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AUTHOR: Muybridae , Eadweard,/s30-/ 90k TITLE: Desericplive 2oopraxo] raphy PLACE: Philadel phi DATE: 1893 VOLUME ire gh Xf P F870 SM78 H 1893 X cop. 1 ©. gy Muybridge, Eadweard, 1830-1904, eseriptive zoo praxography; or, The science of anjmal locomotion mado popular, hy Eadweard Muybridge ... ublished ag a memento of a series of lectures given by the author under the auspices of tle United States gov- crnment, Bureau of education, at {he World’s Columbian exposition, in Zoopraxographical hall, 1893. (Philadel- phig, University of Pennsylvania ; (Chicago, The Lake. side press; 1893; Ip. 1, xi, 44, 34, 14 12) p. front, (port.) illus, facsims. 20°", 1. Animal locomotion . IL Title: Zoopraxography. II. Title, tNaime originally: Ldward James Muggeridge, N See next card, 6-18032 Revised ie J Library of Congress QP301.M88 CU-B 7 TERN we ew banded d TIE FILMED AND PROCESSED BY LIBRARY PHOTOGRAPHIC SERVICE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA BERKELEY, CA 94720 JOBNO. 8 6 0/30]? DATE Qo | 8 REDUCTION RATIO 8 DOCUMENT "SOURCE = THE BANCROFT LIBRARY i A——— ea 2s 2s lle i ll we I mil TOR | A lle lil lle o I EE o LJ 4d: E E | ND On I: MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS STANDARD REFERENCE MATERIAL 1010a (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) I EEE EEE EEE | | | | J | : | i | 6 fun L 8 Tn Ti HA hh ih behold mi Eesah oy S| 8 HT l mln ld RAT 8 FS RRR = } : < : ; 2 : : i c ? . + ; ~ A / - A Ek ; § & iy | = i 5 Bl a - . 1 . ; REANERSI Niwa sia SHON RR SR NEE RANI = FRIENDS CF T {E BANCROFT LIBRARY DESCRIPTIVE ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY OR THE SCIENCE OF ANIMAL LOCOMOTION MADE POPULAR BY EADWEARD MUYBRIDGE WITH SELECTED OUTLINE TRACINGS REDUCED FROM SOME OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS OF “ ANIMAL LOCOMOTION” AN ELECTRO-PHOTOGRAPHIC INVESTIGATION OF CONSECUTIVE PHASES OF ANIMAL MOVEMENTS, COMMENCED 1872, COMPLETED 1885, AND PUBLISHED 1887, UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA PUBLISHED AS A MEMENTO OF A SERIES OF LECTURES GIVEN BY THE AUTHOR UNLER THE AUSPICES OF THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT BUREAU OF EDUCATION AT THE WORLD’S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, in ZOOPRAXOGRAPHICAL HALL 1893 4 Anmversity of Penngplvania 1893 I 4 SOME OF THE SUBSCRIBERS TO “ANIMAL LOCOMOTION.” 71549 THE ORIGINAL AUTOGRAPHS ARE ON THE SUBSCRIPTION BOOK IN THE POSSESSION OF THE AUTHOR. COPYRIGHTED, 1893, BY ; EADWEARD MUYBRIDGE The Lakeside Press R. R. DONNELLEY & SONS CO., CHICAGO TO ANIMAL LOCOMOTION. TO ANIMAL LOCOMOTION. Jel clock one flptig tnd adlon AD w90md LG Rutten [30 he Nan CAA op iF A Cf TPs Fon Al , ‘672 Tots “ ‘ D [Tee Yaw aie E ay 4 § 8% {i : HALL. OGRAPHICAL Paeht Z00PRAX Iv te wll I 2a ry : [1 Los CN rr d Fas » ABET * + JEN + FY ‘ : \ " {7 : iy ls, 0 2 Lo i! = y ” Ny A Samii F R bl a RRS : Se = shoves fers A aie 5 N by Fir ATH ERAS: J 42 rt 3 Ls al 21s or SRT il “i + 4 INNS den = J — 3 N pa tts Spi Fi a > Wg oe i “sp By wi J v *.. F¥ A se $ 4 a ; 9 - er wl RI Ee ET Y ws Vogl PEE PREFACE. In the summer of 1892 while the Author was in California, preparing for a Lecturing tour through Australia and India, he received an invitation from the Fine Arts Commission of the World’s Columbian Ex- position to give a series of Lectures on ZOOPRAXOG- RAPHY in association with the Exposition now being held in Chicago. As these Lectures under the more familiar title of « The Science of Animal Locomotion in Its Relation to Design in Art’ had already been given at nearly all the principal Institutions of Art, Science and Education in Europe and in the United States, (see appendix A) the Author was induced to believe that they might be repeated in a popular manner at the Exposition, with 1 2 ZOUPRAXOGRAPIIY Some appreciation of the importance of the facts which his investigation has revealed, not merely by the student of Nature or of Art, but by that large and important class of students, known as the general public. Under this impression he delayed his far Occi- dental expedition and returned to Chicago to find a commodious theater erected for this special purpose on the grounds of the Exposition, to which the name of Zoopraxographical Hall had been given; the Science of Zoopraxography having had its origin in the Author’s first experiments in 1872. It is not intended in this monograph to give more than a synopsis of the usual course of Lectures on the subject, nor to reproduce any of the pictured or sculptured representations which are necessary for its proper elucidation, but merely to describe the common methods of limb wllon adopted by quadrupeds—especially by the horse—in their various acts of progressive motion, and to illus- trate the most important phases of these movements by tracings from the original photogravures of the Author’s work. In the presentation of a Lecture on Zoospraxog- raphy the course usually adopted is to project, much larger than the size of life upon a screen, a sovion of the most important phases of some act of animal mo- tion—the stride of a horse, while galloping for ex- ample—which are analytically described. These suc- cessive phases are then combined in the Zoopraxiscope which is set in motion, and a reproduction of the original movements of life is distinctly visible to the audience. With this apparatus, horse-races are reproduced PREFACE. 3 with such fidelity that the individual characteristics of the motion of every animal can readily be seen; flocks of birds fly across the screen with every movement of their wings clearly perceptible; two gladiators con- tend for victory with an energy which would cause the arena to resound with wild applause, athletes turn somersaults, and other actions by men, women and children, horses, dogs, cats and wild animals, such as running, dancing, jumping, trotting and kicking, are illustrated in the same manner. By this method of analysis and synthesis the eye is taught how to ob- serve and to distinguish the differences between a true and a false impression of animal movements. The Zoospraxiscopical exhibition is followed by illuminated copies of paintings and sculptures, demonstrating how the movement has been interpreted by the Artists of all ages; from the primitive engravers of the cave dwelling period, to the most eminent painters and sculptors of the present day. ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY INTRODUCTION. IN the year 1872, while the Author was engaged in his official duties as Photographer of the United States Government for the Pacific coast, there arose in the city of San Francisco one of those controversies upon Animal Locomotion, which has engaged the attention of mankind from the dawn of symbolical design, to the present era of reformation in the artistic expres- sion of animal movements. The subject of this particular dispute was the possi- bility of a horse having all of his feet free of contact with the ground at the same instant, while trotting, even at a high rate of speed, and the disputants were Mr. Frederick MacCrellish and the Hon. Leland Stanford. The attention of the Author was directed to this controversy and he immediatelv sought the means for its settlement. At this time the rapid dry plate had not yet been evolved from the laboratory of the chemist, and the problem before him was to develop a sufficiently in- tense and contrasted image upon a wet collodion plate, after an exposure of so brief a duration that a horse’s foot moving with a velocity of more than a hundred lineal feet in a second of time, should be photographed practically ¢¢sharp.’’ A few days’ experimenting and about a dozen neg- atives, with a celebrated fast trotter—*¢Occident’— as a model, while trotting at the rate of a mile in two INTRODUCTION. d minutes and sixteen seconds, laterally in front of the camera, decided the argument for once and for all time in favor of those disputants who held the opinion that a horse while trotting was for a portion of his stride entirely free from contact with the ground. With a knowledge of the fact that some horses while trotting will make a stride of twenty feet or more in length, it is difficult to understand why there should ever have been any difference of opinion on the subject. These first experiments of Zoopraxography were made at Sacramento, California, in May, 1872. A few impressions were printed from the selected nega- tive for private distribution, and were commented upon by the «Alta California,”” a newspaper published in San Francisco. Thus far the photographs had been made with a single camera, requiring a separate trotting for each exposure. The horse being of a dark color and the background white, the pictures were little better than silhouettes, and it was difficult to distinguish, except by inference, the right feet from the left. Several phases of as many different movements had been photographed, which the Author endeavored with little success to arrange in consecutive order for the construction of a complete stride. It then occurred to him that if a number of cameras were placed in a line, and exposures effected succes- sively in each, with regulated intervals of time or of distance, an analysis of one single step or stride could be obtained which would be of value both to the Scientist and the Artist. The practical application of this system of photo- ” ——— =r 6 ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY graphing required considerable time for its develop- ment, and much experimenting with chemicals and apparatus. It being desirable that the horses used as models should be representatives of their various breeds, and ~ the Author not being the owner of any that ‘could be fairly classed as such, obtained the cooperation of Mr. Stanford, who owned a fine stud of horses at his farm at Palo Alto, and there continued his labors. The apparatus used at this stage of the inves- tigation was essentially the same as that subsequently constructed for the University of Pennsylvania, the arrangement of which will be described further on. Some of the results of these early experiments which illustrated successive phases of the action of horses while walking, trotting, galloping, &c., were published in 1878, with the title of ¢¢ The Horse in Motion.’ Copies of these photographs were deposited the same year in the Library of Congress at Washington, and some of them found their way to Berlin, London, Paris, Vienna, &c., where they were criticized by the journals of the day. In 1882 the Author visited Europe and at a recep- tion given him by Monsieur Meissonier was invited by that great painter to exhibit the results of his labors to his brother Artists who had assembled in his studios for that purpose. M. Meissonier was the first ameng Artists to acknowledge the value to Art design of the Author’s researches; and upon this occasion, alluding to a full knowledge of the details of a subject being necessary for its truthful and satisfactory translation by the Artist, he declared how much his own im- INTRODUCTION 7 pression of a horse’s motion had been changed after a careful study of its consecutive phases. It is scarcely necessary to point out, in confirmation of M. Meissonier’s assertions, the modifications in the expression of animal movements now progressing in the works of the Painter and the Sculptor, or to the fact of their being the result of studious attention to the science of Zoopraxography. In the same year, during a lecture on ¢¢The Sci- ence of Animal Locomotion in Its Relation to Design in Art,” given at the Royal Institution (see Proceed- ings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, March 13, 1882), the author exhibited the results of his exper- iments at Palo Alto, when he, with the Zoopraxiscope and an oxy-hydrogen lantern, projected on the wall a synthesis of many of the actions he had photographed. It may not be considered irrelevant if he repeats what he on that occasion said in his analysis of the quadrupedal walk: — «So far as the camera has revealed, these success- ive foot fallings are invariable, and are probably com- mon to all quadrupeds. . . . . «Tt is also probable that these photographic investi- gations—which were executed with wet collodion plates, with exposures not exceeding in some instances the one five-thousandth part of a second—will dispel many popular illusions as to the gaits of a horse, and future and more exhaustive experiments, with the ad- vantages of recent chemical discoveries, will completely unveil all the visible muscular action of men and ani- mals even during their most rapid movements. . . . «The employment of automatic apparatus for the 8 Z00PRAXOGRAPHY purpose of obtaining a regulated succession of photo- graphic exposures is too recent for it to be generally used for scientific experiment or for its advantages to be properly appreciated. At some future time the philosopher will find it indispensable for many of his ‘investigations.”’ : The great interest manifested in the results of his preliminary labors convinced the Author that a com- prehensive and systematic investigation with improved mechanical appliances, and newly-discovered chemical manipulations, would demonstrate many novel facts, not only interesting to the casual observer, but of in- disputable value to the Artist and to the Scientist. This investigation and the subsequent publication in the elaborate manner determined upon, assumed such im- posing proportions, and necessarily demanded so large an expenditure, that all publishers, not unnaturally, shrank from entering the unexplored field. In this emergency, through the influence of its Provost, Dr. William Pepper, the University of Penn- sylvania with an enlightened exercise of its functions as a contributor to human knowledge, instructed the Author to make, under its auspices, a comprehensive investigation of ¢¢ Animal Locomotion ’’ in the broadest significance of the words, (see appendix B) and some of the Trustees and friends of the University constituted themselves a committee for the purpose of promoting the execution of the work. These gentlemen were Dr. William Pepper, Chas. C. Harrison, J. B. Lippincott, Edw. H. Coates, Samuel Dickson and Thomas Hockley. The Author acknowledges his obligations to these gentlemen for the interest they took in his labors; for INTRODUCTION > 9 without their generous assistance the work would probably never have been completed; the total amount expended—nearly forty thousand dollars—being en- tirely beyond his own resources. To Drs. F. X. Der- cum, Geo. F. Barker and Horace Jayne, of the Univer- sity, the Author is also indebted for much valuable assistance. pt oe pparatus Diagram of the Studio at The University of Pennsylvania, and Arrangement of the A ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY. STUDIO, APPARATUS, AND METHOD OF je i WORKING. : For a proper appreciation of the care taken in the = Investigation of Animal Locomotion at the University a 8 of Pennsylvania to ensure accurate record of the con- 2 = secutive phases of the various movements, attention to i A the system adopted is necessary. 2° © In the diagram, B is the Lateral background; con- = | 9 sisting of a shed 37 metres or about 120 feet, long, Eg = the front of which is open, and divided by vertical and < horizontal threads into spaces 5 centimetres, or about 2 g = inches, square, and by broader threads into larger = i” o spaces 50 centimetres, or about 19% inches, square. @ > / o At C and C, 37 metres, or about 120 feet, apart & m -/ - 4 are ¢ fired’ backgrounds, with vertical threads 5 cen- 8 = 2 timetres, or about two inches, from their centres, with o bo broader threads 30 centimetres, or about 12 inches, o RS from their centres. ; = For some investigations, readily distinguishable in ' the plates, ¢¢ portable’ backgrounds are used, consist- s ing of frames 3 metres wide by 4 metres high,—about 10 feet by 13 feet 4 inches,—over some of which black ~ cloth and over others white cloth is stretched, all being | divided by vertical and horizontal lines into square [NES owen wma = spaces of the same description as those of the lateral 1) background. These portable backgrounds are used when photo- 11 12 ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY graphing birds and horses, and also wild animals when possible to do so. L. A lateral battery of 24 automatic electro-photo- graphic cameras, arranged parallel with the line of progressive motion, and usually placed therefrom about 15 metres or 49 feet. : Slow movements are usually photographed with lenses of 3 inches diameter and 15 inches equivalent focus; the centres of the lenses being 15 centimetres, or about 6 inches, apart. Rapid movements are usually photographed with a portable battery of cameras and smaller lenses. The centre, between lenses 6 and 7, is opposite the centre of the track T. For illustrations comprising both ¢¢ Laterals’’ and ‘‘ Foreshortenings,”” cameras 1 to 12 only are used. When ¢¢ Laterals >’ alone are required, cameras 13 to 24 are connected with the system and used in their regular sequence. R. A portable battery of 12 automatic electro-pho- tographic cameras, the lenses of which are 1% inches diameter and 5 inches equivalent focus; the lenses are arranged 7% centimetres, or about 3 inches, from their centres. When the battery is used vertically, lens 6 is usually on the same horizontal plane as the lenses of the lateral battery. In the diagram this battery is arranged vertically for a series of ¢¢ Rear Foreshortenings,’’ the points of view being at an angle of 90 degrees from the lateral battery. F. A battery of 12 automatic electro-photographic cameras, similar to that placed at R, arranged horizon- ARRANGEMENT OF APPARATUS 13 tally for ¢ Front Foreshortenings,”’ the points of view averaging an angle of 60 degrees from the ery. oe gn En of the operator; the electric bat- teries; the chronograph for recording the intervals of time between each successive exposure; the motor for completing the successive electric dra, and other apparatus connected with the investigation. TT. The track parallel with the lateral battery and covered with corrugated rubber flooring. M. The model, approaching the point number on the track where the series of photographic illustra- tions will commence. An estimate having been made of the interval of time which will be required, between each photo- graphic exposure, to illustrate the complete movement, or that portion of the complete movement desired, the apparatus is adjusted to complete a succession of elec- tric circuits at each required interval of time, and the motor is set in operation. When the series is to illus- trate progressive motion; upon the arrival of the model at the point marked ¢¢1°’ on the track, the operator, by pressing a button, completes an electric circuit, which immediately throws into gearing a portion of the apparatus hitherto at rest. By means of suitably | arranged connections, an electric current 1s transmitted to each of the 3 cameras marked ¢¢1°’ in the various batteries, and an exposure is simultaneously made on each of the photographic plates, respectively, contained therein. At the end of the predetermined interval of time, a similar current is transmitted to each of the cameras marked ¢¢2,”’ and another exposure made on «¢1?’ 14 ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY each of the 3 next plates, and so forth until each series of exposures in each of the three batteries is completed. Assuming the operator to have exercised good judg- ment in regulating the speed of the apparatus, and in making the first electric contact at the proper time, and that the figures 1 to 12 represent the ‘distance traversed by the model in executing the movement desired, the first three photographic exposures — that is, one exposure in each battery — will have been syn- chronously made when the model was passing the position marked ¢¢1”’ on the track T; the second three exposures will have been made when the model was passing the position marked 2°’ and so on until twelve successive exposures were simultaneously made in each of the three batteries. This perfect uni- formity of time, speed, and distance, however, was not always obtained. When this monograph was commenced it was not intended by the author to give any more than a general idea of the method adopted for obtaining the results of his investigation; it has, however, been considered that a few illustrations and brief description of the appa- ratus devised and used by him may not be without in- terest to other students. For the use of these illustrations he is indebted to ~ the courtesy of Rev. Jesse Y. Burk, the Secretary of the University, and to J. B. Lippincott Company, the publishers of ¢¢ The Muybridge Work at the Univer- sity of Pennsylvania,”’ a book which contains, among other essays upon the subject, ¢¢Materials for a Memoir on Animal Locomotion, by Harrison Allen, M. D.,” and «A Study of Some Normal and APPARATUS. 15 Abnormal Movements, by Francis X. Dercum, M.D., Ph.D.” CC. a Figure 1 is a view of the building containing the lateral battery of twenty-four photographic cameras, all of which were used when as many consecutive phases of an act of motion were required. Immediately in front of each of these cameras, and detached therefrom, was placed an electro-photographic exposor, a side section of which is represented by Figure 2, in which A is a continuous band of thin Fig. 1. rubber cloth impervious to light; the edges of which are bound with strong tape, and arranged to run in a groove, and over two rollers RR which are attached to a frame. : In this endless band are two apertures OO of suit- able size, and so arranged that their full openings as they pass each other shall simultaneously take place in front of the center of the lens Li The upper and lower edges of these apertures are kept taut by light steel rods attached to the tape binding. 16 ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY To the lower rod of the front aperture is fastened a ring C and a cleat, to which some elastic rubber bands B are attached; these bands are easily removable and their number increased at discretion; in some instances of rapid exposures a tension of twenty-five pounds or more was required. On ashelf of the frame is a magnet M, over the top of which is arranged a steel lever G pivoted near the end D which terminates with a B Z slightly indented - projection. The armature of themagnetispivoted at H; its upper arm terminates with a shoulder I. S is a spring to prevent the accidental shift- ing of the shoulder from its contact with > i Se ————————————— ———— _—— SPR 7 the lever when the exposor is ready for Fig. 2. its function. N is a set screw to adjust the distance of the armature from the magnet. To prepare for a series of photographic exposures — the plates having been already placed in the cameras — the end of the lever Gx is placed under APPARATUS 17 the shoulder I; the endless curtain is revoived until the front aperture O is raised to its proper position, when the ring C is hooked upon the projecting point D. A cord attached to the rubber bands B is drawn around the pulley P, and a ring at its end is slipped over a pin, which keeps the spring at a proper state of ten- sion. Upon the com- pletion of an electric circuit the armature is drawn towards the magnet; the end of the lever is released from its contact with the shoulder; the ring C is released from the projecting point Dj; the front of the endless curtain is drawn rap- idly downward; the ll apertures meet in the l) center of the lens, { form a gradually ex- panding and then con- tracting diaphragm, | and the exposure is Fig. 3. made. A front view of three electro-photographic exposors is seen in Figure 3. The first of these represents the exposor set and ready for an .exposure; the second shows the meeting of the apertures at the commencement of an exposure; the third, their position near the completion of the exposure, they having in the mean- 18 ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY while uncovered the lens to their full capacity. Figure 4 illustrates a portable battery of twelve electro-photographic exposors; it consists of a rectan- gular box divided into compartments, open at the front and rear. In twelve of these compartments are arranged rollers, curtains, magnets, etc., as previously described, and a compartment through which a focusing lens is used. The two end compartments provide for the adjustment of the camera, which is supported in the box to the rear of the exposing arrangements. A cable of insulated wires for connecting the twelve mag- nets with the exposing motor, contains a wire for the return current. As seen in the engraving, seven of the magnets by the passage of their respective cur- rents have completed their releasing operations. In the eighth compartment the two apertures in the exposing band are in the act of effecting an exposure. The remaining four magnets are awaiting their turn for action. | Figure 5 is a photographic camera divided into APPARATUS 19 thirteen compartments, each having a lens of the same construction, and the same focal length; these are arranged to correspond with the compartments in the electro-exposors. One of the lenses is provided with a focusing screen, and with it the other twelve lenses are adjusted to a proper focus without removing the plate holder behind them from its position in the camera. The plate holder is constructed to hold three dry plates, each three inches by twelve inches; the front is divided into twelve compartments, each three inches square. Fig, 5. Light is excluded from the front by a roller blind, strengthened by thin narrow slats of hard wood; the blind works in grooves, is drawn over a concealed roller, and covers the back of the holder when the plates are being exposed. Figure 6 is a rear and side view of the circuit maker, conventionally called the exposing motor. The motive power is an adjustable weight attached to a cord which is wound around a drum. Twenty- four binding posts are attached to the table at 20 ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY the back of the exposing motor; other binding posts are arranged for return or other currents. Figure 7 illustrates a front and side view of the upper part of the exposing motor. Fastened to the frame is a ring of hard rubber, in which are inserted twenty-four insulated segments of platinum-coated Fig . 6. brass; thesc segments are connected by insulated wires to the twenty-four binding posts on the back of the motor table, figure 6. A shaft, connected by an arrangement of geared wheels to the drum, passes through the center of the segmented ring and carries a loose collar; a stout metal APPARATUS 21 rod is firmly attached near its longitudinal center tc this loose collar, One arm of the rod carries a lami- nated metal scraper, or contact brush, arranged to travel around the periph- ery of the ring, and in its revolution to make contact with each segment in suc- cession. The con- tact brush is con- = nected through the Fig. 7. arm with one pole of the battery; and each segment— through its inde- pendent wire and magnet of the electro - exposors — with the other pole. When twenty- four consecutive phases of an act of motion are to be photographed from one point of view, all of the insulated AA EE ” segments in the ring Fig. 7. are put in circuit. When twelve consecutive phases A Re Sa \ 22 ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY are to be photographed synchronously from each of three points of view, each alternate segment is placed in circuit with the electric battery. The manner in which the series of synchronous ‘exposures is effected will be readily understood by reference to the diagram, 8. ANIMAL LOCOMOTION. OIAGRAMOF ELECTRICAL CONNEC TIONS:F ORMAKINGCONS! ECUTIVEPHOTOGRAPHC EXPOSURESSYNCHRONOUSLY :FROM:SE VERAL PONTSOF VIEW, MECHANISM FOR STARTING [ LF Rondimella, dol {Me Eh BREN NP CONTACT- ¥ SRS ANON ao se] MA = RE i. NN : JALIL Fig. 8. All being in readiness, and the weights and fan wheel adjusted to cause the contact brush to sweep over the periphery of the ring at the required rate of speed, the drum, and with it the shaft is set in motion. APPARATUS 23 At the proper time, pressure on a button com- pletes an independent circuit through the magnet seen below the segmented ring, figure 7, and in the side diagram of figure 8. The action of the armature releases the lower end of the rod on the loose collar, which, by means of a coiled spring, is immediately thrown into gearing with the already revolving shaft; the contact brush sweeps around the segmented ring and effects the consecutive series of exposures at the pre-arranged intervals of time. At the University the intervals varied from the one-sixtieth part of a second to several seconds. A record of these time intervals was kept by a chronograph, a well known instrument; it comprises a revolving drum carrying a cylinder of smoke-black- ened paper, on which, by means of successive electric contacts, a pencil is caused to record the vibrations of a tuning fork, while a second pencil marks the com- mencement of each photographic exposure. The num- ber of vibrations occurring between any two successive exposures marks the time. The tuning fork used made one hundred single vibrations in a second of time. To ensure greater minuteness and accuracy in the record, the vibrations were divided into tenths, and the intervals calculated in thousandths of a second. For the purpose of determining the synchronous action of the electro-exposors while making a double series of exposures, the accuracy of the time intervals as recorded by the chronograph, and the duration of the shortest photographic exposures used in the investiga- tion, the two batteries of portable cameras were placed 24 ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY side by side, and the exposors were each connected with the exposing motor by separate lengths of a hundred feet of cable. The two series of cameras were pointed to a rapidly revolving disc of five feet diameter. The surface of the disc was black, with narrow white lines radiating from the center to the edge like the spokes of a wheel. A microscopic examination of the two series of resulting negatives proved that no variation could be discovered in the sychronous action of ten of the duplicated series of exposures, and that in the remaining two a variation existed in the simultaneity of a few ten-thousandths of a second — a result sufficiently near to simultaneity for all ordinary photographic work. rr WANA rrr INVA NAANNANIINNANANNNNANARNANNNINNNANANANN Fig. 9. A reproduction of the chronographic record of one of these experiments is seen in figure 9. The first line records the revolution of the disc; the second the vibration of the tuning fork; and each group of three long double markings in the third line indicates a photographic exposure. The shortest exposures made at the University were — approximately — the one six-thousandth part of a second; such brief exposures are however for this class of investigation very rarely needed. Some horses galloping at full speed will, for a short distance, cover about fifty-six or fifty-eight feet APPARATUS 25 of ground in a second of time; a full mile averaging perhaps a hundred seconds. At this speed, a foot re- covering its loss of motion will be thrust forward with an occasional velocity of at least 120 lineal feet in a second of time. During the one one-thousandth part of a second the body of the horse will at this rate move forward about seven one-tenths of an inch, and a moving foot perhaps one and a half inches, not a very serious matter for the usual requirements of the amateur photographer. A knowledge of the duration of the exposures, however, was in this investigation of no value, and scarcely a matter of curiosity, the aim always being to give as long an exposure as the rapidity of the action would permit, with a due regard to the necessary sharpness of outline, and essential distinctness of detail. The power used for operating the magnets, through the exposing motor, was given from a 16 Clanché battery of fifty-four cells, arranged in multiple arc of three series, each of eighteen cells. During the investigation at the University of Penn- sylvania, more than a hundred thousand photographic exposures were made. The negative plates were supplied by the Cramer Dry Plate Company of St. Louis, and the positive plates by the Carbutt Company of Philadelphia. On a favorable day five hundred or six hundred negatives were sometimes exposed: on one day the number of exposures reached seven hundred and fifty. The electrical manipulations were directed by Lino F. Rondinella; the development room was in charge of Henry Bell. The author takes pleasure in acknowl- 26 ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY edging the skill, patience and energy which these gen- tlemen exhibited in their respective fields of labor. Although the one six-thousandth part of a second was the duration of the most rapid exposure made in this investigation, it is by no means the limit of ‘mechanically effected photographic exposures, nor does the one-sixtieth part of a second approach the limit of time intervals. Marey, in his remarkable physiologi- cal investigations, has recently made successive expos- ures with far less intervals of time; and the author has devised, and when a relaxation of the demands upon his time permit, will use an apparatus which will photograph twenty consecutive phases of a single vibration of the wing of an insect; even assuming as correct a quotation from Nicholson’s Journal by Petti- grew in his work on Animal Locomotion that a com- mon house fly will make during flight seven hundred and fifty vibrations of its wings in a second of time, a number probably far in excess of the reality. The ingenious gentlemen who are persistently en- deavoring to overcome the obstacles in the construc- tion of an apparatus for aerial navigation, will perhaps some day be awakened by the fact that the only suc- cessful method of propulsion will be found in the action of the wing of an insect. We will now resume the subject proper of this monograph. It is impossible within its limits to trace the history of the art of delineating animals in motion, or to illustrate it with examples of the truthful impressions of the primitive Artists, or of the imaginative and erro- neous conceptions of many of those of modern times. OY THE WALK 27 Certain phases of the facts of Animal Locomo- tion will alone be treated upon, as demonstrated by photographic research. The illustrations and condensed definitions of the various gaits were prepared by the Author for the «¢ Standard Dictionary.’> Before studying these it is essential that the meaning of the terms step and stride should be distinctly understood. A sTEP is an act of progressive animal motion, in which one of the supporting members of the body is thrust in the direction of the motion and the support transferred, wholly, or in part, from one member to another. A STRIDE is an act of progressive animal motion, which, for its completion, requires all of the support- ing members of the body, in the exercise of their proper functions, to be consecutively and regularly thrust in the direction of the movement until they hold the same relative positions in respect to each other as they did at the commencement of the notation. In the bipedal walk or run a step is one-half of a stride or full round movement. With all quadrupeds, except the kangaroo and other jumpers, four steps are nec- essary to complete the stride. THE WALK. The WALK is a method of progressive motion with a regular individual succession of limb movements. In the evolution of the terrestrial vertebrates the walk was probably the first adopted method of locomotion, and its execution is regulated by the law that the move- ment of the superior limb precedes the movement of 30 ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY When, therefore, during a walk, a horse is sup ported on two legs, with two feet suspended between them, each pair are laterals. On the other hand, when the suspended feet are respectively in advance of and behind the supporting legs, each pair are Hinsonsls | These invariable rules have been sles or Inne by many distinguished artists of modern imes. THE AMBLE. The amble is a method of progressive motion with the same sequence of foot fallings as the walk, but in which a hind foot or a fore foot is lifted from the ground in advance of its fellow hind foot or its fellow fore foot being placed thereon. The support of the body therefore devolves alternately upon a single foot and upon two feet; the single foot being alternately a hind foot and a fore foot, and the two feet being alter- nately laterals and diagonals. At no time is the bod entirely unsupported. : The following series of illustrations will clearly demonstrate the consecutive foot fallings and some characteristic phases of an ambling stride: THE AMBLE 31 SOME CONSECUTIVE PHASES OF THE AMBLE. The amble has various local names, such as the «single foot,” the «fox trot,”’ etc. It has sometimes been erroneously confused with the rack or the so- called ¢ pace;’’ it is the most gentle and agreeable to the rider of all methods of locomotion of the horse, while the rack is the most ungraceful and disagreeable. In Scott’s romances are many allusions to the ¢ambling palfry.”’ Ben Jonson in «Every Man in His Humor’ speaks of going ¢¢out of the old hackney- pace to a fine, easy amble,’’ and Dickens in ¢ Barnaby Rudge’ refers to the gray mare breaking from her sober amble into a gentle trot.”’ The ambling gait is natural to’ the elephant, and to the horse, the mule and the ass; but in many countries these latter animals are not encouraged in its use. ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY THE TROT. The trot is a more or less rapid progressive motion of a quadruped in which the diagonal limbs act nearly simultaneously in being alternately lifted from and placed on the ground, and in which the body of the animal is entirely unsupported twice during each stride. Selecting for the purpose of illustration the phases occurring during two steps or one-half of a stride of 18 feet in length by a horse trotting at the rate of a mile in two minutes and twelve seconds, we find that at the instant his right fore foot strikes the ground, the left hind foot is a few inches behind the point where it will presently strike. As the feet approach the ground, the right hind leg is drawn forward with the pastern nearly horizontal, while the left fore leg is flexed un- der the body. After the feet strike the ground and the legs approach a vertical position the pasterns are gradually lowered, and act as springs to break the force of the concussion until they are sometimes bent to a right angle with the legs. At this period the fore foot is raised so high as to frequently strike the elbow, while the diagonal hind foot is comparatively but little above the ground, and is about to pass to the front of the left hind. The pasterns gradually rise as the legs pass the vertical until the right fore foot has left the ground and the last propelling force is being exercised by the left hind foot; which accomplished, the animal is in mid air. The right hind foot continues its onward motion THE TROT 33 until it is sometimes much in advance of its lateral fore foot, the former, however, being gradually low- ered, while the latter is being raised. The right hind and both fore legs are now much flexed, while the left hind is stretched backwards to its greatest extent with the bottom of the foot turned upwards, the left fore leg is being thrust forwards and gradually SOME CONSECUTIVE PHASES OF THE TROT. straightened, with the toe raised as the foot approaches the ground; which accomplished, with a substitution of the left limbs for the right, we find them in the same relative positions as when we commenced our examination, and one-half of the stride is completed. With slight and immaterial differences, such as might be caused by irregularities of the ground, these 71515 34 ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY movements are repeated by the other pair of diagonals, and the stride is then complete. If the stride of a trotting horse is divided into two portions, representing the comparative distances trav- ersed by the aggregate of the body while the feet are in contact with, and while they are entirely clear of, the ground, the relative measurements will be found to vary very greatly, they being contingent upon length of limb, weight, speed, and other circumstances. Heavily built horses will sometimes merely drag the feet just above the surface, but, in every instance of a trot, the weight of the body is really unsupported twice during each stride. It sometimes happens that a fast trotter, during the four steps of a stride, will have all his feet clear of the ground for a distance ex- ceeding one-half of the length of the entire stride. Upon landing, a fore foot almost always precedes its diagonal hind. It will be observed in the illustrations that while during the fast trot the fore feet are lifted so high that they frequently strike the breast, the hind feet are raised but little above the surface of the ground. The trot is common to all the single-toed and to nearly all the cloven-footed and soft-footed animals. It has, however, not been recorded as being adopted by the elephant, the camel, or the giraffe. THE RACK. The rack, sometimes miscalled the ¢¢pace,”’ is a method of quadrupedal locomotion in which two lateral feet with nearly synchronous action are placed upon and lifted from the ground alternately with the other THE RACK 35 laterals, the body of the animal being in the intervals entirely without support. prop pends, circumstances; The distance which the elling feet hurl the animal through the air de- as with other movements, upon a variety of at a high rate of speed the distance will be about one-half the total length of the stride. Upon 4 Jl 4 J 0 L. Dy SOME CONSECUTIVE PHASES OF THE RACK. landing, a hind foot usually precedes its lateral fore. The rack is an ungraceful gait of the horse, and disagreeable to those who seek comfort in riding. The movements hitherto described are regular In their action, and a stride may be divided into two each of which— with a change of limbs—1s practically similar to the other; we now come to meth- ods of progression which cannot be so divided, and each stride must be considered as a unit of motion. parts, 36 ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY THE CANTER. In the canter we discover the same sequence of foot fallings as in the walk, but not with the same harmoni- ous intervals of time. The gait resembles the gallop "in respect to its leaving the horse entirely unsupported for a varying period of time, and in the fact that the spring into the air is always effected from a fore foot, and the landing upon the diagonal hind foot; in other respects it materially differs from that method of pro- gression. Assuming that during a stride of the canter a horse springs into the air from a left fore foot, the right hind foot will first reach the ground; the two fore legs will at this time be flexed under the body, the right being the first landed, and for a brief period of time the support will devolve upon the laterals. The right fore foot is rapidly followed by the left hind. During a very slow canter the other fore foot will sometimes be landed in advance of the lifting of its diagonal, and the curious phase presented of all of the feet being in contact with the ground at the same instant. Usually, however, the first hind foot to touch the ground will be lifted, and the support thrown upon the diagonals. The left fore is now brought down, and is followed by the lifting of the right fore; when the left laterals assume the duty of support. The left hind is now raised, and with a final thrust of the left fore foot the animal is projected into the air, to land again upon its diagonal, and repeat the same sequence of movements. The above phases are selected from a single com- plete stride, in which the landing occurs on the righ? THE CANTER 37 hind foot. Had the horse sprung from a right fore foot, the right and left feet would have been reversed through the entire series. SOME CONSECUTIVE PHASES OF THE CANTER. THE GALLOP. The gallop is the most rapid method of quadrupedal motion; in its action the feet are independently brought to the ground; the spring into the air as in the canter is effected from a fore foot, and the landing upon the diagonal hind foot. The phases illustrated are selected from the stride of a thorcugh-bred Kentucky horse, galloping at the rate of a mile in a hundred seconds, with a stride of about twenty-one lineal feet. The length of stride and the distance which the 38 ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY body is carried forward without support depend upon many circumstances, such as the breed, build and con- dition of the horse, speed, track, etc. The phases illustrated and the measurement given ~ apply to one stride of one horse, but may be consid- ered as fairly representing the stride of a first-class horse in prime racing condition at the height of his speed, upon a good track. Assuming—as in this instance—the springing into the air to have been effected from the right fore foot, the landing will take place in advance of the centre of gravity, upon thediagonal, or left hind foot; above, will be suspended the right hind foot, and at a higher ele- vation, several inches to the rear, will be the right fore foot, with the sole turned upward. The left fore leg will be in advance of the right, and also flexed. The force of the impact and the weight of the horse causes the pastern to form a right angle with the leg, and the heel is impressed into the ground. The right hind foot strikes the ground and shares the weight of the body. The left hind foot leaves the ground while the right hind pastern isin its horizontal phase, supporting all the weight At this period the left fore leg is perfectly straight, with the toe much higher than the heel, and is thrust forward until the pastern joint is vertical with the nose, the right fore knee is bent at a right angle. The left fore foot now strikes and these diagonals are for a brief period upon the ground together. The left fore leg, however, immedi- ately assumes the entire responsibility of support and attains a vertical position, with the pastern at a right angle. The right fore leg becomes perfectly rigid, THE GALLOP 39 and is thrust forward to its fullest extent. The right fore foot now strikes the ground, the two fore legs form a right angle, and the hind feet are found thrust backward, the right to its fullest extent. The left fore leg having completed its functions of support, is now lifted, and the weight transferred to the right fore SOME CONSECUTIVE PHASES OF THE GALLOP. foot alone, which is soon found behind the centre of gravity; the left hind foot passes to the front of the right fore leg, which, exercising its final act of pro- pulsion, thrusts the horse through the air; the left hind foot descends; the stride is completed, and the consecutive phases are renewed. From this analysis we learn that if the spring is made from the right fore 40 ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY foot during the rapid gallop of a thoroughbred horse, it is supported consecutively by The left hind foot. Both hind feet. The right hind foot. The right hind and the left fore feet. The left fore foot. Both fore feet. The right fore foot. From which he springs into the air to re-commence the phases with the left hind foot, while the only phase in which he has been discovered without support is one when the legs are flexed under the body. All of the feet at this time are nearly close together and have com- paratively little independent motion; this phase, there- fore, more persistently than any other, forces itself upon the attention of the careful observer, and conveys to him the impression of a horse’s rapid motion in singular contradiction to the conventional interpreta- tion, until quite recently, usually adopted by the Artist. It should not be understood that the term ¢spring”’ implies that the body of the horse is greatly elevated by that action; were it so, much force would be unneces- sarily expended with the result of loss of speed. The center of gravity of a horse trotting or galloping at a high rate of speed will preserve an almost strictly horizontal line, the undulations being very slight. In the gallop of the horse it is probable there may be sometimes a period of suspension between the lift- ing of one fore foot and the descent of the other, but it has not yet been demonstrated. THE GALLOP : 41 The method of galloping described applies to the horse and its allies, and to most of the cloven and soft- footed animals. In the gallop of the dog the sequence of foot fall- ing and the action of the body is materially different, and the animal is free from support twice in each stride. Assuming that a racing hound after a flight through the air with elongated body and extended legs (like the THE GALLOP OF THE DOG. conventional galloping horse), lands upon the left fore foot, the right fore will next touch the ground; from this he will again spring into the air, and with curved body and flexed legs land. upon the right hind foot, while the right fore feet will be half the length of the body to the rear. The left hind now descends, another flight is effected, and again the left fore repeats its functions of support and propulsion. These successive foot fallings are common to all dogs when galloping, and it is worthy of note that the same rotary action in the use of the limbs is adopted in the gallop of the elk, the deer and the antelope, all of 42 ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY which animals, like the dog, can for a time excel the horse in speed. A search through all the dictionaries published at the time of writing, and accessible to the Author, fails to discover a correct definition of ¢¢the gallop.?’- This motion is in America frequently miscalled the ¢¢run,’’ and its execution ‘‘running,®’ but no corresponding explanation of the word is given by any lexicographer. In Scott’s ¢ Lady of the Lake’ occurs ¢¢Then faint afar are heard the fect of rushing steeds in gallop fleet,”” many other distinguished Authors refer to the same action by the same name, by which, or its equivalents, it is universally known in Europe. THE LEAP. There is little essential difference in general char- acteristics of either of the several movements that have been described, but with a number of experiments made with horses while leaping, no two were found to agree in the manner of execution. The leap of the same horse at the same rate of speed, with the same rider, over the same hurdle, disclosed much variation in the rise, clearance, and descent of the animal. A few phases were, however, invariable. - While the horse was raising his body to clear the hurdle, one hind foot was always in advance of the other, which ex- ercised its last energy alone. On the descent, the concussion was always first received by one fore foot, followed more or less rap- idly by the other, sometimes as much as 30 inches in advance of where the first one struck; the hind feet were also landed with intervals of time and distance. THE LEAP 43 No attempt will be made to analyze the consecutive phases of various other acts of Animal Locomotion, such as rearing, bucking, kicking, tossing, etc., on account of the irregularity which characterizes their execution, and the difficulty of obtaining reliable data. The Author has vainly sought for the rules which govern the hind feet of a playfully disposed mule; but the inquiry has usually been unsatisfactory, and upon some occasions disastrous. Should these movements be controlled by any general law, it is of such a com- plex nature that all attempts to expound it have hitherto been fruitless. The figures in the series of circles (see appendix A) were selected from ¢(¢ ANIMAL LOCOMOTION ’’ and arranged by the Author for his less ambitious work, ¢¢ POPULAR ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY.”’ (See Appendix C). They were traced by the well known artist, Erwin Faber, and are reproduced one-third the diameter of the circles arranged for the zoopraxiscope. Many of the original phases of movement are omitted on ac- count of the optical law which in the construction of a zoopraxiscope requires that the number of illustrations must bear a certain relationship to the number of perforations through which they are viewed. The popular number of thirteen having been selected for the latter, the same number of figures illustrate actions without lateral progressive motion. When the number of illustrated phases is less than the number of perforations, the succession of dd ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY phases is in the direction of the motion, and the disc is necessarily revolved in a reverse direction. When the number of phases is greater than the number of perforations, the phases succeed each other _ in a direction contrary to that of the motion, and the disc is revolved in the direction of the motion. An increased or diminished number of figures will respectively result in an increased or diminished apparent speed of the object. For further information on the subject, the reader is referred to the . ZOOPRAXISCOPE. APPENDIX A. SYLLABUS OF A COURSE OF TWO LECTURES ON ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY OR THE SCIENCE OF ANIMAL LOCOMOTION IN ITS RELA- TION TO DESIGN IN ART. Origin of the Author’s Investigations—Diagram of the Studio at the University of Pennsylvania where the Investigation was conducted—Batteries of Cameras, Electro-exposers, Contact-motor, Chronograph, and other apparatus used for photographing consecutive phases of animal movements—Method of obtaining successive ex- posures of moving objects synchronously from several different points of view— Normal Locomotion of Animals __Twelve consecutive phases of a single step of the Horse while walking; also of the Ox, Elk, Goat, Buffalo, and other cloven-footed animals; the Lion, Elephant, Camel, Dog, and other soft-footed animals; of the Sloth while suspended by its claws, and of the Child while crawling on the ground; of man walking erect—The Normal Method of Locomotion by all animals essentially the same—The Quadrupedal Walk as interpreted by Pre- historic Man, by the Egyptians, Assyrians, Pheenicians, Etruscans, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, and by eminent artists of medieval and of modern’ times—The Statue of Marcus Aurelius the great source of modern errors; Mar- cus Aurelius in London, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Dublin, Paris, Berlin, Amsterdam, New York, Boston, and many 1 2 THE ZOOPRAXISCOPE other cities—Albert Durer, Verrocchio, Meissonier, Paul Delaroche, Landseer, Rosa Bonheur, Elizabeth Thompson Butler, &c.—Other Quadrupedal movements, the Amble, Rack, Trot and Canter—Twelve phases in the Gallop of a Horse—Origin of the modern representation of the Gal- lop—Gallop as depicted by the Hittites, North American Indians, Egyptians, Assyrians, Greeks, the medi®val artists—The modern conventional gallop; evidences of its absurdity; acknowledgment by the Artist of the necessity of reformation—Leap of the Horse, Kick of the Mule, &c., all illustrated by photographs the size of life, from nature, and comparisons made with the interpretation of the same movements by artists of pre-historic, ancient, mediseval and modern times—Demonstration of the action of the primary feathers in the wing of a Bird while Fly- ing, and a solution of the complex problem of Soaring. AFTER THE VARIOUS METHODS OF LOCOMOTION HAVE BEEN DEMONSTRATED BY ANALYSIS, THEY WILL BE REPRESENTED SYN- THETICALLY BY THE ZOOPRAXISCOPE, ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY Among the many Institutions where Mr. Muybridge has had the honor of Lecturing on ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY are the following: — Royal Academy of Arts, London. Royal Society of London. Royal College of Surgeons, London, Royal Institution of Great Britain. Royal Dublin Society. Royal Geographical Society. Royal Institution, Hull. British Association for the Advancement of Science. Linnean Society, Zoological Society. Art and Science Schools, South Kensington Museum. London Institution, Glasgow Philosophical Society. Newcastle Literary and Philosophical Society. Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society. Town Hall, Birmingham; Nottingham Arts Society. Manchester Athengeum. University of Oxford. Eton College, Clifton College. Wellington College, Yorkshire College, Rugby School, Charterhouse. Leeds Mechanics’ Institute. Sheffield Literary and Philosophical Society. Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society. Warrington Literary and Philosophical Society. Yorkshire Philosophical Society, Bristol Naturalists’ Society. Bath Associated Scientific and Art Societies. Ipswich Scientific Society, Photographic Society of Ireland. Liverpool Associated Literary, Scientific and Art Societies. St. George's Hall, Liverpool. School of Military Engineering, Chatham. The School of Fine Arts; Hall of the Hemicycle, Paris. The Society of Artists, Berlin. The Society of Artists, Vienna. The Society of Artists, Munich. The Urania Scientific Society, Berlin. The Polytechnic High School, Vienna. The Polytechnic High School, Munich. The University of Turin. The *¢ Cercle de L’Union Artistique,” The Studio of M. Meis