~"f'11ieAMmebas ERIEN 1 : 189.0“.0i1135m-11eé Year « EStabiiShed ’ 131216. " ’ DAY & SO ‘ WORLD -FAMED MEDICINES FOR THE Farm and Stable. Any quantity 12/“ any Medicine sent sefaraz‘ely C arrz'ave Paid. The Famous Remedies below are among the indispensables of a well- regulated . Farmstead and Stable. 5) THE “ BLACK DRINK. Cures Colic and Colds in Horses and Cattle Cures Scour in all Young Stock. instantly relieves Blown Cattle and Sheep. For Debility, Chills, and Low Condition. ' Price 10s. per Half-Dozen, or 19s. per Dozen Bottles THE “ RED DRlNK. ” Cures Fever and Costiveness in Cattle. Cleanses and Cools the Blood and System. For Red Water, indigestion, and ,Yellows. Cures Bad Cleansing, and Prevents Milk Fever. Price 125 per Dozen Packets. / The “EWE URENCH ” acts for Sheep as “ RED DRINK” for Cattle, 38. 6d. per Dozen. ‘ )5 THE “ PURlFlED DRlFFlELD OILS. Safely Heals all Wounds in all Animals. Heals Kicks, Stake Wounds, Broken Knees in Horses. Heals Cracked Heels and Saddle Galls in Cures Sore Teats and Swollen Udders in Cows and Ewes. For Dressing and Anointing in Lambing and Calving. Price 25. 6d. and 6s. per Bottle. Horses. “THE ORIGINAL" ‘ '9‘ “THE ORIGINAL” Universal Medicine Chest 3: Horsekeepder 3 Medicine CheSt IFiI ECU m1 ; H , 7 gm - 8:" s - in: r DAXORIGINALONS g UNIV RAB MEDICINE CHEST im 5,. gm 1 O ' .~ FOR Disorders of Horses, Cattle, It: FOR D1sor ders 1n Horses and Sheep. i,_‘.| _ Price £2 45. and £5 08. , H Price £2 148. 0d. and £5 08. 0d. Sample Chest, price £1 4S. '<} Sample Chest, price £1 46. 0d; Each Chest contains our Easy Guide,“ Eveiyday Farriery.” 9th Edition, zoo pages. P11ce by Post, 1 9. PROFESSOR SHELDON, in his recent work, “One of DAY AND SONs’ Medicine Chests contains all the Medicines required for the common ailments of stock; professional assistance, and delays are commonly dangerous. Beware of Shame limitations, and Note our only Address-— DAY & SONS, CREWE, CHESHIRE “The Farm and the Dairy,” says. ——.‘ relief may by their aid be afimded without waiting for I h .3 M): M"? My ”unfit/y,” , 4 H ‘n( ,‘r H r‘ {mu ‘ly; ,, M In.“ m, THE LIBRARY oftke UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY BEATRIX FARRAND LIBRARY FUND i§"3no~oS’i, [511113113115 3.1 (BEARS GALVES WITHOUT MILK Used at the FIRST PRIZE Farm of the ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. The Royal Agricultural Society’s Journal says :———“At z/mee (i141? old the Calves , \\ have Simpson’5‘ Calf Meal Gluel only for food. It 15 AN UNDOUB ED SUCCESS.” L . “The Field” Re ort says:—“ It is surprising how well the Calves thrive on it— ‘ absolutely WITHOUT ANY MILK AT ALL , " One th makes 400 Qua1ts of good Gruel at less than One Halfpenny pel quart, saves 150 Gallons of Milk, and will rear Two Calves to 3 months old for 1/- a week IT PREYENTS SCOUR. It’ Keeps the Calves healthy, lively, and thriving; preserves their “bloom” and “calf flesh” ; makes them grow rapidly and well; and 11111 tum out as big, and 111 as good condition 5 at 3 months old, as if they had been fed on new milk at three times the cost. It Is at once Cheap, Highlyl Nourishing, and Easily Digestible. It may be p1 epated for use A »with' little or NO TROUBLE and Calves take to it readily, and relish it very much. It may 5.; be given to them at a week old, and they will th11ve and do well on it. , PRICE 1n London—«One th Bags, 21/- each. Oiiginal Inventors, Patentees, and Sole Manufactuiers, 951111501 1 50., Limited 51 5111511511 51111111 101501, 15 11 a. 11 ‘ 1111 > " 1111a A N D C ATT L E Imperial Lite Stock Insurance Association, Ltd. ,, . ESTABLISHED 1878. Headi'Ofito’es: 48 FALL MALL, LONDON, 8W STALLIONS Insured for ,the Travelling. Season. ‘ 'MARES Insured for Foaling Risks. ‘ 110115113 and CATTLE Insured against Death from ACCIDENT on DISEASE. - CLAIMS PAID EXCEED £40, 000. InsuranCes may be effected, Prospectuses, Proposal Forms, and all information obtained, on application to the Manager at the Head Offices AGENTS WANTED. B. s. ESSEX, Manager. \ IT PAYS BREEDERS" and 14"‘111meis to use “HORSESHOE” CAT 111; SPICE with the food they give their cattle, as it rapidly improves the condition of the animals, brings up thei1 weight and 111c1 eases their market value. 1 “ ” i The “ HORSESHOE” CATTLE SPICE is a 1 highly feeding condiment for Cattle 1 Hoxses, Sheep, Pigs, Poultr, 810. Re- memhei it 111113s Breeders an Farme1s SPICE. “ HoESESHOE’ CATTLE SPICE. Worried F armers who read with anxiety the state- its fertility and yielding poorer produce 3 ear afte1 y e211, are assured that the .7 “HORSESHOE” CATTLE SI ICE supplies TRADE MARK ' the natural salts deficient in the herbage through loss of the Earth’s fertility ~~ V m’e recent correspondence 1n 1‘ lze Times. It 1 is pre- eminently a nourishing and digestible food, highly feeding and conditioning, producing better health, andb giving the animal a bonny appearance. Try the “1101131311111” BATTLE SPIGE.’ Sold by Agents all over (11 eat Britain, or direct from THE BRITISH CATTLE FOOD COMPANY, Limited, 1 - , COLEMAN STREET_ MILLS, ISL/NGTON LONDON/IV . .. ments of scientists that the earth is losing " ‘ .3 £52m «if E?” " S- * i "E , ‘-', I I‘ 1‘, 7 I, I kw: I DZ’M’ [4:573:17 . I: . . I . . / «I "Jill‘ii’NVEWSHILLING SERIES OF PRACTICAL HANDBOOKS. ”TIHE AMATEURS’ PRACTICAL AID SERIES IN SCIENCE, ART, AND HANDICRAFT. EDITED BY FRANCIS CHILTON-YOUNG. Author of “ EVERY MAN HIS OWN MECHANIC.” Crown 8vo, strongly bound in Cloth, 18. per Volume. Copiously Illustrated. THE PRESENT SERIES OF PRACTICAL VOLUMES, Written by skilled hands belonging to both classes of workmen, and produced under the superintendence of one whose name is now well known in every part of the world, ,will, it is hoped, be welcomed by both Amateur and Professional W'orkmen. It is not for a moment sought to pretend that these volumes are text-books commencing with the Alpha and proceeding to the Omega of any trade on which they treat, and conveying a progressive series of instructions in its mysteries from beginning to end. They are byways rather than highways of teaching, and, dealing only with parts and portions 01‘ various sciences, arts, and handicrafts, are to be taken as ancillary to ordinary text-bocks, putting the reader in possession of many a wrinkle which he would certainly fail to find in the latter. Much, indeed mOst, of the matter has appeared before in the pages of AMATEUR WORK, but it has been thought desirable to place the best of the information stored in its pages at the disposal of the public in the present handy and readily available form. The Volumes will be issued at intervals of two months. As time goes on, other Volumes will follow On subjects each and all of which possess special interest for the Amateur workman. THE FIRST VOLUME OF WARD & LOOK’S AMATEURS’ PRACTICAL AID SERIES IS Carpentry for River & Garden IN TWO PARTS, NAMELY: Part I.—-Baat Building Made Easy. Part II.——Rustic Carpentry. Illustrated with NUMEROUS DIAGRAMS AND ENGRAVINGS. THE SECOND VOLUME OF WARD 6’6 LOCK’S AMATEURS’ PRACTICAL AID SERIES WILL BE Mechanical Work in Garden and Greenhouse. IN THREE PARTS, NAMELY: Part l.—-Geometry for Gardeners. Part lI.——8un-Dials and Dialling. Part Ill—Greenhouse Building and Heating. Illustrated with NUMEROUS DIAGRAMS AND ENGRAVINGS. THE THIRD VOLUME OF WARD & LOCK’S AMATEURS’ PRACTICAL AID SERIES WILL BE Ornamental Carpentry. IN THREE PARTS, NAMELYZ Part I.——Wood Carving for Amateurs. Part I/.—Deoorative Carpentry. Part ll/.-—0rnamental Lattice-Work. ' Illustrated with ORIGINAL DESIGNS AND WORKING DRAWINGS. WARD, LOCK, BOWDEN 8: 00., Warwick House, Salisbury Sq., London, 3.0. ' NEW_YORK, MELBOURNE, AND SYDNEY. . And at all Booksellm-s’ and Rafilway Bookstalls. 0 1" IMPORTANT NOTICE TO AMATEUR. MECHANICS. Twenty Pages of Valuable Information FOR ONE PENNY WEEKLY. AMATEUR WORK, illustrator). The Well-known Magazine of Constructive Art and Manual Labour. The Only Magazine written for Amateurs by Amateurs. Always Practical and always Instructive. The Favourite with Home Workers. First and Best of its kind. AGUIDE FOR THE AMATEUR ARTISAN, AND THE TRUE FRIEND TO HOME WORKERS. Showing him in a way that he cannot fail to understand— I. What is to be Done. _ 5. With what it should be Done. 2. How it is to be Done, 6. Who supplies the needfu/ 3. When it ought to be Done. Materials. 4. Where it should be Done. 7. Who furnishes the necessary Too/s. Practical instruction is given oh a variety of subjects, RANGING FROM ADVANCED ARTS TO SIMPLE MANUFACTURES AND PROCESSES-- of course, suitable to, and within the compass of the powers and ability of the Amateur, for whose requirements this Magazine was specially instituted. YOU SHOULD BECOME A SUBSCRIBER TO ”AMATEUR WORK,” BECAUSE It will help you to improve your surroundings. It will suggest occupation for your leisure hours. It is sure to far more than repay you. PRICE ONE PENNY PER IVEEK. WARD, LOCK, BOWDEN & 00., Warwick House, Salisbury Sq., London, 3.0. And of all Booksellers and Newsagents, and at the Railway Bookstalls. CARPENTRY FOR RIVER AND GARDEN. ESTABLISHED 1851. BIRKBECK BANK SOUTHAMPTON BUILDINGS, CHANCERY LANE, LONDON. w THREE per CENT. INTEREST allowed on DEPOSITS, repayable on demand. TWO per CENT. INTEREST on CURRENT ACCOUNTS, calculated on the Minimum Monthly Balances when not drawn below J€100. STOCKS, SHARES, and ANNUITIES Purchased and Sold. SAVINGS DEPARTMENT, For the encouragement of Thrift the Bank receives small sums on Deposit, and allows Interest, at the rate of THREE per CENT. per annum, on each completed £1. BIRKBEGK BUILDING SOCIETY. HOW TO PURCHASE A HOUSE FOR TWO GUINEAS PER MONTH. BIRKBEGK FREEHOLD LAND SOCIETY. How TO PURCHASE A PLOT OF LAND FOR 55. PER MONTH. THE BIRKBECK ALMANACK, with full Particulars, Post Free on Application. FRANCIS RAVENSCROFT, Manager. WARD & LOCK’S HMHTEURS’ PRHCTICHD HID SERIES. ——-—;:__.=©§—— CARPENTRY FUR RIVEM GARDEN IN TWO PARTS. afiart I. BOAT-BUILDING MADE EASY. BY M. LE B. K. 335m II. , RUSTIC CARPENTRY. BY ARTHUR YORKE. Fully Illustrated with Diagrams, Plans, Working Drawings, and Sketches. EDITED BY FRANCIS CHILTON-YOUNG Author of “ EVERY MAN HIS OWN MECHANIC,” “ THE HOUSE AND ITS FURNITURE,” and Editor of “ AMATEUR WORK,” First Series oj‘Seven Volumes. WARD, LOCK, BOWDEN AND CO., LONDON: WARWICK HOUSE, SALISBURY SQUARE, E.C. NEW YORK: EAST 12TH STREET. MELBOURNE: ST. JAMES’S STREET. SYDNEY: YORK STREET. 1893. (All rights Teseroed.) PREFACE. _+_ THE illustrious French essayist and moralist, Michel Eyquem de Montaigne, when speaking—if I remember rightly—of a collection of taking excerpts from famous writers that he had gathered in course of reading, and, as it were, had strung together, said, “I have here a nosegay of choice flowers in which there is nothing of my own save the string which binds them together.” Looking at this, the first volume of WARD AND LOCK’S “ AMATEURS’ PRACTICAL AID SERIES,” and having in view the volumes to follow, I am inclined to regard myself as being in very much the same position in thus having to put together and produce in book form much excellent work that has been done by other hands, with nothing, or next to nothing, of _my own except the editorial string, may I say? with which they have been bound together, when collected from the sources from which they have been harvested. . First and foremost in the series—the pioneer, I hope of many volumes yet to follow—is “ CARPENTRY FOR RIVER AND GARDEN,” which touches sufficiently, if not exhaustively, on two subjects which have always possessed a considerable interest for amateurs who like to work in wood, namely, “ Boat Building Made Easy” and “Rustic Carpentry.” Could I follow the bent of my inclination, I should like to refer here by name to the respective author of each part, but I am compelled, as reference to the title page will show, to veil the identity of one under initials, because I remember that when he began to get higher up life’s ladder, and filled a post of greater importance than he did when he first became a member of my staff, he wastreluctant to continue his iv PREFA CE. contributions hitherto written under his own name, lest some should think the time he might devote to writing was time filched from hours which should be devoted to the performance of the duties he had been elected to discharge; and the other—a valued co— worker well nigh up to date, who will continue to be so, I hope, in time to come on many a serial publication yet to be launched— has wrought with his pen under so many aliases that to give his 0Wn name, would be, perhaps, to admit the amateur-work world behind the scenes so far as to render the use of further noms- de—plume a work of supererogation—which, pace the clergy beneficed and unbeneficed, is discouraged by our fourteenth Article. And what shall I say about the subjects that are treated in the present volume? Surely both are so attractive that they need little or nothing from me to commend them to the notice of amateurs in general as handiwork both pleasant and profitable, useful and ornamental, that should be and ought to be done in any and every summer season when work out of doors is infinitely to be preferred to that which can be done in winter in the restricted space and close atmosphere of the workshop. To be the possessor of a boat is a good thing in itself, but to own a boat built by oneself, provided that one can build it, is far better—and cheaper. And as this may be regarded as an axiom which is beyond amend- ment, I need only add that as a simple and easy mode of boat« building is clearly set forth in the pages devoted to this subject, all that the would-be boatbuilder has to do is to follow with thought and care the instructions that are given therein. Again, for those who prefer the ornamentation of the garden to the building of a boat, an ample field of work is thrown open in the construction of rustic summer-houses of all sizes in which to smoke the pipe of peace, porches as shelters to home’s threshold, verandahs to shield its windows from too fierce a wooing by the . summer sun, arches, step-stiles, fences, and other garden requi- sites that every owner of a garden should have and be able to make if only for the pleasure of seeing those structures that are fitted for the purpose, draped from head to foot with the flower- gemmed foliage of fragrant roses, honeysuckles, and jasmines, intermingled with the broad-cupped clematis and other climbers which space would fail me to name in sequence here. CONTENTS. aflart I. BOAT-BUILDING MADE EASY. CHAPTER I. PAGE HOW TO COPY ANY BOAT . . . . J I CHAPTER II. HOW TO BUILD A CANOE . . . o o a 11 CHAPTER III. MY LITTLE LIFE-BOAT . . . . o . 24 CHAPTER IV. THE NORWEGIAN FISHING-BOAT . . .I i .i 32 CHAPTER V. 13 AN UNSINKABLE CANOE . . . I vi ’ CONTENTS. afiart II. RUSTIC CARPENT RY. ———_.._——._.—_ CHAPTER I. PAGE MATERIALS—CONSTRUCTION OF SMALL SUMMER-HOUSES . 53 CHAPTER II. SUMMER-HOUSES OF MEDIUM SIZE . . ' . - 65 CHAPTER III. LINING THE ROOF—LARGE AND COMMODIOUS SUMMER-HOUSE —RUSTIC MOSAIC—BARK LINING—FLOORING . . 72 CHAPTER IV. PORCHES, ARCHES, AND STEP-STILES . o . . 80 CHAPTER V. FENCES, VERANDAHS, AND FURNITURE . . . . 89 ~>3§Co§z< BOAT-BUILDING .zgoj;g<. MADE EASY. / / s. BOAT -BUILDING MADE EASY. CHAPTER I. HOW TO COPY ANY BOAT. Pleasure afforded by a boat—Boat may be cheaply made—Necessity for a model to copy—Canoe taken as model—Materials needful for operationi— Measurement of centre—Fitting wire round boat—Slipping oft wire when fitted—Outline of broadest part—Tracing wire on paper—Sections towards ends of boat—Modelling nese of boat—Tracing joinings of boards—Length of canoe and keel—Depth inside boat—Mode of measuring ordinary boat—— Points to be regarded in taking measurements—Error to be avoided in altering any measurement—Proportions must be preserved—Preparation of wooden sections—How to make inside pattern—Joinings of the boards—— Junction of boards illustrated—Reduction of section—How to ensure sym- metry in sections—Material for wooden 'sections~—Boat builder’s bench—— Gambas for bench—Position of gambas, and effect on keel—Construction and materials for keel—Manipulation of wood for keel—Treatment of shoulders of keel-Stem and stern-posts : how to make them—Materials for stem and stern-posts—Formation of these parts of canoe—Fastening stem and stern-posts to keel—Why keel was cut away at top—Suggestions for practice in modelling stem and stern—How to determine slope—Fastening by screws or nails—Enlargement of holes by burning—How to strengthen junction of parts—Arrangement of sections on keel—Notching sections a- bottom—How to secure sections—Completion of skeleton of boat—Modifica tions of foregoing directions—Peculiarities in models-Course of procedure defined. ".2. F the many objects conducive to amusement in the ' country, and which are therefore coveted by country dwellers, there are probably none more important than boats. It is a very small plece or Pleasure water indeed wh1ch cannot be made to afforded bya . . . . 08y . y1eld some pleasure Wlth a boat, while the sea 15 of little use without one. The great obstacle to obtaining one of these ministers to our enjoyment is, in most cases, the expense. Well, I I BOA T-B UILDIN G MADE EASY. hope to show that the expense need only be very small indeed, being little more than that‘of a few boards and nails ; and that any man, no matter how rudimentary his carpentering Boat. may be , , cheaply knowledge, can, by a little patience and perseverance, made' make as good a boat, for all practical purposes, as he would pay a long price for to a professional builder. So now to work. Firstly, you should have a model : a boat to copy. You can, of course, vary the details, and I shall endeavour to give all neces- . sary measurements ; but it is much more satisfactory Necessfisy for . . a. model to to have something to work from, and I think there coPy' are few persons who cannot either get hold of a boat like the one they wish to make, for half an hour, or discover some- one else who will do so for them, and send them the needful par- ticulars. . ' '. Suppose the boat in question is a canoe-the kind on which I may say that I first tried my measuring method, and the kind, Canoe taken moreover, which in use probably yields more plea- ” m°del- sure than any other, for not more than two per- sons at a time. Buy a few yards of copper wire, tolerably strong, like that used for bell wire, it will cost about twopence. Provide yourself with Materials red pencil. a newspaper, and a rule, or, better still, a needful for measuring tape. A canoe, of course, has both ends Opera'uon‘ alike. Find, by measurement, the exact centre in length. Take a piece of wire long enough to go round the outside Measurement of the boat at this point. Place it round, and draw °f centre. it as tight as possible, getting someone to hold it so, or, if alone, twisting the ends together. N ow with your finger, or Fitting wire the end of a penknife, force the wire perfectly flat mum b°at' across each board, and into the joinings between the boards, or the bottom boards and keel. Be careful to keep the general direction of the wire perpendicular to that of the keel, that is, of the ground on which the canoe is lying. When the wire is Slipping ofl exactly fitted to the form of the sides and bottom of Wigtztzvélen the boat, fit It in the same way to the top, and fasten ' the ends so that they cannot slip backward or for- ward. Then get someone to hold up one end of the boat, and slide the wire off very gently. 2 MEASUREMENTS AND MODEL OF CANOE. You will now, if you have performed the operation neatly, have an exact outline of the broadest part of the canoe, as in Fig. I: , such an out- Outline of .___¢if_.__\\ line, in fact, broadestpart. as would be presented by the outside of the side- boards, were you to saw the vessel across in the centre, and were the FIG. I.--OUTLINE‘OF CFCTION 0F ”OAT boards not to start from IN WIRE “ their places. Lay your wiredownon Tracmgwe your newspaper, having spread the latter on a flat - °n Papal“ suxface, and carefully and exactly trace out the pattern with the pencil. Now find by measurement the half-way point Sections to_ between the cent1e of the boat and one end, and take wards ends anothe1 pattern at this place, in precisely the same otboat way as‘before. In the case of a canoe you will require no more sections, sinceit tapers away evenly to both ends from the centre. Now take a piece of paper, sufficient to cover one “nose” of the boat, and to reach back on the side to where the rounded stem or stern-post Modelling ceases, and the ap- ”039 of 10091;- parently level keel begins, z'.e., for about two feet. Lay this paper against the Traci“ 1 side of the boat, and Joinings or . . cards. trace on 1t the Size and shape of the stern-post, and the depth and direction .of the boards, so far as the paper reaches, You can easily follow the joinings of the Length of boards through the paper. (Fig 2.) Lastly, find the canoe and. length of the canoe along‘the deck, from tip to tip, and keei' and the length of the keel proper to its junction with the stem and stern-posts. You have now all the necessary measurements, but it will be as well to ascertain also the depth inside Depth inside from —the bottom to a stick laid across the top of the 10°34‘- open, the size of the ribs, etc. ; and, though I shall endeavour to FIG. 2.—STEM OF BOAT. a D BOA T-BUILDING M’ADE EAS 1/. give all necessary description, to examine carefully the general shape and lie of the several parts of the vessel. For an ordinary boat, differing from a canoe in not being of the same shape at both ends, wire measurements should be taken in Mode ofmea- other places. The necessary points are, of course, suring ordi- those of greatest contraction and expansmn, and Will, nary boat' therefore, vary according to the shape of the particular boat to be copied; generally round the bows, amidships, and at the place near the stern where the bottom begins to rise and fine Points to be away will suffice, along with the “ cheek ” beside the Effigfiefi stem-post, and the actual face of the stern. Having suremems' measured the shape of the boat at these points, and as many more as may seem necessary, and found the exact distance between them, we may set to work with confidence. Of course it is not necessary to follow one’s model in all par- ticulars,‘ provided relative accuracy be preserved. Nothing teaches one so well as past mistakes; and here I may mention a serious Error to be error I very nearly fell into when making my first avoisiedin canoe. The boat Itook my measurements from was altering any . . measure- I 5 feet long over all, and I Wished to make mine only ment‘ I 3. This being so, I at first thought I should merely have to take one foot off each end, as it were, so that instead of leaving 3 feet 6 inches between each end and the section next it, I should leave only 2 feet 6 inches, still preserving the length of 3 feet 6 inches between each of the smaller sections and the one in the middle. My mistake here is sufficiently obvious, but somehow it did not at first strike me, and possibly might escape others also. In fact, while I had in my measurements considered the boat I was Proportions copying from as divided by sections into four parts, must be each 3 feet 6 inches long, I now forgot that each part preserved. was to be a quarter of the whole length, and was about to make my divisions, 2 feet 6 inches, 3 feet 6 inches, 3 feet 6 inches, 2 feet 6 inches, instead of four, each 3 feet 3 inches. I should thus have failed to preserve the relative slope from the centre to each end, and constructed a boat very much shorter in the bows than my model. This will serve as an example of the way proportion of parts must be preserved. We have now to prepare wooden sections, round which the canoe is to be built, from the paper patterns. I said above that the 4 WOODEN SECTIONS AND [NSZDE PATTEIV. .o latter, as traced out from the wire, presented the appearance of the outside of the sides if the boat were sawn in two. In Preparation other words, if we draw a smaller figure Within our 0:13:12an pattern, leaving between the two all round a space ' ,— equal to the thickness of the side-boards, E we shall have a figure which Howto make would exactly fit inside the insggfnnat- canoe at the spot where we F . took the pattern. And yet this is not quite so, for there is one very important thing to remember still, at least in a canoe or small light boat, which must be made C with great exactness. This is connected 3 C with the joining ofthe boards Joinings of (Fig. 3). These meet each themams' other at different angles, according to D their position, but the following will serve FIG. 3.--JOINING 0F SIDE- as a general illustration. BOARD. A A Junction of Here A represents an upper, boards . . illustrated. B a lower board. Every board has its upper outsrde edge bevelled off, so as to fit up against the inside 'of the board above when the latter is nailed down on it, itself uncut. The pat- tern we have taken by the wire gives us the line A B C D, but what we want is the line E F G. We must therefore care- Reduction of 'fully draw lines corresponding to E F G, parallel to the se°fi°n' ; outer lines corresponding to A B C D, all i A' round our pattern, and then cut out the ' smaller shape formed by the inner lines, X X keeping safely the thin strip we take off all round, ;_ to show us afterwards the depth of bevel necessary for each board. The paper section ought then exactly to fill the canoe at the particular place to which ma, 4.—--SECTIDN 0F it belongs, but it is as well to How to en- KEEL- double the paper andcompare $133 :1, the sides, so as to ensure their perfect equality, a se°ti°n3' process by which we may often discover inequality in an apparently A 7 perfectly even boat. We have now only to paste the papers carefully on a board, 5 30.4 T-BUJLDING MADE EASY. about a quarter of an inch thick, of some soft wood not easil split, Material for such as poplar, and cut the wood to shape exactly by WOQden the paper. Our sections, round which the canoe is sections. . to be built, are then complete. And now what are we to do with them ? , Firstly, we must provide a bench to work on, consisting of a Boatbuilder’s board a little longer than the boat is to be, and as thick band“ as the keel, placed edgeways, and secured at either end to some firm support about 3 feet high, as shown in Fig. 7. We next take two strips of wood, G, G, the same thickness as the bench, each about 18 inches long, and diminishing from an Gambas inch deep at one end to nothing at the other. They f“ bemh- are called, I believe, gammy, and their use is to give a slight “set up ” to the ends of the A D canoe. These are now to be nailed Position of along the bench, one at gambamand each end, their thin ex- effecton keel. . . . . . tremities pomting inward towards each other, and so far apart that their thick ends will just be under the junction of the stem and stern— posts respectively with the keel. It 0 - ' FIG. 5.-SHAPE OF STEM AND Wlll at once be seen that the keel, srmmposr IN CANOE when fastened along the bench thus , prepared, will have a slight dip from each end towards the centre. We now construct our keel. ‘Ne know the length of the boat .we measured, and have from that determined on the length of . ours, equal or different as the case may be. Boat< Construction _ andrnfitelrials makers generally make their keels of deal : ash, how- . o 96' ever, is far better. It is heavier and harder to work indeed, but its greater strength, spring, and toughness more than 'Mariipulation make up for this. Take, then, a plece of ash of the ofwood necessary length, and, in the case of a canoe, of an for keel. . inch square. Buy or borrow a rabbet-plane, one that will remove a certain breadth of the surface to any required depth. The breadth to be removed in the case of a keel one Treatment of . . . . shmllildtfirs of , inch square Will be one-third of an lnCh, so that you ee . . . ' may thus plane down one-thlrd on each Side, and leave one-third projecting in the middle. The depth to which you I 6 THE STE/II AND STERN-POSTS 0F CANOE. —v plane away this breadth on either side should be about two-thirds of an inch, leaving one-third uncut. A section of the keel will then present the appearance shown in Fig. 4. Next gradually fine away the projecting shoulders, A A, for about 10 inches from each end of the keel, reducing the breadth to one-third of an inch, as denoted by the dotted lines. We have now to make the stem and stern-posts. Let us take the former for illustration, since they are to be exactly alike. We have its precise size, so far as is visible in a com- Stem and plete boat, in the pattern we took of the “cheek” of figifigpxgitfié the model canoe (Fig. 2) ; but we must remember that them- there is a part not Visible when the boat is finished, a part cor- responding to the stalk of the “T” in the keel, and into which the [(//(////////// u WWW/4rz/N/fl/Maz/L/r/mz/rcur;.2551 ’” ..... .__.__......___—_.__ FIG. 6.--JUNCTION OF KEEL WITH STEM AND STERN POST. ends of all the boards fit, as the edge of two of them does into the “T” in question. . Go to a saw mill and get a piece of oak, or, for a canoe, two pieces, each about I inch thick, 3 inches broad, and 2 feet from end to end, round the curve. They will be somewhat . , . _ Materials for the shape shown 1n Fig. 5. N ow cut the outsrde, A B C, stem and stern-posts. exactly by your pattern. Round away the corners of the outside edge, and make the little nose A D. Then begin at D and draw a line, A B C, all round, parallel to, and about an inch and a quarter from the outsrde, except close to C, where .‘lt Formation of slopes down nearer to the outer edge. Take a chisel, theseparts of . canoe. or sharp strong knife, and cut deeper and deeper along this line, removing the surface towards the inside of the curve as you go on, until you have cut away one-third of an inch of thick- ness on each side, and left another third still projecting—just as in the keel—but rather thicker towards the edge than at the dotted line. a BOA YIBUJLDING MADE EASY. We have now to fasten these stem and stern-posts to the previously prepared " Fastening keel. Here a little reflection 8,3353%, on the way the bottom board keel- must afterwards fit in will show that the hollow for the edge of the board must gradually ascend from the lower side of the keel to the upper side Why keel of the. end posts. This was was cut away the object of the already men- at top. . . tloned fining away of the broad top of the keel. I now give an illus- tration (Fig. 6), which will help to explain matters here ; and I would further advise Suggestions the amateur builder to 'cut _f°1‘ Practice out one or two models of in modelling , , . stem and these stem and stern Jomings stern. . from a turnip or large apple, before he attempts to do it in the wood, as =2: they are about the most important joinings f_____,_.: in the whole boat, and the most trouble- some too. The dotted line, A B, repre- sents the junction of the post and the keel. To ascertain the precise amount of slope necessary here on the two pieces to Howtodeter- be joined, we must cut one, mine 31°Pe' say the post, first, and then 2 get someone to hold it to the end of the keel, now temporarily fastened down along the bench, and elevated at each end by the gamba. We can then pencil the slope on the keel, and cut by it. The actual Fastening by fastening of the two pieces IS screws or effected Simply by a couple naals. . . of screws, or Wire nails well clinched. The holes must be most care- fully made, to avoid splitting : a good way 2:, being to bore them with a fine awl, and ’ 8 j), K N N\ FIG. 7.-STEM, KEEL, STERN, AND SECTIONS ON BENCH. ARRANGEMENT 0F SECTIONS 0N A’EEL. enlarge them with a hot iron. Indeed I may here mention that this method of burning holes, either in the first instance, or to enlarge others already made, will be found invaluable Enlargement for an amateur, especially if short of proper tools. An 01;) 319113;;057 01d poker and a few skewers are always obtainable, ' and will accomplish a large amount of work. But to return to our illustration. The shaded part represents that portion of the wood which has been diminished in thickness by the rabbet-plane and chisel ; the white part that which is still its original size ; and the partially shaded portion, from A to C, the originally projecting edge of the keel, which has been gradually fined away to the thickness of the stern-post at A, where they are joined. How to The junction itself may be strengthened, if necessary, :fiéfifieé by a little piece of iron or tough wood nailed across A Parts- above, cutting a corner in the post for its accommodation. Now fine away any unnecessarily projecting pieces, and your stern-post is secure. Next, in the case of a canoe, do the same with the other end; the two end posts being exactly alike both in shape and mode of junction to the keel. We now have the keel fastened to the bench beneath, slightly bent upwards at the ends by the gambas (G G, Fig. 7), and the. stem and stern-posts firmly secured in the1r places. Arrangement Let us next take the sections we prepared first, and of sections . on keel. bore a small hole through each of them, say 8 inches , from the bottom. Then secure them to the keel, the large one in the centre, and the other two 1n their respective Notching places, as prev1ously determined on, as at N M, N M. sections at . bottom. A small piece must be cut out of the bottom of each, an inch broad, and a third of an inch deep, to receive the wide top of the keel; and they must then be secured in their How to se_ places in such a way as to admit of being loosened “re 36mm“- again, about the best method being a large nail driven part of its length through from either side, and bent down into the keel. Finally,t take a piece of cord, fasten one end to the stern- -post, pass it through the holes in the several sections, Completion draw it tolerably tight, and tie the other end to the of sklfgggonof _ stem- -post. The skeleton is now complete, ready to be clothed in the side-boards, and presenting the appearance shown in Fig. 7. ‘ 9 BOA ZZBUILDING MADE EASY. k For boats other than canoes some of the foregoing directions must, of course, be modified, but how and where will be, I think, M o aific ati ans sufficiently clear. Thus, in a boat where the ends are offeregoing not allke, the stem-post should be put on, as above directions. . directed, at one end of the keel; but the flat stern- piece, made like a section from a pattern, must be attached per- manently to the other, necessarily in a different fashion, and the recunarmes sections will now be slightly different in shape, and, as in m°dels' we have seen, possibly more numerous. Other boats, again, have a straight stem-post, rising perpendicularly from the keel, and with no nose on the top. On all these points let your model (the boat you take as your copy) be your guide. I shall proceed in the next chapter to give more particular Course of . - ~ procedure details for the construction of a canoe, WIth mea- defined' surements, and afterwards give similar sketches of other builds of boats. ' \\ [‘3 \w ll, , \\ IO CHAPTER II. HOW TO BUILD A CANOE. Boards of canoe—Junction of strakes—Capability of canoe—Measurements— Representation of sections—Construction of sections from measurements—- Material for boards, and cost—Preparation of boards—How to cut boards to shape—Pressing boards into form—Attachment to stem-post—Bending board into place—Tracing line on board by cord—What the line represents—Angles of overlapping of top board—How rough work may be made to look well— Completion of boards—Nailing boards together—Trimming off ends—Fitting and nailing bottom board—Copper nails for boards—Screws for attachment to keel—Shaping and nailing second board-Clinching nails—Closing holes with pegs—How to make and fasten top-boards—Ribs and braces—Form of braces—Shape and material for ribs-Tops of ribs must slope—Overlapping V of ribs-Attachment of boards to ribs—Cross arches in well—Division of canoe—Position of girders—Marking the leaks—Tarring keel—Caution re- garding tarred boat—Parts likely to give most trouble—Sheet metal along keel—Filling upper seams—-—Putting on the deck—Wooden slips and canvas covering—Ridge beam of roof—Bottom board, and its support—Backboard as in “ Rob Roy "—Stretcher for feet—Combing round well-Strips of wood round gunwale—Painting and varnishing—Good colours for canoe—Double canoes—~Paddles, and Sailing companion—How to make paddle—Copper and rings—Apron-+Sails—Utility of false keel—Useful mg for canoe—Cleats: how to make them—False keel : how made—Attachment of false-keel—Rods and pipes—Braces to steady keel—Weighting the keel—Construction of the helm—Rudder—Yoke and yoke-lines—Corks for yoke-lines. :3: ~~~~~ 51;"; E left the framework of our canoe ready for the boards. '1" '1 The first important point to be noticed here is, that from the shape of a canoe it is impossible Boards of for any single board, except the top one, can” to reach from end to end. In other words, each single board, as it seems at first glance to be, is composed of two pieces. The division is generally made at two-thirds of the Junction of board’s length, and the joining in no two successive Stmkes' strakes should come together. That is to say, taking either side of a 15-foot canoe, the joining in the bottom board should be I I BOAT-BUILDING MADE EASY. 10 feet from the stem; that of the board next above, 5 feet from the Capability stem; that of the third 10 feet, and so on. Ihave °flcan°°' taken 15 feet as. the total length for the sake of clearness, but in point of fact a 13-foot canoe is sufficient to float anything short of eighteen or twenty stone. My last paper, being a general one, did not call for accurate Measure- measurements, but in this I shall give, so far as pos- ments' sible, an exact description of my own canoe; and I can only hope that some of my readers may enjoy the fruits of their labour as builders as much as I have done. To begin with, then, I give an exact representation of the sections, showing the size of the several parts which will be found to suit. Fig. 8 represents the large section for the Representa- , . tion of‘ centre ; Fig. 9 one of the smaller ones, which are, of geotions' course, exactly alike ; each to be placed half way between the centre and one end" of the boat, that is, in the case of a 13-foot canoe, 3 feet 3 inches from the centre and either end, respectively. In Fig. 8, A B r: r;- inch ; B c: 3 inches; C D = 3% Construction inches ; D E = 2 inches ; E F = ; inch. The breadth go‘ffgggf‘ across at M N = 105 inches; at L 0, 18% inches; at S‘WementS- K P, 22'} inches; at H G, 24 inches; G H and RQ each = 4 inches ; and the opening across G R = 16 inches. From _ these data a section can easily be constructed. The total distance between A and F amounts to 9% inches. Draw a straight line this length; draw four others at right angles to it, and each divided equally by it, the length on either side being known from that of the whole lines, given above. Then join the extremities of these lines. In Fig. 9, A B = i} of a inch; B C = 2% inches; C D = 2% inches; D E = 2 inches; E F = 1% inches; total = 9%; M N :85 inches ; L O = 1312- inches; K P = 16% inches; H G: 17% inches; H A Q = 18 inches. Now as to the boards. About the best material is yellow pine. The point to be careful of is that the boards should be free from Material for knots ; indeed, common deal without knots is prefer- boards, and. able to more expenswe wood With them. In any case coat' the expense is small; my canoe, all complete, cost something under 255.; while a builder’s price would be at least £10. The boards should be of the thickness known as “eight to the plank,” but this size requires neat planing, and perhaps six to 12 PREP/119.4 TI ON AND A TT A CEMENT 0F BOARDS. the plank would be a safer kind. A plank is 3 inches thick. They should be partially planed first in the board, Preparation and then cut to the required shape. To find this °f wards' shape mark with a pencil the heights of the several boards on the stem and stern-posts, from the paper pattern. Then fasten a tack or nail in each of the sections at the points Howtocut M and N, marking the lowest corners on the section boards to . . . shape. boards (V F 1g. 7, page 8). T1e a string at the lowest marked point on the stem-post; pass it on, resting on the three nails at one side, round the marked point in the stern-post, and so on, via the nails on the other side, to the starting point. It will be as well to press each pair of boards for a night or so before putting them on. . Knockanarrow slit in a stout bit of wood, or fasten two together. Put it leaning against a wall, , . . . Pressmg and insert the ends of the boards Into the Silt, at boardsinto right angles to the ground. Then force the other form' ends gradually down flat on the ground, and put a heavy weight on them. You will probably break a few boards in the process, but better break them then than have them snap when Attachment part of the canoe. N ow take the longer piece of one t° Stem'pwt‘ of the side boards, the two-thirds part, cut roughly to. the required breadth, and secure one end to the stem-post by a bit of board doubled and fastened with a nail and string, which Bending can be shoved on as a pair of clamps, embracing both board into post and board. Then get some one to bend the ‘ place‘ board into its p1ace,—no easy job, even though already “ pressed,”— with one edge, previously slightly bevelled off, along the keel, in the hollow made for it, and the other forced up so _ , , Tracing line . as to he along outSIde the cord. Now take your on boardby pencil and trace exactly the lie of the cord against com" the board. Remove this part of the board then, and do the same to the one-third still wanting to make up the whole board. Now consider what this line on the cord represents. A refer- ence to the figure of the junction of board-edges (Fig. 3, page 5) will show that it is the top of the inside edge. But the board above must fit down on this edge all along, and therefore, after cutting off the wood in hand even with the pencil line we must bevel off its outside edge to the depth required in this particular place. The strip of paper cut off round I3 What the line represents. 120A T—BUILDIJVG MADE 12945 y. ~__—~.. our paper patterns will at once show the angles at which the top 'board should overlap the other at three points, the points where Angles of the sections stand ; indeed, this can be ascertained ocpgfipgfipdfi from the sections themselves; and by bevelling away the board at these points to the depth required to give the angle there, and then drawing a line from one of the points thus found through the others, we shall know with quite sufficient How rough accuracy the line by which we are to bevel all along. W°fia§aeafob° And here I may remark that though, of course, all the 100k well- care spent on this part of the boat will be well repaid, yet one need not be discouraged by apparent failure, since what appears a very rough piece of work can often be made to loo/i: well C A FIG. 8.-—SECTION OF CANOE IN CENTRE. by the aid of paint, and to wear well by the judicious use of nails and tar. We have now to complete the planing which was roughly done before ; bevel off the edge by the line just marked,-—and be careful Completion you do not plane off your pencil marks; settle the ends of bOaIdS- of the two pieces that are to make one board, leaving about three and a-half inches to overlap; be sure that the whole board, when made one, will not be too short for‘its place, and make Nailing it one by careful nailing with copper nails. Next boards have the board held in its place while you mark the together‘ rounded shape to which the ends must be cut to fit into the stem and stern-posts, and cut them roughly to that shape. Now secure the board permanently in the centre, and than, and not #15 then, trim off both ends exactly. I say Men, and not till 14 SIJAPING AND ATTACHING SECOND BOARD. then, because, though it is easy enough to shorten a long board, it. is imp0551ble to lengthen a.short one, and the Trimming exact necessary length of the Slde board of a boat 011" ends- can only be ascertained by putting it in the very position it is to occupy permanently. The fitting and nalhng of the Fitting and bottom board on e1ther Slde 15 almost the most nailing bot- . . tom board. troublesome part of the canoe; but here again per- fection, though desirable, is by no means indispensable. The boards should be fastened with copper nails; these cost more than iron ones, but they are far cheaper in the end. Along Copper nails the keel screws will be found most useful, especially f°r wards“ in drawing keel and board together, to close an apparently dan- gerous gap; and here the value of the tough ash serews for keel will be attachment é/v—i-M felt. And t° km H C now, when you have the , C two bottom boards on, K . P the keel and end post \ ' / no longer liable to be I. D o knocked asunder, but . '5 firm and steady, the M N worst is over, and you FIG. 9.—SECTION BETWEEN CENTRE AND END. may fairly Sit down and congratulate yourself. We next proceed to shape the second board all‘ round in exactly the same manner as the last, though it will be found a. much easier task. The nails fastening two boards Shaping and together should not be more than four inches apart, nailingsecond . board. heads out and heads 1n alternately. Bore a hole, put - in your nail, and bend the point slightly; then, getting someone to hold the boards close together if they incline apart, hit the nail from both sides at once with a couple of hammers, Clinching clinching the soft copper firmly. The clamps formed nails“ of a doubled board, described above, will be found most useful. It will be convenient to first fasten the boards to the sections, but only lightly, so as to be easily detached again. Indeed, Closing holes you should always bear in mind that the fewer holes With pegs' you make, except, of course, those which are to be permanently occupied by nails, the fewer you will have to fill up again. as all IS BOA T -B UILDING [ll/[DE EASY. open holes must be carefully closed with wooden pegs, driven in and cut off. Each board should be attached to the end posts by two screws at either extremity. 'We may now suppose all the boards in their places except the top ones. They, and they alone, can be in one piece, though a Howto make good deal of wood is wasted thereby. Fasten them and fasten firmly, leaving the tops square, and see that the two top boards. . tops are level at each end. Next cut a narrow strip of board, about an inch deep, and nail it all round inside the top edge of the top board; it serves to strengthen the latter, and affords a more substantial ground to fasten the deck to. Next come the ribs, and you may now prepare for some hard work, though not nearly so perplexing as much of what is past. Ribs and One pair of ribs braces' should be put in the centre, close to the centre section; and then alternately, at intervals of a foot, :1 pair of ribs and a me of little straight wooden braces‘ brace. Five pairs of ribs and four braces will be suffi- cient. The latter are simply small straight pieces of wood, about an FIG- loo—DIAGRAM . . . . . . OF RIBS FOR CANOE. inch thick, Wlth a place cut 1n them for the top of the keel, and reaching up just to the second board on either side. Screw the boards to them, and screw them Sh to the keel. The ribs builders generally make of oak, ape and material but I found ash quite as good. Get a dozen curved for I‘le. . . . pieces cut in a saw-mill, much the shape of a J or C, about two feet long and a third of an inch thick. The exact shape we have to construct out of this material varies with its position. That for the middle will be like the illustration (Fig. 10), Tops of ribs while the nearer we get to the ends, the smaller and mu“ 31°pe' straighter becomes the curve. The tops of all slope a little upward toward the inside, to support the rounded deck. Builders make the ribs much shorter than as represented in the engraving, none of them crossing the keel. I made mine, by mistake, span the keel and reach half way across the opposite bottom board, the two ribs thus overlapping for some inches. 16 RIBS AND GIRDERS OF CANOE. This is, of course, much more troublesome, but adds immensely to the strength of the boat, and I have often been Overlapping glad I made mine so. The ribs must be sawn out, °f ribs' inch by inch, putting them in their places now and then to see how they fit, and trimming and chipping them till Attachment they are right. Be careful to do the outside of the of bqards to curve first. A vice and a lock-saw are necessary for nbs' this work. Then screw the boards firmly to the ribs, two screws to each board. And now at last our canoe is independent of the sections, and we may knock them out. The cross arches at each end of the well should be put in next; each a piece of deal one Cross arches inch by two, hollowed and rounded till it forms a in well- curved girder an inch square. The proper division of a 13-foot canoe is into a covered part of 5 ft. 2 in. or 5ft. 3 in. next the stern; next, an open space of 4 ft. 2 in. or 4 ft. 3 in.; and lastly, a covered prow of 3 ft. 7 in. or 3 ft. 8 in. Division of Accordingly, we place our girders, one five feet the “1109' other nine, from the stern, securing them both very firmly with screws to the sides, while the one behind the Position of paddler’s back, having to bear a great strain, will girders' also be the better of some support from the ribs next behind it. You may now set the 'canoe afloat, and if the apertures through which water makes its appearance number less than a dozen you will be extremely lucky. Do not keep it long in the Marking the water, but press it well down into it, and mark all the leaks' leaks. Then examine them. Some of them can be reduced by a nail, others will need putty. Along the keel, and in the seam next above it, if all else fails, a line of tar may be put with good effect, the only disadvantage of this being that you can never leave a boat so treated bottom upward in the sun. Remember that all the inside of the bottom will Caution be concealed, forward and aft by the deck, amid-ships regarding by the bottom-board; and so do not scruple to put tamed b°at' plenty of tar on these parts, if necessary. The parts that will pro- ‘ bably give most trouble are our old friends, the points P . . arts likely of Junction of the keel and the end posts, and, when to give most these have been once made water-tight, they may be tmubh' covered outside with tin or thin lead,——indeed, a sheeting of metal 17 Tarring keel. WBOA T-BUZLDING MADE EASY. a couple of inches broad, all along the keel, will probably be Sheet meta1 useful. Builders put on a regular iron shoeing, 31°11“; ke°l' rounded on the outside, which first forms a point on the little nose of the prow or stern, and then runs on down for a couple of feet in on the keel. ' Always remember not to put tarpon putty nor on wet wood; and if a place previously tarred will not keep out water, always scrape off the old tar before putting on Filling upper new. All the upper seams should be carefully and seams' completely filled with putty mixed with a little white lead, wherever they present an opening. You will probably try the boat many times before you find it water-tight ; it is easy enough to keep out the wet in a large strong Putting on hulk, very difficult in a delicate canoe. When at last the am" you have it staunched, you may ‘put on the deck. This is generally made of mahogany or other wood. But I much Wooden slips prefer a.cloth covering, except for the narrow strips on and canvas either Side of the well, 4 inches w1de 1n the centre-— covermg' as we saw in our section—and very slightly less, from the rounded shape of the boat, where secured to the cross girders fore and aft. These strips should be wood, like the side boards For the rest, coarse lawn, painted on one side, and, when that is quite dry, on the other, looks well, and is completely waterproof. Ridge-beam Do not fasten it permanently for a few days, as it will Of r°°f' stretch at first. The whole deck, wood or cloth, will of course be slightly arched by the girders on which it rests. A long straight stick, the ridge-beam of the roof, should extend from the centre of each of these girders into the point of the boat next it ; and it will be a good plan to support these half way, or a little further, by cross-pieces screwed to the sides and to them. As the ribs would be rather uncomfortable to sit on, and you would probably put your heels through the bottom besides, you must ’ have a bottom-board. This should be about ten inches Bottom board . _ . and its Wide, and beSIdes being the length of the well, should support' reach a few inches back and forward from it. To support this board, nail two little strips across the ribs, so placed as to keep it about an inch from the top of the keel, on which another support may be put if necessary. Next make the backboard. Some people like a simple piece of board, fastened by a hinge to the bottom board, and leaning I8 BOTTOZLI-BOARD AND ITS SUPPORTS. back against the cross-arch behind. But McGregor’s plan, as used in the “Rob Roy,” is much more comfortable, and requires no cushion, while the other does. It consists of two strong strips of wood, about eighteen 1nches long, one and a half Backboard broad, and fastened parallel to each other by two asin cross-pieces, at such a distance as just to leave room “30b Boy", for the backbone to fit comfortably between; while the upper cross- piece, larger than the other, serves as a rest to support the whole affair on the edge of the deck behind, to which it may be fastened by a string. Next comes the stretcher, to put the feet Stretcher against. Three or four little parallel strips are nailed f°r feet' to the side deck above, and a brace or rib below, leaving room between each two for an end of the stretcher, a board, which can tnus be plaCed nearer or further away at pleasure. We have now to put the combing (Fig. 8, G and R), a little wall, as it were, of wood, all round the edge of the well, on deck. To hide the ends of the side boards, if the rest of the deck Combing be cloth, the ends of the fore and aft combing may be mum wen. prolonged down to the gunwale on either side, and, if gradually fined down to the end, will look well. To conceal and Strips of help the tacks holding the cloth round the gunwale, wood round . . . gunwale. nall two small strlps of wood, about an Inch deep, all round outside the top board, answering to the similar slips put inside before. _ Your canoe is now ready for painting; or this may be done before the cover is put on. Builders only varnish their canoes, and the mahogany looks well then above the yellow Painting and wood. Paint, however, is much cheaper, helps the mmismng' putty to keep out water; and, above all, serves to conceal defects which varnish would only render plainer. Green, with the end- posts, comblng, etc., vermilion, is a pretty colour, and Gooacomurs excellent for shooting or fishing purposes. For the f“ can“ name, 'secure some large placards, and cut out the letters you want. Gum them carefully on the bow before painting, and when the paint is quite dry, scrape off the paper, and fill in Doume with another colour. Double canoes, to carry two °an°°s' persons, are common. They are longer amidships than single ones, but of equal beam. And now, having got our boat, we must consider the means of 19 BOA T -B UILDZZV G MADE EAS Y. propelling it. A paddle is the first necessary article. Paddles are generally made much too small. Mine is almost eight feet long, with blades seven inches broad at the widest place, and eighteen Paddles, and inches in length ; generally they are about seven feet sailing long, with fifteen inch blades. Long arms, of course, companion. . . . like a long paddle, and go much faster With 1t ; but a shorter and stouter article is perhaps more suitable for a long rough journey. For a sailing companion an old oar blade does well. How to make To make the paddle, procure a board of the necessary Paddle“ length and breadth, and about an inch and a half thick, free from knots. Draw the outline of a paddle on the wood in pencil (Fig. II). Then, with a saw, cut along the dotted lines A B and A C, knock out the piece between, and there will be room to introduce the point of a small saw, and cut on down the handle. FIG. II.-DIAGRAM OF BLADE 0F PADDLE. Then do the other end similarly, scoop out the blade with a spoke- Copper and shave, and when made nail a narrow strip of copper ”1138' or tin round the point, to prevent splitting. Then buy a couple of india-rubber rings, and slip them on over the blades, to catch the drip of the water. A spokeshave and vice are sufficient to make a paddle, when once sawn out. The canoe and paddle should weigh about 70 lbs. Next make an apron. Oiled canvas is the regular material; but painted cloth, like the deck, will anSwer every purpose. And now {or the sails. The ordinary small lug or sprit sail of a canoe has very little power, and is of no use at all with any sort of a head wind. An ordinary canoe will carry safely a much larger sail, as I have often proved; while it can be made to carry three times the usual amount of canvas by the aid of a false keel, wh ch also corrects its tendency to make leeway, and enables it to tack fairly well, and wear splendidly. . ' 20 Apron. Sails. USEFUL RIG FOR CANOE. The powers of the false keel in these respects is much increased by the addition of a mizen, stepped about a foot Utilityof and a half behind the paddler’s back. The rig I false keel' found best is as follows z—mainmast, 6 feet 3 inches high, with dipping lug, measuring, by Fig. 12, A B, 3 feet 6 inches ; Useful rig B C, 5feet ; C D, 2 feet 9 inches; D, A, 4 feet. Any f°r came- strong calico will do for sails. This mast runs through an iron hoop fastened to the front cross arch, through the bottom board, E§\\\\\w\\\w“ A o : \ D l B c \ / —: . u [T E FIG. 12.—MAINMAST, WITH DIPPING FIG. I3.—MIZENMAST AND LUG SUITABLE FOR CANOE. SAIL. and into a step below. In wooden-decked canoes they are gene- rally stepped further forward. The mizenmast is 4 feet 6 inches long; sail measuring, by Fig. '13, A B, 3 feet 3 inches; B C, 3 feet; C 'D, 3 feet ; and D A, 2 feet I inch; E is a sheet passing through a ring in the deck below it, and secured to a small meats; how cleat in the well ; and it is only necessary to regulate t° make them' the length of this sheet by the wind at starting, secure it, and then leave the sail to work itself. Any number of useful cleats may be made out of a few inches of oak. Cut a piece about I inch by g- by i ; burn a small hole through the narrow face to 21 G BOAT-BUILDING [WADE EASY. hold a screw, and cut it away to the shape shown in Fig. I4. The false keel may be made as follows :——Take a board an inch thick, five inches deep, and, for a 13-foot canoe, about nine feet False keel; long. Leave about a third of its length, in the centre, h°w made' uncut, and then gradually slope it away, in each direction, to three inches deep, rounding =— off the last foot each way ; cut it exactly in two, and join the halves with a strong hinge, so that it can be doubled up and carried in the canoe easily. Attachment Bore two holes up through FIG. I4.—DIAGRAM SHOWING of false keel. it, each about eighteen MODE OF MAKING CLEAT. inches from one end; take two stair rods, or other small stiff 'pins, long enough to reach up through the false keel, through the real keel, and out on the deck ; have a screw made on either end, with nuts to fit. Be very careful in boring through the real keel; Rods and a hot iron will be useful here. But the water would pipes' enter through these holes; make them, therefore, slightly larger than the diameter of the rods ; get two tin pipes which will hold the rods easily, in length equal to the depth of the canoe; secure one end of each in the keel, pouring some tar round it, and the other in the deck ; lastly, place close to the pipes, between them and the well, two stout wooden strips, secured to the deck and the keel; these will support the deck and preserve the pipes from being poked by the paddle when pushed under the deck. You can then fasten on the false keel by the rods, which run up through both keels and the deck, and are secured with Braces to nuts at both ends. To keep the keel steady at the hinge “may “91' get two little iron braces, which, when put together on either side of the keel and fastened by a bolt, will form a Y, the arms fitting to the bottom board on either side. Finally, Weighting weight the keel, so as to secure steadiness under the keel‘ nearly any amount of sail. The handiest weight con- sists of iron bars, weighing two or three stone, placed one on 22 FIG. IS.-—-ATTACHMENT OF RUDDER. RUBBER, YOKE, AND YOK'E LINES. either side of the keel, and secured by two bolts, each of which goes through both bars and keel. If placed in the centre they will keep the hinge from moving. They should be on the lower edge of the keel, and can be taken off easily and put on board, with the doubled-up keel. _ And now we have only the helm left. Various elaborate steer- ing gears for canoes are in use ; the following is simpler than any I have seen, and better. The common stern-post Construction being round, a rudder could not work on it. Either, Of the helm' therefore, leave a few inches'of your stern-post straight, or fasten a piece of wood, as in Fig. 15, by two pieces of strong wire, each having a small eye on the head. Then construct the rudder.- About a foot long, and seven or eight inches deep, tapering down to five or six at the outside, will suit, with a handle high enough to clear the nose of the stern—post. Put two wire eyes in it, which will fit exactly, either inside ‘or outside, those in the stern-post, so that a single wire pin put through all four will keep the rudder tight. Then Yoke and make the yoke, a piece of wood about six inches long, y°ke'lines- and set firmly across the head of the rudder. Next double and twist a piece of common strong twine—a material which will alSo do for all the rigging ; tie one end through a hole in one end of the yoke, carry the other past the well, outside the combing, on through a ring or block on the deck in front of the mainmast, down the other side of the well, and secure it to the othér end of the yoke. Then take two corks, and fasten them Corks for firmly by short strings to the yoke line, one at each y°ke'unes' side, just at the spot on the side deck where the hand naturally falls. You sit comfortably then, with a cork and the mainsheet in one hand, and the other cork in the other, and can steer easily and firmly, without any fear of losing your lines. And now our canoe is complete. Rudder. 23 CHAPTER III. MY LITTLE LIFE-BOAT. A cheap and easily-made boat—Dimensions of box used as foundation—Treat. ment of box—Boards on sides of box-Ash stem-post—Plan of boat— Second tier of boards-Exterior end-boarding—Seats, side-pieces, and braces —Mode of making bottom of boat—Caulking for bottom seam—Outrigger rowlocks—How to fix position of rowlocks-Mode of making outriggers— Receptacle for oar—Strap for fastening rowlocks to boat—Method of fixing rowlocks—Outriggers: why carefully described—Length of oars—First trial of boat—Wooden wings to insure floating power—Addition of false keel- Lifeboat: capabilities of structure—Utility of boat for shooting and fishing -—Suggestions for improvements—Stem and stem alike—Substitute for wings ——Assumption on which directions are given—Adaptation of method to canoe ~—-Dimensions suitable for canoe—Arrangements for fire-arms—Support for stock—Grooves for ends of cross-bar—Supports for heavy gum—Springs to check recoil—How to secure sliding butt-rest—Carriage for transport of boat ——Irons attached to bottom—Wooden wheels for carriage—Carriage for clipper.built canoe—Structure of sides of carriage—Connection of sides- Slings for boat—Propulsion of carriage. .., Y last sketch was of one of the most delicate and *5 ‘ elegant kinds of boat made, and one calling for more _ exact workmanship than most others. I A cheap and 2.,.._:;~:_,..'j now, on the contrary, proceed to give easggfinade directions for the construction of as simple, ' easily made, cheap, and withal serviceable a craft as any one can desire. Any boy can make it, and no man need be ashamed to use it. I shall first describe the method I once followed in building such a boat, and then suggest whatever improvements on this plan I now see to be feasible. _ I first got an old box which had originally contained Australian tinned meats. Its dimensions were—length, 2 feet 10 inches; Dimensions breadth, I foot 9 inches ; depth, 10 inches; thickness 1352?; of side boards, about I inch, and of bottom boards, f°undati°m about half an inch. When sitting on a board laid as a seat across one end, I found that I had just comfortable room for 24 F0 UNDA T 1 01V 01“ LIFE-BOA T. my legs within. I tarred the outside of the bottom and corners, to keep out any water that might make its way in to Treatment them. I then got a quarter-inch 12-foot board, 9 °f b°x' inches broad, and another 7 inches, and, without planing them, cut them each in half. One of the 9-inch halves I screwed to a corner of the box, so that about an inch and a half projected Boards on behind the latter; while the remainder, running up Sides °fb°x‘ alongside, could be screwed to the forward corner also, and doubled round in front to meet the second 9-inch half board coming from the other side, where it was similarly secured. The two were joined in front by inserting between Ash them a small ”lemma“ straight triangular ash stem- post, and screwing them to it. The boat then, when viewed from above’ ap- Plan of boat. peared as denoted by the black lines in the accom- panying figure (Fig. 16). The 7-inch boards were Second tier next put on all °f wards" round on the top of the others; while, to secure their upper edges to, four posts, M, M, M, M, M were fastened to the four corners FIG. 16.—DIAGRAM SHOWING PLAN . . . . 0F LIFE-BOAT. Of the bOX, out51de 112 but 1n51de the outer boards. P is the stem- post, and the dotted line across the stern represents Exterior end. the top of the outside end-boarding, the same height warding“ as the sides, and sloping in to join the box at the bottom, while the lower part of the side boards is here sloped Seats, side- away to match ; S S are the seats ; X X smaller side~ piiigfigeaénd pieces, to conceal the openings between the inner box ' and the outer sides; 0 is a brace across the prow, to fasten the bottom to, and itself secured to the sides. 25 .\ _5J ; N ‘§ ‘2 x '§< BOA T-B UILDING [MADE EASY. Next came the bottom, quite flat, and extending alike over the open and the bottom of the box. Be sure to nail the bottom on Mode of outside the edges of the boards, and then round it off. b13253,» I foolishly rounded it off first, and then fitted it inside; mat- the consequence being that I had to expend a small fortune on cement before I could render these joinings water-tight. It will also be found expedient to nail it on through a strip of Caulking for flannel or similar substance, which will thus act as V b°tt°m seam' caulking for the bottom seam all round, while all pre- cautions here taken should also be observed with the outside stern—boarding described above. So narrow a boat will, of- course, require outrigger rowlocks, since it is to be propelled not by a paddle, but by oars. The first outrigger necessary step is to discover the proper length and r°W1°°ks' bend for these appendages. To do this, seat yourself in the boat on the ground, just as if you were going to row, and work backward and forward two sticks, the length the oars are to be, on the top of two other sticks, forked at the end, and stuck HOW to fix in the ground, one at each side of you, till you find position of the exact spot for the rowlock. Then take a piece rowlocks. . . . Wire, and find the Size and bend of connecting rod, which will reach from that spot to the side of the boat, and extend down the latter inside to the bolt-holes. Any country blacksmith can make a good pair of outriggers, if you show him how ; or, if disposed to do a little hammering, you may easily construct them Mode of for yourself. To do this, get a 0113:1133 bar of iron an inch broad, an eighth of an inch thick, and about a foot and a half more than twice the length of the wire, which you found enough for one rowlock and connecting rod. Cut this bar in half, split one end of each piece exactly down the centre for about 4 inches, Open out the two claws, and either leave Receptacle them in a slightly rounded f°r °ar' shape, or, what is better, form with them three sides of a square, A in Fig. 17. Then make in each piece the bend B, according to the pattern which you found suitable, and weld on 26 FIG. I7.-—OUTRIGGER ROWLOCK. HOW TO FIX THE ROWLOCKS. to the bottom of each a small cross-piece C C. Make three bolt- holes, one in either end of C C, and one a little dis- Strap for tance up the main stem, at D. Next, with a rasp, round ffgfifigicfig off the inner edges of A, that they may not cut the oars. '90 b0”- You have now a pair of outriggers, light and neat-looking, and fit to stand anything. To fasten them on, pass each through an aperture cut in the outer board, at the spot which you have found suit— Method of able, taking care that these outer boards do not, from fixing their bent form, split further than you intended. Lay romocks' the T-shaped end against the outside of the inner box, in which you make holes corresponding to the bolt-holes in the irons, and pass three bolts through both iron and wood on either side, screw- ing on the necessary nuts inside the boat. I have described these outriggers so particularly, because, if thus made, they will suit any kind of boat which Outriggers: .equires them, as well as our little tub, provided it has 08321311}, a side strong enough for them to be fastened to. To described- suit a weaker side, the stem of the iron can be split like the head, so as to form a two-legged support'for the oar, more resembling the ordinary outriggers on a builder’s boat, and thus distribute the strain over a larger surface; or two smaller bars may be crossed and welded together at the Length of rowlock. Between 6 feet 6 inches and 7 feet 6 inches '°a‘r5' will be found to be sufficient for the length'of a pair of oars suit- able for this boat. ' When I had got my boat finished, as above described, I tried it in the water, but after some fourteen upsets I felt it First trial would not do. Had it been a canoe, indeed, the “1”“- beam would have been quite sufficient for steadiness ; but it was, in fact, a boat, to be propelled by oars, and it makes a vast difference in the stability of any small craft whether you sit on the bottom, or on a seat a foot high. There was nothing for it but to add some floating power outside. Accordingly, Wooden I made two wooden wings (W, W, in Fig. 16), each in§§3§§33,_ about 5 inches across in the broadest part, and for 1118130“?- three shillings purchased a piece of cork large enough, when divided, to cover the under-side of these, to which I proceeded to nail it. I then secured the wings to the sides of the boat, 27 "30,4 T-BUILDING MADE 112.45 Y. 8 inches from top and bottom, by two L-shaped iron braces a piece. With two long bolts I then put on a false keel, weighted with iron, and, to my delight, not only found my boat quite steady, Addition of allowing me to sit or stand in it comfortably, but dis- false keel“ covered that it was, to all intents and purposes, a life- éoaz. Not merely was it impossible to upset it from with-in, as I Life-boat proved by falling overboard in the endeavour, but capabilities when forcibly upset from without it at once righted 0f Structure' itself. I also found it easy to swim up to it, and get in over the stern. As, however, its life-boat capabilities were not likely to be required, and the false keel made it draw more water than was always convenient, I took off this appendage, and found it still perfectly steady. I should be afraid to say how many good fish, especially pike, I have killed out of this boat. It is also specially useful for shoot- Utility of ing, as while, from its small size and quiet colour, 3333,31; green, birds are not afraid of it ; it allows one to stand and filling up readily, or can be turned completely round by a simultaneous forward stroke of one oar and backward one of the other,——can be kept, indeed, spinning round at pleasure, so as to command any quarter. And now for suggestions of improvements on this model. I fiat/e carried a small boy with me in my original tub, but would Suggestions rather not do 'so again. It follows that, to carry two forimprove- comfortably, the beam must be increased, and as this ments. alone would render the boat too round, it would be well to construct it with stem and stern alike pointed. It could Stem and thus move either way, and the rowlocks should be Stem alike' exactly in the centre of the sides. The fore and aft compartments cannot, of course, be stood in, the bottom not being strong enough, but they are most useful for keeping fish in, or carrying a dog, and, being quite distinct from the centre, can always contain several inches of water, if desired. If wings are Substitute objected to, the beam should be increased by 6 or 7 f°r Wings‘ inches ; and a boat of this size, pointed at both ends, could be finished in two or three days, would carry two, and could move at a very fair speed. All these directions are on the assumption that the craft is to 28 ARRANGEZVIENT FOR SUPPORT OF GUN. be, not a canoe, but a boat propelled by oars, and with raised seats. Yet a canoe made on the same plan would be, Assumption in many respects, a simpler, and, in some, a much afievgfifi superior article. Any increase on the beam of the are given- original boat would now, as we have seen, be quite superfluous, even without wings, and the craft would thus be considerably faster. For fishing, indeed, it would be inferior, as it would Adaptation not give so great a command of the water when sit-. of method . . . . . to canoe. ting, while 1t could not be stood 1n. But as an easfly- made canoe, to paddle about in, it would be unrivalled. For such a purpose the dimensions might be as follows z—Inner box, 3 feet by 2 feet, and outer boards 12 feet long; or for two Dimensions‘ people, 4 feet by 3 feet, and outer boards I4 feet or suitable . . . for canoe. 15 feet long. Both ends alike 1n either case. As a shooting boat, this model would be inferior for flying shots, but would conceal much more of the person ; and, after all, long pot- shots are the usual style in canoes. It would now be found con- venient to have a couple of hooks placed along the Arrangements- top of the inner box, by the right shoulder, to keep a f°r fire‘arms' gun on; and, for a heavy weapon, a similar support might be placed in the centre of the front of the box, admitting of being turned in any direction, and perhaps of being raised and lowered. This could sustain the muzzle when the gun was to be fired. If the stock needed support also, it could be supplied as Support follows z—Fasten an iron bar, forming a slight hoop, f°r s‘mk' across the boat in front of the body, with a rest for the stock attached to it, and running freely in either direction on it. The ends of this cross-bar could be made to slide up and Grooves down in grooves on the sides of the boat; or, for a for ends of . cross-bar. heavy flock-gun, they could be secured to each Slde by a pivot, on which they would turn, and below which their ends would hang, fitted with springs or weights to check the recoil. For flock-shooting,‘the sportsman could then lie on his back, working his vessel within range with a small paddle. A heavy Supports for gun, with a short round butt, secured to the slide on heavy gun' the bow-shaped cross-bar, and its muzzle lying on an easily-turned support in front, could, by simply shifting the butt—rest, be arranged to any required elevation or direction, while the eye, by a slight turning of the head, could, without trouble, he placed in the 29 BOAT-BUILDING MADE EASY. position necessary for aiming. The use of heavy weights, or, springs to what would be much better, strong springs, like those che°k rewn‘ on a hay-tedder, fastened as proposed above, would suffice to check a very severe recoil, so that a stock to the gun How to would be unnecessary, and the gunner would be spared $311113; the trouble of shifting into the position necessary for butt‘reSt- applying a stock to the shoulder. The sliding butt- rest could be at once secured in any desired spot by a turn of a screw. . For a boat such as I have described, which it might often be desired to transport from place to place, a simple carriage would Carriage for be useful. The easiest plan would be merely to nail transport two slight iron axles across the flat bottom, which Of boat' they would serve to strengthen, each projecting on either side only far enough to hold a wheel, to be secured by a FIG. I8.—ELEVATION OF SIDE OF CARRIAGE FOR BOAT. linch-pin; or to secure two pieces of railway line reversed longi- Ironsattached tudinally on the bottom, so that the boat could be t° b°tt°m' drawn along on them without wheels, while they would serve as a double and heavy keel. If wheels be used, and four Wooden iron ones cannot be bagged from a sheep~rack or wheels for similar article, serviceable wooden ones can easily be carnage' made by simply cutting sections of any large log, rounding them exactly, and shoeing them with hoop-iron. For a . Carriage for clipper-built canoe or other delicate boat, a more bu‘iiiggfide. elaborate carriage may be made as follows : Get some “quarter planks ”—boards, that is, 3 inches by 1% inch. Take two pieces, each a little longer than the boat, and two about Structure a yard and a half shorter, lay a short and a long of sid_es 01? piece on the ground parallel to each other, and some camage' 3 feet apart, connect them by three supports—one in the centre perpendicular, and one at each end necessarily slanting, 3o SLINGS AND CARRIAGE FOR BOAT. from one bar being shorter than the other. The result will be one side of the carriage, presenting the appearance given in Fig. 18. Now prepare the other side in the same manner, and join the two bottom bars by stout cross-pieces, well secured, Connection and slightly wider than the beam of the boat. To the °f Bides‘ under-side of these cross-pieces fasten the axles, and put on the wheels. Then fasten three pieces of girth-web or similar stuff, from one top bar to the other, loosely, and let the boat lie in these, between the sides. T 0 keep the latter from being drawn together, secure a cross-stick by a hinge to the centre Slings of one top bar, and when the boat is in, shut it down f°r “a" into a rest cut in the other. It will be advisable to use screws, not nails, for all fastenings. Now round the handles AA at one end, and perhaps fasten a bar across the points at the other. Nothing remains but to tackle a donkey, four-legged or two- propulsiOn legged, to your carriage, walking behind yourself, °f carriage' ready to gra5p the handles on rough ground or when turning corners. With a light carriage the whole affair may even be pushed along like a wheelbarrow. 3! CHAPTER IV. THE NORWEGIAN FISHING-BOAT.‘ Large fishing-boat: its merits—Its defects-Where mostly used—Peculiarities of build—Stem and stern-pieces—Construction of gunwales—Suitable dimen- sions—Arrangement of framework—Side-boards—Circumference of section for each board—Equality of depth of boards—Overlapping of boards— » Bottom-board—Sections of boat—Stem and stern semicircles-Bottom-board fitted into sections — Length of end-pieces —- Fixture of bottom-board— Greatest depth—Formation of section at any point—Fastenings of side—boards —-Canadian nails—Distance between fastenings—Fitting boards to sections— Bevel of edges—Temporary second section—Order of placing boards—- Inconvenience in nailing side-boards—Boat ribs, sawn and bent—Combina- tion of ribs best for boat—Location of ribs—Rem oval of sections—Laths in interior of boat—Outside bottom-board—Caulking the edges—Construction and position of seats—How to fix seats—Covering for prow—Construction of rowlocks—Position of rowlocks—Dimensions of oars—Loose bottom-boards e—False keel —Fastening irons for keel—Symmetry of boat. N my remarks on simple modes of boat-building, I. " have hitherto confined myself to small boats, suited for carrying one person, or at most two. I now pro- pose to fly at larger game, and choose for my first big boat a kind almost, I believe, unknown in this country, but which only requires to be introduced to secure a Large fish hearty welcome everywhere ; if, at least, it be granted big-boat: such a reception as its merits deserve. Shortly put, its merits‘ those merits are as follows: Firstly, It can be built with, probably, half the expenditure of time and trouble necessary for any other kind of similar size. Secondly, It is very fast. Thirdly, It draws almost no water. On the other hand, it has defects : an apparent want of steadiness—I say appa- rent, for the boat is really steady—and a tendency to turn round on very slight provocation from the oars; both these faults, of course, being the necessary results of the very light 32 Its defects. , N. ,4...‘ PE C ULIARITIES OF B UILD. draught of water, mentioned as a merit above, and both admitting of easy remedy, by putting on a very simple false keel. This build of craft is in great request among‘the Boyne salmon- fishers, being, indeed, the commonest kind of boat to Where be found in the vicinity of Drogheda. The model m°suy used" was originally got, I believe, from the boats of a Norwegian ship, and is regarded with favour both from being so easy to build,— every fisherman makes his own, and also from being specially adapted, owing to its roundness of bottom, to run over the nets without catching in or tearing them. I took the few measurements necessary from a Drogheda boat, and have just finished a very FIG. 19.—-NORWEGIAN FISHING BOAT. satisfactory copy, the result of two or three hours’ work daily for a fortnight. Fig. 19 is an exact representation of this boat, being taken from a photograph. The main differences of this build from others are two : it has no keel, and it has no stem or stern-posts. A section :pecunarities of the boat at any point will form an exactly similar “b“m' figure, being always something very near a semicircle ; the length of radius differing according to the position of the section in ques— tion. The section of greatest radius will be found at about one- third of the total length from the stem. Corresponding Stern and to the stem-post in other boats is a small semicircular, Stern‘pieces' or nearly semicircular, piece of board, say an inch and a half thicl , 33 BOA T-B UILDING MADE EASY. straight edge, of course, up; while the stern, equally thick, but about six times as large otherwise, is of similar figure. I say semi- circular, or nearly semicircular; because the shape of the stem and stem-pieces will be the shape of the boat throughout, and it will be feund to improve the appearance of the whole to shorten the dia- meter, the top edge of the semicircle, by, say, an inch on each side of the larger sections. Indeed, I believe these boats are generally built less semicircular than I built mine, more flat bottomed and 1 flat sided, something like Fig. 20, and consequently, in all proba- bility, steadier in the water. The gunwales are flat, parallel, that is, to the water, with one Construction man in the boat ; and the distance of the lowest °f8unwales- points of the stem and stern-pieces from the water will accordingly equal the differ- ence in radius of these pieces from that of the larger section placed at one-third of the total length from the bow. For a boat to carry seven or . eight people FIG. 20.—TRANSVERSE SECTION or BOAT. comfortably, the Suitable following measurements will be found suitable, and at dimensmns- the same time about the simplest possible. Total length, 15 feet; radius of stem-piece, 6 inches; of large section, 2 feet ; of stern-piece, 18 inches. It will also be found a great help in building, to have another section, about a third of the boat’s length from the stern. A good way of arranging the framework is as follows : Get two pieces of wood, I inch or 1% inches thick, and Arrangement 15 feet long, or whatever length the boat is to be. °ffmmew°rk‘ The slips that are to form the gunwales will answer very well. Place these side by side, and a few inches apart, on the ground. Place across them, and nail to them at one end, the stem-piece, and at the other end the stern-piece, both inverted, or flat side down, and in their respective places the intermediate 34 CONSTRUCTION OF SIDE-BOARDS 0F BOAT. sections. Be careful that these are all placed exactly parallel. The side-boards should be about a quarter of an inch Side- in thickness. Seven on each side will be found the wards' best number, and before fastening the end-pieces and cross sections to the gunwales or other supports on the ground, the spaCe to be occupied on their edges by each board, when in its place, should be carefully marked. It is plain that to find the amount of the circumference of each section necessary for each individual board all we now queuing”. - ~ ence of have to do Is to subtract from the whole Circumfer- section for ence, amounting, of course, to half the circumference each b°ard~ of a circle of equal radius, the few inches to be occupied on the bottom by the board which supplies the place of keel, and divide a . » FIG. 2I.-—ARRANGEMENT OF BOARDS 0F BOAT IN SECTION. ‘ the remainder by the total number of boards, fourteen,——if those at each side amount to seven. All the boards should , . . . Equahty of be equal 1n depth at any one p01nt, and the Immense depth of advantage of the semicircular form of the stem and boards‘ stern-pieces will now appear, in that it allows each board to be a. single piece, from stem to stern, instead of being composed of two ' parts, the arranging of which we saw to be one of the chief diffi culties in building a canoe. In Fig. 21, then, the distances from A to H, and again from I to Q, are all equal. In the stem-piece, of 6 inch radius, each will be 13‘; inches, in the section at one-third of the length, of 2 foot radius, 5 inches, and in the stern-piece, of 18 inches radius, 3% inches. It must be borne in mind, however, that this breadth will not be sufficient for the several boards, since 35 BOAT-BUILDING MADE EASY. they must overlap, in the manner previously described at length. Overlapping Allowing an inch for overlapping on the large section, °f b°ards' about :2- in. at the stern, and about ie in. at the stem,— the rough boards necessary for the sides will be fourteen, each 6 inches wide, and what is called five to the plank in thickness, since a plank is 3 inches thick, and one board is consumed in sawing; Bottom. We now come to the bottom-board, which supplies marl the place of the keel. It will be seen that there are about 2 inches left for it on the stem-piece, 4 on the large section, and 3 on the stern—piece. Remember, however, that it has to be overlapped by the lowest board on either side, and accordingly leave it wider on both edges, to fit in under these. Let us now return to the three sections, fixed to the gunwales that are to be, which should themselves be fastened firmly to the Sections ground. Of these sections, the stern and stern-pieces “1”“ should be made of board about an inch and a half thick, and bevelled off so as to make the circumference on the outside smaller than that on the inside, since the boards that are to be secured to their edges come to them from the larger section in the interior of the boat. The bevel, too, should be sharper on the stem—piece, as this is nearer to the large section in question. The stem semicircle can, of course, be made of a Stem and . . . . stern semi- Single piece of wood, but It Will be hard to procure ”0168' one board wide enough for the stern. This, however, can easily be made of two pieces, firmly fastened by the help of a rabbet—plane, or common moulding plane, some glue, and a couple of strong nails, with the heads knocked off. The bottom—board Bottom- should not merely. be fastened to the edge of the board fitted sections, like the 51de-boards, but sunk in them, till mm secmns' the outside edge of its centre occupies the exact posi- tion of the old outside edge of the centre of the section. Its two inner edges should be bevelled off all along. The large section should be placed perpendicular to the laths that support it, and the ground they rest on. The end-pieces, on the contrary, should slope in slightly from what is to be the top of the boat, to what is to be the bottom; about one inch in six is the proper amount of inclination, and this will be found to have considerably diminished when the boat is finished. Remember with reference to this inclination that, if your boards are I 5 feet long, the top, that is to 36 HOW TO FASTEN SIDE-BOARDS. be, of the end-pieces must be only about I4 feet 9 inches apart, to allow for the round. of the boat. The bottom-board Length of must be shortened even more in proportion, since it is end-Pieces- the lower round edge of the end-pieces which must be bent in, not the top flat edge which must be bent out. Now nail the bottom~board in the place cut for it in each section. Fasten the fore end first. It will be found , , F1xture on trylng to bend down the board over the large ofbottom- section, so as to rest on the stem, that it will swell warm up in a circular form about the middle of the boat. This rise must be checked by putting some heavy stones or other weights on the board, or tying it to the floor. The greatest Greatest depth must be at the large section, placed at one-third depth- of the length of the boat, or a little way more, from the bow. I have given no measurements for the corresponding section at the other end of the boat. This is because, in building my boat, I did not consider such a section necessary, and the consequence of omitting it is an ugly straightness, instead of gradual decrease in girth, in the five or six feet next the stern. Once the bottom- board is on and properly bent, it is easy to form a Formation of section for any particular pomt by measuring the (2115- section_ at tance from this board to the height off the ground at any pomt' which the other sections are supported, and making a semicircular figure of this radius. It is of course unnecessary for the sections, which are to be knocked out when the boat is finished, to be all of one piece; only be careful that, if made of slips of wood, the centre, which has to bear the weight, be strongly supported. The resting places for the several boards A B, B c, etc., Fig. 21, may be flattened on the large section, though this is hardly necessary, and quite superfluous on the smaller pieces. All is now ready for the first pair of side-boards. “Five to the plank,” as we have seen, is amply sufficient thickness Fastening of for these. The fastenings are best made of copper, Side-13°94?“- as recommended for canoes in these papers ; but, as the expense of these for so large a boat would be a considerable item in the total, perhaps iron may be preferred. If so, get some Canadian “ Canadians.” Those wonderful nails, which can be nails- had of all lengths, while scarcely stiff enough for ash, or other hard woods, are unequalled for deal. They can be bent, a: an 37 I) BOA T—BUILDING MADE EASY. enthusiastic carpenter assured me, “into a pig’s ring,” will never break, and once they bite the wood, hold it. For the side-boards they should be about an inch and a half long, and be clinched securely by a blow from a hammer on the bent point, while holding a heavy iron against the head, previously driven home. This will be found a better plan than the simultaneous blow frem two ham- Distame mers, already recommended. One every foot, between ‘will be found about the proper number; and screws faStemngs' should be used to secure the boards to the stem and stern-pieces. They should be fastened temporarily by larger nails, half-driven into the temporary sections amidships. All ought to be plain sailing till about half the boards are on Ascertain, by bending it roughly to its place, the exact part of each Fitting board which is to touch the large section; stick an boards to awl or nail into it here; put another to fasten it to secmns' the stern ; get some one to hold it to the stem-piece, and mark the amount to be cut off the breadth of the ends’ to make them fit. The best way will be to mark off half the neces- sary amount, from each edge, say three-quarters of an inch at the stern and a larger amount at the stem, according to the total breadths at these places previously settled. Draw lines from the extreme outside edges at the large section to these marks, then Bevel of saw and plane to the lines, and bevel off the upper edges' one. It will be found well, in a boat of this size, not to bevel these edges so fine as in a canoe or small skiff; and at all events, when marking the amount to be cut off, never forget the bevel, to be afterwards overlapped by the next board. I have '1' already said that I omitted, in building my boat, to emporary . . , second put in a second temporary section until too late, and sectlon‘ had cause to regret the omission. If such a section is used, of course the boards should always, during measurement and marking, be carefully secured to it also. When about four boards of the seven are‘secured in their places 'On each side, remembering that no two boards should be Order of put consecutively on the same side, you will probably placing begin to find It harder to make the fresh edge meet boards' the old one evenly all along. The best waywill» then be to fasten the new board on the centre section as before ; fasten each end temporarily in whatever way seems to suit best, allowing, . 38 RIBS 0F BOAT, SA WN AND BENT. that is, for all the cutting to be uone on the top, or all on the bottom, if one of these seem preferable to the top and bottom plan recommended above; then pencil a line on the new board by the old edge, now pressed upon it, draw a parallel line outside this, allowing for the bevel, and cut by it. Do, in fact, as previously described in these papers, in treating of the canoe. Another inconvenience will now make itself felt in nailing on the side~boards,—-the decreasing distance between Inconveni- them and the floor. As a matter of fact, a boy, or enfxfgiglifiél' small man, may get under the edge to clinch the nails board?!- till all the boards are on but one at each side ; but the simplest solution of the difficulty would doubtless be to fasten the sections, etc., at starting, on higher supports than the gunwales. It must also be remembered that, unless these supports are very stiff, or firmly fastened to the ground, the efforts of the boards, continuing that of the backbone, as we may call it, to spring up from their bent position, will infallibly raise the stem and stern-pieces from the ground, till the very top-boards are on, which will then hold everything in its place. Boat ribs may be divided into two kinds: sawn ribs, to keep the sides in a particular shape, stiff and immovable, . Boat ribs the kind formerly recommended for canoes ; and bent sawn and ribs, straight slips bent under the influence of steam, bent' and calculated to hold the sides together. The former are chiefly used in boats liable from their shape to contract; the latter in those liable to expand. Now, on consideration, it will be seen that in the boat we have been describing the tendency will be to con- tract, and thus let down the elevated head, or rather the head which appears elevated from its having no support below it; the gunwales are really, as we have seen, level all along. But bent ribs, binding all together, are undoubtedly useful in any boat, and the plan I therefore adopted, and found to answer 0 _ . _ , ombmation well, was to use r1bs of both kinds. The sawn ones of ribs best. were of ash, three pairs, precisely similar to those for boat' already described for canoes. The others were formed of the hoops of some of those small, light barrels commonly used to pack groceries and such things in, and made, staves and hoops, of some kind of poplar or willow. Each one of these hoops does duty for a pair of bent ribs, reaching as it does from gunwale to 39 f..- - BOAT-BUILDING MADE EASY. gunwale. I put a pair of sawn ribs, ash, 3 feet 7 inches from the Location stem; the next, 3 feet 2 inches further on; the third “ribs' pair 2 feet 10 inches away from these, leaving about 5 feet 5 inches to the stem. In this 5foot 10 inches space are three hoop ribs, and between each of the other pairs of sawn ribs, and behind the last, two; the ribs, taking both kinds, being thus Removalof about a foot apart. Now fasten in the gunwales,—2 “cums- inches deep, and I inch, or 1% inch thick will do,— and you may then dispense with the sections. Next take two pairs of laths, each an inch by half an inch, or - thereabouts, Fasten one pair round the inside, 7 Laths in , interior of inches below the t0p of the gunwales, for the seats to boat“ rest on, securing it to the cut-ribs. Fasten the other pair parallel to the keel, or where the keel of a boat generally is, 13 inches apart, to support the inside bottom-boards. Places should be cut for the last pair of laths, or indeed for both, in the cut-ribs, and this should be done before the latter are screwed in. Now turn the boat bottom up to fasten on the outside bottom- ‘ Outside board. It will be remembered that the first pair of bottom- side-boards was nailed on outside the keel-board. A‘ board‘, hollow is consequently left all along between the edges of this pair, and this hollow you cannot do better than fill Caulking completely with tar, or the same compound of tar and the (“1893- pitch, and some soap, resin, and cart-grease, with which you should afterwards plenteously anoint the three or four lowest boards all round, except towards the prow. Then nail on the outside board, bevelling off its edges to make it fit neatly down on the first pair of side-boards. Next come the seats. Make these of boards 9 inches broad and I inch thick. Place them about 3 feet 5 inches apart, and put the usual side seats between the hindmost one and Construction _ andposition the next. There Will thus be four cross seats, and of seats‘ these two side ones, and, as the laths they rest on are 7 inches below the gunwales, the rowers will sit 6 inches below How to fix these. Drive long nails through the sides into the , .399“- ends of the seats. Two small triangular pieces of wood fastened between the top of the stern-piece and the gunwales' will be useful. As the bare raised prow does not look well from» 40 ROWLOCKS, OAKS, AND FALSE KEEL. inside, it will be a good plan to cover in about 3 feet of it, nailing light boards across, and sawing them evenwith the gunwales; then finish them with the spokeshave. Put a small Covering for piece across, at right angles to the others, as a curtain me- where they come to an end. For the rowlocks, take a couple of barrow-pins to a blacksmith, and make him split them Construction up for half their length, round the shank, and form one °fr°W1°°ksr side of the split portion into a C, to catch the oar ; leave the other side somewhat straighter. To hold the rowlocks, take three pieces of woOd, 6 3r 7 inches long, and the same depth and breadth as the gunwales. Screw them firmly to the latter, one pair for single- handed rowing, a foot before the amidships seat, the Position of second seat-from the prow. Fix the third in a similar r°W1°°ks- position with regard to the right hand side, as one sits, on the front seat. Now get three little pieces of stout sheet or hoop iron, each with a large hole nearly in the centre to hold the shank of the row- lock, and four small screw holes in the corners, a pair for the gun- wale and a pair for the inside piece. Bore or burn a hole down through the wood, from the large opening in the iron, and this will hold your rowlock. I said make the holejzearly in the centre of the iron because thus you need not do much harm to the gunwale, which would be hard to restore ; the hole will be Dimensions mainly in the small piece within, which can be easily °f ”’1“ replaced if necessary. Next come the oars. About 9 feet will be long enough, with blades 3 inches broad. ' Lastly, put in the loose bottom-boards; two, each 9 inches broad except towards the prow, hinged together by pieces ”of leather, and fastened down by staples driven into the Léose ribs, with pins through them. These boards need not bottom- run quite up to the prow, only far enough for the boards" front boarding across the gunwales to conceal their ends. If a false keel be thought necessary, it should be about 10 False feet long, beginning with nothing, at the point of keel- greatest depth in the boat, and running back to 6 inches deep at the stern. This will render the total depth of the boat equal, for this distance. Make it an inch thick, and fasten it Fastening with two pairs of L-shaped irons, screwed to the keel irons for and the bottom; or, if there is an objection to keel' having it immovable, fasten it with hinges so as to lift up, and 41 BOA T-B UILDIN G MA DE EASY. put a bolt on the stern to catch the end when let down, and keep all steady. This completes our Norwegian fishing boat, the most striking feature of which is its symmetry, not only on either side of a Symmetry central plane dividing the boat into two parts length- °f ant- a wise from stem to stem in common with all other beats, but in similarity of its sections taken in any part trans- versely from stem to stern. 42 , _ o_ '5“ \ o ' ' L . a I V; A \é‘ltqghl’ Z“ \{7 0 / J‘- ~ "‘ “33m?" “3‘ \ 9 CHAPTER V. AN UNSINKABLE CANOE. Introductory—Rabbeting the keel—Planking the canoe—Boards running from end to end—Good book on boat-building—Division of canoe in parts by bulkheads—Retention of bulkheads, and why—-Air-tight compartments—— Utility of compartments—Thickness of deck for canoe—Wood suitable for deck—Steering of canoes—Sail plan and measurements—Make and working of mainsailé-Mizen sail and boom—Boom for mainsail—Air-tight fitting for masts—Socket and box for masts—The apron and its attachment—Con. clusion. HE following remarks on Canoe-building have been supplied by an amateur boat-builder who has made a canoe on a principle somewhat different from the one described by the author of “ Boat-Build- ing Made Easy,” and are inserted here because the practical hints that are given are likely to be of use to many who are inclined to enter on the task of building a boat for themselves. There is not much practical information of this kind of a simple character to be had, and as what may commend itself to one would—be boat-builder may not so readily meet the views of another, it is desirable, wherever it can be done, to regard this subject from more than one point of View. The writer of this, the concluding chapter of “ Boat-Building Made Easy,” says :— In building my canoe, I wished to make her unsinkable, and also to design a simple and handy rig, in which the sails could be reefed and taken in from where the canoeist sits; but before I show'how this is to be managed, I will make some remarks on the previous writer’s treatment of the keel and boards which butt against it. The first thing is that, in speaking of the rabbet which is cut in the keel, he describes it as having merely a T form all along, whereas it is necessary to bevel the shoulder of Rabbeting the rabbet in order to obtain a tight fit, more especi- the keel- ally towards the bow and stern. Fig. 22, which shows the angle that the boards slope at in the bow and stem sections, will explain 43 Introductory. 'BOAT-BUILDING MADE EASY. % / / I 9 this, the half A showing the shoulder bevelled, the half A B showing it as left in the T form. I think it is worth the little trouble that it takes to do, as the proper angle to bevel at can be found at the three places where the sections are fixed, and with these as a guide it is easy to finish the bevel- ling all along the keel. The second thing which I will remark on is what he states in regard to the / planking of a canoe, which ~ ~ is the most troublesome part of the building. He says, “that from the shape .. . . . _ - - Planking of a canoe it the came“ is impossible for any single board, except the top one, to reach from end to end.” Now, in build- / ing my canoe I did not find % this to be the case. I de- Boardsrunu terlned to \\ ning from bulld the canoe with boards \\\\ running from end to end, because it would be a stronger method, and also /\ l f 5: st; $1332: , < \\ the boards. I have done \\ impossibility in it, though ' ’/\§\\ I must acknowledge that &\ so, and have not found any there was some trouble in getting the boards into their places, 4.4 \ I ""/" \ \\ \§\\\\\ / \\\\\ KEEL'BAND l FIG. I.—RIGHT AND WRONG METHODS OF FITTING BOARD T0 KEEL. BULK HEADS: W11 Y USEFUL IN CANOE. but this arose from not giving them a proper allowance for the sheer or rise of the canoe from amidships to the ends. There will, of course, be some waste in cutting the boards to the required curve, but this drawback is more than counterbalanced by the advantages of the continuous method of building. For a descrip- tion of this and all other matters concerning boat- Good book building, 1 would recommend the amateur to get Mr. on_bo_at- Adrian Neison’s book, “Practical Boat-Building for buudmg' Amateurs.” The articles on planking are very explicit, and I think that amateurs will have no difficulty in comprehending them. I will now explain how a canoe can be made unsinkable, with, if anything, less trouble than the ordinary method of building. In building a canoe, there are usually three sections, Division of or bulkheads, as I shall in future call them, placed so 2:32:11? as to divide the canoe into four equal parts. The use bulkheads- of these bulkheads is to furnish a framework or guide for the planking to be built round. They are only fixed in a temporary manner, so that when the canoe is sufficiently stiff they can be removed, and ribs put in their places as required. Now, instead of making the two end bulkheads temporary, we make them per- manent by screwing the boards to them, and securing them to the keel, by knees or otherwise. We not only attain the Retention of desired end, but also simplify the building, for when bulkheads. the deck is screwed down on the curved top of the and Why' bulkhead, it completely shuts off the two end parts of the canoe from the middle part, and makes an air-tight cOmpartment of them. It will be better still if another bulkhead be placed at each end, midway between the one already spoken of and the bow and stern. So now, as a glance at Fig. 23 will show us, Aimight there are four air-tight compartments. Care should, 0:323??- however, be taken to prove that these compartments ' are water-tight before the deck is screwed on, and also to line the tops of the bulkheads with a mixture of white lead (dry) and gold size mixed to the consistency of putty. This will insure a water- tight joint when the deck is screwed down on it. This mixture ought also to be used in filling all seams and leaks, and if used in a conspicuous place, it should be coloured with a suitable pigment, to match the colour of. the wood. 45 BOAT-BUILDING MADE EASY. The use of air-tight compartments is that, if by any means the canoe becomes submerged or upset, the water could only get into Utility of the middle part of the canoe, and the remaining part, oompart- comprising the air-tight compartments, would give so, ments. much buoyancy that the canoe would be rendered unsinkable, and thus, almost without trouble, we have turned the canoe into a sort of life-boat. Waterproof air-bags made to fit the. canoe are sometimes used, and they possess some advantages, being easily inflated or collapsed ; but I prefer the bulkheads, as being easier to fit, costing almost nothing, and presenting greater security, their only disadvantage being that they limit the length of stowage, but a long spar like the mainmast can be carried on the stern deck, and if a paddle, jointed in the middle, be used, no inconvenience will be felt in this respect—certainly none that would counterbalance the immense advantage which they give, enabling a canoe to live in rough water, if caught out from land. It must be understood, however, that these remarks only apply to. a canoe when she is decked with a good wooden deck. It ought Thickness not to be less than :41— inch in thickness when planed; of deck if wood of thinner dimensions be used, it will require for canoe. . . to be backed w1th canvas and marine glue. As regards the kind, mahogany would be the most suitable wood, but Wood suit- as it is rather costly, pine stained to imitate it would ablemrdeck' do. The main thing is to have it sufficiently strong, because it acts as a brace, binding the canoe firmly together; in fact, the strength of the canoe depends greatly on it. Again, it is obvious that it would not be worth the trouble of fitting air-tight compartments if they were only to be covered by such a slight protection as a canvas deck would afford. Though this latter kind might be light and suitable for a river, something more substantia1 would be needful for the sea. Before I go on to detail the sail plan shown in Fig. 23, I will Steering make some remarks on the steering of canoes. The °f°an°es' plan followed by the writer of “Boat-Building Made Easy” is an excellent one, being very easily fitted, and also being handy to use. Of course, it is an advantage to be able to steer by the feet, and have both hands at liberty to handle sails or other gear, but as it is rather difficult to fit a foot-steering yoke properly. I think most amateurs will be content with the one described in 46 ENS? Om. hthh 5.0% k QKN’SN. 4 . 5 ’.'""I d . ' En .ETnturu: L. J: I + u. u _ _ __ . __ . _ _ _ m J N If! 3 T. F 4 ’III ’I P II 55:2.N—c'.v LOCKER \h u u\||L\L4.“.| ‘\ w FIG. 23.-—PLAN OF SAILS FOR A CANOE. 3 BOA T-BUILDING [MADE EASY. Chapter II. ;but if any amateur wishes to fit one to his canoe—it must be done before the deck 15 put on. The sail plan and measurements are shown in Fig. 23. The Sail plan mainsail is worked by hooking on the boom to the and mea- ring in the mast (placed just above the mast socket). surements' The yard is then hauled into position by the cord which passes through the blind-pulley in the mast, then down and " Make and through a pulley-block on deck just behind the mast, working of and from thence into hand, to be made fast to one of mamsafl. . . . . the cleats when the sad is set. There 15 only one line of reef-points shown, but another can be added if required. The points are spaced 12 inches apart, and a piece of strong broad tape is sewn across the sail to stay it for their insertion. This should be done on both sides. In the mizensail, the cord which is shown passing across the sail is a double one, a part passing up Mizensail each side of the sail through small rings spaced about and b°°m' every 12 inches. The two cords are united just where they enter the blind-pulley, from whence the cord passes into hand in the same manner as the mainsail halliard does. The use of this is, that if the sheet be loosened, and this cOrd hauled on, it will furl the sail tight up to the mast, from whence mast, sail, and all can be lifted and stowed below, if necessary or convenient. Boom for The boom in this case is a fixture, being joined to the mains““' mast by a piece of leather lashed to both, so as to form a hinge, which allows the boom to come up to the mast in furling. In the mainsail, a hook and ring is used, so that the ‘ boom can be detached from the mast and brought into the canoe- ist’s lap to be reefed or to be stowed below. The masts ought to be made the same size where they enter the sockets, so that, if occasion requires it, the mizen could be Air-tight placed forward to act as a storm-sail. If the masts figgsgtggr pass through the air-tight compartments, there will require to be made water-tight mast-boxes, which will come up flush with the deck, and over which the mast sockets will be placed. I would advise both of these to be put in square, as it will be less trouble to make them so, and the masts will be firmer in them. The object of these is to prevent any water getting into , the air-tight compartments, which is the most important thing to guard against. If both of these are put in first, the mast can be 48 FITTINGS-FOR MAST, APROZV, ETC. planed to fit them accurately, so that no water can get into the mast-box itself, and this will make it additionally secure. The socket would, of course, be made of brass, and 7,1- inch Socket and ‘ wood for the boxes, which should taper from the deck b°x f°r mas“ to the keel. The mast would be square up to the top of the socket, and from this rounded off in the usual way. I made mine 1% inch thick at the socket, tapering to I inch at the pulley and 4,} inch at the keel. The last‘thing to which I will call the reader’s attention is by no means the least, namely, the apron. It will be found the hardest part of the canoe to fit satisfactorily ; and as on it depends the comfort and safety of the canoeist to a great extent, it should be made and fitted carefully. I intend to fix mine permanently at one end of the well, and have a sliding board at the other end, so as to come up close to the body. This board will The apron have side-pieces, to catch the macintosh cover and and its hold it down firmly ; but in case of an upset, it would attaChment' be easily freed by pressure from underneath. If the well is very long, a board should be fitted under the fore part of it. The breast-flap, for rough weather, when not in use can be rolled up and tied down on the sliding board. The amateur boat-builder has now had brought under his notice five boats of different kinds, of extremely easy construction, and fitted to do good service to anyone who may have a mind to build one or all of them, either on salt water or on fresh. The chief requisite in carrying out the work, apart from the necessary tools and materials, is care—care to make suitable and correct working drawings, where necessary, _ . . . Conclusion. before commencmg; care in the reading and mental reception of the instructions that are so minutely and clearly given by the writers; care in carrying them out to the letter in every operation of building; and care in the performance of the work in hand, because the freight they are designed to carry, namely, human life, is precious, and neglect in any par- ticular, even trivial, might lead to its loss, when the boatman is far out of reach of friendly aid, as at times he must and will be. The materials, when things are looked at from this point of view, cannot be too good, and the boat-builder should 49 BOA T-BUILDING MADE EASY. see to It that every piece and part, whether of timber or metal, is perfectly sound and reliable, and capable of bearing the strain that will be put upon it. If , the boat-builder has to furnish him- self with the various tools necessary for the work, a caution againsr the purchase of cheap tools may not be out of place. Cheap tools are, for the most part, rubbish, and untrustworthy when bought at a very low rate’ at» first hand. It depends entirely where and how tools are got, and whether first hand or second hand. If second hand, many a serviceable tool, both cheap and good, is to be picked up at shops where “unredeemed pledges” are offered for sale, and in the miscellaneous and heterogeneous collection of the marine-store dealer. They may look old and dirty, and, therefore, next door to worthless, but it is wonderful what a new face may be put on them by a little cleaning and rubbing up. So much for second hand tools: of those bought first hand, or new, the best thing that can be said is—’-Go_ to a good dealer in tools and, confessing your ngnorame as a judge of [Lam’- ware, ask him to patyoa in possession of something wort/z having, at a fair price. You will not repent of having trusted him, for in no way will he deceive you. / 6 7:— 50 PART II. ._____+—.___—— IC QARPENTRY. :Heé— \ Li, 6 ’5 RUST / ->3}Co%—z< \ A n w)‘ :‘ «m, if.“ :14 war RUSTIC CARPENTRY. CHAPTER I. MATERIALS—CONSTRUCTION OF SMALL SUMMER-HOUSES. Introductory—Causes of failure in rustic carpentry—Scope of the term— Materials for rustic carpentry—Time for cutting timber—Larch-poles—Fir poles of various kinds—Best sources whence to obtain poles—Oakobangles— Elm branches-Ash—Withy—Apple wood—Hazel rods—Sticks of maple and wych elm—Chief cost of materials—Summer houses—Choice of site—— Design for small summer-house—Foundation of stone or brick—Rough-and- ready mode of construction—Planting collar-posts—Cross-pieces: how to fix them—SaWing poles in, half—Half-stuff : how to use it—Sawing ends of cross pieces—Lining of the walls—Construction of roof—Ends of rafters: how shaped-Height for seat—«Open work in pediment-—Finish to front posts—Processes awaiting treatment. p.335 ERHAPS among the many subjects that can be treated ‘ 3 for amateur wood-workers, none is calculated to appeal to a wider public than that with which I now propose to deal. All who have gardens and the most modest amount of taste for carpentry will, I trust, find something to their advantage in my remarks and sketches. For rustic work no nice skill and no elabo- rate kit of tools are required; In this department rough work- manship is no defect, and is, indeed, frequently an aid in producing the desired effect. The causes which in rustic carpentry most often lead to the failure of the amateur will be found to lie in the want of sufficient strength of construction, in the employment of inap- Causes of propriate designs, and in the non-observance of the faifllé‘i’cin rules of good taste in his work. On the first and last “11°9er- points I shall hope to give some useful hints; and as regards the 53 ' 1 Introductory. E RUSTIC CARPENTR Y. second, to furnish a. numb er of designs which may either be carried out as they stand, or which may be turned to account simply as furnishing suggestions. Under the general heading of Rustic Carpentry I include all such outdoor woodwork, and architecture in wood, as is intended to Scope of be of a more or less decorative character, and in which the term' the decorative effect depends on the use of material in a rough and natural state. This definition will embrace a wide range of objects, such as summer-houses, cottage porches, garden arches, fences, garden seats, and many similar matters. For so many of these as space will permit I propose to give designs, together with such diagrams of details as may be necessary to render them of practical value. But before I proceed to do so, I shall have some remarks to make on the appropriateness and durability of the materials em- ployed; and as I have had more than thirty years’ experience in this kind of work, I can do so with some degree of confidence. Maierz’als.——It is to our more common woods of home growth, such as are cheap and abundant, that we shall have to look for Materials materials. As a rule, wood for rustic work is most for rustic pleasing to the eye when covered with its bark, and is carpentry. . . therefore generally used 1n that state. Yet it must be admitted that in exposed situations, the loose texture of bark causes it to retain moisture, and thus to hasten decay. In some woods the destructive action of the bark is very marked. Country carpenters aver that withy lasts twice as long when peeled. Whenever it is intended to retain the bark, and to have it Time for adhere closely, the wood should be cut down in 51133;? Winter, after the sap has fallen, and before it begins to rise again. But if peeling is intended, the wood should be cut when the sap is rising in full force—that is, just as the young leaves begin to appear. Of all kinds of wood, none are of so much value in rustic work as larch-poles. Their straight and regular growth admirably fit them for constructive purposes, and cause them to be easy of adaptation to regular designs. For the heavier work in summer-houses, arches, fences, etc., they are unrivalled. Larch has also extraordinary powers of endurance. Among our common native woods it stands second only in this 54 Larch-poles. SUITABLE MATERIALS F013 RUSTIC WORK. respect to heart of oak. Larch plantations now abound in most parts of the country, and when these receive their periodical thin- nin gs the rustic carpenter can generally get a supply at a cheap rate. Various other trees of the same family, such as the silver fir, common fir, and spruce, furnish poles equal for our purposes to the larch in all respects but one. They have the Fir poles same symmetrical growth, but they are considered far of figfigus less lasting. Yet in this particular the common fir ' deserves a better character than is usually assigned to it. A summer-house is at present standing, built by me in 18 51, in which all the heavier work is in this wood. The collar-posts do not rest on any foundation, but are simply planted in the earth. The soil is a wet clay. Thirty-two years in such exposure may be con- sidered a tolerably severe test. Those larch and other fir poles are best which grow in thick plantations ; but few lateral branches, are then thrown Best sources out, and the trunk tapers almost imperceptibly. The whence to , obtain poles. branches of such poles are few and worthless, but where the trees grow in more open situations, the branches afford straight and valuable material for light work. For that description of rustic work in which little or no regular design is attempted, the smaller branches of the oak Oakbangles. ——technically known as oak-bangles—have long been in favour. These are commonly found stripped of their bark, which has been removed for the purposes of the tanner. Contrary to the general rule, these branches look best when peeled. To find a piece of oak-bangle in any way approaching to straightness is exceptional, and as a rule they are twisted, crooked, and con- torted in all directions. They can, therefore, only be used in open- work where a space can be filled in very much at random. For effect they depend on their rough, grotesque, and picturesque appearance. In my own opinion, however, these qualities tell best when they can be brought into contrast with more formal lines, as in a panel of which the boundaries are straight pieces of fir. Being all or nearly all sap, oak-bangles quickly decay. ‘ Elm branches may be used for the same purposes as oak, but, whilst less grotesque, they are still exceedingly irregu- Elm lar. In exposed situations—the vulgar belief to the bramhes' contrary notwithstanding—they are much more enduring than oak. 55 RUSTIC CARPENTRY. Ash lasts reasonably well, but is decorative neither in colour :( - l -< .-. ._:,__.-.__- /‘. l?“- 'nW .1”: ‘ - ..‘ u...;...;mmn ”way/mum“. ”MW; “m _fl WW WW FIG. L—FRONT ELEVATION, SHOWING INTERIOR, ETC. nor form. Withy is in many districts the most cheap and avail- Ash and able of woods. Though far inferior in beauty and mmy' endurance to branches of the fir kinds, it is always to be found straight enough for geometrical work on a moderate scale. 56 ASH, WITHY, AND APPLE WOOD. If peeled, its beautifully white colour will render it pleasing, by contrast, when used in combination with other woods wearing \ i W I \ r / / ‘-- ,. Ngh‘. I [,l "x, , i " , if /’ i ‘ i ‘4 " i" “\<\ l l ’jr ‘,i i _i‘ ,7. ( \(m kl \U\ l ~x..—=_..—~—~ .i. v ' , l . . l HI I‘- FIG. 2.—-SIDE ELEVATION, SHOWING ARRANGEMENT OF THATCH. their dark barks. I have already noticed how much the above treatment tends to preserve it. For employment in irregular grotesque work, in the same manner as oak-bangles, apple-tree wood forms a useful material; 57 RUSTIC CARPENTR I’. and special attention is directed to it, as it is one frequently to be had for nothing. In most gardens it is occasionally necessary to cut down an apple tree. .The tree so removed is usually at once condemned to the fire. It would be well first to make sure that no part of it is proper for rustic work. Apple branches are far harder and more enduring than those of oak, and equally fantastic ; particularly when, as is often the case, the surface rises into grotesque knots and excrescences. For some minor purposes, especially when they can be used under cover, as in the interiors of summer-houses, hazel rods will be found useful. Their glossy and well-marked bark renders them highly decorative, and they are gene- rally to be found sufficiently straight. They are to be obtained from the clearings of undergrowth in woods, and'their market value is merely that of firewood. Sticks also of maple and wych-elm, of the same size (one to two inches in diameter), are useful for somewhat similar purposes. Sticks of Their curiously roughened bark—which on a small $37312;qu scale suggests that of the cork tree—renders them pretty. In many parts of the country they grow plentifully as “stools” in hedges, and are to be had at a firewood price when the latter are cut. Indeed, most of the above-mentioned materials are, in the places where they grow, of very trifling value. The chief cost with Chief cost of all the smaller ones will be that of carriage ; and some materials‘ little trouble must be exercised in looking out for and securing them, as they are not always to be bought from dealers. szsz‘rua‘z'oiz of Summer-flames. —— Since its employment in Summer. building and decorating summer-houses is one of the muses" most important and interesting of the purposes to which rustic work can be devoted, it is with these structures that I shall begin. L , In most instances the choice of a site for a summer-house must " chiefly depend on the special circumstances of the case, and the individual taste of the builder. I may observe, however, that a dry situation is most important, and that to make such a retreat Choice of enjoyable as often as possible in our changeable 51“” climate, it should be screened from the colder winds. As an object of taste, a pretty summer-house, flanked by trees or 58 Apple wood. Hazel rods. FOUNDATIONS 0F SIM/[WE]? HOUSE. evergreens, is pleasing to look at, and by a little judicious fore- thought may be made effective from the windows. Frequently, too, it may so be disposed as to hide what is ugly, such as back- oflices, or an unsightly wall or building. Figs. I and 2 show front and profile views of a summer-house intended for a garden of the most modest size, and Design for Fig. 3 gives the ground plan of the same. The final-1133?: dimensions of this summer—house are—length, 8 feet; breadth, 4 feet ; and height to eaves, 6 feet. ‘ In regular wooden buildings it is usual first to construct a foun- dation of stone or brickwork. But this cannot well Foundation be done without calling in skilled labour, and for our of st9ne . . , or brlck. purposes may be dispensed With. We must be con- tented with planting our main posts in the ground. Thus treated, they will undoubtedly be more exposed to decay; but, as I have shown above, they will, if of good material, endure as long as any reasonable person can desire. And here I may as well explain that in the directions which I 5 am about to give I shall advocate a rough-and-ready mode of con- ‘ struction at which skilled carpenters may be inclined Rough-and- to sneer. It is not, however, for them that I am fitfifififi specially writing. They are welcome to take my ti°n- I designs, and work them out in their own superior manner. Rustic work is pre-eminently an art for the little-skilled ; and 'it is my object to point out such methods as may—so long as' they are sufficient to give the required strength—be readily carried out by the roughest of workmen. We will, therefore, plant our collar-posts (marked A, A, A, A in the ground-plan, Fig. 3) in the earth, like ordinary gate-posts. Not less than two feet should be allowed to go below the Planting ground-line. They should be placed perfectly perpen- °°uar'p°5ts' dicular by the plummet, and should be held in that position whilst they are tightly rammed in with stones and earth. If the bark is roughly shaved off from that part which is to go underground, and a coating of gas-tar is given, the wood will last longer. The cross-pieces (B, B, B, B in Fig. 4) by which the tops of the posts are connected, will be found to bind the whole Grog-£1385: . together with sufficient firmness, if joined at the cor- fix them. ners as shown in Fig. 5. When the rafter is added, as there shown, 59 RUSTIC CARPENTRY. 3.—GROUND-PLAN OF SMALL SUMMER-HOUSE. FIG. FIG. 4.—CQNSTRUCTION OF ROOF OF SMALL SUMMER-HOUSE. 60 HALF-STUFF: WHAT IT IS AND HOW TO USE IT. a strong spike-nail passing through the three pieces and into the centre of the post will give solidity. A smaller nail or two, nearer the outside, may serve to hold the cross-pieces in place till the rafter is on. The top of the post is merely sawn flat to receive these pieces. The posts, cross-pieces, and indeed all the large stuff used in this building, are supposed to be larch poles. As will be seen from the diagrams, a great proportion of this material, before being used, will have to be sawn in half. Saw- Sawing poles ing such pieces with a hand saw is slow work ; and if m half- a steam saw is within reach, the labour will be much lightened, and FIG. 5.-JOINING OF TIMBERS AT CORNERS. the expense not greatly increased, by having the requisite quantity split by that machine. It is of such half-stuff that the walls are to be formed. For the posts, poles of 4% inches or 5 inches in diameter are Half-stuff: required, but those used in the walls need not be quite h0W_t° . . . 1186 It. so large. Pieces have first to be nalled crossw15e at top and bottom immediately below the wall-plates and above the ground-line. These must be on the inside, and so placed as that their flat, sawn surfaces may come opposite to the centres of the upright posts. A little attention to sawing the ends of these cross- pieces or ledgers, as shown in Fig. 6, will enable the builder to do 61 RUSTIC CARPENTR Y. this with exactness; and they must be secured with nails. Indeed, Sawing whilst working generally, as one has to do in rustic crogggsiébcfes' work, among round, or half-round stuff, it will bf found that both strength and appearance will much depend upon the diagonal sawing of the ends of the different pieces, so as best to make them fit against the rounded surfaces with which they will be brought in contact. This manner of saw- ing the ends will, as shown in the various diagrams, give great facilities for nailing, which is, in our rough art, almost the only method of forming joints. Against these two ledgers the uprights which form the walls are to be nailed, with their sawn surfaces inwards. Their upper ends are sloped off, so as to fit against the wall-plates, and their lower should be long enough to allow them to be let into the ground two or three inches. The lining of the walls is, as shown in Fig. I, in its lower Lining of part made of half- the wans' stuff, similar to that which composes the outer walls. The centre of each inner piece is, as may be seen from the " ‘ . FIG. 6.——ENDS or CROSS-PIECE OR ground-plan, brought opp051te LEDGES. to the junction of two outer ones, so as best to exclude wind. The lining of the upper por- tions is of smaller half-stuff, arranged, as shown, diagonally for the purposes of ornamentation. In Fig. 4, the construction of the roof is illustrated. From the top of the pediment a ridge-piece will be seen to extend back- Construc- wards some 18 inches. The motive for introducing fi°n °f r°°f' this feature, instead of allowing the rafters at once to slope backwards from the pediment, which might have seemed the simpler arrangement, lies in the necessity for keeping the finishing- point of the thatch, with which the roof is to be covered, some distance backward. Otherwise it would be impossible to give that projection of the eaves over the pediment—best shown in Fig. 2—— which is most valuable, as affording shelter to the woodwork 62 FORMATION AND DECORATION OF SEAT: in that part, and indeed to the interior of the summer-house generally. . Fig. 7 shows the manner in which the ends of the rafters are to be sawn; and after these have been fixed, laths will have to be nailed across them. Any rough rods, if tolerably Ends of straight, and about an inch and half thick, will do. raftersz how They should be placed some 5inches apart; and a Shaped' rather thicker one should be fixed at the bottom ends of the rafters, to support and well prop-out the eaves. About 16 or I7 inches from the ground will be found a good height for the seat. The method by which it is supported is shown in the illus- Height, tration, Fig. I. It ””6“- should be made of an inch board, about 16inches wide. As shown, it is covered and concealed by split rods, fixed closely side by side with brads. These should be small and smooth, as of hazel or peeled willow. In this design the rods are simply placed in parallel lines : a more decorative arrangement might be adopted— but of this kind of workI shall Fla, 7._END or RAFTER_ have to speak more: fully farther on. To hide the ends of .these rods, as well as the edge of the board, a long split rod is finally nailed along the whole front of the seat. Between the horizontal and Sloping pieces of larch, which form the pediment, the space is filled with open work of open work small oak or apple branches. The eccentric curves in Pediment' and twistings of these sticks contrast effectively with the straight lines around them. A finish is given to the four front posts or pillars by the addi- tion of rustic capitals. These are formed by nailing Finish to four sticks of large, quartered wood, round the pillars “Ont p°StS' at top, and four strips of smaller halved wood round the bottom of the cap, and fixing fir cones between them with brads. We have now a tolerably exact description of the wood-work 63 RUSTIC CARPENTRY. of this summer-house. Some other matters are still wanting to its Processes completion ; snch as the matching and lining of its awaiting roof, forming 1ts floor, and making ltS walls proof treatment. . . . against. wind. But these processes W111 be better treated further on, after we have considered our designs for other summer-houses on a somewhat larger scale. :\ ‘ \\ 1‘) ‘ I ‘2 , ll ‘ , 1‘ . ' t " i l t \ . DWARF FENCE IN RI'STIL‘ MOSAIC V‘V'ORK. 64 I ' RUSTIC CARPENTRY. ‘ ‘ 3“" .3 \ ”'"r ' ‘ 1 1. up: ‘n. ' ”I'm ,1 w W ' K UM? !‘ I 1 I 1 my. 267 W11 _ 1* I . 1 ‘wfi m. '- 11y 1 111111 1 1 1111111 111 1 111 . 1 1 11 91 1 11 11,1 I, 1 i 111 1 1 ‘11"g1 1 ‘ 1 I ‘1'"? ‘ ’ ~ 11 1’11 12911111 11‘ '1" « ‘11 '111J111 1 1111.1 11111111: [I 1‘ 1. 1 1 : 1 I 1 ’1 .' ‘lffig, ! 1‘ 1; I I l 1 I (\1 11:11, 1 1II II. f l EDI/1%; 4 3"” 1" 4 v: ’5, I \ ‘ I I / .' 1 ’/ — Hg“ 1,-.1 I . ' .. ‘\]\r‘ 1 1“ 2' _‘ " V” I 1 aI . I // p— , ' ' h 95... . 1 g! I m 7/2??? I 1 ' 'm“ ' I ‘ _ 1 , k . 1 11‘ C \1 QXX V’ >\\ ( \\ W “ k‘ -. .‘ ‘ 3 \ 1 . \\ 1 \ 1‘ \ ~ 1 §\K\\ 0% ‘3)‘§~\\' ‘ ; J. . . ‘\\ ~ '\‘ I . '.' «7C \ 0 \ 1 \\ \\ \ \1 \W ‘..\/ A“\ >71 / //1\ . / //y/ ' // \ \\ FIG. 8.—DESIGN FOR SUMMER-HOUSE OF MEDIUM SIZE. T 0 fare page 65. CHAPTER II. SUMMER-HOUSES OF MEDIUM SIZE. Medium summer-house—-Details of construction—Top ends of uprights—- Arrangement of rafters in roof—Open-work in front—Tops of front collar- posts—Position—Appropriate roofing for rustic summer-houses—Good and bad thatching contrasted—Thatching not costly—Material for matching—- “ Drawing " the straw—“ Yelven " and “ jac "—-Arrangement of material—- A “ stelch " : what it is—Method followed in thatching—Placing layer next above—Combing down thatch—Laying successive stelches—Buckles and runners—How to twist buckles—Bracing down runners—Buckling below ridge—Trimming eaves-Finishing thatch at ridge—How to raise ends of ridge-piece. V - =3; N Fig. 8 we have a summer-house, a trifle larger, and ' also somewhat better screened from weather. As maybe seen from the ground plan, Fig. Medium 9, it is in form a long octagon. Its summer- house. measurements are, from end to end,.Io feet ; from back to front, 6 feet ; height to the eaves (as in the last example) 6 feet ; and height to ridge-piece, 10 feet. In the details of construction, this summer-house will be seen chiefly to differ from the smaller one in the method employed in forming its walls. These, as shown, are built in a Details of very expeditious manner. The straight larch poles °°n8tm°ti°m are simply ranged side by side. These trees, if grown in thick plantations, are so regularly shaped, that they will, without chop- ping, fit together with sufficient exactness. The chinks left between will not be serious, and may be stopped in the manner to be described hereafter. If the top ends of the uprights employed are sawn, as in Fig. 10, and then nailed on both sides to the wall- Top ends of plates, it is evident that any movement above will be uprights' impossible. Below, they may be let into the, ground, two or three inches ; and further held in place by nailing the ledges along the 65 RUSTIC CARPENTRYZ inner side, sixteen inches from the ground—line, which are eventu- ally to carry the back of the seat, and which will thus serve a. double purpose. _ In Fig. II the arrangement of rafters in the roOf is made suf- Arrangement ficiently plain. The two small upright rods at the 0381:20ng ends of the ridge-piece, are intended to be the future centres and supports of straw pinnacles ; to be formed round them at the completion of thatching. Along the front of this summer-house, except at its entrance, runs a light fence of open-work, 2 feet 6 inches high. This trellis FIG. 9.~—GROUND PLAN OF MEDIUM SUMMER-HOUSE. serves to enclose and give completeness to the building, and is opemwork intended to support creepers of the lighter kinds. It in frmt‘ is made of round wood—larch of small growth; and in this, as in all similar open work, it will be desirable to use the method of sawing the ends of pieces, shown in Fig. 10, wherever practicable. i The tops of the front collar-posts will be seen to be decorated Tops of front with some diagonal pieces of rough wood-—oak or °°uar'p°3ts' apple-tree. These will serve as a support for creepers, which may be trained up the pillars. ' Position. In the sketch, I have placed this summer-house on a little bank, and have made the approach to it by two rustic steps. 66 7717A TCHIA’G FOR ROOF 0F SUMMER-HOUSE. If such a site can be selected, the building will undoubtedly be more effective than if merely constructed on level ground. ’ 'T/zaz‘ckz'ng—Leaving the method of finishing the interior of the house for another chapter, I will proceed to describe the most appropriate method of covering or roofing rustic summer-houses. There is but one way in which, without violating the Appropriate laws of fitness and good taste, a rustic summer-house fgggélggg can be covered, unless, indeed, the building is so con- mer'h°uses- trived as to keep the roof entirely concealed. This has not been attempted in either of the examples which I have given, for, in my opinion, the shade and shelter, as well as the ornamental effect to be gained by eaves, are not things to be disregarded. When seen surmount- ing a building of rustic woodwork, every covering of slates, tiles, or metal, looks out of place, and suggests jarring ideas. The only thoroughly appropriate roof is one of thatch. Thatching is a simple operation, and one which, with paying attention to a few essential points, may easily be performed by anyone, suffi- ciently well to keep a building dry. Really good thatching, however, can only be the Good and. result of practice, and involves some b13132???" technical skill ; and there are few ”mated- things in which the difference between good and FIG- I‘D-“MODE bad work is more marked. Really good thatching OF CUTTING . . . UPPER ENDS or Will stand for twenty years ; average thatching 15 UPRIGHTS- only computed to last for ten. ' If a good thatcher is to be found in the neigh- bourhood in which the work is to be done, I should rather advise the amateur builder to engage him than to under- Thatching take the business himself. A thatcher expects only n°t°°suy' the wages of a first-class labourer, and not those of a mechanic, and is not, therefore, a costly workman. In many districts, how- ever, no professed thatcher is to be met with, and my readers have, moreover, a right to know how everything can be done; so I will describe the process of thatching as briefly as possible. When a building which has already been thatched has to receive a new coating, the best as well as the cheapest material is 67 RUSTIC CARPENTER stubble, which is the lower and stiffer part of wheat straw.* But Material for for thatching a new building stubble is not long thawhmg' enough, and straw, or a mixture of straw and stubble, is preferable. It has first to be damped, and the water well shaken and soaked into it, and it is then straightened with the hands, 'so as to lay the straws as nearly as may be parallel to each other. “Drawing” When the person who “draws” the straw has straight- the Straw" ened as much as one can conveniently take up at once with the two hands, he lays it aside. Such a double-handful is FIG. IL—CONSTRUCTION OF ROOF OF MEDIUM SUMMER-HOUSE. technically called a “yelven.” For use, a number of these yelvens “Yelven” are placed in a “jack,” which is merely a forked stick, and“ja°k'” capable perhaps of holding a dozen or more of them. They are kept separate by laying them across each other at a slight angle. When the thatcher is mounted and ready for work, he hangs the Arrangément jack, by a little hook fixed to its end, to one side of °f mateflal' his ladder, and proceeds to cover a strip of the roof, reaching from eaves to ridge, on the other side of his ladder. He * Called "reed" in Devonshire, where the wheat straw is longv—longer, perhaps, than in any other part of England. It is prepared for thatching by combing, and then made up into bundles called “ niches.“ In Devonshire the term “ straw “ is applied only to the straw of barley and oats. ARRANGEMENT 0F YELVENS IN THATCHING. takes a strip just so wide as to be easily within his reach. If the piece of roof on which he is at work is square, then A“stelc u: the strip from bottom to top will be of equal breadth. What “is- If the space is triangular, the strip will taper regularly upwards. A strip of thatching is technically known as a “stelch.” The manner in which the yelvens are arranged in the jack enables the thatcher to take them out one at a time Method without confusion. He begins by forming the eaves followed in at the bottom of his stelch. In re-thatching old work, thatchmg' the new material is kept in place by thrusting the upper ends of the straw into the old thatch with a wooden spud. In wholly new work, the straw has to be bound to the rafters and laths with “tar-cord— ing.” This is p a s s e d , b y means ofa gi- gantic needle, through the lay- er o£ straw to- wards the upper end of the yel- vens, where the stitches will be completely overlapped and hidden by the next layer. The layer which forms the eaves having been laid and secured, the thatcher places another above and overlapping it P1acing layer so far as to cover all but just the lower ends; and thus new above“ he goes on, building up his stelch and making layer to overlap layer, till he reaches the ridge, and at intervals he binds down his straw to the woodwork beneath with the tar-cording. When the thatch has been laid he combs it down with a gigantic comb—an instrument resembling the head of Combing a rake with the teeth knocked out at one end so as to form a handle. The object of this combing is to draw out any . 69 FIG. IZ.-—SECTION OF THATCH SHOWING BUCKLE. F down thatch. RUSTIC CARPENTRK loose short straws which, by lying crosswise, might obstruct the free course of water, to bring the straw of the thatch more com- pletely into that regular longitudinal direction necessary to throw- ing off the rain quickly and effectually, and generally to give a neat appearance to the work, which, when finished, should be perfectly even and uniform. In laying the second and all after stelches, care must be taken thoroughly to blend the straw with that which forms the edge of Laying the former stelch. In care, or want of care, shown successive in this particular, lies one of the great differences stelches. . between good and bad thatching. If the two are not properly united a weak joint will be formed, through which rain will probably find its way. The work has to be still further secured and bound together on its surface by “buckles” and “runners,” which may be seen Buckles and indicated in the general views of summer-houses. runners' Buckles* are made by taking withes about as large as a little finger, and splitting them. For such work as that before us they should be from 12 to 18 inches long. The two ends are pointed, and the middle is shaved somewhat thinner than other, parts, to admit of being twisted. The twisting is done by placing How to twist one end under the foot, and giving them two or three buckles' turns with the hand. This gives the fibres in the middle, where'they have to be doubled, a spiral direction, like that of the strands in a rope, and prevents any danger of break- ing. They can then be bent together, end to end, and are ready for use ; they now look like ladies’ hair-pins on a large scale. The runners are merely long strips of split withe, which are laid so as to form horizontal bands along the thatch. These are Bracing held down by the buckles, through the loops of which down they run, and which are thrust firmly into the thatch. runners' In pushing in the buckles, an upward direction must be kept, as shown in Fig. 12, otherwise the water would trickle down beside them and make its way through the roof. The run- ners are braced down by buckles at intervals of from six inches to a foot, according to circumstances. *‘ Called spear-arrows, or sparrow-sticks—an evident corruption or con- traction of spear-arrow sticks—in Devonshire. 7o AI ODE OF FINISHING JUDGE OF 7' HA T CE ‘ ...‘. It is always usual to buckle-down the thatch at a few inches below the ridge, and at a few inches above the eaves. Buckling Wherever the thatch is particularly exposed to wind, helm” ridge' extra bands of buckles and runners are added. In plain thatching the runners are disposed in simple lines only; the crossed and zig-zag arrangements, seen in the illustrations, are Trimming adopted for the sake of ornament. After being bound eaves' down, the eaves require to be pared, and made even, and trimmed with shears. The method of finishing off and uniting the thatch at the ridge is in the best work accomplished by a kind of plaiting, but how this is done it would be impossible to describe intel- Finishing ligibly. A much simpler and ea51er plan is to cap thatch at the ridge with mortar, made of common road dirt. ndge' Houseleek, or stonecrop, planted on this, soon overspreads it, and renders it by no means unsightly. The rustic pinnacles, shown in Fig. 8, are made by surrounding an upright rod with straw, and binding it tightly. In the small summer-house, Figs. I and 2, it will be seen that at the point where the thatching has been finished, HOW to raise that is immediately above the hlnder end of the ridge- . endspf piece, the roof rises much higher than at the front end mage-mece' of that timber, though the ridge-piece itself is level. The extra height is gained by making-up with straw; and this is an ex- pedient that may be resorted to Whenever it may be found useful. Thus any irregularity in the rafters matters little when they are to be thatched upon/3 Any depression can easily be- made up with straw, and the level of the outer surface thus preserved. ” we ire—s. “9w 1!“ 772%; (GR ,, £313ij 1 " CHAPTER III. LINING THE ROOF—LARGE AND COMMODIOUS SUMMER-HOUSE -—RUSTIC MOSAIC—BARK LINING—FLOORING. Lining the roof with ling—Substitutes for ling—Cost of lining materials—Moss as a lining—Summerhouse on large scale—Breast-work in front of house— Construction of roof—Walls of summer-house—How to decorate boarded walls—Rustic mosaic for lining—Design for panel—Ground for mosaic—- Preparation of rods—Sawing down rods—Bradding strips—Varnishing— Bark lining for summer-houses—Stopping chinks with moss—Suitable flooring—Wood pavement: how made—Flooring of gravel—Tiled flOOr not suitable for rustic summer-house—Virgin cork as lining—Fitting pieces together-Cost of cork. ’ 3;; INING THE ROOF.——The under side of the thatch, 1‘ as seen within the building, has, if left exposed, a cold and unsightly appearance. It requires lining, and a material which has long and deservedly been most in favour for this purpose is ling, or common heather. This is pleasing in colour, and has generally a cosy effect. It is arranged, so to speak, like an internal thatch: Fig. I 3 illustrates the manner of fixing it. A layer of ling is laid at the bottom of the Lining thatch, with the brush ends downwards to the wall- #11:; 1:33; plate. A strip of wood is then nailed tightly over the root-ends, from rafter to rafter. This fixes the ling in place, and then a second course is laid, overlapping it and con- cealing the strips of wood ; and so on till the whole space is lined. If ling. is not to be had, other materials may be used as sub- Substitutes stitutes. The ends of fir branches look very pretty, 19°" ling. but after a time the narrow leaflets have a tendency to drop off. Perhaps a better substitute is furze, which is to be obtained everywhere. This dries to a light, but not disagreeable brown colour, and there is not the slightest danger of its spikes ever falling. It is, h0wever,~an ugly plant to handle, and before meddling with it the worker will do well to provide himself with a 72. LINING' MATERIAL FOR ROOF. stout pair of hedging gloves. These materials can scarcely be said to possess a market value. Wherever there are Cost offining heaths and commons, furze or ling are to be had materials' for nothing. Their cost will be merely that of cutting and carriage. .W— ------ I . I < / ~\ \ / ® I o”, l | 3 I 53 : --------- ~. a 0 ‘§ {34 I : s‘ O m. l I i 2 5i "’ t l I l v-l 8 l I i l m m- I I l ' £2 E i 1 l H I l l ' D 4 ' I I 2 2 l ‘I | D l I ’ O ‘0 l .\ ’1 l I . ‘ -------- _, L's ’ l L5 : a: I .\ Failing any of these, a lining of moss will be found pretty, though not very enduring. Such a lining will want Moss a”, renewing about every fifth year. Moss is very liable lining- to suffer from the visits of birds, which in winter pull it about in 73 RUSTIC CARPENTRY. ‘ their search after concealed insects, and in spring regard it as so much suitable nest-building material. Moss may be collected any- where in thickets and poor pastures, and can be fixed to the thatch by small buckles of twig. For the same reason that outside x buckles are directed upwards, these must have their points inclined downwards. A summer-house of still larger dimensions is given in Fig. I4 ; Summer_ and this is soarranged as to be more completely 182213260319. secured from Wlnd and weather, and at the same time more thoroughly screened from the heat and glare of summer. Its measurements are—height to eaves, 6 feet; end to end, 12 feet; and back to front, 8 feet, exclusive of the porch, which is 3 feet square. Fig. I 5 is a ground-plan of this building. Unlike that in the last example, ‘the breast-work along the front of this house is made close and weather-tight. It is con- Breast-work structed much in the same way as the walls of the in 1332;“ small house—that is to say, of the halves of small larch poles. On the inner side, an ornamental arrange- ment of pieces—something like that on the outer side is supposed to exist. Round the windows above, a border of open-work, of rough oak or other branches, has been carried. In the centre of the house the position of an octagonal table has been indicated. In its main features the construction of the roof is much the Construc- same as that last given. The only point which can ti°n °f r°°f' call for explanation, is the method in which the ridge- piece of the porch is carried. From two rafters, which run from the top of the two inner pillars of the porch, a cross-piece is thrown at the same height as the top of the pediment. This supports the inner end of the ridge-piece, as well as the lower end of a short rafter running up to the main ridge-piece of the building. The walls of this summer-house may be formed by either of the two methods before described ; or, for the fuller information of the Walls of reader, we may consider them as somewhat differ- $113132?- ently constructed. In a general way, for strength, durability, appearance, and cheapness, larch poles, either halved or whole, are unequalled. Yet it may so happen that the amateur builder has a quantity of boards by him ; or that, for other reasons, he may prefer that material. These can, of course, be nailed to the cross-pieces, as above described, more quickly and 74 EQMNJNO QRWWMSQEN a 2 ME: __ I . . 45%» wl/MW .r. r , ; . .. ,1 , . r/ a .. x, f .r @9/ / t 1% . r , i M z ¢ / , .L , , .4 it // A 7/”// r , . / , 1, , I / l 1 _/ 17/ //vz/ ./ [2. / /. many/7.57%” .Mw;aflW/.mfl,,,.,%.,,.w.//W,.U . 4/ fly . w . i < MK. 5 ._ 1mm MNRNM 9. . R M. Q N KN\\\\\\ ,r :. 7% J MAM ‘) ,, I/I' 1’ fry/‘1“ / w l ‘ I (”7/ . I //’/ ”/11, ‘ , . ' "I, ’11, “3 "$313?” ,‘f ; .. ‘ ‘ {:3- s’ 3:. n u. ~ .“ r: f . x, ._..rg .. , / 1’ 4 ’ ' / / ' J I ,/ , , / , a a: SUMMER-Imus»; . -LARGE AND ROOF ; '1‘ IIG. I OSAIC DECORATION 0F SEAT. no. :7.- 151 I3 -— LIN ING “'le LIAG. FIG. QSNR N3? um. DECORATION 0F BOARDED WALLS. regularly than halved poles, and will form an admirable ground for the inside lining of wood-mosaic, or bark, whichever may be employed. If the summer-house stands with its back to the boundary of the garden, or is completely flanked by shrubs, the outward appear- ance may be a matter of no moment; yet boarded How to walls may readily be rendered decorative, and a good $33331? hold given for creepers, bynailing against them a walls- random arrangement of rough pieces of branch. An excellent material for this purpose, and one which since it is flat, can be attached with little trouble, is ivy. When ivy is cut down from trees, or old walls, we see a perfect network of interlaced stems. These may be taken down in flakes of suitable size; and when nailed in position have a highly grotesque and characteristic appearance. Rustic Mosaz'c.———An important feature in rustic work is the mosaic of small split rods which forms the most finished lining for summer-houses, and covering for seats, etc. Of this I Rustic have as yet spoken only incidentally, and the present mfifggor will be a proper place in which to deal with it more ' fully. In this manner elaborate and beautiful patterns may be formed, in which the colour of the wood may be made to play its part as well as the direction of the pieces. In this work the amateur of taste will find scope for his ability in arranging the glossy brown of the haze], the silver-grey of the birch, and the white of the peeled willow, to the best advantage. ,In Fig. 15 I give a design fora panel in this work, which might Design for properly be employed in the lining of the present panel- summer-house. Fig. 16 represents a portion of the decoration of a seat, well suited to accompany it. If fine rustic mosaic has to be worked on halved larch poles, the latter need to be fixed with much smoothness and Ground accuracy. Simply considered as a ground on which for “108310- to nail fine work, a boarded wall has undoubtedly the advantage. When the split rods are required in quite short lengths, it may suffice to rend them through with a hatchet. Woods preparation of loose grain, such as willow, when free from knots, °f ”015' will often rend with something like truth for three feet or more. But, generally speaking, rending is a dangerous experiment. It is 75 R USTIC’ CARPENTR Y. safer to run the rod through with the saw. The thin rods used may quickly be split with a sharp hand-saw. A good method of holding the stick tightly and in a handy position whilst it is sawn, Sawing is to knock together a couple of rough benches—say d°wn ”‘13- about 18 or 20 inches high—and in the top of each to cut a. square notch, rather broader and deeper than the rods. If FIG. I6.-—PANEL OF RUSTIC MOSAIC. the stick is laid in these notches, and wooden wedges driven in beside it, it cannot stir. The wedges can be knocked in or out in a moment, whenever it is necessary to readjust the rod. A punch should be used for driving home the brads employed Bradding to fix the strips in their places; since, if this is done “fips' with the hammer alone, the bark is sure to be bruised, and the work disfigured. 76 :7/\ BA [CK LINIZV G—FL OORING. Rustic mosaic is both improved in appearance and rendered more enduring by being varnished. The cheaper kind of oak varnish is generally used for this purpose. Bark Lining—Another method of lining summer-houses, and a much more expeditious one, is by making use of bark. Elm bark is best. It will be found to run easily from newly- Barkfining felled trees, cut down when the sap is rising. It can for 13:11:13?- be taken off in sheets of convenient size, and should then be laid on the floor of a shed to dry. It must be spread out flat, which will require doing with some care, as it cracks easily; and bricks or something of the kind must be placed on it to keep it flat till dry. Flat-headed nails are best for fixing it in position, and the joints between the sheets, and any cracks which may open, can beneatly filled with moss. The appearance of bark thus treated is exceedingly rustic and very pretty, but it will not stand like mosaic. It will always have a tendency to cockle and crack, and when pieces break out it is not easy to mend it neatly. Per- haps its greatest value is for lining beneath seats or along the upper parts of walls, where it will be little exposed to injury, and where any defects will not easily be seen. In such situations the labour of fitting an intricate mosaic would seem thrown away. Making Walls I/Vz'nd-proofi —— Wherever our roughly-con- structed walls have chinks or crannies, they should be stopped with moss. The moss should be dried for a few days Stopping before being used, and should be tucked in as tightly chinks with . . moss. as p0551b1e With a wooden spud. So much of the moss as appears will have rather a pretty effect than otherwise ; and, if the work is well done, the walls will be rendered perfectly air-tight. Flooring—In gravelly districts, where pebbles abound, a dry, sound, and lasting floor may be made with them. A bed of broken stones, coarse gravel, or rubbish should first be laid, Suitabm and over it a layer of sand, in which to set the fl°°ring' pebbles. The sand should be a couple of inches deep, and the pebbles may quickly be fixed in their places and brought to a level surface by tapping them with a mallet. More sand should after- wards be spread over and brushed in between them. If pebbles of various colours are to be had, an ornamental mosaic may be fOrmed by disposing them in a geometrical pattern. If the situa- 77 Varnishing. I? USTI'C CARPENT/i’ Y. tion is one in which there is any cause to fear that damp will rise, a layer of fine washed gravel, mixed with gas-tar, may be laid below the pebbles. Some persons—ladies, for instance, who wear thin shoes—— object to pebbles, as being hard and cold. To such persons a Wood pave_ wooden floor will be. best suited. A boarded floor is megajdgpvv, not proper to a rustic summer-house. A wood-pave- ment, at once ornamental and practically all that can be desired, may be made of lengths of round wood, ranged ‘end- wise. Nothing is better for the purpose than pieces of larch pole, about six inches long. These can be kept flat at bottom, and set in sand like the pebbles ; but this will necessitate that they should be quite equal in length, and carefully laid. A quicker method is roughly to point them at the lower end, and to drive them into the natural soil with a mallet; in this case, any little irregularity in length will not matter. It is easy so to arrange the pieces as to make them form some kind of pattern. The spaces between them should be filled up with sand. If the purse or patience of the builder will extend no farther than to a floor of mere gravel, he is advised, above the first and Flooring second beds of broken stones and coarse gravel, to °f gravel‘ lay one of that cheap and ready substitute for asphalt mentioned above, namely, of fine washed gravel and gas-tar. Above this, and hiding its unsightly dark colour, a little fine gravel must be sifted. This will at least secure a dry and a warm floor, and one as little dusty as possible. . But dusty, more or less, and obnoxious to ladies’ dresses, a gravelled floor in a summer-house will always be. I have above objected to board as a material for flooring ; and I may here remark that tiles, or any other obviously manufactured Tiled floor substance, are equally objectionable. Good taste not suitable demands that whatever appears in the construction or for rustle . . . . summer. decoration of our rustlc architecture, should be in house“ harmony with, and suggest only nature : whatever is suggestive of artificial life is therefore to be avoided. Among the materials mentioned above as proper for the lining Virgin cork of summer-houses, that well-known substance in as mng' garden decoration, virgin cork, was not named. Since, however,it is a material which is sometimes easily to be '18 VIRGIN CORK FOR LINING, ETC. obtained when others are not, and as it is decidedly effective, some mention ought to be made of it. Still there is an objection to cork in point of taste. It has become, to a certain extent, vulgarised. We see it so frequently in feeble town and suburban decorations that the mind connects it with “cockney” associations. Such asso- ciations it is desirable to avoid in our rustic-work. Cork may be nailed upon the walls as a lining in the same way as the bark of English trees, and like such bark it will be better if the use of it can be confined to those parts where it will not be exposed to much wear and tear. It will not be possible to get it in fine large flat sheets, such as the operator can himself peel from newly-felled elm trees. It comes to us in pieces of irregular form and size, which will be more or less curled and warped. Some care and skill has, therefore, to be exercised in so fitting them together Fitting pieces as to show no spaces of bare sawn timber between, t°gether' for if such spaces are left exposed the effect will be anything but good. Whatever crannies remain between should be neatly filled with moss. This cork is the bark of the Quercus Suéer, a kind of oak, which grows principally in the Spanish peninsula. It is sent thence to this country in great quantities for various Cost of purposes. It is the outer bark only, and can be cork' stripped from the living tree at intervals of six or seven years with- out injuring it. Virgin cork may be bought by retail at about eighteen shillings per cwt. After all, it is, however, a material better, suited for ferneries and rough work than for careful rustic carpentry ; but in suburban districts, where larch poles and bark suitable for this purpose cannot be obtained as easily as in the country, it will serve as a substitute for lining the interior, and even covering the exterior, of small structures to which it is sought to impart some appearance of rustic work. With this I bring my remarks on summer-houses to an end; and in my next chapter I shall give designs and directions for some of the many other purposes to which rustic carpentry is applicable. CHAPTER IV. PORCHES, ARCHES, AND STEP-STILES. Importance of porches—Materials—PoSts— Plugging walls—Treatment of sides—Cornice of fir cones—Different modes of roofing—Advantage of green covering—Tiles as roofing ———Wooden shingles—Garden arches—- Design for garden arch-—Materials——Step-stiles—Stile for hedge and ditch— Arrangement and connection of parts—Stile for narrower fence. ' ~43; USTIC PORCHES.—Few things add more either to the appearance or comfort of a cottage or Importance small house than a porch ; I shall, there- °f p°r°hes° fore, begin this article with suggestions for construct- ing one. In the design given in Fig. 18, the material still supposed to be employed is larch, or some other wood of the fir kind. The reader who has gone through the directions for building summer-houses, will readily understand from the illustra- tion the method of construction. A few points only will require explanation. The two posts against the wall should be made of half stuff, which will fit more readily to the mason-work than whole poles, and will be more securely nailed to the joints of the wall. It should, however, be observed that nailing into the mortar joints of masonry merely, is at all times a slovenly and insecure Plugging way of fastening woodwork to a wall. The more work wans' manlike method is to make a hole with drill or chisel, and to drive in a wooden plug to which to nail. Elm makes the best plugs for this purpose. It holds the nails most tightly, and is least liable to split. But this by the way. Of the sides, I have shown the lower portion filled with closely— fitted woodwork, and the upper portion left almost open. The 80 Materials. Posts. EXAMPLE OF RUSTIC PORCH lower part is, of course, most exposed, and requires shelter most ; the upper being to 'a great extent protected by the Treatment of eaves. But if—as in some situations it may be—it is Side“- an object to shelter the doorway as much as possible, the design «4 ‘ —~———1 (m ”£3 ‘l 1 t hill? __ 1%.: may be varied by carrying the close woodwork to the top. This, however, will have rather a heavy look, and a middle course mlght be better. In Fig. 19 is a design for the side of a porch, in which the upper part is, to a great extent, filled with lattice-work of rough 81 RUSTIC CARPENTR y. bangles. This, if covered with creepers, will, without looking ‘ heavy, give as much shelter as can often be required. Surrounding the pediment in Fig. 18 I have shown a cornice of Cornice of fir fir cones, fixed with brads to the pieces of half-stuff, “1165' which hide the rafters and boarding of the roof. When fir cones come in the way, the worker will always do well to take care of them. They may often be used with good effect in combination with rustic-work. It is not always easy to find a satisfactory means of roofing a rustic porch. In a former place I have spoken of thatch as the only cover- ing which goes really well with rustic-work. If the cot- tage to which the porch is added be a thatched one, the question is, of course, at once answered, but in very few Different instances, at the gigggiggf present day, is this likely to be the case. -If the house be slated or tiled, a thatched porch would look incon- gruous. Slates are, and al- ways must be, the reverse of ornamental ; and, besides, both slates and tiles will, to the amateur, present diffi- me, 19,—SIDE 0F PORCH. culties in the fixing. Metal, such as zinc or galvanized iron, makes for practical purposes a reasonably good roof, and may be quickly and easily fixed by anyone; but metal roofing is far from decorative. When compelled by circumstances to use such a roof, I have got over the difficulty by making a trellis of small wood to rest an inch or two above it, and as the house was covered with vine, the growth of a single 82 ‘_ SUGGESTIONS F018 ROOFING PORCH. Season enabled both zinc and wood-work to be completely hidden ; and to make the porch appear on the outside to have no covering but one of greenery. This green covering to the metal had a further advantage. \“fi ‘3 v ‘ . . r .n‘ v m ‘ ‘ _ “11‘ l «Til. '- ._ x. J " 1 I : n\ l! .31.»- ll, FIG. 20.—GARDEN ARCH. Sheet metal grows disagreeably hot in sunshine : the living canopy ‘ shaded and l:ept it cool ; and this was not only advan- Advantage 01’ . . . green cover- tageous to those who might Slt under 1t, but also to ing. the roof itself. Sheet metal, and more particularly zinc, has a, 33 / RUSTIC CARPENTA’Y. tendency to warp and twist when much heated by the sun; and by shading it, this evil was to some extent obviated. 2L—STEP-ST1LE. FIG. In the illustration I have indicated tiles as the roofing used, and indeed, in most cases, they are to be preferred wherever thatch is inadmissible. They can be had to match in colour with a slated 34 ROOFING WITH WOODEN SHINGLES. roof, and, at the same time, of ornamental shapes. ‘Jd‘ There need be no great difficulty as regards fixing them, if the arrangement c e eeeeooeo FIG. 22,—SECT10N OF STEP-STILE. u 5 Cd Tiles as in the roofing. design before us is adopted. The rafters are of half - stuff, withtheir sawn. sides upwards, and on these is nailed a level course of three- quarter inch deal boards. The boards are better if cut in narrow strips, as they are then less liable to warp. On the boards the tiles can be nailed by anyone ~— the operation is, much more simple than that of fixing them on laths. W o o d e n shingles of, say, 10 by 4 inches, W i 11 Wooden. a1 5 o shmgles make a suit- able roof for our purpose; and whether shingles, tiles, or metal are used, I advise that the flat-boarding as a foundation be resorted to. Its edge can be concealed by a strip of half-stuff. Within, it can RUSTIC CARPENTER I A...“ be lined and hidden with mosaic or bark, for which it will form a gOod ground. These are rarely built, except as supports for climbing plants and as they are intended to be covered and Garden hidden as soon as possible, arches' much elaborate design or work- manship would be thrown away upon them. All that is required is that they should be generally pleasing in outline, and so far decorative as not to be unsightly in the in- terval which must elapse before they can be overgrown. In Fig. 20, I have sketched an arch which will be picturesque from all points of View. I have shown it as chiefly constructed of larch or fir, but with the sides partly filled-up with random bangle-work. The FIG. 23.—-—END OF STEP. design might be varied by filling-up the whole of the space within the main framework in the same Design for manner. Five feet six garden arch' inches would be a pro- per height for the posts of such an arch above the ground-line, and I have supposed the example given to be 2 feet 3 inches deep: the width must, of course, be regulated by that of the path to be spanned. As a material for garden arches some persons have a dislike to rustic-work, and prefer iron. They say that a wooden arch decays and falls to pieces, almost before it is possible Materials. to get it well covered with creepers. w. mafia-$2.223..— And it must be admitted that an * arch is a thing peculiarly liable to decay; Not being roofed over, like FIG. 24. :DIAGONAL BRACES BETWEEN POST S. a summer-house or a porch, it is fully exposed to the weather, whilst its covering of creepers holds the wet to it and. prevents 86 STEP STIZE 1N RUSTIC WORK“. drying. Yet rustic-work has so greatly the advantage over iron in appearance, that I presume few persons of good taste would make it give place to the latter. The above objections should, however, warn us to use only wood of the most enduring kind at our command for this purpose. In connection with a tolerably large garden, few things in rustic-work admit of being made more effective and picturesque FIG. 25. —NARROWER STEP-STILE. than a step-stile; and there are cases where, as a mere matter of utility, it has advantages over every other mode of ingress and egress. Such a stile is, of course, intended for occa- sional use only, and no one would think of placing it at the ordinary entrance ; but where occasional convenience only is required, the owner may feel no inclination to cut an opening through a good and sound fence, or his landlord may object to such an opening being made. A step-stile enables him to bridge over 87 Step-stiles. RUSTIC CARPENTA’Y. the difficulty. By using thisexpedient thefence is left intact, and no danger is incurred of laying open the garden to incursions from neighbours’ cattle; whilst such a fanciful construction adds not a little to the attractiveness of the grounds. Fig. 21 is a stile designed for spanning a tolerably wide hedge Stile for and ditch; its length from end to end being 12 feet. hedge and The highest step in this stile is 5 feet above the ditch' ground line ; its total height to top of railing is 8 feet. The width, not indicated in this side elevation, is 2 feet 3 inches. In the section at Fig. 22 is shown the arrangement of those pieces which form the steps and the bridge at their top. The manner in which the ends of the steps are fitted to the slanting Arrangement pieces which support them .is explained by Fig. 23. and connec- A better and more characteristic way of fixing the step tion of parts. . . . . . . and brldge pieces than by nalhng, 15 by boring auger holes through them and the pieces beneath, and driving pegs. Care must of course be taken to make the pegs of well-seasoned wood, or they will. shrink and become loose. After they have been driven into their places it will not be desirable to trim them oft neatly. They look better with the rough ends left projecting at full length. This adds to the rude and picturesque character of the structure, and by making the construction plain to the eye increases the appearance of strength. The bridge is supported, and the whole structure strengthened and bound together by the diagonal braces from post to post, shown in Fig. 24. This erection is supposed to be wholly formed of larch, or some similar wood. A narrower fence might be spanned by the more simple struc- Stfle for ture given in Fig. 25. Apart from the decorative narrower railing, four pieces of slanting wood, crossing at fence' almost a right angle, and nine short pieces fixed against them as steps, form the stile. In the ornamental railing I have used a mixture of straight fir and rough oak branches. CHAPTER V. FENCES, VERANDAHS, AND FURNITURE. Material for rustic fences—Height, etc., suitable for fence—Amount of pron: tion afforded by fences described—Mortise and tenon joints in fencing— Good mode of mortising—Rustic verandahs—Rustic chain for verandahs, etc.—Mode of making chain—Rustic flower boxes—Ornamentation of box— Box in form of vase—Chairs and tables for summer-house, etc. —Fixed table ——Edge in rustic work—Suitable covering for top—Small movable table- Rustic chair—Selection of bangles for framework, etc.—Material for seat—- Long garden seat—Preservation of articles in rustic carpentry-Objections to painting rustic work—Conclusion. ~45; USTIC FENCES—The crooked branches of the oak, ‘13 elm, etc., are sometimes used for making rustic fences, but they cannot be said to be altogether proper for that purpose. It is almost impossible so to arrange these irregular pieces as to leave no open- Material for ings through which the smaller live-stock may find a ruSticfenceS- way. For fence-making, more than for any other kind of rustic work, there is no material to be compared with straight larch poles. No other wood lasts so long, looks so well, or makes) so complete a safeguard. A fair height for a fence against cows and horses is 3 feet 9 inches. If sheep and pigs only have to be guarded against, a less height will suffice—say 3 feet. In the three designs Height, etc., given ianigs. 26, 27, and 28, the former standard is wiggling: for followed, the posts rising about 4 feet above the ' ground. Not less than 2 feet ought to be allowed for the posts below the surface. These posts are supposed to be placed 8 feet apart—a good distance for strength; though fencing posts are often set at longer intervals—9 or IO feet. The scale on which these sketches are made is 3 of an inch to the foot. The fence, Fig. 26, is light and simple, has little work or timber in it, and will look well for situations in which it can be used. It 89 RUSTIC CARPENTRY. FIG. 28.--RUSTIC FENCE. THIRD EXAMPLE. 90 MORTISE AND TENONj01NTS [1V FEA’CING’. will be a safe protection against horses, cows, and grown sheep; but not against young pigs, lambs, or poultry, as the Amount of lozenge-shaped openings will be 9 to Io inches across. :éggggtéog Fig. 27, on the other hand, will give full security. In fi‘éfiffiefie' - its lowerhalf, where only danger is to be looked for, ' there will be no Opening more than 3 inches wide ; consequently, nothing beyond a very small chicken could find its way through. Fig. 28 would also make a tolerably close fence, and would look well; but, for practical purposes—as re- gards strength, that is--it would be found inferior to Fig. 27. Hitherto we have been able to keep FIG- 29-'—H0RIZONTAL clear of mortise joints ; and we might smifi‘fifiigif‘im continue to do so in the present work, by making crosscuts with the saw on both post and rail, where they meet, chipping off a bit from each, and nailing the two together. But by using the mortise Mortise and and tenon we shall be able to make a far stronger, tenonjqints . . mfenclng. neater, and more workmanlike fence. Cuttlng a mor- tise .in a fencing-post is an extremely simple thing to do. Our ‘posts are, we will say, about five inches in diameter, our rails about three and a half. A couple of holes are bored with a two-inch auger through the middle of the post, as far apart at their outside as the rail is wide, and the neck of wood left between is soon chipped away with a mallet and strong chisel. , . Fig. 29 shows a horizontal FIG- 30-—VERTICAL SECTION OF POST section of the end of a rail cut . THROUGH THE MORTISE‘ to a tenon ; and Fig. 30 shows a vertical section of the post through the mortise, and explains the way in which the ends of two rails are shaped to meet and fit together. Nothing can be more firm and compact than Good mode these when driven home ; and any possibility of move- °f mortismg~ ment is prevented by the rails being nailed to the “ stuck,” which comes half-way between every two posts, and which is pointed, and driven well into the ground, a hole first being made for it with a crowbar. é/ - . //>——r 7/ // 91 RUSTIC CARPENTR Y. Ruktz’c Veranda/23 and T ”His-work. —-'To give. designs for trellis-work and rustic verandahs for cottages had formed a part of my plan for the present articles. But such designs must necessarily have occupied considerable space, and I see with alarm the number Rustic to which my drawings are increasing. It also occurs verandahs' to me that, to be of direct practical value, such designs ought to be fitted to the requirements of the particular spaces in which they would have to be erected. I shall therefore omit them- In the sketches already given of the fronts of summer-houses, of the porch, and of the garden arch, materials will be found which can readily be adapted to these purposes by the ingenious worker. Most of the remarks on roofing, made with regard to the front, Rustic chain might with equal propriety be applied to the verandah. for veran- There is, however, one little matter, the especial use dahs’ etc' of which is in the decoration of verandahs, which I must not omit. This is the rustic chain. A rustic chain can be FIG. 3L—RUSTIC CHAIN. introduced wherever a graceful curved line is wanted, as in making a festoon for light creepers along the top of an opening. It will therefore be of occasional service in other places than verandahs— in summer—houses, in porches, etc. I show such a chain in Fig. 31. These chains are scarcely known in English rustic work, but they are commonly seen in Holland and Belgium. This is not the first time, nor is this the first publication, in which I have brought them under the notice of my English fellow-workers. A rustic chain is made by taking pieces of round wood, from I to 2 inches in diameter, according to the work, and sawing them Mode ofmak- to a uniform length—say 4 inches, or rather longer if mg chain- the sticks are large. These form the straight parts of the chain. The bent parts, which interlock with each other, are made of small rods, say of {,— inch diameter. Willow will do, but hazel is tougher and better. These also should be cut to uniform lengths—say 6 inches each—and split. The manner in which they are bent round the ends of the larger pieces and linked into each, 92 ORNA/WENTATZON 0F FLOWER BOXES. other is explained in the illustration. They are fastened with nails. For the larger pieces in this work, lengths of maple or wych elm, covered with their rough and highly ornamental bark, will be found to look best. Boxesfor Flowers. —To contain growing flowers, whether as window boxes or in other situations, no receptacles look better and more Rustic flower a p P r O _ boxes. priate than those made of rustic-work. The drawback to using rustic-workforthispur- pose is, however, the fact that when so em- ployed it quickly de- cays. No wood can long stand constant contact with damp earth, and frequent floodings with water. Still, when the effect is so goodyand the labour of renewal so small, as in the case of window- boxes, it may be worth while to incur the trouble of making new ones every third or : fourth year. The box itself may be made of any rough board, as roughly nailed together, and the front should be divided into Ornamenta- squares, and ornamented with mosaics of small rods, ti°n °f b°x' in a geometrical pattern. A split rod nailed round the edge of 93 RUSTIC CARPENTZBY. the box, on its top, will hide the edge of the mosaic to the front, and that of the rough board all round. Holes should be bored through the bottom to let off any superfluous moisture; and if the window-ledge is long, it will be found more convenient to make the box in two or more lengths. The box, or vase, givenat Fig. 32, is of a more ambitious kind. It is supposed to be one of a pair to stand on either side of a rustic Box in form porch, or at either hand of the entrance to a summer- °f “se- house. Such a vase would hold a plant of consider- able size, the receptacle for earth being 14 inches square at the top, and as many deep. The total height of this article is 3 feet. The box itself is, of course, made of board. I have used fir cones and mosaic for decorating it ; bark might be used instead, but it would need renewing by the end of the second season. This vase might be prettily varied by making the earth—box octagonal. FIG. 33.--EDGE OF TABLE. Rustic Furm'z‘ure.——Among the minor uses of rustic carpentry Chairs and. is that of making chairs, tables, etc., for the summer- $355231." house and lawn; and the superiority of articles thus 1101136: etc- formed over those made of iron or of wrought. wood, is, in point of taste, beyond all question. In my larger summer-house I indicated a table of considerable size. Such a table would not require to be movable, and this would render its construction a very simple matter. A pillar, or, if its size demanded them, four pillars, might simply be let into the ground, and when the top has been fixed on and covered, nothing more will be wanting. For the edge of a large table of this kind, the device. shown in Edge-1n Fig. 33 is pretty and useful. Falling, as it may be rum" WM" made to do, to a depth of some inches, it will prevent too much of the unornamental pillars being seen. A really satisfactory covering for the top of a rustic table—one, 94 Fixed table. _ ,. TREATMENT OF RUSTIC TABLE. which shall at the same time be in character and keeping with its surroundings, be firm, smooth, and enduring—is a Suitable ' desideratum which has yet to be introduced. Bare covetrgggfor board is and must be unsightly, and any kind of ' manufactured coveringforitwould be out of place and in bad taste. For the want of some- thing better we are forced to fall back on our moSaic work; which can not, from its very nature, present that smoothness so de- sirable in the top of a table. We have, therefore, to make our mosaic for this purpose as neat and level as possible. We must use only very small rods, keep all the pieces of the same thick- ness, and carefully trim of every knot. For such work, peeled withy rods are very suitable, FIG. 34.——SMALL RUSTIC TABLE. among which some smooth hazel sticks may be introduced for variety'of colour. 'In Fig. 34 we have a small movable table for use in a small summer-house. or on a lawn. Its top is 18 inches smaumov- ' - ' able table. square, and its height 26 inches. To secure firm stand- ing, it will be well to choose the cross pieces which form the bottom a little curved, and to place them, like those in the cut, with the 95 RUSTIC CARPENTRY. curves upwards. The construction of this table is sufficiently easy The two cross-pieces are out half through, and fitted together at their intersection ; and they and the upright are fastened together by a Strong spike-.nail.- The sloping pieces, which are nailed on afterwards, and which serve as braces, prevent any danger of move- ment in the joint. The top is of I inch or % inch elm board. I have supposed the upright in this case to be a piece of straight larch. The I‘UStiC chair, Fig. 35, is, with the exception of the actual seat, wholly made of oak bangles. Larch, and other straight fir woods, so admirable for most rustic purposes, do not as a rule lend them- selves well to chair-making. So used they are apt to look too stiff and formal. Oak bangles, on the other hand, seem admirably fitted for this particular work. Their crookedness may now be Selection of turned to good ffigggelgfiif account. From 930- among a num- ber of oak bangles there Material for will rarely be seat' much difficulty in selecting pieces with the double curve, which fits them for forming the main framework of the chair , nor in finding a branch with the bold single curve required for the back. The other pieces are such as will come to hand almost without choosing. In fitting these rough pieces of oak together neatly and firmly, some little dexterous use of the saw will be needed. The seat, which requires more smoothness than could well be got from oak, should be made of hazel or withy rods. Such a chair will be found compact and comfortable, and can easily be carried from one part of a garden to another as required. It can be placed under shelter when not in use ; a point worth considera- tion, as work made of oak bangles does not last well when exposed to the weather. Rustic chair. FIG. 35. —-RUSTIC CHAIR. 96 'DES'IGN FOR LONG GARDEN SEA 7: Ix. the long garden seat, Fig. 33, I have also used oak for the fi