r- o a é }— - < —' Z < w a: 2 0 ¥ >. W n: :I: o E U) "’ o ': E I-u LL .1 l— a: $5 8 a E E E E E 8 E Sandstone '" shale and conglomerate Miocene 3 8 5 .5 Osburn u E E collections .11 g g 49-6, 1-1, 49—3 E I- “? with large 0 foramlnifers o z < 2. w . 2 Unconformlty g Serpentinite ., and sedimentary rocks FIGURE 19.—Geologic map and stratigraphic column for Sveadal area. Geology from Osbun (1975). SYSTEMATIC PALEONTOLOGY Nummulites willcoxi Heilprin, 1882 Plate 6, figures 6, 7, 10 Operculinoides willcoxi (Heilprin). Cole, 1958, pl. 33, figs. 312. Camerina willcoxi (Heilprin). Cole and Applin, 1964, pl. 4, figs. 9, 14-16. Nummulites willcoxi Heilprin. Butterlin, 1966, pl. XIV, figs. 1-10. Nummulites willcoxi Heilprin. Butterlin, 1971, pl. VI, figs. 1-8. Description. Small lenticular species, diameter to thickness 3.6:O.6 mm; globular in juvenile stage with diameter to thickness 1.6:O.65 mm; tends to become flat by growth from the foot of the spire; more loosely coiled spire in outer parts of the test; thin septa curved at top; diameter of the protoconch approxi- mately 100 pm. Young specimens cannot be distinguished from N. trinitatensis (Nuttall). Older specimens have a some- what flattened marginal area in contrast to the rounded marginal area of N. trinitatensis. Distribution. California, locality 71CBQ83C and EB633 near San Jose; Florida, Mexico, Caribbean, Panama, and Columbia. Range. Top of middle Eocene to base of upper Eocene. Nummulites striatoreticulatus L. Rum-n. l928 Plate 6, figure 9 Camerina striatoreticulata (L. Rutten). Cole, 1958, pl. 32, Figs. 1-16 Nummulites striatoreticulata L. Rutten. Butterlin, 1966, fig. 5. Description. Globular species from 1 to 3 mm in diameter, sinuous septal filament, more or less gran- ulated, thick spiral laminae loosely coiled. Septa straight and inclined in lower part, curved in upper part. Small protoconch of megalospheric form. Distribution. California, locality 71CB983C near San Jose; Cuba, Haiti, Mexico, Jamaica, Costa Rica, and Colombia. Range. Top of middle Eocene to basal upper Eocene. Nummuliles sp. Description. Small, lenticular, globular forms 1 mm in diameter. Lack the granular form of N. striatoreti— culatus. More globular than N. willcoxi. Unfortu- nately, they are only observable in thin sections. Distribution. California, locality 71CBQ71B near San Jose. 46 STUDIES IN TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY, CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES Family AMPHISTEGINIDAE Genus Eownuloides (Iole and Bermudez, I944 Eoconuloides lapeztrigoi (D. K. Palmer, 1934) Plate 6, figures 3, 13 Amphistegina lopeztrigoi D. K. Palmer, 1934, pl. 5, fig. 6-8. Amphistegina lopeztrigoi D. K. Palmer. Barker and Grimsdale, 1936, pl. 30, fig. 2; pl. 32, fig. 1—3; pl. 34, fig. 1; pl. 38, fig. 3. Amphistegina lopeztrigoi D. K. Palmer. Levin, 1957, pl. 4, fig. 8—9, 13—14. Amphistegina lopeztrigoi D. K. Palmer. Butterlin, 1966, pl. XIV, fig. 14. Amphistegina lopeztrigoi D. K. Palmer. Butterlin, 1968, pl. III, fig. 8. Description. Small thin spiral lamina, slightly tro- choidal, showing pillars in relief, generally well marked. Distribution. California, localities EB633 and 71CB97IB near San Jose; Caribbean, Columbia, Ven- ezuela. Range. From the base to the summit of the middle Eocene and basal upper Eocene. Remarks. Butterlin (1970) showed that Eoconu- loides parvulus evolved into Eoconuloides lopeztrigoi and Eoconuloides wellsi. Eoconuloides wellsi Cole and Bermudez. 1944 Plate 6, figure14 Description. Test conical with flat base, apex bluntly rounded; peripheral angle subacute; surface smooth. Specimen: height, 0.8 mm to 1.6 mm; diam- eter of base: 0.96 mm to 1.20 mm. On slightly oblique horizontal sections, the final chambers are subdivided into chamberlets in the peripheral section; axial sec- tions show the trochoid character of test; the spiral wall has differences in thickness, the thicker walls having irregularly developed pillars; the thin peripheral walls appear to lack pillars. Range. Lower Eocene to middle Eocene. Amphistegina parvula (Cushman, 1919) Plate 6, figure 1, 2, 14 Nummulites parvula Cushman, 1919, pl. 4, fig. 3—6. Amphistegina parvula (Cushman). Cole, 1958, pl. 25, fig. 17—19. Amphistegina cf. parvula (Cushman). Butterlin, 1968, pl. II, fig. 8. Amphistegina paruula (Cushman). Butterlin, 1970, pl. 3, fig. 5—6. Description. Amphistegimz with slightly asymmetri- cal axial cut. Has very thick walls and very. corroded and barely visible pillars. Septa inclined and curved. In a good equatorial cut, could be confused with a very small nummulite. An axial cut shows the distinction. Distribution. California, localities EB633 and 76CB971B near San Jose and Osbun 49—6 near Sveadal; Caribbean region (abundant). Range. Lower Eocene to lower part of upper Eocene. Remarks. All collections observed‘are rich in Am- phistegines. New species are probably present. Un- cemented material and separate specimens are nec- essary for a detailed study. Family DISCOCYCLINIDAE The classification of Discocyclinidae is a complex problem for American species. The classifications are numerous and varied: Vaughan and Cole (1941), Bronnimann (1945), Cole (1948), and Caudri (1972). We accept Cole’s classification for our work. Discocyclina (Discocyclina) marginata (Cushman, 1919) Orthophragmina marginata Cushman, 1919, pl. 1, fig. 2: pl. 2, fig. 1. Orthophragmina marginata Cushman, 1920, pl. IX, fig. 1—2. Discocyclina (Discocyclina) marginata (Cushman). Cole and Gravell, 1952, pl. 93, fig. 1—9; pl. 94, fig. 1—8; pl. 95, fig. 7—8. Discocyclina (Discocyclina) marginata (Cushman). Cole and Applin, 1964, pl. 10, fig. 1—8. Description. Lenticular species, inflated, diameter 10—14 mm, equatorial chambers higher than wide (h/w = 1.5) and very small. Thirty to forty rows of lateral chambers are very compressed and poorly visi- ble. Distribution. California, localities 71CB983C, 71CB978B, and EB633 near San Jose; Caribbean region (Cuba, St. Bartholomew), Florida, Georgia. Range. Middle Eocene: Remarks. Previously described in California as D. californica (Schenck, 1929, pl. 28, fig. 5; pl. 29, fig. 1—3; pl. 30, fig. 2—3), according to Cole and Applin (1964). Pseudophragmina (Proporocyclina) flinlensis ((lushman) Plate 6, figure 12 LARGE FORAMINIFERS OF EOCENE AGE Orthophragmina flintensis Cushman, 1917, pl. 40, fig. 1—2. Orthophragmina flintensis Cushman, 1919, pl. IX, fig. 3—6. Proporocyclina flintensis (Cushman). Cole, 1958, pl. 50, 51, 52, figs. 1-2. Pseudophragmina (Pseudophragmina)flintensis (Cushman). Butterlin, 1971, pl. IV, fig. 8. Proporocyclina flintensis (Cushman). Caudri, 1972, pl. 1, fig. 4. Description. Test diameter 5 mm, circular, com- pressed and ornate with granules. Narrow equatorial chambers, radially lengthened to the periphery. Com- plete radial septa, almost rectilinear. Small and nar- row lateral chambers. Distribution. California, localities 71CB983C, 71CB978B, and EB633 near San Jose, EB611 near Mount Diablo (see also Cole, 1958) and Orocopia Mountains (Cole, 1958); Caribbean (with Lepido- cyclina antillea), Nicaragua, Georgia, Texas, Florida, Panama. Range. Top of middle Eocene to upper Eocene. Pseudophragmina (Proporocyclina) clarki (Cushman) Plate 6, figure 17 Orthophragmina clarki Cushman, 1920, pl. VII, fig. 4-5. Discocyclina clarki (Cushman). Schenck, 1929, pl. 27, fig. 1, 2, 5, and text fig. 7. Discocyclina clarki (Cushman). Keenan, 1932, pl. 4, fig. 1-2. Pseudophragmina (Proporocyclina) clarki (Cushman). Cole, 1958, pl. 52, fig. 3—11. Pseudophragmina (Proporocyclina) clarki (Cushman). Cole and Applin, 1964, pl. 9, fig. 1-4. Description. Circular flat test, 3-6 mm in diameter (larger than that of Pseudophragmina (Proporocyc- lim) flintensis), with pillars and central granules. Large embryonic apparatus. In equatorial section, the length and Width of the embryonic apparatus are 0.2 mm. In axial section, the length is 0.2 mm and the height is 0.175 mm. Equatorial chambers 1.5 to 2 times higher than wide, lateral chambers narrow and very elongated. Distribution. California, localities 71CB983C, EB633, and 71CB971B near San Jose. Type locality: Domengine Creek near Mount Diablo, California; also Oregon, Washington (Berthiaume, 1938), Mexico, Peru, and Florida. Range. Middle Eocene. 47 Pseudophragmina (Proporocyclina) teres Cole and Gravell, 1952 Pseudophragmina (Proporocyclina) teres Cole and Gravell, 1952, pl. 101, fig. 1—8. Pseudophragmina (Proporocyclina) teres Cole and Gravell, 1952. Cole and Applin, 1964, pl. 8, fig. 1- 7. Description. Circular species, flat, inflated in the center, diameter 5—6 mm, with pillars and central granules. Equatorial chambers squared toward the center, elongated toward the periphery (h/w approx. 2). Lateral chambers with thick borders and roofs that are flat and barely visible. Distribution. California, locality 71CB971B near San Jose; Caribbean, Cuba, Florida. Range. Middle Eocene. Remarks. Probably present in other samples. Genus Asterocyclina Gumbel, [870 Asterocyclina aster (Woodring, 1930) Plate 6, figure 11 Actinocyclina aster Woodring, 1930, fig. 3—6; pl. 16, fig. 1-4; pl. 17, fig. 1—2. Description. Very flat species with 5 to 13 radiating enlargements. Diameter 5 to 11 mm. Distribution. California, locality EB611 near Mount Diablo, EB633, 7ICB983C, and 710B971B near San Jose; Osbun 1-1 and 49-6 near Sveadal. Type locality is in Santa Ynez Range, Santa Barbara County. Range. Upper Eocene (Woodring, 1930), lower and middle Eocene (Berthiaume, 1938; Cole, 1958), middle Eocene (Cole and Gravell, 1952). Remarks. Cole (1958) put A. aster in synonymy with A. penonensis of Cole and Gravell (1952). Butter- lin (1970) disagrees with this synonymy and lists several reasons for considering the two forms as separate species. Present in all the samples. Family CYMBALOPORIDAE Genus Eofabiana Kupper, 1955 Eofabiana grahami Kupper, 1955 Plate 6, figures 8, 16 Eofabiana grahami Kupper, 1955, pl. 19, figs. 1-7. Description. Conical test, primary (first) chambers poorly developed and spirally arranged, not divided into chamberlets. Apertures on the umbilical side. Distribution. California and the Caribbean. Range. Lower to middle Eocene. 48 STUDIES IN TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY, CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES LOCALITY DESCRIPTIONS SAN JOSE AREA Locality 71CB983C, lat 37° 13.44’N., long 121°53.29’W., Los Gatos 75-minute quadrangle, 1953 edition. Unnamed sedimentary rocks of E0- cene age. This locality is within the same lime- stone lentil and very close geographically to LSJ U 309, from which the holotype of Discocyclina cali- fornica Schenck, 1929 was obtained. The general geology and a more detailed description of the lithology are provided by Bailey and Everhart (1964, p. 69—71 and pl. 1). Collected by Earl Brabb, 1971. Locality 71CB971B, lat 37° 13.25’N., long 121°47.14’W., Santa Teresa Hills 75-minute quad- rangle, 1953 edition. Unnamed sedimentary rocks of Eocene age. Float pieces of limestone from a small abandoned limestone quarry roughly 0.6 km east of the portal of the Berna] Mine. Collected by Earl Brabb, 1971. Locality EB633, lat 37°12.9’N., long 121°47.5’W., Santa Teresa Hills 75-minute quadrangle, 1953 edition. Unnamed sedimentary rocks of Eocene age. Float pieces of limestone collected by Edgar Bailey in 1948. SVEADAL AREA Locality Osbun 1 — 1, lat 37° 05.47’N., long 121°45.03’W., Lorna Prieta 75-minute quadrangle, 1955 edition. Fossils from conglomerate at or near the base of the Temblor Formation of Miocene age. From small outcrop on north side of road to Sveadal. Collected by E. D. Osbun, 1971. See geologic map by McLaughlin and others (1971); additional maps and a description of the rocks provided in Osbun (1975). Locality Osbun 49—3, lat 37°06.27’N., long 121°45.68’W., Lorna Prieta 75-minute quad- rangle. Fossils from conglomerate at or near the base of the Temblor Formation of Miocene age. From nose of hill at about 1160 ft (354 m) elevation. Collected by E. D. Osbun, 1971. Locality Osbun 49—6, lat 37° 06.31’N., long 121°45.5’W., Loma Prieta 75-minute quadrangle. Fossils from conglomerate at or near the base of the Temblor Formation of Miocene age. From small knob along ridge crest, elevation about 1170 ft (357 In). Collected by E. D. Osbun, 1971. MOUNT DIABLO AREA Locality EB611, lat 37°51.35’N., long 121°56’W., Diablo 75-minute quadrangle, 1953 edition. South- west side of road from Mount Diablo State Park headquarters to Junction Camp. From glauconitic limestone near the base of the Domengine Forma— tion where it rests unconformably on shale of Late Cretaceous age. Mapped as lower siltstone and claystone member of Domengine Sandstone by Brabb, Sonneman, and Switzer (1971). Collected by Earl Brabb, 1963. Not exposed in 1976. DEVILS DEN AREA Locality 76CB1633, lat 35°42.4’N., long 120°01.1'W., Sawtooth Ridge 7.5minute quadrangle, 1961 edi- tion (photorevised 1973). Gredal Shale Member of Kreyenhagen Formation. Along north bank of cut for aqueduct, about 20 m east of dirt access road, about 12 m stratigraphically below base of red bed unit, from 50—cm—thick coarse—grained sandstone bed. Locality 76CB1634, lat 35°42.3’N., long 121°01.3’W. Gredal Shale Member of Kreyenhagen Formation. Along north bank of cut for aqueduct, about 60 m east of two metal posts and 7 m east of telephone box. Same stratigraphic level as 76CB1633 but from part of section duplicated by faulting. Locality 76CB1641, lat 35°43.8’N., long 121°01.3’W. Gredal Shale Member of Kreyenhagen Formation. About 600 m N.63 W. from BM611 from sandstone rubble on hillside. Probably from same strati- graphic level as 76CB1633 and 76CB1634, but sandstone at this locality appears to be several meters thick. Locality 76CB1671, about 4 m stratigraphically below 76031634. Gredal Shale Member of Kreyenhagen Formation. Sample collected by A. D. Warren. STUDIES IN TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY, CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES 49 EOCENE TO MIOCENE CALCAREOUS PLANKTON FROM THE SANTA CRUZ MOUNTAINS AND NORTHERN SANTA LUCIA RANGE, CALIFORNIA By RICHARD Z. POORE and DAVID BUKRY ABSTRACT Stratigraphically diagnostic calcareous plankton (coccoliths and planktic foraminifers) were recovered from two measured sections (Zayante Creek and San Lorenzo River sections) in the Santa Cruz Mountains, one section (Afio Nuevo section) along the adjacent coast, and several samples from the Church Creek Formation in the northern Santa Lucia Range. Samples from below the uppermost sheared part of the Vaqueros(?) Formation of Hall, Jones, and Brooks (1959) as exposed on the coast at the Afio Nuevo section yield coccolith assemblages referable to the upper Oliogocene Sphenolithus' ciperoensis Zone and the lower Miocene Triquetrorhabdulus carinatus Zone. Samples from the sheared upper part of the Vaqueros(?) Formation contain coccoliths that are indicative of the Miocene Helicosphaera ampliaperta Zone or the Sphenolithus heteromorphus Zone. Late Oligocene coccoliths were recovered from the Vaqueros Sandstone at Zayante Creek in the Santa Cruz Mountains. The sparse low-diversity assemblages in most samples could not be assigned to specific zones. Diverse calcareous plankton assemblages were recovered from samples from the San Lorenzo River section. Coccoliths from the upper part of the Butano Sandstone and lower part of the Twobar Shale Member of the San Lorenzo Formation are referable, respec- tively, to the Discoaster btfax Subzone and Discoaster saipam'nsis Subzone of the middle Eocene reticulofemstm umbilica Zone. Plank- tic foraminifer assemblages from the same samples correlate with middle Eocene Zones P 13 to P 14. Coccoliths from the upper part of the Twobar Shale Member are assigned to the upper Eocene Dis— coaster barbadie’nsis Zone. Samples from this same interval yield planktic foraminifers assigned to upper Eocene Zones P 15 to P 16. A sample from the overlying Rices Mudstone Member of the San Lorenzo Formation contains a coccolith assemblage referable to the Oligocene Sphenoh'thus distentus Zone. Planktic foraminifer as- semblages from this level are assigned to Oligocene zonal interval P 19 — P 20. Planktic foraminifers in several samples from the Church Creek Formation, northern Santa Lucia Range, are correlated with upper Eocene Zones P 16 to P 17. INTRODUCTION A number of stratigraphic sections in and around the Santa Cruz Mountains and the Santa Lucia Range were examined for coccoliths and planktic foraminifers as part of a field conference and meeting held in Menlo Park, California, by the International Commission on Paleogene Stratigraphy. In this report, data from the Zayante Creek and the San Lorenzo River sections of the Santa Cruz Mountains are presented along with data from the coastal Afio Nuevo section (fig. 20). In addition, the occurrence of planktic foraminifers in several samples from the Church Creek Formation in the Church Creek area of the northern Santa Lucia Range are discussed. Brabb, Bukry, and Pierce (1971) and Brabb, Clark, and Throckmorton (1977) give detailed location infor- mation for sections and most samples that were ‘examined for this report. Locality data for samples not mentioned in the above reports are given at the end of this report. The zonation of Blow (1969) is employed for planktic foraminifers, and the zonation of Bukry (1975) is used for coccoliths. Correlation of biostratigraphic zones to subdivi- sions of the Cenozoic follows Hardenbol and Berg- gren (1978) for the Eocene and Oligocene, and Ryan and others (1975) for the Miocene. Acknowledgments.—We thank Earl Brabb, John Barron, and Kristin McDougall for comments con— cerning this manuscript. 39° 123° 122° 121° 120° 719° l 3 I E ' l\ l \‘H/ E Z a ‘ : : r I \ : z ‘ z, z, x 4/ \ a : u / $0 E Sacramento 0’, ‘5} Z'Q’fi} : 0 6‘ 4 a ‘10 : ’2 ’99 ’z, 0,? «1 \ 2 7 2 4,; 38° ’2 ’2 “’\ _ / 4 '3, San Francisco ’Ir,’ (5:7) 2/, %\ 2/ O ’0 ’ L ’/ C}; ’O ’6 7 ’4 w 0/ ’2 L 2 0.7 00, O ,I 70 g —7(( 9/ l ’/ ( $ /, I / / O [’2 O /’/,,/ 6:1— ’3’ 37° _ O "a [’z ’5) ’0, 41/, _ (A / /, 3 G ’7 3 ”I ‘9 A 1 7’ 3 ’9, >I|WI\ 6:“ I” F no I”! l/ ’ ¢ Santa Lucia Range ,/ ”4,0 2,, g I, / 1’ 1 Church Creek area ’0,” ”0,, ’4’, 1: 36" l ’4 ”0 a 1| _ 0 25 50 75 100 KlLOMETERS O 25 50 75 MILES FIGURE 20.—Index map showing general location of sections. Map from Brabb, Bukry, and Pierce (1971). Section A is in the Afro Nuevo area; section B, along the San Lorenzo River, and section C, along Zayante Creek. 50 STUDIES IN TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY, CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES BENTHO- 3 “'0 THICKNESS U.S.G.S. F'ELD NUMBERS E FORAMI- FORMATION LITHOLOGY IN METERS, LOCALITY g NIFERAL JC CB STAGE 0 F‘ .. .. C . . . 03 co CD 8 Purisima ..... . 7 E Formation "'f ' °>. ' C‘ Faulted against mudstone ' i ' and unconformable on Pigeon Point Formation of Cretaceous age Unconformity W EXPLANATION Sandstone Shale Monterey Formation Mudstone 210+ (\. “c’ g 8 Covered interval 0 2 c Carbonate concretion IE MF4664 To Fossil sample “ Mf4668 76CB1541 B Sheared section 1%???) JC68—5 76081541A /Mf2188 JC69—4 Sauc- esian V (7) ~Mf4664 -76CB1531 .1, aqueros . + 5 Formation 110 8 .9 5 Zemorrian Mf4665 Mf1376 JC69—3 76CB1532 Base of section not exposed FIGURE 21.—Generalized stratigraphic column of the Afio Nuevo section and location of samples yielding calcareous plankton. Modified from Brabb, Clark, and Throckmorton (1977, fig. 31). Position of benthic foraminiferal stages from McDougall (this volume). Position of Oligocene-Miocene boundary estimated from our samples. EOCENE TO MIOCENE CALCAREOUS PLANKTON 51 TABLE 6.—Distribution of coccoliths and resultant zone assignments for the A710 Nuevo section. [Species shown by asterisk are considered to be reworked] Species g * s * E 3:; 1‘3 3 ‘" E ' 9'. § 7: § Co colith w . fl 8 t a .E g H .1 8 g c 25rd" fi = .3538 mg?) i3 ”€3.11 zone 8 “‘3 a * “55:: cast“ an §°B%$ of Age :3”§§§o%3 s.% “$gfi58§ o~ agar: 9-,§§'6:"g..c gas gd°°N°=£m§E§*‘a-*=G'ES£ Bukry(1975) 2359s & “use zaiz fi%£asoa=gz°§i aefigs tggfigfi %§§§§§s§§r§g%%s§ss $mb §§§§‘§8§?.iéPgésrgsfigufisfieggg§§ mma oooooqdqnqqqé QIIIImwwwwwwhhth 76C31541B x x x aff. aff. x x x x aff. , Mf4668 hSphenolithzs 76C81541A x x x aff. aff. x x x x aff. “‘3'“ng “5 Mf4667 Helico haera - JC68—5 x x x aff. x x ampfifpm “mane Mf2190 JC69—4 X X X aff. aff. X X X aff. Tn'quetrorhabdulus Mf2188 carinatus ______ 1 76C81531 x x aff.X x x x aff. x x x x aff. x cf. aff. x aff.X aff. x Mf4664 76C31532 x x aff.Xaff. x aff. x x Xaff. x aff.aff. x x Xaff. Sphenoh'thus Pate Mf4665 ciperoensis Ollgocene JC69—3 x aff.)< x x x x x x Xaff. x x Mf1376 A310 NUEVO SECTION A composite section for the Afio Nuevo area with the location of samples yielding stratigraphically diagnostic assemblages of calcareous plankton is shown in figure 21. Coccoliths were found throughout the Vaqueros(?) Formation of Hall, Jones, and Brooks (1959) in this section (table 6). Planktic foraminifers are sparse and poorly preserved in samples Mf4664 and Mf4665, but several species were identified (table 7. Planktic foraminifers are common to abundant in samples Mf4667 and Mf4668 but are so poorly pre- TABLE 7,—Distribution of planktic foraminifers in samples from the Ar'io Nuevo section Sample number 76CB1532 7SCB1531 Taxon (Mf4665) (Mf4664) Globigerina angustiumbilicata Bolli. G. juvenilis Bolli G. praebulloides Blow .. G. woodi Jenkins ....... G. tripartita Koch ..... Globorotalia nana Bolli.. G. munda Jenkins Catapsydrax unicavus Bolli, Loeblich and Tappan... Globigerinita praestainforthi Blow Globorotaloides suteri Bolli ............................. xixxxi ><><><><><>< s» F3 aff. air}. aff. served and distorted that no confident identifications were possible. The ranges of several important taxa detected in our samples are shown in figure 22. The coccoliths Triquetrorhabdulus carinatus or T. sp. cf. T. carinatus and Dictyococcites bisectus in samples Mf1376 through Mf4664 (table 6) are second- ary zonal guide taxa that indicate assignment of this interval to the upper Oligocene Sphenolithus ciperoen- sis Zone. The occurrence of Globorotalia nana in this interval is compatible with an upper Oligocene assign- ment. The next higher sample (Mf2188) lacks Dictyococ- cites bisectus and contains Helicosphaera carteri, a form restricted to the Miocene and younger strata. We assign this assemblage to the Triquetrorhabdulus carinatus Zone and place the Oligocene-Miocene boundary (see fig. 21) between sample Mf2188 and sample Mf4664. Samples Mf2190, Mf4667, and Mf4668 from the sheared section of the Vaquer0s(?) Formation, just below the Monterey Formation, con- tain few to common Sphenolithus heteromorphus. which indicates correlation with the lower and middle Miocene Helicosphaera ampliaperta Zone or the lower middle Miocene Sphenolithus heteromorphus Zone. Thus this sheared zone is near the lower Miocene-middle Miocene boundary. Our age interpre- tations when compared to the California benthic 52 STUDIES IN TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY, CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES NJ 8 a E FORMATION 2 TAXA ”4 < w w G) c . . 8 Punsuma 3 Formation a. W U) 3 E g ‘o‘ ‘5 ': g F m L E m E 2 g Monterey u .3 u g ' U) U 8 Formation U 2 g $ g .9 g 3 -Q 6 .2 5 = E w i 3:“ 9 ° ’3 8 8 B '5 8 .2 w H 9 0 ~ .: 9 E 0 £ a. o 3 g ‘0 . a a Sheared section _ .9 E .2 i I — CD l~ Q aff. - 8 Vaqueros(?) 8 Formation a I -.: — O FIGURE 22.—Ranges of selected calcareous plankton in the Afio Nuevo section. foraminiferal stage determinations for this section (McDougall, this volume; Brabb and others, 1977) suggest that the Zemorrian Stage-Saucesian Stage boundary is within the uppermost Oligocene or lower Miocene and the Saucesian Stage-Relizian Stage boundary is within the lower Miocene or middle Miocene. ZAYANTE CREEK SECTION The stratigraphic columns and locations of samples yielding coccoliths from the Zayante Creek section (north limb) are shown on figure 23. Coccolith assemblages from the upper part of the Rices Mud- stone Member of the San Lorenzo Formation cannot be assigned to a specific zone or limited zonal interval but are probably of late Oligocene age (fig. 23, table 8). Meager coccolith assemblages from the overlying Vaqueros Sandstone suggest correlation with the upper Oligocene Sphendlithus distentus Zone or Sphenolithus ciperoensis Zone. An assemblage from the lower part of the Lambert Shale (JC 61—11d) is tentatively considered to be of Miocene age because with the exception of a few fragmented specimens, Dictyococcites bisectus is absent whereas it is fairly common in samples from the underlying Vaqueros Sandstone. Only sparse, juvenile planktic foraminifers that could not be identified with certainty were found in the Zayante Creek Section. SAN LORENZO RIVER SECTION The stratigraphic column for the San Lorenzo River section and locations of samples containing calcareous plankton are shown on figure 24. Data on planktic foraminifers from this section were reported by Poore and Brabb (1977). Coccoliths in samples from the upper part of the Butano Sandstone and the Twobar Shale Member of the San Lorenzo Formation .are listed in table 9. Ranges of selected planktic foraminifers and coccoliths in the San Lorenzo River section are shown on figure 25. Poore and Brabb’s (1977) rationale for planktic foraminifer zone assign- ments are briefly summarized below. The occurrence of Globorotaloides suteri in Mf3301 (upper part of Butano Sandstone) and Globorotalia cerroazulensis cerroazulensis in Mf1350 and Mf3304 (lower part Twobar Shale Member of San Lorenzo Formation) indicate a zonal assignment no lower than Zone P 13 and Zone P 14 respectively, whereas taxa such as “Globigerinoides” higginsi and Truncorotaloides rohri in these samples indicate an assignment no higher than Zone P 14. The occurrence of Globigerina angiporoides minima and G. praebul- [aides in Mf1351 and Mf3305 followed by the occur- rence of typical representatives of G. angiporoides angiporoides in Mf1352 and Mf3306 indicate assign- ment of these levels to Zone P 15 to Zone P 16. Samples from the lower part of the Rices Mudstone Member of the San Lorenzo Formation are assigned to Oligocene zonal interval P 19 — P 20 because of the occurrence of Globigerina ampliapertura and associ- ated coccoliths (see below). After completion of Poore and Brabb’s (1977) study, two additional samples containing diagnostic plank- tic foraminifers were discovered in the Twobar Shale Member (table 10). Planktic foraminifers in sample Mf4756, from the San Lorenzo River section (fig. 24), are referable to middle Eocene Zone P 14. Planktic foraminifers in sample Mf2657, from the upper part of the type Twobar Shale Member in the nearby Kings Creek section, are referable to upper Eocene Zone P 15 or Zone P 16. Thus these data corroborate the study of Poore and Brabb (1977) showing that the Zone P14 - P15 boundary (middle Eocene- upper Eocene boundary of Hardenbol and Berggren, EOCENE TO MIOCENE CALCAREOUS PLANKTON 53 TABLE 8.—Distribution of coccoliths and zone assignments for the Zayante Creek section. [Taxa shown with asterisk are considered to be reworked] Taxon :- 3 * (I) * ’7 ‘3 g In ‘3 as u) é "' i__ vi 1. U: ' E g . g E g E; g V '5. 8 g fig 9'. d. 8 . Coccolith Efiiu £3 E, 3013 § 85.3 gwfig; zone A o :2 g i * .E g 5 a 3 93 h '6 m g o m of ge ‘m§s§m%§sq 3‘6 '5 w8g~ 3533 Sample 38?): ax‘SEEEgWU'a E§£§*£‘=c.§ Bukry(1975) number £‘s9‘73§&8-¥assa§.§ses§%%§%§>§s - °‘.§§§'§.§B%%°~3$§°=§Os§n§: mfg?“ UOOOEdedghtiz‘r:Emwusm'mhhéi‘ JC61-11d X aff.Xaff.aff.X aft. X X X X X ? Miocene 76C31592 X X X X X X X aff.aff. aff.aff. X X X Mf4677 - S henohthus 76CBIS95 aff.X x x x aft. x aff.X x x gpemm L Mf4680 or 01' ate n 76CBl601 x x aff.X x x x x x x x aff.X cf. x x x x sphenomhus 19°C? 9 Mf4681 distentus 76CBI603 X XXXX XXXXX XXXCf. Mf4683 76CBI606 x x x x x x Mf4685 9 .Late 9 76CBl607 X X X X ' Oligocene. Mf4686 1978) is within the lower part of the Twobar Shale Member of the San Lorenzo Formation. Coccoliths in samples from the San Lorenzo River section support the age interpretations derived from planktic foraminifers. The presence of Reticulofen- estra umbilica in sample Mf3301 and Dictyococcites bisectus in sample Mf3304 indicates assignment of these samples respectively to the Discoaster bifax Subzone and the Discoaster saipanensis Subzone of the middle Eocene Reticulofenestra umbilica Zone. The assemblage from the next higher sample (Mf3305) is difficult to assign to a zone, but the occurrence of Sphenolithus predistentus, Pedinocyclus larvalis, and Chiasmolithus altus in Mf3306 suggests correlation of this sample with the upper Eocene Discoaster barbadiensis Zone. The sparse assemblage of sample Mf3308 contains Discoaster saipanensis and is there- fore referable to the same zone. We did not recover age-diagnostic coccolith assemblages from the Rices Mudstone Member of the San Lorenzo Formation in our study; however, Bukry, Brabb, and Vedder (1977) reported an assemblage, containing Cyclicargolithus abisectus, from a sample (68CB123) equivalent to our sample Mf3310, that they questionably assign to the Oligocene Sphenolithus distentus Zone. Figure 26 summarizes the relation of lithostratig- raphy and biostratigraphic determinations derived from planktic foraminifers, coccoliths, and benthic foraminifers from the San Lorenzo River section. Planktic foraminifer data indicate that the Zone P 14 - P 15 boundary occurs in the lower part of the Twobar Shale Member of the San Lorenzo Formation, that is, between the levels delineated by samples Mf3304 and Mf3305. Coccolith data show that the boundary between the Discoaster saipanesisSubzone of the Reticulofenestra umbilica Zone and the Discoaster barbadiensis Zone is at approximately the same place, that is, between samples Mf3304 and Mf3306. The two data sets are in good agreement and show that at this location the middle Eocene—upper Eocene boundary coincides with the base of the Amphimorphina jenkinsi Zone of the Narizian Stage. As noted above, we did not recover age-diagnostic coccoliths from the Rices Mudstone Member of the San Lorenzo Formation; however, Warren and N ewell (1980) report Discoaster barbadiensis from the lower (Refugian) part of the Rices Mudstone Member at this section, which suggests an upper Eocene assignment. In addition, other published studies (Brabb and others, 1971; Lipps, 1967a) suggest an upper Eocene assignment for at least part of the Refugian Stage at other localities. Thus the Eocene-Oligocene boundary in the San Lorenzo River section is tentatively placed in the lower part of the Rices at the boundary between the Refugian and the Zemorrian stages. The remain- ing data from this section indicate an Oligocene 54 STUDIES IN TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY, CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES .1 a m 2% _ w 3 I— g 3&“1 _ < 20 c: 5 3:_< Lu E u.l l-Ep— 0 go: ”' 0 LL a) C a) U .9 2 c E g .‘E ‘0 8 O t 3 (0 g (n E (U _l JC61—1‘l‘“:~ cu C O ‘6; 'U C N m (I) 2 a) 3 O‘ (D > a, C c m a: “E o 1. O O 0’ E Z a) O N 76CB1592 — Continued 0.) C o ‘63 a: E 5 c ._ 8 d ‘C o o ‘93” 8 E 0 a N 3 o- (D > 76CB1595 —~ 76CB1601 —~ EXPLANATION METERS Sandstone 100 Shale Mudstone XI Covered interval Carbonate concretion 0 JCS1—11 Fossil sample FIGURE 23.—Stratigraphic column for north limb of Zayante Creek section and location of samples yielding calcareous nannofossils. Modified from Brabb, Clark, and Throckmorton (1977, fig. 20). Benthic foraminiferal stage boundaries are from McDougall (this volume). Data on coccoliths and benthic foraminifers from the Lambert Shale are from different samples. No samples were examined from the south limb of the Zayante Creek section for this study. EOCENE TO MIOCENE CALCAREOUS PLANKTON 2 “c’ a) ‘1’ a.) S 2 c C c g .n S 3 8 a a .19 .9 Q to .1: .3 E g § .§ § 8 8 § 8%:0 § 8 '8 8 g 000% *3 “g “g .5- § i ON 3 § 4: J: 8 8 .a 8 w i s § § 27 § 3 8 § § § § m o g g .2 .2 .2 .2: U: Q Q Q Q Q (x. (x. smoesgqo anmofiwayado — mun anulowsvwo - syomnl snpriooumad — I l-_-_(n snzuasgpaxd anmouang — o- 4.“! 8 8 molmaund pupa/(Smog on. 00) o sgsuauodgos rmsnoasgg Jafgpou 13151109510 swam 939909061910 nomqwn Dasauafolnoyag SNOZ to 32 v S 1vuaam|wvuoa § E E LA E J: DINOLNNV'Id E ‘ E PLANKTIC FORAMINIFERAL SPECIES owwafi Dymoxoqolg — mnuadnydwo nuyangoIQ - sapgonnqamd nuyafigqolg sapyoxodlfiuo sapyoxodgfiuo DUWBMOIQ o. owgugw sapgoxodlfiun ouyaquolg — xapuysygm ouyafigqolo o. _ sgsuaauasoomo sapgolmoxoqolg yqox sapyolmmoauml n- sgsualnzoouaa sgsualnzoouao oynqoroqolg yams sapgolmoxoqolg .Ime‘Bm “sapzouuafitqwa, awwvs I I I I I I HSEWEIW (ued Jamon Jaqwaw auozspnw seogg Jaqwew sums JBqOMi (ued Jeddn) NOILVWHOJ uogwuuog ozu9101 ues auo1spuas ouezna FIGURE 25.—Ranges of selected calcareous plankton and resultant zone assignments for the San Lorenzo River section. 58 STUDIES IN TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY, CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES assignment for at least the lower part of the U vigerina gallowayi Zone of the Zemorrian Stage. CHURCH CREEK AREA Brabb, Bukry, and Pierce (1971) reported coccoliths indicative of the Discoaster barbadiensis Zone and benthic foraminifers referable to the Refugian Stage from the Church Creek Formation in the Church Creek area of the Santa Lucia Range (fig. 20). As there are few published records of planktic foram- inifers in California marine strata assigned to the Refugian Stage, samples from this unit including those reported by Brabb, Bukry, and Pierce (1971) were examined for planktic foraminifers. Most sam- ples are barren of planktic foraminifers or contain poorly preserved, nondiagnostic assemblages. Two samples, however, did yield relatively diverse assem- blages (table 11). The assemblages present in samples Mf2616 and Mf2626 are compatible with the upper Eocene assignment derived from coccoliths of this Z O I PLANKTONIC BENTHONIC I: '33 RAMINI AL COCCOLITH ZONE FORAMINIFERA'L < 2 F0 FER OR SUBZONE EPOCH 5 I“ ZONEOF OF BUKRY(1975) s E BLOW (1969) STAGE ZONE LL MN W W E c 3 a: “a g a» h c .5: a g 8 £5 8 3 g o E 5’ C E .g ‘3 (U E '3 5 '0 LL 3 o 2 X X .7 Sphenolithus distentus - ————————————— > ---————— N w x P19—P20 Zone .2 c m c a) .9 X .‘2 E a «r X m a 3 u- _| w- r: c g o m 8 (n X Discoaster barbadiensis ------------- <] 5 zone __ 0- a: E: g 2 '5 E : g ‘D .31 o E a rt 2 .S a) “=3 m .c c a) 5 E. 8 0 V: X P16 X Discoaster barbadiensis : g .3 .8 X P15—16 X .7 Discoaster saipanensis .2 LS. g X P14 X Discoaster saipanensis .5 E '— subzone z < .9 SE X P13—14 X Discoaster bifax g g 9 8 zone 5 S (I) I— : 2 a m m o. (n 3 FIGURE 26.—Summary of lithostratigraphy and biostatigraphic determinations for the San Lorenzo River section. Data on benthic foraminifers from McDougall (this volume). The Valuulineria tumeyensis Zone and Uvigerina uicksburgensis Zone of the Refugian Stage appear to be present, albeit poorly developed (McDougall, this volume). Modified from Poore and Brabb (1977, fig. 3). Sample levels for calcareous plankton are shown by X. EOCENE TO MIOCENE CALCAREOUS PLANKTON 59 formation. Moreover, the occurrence of Globorotalia gemma is significant in that this form ranges no lower than Zone P 16 (Blow, 1969). Thus these assem- blages are correlative with Eocene Zones P 16 or P 17. DISCUSSION Planktic calcareous microfossils were either absent or very sparse and poorly preserved in most samples from sections we examined for this field conference. Additionally, most zone assignments for planktic TABLE 10. —0ccurrence of planktic foraminifers and zone assign- ments from samples Mf4756 and Mf2657, from the Twobar Shale Member of the San Lorenzo Formation in the San Lorenzo River and Kings Creek sections Sample number Mf Mf Tax“ 4756 2657 Chilogaembelina sp. ................. x Globigerina angiporoides angiporoides Hornibrook ............................................. - x G. angiporoides minima Jenkins ........ x x G. eocaena Gumbel s.l. x G. praebulloides Blow ........ x G. praeturritilina Blow and Banner .......... x G. pseudouenezuela-na- Blow and Banner x G. senilis Bandy x x G. tripartita Koch x G. utilisindex Jenkins and Orr Globigerinatheka index (Finlay) s. l. G. mexicana (Cushman) s.1 Globigerinita martini Blow and Banner s.l. .......................... . x x “Globigerinoides” higginsi Bolli ..... - Globorotalia cerroazulensis (Cole) , x Globorotaloides carcoselleensis Toumarkine and Bolli . G. wilsoni (Cole) Gumbelitria columbiana Howe ,, Hantkenina sp. .................... Planorotalites pseudoscitula Glaessner)- X Pseudohastigerina lillisi (Church) ............ . x P. micra(C ole) x Truncorotaloides collactea (Finlay) ......... x x P1 ENNX x T. rohri Bronnimann and Bermudez Zone assignment 4 P15:P16 TABLE 11. —Planktic foraminifers and zone assignments for samples from the Church Creek Formation, Santa Lucia Range. Sample number Taxon Mf2616 Mf2626 Globigerina angiporoides angiporoides Hornibrook x G. a. minima Jenkins ...... x G. officinalis Subbotina x G. ouachitaensis Howe and Wallace ........ x G. praebulloides Blow... x G. pseudouenezuelana Blow and Banner x G. tripartita Koch ................................................. x Globigerinita martini Blow and Banner (s.l.) .................. x x Globorotalia gemma Jenkins ,, x x Globorotaloides suteri Bolli .............................. x Zone assignment P16 P16 or or P17 P17 foraminifer or coccolith assemblages were based on secondary rather than primary zone indicators. Even though we employed concentration techniques in coccolith preparations, primary zone indicators were still not encountered in most samples. The absence of calcareous plankton in these sections is due to a variety of factors including: unfavorable facies, geo- graphic limits of index taxa, diagenesis, and the deep weathering characteristic of the Coast Ranges. None- theless, the record from the San Lorenzo River section is valuable information concerning upper middle Eocene to upper Eocene calcareous plankton from the Pacific coast. Undoubtedly these data will become important in future studies concerning biogeography of calcareous plankton of this region. Similarly, data from the San Lorenzo River section show that the middle Eocene-upper Eocene boundary of interna- tional usage is approximated by the base of the Amphimorphina jenkinsi Zone of the Narizian Stage and further that in this area, the Narizian Stage- Refugian Stage boundary is in the upper Eocene. Data from the Zayante Creek and Afro Nuevo sec- tions, albeit sparse, suggest that the Zemorrian Stage- Saucesian Stage boundary is uppermost Oligocene or lower Miocene on the basis of calcareous plankton. TAXONOMIC NOTES Comments in this section are restricted to planktic foraminifers illustrated on plates 7 and 8. A more complete discussion and illustrations of plankton foraminifers from the San Lorenzo River section are presented in Poore and Brabb (1977). Coccoliths identi- fied during the present study are listed at the end of this report along with reference to a publication giving a representative light-microscope illustration. (I/Il'lnguwmbelina ( ubrnxix (Palmer) Plate 7, figures 1, 2 Gumbelina cubensis Palmer, 1934, p. 235-254, figs. 1—6. Chiloguembelina cubensis occurs as a minor com- ponent in several of the planktic assemblages from the San Lorenzo River section. The lower strati- graphic limit of this taxon is ambiguous, but is probably no lower than Zone P 13. Several workers (Jenkins and Orr, 1972; Berggren and Amdurer, 1973) suggest that the last occurrence of Chiloguembelina cubensis can be used to divide Oligocene Zone P 21 into two informal subzones. (Hobigm‘ina practzm‘i/ilina Blow and Banner Plate 8, figures 7, 8 Globigerina turritilina praeturritilina Blow and 60 STUDIES IN TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY, CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES Banner, 1962, p. 99, pl. XIII, figs. a—c. The relatively high spire, open umbilicus, and arch— ing aperture of this taxon serve to distinguish it from large generalized middle and late Eocene Globigerina. Globorolalia 5}). all. (J. munda joukins Plate 8, figures 5, 6 Globorotalia munda Jenkins, 1966, p. 1121, pl. 13, no. 152—166, text fig. 14, no. 126—133. This form is sparse in samples Mf4664 and Mf4665 from the A130 Nuevo section. Poor preservation and few individuals available for study preclude a more positive identification. ()lolmmlalia nmm‘ Bolli Plate 8, figures 1-4 Globorotalia opima nana Bolli, 1957, p. 118, pl. 28, fig. 3. As presently understood, typical Globorotalia nana ranges no higher than upper Oligocene Zone P 22 (Blow, 1969; Stainforth and others, 1975). Other similar forms, such as Globorotalia pseudocontinuosa Jenkins, however, range well into the Miocene. Thus care must be taken in making a pre-Miocene assign— ment based solely on the occurrence of Globorotalia nana. Giimbflitria rolumbimm Howe Plate 7, figures 7-9 Giimbelitria columbiana Howe, 1939, p. 62, pl. 8, figs. 12 and 13. Poorly preserved specimens of this taxon are present in sample Mf4756 from the San Lorenzo River section. Gilmbelitria columbiana was not detected in the other middle and upper Eocene samples from this section (Poore and Brabb, 1977). l’smdolmstigmina lilhsz' (Church) Plate 7, figures 3,6 Pullenia lillisi Church, 1931, p. 209, pl. A, fig. 10 The concepts of McKeel and Lipps (1975) are fol- lowed in identifying this species. Thus the tendency towards loose coiling in mature specimens and the relatively high arched aperture distinguish Pseudo— hastigerina lillisi from P. micra. Pseudohasligerina mirra (Cole) Plate 7, figures 4, 5 Nonion micrus Cole, 1927, p. 22, pl. 5, fig. 12 Pseudohastigerina micra ranges from within basal middle Eocene Zone P 10 through Oligocene zonal interval P 19 — 20. This taxon is fairly common in the Pacific coast rocks of appropriate age and is often useful as a secondary indicator for detecting the lower Eocene-middle Eocene boundary. CALCAREOUS NANNOFOSSILS Some representative coccolith species that are well known from the Gulf Coast, Europe, and Deep Sea Drilling Project cores are illustrated (pl. 9) to show the typical moderate preservation state of northern California assemblages. LOCALITY DATA Samples Mf2616 and Mf2626 from the Santa Lucia Range. Both samples are from the Church Creek Forma- tion in the Chews Ridge 75-minute quadrangle, Mon- terey County, California. Samples were collected by E. E. Brabb in 1969. Sample Mf2616, field number 69CB651. Lat 36° 16’4” N., long 121° 34’8" W. Sample Mf2626, field number 69CB642. Lat 36° 16’9” N., long 121° 35’6" W. Sample taken at creek junction, elevation 2,860 ft (872 m). ILLUSTRATION REFERENCES FOR IDENTIFIED COCCOLITH SPECIES Braarudosphaera bigelowi (Gran and Braarud)—Bybell, 1975. Bramletteius serraculoides Gartner—Gartner, 1969. Campylosphaera dela (Bramlette and Sullivan)—Bramlette and Sullivan, 1961. C. eodela Bukry and Percival—Bukry and Percival, 1971. Chiasmolithus altus Bukry and Percival—Burkry and Percival, 1971. C. expansus (Bramlette and Sullivan)—Bramlette and Sullivan, 1961. C. grandis (Bramlette and Riedel)—Bramlette and Sullivan, 1961. C. solitus (Bramlette and Sullivan, 1961). Coccolithus cribellum (Bramlette and Sullivan)—Bramlette and Sullivan, 1961. C. formosus Kamptner—Kamptner, 1963. C. staurion Bramlette and Sullivan—Bramlette and Sullivan, 1961. Cruciplacolithus tenuis (Stradner) s. ampl.—Martini, 1971. Cyclicargolithus abisectus (Muller)—Bukry and Percival, 1971. C. floridanus (Roth and Hay)—Bramlette and Wilcoxon, 1967 (as C. neogammation). C.? luminus (Sullivan) n. comb.-—basionym: Cyclococcolithus luminus Sullivan, 1965, p. 33, pl. 3, figs. 9a, b. Cyclococcolithina gammation (Bramlette and Sullivan)—Bukry, 1974. C.? kingi (Roth)—Gartner, 1971 (as C. protoannula). Daktylethra punctulata Gartner—Gartner and Bukry, 1969. Dictyococcites bisectus (Hay, Mohler, and Wade)—Bukry and Percival, 1971. D. scrippsae Bukry and Percival—Bukry and Percival, 1971 Discoaster barbadiensis Tan—Bramlette and Sullivan, 1961. D. deflandrei Bramlette and Riedel—Bramlette and Wilcoxon, 1967. UPPER EOCENE TO LOWER MIOCENE BENTHIC FORAMINIFERS 61 Discoaster divaricatus Hay—Hay and others, 1967. D. elegans Bramlette and Sullivan—Bramlette and Sulli- v a n , 1 9 6 1 . D. exilis Martini and Bramlette—Martini and Bramlette, 1963. D. lodoensis Bramlette and Riedel—Bramlette and Sullivan, 1961. D. nodifer (Bramlette and Riedel)—Bukry, 1974. D. saipanensis Bramlette and Riedel—Bukry, 1974. D. tani Bramlette and Riedel—Bramlette and Riedel, 1954. D. variabilis Martini and Bramlette, 1963. Discolithina distincta (Bramlette and Sullivan)—Bramlette and Sullivan, 1961. D. multipora (Kamptner)—Kamptner, 1948. D. plana (Bramlette and Sullivan)—Bramlette and Sullivan, 1961. Helicosphaera bramlettei (Muller)—Muller, 1970. H. carteri (Wallich)—Bramlette and Wilcoxon, 1967. H. compacta Bramlette and Wilcoxon—Bramlette and Wilcoxon, 1967. H. euphratis Haq—Haq, 1973. H. intermedia Martini—Haq, 1973. H. obliqua Bramlette and Wilcoxon—Bramlette and Wilcoxon, 1967. H. perch nielsenasae Haq—Haq, 1973. H. recta Haq—Haq,,1973. Isthmolithus recuruus Deflandre—Hay and others, 1966. Lanternithus minutus Stradner—Gartner and Burky, 1969. Lophodolithus reniformis Bramlette and Sullivan—Bramlette and Sullivan, 1961. Micrantholithus flos Deflandre—Sullivan, 1964. Pedinocyclus larvalis (Bukry and Bramlette)—Bukry and Bram- lette, 1971. Pemma angulatum Martini—Martini, 1959. P. basquensis (Martini) s. ampl.—Bybell, 1975. Reticulofenestra oamaruensis (Deflandre)—-Stradner and Edwards, 1968. R. reticulata (Gartner and Smith)—Bybell, 1975 R. umbilica (Levin)—Bybell, 1975. Rhabdosphaera tenuis Bramlette and Sullivan—Bramlette and Sullivan, 1961. Sphenolithus belemnos Bramlette and Wilcoxon—Bramlette and Wilcoxon, 1967. S. conicus Bukry—Bukry, 1971. S. dissimilis Bukry and Percival—Bukry and Percival, 1971. S. furcatolithoides Locker—Locker, 1967. S. heteromorphus Deflandre—Bramlette and Wilcoxon, 1967. S. moriformis (Bronnimann and Stradner)—Bram1ette and Wil- coxon, 1967. S. predistentus Bramlette and Wilcoxon—Bramlette and Wilcoxon, 1967. S. pseudoradians Bramlette and Wilcoxon—Bramlette and Wil- coxon, 1967. S. radians Deflandre—Sullivan, 1965. S. spiniger Bukry—Bukry, 1971. Transversopontis pulcheroides (Sullivan)—Sullivan, 1964 (as Discolithus pulcheroides). Tribrachiatus orthostylus Shamrai—Bramlette and Sullivan, 1961 (as Discoaster tribrachiatus). Triquetrorhabdulus carinatus Martini—Bramlette and Wilcoxon, 1967. Zygolithus dubius Deflandre—Bybell, 1975. Zygrhablithus bijugatus (Deflandre)—Bybell, 1975. Indeterminate or undifferentiated species of the following genera are also tabulated: Chiasmolithus Hay, Mohler, and Wade, 1966. Coccolithus Schwarz, 1894. Discolithina Loeblich and Tappan, 1963. Helicosphaera Kampter, 1954 Reticulofenestra Hay, Mohler, and Wade, 1966. Rhabdosphaera Haeckel, 1894. Sphenolithus Deflandres, 1952. Tessellatolithus Haq, 1968. Thoracosphaera Kamptner, 1927. Trochoaster Klumpp, 1953. Zygrhablithus Deflandre, 1959. UPPER EOCENE TO LOWER MIOCENE BENTHIC FORAMINIFERS FROM THE SANTA CRUZ MOUNTAINS AREA, CALIFORNIA By KRISTIN MCDOUGALL ABSTRACT Benthic foraminiferal assemblages from three sections (San Lorenzo River, Zayante Creek, and Afro Nuevo sections) in the Santa Cruz Mountains area, California, provide a sequence of species that are diagnostic of the middle Tertiary California benthic foraminiferal stages—Narizian through Relizian Stages. The lower Narizian Bulimina corrugata Zone is recognized in the San Lorenzo River section by the presence of restricted early Narizian species such as Amphimorphina becki, Cibicides pachy- derma, Karreriella elongata, and Pleurostomellina alternans. The upper Narizian Amphimorphina jenkinsi Zone is recognized in this section by the presence of Uvigerina garzaensis nudorobusta, Eggerella elongata, and the first occurrence of many species that range into younger strata. The Refugian Stage is recognized in the strata above a glauconite bed in the Twobar Shale Member of the San Lorenzo Formation. These Refugian faunas contain species typical of deeper water and have a more northern aspect than pre- sent in the type area of the Refugian Stage, and prove additional data on the age ranges of the diagnostic Refugian species. Parts of the Zemorrian Stage are recognized from all three sections examined. The lower Zemorrian Uvigerina gallowayi Zone is identified in the San Lorenzo River and Zayante Creek sections by diagnostic species such as Uvigerina gallowayi, Tex- tularia shivelyi, Pseudonodosaria gallowayi, and Uvigerinella obesa impolita. The upper Zemorrian Uvigerinella sparsicostata 62 STUDIES IN TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY, CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES Zone is recognized in the Zayante Creek and Afio Nuevo sections by the lowest occurrences of Siphogenerina nodifera, S. mayi, S. multicostata, Bulimina carneroensis, and Uvigerinella sparsi- costata. Saucesian faunas identified from the Afio Nuevo section include Baggina robusta, Bolivina marginata adelaidana, and Dentalina quadrulata. This section also contains Relizian assem' blages, which are identified by the presence of poorly preserved specimens of Siphogenerina hughesi and Valvulineria califomica. The lower Zemorrian-upper Zemorrian and Zemorrian-Saucesian boundaries are gradational owing to continuous deposition and unchanged bathymetric conditions; this necessitates some modifi- cation of species ranges and diagnostic species defining the stage and zone boundaries. The infrequent and sporadic occurrences of planktic foraminifers and nannofossils in these sections do not allow definitive calibra- tion of planktic foraminiferal zone boundaries to benthic foram- iniferal stage or zone boundaries but do suggest the following correlations: (1) the lower Narizian-upper Narizian boundary corresponds approximately to the middle Eoceneupper Eocene boundary (2) the Refugian Stage is upper Eocene, (3) the Zemorrian Stage is Oligocene, and (4) the Saucesian Stage is lower Miocene. INTRODUCTION Benthic foraminifers were examined from three sections in the central California Coast Ranges as part of the field conference and meeting held by the International Commission on Paleogene Stratig- raphy in 1977. The purpose of this meeting was to correlate the West Coast zonal schemes based on benthic foraminifers to zonal schemes of wider usage ) \ \ 0" ' Y 1 ”a c wad/“50.9: \W [SANTA CRUZ co \% I _ _l \— — / San Lorenzo \ , River Section ‘\ Boulder O Creek Zayante Creek Section Afio Nuevo Point 0 5 10 15 KILUMETEHS 0 5 10 MILES FIGURE 27.—General location of sections examined for this study. based on nannofossils and planktic foraminifers, and ultimately to correlate the California sequences with the European stages. The purpose of this paper, therefore, is to provide the stage, zonal, and subzonal assignments based on benthic foraminifers. The impetus for microfossil studies and the develop- ment of a zonal scheme was the discovery of oil in California in the early part of the twentieth century. This activity led to the development of a Tertiary zonal scheme based on benthic foraminifers. The definitions and descriptions of these stages and zones are given in Kleinpell (1938), Mallory (1959), and Don- nelly (1976—this modified the original definition of Schenck and Kleinpell, 1936). Work since then has been directed toward describing faunas and extend- ing these zonal schemes along the west coast of North America. Extension of these stages outside their type localities has resulted in correlation prob- lems. Planktic foraminiferal nannofossil studies (Steineck and Gibson, 1971; Bukry and others, 1977; Poore, 1976, and this volume) have demonstrated that the benthic foraminiferal stages are commonly time-transgressive from one area to another when compared to zonal schemes based on planktic organ- isms. Benthic foraminiferal studies should now be directed toward recognizing the problems and causes, and resolving them. Benthic foraminifers from the Santa Cruz Moun- tains (San Lorenzo River and Zayante Creek sections, fig. 27) and along the adjacent coast (Ar’io Nuevo section, fig. 27) were analyzed to determine stage and zone boundaries. These sections provide a nearly continuous sequence from the N arizian Stage to the Relizian Stage (fig. 28). The benthic foraminiferal assemblages include species from bathymetric facies different than in the type areas of the stages and zones and thus provide additional information on species age ranges and environmental tolerances. This information suggests that minor revisions are needed in the benthic foraminiferal criteria used to recognize the stages and zones. Planktic microfossil data, though sparse or limited, do suggest that these stages can be correlated with international time scales. The sections examined in this report do not overlap enough in time, however, to consider the problem of time-transgressive stages. As more com- plex sampling and more detailed work with planktic and benthic organisms is done, factors contributing to or causing the time-transgressive stages can be identified and perhaps resolved. Acknowledgments—I thank W. V. Sliter, R. Z. Poore, and E. E. Brabb for discussions and sugges- tions on the manuscript and also Robert Oscarson UPPER EOCENE TO LOWER MIOCENE BENTHIC FORAMINIFERS 63 and M. G. Murphy for assisting in the preparation of the plates. Special thanks are given to E. E. Brabb for measuring sections and collecting the samples used in this study. SAN LORENZO RIVER SECTION The San Lorenzo River section is in the Santa Cruz Mountains northwest of the town of Santa Cruz (fig. 27). Tertiary rock units exposed along this river section include the Butano Sandstone, San Lorenzo Formation, and Vaqueros Sandstone. New benthic foraminiferal data (table 12) from the San Lorenzo Formation augment and modify (fig. 29) the earlier work by Sullivan (1962). Detailed descriptions of the lithology, structure, and sample localities are given in Sullivan (1962), Poore and Brabb (1977), and Brabb, Clark, and Throckmorton (1977). See table 13 for field numbers and the corresponding sample num- bers used in this report. .4 9 BE 3 “I; 3 BENTHONIC SAN LORENZO ZAYANTE I Z FORAMINIFERAL - SERIES 5 2% ZONE SUBZONE RIVER CREEK ANO NUEVO w < a: m o u. c .9 g 2 Mf4668 Mf4662 2 Uuigen'nella 8 obesa impolita .9. C 2 .‘2 g) Plectofrondicularia D miocenica (U U) Siphogenen'na transversa No subzones Mf4671 Mf4664 Uvigen'nella mag; Mf1374—1376 g E sparstcostata M f4 68 1 Mf4665 8 8 g: «E: Mf2700—2701 Mf4682—4683 O N Uvigerina gallowayi Mf1366—1363 Uuigen'na vicksburgensis Mf1364—1365 : .‘2 g Uvigen'na atwilli g Valuuh'nen‘a Mf1360—1362 tumeyensis a2 Cibicides haydoni ? Missing ? c a: 0 ° Am h'mo hina Mf1355—1357 L” p I m jenkinsi N0 Smenes Mf1350—1352 : :3 Uvigen'na Mf3304 i5 garzaensis Z Bulimina corrugata Uvigen'na churchi FIGURE 28.—Stratigraphic relations and stage and zone assignments of samples examined for this study. Benthic foraminiferal stages and zones were defined by Schenck and Kleinpell (1936), Kleinpell (1939), Mallory (1959), and Donnelly (1976). 64 STUDIES IN TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY, CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES TABLE 12.—Benthic foraminifers from the San Lorenzo River section of Brabb, Clark, and Throckmorton (1977, fig. 12) Benthonic foraminiferal stage Narizian Bi (1: ’2. << Late Refugian Early Zemorrian Taxon Amphimorphina becki Mallory Anomalina garzaensis Cushman and SIegfus .......... Asterigerina crassaformis Cushman and Siegfus Bathysiphon eocenica Cushman and Hanna ............ Bathysiphon spp. .. . . .. Bifarina eleganta (Plummer) Boldia cf. B. hodgei (Cushman and Scl'Ienck) Boliuina sp.. . Bulimina corrugata Cushman and SIegfus Bulimina curtissima Cushman and Siegfus Chilostomella sp. Cibicides pachydermd (Rzehak) ...... Cibicides spp . Cibicides spiropunctatus Galloway and Morrey ...... Dentalina spinosa ornatior Sullivan ,, Dorothia cabana (Cushman and Bermudez . Eggerella elongata Blaisdell ........................................ Eggerella subconica Parr ....... ?Eggerella subconica Parr... .. Ellipsonodosaria atlantisae hispidula Cushman Gyroidina orbicularis planata Cushman ....................... Haplophragmoides spp.. Karreriella elongata MalloI'y ............... . Lenticulina midwayensis (Plummer) ............ Lenticulina pseudovortex (Cole) ............ Lenticulina spp... Marginulina subbuilata Hantken Marginulina subbullata of Mallory Martinottiella eocenica Cushman and Bermudez Nodosaria cf. N. gyrata Mallory“ Nodosaria longiscata d’OIbigny Nodosaria pyrula d Orbigny .. Nodosaria spp.. . Oridorsalis umbonatus (Reuss) ...................... Plectina garzaensis Cushman and Siegfus Pleurostomella alternans Schwager... Praeglobobulimina pupoides (d Orbigny) Pseudonodosaria inflata (Bornemann) Pullenia quinqueloba (Reuss) .......... . Quinqueloculina minuta Beck Rhabdammina eocenica Cushman and Hanna .. Reophax pilulifer H. B. Brady ...... . Spiroplectammina richardi Mart Uvigerina churchi Cushman and Sieg Vaginulinopsis saundersi (Hanna and Hanna Anomalina cf. A umbonata Cushman- Boldia hodgei (Cushman and Schenck)........ .. . Bolivina gracilis Cushman and Applin . Bolivina kleinpelli Beck ............................................... Bolivina scabrata Cushman and Bermudez ,, Bulimina microcostata Cushman and Parker... ?Buliminella sp. Cassidulina diverse Cushman and Stone Cassidulina spp. Cibicides falconensis Renz ......... Fursenkoina californiensis (Cushman) .. Fursenkoina dibollensis (Cushman and Applm) Gyroidina condoni (Cushman and Schenck) .............. Lenticulina insuetus (Cushman and Stainforth) Marginulina spp. ....................... .. Plectofrondicularia spp. .. Praeglobobulimina cf. P. ovata (d Orbigny) .............. Pseudoparrella cf. P. danuillensis (Howe and Wallace) Stainforthia sp. Stichocassidulino cf. S tholmani Stone Stilostomella adolphina (d’ Orbigny) ...... Stilostomella advena (Cushman and La . .. Uvigerina elongata Cole m>mwwwww~n~q~awwmw M13304 "11‘11’11’11 '110'11 |||||||||||||||llmowwwwwwwwommwwmwwwmwm mmwmww wwwwwowwmwwwwwwwmlwlIIl|Iml|llwlllllwlllllwlwm||||||||||m|w|||Mfl%0 I'TJI|I’TII|IIIOI’UIlll|||||||HI||||||lllllllll’fil'elll’filllllllI’UFUIIMf1351 ||Ill|IllII|||||llll|||||||l||||||||l||||l|||||l||ll||ll|ll||lMf1352 ||Ill|Ill||||ll‘il|lllllllllllPUIIIIIIIlll'fllIll’iillllllllllllllllMf1355 Ill’filllllllllll||IllIll|||||Il'fi‘fil|IIl’filll’flll‘ilollIFUIII’UIIIIIIIIMf1356 ll||ll||l|||I|I‘fil||||||||l|||’11||||l||||||||||||l|||||O|||l||||Mf1357 lllllllllllll’flIOllllllll’filIll'ifilllllIOIII‘U’JUIII||||||||||||||l||Mf1360 |||||||ll|III’UIOI|Ill|||"11|||I’Tfill||||O|||||||||l||l||||||||||||Mf1361 ||||||||I||ll|l’lil|||Ill||ll|||||||Ilhil||||||||||||||||ll|l||||Mf1362 ||||||||Ill|||lllll|||Ill||l||||||IIOIIIWI|||||||l||l|||||||||Mf1364 |||||II||||||ll|lllll|||||||Illlllll’filllll|||l||||l|||l|||l|llMf1365 II|||ll||||||II|lllll|Il‘iill|||||||Il’filllll|||||l|||||||||"*1|'°||Mf1366 ll|||ll|IIIII’UI|||||||Il'iill||||||||||||||>||ll|||||l|||ll|||||Mf2700 ||*11||||||||||ll|||ll|Ill|||ll|III|||Ill|||l|l||||l||l|||||||l|Mf2701 |||||||||||||ll|||l||||||Illllllll|||IlllelllllllllllllllllllMf1367 |||||||||||||||||||||||||||llllllllllllll’flllllllllll||ll||l|||Mf1368 II'TJIII UPPER EOCENE T0 LOWER MIOCENE BENTHIC FORAMINIFERS 65 TABLE 12.—Benthic foraminifers from the San Lorenzo River section of Brabb, Clark, and Throckmorton (1977, fig. 12)—Continued Narizian Late B enthonic foraminiferal stage Refugian m m 2. ‘< Taxon Mf 1350 Mf1360 Mf1361 Mf1362 Mf1364 Mf1365 Mf1366 Mf2701 Mf1367 Mf 1368 Haplophragmoides deflata Sullivan ........ Haplophragmoides sp. 1VV Bolivinoides mexicanus (Cole) ............ Fursenkoina bramletti (Galloway and Money) Stilostomella sp. ., Trifarina wilcoxensis (Cushman and Ponton) VVVVVVVVVV Bulimina sculptilis lacinata Cushman and Parker Lenticulina coaledensis (Detling)... Plectofrondicularia packardi Cushman and Schenck ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, Saracenaria cf. S. hantkeni Cushm Uvigerina garzaensis Cushman and Sie Valvulineria tumeyensis (Cushman and Simonson) ...................... Globobulimina pacifica Cushman Lenticulina welchi (Church) ....................... Orthomorphina rohri (Cushman and tamforth) Planularia markleyana Church .................. Stilostomella lepidula (Schwager) ....... Plectofrondicularia vaughani Cushman . ....... Spiroloculina texana Cushman and Ellisor .................. Cassidulina cf. C. crassipunctata Cushman and Hobson Cibicides elmaensis Rau Cibicides haydoni (Cushman and Schenck) Cyclammina pacifica Beck.” Dentalina cocoaenszs (Cushman)m ............. Dentalina jacksonensis (Cushman and mApplin) Dentalina cf. D. soluta Reuss. .. Globocassidulina globosa (Hantken) Guttulina frankei Cushman and Ozaan Guttulina irregularis (d’Orbigny) Karreriella washingtonensis Rau Lagena hexagona (Williamson) Melonis sp Plectofrondicularia packardi multilineata Cushman and Simonson... Quinqueloculina imperialis Hanna and Hanna Saracenaria schencki Cushman and Hobson. Spiroplectammina directa (Cushman and Siegfiis) Uvigerina cocoaensis species group ................................... Anomalina californiensis Cushman and Hobson Gyroidina soldanii d’ Orbigny Lenticulina cf L. pseudorotulata (Asano) Marginulina adunca (Costa) VVVVVVVVVV Trifarina hannai (Beck) ................. Lenticulina chehalisensis Rau. Marginulina alazaensis Nuttall .. Nodosaria sp. ........................................... Nonion halkyardi Cushman VVVVV Sigmomorphina schencki Rau. C clammina spp. ................................ V'ponides sp. Cassidulina crassipunctata Cushman and Hobson Cassidulinoides californiensis Bramlette Lagena costata (Williamson) ..................... Lagena cf. L. costata (Williamson) Lagena semistriata Williamson ....... Lenticulina inornata (d’Orbigny) Nonionella miocenica Cushman .......... Cibicides pseudoungerianus euolutus Cushman and Hobson ..... Bulimina inflata Seguenza Lagena becki Sullivan ........... Lagena vulgaris Williamso ..... Marginulina exima Neugebore Bolivina marginata Cushman ........... Praeglobobulimina ovata d’ Orbigny Uuigerina auberiana d’ Orbigny“... |||l |||| MBmM | mmummo Mf1351 IIIIII>H1M£1352 l||||||| |||||||| |||l|l|l ||l||||| |||||||| ||l|l||| |||W>||| Illwwlll IIIIIIII |||||||| |||||||O 0W1 fiOIIlIIIMfl%5 Ilo Ilo Ilw Ilo ||mwwmww Olw w>IIIIIIMfl%6 WHIWIIIRJ Old: >III|IIIMf1357 ||I||l|| |||||||| |||||||| |||||||| IIIIIIWI Illlllll |||||||| |||||||| ||||lll| |||l|||| ||l||||| |||||||| |||||||| |l||l||| |||l||||||||l ||||||||||||| ||||||||||l|| ||||||||||||| |||||||||||l| ||||||||||||| |||||l||||||| IIIWIIIIIWWII ||l|||||||||| ||||||||||||| |||||||l||||| |||||||||>|l| ||||||||||||l ||||||||l|||| ||||||||||||| lfiwwl>lllfifill llllllllllllllllmww>wwmm wwwwwwwwwwoow IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII llIlIIlIIIIIlIllIIIIIIII IllllllllxwwwwwwIIIIIWIfi IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIlIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIwIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIII Illllwllll IIIIIIIWOIIIIIIIIIIIIIII |>l||Ol||||||||l|fi||||1| lfilllllllll |||||||||l||| |O|||||l||| ||||||l|||l|| Illwmwww w>www>mllllllllllllllllw |||||||| llwlllll |||||||| |||||||| |||||||| |||||||| |||||||| |||||l|| |I||l||| |||||||| |||||||l |||||||| |||||||| |||||||| IWIIIIII filllllll STUDIES IN TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY, CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES > SAMPLE SULLIVAN, 1962 THIS STUDY 2'; o FORMATION MEMBER 5 3 NUMBER BENTHONIC BENTHONIC FORAMINIFERAL 0 FORAMINIFERAL STAGE STAGE ZONE M .5 = 3 ”TV Mf1368 .g a g g a W Mf267 ‘- -: - 3 ‘D ‘3 \Mf24o1 E 5 ‘5 “3’ Z“ 3 E a: —’ o s: N 3 § Mf2700 N g _. 5 t Mf1366 N .9, co 0:) 5 Q o 5 '5 """""" 32256 a ‘3 2255 _ . . 3 E Mf1365 a: Uwgenna 3 Mf1 364 & uicksburgensis m- C D g M 32254? .g _.§_ ___ ______Z_°PE ______ 3: 32253? a; 3 a3 Valuulinen‘a a, . 32252 a: a: g tumzeyenszs Mf1360—1362 -' °"e Paraconformity Mf1355—1357 32251 C .9 E E 8 2 O O N E ._ 93 E o 4‘ _. g i U = a ‘31 .E (U Q _: m E E‘ 0) O 2 .§ a) h .c — D. 5“: § 1% a c 3 5 3 3 IE .5 _ Mf1352 5 (2‘6 32235 2 "— Mf1351 32234 < Mf1350, 32233 Mf3304 METERS lUU - Q) C O N U ‘6 ‘- 3’ “3’ E SO-n 3 u U B Q) E 5 2 5 a S 8 .‘3 g 3 co gs g 3 D U) U _ FIGURE 29.—Age interpretations of San Lorenzo River Section as determined by Sullivan (1962) and this study. Mf localities are from US. Geological Survey microfossil locality register, Menlo Park, Calif., and B localities are from University of California, Berkeley, fossil locality register. Stratigraphic column from Poore and Brabb (1977, fig. 2). UPPER EOCENE TO LOWER MIOCENE BENTHIC FORAMINIFERS TABLE 13.—Key to field numbers and sample numbers [Field numbers with the prefix 76GB and EB were collected by E. E. Brabb, Numbers preceded by JC were collected by J. C. Clark] 67 The oldest of the samples examined, Mf3304 (fig. 29), is from the lower part of the Twobar Shale Member of the San Lorenzo Formation. This sample Em if, Effie, SW“ :33 1; Effie, seam“ was taken from just below sample B2233 (University Mf1350 7scs1352 San Lorenzo River MF2192 .10663 A110 Nuevo of Callfornia Berkele number . Sullivan (1962) con- , Mf1351 76CBl353 .. .. Mf2193 JC-68»2 Do . . Mf1352 76c31354 Ml‘Z194 JC-63-4 Do Sidered all the samples In the lower part of the San Mf1355 EBZ56G Mf2195 JOBS-l D . . . . Mf1356 EB256B Mf2700 EB395D San Lorenzo River Lorenzo Formatlon to be of late Nar1z1an age and Mf1356 EBZSGK Mf2701 E867 ...Do., .. . . . . . . . Mf1360 E8256A Mf3304 76CBI451 mDo dlagnostic of the Amphzmorphma JenkmSL Zone (fig. Mf1361 EBZBGD Mf4531 JC-67-5 Afro Nuevo.... . . Mf1362 EBZ56L Mf4661 76CBl541 ...D0 29). Sample Mf3304 contalns a more d1verse and Mf1364 EBZSGN Mf4664 76CE’11531 . Do . . Mf1365 EB256P Mf4665 76CBl532 , Du abundant mlcrofauna than that recovered by Sulli- Mf1367 EB676 Mf4667 76CB1521A ...Do . . . mass EB677 Mf4668 76CBl54lB ,,,,,,, Do.... van (1962) and suggests instead an early Nar121an Mf1374 JC-691 Mf4671 76CBI562 Zayante Creek . . . . Mf1375 JC-692 Mf4677 76CBI592 ...Do.... age. This sample 1ncludes spec1es such as Dorothla Mf2188 JC-69-4 Mf4679 76CB1593 . . . . . Mf2189 Jc.666 Mf4681 76C31601 cubana and Lenttculma midwayenSLs (fig. 30), Wthh Mf2190 JC-68~4 Mf4682 76CB1602 . . . . Mf2191 MC-68-4 Mf4683 76CBI603 are usually consrdered to be diagnostic of the Ulatis- z BENTHONIC g} E E L_|IJ EE FORAMIN- E g 2 g :2 TAXON IFERAL a a: w < <3 0 5 ”3 UJZ IL STAGE ZONE 9 8 E z: A E E g '13 '5 8' 5; 3 ‘E : cg) g g m S E c g E "E =° “1 o .9 Q- : 5—) :1 -° “ tn 8 : ° .5 .9 t .S 5 o c u: . 8 E g g 5”; 121 g E, .= 5 3 "’ T? E u E E ° N g E g ‘5 E c u a E ‘5 E 1368 1» E g é e, .g '5 :> 6 {1367 é; §§£j§§§fa§ 8 1366 a 28 ogggfigmb 5; E o 2 u A. 2 m U Z | | 33 '5 '§-2§8-a'§ 8111 'z 2 2700 E e E e 6 3 .2 ____.-___ .__ a m 1366 E g 8 ‘3 T1 5 8 E 3‘ D E "’ e 8 s 8, ‘E m . g 3 e 2 e- a - if 1365 g g 8 E E v =° g g c .g «1 ° 1364 : 9 g 8 i 8 g 0 7g 0 .9 N g“ ”- .g ‘” w u E 32 g E .2 E a: gm 0 a rigs 33521.42 .2: 2 :32 N 1362 § 6 E g *C (3 x "’ U ”i a? “5’ C ..____ 1’ 1361 ”fisfifim Illll Lower o 1360 V, g a I I I I I —' g E u s E ‘0‘ g 1357 38E§ 6‘58 3666--.- a g 1356 g-Dggg-SEE‘EE ge'ggfig g u, 1355§2,§gggzgs§s u§§§§t B‘a esfiaasisfi-‘g EuEfga 35 _ afionwgeéag'g egaé’gs as w .9 3 .E El ‘n’l t; 1: .5 = 8 : A 1: ‘u c p a ‘1“ D ~5_u.:7§E‘:§,.a“’—== g‘:51:g3 E g 13522§§g§§§355m w.§’».;~§3§ < 2 13518~I|O > Mf4681 IIIOIIII IIIOI'GII 515151>~410fl151 o Mf4683 | | ’11-‘71 "H | ”fl’fl’n‘fl ||||IIlllIll|||||||||||||||||||||||l|||||I|I|||||||>>1 ||||||||||||1|||Iflown1>111111m>1o011momwmmmmm>>w>owo| |||||ll||||ll||11|||||1>lllllll|>||1||5Ull=oll>llllfiluil Illllllllfioxxwmlllll>l>l||||||IIIIIIOFUIIIIIIIOII’U’UIIO >fi1wfiw1’flwlllll|I>1|I>I|ll|l|l|l|1|||11|||||||>lllllll 70 STUDIES IN TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY, CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES Species diagnostic of the Zemorrian Stage include Bolivina marginata, Bulimina inflata, Nonionella miocenica, and Uvigerina auberiana (fig. 30). Also present are several species that first occur in the late Refugian but continue into the Zemorrian, including Cassidulinoides californiensis and Cassidulina crassi— punctata. Much better data are obtained by Sullivan (1962) because the U. C. Berkeley samples strati- graphically higher than Mf1368 contain abundant diagnostic Zemorrian species. Based on the data discussed above, the San Lorenzo River section contains faunas assignable to the early and late Narizian, part of the early Refugian, the late Refugian, and the early Zemorrian. ZAYANTE CREEK SECTION The Zayante Creek section is north of the town of Santa Cruz in the Santa Cruz Mountains (fig. 27). Only assemblages (table 14) from the north limb of the San Lorenzo syncline along the upper part of Zayante Creek were used. Samples are from the - m uJI BENTHONIC §z a' fig FORAMIN- 52 3 :2 TAXON IFERAL LL m $2 STAGE ZONE E) E g .‘E 2 8 -- 8 :7 m - VJ U V .E E U c (I) a. U c m I: Q) E 2 'a 1: 8’5 ‘-= m a) a: '6 3 z o a o o .u o g E '5 C 4: 'E m 3 5 § 0 <0 .4 Z —Mf4671 l g .22 V’ v: E 8 .2 % ‘9 E s '5 3 £2 ‘9. g :3 S —Mf4677 g; g E -° 8 6 Q ‘5 E '9 2 s . E s :§ § % E E 3‘ U 8 e (I) E ‘5 N D g, c 3 -- E E s ‘6 2 ._ g E E E u U) D E ._ '6 .3 Q: ~--- 9- : .9: 3 Q (I) o E m 3‘ b) N o u .9- .fl 5 .E E N 5': '— Mf4679 .U T: 3 i5 _: I I m .9 E l: N a 3 w 8 ° 8 "’ 3 g .1: ’5 5) = ,6 > 5 ° 1: E U c: ”"8 2 :3 pg .5 g : $3.; ~ :5 . o E 79 S 5 I": ,3: 8 g 3 .9 a '3 ° = v: _ Mf4681£ o 0 D o. —Mf4682 . | | ~ I c 3‘ — Mf4683 l .g g .2452 3 N :: 8) FIGURE 31.—Stratigraphic distribution of selected diagnostic benthic foraminifers in Zayante Creek section representing Zemorrian and Saucesian(?) Stages. Vaqueros Sandstone and Lambert Shale. Detailed sample locality, sedimentologic, and structural descrip— tions are given by Brabb, Clark, and Throckmorton (1977). See table 13 for field numbers and corres- ponding microfossil locality (Mf) numbers used in this report. The lowest sample examined in this section, Mf4683 (fig. 31), contains a fauna indicative of the lower Zemorrian Uvigerina gallowayi Zone. Diagnostic spe- cies include Bolivina marginata, Nodosaria holserica, and Textularia shivelyi. The next stratigraphically higher sample, Mf4682, is more diverse and has a better developed early Zemorrian fauna. Included in this sample are species continuing from the Refugian (Anomalina californiensis and Cassidulina crassi- punctata), as well as the early Zemorrian species from the underlying sample. Additionally this sample contains species restricted to the early Zemorrian (Pseudonodosaria gallowayi and Uvigerina gal- lowayi) and species which first occur in the early Zemorrian (Gaudryina gracilis and Siphogenerina nodifera). The presence of Uuigerinella sparsicostata in Mf4683 indicates the close proximity of the early Zemorrian-late Zemorrian boundary. Faunas diagnostic of the Zemorrian Stage (fig. 31, samples Mf4681 to Mf4671) continue throughout the remainder of the section. Species diagnostic of the early Zemorrian do not appear above Mf4682, there- Lu —1 FORMA- u. SAMPLE E SERIES now <2: NUMBER TAXON STAG (D E g E n, ._ E 3 E c 5 E U) «I u g E E E 'n E E g g a 3 2 9 E “ c C 5 E g- 0 . § 2 c a E g 1% g; § ; " ,9 .9 i .2 S g u 1i .9- : Mf4668~ ~£819 ~9«—="° ‘0‘” - —-— a 3 s 2 s a s . ‘Mf4667 0, 3E o a E E a I ____ “was“: €§3§§ —----- a 5 '5 E v § g; E a} = U (ll 5, E 8. E 5 g. 8. g 8 g s 4E s E i 2 : a "g :3 <72 a 3 i7: 9% :8 "’ ____ E Mf1375 . ____ 5 flémmeem | I I : ~Mf1374 h. E a) “5 c o > o .9 E 5 fl Mf4665 mes FIGURE 32.——Stratigraphic distribution of selected benthic forami- nifers diagnostic of Zemorrian through Relizian Stages in the Afio Nuevo section of Brabb, Clark, and Throckmorton (1977, fig. 31). UPPER EOCENE TO LOWER MIOCENE BENTHIC FORAMINIFERS TABLE 15.—Ber1thic foraminifers from the Afio Nuevo section 71 TABLE 15.—Continued Benthonic foraminiferalstages Late Sauce Relizian Benthonic furaminiferal stages Late Sauce Relizian Zemorrian 513" Zemorrian sian Sample Sample LC ‘9 V ‘3‘ L0 v-i l‘ 10 29 V‘ V‘ LO 1-1 1‘ co ssssase§ assesses Tam“ $CCEC$$$ Tam“ aflflfigfififi 22222222 2222 222 Anomalinacaliforniensis Cushmanand Hobson A F — F — — — — Dentalma SP — — — — R — — R Astacolus sp. F _ — F _ R _ _ Uuigerinellaobesa1mpol1ta Bulimina carneroens1s Cushman and Klempell F F — F — — — — Cushman and Laiming ............................ , — — _ _ ? _ _ _ Boliuinamarginata Cushman F F — C F — — — Anomalina cfA salinasensis Kleinpell — — — — _ F _ R Cassidulinacrassipunctata Bolivina advenn Cushman , — _ _ _ _ R _ _ CushmanandHobson VVVVVVVVV A F F — F — — — Bulimma spp — — — — — R _ _ Cassidulina margareta Karrer .. F F — A F — — F Chilostomella Sp. — —— _ ._ ._ F _ _ Cibmdes amer1canus(Cushman .. R — F — — — _ — Pseudonodosaria —. _ _ _ _ F _ _ C1b1'c1'dcscf.Camer1c11nus (Cushman) .. R — — _ _ _ _ _ Siphogenerina transversa Cushman” — —— — —— — A — A C1b1c1desflor1danus (Cushman) ________ ., C F — C F — — F Cassidulina sp. ....... _ ._ _ _ __ _ F _ Cigicifiespseudgfiiggrianus evolutus A F F gp1st%m1nellaspp._ —— — — — — g — us manan obsn .............. — — — ._ — yro11nasp ........... _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Cyclammina cance'l)lata Brad F — — F — -— — — Slphogenerma hughes1Cushman — _ _ __ _ _ - F Dentalma caoperens1s Cushman .. F — — F R — -— — Elph1d1um sp ....................................... — —— — — _. — — ? Fursenkoma bramlettz (Galloway and Money) R — — F — F -— — " r111 sp _ _ _ _ _ _ _ F Glandulina laeuigatad’Orbigny .. F — — — — —— —- — Nonion‘ella‘casnfem (Cushman) ..... — —— — — — — — F Globabuliminapamfwa Cushman .. R — - F F — — — Valvulmena cahformca variations — — — — -- — — C Gyoidina orbicularis planata Cushman .. R F — — F — — — Gyroidma soldamid’Orbigny” .. A R F F — — — — £11genacostata(W1ll‘;€fi150n) ._ a _ _ ._ .. _ _ _ agenu sermstriata 11amson.. .. —- — — — — — — ' _ ' ' zntéwgma bal’ba‘fifiuhgnan __ § _ R F _ _ _ _ fore the early Zemorrlan late Zemorrlan boundary is nticumaca car nne _______ — ————— - _ filmy“? i' “[1,“,me (d 1; _ R E F _ _ _ placed between Mf4682 and Mf4681. The late Zemor ntzc ac. .c rm1s — — .— _ _ . ' ' ' - fi"“”"f':“°’”fi‘mé,&°h2 VVVVV ) 3 _ _ F _ _ _ _ man assemblages are domlnated by Szphogenerma ntic inapse ort ata( s .. — — — — _ _ ‘ ' ' ' [limit-:fmaspongiii'childandlgfhers "f7 _ _ g F _ E F nodifera, Utiugermella sptflrs1costata,bandfseveral "“0" ""1 SPF -- — — — — agg utinate species as we as a num er 0 species Margmulinu spp.. F — F R _ _ _ _ Martinomella patens (Cu hman and Laimlng) F — — F F — — — ' ' ' ' ' '_ Nodosaria parexilis Cushinan and Stewart ............ F — — C F — — — WhICh firSt appear 1n the zemorrlan’ including Lentl ”‘ggggggggggiggmtffif _______________ F _ _ _ _ _ _ _ culina simplex, Buliminella subfusiformis, Sphaer- Nonionella incisa kerne sis Klein e1 F — — — — —— —— —— ‘ ' ' ' ' ‘ ' lawmakers“?£7151?“ "'"1'1‘ ”g _ _ 15 _ _ _ _ 01d1na bullozdes, and C1b101des florzdanus. rt amorp 11111 M) us ma an — — —- — — _ ' P’E"°{,’°"d“"’§’ffali”°ce"i”? 52mm C F F 1 The last sample, Mf4671, is from the Lambert us man an 1m1ng , ,, __ — ‘ — — — ' ' Slefif’o’gdw”’“"“,“f“g’(‘g"'CfShma“ E _ _ g g _ _ _ Shale. Few of the spec1es from the underlylng samples 82 one as am ata ta — — — — — ‘ ' ' geopzaxpuu'z'i'r'em Brady “5 g _ _ F _ _ _ _ occur but Non1onella cost1fera is present. The first eop 11x spp. ,7 _ _ _ _ _ __ 1 - g‘fihoge’wffmgOd‘fngC‘fihma“ ”flame”? 8 C _ A F _ _ _ occurrence of Nonzonella costzfera and several other t1 ostome aa uena 5 man an 1m1ng —— — — — —— — — ' ' ' :5U1germagalloway1Ciishman ,. ii _ _ F _ _ _ _ spec1es was cons1dered by Klempell (1938) to mark wgenna sp. .................................... — — — — — _ — 59’7“?”“p gfpaimbi-ld and“ m g R _ F F _ _ _ the base of the _Sauce51an Stage. As none of the other apo gmm es _ _ _ _ _ _ _ a?”gesrzmenfimsfmmsew F F F spec1es occur 1n Mf4671, 1t 1s only questlonably us man an axmmg _ _ _ _ _ - Emhysmhonspp _ R F F _ _ _ _ ass1gned to the Sauces1an Stage. St1lostamella sanc — F _ _ F _ _ _ Trochammina spp. — F . R F _ _ _ ~ agrrimodlscus cf. A. incertustrbigny — — g F — F F — ANO NUEVO SECTION o1u1nuspp _ _ _ _ Bulimmainflata all1gata Cushman and Laimmg — — F F F — — — €“"["""e”““’i,“ 0mm“ — _ 11'; ‘ E F _ _ The Ano Nuevo section is compiled from strata yc ammmasp _ _ _ _ _ _ De t l dp l t C h dLa — -- F F — — — — - . _ “21:52-25:11,X‘_‘_‘,__‘f_.._‘_‘f.__"ff‘ff _________ T T77“ _ _ R p _ _ _ _ exposed 1n the sea CllffS north and east of Ano Nuevo M l l' 'd F htel d M ll — — R — F — — — ' .. xS§23111°1£2§sJ§gisibizn 3“ °) _ _ g F E _ _ _ Pomt (fig. 27). Samples Mf1374—M1376 (north of Ano gia$i§2'z‘f§fi2?3mu%fflisg I I F I F I I I Nuevo Pomt) were prev1ous1y reported on by Clark t . P(§Z’1§'$§J%€é‘i3§§7ffi.. _ _ E F F _ _ _ (1n Brabb and others, 1977). Both the Vaqueros(?) en 110 at a man — —— — — — — - 531013.35... mulfiwsm‘ia Cushman 3,“;ng _ _ g R _ _ _ _ and Monterey Format1ons were sampled; however, Sf A — — — '_ — — — - ghaeroidmabbulloide;ggrblgny _ _ E 8 E X _ F only assemblages from the Vaqueros(?) Formation géfiffififififi‘k’ifiiggffiif}? _____ Z I _ p _ A I F are dlscussed here (table 15). Localities and sedimen- oc'fiéfifn?§2g$§'iéi'efn58$"??? _____________ _ _ _ p _ _ _ _ tological and structural relations are described in Bl 1100 gt Cush andS g — — — R _ _ _ _ gifflifieuaLQZanZSSL-mm'brb,gn§$ _ _ _ {.5 _ _ _ _ Brabb, Clark, and Throckmorton (1977). See table 13 famy'":'gaw's(%sm§'an and aiming. Z Z I 1': Z I I I for field numbers and corresponding Mf numbers g aacut 1 us ___________ — — _ _ _ _ _ . . fig::a hefdzgitqui’illidmson). — _ — F _ _ _ _ used In thlS report. may ans 11amson ....... — — — — _. — _ . . . fiftwufirzgpsefiocultratizé(Egle) — — E F _ _ _ _ The lowest samples In thls sectlon, Mf4665 and t 1 — — — — — — - ggréiiigfifiizvnfioicfiggzgg _ _ F F _ _ _ Mf1376 (fig. 32), are representative of the upper Zemor— t _ _ __ _ _ _ _ . . . . . . giggigbgbuflizgZxfllapo‘fdefim 3‘31? _ _ _ i3 p S _ _ rlan Uv1ger1nella spars1costata Zone. Bol1v1na mar- széjgéz.¢::’:§:g§.£:;2z§ _ _ _ F ; ‘ _ gmata and Stphogenerina nodifera are still present, gififi’jgflififfmgEiigfigandfmer Z I E 2 F I I I but Uv1ger1nella sparsicostata is not. Species diag- t 1 _ _ _ __ _ _ . . . . . 311-1331335113 llep'id'puliznéchéwig??y _ _ _ 1': _ _ _ _ nostic of the late Zemoman 1nclude Bul1m1na camer- t' l ..... — — — — — — — - - - . . . $111331: 525273373103bigny). _ _ _ F _ _ _ _ oen81s, CaSSLdulma margareta, Nonzonella 1nc1sa 72 STUDIES IN TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY, CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES kernensis, Siphogenerina mayi, and Siphogenerina multicostata. These species are present in Mf4664, stratigraphically higher in the section but in associa- tion with species diagnostic of the Saucesian Stage such as Baggina robusta, Bolivina marginata adel— aidana, Bulimina inflata alligata, and Dentalina quadrulata. Kleinpell (1938) indicated that Siphogenerina mayi, though diagnostic of the late Zemorrian, could be found in the early Saucesian. He subsequently recog- nized a similar range for Siphogenerina multicostata (Boris Laiming, oral commun., 1972). The fauna repre- sented in Mf4664 is similar to the assemblages of the San Joaquin Valley (Tipton and others, 1973), where the bathymetric conditions remain unchanged across the Zemorrian-Saucesian boundary. The result is a gradual change in the fauna and a mixing of the Zemorrian and Saucesian species. The boundary is placed at sample Mf4664 with the full realization that the precise location cannot be defined as it is not known when the mixing of faunas occurred. The slight range extension of Bulimina carneroensis and Siphogenerina multicostata should be noted. Sample Mf1374 is probably also in this zone, but the faunas are less diverse. Assemblages diagnostic of the Saucesian Stage occur in the sheared section in the upper part of the Vaqueros(?) Formation. Samples Mf4661 and Mf2188- Mf2191 of Clark (in Brabb and others, 1977), from this interval, are poorly preserved. Diagnostic species present include many of the Saucesian species dis- cussed earlier and Siphogenerina transversa. This species ranges from the Zemorrian and Saucesian into Miocene faunas but is most characteristic of the Saucesian. Samples Mf4667 and Mf4668, also from the sheared section but higher than Mf4661, contain only siliceous molds of foraminifers. Many of these can be identified to species. Present in this sample are Siphogenerina hughesi and Valvulineria californica, which are diag- nostic of the Relizian Stage. Since the section is sheared and the faunas are only represented by siliceous molds, interpretations in this interval are highly speculative. SUMMARY Correlation of faunal assemblages in the three sections yields a nearly continuous sequence from the lower Narizian Stage to the Relizian Stage (fig. 33). Stage boundaries are recognized by distinctive ben- thic foraminiferal assemblages associated with the base of each new stage (fig. 34) or by the gradual change in the faunas. Zonal and subzonal boundaries are less easily recognized because faunal changes are subtle and more frequently recognized by changes in the dominance of species. laEN‘rHomc 2% SECTION FORAMIN- U r 00 IFERAL ELLUZJ $551 w oz 02'” in —0 Lu 2) _ o I—EN “:30: E E 2;. o ¥<_1 50.9: (0 “.35 Co o> 3 ‘3 Zu’:< Oo o> :2 W a 0 Sort 2'2 .JE «:0 <5 6 N QLLUJ 02"” c N <5 3 ZN ,_ E s °§§ E = 69-25 B . t 2 fig m c 3% Sheared §fi§§§ g g5) section «5 I ‘0 Egg-3 s 4 3 ° ‘ — § Triquetrorhab- (topof section u) ‘dulus can‘natus ‘7P22 ‘gfl EC; {33 v \w 83 32 Lu W 8% fi§ go A”) >LL ?P22 a: _ ‘ ‘ m ‘3 .9.» m E ‘0 u: 9." 3 fi '2 o‘ g .g E3 (D Q) E > ‘0 tn 3% '5 3.9. w _ c D ‘3‘, a) 9 ‘3 3g = w :: 5-5 a: g 0 == 8 to E 88 O) > a) fig L: N QED. O UJUJ _. a.) __ ‘5‘ fl) ‘5‘ 2 3 a) =° s a. ‘7’. 2 ‘3 E s E .2) '5.§ g 5 P19 Afi‘e .2 P20 5% c a: E‘s .9 ‘5 U3 —— ‘6 g g .3 AP16 A .2 B 5 2.; P17 2 B ‘5) i: C 3 e ’5‘ 93 m D—E .a O C: 3 v: “ A E; 5 Lower \ “’ i _ i. 3 g g E 5.17. 0 o o E g E, E .§‘E 'Q o 2 fig 0 :0 Lu 4: E U: A E P15 / N ‘— A?P16 A , ‘8 — ‘5 . ‘45:}: 3 2 P14 5): 3 p— 14.3% mg v- US .E 02% 5% “"4 ‘ figs :30 7P13 ué g 528 as man. gag m3 Q m FIGURE 33.—Correlation of the San Lorenzo River, Zayante Creek, and Aflo Nuevo sections with California benthic foraminiferal zones and stages. Open triangles, Church Creek section, Santa Lucia Range (Poore and Bukry, this volume). Filled triangles, San Lorenzo River, Zayante Creek, or Afio Nuevo sections (Poore and Bukry, this volume). UPPER EOCENE TO LOWER MIOCENE BENTHIC FORAMINIFERS 73 EOCENE SERIES MIOCENE Late OLIGOCENE Middle STAGE Narlzlan Refugian Zemorrian Saucesian Rehzuan SPECIES Early Late Eafly Late Early Late Dorothl‘q cubana Lentlculina midwayensis Amphimorphina becki Cibicides pachyderma Cibicides spiropunctatus Bifarina elegans Uuigen’na churchi Boliuina scabrata Fursenkoina californiensis Stichocassidulina cf. 8. thalmam' Bulimina microcostata Eggerella elongata Eggerella subconica Bulimina corrugata Boldia hodgei Bulimina sculptilis Iacinata Uuigen‘na garzaensis Valvulinen‘a tumeyensis Planulan'a markleyana Lenticullna welchi Plectofrondicularia packardi Cibicides elmaensls Karreriella washingtonensis Saracenan'a schencki Sigmomorphina schencki Cibicides haydoni Uvigerina cocoaensis speciesgroup Plectofrondiculan'a packardi multilineata Anomalina califomiensis Bulimina inflata _ Cassiduh'na crassipunctata Nonionella miocenica Bolivina marginata Nodosaria holsen‘ca Uuigerina gallowayi Uvigerinella sparsicostata Gaudryina gracilis Pseudonodosaria gallowayi Textularia shiuelyi Siphogenerina nodifera Sphaeroidina bulloides Cibicides floridanus Lenticulina simplex Bulimina carneroensis Bulimina inflate alligata Dentalina quadrulata Siphogenerina multicostata Siphogenerina mayi Bolim’na marginata adelaidana Baggina robusta Nonionella costlfera Siphogenen'na transversa Siphogenen'na hughesi Valvulinen‘a californica lllllll Illllll” lllll Illll llllll l ....l|ll l— FIGURE 34.—Ranges of species diagnostic of middle Tertiary benthic foraminiferal stages (Narizian through Relizian Stages) and zones of the Santa Cruz Mountains, California. The Narizian Stage is represented in the San Lorenzo section by assemblages of the lower and upper Narizian Bulimina corrugata and Amphimor— phina jenkinsi Zones. Recognition of these zones requires no modification of the original description of the zones. The lower Narizian-upper Narizian bound- ary corresponds to the Zone P 14 — P 15 boundary and the Discoaster saipanensis ZoneDiscoaster barbadien— sis Zone boundary (Poore and Bukry, this volume). This boundary corresponds to the middle Eocene - upper Eocene boundary. In the San Lorenzo River section, the Refugian Stage is marked by an abrupt fauna] and lithologic change, associated with the onset of shallower water conditions. The extended range of several Refugian species, Boldia hodgei and Plectofrondicularia pack- ardi, noted by previous workers and in the modified description of the Refugian Stage (Donnelly, 1976), is confirmed in this section. The Refugian faunas are poorly preserved, but they do suggest that additional revisions are needed in the definition of diagnostic Refugian faunas. The Refugian faunas in the San Lorenzo River section represent a deeper bathymetric facies than those in the type area in California. They resemble faunas in the Lincoln Creek Formation of Washington. The recognition of a bathyal Refugian fauna requires the downward range extension of Cibicides elmaensis and various members of the Uvigerina cocoaensis species group, along with the addition of diagnostic species such as Karreriella washingtonensis, Saracenaria schencki, and Sigma- morphina schencki. Also since the paleoecologic facies present in the San Lorenzo section are different than the facies of the type area (Canada de Santa Anita), many of the diagnostic late Refugian species do not appear. Planktic microfossils from the San Lorenzo River section and correlative sections suggest that the Refugian-Zemorrian boundary lies between Zone P 17 and Zone P 19 and between the Discoaster barbad— iensis Zone and Sphenolithus distentus Zone (Poore and Bukry, this volume). Neither nannofossils nor planktic foraminifers were sufficiently diverse or abun- dant in this section to locate the boundary more closely. The Zemorrian Stage can be recognized in all three sections. The criteria for recognition of the Zemorrian Stage and the Zemorrian zones ( U vigerina gallowayi and Uvigerinella sparsicostata) need little modifica- tion from the original description of Kleinpell (1939). Both the early Zemorrian-late Zemorrian and the Zemorrian-Saucesian boundaries are marked by the presence in a sample of species of both zones or stages. This mixing of faunas would be expected in 74 STUDIES IN TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY, CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES closely sampled intervals and where environmental conditions are relatively consistent across the bound- ary. Early and late Zemorrian species are present in sample Mf4682 in the Zayante Creek section, and both Zemorrian and Saucesian species are present in Mf4664 in the Afio Nuevo section. Planktic foraminifers diagnostic of Zones P 19 and P 20 and nannofossils diagnostic of the Sphenolithus distentus Zone are associated with the early Zemor- rian. The Sphenolithus distentus Zone and Spheno- lithus ciperoensis Zone and Zone P 22(?) (Poore and Bukry, this volume) are associated with the late Zemorrian. In the A130 Nuevo section, upper Oligo— cene Sphenolithus ciperoensis Zone (sample Mf4664) and Miocene Triquetrorhabdulus carinatus Zone (sample Mf2188) nannofossils are recognized (Poore and Bukry, this volume). These zone and age assign- ments coupled with the benthic foraminiferal data support the interpretation that Mf4664 and Mf1376 straddle the Zemorrian-Saucesian boundary. Faunas diagnostic of the Saucesian Stage occur in one sample (Afio Nuevo section) and questionably in a second (Zayante Creek section). Nannofossils associ- ated with this interval indicate that the Saucesian Stage is Miocene (Poore and Bukry, this volume). Faunas of Relizian age in the A130 Nuevo section are correlative with the Helicopontosphaera amplia- perta or Sphenolithus heteromorphus Zone (Poore and Bukry, this volume) and therefore are also Miocene. REFERENCE LIST OF TAXA Ammodiscus incertus (d’Orbigny) = Operculina incerta d’Orbigny, 1839, in de la Sagra, 1839, Histoire physique naturelle de l’Ile de Cuba: Paris, A. Bertrand, p. 49, p. 6, figs. 16—17. Amphimorphina becki Mallory, 1959, Lower Tertiary biostrati- graphy of the California Coast Ranges: Tulsa, Okla., Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists, p. 215, pl. 19, figs. la—b. Anomalina californiensis Cushman and Hobson, 1935, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 11, pt. 3, p. 64, pl. 9, figs. 8a—c. Anomalim salinasensis Kleinpell, 1938, Miocene stratigraphy of California: Tulsa, Okla, Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists, p. 377, pl. VIII, figs. 12a-c. Anomalina garzaensis Cushman and Siegfus, 1939, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 15, pt. 2, p. 32, pl. 7, figs. 3a—c. Asten'gerim crassafomis Cushman and Siegfus, 1935, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 11, pt. 4, p. 94, pl. 14, fig. 10—Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 282, pl. 20, figs. 3a, b, c. Baggina robusta Kleinpell 1938, Miocene stratigraphy of Cali- fornia: Tulsa, Okla, Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists, p. 325, p1. XI, figs. 8a—c. Bathysiphon eocenica Cushman and Hanna, 1927, California Acad. Sci. Proc., ser. 4, v. 16, no. 8, p. 210, pl. 13, figs. 2, 3— Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 249, pl. 1, figs. 2, 3. Bifarina eleganta (Plummer) = Siphogenerina eleganta Plummer, 1926, Texas Univ. Bull. 2644, p. 126, pl. 8, figs. 1a—c.—Bifarina eleganta (Plummet) of Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 276, pl. 15, figs. 11a, b. Boldia hodgei (Cushman and Schenck) = Cibicides hodgei Cush- man and Schenck, 1928, California Univ. Pubs., Dept. Geol. Sci. Bull., v. 17, no. 9, p. 315, pl. 45, figs. 3—5.—Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 286, pl. 23, figs. 8a, b, c.—Cibicides cushmani Nuttall of Sullivan, 1962, Califor- nia Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 287, pl. 23, figs. 73, b, c. Bolivina advena Cushman, 1925, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 1, pt. 2, p. 29, pl. 5, figs. la—b. Boliuina gracilis Cushman and Applin, 1926, Am. Assoc. Petrole- um Geologists Bull., v. 10, pt. 1, p. 167, pl. 7, figs. 1, 2. Boliuina kleinpelli Beck, 1943, J our. Paleontology, v. 17, no. 6, p. 606, pl. 107, figs. 3, 9.—Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 276, pl. 15, figs. 621, b. Boliuina marginata Cushman, 1925, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 1, pt. 2, p. 30, pl. 5, figs. 5a—b.—Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 276, pl. 15, figs. 9a, b. Boliuina scabrata Cushman and Bermudez, 1936, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 12, pt. 2, p. 29, pl. 5, figs. 11—12. Boliuinoides mexicanus (Cole) = Proroporus mexicanus Cole, 1927, Bulls. Am. Paleontology, v. 14, pt. 51, p. 26, pl. 1, fig. 19. Bulimina carneroensis Cushman and Kleinpell, 1934, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 10, pt. 1, p. 5, pl. 1, figs. 12a, b. Bulimina corrugata Cushman and Siegfus, 1935, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 11, pt. 4, p. 92-93, pl. 14, figs. 7a—b. Bulimina curtissima Cushman and Siegfus, 1935, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 11, pt. 4, p. 93, pl. 14, figs. 9a, b. Bulimina inflata alligata Cushman and Laiming, 1931, Jour. Paleon- tology, v. 5, no. 2, p. 107, pl. 11, figs. 17a—b. Bulimina microcostata Cusham and Parker, 1936, Cushman Lab. foram. Research Contr., v. 12, pt. 2, p. 39, pl. 7, fig. 2.— Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 274, pl. 14, figs. 6a, b. Bulimina sculptilis lacinata Cushman and Parker, 1937, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 13, pt. 2, p. 46—53, pls. 5—6.— Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 274, pl. 14, figs. 8a, b. Buliminella curta Cushman, Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 1, pt. 2, p. 33, pl. 29, fig. 4.—Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 273, pl. 14, figs. 1a, b. Buliminella elegantissima (d‘Orbigny) = Bulimina elegantissima d’Orbigny, 1839, Voyage clans l’Amerique Meridionale, v. 5, pt. 5, pl. 51, pl. 7, figs. 13, 14. Buliminella subfusiformis Cushman, 1925, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 1, pt. 2, p. 33, pl. 5, fig. 12.—Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 273, pl. 14, figs. 2a, b 3. Cassidulina crassipunctata Cushman and Hobson, 1935, Cush- man Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 11, pt. 3, p. 63, pl. 9, fig. 10.—Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 282, pl. 20, figs. 6a, b. Cassidulina diversa Cushman and Stone, 1949, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 25, pt. 3, p. 56. Cassidulina margareta Karrer, 1877, K. K. Geol. Reichesanst., Abh., Wien, Bd. 9, p. 386. Cassidulinoides caliform'ensis Bramlette, 1951, in Woodring and Bramlette, 1951, US. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 222, p. 61.— Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 283, pl. 20, figs. 9a, b. Cibicides americanus (Cushman) = Truncatulina americana Cush- man, 1918, U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 676, p. 63. UPPER EOCENE TO LOWER MIOCENE BENTHIC FORAMINIFERS , 75 Cibicides americanus crassiseptus Cushman and Laiming, 1931, Jour. Paleontology, v. 5, no. 2, p. 119, pl. 14, figs. 14a—c. Cibicides elmaensis Rau, 1948, Jour. Paleontology, v. 22, no. 2, p. 173, pl. 31, figs. 18—26. Cibicides falconensis Renz, 1948, Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 32, p. 128, pl. 11, figs. 6a—c, 7. Cibicides floridanus (Cushman) = Truncatulina floridana Cush- man, 1918, U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 676, p. 62. Cibicides haydoni (Cushman and Schenck) = Planulina haydoni Cushman and Schenck, 1928, California Univ. Pubs., Dept. Geol. Sci. Bull., v. 17, no. 9, p. 316, pl. 45, figs. 7a—c.—Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 286, pl. 23, figs. 1a, b, c, 2. Cibicides pachyderma (Rzehak) = Truncatulina pachyderma Rzehak, 1885, Naturf. Ver. Brunn, Verh., Brunn, Bd. 24, (1885), p. 87. Cibicides pseudoungerianus evolutus Cushman and Hobson, 1935, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 11, no. 3, p. 64, pl. 9, fig. 11. Cibicides spiropunctatus Galloway and Morrey, 1931, J our. Paleon- tology, v. 5, p. 4, p. 346, pl. 39, fig. 7. Cyclammina cancellata obesa Cushman and Laiming, 1931, J our. Paleontology v. 5, no. 2, p. 94, pl. 9, figs. 10a, b. Cyclammina incisa (Stache) = Haplophragmium incisum Stache, 1865, Novora Exped. 1857-1859, Wien. Osterreich. Geol. Theil. Bd. 1, Abt. 2, p. 165. Cyclammina pacifica Beck, 1943, Jour. Paleontology, v. 17, no. 6, p. 591, pl. 98, figs. 2—3. Dentalina cocoaensis (Cushman) = Nodosaria cocoaensis Cush- man, 1925, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 1, pt. 3, p. 66. Dentalina cooperensis Cushman, 1933, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 9, pt. 1, p. 8, pl. 1, fig. 17. Dentalina jacksonensis Cushman and Applin, 1926, Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 10, no. 2, p. 170, pl. 7, figs. 14—16. Dentalina quadrulata Cushman and Laiming, ms. Cushman and Parker, 1931, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 7, pt. 1, p. 3—4, pl. 1, figs. 9-11.—Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 264, pl. 9, figs. 13, 14a, b. Dentalina spinosa ornatior Smith, 1957, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 32, no. 3, p. 165. Dorothia cubana (Cushman and Bermudez) = Gaudryina cubana Cushman and Bermudez, 1936, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 12, pt. 3, p. 56, pl. 10,. figs. 2, 10, 11. Eggerella elongata Blaisdell, 1965, Cushman Found. Foram. Research Contr., v. 16, no. 1, p. 27, pl. 2, figs. 1—3. Eggerella subconica Parr, 1950, British and New Zealand Antarc- tic Research Exped. 1929—1931, Repts. Adelaide, ser. B, v. 5, pt. 6, p. 281, pl. 5, figs. 22a, b. Frondicularia tenuissima Hantken, 1875, K. Ungar. Geol. Anst., Mitt. J ahrb., Bd. 4, Heft. 1, p. 43.——Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 267, pl. 11, fig. 6. F ursenkoina bramletti(Galloway and Morrey) = Virgulina bram- lettei Galloway and Morrey, 1929, Bull. Am. Paleontology, v. 15, no. 55, p. 37, pl. 5, figs. 14a b.—Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 275, pl. 15, figs. 1a, b, 2. Fursenkoina californiensis (Cushman) = Virgulina californiensis Cushman, 1925, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 1, pt. 2, p. 32, pl. 5, figs. lla—c.—Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 275, pl. 15, figs. 3, 4a, b. Fursenkoina dibollensis (Cushman and Applin) = Virgulina dibol- lensis Cushman and Applin, 1926, Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 10, pt. 1, no. 2, p. 168.—Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 275, pl. 15, figs. 5a, b. Gaudryina triangularis Cushman, 1911, US. Natl. Mus. Bull. 71, p. 65. Glandulina laevigata (d’Orbigny) = Nodosaria (Glandulina) laeui- gata d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat. Paris, ser. 1, tome 7, p. 252. Globobulimina pacifica Cushman, 1927, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 3, pt. 2, p. 67, pl. 14, fig. 12. Globocassidulina globosa (Hantken) = Cassidulina globosa Hant- ken, 1875, K. Ungar, Geol. Anst. Mitt. J ahrb., Bd., 4, Heft. 1,. p. 64, pl. 16, figs. 2a-b.—Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 283, pl. 20, figs. 5a, b. Guttulina frankei Cushman and Ozawa, 1930, US. Natl. Mus. Proc., v. 77, no. 2829, art. 6, p. 28, pl. 30, figs. 17, 18. Guttulina irregularis (d’Orbigny) = Globulina irregularis d’Orbigny, 1846, Foraminiferes fossiles du bassin tertiaire de Vienne (Autriche): Paris, Gide et. Cie., p. 226, pl. 13, figs. 9, 10.—Guttulina irregularis (d’Orbigny) of Sullivan, 1962, Cal- ifornia Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 267, pl. 11, figs. 8a, b, c. Gyroidina condoni (Cushman and Schenck) = Eponides condoni Cushman and Schenck, 1928, California Univ. Pubs., Dept. Geol. Sci., Bull., v. 17, no. 9, p. 313, pl. 44, figs. 6, 7a—c.— Gyroidina condoni (Cushman and Schenck) of Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 280, pl. 18, figs. 2a, b, c. Gyroidina orbicularis planata Cushman, 1935, US. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 181, p. 45, pl. 66, figs. 4—6.—Sullivan, 1962, Califor- nia Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 280, pl. 18, figs. 1a, b, c. Gyroidina soldanii d’Orbigny, 1926, Ann. Sci. Nat. Paris, ser. 1, tome 7, p. 45, pl. 18, fig. 3. Haplophragmoides deflata Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 251, pl. 1, figs. 11, 12. Karreriella elongata Mallory, 1959, Lower Tertiary biostratigraphy of the California Coast Ranges: Tulsa, Okla, Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists, p. 127, pl. 5, figs. 4a—c. Karreriella washingtonensis Rau, 1948, J our. Paleontology, v. 22, pt. 2, p. 158, pl. 27, figs. 5, 6.—Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 255, pl. 4, figs. 3a, b, 4a, b. Lagena acuticosta Reuss, 1862, Akad. Wiss. Sitz., v. 44, pt. 1, 1861, p. 303, pl. 1, fig. 4. Lagena becki Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 266, pl. 10, figs. 16a, b. Lagena costata (Williamson) = Entosolenia costata Williamson, 1858, Ann. Mag. Nat. History (London), ser. 2, v. 1, p. 9, pl. 1, fig. 18. Lagena hexagona (Williamson) = Entosolenia squamosa (Mon- tagu) var. hexagona Williamson, 1848, Ann. Mag. Nat. History (London), ser. 2, v. 1, p. 20, pl. 2, figs. 9a—b. Lagena semistriata Williamson, 1848, Ann. Mag. Nat. History (London), ser. 2, v. 1, p. 14, pl. 1, figs. 9—10. Lagena sulcata (Walker and Jacob) = Serpula sulcata Walker and Jacob, 1798, in Kanmacher, 1798, Adam’s essays on the microscope, ed. 2, London, p. 634. Lagena vulgaris Williamson, 1858, Royal Soc. London, p. 3, pl. 1, figs. 5, 5a.—Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 267, pl. 10, figs. 12a, b. Lenticulina barbati (Cushman and Hobson) = Robulus barbati Cushman and Hobson, 1935, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 11, pt. 3, p. 57, pl. 8, figs. 9a—b. Lenticulina calcar (Linne) = Nautilus calcar Linne, 1758, Systema naturae, ed. 10: Holmiae, Suecia, impensis L. Salvii, tomus 1, p. 709. Lenticulina chehalisensis (Rau) =Robulus chehalisensis Ban, 1948, Jour. Paleontology, v. 22, no. 2, p. 162, pl. 29, figs. 14-15. 76 STUDIES IN TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY, CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES Lenticulina cf. L. clypeiformis d’Orbigny, Kleinpell, 1938, Miocene stratigraphy of California: Tulsa, Okla., Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists, p. 197, pl. 3, fig. 7. Lenticulina coaledensis (Detling) = Robulus coaledensis Detling, 1946, Jour. Paleontology, v. 20, pt. 4, p. 353, pl. 48, fig. 1. Lenticulina cultratus (Montfort) = Robulus cultratus Montfort, 1808, Conchyliologie systematique et classification metho- dique des coquilles: Paris, France, tome 1, p. 215. Lenticulina inornata (d’Orbigny) = Robulus inornata d'Orbigny, 1846, F oraminiferes fossiles du bassin tertiaire de Vienne: Paris, France,Gide et Cie., p. 102, pl. 4, figs. 25, 26.—Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 258, pl. 5, figs. 53, b. Lenticulina insuetus (Cushman and Stainforth) = Robulus insuetus Cushman and Stainforth, 1947, Cushman Lab. Foram. Re search Contr., v. 23, pt. 4, p. 77, pl. 17, fig. 1.—Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 259, pl. 5, figs. 6, 7a, b. Lenticulina midwayensis (Plummer) = Cristellaria midwayensis Plummer, 1926, Texas Univ. Bull. 2644, p. 95, pl. 13, fig. 5.— (not Robulus midwayensis of Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 259, pl. 6, figs. 3a, b). Lenticulina pseudocultratus (Cole) = Robulus pseudocultratus Cole, 1927, Bulls. Am. Paleontology, v. 14, no. 51, p. 19. Lenticulina pseudorotulata (Asano) = Robulus pseudorotulatus Asano, 1938, Tohoku Imp. Univ., Sci. Repts., ser. 2, v. 19, no. 2, p. 201. Lenticulina pseudovortex (Cole) = Robulus pseudovortex Cole. 1927, Bull. Am. Paleontology, v. 14, no. 1, p. 19. Lenticulina simplex (d’Orbigny) = Cristellan'a simplex (d’Orbigny, 1846, Foraminiferes fossiles du bassin Tertiaire du Vienne: Paris, France, Gide et Cie., p. 85.—Robulus simplex d’Orbigny of Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 260, pl. 5, figs. 8a; b. Lenticulina sp. of Fairchild and others, 1969, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 81, p. 44, pl. 7, figs. 93, b. Lenticulina welchi (Church) = Robulus welchi Church, 1931, Min- ing in California, v. 27, no. 2, p. 212, pl. C, figs. 13—14.— Robulus chiranus Cushman and Stone of Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 257, pl. 7, figs. 1, 2a, b. Marginulina adunca (Costa) = Glamlulina adunca Costa, 1856, Accad. Pontaniana Napoli, Atti., w. 7, fasc. 2, p. 128, pl. 11, figs. 24a. A.C. Marginulina alazaensis Nuttall, 1932, Jour. Paleontology, v. 6, p. 13, pl. 3, figs. 3, 7.—Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 261, pl. 8, figs. 7a, b. Marginulina dubia Neugeboren, 1851, Siebenb. ver. Naturw. Hermannstadt, verh. Mitt., Hermannstadt, Ungarn, J ahrg. 2, no. 7, p. 120. Marginulina exima Neugeboren, 1851, Siebenb. ver. Naturw. Hermannstadt, verh. Mitt., Hermannstadt, Ungarn, J ahrg. 2, no. 8, p. 129.—Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 262, pl. 8, figs. 9a, b. Marginulina subbullata Hantken, 1875, Hungary, K. Ungar. Geol. Anst., Mitt. Jahrb., Bd. 4, Heft 1, p. 46. Marginulina subrecta Franke, 1927, Danmarks, Geol. Under- sogelse Skr., Raekke 2, Nr. 46, p. 19. Martinottiella eocenica Cushman and Bermudez, 1937, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 13, pt. 1, p. 6, pl. 1, figs. 27—28.-——Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 255, pl. 4, figs. 6a, b, c. Martinottiella patens°(Cushman and Laiming) = Clauulina patens Cushman and Laiming, 1931, J our. Paleontology, v. 5, no. 2, p. 96, pl. 10, figs. 2a—b. Melonis pompilioides (Fichtel and Moll) = Nautilus pompilioides Fichtel and M011, 1798, Testacea microscopica aliaque minuta ex generibus Argonata et Nautilus, Wien, p. 31. Nodosarella atlantisae hispidula (Cushman) = Ellipsonodosaria atlantisae hispidula Cushman, 1939, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 15, pt. 3, p. 70, pl. 12, figs. 3, 4. Nodosaria boffalorae Martinotti, 1924, Soc. Italiana Sci. Nat. e Museo Civico Storia Nat. Milano Atti, v. 62, fasc. 3—4, p. 333. Nodosaria holserica Schwager, 1866, Novara Exped. 1857—1859, Wien, Geol. Theil, Bd. 2. Abt. 2, p. 221. Nodosaria longiscata d’Orbigny, 1846, Foraminiferes fossiles du bassin tertiaire du Vienne: Paris, France, Gide et Cie., p. 32, pl. 1, figs. 10—12. Nodosaria parexilis sentifera Cushman and Parker, 1931, Cush- man Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 7, pt. 1, p. 6, pl. 1, fig. 16. Nodosaria pyrula d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat. Paris, ser. 1, tome 7, p. 253.—Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., V. 37, no. 4, p. 265, pl. 10, figs. 3a—b. Nonion halkyardi Cushman, 1936, Cushman Lab. Foram. Re search Contr., v. 12, pt. 3, p. 63, pl. 12, fig. 1. Nonionella costifera (Cushman) = Nonionina costifera Cushman, 1926, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 1, no. 4, p. 90, pl. 13, figs. 2a—c. Nonionella incisa (Cushman) = Nonionina incisa Cushman, 1926, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 1, no. 4, p. 90—91, pl. 13, figs. 3a—c. Nonionella incisa kernensis (Kleinpell) = Nonion incisum (Cush- man) var. kernensis Kleinpell, 1938, Miocene stratigraphy of California: Tulsa, Okla., Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists, p. 232. Nonionella miocenica Cushman, 1926, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 1, no. 4, p. 91, pl. 13, figs. 4a—c. Oridorsalis umbonatus (Reuss) = Rotalina umbonata Reuss, 1851, Deutsch. Geol. Gesell. Zeitschr., Bd. 3, p. 75, pl. 5, figs. 35.— Eponides umbonatus (Reuss) of Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 281, pl. 18, figs. 7a, b, c. Orthomorphina rohri (Cushman and Stainforth) =Nodogenerina rohri (Cushman and Stainforth, 1945, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., Spec. Pub. 14, p. 39, pl. 5, fig. 26. Planularia markleyana Church, 1941, California State Mineral- ogist, v. 27, no. 2, p. 208, p1. A. fig. 6, pl. 8, figs. 1, 10. Plectina garzaensis Cushman and Siegfus, 1935, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 11, no. 6, p. 92, pl. 14, figs. 3, 4.— Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 255, pl. 3, figs. 8a, b, c, 9. Plectofrondicularia californica Cushman and Stewart, 1926, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 2, pt. 2, p. 39, pl. 6, figs. 9-11. Plectofrondicularia miocenica Cushman, 1926, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 2, pt. 3, p. 58, pl. 7, figs. 10, 11, pl. 8, figs. 11, 12. Plectofrondicularia miocenica directa Cushman and Laiming, 1931, Jour. Paleontology, v. 5, no. 2, p. 105, pl. 11, fig. 12. Plectofrondicularia packardi Cushman and Schenck, 1928, Califor- nia Univ. Pubs, Dept. Geol. Sci. Bull., v. 17, no. 9, p. 311, pl. 43, figs. 14, 15.—Plectofrondicularia packardi packardi Cushman and Schenck of Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 270, pl. 12, figs. 11,12. Plectofrondicularia packardi multilineata Cushman and Simon- son, 1944, Jour. Paleontology, v. 18, p. 197, pl. 32, figs. 2—4.— Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 270, pl. 12, fig. 10. Plectofrondicularia vaughani Cushman, 1927, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 3, p. 2, p. 112, pl. 23, fig. 3.— Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. UPPER EOCENE TO LOWER MIOCENE BENTHIC FORAMINIFERS 77 271, pl. 12, fig. 7. Pleurostomella alternans Schwager, 1866, Novara Exped. 1857—1859, Wien, Geol. Theil, Bd. 2, Abt. 2, p. 238. Praeglobobulimina ovata (d’Orbigny) = Bulimina ovata d’Orbigny, 1846, F oraminiferes fossiles du bassin tertiaire de Vienne: Paris, France, Gide et Cie., p. 186, pl. 11, figs. 13—14. Praeglobobulimina pupoides d’Orbigny) = Bulimina pupoides d’Orbigny, 1846, Foraminiferes fossiles du bassin tertiaire de Vienne: Paris, France, Gide et Cie., p. 185, pl. 11, figs. 11, 12. Pseudonodosaria gallowayi (Cushman) = Pseudoglan- dulina gallowayi Cushman, 1929, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 5, pt. 4, no. 84, p.87. Pseudonodosaria inflata (Costa) = Glandulina inflata Costa, 1853, Foraminifer: Napoli, Italia, p. 14, pl. 4, fig. 1. Pulleniu miocenica Kleinpell, 1938, Miocene stratigraphy of Califor- nia: Tulsa, Okla., Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists, p. 338, pl. 14, fig. 6. Pullenia multilobata Chapman, 1900, California Acad. Sci. Proc., Geol., v. 1, p. 253, pl. 30, figs. 7, 7a. Pullenia quinqueloba (Reuss) = Nonionina quinqueloba Reuss, Deutsch. Geol. Gesell. Zeitschr., v. 3, 1851, p. 71, pl. 5, fig. 31. Pullenia salisburyi Stewart and Stewart, 1930, J our. Paleontology, v. 4, no. 1, p. 72, pl. 8, fig. 2. Quinqueloculina imperialis Hanna and Hanna, 1924, Washington Univ. Pub. Geology, v. 1, p. 58, pl. 13. Quinqueloculina minuta Beck, 1943, J our. Paleontology, v. 17, no. 6, p. 593, pl. 99, figs. 5-7. Reophax pilulifera Brady, 1884, Repts. Sci. Results Explor. Voyage H.M.S. Challenger, Zoology, v. 9, p. 292, pl. 30, figs. 18-20. Rhabdammina eocenica Cushman and Hanna, 1927, California Acad. Sci. Proc., ser. 4, v. 16, no. 8, p. 209, pl. 13, fig. 23, p. 57, pl. 8, fig. 11. Saracenaria schencki Cushman and Hobson, 1935, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 11, pt. 3, p. 57, pl. 8, fig. 11. Sigmomarphina schencki Cushman and Ozawa, 1930, US. Natl. Mus. Proc., v. 77, no. 2829, art. 6, p. 133, pl. 35, figs. 6a, b. Siphogenerina hughesi Cushman, 1925, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 1, pt. 2, p. 36, pl. 7, figs. 4a-b. Siphogenerina mayi Cushman and Parker, 1931, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 7, pt. 1, p. 10—11, pl. 2, figs. 7a—b. Siphogenerina multicostata Cushman and Jarvis, 1929, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 5, pt. 4, p. 95, pl. 13, fig. 38. Siphogenerina nodifera Cushman and Kleinpell, 1934, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 10, pt. 1, p. 13, pl. 2, figs. 15, 16. Siphogenerina transversa Cushman = Siphogenerina raphanus var. transversa Cushman, 1918, US. Natl. Mus. Bull. 103, p. 64. Sphaeroidina bulloides d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat. Paris, ser. 1, tome 7, p. 267. Spiroloculina texana Cushman and Ellisor, 1944, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 20, pt. 3, p. 51, pl. 8, figs. 14-15.— Spiroloculina wilcoxensis Cushman and Garrett of Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 257, pl. 4, fig. 9. Spiroplectammina directa (Cushman and Siegfus) = Spiroplect- oides directa Cushman and Siegfus, 1939, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 15, pt. 2, p. 26, pl. 6, figs. 7—8. Spiroplectammina richardi Martin, 1943, Stanford Univ. Pub. Geol. Sci., v. 3, no. 3, p. 14, pl. 5, figs. 3a—b. Stichocassidulina of S. thalmani Stone, Mallory, 1959, Lower Tertiary biostratigraphy of the California Coast Ranges: Tul- sa, Okla., Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists, p. 226, pl. 19, figs. 9a—c.—Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 283, pl. 20, figs. 8a, b. Stilostomella adolphina (d’Orbigny) = Dentalina adolphina d’Orbig- ny, 1846, Foraminiferes fossiles du bassin tertiaire de Vienne: Paris, France, Gide et Cie., p. 51.—Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 272, pl. 13, figs. 17a, b. Stilostomella aduena (Cushman and Laiming) = Nodogenerina advena Cushman and Laiming, 1931, J our. Paleontology, v. 5, no. 2, p. 106, pl. 11, figs. 19a—b.-—Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 272, pl. 13, figs. 20, 21. Stilostomella lepidula (Schwager) = Nodosaria lepidula Schwager, 1866, Novara Exped. 1857—1859, Wien, Osterreich., Geol. Theil, Bd. 2, Abt. 2, p. 210, pl. 15, figs. 27—28. Stilostomella sanctaecrucis Kleinpell, 1938, Miocene stratigraphy of California: Tulsa, Okla., Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists, p. 246, pl. 4, fig. 22. Stilostomella wegimanni (Cole) = Nodogenerina wegimanni (Cole), Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 273, pl. 13, figs. 22, 23. Textularia shivelyi Kleinpell, 1938, Miocene Stratigraphy of Califor- nia: Tulsa Okla., Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists, p. 190, pl. 1, figs. 5, 9. Textularia sp. of Fairchild and others, 1969, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 81, p. 32, pl. 2, fig. 1. Trifarina hannai (Beck) = Angulogerina hannai Beck, 1943, J our. Paleontology, v. 17, no. 6, p. 607—608, pl. 108, figs. 26, 28. Trifarina wilcoxensis (Cushman and Ponton) = Virgulina wilcox~ ensis Cushman and Ponton, 1932, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 8, pt. 3, p. 67, pl. 8, fig. 22. Uvigerina auberiana d’Orbigny, 1839, in de la Sagra, Ramon, Histoire physique et naturelle de l’Ile de Cuba: Paris, A. Bertrand, p. 106 (plates published separately). Uuigerina churchi Cushman and Siegfus, 1939, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 15, no. 2, p. 29, pl. 6, fig. 16. Uuigerina cocoaensis Cushman, 1925, Cushman Lab. Foram. Re- search Contr., v. 2, pt. 2, p. 68, pl. 10, fig. 12. Uvigerina elongata Cole, 1927, Bulls. Am. Paleontology, v. 14, pt. 51, p. 26, pl. 4, figs. 2, 3. Uvigerina gallowayi Cushman, 1929, Cushman Lab. Foram. Re- search Contr., v. 5, pt. 4, p. 94-95, pl. 13, figs. 33—34.——not Uvigerina gallowayi of Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 277, pl. 16, figs. 9a, b. Uvigerina garzaensis Cushman and Siegfus, 1939, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 15, pt. 2, p. 28, pl. 6, figs. 15a, b. Uuigerina hispidocostata Cushman and Todd, 1945, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Spec. Pub. no. 15, p. 51, pl. 7, figs. 27, 31. Uuigerinella obesa impolita Cushman and Laiming, 1931, Jour. Paleontology, v. 5, no. 2, p. 111, pl. 12, figs. 11a-b.—Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 276, pl. 16, figs. 10a, b. Uvigerinella sparsicostata Cushman and Laiming, 1931, J our. Paleontology, v. 5, no. 2, p. 112, pl. 12, figs. 2a—b. Vaginulinopsis saundersi (Hanna and Hanna) = Cristellaria saun- dersi Hanna and Hanna, 1924, Washington Univ. Pub. Geol- ogy, v. 1, no. 4, p. 61, pl. 13, figs. 5, 6. Valvulineria araucana (d’Orbigny) = Rosalina araucana d’Orbig- my, 1839, Voyage dans l’Amerique meridionale, v. 5, pt. 5, p. 44. Valvulineria californica Cushman, 1926, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr., v. 2, no. 3, p. 60, pl. 9, figs. la—c. Valuulineria tumeyensis Cushman and Simonson, 1944, J our. Paleontology, v. 18, p. 201, pl. 33, figs. 13—14.—Sullivan, 1962, California Univ. Pubs. Geol. Sci., v. 37, no. 4, p. 280, pl. 17, figs. 3a, b. c. 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A abbreviam, lerritilina, pl. 2 tubulifera, Angulogerina, 17 abisectus, Cyclicargolithus, 51, 53, 60 acarinala, Acarinina, 19, 42 Acarinina acarinata, 19, 42 coalingensis, 19, 42 densa, 7, 12 mckannai, 19 soldadoensis, 42 wilcoxensis, 19 Acknowledgments, I, 5, 22, 41, 49, 62 Actinocyclma. aster, 47 Actinocythereis, 12 ucuta, Pleu'rostomella, 11, 16 acutivosta, Lagena, 11, 71, 75; pl. 11 acutus, Anomalinoides, 10, 16, 19: pl. 5 adamas, Zygodz'scus, 31 adelaidana, Bolii'ina marginata, 71, 72 adalphina, Dentalz'na, 77 Nodogenefina, 17 Stilostomella, 64, 71. 77 adunca, Glandulina. 76 Marginulina, 11, 65, 71, 76 adirena, Bolivina, 71, 74 Nodogenerina, 77 Nodosarellu, 16: pl. 4 Stilostomella, 64, 69, 71, 77; pl. 13 cali/ornica, Wifarina, 28; pl. 3 aequa, Morozoz'ella, 19 affinis, Nodosaria, 11 Age, foraminifers, large. 41, alabamensis. Uvigerina, 11 Alabamina wilcaxensis califomica, 16, 22 sp., 10 alatolimbatus, Lenticulina, 10 alazaensis, Marginulina, 65. 69, 76 cubensis. Pleurostomella, 17 allem', Cibicidoides, 7, 17 ulligata, Bulimina inflata, 71. 72, 74; pl. 14 allomorphinoides, Valmlineriu, 11 Almgren, A. A., cited. 42 alternans, Pleurostamella, 64, 68, 77: pl. 16 altus, Chiasmalithus, 53, 56, 60 Micramholithus, 56; pl. 9 americana, Truncatulina, 74 americanus, Cibicides, 71, 74 crassiseptus, Cibz'ci'des, 71, 75: pl. 15 Ammobaculites cubensis, 17 sp., 17 Ammodiscus incertus, 69, 71. 74 pennyi, 10. 16; pl. 1 sp., 7 Amphimorphina becki, 64, 68, 74; pl. 13 calf/armed, 16 ignota. 11, 16; pl. 2 jenkinsi. 68 jenkinsi Zone. 53, 57, 59, 67. 68, 69, 73 Amphipyndax plousios, 28 Amphistegina, 46 lopeztrigoi, 46 parvula. 42, 46: pl. 6 sp., 42 Amphisteginidae, 46 ampliapertura, Globigerina, 52 anarrhogus, Sphenolithus, 31 angiporoides, Globigerma ungipo‘roides. 52, 59 angiporoides, Globigerina, 52, 59 minima, Globigerina, 52, 59 angulatum, Pemma, 38, 56, 61 INDEX [Italic numbers indicate principal reference] Angulogerina abbreviata tubulifera, 17 cuneata, 10 hannai, 77 u'ilcoxensis, 10, 17, 28; pl. 3 angusta, Pullem'a quinqueloba, 17 angustiumbilicuta. Globigerfna, 51 Afio Nuevo area, 51 A50 Nuevo section, 49, 51, 59, 60, 71, 74 faunal assemblages, 74 foraminifers, benthic, 71 plankton, calcareous, 51 Anomalina califomiensis, 65, 68, 69, 70. 71, 74; pl. 17 crassisepta, 12. 22 dorri, 28 aragonensis, 22 garzaensis. 17, 64, 68, 74; pl. 17 salinasensis. 71, 74: pl. 17 umbonuta, 64 Anomalinoides, 7 acutus. 10, 16, 19; pl. 5 aragonensis, 10, 12, 16: pl. 5 crassiseptus, 11, 13, 17; pl. 5 danica rubiginosa, 7 garzaensis, pl. 5 judas, 10 keeni, 10, 17; pl. 5 regina. 16 mbiginosus, 19 welleri, 10, 16, 19 ansata, Nonimiella, 17 anti/lea, Lepidocyclina, 47 antipoda, Lenticulinu, 17 antipodum, Lenticulina, 11 applinae, Loxastomoides, 11; pl. 3 approximata, Dentalina, 11 aragonensis, Anomalina dorri, 22 Anomalinoides, 10, 12, 16; pl. 5 Aragonia, 10, 16; pl. 2 Globorotalia, 28 Morozorella, 19 Aragom'a aragonensis, 11, 16; pl. 2 amucana, Rosalina, 77 Valvulineria, 71, 77; pl. 15 arenasensis, Karreriella, 16 Argilloecia, 12 arundinea, Nodosaria, 10, 16 aspera, Clawlinaides, 16 asperulzyormis, Vaginulinopsis, 11, 22; pl. 2 Astacolus sp., 71 aster, Actinocyclina, 47 Asterocyclina, 42, 47; pl. 6 Asterigerina crassaformis, 11, 12, 13, 17, 22. 64, 74 Asterocyclina, 47 aster, 42, 47; pl. 6 distribution, 42 penonensis, 47 astroporus, Markalius, 31 asymbatos, Stichomitra, 28 atlantisae hispidula, Ellipsonodosaria, 64, 68, 76 hispidula, Nodosarella, 76; pl. 16 auberiana, Uz'z'gerz'na, 65. 69, 70, 71, 77; pl. 14 Aubert, Jane, cited, 28, 41 Avenal Sandstone Member, Kreyenhagen Formation. Devils Den Aqueduct section, 22 Kreyenhagen Formation, Devils Den aqueduct section, age, 29 Devils Den aqueduct section, Penutian Stage, 28 foraminifers, large, 41 Media Agua Creek area, 32 age, 33 worm tubes, 41 B Baggalella califomica, 17; pl. 4 Baggina robusta, 71, 72. 74: pl. 15 barbadiensis, Discoaster, 30, 38, 53, 56, 60: pl. 9 barbatz', Lenticulina, 71, 75; pl. 11 Robulus, 75 basiplanata, Dentalina, 10, 17 basquensis, Micmntholithus, 56 Pemma, 61 Buthysiphon, 7, 12, 13, 21 eocenica, 64, 69. 74 eocenicus, 11, 13, 16, 19 sp. B lsraelsky, 10 spp.. 64, 71 beams, Cibicidoidcs, 10, 11, 16; pl. 5 beccariifomzis, Gai'elinella, 19 becki, Amphimorphina, 64, 68, 74; pl. 13 Lugena, 65, 75 belemnos, Sphenolithus, 51, 61 Benthic, defined, 1 Benthic foraminifers, 1, 5 age assignments, 36 A50 Nuevo section, 62 central Coast Ranges, California, 22 Devils Den aqueduct section, 22 Eocene zonations, California, 41, 61 Lodo Gulch area, 22 Media Agua Creek area, 22 San Joaquin Valley, 22 San Lorenzo River section, 62, 6‘3, 64, 65 Santa Cruz Mountains, 62 area, California, 6‘] Zayante Creek section, 62, 69 Benthonic, defined, 1 Benthonic foraminiferal zones, 1, 22 Afio Nuevo section, 62, 71 central ranges of California, 4 Devils Den aqueduct area, 13, 22, 44 Locatelli Formation, 19, 21 Lodo Formation, 29 Lodo Gulch area, 22, 29 Mallory, 5, 22, 28, 33 Media Agua Creek, 22 Paleogene of California, summary, 36 Rices Mudstone Member, 68 San Joaquin Valley, 22, 33 San Lorenzo Formation, 67, 68 San Lorenzo River section, 62, 6‘3, 73 Santa Cruz Mountains, 6‘1 Nobar Shale Member, 67, 68 Vaqueros Formation, 71 Zayante Creek section, 62, 70 Berggren, W. A., cited, 28, 41, 42 bidens, Chiasmolithus, 30 Bifarina elegans, 68 eleganta, 11, 64, 74; pls. 2, 15 nuttalli, 11. 16, 28: pl. 2 Nicksburgensis, 10 bigelowi, Braamdosphaem, 56, 60 bijugatus, Zygrhablithus, 31, 38, 56, 61 binodosus, Discoaster, 30, 38 Biostratigraphy, foraminiferal, 7, 13 nannofossils, calcareous, 38 biseclus, Coccolithus, 38 Dictyococcites, 30, 51, 52, 53, 56: 60; pl. 9 Blow, W. H., cited, 49 boffalome, Nodasariu, 76 Boldia hodgei, 64. 68, 74; pl. 17 stratigraphic range, 73 Bolivina. advena, 71, 74 83 84 Robina—Continued crenulata, 19 explicate. califomica, 11 gracilis, 64, 74 hunen‘, 16; pl. 3 klempelli, 17, 64, 74; pl. 13 morginata, 65, 69, 70, 71, 74; pls. 10, 13 adelaidana, 71, 72 pisciformis, 17 scabrata, 64, 68, 74; pl. 13 51)., 11, 64: pl. 13 spp., 71 Bolirinoides mexicavms, 65, 74: pl. 13 boweri, Subbetina, 12 Braarudosphaera bigelowi, 56, 60 discula, 30 Brabb, E. E., cited, 1, 5, 22, 28. 39, 49, 52, 58, 63, 71 Bracheux Sandstone, Paris Basin, 7 bradburyi, Buliminella, 10, 16, 19; pl. 2 bramlettei, Helicosphaera, 56, 61 Virgulina, 75 Bramletteius serraculoides, 56, 60; pl. 9 bramletti, Fursenkoina, 65, 69, 71, 75; pl. 16 b'revispira, Turritilina, 10, 16 Bukry, David, cited, 1, 22, 28, 29. 33, 36, 38, 49, 58 Bulimina, 7 callahani, 10, 12, 13, 16; pl. 3 carne'roveis, 71, 74: pls. 13, 14 stratigraphic range, 72 consanguina, 17 corrugata, ll, 22, 64, 68, 71. 74; pl. 14 Zone, 68, 73 :urtissima. 10, 16, 64, 68, 74: pls. 3, 14 debilis, 11,28 elegantissima, 74 excavata, 17. 28 impendens, 10, 17: pl. 3 {Malta 65, 70 alligata, 71, 72, 74; pl. 14 instabilis, 10, 16 matilenta, 10, 16: pl. 3 micmoostata, 64, 68. 69, .74; pl. 14 orphanensis. 12, 13 0mm, 10, 77 pupoides. 16. 77 pyrula, 16 sculptilis lacinata, 65, 68, 74: pl. 14 semicostata lacrima. 17 trihedra, 17 trinitatensis, 10, 12, 16: pl. 3 truncanella, 17 whitei, ll, 16; pl. 3 sp., 10, 17 spp., 71 Buliminella bradburyi, 10, 16, 19. pl. 2 curta, 69, 71, 74 elegamissima, 71, 74; pl. 13 gram, 12 convoluta, 10, 16, 22; pl. 2 subfusifomis, 69, 71, 74 sp., 64 Bulitian Stage, 28, 29, 33, 36 age, 29. 33, 36 benthonic foraminiferal zones, 33 type section, 33 bulloides, Sphueroidina, 69, 71, 77; pl. 13 Burdigalian fauna, Europe, 1 Butano Sandstone, Bear Creek area, 38 Bear Creek area, age, 39 coccoliths, 52 foraminifers, benthic, 68 benthic, agglutinated, 19, 21 calcareous, 19, 21 planktic, 19, 21 Lompico area, 5, 19, 38 age, 38 nannofossils, 38 paleobathymetry, 19. 21 San Inrenzo River section, 63, 68 Santa Cruz Mountains, 5, 13, 19, 21 INDEX C calathus, Chiphmgmalithus, 30 colour, Lenticulina, 69. 71, 75; pl. 11 Nautilus, 75 California, basement rocks, 4 Eocene rocks, 4 marine strata, 58 Paleogene benthonic foraminiferal stages, 22 Paleogene, summary, 36 paleogeography, 4 provincial stages, 5, 38 tectonic evolution during Mesozoic and Cenozoic time, 4 Tertiary, map, 4 California Tertiary stages, 1, 5 Ana Nuevo section, 52, 59, 62, 72, 74 Avenal Sandstone, 28 benthonic foraminiferal stages, 1, 4, 22, 29, 36, 41, 62, 72 Bulitian Stage, 28, 29, 33, 36 Cheneyan Stage, 36, 38 Church Creek area, 58 Delmontian Stage, 1 Devils Den aqueduct area, 22, 36, 44 Kleinpell, 1, 72, 73 Lambert Shale, 71 Lodo Formation, type, 29, 32, 33, 36 Lodo Gulch area, 29, 36 Mallory, 1, 5, 22, 28, 29, 33 Martinez Stage, 7 Media Agua Creek area, 33, 36 Mohnian Stage, 1 nannoplankton zones, 1, 22, 28, 29, 36 Narizian boundary, 73 Narizian-Refugian boundary, 59 N arizian Stage, 28, 33, 36, 42, 53, 59, 62, 67, 68. 69, 70. 72, 73 Penutian Stage, 28, 29, 33, 36, 44 planktonic foraminiferal zones, 1, 22, 36, 41, 59 Refugian Stage, 53, 58, 59, 68, 69, 70, 73 Refugian-Zemorrian boundary. 53, 69, 73 Relizian Stage, 52, 62, 72, 74 San Lorenzo River section, 53, 59, 62, 67, 68, 70, 73 Santa Cruz Mountains, 62 Saucesian-Relizian boundary, 52 Saucesian Stage, 52, 59, 71, 72, 74 Twobar Shale Member, 68 Ulatisian-Narizian boundary, 29 Ulatisian Stage, 29, 33, 36, 42, 67, 68 Ynezian-Bulitian boundary, 29. 33 Ynezian Stage, 28, 29, 33, 36 Zayante Creek section, 59, 62, 70, 74 Zemorrian boundary, 70, 71, 73 Zemorrian Stage, 36, 38, 52, 53, 58, 59, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73 Zemorrian-Saucesian boundary, 52, 59, 72, 73, 74 califmica, Alabamina wilcoxensis, 16, 22 Amphimorphina, 16 Baggutella, pl. 4 Bolivina. expli'cata, 11 Discocyclina, 46, 48 Globorotalia, 28 Plectofrondiculuria, 71, 76 Silicosigmoilina, 10, 17, 19; pl. 1 Thfarina advena, 10, 17, 28; pl. 3 Valvulinen'a, 71, 72, 77 califomicus, Chiasmolithus, 30, 38 Clavulinoides, 10, 16: pl. 1 caltfomiensis, Anomalina, 65, 68, 69, 70, 71, 74; pl. 17 Cassidulinoides, 65, 70, 74; pl. 13 Fursenkoina, 64, 75; pl. 16 Virgulina, 75 callaham‘, Bulimina, 10, 12, 13, 16; pl. 3 Camerina striatoreticulata, 45 Camerinu willcoxi, 45 Campylosphae'ra dela, 30, 56, 60 eodela, 30, 51, 60 Canada de Santa Anita, 73 cancellata, Cyclammina, 71 obesa, Cuclammina, 75; pl. 10 Canoas Siltstone Member, Kreyenhagen Shale, age, 36 Kreyenhagen Shale, Garza Creek, 36 Oil City, 36 carcoselleensis, Globorotaloides, 59 carinatus, Tkiquetrorhabdulus, 51, 61 cameroensis, Bulimina, 71, 74; pls. 13, 14 carteri, Helicosphaera, 51, 61 Cassidulina crassipunctata, 65, 69, 70, 71, 74; pl. 16 diversa, 64, 74; pl. 16 globosa, 11, 16, 75 margareta, 71, 74 sp., 71 spp., 64 Cassidulinoides californiensis, 65, 70, 74; pl. 13 Catapsydmz unicams, 51 Caucasina schemki, 22 cows, Coccolithus, 3O Cenozoic formations, western North America, correlation, 1 cerroazulensis, Globorotalia, 59 Glaborotalia cerroazulensis, 52 cerroazulensis, Globorotali'a, 52 charaides, Glomospira, 17, 19 chehalisensis, Lenticulina, 65, 75 Robulus, 75 Cheneyan Stage, age, 36, 38 Chiasmolithus, 61 alias, 53, 56, 60 bidens, 30 californicus, 30, 38 consuelus, 30, 38 expansus, 30, 38, 56, 60 gigas, 30, 38 Zone, 31 grandis, 30, 56, 60 solitus, 30, 56, 60 31)., 51 childsi, Valmdirwrz'a, 10, 16 Chilongmbelina cubensia, 59; pl. 7 midwayensis subcylindrica, 28 sp., 59 Chi lostomella sp., 64, 71 Chilostomelloidcs cylindmides, 10 5p.. 17 Chiphragmalithus calathus, 30 chiranus, Robulus, 69, 76 Church Creek area, 49, 58 plankton, calcareous, 58 Santa Lucia Range, 49, 59 Church Creek Formation, Church Creek area. 49, 58 Church Creek area, age, 59 coccoliths, 58 foraminifers, planktic, 49, 58, 59 Santa Lucia Range, 49, 58 zone assignments, 59 churchi, Urigerina, 64, 68, 77; pl. 14 Cibicides americanus, 71, 74 amen’canus crassiseptus, 71, 75; pl. 15 cocoaensis, 11 cushmani, 74 elmaensis, 65, 68, 73, 75 stratigraphic range, 73 falconmsis, 64, 75 felix, 11 floridanus, 69, 71, 75: pl. 15 grimsdalei, l7 haydom', 65, 69, 75: pl. 15 Subzone, Donnelly, lower Refugian, 68 hodgei, 74 kemensis, 11, 17, 28 laiminyi, 22 maninezensis, 11, 16 pachyderma, 17, 64, 68, 75 praecursorius, 11 pseudoungerianus evolutus, 65, 69, 71, 75; pl. 16 spiropunctata, 68 spiropunctatus, 11, 22, 64, 75: pl. 16 sp., of Mallory, 16 sp. B, 17 5p, 69 Cibicides—Continued spp., 64, 71 Cibicidina mauricensis, 17 Cibicidoides, 7 ulleni, 7, 17 beams, 10, 11, 16; pl. 5 cush'mani, 17 eponidifomis, 10, 16 fortunatus, 10, 13, 16: pl. 5 g’rimsdalei, pl. 5 martinezensis, 19 pseudowuellorstorfi, 16 spiropunctatus, 16 whitei, 10, 16, 19; pl, 5 Claiborne Group, Gulf Coast, 42 Clark, J. C., cited, 1, 19,22, 39, 49, 63, 71 Clark, Joseph, cited, 5 clarki, Cyclam'mina, 17; pl. 1 Discocyclina, 47 Onhophragmina, 47 Pseudophmgminu, 42 (Propo‘mcyclina), 47; pl. 6 Clavulina patens, 76 Clavulinoides, 7 uspera, 16 callfomicus, 10, 16; pl. 1 sp., 7 clypei/o‘rmis, Lenticulina, 69, 71, 76; pl. 11 coaledmsis, Lenticulina, 65, 76 Robulus, 76 coulingensis, Acarinina, 19, 42 Gaudryina, 17; pl. 1 jacksonensis, 10, 28 Haplophmgmoides, 10, 16 Coast Ranges, Calif., 2 foraminifers, large, Eocene, 41 stratigraphy, 1 Coccolith assemblages, Afio Nuevo section. 51 Church Creek area, 58 northern California, 60 San Lorenzo River section, 52, 53 Zayante Creek section, 52 zone assignments, 51, 59 Coccolith, 49, 51 distribution, 51 sample preparation, 59 sp., Deep Sea Drilling Project cores, 60 Europe, 60 Gulf Coast, 60 illustration references, 60 indeterminate, 61 undifferentiated, 61 zonation, 49 Coccolith zones. Afio Nuevo section, 51, 74 Bukry, 51, 53, 56 Church Creek area, 58 Church Creek Formation, 58 Lambert Shale, 52 Rices Mudstone Member, 52, 53 San Lorenzo Formation, 52, 53 San Lorenzo River section, 53, 73 Santa Cruz Mountains. 49 Santa Lucia Range. 49 Twobar Shale Member. 53 Vaqueros Formation, 51 Vaqueros Sandstone, 52 Zayante Creek section, 52, 74 Coccolithus, 61 bisectus, 38 cavus, 30 crassus, 29, 30 cribellum, 30. 56, 60 eopelagicus, 30, 38 famous, 53, 56, 60; pl. 9 magn icrassus, 30 pelagicus, 30, 38, 53 stauritm, 56, 60 subdistichus, 30 spp., 51, 56 cocoaensis, Cibicides, 11 INDEX cocoaensis—Continued Dentalinu, 65, 75 Nodosaria, 75 Uvigerina, 68, 69, 73, 77 Code of Stratigraphic Nomenclature, 5, 39 Colburn, I. P., cited, 42 Cole, W. S., cited, 46 colei, Hituxilina, 11, 13, 16; pl. 1 collactea, Tmncorotaloides, 59 coloratus, Lenticulina, 71 columbiana, Gfimbelitria, 59, 6‘0; pl. 7 communis, Dentalina, 11 compacta, Helicosphaera, 56, 61 conoimms, Heliorthus, 38 condom, Eponides, 75 Gyroidina. 64, 75 conicus, Sphenolithus, 51, 61 Conotrochammina spp., 17 consanguina. Bulimi'na, 17 constricta, Nodosarella, 16 consuetus, Chiasmolithus, 30, 38 contortus, Trochammz'noides, 16 com‘e'rgens, Lenticulz'na, 17 comvoluta, Buliminella gram, 22; pl. 2 cooperensis, Dentalina, 71, 75; pl. 11 Corals, 1 Correlation chart, standard, based on benthic foraminifers, 1 standard, based on mollusks, echinoids, and corals, 1 for marine Cenozoic formations of western North America, 1 Correlation, summary, fauna] assemblages, 72 corrugata, Bulimina, 11, 22, 64, 68, 71, 74; pl. 14 costata, Entosolem'a, 75 Lagena. 65, 71, 75 costifera, Non {one/1a, 69. 71, 76 Nonionina, 76 crassafor'mis, Asterigerina, 11, 12, 13, 17, 22, 64, 74 crassipunctata, Cassidulina, 65, 69, 70, 71, 74; pl. 16 crassisepta, Anumalina, 12, 22 crassiseptus, AnomalinoidES, 11. 13, 17; pl. 5 Cibicides americanus, 71. 75; pl. 15 671188148, Coccolithus, 29, 30 craticulus, waeius, 31 crebra, Rhabdosphoem, 31 crenulata, Bolz'vina, 19 cribellum, Coccolithus, 30, 56, 60 Cm'brostomoides sp., 17 cristata, Nannotetrina, 38 Crz'stellaria midwayensis, 76 saundersi, 77 simplex, 76 crawleri, Lagena, 11 crucifowm's, Discoaster, 30 Cruciplacolithus staurion, 30 tenuis, 56, 60 Zone, 36 cubana, Dorothia, 64, 67, 75; pl. 10 Gaudryina, 75 cubensis, Ammobaculites, 17 Chiloguembelina, 59; pl. 7 Dorothiu, 17 Gumbelina, 59 Plectz'na, 13, 17 Pleurostomellu alazanensis, 17 cultralus, Lenticulina, 76 Robulus, 76 cuneata, Angulogerina, 10 curta, Buliminella, 69, 71, 74 Vulvulina, 10, 16 curtissima, Bulimina, 10, 16, 64, 68, 74; pls. 3, 14 curvatum, Marginulina, 10 cushmani, Cibicides. 74 . Cibicidoides, 17 Cyclammina, 7, 12, 19 cancellata, 71 obesa, 75; pl. 10 clurki, 17; pl. 1 incisa, 17, 69, 75; pl. 1 85 Cyclammina—Continued pacifica, 65, 75 simiensis, 11. 13, 16, 19: pl. 1 sp., 69 spp., 65, 69, 71 Cyclicargolithus abisectus. 51, 53, 60 floridanus, 30, 38, 51, 53, 56, 60 luminus, 56, 60 neogammation, 60 Cyclococcolith inaformosa, 3O gammation, 30. 56, 60 kingi, 56, 60 protoannula, 60 pseudogummation, 30 Cyclococcolithus formosus, 38 inz'ersus, 38 luminus, 60 Cyclolithella inflexa, 38 cylindroides, Chilostomelloides. 10 Cymbaloporidae. 47 Cylherella, 12 D Daktylethra punctulata, 56, 60; pl. 9 danica rubiginosa, Anomalinoides, 7 dom'illensis, Pseudoparrella, 64 debilis, Bulimina, 11,28 Deep Sea Drilling Project sites, 12 Definition, Lodo Formation, 39 deflandrei, Discoaster, 30, 51, 53, 60; pl. 9 deflata, Haplophragmoides, 65, 75; pl. 10 dela, Ca mpylosphaera, 30, 56, 60 delicatus, Discoaster, 38 deliciae, Nodosariu, 10, 16 Delmontian Stage of Kleinpell, 1 densa, Acarinina, 7, 12 Dentalina adolphina, 77 approximata. 11 basiplanatu, 10, 17 cocuaensis, 65, 75 communis, 11 cooperensis, 71, 75; pl. 11 jacksonensis, 11, 16, 65, 75 multilineala, 11 quadrulata. 69, 71, 72, 75: pl. 11 solutfl, 65 spinosa. 10, 16 ornatior, 64, 75; pl. 11 substrigata, 10 u‘ilcorensis, 11 sp., 69, 71; pl. 11 spp., 10 Devils Den, Calif., 2, 4 Devils Den area, 4, 1,1, 44 aqueduct section, 13, 21, 22 age, 36 Bulitian Stage, 28 conclusions, 29 foraminiferal biostratigraphy, 13 foraminifers, benthic, 7 benthic, stages, 22, 28, 29 planktic, 21 nannoplankton, 28 Narizian Stage, 22, 28 paleobathymetry, 13 Penutian Stage, 28 rock units, 22 Ulatisian Stage, 28 Ynezian Stage, 28 comparison, 33 foraminifers, large, 41, 44 Kern County, Calif., 5, 13, 22 locality descriptions, 48 stratigraphy, 41 diastypus, Discoaster, 50 Dibblee, T. W., Jr., cited, 4, 33, 36, 41 dibollensis, Fursenkoina, 64, 75: pl. 16 Virgulina, 75 86 dictyoda, Reticulofenestra, 31, 38 Dictyococcites bisectus, 30, 51, 52, 53, 56, 60; pl. 9 hesslandii, 38 scrippsae, 30, 51, 53, 56, 60 Dictyomitra multicostata, 28 directa, Plectofrondicularia miocem'ca, 71, 76: pl. 12 Spimplectammina, 16, 65, 77: pls. 1, 10 Spiroplectoides, 77 _ Discaaster barbadiensis, 30, 38, 53, 56, 60; pl. 9 barbadiensia Zone, 31, 53, 56, 58. 73 /Helicopontosphae'ra reticulum Zone, 31 btfaz Subzone, 53, 56 binodosus, 30, 38 Zone, 31 cruczfamis, 30 deflandrei, 30, 51, 53, 60; pl. 9 deli wins, 38 diastypus, 30 Zone, 28, 29, 31, 33 boundary, 29 distinctus. 30, 38 divaricatus, 51, 53, 61 elegans, 30, 56, 61 exilis, 51, 61 gmmife'r, 30 germanicus, 30 helianthus, 30 lenticularis, 30 lodoensis, 30, 38, 51, 53, 56, 61 Zone, 13, 29,31, 33, 44 mirua, 30, 38 mohleri Zone, 29, 32, 33 multiradiatua, 30 Zone, 29, 31, 33 nobilis, 30 Zone, 29, 33 mdifer, 30, 56, 61; pl. 9 nonamdiatus, 30 saiparwnsis, 30, 38, 53, 56, 61; pl. 9 Subzone, 53, 56 ZoneDiscaaster barbadimis Zone boundary, 73 strictua, 30 Zone, 31 sublodaensia, 29, 31, 33 Zone, 13, 29, 31, 33 tani, 31, 56, 61 mama, 31 tribrachiatus, 61 varihbilis, 51, 61 wemmelensia, 31 spp., 51 Discoasteroides kuepperi, 31 kuepperi Zone, 31 megastypus, 31 Discoasters, Paleocene, 38 Discocyclina calzfmica, 46, 48 caltfmica, holotype, 42 clarki, 47 sp., 42 (Discocyclina) mammota, 42, 46 (Discacyclim) marginata, Discocyclina, 42, 46‘ Discocyclinidae, 46 classification, 46 Discolithina, 61 distirwta, 61 multipom, 51, 61 plana, 30. 31, 51, 53,61 spp., 53 Discole distimtus, 56 pulclwroides, 61 spp., 56 diacula, Braamdosphaera, 30 Discussion, [ado Formation, .99 plankton, calcareous, 59 dissimilis, Sphenolithus, 51, 53, 61 distincta, Diasolithina, 61 diatinctua, Dtlsooaater, 30, 38 Discolithua, 56 divaricatua, Diacoaste’r, 51, 53, 61 diversa, Cassidulina, 64, 74; pl. 16 INDEX Domengine Formation, age, 36 foraminifers, large, 42 Mount Diablo area, age, 42 Oil City, 36 Domengine Sandstone, 7 Dodo Gulch, 39 age, 36 Donnelly, A. T., cited, 62, 68 dorfi, Eponides, 17 Dorothia, 7 cubana, 64, 67, 75; pl. 10 cubensis, 17 excentrica, 10, 11 germanica, 17; pl. 1 principiensis, 17 sp., 11 dm'ri, Anomalina, 28 aragonensis, Anomalina, 22 dubia, Marginulinu, 69, 76 dubius, Nenchiastozygus, 39 Neococcolithes, 31 Zygolithus, 56, 61: pl. 9 E Early Zemorriamlate Zemorrian boundary, 70, 71, 73 echinata, Vaginulinopsis, 16 Echinoids, 1 Egge'rella elongata, 64, 68, 69, 75; pl. 10 subconica, 64, 75; pl. 10 sp., 11 eygen', Haplophmgmoides, 13, 16 elegans, Bi/arina, 68 Discoaster, 30, 56, 61 eleganta, Bifarina, 11, 64. 74; pls. 2, 15 Siphogenerina, 74 elegantissima, Buliminu, 74 Buliminella, 71, 74; pl. 13 Ellipsolithus maullus, 31 Ellipsmdosaria. atlantisae hiapidula, 64, 68, 76 elmaensis, Ciln‘cides, 65, 68, 73, 75 elongata, Eggerella, 64, 68, 69, 75; pl. 10 Hyperammina, 19 Karren'ella, 11, 64, 68, 75; pl. 11 Uviger'ina, 7, 11, 17, 64, 77; pls. 3, 14 Elphidium sp., 71 eminens, waeius, 31 entaster, Micrantholithus, 31 Entosolenid. costata, 75 squamosa hexagona, 75 eocaena, Globigerina, 59 Eocene foraminifers, large, Coast Ranges, Calif., 41 Eocene rocks, California, 4 Eocene stages of Mallory, l Eocene—Oligocene boundary, San Lorenzo River section, 53 eocenica, Bathysiphon, 64, 69, 74 Gonatosphaera, 16 Hoeglundina, 19 Martinottiella, 16, 64, 76: pls. 1, 11 Pullem‘a, 10. 16 Rhabdammina, 10, 13, 16, 19. 64, 77; pl. 10 eocenicus, Bathysiphon, 18, 19 Eoconuloides, 46‘ lopeztn'goi, 42, 46‘; pl. 6 parvulus, 46 wellsi, 42, 46‘. pl. 6 eodela, Campylosphaera, 30, 51. 60 Eafabiana, L7 grahami, 42, 47; pl. 6 eopelagicus, Coccolithua, 30, 38 epigtma-lata, Rzehalcimt, 19 Epistomina paHschiana, 10, 17 Epistmninella spp., 71 Eponides condom, 75 donfi, 17 lodenais, 11, 28 minima, 17 primus, 7, 11, 16 umlumatm, 76 sp., 10, 16, 17, 65 eponidiformis, Cibicidoides, 10, 16 E'ricsonia subpertusa, 38 euphrutis, Helicosphae'ra, 51, 53, 61 Europe, Oligocene, 1 Eustatic sea-level change, identified by seismic stratigraphic methods, 21 evolutus, Cibicides pseudoungerianus, 65, 69, 71, 75; pl. 16 ewaldi, Nodosaria, 10, 16 excuvata, Bulimina, 17, 28 excavatus, Haplophmgmoides, 11, 13,17, 19 excentrica, Dorothiu, 10, 11 exilis, Discoaster, 51, 61 exima, Marginulina, 65, 76 expansus, Chiasmolithus, 30, 38, 56, 60 explicatu califomica, Bolivina, 11 F falconensis, Cibic’ides, 64, 75 fallax, Kurre'ria, 11 Fasciculithus involutus, 31 mitreus, 31 schaubi, 31 tympam'fomis, 31, 38 Zone, 38 Fauna] assemblages, correlation, summary, 72 Faunas, Coast Range sections, 1 Coast Ranges, California, 2 Paleogene, 1 Faulting, Paleogene sequences, 4 feliz, Cibicides, 11 Field Conference on the Paleogene, of the International Commission on Bileogene Stratigraphy, 1, 5, 49, 62 Field numbers, key, 67 Fissurina sp., 69 flinbensis, Orthophragmina, 47 Proporocyclina, 47 Pseudophragmina. (Proporocyclina), 42, 46, 47; pl. 6 (Pseudophragmina), 47 floridana, Mmatulina, 75 flo’ridanua, Cibicides, 69, 71, 75; pl. 15 Cyclicargolithus, 30, 38, 51, 53, 56, 60 Flo’rilus, 12 florinense, 7 florinensis, 11 Florilus-Epo’nides-Uvigerina assemblage, 13 florimse, Florilus, 7 florimnsis, F lor’ilus, 11 flos, Micrantholithus, 56, 61 Flysch assemblage, classic, characteristics. 19 Flysch faunas, Paleogene, Carpathians, 21 Paleogene, North Atlantic, 21 Foraminiferal biostratigraphy, 7, 1.9 Foraminiferal data, synthesis, 36 Foraminiferal stages of Mallory, 5, 29 Foraminiferal zones, 36 benthic, 62 planktic, 36, 62 Foraminifers, Angola, 21 Aquitaine Basin, 21 benthic, 1, 7, 12, 36, 41, 6'1 age assignments, 36 A50 Nuevo section, 62 agglutinated, 7, 12, 19, 21 assemblages, 7, 72 calcareous, 7, 19 California Coast Ranges, 22, 41, 62 correlate West Coast zonal schemes, 62 Church Creek area, 58 Devils Den section, 7 Eocene, 41, 61 Lode Gulch section, 7, l9 Miocene, 6'1 provincial stages, California, 1, 36 Refugian Stage, 58 San Lorenzo River section, 62, 68, 64, 65 Foraminifers—Continued benthic—Continued Santa Cruz Mountains area, California, 61 Tertiary zonal scheme, 62 vertical distribution, 22 Zayante Creek section, 62, 69 cosmopolitan, 21 Tunisia, 12 faunas, Coast Range sections, 1 flysch faunas, Paleogene, 12 large, age, 42, M Avenal Sandstone, 41 Coast Ranges, California, 41 correlations, 44 deposition, 41 Devils Den area, 41, 44 distribution, 41 Domengine Formation, 42 Eocene, Coast Ranges, California, 41 evolution, 41 Miocene, 61 Mount Diablo area, 41, 42 Pacific Coast assemblages, 41 San Jose area. 42 Sveadal area, 44 'Ibmblor Formation, 44 Dodo Formation. type section, 7, 40 Midway Group. 12 Orphan Knoll, 12, 21 Pacific affinities, 21 planktic, 7, 13, 19, 36, 44, 49, 58, 62 A50 Nuevo section, 51 Butano Sandstone, 19 Church Creek Formation, 49, 58, 59 Devils Den aqueduct section, 13 Locatelli Formation, 19 Lodo Formation, type, 7, 13 Lodo Gulch area, 13 marine strata, California, 58 occurrence, 59 Refugian Stage, 58 San Lorenzo River section, 52, 59 taxonomic notes, 59 Zayante Creek section, 52 zonation, 7, 13, 41, 49, 52, 59 Zones P19 and P20, 74 siliceous molds, 72 formosa, Cyclocaccolithina, 30 Mwozovella, 42 fomosus, Coccolithus, 53. 56, 60; pl. 9 Cyclococcolithus, 38 fortunatua, Cibicidoides, 10, l3, 16; pl. 5 Franciscan basement rocks, 4 relation to granitic basement rocks, 4 frankei, Guttulina. 65, 75 F‘rondicularia nahealmis, 11 tenuissima, 69, 75 frontosa, Subbotina, 7, 12 fulyena, Nannotetn'na, 31 furcatolithoides, Sphenolithus, 31, 56, 61; pl. 9 F‘ursenkoina Mamletti, 65, 69, 71, 75; pl. 16 califmiemis, 64, 75; pl. 16 dibollemn's, 64, 75; pl. 16 zetina indirecta, 11, 17 G gallowayi, Pseudoglandulina, 77 Pseudonodosan'a, 69, 70, 71, 77; pl. 12 Uviger‘inu, 69, 70, 71, 77; p]. 14 gammation. Cyclococcolithina, 30, 56, 60 gardneme, Marginulina, 11 garzaenais, Anomalina, 17, 64, 68, 74: pl. 17 Anamalinoides, pl. 5 Plectina, 64, 76; pl. 11 Plectofromdicularia, 17 Uvige'rinu, 65, 68, 77; pl. 14 nudorolmata, Um‘gen'na, 69 Gaudryina, 19 coalingenais, 17; pl. 1 cabana, 75 INDEX Gaudryina—Continued gracil'is, 69, 70, 71; pl. 10 jacksommis coulingensis, 10, 28 luem’gata, 10, 16: pl. 1 macrocamerata, 10 m'anguluris, 69, 75; pl. 10 Gavelinella beccariifomis, 19 gemma, Globa’rotalia, 59 gemmfle’r, Diacoaste'r, 30 germanica, Dorothiu, 17; pl. 1 germanicus, Discoaster, 30 gibba globosa, Globulina, 17 g’igas. Chiaamolithus, 30, 38 glalrra, Marginulimz, 11 Glandulina udunca, 76 inflata, 77 laem'gata, 71, 75 sp., 11 (Glandulina) laem'gotu, Nodosan'a, 75 Glauconite, 7, 68, 69 potassium-argon date, Lodo Formation, 7 Globigen'na, 60 ampliapertura, 52 angiporoides angipo'raides, 52, 59 minima, 52, 59 anwstiumb‘ilicata, 51 eocaeml, 59 juvenilis, 51 minima, 59 officinalis, 59 ouachittunsis, 59 maebullaides, 51, 52, 59 praeturritilina, 59; pl. 8 pseudovmzuelana, 59 scm'lis, 59 tripartita, 51, 59 turritilina praeturritilina, 59 utilisindex, 59 woodi, 51 Globigen'natheka index, 59 mexicana, 59 glolyigefim'formis, Wochummina. 16 Glob’ige'r'inita martini, 59 preteétizinfm-thi, 51 Glob’igerinoides higginsi, 52, 59 Globobulimina pacifica, 65, 69, 71, 75; pl. 14 sp., 10 Globocassidulina globosa, 65, 69, 75; pl, 4 Globo'rotalia arago’nensis, 28 califmica, 28 ce’rroazule’ns‘ia, 59 cerroazulensis, 52 gemma, 59 margimdentata, 28 munda, 51, 60; pl. 8 nana, 51, 60, pl. 8 opima nana, 60 pseudochapmani, 28 pseudoccmtinuasa, 60 sp., 60: pl. 8 Globorotalm'dea carcoselleensia, 59 sutert', 51, 52, 59 wilsom'. 59 globosa, Cassidulina, 11, 16, 75 Globocassidulina, 65, 69, 75; pl. 4 Globulina gibba, 17 Globulina gibba globosa, 17 irregularis, 75 lacn'ma, l7 Glomoap'im charaidea, 17, 19 Goesella sp., 11 Gtmatosphaera eocenica, 16 sp., l7 Goudkoff, P. R., cited, 36 gracilia, Bolivina, 64, 74 Gaudryina, 69, 70, 71; pl. 10 Sipho'nodosan'a, 17 gracillia, Morozovella, 42 grahami, Eofabiana, 42, 47; pl. 6 grandis, Chiasmolithus, 30, 56, 60 87 grate, Buliminella, 12 convoluta, Buliminella, 10, 16, 22; pl. 2 Great Valley, Paleogene, 4 Great Valley sequence, 2 Gredal Shale Member, Kreyenhagen Formation, 5, 13, 21, 22, 33 Kreyenhagen Formation, age, 29 Devils Den aqueduct section, 13, 22, 33, 36 age, 29, 36 time-stratigraphic relations, 33 Devils Den area, 5, 19, 30. 48 fauna, 19 cosmopolitan, 21 Pacific affinities, 21 Media Agua Creek area, 33, 36 Media Agua Creek section, boundary, 33 age, 33, 36 correlation, 36 San Joaquin Valley, 33 time-stratigraphic relations, 33 samples, 5 medalensis, Pleurostomella, 11 grimsdalei, Cibicides, 17 Cib’icidoidea, pl. 5 debelim'u columln'ana, 59, 60: pl. 7 Guttulinafrankei, 65, 75 irregularis, 65, 75 ' gyrata, Nodosan'a, 10, 64; pl. 11 Gyroidinu. condom, 64, 75 wbiwlafls obliquata, 17 planata. 11, 64, 69, 71’, 75; pl. 17 soldam'i. 65, 71, 75 octocamerata, 10, 17 sp., 69, 71 Gyroidinoides subungulata, 16 gyroscolprum, Lenticulina, 10 H halkyardi, Nom'on, 65, 76 hammi, Angulogerina, 77 Marina, 65, 77 hantkem', Saracenaria, 65 Hantkenina sp., 59 Haplophragmium incisum, 75 Huplophragmm'des, 7 coalingensis, 10, 16 deflata, 65, 75; pl. 10 fined, 13, 16 ezcavatus, 11, l3, 17, 19 mimlloides, 10 nbliquicameratua, 19 sp., 13, 69, 71; pl. 10 sp. 1, 65; pl. 10 spp., 10, 16, 64 haydoni, Cibicides, 65, 69, 75; pl. 15 Planulina, 75 helianthus, Discoaster, 30 Helicopontosphaera ampliaperta Zone, 74 lophota, 31 seminulum, 31 Helicosphaera, 61 ampliapertu Zone, 51 bramlettei, 56, 61 carteri, 51, 61 campucta, 56, 61 euphratis, 51, 53, 61 intermedia, 51, 53, 61 lophota, 56 obliqua, 53, 61 perch nielsenasae, 53, 61 recto, 53, 61 seminulum, 38, 56 spp., 51 Heliolithus riedeli Zone, 7 Helio'rthua concinnua, 38 hesslandii, Dictyococcites, 38 heteromrphua, Sphenolithm. 51, 61; pl. 9 hexamma, Entosalmia squamom, 75 Lagena, 65, 71, 75 88 Hiatus, between Moreno Shale and type Lodo Formation, 29 between Panoche Formation and Lodo Formation, 33 higginsi, Globogerinoides, 52, 59 hillae, Reticulofenestm, 31 hispidocostatu, Uvigerina, 77 hispidula, Ellipsonodosan'a atlantisae, 64, 68, 76 Nodosarella. atlantisae, 76; pl. 16 hodgei, Boldia, 64, 68, 74; pl. 17 Cibicides, 74 Hoeglundina eocenica, 19 sp., 11 holserica, Nodosan'a, 69, 70, 76 hughesi, Siphogenefina, 71, 72, 77 hurle'ri, Bolivina, 16; pl. 3 Hyperammina elongata, 19 I ignota, Amphimorphina, 11.16;pl. 2 Nodosarella, 16 impendens, Bulimina, 10, 17; pl. 3 imperialis, Quinqueloculina, 65, 77 Im piaster obscu'rus, 38 impolita, Uvigerinellu ahead, 71, 77 inaequispira, Subbotina, 7, 12 incerta, Operculina, 74 incertus, Ammadiscus, 69, 71, 74 incisa. Cyclammina, 17, 69. 75; pl. 1 Nonionella, 76 Nonionina, 76 kernensis, Nonione/la, 71, 76 incisum, Haplophragmium, 75 kemensis, Nom'on, 76 index, Globigermalheka, 59 indirecta, Fursenkoina zetinu, 11, 17 indiscriminate, Planorotalites, 28 Valvulineria, 28 inflata, Bulimina, 65, 70 alligata, Bulimina, 71, 72. 74; pl. 14 Glandulina, 77 Pseudonodosaria, 64, 69, 71, 77 Rhabdosphaera, 29, 31 inflexa, Cyclolithella, 38 inomata, Lenticulina, 11, 65, 69, 76 Robulus, 76 instabilis, Bulimina, 10, 16 insuetus, Lenticulinu, 64.76; pls. ll, 12 Robulus, 76 intermedia, Helicosphaera, 51, 53, 61 International Stratigraphic Guide, 5, 39 International Commission on Paleogene Stratigraphy, 1. 5, 49, 62 Introduction, I, 5, 22, 1,1, 1.9, 62 inversus, Cyclococcolithus, 38 involutus, Fasciculithus, 31 irregularis, Globulina, 75 Guttulina, 65, 75 Israelsky, M. C., cited, 5, 29, 39 sample collection, 5, 7 samples, Lodo Formation, type area, 7, 39 section A, 39, 40 section B, 39, 40 Isthmolithus recums, 31, 53, 61 rccums to Coccolithus subdistichus zone, 31 J,K jacksonensis, Dentalina, 11, 16, 65, 75 Siphonina, 11, 17; pl. 4 Um'gerina, 69 coalingensis, Gaudryina, 10, 28 jenkinsi, Amphimorphina, 68 juvenilis, Globigerina, 51 judus, Anomalinoides, 10 Karren'afallax, 11 Kar'reriella, 7 arenasensis, 16 elongata, 11, 64, 68, 75; pl. 11 INDEX Karreriella—Continued mediaguaensis, 13, 16, 19: pl. 1 monumentensis, 17; pl. 1 washingtimensis, 65, 68, 73, 75; pl. 11 sp., 69 keem', Anomalinaides, 10, 17: pl. 5 kelleyi, Vaginulinopsis, 10, 16 kemensis, Cibicides, 11, 17, 28 Nonion incisum, 76 Nonionellu incisa, 71, 76 kemi, Plectofrondiculafia, 10: pl. 2 Vaginulinopsis mexicana, 17; pl. 2 kingi, Cyclococcolithinu, 56, 60 Kinney, D. M., cited, 39, 40 Kleinpell, R. M., cited, 1, 36, 62, 68, 71, 72, 73 kleinpelli, Bolivinu, 17, 64, 74; pl. 13 kressenbergensis, Nodogenerina, 11, 17 Kreyenhagen Formation, Avenal Sandstone Member, 22, 28, 29, 32, 33, 41 Canoes Siltstone Member, 36 Gredal Shale Member, 5, 13, 19, 21, 22, 29, 30, 33, 36, 48 Point of Rocks Sandstone Member, 5, 22. 29, 33, 36 Krithe, 12 kuepperi, Discoasteroides, 31 L La Honda basin, 4 lacinata, Bulimina sculptilis, 65, 68, 74; pl. 14 lacrima, Bulimina semicostatu, 17 Globulina, 17 laevigata, Gaudryina, 10, 16; pl. 1 Glandulina. 71. 75 Nodosariu (Glandulina), 75 Lagena acuticosta, 11, 71, 75; pl. 11 becki, 65, 75 costata, 65, 71, 75 crawleri, 11 heragomz, 65, 71, 75 semistriala, 65, 71, 75; pl. 11 substriata, 16 sulcatu, 69, 75 vulgaris, 65, 71, 75 Laiming, B zones. 42 laimingi, Cibicides, 22 Lenticulina, 28 Lambert Shale, coccoliths, 52 Saucesian Stage, 71 Zayante Creek section, 52, 70, 71 lamposa, Spiroloculina, 11, 16 Lantemithus minutus, 56, 61: pl. 9 larvalis, Pedinocyclus, 53. 56, 61 latejugata, Nodosm'ia, 10, 16, 28 Lenticulina, 7 alatolimbatus, 10 antipoda, 17 antipodum, 11 barbati, 71, 75; pl. 11 calcar, 69, 71, 75: pl. 11 chehulisensis, 65, 75 clypei/ormis, 69, 71, 76; pl. 11 coaledensis, 65, 76 coloratus, 71 canvergens, 17 cultratus, 76 gyroscalprum, 10 inomata, 11, 65, 69, 76 insuetus, 64, 76; pls. 11, 12 laimingi, 28 magi, 69 midwayensis, 10, 64, 67, 76; pl. 12 pseudocultrata, 10 pseudocultrams, 71, 76; pl. 12 pseudorotulata, 65. 71. 76 pseudovm‘tez, 10, 16, 64, 68, 71, 76; pl. 12 rosetta, 11 rotulata, 10 simplex, 69, 71, 76 terryi, 10, 16 theta, 10, 17 Lenticulina—Continued turbinata, 11, 17 ulatisensis, 16. 28; pl. 2 vortex, 10, 16 weaveri, 10 welchi, 17, 65, 68, 69, 76; pl. 12 sp., Fairchild and others, 71, 76 sp. A, 71 sp., pl. 12 spp., 10, 13, 16, 64,69, 71; pl. 12 lenticularis, Discoaster, 30 Lepidocyclina, 1 antilleu, 47 lepidula, Nodogenen'na, 11, 17 Nodosan'a, 77 Stilostomella, 65, 69, 71. 77 lillisi, Pseudohastige‘rina, 59, 6‘0, pl. 7 Pullem'a, 60 linuperta, Subbotina, 7, 12, 19 Lincoln Creek Formation, fauna, 68 foraminifers, benthic, 68, 69 Washington, 73 Lincoln Formation, 68 Lipps, J. H., cited, 60 Lithostromation perdumm, 38, 56 Locality data, 60 Locality descriptions, 1,8 Locatelli Formation, foraminifers, benthic, agglutinated, 19, 21 foraminifers, benthic, calcareous, 19, 21 planktic, 19, 21 Lompico area, 13 nannofossils, 38 paloebathymetry, 21 Santa Cruz Mountains, 5, 13, 19, 21 Smith Grade area, 38 Smith Grade-Empire Grade area, 5, 13 Lodo Formation, 21, 22, 32, 33, 36, 3.9 definition, 39 Devils Den aqueduct section, 5, 7, 13, 22, 29 age, 29, 36 correlation, 13 foraminiferal biostratigraphy, 18 foraminifers, benthic, 13, 21 planktic, 13, 21 paleobathymetry, 13, 21 Devils Den area, 5, 7, 19, 28, 36 fauna, cosmopolitan, 21 Pacific affinities, 21 foraminiferal biostratigraphy, 7 foraminifers, benthic, 19 benthic, agglutinated, 7, 10, 11, 19, 21 calcareous, 7, 10, 11, 19 zones, 7, 10, 22 planktic, 7, 13, 19 zones, 7 reference sections, 40 type section, 7, 10, 11, 12, 40 formation boundary, time-transgressive, 36 glauconite, 7 Lodo Gulch area, 5, 13, 19, 22, 28, 2.9, 36, 39, 40 age, 29, 36 foraminiferal biostratigraphy, 7 paleobathymetry, 12 stratigraphic relations, 29 Lodo Gulch section, 7, 39, 40 Media Agua Creek area, 28, 32, 36 age. 33, 36 stratigraphic relations, 33 Media Agua Creek section, 36 Midway-type fauna, 13 molluscan fauna, 7 nannoplankton, 13, 28, 29. 30, 31, 32, 36 ostracode faunas, 12 paleobathymetric history, 12 paleobathymetry, 12, 19, 21 reference section, 39, 40 principal, 40 Israelsky samples, 5 San Joaquin Valley, 5 Lodo Formation—Continued Santa Cruz Mountains, 19 section A, Brabb, 39, 40 Israelsky, 39, 40 section B, Brabb, 39, 40 Israelsky, 39, 40 section C. Brabb, 39, 40 Brabb, Clark, and Throckmorton, 39, 40 section l-X, White, 39, 40 stratigraphic relations, 29, 39 Tumey Hills, Calif., 39 type area, 39 type locality, 5, 28, 29, 36, 39 type section, 5, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 19, 29, 32, 39, 40 age, 7, 19, 32, 36 correlation, 7, 36 Lodo Gulch area, 5 Midway-type fauna, 7, 12 sample materials, 5, 40 stratigraphic relations, 7, 29 lodaensis, Discoaster, 30, 38, 51, 53, 56, 61 Epo‘nides, 11, 28 Uvigerina, 28 myriamae, Uvigerina, 11, 16; pl. 3 Lompico area, 13 Lompico area. Santa Cruz County, Calif., 5 Santa Cruz Mountains, 13, 1.9 longiscata, Nodosaria, 64, 69, 71, 76 lopeztrigoi, Amphistegina, 46 Eoconuloides, 42, 46‘; pl. 6 Lophodolithus mochlophorus, 31 nascens, 31 rem'formis, 31, 56, 61 lophota, Helicopontosphaera, 31 Helicosphaera, 56 Lower Eocene-middle Eocene boundary, 60 Lower Miocene-middle Miocene boundary, 51 Lower Narizian, Bulimina comgata Zone, 68 Lower Narizian-upper Narizian boundary, 68, 73 Loxoconcha, 12 Loxostomoides applinae, 11; pl. 3 luminus, Cyclicargolithus, 56, 60 Cyclococcolithus, 60 M macellus, Ellipsolithus, 31 macilenta, Bulimina, 10, 16; pl. 3 macrocamerata, Gaudryina, 10 magnicrassus, Coccolithus, 30 Mallory, V. S., cited, 1, 5, 29, 33, 36, 42, 62 margareta, Cassidulina, 71, 74 marginata, Bolivinu, 65, 69, 70, 71, 74; pls. 10, 13 Orthophragm inu, 46 Discocyclina (Discocyclina), 42, 46 adelaidana, Bolivina, 71, 72 marginodentata, Globorotalia, 28 Murginulinu adimca, 11, 65, 71, 76 alazaensis, 65, 69, 76 curvatura, 10 dubia, 69, 76 exima, 65, 76 gardnerae, 11 glab’ru, 11 sischoae, 11 subbullata, 10, 16, 64, 69, 76: pl. 12 subrectu, 69, 76 sp., 69; pl. 12 spp., 64, 71 Marine sedimentary deposits, correlation, 36 Markalius astropoms, 31 markleyana, Planularia. 65, 68. 76 Martin, L. T.. Lodo Formation, definition, 39, 40 Martin, L. T., cited, 29, 39, 40 Martinez Stage, 7 martinezensis, Cibicides, 11, 16 Cibicidoides, 19 Martini, E., cited, 38 martini, Globigerinita, 59 Martinottiella eocem'ca, 16, 64, 76; pls. 1, 11 palms, 69, 71, 76; D1. 11 INDEX mau‘n‘censis, Cibicidina, 17 mayi, Lenticulina, 69 Siphogenerina, 71, 72, 77; pl. 14 McDougall, Kristin, cited, 68 mckannai, Acarinina, 19 McKee], D. R., cited, 28, 60 Media Agua Creek, area, 22 area, comparison, 33 Kern County, Calif., 32 type sections, benthic foraminiferal zones, 33 reference section for lower 'lbrtiary, California, 33 section, San Joaquin Valley, 33 mediuguaensis, Karreriella, 13, 16, 19; pl. 1 Megafossils, age assignments, 36 Melonis pompilioides, 69, 71, 76 sp., 65 metastypus, Discoasteroides, 31 mexicana, Globigerinatheka, 59 Osanguluria, 17; pl. 4 Vaginulinapsis, 28 kemi, Vaginulinopsis, 11, 17; pl. 2 nudicostata, Vaginulinopsis, 10. 17; pl. 2 mexicanus, Bolioinoides, 65, 74; pl. 13 Proropoms, 74 Mickey, M. B., cited, 28 micro, Pseudohastigerina, 59, 60; pl. 7 Micrantholithus altus, 56; pl. 9 basquensis, 56 entaster, 31 flos, 56, 61 vesper, 31 microcostata, Bulimina, 64, 68, 69, 74; pl. 14 Microfossils, planktic, calcareous, 59 planktic, San Lorenzo River section, 73 micrus, Nonitm, 60 Middle Eocene-upper Eocene boundary. 39, 52, 53, 73 Middle Eocene-upper Eocene boundary, international usage, 59 Midway Group fauna, 7, 12, 13, 19 midwaytma, Osangularia, 17 midwaye’nsis, Cristellaria, 76 Lenticulinu, 10, 64, 67, 76; pl. 12 Robulus, 76 subcylindrica, Chiloguembelina, 28 minima, Epo'nides, l7 Globigerina, 59 angiporoides, 52, 59 minuta, Plectafrtmdicularia, 11, 17; pl. 2 Quinqueloculina, 64, 77; pl. 11 minutus, Lanternithus, 56, 61; pl. 9 miocenica, No’nitmella, 65, 69, 70, 71, 76; pl. 16 Plectofrondicularia, 69, 76 Pullenia, 71, 77: pl. 17 directa, Plectofrondiculariu, 71, 76; pl. 12 miriamag, Uvige’rina. lodoensis, 11, 16; pl. 3 mi'ms, Discoaster, 30, 38 mitreus, Fasciculithus, 31 mochlophoms, Lophodolithus, 31 Mohnian Stage of Kleinpell, 1 Molluscan fauna, living, 1 Lodo Formation, 7 Martinez Stage, 7 Trinidad, 1 Vaqueros Sandstone, 1 Monterey Formation, 51 Afio Nuevo section, 51, 71 monumentensis, Ka'rreriella, 17; pl. 1 Moreno Shale, 7, 29 Lodo Gulch, 39 moriformis, Sphenolithus, 31, 38, 51, 53, 56, 61 Morin, R. W., cited, 28 Morozovella aequa, 19 aragonensis, 19 fomosa, 42 Zone, 42 gracillia, 42 subbotinue, 19, 42 velascoensis, 19 Mount Diablo area, foraminifers, large, 41, A2 locality descriptions, A8 89 Mount Diablo, Calif., 2, 4, 41 multicostata, Dictyomitra, 28 Siphogenerina, 71, 72, 77; pl. 14 multilineata, Dentalina, 11 Plectafrondicularia packardi, 65, 68, 69, 76; pl. 13 multilobata, Pullenia, 71, 77 multipora, Discolithina, 51, 61 Pontosphe'ra, 38 multiradiatus, Discoaste’r, 30 munda, Globorotalia, 51, 60; pl. 8 N naheolensis, F‘rondicularia, 11 nana, Globorotalia, 51, 6'0; pl. 8 Globm‘otal‘ia opimu, 60 nannofossils, 22, 38, 60, 62, 74 calcareous, 60 California, 22 Santa Cruz Mountains, Calif., 38 distribution, 22 Miocene, 74 nannoplankton, age, 29, 33 biostratigraphy, central Coast Ranges, Calif., 22 calcareous, 13, 22, 38, 44 chronology. Bukry, 31, 33 data, Bulitian Stage, 36 Cheneyan Stage. 36 Narizian Stage, 36 Penutian Stage, 36 synthesis, 36 Ulatisian Stage, 36 Ynezian Stage, 36 Zemorrian Stage, 36 Devils Den section, age, 28 Paleogene, Santa Cruz Mountains, 38 N annoplankton zones, 1, 22 Bear Creek area, 39 Bukry, 22, 28, 29, 33, 44 Butano Sandstone, 38, 39 central Coast Ranges, California, 22 Devils Den aqueduct section, 13, 22, 28, 29 Gredal Shale Member, 13, 29 Locatelli' Formation, 38 Iodo Formation, 29 type, 29, 32 Lodo Gulch area, 29 Lompico area, 38 Martini, 22 Media Agua Creek area, .92 Paleogene of California, summary, 36 Panache Formation, 29 San Joaquin Valley, 33 Santa Cruz Mountains, 38 Smith Grade area, 38 Twobar Shale Member, 39 Namiotetrina criataza, 38 fulgens. 31 quadrata, 29, 31 Zone, 13, 29, 31, 33 boundary, 29 Narizian Stage, 28, 33, 36, 42, 53, 59, 62, 67, 68, 69, 70, 72, 73 age, 36 boundary, 29, 59, 73 of Mallory, 42 Narizian Stage-Refugian Stage boundary, 59 nascens, Lophodolithua, 31 Nautilus colour, 75 pomm‘lioides, 76 navuromma, Romulina, 17 Neochiastozygus dubius, 39 Neococcolithes dubius, 31 protenus, 31 Neoeponides sp., pl. 15 mogammutiom, Cyclicargolithus, 60 Nilsen, T. H., cited, 4 nobilis, Discouter, 30 nodifer, Discoaste'r, 30, 56, 61; pl. 9 mdifem, Siphogenerina, 69, 70, 71, 77; pls. 10, 14, 15 Nodogenerina adolphina, 17 90 Nodogenerina—Continued advemz, 77 kressenbergensis, ll, 17 lepidula, 11, 17 rohri, 76 wegimanni, 77 Nodosarella advena, 16; pl. 4 atlantisae hispidula, 76; pl. 16 constricla, 16 ignota, 16 Nodosaria affinis, 11 amndinea, 10, 16 boflalarae, 76 cocoaensis, 75 deliciue, 10, 16 ewaldi, 10, 16 mate, 10, 64: pl. 11 holserica, 69, 70, 76 latejugata, 10, 16, 28 lepidula, 77 longiscata, 64, 69, 71, 76 parexilis, 69, 71 sentifera, 71, 76; pl. 11 pymla, 64, 71, 76 velascoensis, 17 (Glandulina) Iaevigata, 75 sp., 65, 71 spp., 64 nonaradiatus, Discoaster. 30 Nonion halkyardi, 65, 76 incisum kernensis, 76 micrus, 60 Nonionella ansata, 17 costiflmz, 69. 71, 76 incisa, 76 kemensis, 71, 76 miacenica, 65, 69. 70, 71, 76; pl. 16 nonimelloides, Haplophrugmoides, 10 Nonionina costifera, 76 incisa, 76 quinqueloba, 77 nudicostams, Vuginulinopsis mexicana, 17; pl. 2 nudorobusta, Uvige'rina garzaensis, 69 Nummulites parvula, 46 striatoreticulata, 45 striatoreticulatus, 42, 45; pl.’ 6 trinitatensis, 45 willcoxi, 42. 45; pl. 6 sp., 42. 45 nuttalli, Bifarina, 11, 16, 28; pl. 2 Pleurastomella. 17 Nuttallides truempyi. 7, 10, 12, 13, 16, 19; pl. 4 0 oamaruensis, Reticulofenestra, 56, 61 ahead, Cuclummina cancellata, 75; pl. 10 impolita, Uvige'rinella, 71, 77 obliqua, Helicosphaera, 53, 61 obliquata, Gyroidina orbicularis, 17 abliquicameratus, Haplophragmoides, 19 obscurus, Impiaster, 38 octacameruta, Gyroidina soldanii, 10, 17 officinalis, Globigeflna, 59 Oligocene, Europe, 1 Oligocene—Miocene boundary, 51 opelagicus, Coccolithus, 38 Operculina incertu, 74 Operculinoidea willcozi, 45 opima nana, Globo’rotalia, 60 o’rbicularis obliwuta, Gyroidina, 17 planata, Gyroidina, 11, 64, 69, 71, 75; pl. 17 Orido’raalis umbtmatus, 10, 16, 64, 69, 71, 76; pl. 17 matior, Dentalina spinosa, 64, 75; pl. 11 mam, Discoaster tani, 31 Orphan Knoll, 12 orphanensis, Bulimina, 12, 13 orphanlmolli, Sphenolithus, 38 Orthomorphina rain-i, 65, 69, 71, 76; pls. 10, 12 Orthophragmina clarki, 47 flintensis. 47 INDEX Orthophragmina—Continued marginata, 46 orthoatylus, THbrachiatus, 29, 31, 51, 53, 56, 61 Osangulan'u mexicana, 17; pl. 4 midwayana, 17 plummerue, 7 tenuican'nata, 11, 16; pl. 4 sp., 19 Osbun, E. D., cited, 44 Ostracode fauna, 12 ouachitaensis, Globigen'na, 59 cwala, Bulimina, 10, 77 Praeglobobulimina, 64, 65, 71, 77 P pachyderma, Cibicides, 17, 64, 68, 75 Mncatulina, 75 Pacific Ocean, 4 pacifica, Cyclammina, 65, 75 Globobulimina, 65, 69, 71, 75; pl. 14 packardi, Plectofrondicularia, 65, 68, 69, 76; pl. 13 multilineata, Plectofrondicularia, 65, 68, 69, 76; pl. 13 packardi, Plectofrondicularia, 76 Paleobathymetry, 12, 13 Paleogene, 12 Paleocene stages of Mallory, 1 paleocem'ca, Pleuroslomella, 11, 17, 19 Paleogene, California, 4, 22, 38 California, summary, 86 depositional patterns. 4 faunas, Coast Ranges, 1, 22 provincial stages, California, 38 rocks, complete section, Devils Den area, 41 east of San Andreas fault, 2 stratigraphy, 41 west of San Andreas fault, 2 Santa Cruz Mountains, nannoplankton, 38 sequences, California, 5 displaced along secondary lateral faults, 4 displaced laterally along San Andreas, 4 foraminiferal, 5 stages, California, based on benthic foraminifers, 1 California, zonations based on planktic foraminifers and nannoplankton, 1 Paleogeography, central California, 4 Panoche Formation, Devils Den aqueduct section, 22 Devils Den area, 28, 29 age, 29 Media Agua Creek area, 33 parexilis, Nodosaria, 69, 71 sentifera, Nodosuria, 71, 76; pl. 11 partschiana, Epistomina, 10, 17 pamla, Amphistegina, 42, 46‘: pl. 6 Nummulitea, 46 parvulus, Eoconuloides, 46 patugonica, Subbotina, 42 patens, Clavulina, 76 Martinottiella, 69, 71, 76: pl. 11 Redinocyclus larvalia. 53, 56, 61 pelagicus, Coccalithus, 30, 38, 53 Pemma angulatum, 38, 56, 61 basquensis, 61 pennyi, Ammodiscus. 10, 16; pl. 1 penonensis, Asterocyclina, 47 Penutian Stage, 28, 29, 33, 36, 44 age, 29, 33, 36 Mallory, 44 type section, 33 perch nielsenaaae, Helicosphaera, 53, 61 perdurum, Lithostromation, 38, 56 perpleza, Silicosigmoilina, 16 Pierce, R. L., cited, 1, 49, 58 pilulifer, Reophaz, 64, 69; pl. 10 pilulife’ra, Reophaz. 71, 77 pisciformis, Bolivina, 17 plana, Discolithina, 30, 31, 51, 53, 61 Pontosphera, 38 planata, Gyroidina orbicularis, 11, 64, 69, 71, 75; pl. 17 Planktic, defined, 1 Planktic assemblages, San Lorenzo River section, 59 Planktic foraminifers, Devils Den aqueduct section, 13 Iodo Gulch area, 13 zonations, 1, 7, 13. 41 Plankton, calcareous, Afio Nuevo area, 51 calcareous, discussion, 5.9 Eocene, 59 Santa Cruz Mountains, 49 Santa Lucia Range, 49 Planktonic, defined, 1 Planktonic foraminiferal zones, 1, 22 Afio Nuevo section, 51, 74 Berggren, 22 Blow, 22 Butano Sandstone, 19 Church Creek area, 58 Devils Den aqueduct section, 13 Hardenbol and Berggren, 22 Kings Creek section, 52 Lodo Formation, 7, 12, 19 Lodo Gulch area, 5, 12, 19 Paleogene of California, summary, 86 Rices Mudstone Member, 52, 53 San Lorenzo Formation, 52, 53 San Lorenzo River section, 52, 59, 73 Santa Cruz Mountains, 49 Santa Lucia. Range, 49 Twobar Shale Member, 52, 53 Planorotalites, 28 indiscriminate, 28 pseudomenardii, 19 Zone, 7 pseudoscitula, 59 Planularia markleyana, 65, 68, 76 tulmani, 69 truncana, 11, 17 Planulina haydoni, 75 Plectina cubensis, 13, 17 garzaensis, 64, 76; pl. 11 Plectofrondicularia califm‘nica, 71, 76 garzuensis, l7 kemi, 10; pl. 2 minuta, 11, 17; pl. 2 miocenica, 69, 76 directu, 71, 76; pl. 12 packardi, 65, 68, 69, 76; pl. 13 multilineata, 65, 68, 69, 76; pl. 13 packardi, 76 stratigraphic range, 73 vuughani, 65, 69, 71, 76; pl. 13 whitei, 10; pl. 2 spp., 64 plectopans, Zygodiscus, 31 Pleurostomella acuta, 11, 16 alazaneusis cubensis, 17 altmans, 64, 68, 77; pl. 16 gredalensis, ll nuttalli, 17 paleocenica, 11, 17, 19 plousios, Amphipyndax, 28 plummerae, Osangularia, 7 Stilostomella. 10 Point of Rocks, 36 Point of Rocks Sandstone, Kreyenhagen Formation, Devils Den aqueduct section, 5, 22, 29, 36 Kreyenhagen Formation, Devils Den aqueduct section, age, 29 Devils Den aqueduct section, nannoplankton, 29 samples, 5 time—stratigraphic relations, 33 Media Agua Creek area, 33, 36 Media Agua Creek section, 33, 36 age, 33, 36 correlation, 36 nannoplankton, 33 San Joaquin Valley, 33 time—stratigraphic relations, 33 pompilioides, Melom's. 69, 71, 76 Nautilus, 76 Pontosphera multipo’ra. 38 plum, 38 Poore, R. Z., cited, 29, 33, 52, 63 praebulloides, Globigerina, 51, 52, 59 maecursorius, Cibicides, 11 Praeglobobulimina ovata, 64, 65, 71, 77 pupoides, 64, 71, 77 praestaim‘anhi, Globigerinita, 51 pmeturritilina, Globigerina, 59; p]. 8 Globigen'na turritilina, 59 predistentus, Sphenolithus, 38, 53, 56, 61 primus, Epom'des, 7, 11, 16 pn'ncipiensis, Dorothia, 17 Tritaxilina, 13, 16 Proporocyclinaflintensis, 47 (Proporocyclina) clarkz', Pseudophmgmina, 47; pl. 6 flintensis, Pseudophragmina, 42, 46“. P]. 6 teres, Pseudophmgmina, 47 Proroporus mexicanus, 74 protenus, Neococcolithus, 31 protoannula, Cyclococcolithina, 60 pseudochapmani, Globorotalia, 28 pseudoco'ntinuosa, Globo'rotalia, 60 pseudocultmta, Lenticulina, 10 pseudocult’raius, Lenticulina, 71, 76; pl. 12 Robulus, 76 pseudogammation, Cyclacoccolithina, 30 Pseudoglandulina gallowayi, 77 Pseudohastigerina lillisi, 59, (2‘0, p]. 7 micro, 59, 60; pl. 7 pseudomenardii, Plano'mtalites, 19 Pseudonodosan'a gallowayi, 69, 70, 71, 77; p]. 12 inflow, 64, 69, 71, 77 Pseudoparrella danvillensis, 64 Pseudophragmina clarki, 42 paila, 28 teres, 42 (Proporocyclina) clarki, 47; pl. 6 flintensis, 42, 46, 47; p]. 6 te'res, 47 (Pseudophragmina) flintensis, 47 sp., p]. 6 (Pseudophramnina)flintemis, Pseudophragmina, 47 pseudomditms, Sphemlithus, 31, 56, 61; p]. 9 pseudorotulata, Lenticulina, 65, 71, 76 pseudoratulatus, Robulus, 76 pseudoscitula, Planorotalites. 59 pseudoumbilica, Reticulofenestra, 31 pseudoungerianus evolutus, Cibicides, 65, 69, 71, 75; pl. 16 pseudovenezuelana, Globigerz'na. 59 pseudovortex, Lenticulina, 10, 16, 64, 68, 71, 76; pl. 12 Robulus, 76 paeudowuellorstorfi, Cibicidoides, 16 psila, Pseudophragmina, 28 pulcher, Transverwpqmtis, 31 pulcheroides, Discolithus, 61 Transversopomis, 56, 61 Pullem'a eocem'ca, 10, 16 liltisi, 60 miocem'ca, 71, 77; pl. 17 multilobata, 71, 77 quinqueloba, 64, 77; pl. 17 animal, 17 reussi, 16 salisburyi, 69, 77 punctulata. Daktylethra, 56, 60; pl. 9 pupoides, Bulimina, 16, 77 pupoides, Praeglobobulimina, 64, 71, 77 pyrula, Bulimina, l6 Nodosan'a, 64, 71, 76 Q,R quadrata, Nannotetr'ina, 29. 31 quadmlata, Dentalina, 69, 71, 72, 75; pl. 11 quinqueloba, Noniom'na. 77 Pulle'nia, 64, 77: pl. 17 angusta, Pullem'a, 17 INDEX Quinqueloculina imperialis, 65, 77 minuta, 64, 77; pl. 11 radians, Sphenolithus, 31, 38, 51, 53, 56, 61 Radiolarians, Cretaceous, 28 Ramulina. navaroanna, 17 ruphanus transversa, Siphogenerina, 77 recta, Helicosphaera, 53, 61 Rectoglandulina $11., 10 recum, Isthmolithus, 31, 53, 61 Reference list, taxa, 74 Reference section, Paleogene stratigraphy of California, 5 References cited, 78 Refugian Stage, 53, 58, 59, 68, 69, 70, 73 boundaries, 53, 69, 73 California, 68, 69 Church Creek Formation, 58 fauna] assemblage, 69, 70, 73 foraminifera, marine strata, California, 58 Oregon, 68 type area, California, 73 Washington, 68 Refugian faunas, basal, McDougall, 68 San Lorenzo River section, 73 Refugian-Zemorrian boundary, 53, 69, 73 regina, Anomalmoides, 16 Regional setting, 2 Relizian Stage, 52, 62, 72, 74 boundary, 52 fauna] assemblages, 72, 74 rem'formis, Lophodolithus, 31, 56, 61 Reophax pilulifer. 64. 69; pl. 10 pilulifera, 71, 77 spp., 71 reticulum, Reticulofenestra, 56, 61; pl. 9 Reticulofenestra, 61 dictyoda, 31. 38 hillae, 31 oamarue'nsis, 56, 61 pseudoumbilica, 31 reticulata, 56, 61; p]. 9 samadurovi, 31 umbilica, 31, 38, 53, 56, 61: pl. 9 Zone, 53 spp., 51, 53, 56 reusai, Pullenia, 16 Rhabdamminu, 7, 12, 13, 19 eocem'ca, 10, 13, 16, 19, 64, 77; pl. 10 Rhabdosphaera, 61 crebra, 31 inflata, 29, 31 Zone, 31 tennis, 56, 61 sp., 38 spp., 56 Rices Mudstone Member, San Lorenzo Formation, age, 52 San Lorenzo Formation, coccoliths, 51, 53 foraminifers, benthic, 68 planktic, 52 Kings Creek section, 52 San Lorenzo River section, 52, 68 age, 68, 69 Zayante Creek section, 52 zone assignment, 68 zone P14-P15 boundary, 52, 53 richardi, Spiroplectammina, 16, 19, 64, 77: pls. l, 10 Robulus barbati, 75 chehalisensis, 75 chimnus, 69, 76 coaledensis, 76 cultratus, 76 inamata, 76 insuetus, 76 midwayensis, 76 pseudocultratus, 76 pseudorotulatws, 76 pseudovnrtex, 76 simpIEI, 76 welchi, 76 robusta, Baggina, 71, 72, 74; pl. 15 91 rolm‘, Nodogener'ina, 76 Orthomorphina, 65, 69, 71, 76; pls. 10, 12 Truncorotaloides, 52, 59 Rosalina araucana, 77 rosetta, Lenticulina, 11 Rotatina. umbonata, 76 Rotulan‘a (Spiroglyphus) tinajasensis, 28 (Rotularia). Spiroglyphus, 41 rotulata, Lenticulina, 10 mbiginosus, Anomalinoides, 19 Rzehakina, 19 epigana-lata. 19 S saipanensis, Discouter, 30, 38, 53, 56, 61; pl. 9 salinasensis, Anomalina, 71, 74; p]. 17 Salinian block, 2 salisburyi, Pullenia, 69, 77 samodurovi, Reticulofenestra, 31 Sample materials, 5 numbers, key, 67 Samples, Church Creek Formation, 60 Israelsky collection, 5, 7 L060 Gulch, Brabb, 7, 10, 11, 39 Paleogene, from four sections, 5 Santa Lucia Range, 60 San Andreas fault, 4 San Joaquin Valley, fauna] assemblages, 72 rock units, time-transgressive, 33 west side, 22 San Jose area, foraminifers, large, 42 locality descriptions, 48 San Lorenzo Formation, Kings Creek section, 59 Rices Mudstone Member, 51. 52, 53, 68, 69 glauconite bed, 68 San Lorenzo River section, 52, 59, 63 Twobar Shale Member, 38, 39, 52, 53, 59. 63, 67. 68. 69 San Lorenzo River section, 52, 59, 60. 73 age, 52, 67 Amphimorphina jenkinai Zone, 67, 73 biostratigraphy, 53 Bulimina corrugata Zone, 73 Cafiada de Santa Anita, 73 deep water facies, 68 fauna] assemblages, 70 Lincoln Creek Formation, 68 lithostratigraphy. 53 microfossils, planktic, 59, 73 paleoecologic facies, 73 Refugian Stage, 53, 73 Santa Cruz Mountains, 49, 63 type area, 73 San Lorenzo syncline, 70 sanctaecrucis, Stilastomella, 71, 77 Santa Cruz Mountains, 13 area, foraminifers, benthic, 61 California, 2, 4, 5 Paleogene, 38 biostratigraphy. 38 nannofossils, calcareous, 5'8 Lompico area, 19 nannoplankton, Paleogene, 88 plankton, calcareous, 49 San Lorenzo River section, 63 Smith Grade-Empire Grade area, 1.9 Zayante Creek section, 49, 70 Santa Lucia Range, Church Creek area, 49, 58, 59 plankton, calcareous, 49 samples, 60 Saracenar'ia hantlcem', 65 achencki, 65, 68, 69, 71, 73, 77; p]. 12 Saucesian Stage, 52, 59, 71, 72, 74 base. 71 fauna] assemblages, 72, 74 Miocene, 74 Saucesian Stage—Relizian Stage boundary, 52 Saucesian Stage-Zemorrian Stage boundary, 52, 59, 72, 73, 74 saundersi, Cristellaria, 77 92 saundersi—Continued Vaginulinopsis, 19, 64, 77; pl. 12 saxea, Thoracosphaera, 38 scabrata, Bolivina, 64, 68, 74; pl. 13 schaubi, Fasciculithus, 31 Schenck. H. G., cited, 68 schencki, Caucasinu, 22 Saracenaria, 65, 68, 69, 71, 73, 77; pl. 12 Sigmomorphina, 65, 68, 73, 77 Schmidt, R. R., cited, 7 Schoellhamer, J. E., cited, 39, 40 scrippsae, Dictyococcites, 30, 51, 53, 56, 60 sculptilis lacinata, Bulimina, 65, 68, 74; pl. 14 Sea-level change, eustatic, Eocene, 21 Sedimentary sequence, Sierra Nevada region, Eocene, 41 semicostata lacrima, Bulimina, 17 seminulum, Helicopontosphaera, 31 Helicosphaera, 38, 56 semistn'ata, Lagena, 65, 71, 75; pl. 11 sem'lis, Glabigerina. 59 sentzfera, Nodosaria parexilis, 71, 76; pl. 11 Serpula sulcata, 75 serraculoides, Bramletteius, 56, 60; pl. 9 shivelyi, fixtularia, 69, 70, 77 Sierra Nevada, sedimentary sequence, Paleogene, 4, 41 sigmoides, Zygodiscus, 38 Sigmomorphina schencki, 65, 68, 73, 77 Silicosigmailina, 7, 19 califomica, 10,_17, 19; pl. 1 perplexa, 16 sp., 7 simiensis, Cyclammina, 11, 13, 16, 19; pl. 1 simplex, Cristellafia, 76 Lenticulina, 69, 71, 76 Robulus, 76 Siphogenerina eleganta, 74 hughesi, 71, 72, 77 magi, 71, 72, 77; pl. 14 multicostata, 71, 72, 77; pl. 14 nodifera, 69, 70, 71, 77; pls. 10, 14, 15 raphunus transversa, 77 . transversa, 71, 72, 77 Siphonina jacksonensis, 11, 17; pl. 4 wilcoxensis, 11, 17, 28; pl. 4 sp., 17 Siphonodosaria gracilis, 17 sischoae, Marginulina, 11 Smith Grade-Empire Grade area, Santa Cruz Mountains, 5, 13 saldadoensis, Acarinina, 42 soldanii, Gyroidina, 65, 71, 75 octocamerata, Gyroidina, 10, 17 solitus, Chiusmolithus, 30, 56, 60 soluta, Dentalina, 65 sparsicostata, Uvigerinella, 69, 70, 71, 77; pl. 15 Sphaerogypsina sp., pl. 6 Sphaeraidina bulloides, 69, 71, 77; pl. 13 Sphenalithus, 61 anarrhogus, 31 belemnos, 51, 61 ciperoensis Zone, 51, 52, 53, 74 Ana Nuevo section, 51, 74 cmicus, 51, 61 dissimilis, 51, 53, 61 distentus Zone, 36, 52, 53, 73, 74 nannofossils, 74 furcatolithoides, 31, 56, 61; pl. 9 heteromorphus, 51, 61; pl. 9 Zone, 51, 74 morifarmis, 31, 38, 51, 53, 56, 61 orphanknolli, 38 predistentus, 38, 53, 56, 61 pseudoradizms, 31, 56, 61; pl. 9 radians, 31, 38, 51, 53, 56, 61 spiniger, 31, 56, 61; pl. 9 spp., 53, 56 spiniger, Sphemlithus, 31, 56, 61; pl. 9 spinosa, Dentalina, 10, 16 motion Dentalina, 64, 75; pl. 11 Spiroglyphus (Rotulam'a), 41 INDEX (Spiroglyphus) tinajasensis, Rotularia, 28 Spiroloculina lamposa, 11, 16 texana, 65, 77 wilcoxensis, 77 Spiroplectammina directa, 16, 65, 77; pls. l, 10 richardi, 16, 19, 64, 77; pls. 1, 10 tejonensis, 11, 17 sp., 7, 69 Spiroplectaides directa, 77 spiropunctata, Cibicides, 68 spiropunctatus, Cibicides, 11, 22, 64, 75; pl. 16 Cibicidoides, 16 squamosa. heragonu, Entosolenia, 75 Stages. time transgressive, 1, 62 Stuinforthia sp., 64 staurion, Coccolithus, 56, 60 Cmciplacolithus, 3O Stichocassidulina thalmani, 64, 68, 77; pl. 13 Stichomitru asymbatas, 28 Stilostomella adolphina, 64, 71, 77 advena, 64, 69, 71, 77; pl. 13 lepidula, 65, 69, 71, 77 plummerae, 10 sanctaecmcis, 71, 77 wegimrmni, 71, 77; pl. 13 sp., 16, 65, 69, 71 Stratigraphic data, synthesis, 36 Stratigraphic range, Bulim'na marginata, 69 Uvigerina jacksonensis, 69 Stratigraphy, Paleogene rocks, 41 striato‘reticulata, Camerina, 45 Nummulz'tes, 45 striatoreticulatus, Nummulites, 42, 45; pl. 6 strictus, Discoaster, 30 subangulata, Gyroidinoides, 16 Subbotina boweri, 12 frontosa, 7, 12 inaequispiru, 7, 12 linaperta, 7, 12, 19 patagom'ca, 42 triangularis, 19 triloculinoides, 19 turgida, l9 velascoensis, 19 sp., 19 subbotinae, Mwozovella, 19, 42 subbullata, Marginulina, 10, 16, 64, 69, 76; pl. 12 subcom'ca, Eggerella, 64, 75; pl. 10 ‘ a" " ica, Chi’ mbelina m1" 's, 28 subdistichus, Coccolithus, 30 subfusiformis, Buliminella, 69, 71, 74 sublodoensis, Discoaster, 29, 31, 33 subpertusa, En‘csonia, 38 subrecta, Marginulina, 69, 76 substriata, Lagena, 16 substrigata, Dentalina, 10 sulcata, Lagena, 69, 75 Serpula, 75 Sullivan, F. R., cited, 33, 63, 68, 69 Summary, benthic foraminiferal stratigraphy, Paleogene, 19 fauna] assemblages, correlation, 72 paleobathymetry, central ranges of California, 19 Paleogene, California, 5'6 suteri, Globorotaloides, 51, 52, 59 Sveadal area, foraminifers, large, 44 Sveadal area, locality descriptions, 48 Systematic paleontology, 45 T tani, Discoaster, 31, 56, 61 mums, Discoaster, 31 'I‘axa, reference list, 74 'I‘axonomic notes, foraminifera, planktic, 59 tejtmensis, Spiroplectammina, 11, 17 Temblor Formation, foraminifers, large, 44 San Jose area, 44 tenuican'nata, Osangularia, ll, 16; pl. 4 tenuis, Cruciplucolithus, 56, 60 Rhabdosphwru, 56, 61 tenm’ssima, Frondiculariu, 69, 75 teres, Pseudophragmina, 42 Pseudophragmina (Proporocyclina), 47 terryi, Lenticulina, 10, 16 Tertiary provincial stages, relations to nannoplankton zones, 22 Tertiary stages, California, validity, 1 Tbssellatolithus, 61 sp., 51, 53 texana, Spiroloculina, 65, 77 Teactula'ria sh'ivelyi, 69, 70, 77 sp., Fairchild and others, 69, 77 thalmam‘, Stichocassidulina, 64, 68, 77; pl. 13 Thermocline, Paleogene, 21 theta, Lenticulina, 10, 17 Thoracosphaera, 61 saxea, 38 sp., 56 spp., 38, 56 Throckmorton, C. K.. cited, 1, 22, 39, 49, 63. 71 tinajusensis, Rotularia (Spiroglyphus), 28 tolmam', Planularia, 69 waeius craticulus, 31 eminens, 31 Trachyleberidea, 12 transversa, Siphogenerina, 71, 72, 77 Siphogenerina raphanus, 77 Transversopontis pulcher, 31 pulcheroides, 56, 61 triangularis, Gaudryina, 69, 75; pl. 10 Subbotiml, 19 triangulata, Verneulina, 10, 16, 28; pl. 1 flibrachiatus orthostylus, 29, 31, 51, 53, 56, 61 Zone, 13, 28, 29, 31, 33 boundary, 19 /Discoaster lodoensis Zone, undifferentiated, 31 tfibrachiatus, Discoaster, 61 ’I’rifarina, 7 advena callfornica, 10, 17, 28; pl. 3 hannai. 65, 77 wilcoxensis, 65, 77: pl. 15 trihedra, Bulimina, 17 triloculinoides, Subbotimz, 19 trinitatensis, Bulimina, 10, 12, 16; pl. 3 Nummulites, 45 tripartita, Globigerina, 51, 59 Triquetrorhabdulus carinatus, 51, 61 Zone, Afio Nuevo section, 51, 74 Nitaxilina, 7, 13 colei, 11, 13, 16; pl. 1 principiensis, 13, 16 Trochammina, 7 globigerim'fizrmis, 16 spp., 16, 71 T’rochamminoides contowtus, 16 Trachoaster, 61 sp., 51 truempyi, Nuttallides, 7, 10, 12, 13, 16, 19; pl. 4 truncana, Planularia, 11, 17 truncanellu, Bulimina, 17 Truncatulina americana, 74 floridana, 75 pachyderma, 75 Mncorotaloides collactea, 59 ‘rohri, 52, 59 tubulifera, Angulogerina abbreviata, 17 'DJmey Hills, Fresno County, Calif., 5, 39 tumeyensis, Valvulineria, 65, 68, 77 turbinata, Lenticulina, 11, 17 turgida, Subbotz’na, 19 Thrfitilina abbreviata, pl. 2 brevispim, 10, 16 tur'ritilina praeturfitilina, Globigerina, 59 Twobar Shale Member, San Lorenzo Formation, Bear Creek area, 38, 39 San Lorenzo Formation, Bear Creek area, age, 39 boundary, Eocene, 39 coccoliths, 52 foraminifers, benthic, 68 planktic, 52, 53, 59 Twobar Shale Member—Continued San Lorenzo Formation—Continued Kings Creek section, 52, 59 age, 52 nannofossils, 38 San Lorenzo River area, 38 age, 39, 67 San Lorenzo River section, 52, 59, 63, 67, 68, 69 age, 52 zone assignments, 52, 59, 68 tympaniformis, Fasciculithus, 31, 38 Type sections, benthic foraminiferal zones, 33 U ulatisensis, Lmticulina, 16, 28; pl. 2 Ulatisian-Narizian Stage, boundary, 29 Ulatisian Stage, 28, 29, 33, 36, 42, 67, 68 age, 29, 33, 36 of Mallory, 42 umbilica, Reticulofenestra, 31, 38, 53, 56, 61; pl. 9 umbo‘nata, Anomalina, 64 Rotalina, 76 umbomatus, Epo’nides, 76 Oridorsalis, 10, 16, 64, 69, 71, 76: pl. 17 unicavus, Catupsydrax, 51 U.S. Committee on Stratigraphy, 1 utilisindex, Globigerina, 59 Uvige’rina. alabameflsis, 11 auberiamz, 65, 69, 70, 71, 77; pl. 14 churchi, 64, 68, 77; pl. 14 cocoaensis, 68, 69, 73, 77 first occurrence, 68 species group, 65, 68, 69, 73 stratigraphic range, 73 elongata, 7, 11, 17, 64, 77; pls. 3, 14 gallowuyi, 69, 70, 71, 77; pl. 14 Zone, 70, 73 Zemorrian Stage, 58, 73 ga'rzaensis, 65, 68, 77; pl. 14 nudorobusta, 69 hispidocostata, 77 jacksonemis, 69 stratigraphic range, 69 lodoensis, 28 miriamae, 11, 16; pl. 3 vicksburgensis Zone, 69 sp., 71 Uvigerinella obesa impalita, 71, 77 sparsicastata, 69, 70, 71, 77; pl. 15 Zone, 71, 73 Uvigerinids, elongata group, 12 V,W Vaginulinopsis uspemltformis, 11, 22; pl. 2 INDEX Vaginulinopsis—Continued echinata, 16 kelleyi, 10, 16 mezicana, 28 kerm', 11, 17: pl. 2 nudicostatu, 10, 17; pl. 2 saundersi, 19, 64, 77; pl. 12 sp., 17 Valvulineria, 12 allomorphinoides, 11 amucana, 71, 77; pl. 15 californica, 71, 72, 77 childsi, 10, 16 indiscriminata, 28 tumeyensis, 65, 68, 77 Zone, lower Refugian, 69 sp., of Mallory, 17 sp., 11 Vaqueros Formation, Afio Nuevo Section, 51, 71 coccoliths, 51 foraminifers, assemblages, 71, 72 benthic, 71, 72 planktic, 51 stage assignments, 72 Vaqueros Sandstone, 1 coccoliths, 52 San Lorenzo River section, 63 Zayante Creek section, 70 variabilis, Discoaster, 51, 61 vaugham', Plectofrmzdicularia, 65, 69, 71, 76; pl. 13 Vedder, J. G., cited, 1 velascoensis, Morozovella, 19 Nodosaria, l7 Subbotina, l9 Verneuilina, 19 triangulata, 10, 16, 28; pl. 1 sp., of Fairchild and others, 69, 71, 77 sp., pl. 10 Vertebrate fauna, California, 1 vesper, Micrantholithus, 31 vicksburgensis, Bifarina, 10 Virgulina bramlettei, 75 californiensis, 75 dibollensis, 75 wilcoxensis, 77 vortex, Lenticulinu, 10, 16 vulgam's, Lagena, 65, 71, 75 Vulvulina. 0mm, 10, 16 Wagonwheel Formation, Devils Den area, 30 Warren, A. D., cited, 41, 44 washingtonensis, Karreriella, 65, 68, 73, 75; pl. 11 Weaver, C. E., cited, 1 Weaver, D. W., cited, 22 weave‘m', Lenticulina, 10 wegimanni, Nodogenerina, 77 Stilostomella, 71, 77; pl. 13 welchi, Lenticulina, 17, 65, 68, 69, 76; pl. 12 Robulus, 76 93 welleri, Anomalinoides, 10, 16, 19 wellsi, Eoconuloides, 42, 46‘; pl. 6 wemmelensis, Discoaster, 31 White, R. T., cited, 39, 40 whitei, Bulimina, 11, 16; pl. 3 Cibicidoides, 10, 16, 19; pl. 5 Plectofrondicularia, 10; pl. 2 wilcoxensis, Acarinina, 19 Angulogerina, 28; pl, 3 caltfomica, Alabamina, 16, 22 Dentalina, 11 Siphonina, 11, 17, 28; pl. 4 Spiroloculina, 77 Trifarina, 65, 77; pl. 15 Virgulina, 77 willcozi, Camerina, 45 Nummulites, 42, 45; pl. 6 Operculinoides, 45 wilsoni, Globorotaloides, 59 woodi, Globigerina, 51 Worm tube, 28, 41 Y,Z Ynezian Stage, 28, 29, 33, 36 age, 29, 36 type section, 33 Ynezian-Bulitian Stage boundary, 29, 33 Zayante Creek, 70 Zayante Creek section, 52, 59, 70 coccolith assemblages, 52 faunal assemblages, '74 foraminifers, benthic, 69 planktic, 52 Santa Cruz Mountains, 49, 70 Zeauvigerina, sp., 17 Zemorrian Stage, 36, 38, 52, 53, 58, 59, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73 age, 36, 38, 70 boundary, 70, 71, 73 criteria, 73 fauna] assemblages, 69, 70, 71 Uvigerina gallowaui Zone, 58, 73 Zemorrian Stage-Refugian Stage boundary, 53, 69, 73 Zemorrian Stage-Saucesian Stage boundary, 52, 59, 72, 73, 74 zetina indirecta, Fursenkoina, 11, 17 Zone assignments, primary indicators, 59 Zone P14-P15 boundary, 73 Zygodiscus adamas, 31 pleclopons, 31 sigmoides, 38 Zygolithus dubius, 56, 61; pl. 9 Zygrhablithus, 61 bijugatus, 31, 38, 56, 61 sp., 51, 53 PLATES 1-17 [Contact photographs of the plates in this report are available, at cost, from US. Geological Survey Library, Federal Center, Denver, Colorado 80225] FIGURE 1. 2, 3, 4. 5. 6. 7. 8, 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. PLATE 1 [All samples from either the aqueduct section in the Devils Den area or from the Lodo Gulch section. All figures X 65] Ammodiscus cf. A. pennyi Cushman and Jarvis Aqueduct section, sample 76CB 1281H Cyclammina incisa (Stache) Aqueduct section, sample 76CB 1281 Cyclammina simiensis Berry Aqueduct section, sample 76CB 1281 Cyclammina cf. C. clarki (Hanna) Aqueduct section, sample 760B 1291 Spiroplectammina richardi Martin Lodo Gulch section, sample 76CB 1231B Spiroplectammina directa (Cushman and Siegfus) Aqueduct section, sample 76CB 1281M Verneuilina triangulata Cook Lodo Gulch section, sample 760B 1231A Gaudryina coalingensis Cushman and Hanna Lodo Gulch section, sample 76CB 1231A Gaudryina cf. G. laevigata Franke Aqueduct section, sample 76CB 1281 Clauulinoides californicus Mallory Aqueduct section, sample 760B 1281 Dorothia germanica Cushman Aqueduct section, sample 76CB 1281 Tritaxilina colei Cushman and Siegfus Aqueduct section, sample 76CB 1281 Karreriella monumentensis Mallory Aqueduct section, sample 76CB 1281 Karreriella mediaguaensis Mallory Aqueduct section, sample 7608 1281 Martinottiella eocenica Cushman and Bermudez Aqueduct section, sample 76CB 1281 Silicosigmoilina californica Cushman and Church Aqueduct section, sample 76CB 1281L GEOLOG CAL SURVEY Al. PAPER 1213. PLATE 1 BENTHlC FORAMINIFERS FROM THE CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES FIGURE 1. 2, 3. 4, 5. 6. 10. 11, 12. 13. 14. 15, 16, 17. 18. 19. PLATE 2 [All samples from either the aqueduct section in the Devils Den area or from the Lodo Gulch section] Lenticulina ulatisensis (Boyd) Aqueduct section, sample 76CB 1273, X 65 Vaginulinopsis mexicana var. kerni (Cook) Lodo Gulch section, samples 760B 1221G, 76 CB 1231A, X 100 Vaginulinopsis asperuliformis (Nuttall) Lodo Gulch section, sample 760B 12318, X 100 Vaginulinopsis mexicana var. nudicostatus(Cushman and Hanna) Lodo Gulch section, sample 76CB 1231A, X 15 . Amphimorphina ignota Cushman and Siegfus Aqueduct section, sample 76CB 1281D, X 65 . Plectofrondicularia kerni Cook Lodo Gulch section, sample 76CB 1231D, X 65 . Plectofrondicularia whitei Martin Lodo Gulch section, sample 76CB 1231, X 65 Plectofrondicularia minuta Sullivan Aqueduct section, sample 76CB 1281, X 65 Buliminella grata var. convoluta Mallory Aqueduct section, sample 760B 1281, X 65 Buliminella bradburyi (Martin) Aqueduct section, sample 76CB 1281, X 100 Turritilina abbreviata Ten Dam Lodo Gulch section, sample 76CB 1221G, X 65 Aragonia aragonensis (Nuttall) Lodo Gulch section, samples 760B 1221E, X 100 76CB 1221G, X 200 76CB 1221G, x 235 Bifarina eleganta (Plummer) Lodo Gulch section, sample 760B 1221H, X 65 Bifarina nuttalli Cushman and Siegfus Aqueduct section, sample 76CB 1633, X 100 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1213. PIATE 2 BENTHIC FORAMINIFERS FROM THE CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES FIGURES 1—5. 9, 10. 11, 12. 13. 14. 15. 16, 17. 18, 19, 20. 21. PLATE 3 [All samples from either the aqueduct section in the Devils Dens area of from the Lodo Gulch section] Bulimina callahani Galloway and Morrey Lodo Gulch section sample 76CB 1231D, 1—4; X 200 Aqueduct section, sample 76CB 1281D, 5; X 120 . Bulimina curtissima Cushman and Siegfus 1221G, X 200 . Bulimina impendens Parker and Bermudez Lodo Gulch section, sample 76CB 1231D, X 200 . Bulimina macilenta Cushman and Parker Lodo Gulch section, sample 76CB 1231B, X 65 Bulimina trinitatensis Cushman and Jarvis Aqueduct section, sample 760B 1281, 9; X 65, 10; X 235 Bulimina whitei Martin Aqueduct section, sample 760B 1273, X 100 Boliuina huneri Howe Aqueduct section, sample 76CB 1281, X 135 Angulogerina cf. A. wilcoxensis Cushman and Ponton ,Aqueduct section, sample 76CB 1281C, X 100 Trifarina aduena var. californica Mallory Aqueduct section, sample 76CB 1281D, X 100 Uuigerina elongata Cole Lodo Gulch section, sample 7603 1231, 76CB 1231C, X 200 Uvigerina lodoensis var. mi riamae Mallory Lodo Gulch section, sample 76CB 1221G, 18; X 200 76CB 1221G, 19; X 135 sample 760B 1221C, 20; X 135 Loxostomoides applinae (Plummet) Lodo Gulch section, sample 760B 1231D, X 65 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1213, PIATE 3 BENTHIC FORAMINIFERS FROM THE CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES FIGURE 1. ~2, 3, 4. 5. 6, 7. 8, 9, 10. 11, 12. 13, 14. 15, 16, 17. PLATE 4 [All samples are from either the aqueduct section in the Devils Den area or from the Lodo Gulch section] Nodosarella aduena Cushman and Siegfus Aqueduct section, sample 7603 1281B, X 65 Nuttallides truempyi (Nuttall) Aqueduct section, sample 760B 1281, X 65 Baggatella californica Mallory Aqueduct section, sample 76CB 1281, X 100 Siphonina cf. jacksonensis Cushman Aqueduct section, sample 76CB 1281D, X 135 Siphonina wilcoxensis Cushman Aqueduct section, sample 760B 1281D, X 100 Osangularia tenuicarinata (Cushman and Siegfus) Aqueduct section, sample 7608 1281, X 100 Osangularia mexicana (Cole) Aqueduct section, sample 76CB 1281, X 165 Globocassidulina globosa Hantken Lodo Gulch section, sample 76CB 1231B, 15, 16; X 100, 17; X 665 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1213, PLATE 4 BENTHIC FORAMINIFERS FROM THE CALIFORNIA COAS RANGES FIGURES 1, 2, 3. 4, 5, 6. 7, 8, 9. 10, 11, 12. 13, 14, 15. 16, 17, 18. 19,20, 21. 22, 23, 24. 25, 26, 27. PLATE 5 [All samples are from either the aqueduct section in the Devils Den area or from the Lodo Gulch section. All figures X 65] Anomalinoides acutus (Plummet) Lodo Gulch section, sample 76CB 12310 Anomalinoides crassiseptus (Cushman and Siegfus) Aqueduct section, sample 76CB 1281H Anomalinoides aragonensis (Cole) Lodo Gulch section, sample 76CB 1231G Anomalinoides keeni (Martin) Lodo Gulch section, sample 76CB 1231B Anomalinoides garzaensis (Cushman and Siegfus) Aqueduct section, sample 76CB 1281 Cibicidoides beatus (Martin) Lodo Gulch section, sample 76CB 12310 Cibicidoides grimsdalei (N uttall) Aqueduct section, sample 76CB 1281J Cibicidoides fortunatus (Martin) Aqueduct section, sample 76CB 1284 Cibicidoides whitei (Martin) Aqueduct section, sample 76CB 1281J GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1213. PLATE 5 BENTHIC FORAMINIFERS FROM THE CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES FIGURES 1, 2, 14. 3, 13. 6, 7, 10. 8, 16. 11. 12. 15. 17. PLATE 6 [All figures X 20] Amphistegina paruula (Cushman) (p. 46) 1, Equatorial section; 2, Subaxial section, locality 76081633 (Devils Den) 14, Axial section, locality 71089718 (San Jose) Eoconuloides lopeztrigoi (D. K. Palmer) (p. 46) 3, Axial section, locality 76CB1634 (Devils Den) 13, Axial section, 7lCB971B (San Jose) . Eoconuloides wellsi Cole and Bermudez (p. 46) Subequatorial section, 760B1634 (Devils Den) . Pseudophragmina sp. Axial section, 760B1641 (Devils Den) Nummulites willcoxi Heilprin (p. 45) 6, 7, Subaxial section; 10, Equatorial section, 7lCB983C (San Jose) Eofabiana grahami Kupper (p. 47) 8, Locality 7108983C (San Jose); 16, Osbun 49—6 (Sveadal) . Nummulites striatoreticulatus L. Rutten (p. 45) Axial section, 7lCB983C (San Jose) Asterocyclina aster (Woodring) (p. 47) Subequatorial section, 71089830 (San Jose) Pseudophragmina (Proporocych‘m) flintensis (Cushman) (p. 46) Axial section Sphaerogypsina sp. Osbun 49—6 (Sveadal) Pseudophragmina (Proporocyclina) clarki (Cushman)(p. 47) Axial section (A); Locality Osbun 1—1B (Sveadal) GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1213. HATE 6 I. ~ '1 up... .. ~ 1.3 M 3’“ LARGE FORAMINIFERS FROM CALIFORNIA PLATE 7 [Scale bar varies] FIGURES 1, 2. Chiloguembelina cubensis (Palmer). 1, Side view, sample Mf1350. 2, Edge view of fig. 1. Scale bar=30 pm for both. (P. 59) 3, 6. Pseudohastigerina lillisi (Church). 3, Side view, sample Mf1351. 6, Edge view, sample Mf1351. Scale bar=100 pm for both. (p. 60) 4, 5. Pseudohastigerina micra (Cole). 4, Side view, sample Mf1351. 5, Edge view, sample Mf1351. Scale bar=30pm for both. (p. 60) 7—9. Gijmbelitria columbiana Howe. All specimens from sample Mf4746. 7, Oblique spiral view. 8, Oblique umbilical view. Scale bar=30 pm for all. (p- 60) GEOLOG CAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1213. PM]! 7 PLANKTIC FORAMINIFERS FROM SAN LORENZO FORMATION PLATE 8 [Scale bar varies] FIGURES 1—4. Globorotalia nana Bolli. All specimens from the Vaqueros(?) Formation, Aflo Nuevo section. 1, Umbilical view, sample Mf4665. 2, Side view, sample Mf4664. 4, Spiral view, sample Mf4665. Scale bar=30 pm for all. (p. 60) 5, 6. Globorotalia sp. aff. G. munda Jenkins. Both specimens from sample Mf4665 in the Vaqueros(?) Formation, Afio Nuevo section. 5, Umbilical view. 6, Side view. Scale bar=30 um for both. (p. 60) 7, 8. Globigerina praeturritilina Blow and Banner. 7, Oblique umbilical view, sample M13305 from the Twobar Shale Member of the San Lorenzo Formation, San Lorenzo River section. 8, Oblique side view of fig. 7. Scale bar=100um for both. (p. 59) v ,. .q “a ., ,,. ,. H «my? m.” .‘u PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1213. PLATE 8 i a 3L «a, a $8 .fl» * ‘* «.3. f)“ ,. 1:;- , 6 S N m m E S R E w R 0 2 m m N A S D N A 0 V E U N o .N A M m E S R m N m m m T. m D. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PLATE 9 [All figures are ph otomicrographs at the same magnification; scale bar equals 5 um. B F. bright field; XP, cross-polarized light] FIGURES 1, 2. 3, 4. 5. 6. 10, 11. 12, 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18, 19. 20, 21. 22. Bramletteius serraculoides Gartner. Sample Mf3301 from the Butano Sandstone in the San Lorenzo River section. 1, XP. 2, BF. Coccolithus formosus Kamptner. Sample Mf3306 from the Twobar Shale Member in the San Lorenzo River section. 3, XP. 4, BF. Daktylethra punctulata Gartner. Sample Mf3306 from the Twobar Shale Member in the San Lorenzo River section; XP. Discoaster barbadiensis Tan. Sample Mf3301 from the Butano Sandstone in the San Lorenzo River section; BF. . Discoaster deflandrei Bramlette and Riedel. Sample Mf4668 from the Vaqueros(?) Formation in the Afio Nuevo section; BF. . Discoaster nodifer (Bramlette and Riedel). Sample Mf3301 from the Butano Sandstone in the San Lorenzo River section; BF. . Discoaster saipanensis Bramlette and Riedel. Sample Mf3306 from the Twobar Shale Member in the San Lorenzo River section; BF. Dictyococcites bisectus (Hay, Mohler, and Wade). Sample Mf4664 from the Vaqueros(?) Formation in the Afio Nuevo section. 10, BF. 11, XP. Lanternithus minutus Stradner. Sample Mf3306 from the Twobar Shale Member in the San Lorenzo River section. 12, BF. 13, XP. Micrantholithus altus Bybell and Gartner. Sample Mf3306 from the Twobar Shale Member in the San Lorenzo River section; BF. Reticulofenestra reticulata(Gartner and Smith). Sample Mf3306 from the Twobar Shale Member in the San Lorenzo River section; XP. Reticulofenestra umbilica (Levin). Sample Mf3301 from the Butano Sandstone in the San Lorenzo River section; XP. Sphenolithus furcatolithoides Locker, below; Sphenolithus spiniger Bukry, above. Sample Mf3301 from the Butano Sandstone in the San Lorenzo River section; XP. Sphenolithus heteromorphus Deflandre. Sample Mf4668 from the Vaqueros(?) Formation in the A110 Nuevo section; XP. 18, Basal spines. 19, Apical and basal spines. Sphenolithus pseudoradians Bramlette and Wilcoxon. Sample Mf3301 from the Butano Sandstone in the San Lorenzo River section. 20, BF. 21, XP. Zygolithus dubius Deflandre. Sample Mf3306 from the Twobar Shale Member in the San Lorenzo River section; BF. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1213, PIATE9 CALCAREOUS NANNOFOSSILS FROM THE SANTA CRUZ MOUNTAINS FIGURE 1. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. PLATE 10 Rhabdammina eocenica Cushman and Hanna, Mf3304 (field no. 76CB1451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 300 um. USNM no. 262082 . Reophax pilulifer Brady, Mf4665 (field no. 76031532), Ai'io Nuevo section. Bar equals 300 pm. USNM no. 262083 . Haplophragmoides deflata Sullivan, Mf1352 (field no. 76CB1354), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262084 . Haplophragmaides sp. #1, Mf1352 (field no. 76CB1354), San Lorenzo River section. Bar. equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262085 . Haplophragmoides sp., M13304 (field no. 7SCB1451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 ,um. USNM no. 262086 . Cyclammina cancellata Brady obesa Cushman and Laiming, Mf4664 (field no. 76031531), Afio Nuevo section. Bar equals 1 mm. USNM no. 262087 . Bolivina marginata Cushman, Siphogenerina nodifera Cushman and Kleinpell, and Orthomorphina rohri (Cushman and Stainforth) attached to the test of Cyclammina cancellata Brady obesa Cushman and Laiming, Mf4664 (field no. 76CBl531), Afio Nuevo section. Bar equals 300 um. . Spiroplectammina richardi Martin, Mf3304 (field no. 7GCB1451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 1.1m. USNM no. 262088 . Spiroplectammina directa (Cushman and Siegfus), Mf1360 (field no. EB256A), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262089 Verneuilina sp., Mf4683 (field no. 76CB1603), Zayante Creek section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262090 Verneuilina sp., Mf4683 (field no. 76CB1603), Zayante Creek section. Bar equals 30 pm. Gaudryina gracilis Cushman and Laiming, Mf4682 (field no. 76C81602, Zayante Creek section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262092 G audryina gracilis Cushman and Laiming, Mf4664 (field no. 76CB1531),Af10 Nuevo section. Bar equals 100 um. USN M no. 262093 Gaudryina triangularis Cushman, Mf4682 (field no. 7SCB1602), Zayante Creek section. Bar equals 100 1.1m. USNM no. 262094 Dorothia cubana (Cushman and Bermudez), Mf3304 (field no. 76CB1451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262095 Eggerella elongata Blaisdell, Mf3304 (field no. 7GCB1451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262096 Eggerella subconica Parr, Mf3304 (field no. 760B1451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262097 GEOLOGICAL PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1213. PIA'IE 10 BENTHIC FORAMINIFERS SANTA CRUZ MOUNTAINS FIGURE L 7, 8. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. PLATE 11 Karreriella elongata Mallory, Mf3304 (field no. 76CB1451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262098 . Karreriella washingtonensis Rau, Mf1360 (field no. EBZ56A3), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262099 . Martinottiella eocenica Cushman and Bermudez, Mf3304 (field no. 76CB1451, San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262100 . Martinottiella patens (Cushman and Laiming), Mf4665 (field no. 76081532), Afio Nuevo section. Bar equals 300 1.1m. USNM no. 262101 . Plectina garzaensis Cushman and Siegfus, Mf3304 (field no. 76CB1451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262102 . Plectina garzaensis Cushman and Siegfus, Mf3304 (field no. 76CBl451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 300 um. USNM no. 262103 Quinqueloculina minuta Beck, Mf3304 (field no. 76CB1451), San Lorenzo River Section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262104 . Nodosaria gyrata Mallory, Mf3304 (field no. 76CB1451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 11m. USNM no. 262105 Nodosaria parexilis sentifera Cushman and Parker, Mf4665 (field no. 76CB1532), Afio Nuevo section. Bar equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262106 Dentqlina cooperensis Cushman, Mf4664 (field no. 76CB1531), Afio Nuevo section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262107 Dentalina quadrulata Cushman and Laiming, Mf4664 (field no. 7GCB1531), Afio Nuevo section. Bar equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262108 Dentalina sp., Mf3304 (field no. 76CB1451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262109 Dentalina spinosa ornatiorSmith, Mf3304 (field no. 7GCB1451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 300 um. USNM no. 262110 Lagena acuticosta Reuss, Mf4664 (field no. 76CB1531), Afio Nuevo section. Bar equals 30 um. USNM no. 262111 . Lagena semistriata Williamson, Mf2700 (field no. EB395D), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 30 pm. USNM no. 262112 Lenticulina barbati (Cushman and Hobson), Mf4665 (field no. 76CB1532), Afio N uevo section. Bar equals 300 pm. USNM no. 262113 Lenticulina calcar (Linne), Mf4665 (field no. 76CB1532), Afio Nuevo section. Bar equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262114 Lenticulina cf. L. clypeiformis d’Orbigny, Mf4665 (field no. 7GCB1532), Afio Nuevo section. Bar equals 300 pm. USNM no. 262115 Lenticulina insuetus (Cushman and Stainforth), Mf1350 (field no. 7GCB1352), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 nm. USNM no. 262116 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1213, PIATE 11 BENTHIC FORAMINIFERS FROM THE SANTA CRUZ MOUNTAINS FIGURE 1. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. PLATE 12 Lenticulina insuetus (Cushman and Stainforth), Mf1356 (field no. EB256B), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 300 um. USNM no. 262117 . Lenticulina midwayensis (Plummet), Mf3304 (field no. 76CB1451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 300 um. USNM no. 262118 . Lenticulina pseudocultratus (Cole), Mf4664 (field no. 76CBl531), Afio Nuevo section. Bar equals 100 1.1m. USNM no. 2621109 . Lenticulina pseudovortex (Cole), M13304 (field no. 76CBl451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262120 . Lenticulina sp., Mf3304 (field no. 76CB1451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262121 . Lenticulina sp., Mf4664 (field no. 76CBl531), Afio Nuevo section. Bar equals 300 pm. USNM no. 262122 . Lenticulina spp., Mf304 (field no. 76CB1451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 300 pm. USNM no. 262123 . Lenticulina welchi (Church), Mf3304 (field no. 76CB1451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262124 . ?Marginulina sp., M13304 (field no. 76CB1451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262125 Marginulina subbullata Hantken, Mf3304 (field no. 76CB1451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262126 Orthomorphina rohri (Cushman and Stainforth), Mf4664 (field no. 76CBl531), Afio Nuevo section. Bar equals 300 um. USNM no. 262127 Pseudonodosaria galbwayi (Cushman), Mf4682 (field no. 76CB1602), Zayante Creek section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262128 Saracenaria schencki Cushman and Hobson, Mf1360 (field no. 'EB256A3), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262129 Vaginulinopsis saundersi (Hanna and Hanna), Mf3304 (field no. 76CB1451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 300 um. USNM no. 262130 Plectofrondicularia miocenica directa Cushman and Laiming, Mf4665 (field no. 76CBl532), Afio Nuevo section. Bar equals 300 1.1m. USNM no. 262131 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1213, PLATE 12 BENTHIC FORAMINIFERS FROM THE CRUZ MOUNTAINS FIGURE 1. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. PLATE 13 Plectofrondicularia packardi Cushman and Schenck, Mf1360 (field no. EB256A), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 1.1m. USNM no. 262132 . Plectofrondicularia packardi multilineata Cushman and Simonson, Mf1360 (field no. EB256A), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262133 . Plectofrondicularia uaughani Cushman, Mf1360 (field no. EB256A), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 [.rm. USNM no. 262134 . Amphimorphina becki Mallory, Mf3304 (field no. 76081451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262135 . Buliminella elegantissima (d’Orbigny), Mf4664 (field no. 76CB1531), Afio Nuevo section. Bar equals 30 1.1m. USNM no. 262136 . Sphaeroidina bulloides d’Orbigny, Mf4664 (field no. 76CB1531), Afro Nuevo section. Bar equals 100 1.1m. USNM no. 262137 . Sphaeroidina bulloides d’Orbigny, Mf4664 (field no. 76CB1531), Afio Nuevo section. Bar equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262138 . Bolivina kleinpelli Beck, Mf2700 (field no. EB395D), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262139 . Boliuina marginata Cushman, Mf2701 (field no. E3675), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262140 Boliuina marginata Cushman, Mf4664 (field no. 760B1531), Afro Nuevo section. Bar equals 100 pm. USN M no. 262141 Bolivina marginata Cushman, Mf4665 (field no. 7GCB1532), Afro Nuevo section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262142 Bolivina scabrata Cushman and Bermudez, Mf3304 (field no. 76CBl451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 30 um. USNM no. 262143 Bolivina sp., Mf4661 (field no. 76CB1451), Afro Nuevo section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262144 Bolivinoides mexicanus (Cole), Mf1351 (field no. 76CB1353), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262145 Cassidulinoides californiensis Bramlette, Mf2700 (field no. EB395D), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 30 1.1m. USNM no. 262146 Stichocassidulina cf. S. thalmani Stone, Mallory, Mf3304 (field no. 76CB1451), San Inrenzo River section. Bar equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262147 Stilostomella advena (Cushman and Laiming), Mf4665 (field no. 76CB1532), Afio Nuevo section. Bar equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262148 Stilostomella wegimanni (Cole), Mf4664 (field no. 76CB1531), Afro Nuevo section. Bar equals 300 pm. USNM no. 262149 Bulimina carneroensis Cushman and Kleinpell, Mf4665 (field no. 76CB1532), Afro Nuevo section. Bar equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262150 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1213, PIATE l3 BENTHIC FORAMINIFERS FROM THE SANTA CRUZ MOUNTAINS FIGURE 1. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. PLATE 14 Bulimina carneroensis Cushman and Kleinpell, Mf4664 (field no. 76081531), Afio Nuevo section. Bar equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262151 . Bulimina corrugata Cushman and Siegfus, Mf1357 (field no. EB256K), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262152 . Bulimina corrugata Cushman and Siegfus, Mf3304 (field no. 76CB1451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 30 pm. USNM no. 262153 . Bulimina curtissima Cushman and Siegfus, Mf3304 (field no. 76CB1451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262154 . Bulimiria inflata alligata Cushman and Lairning, Mf2700 (field no. EB395D), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262155 . Bulimina microcostata Cushman and Parker, Mf1531 (field no. 76 CB1353), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262156 . Bulimina sculptilis lacinata Cushman and Parker, Mf1356 (field no. EB256B), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262157 . Bulimina sculptilis lacinata Cushman and Parker, Mf1356 (field no. EBZ56B), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262158 . Globobulimina pacifica Cushman, Mf4664 (field no. 76CB1531), Afio Nuevo section. Bar equals 100 1.1m. USNM no. 262159 Uvigerina auberiana d’Orbigny, Mf4664 (field no. 76CB1531), Afio Nuevo section. Bar equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262161 Uuigerina auberiana d’Orbigny, Mf4664 (field no. 76CB1531), Afio Nuevo section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262161. Uvigerina churchi Cushman and Siegfus, Mf3304 (field no. 76CB1451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262162 Uuigerina elongata Cole, Mf3304 (field no. 76CB1451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262163 Uvigerina gallowayi Cushman, Mf4665 (field no. 7GCB1532), Ano Nuevo section. Bar equals 100 1.1m. USNM no. 262164 Uvigerina garzaensis Cushman and Siegfus, Mf1356 (field no. EB25GB), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262165 Siphogenerina mayi Cushman and Parker, Mf4664 (field no. 76CB1531), Aiio Nuevo section. Bar equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262166 Siphogenerina multicostata Cushman and Jarvis, Mf4664 (field no. 760B1531), Afro Nuevo section. Bar equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262167 Siphogenerina nodifera Cushman and Kleinpell, Mf4664 (field no. 7GCB1531), Afio Nuevo section. Bar equals 300 pm. USNM no. 262168 PIATE 14 v PROFESSIONAL PAPFJR 1213 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BENTHIC FORAMINIFERS FROM THE SANTA CRUZ MOUNTAINS FIGURE 1. 8. 9. 10, 11, 12. 13. 14, 15. 16. PLATE 15 Siphogenerina nodifera Cushman and Kleinpell, Mf4665 (field no. 76CB1532), Afio Nuevo section. Bar equals 300 1.1m. USNM no. 262169 . Siphogenerina nodifera Cushman and Kleinpell, Mf4665 (field no. 76081532), Afio Nuevo section. Bar equals 300 um. USNM no. 262170 . Siphogenerina nodifera Cushman and Kleinpell, Mf4665 (field no. 76CB1532), Afio Nuevo section. Bar equals 300 um. USNM no. 262171 . Siphogenerina nodifera Cushman and Kleinpell, Mf4682 (field no. 76C31602), Zayante Creek section. Bar equals 300 pm. USNM no. 262172 . Trifarina wilcoxensis (Cushman and Ponton), Mf1531 (field no. 75CB1353), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262173 . Uvigerinella sparsicostata Cushman and Laiming, Mf4683 (field no. 76CB1603), Zayante Creek section. Bar equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262174 . Baggina robusta Kleinpell, Mf4664 (field no. 76CB1531), Afio Nuevo section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262175 Valvitlineria araucana (d’Orbigny), Mf4664 (field no. 7GCB1531), Afio Nuevo section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262176 Bifarina eleganta (Plummet), Mf3304 (field no. 7GCB1451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262177 ?Neoeponides sp., Mf3304 (field no. 76CBl451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262178 Cibicides floridanus (Cushman), Mf4664 (field no. 76CB1531), Afio Nuevo section. Bar equals 100 mu. USNM no. 262179 Cibicides americanus crassiseptus Cushman and Laiming, Mf4665 (field no. 76C81532), Afio N uevo section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262180 Cibicides haydoni (Cushman and Schenck), Mf1360 (field no. EB2456A) San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262181 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1213, PIA1E l5 BENTHIC FORAMINIFERS FROM THE SANTA CRUZ MOUNTAINS. FIGURE 1. 2, 3. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. PLATE 16 Cibicides pseudoungerianus euolutus Cushman and Hobson, Mf‘2700 (field no. EB395D), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262182 Cibicides spiropunctatus Galloway and Morrey, Mf3304 (field no. 76CB1451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262183 . Pleurostomella alternans Schwager, Mf3304 (field no. 760 B1451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 30 pm. USNM no. 262184 . Nodosarella atlantisae hispidula (Cushman), Mf3304 (field no. 76CB1451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262185 . Nodosarella atlantisae hispidula (Cushman), Mf3304 (field no. 76CB1451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262186 . F ursenkoina bramlettei (Galloway and Morrey), Mf4667 (field no. 76CB1541), Afio Nuevo section. Bar equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262187 . F ursenkoina bramletti (Galloway and Morrey), Mf1531 (field no. 75CB1353), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262188 . F ursenkoina californiensis (Cushman), Mf3304 (field no. 75CB1451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 30 um. USNM no. 262189 F urs‘enkoina dibollensis (Cushman and Applin), Mf3304 (field no. 76CB1451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262190 Cassidulina crassipunctata Cushman and Hobson, Mf‘2700 (field no. EB395D), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262191 Cassidulina crassipunctata Cushman and Hobson, Mf1360 (field no. EB256A), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262192 Cassidulina diuersa Cushman and Stone, Mf3304 (field no. 76CB1451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262193 Nonionella miocenica Cushman, Mf4665 (field no. 76CB1532), Afio Nuevo section. Bar equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262194 Nonionella miocenica Cushman, Mf2700 (field no. EB395D), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262195 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1213, PIATE l6 BENTHIC FORAMINIFERS FROM THE SANTA CRUZ MOUNTAINS FIGURE 1, 2. 3. 4 5, 6. 7 8, 9. 10 11, 12. PLATE 17 Pullenia quinqueloba (Reuss), Mf3304 (field no. 76CB1451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262196 Pullenia miocenica Kleinpell, Mf4664 (field no. 76CBl531), Afio Nuevo section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no.262197 Gyroidina orbicularis planata Cushman, Mf2700 (field no. EB395D), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262198 Oridorsalis umbonatus (Reuss), Mf3304 (field no. 76CB1451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262199 Anomalina californiensis Cushman and Hobson, Mf4665 (field no. 76CB1532), Afio Nuevo section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262200 Anomalina garzaensis Cushman and Siegfus, Mf3304 (field no. 7GCB1451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262201 Anomalina salinasensis Kleinpell, Mf4661 (field no. 76CB1541), Afio Nuevo section. Bar equals 100 pm. USNM no. 262202 Boldia hodgei (Cushman and Schenck), Mf3304 (field no. 76CBl451), San Lorenzo River section. Bar equals 100 um. USNM no. 262203 PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1213, PIATE 17 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BENTHIC FORAMINIFERS FROM THE SANTA CRUZ MOUNTAINS W mum-pm,- RETURN EARTH SCIEN'CES LIBRARY I'D—D 230 Egrth Sciences Bldg. (342-22sz .LQ""'"""" . l3 GPO 689-040/18 Wm 22‘ wfiwmm K; ,3 J 2% % 4% 344%; g 3?; Raymond Quadrangle, Madera and Mariposa Counties, California—Analytic Data By PAUL G. BATEMAN and WAYNE N. SAWKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1214 Modal and chemical data and isotopic ages of the platonic rocks of the Raymond quadrangle U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON: 1981 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR JAMES C. WATT, Secretary GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Doyle G. Frederick, Acting Director Library of Congress CataLog No. 81-600079 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, US Government Printing Office Washington, DC. 20402 CONTENTS Page Abstract ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 Introduction -------------------------------- ‘ ----------------------------------------- 1 General geology ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 Sampling and analytical methods ------------------------------------------------------- 1 Tonalite of Blue Canyon --------------------------------------------------------------- 2 Granodiorite of Knowles -------------------------------------------------------------- 2 Isotopic ages ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3 References cited --------------------------------------------------------------------- 3 ILLUSTRATIONS Page FIGURES 1—9. Simplified geologic map of the Raymond quadrangle showing: 1. Locations of analyzed and dated samples -------------------------------------------------------------------- 6 2. Volume-percent quartz ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 3 3. Volume-percent potassium feldspar ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9 4. Volume-percent plagioclase -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10 5. Volume-percent mafic minerals ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 11 6. Volume-percent biotite ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 12 7. Volume-percent hornblende -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 13 8. 100 hornblende/(biotite + hornblende) ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 14 9. Bulk specific gravity -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 15 10. Plots of modes of granitic rocks --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 16 TABLES Page TABLE 1. Chemical analyses, norms, and modes of granitoids ____________________________________________________________________ 2 2. U-Pb age determinations on zircon from granitoids ____________________________________________________________________ 3 3. K-Ar age determinations from granodiorite of Knowles ________________________________________________________________ 3 III RAYMOND QUADRANGLE, MADERA AND MARIPOSA COUNTIES, CALIFORNIA—ANALYTIC DATA By PAUL C. BATEMAN and WAYNE N. SAWKA ABSTRACT About 150 samples of the plutonic rocks of the Raymond quadrangle were collected during geologic mapping. Of these, 137 were analyzed modally, 3 were analyzed chemically, and 4 were dated isotopically, 2 by the U-Pb method and 2 by the K-Ar method. In general, the different plutonic rocks show little internal compositional variation, but the hornblende-poor facies of the tonalite of Blue Can- yon is zoned from more mafic in the margins to less mafic in the in- terior. The presence of subhedral to euhedral hornblende prisms and biotite books in the hornblende-rich facies of the tonalite of Blue Can- yon is interpreted to indicate abundant H20 in the melt phase of the magma during crystallization, perhaps about 3 percent. However, a paucity of magnetite indicates low oxygen fugacity (F0). The plagiogranite of Ward Mountain and locally the tonalite of Blue Canyon. both dated isotopically at about 114 m.y.. are deformed, whereas the granodiorite of Knowles, dated at about 111 my, is undeformed and intrudes the deformed rocks. These relations are in- terpreted to indicate a period of deformation sometime during the ap- proximately 3-m.y. interval between the emplacement of the de- formed rocks and the granodiorite of Knowles. INTRODUCTION The Raymond quadrangle is mostly in the western foothills of the central Sierra Nevada, but the south and southwest parts extend into the Central Valley of California. California State Highway 140 from Madera, about 7 km southwest or the southwest corner of the quadrangle, extends eastward across the southern margin of the quadrangle, and State Highway 41 crosses the southeast corner. These highways together with county roads provide access to all parts of the quadrangle. This report supplements the geologic map of the Raymond quadrangle (Bateman and others, 1981) by providing modal and chemical data and isotopic age determinations on the plutonic rocks. These data are presented in maps, diagrams, and tables (figs 1-10; tables 1-3); the brief text is intended as a guide to understanding and interpreting the data. A nontech- nical summary of the general geology of the quad- rangle accompanies the geologic map. GENERAL GEOLOGY Plutonic and metamorphic rocks underlie most of the quadrangle, but Cenozoic sedimentary deposits overlie the crystalline rocks in the south and southwest parts (fig. 1). Plutonic rocks occupy the part of the quadrangle that lies east of a line drawn from near the northwest corner to near the center of the south border. The south end of the western metamorphic belt lies along the west side of the quadrangle north of the Fresno River, the Adobe Hill roof pendant is in the south-central part, and the west end of the Tick-Tack- Toe roof pendant extends into the southeast corner. The two largest bodies of granitic rock are the tonalite of Blue Canyon and the granodiorite of Knowles. Two plutons of the plagiogranite of Ward Mountain extend into the east side of the quadrangle from the adjoining Millerton Lake quadrangle where they occupy large areas. Other small bodies of granitoid rocks and hornblende gabbro are present locally. In common with most other granitoids of the western Sierra Nevada, the granitoids of the Raymond quadrangle contain small amounts of potassium feldspar (K-feldspar) (figs. 3 and 10). SAMPLING AND ANALYTICAL METHODS About 150 samples of typical plutonic rocks weigh- ing at least 1 kg were collected. Our objective was to collect samples about 1.6 km apart, but because of poor exposures and deep weathering, especially in the south half of the quadrangle, sample localities are generally somewhat farther apart and are unevenly distributed (fig. 1). Care was taken to collect fresh and represen- tative samples of the rock at each locality. Of the samples collected, 135 were analyzed modally (figs. 2—7); 3 of these were analyzed chemically for their ma- jor elements (table 1), 2 were dated isotopically by the U-Pb method (table 2), and 2 were dated by the K-Ar method (table 3). The modal analyses were made by combining point counts on selectively stained slabs (Norman, 1974) with point counts on thin sections. At least 1,000 regularly spaced points were counted on slabs with areas of 70 cm2 or more to determine the volume percent of quartz, K-feldspar, plagioclase, and total mafic miner- 2 RAYMOND QUADRANGLE, MADERA AND MARIPOSA COUNTIES, CALIFORNIA als (figs. 2-5). The relative amounts of biotite and horn- blende were then determined on thin sections and ap— portioned to the total content of mafic minerals (figs. 6 and 7). Magnetite and other opaque minerals are pre- sent in these granitoids in only trace amounts and were omitted in calculating the amounts of biotite and hornblende. Isopleths were drawn on figures 2-9 to bring out any systematic patterns. However, we made TABLE 1.— Chemical analyses, norms, and modes of granitoids [Chemical analyses: sample FD-ZO analyzed by Vertie C. Smith under the supervision of Lee C. Peck. Samples RDa—l and RDb-58 analyzed using the rapid method by H. Smith under the supervision of Floyd Brown. Modal analyses: Felsic mineral and total mafic minerals determined by Oleg Polovtzoff by counting 1000 to 2003 points on selectively stained slabs of at least 70 cm . Hornblende and biotite determined by Wayne Sawka by apportioning counts on thin sections to total mafic minerals.] Tonalite of Granodiorite Blue Canyon of Knowles RDa-l RDb-58 FD-20 Chemical analyses (weight percent) 3102 ————————————————————— 65.0 72.1 72.22 A1203 -------------------- 16.7 16.0 14.98 Fe203 -------------------- .97 .44 .15 3.5 1.4 1.81 2.3 .62 .60 5.1 2.8 2.58 3.5 4.0 3.96 1.6 2.2 2.48 .76 65 .47 O7 10 .02 73 25 28 18 .12 10 05 .03 05 02 .06 -- —— -— .04 101 101 99.74 CIPW Norms (weight percent) Q ------------------------ 22.67 33.15 32.52 C ------------------------ .42 2.37 1.35 or ——————————————————————— 9.46 13.00 14.78 ab ——————————————————————— 29.61 33.84 33.77 an ----------------------- 24.00 12.73 12.24 d1 ----------------------- .00 .00 .00 hy ——————————————————————— 10.24 3 39 4.36 mt ----------------------- 1.41 .64 .22 11 ——————————————————————— 1.39 48 .54 ap ----------------------- 43 .28 24 cc ----------------------- .05 .14 -- Total --------------- 99 68 W m Modes (volume percent) Quartz ------------------- 21 33 34 Potassiun feldspar ------- 2 6 14 Plagioclase —————————————— 55 53 44 Biotite ------------------ 15 8 8 Hornblende --------------- 8 -- '- Total --------------- TOT TOO 166 Bulk specific gravity---— 2.75 2.67 2.64 no attempt to contour areas where differences in the values are unsystematic or slight. TONALITE OF BLUE CANYON The tonalite of Blue Canyon occurs in two bodies, one containing conspicuous hornblende prisms and the other almost devoid of hornblende. These two facies are not in contact within the Raymond quadrangle, but in the adjoining Millerton Lake quadrangle they grade into each other in several places (Bateman and Busac- ca, in press). The hornblende-bearing facies occurs in the north half of the quadrangle and in the southeast corner, whereas the hornblende-poor facies is confined to the southeast quarter. The color index (percent of mafic minerals) generally is greater than 15 (fig. 5) and the ratio, 100 hornblende/ (biotite + hornblende) (fig. 8), generally is greater than 25 in the hornblende-bearing facies and less than these amounts in the hornblende-poor facies, although a few notable exceptions do exist. Both facies contain only small amounts of K-feldspar. No systematic composi- tional patterns are evident in the facies containing hornblende prisms, but both the total mafic mineral content (fig. 5) and specific gravity (fig. 9) indicate that the hornblende-poor facies is compositionally zoned with respect to the mafic minerals from a more mafic margin to a more felsic core. That neither facies contains more than a bare trace of magnetite despite the relatively high color index of the rocks suggests low fo in the magma. However, the common occurrence of the hydrous minerals, horn- blende and biotite, in subhedral to euhedral prisms and books indicates that these minerals crystallized from the melt phase of the magma. Estimates of the amount of water required in the melt phase of the magma for these minerals to precipitate are generally in the range of a few percent. Burnham’s (1979) estimate of 3 percent H20 at 1.2 kb pressure seems well founded. Thus this rock is assumed to have crystallized under conditions of low f0 and relatively abundant H20. GRANODIORITE OF KNOWLES The granodiorite of Knowles is of special interest because it has been widely used as a building stone in some of the large cities of California; and the Raymond quarry at the north end of the granodiorite is still ac- tive. The granodiorite is a light-gray rock of even grain size. In many outcrops, quartz stands out in rounded grains. Individual crystals of both quartz and“ plagio- clase range from 2 to 5 mm across, whereas K—feldspar is generally in thin stringers interstitial to the other minerals. Biotite occurs in tiny, discrete, generally anhedral flakes, and a sprinkling of muscovite also generally is present. Both compositionally and tex- REFERENCES CITED 3 TABLE 2. — U-Pb age determinations on zircon from granitoids [From Stern and others, 1981] Age, m.y. Parts per million Atomic ratio 206 207 208 208 207 200 Pb __ Pb Pb Pb U Th Pb Pb Pb 205 235 232 206 206 206 U U Pb Pb Pb RDa-l Tonalite of Blue Canyon 111.4 107.8 102.0 5.36 295.6 69.6 0.11631 0.06467 0.00122 RDb-58 Granodiorite of Knowles 111.5 109.4 87.9 25.09 489.7 74.3 0.79070 0.33966 0.01983 TABLE 3.—K-Ar age de terminations from granodiorite of Knowles Determinations for sample 220 from Evernden and Kistler (1970). Calculated ages are adjusted to the decay and abundance constants recommended in 1976 by the IUGS Subcommission on geochronology. Paul Klock. RDb-68 by B. Myers and J. Von Essen. is: 4.962 x lo'loyr‘l 1.167 x 10-4 stun percent. -1 ;A€+Aé-O.581 x10 yr Potassium measurements on RDa-6 and RDb-68 by Argon measurements and age calculations on RDa-6 by S. E. Sims and on 0 -1; 40K,K _ Sample 220 is from same locality as sample RDa-6. K Radiogenic “oAr Percentage Age Sample Mineral (weight percent) (moles/gm x 10'“) radiogenic Ar (m.y.) 220 (61-041) Muscovite 10.34 173.26 93 113 220 (61—042) Biotite 7.53 151.10 87 113 RDa-6 do. 7.39 114.7 95 107 RDb-68 do. 7.25 141.7 78 109 turally, the granodiorite is quite uniform, and the percentages of minerals (figs. 2-7) and specific gravity (fig. 9) vary unsystematically from place to place by small amounts. ' ISOTOPIC AGES Zircons from one sample each of the tonalite of Blue Canyon and the granodiorite of Knowles have been dated by the U-Pb method (table 2), and biotite from two samples of the granodiorite of Knowles have been dated by the K-Ar method (table 3). Previously pub- lished dates on biotite and muscovite from a sample collected at the same locality as one of our samples (RDb-6) are included in table 3. Of the U-Pb ages given, the 206Pb/mU is considered the most reliable and is the age used in this discussion. Although the 206Pb/238U age on the tonalite of Blue Canyon is 111.4, other ages on this unit from the adjoining quadrangles indicate the probable age to be close to 114 my. (Stern and others, 1981). The 20"Pb/23W age of 111.5 my on sample RDb-58 of the granodiorite of Knowles is somewhat suspect because the sample was collected close to the tonalite of Blue Canyon, and the possibility exists that the dated zircon was picked up from the tonalite of Blue Canyon. However, because this age is close to the average K-Ar ages for the granodiorite of Knowles, we believe that it is approximately correct. These isotopic ages are important because the plagiogranite of Ward Mountain and, locally, the tonalite of Blue Canyon have been deformed to gneiss, whereas the undeformed granodiorite of Knowles in— trudes them and truncates their cataclastic fabric. Isotopic dating of the plagiogranite of Ward Mountain in the adjoining Millerton Lake quadrangle by the U-Pb and K-Ar methods indicates the same age as for the tonalite of Blue Canyon. If the istopic ages are ap- proximately correct, the deformation occurred in a brief interval of probably no more than 3 my between 111 and 114 my ago. REFERENCES CITED Bateman, P. C., and Busacca, A. J ., 1981, Geologic map of the Millerton Lake quadrangle, westcentral Sierra Nevada, Califor- nia: US. Geological Survey Geologic Quadrangle Map GQ-1548, scale 1:62,500 (in press). 4 RAYMOND QUADRANGLE, MADERA AND MARIPOSA COUNTIES, CALIFORNIA Bateman, P. C., Busacca, A. J ., Marchand, D. E., and Sawka, W. N., Norman, M. B.. 1974, Improved techniques for selective staining of 1981, Geologic map of the Raymond quadrangle. Madera and feldspar and other minerals using amaranth: U.S. Geological Mariposa Counties, California: U.S. Geological Survey Geologic Survey Journal of Research, v. 2. no. 1, p.73—79. Quadrangle Map GQ-1555 , scale 1:62.500 (in press). Stern, T. W., Bateman, P. 0.. Morgan, B. A., Newell, M. F., and Peck, Burnham, C. W., 1979, Magmas and hydrothermal fluids, in Barnes, D. L., 1981, Isotopic U-Pb ages of zircon from the granitoids of H. L., ed., Geochemistry of hydrothermal ore deposits (2d ed.): ‘ the central Sierra Nevada, California: U.S. Geological Survey John Wiley and Sons. New York, p. 71—136. Professional Paper 1185, 17 p. Evernden, J. F., and Kistler, R. W., 1970, Chronology of emplacement Streckeisen, A. L., and others, 1973, Plutonic rocks. Classification and of Mesozoic batholithic complexes in California and western nomenclature recommended by the IUGS Subcommission on the Nevada: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 623, 42 p. systematics of igneous rocks: Geotimes, v. 18, no. 10, p. 26—30. FIGURES 1-10 6 RAYMOND QUADRANGLE. MADERA AND MARIPOSA COUNTIES, CALIFORNIA 120°00' ~ 119°45‘ 370,”, 15' ‘EBQG. W o 6' 0 1 2 3 MILES 0 1 2 3 KILOMETERS 37° 00’ FIGURE 1. Raymond quadrangle showing the principal bedrock units and the locations of modally analyzed, chemically analyzed, and isotopically dated samples. The letters in the upper part of each quadrant (RDa-etc.) prefix the sample numbers in that quadrant. ,4v ‘4' r 1‘ v . ”‘Krh .. ..v1..V Granodiorite southwest of Rabbit Hill Contact Dashed where gradational O Chemically analyzed sample FIGURES 1 - 10 EXPLANATION Os Undifferentiated sedimentary strata \\ \\ // \ Kk \ ll Granodiorite of Knowles V K3?» \ / l \KWmX Plagiogranite of Ward Mountain meX, contains inclusions of adjacent rocks Tonalite south of the Experimental Range Tonalite of Blue Canyon Kblb, hornblende-poor facies Metasedimentary and metavolcanic rocks, undifferentiated + Sample dated isotopically by the K-Ar method FIGURE 1.—Continued. I\’\‘ 'Kbu.' Plagiogranite north of Buchanan Lake Granodiorite east of Hensley Lake Undifferentiated granitoids Modally analyzed sample X Sample dated isotopically by the U-Pb method \ CENOZOIC CRETACEOUS JURASSIC PALEOZOIC 0R MESOZOIC CRETACEOUS AND 120°00' 37° 15' 37 8 ,\—I .03 6’ RAYMOND QUADRANGLE, MADERA AND MARIPOSA COUNTIES, CALIFORNIA 119°45' 2 3 MILES 2 3 KILOMETEHS 00' FIGURE 2. Raymond quadrangle showing volume-percent quartz. Explanation in figure 1. FIGURES 1-10 9 120°00' 1 19°45' 37° 15' 3 KILOMETERS 37° 00’ FIGURE 3. Raymond quadrangle showing volume-percent potassium feldspar. Explanation in figure 1. 10 RAYMOND QUADRANGLE, MADERA AND MARIPOSA COUNTIES, CALIFORNIA 120000’ 119045 7° . \ - . -. . ‘ ‘35, "MG" ’ - H \‘ l/U‘ \\ \\ l/ \\ . l/ on I, m \\ D 1 2 3 MILES 0 1 2 3 KILOMETERS 37“ 00’ FIGURE 4. Raymond quadrangle showing volume-percent plagioclase. Explanation in figure 1. FIGURES 1-10 11 120600' 119045 37° 15' 3 MILES 3 KILOMETERS 37a 00' FIGURE 5. Raymond quadrangle showing volume-percent mafic minerals. Explanation in figure 1. 12 RAYMOND QUADRANGLE, MADERA AND MARIPOSA COUNTIES, CALIFORNIA 120°00' 119°45’ 37a 15' 3 MILES 3 K|LOMETERS 37° 00' FIGURE 6. Raymond quadrangle showing volume-percent biotite. Explanation in figure 1. FIGURES 1-10 13 120“00’ 119°45' 37°“? \ 15' 3 MILES 3 KILOMETEHS 37“ 00‘ FIGURE 7. Raymond quadrangle showing the volume-percent hornblende in the tonalite of Blue Canyon (Kbl and Kblb) and in hybridized samples of the plagiogranite of Ward Mountain. Explanation in figure. 1. 14 RAYMOND QUADRANGLE, MADERA AND MARIPOSA COUNTIES, CALIFORNIA 120°00’ < 119045' 37" 15' 1 2 3 MILES |——I_LT—TJ—_—l 3 KILOMETERS 37° 00' FIGURE 8. Raymond quadrangle showing 100 hornblende (biotite + hornblende) in the tonalite of Blue Canyuon and in hybridized samples of the plagiogranite of Ward Mountain. Explanation in figure 1. FIGURES 1-10 15 . 120000. 119°45' xqu 3 MILES 3 KILOMETERS 37° 00’ FIGURE 9. Raymond quadrangle showing bulk specific gravity. Explanation in figure 1. 16 RAYMOND QUADRANGLE, MADERA AND MARIPOSA COUNTIES. CALIFORNIA Classification EXPLANATION plan 0 Ouartz A Alkali feldspar P Plagioclase An 5-100 Granite 20 Quartz $393. monzonite diorite A """"""" mfi&fi'”‘fi&fififi€"' 10 35 65 EXPLANATION . Granodiorite ol Knowles + Plagiogranite north at Eastman Lake 0 Granodiorite southwest of Rabbit Hill 20 Other Constituents Color index EXPLANATION 60 Tonalite at Blue Canyon . Blocky hornblende lacies + Homblende - poor iacies EXPLANATION v Tonallte south oi the Experimental Range ' Plagiogranite 01 Ward Mountain + Plagiogranite oi Hensley Lake 60 20 35 65 90 65 90 FIGURE 10. Plots of modes of granitic rocks. Classification plan by Streckeisen and others (1973). 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Selection and Investigation of Sitesfor the Disposal of Radioactive Wastes in Hydraulically Induced Subsurface Fractures By REN JEN SUN GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1215 Prepared in cooperation with the U. S. Department of Energy for the International Atomic Energy Agency UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON21982 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR JAMES G. WATT, Secretary GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Dallas L. Peck, Director Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Sun, Ren Jen. Selection and investigation of sites for the disposal of radioactive wastes in hydraulically induced subsurface fractures. (Professional paper—U.S. Geological Survey ; 1215) Bibliography: p. Supt. of Docs. no.: I 19.16:1215 1. Radioactive waste disposal in the ground. 2. Waste disposal sites—Location. 3. Nuclear facilities—Waste disposal. I. Title. II. Series: United States. Geological Survey. Professional'paper ; 1215. TD898.S873 621.48’38 80—607180 AACRl For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 CONTENTS Nomenclature Conversion table Abstract Introduction Purpose and scope of the report ______________________ Acknowledgments Theory of fracture mechanics Factors controlling the injection of radioactive wastes in hydraulically induced fractures _____________________ Earth stresses Vertical earth stress Horizontal earth stress __________________________ Tectonic stress Mechanics of hydraulic fracturing _____________________ Stresses around uncased boreholes _________________ Fracturing in cemented and cased holes _____________ Fracturing in bedded rocks _______________________ Fracturing in fractured and jointed bedded rocks _____ Suitability of various rock types for hydraulic fracturing and waste injection Shale Sandstone and limestone _________________________ Crystalline igneous and metamorphic rocks __________ Site evaluation Geology Hydrology Geologic stability Interference with resources exploitation _______________ Site investigation Test drilling Geophysical logging Core analyses Strikes and dips of host rocks _____________________ Hydraulic fracturing tests ___________________________ Interpretation of hydraulic-fracturing test data __________ Interpretation of pressure data ____________________ Interpretation of uplift data ______________________ Interpretation of gamma-ray logs __________________ Safety considerations Waste migration due to separation of liquid from grout ____ Leaching of grout by ground water ____________________ Creation of vertically oriented fractures ________________ Triggering earthquakes by hydraulic fracturing _________ Historical manmade earthquakes __________________ Mechanism for triggering earthquakes _____________ The possibility of triggering earthquakes by hydraulic fracturing and grout injection ___________________ Page VI VII OTUTUTD-‘b—l Safety considerations— Continued Isolation time required for injected wastes ______________ Conclusion References cited Appendixes: Case histories Hydraulic fracturing at West Valley, N.Y ______________ Site geology Well construction Injections Water injection Grout injection Summary Radioactive waste disposal at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn Geology and hydrology __________________________ Seismicity Nature of radioactive wastes produced at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory ___________________________ Summary of disposed radioactive wastes ____________ Injection processes and the disposal plant ___________ Injections Experimental injections ______________________ Operational injections ________________________ Bleed back through the injection well ________ Position of grout sheet ____________________ Monitoring system Site evaluation Test drilling Well deviation ___________________________ Stratigraphy of the injection shale ___________ Tensile strength of the injection shale ________ Test injections Test grout injection ______________________ Interpretation of injection data __________ Altitude of induced fractures ____________ Past waste grout sheet intercepted by the North-observation well ________ Grout sheet produced by the test grout injection _______________________ Test water injection ______________________ Potential for the exhumation of wastes _____________ Summary ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURE 1. solidification Photographs of core samples illustrating the typical appearance of grout sheets integrated with shale after grout 2, 3. Maps of observed uplift, extent, and thickness of the grout sheet resulting from an injection, at the second ex— perimental site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn, on: 2. September 3, 1960 3. September 10, 1960 4. Diagram showing the fracturing of a perfect crystal under tensile stresses 5. Schematic diagram showing molecular structures around a fracture tip Page 24 24 25 27 27 27 29 30 30 41 45 45 46 52 52 54 55 60 61 64 64 67 68 70 71 71 71 74 75 76 77 79 79 79 83 86 87 Page mambo: IV FIGURES 6, 7. 24, 25. 26—30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36, 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43—45. 46—48. CONTENTS Diagrams showing: 6. Two regions of a brittle fracture 7. Stresses on a small rectangular parallelepiped element located at depth z Graphs showing hysteresis during loading and unloading in uniaxial compression tests of Bearpaw Shale ______________ Diagram showing stresses on an infinitely large plate containing a circular hole Graphs showing: 10. Stresses on a bedding plane of rock with respect to the axis of an injection well 11. Tensile stresses on a fracture plane of a natural fracture and bedding plane of rock with respect to the axis of an injection well Diagram of Coulomb-Navier fracture criteria showing how rock failure can be affected by an increase in pore pressure __ Locations of the hydraulic-fracturing test site, West Valley, NY Diagram showing the observed trend of three principal joint sets, West Valley, NY Schematic diagram of the injection well, West Valley, NY Well locations, West Valley, NY Graphs, for the water injection at 442 In, West Valley, N.Y., on: 17—20. Oct. 9, 1969, of: 17. Pressure plotted against time 18, 19. Pressure plotted against injection rate: 18. Before a 45 minute pause 19. After a 45 minute pause 20. Pressure decay plotted against time 21—23. June 26, 1970, of: 21. Pressure plotted against time 22. Pressure plotted against injection rate 23. Pressure decay plotted against time Gamma-ray activities observed in observation wells along the casing axis, after the water injection at 442 In, West Valley, N .Y., on: 24. July 6, 1970 25. Aug. 24, 1970 Graphs, for the water injection and the grout injection at 152 m, West Valley, N.Y., on: 26—28. May 29, 1971, of (water injection): 26. Pressure plotted against time 27. Pressure plotted against injection rate 28. Pressure decay plotted against time 29, 30. July 23, 1971, of (grout injection): 29. Pressure plotted against time 30. Pressure plotted against injection rate Gamma-ray activities observed in observation wells along the casing axis, after the grout injection at 152 In, West Valley, N.Y., on July 28, 1971 Uplift produced by the grout injection at 152 m, at West Valley, NY Calculated and surveyed uplift produced by the grout injection at 152 m, West Valley, NY _________________________ Location of hydraulic-fracturing-experiment sites, present fracturing site, and proposed site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn Section showing subsurface geology near the hydraulic fracturing sites, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn _________ Graphs of: 36. Temperature plotted against depth at the present fracturing site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn ___ 37. Average monthly temperatures and precipitation, Oak Ridge, Tenn Location of epicenters near Oak Ridge, Tenn., 1699—1973 Schematic diagram of the hydraulic-fracturing and waste-grout injection facility, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn _ Artist’s sketch of the hydraulic-fracturing and waste-grout injection, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn ___________ Photograph showing equipment for proportioning and blending dry solids for waste-grout injection, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn Diagram showing the arrangement of the mass flowmeter in a mixer cell for waste-grout injection, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn Photographs showing: 43. Conveyors for moving preblended solids from storage bins to a mixer for waste-grout injection, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn 44. Cell enclosing the wellhead of the waste-injection well, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn ____________ 45. Bins, waste-injection wellhead cell, injection pump, and standby injection pump, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn Schematic diagrams showing: 46. Construction of the waste-injection well, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn _______________________ 47. Wellhead arrangement for slotting by hydraulic jet, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn _____________ 48. Slotting operation for hydraulic-fracturing and waste-grout injection, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn 34 34 36 36 37 40 40 41 43 44 44 45 46 46 47 49 50 51 52 52 53 55 56 57 58 58 59 60 61 62 63 FIGURE 51— 54, 59— 63— 49. 50. 53. 55. 56. 57. 58. 61. 62. 65. TABLES 1—6. 9° 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. CONTENTS Schematic diagram showing wellhead arrangement for waste-grout injection, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn ____ Photograph showing wellhead of an injection well, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn __________________________ Calculated and surveyed surface uplift, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn., produced by: 51, 52. Grout injection, at the second experiment site, on: 51. Sept. 3, 1960 52. Sept. 10, 1960 53. Experimental injections 1—7, at the present fracturing site Location at the present fracturing site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn., of: 54. Benchmarks 55. Observation wells Cross section showing the grout sheets formed by waste injections ILW—8 through ILW—14, interpreted from gamma-ray logs made in observation wells after the injections and projected on a line in the direction along dip and passing through the center of the injection well, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn Schematic diagram showing the injection well,.observation wells, and waste grout sheet in shale, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn Locations of wells at the proposed disposal site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn Graphs, for the test grout injection at 332 m, at the proposed disposal site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn., on June 14, 1974, of: 59. Pressure plotted against time 60, 61. Gamma-ray activities observed, along the casing axis, in the: 60. North-observation well 61. West-observation well Location of point of injection and altitudes of gamma-ray peaks observed in observation wells after the test grout injec- tion June 14, 1974, at the proposed disposal site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn ________________________ Graphs of: 63, 64. Gamma-ray activities observed along the casing axis on June 14, 1974, at the proposed disposal site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn., in the: 63. South-observation well, before and after the test grout injection 64. New East—observation well, 85 days after the test grout injection ___________________________ 65. Pressure decay plotted against time, the test water injection at 332 m, Oct. 30, 1975, at the proposed disposal site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn TABLES Water injection, West Valley, N.Y., on date shown: 1—4. At 422 m: 1. Injection pressure, Oct. 9, 1969 2. Pressure decay, Oct. 9, 1969 3. Injection pressure, June 26, 1970 4. Pressure decay, June 26, 1970 5, 6. At 152 m: 5. Injection pressure, May 29, 1971 6. Pressure decay, May 29, 1971 Injection pressure of the grout injection at 152 m, July 23, 1971, West Valley, NY Ground elevation affected by the grout injection at 152 In, July 23, 1971, West Valley, NY __________________________ Instantaneous shut-in pressure, calculated overburden pressure, tensile strength of shale, average cohesive force at fracture tip, and value of f, West Valley, NY Approximate waste composition produced at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn Radioactive waste injected in Pumpkin Valley Shale, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn, 1964—78 __________________ Physical properties of grout, injection pressure, calculated grout radius, and maximum fracture separation, September 1960, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn Chemical composition of waste disposed of by injections, September—December 1972, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn Specific activity of major radionuclides contained in wastes disposed of by injections, September—December 1972, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn Bleed back from injections, September—December 1972, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn _______________________ Specific activity of radionuclides in bleed back solution, September—December 1972, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn Altitude of grout sheet determined from gamma-ray logs made in observation wells, September—December 1972, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn Rock-cover wells having positive or negative differences in pressures measured before and during an injection and results of gamma-ray logs, September—December 1972, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn __________________________ ORNL coordinates and altitude of wells at the proposed disposal site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn ____________ Data on observations and calculations for a deviation survey at the proposed disposal site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn., made in the injection well, Old East-observation well, New East-observation well, South-observation well, West-observation well, and North-observation well V Page 64 65 66 67 67 68 69 69 70 71 78 80 81 82 83 86 87 Page 32 35 38 39 42 42 43 48 49 54 54 61 64 66 66 67 68 70 71 72 VI TABLE m Co D d E F (Q,L, W) F(Q,r, W) mksks : 'S 09 seesaw»: D 33 “:1 a m 22. 23. 24. 25. 27. CONTENTS Laboratory, Tenn Tensile strength of rocks at the proposed disposal site, 0 Injection pressure of the test grout injection at 332 m, Laboratory, Tenn Waste-grout sheet intercepted by North-observation we Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn 26. Injection pressure Page Observed contact between rock units and calculated dip and strike at the proposed disposal site, Oak Ridge National 74 ak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn ________________________ 75 June 14, 1974, at the proposed disposal site, Oak Ridge National ll from past waste injections made at the present fracturing site, :: Grout sheet from the test grout injection at 332 m, June 14, 1974, intercepting observation wells at the proposed disposal 81 Test water injection at 332 In, Oct. 30, 1975, at the proposed disposal site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn.: 3: 27. Pressure decay NOMENCLATURE Linear regression constant; instantaneous shut-in pressure Radius of induced fracture Internal radius of a thick wall cylinder; radius of stress- altered fracture region, as shown in fig. 6 Constant; maximum fracture separation Intermolecular distance; external radius of a thick-wall cylinder Constant; activity of a particular radionuclide in waste at time t; horizontal distance measured perpendicular to the average strike of shale beds Activity of a particular radionuclide in waste at disposal time Inside diameter of a pipe; denudation rate Diameter of a tested sample; edge region of a fracture, as shown in fig. 6 Young’s modulus Friction loss in a vertical fracture Friction loss in a horizontal fracture Average cohesive force at a fracture tip 0 sf: 1; Fanning factor Acceleration due to gravity Ratio of basin relief to length; horizontal displacement of a hole Depth of induced fracture; length of a tested sample Horizontal stress coefficient (oh/av) Coefficient of “active earth pressure” Coefficient of “earth pressure at rest" Fluid consistence index (kg-force-secnl/mz) Constant Fracture length; length of casing Depth measured along a casing axis Number of half-lives of a particular radionuclide Fluid flow behavior index (dimensionless) Internal pressure in a thick-wall cylinder; bottom-hole pressure in injection well; load at rock failure during tensile-strength test; pressure decay Initiation pressure or breakdown pressure to induce a fracture Propagation pressure to extend a fracture Pressure loss due to friction Pore pressure S-fl speeamwoge g 3 :2 N HHS Sggsqrg ifi N 01, 02, 03 Pore pressure Injection rate; total injection volume Reynolds number Radial distance Tensile strength of rock Tensile strength of rock parallel to bedding planes Tensile strength of rock normal to bedding planes Tensile strength of rock parallel to stress a Tensile strength of rock parallel to stress oz Half-life of a particular radionuclide Time Horizontal movement of ground surface Flow velocity Fracture opening Surface uplift x—axis; horizontal departure, distance east or west of north-south axis y-axis; horizontal departure, distance north or south of east—west axis True vertical distance between two adjacent measured points z-axis; vertical depth al/a; vertical deviation angle; angle with the direction of the least principal stress (:3 Angle of joints with respect to a well axis; magnetic hear- ing Weight density of rock Polar angle from x-axis; dip angle Poisson ratio Density Normal stress Stress parallel to bedding planes Stress normal to bedding planes Horizontal earth stress Vertical earth stress Radial stress Tangential stress Stress along x-axis Stress along y-axis Stress along z-axis; overburden pressure Principal stresses, the order of magnitude represented by subscript numbers, 03 being the least stress Shear stress Angle of internal friction of clastic sediments Angle of bedding planes with respect to well axis CONVERSION TABLE M ultiply metric (SI) unit Millimeter (mm) Centimeter (cm) Meters (m) Kilometers (km) Square kilometers (km?) Cubic meters (m3) Cubic meters (m3) Millileters (mL) Millileters (mL) Meters per second (In/2‘ Kilograms per second g/s) Cubic meters per second (m3/s) Cubic meters per second (ms/s) Kilo am er cubic meters Egg/m3? Kilo am per cubic meters g/m'é‘) Pasca (Pa) Megapascal (MPa Cur1es per liter ( i/L) Curies per liter (Ci/L) CONTENTS by 3.9370x 10'2 3.9370x 10‘1 3.2808x 100 6.2137x 10'1 3.8610x 10‘1 3.5315x 101 2.6417x 102 2.6417x10'4 3.5315X 10'5 3.2808X 10° 2.2046x 10° 3.5315x 101 1.5850x 104 6.2427 X 10'2 8.3454 x 10'3 1.4504 x 10'4 1.4504 x 102 2.8317 x 101 3.7854 x 10° VII to obtain inch~paumi unit inch (in) inch (in.) foot (ft) miles (mi) square miles (miz) cubic feet Sft3) gallons Ega ) gallons gal) cubic feet (ft3) feet per second (ft/sf pounds per second ( b/s) cubic feet per second (ft3/s) gallons per minute (gal/min) pounds per cubic feet (lb/ft3) pounds per gallons (lb/gal) pounds per square inch (lb/inz) pounds per square inch lb/inz) curies per cubic feet (C' ft3) curies per gallon (Ci/gal) SELECTION AND INVESTIGATION OF SITES FOR THE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED SUBSURFACE F RACTURES By REN JEN SUN ABSTRACT Injection of intermediate-level radioactive wastes (specific activity of less than 6x103pCi/mL, consisting mainly of radionuclides, such as strontium and cesium, having half-lives of less than 50 years) mixed with cement into a thick shale formation is a promising and feasible disposal method. Hydraulic fracturing provides openings in the shale to accommodate the wastes. Ion exchange and radionuclide-adsorption materials can be added to the grout during mixing to further increase the radionuclide-retaining capacity of the grout. After solidification of the grout, the injected wastes become an integral part of the shale for- mation, and therefore the wastes will remain at depth and in place as long as the injection zone is not subjected to erosion or dissolution. Problems concerning safety of the disposal method are (1) the poten- tial for inducing vertical fractures, (2) phase separation during and after the injections, (3) the reliability of methods for determining the orientation of induced fractures, (4) the possibility of triggering earth- quakes, and (5) radionuclides being leached and transported by ground water. In bedded shale, a difference between tensile strength normal to and that parallel to bedding planes favors the formation of fractures along bedding planes that are nearly horizontal. Even in areas where vertical stress is slightly greater than the horizontal stresses, nearly horizontal bedding-plane fractures can be hydraulically induced in shale at depths less than 1,000 meters. Test injections should be made during site evaluation to determine if horizontal bedding-plane fractures can be in- duced. The orientation of induced fractures can be indirectly monitored by recording injection pressures during injection time and by measuring the decay of water injections and the uplift of ground surface after the injections; however, it can be directly determined by gamma-ray logs made in observation wells before and after each injection, if the in- jected fluid or wastes contain enough gamma-ray emitting ra- dionuclides. If waste grout is properly mixed, phase separation should be less than one percent of the total amount injected. The mobility of waste in the separated liquid is further decreased by the low permeability (less than 10‘6 darcy) and the large ion-exchange and adsorption capacity of shale, which thus reduce the potential for contamination. Grout injections do not cause extensive increases in pore pressure within shale, and a disposal site should be located in a geologically stable and tectonically relaxed area, that is, an area lacking local active faults. Thus a disposal in shale in such areas can avoid the two necessary and essential conditions for triggering earthquakes by fluid injections, an increase in pore pressure and rock already stressed near its breaking strength. Waste injections are made in several stages at different levels through an injection well. After the first series of injections at the greatest depth, the well is plugged by cement at that depth. The sec- ond series of injections are made a suitable distance above the first. The repeated use of the injection well distributes the cost of construct- ing injection and monitoring wells over many injections, thereby mak- ing hydraulic fracturing and grout injection economically attractive as a method for the disposal of radioactive wastes. Theoretical considerations about inducing nearly horizontal bedding- plane fractures in shale are discussed, as are field procedures for site selection, safety, and the monitoring and operation of radioactive waste disposal. Case histories are used as examples to demonstrate the application of the theory and techniques of field operations. INTRODUCTION Radioactive waste is the inevitable byproduct of the generation of electricity by nuclear reactors, as well as of other nuclear applications. An effective solution to the problem of disposing the long-lived and highly toxic radioactive waste is essential if the use of nuclear energy is to be expanded. Numerous methods for the disposal of radioactive waste have been proposed or studied in the last two decades. These methods include disposal on or in suitable geologic formations, in the ocean bottoms (including subduction zones), in polar ice, by shooting the wastes into space, and by transmutation (Winograd, 1974; Interagency Review Group on Nuclear Waste Management, 1979). Judged by existing technology, disposal of waste in geologic formations is probably the most feasible and practical method among the proposed alternatives. One of the geologic disposal methods is to inject a mix- ture of intermediate-level radioactive wastes (specific activity of less than 6 x 103 uCi/mL, consisting mainly of radionuclides having half-lives of less than 50 years, such as strontium and cesium) and cement and additives through a deep well into fractures that have been in- duced in nearly impervious formations (permeability < 10'6D (darcy)) by hydraulic pressure during the injec- tion. The injected grout is allowed to solidify under pressure to form grout sheets, which become an integral part of the rock (fig. 1); thereby the wastes are im- mobilized in a desired horizon of the low-permeability medium. 2 SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURES GROUT SHEET INTEGRATED WITH SHALE AFTER SOLIDIFICATION I WELL AXIS 0 1 2 3 4 5 CENTIMETERS GROUT SHEET INTEGRATED WITH SHALE AFTER SOLIDIFICATION 1 - w... M gua- CENTIMETERS GROUT SHEET INTEGRATED WITH SHALE AFTER SOLIDIFICATION a) . < :5 —-* Lu 3 O l 2 3 4 5 CENTIMETERS FIGURE 1. —Photographs of core samples illustrating the typical appearance of grout sheets integrated with shale after grout solidification. Arrows indicate the grout sheets. The cores shown here were obtained from different boreholes and are of sheets formed from several injections. (Courtesy of Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn.) The techniques of hydraulic fracturing have been widely used in the petroleum industry since 1947 for recovery of oil (Clark, 1949; Howard and Fast, 1970). However, disposal of wastes by grout injection using hydraulic fracturing had not been tested until 1959. In 1958, D. A. Shock of the Continental Oil Co. suggested to the US. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC, presently the US. Department of Energy) that hydraulic fractur- ing combined with grout injection into impermeable rocks might be used for the disposal of highly toxic radioactive waste (deLaguna and others, 1968). The AEC accepted the suggestion, and the Oak Ridge Na- tional Laboratory (ORNL), Tenn., was chosen for an ex- perimental site. Requirements for radioactive waste disposal by this technique include the following items: (1) The induced fractures should be horizontal or nearly horizontal, and (2) the wastes should be contained in a known and well- defined horizon for a sufficient time until the radiation emissions from the wastes decay to innocuous levels. INTRODUCTION 3 From 1959 through 1960, three experimental injec- tions without wastes were made into the Conasauga Shale by hydraulic fracturing at two different locations at the ORNL. The grout was tagged with radioactive isotope 137Cs. The first injection was at a shallow depth, 88 m below the land surface. After the injection, 22 core holes were drilled near the injection well. The cores pro- vided data that showed the solidified grout sheet to be formed nearly parallel to the bedding planes (fig. 1). The second and third experiments were made at a new well that was drilled 1,830 m east of the first injection well. Similar grout was used in these two injections, which were made at depths of 285 m and 212 m, respectively. After the injections, 24 core holes were drilled near the experimental site. The core-hole data confirmed again that the grout sheets were formed parallel to bedding planes and became an integral part of the shale (fig. 1). The grout sheets are confined to an area having a max- imum radius of 100 m, and the observed range in thickness of the grout sheets is from 3 to 12 mm (figs. 2, and 3). A third well having a 14—cm casing was drilled in the Conasauga Shale to a depth of 329 m, 0.8 km west of the second experimental site. From 1964 through 1965, seven experimental injections containing liquid radioac- tive wastes produced at the ORNL were made. The in- jections were at progressively shallower depths, from 288 m to 265 m. From 1966 through 1978, regular waste disposal was carried out through the well from depths of 265 m to 245 m. A total volume of 11,000 m3 of grout containing 7,000 m3 of radioactive wastes produced at the ORNL was injected. These wastes contained 640,000 Ci (curies) of radionuclides. Core drilling and gamma-ray logs for observation wells constructed near the injection well also indicated that the grout sheets were formed parallel to bedding planes (deLaguna and others, 1968, 1971; Weeren, 1974, 1976). The demonstration at the ORNL shows that disposal of intermediate-level radioactive wastes in bedded shale by hydraulic fracturing is feasible. However, most ex- perience with hydraulic fracturing in oil wells indicates that hydraulically induced fractures are generally ver- tical (Hubbert, 1971). Because of this experience, Earth scientists advised the AEC, through the US. National Academy of Sciences, not to extrapolate the results ob- tained at the ORNL site to other locations (Belter, 1972). In view of this advice, the AEC sponsored an ex- perimental program at the Western New York Nuclear Fuel Service Center near West Valley, in Cattaraugus County, N.Y., carried out jointly by the ORNL and the US. Geological Survey (USGS), with the permission of the State of New York, to test further the concept of dis- posing radioactive wastes into shale by hydraulic frac- turing. The objectives of the program were (1) to demon— EXPLANATION O Grout sheet -——3,0-- line connecting points of equal uplift, millimeter X lA Benchmark 03.0 (on hole; number is measured thickness of grout sheet, millimeter @ Injection well \\ \ \ \ \ \\x // \3E / \ 63 I 25 \\ K58 \ \ \ \ \ l \ x 3F| l " 4r 56F / / / /// 0” 0 50 FIGURE 2. -Map of observed uplift, extent, and thickness of the grout sheet resulting from an injection, at the second experiment site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn., on Sept. 3, 1960 (from deLaguna and others, 1968). strate at another location the feasibility of inducing bedded-plane fractures in nearly horizontally bedded shale through hydraulic fracturing, (2) to develop an economical yet practical method for estimating and monitoring the orientation of hydraulically induced frac- tures, and (3) to develop site-evaluation procedures (Belter, 1972). From 1969 through 1971, six hydraulic-fracturing in- jections, all of water, except the last, which was of grout, were made at the West Valley, N.Y., site. Most of the injections were tagged with radioactive tracers. The injection depths ranged from 152 to 442 m. Conclusions reached on the basis of the test results are as follows: 1. At certain shallow depths (less than 1,000 m) bedding-plane fractures can be induced hydraulically in an approximately horizontally bed- ded shale in which tensile strength normal to the bedding planes is much less than that parallel to the bedding planes. 2. The injected grout can be kept within a short distance vertically from the injection depth. 4 SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURES EXPLANATION 0 Grout sheet ——3_0——Line connecting points of equal uplift, millimeter X M Benchmark \\ ~3-5 Core hole; number \ is measured thickness \\ of grout sheet, millimeter \ 6) Injection well 50 100 METERS FIGURE 3. —Map of observed uplift, extent, and thickness of the grout sheet resulting from an in- jection, at the second experimental site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn., on Sept. 10, 1960 (from deLaguna and others, 1968). 3. Existing joints and (or) high-angle fractures in the formation may be extended by injection pressure if they are intercepted by induced fractures; however, the extension will cease when the vertical fractures reach weak bedding planes. 4. The orientation of induced fractures can be indirectly monitored by recording injection pressures during the injection time and by measuring the pressure decay of water injections and the uplift of ground surface after injection. It can be directly determin- ed by gamma-ray logs made in observation wells that were constructed within the area where the grout is expected to reach, if the grout contains gamma-ray-emitting radionuclides (Sun, 1973; Sun and Mongan, 1974). The present hydraulic-fracturing disposal facility (in 1981, this facility is still being used for disposal of wastes) at the ORNL was designed for experimental in- jections. Because of the experiments’ success, the facili- ty was modified in 1966 to allow for the routine disposal of radioactive wastes having a specific activity of less than 530 uCi/mL. Without extensive equipment modifications, the facility can not be used for disposal either of sludge, of which 1,500 m3 has been ac- cumulated at the ORNL, or of wastes having a specific activity greater than 530 uCi/mL. Also, the disposal capacity of the shale underlying the present facility will be exhausted between 1985 and 1988 if the present waste-generation rate at the ORNL is maintained (US. Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA), 1977). In 1973, the ORNL proposed to establish a second hydraulic-fracturing disposal facility having the capacity to dispose sludges, as well as wastes having a specific ac- tivity as great as 6x 103 uCi/mL. The proposed site is 245 m south of the present existing site. A site- THEORY OF FRACTURE MECHANICS 5 feasibility study was made jointly by the ORNL and the USGS in 1974, the study methods applied being those developed during the experiments conducted at the ORNL and at West Valley, NY. Since enactment of the National Environmental Policy Act in 1969, all major government projects re- quire environmental-impact statements, which should evaluate all possible environmental impacts of a pro— posed action, as well as the feasible alternatives to the proposed action. The environmental-impact statement for the proposed waste-disposal facility at the ORNL concluded that the hydraulic-fracturing disposal of radioactive wastes at the ORNL is the safest method and has the least cost among the alternatives, such as tank storage and fixation in glass (ERDA, 1977). PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF THE REPORT The feasibility of subsurface disposal by grout injec- tion of certain types of radioactive wastes in hydraulical- ly induced fractures in shale has been studied and well demonstrated in the United States. The purpose of this report is to provide information to authorities who are responsible for planning, approving, and executing radioactive-waste management programs to help them determine if disposal of intermediate—level radioactive wastes (specific activity of < 6 x 103 “Ci/mL consisting mainly of radionuclides having half-lives of less than 50 years, such as strontium and cesium) by hydraulic frac— turing is an acceptable alternative. The information herein is also intended to be used for the selection and evaluation of suitable sites. Safety assessment of the disposal method is also discussed. The safety assessment is important and necessary for waste-management authorities who use the information to compare the hydraulic-fracturing disposal technique with other alter- natives, so that they can determine if the disposal waste can be isolated in a geologic formation, at least for the desired length of time. The report contains sufficient theoretical discussions and case histories (in the Appendix) to allow the reader to evaluate whether the presented conclusions are justified. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This report was sponsored for the International Atomic Energy Agency by the Division of Waste Management of the US. Department of Energy. The author wishes to thank R. A. Robinson and H. O. Weeren, ORNL, for providing information on hydraulic- fracturing disposal at the ORNL. The author also is in- debted to R. A. Farrow, USGS, for the determination from cones during a site-evaluation study at the ORNL, of the tensile strength of shale. THEORY OF FRACTURE MECHANICS Rock deformation can be classified into three main categories: (1) folds, (2) shear fractures, and (3) exten- sion fractures. Ideally, folds are produced where rock under deformation responds without failure (in a macroscopic sense) to stresses. Shear fractures result where stresses produce movements parallel to the plane of the fracture. Faults are special cases of shear fracturing. Extension fractures are separations of rocks across a surface normal to the direction of the least prin- cipal stress without offset or movement parallel to the fracture surface. Extension fractures involve loss of cohesion, separation into two parts, and release of stored elastic strain energy (Badgley, 1965). Joints and hydraulically induced fractures are extension fractures. Three well established theories that can be applied to rock fracturing are (1) the Coulomb-Navier, (2) the Mohr, and (3) the Griffith (J aeger and Cook, 1969). The first two theories are applicable to rock failure under maximum shear stress. The last discusses rock failures under tension and can be used to explain extension frac- tures. Therefore, only the Griffith theory is used to discuss hydraulic-fracturing mechanics. Two stages are involved in fracturing, namely frac- ture initiation and fracture propagation. Fracture initia- tion is defined as the failure process by which one or more preexisting fractures in rocks start to extend. Fracture propagation is a stage subsequent to initiation, in which a fracture is extending. Two kinds of propaga- tion may be defined, stable and unstable (Bieniawski, 1967). Stable propagation is the process of rupture by which the extension of a fracture involves definite relationship between the applied stress and the length of the frac- ture, and the fracture extension can accordingly be con- trolled. If the extension is governed by factors other than stresses—for example, the velocity of propaga- tion—it becomes uncontrollable, and the fracture ex- pands rapidly to complete a rupture of the material, where the applied load is constant—for example, a frac- ture in glass. This kind of propagation is called unstable propagation and has dynamic characteristics. The extension of hydraulically induced fractures is dependent on the applied hydraulic pressure; a fracture will cease extending when the applied pressure falls below a critical level. Therefore, the extension of a hydraulically induced fracture is a stable propagation. When sediments are deposited, individual grains are discrete and the sediments are without cohesion. As sediments are buried beneath younger deposits, they become compacted and cemented, resulting in the co— hesion of grains, so that the rock takes on cohesive 0r tensile strength. The greater the cementation and com- paction the greater is the cohesion. 6 SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURES In the propagation of extension fractures, work must be done against the stress normal to the fracture plane and against the cohesive force of the grains at the frac- ture tip. As the hydraulic pressure is applied, the preex— isting fracture in the rock does not extend while the pressure is small. Upon reaching a certain pressure that overcomes the sum of the normal stress and the max- imum cohesive force at the fracture tip, the fracture begins to extend. The cohesive force under tensile stresses in perfect crystals is a function of the intermolecular distance b (Cottrell, 1964; Kunz, 1971), as shown in figure 4. Con- sider two atomic planes under tensile stresses: the 4 49 l I H-b-N T b I i A B A A 3 I I ' ' *b* T b a u -I- d<— —>6(tensi|e stress) A 2; B k T21) IcIeaI tensile strength I I‘_b_*‘ b ——-§.—b "k‘b—d INTERMOLECULAR DISTANCE INTENSITY 0F COHESIVE FORCE ((u) C FIGURE 4. —Diagram showing the fracturing of a perfect crystal under tensile stresses (from Cottrell, 1964). molecular cohesive force is zero before the tensile stresses are applied; then it rises in proportion to the amount of separation between the separated molecules and reaches the maximum value when the separation has reached approximately one intermolecular distance from the equilibrium condition. Further separation will reduce the cohesive force, which diminishes nearly to zero when the separation between the molecules is greater than three intermolecular distances from the equilibrium condition. The maximum molecular cohesive force defines the ideal tensile strength of the material under consideration, that is, the tensile strength of a material if it were a perfect crystal. The actual tensile strength of a material is commonly several orders of magnitude less than the ideal tensile strength because of (1) defects of crystal structure, (2) variation in the mineralogy of constituent detrital grains and in the ex- tent of cementation in a granular medium, and (3) varia— tion in the type of cement. Figure 5 shows a schematic, idealized structure of molecules around a fracture tip. Consider the fracture extending from the left towards the right; the first pair of molecules at the fracture tip begin to separate as the tensile stresses increase. An increase in the applied stresses will increase the separation between the pair. The intermolecular distance increases from the equilibrium condition b to 2b, then to 4b; at this stage, the fracturing process is completed, the fracture ex- tends one molecular distance b, and the applied stresses fall. The second pair of molecules now becomes the new D ‘ J Fracture surface (Inner region) , >4b 211. Fracture tip _._ (Outer region) A' Fracture surface (Inner region) A FIGURE 5. —Schematic diagram showing molecular structures around a fracture tip. THE INJECTION OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURES 7 fracture tip. The applied stresses again rise and fall. The fracturing process goes on from one pair of molecules to the next. To avoid solving complex nonlinear integral equations applied to the fracture problem, Barenblatt (1962) divided the fracture area into two regions (fig. 6). In the inner region the opposite fracture walls are relatively far apart; hence, there is no molecular cohesive force, and the fracture walls can be considered as free from such stress. The linear theory of elasticity is fully ade- quate to describe this region. In the edge region, the op- posite fracture walls are sufficiently close to each other that the molecular cohesive force between them is strong. Plastic yielding occurs in this region. To avoid the complex nonlinear theory of elasticity and to work within the framework of the linear theory, Barenblatt made two assumptions to solve the fracture problem: (1) The size of edge region of the fracture is small compared with the size of the whole fracture, and (2) when the fracture extends, the shape of the section normal to the fracture surface in the edge region (and consequently the local distribution of the cohesive force over the frac— ture surface) does not depend on the pressure in the fracture and is always the same for given conditions of temperature and composition. These assumptions are here considered to be realistic. On the basis of these assumptions, the average cohesive force at a fracture tip is defined as f T, where T is the average tensile strength of the rock and f is a con- stant that depends on physical properties of the rock. The value of f is Osfs 1 (Barenblatt, 1962; Kenny and Campbell, 1967; Perkins and Krech, 1968; Goodier, 1968; Rice, 1965). FACTORS CONTROLLING THE INJECTION OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED F RACTURES The technique of disposing radioactive wastes in a geologic formation by hydraulic fracturing is to first mix the waste with cement and additives and then to inject it through a well under pressure. The injection well penetrates the host rock and is fully cased and pressure cemented between the casing and the formation. A horizontal 360-degree slot that cuts the casing and the cement wall and penetrates the host rock is made by a hydraulic-sand jet before the injection. The applied hydraulic pressure separates the rock to form openings into which the waste is injected. The fracture at the tip of the precut slot is usually initiated by water injection. After a fracture has been initiated, waste grout is then injected. The injected grout solidifies under pressure. After solidification the injected grout becomes an in- tegral part of the host rocks, thereby immobilizing waste and restricting it to a definite area. Two or three consecutive injections can be made through the same Edge region a'——><— a'—> a CROSS-SECTION VIEW PLAN VIEW FIGURE 6.—Diagram showing two regions of a brittle fracture (from Barenblatt, 1962). slot; thereafter, the well is plugged by cement up to the next injection depth, and again a horizontal slot is made. Waste injections are made in a sequence from bottom upward until the disposal capacity of the injection for- mation is exhausted. The major concern about the hydraulic fracturing waste-disposal technique is whether horizontal fractures can be induced in the host rocks, so that the injected waste can be immobilized and restricted to a desired horizon. The overwhelming experience of hydraulic frac- turing in oil wells indicates that hydraulically induced fractures are generally vertical (Hubbert, 1971), an orientation that is unfavorable for the disposal of radioactive wastes. The possibility of inducing hori- zontal fractures by hydraulic pressure is discussed in the following sections. The discussions are based on the assumption that the injection formation is isotropic and homogeneous. Ad- mittedly this is not the case. Geologic formations, especially shale, are generally heterogeneous and anisotropic; however, the simplifying assumption ap- pears to be valid in general, as the experiments made at the ORNL and West Valley, NY. indicate (Sun, 1969, 1973, 1976; Sun and Mongan, 1974). These experiments are presented in the appendix. EARTH STRESSES In the propagation of a fracture at depth, the applied pressure in the fracture must overcome the stress nor- mal to the fracture plane and the cohesive force at the fracture tip. Therefore, during hydraulic fracturing the amount of earth stress normal to the fracture plane must be considered. The amount of stress at a given point and at a par- ticular depth generally results from three types of stress components. They are (1) gravitational stress, (2) tec- tonic stress, and (3) fluid pressure within the rock. Gravitational stress results fundamentally from the weight of overlying rock. Two aspects of this stress need to be differentiated: (1) stress effects that result from 8 SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURES the present topographic conditions and (2) stress effects that result from past topographic conditions. Tectonic stresses are induced by mobility of the Earth’s crust resulting from various influences as temperature and geochemical effects, and fluid pressure is caused by fluid in pores, such as oil, gas, and water. VERTICAL EARTH STRESS Consider a small element of rock at a depth z in a Cartesian coordinate system having its z—axis vertical (fig. 7). The equation of equilibrium in terms of vertical stress (Jaeger and Cook, 1969) is given by 602 + 67y, + 8sz _0 (1) 62 6y 690 pg ’ where oz is the vertical stress, Ty, and rm are shear stresses, and p and g are density of the rock and ac- celeration of gravity, respectively. Integrating equation (1) with respect to 2: Z Z 67W 871,, az=yz— gay dz — gaw— dz, (2) where 7 is the weight density (pg) of overlying rock. Howard (1966) stated that there are only three special cases of equation 2 in which the vertical stress is equal to the weight of overlying rock per unit area, but only two of them are considered to be geologically acceptable. Case 1. —In regions of gentle topography and simple geologic structure there are no shear components along the air-earth interface; then T =7 =0, (3) 902 3/2 and the vertical stress is simply equal to the weight of overlying rock per unit area. Case 2.—Through relaxation of rock by creep over long periods of time the shear stress diminishes; then 3%de _ (97—1 dz =0, (4) 0 6y 0600 and the vertical stress is again equal to the overburden pressure. Case 3. —The shear stresses along the x and y axes are equal to each other but in opposite directions; thus, 31'“ _ £6sz 5 OWN This case is geologically improbable, and the condition is very restrictive, especially when compounded by the choice of geographic direction for the x and y axes. Air—Earth interface 0' z 771: TlY \ sz TXV: 1”" sz= sz sz I I I «v I b Ty, I dy i ”V sz i. _ _ _ _ 1'" y I T ’ dz xy ’/ 0x I I FIGURE 7.—Diagram showing stresses on a small rectangular parallelepiped element located at depth 2. Therefore, it can be concluded that in a relatively flat area having a simple geologic structure, the vertical stress can be calculated as the weight of overlying rock per unit area. However, in a topographically irregular area or in a region having a complex geologic structure, the vertical stress may or may not be the overburden pressure alone. HORIZONTAL EARTH STRESS No adequate analytical models are available to estimate horizontal stresses. However, experiences in soil mechanics can be used to help explain the relation between the horizontal and the vertical stresses. Consider, for example, the simple case of an accumula- tion of clastic sediments subject to a principal stress solely derived from overburden pressure. The stress- strain relationship is a function of the mobilized friction coefficients between individual elastic particles, the structural arrangement of the particles, and the elastic constants of the particles. The ratio of horizontal to ver- tical intergranular stresses corresponding to a condition of zero lateral strain is called the coefficient of “earth pressure at rest” and is denoted by K0 (Voight, 1966). The empirical relationship is given by K0=0.95 —sin (1), (6) where ¢> is angle of internal friction of the clastic sediments (Brooker and Ireland, 1965; Voight, 1966). THE INJECTION 0F RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURES 9 It should be emphasized that very small strains have a marked effect on the value of horizontal stress. It was found that strains on the order of 10'3 are sufficient to fully mobilize the shear strength-that is, to reduce the ratio of horizontal to vertical stress to the coefficient of “active earth pressure,” Ka (Voight, 1966), where K}: (1 — sin ¢>)/(1 + sin 45). (7) Very little is known about the precise nature of lateral restraint to be found at a geologic scale. Voight (1966) believed that horizontal strains may in fact vanish for certain types of sedimentary basins. The horizontal stress coefficient K, which is defined as (Th/av, must lie be— tween the limiting values of the “active earth pressure” and “earth pressure at rest” and is given by (1 — sin ¢)/(1 + sin ¢) 5 ah/oV s (0.95 — sin ¢)- (8) In general, the angle of internal friction, d), is 27—30° for unjointed hard sedimentary rocks, such as sandstone and limestone, and 0—20° for soft sedimentary rocks, such as shale and clay (Fenner, 1938; Harrison and others, 1954; Perkins, 1967; Jaeger and Cook, 1969). Then, the ratio of horizontal to vertical stresses, oh/av, can be considered to be between 0.33 and 0.55 for hard sedimentary rocks and between 0.49 and 0.95 for soft rocks. The average measured “II/“v in sedimentary basins in the United States containing sandstone and shale is 0.6 (McGarr and Gay, 1978). Laboratory experiments show that a hysteresis effect exists during loading and unloading of rocks (Brooker and Ireland, 1965; Voight, 1966); therefore, horizontal stress is higher during unloading than loading (fig. 8). If this hysteresis effect exists in areas that have undergone significant denudation or ice-sheet unloading in the Quaternary Period, then horizontal stress probably would be higher than that calculated on the basis of the present overburden pressure. TECTONIC STRESS The earth stresses discussed in the preceding sections are only gravitational. In addition, rocks are also sub- jected to tectonic stress. Unfortunately, no analytical theory is available to estimate tectonic stresses. It also should be noted that regions subjected to current tec- tonic stresses are not only those that are seismically ac— tive. Nor are such regions necessarily characterized by tectonic structures that reflect the past stress distribu- tion. Current stresses need not bear a geometrical rela- tion to structures produced in prior deformational phases. There is much geologic evidence for areas sub- jected to multiple deformations that indicates characteristically significant changes in stress orienta- 12— HORIZONTAL STRESS, IN MEGAPASCALS O) | Bearpaw Shale 0 I I I | I I I | J 0 2 4 6 B 10 12 14 16 18 VERTICAL STRESS, IN MEGAPASCALS FIGURE 8.—Graph showing hysteresis during loading and unloading in uniaxial compression tests of Bearpaw Shale (from Brooker and Ireland, 1965). tion over time. Moreover, significant current tectonic stresses can exist in regions regarded as geologically stable (Voight, 1966). Thus, although the observation and description of geologic deformational structures provide irrefutable evidence of past tectonic activity and the past distribution of stresses, geologic structures can be used only as guides in studying the current earth stresses; the actual stresses can only be determined in place. MECHANICS OF HYDRAULIC FRACTURING The mechanics of hydraulic fracturing are well documented (Hubbert and Willis, 1957; Haimson, 1968; Haimson and Fairhurst, 1969; Howard and Fast, 1970; Daneshy, 1967, 1973), and only the conditions that are needed for inducing horizontal fractures are discussed herein. Fracture walls can be classified in two categories on the basis of the lithologic characteristics of an injection formation: (1) Both walls are relatively impermeable as are those of fractures formed in thick shale, and (2) one or both walls are permeable, as are those of fractures formed along the interface of shale and sandstone or within sandstone. One of the required conditions for the disposal of radioactive wastes is that there be a minimum possibility of grout leaching by ground water and of grout dilution during injection; therefore, it is mandatory to select low permeability formations (< 10'6 D) as injection host rocks. Also the injection well should be cased and pressure cemented along its full length. Therefore, only the case of fractures having relatively impervious walls induced by nonpenetrating fluid is con- sidered in the following sections. 10 SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURES STRESSES AROUND UNCASED BOREHOLES During injections, hydraulically induced stresses around the well can be determined by thick-wall-cylinder stress equations (Timoshenko and Goodier, 1951). The induced radial stress 0,, tangential stress 0,, vertical stress 0,, and shear stress 7' of a thick-wall cylinder sub- ject to internal pressure P, are given by a, = [(LZP/(b2 — a2)][(b2/’r'2) — 1], (9) 02: — [azP/(bz — (12)][1 +(b2/1‘2)], (10) and az=T79=Tz0=Trz=0’ (11) where a is the internal radius of the thick-wall cylinder, b is the external radius, r is the radial distance from the center of the cylinder to a desired point, and 0 is the polar angle from x-axis. The negative sign represents tension. Because the injection well is constructed in a thick im- pervious formation that extends radially to a great distance, the value of b can be considered to be very large as compared with the value of well radius a. Equa- tions 9, 10, and 11 can be rewritten as o,=P(a2/7'2), (12) at: —P(a2/r2), (13) and oz=Tr0=Tz0=Trz=0' (14) The induced radial and tangential stresses will reach maximum (the value of P) at the well face and diminish abruptly away from the well. The effects of a well on a preexisting stress field can be calculated by analogy with an infinitely large plate subjected to uniaxial stress and containing a circular hole whose axis is perpendicular to the plate, the equa- tion for which was solved by Kirsch in 1898 (Timoshenko and Goodier, 1951). The stresses near a well subjected to two horizontal stresses 0,, and 0,, can be obtained by the Kirsch solution and the law of superposition (fig. 9). The results are given by a, = [(09, + oy)/2](1 — (1,2/7'2)+ [(025 — ay)/2](1 + 3a4/r4 — 4a2/r2) c0526, (15) a, = [(035 + oy)/2][(1 + (JP/7'2) — [(0, — ay)/2](1 + 3a4/r4) cos20, (16) and 0,, = [(0, — a,)/2](1 — 3a4/r4 + ZaZ/rz) sinzo, (17) where a is the radius of the well, 7' is the radial distance from the center of the well, and 0 is the polar angle counterclockwise from the x-axis (fig. 9). From equations 15 and 17, it can be seen that the radial and shear stresses are zero at the well face and in- crease abruptly toward the undisturbed earth stresses over a distance equal to a few well diameters. Equation 16 shows that at the well face (r=a) the tangential stress reaches a minimum value at 0=0° and 0=180°, with a magnitude of (3ay—ox) if 01>0y. This minimum stress can be either compressional or tensional depend- ing on the ratio of ax/ay. When 0,, is greater than 30, the stress is in tension. The maximum stress on the well face is at 0=90° and 0:270°, with a magnitude of (30,701,) and is always in compression. In the case where both horizontal stresses are equal (01:0,), the tangential stress around the well face is the same everywhere, with a magnitude of 2%. In conclusion, the effect of a well on horizontal stresses is localized to within distance equal to a few well diameters. Beyond that distance, earth stresses will be undisturbed. The linear theory of elasticity is assumed to be approx- imately valid in hydraulic fracturing, and therefore stresses around the injection well can be superimposed; that is, the resultant of the induced stresses around the injection well is the algebraic sum of the induced stresses produced by the hydraulic pressure in the well and the distorted stresses due to the presence of the well. In the initiation of a vertical fracture, the initiation pressure Pi, which is commonly called “breakdown pressure,” should be equal to or greater than the sum of the minimum effective tangential earth stress at the well face and the tensile strength of the rock in the direction normal to the fracture plane. The mathematical expression for initiation of a vertical frac- ture can be obtained from equations 13 and 16, and when r=a, 0: 0°, and 0: 180°, the result is icy—P0 2 3(ay—P0)—(a,—P0)— T y, if a,> 0,, (18) U or Piz3ay—ax-P0— Tay, (19) Where To is the tensile strength of the rock in the direc- tion of oyyand is considered to be negative, and P0 is the pore pressure at a depth Where the hydraulic fracturing is being made. Because the presence of a well distorts the existing stresses only in an area within a distance of a few well diameters from the well, the required “propagation pressure,” PP to extend the initiated vertical fracture is the sum of the minimum effective earth stress, the cohesive force at the fracture tip, and the fluid frictional loss in the fracture. The mathematical expression is given by PP—PO a try—P0 — f T,y+F(Q,L, W ), if a,> ay, (20) 01‘ 13,2 0, — f Tay+F(Q,L, W ), (21) THE INJECTION OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURES 11 __. r .— Q ”x _> O 0 a 0 P x x -_> ‘— Hurt y FIGURE 9. —Diagram showing stresses on an infinitely large plate con- taining a circular hole. where F(Q,L, W) is the fluid frictional loss in the fracture and is a function of injection rate, Q, the length, L, and the opening, W, of the fracture. Without packers, a horizontal fracture cannot be in- duced at the well face, because no vertical stress can be produced in the injection well. Only if there is an ar— tificial horizontal cut or some existing horizontal frac- tures at the well face is it probable that horizontal frac- tures can be induced. FRACTURING IN CEMENTED AND CASED HOLES In the case that the injection well is cased and pressure cemented over its full length, before injection, a horizontal 360° cut is made by hydraulic sand jetting. The cut, which extends about 30 cm into the host rock, serves as a plane of weakness. During an injection, the wellhead is enclosed, and the injection fluid enters the cut and creates vertical stresses. Due to the additional tensile strength (at least several tens of megapascals) provided by casing and cement and to the precut weak horizontal plane at the well face, the induced fracture is undoubtedly in the horizontal direc- tion, at least within moderate depths of several thousands of meters, in spite of the horizontal direction of the least principal stress. However, at greater depths, the additional tensile strength provided by the casing and cementing may be overcome by the great over- burden pressure, and thus a vertical fracture could be in- duced at cemented and cased wells. In areas where the least stress (sum of the earth stress and the cohesive force at the fracture tip) is in one of the horizontal directions, even if the fracture initiated at the well face is horizontal the induced fracture should become vertical as the fracture propagates away from the injection well, so that the plane of the fracture will be normal to the least stress and the required work to rupture the rock is minimum. The breakdown pressure to form a horizontal fracture is equal to or greater than the sum of the vertical stress (0) and the tensile strength of the rocks in the vertical direction. The mathematical expression is given by P, a oz—Ta' (22) The propagation pressure is PP 2 oz—fT.,+F(Q, r, W), (23) where Ta is the tensile strength of the rock in the ver- tical direétion and F(Q,r,W) is the fluid frictional loss in the fracture and is a function of injection rate, Q, the radial distance, r, and the opening, W, of the fracture. FRACTURING IN BEDDED ROCKS Experimental results and geological observations show that bedded rocks have strength anistrophy or directional tensile strength. Because of low cohesion between bedding planes and because of the lineation of clay mineral and microfractures parallel to bedding planes, bedded rocks frequently have the smallest ten- sile strength normal to bedding planes and have the greatest tensile strength parallel to bedding planes. Laboratory data indicate that the value of the tensile strength of bedded rocks, such as shale, normal to bed- ding planes ranges from about 20 to 80 percent of the values parallel to bedding planes, but in most cases the value is on the order of 30 percent (Hobbs, 1964; Chenevert and Gatlin, 1965; Youash, 1965; Obert and Duvall, 1967). Let 0,, 02, and 03 be three principal stresses of dif- ferent magnitudes. The order of magnitude is represented by the subscript numbers, respectively, 03 being the least stress. If the stress condition that is the most favorable for producing vertical fractures is assumed, then the maximum principal stress, 01, should be vertical and the least stress, 03, lies in one of the horizontal directions. Also if the bedding planes of the host rock make an angle of m with the well axis (fig. 10), then the stresses along the bedding planes, 0m and nor- mal to bedding planes, on, can be calculated by Mohr’s stress circle and are given by 0,, = (01 + 03)/2 + [(01 — 03)/2]0082w, (24) on = (a1 + a3)/2 — [(a1 — a3)/2]COSZw, (25) and Tan = [(01 — a3)/2]Sin2w. (26) Pressure required to initiate a fracture along or nor- mal to bedding planes should be equal to or greater than 12 SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURES AXIS OF INJECTION WELL RADIAL DISTANCE FIGURE 10. —Graph showing stresses on a bedding plane of rock with respect to the axis of an injection well. the sum of the stress given by equations 24 or 25 and the tensile stength of the rock parallel to (T1) or normal to the bedding planes (Tn). The mathematical expressions are given by P, 2 (a1 + 03)/2 + [(01 — 03)/2](:082w — Ta, (27) for a fracture initiated parallel to the bedding planes and P12 (01 + 03)/2 — [(a1 — 03)/2]cos2w — Tn (28) for a fracture initiated normal to the bedding planes. The pressure required to propagate a fracture along or normal to bedding planes should be equal to or greater than the sum of the stress given by equations 24 or 25, the cohesive force at the fracture tip, and the fluid frictional loss in the fracture. The mathematical expres- sions are PP Z (01 + 03)/2 — K01- 03)/2]C082w —f Tn +F(Q,1‘, W) (29) for a fracture extending normal to bedding planes and PP 2 (a1 + 03)/2 + [(a1 — a3)/2]COSZw — f Tu +F(Q,r, W) (30) for a fracture extending parallel to bedding planes. The condition for extending a bedding-plane fracture is as follows: ((71 + o3)/2 — [(01 — 03)/2]c052w —f Tn S ((71 + 03)/2 + [(01 — 03)/2]c0s2w — f Ta (31) When to is equal or less than 45°, a bedding-plane frac- ture is always to be extended. However, when w is greater than 45°, then the condition for extending a bedding-plane fracture is (03 — 01)c082w s f (Tn — Ta). (32) Let f = 0.3 (Perkins and Krech, 1968; Sun and Morgan, 1974); oh/av = 0.7 (see the section Horizontal earth stress); and Ta = 10 MPa, Tn = 2 MPa (table 27), and 0, = 25 MPa/km (Hubbert, 1957). The following table summarizes the probably depth that bedding-plane frac- tures would be induced hydraulically (eq 32): Bedding-plane angle with well axis, in Depth, in meters, for extending bedding- d‘397'998, w planefractures in areas where the least prin- cipal stress is horizontal 0-45 All depths. 50 5 1,800 60 s 640 75 s 370 90 (horizontal bedding) 5 320 FRACTURING IN FRACTURED AND JOINTED BEDDED ROCKS Virtually all rocks, including glacial tills, have frac- tures or joints. Some investigators have believed that hydraulic pressure in the injection well causes joints or existing fractures to extend (Bugbee, 1953; Heck, 1955, 1960) and, therefore, that the orientation of hydraul— ically induced fractures is controlled by joints or by ex- isting natural fractures; hence, the orientation could be predicted by studying the surface joint patterns (Overby and Rough, 1968). However, laboratory studies by Lamont and J essen (1963) showed that the orientation of hydraulically induced fractures would be determined primarily by the orientation of the least principal stress; hence hydraulic fractures can extend across preexisting joints or fractures. The location of an existing plane of weakness as joints and fractures does not alter the orientation of induced fractures appreciably. Are the latter statements true; if so, under what conditions? Again it is assumed that (1) the dominant principal stress, 0,, is vertical and the least principal stress, 03, lies in one of the horizontal directions and that (2) the ex- isting fracture or joint plane makes an angle 6 and the bedding planes make an angle to with the well axis (fig. 11). Under such conditions the pressure required to propagate an existing vertical fracture is given by PP 2071+ a3)/2 — [(01— a3)/2]c0s26 — f Tncos(w — ,8) -f Tasin(w - B)+F(Q, 7‘, W )- (33) The pressure required to extend a bedding-plane frac- ture is given by P, 2(01+ 09/2 — [(01 — 03)/2]COSZw — f T, +F(Q, 'r, W). (34) THE INJECTION OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURES 13 Tn cos(w—fl) ‘9} ..I go) _, Tn k,0 LLJ o\ 3 \o‘ 00 Z T \ o a 9, ° : \0“ 8 \0‘2 2 Ta sin (OJ—Bl “0" T" LI. 0 Ta 9 l the T°Ck é . p\u e o \ B ddmg w "‘13 RADIAL DISTANCE FIGURE 11,—Graph showing tensile stresses on a fracture plane of a natural fracture and bedding plane of rock with respect to the axis of an injection well. The condition for propagating a bedding-plane frac- ture without extending an existing fracture is that the value of PP calculated by equation 34 should be less than that calculated by equation 33. The result is given by [(03 — al)/2]COSZw — f T, s [(03 — ol)/2]cos26 — f Tncosm — B) — f Tasin(w — 6). (35) In the case of vertical joints, that is, 6 = 0°, equation 35 can be written as [(03 — 01)/2]COSZw —f Tn S (03 — (IQ/2 — f Tncosw — f Tasinw. (36) In the case of horizontal bedding planes containing ver- tical joints, that is w=90° and B=0°, then equation 35 can be reduced and is given by 01 — 03 Sr> Cm> Pu. The max- imum amount of radionuclides leached from the grout sheet seems independent of the type of water, such as tap water, ground water, or sea water (Moore and others, 1975). The cumulative fraction of cesium and strontium leached from grout depended on the time and manner of curing. The amount of leached radionuclides decreased with an increase in curing time. Short-term (140 days) leach studies at the ORNL indicated that in- creasing the overall waste concentration had little effect on the leachability of strontium or cesium (Moore, 197 6). Core grout (cured underground for about 10 months) was also used in leaching studies at the ORN L. Because the thin grout sheets in the core did not have a uniform SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS 21 geometry, the grout was ground and sieved, and only those particles passing a mesh screen having a 250-;i-diameter hole were used in the studies. Leaching was carried out in plastic bottles containing 1 g of solids per 100 mL of distilled water. The results from use of grout containing illite show that less than a few hun- dredths of a percent of the injected amount of ra— dionuclides was leached out of the grout during a 504-h0ur test (Tamura, 1971). Conditions of these leaching studies deviate greatly from those in the ground. Cores of the grout sheets obtained at the ORNL indicate that the solidified grout sheets are strongly in- tegrated with shale (see fig. 1); therefore, the chance for groundwater to move through the solidified grout sheets is probably less than that implied by fine particles of the ground grout in contact with distilled water. On the other hand, the laboratory studies were made over ex- tremely short periods, and the results may be different from those of long-term leaching by ground-water flow. However, the low permeability, high ion-exchange and adsorption capacity of shale, size of the shale body (several hundreds of meters in thickness), and low con- centration of radionuclides in liquid during phase separation and leaching suggest that the possibility of contamination of the biosphere by injected radioactive wastes is likely to be remote. If a very low concentration of radionuclides did reach a water source, then the con- centration of radionuclides would be further diluted by that water body. CREATION OF VERTICALLY ORIENTED FRACTURES Careful monitoring of injection pressure during injec- tion time will give indirect indication of the orientation of induced fractures. Any sudden drop in injection ' pressure, especially when the pressure is near or below the estimated vertical stress, will be a positive signal to stop the injection in order to evaluate the cause. Gamma-ray logs made in observation wells will give positive evidence of the fracture orientation, and the more observation wells used the better the determina- tion of orientation. The possibility of inducing vertical fractures should be fully evaluated during site investiga- tions and carefully monitored during each injection. TRIGGERING EARTHQUAKES BY HYDRAULIC FRACTURING In 1965, Evans (1966) showed a correlation between pressure of fluid injection, the volume of liquid wastes injected into a 3,660-m disposal well at the Rocky Moun- tain Arsenal, Denver, Colo., and the number of earth- quakes reported in the Denver area. He concluded that the waste injection at the arsenal well had caused the Denver area earthquake. In December 1965, the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Colorado School of Mines, Regis College, and the University of Colorado, undertook a series of studies to determine the relationship, if any, between the disposal of wastes in the arsenal well and the location and frequency of earth- quakes. The results of these studies supported Evans’ conclusion (Healy and others, 1966). In February 1966 the disposal well was shut down. Despite the cessation of injection, earthquakes con— tinued to plague the Denver area through August 1967. Two earthquakes (magnitude 5.0 of Richter scale, April 10, 1967, at a depth of 5 km), the largest in Denver area since 1882, were strongly felt throughout the Denver metropolitan area. Because these seismic events oc- curred 14—18 months after termination of the well injec- tion, Major and Simon (1968) concluded that the correla- tion between fluid injection and earthquake occurrence upon which Evans based his view had been reduced. The overall number of earthquakes in the Denver area, however, has declined exponentially since 1967. This reduction of earthquake occurrence suggests that tremors in the Denver area were caused by release of tectonic stresses and that deep-well injection was simply the triggering force (Sun, 1977). In 1969, the U.S. Geological Survey in cooperation with the Chevron Oil Co. studied the relationship be- tween fluid injection for water flooding of the Rangely Oil Field, Rio Blanco County, Colo., and the number of earthquakes in the area and installed 16 seismographs around the oil field. It concluded that (1) there is an ap- parent relation between the number of earthquakes and the annual volume of injected fluid, (2) changes in the quantity of injection of fluid are related to changes in the number of earthquakes recorded, and (3) parts of the field lacking natural faults do not produce earthquakes, even when the pore pressures in the rock are quite high (Gibbs and others, 1972). In November 1970, four injec- tion wells straddling a fault zone were backflowed to reduce the pore pressure in the hypocentral region. The wells were backflowed and pumped for a period of 6 months. Within a very short time following the initiation of backflowing, earthquake occurrence within an area of about a 900-m radius of the backflowing wells decreased markedly in frequency and ultimately almost ceased (Raleigh, 1972). From the foregoing discussion it can be concluded that injection of fluid does have the potential to trigger earthquakes under certain conditions. It is important to know if disposal of radioactive wastes through grout in- jection and hydraulic fracturing also has the potential to trigger earthquakes. The following discussion evaluates this potential. 22 SUBSURFACEIHSPOSAL(WWhUHOACTHTlWASTESHQHYDRALHJCALLYINDUCEDFRACTURES HISTORICAL MANMADE EARTHQUAKES Manmade earthquakes associated with dam construc- tion have long been acknowledged and well documented. Carter (1945, 1970) associated earthquakes near Hoover Dam, Boulder City, Nev., with the filling of Lake Mead. He suggested that the earthquakes around Lake Mead were directly or indirectly a result of fluctuation in sur- ficial crustal loading. Anderson and Laney (1975), however, offered a different explanation. They sug- gested that a hydraulic connection between the lake water and the deep aquifer system, which includes buried faults, is needed to cause the release of seismic energy in the Lake Mead area. Where hydraulic connec- tion between the lake and the aquifer is prevented by strata of very low permeability (evaporites), as in the eastern basin, seismicity does not occur despite the large volume of impounded water in the area. The Palisades Reservoir, in southeast Idaho, also trig- gers earthquakes. Epicenters are concentrated near the reservoir, and the number of earthquakes is related to water fluctuations in the reservoir. Schleicher (1975) suggested that the area around the Palisades Reservoir would almost certainly be subject to earthquakes even if the reservoir were not there. The effect of construction of the reservoir was to trigger faulting when tectonic stresses were on the verge of causing it anyway. Earthquakes attributed to the fluctuation of water levels and the filling of reservoirs are also reported and documented in other parts of the world. For example, Marathon and Kremasta Lakes in Greece, Vajont Dam in Italy, Lake Eucumbene in the Snowy Mountains in Australia, Kariba Dam in Rhodesia, and Koyna Dam in India were all in areas in which small to moderate earth- quakes began a few months after river closure (Carter, 1970). All these reservoirs are located in areas that were generally considered aseismic; however, potentially ac- tive or active faults are found in all these reservoir sites (Carter, 1970). Even river flooding has been related to the occurrence of earthquakes. McGinnis (1963) observed that an abnor- mally large number of earthquake epicenters have been detected within 320 km of New Madrid, M0. The area is composed of extensive alluvial valleys, is extensively fractured, and shows evidence of major and minor faults. McGinnis concluded that the correlation of the ' mean monthly river stage and the earthquake frequency in the alluvial valleys indicates that an increase in the rate of change of water-load variation tends to increase earthquake activity. MECHANISM FOR TRIGGERING EARTHQUAKES The mechanism by which earthquakes are triggered by man’s activity is not clearly known. However most in- vestigators (Healy and others, 1966; Carter, 1970; Gibbs and others, 1972; Schleicher, 1975) generally agree that the following conditions are associated with manmade earthquakes: 1. Rock at the site must be under high stress and near its breaking strength or on the brink of sliding on a preexisting fault plane or planes. 2. The rock is possibly associated with a potentially active fault or faults. 3. Change of pore pressure in the rock is probably the triggering force. If rock pores are saturated with water, then the rock is also subject to a hydraulic pressure, P0, throughout the interconnected pores. The three principal earth stresses, 01, 02, 03 will be reduced to al—Po, az—Po, and Ug—Po, and the normal and shear stresses acting across a plane perpendicular to 01, 03 plane and making an ar— bitrary angle a with the direction of the least principal stress, 03, are given by (Hubbert and Rubey, 1959) as m+m m—m = 2 —P a 2 + 2 COS or o (53) and 01 — (7 3 sin2a. (54) T: The relation of pore pressure to rock failure is shown in figure 12. At first, the rock is assumed to be dry and under three principal stresses of differing magnitude and is not subject to fracture. Now, without changing the magnitude of the principal stresses, let the rock be saturated with water and the pore pressure in the rock increase from 0 to P0. From equation 53, it is seen that the diameter of the Mohr circle remains constant but that the center of the Mohr circle is moved towards the left along the normal stress axis by a distance equal to the pore pressure, Po, as shown in figure 12. If the pore pressure is continuously increased from P0 to P0 + APO, the diameter of the Mohr circle still remains constant, but the center of the circle is translated farther left by a distance equal to the increment of the pore pressure APO. Obviously, if the pore pressure in the rock in- creases sufficiently, the Mohr circle will be continuously moved to the left until it touches the Mohr envelope (line of fracture), and then the rock starts to fracture (Hub- bert and Ruby, 1960; Jaeger, 1962). Injection of fluid and seepage from reservoirs certain- ly will increase pore pressure in the rock. If rock in the area of a potentially active fault or faults has already been stressed to the verge of breaking, then the increas— ing pore pressure would positively contribute to the fracturing or slippage of the rock. Fracturing and (or) slippage of rock would release elastic energy that had already been stored in the rock, thus triggering earth- SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS 23 Fracture Region or region of unstability Shear stress (1) Normal stress (a) 03’(Po-l-Alg) 03'90 03 + Egg-(WAQ) ' 01—(Q4-Alg) 0'1-po 61 01+03 _n , T 01+o3 FIGURE 12. —Diagram of Coulomb-Navier fracture criteria showing how rock failure can be affected by an increase in pore pressure (principal stresses are kept constant). quakes. Therefore, fluid injection and reservoir seepage would simply modify earthquake timing, intensity, and location when the rock is already stressed to the verge of breaking by tectonic stresses or has the potential to slide on a preexisting fault plane or planes. THE POSSIBILITY OF TRIGGERING EARTHQUAKES BY HYDRAULIC FRACTURING AND GROUT INJECTION The mechanism of disposing radioactive waste by grout injection and hydraulic fracturing is different from that of disposing by the injection of fluid. The in- jected grout becomes an integral part of the host rock after solidification which occurs within one or two days. Owing to the very low permeability (10—6 D) of the selected host rock and the quick solidification of the grout, pore pressure in the host rock is unlikely to be in- creased by injections except locally and for short times. Even during the injection stage, when the waste grout is in its liquid state, the injected waste grout is confined in the induced bedding-plane fractures because of the low permeability of the host rock and the high viscosity of the grout. In addition, the disposal sites are to be located in areas free of potentially active faults and lacking very closely spaced fractures and joints. Because the two re- quired and necessary conditions for triggering earth- quakes—potentially active faults and an increase of pore pressures—are not associated with the waste-grout- injection technique, the possibility of triggering earth- quakes by grout injection and hydraulic fracturing does not occur. In an attempt to obtain seismic signals during grout injection and hydraulic fracturing at the ORNL, at the first two of the four injections in 1972, an array of six- microseismometers was installed in an area approx- imately 450 m in diameter with the injection well in the center. During the last two injections, the diameter of the seismometer array was increased to 600 m, and a downhole seismometer was installed during the fourth injection to reduce surface noise and to improve sen- sitivity. All the four injections were made at a depth of 254 m. No meaningful seismic signals were obtained from any of the four injections (Weeren, 1974). This in- dicates that seismic signals generated by grout injection and hydraulic fracturing, if any, are so small that they ’can not be differentiated from ambient ground noise. The inconclusive seismic result is expected because the energy required to induce fractures along weakly bed— ded shale to overcome the tiny cohesive force along the shale bedding planes is small (Sun and Mongan, 1974). 24 SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURES In conclusion, no earthquake should be triggered by hydraulic fracturing and grout injection, either during or after injection. ISOLATION TIME REQUIRED FOR INJECTED WASTES The length of isolation time required for injected waste is primarily dependent on the decay periods of ra- dionuclides contained in the disposed waste and can be estimated by the following equation (US. Bureau of Radiological Health, 1970): C = Coe 41693", (55) where CO is the activity of a particular radionuclide con- tained in the waste at the disposal time; C is the activity remaining after a time interval, t; n is the number of half-lives, n=t/T1/2; Tl/z, is the half-life of the ra- dionuclide. If the safe activity of radionuclides is assumed to be one millionth (10—6) of its initial activity, then the re- quired containment time can be calculated as 20 half- lives of a particular radionuclide (eq 55). For example, for waste containing 99 percent of 90Sr and 137Cs, only 600 years of isolation is required. For the radionuclides having half-lives of only 28 and 30 years, respectively, the projection of geologic and hydrologic factors con- trolling such processes as erosion and leaching for the isolation period can probably be estimated with con- fidence on the basis of geologic and hydrologic knowledge and conceptual models. However, if 129I is the major concern among the radionuclides, then even its one half-life (17x106 years) is too long for any reliable prediction of the isolation time. CONCLUSION In a shale formation characterized by directional ten- sile strength, the pressure needed to induce a vertical fracture across horizontally orientated bedding planes is much greater than the pressure needed to form bedding- plane fractures. Existing joints and (or) high—angle natural fractures may be extended by pressure if they are intercepted by induced bedding-plane fractures; however, vertical extension will cease where these natural fractures or joints intercept weak bedding planes. It is therefore concluded that horizontal bedding-plane fractures can be induced hydraulically in a nearly horizontally bedded shale at depths shallower than 1,000 m; deeper, the advantage of directional ten- sile strength may be overcome by the large overburden pressure. The injection experience at Oak Ridge, Tenn., and West Valley, N.Y., supports the conclusion that in- duced fractures may migrate up and down as much as 20 m from the injected altitude over a distance several hun- dreds of meters from an injection well (see the Appen- dix). The orientation of the induced fractures can be in- directly monitored by observing injection pressures dur- ing injection time and by measuring the pressure decay of water injections and the uplift of the ground surface after injections. The orientation, also can be confirmed by gamma-ray logs made in observation wells before and after each injection if the injected fluid or grout contains gamma-ray-emitting radionuclides. At least one water-injection test and one grout- injection test should be made during a site evaluation. Pressure-decay data obtained from a water injection can be used, not only to evaluate the orientation of induced fractures and the permeability of the injection shale but also to determine the effective stress normal to the frac- ture plane. The vertical stress may or may not be equal to the calculated overburden pressure. At Oak Ridge, Tenn., the vertical earth stress is about twice that of the calculated overburden pressure, as indicated by the pressure-decay data for water injections (see the case histories for Oak Ridge in the Appendix). A grout injec- tion not only confirms the conclusions made after a water injection but also simulates conditions en- countered during waste injections. Intermediate-level radioactive wastes (specific activi- ty < 6x 103 uCi/mL, consisting mainly of radionuclides having half-lives of less than 50 years, such as strontium and cesium) mixed with cement and ion-exchange and adsorption materials can be injected into shale by hydraulic-fracturing and grout injections. After the solidification of the grout, the wastes are immobilized and become an integral part of the shale and will remain at depth as long as the shale is not subjected to severe erosion and dissolution. The injected wastes will thus be kept within a known horizon. It can be concluded that grout disposal of radioactive wastes by hydraulic frac- turing in shale is safe and feasible if the shale formation is carefully selected, tested, and evaluated and if the grout is properly mixed and the injection is cautiously conducted. However, risk analyses comparing with other alternatives should be carefully evaluated before the grout injection method is selected. At least four observation wells made with strong tub- ing and pressure cemented should be constructed at a radial distance of 50 m in four directions from the injec- tion well for determining the orientation of induced frac- tures after injections. Four or more additional observa- tion wells should be constructed at radial distances far enough away from the injection well so that they are at a distance greater than that expected to be reached by any grout sheet. The distance beyond which the grout is not expected to extend can be estimated by equation 51. If the injected wastes contain gamma-ray-emitting ra- REFERENCES CITED 25 dionuclides, these observation wells can be used for monitoring safety. More observation wells will increase confidence that the injected wastes are isolated in a known horizon. Because a waste-disposal site must be in a geologically stable area lacking potentially active faults and because there is no general and extensive increase in pore pressure of the rock mass due to grout injections, there is no danger that grout injection would trigger earth- quakes during or after the injections. Waste disposal is conducted by injections in several stages through different levels. The first series of injec- tions starts at the greatest depth, then the injection zone is plugged off by cement. The next series of injec- tions are started at a suitable distance above the first in- jection zone. The repeated use of the injection well distributes the costs of constructing injection and monitoring wells over many injections, thereby making hydraulic fracturing and grout injection economically at- tractive as a method for disposing intermediate-level radioactive wastes. REFERENCES CITED Anderson, R. E., and Laney, R. 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J ., 1969, Theoretical size of hydraulically induced horizon- tal fractures and corresponding surface uplift in an idealized medium: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 74, no. 25, p. 5995—6011. 1973, Hydraulic fracturing as a tool for disposal of wastes in shale: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Symposium APPENDIXES: CASE HISTORIES 27 on Underground Waste Management and Artificial Recharge, September 26—30, 1973, New Orleans, La., v. 1, p. 219—270. active wastes by grout injection and hydraulic fracturing at Holifield National Laboratory (formerly Oak Ridge National Laboratory), Oak Ridge, Tennessee: U.S. Geological Survey Open- File Report 75—671, 77 p. 1977, Possibility of triggering earthquakes by injection of radioactive wastes in shale at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tennessee: U.S. Geological Survey Journal of Research, v. 5, no. 2, p. 253—262. Sun, R. J., and Mongan, C. E., 1974, Hydraulic fracturing in shale at West Valley, New York—A study of bedding-plane fractures in"— duced in shale for waste disposal: U.S. Geological Survey Open- File Report 74—365, 152 p. Tamura, Tsuneo, 1971, Sorption phenomena significant in radioactive waste disposal, in Cook, T. D., ed., Underground waste manage- ment and environmental implications: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 18, p. 318—330. Timoshenko, Stephen, and Goodier, J. N., 1951, Theory of elasticity: New York, McGraw-Hill, 506 p. U.S. Bureau of Radiological Health, 1970, Radiological health hand- book: US. Public Health Service, 458 p. U.S. Energy Research and Development Administration (presently U.S. Department of Energy), 1977, Management of intermediate level radioactive waste, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee—Final environmental impact statement: U.S. Energy Research and Development Administration, ERDA—1553, 3,113 p. U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and U.S. Geological Survey, 1975, United States earthquakes, 1973: U.S. Department of Commerce and U.S. Department of Interior, 112 p. Voight, Barry, 1966, Interpretation of in situ stress measurement: In- ternational Society on Rock Mechanics, 1st Congress, Lisbon, Pro- ceedings, v. 3, p. 332-348. Walton, W. C., 1970, Ground-water resource evaluation: New York, McGraw-Hill, 664 p. Weeren, H. O., 1974, Shale fracturing injections at Oak Ridge Nation- al Laboratory—1972 series: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, ORNL—TM-4467, 97 p. 1976, Shale fracturing injections at Oak Ridge National Labor- atory— 1975 series: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, ORNL—TM—5545, 69 p. Weeren, H. 0., Brunton, G. D., deLaguna, Wallace, and Moore, J. G., 1974, Hydrofracture site proof study at Oak Ridge National Laboratory: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, ORNL—TM—4713, 43 p. Winograd, I. J., 1974, Radioactive waste storage in the arid zone: American Geophysical Union Transactions, v. 55, no. 10, p. 884—894. Youash, Y. Y., 1965, Experimental deformation of layered rocks: University of Texas, Austin, unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, 195 p. Young, Allen, Low, P. F., and McLatchie, A. S., 1964, Permeability studies of argillaceous rocks: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 69, no. 20, p. 4237—4245. APPENDIXES: CASE HISTORIES The technique of hydraulic fracturing has been widely applied since 1947 in the water flooding of oil fields (Howard and Fast, 1970); it was first proposed as a means to dispose of radioactive waste in shale by grout injection and has been used in experimental studies at 1976, Geohydrolog'ic evaluation of a site for disposal of radio-v the Oak Ridge National Laboratory from 1959 through 1965. A total of 10 experimental injections were made at three different injection wells. Since 1966 the hydraulic- fracturing and grout-injection disposal techniques have become operational, 17 injections had been made up to 1978. A total volume of 6,400 m3 of radioactive waste containing 641,300 Ci of radionuclides has been injected for disposal. To further study the feasibility of this disposal method at another location and to devise economic and reliable methods for determining the orientation of the hydraulically induced fractures to insure that the dis- posed wastes are isolated in a desired horizon, ex- perimental studies were made jointly by the Oak Ridge National Laboratory and the U.S. Geological Survey from 1969 through 1971 at West Valley, N.Y. Five water injections and one grout injection that was tagged with gamma-emitting radioisotopes as tracers were made into another shale formation. N 0 actual waste was disposed during these experimental studies. Because the methods developed during the West Valley studies can be applied to the ORNL disposal site, the West Valley case history, which has been fully discussed by Sun and Mongan (1974), is presented first. HYDRAULIC FRACTURING AT WEST VALLEY, N.Y. West Valley is located approximately 56 km south- southeast of Buffalo, N.Y., and is in the north portion of Cattaraugus County with an altitude of about 457 m. The hydraulic fracturing study site is located on the property of Western New York Nuclear Service Center near the town of West Valley (fig. 13). The area is drained by Buttermilk Creek, which flows northward and enters Cattaraugus Creek, which enters Lake Erie. The injection depths ranged from 153 m through 442 m. Injections were made in the injection well in se- quence from the bottom upward. For a given test the well was plugged by cement to the desired injection depth and a horizontal 360° slot was made near the bot- tom of the unplugged part of the wall (as described in detail on p. 59). SITE GEOLOGY Because the purpose of the study was to evaluate the feasibility of the disposal method and not to select a site, the regional geology and hydrology were not investigated for the study. Only the site geology that might affect the orientation of the hydraulically induced fractures was briefly examined. The test site is underlain by sedimentary rocks of Cambrian through Devonian age and is within the Ap- palachian Plateaus province. The area has been only slightly affected by tectonic events. No faults or folds 28 naive/a MDmr , ‘\., , J :1; . . . ,, \ N 1 /V\ /\ ' \ i“. g .- \\\ W SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURES 378" 370" Base from U.S.G.S. 0 2000 3000 4000 5000 0000 7000 FEET West Valley and Ashford l r ' ' I ' i' ' u Hollow Quadrangles 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 KILOMETERS New york 1954 Contour interval 20 feet (6.1 meters) Datum is mean sea level FIGURE 13. —Location of the hydraulic-fracturing test site, West Valley, NY. have been mapped at the site. The nearest mapped fault is the Clarendon-Linden Fault, approximately 45 km east of the site. The rocks involved in the tests are mostly Devonian shales and some interbedded siltstone. The area is covered by glacial deposits as much as 60 m thick. The rocks involved in the fracturing injections probably belong to Devonian shale in the Canadaway Group (New York State usage). The shale involved in the first two in- jections (at 442 m depth) may belong to the older Rhinestreet Shale Member of the West Falls Formation (Sun and Mongan, 1974). A layer of siltstone 30 m thick was found in a core hole at a depth of 290—320 m. The siltstone contains thin layers of silty shale. The bedding planes of the shale were nearly horizontal, probably dip— ping southward at the regional dip of 1—2°. Three sets of principal joints have been identified by G. H. Chase, of the US. Geological Survey, at the out- crop area near the test site. The trends are N. 68° E., N. 45° W., and N. 13° W. in descending order in frequency of occurrence (fig. 14). All joints are vertical or nearly so. The average joint spacing is about 60 cm, and the APPENDIXES: CASE HISTORIES TRUE 345° 330° 315° 285° 00 29 NORTH 15° 30° 45° 90° 270° 255° 240° 225° 210° 195° 105° 135° 150° 165° 130° 0 20 JOINTS 1._L__I._1_1_l FIGURE 14. —Diag‘ram showing the observed trend of three principal joint sets, West Valley, N .Y. (written commun., G. H. Chase, 1969) average wall separation is 3 mm wide and filled with sediments. The vertical length of the joints ranges from < 30 cm to 2 In. Most of them are 30 cm or less. From surface studies and cores and geophysical logs it was estimated by Chase that probably 20 percent of the joints are open (Sun and Mongan, 1974). WELL CONSTRUCTION A core hole was drilled to a depth of 463 m in order to obtain lithologic and petrophysical information. The core hole was then cased with rather weak steel tubing and was pressure cemented in place. This well was used as one of the four observation wells during the study and was named the East-observation well. Before convert- ing the core hole to an observation well, gamma-ray, electric, and 3-dimensional sonic, density, and caliper logs were made in the hole to obtain information on sub- surface geology. The injection well, which was constructed of good quality steel casing and was pressure cemented to a full 30 SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURES depth of 463 m, was located 46 m from the core hole (figs. 15, and 16). Density, caliper, gamma-ray, and hole- ‘ deviation surveys were made in the injection well before the well was cased and was pressure cemented. Three more observation wells were constructed to the south, the west, and the north, each 46 m from the injec- tion well (fig. 16). These observation wells were also cased with strong tubing and were pressure cemented to a full depth of 463 m. Gamma-ray logs were made in all these observation wells before and after each injection to determine the orientation of induced fractures. INJECTIONS Only three water injections and one grout injection are discussed here as examples of the study. Two water injections were made through the same slot at a depth of 442 m; one injection was made without tracer, and the other, with radioactive tracers. The grout injection was the last injection during the study and was made with a radioactive tracer and at a depth of 152 m. Before the grout injection a water injection without tracer was made at the same depth through the same slot. All injec- tion results indicate that the theory and methods discussed in the text are approximately valid and that the orientation of induced fractures can be determined by direct surveys through observation wells or by evidence deduced from injection data. Results of injec- tions made at the same depth and through the same slot are nearly duplicated. WATER INJECTION The first water injection was made on October 9, 1969. About 433 m3 of water without tracer was injected through a precut slot at a depth of 442 m. The rock at this depth is a well-bedded petroliferous shale. A zone of vertical joints at a depth of 439-442 m had been deter- mined by G. H. Chase, from a geophysical log. Pressures discussed that apply to the theory are pressures at injection depth, commonly called “bottom- hole pressures”; however, pressures observed during test injections were surface pressures measured at the wellhead of an injection well (fig. 15). Bottom-hole pressures used in the interpretation of water injections were computed from observed pressures by adding the calculated static pressure in the well casing and by sub- tracting the pressure loss due to friction in injection pipe. For water injections, the frictional pressure loss in the injection pipe was calculated by the Darcy-Weisbach equation (Davis and Sorensen, 1969), which is given as AP: 500 f LVZ/D, (56) where AP=pressure loss due to friction, in pascals; f = Fanning frictional factor of casing, dimen- sionless; L =length of pipe, in meters; D= inside diameter of pipe, in meters; and V=flow velocity, in meters per second. The injection was started at a very low rate that could not be detected on a flow meter near the wellhead. At this low rate the injection pressure increased rapidly. Twenty-two minutes after the injection started, the pressure near the wellhead reached 9.65 MPa (megapascals) (table 1), and a trace of flow was detected on the flow meter. The injection rate was progressively increased in two steps, from 0.001 m3/s to 0.002 m3/s and then to 0.003 m3/s. Each injection step lasted about 10 minutes. After the increase to 0.003 m3/s, an injec- tion pattern consisting of flow rates of 0.006 m3/s, 0.013 m3/s, and 0.025 m3/s, each occuring for an interval of one-half hour, was established. This pattern was repeated over and over until the end of the injection (fig. 17). Six hours from the start, after a total of 223 m3 of water had been injected, the injection was stopped to allow for instrument adjustment. The injection was resumed 45 minutes later using the regular injection pattern, but this time starting at the rate of 0.025 m3/s. The observed pressures, injection rates, and calculated bottom—hole pressures are listed in table 1. If flow through an induced fracture is assumed to be laminar and to obey Darcy’s law, then the injection pressure at the well should be linearly proportional to the injection rate. This assumption has been proved to be at least approximately correct by using a polynomial regression of the injected data, which showed by F-tests that only the linear term of Q (injection rate) has significance (Ostle, 1954). During the stage of fracture initiation, injection pressure must be built up to overcome the tensile strength of the rock. After the rock is broken, injection pressure gradually decreases to the required propaga- tion pressure. During this transitional stage, injection pressures are not linearly proportional to the injection rates. Excluding these pressures, a linear regression equation fit to data collected before the injection pause and having a correlation coefficient of 0.88 has been found (fig. 18); the result is P: 11.96+24.05 Q, (57) where P is bottom-hole pressure, in megapascals, and Q is the injection rate, in cubic meters per second. Because the regression coefficient of Q was deter- mined from a small sample size of P and Q taken from the true population, it is possible that the values of P and Q may be independent in the true population and the regression equation has no meaning statistically. Therefore, it is essential to test whether the regression Concrete blOCk Flowmeter I APPENDIXES: CASE HISTORIES Fluid from injection pump V Pressure gauge FIGURE 15. — Schematic diagram of the injection well, West Valley, NY. 81 32 SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURES TABLE 1. —Injection pressure of a water injection at 442 m, Oct. 9, 1969, o East-Observation Well West Valley, N.Y.—Continued ' bserved lculated Acc mulate North—obsegvatlon Well (core hole) (T135163 35.115233: bgifiggggfig'e ifizfiigg ”5:613:39” (MPa) p(MPa) ”W” 10”) (m’) True Norih 83 ....... 7.83 12.12 6.31 11.1 86 ——————— 7.79 12.09 6.31 87 _______ 7.79 12.09 6.31 O 89 _______ 7.79 12.09 6.31 '"JeCt'On We" 93 _______ 7.86 12.16 6.31 98 ——————— 7.86 12.16 6.31 99 _______ 8.41 12.61 12.62 101 _______ 8.41 12.61 12.62 ~ 103 _______ 8.27 12.47 12.62 20.2 0 50““ Obseo’vat'on we" 108 _______ 8.14 12.33 12.62 24.0 WQSt‘Ubse'Vat‘O” We" 113 _______ 8.07 12.27 12.62 27.8 118 _______ 8.07 12.27 12.62 31.8 123 ——————— 8.03 12.23 12.62 35.5 128 _______ 8.07 12.27 12.62 39.4 133 _______ 8.48 12.33 25.23 138 _______ 8.41 12.27 25.23 0 10 20 30 40 50 METERS ;|_1_1_|_J 143 ——————— 7.93 12.22 6.31 14(8) ——————— 7.79 12.83 6.31 55.6 F1, 1 ._ 61 - n . . . 15 _______ 7.79 12. 6.31 56.3 CURE 6 W llocatlo s, West Valley, N Y 153 _______ 7.76 12.05 6.31 57.5 158 _______ 7.76 12.05 6.31 59.9 TABLE 1. —Injection pressure of a water injection at 1742 m, Oct. 9, 1969, 163 ______ 7'79 12'09 6'31 62'0 164 _______ 7.79 12.09 6.31 62.2 West Valley, N-Y- 168 _______ 7.79 12.09 6.31 63.9 170 _______ 8.00 12.20 12.62 [tr-v trace] 173 _______ 8.07 12.27 12.62 Time 9.211633? £33333 Rate of A3323??? - ' injection 181 _______ 8.07 12.27 12.62 69.9 (mm) 10119153359 pix??? ("115 X 10”) V1133” 183 _______ 8.07 12.27 12.62 72.2 185 ——————— 8.07 12.27 12.62 73.9 2 _______ 0,97 5,3 0 0 188 ——————— 8.07 12.27 12.62 75.8 20 _______ 6.48 10.81 . 0 0 193 _______ 8.07 12.27 12.62 79.6 22 _______ 9.65 13.98 tr. tr. 198 _______ 8.07 12.27 12.62 83.5 23 _______ 7.65 11.91 tr. tr. 25 _______ 7.17 1150 tr. tr. 203 ——————— 8.00 12.20 12.62 87.3 26 _______ 7.58 11.91 tr. tr. 206 ——————— 8.03 12.23 12.62 28 _______ 7.58 1191 1.04 208 _______ 8.03 12.23 12.62 90.6 211 _______ 8.34 12.20 25.23 31 _______ 7,58 1191 1.04 213 _______ 8.41 12.27 25.23 95.5 35 _______ 7.52 11_91 104 04 218 _______ 8.62 12.47 25.23 107.0 39 _______ 7.72 12.05 1.89 41 _______ 7.65 11.98 1.89 223 _______ 8.69 12.54 25.23 110.0 48 _______ 7.69 12.02 189 228 _______ 8.69 12.54 25.23 49 _______ 7.65 11.98 1.89 233 _______ 8.65 12.51 25.23 125.4 238 _______ 8.62 12.47 25.23 53 _______ 7.58 11.91 1.89 241 _______ 7.79 12.09 6.31 54 _______ 8.45 12.78 1.89 243 _______ 7.76 12.05 6.31 139.1 55 _______ 8.96 1329 1.89 2.7 248 _______ 7.76 12.05 6.31 140.7 56 _______ 9.10 13.42 3.15 57 _______ 9.65 13.98 3.15 253 _______ 7.76 12.05 6.31 58 _______ 951 1384 3.15 258 _______ 7.76 12.05 6.31 144.3 59 _______ 10.00 14.32 3.15 263 ——————— 7.76 12.05 6.31 268 _______ 7.76 12.05 6.31 148.6 60 _______ 9.52 13.84 315 271 _______ 8.07 12.27 12.62 62 _______ 9.65 1398 3.15 273 _______ 8.07 12.27 12.62 151.8 64 _______ 10.00 14.32 3.15 4.6 278 ——————— 8.10 12.30 12.62 68 _______ 10.89 15.19 6.31 69 _______ 9.38 13.67 6.31 283 _______ 8.07 12.27 12.62 160.1 288 _______ 8.07 12.27 12.62 70 _______ 8.55 12.84 6.31 293 _______ 8.10 12.30 12.62 167.9 71 _______ 8.45 12.74 6.31 5.9 298 _______ 8.10 12.30 12.62 171.7 72 _______ 8.34 12.64 6.31 303 ——————— 8.83 12.68 25.23 73 _______ 8.21 1250 6.31 305 _______ 8.96 12.82 25.23 75 _______ 8.17 1243 6.31 75 308 _______ 8.89 12.75 25.23 185.8 76 _______ 8.14 12.43 6.31 78 _______ 8.00 12.29 6.31 9.1 313 ——————— 8-79 12.64 25.23 318 _______ 8.76 12.61 25.23 202.4 80 _______ 7,93 1222 6.31 323 _______ 8.79 12.64 25.23 82 _______ 7.86 1216 (531 328 ——————— 8.79 12.64 25.23 219.1 APPENDIXES: CASE HISTORIES 33 TABLE 1. -Inject'ion pressure of a. water injection at 442 m, Oct. 9, 1969, West Valley, N. Y. —Continued Observed Calculated Accumulated Time wellhead bottom-hole mfiigfl injection s , ., volume (mm) p3??? plieviisiiie (m l” 10 ) (m3) 3311 —————— 8.76 12.61 25.23 223.7 332 ——————— 8.72 12.05 0 333 ——————— 7.65 11.98 0 334 ——————— 7.58 11.91 0 335 ——————— 7.55 11.88 0 336 ——————— 7.52 11.85 0 337 ——————— 7.48 11.81 0 338 ——————— 7.46 11.79 0 339 ——————— 7.45 11.78 0 340 ——————— 7.41 11.74 0 341 ——————— 7.38 11.71 0 342 ——————— 7.38 11.71 0 343 ——————— 7.35 11.68 0 348 ——————— 7.27 11.60 0 353 ——————— 7.21 11.53 0 358 ——————— 7.16 11.49 0 363 ——————— 7.10 11.43 0 368 ——————— 7.07 11.40 0 373 ——————— 7.02 11.35 0 376 ——————— 7.00 11.33 0 3792 —————— 11.51 15.37 25.23 380 ——————— 10.69 14.54 25.23 226.2 381 ——————— 10.20 14.06 25.23 227.8 383 ——————— 9.72 13.58 25.23 230.8 388 ——————— 9.45 13.30 25.23 238.6 393 ——————— 9.31 13.16 25.23 246.4 398 ——————— 9.31 13.16 25.23 254.4 403 ——————— 9.21 13.06 25.23 262.6 406 ——————— 9.21 13.06 25.23 408 ——————— 9.17 13.02 25.23 270.6 411 ——————— 7.96 12.26 6.31 413 ——————— 7.89 12.19 6.31 274.7 418 ——————— 7.86 12.16 6.31 423 ——————— 7.86 12.16 6.31 278.8 428 ——————— 7.86 12.16 6.31 280.9 433 ——————— 7.86 12.16 6.31 438 ——————— 7.86 12.16 6.31 284.6 441 ——————— 8.62 12.82 12.62 443 ——————— 8.69 12.89 12.62 448 ——————— 8.69 12.89 12.62 453 —————— 8.69 12.89 12.62 295.2 458 —————— 8.69 12.89 12.62 463 —————— 8.69 12.89 12.62 303.2 468 —————— 8.72 12.92 12.62 471 —————— 10.00 13.85 25.23 473 —————— 9.79 13.64 25.23 311.4 476 —————— 9.65 13.51 25.23 478 —————— 9.51 13.37 25.23 319.2 483 —————— 9.45 13.30 25.23 488 —————— 9.38 13.23 25.23 334.9 493 —————— 9.38 13.23 25.23 343.2 498 —————— 9.38 13.23 25.23 351.3 501 “‘r—‘ 7.93 12.22 6.31 503 —————— 7.93 12.22 6.31 508 —————— 7.93 12.22 6.31 358.8 513 —————— 7.86 12.16 6.31 518 —————— 7.86 12.16 6.31 362.6 523 —————— 7.93 12.22 6.31 364.4 528 —————— 7.93 12.22 6.31 366.3 531 —————— 8.83 13.02 12.62 533 —————— 8.83 13.02 12.62 368.7 538 —————— 8.79 12.99 12.62 543 —————— 8.79 12.99 12.62 376.6 548 —————— 8.83 12.99 12.62 380.7 553 —————— 8.83 12.99 12.62 558 —————— 8.89 12.99 12.62 388.5 561 —————— 10.14 13.99 25.23 563 —————— 10.07 13.92 25.23 394.1 568 —————— 9.72 13.58 25.23 TABLE 1. —Injection pressure of a water injection at 442 m, Oct. 9, 1969, West Valley, N. Y. — Continued _ Observed Calculated Rat f Accumulated Time wellhead bottomhole injecftign injection (mm) Piss? piss? «mm-v “21:3“ 573 —————— 9.72 13.58 25.23 409.5 578 —————— 9.65 13.51 25.23 415.7 583 ______ 9.58 13.44 25.23 432.7 586 ______ 9.52 13.37 25.23 428.4 5883 _____ ———— ———— ———— 432.6 Notes: ‘ Calculated bottom-hole pressure (for injection) . ‘ ‘ . _ _ _ = observed wellhead pressure + static pressure in casing — frictional loss in injection pipe. Calculated bottom-hole pressure (for pressure decay) = observed wellhead presssure + static pressure in casing. 1 Injection stopped; 45-minute pause. 2 Injection restarted. 3 End injection. coefficient determined from the sample size is signifi- cant in a statistical sense. The significance of the regres- sion coefficient of 24.05 of Q in the regression equation has been tested statistically by assuming a probability of Type I error equal to 5 percent (95-percent level of con- fidence). The conclusion is that the values of P are dependent on the values of Q statistically (Sun and Mongan, 1964). Because of the simple geologic structure and the relatively flat topography at the test site (fig. 13), it is reasonable to consider that the vertical earth stress is equal to the overburden pressure. The average specific gravity of shale and glacial drift at the test site are 2.6 and 2.0 respectively (deLaguna, 1972). Therefore, the overburden pressure at the injection depth can be estimated as 02: 9.8x 10‘3 (2.0 x 60+ 2.6 (442 — 60)), = 10.9 MPa. When Q was nearly zero, the observed injection pressure rose to 14 MPa (fig. 17), which was the breakdown pressure. As discussed previously, a horizon- tal fracture was probably initiated at the well face, ow- ing to the high tensile strength provided by the casing and the horizontal slot cut through the casing and into the shale. The tensile strength of the shale in the vertical direction, T02, can be estimated by equation 45, and the result is To. = 10.9— 14, = — 3.1 MPa. After 3 m3 of water had been injected, the injection pressures increased rapidly beyond the propagation pressures predicted by the regression equation (eq 57). These high pressures may suggest the formation of addi- tional fractures. From equation 57, the normal propagation pressure at the rate of 0.006 m3/s is 12.1 MPa; however, the ob- served highest presure at 0.006 m3/s was 15.2 MPa (fig. 17). This pressure could be the breakdown pressure at the stage of formation of additional fractures. The ten- SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURES IIII[IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII'IIIIIIIIIIIIITTIIIT'IIIIIIIIIIIII INJECTION RATE, (0), IN CUBIC METERS PER SECOND x 101 m g ‘3 s to Kn1 .03 16_gomw m “3,“! m o. N m «a. N 8Q g E — ctr—'V—m: up 538 ca“ 51' ‘2‘3 :6 $.3.QE§I ,N.B IIIIIIIEIFIIIIIIIIIIIII III?%&E IIE‘g III II I II I I I I ‘qu': I In; STEV- 215_ 15.19 ¢ “ 8 < a. <( 8 2 13.98 2 _ _ :14 f 3 co ’1» N C”. E 9 E 8 a s In 8 3 $13- a 9 — Lu 0. , 3 s'.’ e % II? I: 812— < — II—I — IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIJIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIJIIIIIIII 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 INJECTION TIME (t), IN MINUTES FIGURE 17. —Pressure plotted against time, the water injection at 442 m, Oct. 9, 1969, West Valley, NY. (I) :14 I I I I I I I I I I O (f) < a. __ ._ < C5 LL] 2 213—- — g . ceIeveI :,E——~”“ g — . os-EeLC‘ini‘EWIEIe—r"*”:~fl1___ --_. 3 T- ———~T”'—"eI 2 g — ©5—56Fcent confidence Iev . E 12 -_‘—_._. —————— P=11.96+24.05Q — LL] C _| C) 2; _ _ E I— E I I I I | I I I I I | I I I 0911 0 2 4 6 8 IO 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 INJECTION RATE (0), IN CUBIC METERS PER SECOND X 10-3 FIGURE 18. — Pressure plot'I ed against injection rate, before a 45-minute pause, the water injection at 442 m, Oct. 9, 1969, West Valley, NY. APPENDIXES: CASE HISTORIES 35 sile strength of the shale calculated on the basis of this breakdown pressure is 4.2 MPa, which is about 1.1 MPa higher than the estimated value based on the first breakdown pressure. When the injection is stopped, Q will be zero. The in— stantaneous shut-in pressure can be calculated from equation 57, resulting in 12 MPa. The observed instan- taneous shut-in pressure during the 45-minute pause was 12.1 MPa (fig. 17), Virtually the same as the value calculated by equation 57. The average cohesive force at the fracture tip can be estimated by equation 46 if Q is equal to zero, and the result is fToz= 10.9— 12, = — 1.1 MPa, and f= 0.35. After the 45—minute pause, the injection was resumed at a rate of 0.025 m3/s. The calculated propagation pressure for this rate should be 12.6 MPa (eq. 57); however, the observed pressure was 15.4 MPa, which was probably the breakdown pressure at the reinjection stage. The tensile strength of the shale estimated on the basis of this breakdown pressure is 3.9 MPa, which is 0.8 MPa higher than the first calculated value (3.1 MPa) but is close to the value calculated on the basis of breakdown pressure observed at 0.006 m3/s. After the fracture was reinitiated, the injection pressure diminished to the normal propagation pressure. The regression equation (fig. 19), which has a correlation coefficient of 0.89, for the injection period after the pause is P=11.96+60.01 Q. (58) Again the regression coefficient has been found to be significant at the 95-percent confidence level. After completion of the injection, the well was shut in at the wellhead. The observed instantaneous shut-in pressure was 12 MPa, which closely matches the estimated shut-in pressure obtained by equations 57 and 58. Pressure decay was observed for about 8 days; the results are shown in table 2 and figure 20. The observed injection pressure at the end of the first part of the injection, before 45-minute pause, at an injec- tion rate of 0.025 m3/s was 12.6 MPa, and the observed shut-in pressure was 12.05 MPa (table 1); the difference between the two pressures was 0.55 MPa. Therefore, the pressure needed to overcome friction loss of one unit of injection rate was 22 MPa/(m3/s), which is close to the regression coefficient of Q determined statis- tically—that is, 24 MPa/(m3/s) (eq 57). The observed in- jection pressure at the end of the injection at an injec- tion rate of 0.025 m3/s was 13.4 MPa, and the observed shut—in pressure was 12 MPa (table 1); the difference TABLE 2,—Pressure decay of a water injection at 442 m, Oct. 9, 1969, West Valley, N. Y. Calculated bottom- Observed wellhead hole pressure, pressure (MPa) P (MPa) 2? 35 Time since end of injection (min) 11.98 11.91 11.85 11.81 11.79 11.79 11.65 11.58 11.53 11.50 11.48 11.40 11.32 11.27 11.22 11.18 11.15 11.11 11.05 11.00 F‘NNF‘NT‘F‘?‘ wwfiumnmcnm mmmmoomoom 10.96 10.93 10.92 10.89 10.87 10.82 10.79 10.75 10.72 10.67 10.63 10.60 10.56 10.52 10.49 10.42 10.38 10.34 10.30 10.27 10.20 10.16 10.12 10.06 9.89 9.78 9.62 9.36 9.31 9.26 9.16 9.00 8.95 8.86 8.74 8.60 8.48 8.40 8.29 8.21 8.12 8.06 «denounce ioio'ooo HHMC»:004>4> lu'cnkiki'qxioo wooooappq Hammw macaw—wow»; «oaoommmg .9=.<7=.®e=.® 9v9=55=¢>¢=s==9> 99=9=9=¢9= mamas ~N~N~N< <<~1~N~1~N 1052:0005» ficnmmmmq . . . ~ . . . . . . NQWODOOOJ wmmwwwqux «n—‘Uuomco ooqopzoma wJBGDCQI—‘OD «INCOME @rb-QDQCMK‘IH QWQWN OD—‘QOl—‘Cfiq GH-‘QK‘INK‘I OJNQOQOJK‘U-‘OO HU‘tDCOOD-‘i \lb—MJKOOOOQO 7,995 ____________ 8,745 ____________ 9,465 ____________ 10,065 ____________ 10,905 ____________ 7.99 11,265 ____________ 7.96 Note: Static ground-water pressure at injection level, P0=4.09 MPa. 9°93“ WFFFFF P35392599" P‘P‘P‘P‘P‘P‘P‘P‘ 9"???”9‘?‘ @@¢9‘®9‘°‘ mm®®®¢ mamas» O‘cm‘qqqq woo wear—tween mmmwwo mfimqqoooow QDOOOI-‘H mmwwoopg lis'cnfiznbwbsba 'm'q'qbooo boio'cobi—Ai—fm CDQDOO @QCHKIHOD q wwwee e9???» FFWWPP wwwggwmg ® oooono’oi—A ivwwmmq oow‘or—INN mmoowooi—n-a 939° me: one» 36 SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURES 15 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I (0 <1 _ _ 53 < — £2 14 — : x”; <5 \Ie\ -3" ”:4 6‘56”” g _. Q: g 13 ,,,,,, ' ' —' v 8 ”, ”.d “ce\e E ’, coffi‘ _ “.1 3 g 12 "/, — I: 8 - _ I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 11 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 INJECTION RATE (0), IN CUBIC METERS PER SECOND x 10'3 FIGURE 19.-—Pressure plotted against injection rate, after a 45-minute pause, the water injection at 442 m, 102 I I Oct. 9, 1969, West Valley, NY. I lllll I II IIIII I IIIIIII I II Illl I I V6. 70 MPa I'l [III I P~ Po, IN MEGAPASCAL IIIIIII l I 102 llllI I l 10' 101 I I I 100 III 120:4.09 MPa 1 I l l IIIILI 105 IIIII I I 104 IIIIIII I II 103 TIME AFTER END OF INJECTION, (t), IN MINUTES FIGURE 20.—Pressure decay plotted against time, the water injection at 442 m, Oct. 9, 1969, West Valley, NY. between the two pressures is 1.4 MPa. The pressure re- quired to overcome frictional loss of one unit of injection rate was 56 MPa/(m3/s), which is close to the regression coefficient of 60 MPa/(m3/s) (eq 58). From these correla- tions, it probably can be concluded that the determined regression equations (eqs 57, and 58) are meaningful. Water level in the core hole was measured by G. H. Chase (written commun., 1970) on May 22, 1969, and was found to be 18 m below the land surface. Adjusted by the difference in altitude between the core hole and the injection well, the depth to water was 24 m in the in- jection well. The hydraulic pressure P0 in the formation at the injection depth of 442 m was therefore calculated as 4.1 MPa (a meter of water produces 9,800 Pa pressure). The log-log plot of (P—PO) against observation time t (fig. 20) appears to fall on two straight lines that in- tersect at t=500 minutes and (P —P0)=6.7 MPa. Therefore, the earth stress normal to the fracture plane is estimated to be 10.79 MPa (4.09+6.7= 10.79 MPa), which closely correlates to the calculated overburden pressure which is 10.9 MPa. It can be concluded that the earth stress normal to the fracture planes is equal to simply the weight of overburden, and therefore the in- duced fracture is probably nearly horizontal. The injection water was not tagged with gamma-ray- emitting radioactive isotopes; therefore, no field evidence is available to indicate the orientation of the in- duced fractures. The second water injection was made on June 26, 1970, at the same depth and through the same slot where the first water injection was made. A total of 425 m3 of water tagged with radioactive isotope of 95Zr/95Nb was injected. The injection was started at a APPENDIXES: CASE HISTORIES 37 very low rate, and injection pressure built up steadily. The rock was apparently ruptured at a bottom-hole pressure of 16.1 MPa (fig. 21; table 3). After the breakdown, the injection rate was increased to 0.002 m3/s. This rate was maintained for 70 minutes. When the injection rate was increased again, the pressure rose quickly until it reached a peak of 24.2 MPa; at this time, the injection rate was 0.01 m3/s. This second peak may indicate the formation of additional fractures. Thereafter, the pressure dropped to a normal propaga— tion pressure (fig. 21). The regression equation of P and Q, having a correlation coefficient of 0.73, is (fig. 22) P: 13.95+224.06Q. (59) Instantaneous shut-in pressure determined from the regression equation is 14 MPa; however, the observed value was 13.3 MPa (fig. 21). The pressure drop within 1 minute was 1.2MPa; thereafter the pressure decay was very slow (table 4). Therefore, the correct instantaneous shut-in presssure is probably around 12 MPa, which is the same as that obtained from the first injection test (table 2). The injection well was shut in under pressure on Oct. 9, 1969, after the first injection was stopped. Two weeks before the second injection, the injection well was bled and was shut in again on June 25, 1970, one day before the injection. A residual pressure of 1.1 MPa was noted at the well head (G. H. Chase, written commu., 1970). Therefore, there was at least 5.4 MPa (1.1 x 106 + 442 x 9800 = 5.4 MPa) pressure remaining in the fractures, though it probably was higher than this value. The high regression coefficient of Q likely is the result of this residual pressure in the fractures. If the shale is assumed to be ruptured at 16.1 MPa (fig. 21; table 3), then the tensile strength of the shale in the direction normal to bedding planes at the injection depth can be estimated by equation 45. The result is given by T6,: (10.9 — 4.1)— (16.1 — 5.4), = —3.9 MPa, which is close to the tensile strengths calculated from the first water injection on Oct. 9, 1969, at the same in- jection depth; the tensile strengths fall in the range of 3.1 to 4.2 MPa. IIIIIIIIIIIIIIlIIIlIIIIIIII‘lIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 2— a 3 g INJECTION RATE (0), IN CUBIC METERS PER SECONDX1O'3 ct“ C 0'00 o 305% 3hm‘ 3 X, 5~ “"0 130‘? - - .2 i$ $:". u'q a E 284.6. 8 6N9. ': : ~5— - III? I "III I I E 2' 26’; I II I _‘ O (I) < D. < _ (3 LI.) 2 g _ 5: c» 1 (\I 3:" 05.1 D F u) a. 8 s D: 3 CL CL)— 5 a E E | ‘E 5 25°. *- I O __4 ED 10—- — 8 _ IlllIIlIl IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIllIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMLW O 50 I00 I50 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 INJECTION TIME, (1‘), IN MINUTES FIGURE 21,-Pressure plotted against time, the water injection at 442 m, June 26, 1970, West Valley, N.Y. 38 SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURES TABLE 3.—Injection pressure of a water injection at 1,1,2 m, June 26, 1970, West Valley, N. Y. [tr., trace] Observed Calculated Rate of Accumulated wellhead bottomhole .. . injection (mm) pressure pressure "Pecmrl, volume (MPa) (MPa) (m’SXIO I (m2) 1 _______ 6.21 10.54 (1) 2 _______ 7.86 12.19 (1) 3 _______ 7.93 12.26 (1) 4 _______ 8.07 12.40 (1) 0.4 8 _______ 8.27 12.60 (1) 10 _______ 8.76 13.09 (2) 11 _______ 11.38 15.71 (2) 133 ______ 11.72 16.05 (2) 36 _______ 11.03 15.36 (2) 37 _______ 11.72 16.05 (2) 38 _______ 13.24 17.58 2.14 2.8 434 ______ 12.13 16.46 2.14 50 _______ 11.72 16.04 2.14 3.7 55 _______ 12.27 16.60 2.14 4.5 62 _______ 13.24 17.56 2.14 5.5 73 _______ 13.24 17.56 2.14 7.1 88 _______ 12.41 16.73 2.14 9.4 98 _______ 14.13 18.46 2.14 10.8 110 _______ 15.86 (2) 113 _______ 19.99 24.24 10.09 14.2 115 _______ 13.10 17.35 10.60 15.4 118 _______ 19.31 23.53 11.92 17.1 120 _______ 19.17 23.37 13.25 18.1 124 _______ 17.24 21.43 13.75 22.2 132 _______ 18.27 22.48 13.25 26.9 142 _______ 17.93 22.03 18.04 32.6 153 _______ 12.41 16.74 0 42.9 156 _______ 7.75 12.09 0 42.9 168 _______ 17.24 21.34 18.04 53.0 183 _______ 16.55 20.65 18.04 70.5 191 _______ 13.79 17.89 18.04 78.5 202 _______ 14.48 18.58 18.04 89.7 208 _______ 15.17 19.27 18.04 96.1 220 _______ 14.48 18.58 18.04 109.0 234 _______ 14.48 18.58 18.04 122.8 246 _______ 15.17 19.27 18.04 135.8 263 _______ 14.48 18.57 18.55 154.2 276 _______ 13.79 17.89 18.04 158.0 298 _______ 14.13 18.24 18.04 179.5 313 _______ 13.79 17.89 18.04 194.8 325 _______ 13.79 17.89 18.04 208.2 333 _______ 13.79 17.89 18.04 343 _______ 13.79 17.89 18.04 226.7 363 _______ 13.79 17.91 17.47 246.8 378 _______ 13.79 17.91 17.47 261.9 393 _______ 13.44 17.56 17.47 277.4 411 _______ 13.44 17.56 17.47 294.9 421 _______ 12.41 16.60 13.75 303.2 423 _______ 13.10 17.20 18.04 305.1 438 _______ 13.10 17.20 18.04 320.6 458 _______ 13.10 17.20 18.04 337.6 468 _______ 13.10 17.20 18.04 346.7 483 _______ 13.10 17.20 18.55 363.0 498 _______ 12.41 16.63 12.43 375.9 515 _______ 12.41 16.63 12.43 388.3 5285 ______ 12.41 16.64 11.92 397.6 543 _______ 12.41 16.64 11.67 408.4 558 _______ 12.41 16.64 11.67 416.7 5696 ______ 12.41 16.65 11.10 424.9 1 Very slow. 2 Rate increased. 3 To fix leaks of piping. ‘ Start. isotope injection. 5 End isotope injection. 5 End injection. 24 II BOTTOMAHOLE PRESSURE (P), IN MEGAPASCALS 12— — 1 10 I I | I I I I I I | | I I 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 INJECTION RATE (0), IN CUBIC METERS PER SECOND x 10'3 FIGURE 22. —Pressure plotted against the injection rate, the water in- jection at 442 m, June 26, 1970, West Valley, NY. Average cohesive force at the fracture tip and the value of f can be estimated by equation 46; the results are fTaz= (10.9 — 4.1)— (14— 5.4), = — 1.8 MPa, f: 0.46. The value of f is 35 percent greater than the value ob- tained from the first water injection. However, if the observed shut-in pressure were used (that is, 12 MPa), the f value would be 0.28, which is close to the value determined from the first water-injection data. The dif- ference between the regression constant at Q = 0 and the observed instantaneous shut-in pressure is probably due to the observed residual pressure caused by the first water injection. N o attempt was made to use the peak pressure at 0.01 m3/s to estimate the tensile strength because the injec- tion rate at this time was increased from 0.002 m3/s to 0.01 m3/s in 5 minutes (table 8). Actual frictional loss would be much higher than the expected frictional loss calculated from equation 59 during this short time inter- val. After the well was shut in, pressure decay was ob- served for nearly 13 days. The decay data are shown in table 4. The log-log plot of (P—PO) against time t is and ‘shown in figure 23. All data apparently fall on two APPENDIXES: CASE HISTORIES 39 TABLE 4. —Pressure decay of a water injection at 442 m, June 26, 1970, West Valley, N. Y. TABLE 4. —Pressure decay of a water injection at 4.42 m, June 26, 1970, West Valley, N. Y. -Continued . . Calculated . . Calculated T d 0b d 11h d P-P T d 0b d 11h d P—Po 0332:3293... 3:213:33: preggggggngggpa, (Ma; 3232:3653.) 3:23.332: preggfiggmgglgpa) (Mp... 8.96 13.29 9.20 3,079 ________ 5.24 9.57 5.48 7.79 12.12 8.03 3,509 ________ 5.09 9.42 5.33 7.65 11.98 7.89 3,769 ________ 5.03 9.36 5.27 7.58 11.91 7.82 3,979 ________ 4.98 9.31 5.22 7.52 11.85 7.76 4,234 ________ 4.92 9.25 5.16 7.45 11.78 7.69 4,489 ________ 4.87 9.20 5.11 7.45 11.78 7.69 7.38 11.71 7.62 5,164 ________ 4.76 9.09 5.00 7.38 11.71 7.62 5,389 ________ 4.74 9.07 4.98 5,899 ________ 4.70 9.03 4.94 10 ________ 7.34 11.67 7.58 6,619 ________ 4.60 8.93 4.84 12 ________ 7.31 11.64 7.55 6,799 ________ 4.60 8.93 4.84 13 ________ 7.31 11.64 7.55 14 ________ 7.27 11.60 7.51 7,339 ________ 4.54 8.87 4.78 15 ________ 7.24 11.57 7.48 7,999 ________ 4.48 8.81 4.72 18 ________ 7.17 11.50 7.41 8,359 ________ 4.45 8.78 4.69 8,839 ________ 4.40 8.73 4.64 20 ________ 7.17 11.50 7.41 9,469 ________ 4.35 8.68 4.59 24 ________ 7.12 11.45 7.36 29 ________ 7.10 11.43 7.34 10,219 ________ 4.30 8.63 4.54 34 ________ 7.03 11.36 7.27 10,969 ________ 4.27 8.60 4.51 39 ________ 7.00 11.33 7.24 11,134 ________ 4.23 8.56 4.47 11,629 ________ 4.19 8.52 4.43 44 ________ 7.00 11.33 7.24 12,439 ________ 4.14 8.47 4.38 49 ________ 6.95 11.28 7.19 13,039 ________ 4.10 8.43 4.34 54 ________ 6.93 11.26 7.17 13,729 ________ 4.03 8.36 4.27 64 ________ 6.89 11.22 7.13 79 ________ 6.86 11.19 7.10 14,269 ________ 4.03 8.36 4.27 94 ________ 6.83 11.16 7.07 14,509 ________ 4.02 8.35 4.26 15,589 ________ 3.99 8.32 4.23 109 ________ 6.79 11.12 7.03 16,819 ________ 3.90 8.23 4.23 124 ________ 6.76 11.09 7.00 18,274 ________ 3.82 8.15 4.06 139 ________ 6.72 11.05 6.96 169 ________ 6.69 11.02 6.93 Note: Static ground-water pressure at injection level, P0=4.09 MPa. 199 ________ 6.62 10.95 6.86 229 ________ 6.558 10.91 6.82 straight lines. (P—Po) at the point of intersection of the 333 :::: 2:42 £3? 37]; two lines is 6.4 MPa; therefore, the estimated earth 319 ________ 6.18 10.81 6.72 stress normal to the fracture plane is 10.5 MPa (6.4 + 3% :::: 2:4? 18:72 2:22 4.09: 10.49 MPa), which is close to the estimated over- 439 638 1 1 6 burden pressure, 10.9 MPa. Therefore, it can be con- 469 :::: 6:34 18:?” 612% cluded that the induced fractures are probably nearly $528; ________ 3.3% 18.23 2.55 horizontal. ________ . 1 . .51 . . . 559 ________ 6.24 1057 6.48 Ten days after the end of the water injectlon, July 6, 589 ———————— 621 10-54 6-45 1970, gamma-ray logs were made in all four observation 619 ________ 621 10,54 6,45 wells. The East-observation well was found to be 6-17 10-50 6-41 plugged at 424 m by cement, and the South-observation 6.17 10.50 6.41 . . . . 6.17 10.50 641 well was also blocked at 442 m. No Significant radioac— 2%: $39 3:21; tivity above the background level was recorded in either 6:10 10:43 6:34 of the two wells. Strong gamma-ray activity however, 6'03 10-36 627 was recorded in the North-observation well (fig. 24). The 6.00 10.33 6.24 radioactivity was observed over a vertical distance of 6 Egg i832 £33.17 In (436—442 m), indicating that at least three layers of 5:86 10:19 6:10 bedding-plane fractures were induced. Strong gamma- 5-72 10-05 5-96 ray activity was also recorded in the West-observation 5.47 9.80 571 well (fig. 24) and observed over a vertical distance of 2 m 2'13 3% 2%? (442—444 m), showing that only one layer of bedding- 5.40 9:73 5:64 plane fracture was induced. 2%; 3% 2:33 On Aug. 24, 1970, two months after the water injec- ggg 9.2; 5.58 tion and after the South-observation well had been 531 3:64 2:2?) cleaned out by a rig, gamma-ray logs were run again in 5.31 9.64 5.55 the three observation wells. No efforts were made to 40 P—Po, lN MEGAPASCALS DEPTH, IN METERS SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURES 102 T l I I l I I II I I I I I I I II I l l I I l I | I I I | I I I I I I I I I I I I I _ _ - - - - - I670 MP3 [302409 MPa I 101 | | I I I l I I I I | I I l I I I I I I I I l I I I I I I I I 1 I 1 II | l I I I I I I 100 10I 102 103 104 105 TIME AFTER END OF INJECTION (I), IN MINUTES FIGURE 23. —Pressure decay plotted against time, the water injection at 442 In, June 26, 1970, West Valley, N .Y. API GAMMA-RAY UNIT 1000 3000 4000 0 1000 2000 5000 6000 0 “ZIIITIIITW II If I, ~ 42°¢Irwttev322 I I 332' 7-23-71 1400 I I z I I t“: II \T‘I‘ET'I ‘25 _ “S L 1450 I : I I I 1500 NORTH-OBSERVATION WELL FIGURE 24. — Gamma-ray activities observed in observation wells along the casing axis, July 6, 1970, after the water injection at 442 m; depths to gamma-ray activity have been adjusted to the measuring point at the injection well, in accord with the altitude difference between the wells, West Valley, NY. APPENDIXES: CASE HISTORIES 41 API GAMMA—RAY UNITS 4300 400 800 1200160020002400 0 400 800 12001600 0 400 800 12001600 2000 :- 1 1 r l 1 — F2 1 . i — » | 1 1 l 1410 q — I.’ Log of __ _ Log of __ — Log of —_ 1420 _ I 8-24-70 _ r 8-24-70 _ _ 8-24-70 2 E — I ." Log of —‘ - . Log of —— _ Log of “1430 E _:' ' 7-28-71 7-28-71 g ‘ 7-28—71 _ 9n 2 ._ ~ — 4440 g E 440 —; — — — -_ - — —— ~— ——1450 2 E _ 2 ‘L — ~ g r11 “5 _ f _— _-1460 .4 r -P —h ~~1470 450 ~ — — __ 1 l I l 1 1480 NORTH-OBSERVATION WELL WEST-OBSERVATION WELL SOUTH-OBSERVATION WELL FIGURE 25.—Gamma-ray activities observed in observation wells along the casing axis, Aug. 24, 1970, after water injection at 442 m; depths to gamma-ray activity have been adjusted to the measuring point at the injection well in accord with altitude dif- ference between the wells, West Valley, N.Y. clean out the cement in the East-observation well because of the small-diameter well tubing. Strong gamma—ray activity was recorded in the South- observation well at this time, and a vertical spread of less than 4 m (443—447 m) was observed (fig. 25), and two layers of bedding-plane fractures were induced. The gamma-ray activity observed at the other two observa- tion wells, North- and West-observation wells, was ap- proximately at the same depth as recorded before; however, the intensity was reduced to less than half of the values recorded on July 6, 1970, because of radioac- tive decay (figs. 24, and 25). GROUT INJECTION Only one grout injection was made at a depth of 152 m at the West Valley site during the study. Before the grout injection, a total of 195 m3 of water without a radioactive tracer was injected. The observed injection pressures associated with injection rates are shown in table 5 and figure 26. The regression equation of P and Q having a correlation coefficient of 0.91, was found (fig. 27) and is given by‘ P=3.88+10.93Q. (60) Observed shut-in pressure was 3.8 MPa (table 6), which is close to the value indicated by the regression equation. Pumping rate was kept at 0.002 m3/s during the first hour of the injection. It was then increased to 0.028 m3/s over a 11/2 hour interval. The rock was rup— tured at 4.3 MPa (fig. 26.) The overburden pressure estimated from the density of rock at a depth of 152 m is 3.5 MPa. The difference between the overburden pressure and the rupture pressure is the value of the tensile strength of shale nor- mal to the fracture plane. If nearly horizontal bedding- plane fractures are assumed to be induced, then the ten- sile strength of shale normal to bedding planes at the in- jection depth was 0.8 MPa, which is one-fourth of the value determined from the data for water injections made at 442 m. By inspecting cores, the shale at 152 m depth was found to have been more easily ruptured along bedding planes than was the shale at 442 m depth. Average cohesive force at fracture tip is calculated as fToz= 3.5 — 3.9, = — 0.4 MPa, and f: 0.50. The pore pressure at 152 m depth was found to be 1.3 MPa. The differences between the observed pressure decay P and pore pressure P0 over time tare plotted on a log—log graph paper in figure 28. All data appear to fall on two straight lines. The two lines intersect at t=37 minutes and P—Po=2.1 MPa. Therefore, the earth stress normal to the fracture plane is 3.4 MPa (2.1 + 1.25:3.35 MPa), which is nearly equal to the calculated overburden pressure. Therefore, it can be concluded that the induced fractures are probably horizontal. No radioactive isotopes were added to the in- jection water; therefore, no field evidence is available to support this conclusion. 42 SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURES TABLE 5. —Injectton pressure of a water injection at 152 m, May 29, TABLE 6. —Pressure decay of a water injection at 152 m, May 29, 1971, 1971, West Valley, N. Y. West Valley, N. Y. —Continued 0b ed c 1 1 ted A 111 ted _ 53.9: 93:51:: “23:31:16 $385593? 3“... 129:5.‘393‘1, 0922:2199? 631311538335?“ 3.2; Pmpa) Pmpa) (m’ s x 10-’) (m’) P (MPa) 10 _____________ 2.09 3.58 2.33 g _______ Egg 2%?) 0 69 0 4 15 _____________ 2.03 3.53 2.28 ——————— ' ' ' ' 20 ____-_-----__ 1.98 3.47 2.22 5 _______ 2.62 4.12 3.09 .8 25 1 93 3 42 2 17 10 _______ 2.52 4.01 1.96 1.4 30 ------------- 189 3.38 213 15 _______ 2.45 3.94 1.96 2.0 35 ------------- 1.84 3-34 2-09 20 _______ 2.41 3.91 1.96 2.6 25 _______ 2.38 3.88 2.02 3.2 fig ————————————— 15;; 33}; 3.8? 30 _______ 2.38 3.88 2.02 3.8 50 ------------- 1'73 3'23 198 35 _______ 2 38 3.88 2 02 4.4 55 ------------- 1-70 3-20 1-95 40 _______ 2 38 3.88 2.02 5.0 60 ------------- 1.67 3.16 1'91 45 _______ 2 38 3.88 2.02 5.6 65 ------------- 1.63 3-13 188 5 _______ 2 38 3.88 2.02 6.2 55 _______ 2 38 3.88 2 02 6.8 g ————————————— 11553 58?; 13% 6 _______ 2 38 3.88 2 08 7.4 80 ------------- 1'54 3'04 1-79 65 _______ 2 45 3.94 3 09 8.4 85 ------------- 1'51 3'01 176 70 _______ 2 45 3.94 3 47 9.4 90 ————————————— 1.49 2-99 1-74 g3 ------- 32% 33% 2’33 3'8 100 _____________ 1.45 2.94 1.69 _______ ' ' 110 _____________ 1.40 2.90 1.65 85 _______ 2 48 3.96 5 17 13.6 90 2 48 3 96 6 18 15.4 120 _____________ 1.37 2.86 1.61 95 _______ 2 48 396 7244 17.6 130 ————————————— 1-33 2-83 1-58 ' 14° """"""" 1'3}; E92 11:5,? 155 _____________ . . . 100 _______ 2.48 3.96 7.26 19.8 170 _____________ 123 2.73 1.48 105 -______ 2.52 3.99 8 71 22.4 185 1 20 2 70 1 45 110 _______ 2.52 3.99 9 34 25.2 ------------- - - - 115 _ 2.52 3.99 10 41 28.4 200 _____________ 1.17 2.67 1.42 121 _______ 2 55 4.01 11 23 32.4 1 15 2 65 1 40 125 _______ 2 55 4.01 11 99 35.3 1-13 2.63 1.38 130 _______ 2 59 4.04 13 12 39.2 1-11 2-60 1-35 135 _______ 2 92 4.34 17 54 44.5 1.09 2.59 1.34 140 _______ 2 92 4.24 25 74 52.2 1.07 2.56 1.31 145 _______ 2 92 4.25 26 37 60.1 1.05 2.55 1.30 150 _______ 2 92 4.25 26 50 68.1 1.03 2.52 1.27 155 _______ 2 92 4.25 26 87 76.1 13% Egg 1%; 160 _______ 2 92 4.25 27.00 84.2 97 2.46 1.21 165 _______ 2 90 4.22 27.63 92.5 94 2.44 1.19 2 85 4.17 27.63 100.8 93 2.43 1.18 2 83 4 14 27.88 109 2 2 83 4 14 28.32 126 2 91 2.41 1.16 2 85 4 16 28.14 134 6 90 2.39 1.14 2 85 4 16 28.51 143 2 33 33% 1'13 2 85 4 16 28.51 151 7 87 2.36 1:11 2 85 4 16 28.64 160 3 .86 2.36 1.11 2 85 4 16 28.39 168 8 .85 2.34 1.09 2 85 4 16 28.89 177 5 2 84 4.15 28.51 186 0 .84 2.34 1.09 2 84 4.15 28.51 195 0 .83 3.33 1.08 1End of injection. .23 2:31 %8g .81 2.31 1.06 .80 2.30 1.05 TABLE 6. —Pressnre decay of a water injection at 152 m, May. 29, 1971 , '80 2‘30 1‘05 West Valley, NY. .79 2.29 1.04 .79 3.32 1.03 Time since end Observed wellhead Galllzliiaggsggtr?“ P—Po g? 2:27 i8; of injectlon (mm) pressure (MPa) P (MPa) ' (MP3) .77 2.26 1.01 2.30 3.80 2,55 Note: Static ground-water pressure at injection level, Po: 1.25 MPa. . 1 . . 2.19 3.68 2.43 On July 23, 1971, a total of 155 m3 of water and grout 215 2‘22 31(1) tagged with gamma-ray-emitting isotope of 95Zr/95Nb 2.14 3.63 2.38 was injected at the same depth, 152 In, through the same 3% 3'2? 5% slot where the water injection was made on May 29, 2.10 3.59 2.34 1971. APPENDIXES: CASE HISTORIES 48 IIIIIIIIIIITIIIII _ INJECTION RATE (0), IN CUBIC METERS PER SECOND x 10-3 lllllllll 5. O —— ‘“ End of injection «31.5 — 6.3 +6.3 412.6 <— 25.2— 29.0 <—2.o 31175 .b Ln I l 9 o BOTTOM ~HOLE PRESSURE (P), IN MEGAPASCALS l— Shut-in pressure 3.80 3.5 l — IIIIlIIII IIIIlI1II I I I 1 l I I I I O 50 100 150 200 250 300 INJECTION TIME (t), IN MINUTES FIGURE 26. —Pressure plotted against time, the water injection at 152 In, May 29, 1971, West Valley, NY. The injection was started with 9 m3 of water, after which cement and bentonite were added. The volume of injected grout was 146 m3 (table 7). Because grout has high Viscosity, the friction loss in casing was calculated by using a non-Newtonian flow equation (Slagle, 1962; Melton and Saunders, 1957), which is expressed as Re=(0.816V2'"’p)/[K’(800/D)"’], (61) vazf AP=2.0 10-4 D 1 (52) where f: 16/R, for laminar flow when R < 2,100; f — 0.0045 + 0. 645(Re') ° 7 for turbulent flow; and R: Reynold’s number, dimensionless, AP: fractional loss (or pressure drop), in mega- pascals; p= =fluid density, in kilograms per cubic meters; V= average or bulk velocity of fluid, in meters per second; D = inside diameter of tubing or casing, in cen- timeters; f _ Fanning friction factor, dimensionless; =fluid consistency index (or characteristic of fluid), In N sec" /m2; n’ =fluid flow behavior index, dimensionless. The values of K ’ and n’ of the injected grout (July 23, 1971) were 32. 52 and 0. 09, respectively (K. A. Slagle, written commun., 1971). The calculated bottom- hole TABLE 7.—Injection pressure of a grout injection at 152 m, July 23, 1971, West Valley, NY. [tr., trace] Observed Calculated Accumulated Time wellhead bottom-hole igfiiigg injection (mm) P11112119 P11112119 (ma/5.10.3) “321.11; 01 _____ 0.28 1.77 0.32 3 ______ 2.07 3.56 .32 4 ______ 2.38 3.87 .32 5 ______ 2.45 3.94 .63 10 ______ 2.21 3.70 .32 15 ______ 2.52 4.01 .95 22 ______ 2.59 4.08 .95 0.1 25 ______ 2.55 4.05 1.14 .3 302 _____ 2.52 4.01 1.14 .6 45 ______ 2.48 3.97 2.93 3.3 50 ______ 2.55 4.04 2.12 3.9 55 ______ 2.55 4.04 2.73 4.7 60 ______ 2.55 4.04 2.78 5.5 65 ______ 2.55 4.04 2. 78 6.4 70 ______ 2.55 4.04 2.84 7.2 75 ______ 2.55 4.04 3.41 8.3 803 _____ 2.55 4.04 3.41 8.9 854 _____ 2.17 4.05 2.90 9.8 90 ______ 2.17 4.05 2. 52 10.5 95 ______ 2.38 4.25 2. 84 11.4 100 ______ 2.28 4.16 2.46 12.1 105 ______ 2.21 4.07 4.54 13.5 110 ______ 2.21 4.07 3.66 14.6 115 ______ 2.31 4.17 5. 36 16.2 120 ______ 2.14 4.00 4. 98 17.7 125 ______ 2.21 4.07 6.43 19.6 130 ______ 2.28 4.14 5.80 21.3 135 ______ 2.55 4.41 8.20 23.8 2.55 4. 41 8.96 26.5 2.62 4. 47 9.08 29. 2 2.55 4.41 8.77 31.9 2.41 4.27 9.59 34.7 2.21 4.05 9.78 37.7 2.34 4.19 10.72 40.9 2.28 4.12 11.54 44.3 2.28 4.12 13.69 48.4 2.28 4.12 12.36 52.2 2.38 4.21 14.64 56.5 2.41 4. 25 14.89 61. 0 2.41 4. 25 15.90 65. 8 2.34 4.18 14.95 71.2 2.34 4.18 17.22 75.3 2.34 4.18 15.90 80.1 2.28 4.11 16.02 84. 9 2.14 3. 98 15.01 89. 4 2.21 4.04 15.65 94.1 2.21 4.04 15.52 98.7 2.14 3.97 15.65 103.4 245 ______ 2.10 3.94 15.96 113.0 260 ______ 2.14 3.97 15.65 127.0 265 ______ 2.14 3.97 15.52 131.7 2755 _____ 2.07 3.90 16.60 141.3 280 ______ 2.07 3. 90 15.90 146.0 2906 _____ 2.07 3. 90 15.27 155. 2 1 Water injection. 2 Start isotope injection. 3 Start cement and bentonite 4 Grout density (average): 1.44 g/cm3 5End isotope injection ‘ End injection. pressure and the observed wellhead pressure, and the injection rates and times are shown in table 7 and figure 29. The regression equation of P and Q, having a correla— tion of 0.65 was found (fig. 30) and is expressed as P=4.0+13.12Q. (63) 44 SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURES 35IIIIIIII | I | l I I I I I | . 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 BOTTOMHOLE PRESSURE (P), IN MEGA PASCALS 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 INJECTION RATE (0), IN CUBIC METERS PER SECOND X 10-3 FIGURE 27. —Pressures plotted against injection rate, the water injection at 152 In, May 29, 1971, West Valley, N .Y. 02 I II Illll # I ‘ 2.10 MPa ' I 10' P_ Po, IN MEGA PASCALS lllll l l lllllll l I lilllll l I Illllll I [I‘ll 20:1.25 MPa lillll lilllli lllll lllllll 1 l I 10° 101 102 103 10‘ TIME AFTER END OF INJECTION (0, IN MINUTES FIGURE 28. —Pressure decay plotted against time, the water injection at 152 m, May 29, 1971, West Valley, N .Y. N0 breakdown pressure was observed. However, several high pressures indicating the formation of new fractures were noted during the injection. The tensile strength of the rock at the injection depth probably could be estimated from these high pressures. The injec- tion pressure at 0.003 m3/s was 4.3 MPa, from which the tensile strength of the shale normal to the fracture plane at the injection depth of 152 m was estimated as T =3.5+ 13.12 x 0.0003— 4.3, ”2 = — 0.8 MPa. The tensile strength of the shale estimated from other high pressures is also near 0.8 MPa. The value of the tensile strength estimated from this grout injection is similar to that estimated from the previous water injec- tion at the same depth. Gamma-ray logs were made on July 28, 1971, five days after the injection, in three observation wells. The results are shown in figure 31. No gamma-ray survey was made in the East-observation well because its cas- ing was ruptured during the injection. The well was plugged by grout at a depth of 151 m. Gamma-ray logs obtained from the other three obser- vation wells together with the evidence of plugging of the East-observation well strongly suggest that bedding-plane fractures were induced, at least within a distance of 46 m from the injection well. APPENDIXES: CASE HISTORIES 45 IIIIIIII‘IIII|IIII|IIII|IIIé INJECTION RATE (0), IN CUBIC METERS PER SECOND x 10-3 ,7: «D. E 5 5.0~:’- 2 ‘fi '7 *5— .L J. «L. :2- ‘5 d, N 00 '— LLI 9 I1 I I I I < , . U U) E < ‘0 8 g 447 2 . g 4.5— E3 I — . mu) g E‘s “J Eg425 § SSI (/3 LLI g:- i LU 5‘ I E 4.0— — O I— I— O m 3'5TIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIJIIIIII 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 INJECTION TIME (I), IN MINUTES FIGURE 29. — Pressure plotted against time, the grout injection at 152 m, July 23, 1971, West Valley, NY. Precise levels were surveyed by the U.S. Geological Survey before and after the grout injection. To insure that the level rods would be held on the highest point at all times, all bench-mark tablets were straightened and leveled by a hand level before the precise levelings were made. The leveling results are shown in table 8 and figure 32. The correlation between the observed uplift and the uplift calculated by equation 47 is shown in figure 33. The calculated radius of the induced fracture is 110 m, and the calculated maximum separation of the fracture during injection time is 6.5 mm. SUMMARY Table 9 summarizes the results of all six injections made at West Valley, N.Y. (Sun and Mongan, 1974). Results from injections made at the same depth at dif- ferent times are consistent. No actual data on tensile strength of the shale are available; therefore, there is no way to check whether the calculated tensile strengths are approximately right. Bedding-plane fractures had been induced, as in- dicated by gamma-ray logs, within 10 m of the injection depth. Orientation of the induced fractures can be deter- mined indirectly by monitoring injection pressure dur- ing injection time and by measuring the pressure decay of water injections and the uplift of ground surface. Con- structing observation wells with strong tubing and good cement helps prevent damage to the well by induced fractures, and the size of observation well needs to be large enough to accommodate drilling tools if the well needs to be serviced after completion. The unsuitability of the East-observation well during the study indicates the importance of proper well construction. RADIOACTIVE WASTE DISPOSAL AT THE OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY, TENN. The Oak Ridge National Laboratory waste disposal site is located in Melton Valley, Oak Ridge, Tenn. (fig. 34), within the reservation of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). The reservation is in the Tennessee sec- tion of the Appalachian Valley and Ridge province and occupies parts of Anderson and Roane Counties. The reservation is bounded on the northeast, southeast, and southwest by the Clinch River. The area is approximate- ly 22 km long, 10 km wide, and comprises about 220 kmz. The first grout injection was made in 1959 at a shallow depth of 90 m. A total volume of 102 m3 of grout com- posed of water, cement, and bentonite tagged with 1370s was injected. Twenty-two core holes were drilled, data from which indicated that bedding-plane fractures had been induced. In 1960, a second experimental well was constructed roughly 183 km east of the first injection site. Two injections were made through this well at depths of 212 m and 285 m, respectively. A total volume of 345 m3 of grout containing 13705 was injected at a depth of 285 m. After this injection, the injection well was plugged with cement to a depth of 213 m. A new horizontal slot was cut through the casing and cement wall at a depth of 212 m. A total volume of 502 m3 grout also tagged with 1370s was injected again into this well. Twenty-four core holes were drilled to determine the positions of the two grout sheets. Both grout sheets were found to be conformable to bedding planes. A third well was drilled to a depth of 329 m, 0.8 km west of the second experimental site (fig. 34), thereafter named as the present fracturing site. (In 1981 this well is still be- ing used for waste injections.) From 1964 through 1965, eight experimental injections of actual radioactive wastes produced at the ORNL were injected through this well. The results strongly indicated that the disposal of wastes in shale by grout injection is safe and economical. Operational injections then began in 1966. The disposal site Will reach full capacity between 1985 and 1988. A new disposal site was selected at a distance of 245 m south of the present injection well (fig. 34), and a site evaluation study was conducted. The results in- dicate that the proposed site is acceptable. The following discussions summarize the experimental and operational injections and the site evaluation. 46 4.5 SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURES BOTTOMAHOLE PRESSURE, (P), IN MEGAPASCALS 3_5II|II I I I I I 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 INJECTION RATE (0), IN CUBIC METERS PER SECOND x 10'3 FIGURE 30. -— Pressure plotted against injection rate, the grout injection at 152 In, July 23, 1971, West Valley, NY. API GAMMA- RAY UNITS 0 400 800 1200 1600 0 400 800 1200 0 400 800 1200 I I f | I I 1 480 148 — - — ? Log of d — Log of — m 150 _ _— _ 7-28—71_— _ 7-28-71_- 490 ._ E 152 — __ _ L09 Of __ _ '1. Log of __ E “g 8-24-70 '- 8-24-70 500 z z 154 _ Log of _ _ - _ E f 155 — 7-28-71 -_ ~ —_ _ _— 510 E E D ”5 158 ' '2. LOg Of ‘_ “' __ _ __ 520 160 _ - 8-24-70 _ _ fl _ _ I I I I I 530 SOUTH-OBSERVATION WEST-OBSERVATION NORTH-OBSERVATION WELL WELL WELL FIGURE 31.—Gamma—ray activities observed in observation wells along the casing axis, July 28, 1971, after the grout injection at 152 m; depths to gamma-ray activity have been adjusted to the measuring point at the injection well in ac- cord with altitude difference between wells, West Valley, NY. GEOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY The Appalachian Valley and Ridge province in the Oak Ridge area is about 80 km wide and is marked by a series of major subparallel thrust faults that trend northeast and dip southeast. In each of the faults, layers of rock units roughly 3 km thick have moved as much as several tens of kilometers to the northwest. Older formations have been thrust over younger formations. Deformation of the rock strata of the Oak Ridge area resulted from compressional forces orginating during the Appalachian revolution at the end of Paleozoic time. The strata reacted to the pressure by faulting and folding (E ardley, 1951; McMaster, 1963; deLaguna and others, 1968). At least 3,000 m of rock has been eroded since the thrust faults were formed (deLaguna and others, 1968). The thrust fault of immediate interest to the waste disposal at the ORNL is the Cooper Creek Fault, which affects four formations at the site (fig. 35). They are the Rome Formation (interbedded sandstone, siltstone, shale, and locally, dolomite) of Early Cambrian age, the Conasauga Group (calcareous shale interbedded with limestone and siltstone) of Middle and Late Cambrian age, the Knox Group (dolomite) of Late Cambrian and Early Ordovician age, and the Chickamauga Limestone of Middle and Late Ordovician age. Two thin-bedded red calcareous shales, each 60 m thick, were found in the APPENDIXES: CASE HISTORIES 47' TRUE NORTH H \\ T V\\ \\\\ / \\\1 I \ / I I l l | \ _______ 1 __7 G—fl—x ————————————— \—*— \ \ \ \ 0 50 100 150 METERS \ l_l_l4 \ \ EXPLANATION ' lnletllon well X Sovvey benchmark — 7-5 — Line of equal uplift, in millimeters. Dashed where approximately located. \ \ A); \ / ,~k ’ / /’1‘/\/ \ \| \ \ l l l I l l l I \F l , / i / + / ’:< \\ / l ‘« ’ . ,/< >l< , / \\ FIGURE 32.—Up1ift produced by the grout injection at 152 In, West Valley, NY. Chickamauga Limestone at the ORNL during the drill- ing of a test well (fig. 35). The formation exposed at the ORNL waste—injection site is the Conasauga Group; all formations above the group have been eroded. The thickness of the Con- asauga Group is 400 m at the injection site. The injection rock is the bottom 90 m of the Conasauga, the Pumpkin Valley, which is a dense argillaceous shale that is very thin bedded and dominantly red. The Pumpkin Valley is overlain by the Rutledge, 300 m thick, composed of gray calcareous shale interbedded with generally thin beds or lenses of limestone. The contact between the Pumpkin Valley and the Rutledge is marked by three layers of limestone. The formations all dip to the southeast. Near the out- crop area, the Rome formation dips 45°; however, away from the outcrop, dips flatten out to 10°—20°. The beds within the fault sheets are, in general, relatively little deformed. The Pumpkin Valley is generally unde- formed, but locally it is marked by drag folds varying in amplitude from a few centimeters to as large as a couple of meters. The measured geothermal gradient is 1.34° C per 100 m; the average air temperature is 14.5° C, as shown in figures 36 and 37 (deLaguna and others, 1968; 48 SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURES TABLE 8. — Ground elevation aflected by a grout injection at152 m, July 23, 1971, West Valley, N. Y. Distance from Altitude of benchmark, in meters Bench injection Before After Uplift mark well injection injection (mm) (m) A1 ______ 16.89 423.95586 423.95763 1.77 A2 ______ 51.08 416.85725 416.85871 1.46 B1 ______ 7.59 42356822 423.57007 1.86 B2 ______ 15.30 423.65289 423.65469 1.80 B3 ______ 30.36 422.64138 422.64266 1.28 B4 ______ 68.34 419.50151 419.50276 1.25 B5 ______ 92.08 424.90601 424.90702 1.01 B6 ______ 159.11 428.23041 428.23114 .73 B7 ______ 250.12 434.91805 434.91878 .73 B8 ______ 340.58 449.27322 449.27383 .61 B9 ______ 430.19 468.33834 468.33940 1.06 C1 ______ 37.73 424.60810 42460978 1.68 D1 _______ 7.65 423.81577 423.81751 1.74 D2 ______ 22.95 423.89557 42389719 1.62 D3 ______ 60.84 423.05368 423.05515 1.47 D4 ______ 92.84 423.80447 423.80514 .67 D5 ______ 153.71 422.60438 422.60514 .76 D6 ______ 245.39 423.14275 423.14311 .36 D7 ______ 336.74 424.93817 42493863 .46 D8 ______ 428.21 427.21890 42721926 .36 D9 ______ 488.41 428.61936 42861994 .58 E1 ______ 7.62 423.57760 423.57919 1.59 E2 ______ 30.51 423.90603 423.90773 1.70 E3 ______ 60.93 423.88317 423.88490 1.73 E4 ______ 91.41 423.79273 423.79441 1.68 E5 ______ 152.40 424.59713 42459835 1.22 E6 ______ 243.81 425.00410 425.00468 .58 E8 ______ 315.16 426.36396 426.36396 0 E9 ______ 399.29 426.36811 426.36799 — .12 E10 _____ 490.73 42764775 42764729 — .46 E11 _____ 593.14 425.99863 425.99814 — .49 E12 _____ 688.85 429.60950 429.60914 — .36 F1 ______ 7.59 423.41191 423.41374 1.83 F2 ______ 15.24 423.38692 423.38884 1.92 F3 ______ 68.55 424.10131 424.10277 1.46 F4 ______ 144.72 425.59922 425.60029 1.07 F5 ______ 227.62 424.28053 424.28157 1.04 G1 ______ 7.68 423.30758 423.30947 1.89 G2 ______ 38.04 423.77731 423.77914 1.83 G3 ______ 76.23 423.50271 42350424 1.53 G4 ______ 152.46 424.83265 424.83384 1.19 G5 ______ 243.84 423.47092 423.47175 .83 G6 ______ 676.66 421.84518 421.84564 .46 H1 ______ 7.65 42339116 423.39314 1.98 H2 ______ 23.07 422.82359 422.82554 1.95 H3 ______ 60.81 423.14147 42314342 1.95 H4 ______ 91.17 423.28265 423.28448 1.83 H5 ______ 160.57 422.48252 422.48371 1.19 H6 ______ 253.99 422.82039 422.82121 .82 H7 ______ 341.86 423.10218 423.10285 .67 H8 ______ 746.76 421.03304 421.03292 — .12 J1 _______ 7.62 423.40996 423.41182 1.86 J2 _______ 15.24 423.22903 423.23092 1.89 J3 _______ 33.50 420.21697 42021874 1.77 J4 _______ 90.28 423.95431 42395549 1.18 J5 _______ 157.67 423.00427 423.00540 1.13 J6 _______ 242.19 424.31345 424.31458 1.13 J7 _______ 333.18 427.78747 427.78875 1.28 J8 _______ 424.83 429.44055 429.44165 1.10 U.S. Energy Research and Development Administra- tion, 1977). The permeability of the Conasauga Group determined from core samples in the laboratory ranges from 10'7 to 10'8 D; even with fractures present in the core, the permeability determined is 10—5 D. Mineralogical ex- amination of the Pumpkin Valley core indicates that clay minerals, kaolinite, illite, and chlorite make up the bulk of the samples. Quartz is present in moderate quantities, but calcite is conspicuous by its absence. The abundance of clay minerals indicates that the shale selected for in- jection has sufficient ion-exchange and adsorption capacity (deLaguna and others, 1968). Records of 11 stations in and around the ORNL in- dicate that the annual precipitation is 130 cm for the water years 1936 through 1960. Maximum monthly runoff is likely to be in December through March, when rainfall is normally high and soil moisture and ground- water storage are at a maximum. Minimum runoff oc- curs in September through November, when rainfall is low and soil moisture and ground-water storage are at a minimum (McMaster, 1967). The waste-injection site is located in Melton Valley, a part of the Whiteoak Creek drainage basin (fig. 34). Chestnut Ridge forms the northwestern drainage divide, and Cooper Ridge, the southeastern divide of the drainage basin. Most of Bethel Valley (the laboratory area) is drained by Whiteoak Creek; however, Melton Valley is drained by Melton Branch, a tributary to Whiteoak Creek. Whiteoak Creek flows southwestward through Bethel Valley to a water gap in Haw Ridge and enters Melton Valley, where it is joined by Melton Branch; it then flows southwestward through a small impoundment known as Whiteoak Lake before entering the Clinch River (fig. 34). The dolomite of the Knox Group of Chestnut Ridge is the principal aquifer in the Whiteoak Creek drainage basin. Bethel Valley is underlain by the Chickamauga Limestone. A substantial quantity of water is probably stored in many small openings in the weathered zone of the limestone within 30 m of the land surface. Low—flow measurements (the flow equaled or exceeded 90 percent of time is 0.085 m3/s) show that 90 percent of the Whiteoak Creek low flow originates as ground-water discharge from the dolomite of the Knox Group of Chestnut Ridge and the Chickamauga Limestone of Bethel Valley, and as ORNL plant effluents (McMaster, 1967). The Rome Formation of Haw Ridge forms the north- western water divide of Melton Branch. This formation has very little capacity for receiving, storing and transmitting water. In the weathered rock, the occur- rence of ground water is largely limited to small open- ings that occur along joints and bedding planes. Melton APPENDIXES: CASE HISTORIES 49 3-5 l l l l l 1 g 3.2 v , L—J 2.8 r c Surveyed Upllll along 8 and F A g 2.4 — X Surveyed uplill along C,D,ond H a E 2.0 a 4 Surveyed uplift olong A, Land E a E 1.6 f _- Surveyed Upllll along G _ b: 1.2 — ‘ - a i 0.8 — o a 3 0.4 e 2 X X _ 0.0 l ‘ ‘ ‘ . l l l 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 O 100 200 300 400 500 500 700 800 RADIAL DISTANCE BETWEEN SURVEY BENCHMARKS AND THE |NJECT|0N WELL, lN METERS FIGURE 33. —Calculated and surveyed uplift produced by a grout injection at 152 In, West Valley, N.Y. TABLE 9. —Instantaueous shut-in pressure, calculated overburden pressure, tensile strength of shale, average cohesive force at fracture tip, and value off, West Valley, N. Y. Injection Total Calculated overburden Instantaneous shut-in Calculated Calculated . - ' ' t‘ n ressure ress re tens'le ave e coh Value NO- Date Depth Injection "\ichliiiife B p B p u strenlg'th give orce aet- of Remarks (m) fluid (m’) Y Y _ (MPa) fracture tip, f speCific pressure» Observed Predicted fT' (Mpg) gravity decay data (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) 1 Oct. 9, 442 Water _____ 433 10.90 10.84 12.05 11.96 3.09 1.06 0.34 Before 45-minute 1969. pause. Oct. 9, 442 Water _____ 433 10.90 10.84 11.98 11.96 3.92 1.06 .27 After 45-minute 1969. pause. 2 June 26, 442 Water _____ 425 10.40 10.43 13.29 15.20 3.87 1.78 0.45 1970. 3 Augé 27, 374 Wafflr _____ 343 9.16 9.49 9.87 9.89 4.15 0.73 0.18 1 70. \ 4 May 10, 308 Water _____ 374 7.48 7.36 8.06 Regression 3.12 0.58 0119 1971. equation has not been established. 5 May 29, 152 Water _____ 195 3.52 3.10 3.80 3.88 0.73 0.36 0.49 1971. July 23, 152 Water 9 (water); 3.52 _____ Did not 4.00 0.76—0.83 0.48 0.58—0.63 1971. and grout. 142 observe. (grout). ‘Average cohesive forces at the fracture tip, f T, are calculated on the basis of the regression equations of P and Q. The value off T calculated on the basis of the observed instantaneous shut in pressures are essentially the same as those based on the regression equations. Valley is underlain by the Conasauga Group. Ground water in the Conasauga occurs principally in the weathered zone, where openings along joints and bed- ding planes have been slightly enlarged by weathering and circulating water. Because these enlarged openings occur only at shallow depths, 0—10 m below land surface, the total capacity of shale of the Conasauga Group for receiving, storing, and transmitting water is small (McMaster and Waller, 1965). In the late fall, periods of no flow have frequently occurred in Melton Branch (McMaster, 1963). There is no known movement of ground water below a depth of 100 m. The isolation of the Pumpkin Valley member of the Conasauga Group is further demonstrated by the fact that the Pumpkin Valley con- tains small amounts of disseminated sodium chloride and methane gas (U.S. Energy Research and Develop- ment Administration, 1977). Cores taken from 30 m below the land surface showed no signs of iron stains, weathering, and solution cavity. A geothermal measure- ment (fig. 36) also indicates that there is no significant movement of ground water deeper than 200 m. SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURES 84° 20' V «HZ/d 7 c RESERVATION 0F DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY I \‘T \E‘ WFORMERU U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION RESERVATION)‘.%/’ f O 9 V WIMRJ - V " 0‘“ 31‘: I / Areaof j. " W Mo ' TENNESSEE I \\ ‘ ‘ f’ ’i " \Efi A —_. I I” 90' I / .‘x‘ _‘ /::///’/ Q 0'5 J93 ” / I m E ‘i 2”“‘(2 {mm H (@‘figd Present FrEcturing Facility S'Itefisefmnd Expgnmente \ ‘ ,f 3% {1(Formerly Thirq Experirrlent SI“? ~ RS5? SSW ~ rt u ‘ ‘ FIRST \gflké / g f? ‘ EXPERIMENT SITE =: 4/, T - w R % a {/9777 (7:; H / I II (V I N f \x e p x \ ID)» ' y \\ \ 5% ES A» ‘f 6 \ .1“ a I I / 1 4 ‘I , ‘ x ' ’r‘ / 0 ' / I . / “I I / 0 0.5 1 1‘5 2 KILOMETEHS BASE FEW U.S.GTS, I; 1 I I I BETHEL VALLEY GUADRANGLE ' TENNESSEE 1968 Contour IntervaI 20 feet (6.1 meters) Datum is mean sea Ievel FIGURE 34.—Location of hydraulic-fracturing—experiment sites, present fracturing site, and proposed site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. 51 APPENDIXES: CASE HISTORIES $me .2250 was «596qu 80.5 SSE ”@838me ficofiwz wwfim xao .mofim waiBmeégwéz: 23 53: 320% 8.333% wagesm 558m 1 .mm mmawrm T _ _ _ F 2: com o WEE: 03, J as? 237 I qum 30 yrs) < 10 nCi/g SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURES US. Energy Research and Development Administra- tion, 1977). SUMMARY OF DISPOSED RADIOACTIVE WASTES During 1964 and 1965, seven experimental injections had been made through the present disposal well. The first two experimental injections were made with syn- thetic wastes and the last five injections were made with actual wastes. Experimental results have indicated that grout injection by hydraulic fracturing is suitable and economical for disposal of the radioactive wastes at the ORN L; therefore since 1966 operational injections have been made periodically. At the end of 1978, a total of 17 operational injections were made. From 1964 through 1978, a total volume of 6,400 m3 (excluding synthetic waste) of intermediate-level TABLE 11. —Radio¢wtive—waste injected in Pumpkin Valley shale, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn, 1964—1978 (NA, not analyzed] Radionuclides Name of Injection In'ection In'ection Waste Grout Solids/ (in Ci, except 239Pu and 2“Cm, which are in grams) injection date epth a titude injected volume liquids (m) (In)! (m3) (m3) (kg/m3) ”Sr 13105 ioeRu “C0 lace 198Au 239Pu zucm Test injection 288.0 —46.7 141.2 152.8 75.2 281.6 —40.3 107.1 143.0 813.0 30 278.0 —36.6 126.8 247.2 1,565.5 4.9 74 0.4 0.1 274.3 —33.0 135.9 217.5 1,329.8 .9 50 1.2 .1 271.3 —29.9 558.7 799.7 842.0 608.0 193 35.0 4.0 4,099 268.2 —26.9 16.7 21.5 454.8 265.8 —24.4 242.2 351.2 719.0 330.0 1,562 2.0 1.0 Aug.16, 1965 ———————————— 265.8 —24.4 263.3 467.1 828.7 492.0 3,358 2.0 14.0 Operational injection ILW-lA — Dec. 12, 1966 ———————————— 265.8 —24.4 141.7 208.2 744.7 41.0 11,500 1.0 16.0 20 NA NA ILW-IB —- Dec. 13, 1966 - 265.8 —24.4 98.4 152.1 742.4 38.0 7,600 8.0 3.0 13 NA NA ILW-2A — Apr. 20, 1967 — 262.7 —21.4 308.1 461.0 718.5 564.0 31,329 99.0 236.0 NA NA ILW-ZB —— Apr. 24, 1967 — 262.7 —21.4 243.5 411.0 773.4 474.0 26,350 83.0 199.0 NA NA ILW-3A‘ - NOV.28, 1967 — 262.7 —21.4 117.3 ILW-3B —- NOV.29, 1967 - 262.7 —21.4 196.8 555.5 659.1 9,000.0 17,000 400.0 2000 Water test Dec. 13, 1967 - 259.7 —18.3 169.2 ILW-4A3 - Apr. 3, 1968 — 259.7 — 18.3 90.9 ILW-4B -— Apr. 4, 1968 —— 259.7 — 18.3 235.4 494.6 611.2 4,300.0 51,900 200.0 17.8 NA ILW-5 ——— Oct. 30, 1968 —— 256.6 —15.3 309.6 435.9 671.1 500.0 69,400 300.0 100.0 18.5 NA ILW-6 -—— June 1 1, 1969 —— 256.6 — 15.3 300.3 478.2 647.1 8,900.0 89,000 100.0 200.0 3.9 NA ILWv7 -—— Sep. 23, 1970 —— 256.6 — 15.3 314.2 551.4 659.1 2,747.0 44,833 236.0 72.0 28.60 0.230 1LW-8 ——— Sep. 29, 1972 -— 253.6 —12.3 275.2 411.1 874.8 45.0 27,917 2,523.0 2.13 .002 ILW-9 ——- Oct 17, 1972 —— 253.6 —12.3 258.5 431.5 934.7 231.0 23,359 376.0 None .068 ILW-10 —- Nov. 8, 1972 —— 253.6 —12.3 320.8 503.3 850.9 1,331.0 18,817 593.0 None .346 ILW-ll —— Dec. 5,1972 —— 253.6 —12.3 286.8 495.0 862.8 1,099.0 23,486 379.0 None 1.791 ILW-12 —— Jan 24, 1975 —— 250.5 —9.2 97.3 159.3 791.0 1,324.0 12,752 None .012 ILW-13 —— Apr. 29, 1975 —— 250.5 —9.2 306.6 477.3 755.0 3,368.0 35,750 .49 .214 ILW~14 —— JuneZO, 1975 —— 250.5 —9.2 314.0 525.0 802.9 2,874.0 30,592 None .043 ILW-15 —— June30, 1975 —— 250.5 —9.2 344.4 549.0 503.3 138.3 26,390 10.75 None ILW—16 —— Nov.17, 1977 —— 247.5 —6.2 208.9 300.9 862.8 1,618.0 14,964 None None ILW-17 -- Sep. 1, 1978 ———————————— 244.4 —3.1 311.5 520.4 838.9 90.0 22,270 1.19 .027 Total — —————————————————————————————————— 6,672.1 10,689.9 —————— 40,118.1 590,446 5,338.6 1,045.2 4,132 30 83.36 2.733 Total radioactivity ————————————————— 641,342.7 Ci. NOTE.— Data sources: Injections 1—7, ILW—IA through lLW—ZB, deLaguna and others, 1968, 1971; ILW—3A through ILW—7, deLag'una and others, 1971; ILW—8 through ILW—ll, Weeren, 1974; ILW—12 through ILW—14, Weeren, 1976; ILW—15 through ILW—17, Weeren, written commun., 1979. 1Mean sea level. zSynthetic waste. I’Stopped owing to difficulties. Activity merged with B. APPENDIXES: CASE HISTORIES radioactive waste (5.6x10‘3 uCi/mL 5 specific activity s 5.3 x 102 uCi/mL containing mainly of ”Sr and 137Cs) was disposed of through the present injection well at depths ranging from 244 to 288 m (table 11). The waste contained a total activity of 641,300 Ci among which were 590,400 Ci of 1370s, 40,000 Ci of ”Sr, 80 g of 239Pu, 3 g of 244Cm, and 10,500 Ci of other radionuclides, in— cluding 6°00, 1”Ru, and 1“Ce. INJECTION PROCESSES AND THE DISPOSAL PLANT The injection processes and disposal plant at the ORNL have been discussed by many investigators (deLaguna and others, 1968, 1971; Weeren, 1974, 1976). The following paragraphs are a summation of these reports. The major equipment used in injection consists of a waste pump, a jet mixer, a surge tank, and an injection pump (fig. 39). An artist’s sketch of the disposal plant is shown in figure 40. The injection capacity of the waste- injection pump is 40 MPa at 3 m3/s and 7 MPa at 20 m3/s. A standby injection pump (fig. 39) having a similar injec- tion capacity is equipped to flush the injection well with water to free it of grout in the unlikely event of a failure of the injection pump. Five underground waste storage tanks (figs. 39, 40) having a total capacity of 340 m3 were constructed at the disposal site to receive wastes 55 delivered from storage tanks at the laboratory site before injection. Solids that consist of cement, fly ash, attapulgite clay, illite or its equivalent, and a retarder, such as delta gluconolactone, are preblended before injection in ac- cord with the desired proportion designed by laboratory tests. The solids are mixed by blowing them back and forth between two pressure tanks; they are then stored in four bulk storage bins for injection use (fig. 41). Dur- ing each injection the preblended solids are aerated and allowed to flow through a metering hopper into a mixer. A mass flowmeter was installed below the metering hop- per to continuously weigh the solids. Concentrated li- quid waste is pumped into the mixer under pressure (0.7 MPa). Preblended solids are then dropped into the mixer by gravity through a chute and are mixed thoroughly with the waste by a jet stream (figs. 42, 43,) thus form- ing the grout, which is continuously discharged to a surge tank, from where it is injected into shale by injec- tion pump (fig. 42). The control of the proportion of waste with the preblended solids is critical. The varia- tion should be within 5 percent of the designed propor- tion but not exceed 10 percent. The mix ratio is con- trolled manually by referring to mass-flowmeter and waste-flow-meter readings. A considerable volume of water is required for casing slotting and equipment washing. The water is contamin- ,— PREBLENDED SOLIDS STORAGE 1'; WASTE PUMPS ,_ _u,_,. . h. wASTEéTORAGE TANKS FIGURE 39.—Schematic diagram of the hydraulic—fracturing and waste-grout—injection facility, ‘ , suns : " 5" TANK -_ 3" " ' J 5' STANDBY _ _ INJECTION 3 . INJECTION A. PUMP .1... ’33.". PUMP INJECTION WELL Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. (Courtesy of Oak Ridge National Laboratory.) SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURES 56 43820an Ecosmz wmfim sad we $3.509 SEE “3833me Raosmz mafia #5 5058.9: usofiwémsa can waifiufiwomfifigs 2: mo :88? Mamsfiws .3 552m ,Emmxm Bozo 311$ Own mexfi wO FLOWMETER kilogram /min MIXER ®fl_ __ tSURGE TANK 3% ®—— FLOWMETER Ig, GROUT TO m3/s INJECTION PU MP + WASTE SOLUTION FIGURE 42.—Diagram showing the arrangement of the mass flowmeter in a mixer cell for waste-grout injection, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. (from deLaguna and others, 1968). FIGURE 43. ~Photograph showing conveyors for moving preblended solids from storage bins to a mixer for waste-grout injection, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. (Courtesy of Oak Ridge National Laboratory.) APPENDIXES: CASE HISTORIES 59 FIGURE 44. —Phot0graph showing cell enclosing the wellhead of the waste—injection well, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. (Courtesy of Oak Ridge National Laboratory.) ated and must be injected with waste. To achieve a max- imum disposal efficiency, the contaminated water must be reused, and for this purpose a concrete-lined waste pit was constructed to temporarily store the con- taminated water (fig. 40). An emergency waste trench was also dug as a precau- tion against the possibility of a wellhead rupture (fig. 40). During such an incident the pressurized grout would flow back from the injection well and discharge to the trench; the trench would then be covered with earth fill. The mixer, surge tank, injection pump, waste pump, and injection wellhead are all enclosed in concrete cells constructed with 30-cm thick walls and roofed with sheet metal to avoid radiation exposure of operators and to limit areas that could be contaminated if the piping or equipment ruptures or leaks (figs. 44, 45). A safety-glass window was installed in a wall of the cell to allow inspec- tion during injection. The injection well consists of a surface casing 46 m in length and 25 cm in diameter. The surface casing was cemented by pressure over the entire length. A small casing, 14 cm in diameter and 320 m in length, was placed inside the surface casing and was also pressure cemented for the entire length, as shown in figure 46. Two different types of wellheads are used during in- jections. One is used for slotting, and the other, for in- jection. During slotting, a packoff flange is bolted to the 14-cm tubing head (fig. 47). A string of tubing 64 mm in diameter with a swivel attached is placed at a desired in- jection depth and is supported by a crane. A stream of slurry consisting of sand and water is pumped down through the tubing under pressure and discharges out of a jet nozzle. The tubing string is slowly rotated by a hydraulic power swivel; therefore, the abrasive under high pressure can cut the casing, cement wall, and shale in a complete circle. The slurry, after most of its energy has been spent, returns to surface throught the annulus. The schematic diagram of the slotting operation is shown in figure 48. The contaminated water used in slot- ting is stored in a waste pit and can be used for fracture initiation or injected along with waste. During waste injection the packoff flange is replaced by an adapter flange and shut-off valve (figs. 49, 50). The adapter flange supports the 64 mm tubing string, 60 SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRA ULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURES FIGURE 45,—Photog'raph showing bins, waste—injection wellhead cell, injection pump, and standby injection pump, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. (Courtesy of Oak Ridge National Laboratory.) which is placed at a depth several meters above the desired injection depth. The annulus between the tubing string and the 14-cm casing is filled with water. Since the tubing string is open to the annulus near the bottom of the well, the pressure in the annulus is equal to injec- tion pressure, excluding friction loss in the tubing. After a fracture is initiated by water, the grout injection follows. When the last of the waste solution has been in- jected, a small volume of fresh water is pumped down the well to “overflush” the grout out of the injection well for use in the next injection. The injection well is then shut in under pressure until the grout sets. Several in- jections can be made through the same slot (table 11); the old slot is then plugged with cement, and a new slot is made a few meters above the old slot. INJECTIONS By the end of 1978, 25 injections had been made through the present injection well. Seven were ex- perimental injections, one was a water injection, and the others were operational grout injections. Trouble with cement flow occurred during injection 6, an experimen- tal injection. The injection was made in two stages, which were named 6A and 6B. Four operational injec- tions were also named A and B (table 11) because the in- jection was interrupted either owing to the lack of storage capacity at the disposal site, such as during in- jections ILW—lA and ILW—lB, or because of difficulties of achieving desirable mixing ratio of solids and wastes, such as during injections ILW—ZA and ILW—2B. After the fourth operational injection, the injection number was not subdivided again, even if the injection was inter- rupted. Most of the injections have been discussed by many in- vestigators (deLaguna and others, 1968, 1971; Sun 1969; Weeren, 1974, 1976). The examples of injections discussed in the following sections are chosen to show the correlation between the grout size estimated on the basis of the uplift model (see p. 18) and that observed in the field and to show the results of operational grout APPENDIXES: CASE HISTORIES 61 INJECTION WELL 46 m of 241/2-cm surface casing Cement 320 m of 14-cm casing FIGURE 46. — Schematic diagram showing construction of the waste» injection well, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. (from deLaguna and others, 1971). mixing, as well as the procedures for determining the at- titudes of grout-sheets by gamma-ray logs. EXPERIMENTAL INJECTIONS Two experimental injections were made in September 1960 through the second experimental well. Twenty- four core holes were drilled to determine the extent and thickness of the grout sheets. Precise leveling was run after each injection. The injection data are summarized in table 12, and the thickness of grout sheets measured in core holes and the uplift of the ground surface are shown in figures 2 and 3. The calculated maximum grout thickness and radius of grout sheet are shown in table 12, and a comparison of calculated with observed values for uplift are shown in figures 51 and 52. Generally speaking, the calculated uplift is in good agreement with the observed uplift. The core-hole data indicates that the induced fractures were probably formed in the weakest bedding planes and grout did not flow radially from the injection well. The maximum thickness of grout sheet did not occur near the injection well (figs. 2, 3). This was probably ow- ing to water injection at the end of each injection to clean grout out of the injection well. The thickness of grout sheet as measured in cores is less than the calculated fracture separation (table 12). This is not sur- prising in view of the fact that the induced fractures must have enough separation for slurry to flow during injection and because the calculated fracture separation is the condition that existed during the injection time. After the injection the separation of the induced frac- tures was reduced owing to compaction under over- burden pressure. The grout in the cores appeared to be nearly as hard as the shale into which the slurry was in- jected (fig. 1). The uplift model was further tested by a comparison of the uplift calculated with that observed during the ex- perimental injections 1 through 7 at the present disposal site, 0.8 km west of the second experimental site. The comparison is shown in figure 53 and apparently in- dicates a good agreement. The locations of survey benchmarks are shown in figure 54. The uplifts were also surveyed after operational injections ILW—7 and ILW—ll. However, the author has no detailed injection data for these injections; therefore, there are no calcula- tions of uplifts for comparison. TABLE 12. —Physical properties of grout, injection pressure, calculated grout radius, and maximum fracture separation, September 1960, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. Injection date September 10 Parameters September 3 Injection depth ————————————————————— meters -11, 285 212 Inside diameter of injection casing — millimeters ———— 104 104 Injection rate ———————— cubic meters er second ———~ .009 .016 Injection volume ——————————————— cu ic meters ———— 346 503 Wellhead breakdown pressure ——— megapascals -——— 15.89 15.20 Wellhead injection pressure —————————————— do ~——— 12.75 14.91 Bottom-hole injection pressure ————— ——~ do 7-—— 16.28 17.56 Calculated overburden pressure ———— ——~ do ,-__ 13.58 10.10 Assumed Young’s modulus —————— ——— do W“ 1.8 x 10‘ 1.8 x 104 Assumed Poison ratio —————————————————————————— 1 .1 Density of fluid ————— kilograms per cubic meter _,-_ 1 38 x 103 1.44 x 103 n’ .109 .065 K’ ——————————— newtons-secn per square meter ~——— 16.04 29.69 Calculated grout radius —————————————— meters 7~—— 77 65 Calculated maximum fracture separation ——————————————————— millimeters ———— 29 62 Observed grout thickness ———————————————— do ———— 8 12 62 SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURES ROTATING SWIVEL TUBING SLICK JOINT (SUPPORTED BY CRANE) PACKOFF FLANGE TUBING HEAD CASING HEAD SURFACE CASING CASING FIGURE 47.—Schematic diagram showing wellhead arrangement for slotting by hydraulic jet, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. (Courtesy of Oak Ridge National Laboratory.) APPENDIXES: CASE HISTORIES 63 ROTATING SWIVEL SAND \ INJECTION PUMP MIXER PUMP T *?:E: CONTAMINATED — —- WATER PIT SPENT SAND JET FIGURE 48. — Schematic diagram showing slotting operation for hydraulic-fracturing and waste-grout injection, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. (Courtesy of Oak Ridge National Laboratory.) 64 \ [__ SHUT-OFF VALVE TUBING-HEAD ADAPTER TUBING STRING .0 / TUBING HEAD / ’ ‘ /CASING HEAD BULL PLUG '77 PLUG SURFACE CASING ‘ \CASWG FIGURE 49.—Schematic diagram showing wellhead arrangement for waste-grout injection, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. (Courtesy of Oak Ridge National Laboratory.) OPERATIONAL INJECTIONS At the end of 1978, there had been 17 operational in- jections. A total volume of 5,000 m3 of radioactive liquid waste contained in 8,100 m3 of grout had been injected at depths between 244 m and 266 In (table 11). Half of the injections have been discussed by Weeren (1974; 1976) and deLaguna and others (1968). The following discussions were summarized from these reports. SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURES During September through December 1972, injections ILW—8 through ILW—ll were made at a depth of 254 m. Four tanks of waste were injected. The chemical com- position of waste is shown in table 13. Waste contained in tank 1 and part of the wastes in tank 2 were injected during injection ILW—8. Only waste in tank 2 was in- jected during injection ILW—9. Injection ILW—10 includ- ed 38 m3 of waste remaining in tank 2 and of the wastes in tanks 3 and 4. The remaining wastes in tanks 3 and 4 were injected during injection ILW—ll. The composition of solids used in all four injections was approximately as follows: M aberials Percent by weight Portland cement 38.45 Fly ash 38.45 Attapulgite 150 15.38 Grundite 7.69 Retarder .03 The average solids and waste mixing ratio is indicated in table 11. The concentrations of radionuclides in the in- jected waste are shown in table 14. It was learned dur- ing the injections that bleed back after injection is an im- portant factor, as is discussed in the following section. BLEED BACK THROUGH THE INJECTION WELL No matter how well the slurry is mixed there always is liquid separation. The unbound water eventually leaks through fracture walls into shale pores under pressure. To reduce as much as possible the amount of separated unbound water leaking from grout into a shale forma- tion, it is necessary to bleed back the unbound water to the ground surface through the injection well after the grout has been solidified. A summary of the bleed-back data is shown in table 15. It is not surprising that both wellhead pressure and initial rate of bleed back decrease with increase in shut- in time because the unbound water leaks through frac- ture walls under pressure during such time, despite the low permeability of the shale. The concentrations of ra- TABLE 13. —Chemical composition, in moles per liter, of waste disposed of by injections, September—December, 1972, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. [From Weeren, 1974] Constituent Tank 1 2 3 4 1.66 1.24 0.57 0.59 .007 .037 .002 .0011 .003 .03 .044 .05 .18 .28 .15 .16 .84 1.03 .30 .30 .093 .217 .049 .044 .094 .183 .111 .125 .193 .288 .093 .10 APPENDIXE S: CASE HISTORIES FIGURE ESQ—Photograph showing well-head of injection well, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. (Courtesy of Oak Ridge National Laboratory.) 65 66 on SUBSURFACIG DISPOSAL OI" RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURES - 653C ‘ . 4A | I l 1 x | 1 I 1 UPLIFT, IN MILLIMETERS :- | o EXPLANATION -- A Surveyed uplill along line between benchmarks 4A and l0D — o Surveyed uplifl along line between henrlimnrks 3C and 3E x Surveyed uplilf along line belween benchmarks 68 and 6E — ‘ X Calcululed upliIl .. A - A l I _...x ‘. x N o o 600 500 400 300 200 100 :11 n I 1 0 I00 206 ' 300 400 500 600 700 RADIAL DISTANCE BETWEEN SURVEY BENCHMARKS AND THE INJECTION WELL, IN METERS FIGURE 51. —Calculated and surveyed surface uplift produced by the grout injection, Sept. 3, 1960, second experiment site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. (Locations of benchmarks are shown in figs. 2 and 3.) TABLE 14.—Specific activity, in caries per liter, of major radio- nuclides contained in wastes disposed of by injections, September—December 1972, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. [From Weeren, 1974] Radionuclides Injection number ILW78 ILW—9 ILW710 ILW—ll 1.65x10" 8.93x10’“ 4,15x10‘3 3.83x10‘3 1.01><10‘1 9.04 ><10’2 5.87 ><10'2 8.19x10‘2 9,17><103 1.45><10’3 1.85><10'3 1.32x10'3 6.74><10'7 2.18x10‘5 8.98x10‘5 5.20x10" 4.76 ><10’7 None None None dionuclides in the bleed-back water are shown in table 16. Although the bleed back is only 4 percent of the total injected volume and the radionuclides contained in the bleed back are only several tenths of one percent of the total injected radionuclides, the concentration of ra- dionuclides in the bleed back is still high, and the bleed back was therefore stored for use during the next injec- tion. Because of the low permeability of the shale, some of the separated liquid that could not be bled back through the injection well would probably be trapped in induced fractures or in the shale. During the drilling of observation well S—100, when the grout sheet of ex- perimental injection 3 was intersected at a depth of 276 m, water flowed slowly from the grout seam. A sample of the flowing water was anaylzed, indicating the follow- ing results: Cl‘, 36,500 ppm (parts per million); Na+, 31,100 ppm; N05, 28,600 ppm; Caz”, 2,930 ppm; OH‘, 2,000 ppm; SO42“, 1,620 ppm; Mg“, 380 ppm; H3, 7.3x10‘7 Ci/L; 9°Sr, 6.8x10‘8 Ci/L; and 1370s, 3.7x 10‘7 Ci/L, (deLaguna and others, 1968). This fin- ding raises the concern that free radionuclides may be left in the shale, whether as a result of phase separation or of other causes. The bleed-back data and the water found in the grout seam indicate that the amount of free radionuclides in the shale is low. If the ground-water flow paths from the injection area to a nearby ground- water body as long and the shale’s permeability is low and its adsorption capacity high, then the possibility that radionuclides in the unbound water could migrate into the nearby biosphere is further reduced by radioac- tive decay, as well as hydrodynamic dispersion. However, a series of observation wells constructed along the perimeter of the injection area and in forma- tions lying above the injection zone are required to monitor the possible migration. TABLE 15. —Bleed back from injections, September—December 1972, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. [From Weeren 1974] Well-head . . . In‘ection Injection Date wellhead Efays pressure Initial flow Final flow Recovered 3 date valve opened inj 631;) n at 311:1:ng (51135:) (fist/Z) wiggle (Ii/1P3) ILW—8 _____________ Sep. 29, 1972 _____ Oct. 9,1972 _____ 10 1.69 1.16 x 10'5 6.52 x 10'6 4.40 ILW—9 _____________ Oct. 17, 1972 _____ Oct. 27, 1972 _____ 10 2.14 1.26x 10‘4 7.57x 10‘5 12.80 ILW—lO ____________ Nov. 8, 1977 _____ 1N0v.20, 1972 _____ 12 1.41 4.99 x 10‘4 4.10 x 10‘4 2.50 Nov.30,1972 _____ 22 1.03 2.71x 10‘4 2.33x 10'4 2.20 ILW—11 ____________ Dec. 5, 1972 _____ 1Dec. 14, 1972 _____ 9 1.69 3.22 x10'4 ————— 2.16 1Dec.29, 1973 _____ 24 1.17 1.70x 10‘4 ————— 1.60 1Jan. 19,1973 _____ 45 0.97 1.01 x 10‘4 ————— 1.10 Apr. 4, 1973 _____ 120 0.57 4.73 x10‘5 5.99 ><10‘7 Z43.90 lValve closed again. 2Measured on Apr. 22, 1973. APPENDIXES: CASE HISTORIES 67 a: S | | UPLIFT, IN MILLIMETERS :- I EXPLANATION A Surveyed uplift along line between _ benchmarks 4A and TOD O Surveyed uplilt along line between - benchmarks 3C and 3E X Surveyed uplift along line between — benchmarks 68 and 6E Calculated uplilt 0 700 600 500 100 400 RADIAL DISTANCE BETWEEN SURVEY BENCHMARKS AND THE INJECTION WELL, IN METERS 300 200 0 WC 200 300 400 500 600 700 FIGURE 52. -Calculated and surveyed surface uplift produced by the grout injection, Sept. 10, 1960, sec- ond experiment site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. (Locations of benchmarks are shown in figs. 2 and 3.) TABLE 16.—Specific activity, in curies per liter, of radionuclides in bleed-back solution, Septmnber—Decembe’r 1972, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Term. [From Weeren, 1974. NA, not analyzed] Injection ILW—8 ILW—9 ILW—lO ILW—ll Radionuclides <4.5)<10"3 4.0)(10's 1.5>(10'a 9.8 X 10'5 4.8 x 10'5 1.4 X 10" 1.5 X 10“ ————————— 5.5 x 10-4 —————-——— 6.6 x 10-4 NA 6,9x10'4 NA NA NA 8.5 X 10'6 NA NA NA 6.6x 10‘6 NA NA Other Na‘ ____________ 24 mg/mL ————— 22 mg/mL 35.3 mg/mL ph _____________ .3 1256' 11.4 10.0 POSITION OF GROUT SHEET The extent and altitude of the grout sheet can be determined by coring after the grout is solidified; however, this process is costly and time consuming. If a 24 series of observation wells has been constructed and if the injected wastes contain gamma-ray-emitting ra- dionuclides, then one alternative would be to obtain gamma-ray logs in the observation wells before and after injection. Intensified gamma—ray peaks that are above those of background gamma-ray activity of shale would indicate that the induced fractures have in- tercepted the wells at the depth indicated. In logs made after two or three injections, it is difficult to associate the observed gamma-ray peaks with the appropriate in- jections. Only logs made after each injection are available for injections ILW—8 through ILW—ll (W eeren, 1974). Figure 55 indicates the location of the observation wells in which the gamma-ray logs were run. Figure 56 shows the grout sheets found in the observation wells projected on a line passing through the injection well in the direc- tion along the formation dip. The actual observed grout sheets intercept the observation wells at altitudes and locations listed in table 17. From figures 55, 56, and table 17, it seems that the grout sheets have formed 20 :5 3‘ l UPLIET, IN MILLIMETERS m | l l L I l l l l I EXPLANATION A Surveyed uplift along line between benchmarks B9, X, and (8 I Surveyed uplift along line between - benchmarks A9, X, and D7 Calculated uplilt I I I I I l l l 600 ‘ 500 400 300 200' 100 0 I00 200 300 400 700 RADIAL DISTANCE BETWEEN SURVEY BENCHMARKS AND THE INJECTION WELL, IN METERS FIGURE 53. -Calculated and observed surface uplift produced by the experimental injections 1 through 7, present fracturing site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. (Locations of benchmarks are shown in fig. 54.) 68 SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURES EXPLANATION X A9 Bemhmark Inlechon we“ xCZ xCl D4x XD3 xDZ xDS xDb x07 XCS XDI xAl xA9 XAB )(A7 xA6 xAS xA4 xA3 XAZ @ xBl B: x82 x33 ‘34 X35 x86>‘\_\ ~I\ : ‘ : grout sheet was found : # m D . , ‘ M I ~. - j 24 _ I ~~~~~ s 000000 In the well I z 0 f\‘\ i ./ : i mfg ‘\ [median 13.14 no DDDDDD : roooooo 00000 l u; l‘ \‘y nnnnn j I‘ o i .’)\‘ level ‘Lwiggnaco : cccccc one I Q _ o 0 ~ aaaaaa 0 :I s I new. I. I _ I, . ‘~\ °° ‘ E; 10 $°°°° 'I l l ""“w _______ I‘ n, g — u . _ _ I an --__ . i # 2g 1 ..... j ..... :.: Wham} "25‘3ij : c I I I I we; no ° I l m a c I E 20 _ i i l j 5 ln/eclIon ' i g g i i l ' i level i i a I 1 I : : I 1 In 30 — l I j I I : I — I I I l I I I I I I l I I I I I I ' I I I I I I l : I I I I I l I I I I I I I I I l I I I I I I I I I 400 300 200 100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 NW SE PROJECTED DISTANCE FROM INJECTION WELL, IN METERS FIGURE 56.—Cross—section showing the grout sheets formed by waste injections ILW—8 through ILW—14, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn., as interpreted from gamma-ray logs made in observation wells after injections and projected on a line (AA’, fig. 55), in the direction along dip and passing through the center of the injection well. 70 SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURES Rock Observation well for 'njecnon Observation well for cover gamma-ray logging well gamma-ray logging Ground surface well i i 5 i 5 4 . x f i Cement 5“ Casrng \Tubing % i \ i E \Cement Cement 4 ,. , ' ' Open hole Open hole ' Shale Shale Shale Shale Slotted by Waste grout sheets /hydraulic jetting ‘34 wwwm 275%)“ —J, ’ m w Waste grout pushed ‘ away by water injection at end of grout injection Shale Shale FIGURE 57. — Schematic diagram showing the injection well, observation wells, and waste grout sheet in shale, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. area where the grout sheets were detected by gamma- ray logs, the pressure in the rock-cover wells rose, while in the area where the gamma-ray logs indicated no grout sheets, the pressure in the rock-cover wells dropped slightly (deLaguna and others, 1971). This evidence pro- bably can be explained by changes in strain around the open-hole section of the rock-cover wells. In the grout- sheet area the shale is probably compressed by uplift due to the accommodation of the injected grout thus increas- ing pressure in the rock-cover wells. The uplift does not stop at the edge of the grout sheet and must extend away from the edge without shearing the rock. Therefore, the volume of rock beyond the edge of the grout sheet should expand, thus increasing the rock porosity slightly, which causes the pressure in the rock- cover wells to drop slightly. The pressure changes measured in rock-cover wells and the grout sheets in- dicated by gamma-ray logs for the injections ILW—8 through ILW-ll are shown in table 18. SITE EVALUATION Because the present disposal site approaches its full injection capacity and the disposal facility can not han- dle the injection of accumulated sludge, a new fractur- TABLE 18. —Rock-cover wells having positive or negative difi’erence in pressures measured before and during an injection and results of gam'ma-ray—logs, September—December 1972, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. [From Weeren, 1974] Results of Injection gamma-ray log Pressure difference in rock cover well Positive Negative Positive Negative Ambiguous‘ ILW—8 ____________ NW 100 W 300 NW 175 N 275 w 300 S 100 N 100 NW 250 N 200 S 200 N 150 NE 125 NE 200 P 300 NE 125 E 320 S 220 ILW—9 ____________ W 300 NW 100 NE 125 E 300 w goo N 150 N 100 NE 200 N 200 NW 175 S 100 NE 125 S 200 E 320 N 275 S 220 NW 250 lLW—IO ___________ W 300 E 320 NW 175 W 300 NW 250 NW 100 S 100 N 275 S 200 N 150 S 220 N 200 E 300 N 100 NE 125 NE 125 NE 200 ILW—ll ___________ NW 100 W 300 NW 175 NW 250 ,,,,,,,,, N 150 E 320 N 200 W 300 N 100 S 220 NE 125 S 200 NE 125 NE 200 N 275 S 100 E 300 ‘No clear sign of positive or negative pressure, ing site was proposed, which is 245 m south of the pres- ent facility (fig. 34). The new site was evaluated jointly by the ORNL and the USGS in 1974 (Sun, 1976; Weeren and others, 1974). The following sections are a summa- tion of the evaluation. APPENDIXES: CASE HISTORIES 71 TEST DRILLING Although the proposed site is only 245 m from the present disposal site, where numerous test holes and in- jections had been made in past years, one test hole with core was drilled at the proposed site to insure that the subsurface geology and hydrology would not deviate greatly from that at the present site. Cores were taken from depths of 212 to 362 m. In the interval from 212 to 250 m the rock is gray shale interbedded with thin limestone layers. From 250 to 302 m the shale is purple and silty and lacks limestone layers. From 302 m to the top of the Rome Formation (357 m) the shale is gray or purple and increasingly sandy. From 357 to 362 m the rock is hard, white sandstone interbedded with shale and is part of the Rome Formation. Bedding planes are very evident and dip 10°—20° SE. The subsurface geology indicated by cores is similar to that at the pres- ent site. The purple and gray shale between 250 and 357 m comprises the Pumpkin Valley Shale of the Con— asauga Group, into which radioactive waste is scheduled to be injected. The test hole was converted into an observation well, known as the South-observation well. Gamma-ray logs were made in this well before and after the well was cased and cemented. Three more observation wells, the East-, West-, and North-observation wells, were con- structed at a radial distance of 60 m from the injection well and also were cased and pressure cemented. The in- jection well was constructed with a 14—cm casing and was pressure cemented in a way similar to that of the present injection well. The locations of all wells are shown in figure 58 and are listed in table 19. Gamma-ray logs were also made in all wells before they were cased and pressure cemented. Thereafter, gamma-ray logs were made again in only some of the wells. These gamma-ray logs were used to determine not only the background level of gamma-ray activity of the injection shale but also the contacts between rock units. Laboratory determinations of rock tensile strength had never been made for shales at the New York and Oak Ridge sites. Therefore, the author took advantage of this site evaluation to determine, in the laboratory, the tensile strength of the shale scheduled for injection to make a comparison with tensile strength calculated from test injections. Well deviation, determination of dip and strike, and tensile strength of the injection shale are discussed in the following sections. WELL DEVIATION All wells drift from the vertical axis, as indicated by deviation logs. All measured depths were corrected for the angle of deviation to obtain true vertical depths and Nl7300 I I I I I I I Nl7200 '- — . ln‘eci‘on well Nl7l00 - . I i F Joy well a! present fracturing- fcciliiy site Nl7000 — _ w LU I— <2 3 g N16900 — - o o > a: ,9. < Nl6800 — - u: o m < ‘l g Nl6700 — O ‘ E North—observation <2): well L“ Nl6600 — F S . . a: Inlechon well a! . § proposed site Eust—obsellrvuhon o we N16500 — O O O a West-observation well . Nl6400 _ New East-observation _ well 0 1O 20 30 METERS Nl6300 - O I_J_I_I - South—observation well N16200 ' ‘ ' 1 ' 1 ' E27900 E28000 E28l00 E28200 E28300 E28400 E28500 E28600 E28700 OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY COORDINATES FIGURE 58.—Locations of wells, at the proposed disposal site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. TABLE 19. —-ORNL coordinates and altitude, in meters above mean sea level, of wells at the proposed disposal site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Term. Well Coordinates Altitude Injection well at present site ———— N 17155 E 28617 241.3 Injection well at the proposed Slte —————————————————————— 16503 28178 240.3 Old East-observation well —————— 16503 28378 240.2 New East-observation well ————— 16445 28307 241.3 South-observation well ——————-— 16304 28179 243.6 West-observation well ———————— 16502 27978 238.5 North-observation well -------- 16702 28172 235.1 true horizontal locations at the particular depths of in- terest. The corrections were made by using equations 38 through 41. The calculated true vertical depths and true horizontal positions at 30 m intervals in all wells are listed in table 20. STRATIGRAPHY OF THE INJECTION SHALE Three rock units present in the Conasauga Group have been identified in the gamma-ray logs and cores. From top to bottom, they are gray limestone interbedded with 72 SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRA ULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURES TABLE 20. —Data on observations and calculations for a deviation survey made at the proposed disposal site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. [N, north; S, south; E, east; W, west] Displacement from surface well center, in meters Calculated Measured Course Vertical Calculated vertical depth - Magnetic at Total depth length MD deviation (m) dogfiggfil H bearing, y y z m m an , ' ( ) ( ) ge a Z Total (m) 5 N s E w N s E W Injection well [Total depth after cementing and casing, 338 m] 30.48 _____ 30.48 1°45’ 30.47 30.47 0.93 N. 30° W. 0.81 0.47 0.81 0.47 60.96 _____ 30.48 4° 30.41 60.88 2.13 N. 40° W. 1.63 1.37 2.44 1.84 91.44 _____ 30.48 8° 30.18 91.06 4.24 N. 55° W. 2.43 3.47 4.87 5.31 121.92 _____ 30.48 9°12’ 30.09 121.15 4.87 N. 73° W. 1.42 4.66 6.29 9.97 152.40 _____ 30.48 12° 29.81 150.96 6.34 N. 72° W. 1.96 6.03 8.25 16.00 182.88 _____ 30.48 9°48’ 30.04 181.00 5.19 S. 85° W. 0.45 5.17 7.80 21.17 213.36 _____ 30.48 10°36’ 29.96 210.96 5.61 N. 72° W. 1.73 5.33 9.53 26.50 243.84 _____ 30.48 21°30' 28.36 239.32 11.17 N. 58° W. 5.92 9.47 15.45 35.97 274.32 _____ 30.48 16° 29.30 268.62 8.40 N. 52° W 5.17 6.62 20.62 42.59 304.80 _____ 30.48 16°36’ 29.21 297.83 8.71 N. 35° W. 7.13 4.99 27.75 47.58 343.51 _____ 38.71 17°18’ 36.96 334.79 11.51 N. 33° W. 9.65 6.27 37.40 53.85 Old East-observation well [Total depth after cementing and casing, 334 m] 30.48 _____ 30.48 0 30.48 30.48 0 -——— 0 0 0 0 60.96 _____ 30.48 2°30’ 30.45 60.93 1.33 N. 35° E. 1.09 .76 1.09 .76 91.44 _____ 30.48 4°24’ 30.39 91.32 2.34 N. 85° E. .20 2.33 1.29 3.09 121.92 _____ 30.48 5°36’ 30.33 121.65 2.97 S. 55° E. 1.71 2.44 0.42 5.53 152.40 _____ 30.48 2°30' 30.45 152.10 1.33 S. 30° E. 1.15 .66 1.57 6.19 182.88 _____ 30.48 4° 30.41 182.51 2.13 S. 80° W. .37 2.09 1.94 4.10 213.36 _____ 30.48 12° 29.81 212.32 6.34 N. 60° W. 3.17 5.49 1.23 1.39 243.84 _____ 30.48 16°42’ 29.19 241.51 8.76 N. 55° W. 5.02 7.17 6.25 8.56 274.32 _____ 30.48 18°18’ 28.94 270.45 9.57 N. 58° W. 5.07 8.12 11.32 16.68 304.80 _____ 30.48 15°24' 29.39 299.84 8.09 N. 73° W. 2.37 7.74 13.69 24.42 345.95 _____ 41.15 16°30’ 39.46 339.30 11.69 N. 63° W. 5.31 10.41 19.00 34.83 New East-observation well [Total depth after cementing and casing, 347 m] 45.72 _____ 45.72 1° 45.71 45.71 0.80 N. 60° E. 0.40 0.69 0.40 0.69 76.20 _____ 30.48 4° 30.41 76.12 2.13 N. 60° E. 1.07 1.84 1.47 2.53 106.68 _____ 30.48 4° 30.41 106.52 2.13 N. 80° E. .37 2.10 1.84 4.63 137.16 _____ 30.48 3° 30.44 136.96 1.60 N. 70° E. .55 1.50 2.39 6.13 167.64 _____ 30.48 2° 30.46 167.42 1.06 N. 48° W. .71 0.79 3.10 5.34 198.12 _____ 30.48 4°30’ 30.39 197.81 2.39 S. 85° W. 0.21 2.38 2.89 2.96 228.60 _____ 30.48 14° 29.57 227.38 7.37 N. 80° W. 1.28 7.26 4.17 4.30 259.08 _____ 30.48 16° 29.30 256.68 8.40 N. 80° W. 1.46 8.27 5.63 12.57 289.56 _____ 30.48 16°30' 29.22 285.91 8.66 N. 64° W. 3.79 7.78 9.42 20.35 320.04 _____ 30.48 20° 28.64 314.55 10.42 N. 56° W. 5.83 8.64 15.25 28.99 350.52 _____ 30.48 14° 29.57 344.12 7.37 N. 28° W. 6.51 3.46 21.76 32.45 APPENDIXES: CASE HISTORIES 73 TABLE 20.—Data on observations and calculations for a deviation survey made at the proposed disposal site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. — Continued [N north; 8. south; E. cast; W, west] Calculated Displacement from surface well center. in meters Measured Course Vertical Calculated vertical depth horizontal Magnetic I Total depth length MI) deviation (m) displacement, H bearing, y ac (m) (m) ”‘6‘“ a g Total (m) a N s E W N s E W South-observation well [Total depth after cementing and casing, 338 m] 30.48 _____ 30.48 3°30’ 30.42 30.42 1.86 N. 88° W. 0.06 1.86 0.06 1.86 60.96 _____ 30.48 5°48’ 30.32 60.75 3.08 N. 60° W. 1.54 2.67 1.60 4.53 91.44 _____ 30.48 4°30’ 30.39 91.14 2.39 N. 65° W. 1.01 2.17 2.61 6.70 121.92 _____ 30.48 8°36’ 30.14 121.28 4.56 N. 65° W. 1.93 4.13 4.54 10.83 152.40 _____ 30.48 11°12' 29.90 151.18 5.92 N. 58° W. 3.14 5.02 7.68 15.85 182.88 _____ 30.48 12°30’ 29.76 180.94 6.60 N. 58° W. 3.50 5.60 11.18 21.45 204.22 _____ 21.34 13° 20.79 201.73 4.80 N. 62° W. 2.25 4.24 13.43 25.69 207.26 _____ 3.05 13°36’ 2.96 204.69 .72 N. 62° W. .34 .63 13.77 26.32 213.36 _____ 6.10 14°24' 5.91 210.60 1.52 N. 63° W. .69 1.35 14.46 27.67 243.84 _____ 30.48 14°36' 29.50 240.10 7.68 N. 65° W. 3.25 6.96 17.71 34.63 274.32 _____ 30.48 16° 29.30 269.40 8.40 N. 65° W. 3.55 7.61 21.26 42.24 304.80 _____ 30.48 17°30’ 29.07 298.47 9.17 N. 62° W. 4.31 8.10 25.57 50.34 335.28 _____ 30.48 17° 29.15 327.62 8.91 N. 62° W. 4.18 7.87 29.75 58.21 364.24 _____ 28.96 15°30’ 27.91 355.53 7.74 N. 62° W. 3.63 6.83 33.38 65.04 West-observation well [Total depth after cementing" and casing, 342 m] 30.48 _____ 30.48 1° 30.48 30.48 0.53 N. 90° W. 0 0.53 0 0.53 60.96 _____ 30.48 3° 30.44 60.91 1.60 S. 80° W. 0.28 1.57 0.28 2.10 91.44 _____ 30.48 5° 30.36 91.28 2.66 N. 80° W. .46 2.62 .18 4.72 121.92 _____ 30.48 7°15' 30.48 121.76 3.85 N. 85° W. .34 3.83 .52 8.55 152.40 _____ 30.48 11°30’ 29.87 151.63 6.08 N. 83° W. .74 6.03 1.26 14.58 182.88 _____ 30.48 12°30’ 29.76 181.38 6.60 N. 82° W. .92 6.53 2.18 21.11 213.36 _____ 30.48 15° 29.44 210.83 7.89 N. 72° W. 2.44 7.50 4.62 28.61 243.84 _____ 30.48 18°45’ 28.86 239.69 9.80 N. 58° W. 5.19 8.31 9.81 36.92 274.32 _____ 30.48 19°30’ 28.73 268.42 10.17 N. 58° W. 5.39 8.63 15.20 45.55 304.80 _____ 30.48 15° 29.44 297.86 7.89 N. 55° W. 4.52 6.46 19.72 52.01 335.28 _____ 30.48 11°30' 29.87 327.73 6.08 N. 38° W. 4.79 3.74 24.51 55.75 351.13 _____ 15.85 11°30' 15.53 343.26 3.16 N. 45° W. 2.23 2.23 26.74 57.98 North-observation well [Total depth after cementing and casing, 330 m] 30.48 _____ 30.48 3°30’ 30.42 30.42 1.86 S. 70° E. 0.64 1.75 0.64 1.75 60.96 _____ 30.48 5°18’ 30.35 60.77 2.82 S. 55° E. 1.61 2.31 2.25 4.06 91.44 _____ 30.48 2°42’ 30.45 91.22 1.44 S. 85° E. .13 1.43 2.38 5.49 121.92 _____ 30.48 2°36’ 30.45 121.67 1.38 N. 35° E. 1.13 .79 1.25 6.28 152.40 _____ 30.48 5°36’ 30.33 152.00 2.97 N. 28° W. 2.63 1.40 1.38 4.88 182.88 _____ 30.48 15°30’ 29.37 181.37 8.15 N. 35° W. 6.68 4.67 8.06 .21 213.36 _____ 30.48 23° 28.06 209.43 11.91 N. 37° W. 9.51 7.17 17.56 6.96 243.84 _____ 30.48 25°30’ 27.51 236.94 13.12 N. 43° W. 9.60 8.95 27.16 15.91 274.32 _____ 30.48 22°30' 28.16 265.10 11.66 N. 48° W. 7.80 8.67 34.96 24.58 304.80 _____ 30.48 17°24' 27.06 292.16 14.03 N. 52° W. 8.64 11.06 43.60 35.64 341.38 _____ 36.58 25°12’ 33.10 325.26 15.58 N. 50° W. 10.01 11.93 53.61 47.57 74 SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURES TABLE 21.—0bserved contact between rock units and calculated dip and strike at the proposed disposal site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Term. [Depth of rock contact was observed from gamma-ray logs and adjusted by well deviation logs. N, north; S, south; E, east; W, west] True Horizontal position from Altitude, Contact between Measured vertical surface well center, mean rock units depth depth in meters sea level (m) (m) W (m) Injection well Rutledge Limestone—Gray shale _ 167 165 8.0 18.5 75 Gray shale—Rutledge Limestone ___ 198 196 8.7 23.8 45 Rutledge Limestone—Pumpkin Valley Shale _________________ 234 230 13.6 32.9 10 Pumpkin Valley Shale—Rome Sand- SbOne _______________________ 338 330 34.0 51.6 —89 Old East-observation well Rutledge Limestone-Gray shale _ _ 176 175 1.9 4.6 65 Gray shale-Rutledge Limestone ___ 205 205 0.2 0 36 Rutledge Limestone—Pumpkin Valley Shale _________________ 242 240 5.9 8,1 0 Pumpkin Valley Shale—Rome Sand- Stone _______________________ 346 339 19.0 34.8 —99 South-observation well Rutledge Limestone—Gray shale ___ 177 175 10.5 20.3 78 Gray shale—Rutledge Limestone _ _ 209 206 14.0 26.7 37 Rutledge Limestone-Pumpkin Valley Shale _________________ 251 247 18,5 36.3 _3 Pumpkin Valley Shale—Rome Sand- stone _______________________ 357 348 32.4 63.2 — 105 West-observation well Rutledge Limestone—Gray shale _ _ 158 157 1.4 15.8 82 Gray shale‘Rutledge Limestone ___ 190 188 2.8 22.9 50 Rutledge LimestoneePumpkin Valley Shale _________________ 227 223 6.9 32.3 15 Pumpkin Valley Shale—Rome Sand- stone 334 326 24.3 55.6 —88 North-observation well Rutledge Limestone—Gray shale ___ 152 151 1.8 4.9 84 Gray shale-Rutledge Limestone _ _ 187 185 9.4 0.8 50 Rutledge Limestone~Pumpkin Valley Shale _________________ 218 213 18,9 82 22 Pumpkin Valley Shale—Rome Sand- stone 330 318 50.6 44.0 - 83 Calculated dip and strike Contact between rock units Dip Strike Rutledge Limestone—Gray shale ___________________________ 10°30 N. 51° E. Gray shale~Rutledge Limestone ___________________________ 9°24l N. 53° E, Rutledge Limestone—Pumpkin Valley Shale __________________ 14°36’ N. 70° E. Pumpkin Valley Shale—Rome Sandstone _____________________ 13°00’ N. 71° E. calcareous shale, 195 m thick; gray calcareous shale in- terbedded with less limestone, 34 m thick; and purple or gray argillaceous shale (Pumpkin Valley Shale), 100 m thick. Underlying the Conasauga Group is the Rome Formation. The strike and dip of the rock units were determined from gamma-ray logs and by the three-point method described by Lahee (1952, p. 711—714). The calculated strikes and dips of all rock units are shown in table 21. The calculated average dip of the proposed injection shale (Pumpkin Valley Shale) at the proposed site is 13° SE. at a strike of N. 70° E. TENSILE STRENGTH OF THE INJECTION SHALE Rock samples were selected from cores taken from depths ranging from 214 to 360 m and shipped to the US. Geological Survey’s rock mechanics laboratory in Denver, (3010., for a determination of the tensile strengths of the Pumpkin Valley Shale and the sand— stone of the Rome Formation. One hundred and thirty- seven samples were selected, and 87 were used in the tensile—strength tests, which were supervised by R. A. Farrow of the US Geological Survey. Three methods were used in the tests: line load, point load, and direct pull. Both the line and point loads were applied by using a device described by Reichmuth (1968). Direct—pull tests were made both parallel to and normal to bedding planes. Samples were cemented by epoxy to flat plates designed for the tests and then stressed to failure. Test loads, in all tests, were applied with a Baldwin Lima Hamilton Universal machine, Model FTGl, at a rate of 0.69 MPa/s for the direct-pull test and of 440 N/s for other tests. Tensile strengths determined by line load were calculated by the following equation: T=6.37 x 10-3 P/dh, (64) where T =tensile strength, in megapascals, P=load at rock failure, in newtons, d=diameter of tested sample, in centimeters, and h=length of tested sample, in centimeters. The tensile strength determined by the line-load test is the tensile strength parallel to bedding planes. Direct-pull tests were made both parallel to and nor- mal to bedding planes. The tensile strength parallel to bedding planes was determined by using an apparatus specially designed for this test. The apparatus consists of a thick-wall tubing 57 mm in inside diameter and 56 mm long. The tubing was split axially and fitted with pulling flanges. Samples were oriented in such a way that the direction of pull would be along bedding planes, then cemented in place with epoxy. Masking tape, placed at the joint where the two halves of the tubing joined, prevented epoxy from cementing the tubing. Most of the test resulted in epoxy bond failure at 1Any use of trade names and trademarks in this publication is for descriptive purposes only and does not constitute endorsement by the US Geological Survey. APPENDIXES: CASE HISTORIES stresses ranging from 3 to 6 MPa, instead of rock failure. Direct-pull tests made along the axis of the core is not necessarily truly orthogonal to bedding planes because of the dip and deviation of the core hole. The samples were pulled in a direction 80° to the bedding planes. Therefore, the tensile strength normal to bed- ding planes is probably a few percent less than that determined in the laboratory. The results of point-load tests were disappointing; only 9 of 29 samples produced results. In summary, 83 samples of Pumpkin Valley Shale and 4 samples of Rome Sandstone were tested. The average tensile strength parallel to bedding planes is 12.4 MPa for Rome Sandstone and 6.2 MPa for Pumpkin Valley Shale. The tensile strength normal to bedding planes ranges from 0 to 3.4 MPa for Pumpkin Valley Shale. The maximum, minimum, and standard deviation values of all tests are shown in table 22. It is necessary to note that all rock samples used in the tests were weakened by expansion resulting from removal of confining stresses. The actual in-situ tensile strengths in all directions are probably greater than the values determined in the laboratory. TEST INJECTIONS The test injections were not carried out in the order suggested by the US. Geological Survey, which is that a water injection should be made before a grout injection. The ORNL was concerned that a certain amount of water would probably be left in the shale after a water injection and that water could adversely affect the retention of radionuclides during waste injections. The ORNL also considered that since the proposed site is on- ly 245 m from the present site, where a water injection 75 was made in 1967, it would not have been necessary to conduct multiple injections, as suggested by the USGS, for site evaluations. The USGS objected to the ORNL’s view for the following reasons: 1. The natural joint system can differ considerably with- in a distance of a few hundred meters. 2. All formations are already saturated with water to some degree, so that a small amount of water left by a water injection probably will not seriously af- fect the system. 3. A water injection not only indicates the degree of permeability of the injection zone but also can con- firm the test results through a comparison of both water- and grout-injection results. 4. Local vertical earth stress can be determined from pressure decay of a water injection. Nevertheless, ORNL decided to make only one grout in- jection. After the grout injection, gamma-ray logs indicated that only two of the four observation wells, the South- and West-observation wells, had been intercepted by the induced fractures. The observed locations of the induced fractures correlated well with the calculated orienta- tions. However, no gamma-ray peaks were noted in the East-observation well, presumably because the well was 5 m shallower than the altitude Where the induced frac- tures was calculated to intercept the observation well. The North-observation well is near the present fractur- ing site. A gamma-ray log made before the test grout in- jection indicates that some induced fractures formed by past waste injections at the present site had already in- tercepted the well. Therefore, unless some new gamma- ray peaks were formed outside of the depth range Where the induced fractures formed during past waste injec- TABLE 22. —Tensile strength of rocks at proposed site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn, determined in the US. Geological Survey Denver Rock Mechanics Laboratory, Colo. Tensile strength, in megapascals Testing method Arithmetic Maximum Minimum Standard Standard 98-percent confidence limit mean value value deviation error of mean Lower Upper Rome Sandstone Line load1 —————————— 12.6 15.2 10.5 2.3 1.2 10.3 14.9 Pumpkin Valley Shale Line load2 —————————— 7.3 12.5 3.6 2.3 0.4 6.5 8.0 Direct pu113 ————————— 1.6 3.4 .3 1 1 .4 .9 2.4 Direct pull‘ ————————— ——— -—— ——- ——— —-— ——— ——— Point load5 ————————— -—— ——— ——— -—— ——— —-— ——— Pumpkin Valley Shale, parallel to bedding planes6 6.0 12.5 1.9 3.0 0.4 5.1 6.8 lFour samples were tested, of tensile strength parallel to bedding lanes. 2Thirty-five samples were tested, of tensile strength parallel to be ding planes. 3Eight samples were tested, of tensile stren%h normal to bedding planes. ‘Tensile strength parallel to bedding planes. MPa, respective y. leven samples were tested: 7 samples resulted in bond failure at stresses ranging from 3.0 to 6.3 MPa; 4 samples failed at 2.4, 2.9, 3.4, and 4.0 5Twenty-nine samples were tested; only 9 samples had poor results. Average tensile strength parallel to bedding planes is 1.9 MPa. °Tensile strength. Average results determined by different methods. 76 SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRA ULICALLY INDUCE I) FRACTURES tions had intercepted the well, there is no way to distinguish the previously induced fractures from the newly formed fractures. The gamma-ray logs made in the North-observation well after the test grout injection nearly repeated the one made before the injection. Therefore, it cannot be concluded from the gamma-ray logs whether or not the injected grout had reached the vicinity of the North-observation well during the test grout injection. It is not necessary that all four observation wells should be intercepted by the induced fractures; however, it is desirable and indeed necessary to have more than two of four observation wells yielding a positive sign that the induced fracture had reached the observation wells, because if only two observation wells were intercepted by the grout, it may be interpreted that the interception is accidental. Therefore, it was concluded that the test grout injection was not sufficient to make an affirmative conclusion, and the USGS sug- gested two more injections —a water and a new grout in- jection—be made after deepening the East-observation well (Sun, 1976). Since then, both the ORNL and the USGS have agreed that a water injection was needed. Because the test grout injection was made before the water injection, the test grout injection is discussed first in the following paragraphs. TEST GROUT INJECTION A test grout injection was made on June 14, 1974. In April 1974, the author, using measurements of the pressure decay of a water injection made in 1967 at the present fracturing site and the shale tensile strength estimated on the basis of injections made at West Valley, NY. (Sun and Mongan, 1974), made calculations to predict wellhead breakdown and shut-in pressure for the test injection. On the basis of the pressure decay of the water injection of 1967, the vertical earth stress at the proposed site is estimated to be 1.8 times the value of the calculated overburden pressure. For purposes of the prediction, the injection depth was assumed to be 335 m, and the density of shale, 2.7 (deLaguna and others, 1968); the vertical stress was then estimated as (2) (2.7) (335) (9.8 x 10-3): 17.7 MPa. On the basis of experience obtained in West Valley, N.Y., the tensile strength of shale normal to bedding planes and the cohesive stress at fracture tip were assumed to be 4 MPa and 2.5 MPa (for f = 0.6) or 1.2 MPa (for f=0.3), respectively. The estimated wellhead breakdown pressure was calculated as wellhead breakdown pressure = bottom-hole breakdown pressure — static head in the casing, = (17.7 + 4) — ((9.8 x 10‘3) x 335), = 18.4 MPa. The wellhead shut-in pressure was estimated as the sum of overburden pressure and cohesive stress at fracture tip less the static pressure in the casing and was equal to 16 MPa (16.8 MPa forf= 0.6 and 15.6 MPa forf=0.3). These predicted values were given to the Oak Ridge Operations Office, DOE (then U.S. Atomic Energy Com- mission), by the U.S. Geological Survey, April 29, 1974 (letter by G. D. DeBuchananne addressed to J. J. Schreiber). The shale was fractured at a 18.3 MPa wellhead pressure during slotting on June 12, 1974 (W eeren and others, 1974), virtually confirming the predicted value. The wellhead shut-in pressure of the grout injection was 14.5 MPa (table 23), also closely approximately the calculated value. As this was the only prediction made so far, it may have coincided accidentally and therefore the accuracy of the prediction needs further testing. TABLE 23.—Injection pressure of the test grout injection at 332 m, June 14, 1974, at the proposed disposal site, Oak Ridge National Laboratmy, Tenn. Observed Calculated Time wellhead Bottom-hole Rate of injection (min) pressure pressure (m3/sx 10*) (MPa) (MP3) 30 ————————————— 5.72 8.89 451 ———————————— 13.79 16.96 46 _____________ 17.93 21.10 47 _____________ 21.37 24.55 48 _____________ 22.48 25.65 5o ————————————— 20.68 23.86 55 _____________ 18.62 21.79 60 _____________ 16.72 19.89 62 _____________ 21.65 24.82 65 ————————————— 18.89 22.06 68 _____________ 22.48 25.65 70 _____________ 18.62 21.79 75 _____________ 19.31 22.48 80 _____________ 16.55 19.72 85 ————————————— 16.55 19.72 90 _____________ 15.31 18.48 952 ____________ 13.65 16.82 100 ————————————— 13.79 16.96 1053 ____________ 12.55 1572 110 _____________ 12.41 15.58 115 _____________ 13.44 16.62 120 ————————————— 13.38 16.55 125 ————————————— 12.34 15.51 130 _____________ 12.41 15.58 1354 ____________ 15.17 18.34 140 ————————————— 15.86 19.03 145 _____________ 16.41 19.58 150 _____________ 16.55 19.72 155 ————————————— 16.89 20.06 160 ————————————— 16.55 19.72 165 _____________ 16.27 19.44 170 ————————————— 16.20 19.37 175 ————————————— 16.27 19.44 180 ————————————— 16.27 19.44 185 ————————————— 16.27 19.44 190 ————————————— 16.13 19.31 195 ————————————— 16.13 19.31 APPENDIXES: CASE HISTORIES 77 TABLE 23.—Injection pressure of the test grout injection at 332 717., June 14, 1971,, at the proposed disposal site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. — Continued TABLE 23.—Injection pressure of the test grout injection at 332 m, June 14, 1974, at the proposed disposal site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. - Continued Observed Calculated Observed Calculated __ . > Time wellhead Bottom-hole Rate of injection Time wellhead Bottom-hole Rate'ot injection (min) pressure pressure (ms/5x 10'3) (mm) pressure pressure (m-st 10 3) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) 200 _____________ 16.13 19.31 500 ————————————— 19.31 22.48 15.77 205 _____________ 16.20 1937 505 ————————————— 19.99 23.17 2105 ____________ 16.96 20.13 510 ————————————— 23.10 26.27 12.93 215 _____________ 17,93 2110 515 ————————————— 24.41 27.58 220 _____________ 18.62 2179 15.27 520 ————————————— 20.13 23.30 14.51 225 _____________ 16.69 19.86 525 ————————————— 19.65 22.82 230 _____________ 14.89 18.06 16.72 530 ————————————— 18.27 21.44 15.01 235 _____________ 1434 17.51 535 ————————————— 19.31 22.51 240 _____________ 14_07 1724 16.40 540 ————————————— 20.55 23.72 13.56 245 _____________ 1420 1737 545 ————————————— 19.31 22.48 250 _____________ 14.48 17.65 16.91 550 ————————————— 18.20 21.37 16.40 255 _____________ 14.13 17.31 555 ————————————— 17.93 21.10 260 _____________ 14.62 17.79 16.72 560 ————————————— 17.98 21.10 16.09 265 _____________ 14.89 18.06 565 ————————————— 17.93 21.10 270 _____________ 15_31 18.48 1722 570 ————————————— 17.65 20.82 16.72 275 _____________ 16.96 20_13 575 ————————————— 17.93 21.10 280 _____________ 16.55 1972 1577 580 ————————————— 17.93 21.10 16.40 285 _____________ 1572 18.89 585 ————————————— 17.65 20.82 2906 ____________ 1324 16.41 590 ————————————— 17.10 20.27 16.09 295 _____________ 1344 16.62 595 —————————————— 16.20 19.37 600 ————————————— 16.89 20.06 3007 ———————————— 17.58 20.75 1448 717.65 305 _____________ 16'82 19'99 ism” injection 310 ————————————— 16.69 19.86 17.03 2 . .1 ‘ 315 ------------- 16.82 19.99 i‘lsrijzagtli‘dsinissrli>n and off irregularly. 320 _____________ 16.82 19.99 1672 ‘Start injection. most of the time with water. :Normal‘injectidn started at hourr Eli. Befgrathis hour, the injection was run irregularly. 326 ————————————— 16.69 19.86 321.111.9331.. " ° . 330 ————————————— 16.69 19.86 16.40 335 ————————————— 16.96 20.13 340 ————————————— 16.96 20.13 16.40 . . . 345 _____________ 16.82 19.99 Interpretation of InJCCtlon Data 350 _____________ 16.41 19.58 17.03 The injection well was slotted by a hydraulic jet at a 323 ::::::: i223 i382 16 59 depth of 332 m measured along the casing (the true in- 365 ————————————— 15.86 19.03 jection depth after adjustment for well deviation was gig :::::::::: fig? 35%: 1596 324 m). The grout injection was started at 0940 hours 380 ————————————— 17.79 20.96 16.40 (eastern daylight time) on June 14, 1974, and im- 3‘33 ::::::: fig; 382: 16 40 mediately ran into difficulties. The mixture of the grout 17.24 20.41 could not be controlled, and the mixer was jammed with 17 51 20 68 16 72 solids. The injection was interrupted at irregular inter- 17.79 20.96 vals. When the injection pump was off, the instan- fig 38:32 1640 taneous shut-in pressures were 14 MPa wellhead 17.37 20.55 16.59 pressure or 17 MPa bottom-hole pressure. The normal 17.58 20.75 injection was actually started at 1310 hours. The injec- 17.93 21.10 16.28 tion was then stopped again for a brief period from 1430 £23.? 333 15.46 hours to 1440 hours for cleaning the window of the 17.65 20.82 surge tank (hereafter, this stop is referred to as a brief 17.65 20.82 1640 pause). A total volume of 370 m3 of grout tagged with 17.65 20.82 radioactive tracer 198Au (half-life is 2.7 days) was in- gqg 38:3? 16‘“ jected into the Pumpkin Valley Shale. The injection was 17.65 20.82 16.59 completed at 1940 hours. 1806 21.24 The grout was injected through a string of tubing that 17.93 21.10 16.40 was placed 3 m above the injection level. The annulus be- ggg £22: 1659 tween the casing and tubing was filled with water. Injec- 18.96 22.13 tion pressures were monitored in the annulus at the 78 SUBSURFAGE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURIGS wellhead of the injection well. The bottom-hole pressure could be calculated by adding static pressure in the well to the observed wellhead pressure. The calculated bottom-hole pressure, therefore, excludes the friction losses of the grout in the tubing. Except for the 40-minute period from 1805 hours to 1845 hours, the injection rate was kept constant at 0.015 m3/s for the entire injection period. During this 40-minute period, the injection rate dropped suddenly from 0.015 m3/s to 0.010 m3/s; thereafter the injection rate increased to 0.015 m3/s. The observed injection pressures and injection rates are listed in table 23 and graphed in figure 59. Outside of the 40-minute period, the variation of injec- tion rates was only 0.0006 m3/s, so that the statistical random variation of the injection rate cannot be separated from the observation error. In essence, the in- jection rate is equivalent to a single rate, consequently, the linear-regression method cannot be used to find the The average injection rate was 0.015 m3/s at an average injection pressure of 20.7 MPa. The instan- taneous shut-in pressure was 17.7 MPa. The coefficient of the injection rate, therefore, is calculated to be 196 MPa/(m3/s). The linear equation is then established as P=17.7+196 Q. (65) As determined from the 1967 water-injection pressure decay data (deLaguna and others, 1968), the vertical stress at the actual injection depth was estimated to be 15.4 MPa (1.8x2.7x9.8x10—3x324=15.4 MPa). The bottom-hole breakdown pressure was 21.5 MPa (18.3 MPa +9.8x10‘3x324=21.5 MPa). Tensile strength normal to bedding planes is estimated from the dif- ference between the bottom-hole breakdown pressure and the estimated vertical stress, that is, 6.1 MPa (21.5—15.4:6.1 MPa). Because f T = instantaneous shut-in pressure—vertical stress, . . . _ _ , . =17.7—15.4, relation between the injectlon pressure and the 1njectlon = 2 3 MPa rate. However it has been demonstrated that the coeffi- therefore. ’ cient of the injection rate in a linear equation can be f= 0.38 for T: 6.1 MPa. found by using the difference between the injection pressure and the instantaneous shut-in pressure (Sun and Mongan, 1974). The tensile strength of shale normal to bedding planes as determined by hydraulic fracturing is three times IIIIIITTTIIII_I_IIII TT‘III'III pllllllllllIITTTIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII_ 23 __ Injection Injection Inlection Normal Grout Inlection Injection In|ectlon_ Start Stop Restart Injection Start Stop Restart 27.58—' Stop 25 — —— 22 ”“ — 19 — fi 16 13 BOTTOM—HOLE PRESSURE (P), IN MEGAPASCALS 10 Shut-in Pressure 17.65 / 0 50 lJIIIIIllILLIIIIIIIIIIIIIIllIIllllilllIIIIIlIllIIiIlIIIlIIlIl 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 INJECTION TIME (t), IN MINUTES FIGURE 59.—Pressure plotted against time, the grout injection at 332m, June 14, 1974, at the proposed disposal site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. APPENDIXES: CASE HISTORIES 79 greater than the average value found in laboratory (table 27); as discussed before, this is probably due to stress relaxation when confining stress is removed from the core. Altitude of Induced Fractures The altitudes of induced fractures were determined by gamma-ray logs made in observation wells before and after the test grout injection. Repeated logs were made to confirm that the logs were reproducible. The logger amplifier has 7 sensitivity ranges; namely 0.001, 0.002, 0.005, 0.01, 0.02, 0.05, and 0.1 milliroentgen per hour (mR/hr). The sensitivity to gamma-ray activity de- creases as the number of sensitivity range increases. For example, at a sensitivity range of 0.001 mR/hr the logger is 100 times more sensitive to gamma-ray energy than it is at a sensitivity range of 0.1 mR/hr. The amplitude of a deflection of a gamma-ray log made with a sensitivity range of 0.001 mR/hr is, therefore, 100 times greater than that indicated on a log of the same source made at a sensitivity range of 0.1 mR/hr. Therefore, it is necessary to keep the sensitivity range in mind when gamma-ray logs are compared. Past waste grout sheet intercepted by North- obser'vation well—The location of the North-observation well is about 190 m, S. 45° W. from the present injection well. Four peaks of gamma-ray activity greater than the background activity level for shale were noted from the gamma-ray logs made in the North-observation well before the test grout injection. The peaks were at depths of 242, 246, 271, and 324 m, respectively (fig. 60, table 24). These peaks indicate that the well has intercepted waste grout sheets made during past injections at the present injection well north of the observation well. The strongest gamma-activity among the four peaks was at a depth of 271 m measured along the casing (fig. 60). Adjusted for well deviation, the altitude of this peak is at — 27 m (27 m below mean sea level (msl)) (table 24), and if the calculated dip and strike (13° SE., and N. 70° E.) of the Pumpkin Valley Shale at the proposed site were used, then the bedding-plane fractures indicated by this peak would intercept the present injection well at an altitude of — 16 m msl. Most of the wastes were in- jected at altitudes ranging from —12 to —18 m msl (table 11). Therefore, it can be concluded that this gamma-ray peak results from past waste injections made at the present injection well. The second strongest gamma-activity peak was observed at an altitude of — 4 m msl. On the basis of the same dip and strike the altitude at which the fracture in— dicated by this second peak may be projected to in- tercept the present injection well at 9 m msl. The altitudes of — 0.5 and — 74 m msl observed for the other TABLE 24.—Waste grout sheet intercepted by the North-observation well from past waste injections made at the present fracturing site, Oak Ridge N ationat Laboratory, Tenn. [Interpreted from gamma-ray logs made in the Northcbservation well at the proposed disposal site before the test grout injection, June 14, 1974. N, north; S, south; W, west; E, east] Horizontal position from surface Altitude well center, in meters mean sea level Vertical depth‘ De th measured a ong casing (m) (m) (m) N S W E 242.3 —————— 235.5 —0.5 26.7 15.5 246.02 ————— 238.9 —3.9 27.7 16.5 271.03 ————— 262.0 —27.0 34.1 23.6 323.7 —————— 309.3 — 74.2 48.8 41.8 ‘Measured depth adjusted by deviation survey. ZSecond strongest gamma-ray activity peak. “Strongest gamma-ray activity peak. two gamma-ray-activity peaks when projected to the present injection well are either 24 m above or 21 m below the past waste injection altitude. Table 11 in- dicates that all wastes were injected between —-12 to —47 m msl; therefore, it may be concluded that some waste grout has probably migrated 20 m above or below the injection level during past injections over a distance at least 200 m from the injection site. Grout sheets produced by test grout injection. —A com- parison of gamma-ray logs made in the North- observation well before and after the test grout injection shows no significant change in gamma—ray activity at any depth. Two of the logs obtained after the test grout injection were made by using sensitivity ranges of 0.002 mR/hr and 0.01 mR/hr, respectively. If the gamma-ray activity shown by the log made using a sensitivity range of 0.002 mR/hr is reduced by a factor of 5, then the shape and the relative quantity of the gamma-ray activi- ty indicated by the log would be similar to that recorded on the log made using a sensitivity range of 0.01 mR/hr. This indicates the reproducibility of the logs. If the log made using a sensitivity range of 0.002 mR/hr is reduced by a factor of 2.5, the activity recorded on the log would be very close to that recorded on the log made in the North-observation well before the test grout injection at a sensitivity of 0.005 mR/hr. Comparison of the logs in- dicates that no additional grout sheets have intercepted the North-observation well since the test grout injec- tion. The probable altitude at which the North- observation well would have been intercepted by the bedding-plane fractures induced by the test grout injec- tion at the proposed disposal site was calculated to be — 67 m msl. A gamma—ray activity peak produced by past waste injections is at — 74 m msl, or about 7 m below the calculated altitude at which the induced fractures would be expected to have intercepted the well. Therefore, it cannot be determined whether the injected grout did not reach the vicinity of the North-observation well or whether the injected grout did reach the observation well 80 GAMMA ACTIVITY INCREASES —> SIIBSIIRI’AUE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULIUALLY INDI'CEI) FRACTIIRES GAMMA ACTIVITY INCREASES —> 238 g g 780 240“ L 790 244— l K 800 246— :7 R [If 8I0 248— i (K. 250 Log oil-7711 Log of 4-IO—74 820 252_ (Before cementing) (Alter cementing) AmpIiIier Ronge— AmpIifier Ronge—_830 254—— 002 mR/h 0,005 mR/h m Time constant 35 M E 256— 840 E E z 870 E — 266— :5 E 2: 3 268— 880 S o E f 270“ LR i\\ ’7 fi 890 272— g g 274— 900 276— i E 9I0 320 I050 322— I060 324— 326— I070 BEFORE TEST GROUT INJECTION BEFORE TEST GROUT INJECTION NORTH-OBSERVATION WELL FIGURE 60. — Gamma-ray activities observed in the North-observation well along the casing axis before the test grout injection, June 14, 1974, at the proposed disposal site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. but followed weak planes between the older waste grout sheets and shale at —74 m msl; in the latter case, the gamma-ray activity produced by the tracer in the test grout injection could not be differentiated from that pro- duced by older waste injections. Six gamma-ray activity peaks were noted after the test grout injection on a gamma-ray log made in the West-observation well at depths ranging from 328 to 332 m measured along the casing (table 25, and fig. 61). Grout sheets were formed within a 5-m zone. The pro- jected horizontal position of the six gamma-ray activity peaks and the altitudes of the grout sheets were calculated and are shown in table 25. The horizontal distance between the injection depth and the observed gamma-ray activity peaks was determined along a line (perpendicular to the calculated strike of the Pumpkin ’ Valley Shale and was estimated to be 12 m (fig. 62). The injection depth was —84 m msl. If bedding-plane frac- APPENDIXES: CASIO HISTORIES 81 GAMMA ACTIVITY INCREASES —> GAMMA ACTIVITY INCREASES —> 1040 318 _ V 320 1050 Log ol1-14-74 Log of 6-15-74 322_ (Before Cementing) Amplifier Range— Amplifie'r Range— 0.1 mR/h 1060 324_ i 0.005 mR/h Time constant 35 326 ¥ 1070 i m 328— ”(f—I.— n: E ff 1080 E 2 330— 2 E E— ;. ‘ (I! l— E 332 — fir— 1090 E E 334 — 336 w—<;igi 1100 <> 338— , 1110 340— > . 1120 342 — I~Botiom of well 3“— ; 1130 BEFORE TEST GROUT INJECTION AFTER TEST GROUT INJECTION WEST-OBSERVATION WELL FIGURE 61. —Gamma—ray activities observed in the West-observation well along the casing axis, before and after the test grout injec- tion, June 14, 1974, at the proposed disposal site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. TABLE 25.—Grout sheet from the test grout injection at 332 m, June 11;, 1974, intercepting observation wells at the proposed disposal site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. [The injection altitude was —83.7 m msl. N, north; S, south; W, west; E, east] Depth measured Vertical Altitude Horizontal position from surface along casing depthl mean sea level W911 center, in meters (m) (m) (m) N S W E New East-observation well 341.1 ———————— 335.0 —93.8 19.7 31.4 South-observation well 349.0 ———————— 340.8 —97.3 31.5 61.4 349.6 ———————— 341.4 -97.8 31.5 61.6 349.9 ———————— 341.7 —98.1 31.1 61.7 West-observation well 328.0 ———————— 320.3 —81.8 23.3 54.9 330.1 ———————— 322.4 —83.9 23.7 55.1 330.4 ———————— 322.7 —84.2 23.7 55.2 331.0 ———————— 323.3 —84.8 23.8 55.2 331.3 ———————— 323.6 — 85.1 23.9 55.3 331.9 ———————— 324.1 —85.7 24.0 55.4 ‘Measured depth adjusted by deviation survey. tures were induced near the West-observation well, then the altitude at which they would intercept the well can be estimated by using the calculated dip and strike of the shale. The calculation is fracture altitude = - 84 + 12 tan13°, = —81 m msl. This calculated altitude is close to the observed altitude of the gamma-ray activity peaks, which are from — 82 to —86 m msl (table 25). Three gamma-ray activity peaks were noted on a gamma—ray log made in the South-observation well at depths between 349 m and 350 m measured along the casing (table 25, fig. 63). The altitudes of the peaks, after adjustment for well deviation, are shown in table 25. The horizontal distance between the injection altitude and the altitudes of the gamma-ray activity peaks in the direction of the dip was estimated to be 56 m (fig. 62). Therefore, the altitudes at which the South- 82 SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURES Nl7300 I I I I I I I I I Location of well at surface Ni7200 __ 93 A Position of interception of grout sheet at wells; number indicates altitude, - m.s_l. in meters . ‘80 0 Position 01 bottom of East- and North- injection well at _ observation wells; number indicates - _ ”moo altitude,m.s. I. in meters Joy well presentlttract‘unng ‘ 84 * Position of point of injection; number acr I y sr e indicates altitude m.s.l, in meters w "”000 - T3 Dip and strike ol Pumpkin Valley Shale at proposed site; - ,U_-i determined from gamma—ray logs; dip in degrees 2 ill; Horizontal distance along a line perpendicular g NI6900 _ 4* to strike, In meters _ O —80 0 >. E f. _ .. E1 ”'6800 , North-observation / C) _l 2' Nl6700 — - Z 9 ’— ‘2‘ —82 to —86 5 N16600 — — 9 EC 3:: East-observation well 0 N16500 - _ Injection well at —98 v proposed site . "”400 ‘ New East-observation ‘ well Nl6300 - 0 10 20 30 METERS ‘ South-observation LU—l well 6200 I I l l | I l I l E27700 E27800 E27900 E28000 E28l00 E28200 E28300 E28400 E28500 E28600 E28700 OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY COORDINATES FIGURE 62.—Location of point of injection and altit udes of gamma-ray peaks observed in observation wells after the best grout injection, June 14, 1974, at the proposed disposal site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. observation well would be intercepted by the induced bedding-plane fractures is calculated as fracture altitude = — 84 — 56 tan13°, = —97 m msl, which is close to the observed peak altitudes, that is, —97 m and —98 m msl, respectively. No significant change in gamma-ray activity was registered on logs made in the East-observation well before and after the grout injection. The projected horizontal distance along the dip between bottom of the East-observation well and the injection altitude was estimated to be 43 m (fig. 62). The altitude at which the East-observation well would be intercepted by the in— duced bedding-plane fractures is calculated as fracture altitude = — 84 — 43 tan13°, — 94 m ms]. The depth corresponding to this altitude measured along the casing adjustesd by well deviation was 340 m. The total drilling depth was 344 m; however, after casing and cementing the well depth was reduced to 334 m, which is 6 m shallower than the calculated altitude where the East-observation well would be intercepted by the induced fractures. The gamma-ray log indicates two possibilities: (1) induced fractures intercept the well APPENDIXES: CASE HISTORIES 83 GAMMA ACTIVITY INCREASES —> GAMMA ACTIVITY lNCREASES—> GAMMA ACTIVITY INCREASES-> > 340— <‘ T IIIO IIZO 342 — D 344 — NM WWI > II30 [\A Log of 1.8.74 - (Before cementing) Amplifier Range— , 346— A A Log of 4-I7-74 ‘>?— (After cementing) Amplifier Range—- DEPTH, IN METERS 348 A < 0.005 mR/h > < ”(ll/I 350— 0.002 mR/h < Time consfcnf 55 Log of 6-I7A74 Amplifier Range— 0.02 mR/h lI40 DEPTH, IN FEET Time constant 35 | %7 1‘ {III 352— X 3 > > K i I —— *— BoHom of well “50 #— Bottom ofllwell BEFORE TEST GROUT INJECTION BEFORE TEST GROUT INJECTION ll60 AFTER TEST GROUT INJECTION SOUTH-OBSERVATION WELL FIGURE 63.—Gamma-ray activities observed in the South-observation well along the casing axis, before and after the test grout injection, June 14, 1974, at the proposed disposal site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. beneath the well bottom or (2) no grout sheets reached the well. Before the water injection made on October 30, 197 5, gamma-ray logs were made again in all four observation wells in September 1975, 87 days after the test grout in- jection. All logs reproduced the pattern of the logs made immediately after the test grout injection. Gamma—ray activity peaks were still observed distinctly at the zones discussed, but these peaks could not have been due to the tracer, 198Au, which has a half life of 2.7 days. After 32 half lives (87 days after the injection) the tracer should have decayed to below the detection limits. As ex- plained by the ORNL personnel several hundred gallons of contaminated waste pit water containing 137Cs and 9OSr were injected during the test grout injection (J. A. Lenhard, written commun., Nov. 16, 1976), and thus the gamma-ray peaks observed on logs resulted from 137Cs not from tracer 198Au. In 1976, a new East-observation well was drilled by the ORNL 30 m south-west of the old East—observation well. A single gamma—ray activity peak was noted on a gamma—ray log made in the new East-observation well at a depth of 341 m measured along the casing (fig. 64). Adjusted for well deviation, the altitude at which the observation well was intercepted by the induced frac— ture was calculated to be —94 m msl. The horizontal distance along the dip between the injection altitude and the altitude for the gamma-ray peak was estimated to be 65 m (fig. 62). The projected altitude at which the new East-observation well could be intercepted by the test injection grout sheet is calculated as fracture altitude = — 84 — 50 tan13°, = — 96 m msl, which is close to the observed altitude of —94 m msl. Thus, three of the four observation wells have been in- tercepted by the grout sheets produced by the test grout injection near the calculated altitudes, and it is conclud- ed that bedding-plane fractures have been induced by the test grout injection. TEST WATER INJECTION A test water injection was made on October 30, 1975, through the same slot as the test grout injection made on June 14, 1974. The scheduled injection volume was 378 m3 of water tagged with 25 Ci of 198Au and 25 Ci of 199Au. The injection rates were scheduled to start at 0.003 m3/s, increase to 0.006 m3/s, then 0.013 m3/s, and finally increase to the full capacity of the injection pump (0.017 m3/s). The first three steps would last two hours for each step. Unfortunately one of the two injection pumps broke down after about one hour of injection at the pump’s highest capacity, and the injection was stopped shortly thereafter. The final injection volume was 209 m3 tagged with half the prepared tracers. Pressure decay was observed for about 18 days after the injection. The injection and pressure-decay data are shown in tables 26 and 27, respectively. The linear regression equation of P and Q established from the in- jection data is given by P = 20 + 197 Q. (66) If Q=0; then P=20 MPa, which closely correlates with the observed shut-in bottom-hole pressure, 19.9 MPa (table 27). The earth stress normal to the bedding—plane frac- tures determined from pressure decay is 16 MPa (fig. 65), corroborating the previously estimated vertical stress of 15.4 MPa, determined from the 1967 water 84 SI IBSI 'RI“ACI‘I DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN H YDRAULICALLY INDUCED FRACTI'RES TABLE 26.-Injection pressure of the test water injection at 332 m, TABLE 26.—Injection pressure of the test water injection at 332 m, Oct. 30, 1975, at the proposed disposal site, Oak Ridge National Oct. 30, 1975, at the proposed disposal site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. Laboratory, Tenn. —Continued - Observed wellhead Calculated bottom- 9 of in" ction . Observed wellhead Calculated bottom- a 'n'ecti (2:33 Fifi/[Sgge holifirlfsfure Rina/“13.3) 5:319) $91552? hole( Iggsure R (E3133: >1 {0.90“ 1 ___________ 13.17 16.34 315 ___________ 17.48 20.65 5.43 3 ___________ 13.44 16.62 318 ___________ 18.27 21.44 6.62 5 ___________ 13.72 16.89 319 ___________ 18.55 21.72 6 ___________ 12.93 16.10 7 ___________ 11.93 15.10 320 ___________ 18.86 22.03 91 __________ 11.10 14.27 0 325 ___________ 19.41 22.58 6.62 10 ___________ 10.69 13.86 330 ___________ 19.62 22.79 7.95 1392 __________ 11.76 14.93 0 335 ___________ 19.79 22.96 140 ___________ 13.20 16.38 340 ___________ 19.89 23.06 142 ___________ 14.62 17.79 1.89 345 ___________ 19.89 23.06 143 ___________ 14.82 18.00 146 ___________ 15.00 18.17 350 ___________ 19.87 23.04 147 ___________ 15.10 18.27 355 ___________ 19.82 22.99 7.95 148 ___________ 15.24 18.41 360 ___________ 19.79 22.96 7.59 365 ___________ 19.75 22.93 1503 __________ 15.27 18.44 370 ___________ 19.68 22.86 7.59 155 ___________ 15.51 18.68 372 ___________ 19.79 22.96 9.90 160 ___________ 15.79 18.96 373 ___________ 19.82 22.99 165 ___________ 15.96 19.13 374 ___________ 19.86 23.03 170 ___________ 16.10 19.27 375 ___________ 19.89 23.06 175 ___________ 16.20 19.37 376 ___________ 19.93 23.10 180 ___________ 16.31 19.48 377 ___________ 19.99 23.17 185 ___________ 16.48 19.65 378 ___________ 20.03 23.20 190 ___________ 16.51 19.68 1.89 379 ___________ 20.06 23.24 195 ___________ 16.58 19.75 2.40 380 ___________ 20.11 23.28 385 ___________ 20.13 23.30 9.90 200 ___________ 16.69 19.86 390 ___________ 20.10 23.27 13.25 205 ___________ 16.79 19.96 395 ___________ 20.06 23.24 210 ___________ 16.86 20.08 215 ___________ 16.93 20.10 2.40 400 ___________ 19.96 23.13 13.25 220 ___________ 17.00 20.17 2.65 405 ___________ 19.86 23.03 12.74 410 ___________ 19.75 22.93 12.74 225 ___________ 17.06 20.24 415 ___________ 19.65 22.82 13.25 230 ___________ 17.10 20.27 2.65 420 ___________ 19.59 22.77 235 ___________ 17.10 20.27 2.84 425 ___________ 19.51 22.68 240 ___________ 17.10 20.27 430 ___________ 19.41 22.58 245 ——————————— 17-10 20-27 2-84 435 ___________ 19.20 22.37 13.25 250 ——————————— 17-00 20-17 2-65 450 ___________ 19.06 22.24 16.78 255 ——————————— 18.13 21-30 5-65 455 ___________ 19.03 22.20 16.78 256 ——————————— 18.44 2162 460 ___________ 18.96 22.13 16.40 257 ___________ 18.62 21.79 463 ___________ 19.13 22.30 258 ___________ 19.13 22.30 464 ___________ 19.15 22.32 259 ___________ 19.31 22.48 465 ___________ 19.17 22.34 470 ___________ 19.21 22.38 260 ___________ 19.44 22.61 5.65 265 ___________ 19.86 23.03 8.45 475 ___________ 19.20 22.37 270 ___________ 20.03 23.20 480 ___________ 19.17 22.34 275 ___________ 20.24 23.41 485 ___________ 19.03 22.20 490 ___________ 18.96 22.13 280 ___________ 2037 2355 495 ___________ 18.87 22.04 285 _______ 20.42 23.59 -— —— 5004 __________ 18.80 21.97 16.40 290 ——————————— 20-42 2359 503 ___________ 18.20 21.37 9.21 295 ___________ 20-34 23-51 504 18 10 21 27 298 ___________ 20-27 23-44 505 ——————————— 18.13 21.30 299 ___________ 20.24 23-41 506 ——————————— 18:10 21:27 510 ___________ 18.00 21.17 300 ___________ 20.24 23.41 515 ___________ 17.87 2104 301 ___________ 20.24 23.41 8.45 520 ___________ 17.77 20_95 302 ___________ 19.44 22.61 5.43 303 ___________ 19.20 22.37 525 ___________ 17.66 20.84 304 ___________ 19.00 22.17 5305 __________ 17.58 20_75 305 ___________ 18.79 21.96 535 ___________ 1749 20.66 306 ___________ 18.62 21.79 540 ___________ 17.44 20.62 307 ___________ 18.48 21.65 545 ___________ 17.37 20.55 308 ___________ 18.31 21.48 5506 __________ 1734 20.51 309 ___________ 18.17 21.34 1Shut down for repairing leaks. ZPressure a e was out of order. 3%? ___________ 178/83 §%§8 aStart injegtign of trafcersi. ——————————— ' ’ ‘One um was out 0 or er. 312 ——————————— 17-83 2100 5Stoppinje§tion of tracers. 313 ___________ 17.72 20.89 6End injection. APPENIHXES: CASE HISTORIES 85 TABLE 27.—Pressure decay of the test water injection at 332 m, Oct. 30, 1975, at the proposed disposal site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. TABLE 27.—Pressure decay of the test water injection at 332 m, Oct. 30, 1975, at the proposed disposal site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. — Continued Time since end Observed well-head Calculated bottom- (P—Po) Time since end Observed well-head Calculated bottom- (P—Po) of injection (min) pressure (MPa) hole pressure (MPa) (MPa) of injection (min) pressure (MPa) hole pressure (MPa) (MPa) 6,000 _________ 6.00 9.17 6.05 3122 fig, 6,240 _________ 5.90 9.07 5.95 19.10 15.98 6,480 _________ 5.83 9.01 5.89 18.79 15.67 6,720 _________ 5.83 9.01 5.89 18.48 15.36 6,960 _________ 5.76 8.94 5.82 7,200 _________ 5.72 8.89 5.77 £133, 5:6? 7,440 _________ 5.67 8.84 5.72 17.82 14.70 7,650 _________ 5.62 8.79 5.67 17.65 14.53 7,920 _________ 5.59 8.76 5.64 17.48 14.36 8,400 _________ 5.48 8.65 5.53 8,7(8)0 _________ 5.45 8.62 5.50 9,1 0 _________ 5.37 8.54 5.42 £33 1333 9,625 _________ 5.32 8.49 5.37 £133 33: 10,140 _________ 5.24 8.41 5.29 16.86 1374 10,620 _________ 5.17 8.34 5.22 16.65 13.53 11,320 _________ 5.09 8.26 5.14 16.44 13.32 11,580 _________ 5.03 8.20 5.09 12,080 _________ 5.00 8.17 5.05 16.29 13.17 12,540 _________ 4.96 8.14 5.02 £13,; 332 13,020 _________ 4.90 8.07 4.95 15.84 12.72 13,500 _________ 4.84 8.01 4.89 15.80 12.68 14,460 _________ 4,76 7.93 4.81 15,2360 _________ 4.39 7.86 4.74 15, 55 _________ 4. 7 7.84 4.72 $2? $33 16,795 _________ 4.60 7.77 4.65 1539 12.27 17,080 _________ 4.56 7.74 4.62 15.29 12.17 18,225 _________ 4.48 7.65 4.53 15.20 12.08 18,555 _________ 4.47 7.64 4.52 19,680 _________ 4.38 7.55 4.43 E33 fig? 19,972 _________ 4.37 7.54 4.42 1439 11.77 21,100 _________ 4.30 7.47 4.35 14_79 11.67 21,420 _________ 4.28 7.45 4.33 14.69 1157 22,600 _________ 4.21 7.38 4.26 14.58 11.46 24,030 _________ 4.14 7.31 4.19 14.48 11.36 25,448 _________ 4.08 7.25 4.13 25,692 _________ 4.05 7.22 4.10 12.38 11.2?) Note: Static ground-water pressure at injection level, Pa=3.12 MPa. 14220 11:08 12.46 3% injection at the present disposal site. The permeability 12:36 9:24 of the injected shale, indicated by the pressure decay 12-28 916 data, is low, as expected. If the tensile strength of the 12.18 9_06 shale is assumed to be 6.1 MPa, then f= 0.66. 3% 33312 A comparison of gamma-ray logs made before and 11:78 3:66 after the water injection shows no indication that any of fig: 3%; the four observation wells are intercepted by the in— 10:98 7:86 duced fractures at any depth. The water injection was made at the same depth and through the same slot 10.76 7.64 . . . . 10.65 753 through wh1ch the test grout 1nject10n was made. It was 13:3 71-33 anticipated that the injected water would probably flow 10:18 7:06 along weak planes induced by the test grout injection 10-05 6-93 between the shale and the previously formed grout 9.89 6.77 . . . 9.85 6.73 sheets or that, 1n other words, a serles of th1n fractures would be induced in the grout sheet zone. Because the 9.72 6.60 . 137 . 9.67 6.55 grout sheets are contamlnated by Cs, wh1ch produces 3-2: 2:: higher gamma-ray energy than that produced by the 9:39 6:27 tracers in the injection water, it is not surprising that 9-34 6.22 none of the gamma-ray logs made in the observation 9.29 6.17 . . . . 9.22 610 wells after the water Injectlon show ev1dence that frac- 86 SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN HYDRAULICALLY INDUCED FRACTURES GAMMA ACTIVITY INCREASES E» 1080 330— g 332 ‘ 1090 334 — 1100 .4 m 336 — <’ a CI: m L” 13 m a 2 338 — <2 1110 '- 2 \B z a" E g 340 — % " ‘ 1120 342 " j, Log of 10-17-76 2 Amplifier Range— 344 _ 4 0.002 mR/h Time constant 2 s 1130 346 ‘- <— Bottom of well ' 1140 AFTER TEST GROUT INJECTION NEW EAST—OBSERVATION WELL FIGURE 64. — Gamma-ray activities observed in the new East—observation well along the casing axis, 85 days after the test grout injection, June 14, 1974,,at the proposed disposal site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. tures induced by the water injection intercepted the wells. However, the water-injection pressure data confirm the conclusions reached from data gathered during the test grout injection. POTENTIAL FOR THE EXHUMATION 0F WASTES The injected wastes become an integral part of the shale after the solidification of the grout and so remain as long as the shale is not subject to erosion. Therefore, consideration should be given to the factors involved in eroding and possibly exposing the injected wastes. Over 99 percent of radionuclides contained in the wastes generated at the ORNL are ”Sr and 137C5 (table 11), which have half-lives of 28 and 30 years, respective- ly. Within 1,000 years, these radionuclides will decay to where the radiation-emission levels are innocuous. On the basis of the dissolved and suspended sediment APPENDIXES: CASE HISTORIES 87 102 I I l lIlll I I 101 p— Po, IN MEGAPASCALS lIllllI I 1 I‘ll IlIIII' I I ll F3=3.12 MPa lIlll 13 MPa l IIlIllI I I I 100 l I I I 1 ll 1 1 10° 101 102 10a 10‘ TIME AFTER END OF INJECTION (t), IN MINUTES FIGURE 65.—Pressure decay plotted against time, the water injection at 332 m, Oct. 30, 1975, at the proposed disposal site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. loads of streams, the climate, topographic, and geologic type, and the size of the drainage areas, Schumm (1963) concluded that denudation rates are an exponential function of the drainage-basin relief and length ratio. The mathematical form of this relationship is log D = 26.966 H—2.2398, (67) where D = denudation, in meters per 1,000 years, and H =ratio of basin relief to length. The relief-to-length ratio of Melton Branch basin (the injection site) is taken as 0.031 ((365.8 — 231.6)l4328= 0.031); the denudation rate of the basin is then estimated to be 0.04 m per 1,000 years. Wastes are to be injected into Pumpkin Valley Shale, which is about 213 m below the surface. Using the estimated denudation rate, it would take 5.4 x 106 years to expose the wastes injected in the uppermost part of the Pumpkin Valley Shale by erosion. Even if the unlike- ly erosion rate of 1 m per 1,000 years is assumed, which is the average maximum erosion rate for young moun- tain ranges of high relief, such as the Alps (Schumm, 1963), it would still take 2 x 105 years to expose the grout sheets. This time interval would be sufficient for ra- dionuclides contained in the wastes to decay to harmless radiation-emission levels, and thus the possibility of their contaminating the biosphere by erosion processes is negligible. SUMMARY On the basis of injection data, gamma-ray logs, and estimation of erosion rate, it is concluded that the hydraulic-fracturing disposal sites at the ORNL are safe for the purpose of disposing radioactive wastes generated at the ORNL by grout injections in shale. However, as a precaution, more monitoring observation wells need to be constructed in areas not expected to be reached by waste-grout sheet and in the formation lying above the injection zone, in order to increase confidence that the injected wastes are isolated and restricted to a known horizon.