SE # 5 ce : | Ea erie Ei SE Y fed ras Sie i Ha aE . - } PN Rd LAB DAILY Filmed & Processed by the Library Photographic Service University of California Berkeley 94720 | i | DATE __8 r-gu po i ec. mo th s of Y » Nn rasa he ® . . °o l un : Reduction Ratio he I vito : 8 EE use ng | ! —— omn ch o COT( rent is 8 he! oN oO hoe go A lS = 2 £5 1 he a — mm == = 2 pre dAaa 2 5 hac mm ~ ZZ that Sela daaaa43 = 5 s on | = 3 2 EE uly | — z m =i = Sl i 1g, « —_— — = 2 z h de Re to 1 0 a ans to at (LLEPPELLLPEELLLLLELLLLLUPLLE EETTTMELLL 14 , 15] A ATT mit rtm OCUMENT SOURCE: MAIN LIBRARY 45 .datory e for escend "Ishak makes ig \ { i of the sors, as p. 38. ™ THE MASTER NEGATIVE ,FROM WHICH THIS REPRODUCTION WAS MADE, IS STORED UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF THE LIBRARY PHOTOGRAPHIC SERVICE, ROOM 20, MAIN LIBRARY, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA 9 47 20 NECAT IVE NUMBER FOR ADDITIONAL REPRODUCTION REQUEST MASTER AUTHOR: al- Biruni TITLE: The chronology of ancient nations. -. PLACE : London DATE: [3 VOLUME 21 CALL MASTER NO. BS 1377 Nec. vo. Sk in hed a AAR CANARD Al se 4 to tu Ce Di Sy th tir bo Cl tre Kl ‘Ir act he thi be set his str 4 dif on hax bis whi ben latt fact hea toy hin him as a hi eag and pari par to ¢ AUTHOR: al- Biront TITLE: The chronology of ancient nations... PLACE: London DATE: [879 MICROFILMED 1982 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PHOTODUPLICATION SERVICE THE CHRONOLOGY OF »~ ANCIENT NATIONS AN ENGLISH VERSION OF THE ARABIC.TEXT OF THE ATHAR- v1- BAKIYA OF ARBIRUNI, OR “VESTIGES OF THE PAST,” | COLLECTED AND REDUCED TO WRITING BY THE AUTHOR i IN A.H. 390—1, A.p. 1000. TRANSLATED AND EDITED, WITH NOTES AND INDEX, BY De. C. EDWARD SACHAU i PROFESSOR IN THE ROYAL UNIVERSITY OF BERLIN. LONDON: il PUBLISHED FOR THE ORIENTAL TRANSLATION FUND OF GREAT BRITAIN & IRELAND AE i Br W. H. ALLEN & CO., 13 WATERLOO PLACE, PUBLISHERS TO THE INDIA OFFICE. 1879. 65703 PRINTED BY W. H. ALLEN AND CO, ERRATA. p. 383, delete the first two lines and insert— Sawdr. Perhaps identical with the Safepol of Byzantine authors, from whom Siberia derived its name. ’ p. 451, col. 2, last line, delete China, 266, 10. p. 452, col. 1, line 1, after Chinese insert 266, 10. p. 460, after line 42 insert— Poison-mountain (rarefied atmosphere), 263, 17. p. 462, col. 2, after line 18 insert— Tibetans, 263, 17. DIRECTION TO THE BINDER. Table of Kebi‘dth : . ‘ . to face p. 154. LATE PROFESSOR OF SANSKRIT IN THE UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. DEDICATED TO THE MEMBERS OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE ORIENTAL TRANSLATION FUND (1878). OSMOND pe BEAUVOIR PRIAULX. EDWARD THOMAS, F.R.S. JAMES FERGUSSON, F.R.S. REINHOLD ROST, LL.D., SECRETARY. AND TO THE MEMORY OF THEODOR GOLDSTUCKER, D.C.L., LATE PROFESSOR OF SANSKRIT IN THE UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. PREFACE. Ir was Sir Henry Rawlinson who first directed public attention to this work of Albirfini, in his celebrated article on Central Asia in the * Quarterly Review ” for 1866, in which he gave some valuable information derived from his own manuscript copy, now the property of the British Museum. In offering the book, both in text and trans- lation, to the learned world, I feel bound to premise that it’ is scarcely of a nature to attract the interest of the general reader. It appeals to minds trained in the schools of various sciences. Even competent scholars will find it no easy matter to follow our author through all the mazes of his elaborate scientific calculations. Containing, as 1t does, all the technical and historical details of the various systems for the computation of time, invented and used by the Persians, Sogdians, Chorasmians, Jews, Syrians, Harrdnians, and Arabs, together with Greek traditions, it offers an equal interest to all those who study the antiquity and history of the Zoroastrian and Jewish, Christian and Muhammadan religions. * The work of AlbirGini has the character of a primary source. Oriental philologists are accustomed to see one book soon superseded by another, Barhebraeus by Ibn-al’athir, Ibn-al’athir by Al-Tabari. Although it is likely enough * By Christians, I understand the Melkite and Nestorian Churches, whilst the author does not seem to have known much more of the Jacobites than the name. vi PREFACE. that on many subjects in this book we shall one day find better authenticated and more ancient information, I- venture to say, that, as a whole, it will scarcely ever be superseded. It is a standard work in Oriental literature, and has been recognised as such by the Hast itself, repre- senting in its peculiar line the highest development of Oriental scholarship. Perhaps we shall one day find the literary sources themselves from which Albir(ini derived his information, and shall be enabled to dispense with his extracts from them. But there are other chapters, e.g. those on the calendars of the ancient inhabitants of Central Asia, regarding which we shall, in all likelihood, never find any more ancient information, because the author had learned the subject from hearsay among a population which was then on the eve of dying out. As the first editor and translator of a book of this kind, I venture to claim the indulgence of the reader. Generations of scholars have toiled to carry the understanding of Herodotus to that point where it is now, and how much is wanting still ! The work of generations will be required to do full justice to Albirtini. A classical philologist can edit a Greek text in a correct form, even though he may have no complete understanding of the subject-matter in all possible relations. Not so an Arabic philologist. The ambiguity of the Arabic writing—proh dolor I—is the reason why a manuscript expresses only three-quarters of the author’s meaning, whilst the editor is compelled to supply the fourth quarter from his own knowledge and discernment. No number in any chronological table can be considered correct, as long as it is not proved by computation to be so, and even in the simplest historical narrative the editor and translator may most lamentably go astray in his interpretation, if there is something wrong with the method of his research. PREFACE. vil I have boldly attacked the sometimes rather enigmatic | style of the author, and if I have missed the mark, if the bewildering variety and multiplicity of the subject-matter have prevented me reaching the very bottom of every question, I must do what more or less every Oriental author does at the end of his work,—humbly ask the gentle reader to pardon my error and to correct it. I. The Author. The full name of the author is Abi- Raihdn Muhammad b. *Ahmad Albirimi. He quotes himself as Abi-Raihdn (vide p. 134, 1. 29), und so he is generally called in Eastern literature, more rarely Albirini. The latter name means, literally, extraneous, being a derivative from the Persian 49s Which means the outside as a noun, and outside as a preposition. In our time the word is pronounced Birdn (or Beeroon), e.g. in Teheran, but the vowel of the first syllable is a ydi-majhdil, which means that in more ancient times it was pronounced Bérin (or Bayroon). This statement rests on the authority of the Persian lexicographers. That the name was pronounced in this way in Central Asia about the author’s time, we learn from an indisputable statement regarding our author from the pen of Alsam‘éni, a philologist and biographer of high repute, who wrote only one hundred years after the author's death (vide Introduction to my edition of the text, p. Xviil.). He was a native of Khwérizm, or Chorasmia, the modern Khiva; to speak more accurately, a native either of a suburb (Bérim) of the capital of the country, both of which bore the same name Khwdrizm, or of the country-district (also called Bérdn) belonging to the capital. Albirtnt was born A.H. 362, 8. Dho-alhijja (a.0. 973, viii PREFACE. 4th September), and died a.H. 440, 2. Rajab (a.n. 1048, 11th December), aged seventy-five years. The first part of his life he seems to have spent in Khwarizm, where he enjoyed the protection of the House of Ma’min, the rulers of the country. Originally vassals of the kings of Central Asia of the House of Sdmdn, they became independent when the star of their masters began to sink, i.e. between A.H. 384-390. They were, however, not to play a great part in the history of the East, for so early as A.H. 407 their power was crushed by the great Mahm{d of Ghazna, and their dominions annexed to his empire. Like Albir(ini, other scholars also of high standing received protection and favours at the court of the Ma'mfni princes. : The author is known to have lived some years also in Jurjan, or Hyrcania, on the southern shores of the Caspian sea, under the protection, and perhaps at the court, of Kablis ben Washmgir Shams-alma‘dli, who ruled over Hyrcania and the adjoining countries at two different periods, A.H. 366-371 and 388-403. To this prince he has dedicated the present book, apparently about a.m. 390-391, (A.p. 1000). During the years A.H. 400-407 he stayed again in his native country at the court of Ma’mfin b. Ma’'m{in, as his friend and counsellor. He was a witness of the rebellion that broke out A.H. 407, of the murder of Ma’mfin, and of the conquest of the country by Mahmtd of Ghazna, who, on returning, carried off him and other scholars to Afghan- istan in the spring of a.m. 408. Among his numerous works, we find mentioned a “Chronicle of Khwarizm,” in which he probably had re- corded all the traditions relating to the antiquity of his native country, and more especially the history of those events of PREFACE. ; ix which he had himself been a witness. This work seems to be lost. However, an extract of it has come down to us as the last part of the.great chronicle of the royal house of Mahmfid, composed by Albaihaki, the edition of which we owe to the industry and learning of the late W. H. Morley (““ Bibliotheca Indica,” Calcutta, 1862, pp. 834, &c.). With a.m. 408 begins a new period in the author’s life, when he enlarged the circle of his researches on mathe- matics, astronomy, geography, chronology, and natural sciences by his study of India, its geography and history, of the language and literature, manners and customs, of the Hindis. It was the period when he gathered all those materials which he deposited towards the end of his life in his famous ¢ Memoir on India.” After Albirtni had settled in Ghazna, he paid at least one more visit to his native country. He died, probably, at Ghazna. Whether he travelled much in other countries besides India, I have no means of proving. From the present book we can only infer that, besides his native country and Hyrcania, he also knew parts of Media, e.g. Rai (Rhaga). II. His Work. Albirtni calls his work Aldthdr Albikiya ‘an-il-Kdran Alkhaliya, i.e. monuments or vestiges of generations of the past that have been preserved up to the author’s time, meaning by monuments or vestiges the religious institutes of various nations and sects, founded in more ancient times, and, more or less, still practised and adhered to by the Oriental world about A.n. 1000. With admirable industry the author gathers whatever traditions he can find on every single fact, he confronts them with each other, and inquires with critical acumen XxX PREFACE. into the special merits or demerits of each single tradition. Mathematical accuracy is his last gauge, and wherever the nature of a tradition admits of such a gauge, he is sure to verify it by the help of careful mathematical calculation. To speak in general, there is much of the modern spirit and method of critical research in our author, and in this respect he is a phenomenon in the history of Eastern learning and literature. Authors of the first centuries of the Hijra sometimes betray a great deal of common sense and good method, sometimes also unmistakable traces of a marked individuality, whilst the later centuries are characterised by the very opposite. Then the author entirely disappears behind his book ; all literary work sinks down to the level of imbecile compilation from good and bad sources ; the understanding of the life and literature of the preceding centuries becomes rare and distorted. Common sense has gone never to return, and very seldom do we meet with a trace of scientific method or of the individuality of the author. The fourth century is the turning-point in the history of the spirit of Islam, and the establishment of the orthodox faith about 500 sealed the fate of independent research for ever. But for Alash‘ari and Alghazzali the Arabs might have been a nation of Galileos, Keplers, and Newtons. Originally I intended to give a complete exposé of the sources whence Albirlini has drawn his manifold informa- tion, but the material hitherto available for researches on the literary history of the east is still so scanty that I had to desist from my plan. This applies in particular to the east of the Khalifate, to Khurisin. We are com- paratively well informed regarding the literature of Mesopotamia, Syria, Egypt, and the farther west of Islam, whilst we have very little information regarding the scien- PREFACE. X1 tific and literary life east of Bagdad as it developed itself during the first three centuries of Abbaside rule, under the protection of the imperial governors and the later inde- pendent princes, e.g. the House of Samén. It is to be hoped that Central Asia and Afghanistan, when once in the grasp of European influence, will yield us rich collections of valuable literary monuments. Hitherto manuscripts coming from those countries are seldom met with in the great libraries of Europe. As for the written material which the author had at his disposal, he quotes many a book of which I elsewhere can scarcely find a trace. All the books, e.g. on Persian and Zoroastrian history and traditions, composed in early times, not only by Zoroastrians but also by Muslims, converts from the Zoroastrian creed, are altogether un- known in Europe; and it seems very probable that the bigoted people of later times have spared very little of this kind of literature, which to them had the intolerable smell of filthy idolatry. As regards Persian history, Albir(ini had an excellent predecessor in Alisfahdni, whom he follows frequently, and whom he was not able to surpass in many points. From oral information Albirini seems to have learned all he knows of the chronology and calendar of the Zoroastrian populations of Persia, of his native country, and of Sogdiana (or Bukhérd). In his time the majority of the country-people still adhered to Ahuramazda, and in most towns there must still have been Zoroastrian commu- nities, so that Albirlini did not lack the opportunity for studying the manners and institutes of the then existing followers of Zoroaster. Unfortunately, the Zoroastrian creed had lost its clerical and political unity and constitu- tion. The people practised their customs as they had seen A OA A J B —— f 5 a a —— p——— ——— -— of rR, Gh SEA — ~~ xii PREFACE. their parents do, but they had no longer a correct under- standing of their origin and meaning. Certainly a Mobe- dan-Mobed of the time of Ardashir BAbekan would have been able to give a more accurate and complete account of Zoroastrian life and religion ; but still we must be thankful to Albirini for his having preserved to posterity the festal calendars as used by Zoroastrians of his time when their religion was on the eve of dying out. To oral information I ascribe also the author’s admirable knowledge of the Jewish calendar. Jewish scholars will be able to say whether his informants were Ananites (Karaites) or Rabbanites. My critics do not seem to have noticed that Albirtinl, a Muslim, is the first of all the scholars we know who has composed a scientific system of the Jewish chronology. He is much anterior to Moses Maimonides, also to Abraham bar Chiyya, being a contem- porary of R. Sherirf and HA G4dn, who seem to play a prominent part in the history of Jewish chronology. With Nestorian Christians he must have been acquainted, as he speaks of the Nestorian communities of his native country. His report of the Melkite feasts, &c., may have been communicated to him by Nestorian priests from Syriac sources. Albirtini wrote both in Arabic and Persian, as he has edited his ““ Kitab-altafhim ** in both languages. There is a possibility of his having had a smattering of Hebrew and Syriac (vide pp. 18, 19), but of Greek he seems to have been ignorant, and whatever he relates on the authority of Greek authors—Ptolemy, Galen, Eusebius, &c.—must have been communicated to him by the ordinary channel of Syriac-Arabic translation. His study of Sanskrit falls into the latter half of his life. From occasional notes in the book a description of the he Bh a a PREFACE. X111 author’s character may be gleaned. He seems to have been a truth-loving man, attacking all kinds of shams with bitter sarcasms. He was not without a humoristic vein, and his occasional ironical remarks offer a curious contrast to the pervading earnestness of the tenor of his speech. As a Muslim he inclined towards the Shi‘a, but he was not a bigoted Muslim. He betrays a strong aversion to the Arabs, the destroyers of Sasanian glory, and a ‘marked predilection for all that is of Persian or Eranian nationality. Muslim orthodoxy had not yet become so powerful as to imperil the life of a man, be he Muslim or net, who mol study other religions and publicly declare mm Saou 0 them. Dakiki, a poet not long anterior to Albir(ini, a favourite of the Muslim house of Simin, was allowed to sing— “Of all that is good and bad in the world, Dakiki has chosen four things to himself : A woman’s lips as red as rubies, the melody of the hte, The blood-coloured wine, and the religion of Zoroaster. Not long afterwards, at the court of the great Mahmid of Ghazna, these verses would probably have proved fatal heir author. : i a sua fata libelli, and I may add, the fate of this book, from the time of its composition till the time when I began to study it, has not been a fortunate one, Ouly a few were able to understand it, few had an interest In ing it copied. gS a in which I offer the book to the reader it is not complete. Many most essential parts, both large and small, are missing, e.g. the chapter on Zoroaster, 8 most deplorable loss, arising probably from Must bigotry. However, I should think it does not require an apology from-me to have edited the book in this mutilated form in X1v PREFAOE. which I have found it in the manuscripts. Should the favour of time bring to light one day a complete copy, I shall be happy if circumstances will allow me at once edit the hitherto missing parts in text and translation. The basis of my edition consists of two manuscripts of the seventeenth and one of the nineteenth century, all full of faults, and—what is worse !—agreeing with each other almost in every particular. In fact, all three copies repre- sont one and the same original. Fortunately a chronolo- gical work offers this advantage, that in many cases mathematical examination enables the editor to correct the blunders of the tradition, e.g. in the numerous tables. My notes are in the first place intended to give the calcu- lations on which the tables rest. Besides, they ccntain contributions to the explications of certain difficult passages short information on points of literary history, and Justly, a few remarks on the text and corrections. : : For all other introductory questions I refer the reader to the German preface to my edition of the text. In offering my translation to the English reader, I desire to thank my friend, the Rev. Robert Gwynne, Vicar of St. Mary’s, Soho, London, who not only corrected the whole manuscript, but also read the proof-sheets of the entire book. EDWARD SACHAU. Berlin, 24th May, 1879. CONTENTS. an GO JE —— TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE - - - PREFACE - . - . OmaprEr I.—On the Nature of Day and Night, of their Totalily and of their Beginnings - . . . . CraprEr I1.—On the Nature of that which is composed of Days, viz. Months and Years . - «nti . Cmaprer ITL—On the Nature of the Eras and the different Opinions of the Nations regarding them - . - Craprer IV.—The different Opinions of various Nations re- garding the King called Dhi-al-karnaini or Bicornutus ~~ - CmaprEr V.—On the Nature of the Months which are used in the preceding Eras - - - - - - CmaprEr VIL—On the Derivation of the Eras from each other, and on the Chronological Dates, relating to the Commence- ments and the Durations of the Reigns of the Kings, according to the various Traditions - - > Cmaprer VIL—On the Cycles and Year-points, on the Méléds of the Years and Months, on their various Qualities, and on the Leap-months both in Jewish and other Years - . Cmaptex VIIL—On the Eras of the Pseudo-prophets and their Communities who were deluded by them, the curse of the Lord be upon them . yl - . . CmapTER IX.—On the Festivals in the Months of the Persians - CmapTER X.—On the Festivals in the Months of the Sughdians - CuaprEr XI.—On the Festivals in the Months of the Khwariz- mians - - - CONTENTS. CeAPTER XIL.—On Khwirizm-Shah’s Reform of the Khwarizm- ian Festal Calendar - - - » - ‘ CuAaPTER XIII.—On the Days of the Greek Calendar as known both among the Greeks and other Nations - - > CHaprER XIV.—Of the Festivals and Fast-days in the Months of the Jews - - . . . “i CrAPTER XV.—On the Festivals and Memorable Days of the Syrian Calendar, celebrated by the Melkite Christians - CraprER XVI.—On the Christian Lent, and on those Feasts and Festive Days which depend upon Lent and revolve parallel with it through the Year, regarding which all Christian sects agree among each other - - - - CHAPTER XVIL—On the Festivals of the Nestorian Christians, their Memorial and Fast Days - al - CrAPTER XVIIL.—On the Feasts of the ancient Magians, and on the Fast and Feast Days of the Sabians - - - CrarrER XIX.—On the Festivals of the Arabs in the time of Heathendom . - . - - CrAPTER XX.—On the Festivals of the Muslims - - CraPrER XXI.—On the Lunar Stations, their rising and setting, and on their Images - - - . ANNOTATIONS - . - INDEX - - “ . 449 aE TN pa . 7 Foi ©) , § r - 7 : . ~ » § wry Vv E | 2 Wa a a * ox Rly : end of fasting he does not describe in a oy rae rise of dawn; but the ] 3 Tir Eo at He on s night around id and he wra : day To i a; “agli,” because avery poly a I 1 13 10 around wight” (Stra xxxix. mn on if they oh know re or God. b n the globe of the sun disappears. Hence it is evi ans E pretend not to know it, at all events they cannot help admitting that i y i words of the first sentence (i.e. eat and dri k Sk Gin 4 the first half of the day is six hours long and likewise the latter half stinou . «©. n 1 i y : does a hn isan from a black thread at the light of ye r " Against this they cannot pretend to be blind, because of the well known A turthor oe ® nay of day. ); : and well authenticated tradition which relates to the prerogatives of God (Sir “via 0 10 correctness of our interpretation is the word of 1 those who hasten to the mosque on a Friday, and which shows that 8, vightiof ts ) : “It has been declared as lawful to you durin “ i their wages are the highest, although their time of work in the six hours oar wives” ng to have intercourse (lt. to speak obscene thi gus 2 from the beginning of the day till the time of the decline of the sun is y a the passage, “ Thereupon fast the entire hs i 1 the shortest. This is to be understood of the Hore temporales oblique 3 eby he extends the right of having in . © : (Span ka wai), not of the Hore recte, which are also called equinoctiales wife, and of eating and drinking, over ng intercourse with one’s 20 4 20 un g ie entire night. Likewise it od an haan 9k 0¥er i re i) comply with their wish, and acknowledge their this vers en to Muslim p : : time ha om revealed, to eat and drink after Rgore ] assertions as truth, we should have to believe that an equinox takes reckon their 4 ness of night commences). And still end A $ 8 place when the sun moves on either side of the winter solstice (i.e. near A ha ing by days and parts of the night, but simply by d 0 8 to the point of the winter-solstice either arriving there or leaving it) ; “a Rg of yi was much longer than the day) gay g that this takes place only in some parts of the earth to the exclusion of ) say that God, i : 2s : . y is . tok Tinkiod the Degieaing et as verse (Stra ii. 183), wanted to 1 others ; i en 18 a he that before that moment they were or : os necessanily follow ; BN Ns gg iy ens of these nece i is Surly absurd. of the begining of dayand 30 from Bs theory is the oe nton generally accepted even this nll 2 say the legal day is different from the natural d 3 : have only a slight insight into the matter. That, however, similar ata a ut a difference in words, and the calling somethin ps : absurdities must follow out of their reasoning he only will thoroughly oe Fo ue Jeong to the usage of the language, means ow comprehend who is to some degree acquainted with the motions of the . And, es, it must be considered lestial) glob mention in the verse of the day and or a on 1s not the slightest oo Sl stick to what people say at dawn rise, “ morning has ever, aloof Wn : : gmning. We ke . : Sor wi of from pertinacious disputation on this subject 0 how come, night has gone;” what is he to think of what they say when the sun willing to agree with our opponents as to the e jet, and we ave © is near setting, and becomes yellow—* evening has come, day has gone ‘ X i . ng, ) eee ’ ’ fu 5 ging the subject-matter. Provsions 1 they will night has come?” Such expressions merely indicate the approaching, Emin 2 we believe a thing the contrary of which is evident t the advancing, and the receding of the precise time in which people just i. By or evening-twilight in the west corresponds to morni P 40 happen to be. These phrases are to be explained as metaphors and au “iy Set ; both arise from the same cause, and are of ag 9 metonymics. They are allowed in the usage of the language, cf. e.g. the ft oo qe one ore, the rise of morning-dawn were the iia word of God (Stra xvi. 1): “The order of God has come; therefore do ’ appearance of evening-twiligh ; not hurry it.” actually some Shii g ight would be its end. And yh ; Let 4 take yp Selpsinn to adopt such a doctrine Rh Another argument in 2 : ou : at those who do not agree with us TA hale OR day is silent.” to the summer day, and that midst between his rising and ssary inferences by those who favour of our view is the following saying, t, to whom and to whose family may And the fact that 10 ALBERONS, a he noon-prayer the “first” prayer, because it is the first of onidnd og pe lis ghey ssl dusfiisnirnset ine “middle” RYely “1t 18 1n the midst, bet : praT in the first of the prayers of in indtewm fully oi A Sa 2 a J have discussed in this place is to refute the re rl : who think that those things which are necessary f is toe Hy ical or physical causes prove the contrary of that “F 4 y the Coran, and who try to support their opinion by the doctrine of one of the 1 awye helps to the right insight! yers and commentators of the Coran. God E 0 Eo 1 i a a 1 ia al he be. i Lae . fs 3 i +58 to : 3 43 a ay by J A] i de i H . x 10 CHAPTER IL ON THE NATURE OF THAT WHICH IS COMPOSED OF DAYS, VvIZ., MONTHS AND YEARS. I say: Year means one revolution of the sun in the ecliptic, moving in a direction opposite to that of the universal motion, and returning to the same point which has been assumed as the starting-point of his motion, whichsoever point this may be. In this way the sun includes in his course the four seasons, spring, summer, autumn, winter, and their four different natures ; and returns always to the point whence he commenced. According to Ptolemy these revolutions are equal, because he did not find that the apogee of the sun moves; whilst they are unequal according to the authors of Qindhind and the modern astronomers, because their observations led them to think that the apogee of the sun moves. In each case, however, whether they be equal or different, these revolutions include the four seasons and their natures. As to the length of such a revolution in days and fractions of a day, the results of the astronomical observations do not agree, but differ considerably. According to some observations it is larger ; according to others less. However, in a short space of time this difference scarcely 90 becomes perceptible ; but in the long run of time, when this difference is being redoubled and multiplied many times, and is then summed up into a whole, a very great error becomes clearly manifest, on account of which the sages have strongly recommended us to continue making observations, and to guard against errors which possibly might have entered into them. The difference of the observations regarding the length of one annual revolution of the sun does not arise from this cause, that people do not know how properly to institute such observations, and to gain thereby an accurate knowledge of the real state of the thing; but from this 30 cause, that it is impossible to fix the parts of the greatest circle by erates vee aaibd dl he 12 3 A ON THE NATURE OF MONTHS AND YEARS. 13 means of the parts of the 11 i q smallest circle. I refer to the smallness of a solar year the length of 365; days and 1 hour), had summed up to ey added the complete month to the year in each 116th the i . : 3 fi Sasiponenss % patie Bb comparison with the vastness of the | dav: then th e observed. On this subj : i one day ; then book, called Kitdb-alistishhdd bikhtilif-alarsd eet I have enlarged in my year. This was done for a reason which I shall explain hereafter. During this time, 4.e. during one revolution of the : aids The example of the Persians was followed by the ancient inhabitants the moon completes a little less than 12% revol oa Ps eslistie, of Khwérizm and Sogdiana, and by all who had the same religion as the lunations. This space of time, i.e. the 12 of re Bam and has 12 Persians, who were subject to them, and were considered as their the ecliptic, is, technically, the lunar year, in in Suns of the moon in Kinsmen, during the time when their empire flourished. the 12 revolutions), which is nearly 11 Ae 5: 48 a the fraction (beyond I have heard that the Péshdadian kings of the Persians, those who fact, further, is the reason why the to Wis I hol, The same ruled over the entire world, reckoned the year as 360 days, and each parts, as I have explained in my book on the eed A i Ram» 10 month as 30 days, without any addition and subtraction; that they lights ; the same which I had the honour to pr 8 gi and intercalated one month in every sixth year, which they called “intercalary Mey God increase his majesty ! present vo HisHighivers. month,” and two months in every 120th year; the one on account of n consequence, people distinguish two kind the five days (the Epagomense), the other on account of the quarter of a and the Lunar year. They have not used an a Star yur day ; that they held this year in high honour, and called it the «blessed deriving years from them, because their i 2 ths purpose of year,” and that in it they occupied themselves with the affairs of divine hidden, and can hardly ever be found EE comparatively worship and matters of public interest. astronomical observations and experiments. Brn Dupin The character of the system of the ancient Egyptians, according to sun and moon for this purpose), because the changes of id used only what the Almagest relates regarding the years on which its own system of the elements and their mutual metamorphoses a : be Piet computation was based, and of the systems of the Persians in Islam, and state of the air, plants and animals, etc., are Sideered Re oo. anf the 20 90 the people of Khwarizm and Sogdiana, is their aversion to the fractions, upon the motions of these two celestial bodies, Decrass is oa i.e, the 1 day and what follows it, and their neglecting them altogether. greatest of all, and because they excel the other stars by their light and Ths LiuuSolae Youn The Bibs Fenn an st 86 Rmacites Seaman and because they resemble each other. Afterward : the SAbians, and Harrénians, used an intermediate system. They erived from these two kinds of years other years Bpesple d their year from the revolution of the sun, and its months from The Solar Year.—According to the statement of Theon, in his C peeyilh this vow, Shep thet ag and as the people of Constantinople, and of Alexandrie -nd tr dogs Tg repiie] Ty tunes sompriation, sol Si 1 sams ns derive the revolution of the moo keep their places with’ the year. Therefore they intercalated 7 months all explain hereafter in the derivation of their the Syrians and Chaldeans, th i , the Egyptians of ti We have adopted the Mgr Sm ime, and those who 8 i which consists of ER 2 ny the solar year, 8 RE rom kinds of their years i y reckon their ye 4 et : : . ; days, and add the quarters of a day in every fourth a Fear a8 Ses 50 § 30 The Christians agreed with them in the mode of the computation of day, when it has summed up thereto. This year th oy Som ples i their fasting and of some of their festivals, the cardinal point in all this year, because the quarters are intercalated ass ii = ha fateren lary i being the Passover of the Jews ; but they differed from them in the use of tians followed the same practice, but with thi ahs asasnt Bagp. the months, wherein they followed the system of the Greeks and Syrians. neglected the quarters of a day till they oe : is difference, that they In a similar way the heathen Arabs proceeded, observing the of days of one complete year, which took Te ae wp Bos umber difference between their year and the solar year, which is 10 days intercalated one year, and agreed with the : 1 0 yous; then they 211 hours, to speak roughly, and adding it to the year as one month Constantinople as to the beginning of the to Deon gt Alesandris and as soon as it completed the number of days of a month. They, however, rola : ® year. So Theon Alesandrinne § reckoned this difference as 10 days and 20 hours. This business was e Persians followed the same rule as long as thei : | administered by the Nasa’a (the intercalators) of the tribe of Kinéna, . is they treated it differently. For they reckoned n= lasted; 40 known as the Kaldmis, a plural form of Kalammas. which signifies a . ed A the following fractions until the en wi full-flowing sea. These were ’Abét Thuméma and his ancestors: Tian p ig e course of 120 years to the number of days of one 1 "Abd Tesmame Junida ben plete month, and until the fifth parts of an hour, which, according | di *Umayya ben to thet oe o their opinion, follow the fourth parts of a day (i.e. they give the Kala‘ ben p- 12. ALBIRONI. V. ‘Abbad ben Kala‘ ben VIL Hudhaifa. They were all of them i office was— em intercalators. VIL Hudhaifa ben ‘Abd ben Fukaim ben ‘Adiyy ben ‘Amir ben Tha‘laba ben Malik ben XIV. Kinéna. The last of them, who held it, was 'Abt-Thuma celebrates them, describes him in the following inl : “ Jan is Fukaim! He was called Alkalammas 3a he was one of the founders of their rdligion is word being obeyed, he being recognised as a chielh in.” And another poet says: id The first of them who held this X. The poet, who “ (He was) famous amon i g the forerunners of Kina A celebrated man, of exalted rank. ii In this way he spent his time.” Another poet says: “ The difference betwe en the revolution of th He adds together and sums it up, SR) avant Till it makes out a complete month.” He (i.e. i i So Geo Bailar had taken this system of intercalation from the Joke en ? 2 Jorn before Islam ; the Jews, however, intercalated Pain 2 a eats In consequence their months were fixed RE y 9} a : eir proper times, wandering in a sulborn course state of hE ya I i Je SY Stade ophet made his Farewell pilgri ie bolle Soe was revealed to him: Er ge oe Resoars og ity, by which the infidels lead astray (people) i le goat and prohibiting it in another.” (Stra ix. 37.) Dis People « Sivas an address to the people, and said: “Time hos 0 Se as on Se day of God’s creating the heavens and the en She ” iy e recited to them the (just mentioned) verse 5 Le Com oom ne of the Nas? i.e. intercalation. Ever ae Ny bi ep, so that their months have longer in conformity with [ose fs a Sra er ON THE NATURE OF MONTHS AND YEARS. 15 their opinions on this subject are well known. As to the other nations, They are likely to have no other systems besides those we have men- tioned, and each nation seems to follow the example of the system of their neighbours. Years of the Indians.—I have heard that the Indians use the appearance of new-moon in their months, that they intercalate one lunar beginning of their era month in every 976 days, and that they fix the to the moment when a conjunction takes place in the first minute of any p. 13. zodiacal sign. The chief object of their searching is that this con- junction should take place in one of the two equinoctial points. The leap-year they call Adhimdsa. It is very possible that this is really the case; because, of all stars, they use specially the moon, her mansions and their subdivisions, in their astrological determinations, and not the zodiacal signs. However, I have not met with anybody who had an accurate knowledge of this subject ; therefore I turn away from what And God is my help! I cannot know for certain. » Abi-Muhammad Alnd’ib Alamuli relates in his the authority of Ya kinds of spaces of time: 1. One revolution of the sun, starting from a point of the ecliptic and returning to it. This is the solar year. II. 360 risings of the sun. This is called the middle-year, because it is longer than the lunar year and shorter than the solar year. III. 12 revolutions of the moon, starting from the star Alsharatin (i.e. the head of Aries) and returning to it. This is their lunar year, which consists of 327 days and nearly 7% hours. IV. 12 lunations. which they use. Kitdb-alghurra, on ‘kth ben Tarik, that the Indians use four different This is the lunar year, ALBIRONE. ! ON THE NATURE OF THE ERAS. 17 keeping it in memory, and of fixing it (so as to preserve it from con- fusion). God says: © Have they not got the stories about those who were before them? None but God knows them.” (Stra ix. 71.) There- fore it is becoming not to admit any account of a similar subject, if it is not attested by a book, the correctness of which is relied upon, or by a tradition, for which the conditions of authenticity, according to the prevalent opinion, furnish grounds of proof. If we now first consider this era, we find a considerable divergence of opinion regarding it among these nations. For the Persians and 10 Magians think that the duration of the world is 12,000 years, corre- sponding to the number of the signs of the zodiac and of the months ; i and that Zoroaster, the founder of their law, thought that of those there CH APTER 111 (4 had passed, till the time of his appearance, 3,000 years, intercalated : with the day-quarters ; for he himself had made their computation, and 0 had taken into account that defect, which had accrued to them on N THE NATURE OF = aa AND THE DIFFERENT OPINIONS OF THE account of the day-quarters, till the time when they were intercalated TONS BROABDING THEM, and were made to agree with real time. From his appearance till the Era m ; : beginning of the Ara Alexandri, they count 258 years; therefore they some Ey ee - Iota from the beginning of count from the beginning of the world till Alexander 3,258 years. with a proof of his divine listo ? a ! agit signs and wonders, and 1 90 However, if we compute the years from the creation of Gaybmarth, whom king rose, or in which a nation perichiod 2 or a great and powerful they hold to be the first man, and sum up the years of the reign of each dengs, or Ty u ident sarihonake wd of sem destructive of his successors—for the rule (of Iran) remained with his descendants sweeping pestilence, or by intense drought ins 0 Hy earth, or a without interruption—this number 1s, for the time till Alexander, the dynasty or religion took place, or any oo 1 " 2 wr a 3 change of sum total of 3,354 years. So the specification of the single items of the the famous tellurian miraculous Sal EeRcey hich a fuieyinisat 10 | nAditionidoes nok Ages wiih pga taal at long intervals and at times far distant Fi igh vo Rob happen save Further, the Persians and Greeks disagree as to the time after events the fixed moments of time (the epoch i 53h other. By such Alexander. For they count from Alexander till the beginning of the such an era cannot be dispensed with y : ate Joppa Now, reign of Yazdajird 942 years 257 days. If we deduct therefrom the affairs. Bach of the nations seattered over ih pm ar and religious duration of the rule of the Sasaman kings as far as the beginning of world has a special era, which they count from e erent parts of the | 30 the reign of Yazdajird, as they compute it, viz., nearly 415 years, we or prophets, or dynasties, or of some of those e > Be of their kings get a remainder of 528 years as the time during which Alexander and now mentioned. And thence they derive the ren 5 Ro we have Just ! the Mulik-al-tawd’ if reigned. But if we sum up the years of the reign social intercourse, in chronology, and in ever By oe ich they want In \ of each of the Ashkanian kings, as they have settled it, we get only the which is exclusively peculiar to tl ae y institute (i.e. festivals) ( sum of 280 years, or,—taking 1mto regard their difference of opinion as to Era of the Creation.—The first and most famous of th at 20 the length of the reign of each of them,—the sum of not more than 300 of antiquity is the fact of the creation of ay - the beginnings years. This difference 1 shall hereafter try to settle to some extent. who have a book of divine revelation, such a ih pe among those A section of the Persians is of opinion that those past 3,000 years Magians, and their various sects Choke oa L ews, Christians, which we have mentioned are to be counted from the creation of opinion as to the nature of this fark ad aso th Sue 2 difference of Gayomarth ; because, before that, already 6,000 years had elapsed—a p. 14. from it, the like of which is not vale : e question how to date 40 time during which the celestial globe stood motionless, the natures (of knowledge of which is connected with the = eras. Every thing, the created beings) did not interchange, the elements did not mix—during with the history of bygone generations, is Ea a creation and which there was no growth, and no decay, and the earth was not cultivated. and myths, because it belongs to a tar remot up with falsifications Thereupon, when the celestial globe was set a-going, the first man came interval separates us therefrom, and b ote age; because a long | into existence on the equator, so that part of him in longitudinal , and because the student is incapable of 30 direction was on the north, and part south of the line. The animals 2 uid EE, eam RRS EE ot BR an EE =n i i Hy { il i hi i i EER 18 ALBIRONI. i j ON THE NATURE OF THE ERAS. 19 were produced, and mankind commen id ced to reproduce thei : and 1 p ce their own spec : : ay the Gi of the elements mixed, so as to give 1 informed him that the rule should always remain with his sons till the ecay ; e earth was cultivated time of the coming of him to whom the rule belongs. Soi th d ho . : i , and the world : ! g gs. So in these words Rag yp fixed norms. Yas he told him that the rule should remain with his descendants until the ott s an Christians differ widely on this subject ; for, accordi appearance of the expected Messiah. And now the Jews add that this oy the Jams: the time between Adam all FA : 18 0 the case ; that the rule has not been taken from them. For the ’ , whilst, according to the Christian doctrine, it i NY WR « the head of th xiles” who had b banished "ho Christinns vs J octrine, it is 5,180 years. DRY i.e. e head © e exiles” who had been anishe Serr tn oa ay a. having diminished the number of from their homes 1m J erusalem, is the master of every Jew in the world ; Soavih pillar ju ite wi : e appearance of Jesus fall into the the ruler whom they obey 1n all countries, whose order is carried out mi . : ; : according to their view, the me hs de wo bi millennia, which are, 10 unser mosh citenmutanies. ‘ . ‘ 1 : to coincide with that dime at which San ot toward Sousa 3 eo RA ot ON go sn loop . : : s the prophets after M 3, which mean ¢ Jesus, the Messiah, the greatest re eemer.” om- rophesied, th : prop after Moses had g on sh i) tos Jesus from a pure virgin at the end of time puting the value of the letters of these words, they get the sum of 1,335. im r i He parties depend, in their bringing forward of Now, they think that it was these words which Daniel meant to indicate rn Stes She Pin sat do TL i . e coming of the Messiah of his words they are no ing but numbers, Wi out any indication was promised g essiah who pec a " Be an at the end of 1,335 years after Alexander, ex- whether they mean years, OF days, or something else. Tt is a prophecy ¢ : ething which they know for certain. Inc indicative of the name of the Messiah, not of the time of his coming. of which many of the pseudo h ¥ onsequence : ‘ Ah Teh AListulvind. snd oth ~prop ets of their sects, as e.g. Al-ra4, Further, they relate that Daniel once dreamt in Babylonia, Some years ) ers, claimed to be his messengers to them. 20 id a " Se > i on s the i. nth, when he had praye o God, and when the sraelites were the This expectati pectation was based on the assumption that the beginning of 20 mo oners of the Persians. Then God revealed to him’ the following this era (Ara Al i inci : eco Spe ain coincided with the time when the sacrifices pris , when no more divine revelation was received, and no (Dan. ix. 24-26) : «Urishlim, i.e. Jerusalem, will be rebuilt 70 Sibi, more prophet : prophets were sent. Then they referred to the Hebrew word of and will remain in the possession of thy people. Then the Messiah will 1 come, but he will be Killed. And in consequence of his coming God in the 5th : So fahines: Lag iTlim (Deut. xxxi. 18), YNDN NDT IN e, but 1 ; quer : min fotng HH thst Sy” ’ > Sa means: “I, God, shall conceal my "Urishlim will undergo its last destruction, and it will remain a ruin till DAE ey. ~ they courted the letters of the words the end of time.” The word Sabi (Hebrew PIO) means a Septennium. This they ne Rog or concealing,” which gives the sum of 1,335. Now, of the whole time (indicated In this passage) seven Septenmia refer Yor shnee tocdied ol oe time during which no inspiration from to the rebuilding of Jerusalem, which tae is also mentioned in the by God’s concealing vl is i aholished) which ig meant 20 | pi i So lin B ’ Sun synonymous with © oy Ye ¢ wird being” (SV\S=wyp) is here 30 behe an estick wi seyen amps | ASTE0R, and with seven pipes 0 aay (or “order, command”). In ord each lamp.” And before this he says (iv. 9): “The hands of Zerubbabel support what they maintain, they quote two passages in th ot have laid the goundation of this house, his hands also shall finish it.” of Daniel (xii. 11): nb DY DW PIP NPY a thon | The time from the beginning of his rebuilding of the house (i.e. Jeru- DWM DYINDY, which means: “Since the time wh TN dn salem) till its end is 49 years, or 7 Septennia. Then, after 62 Septen- was abolished until impurity comes to destr Rs = ie poi : nia, they think, Jesus the son of Mary came; and in the last Septennium and the next following passage (Dan. xii. 12 ar ia if 1,290.” the sacrifices and offerings were abolished, and Jerusalem underwent its IAT DREN PND LRG HON a yt 3 TYDFITY vise above-mentioned destruction, insomuch that no more divine revelation fore happy he who hopes to reach to 1,335 be means # Thor. nor prophets were sent, as the Israelites were scattered all over the the difference of forty-five years in th I i ome people explain N world, utterly neglected, not practising their sacrifices, nor having 2 the former date (1,290) to the beginnin wr Pe to refer 40 40 place where to practise them. and the latter (1,335) to the time when Ee i long or Jerusalem " In respect of all we have mentioned, each of the two parties makes According to others, the first number is the d : Wiss he fthad, assertions which they cannot support by anything but interpretations whilst the latter is the date of his public a ate of the birth of Messiah, derived from the H isdb-al-jummal, and fallacious subtilties. If the say, when Jacob bestowed his blessin - San ig $48. dows student would try to establish something else by the same means, and g upon Judsh (Gen. xliv- 10), he | refute what they (each of the two parties) ” aintain, by similar arguments, 2 * 20 ALBIRONI. it would not be difficult for him to search for them. As to what the Jews think of the continuance of the rule in the family of Juda, and which they transfer to the leadership of the exiles, we must remark that, if it was correct to extend the word “rule” to a similar leadership by way of analogy, the Magians, the Sabians, and others would partake of this, and neither the other Israelites nor any other nation would be exempt therefrom. Because no class of men, not even the lowest, are without a sort of rule and leadership with relation to others who are still inferior to them. If we referred the numerical value of the word “concealing” in the 10 Thora to that period from the earliest date which the Israelites assign to their exodus from Egypt till Jesus the son of Mary, this interpretation would rest on a better foundation. For the time from their exodus from Egypt till the accession of Alexander is 1,000 years according to their own view; and Jesus the son of Mary was born Anno Alexandri 304, “and God raised him to himself Anno Alexandri 336. So the sum of the years of this complete period is 1,335 as the time during which the law of Moses ben ‘Tmrin existed, till it was carried to perfection by Jesus the son of Mary. As to that which they derive from the two passages of Daniel, we can 20 only say that it would be possible to refer them to something different, and to explain them in a different way; and more than that—that neither of their modes of interpretation is correct, except we suppose that the beginning of that number precedes the time when they were pronounced (by Daniel). For if it is to be understood that the begin- ning of both numbers (1,290 and 1,335) is one and the same time, be it past, present, or future, you cannot reasonably explain why the two passages should have been pronounced at different times. And, not to speak of the difference between the two numbers (1,290 and 1,335) the matter can in no way be correct; because the second passage (“Happy 30 he who hopes to reach 1,335”) admits, first, that the beginning of the number precedes the time when the passage was pronounced ; so that it (the number) may reach its end one year, or more or less, after the supposed time; secondly, that the beginning of that number may be the very identical time when the passage was pronounced ; or, thirdly, that it may be after this moment by an indefinite time, which may be smaller or greater. Now, if a chronological statement may be referred to all three spheres of time (past, present, and future), it cannot be referred to any one of them except on the basis of a clear text or an indisputable argument. The first passage (“Since the time when the sacrifice was abolished, until impurity comes to destruction, it is 1,290") admits likewise of being referred, first, to the first destruction of Jerusalem ; and, secondly, to its second destruction, which happened, however, only 385 years after the accession of Alexander. 40 2 ON THE NATURE OF THE ERAS. 21 73 he slightest reason to commence (in Therefore the Jews have not the : ( ase Ee as to the coming of the Me It with i iz., the epoch of the Aira AleX: : which they have commenced (ViZ., | asad) mF oulties which beset the assertions These are doubts and difficu Se i ttach to the schemes of the Chris Jews. Those, however, which a Hotes For even if the Jews grante are even more NuUMerous and conspicuous. ows tains i ..h was to take place 70 Septenmia & to them that the coming of Messia i 1 isi i ‘k that the appearance ol Jesus the vision of Daniel, we must remar : a i t that time. The reason 18 LhisS: son of Mary did not take place a a i tween the exodus of the Israeli have agreed to fix the interval be ; y oe es the ra Alexandri at 1,000 complete years. From ps sages in the books of the Prophets they have inferred Soa OO ite Egypt and the building the exodus of the Israelites from ouil bo is 480 years; and the interval between the balling and the destruction by Nebucadnezar 410 years; and hit 3 ae is gi the sum © years od state 70 years. Now this gives Su po sui irons as the date for the vision of Does od . 3 e i 1 i from the exodus tl i the above-mentioned millennium ( : a or Further, Jews and Christians spiny pee the son of Mary took place Anno Alexandr oU= 90 that the birth of Jesus AR i ] hronology, the birth ot Je Therefore, if we use their own ¢ lo RA fter the vision of Daniel and the Mey ek pan pl i his birth till the time when he lem, i.e ubout 49 Septennia. From is bir ime whe 2 Apion) in public are 4} Septennia more. Hence 1t 18 Silent i the birth (of Jesus) precedes the date which they have assume :me of the birth of the Messiah). : On ews there follow no such consequences from their sri logical system ; and if the Christians should accuse the Jews of tel ue i xen the length of the period between the rebuilding of 30 Jerusalem are) the epoch of the Ara Alexandri, the Jews would mee imi 1 than that. ith similar accusations, and more ) a aside the arguments of the two parties, and Sai te 1 hich we shall hereafter explain, We table of the Chaldean kings, W re inni f the reign of Cyrus and tha the interval between the beginning 0 bso { d from the latter date till the om of Alexander to be 222 years, an he Jott ip Jesus 304 years; SO that the sum total is 2 yous x : for the rebuilding (of Jerusalem com- now deduct therefrom 3 years, ; oP) oo i f Cyrus, and if we reduce d in the third year of the reign 0 { i to Septennia, we get nearly 75 Septennia for the nseenal 40 between the vision (of Daniel) and the birth of Messiah. Thaneloss * birth of Messiah is later than the date which they (the Christian have assumed. ; : If the Christians compute the Syriac words (loo boaato Sad 125), and believe that because of the identity of their numerica : with the pumber (1,335, mentioned by Daniel), these words were mean we ALBIRONI. (by Daniel) and not a certain number of years, we can only say that we cannot accept such an opinion except it be confirmed by an argument as indubitable as ocular inspection. For if you computed the numerical value of the following words: Skee ASV (po (FIN 8 (“the deliver- ance of the creation from infidelity by Muhammad’), you would get the sum of 1,385. Or if you computed the words J Gr je aasly pally Set (“the prophecy of Moses ben ‘Imrdn regarding Mu- hammad ; the prophecy of the Messiah regarding ’ Ahmad”), you would get the same sum, <.e. 1,335. Likewise, if you counted these words: ya oo —— oh Gn (“The plain of Firdin shines with the illiterate Muhammad”), you would again get the same sum (1,335). If, now, a man asserts that these numbers are meant to indicate a prophecy on account of the identity of the numerical values of these phrases with that of the Syriac words (lo5 loo Lsaato sQaa), the value of his argument would be exactly the same as that of the Christians regarding those passages (in Daniel), the one case closely resembling the other, even if he should produce as a testimony for Muhammad and the truth of the prophecy regarding him a passage of the prophet Isaiah, of which the following is the meaning, or like it (Isaiah xxi. 6-9) : “ God ordered him to set a watchman on the watchtower, that he might declare what he should see. Then he said: I see a man riding on an ass, and a man riding on a camel. And the one of them came forward crying and speaking : Babylon is fallen, and its graven images are broken.” This is a prophecy regarding the Messiah, the man riding on an ass,” and regarding Muhammad, “the man riding on a camel,” because in consequence of his appearance Babylon has fallen, its idols have keen broken, its castles have been shattered, and its empire has perished. There are many passages in the book of the prophet Isaiah, predicting Muhammad, being rather hints (than clearly out-spoken words), but easily admitting of a clear inter- pretation. And with all this, their obstinacy in clinging to their error induces them to devise and to maintain things which are not acknow- ledged by men in general, viz.: that «the man riding on the camel,” is Moses, not Muhammad. But what connection have Moses and his people with Babel? And did that happen to Moses and to his people after him, which happened to Muhammad and his companions in Babel ? By no means! If they (the Jews) had one after the other escaped from the Babylonians, they would have considered it a sufficient prize to carry off to return (to their country), even though in a desperate condition. This testimony (Isaiah xxi. 6-9) is confirmed by the word of God to Moses in the fifth book of the Thora, called Almathnd (Deuteronomy xviii. 18, 19) : “I will raise them up a prophet from among their brethren like unto thee, and will put my word into his mouth. And he shall speak unto them all that I shall command him. And whosoever will not hearken unto the word of him who speaks in my name, I shall take revenge on him.” Now I should like to know whether there are other brethren of the sons 23 ON THE NATURE OF THE ERAS. S 0 ge of the same book, of which this is the translation (Deut. Xxxii. passa ’ 2), bear testimony for Muhammad : ¢ The Lord came from Mount Sinaa, to us from Seir, and he shined forth from Mount Paran, up un ned ” 7) TA by ten thousand of saints ab his right hand? The term I g g F ’ ( ) : : T g a : g the conversation with Moses there; his rising up from) ram carance of Messiah, and his shining Sntyieont Po N thence as en up and married, means the coming of Mehamein EE a licions, accompanie : f all the founders of relig ’ e th the Sy were sent down from heaven to help, being TE p. 20. Re badges. He who refuses to accept this J A : oi n . . . in al teat has borne testimony, 18 required i yroye y ei di 20 takes there are in it. But he whose companion 18 Sao, mista . : on!” (Stra 1v. 42.) Z or Sn eit S not allow us to use the numerical values of Now, 1 ith the Syriac to do the same W 3 Arabic words, We cannot allow het? 50 d the books of those i the Thora an hich they quote, because 5 Ne te a in the Hebrew language All they ts hae 3 rd, and all we are going to propound, 18 2 decisive proof, an orward, hat the words in the holy books have been altered howing t “tan. a ar eng and that the text has undergone modifica rom i igi iti 1 recourse to this sort of ary to its original condition. Having C ’ ight- i the path of truth and rg hors purposely deviate from tt dr iy 3 rr open them a door In heaven, and they sheeaied one they would say : “ Qur eyes are only drunken. Moyo ie anes lt » (Stra XV. 15.) But such is not the Sass Jack fusiins rd are blind to the truth. We pray to God, tM 2 y R d strengthen us, that he may guard us against sin, and lea y an right path. : 2 wo As to the doctrine of abrogation (of one holy akg ane 2), 000 5 to their fanciful pretension of having Jags 4 8 5 TE i laims to be a prophet after Moses to be Teas 2 op io groundlessness of these opinions 18 rendered evident by state, more suitable places to of the Thora. However, there are Sa: book by another), and as her passages ! wi Er opinions than this, and so we return to our su iti ing us to have already become lengthy in our exposition, one matter drawing another. 24 ALBIRONI. Now I proceed to state that both Jews and Christians have a copy of the Thora, the contents of which agree with the doctrines of either sect. Of the Jewish copy people think that it is comparatively free from x confusion. The Christian copy is called the “Thora of the Seventy,” for the following reason: After Nebukadnezar had conquered and destroyed Jerusalem, part of the Israelites emigrated from their country, took refuge with the king of Egypt, and lived there under his protection till the time when Ptolemsus Philadelphus ascended the throne. This king heard of the Thora, and of its divine origin. Therefore he gave orders to search for this community, and found them at last in a place numbering 10 about 30,000 men. He afforded them protection, and took them into his favour, he treated them with kindness, and allowed them to return to Jerusalem, which in the meanwhile had been rebuilt by Cyrus, Bahman’s governor of Babel, who had also revived the culture of Syria. They left Egypt, accompanied by a body of his (Ptolemseus Philadelphus’) servants for their protection. The king said to them: “I want to ask you for something. If you grant me the favour, you acquit yourselves of all obligations towards me. Let me have a copy of your book, the Thora.” This the Jews promised, and confirmed their promise by an oath. Having arrived at Jerusalem, they fulfilled their promise by sending him a copy 20 of it, but in Hebrew. He, however, did not know Hebrew. Therefore he addressed himself again to them asking for people who knew both Hebrew and Greek, who wight translate the book for him, promising them gifts and presents in reward. Now the Jews selected seventy-two p-21. men out of their twelve tribes, six men of each tribe from among the Rabbis and priests. Their names are known among the Christians. These men translated the Thora into Greek, after they had been housed separately, and each couple had got a servant to take care of them. This went on till they had finished the translation of the whole book. Now the king had in his hands thirty-six translations. These he com- pared with each other, and did not find any differences in them, except those which always occur in the rendering of the same ideas. Then the king gave them what he had promised, and provided them with every- thing of the best. The Jews asked him to make them a present of one of those copies, of which they wished to make a boast before their own people. And the king complied with their wish. Now this is the copy of the Christians, and people think, that in it no alteration or transposi- tion has taken place. The Jews, however, give quite a different account, viz. that they made the translation under compulsion, and that they yielded to the king’s demand only from fear of violence and maltreat- ment, and not before having agreed upon inverting and confounding the text of the book. There is nothing in the report of the Christians which, even if we should take it for granted—removes our doubts (as to the authenticity of their Bible); on the contrary, there is something in it which strengthens them greatly. oS ON THE NATURE OF THE ERAS. 2 es of the Thora, there is a third one that exists Besides these two copi cn (Hk axis Bon the Samaritans, also known by the name of Al-limasasiyya them, as the substitutes for the Jews, Feumiues bu fon country of Syria, when he led the Jews into cap i Ys NY h country of them. The Samaritans had helped im aE pt the Jews), and had pointed out to him the ps po oF the Israelites. Therefore, he did not disturb them, nor Ki ; ‘ake them prisoners, but he made them inhabit Palestine under his mak tection. tn ame 10 ie doctrines are a syncretism of Judaism and Zoroastrianism T bulk of their community is living in a town of Palestine, oi ¥ Pi, where they have their churches. They have never entere ov Tinks ¢ Jerusalem since the days of David the prophet, because : y oy a that he committed wrong and injustice, and si 1 shay temple from Nabulus to Aelia, i.e. Jerusalem. They 2 30 Ane other people ; but if they happen to be touched by me y on themselves. They do not acknowledge any of the prop gi a ‘which the Jews have, and on which they rely, Ye fi a according to its account of the lives of the jmmediste Sane 2 oe of Adam, the interval between the expulsion of Adam from Para : . : A h till the deluge in the time of Noah, 1s 1,656 years; according to the ) - ’ C g Samaritan copy it is 1,307 years. According to - wp Anianus, the interval between the creation of Adam a digi the Friday when the deluge commenced, 18 2 yore ye i 8 1 is reported by lbn-Alba s. This statement of Anianus is T : 1 Hitdb-allivindt (Book of the Conjunctions) ; it comes very Best Us : the Christians. However, it makes me think that it is base in 8 30 fs methods of the astrologers, because it betrays evidently an arbitrary btle mode of research. a. : gr it such is the diversity of opinions, as we have dass, and if there is no possibility of distinguishing—by means dt ne ogy between truth and fiction, where is the student to search 10 ? . . gs does the Thora exist in several and different copies, but r is the case with the Gospel too. For the Christians something simila 1; de, the first by : »eted into one code, have four copies of the Gospel, being collected 11 arth by hird by Luke, tthew, the second by Mark, the th : ; Sea Ir of these four disciples having composed the Goss in “ Y) ror h what he (Christ) had preached in his country. The reports, formity wit ; tot f Messiah, the : . i h as the descriptions O » contained in these four copies, such a A ucified, he preached a ucifie lations of him at the time when i i they maintain, differ very widely the one from the other. To begin i M his genealogy, which is the genealogy of J oseph, the bridegroom of Mary i Ce Th 4 Bo dee : ass — i 26 ALBIRONI. and step-father of J i i RS esus. For according to Matthew (i. 2-16), his pedigree L : SR Zorobabel. Joram. Salmon a: Salathiel. Josaphat. —— : an. Jechonias. Asa. Aminad b v Pam Josias. Abia. oe 4 : be : XV. Amon. XXV. Roboam. XXXV. Eston. Ss Manasses. Solomon. Phares. Soa Y Ezekias. David. Judas. 3 ed Ahaz. Jesse. Jacob. 10 0 y i= Joatham. Obed. Isaac : iud. XX. Ozias. XXX. Booz. XL. Atiraliom., Matt i i i hew in stating this genealogy commences with Abraham, tracing it downward (as far as Joseph ; hi roticrnot Joseph i this op ). According to Luke (iii. 23-31) the 1 Josh . Ba Salathiel. Matthat. at agge. Neri. Levi. My at. Maath. Melchi. Simeon . fu Mattathias. Addi. Juda . Melchi. XV. Semei. XXYV. Cosam. XXXV. Joseph. J anna Joseph. Elmodam. Jonam. Joseph. Judas. Er. Elyakim Mattathias. Joanna. Joseph. Melea Amos. Rhesa i . Elieser. M X. Naum. XX.Zorobabel. XXX. Jorim. XL Sa Nathan. ie : XLII. David. hs Sifiorence the Christians try to excuse, and to account for it finer be there was one of the laws prescribed in the Thora wiliich oH Jatin in na Sid niin behind a wife but no male children, 30 e deceased was to marry her instead, in ord " up a progeny to the deceased brother; that 1 I y ; , in consequence, his child were genealogically referred to the de d | i . brother, whilst birth they were the childr vin Ha en of the living brother; th Joseph was referred to two di : 21 Balun o different fathers, that Heli i ; genealogically, whilst Yakob was his f ; Slitor Unite ’ ather in reality. Further, th Shien Matthew had stated the real pedigree of Josephs fom his ios im fos it, saying : “ His pedigree is not correct, beers it Sastbosn e without regard to his genealogical relation.” In order to iE brah Luke stated his pedigree in conformity with the 40 ordinances of their code. Both pedi : : . pedigrees go back to David Slt was the object (in stating them), because it had been ed of the Messiah, that he would be “ the son of David.” E Fi inally, the fact that only the pedigree of Joseph has been adduced ON THE NATURE OF THE ERAS. A gor Messiah, and not that of Mary, is to be explained in this way, that according to the law of the Israelites, nobody was allowed to marry any but a wife of his own tribe and clan, whereby they wanted to prevent confusion of the pedigrees, and that it was the custom to mention only the pedigrees of the men, not those of the women. Now Joseph and Mary being both of the same tribe, their descent must of necessity go back to the same origin. And this was the object in their statement and account of the pedigree. Everyone of the sects of Marcion, and of Bardesanes, has a special 10 Gospel, which in some parts” differs from the “Gospels we have men- tioned. Also the Manichseans have a Gospel of their own, the contents of which from the first to the last are opposed to the doctrines of the Christians ; but the Manichesans consider them as their religious law, and believe that it is the correct Gospel, that its contents are really that ‘which Messiah thought and taught, that every other Gospel is false, and its followers are liars against Messiah. Of this Gospel there is a copy, called, «“ The Gospel of the Seventy,” which is attributed to one Baldmas, and in the beginning of which it is stated, that Sallam ben ‘Abdallih ben Sallam wrote it down as he heard it from Salméin Alfarisi. He, how- 90 ever, who looks into it, will see at once that it is a forgery; it is not acknowledged by Christians and others. Therefore, we come to the conclusion, that among the Gospels there are no books of the Prophets to be found, on which you may with good faith rely. Era of the Deluge.—The next following era is the era of the great deluge, in which everything perished at the time of Noah. Here, too, there is such a difference of opinions, and such a confusion, that you have no chance of deciding as to the correctness of the matter, and do not even feel inclined to investigate thoroughly its historical truth. The reason is, in the first instance, the difference regarding the period between 30 the Ara Adami and the Deluge, which we have mentioned already ; and secondly, that difference, which we shall have to mention, regarding the period between the Deluge and the Ara Alexandri. For the Jews derive from the Thora, and the following books, for this latter period 1,792 years, whilst the Christians derive from their Thora for the same period 2,938 years. The Persians, and the great mass of the Magians, deny the Deluge altogether ; they believe that the rule (of the world) has remained with them without any interruption ever since Gayomarth Gilshih, who was, according to them, the first man. In denying the Deluge, the Indians, 40 Chinese, and the various nations of the east, concur with them. Some, however, of the Persians admit the fact of the Deluge, but they describe it in a different way from what it is described in the books of the prophets. They say, a partial deluge occurred in Syria and the west at the time of Tahmirath, but it did not extend over the whole of the then civilized world, and only few nations were drowned in it; it did not r i os ha —r— ial ho Sm, - Rigi Loum TE 28 ALBIRONT. extend beyond the peak of Hulwin, and did not reach the empires of the east. Further, they relate, that the inhabitants of the west, when they were warned by their sages, constructed buildings of the kind of the two pyramids which have been built in Egypt, saying: “If the disaster comes from heaven, we shall go into them; if it comes from the earth, we shall ascend above them.” People are of opinion, that the traces of the water of the Deluge, and the effects of the waves are still visible on these two pyramids half-way up, above which the water did not rise. Another report says, that Joseph had made them a magazine, where he deposited the bread and victuals for the years of drought. Tt is related, that Tahmirath on receiving the warning of the Deluge —231 years before the Deluge—ordered his people to select a place of good air and soil in his realm. Now they did not find a place that answered better to this description than Ispahdn. Thereupon, he ordered all scientific books to be preserved for posterity, and to be buried in a part of that place, least exposed to obnoxious influences. In favour of this report we may state that in our time in Jay, the city of Ispahén, there have been discovered hills, which, on being excavated, disclosed houses, filled with many loads of that tree-bark, with which arrows and shields are covered, and which is called Tiz, bearing inscriptions, of which no one was able to say what they are, and what they mean. These discrepancies in their reports, inspire doubts in the student, and make him inclined to believe what is related in some books, viz. that Gayoémarth was not the first man, but that he was Gomer ben Yaphet ben Noah, that he was a prince to whom a long life was given, that he settled on the Mount DunbAwand, where he founded an empire, and that finally his power became very great, whilst mankind was still living in (elementary) conditions, similar to those at the time of the creation, and of the first stage of the development of the world. Then he, and some of his children, took possession of the A{uara of the world. Towards the end of his life, he became tyrannical, and called himself Adam, saying: “If anybody calls me by another name than this, I shall cut off his head.” Others are of opinion that Gayomarth was Emim (0 7) ben Lid ben 'Ardm ben Sem ben Noah. The astrologers have tried to correct these years, beginning from the first of the conjunctions of Saturn and Jupiter, for which the sages among the inhabitants of Babel, and the Chaldeans have constructed astronomical tables, the Deluge having originated in their country. For people say, that Noah built the ark in Kffa, and that it was there that “the well poured forth its waters” (Stra xi. 42 ; xxiii. 27) ; that the ark rested upon the mountain of Aljadi, which is not very far from those regions. Now this conjunction occurred 229 years 108 days before the Deluge. This date they studied carefully, and tried by that to correct _ the subsequent times. So they found as the interval between the Deluge and the beginning of the reign of the first Nebukadnezar (Nabonassar), ON THE NATURE OF THE ERAS. 29 9,604 years, and as the interval between Nebukadnezar and Alexander 436 years, a result which comes pretty near to that one, which is derived from the Thora of the Christians. : This was the era which ’Abfi-Ma‘shar Albalkhi wanted, upon which to base his statements regarding the mean places of the stars in his Canon. Now he supposed that the Deluge had taken place at the conjunction of the stars in the last part of Pisces, and the first part of Aries, and he tried to compute their places for that time. Then he found, that they— all of them—stood in con] unction in the space between the twenty-seventh 10 degree of Pisces, and the end of the first degree of Aries. Further, he supposed that between that time and the epoch of the Ara Alexandri, there is an interval of 2,790 intercalated years 7 months and 26 days. This computation comes near to that of the Christians, being 249 years and 3 months less than the estimate of the astronomers. Now, when he thought that he had well established the computation of this sum according to the method, which he has explained, and when he had arrived at the result, that the duration of those periods, which as- tronomers call “ star-cycles,” was 360,000 years, the beginning of which was to precede the time of the Deluge by 180,000 years, he drew the 90 inconsiderate conclusion, that the Deluge had occurred once in every 180,000 years, and that it would again occur In future at similar s. De who is so proud of his ingenuity, had computed these star- cycles only from the motions of the stars, as they had been fixed by the observations of the Persians; but they (the cycles) differ from the cycles, which have been based upon the observations of the Indians, known as the «cycles of Sindhind,” and likewise they differ from the days of Arjabhaz, and the days of Arkand. If anybody would construct such “cycles on the basis of the observations of Ptolemy, or of the moder 30 astronomers, he might do so by the help of the well known methods 0 such a calculation, as in fact many people have done, e.g. Muhammad ben "Ishak ben 'Ustadh Bundadh Alsarakhsi, ' Abli-al-wafé Muhammad ben Muhammad Albfizajéni, and I myself in many of my books, particularly in the Kitdb-al-istishhdd bikhtildf al’ arsdd. In each of these cycles the stars come into conjunction with each other in the first part of Aries once, viz. when they start upon and rerun from their rotation, however, at different times. If he (Abi-Ma shar) now would maintain, that the stars were created standing at that time In the first part of Aries, or that the conjunction of the stars in that place 40 1s identical with the beginning of the world, or with the end of the world, such an assertion would be utterly void of proof, although the matter be within the limits of possibility. But such conclusions can never be admitted, except they rest on an evident argument, or on the report of some one who relates the origines of the world, whose word is relied upon, and regarding whom in the mind (of the reader or hearer) p- 26. 30 ALBIRONT. this persuasion is established, that he had received divine inspiration and help. For it is quite possible that these (celestial) bodies were scattered, not united at the time when the Creator designed and created them, they having these motions, by which—as calculation shows—they must meet each other in one point in such a time (as above mentioned). It would be the same, as if we, e.g. supposed a circle, in different separate places of which we put living beings, of whom some move fast, others slowly, each of them, however, being carried on in equal motions—of its peculiar sort of motion—in equal times; further, suppose that we knew their distances and places at a certain time, and the measure of the distance over which each of them travels in one Nychthemeron. If you then ask the mathematician as to the length of time, after which they would meet each other in a certain point, or before which they had met each other in that identical point, no blame attaches to him, if he speaks of billions of years. Nor does it follow from his account that those beings existed at that (past) time (when they met each other), or that they would still exist at that (future) time (when they are to meet again) ; but this only follows from his account, if it is properly explained, that, if these beings really existed (in the past), or would still exist (in future) in that same condition, the result (as to their conjunctions) could be no other but that one at which he had arrived by calculation. But then the verifica- tion of this subject is the task of a science which was not the science of ’Abu-Ma‘shar. Tf, now, the man who uses the cycles (the star-cycles), would conclude that they, viz. the stars, if they stood in conjunction in the first part of Aries, would again and again pass through the same cycles, because, according to his opinion, everything connected with the celestial globe is exempt from growth and decay, and that the condition of the stars in the past was exactly the same, his conclusion would be a mere assumption by which he quiets his mind, and which is not supported by any argu- ment. For a proof does not equally apply to the two sides of a contra- diction ; it applies only to the one, and excludes the other. Besides it is well known among philosophers and others, that there is no such thing as an infinite evolution of power (Swaps) into action (mpatis), until the latter comes into real existence. The motions, the cycles, and the periods of the past were computed whilst they in reality existed ; they have decreased, whilst at the same time increasing in number; therefore, they are not infinite. This exposition will be sufficient for a veracious and fair-minded student. But if he remains obstinate, and inclines to the tricks of over- bearing people, more explanations will be wanted, which exceed the compass of this book, in order to remove these ideas from his mind, to heal what is feeble in his thoughts, and to plant the truth in his soul. However, there are other chapters of this book where it will be more 10 20 30 40 10 20 30 40 ON THE NATURE OF THE ERAS. 31 suitable to speak of this subject than here. The discrepancy of the eveles, not the discrepancy of the observations, is a sufficient argument for—and a powerful help towards—repudiating the follies committed by » Abfi-Marshar, and relied upon by foolish people, who abuse all religions, who make the cycles of Sindhind, and others, the means by which to revile those who warn them that the hour of judgment is coming, and who tell them, that on the day of resurrection there will be reward and punishment in yonder world. It is the same set of people who excite suspicions against—and bring discredit upon—astronomers and mathe- maticians, by counting themselves among their ranks, and by representing themselves as professors of their art, although they cannot even impose upon anybody who has only the slightest degree of scientific training. Era of Nabonassar.—The next following era is the Era of the first Nebukadnezar (Nabonassar). The Persian form of this word (Bukh- tanassar) is Bukht-narsi, and people say that it means “one who weeps and laments much”; in Hebrew, “ Nebukadnezar,” which is said to mean Mercury speaking,” this being combined with the notion that he cherished science and favoured scholars. Then when the word was Arabized, and its form was simplified, people said Bukhtanassar.” This is not the same king who devastated Jerusalem, for between these two there is an interval of about 143 years, as the following chronological tables will indicate. The era of this king is based upon the Egyptian years. It is employed in the Almagest for the computation of the places of the planets, because Ptolemy preferred this era to others, and fixed thereby the mean places of the stars. Besides he uses the cycles of Callippus, the beginning of which is in the year 418 after Bukhtanassar, and each of which consists of seventy-six solar years. Those who do not know them (these cycles), try to prove by what they find mentioned in Almagest, that they are of Egyptian origin; for Hipparchus and Ptolemy fix the times of their observations by Egyptian days and months, and then refer them to the corresponding cycles of Callippus. Such, however, is not the case. The first cycle, employed by those who compute the months by the revolution of the moon and the years by the revolution of the sun, was the cycle of eight years, and the second that of nineteen years. Callippus was of the number of the mathematicians, and one who himself—or whose people— considered the use of this latter cycle as part of their laws. Thereupon, he computed this cycle (of seventy-six years), uniting for that purpose four cycles of nineteen years. Some people think that in these cycles the beginning of the months was fixed by the appearance of new moon, not by calculation, as people at that (remote) age did not yet know the calculation of the eclipses, by which alone the length of the lunar month is to be determined, and these calculations are rendered perfect; and that the first who knew the theory of the eclipses was Thales of Miletus. For after having frequently p- 27. 32 ALBIRONS. attended the lectures of the mathematicians, and having learned from "them the science of form and motions (astronomy), he proceeded to dis- cover the calculation of the eclipses. Then he happened to come to Egypt, where he warned people of an impending eclipse. When, then, his prediction had been fulfilled, people honoured him highly. The matter, as thus reported, does not belong to the impossible. For each art goes back to certain original sources, and the nearer it is to its origin, the more simple it is, till you at last arrive at the very origin itself. However, this account, that eclipses were not known before Thales, must not be understood in this generality, but with certain local restrictions. For some people refer this scholar (Thales) to the time of Ardashir ben Babak, others to that of Kaikubéadh. Now, if he lived at the time of Ardashir, he was preceded by Ptolemy and Hipparchus; and these two among the astronomers of that age knew the subject quite ~ sufficiently. If, on the other hand, he lived at the time of Kaikubadh, he stands near to Zoroaster, who belonged to the sect of the Harranians, and to those who already before him (Zoroaster) excelled in science, and had carried it to such a height as that they could not be ignorant of the theory of the eclipses. If, therefore, their report (regarding the dis- covery of the theory of the eclipses by Thales) be true, it is not to be understood in this generality, but with certain restrictions. Era of Philippus Arideus,—The era of Philip, the father of Alexander, is based upon Egyptian years. But this era is also frequently dated from the death of Alexander, the Macedonian, the Founder. In both cases the matter is the same, and there is only a difference in the expression. Because Alexander, the Founder, was succeeded by Philip, therefore, it is the same, whether you date from the death of the former, or the accession of the latter, the epoch being a connecting link common to both of them. Those who employ this era are called Alexandrines. On this era Theon Alexandrinus has based his so-called ¢ Canon.” Era of Alexander.— Then follows the era of Alexander the Greek, to whom some people give the surname Bicornutus. On the difference of opinions regarding this personage, T shall enlarge in the next following chapter. This era is based upon Greek years. It is in use among most nations. When Alexander had left Greece at the age of twenty-six years, prepared to fight with Darius, the king.of the Persians, and marching upon his capital, he went down to Jerusalem, which was inhabited by the Jews ; then he ordered the Jews to give up the era of Moses and David, and to use his era instead, and to adopt that very year, the twenty- seventh of his life, as the epoch of this era. The Jews obeyed his command, and accepted what he ordered ; for the Rabbis allowed them such a change at the end of each millennium after Moses. And at that time just a millennium had become complete, and their offerings and sacrifices had ceased to be practised, as they relate. So they adopted his era, and used it for fixing all the occurrences of their months and days, ON THE NATURE OF THE ERAS. as they had already done in the twenty-sixth year of his life, when he first started from home, with the view of finishing the millennium (i.e. so as not to enter upon a new one). When, then, the first thousand years of the Ara Alexandri had passed, the end of which did not coin- cide with any striking event which people are accustomed to make the epoch of an era, they kept the Aira Alexandri, and continued to use it. The Greeks also use it. But according to the report of a book, which Habib ben Bihriz, the metropolitan of Mosul, has translated, the Greeks used to date—before they adopted the Ara Alexandri—from the migration of Yinéan ben Paris from Babel towards the west. Era of Augustus.—Next follows the era of the king Augustus, the first of the Roman emperors (Ceesares). The word ¢ Caesar ” means in Frankish (i.e. Latin) “he has been drawn forth, after a cutting has been made.” The explanation is this, that his mother died in labour-pains, whilst she was pregnant with him; then her womb was opened by the « Ogesarean operation,” and he was drawn forth, and got the surname « Owsar.” He used to boast before the kings, that he had not come out of the pudendum mulicbre of a woman, as also ’Ahmad ben Sahl ben Hashim ben Alwalid ben Hamla ben Kémkir ben Yazdajird ben Shahryér used to boast, that the same had happened to him. And he (Augustus) used to revile people calling them “son of the pudendum muliebre.” The historians relate, that Jesus, the son of Mary, was born in the forty-third year of his reign. This, however, does not agree with the order of the years. The chronological tables, in which we shall give a corrected sequence of events, necessitate that his birth should have taken place in the seventeenth year of his reign. Tt was Augustus who caused the people of Alexandria to give up their system of reckoning by non-intercalated Egyptian years, and to adopt the system of the Chaldzans, which in our time is used in Egypt. This he did in the sixth year of his reign; therefore, they took this year as the epoch of this era. Era of Antoninus.—The era of Antoninus, one of the Roman kings, was based upon Greek years. Ptolemy corrected the places of the fixed stars, dating from the beginning of his reign, and noted them in the Almagest, directing that their positions should be advanced one degree every year. Era of Diocletianus.—Then follows the era of Diocletian, the last of the Roman kings who worshipped the idols. After the sovereign power had been transferred to him, it remained among his descendants. After him reigned Constantine, who was the first Roman king who became a Christian. The years of this era are Greek. Several authors of Canons have used this era, and have fixed thereby the necessary paradigms of the prognostics, the Tempora natalicia, and the conjunctions. Era of the Flight.—Then follows the era of the Flight of the 3 34 ArBiRONT. Prophet Muhammad from Makka to Madina. It is based upon Lunar years, in which the commencements of the months are determined by the appearance of New Moon, not by calculation. It is used by the whole Muhammadan world. The circumstances under which this very point was adopted as an epoch, and not the time when the Prophet was either born or entrusted with his divine mission or died, were the following :— Maimfin ben Mihran relates, that Omar ben Alkhattab, when people one day handed over to him a cheque payable in the month Sha‘bin, said :— « Which Sha‘bén is meant? that one in which we are or the next Shahan?” Thereupon he assembled the Companions of the Prophet, and asked their advice regarding the matter of chronology, which troubled his mind. They answered: “It is necessary to inform ourselves of the practice of the Persians in this respect.” Then they fetched Hurmuzan, and asked him for information. He said: “We have a computation which we call Mdh-riz, i.e. the computation of months and days.” People arabized this word, and pronounced &y (Mw arrakh), and coined as its infinitive the word “ Tw rikh.” Hurmuzin explained to them how they used this Méh-rtiz, and what the Greeks used of a similar kind. Then Omar spoke to the Companions of the Prophet : “Establish a mode of dating for the intercourse of people.” Now some said: “Date ac- 20 cording to the era of the Greeks, for they date according to the era of Alexander.” Others objected that this mode of dating was too lengthy, and said : “Date according to the era of the Persians.” But then it was ob- jected, that as soon as a new king arises among the Persians he abolishes the era of his predecessor. So they could not come to an agreement. Alsha‘bl relates, that 'Ab{-MbsA Alash‘ari wrote to Omar ben Alkhattib : “You send us letters without a date.” Omar had already organized the registers, had established the taxes and regulations, and was in want of an era, not liking the old ones. On this occasion he assembled the Companions, and took their advice. Now the most au- 30 thentic date, which involves no obscurities nor possible mishaps, seemed to be the date of the flight of the Prophet, and of his arrival at Madina on Monday the 8th of the month Rabi¢ I., whilst the beginning of the year was a Thursday. Now he adopted this epoch, and fixed thereby the dates in all his affairs. This happened AH. 17. The reason why Omar selected this event as an epoch, and not the time of the birth of the Prophet, or tho Lime when he was entrusted with his divine mission, is this, thai regarding those two dates there existed such a divergency of opmion, as did not allow it to be made the basis of ~-ething which must be agreed upon universally. Further he (Alsha‘bi) says: People say that He was born in the night of Monday the 2nd, or the 8th, or the 13th of Rabi‘ IL; others say that he was born in the forty-sixth year of the reign of Kisrd Anbshirwén. In consequence there is also a difference of opinions regarding the length of his ife, corresponding to the different statements regarding his birth. 40 ON THE NATURE OF THE ERAS. 35 Besides, the single years were of different length, some having been intercalated, others not, about the time when intercalation was prohibited. Considering further that after the Flight, the affairs of Islim were thoroughly established, while heathenism decreased, that the Prophet was saved from the calamities prepared for him by the infidels of Makka, and that after the Flight his conquests followed each other in rapid succession, we come to the conclusion that the Flight was to the Prophet, what to the kings is their accession, and their taking possession of the whole sovereign power. As regards the well known date of his death, people do not like to date from the death of a prophet or a king, except the prophet be a liar, or the king an enemy, whose death people enjoy, and wish to make a festival of ; or he be one of those with whom a dynasty is extinguished, so that his followers among themselves make this date a memorial of him, and a mourning feast. But this latter case has only happened very seldom. F.g. the era of Alexander the Founder is reckoned from the time of his death, he having been considered as one of those from whom the era of the kings of the Chaldeans and the western kings was trans- ferred to the era of the Ptolemzan kings, of whom each is called Ptolemy, which means warlike. Therefore, those to whom the empire was trans- ferred, dated from the time of his death, considering it as a joyful event. It is precisely the same in the case of the era of Yazdajird ben Shahrydr. For the Magians date from the time of his death, because when he perished, the dynasty was extinguished. Therefore they dated from his death, mourning over him, and lamenting for the downfal of their religion. At the time of the Prophet, people had given to each of the years between the Flight and his death a special name, derived from some event, which had happened to him in that identical year. The 1st year after the Flight is “the year of the permission.” The 2nd year “the year of the order for fighting.” The 3rd year “the year of the trial.” The 4th year “the year of the congratulation on the occasion of marriage.” The 5th year “the year of the earthquake.” The 6th year “ the year of inquiring.” The 7th year “the year of gaining victory.” The 8th year “ the year of equality.” The 9th year “the year of exemption.” The 10th year “the year of farewell.” By these names it was rendered superfluous to denote the years by the numbers, the 1st, the 2nd, etc., after the Flight. : Era of Yazdajird.—Next follows the era of the reign of Yazdajird ben Shahryar ben Kisrd Parwiz, which is based upon Persian non- 3 * eee ——————TI a ee 36 ALBIRONG. intercalated years. It has been employed in the Canons, because it is easy and simple to use. The reason why precisely the era of this king among all the kings of Persia has become so generally known, is this that he ascended the throne, when the empire had been shattered, when the women had got hold of it, and usurpers had seized all power. Besides, he was the last of their kings, and it was he with whom Omar ben Alkhattéb fought most of those famous wars and battles. Finally, the empire succumbed, and he was put to flight and was killed in the house of a miller at Marw-i-Shéhijan. Reform of the Calendar by the Khalif Almu‘tadid.—Lastly, the era of Ahmad ben Talha Almu‘tadid-billdh the Khalif was based upon Greek years and Persian months; however, with this difference, that in every fourth year one day was intercalated. The following is the origin of this era, as reported by ’Abi-Bakr Alstili in his Kitdb-al’aurdk, and by Hamza ben Alhasan Alisfahani in his book on famous poems, relating to Naurtiz and Mihrjan. Almutawakkil, while wandering about over one of his hunting-grounds, observed corn that had not yet ripened, and not yet attained its proper time for being reaped. So he said : « Ubaid-allah ben Yahya has asked my permission for levying the taxes, whilst T observe that the corn is still green. From what then are people to pay their taxes?” Thereupon he was informed, that this, in fact, had done a great deal of harm to the people, so that they were compelled to borrow and to incur debts, and even to emigrate from their homes ; that they had many complaints and wrongs to recount. Then the Khalif said : “Has this arisen lately during my reign, or has it always been so PY And people answered : “ No. This is going on according to the regula- tions established by the Persian kings for the levying of the taxes at the time of Naurfiz. In this their example has been followed by the kings of the Arabs.” Then the Khalif ordered the Maubadh to be brought before him, and said to him : «This has been the subject of much re- search on my part, and I cannot find that TI violate the regulations of the Persians. How, then, did they levy the taxes from their subjects— considering the beneficence and good will which they observed towards them? And why did they allow the taxes to be levied at a time like this, when the fruit and corn are not yet ripe?” To this the Maubadh replied : “ Although they always levied the taxes at Nauriiz, this never happened except at the time when the corn was ripe.” The Khalif asked: © And how was that?” Now the Maubadh explained to him the nature of their years, their different lengths, and their need of intercala- tion. Then he proceeded to relate, that the Persians used to intercalate the years; but when Islam had been established, intercalation was abolished ; and that did much harm to the people. The landholders assembled at the time of Hishim ben ‘Abdalmalik and called on Khalid Alkasri; they explained to him the subject, and asked him to postpone Naurfiz by a month. Khilid declined to do so, but reported on the ON THE NATURE OF THE ERAS. 37 subject to Hisham, who said : «I am afraid, that to this subject may be applied the word of God : « Intercalation is only am increase of heathenism ”’ (Stra ix. 37). Afterwards at the time of Alrashid the landholders as- sembled again and called on Yahy4 ben Khilid ben Barmak, asking him to postpone Naurdz by about two months. Now, Yahyé had the inten- tion to do so, but then his enemies began to speak of the subject, and said : “He is partial to Zoroastrianism.” Therefore he dropped the subject, and the matter remained as it was before. Now Almutawalkkil ordered 'Thrahim ben Al‘abbés Alsiili to be brought before him, and told him, that in accordance with what the Maubadh had related of Naurfiz, he should compute the days, and compose a fixed Canon (Calendar) ; that he should compose a paper on the postponement of Naurfiz, which was to be sent by order of the Khalif to all the provinces of the empire. It was determined to postpone Nauriz till the 17th of Haziran. Alstli did [as he was ordered, and the letters arrived in the provinces in Muharram A.H. 243. The poet, Albuhturi has com- posed a Kasida on the subject in praise of Almutawakkil, where he says :— « The day of Nauriz has returned to that time, on which it was fixed by Ardashir. Thou hast transferred Naurtiz to its original condition, whilst before thee it was wandering about, circulating. Now thou hast levied the taxes at Naurtz, and that was a memorable benefit to the people. They bring thee praise and thanks, and thou bringest them justice and a present, well deserving of thanks.” However, Almutawakkil was killed, and his plan was not carried out, until Almu‘tadid ascended the throne of the Khalifate, delivered the provinces of the empire from their usurpers, and gained sufficient leisure to study the affairs of his subjects. He attributed the greatest import- ance to intercalation and to the carrying out of this measure. He followed the method of Almutawakkil regarding the postponement of Naurfiz; however he treated the subject differently, inasmuch as Almu- tawakkil had made the basis of his computation the interval between his year (i.e. that year, in which he then happened to live),and the beginning of the reign of Yazdajird, whilst Almu‘tadid took the interval between his year and that year in which the Persian empire perished by the death of Yazdajird, because he—or those who did the work for him—held this opinion, that since that time intercalation had been neglected. This interval he found to be 243 years and 60 days+a fraction, arising from the day-quarters (exceeding the 365 days of the Solar year). These 60 days he added at Naurfiz of his year, and put Nauriz at the end of them, which fell upon a Wednesday, the 1st Khurdadh-Méh of that year, coinciding with the 11th of Haziran. Thereupon he fixed Nauriiz in the 38 ALBIRONT. Greek months for this purpose, that the months of his year should be intercalated at the same time when the Greeks intercalate their years The man who was entrusted with carrying out his orders, was his Wats Abti-alkdsim ‘Ubaid-allih ben Sulaimin ben Wahb. To this subject the following verses of the astronomer ‘Ali ben Yahya refer :— ie « O thou restorer of the untarnished glory, renovator of the shattered empire ! Who hast again established among us the pillar of religion, after it had been tottering ! Thou hast surpassed all the kings like the foremost horse in a race. How blessed is that Naurfz, when thou hast earned thanks besides the reward (due to thee for it in heaven)! By postponing Naurfiz thou hast justly made precede, what they had postponed.” On the same subject ‘Ali ben Yahya says: — «The day of thy Nauriz is one and the same day, not liable to movin backward, : Always coinciding with the 11th of Hazirin.” Now, although in bringing about this measure much ingenuity has been displayed, Nauriiz has not thereby returned to that place which it occupied at the time when intercalation was still practised in the Persian empire. For the Persians had already begun to neglect their intercalation nearly seventy years before the death of Yazdajird. Because at the time of Yazdajird ben Shipir they had intercalated into their year two months, one of them as the necessary compensation for os ace of time, by which the year had moved backward (it being too th The five Epagomen they put as a mark at the end of this intercalar annth and the turn had just come to Aban-Mah, as we shall explain tots The second month they intercalated with regard to the future th t ® other intercalation might be needed for a long period. is Now, if you subtract from the sum of the years between Yazdajird ben Shapir and Yazdajird ben Shahryir 120 years, you get a remainder of nearly—but not exactly—70 years ; there is much uncertainty and con fusion in the Persian chronology. The Portio intercalanda of these 70 years would amount to nearly 17 days. Therefore it would have been necessary, if we calculate without mathematical accuracy, to postpone Nama not 60, but 77 days, in order that it might coincide with the 98th of Haziran. The man who worked out this reform, was of opinio that the Persian method of intercalation was similar to the Greek iy Therefore he computed the days since the extinction of their empi : Whilst in reality the matter is a different one, as we have alread pe plained, and shall more fully explain hereafter. re This is the last of those eras that have become celebrated. But ON THE NATURE OF THE ERAS. 39 perhaps some other nations, whose countries are far distant from ours, have eras of their own, which have not been handed down to posterity, p.34 or such eras as are now obsolete. For instance, the Persians in the time of Zoroastrianism used to date successively by the years of the reign of cach of their kings. When a king died, they dropped his era, and adopted that of his successor. The duration of the reigns of their kings we have stated in the tables which will follow hereafter. Epochs of the Ancient Arabs.—As a second instance We mention the Ishmaelite Arabs. For they used to date from the construction of 10 the Ka‘ba by Abraham and Ishmael till the time when they were dis- persed and left TihAma. Those who went away dated from the time of their exodus, whilst those who remained in the country dated from the time when the last party of the emigrants had left. But afterwards, after a long course of time, they dated from the year when the chieftain- ship devolved upon ‘Amr ben Rabi‘a, known by the name of ‘Amr ben Yahya, who is said to have changed the religion of Abraham, to have brought from the city of Balké the idol Hubal, and to have himself made the idols *Isif and Na'ila. This is said to have happened at the time of Shéaptr Dhii-alaktaf. This synchronism, however, is not borne out by 90 the comparison of the chronological theofies of both sides (Arabs and Persians). Afterwards they dated from the death of Kab ben Twayy—till the Year of Treason, in which the Banfi-Yarbt* stole certain garments which some of the kings of Himyar sent to the Ka‘ba, and when a general fighting among the people occurred at the time of the holy pilgrimage. Thereupon they dated from the Year of Treason till the Year of the Ele- phants, in which the Lord, when the Ethiopians were coming on with the intention of destroying the Kaba, brought down the consequences of their cunning enterprise upon their own necks, and annihilated them. 30 Thereupon they dated from the era of the Hijra. Some Arabs used to date from famous accidents, and from celebrated days of battle, which they fought among themselves. As such epochs the Banfi-Kuraish, e.g. had the following ones :— 1. The day of Alfijar in the sacred month. 9. The day of the Confederacy of Alfudil, in which the contracting parties bound themselves to assist all those to whom wrong was done. Because the Banfi-Kuraish committed wrong and violence against each other within the holy precinct of Makka. 3. The year of the death of Hishdm ben Almughira Almakhzimi, 40 for the celebration of his memory. (4) The year of the reconstruction of the Kaba, by order of the Prophet Muhammad. The tribes 'Aus and Khazraj used the following days as epochs :— 1. The day of Alfada. . SE ‘ ALBIROND. : ; : ON THE NATURE OF THE ERAS. 41 . The day of Alrabi‘. . The day of Alruhiba. descendants over the country, dating from the time when he immigrated . The day of Alsaréra. : and extended his sway over the empire of the Turks. This happened . The day of Dahis and Ghabri. 92 years after the colonization of the country. . The day of Bughath. At a later time they imitated the example of the Persians in dating . The day of Hétib. by the years of the reign of each king of the line of Kaikhusrti, who . The day of Madris and Mu‘abbis. ruled over the country, and who was called by the title of Shdhiya. Arnons the. 2th This went on down to the reign of Afrigh, one of the kings of that Toy g ribes Bakr and Taghlib, the two sons of Wa‘l, the \} family. His name was considered a bad omen like that of Yazdajird ing epochs were used :— 1 the Wicked, with the Persians. His son succeeded him in the rule of It his castle behind Alfir, A. Alexandri 1. The day of ‘Unaiza. 10 the country. He (Afrigh) bui : d Al 616. Now people began to date from him and his children (i.e. by the 2. The day of Alhinw. ; } 3. The day of Tahlik-allimam. years of his reign and that of his descendants). : 14 4. The day of Alkusaibit 1 This Alfir was a fortress on the outskirts of the city of Khwarizm, 5. The day of Alfasil. : : built of clay and tiles, consisting of three forts, one being built within Th 1 the other, and all three being of equal height; and rising above the ese and other “ war-days” were used a whole of it were the royal alaces, very much like Ghumdén in Yaman : s epochs : : ya. p » VEIy tribes and clans of the Arabs. Their names Be a i on ] at the time when it was the residence of the Tubba‘s. For this Ghum- he were fought, and to their causes. Proney Wage 1 din was a castle in San‘, opposite the great mosque, founded upon a , now, these eras were kept in the : . rock, of which people sa that it was built by Sem ben Noah after the . proper order in which : : peop y ‘ . y . Sabjonts are to be treated, we should do with es a Sizopclogeal \] 20 Deluge. In the castle there is a cistern, which he (Sem) had digged. intend to do with all the other subjects connected with eras. H at we Others think that it was a temple built by Aldahhik for Venus. This people say that between the year of the death of Ka‘b Yeud . ower, 20 is Alfir was to be seen from the distance of 10 miles and more. It was the. your of Weetson there van laterval of 520ryears, oad wi ayy i b broken and shattered by the Oxus, and was swept away piece by piece Sen or Treason and the year of the Elephants an — of 4 ® every year, till the last remains of it had disappeared A. Alexandri ars. Yhe hoya was born 50 years after the invasion of the Bthiopians | 1305, an » ween his birth and the year of Alfijar there were 20 years At Of this dynasty was reigning at the time when the Prophet was a Suis the Prophet was present, as he has said himself: «1 was i entrusted with his divine mission— Phe . ds of Alfijir. Then I shot at my uncles.” Between 10. Arthamikh ben he vd 0 ; jar and the reconstruction of the Ka‘ba there are 15 years . Blizkar ben ih i beter the reconstruction of the Ka‘ba and the tiros . Khamgri ben Likewice th H was entrusted with his divine mission. 30 . Shawush ben I, he Timyarites and the Bant Kahtin used to date by the . Sakhr ben i g ae ris Tiare S, as the Persians by the reigns of their Kisris, . Azkijawir ben gl 2 s he reigns of their Caesars. However, the rule of . Askajamilk ben a To 1 not always proceed in complete order, and in their 3. Sakhassak ben a gy here is much confusion. Notwithstanding, we have stated 2. Baghra ben Bedi ion Pes os of their kings in our tables, as also those 1. Afrigh. cings of the Banii-Lakh i i A ose aad nd rece Bla who inhabited Hira, and were settled | When Kutaiba ben Muslim h Chorasmian Antiquities.—I ® 4 alin way the people of Elvi after the habits had rebelled, he constituted as their king— rizm proceeded. For they dated £ 3 vs Ya- 40 14. Askajamik ben : y dated from the beginning of the colonization 40 a of their country, A. 980 before Alexander Afterw ds th 0 15. Arkhjwiz hen as the epoch of an era th eThards ey adopted 12. Sabri ben I NM a the event of the coming of Siyawush ben 11. Sakhr ben ? 0 warizm, and th 1 i 5 . : ’ e rule of Kaikhusrt, and of his { 10. Arthamikh, JiR ita aa LL aes Fo a A Te — . % is 3 ———— v 3 rs SE ie “ . 1 ¥ PS gr ocsgo 3 a a sii ad conquered Khwirizm {he second time, 42 ALBIRONE. iy a a as a Shih. The descendants of the Kisras lost fas Tee po : o * Wali (the governorship), but they retained the Ny e Si x Lone hereditary among them. And they accommo- mselves i ij i Sp to o dating from the Hijra according to the use of the -— ben Muslim had extinguished and ruined in every possible vas ase who knew how to write and to read the Khwarizmi writing > 0 few the history of the country and who studied their soierns, I fae these things are involved in so much obscurity, that it is a poss! e to Sn an accurate knowledge of the history of the since i A ny e time of Islim (mot to speak of pre-Muhammadan The Wiliya (governorship) remained afterwards alternately in the ) Wild a 0 1 At A od (governorship) and Shahiyya (Shihdom), after the death of the 92. *Abfi ‘Abdallah Muhammad ben THE DIFFERENT OPINIONS OF VARIOUS NATIONS REGARDING THE KING 21. ’Ahmad ben CALLED DHO-ALKARNAINI OR BICORNUTUS. 20. Muhammad ben : “3 19. “Irik ben : We must explain in a separate chapter what people think of the bearer 18. Mansir ben of this name, of Dhi-alkarnaini, for the subject interrupts, in this 17. ‘Abdallih ben part of the course of our exposition, the order in which our chronology 16. Trrlashitha ben f would have to proceed. : : ie 15. Sha Now it has been said, that the story about him as contained in the . Shawushfar ben ‘ : dice 14. Axkaiomi Koran, is well-known and intelligible to everybody who reads the verses . Askajamik ben 0 | te Hat oe Sethi 13. AzkéjawAr ben 10 specially devoted to his history. The pith and marrow of it is this, that 12. Sabri ben he was a good and powerful man, whom God had gifted with extra- 11. Sakby ben oaatasry Ssfiony and power, Sa whose piss ‘he A cowed with 10. Arthamilih. ; ; : ! success both in east and west; he conquere cities, subdued countries, HA Bee time, a8 1 have said, the Prophet was fl reduced his subjects to submission, and united the whole empire under This | 1s Aine MUSK. 30 H his single sway. He is generally assumed to have entered the darkness is is all I could ascertain regarding the celebrated eras; to know in the north, to have seen the remotest frontiers of the inhabitable ane is impossible for a human being. God helps to the right i world, to have fought both against men and demons, to have passed i between Gog and Magog, sO as to cut off their communication, to have marched out towards the countries adjoining their territory in the east 90 and north, to have restrained and repelled their mischievous inroads by means of a wall, constructed in a mountain-pass, whence they used to pour forth. It was built of iron-blocks joined by molten brass, as is still now the practice of artisans. When Alexander, the son of Philip, Aly{néni (i.e. the Ionian, mean- ing the Greek) had united under his sway the Greek empire (lit. the empire of the Romans), which had previously consisted of single prin- cipalities, he marched against the princes of the west, overpowering and subduing them, going as far as the Green Sea. Thereupon he returned to Egypt, where he founded Alexandria, giving it his own name. Then 30 he marched towards Syria and the Israelites of the country, went down 44 ALBIRONI. to Jerusalem, sacrificed in its temple and made offerings. Thence he turned to Armenia and Béb-al’abwiab, and passed even beyond it. The Copts, Berbers, and Hebrews obeyed him. Then he marched against Dara, the son of Dari, in order to take revenge for all the wrongs which - Syria had suffered at the hands of Bukhtanassar (Nebukadnezzar) and the Babylonians. He fought with him and put him to flight several times, and in one of those battles Dara was killed by the chief of his body-guard, called Naujushanas ben Adharbakht, whereupon Alexander took possession of the Persian empire. Then he went to India and China, making war upon the most distant nations, and subduing all the tracts of country through which he passed. Thence he returned to Khurisin, conquered it, and built several towns. On returning to ‘Irak he became ill in Shahraziir, and died. In all his enterprises he acted under the guidance of philosophical principles, and in all his plans he took the advice of his teacher, Aristotle. Now, on account of all ~ this he has been thought to be Dhii-alkarnaini, or Bicornutus. As to the interpretation of this surname, people say he was called so because he reached the two “horns” of the sun, i.e. his rising and setting places, just as Ardashir Bahman was called Longimanus, because his command was omnipotent, wherever he liked, as if he had only to stretch out his hand in order to set things right. According to others he was called so because he descended from two different ¢ generations” (lit. horns) i.e. the Greeks and Persians. And on this subject they have adopted the vague opinions which the Persians have devised in a hostile spirit, viz. that Dard the Great had married his mother, a daughter of King Philip, but she had an offensive odour, which he could not endure, and so he sent her back to her father, she being pregnant ; that he was called a son of Philip, simply because the latter had educated him. This story of theirs they try to prove by the fact, that Alexander, when he reached Dari, who was expiring, put his head on his lap and spoke to him : “ O my brother, tell me, who did this to you, that I may take revenge for you?” But Alexander so addressed him only because he wanted to be kind towards him, and to represent him (Dara) and himself as brethren, it being impossible to address him as king, or to call him by his name, both of which would have betrayed a high degree of rudeness unbecoming a king. On Real and Forged Pedigrees.—However, enemies are always eager to revile the parentage of people, to detract from their reputation, and to attack their deeds and merits, in the same way as friends and partisans are eager to embellish that which is ugly, to cover up the weak parts, to proclaim publicly that which is noble, and to refer everything to great virtues, as the poet describes them in these words :— “The eye of benevolence is blind to every fault, But the eye of hatred discovers every vice.” THE KING CALLED BICORNUTUS. 45 Obstinacy in this direction frequently leads people to invent laudatory stories, and to forge genealogies which go back to glorious ancestors, as has been done, e.g. for Tbn-‘Abdalrazzik Alttisi, when he got made for himself a genealogy out of the Shihnama, which makes Lim descend from Mindsheihr, and also for the house of Buwaihi. For ’Abu-"Ishik 'Tbrahim ben Hilal Alsibi, in his book called Altdj (the crown), makes Buwaihi descend from Bahram Gir by the following line of ancestors :— I. Buwaihi. Fanakhusrii. Thaman. Kiihi. . Shirzil junior. Shirkadha. Shirzil senior. Shiranshah. Shirfana. . SasanAnshah. Sasankhurra. Shizil. 20 Sasanadhar. XIV. Bahram Gir the king. 'Abti-Muhammad Alhasan ben Al} ben NAnA in his epitome of the history of the Buwaihides, says that— I. Buwaihi was the son of FanAkhusra, the son of Thaman. Then some people continue— Thamén, the son of Kiihi, the son of 30 V. Shirzil junior; whilst others drop Kiihi. Then they continue— Shirzil senior, the son of Shiranshéih, the son of Shirfana, the son of Sasaninshéh, the son of X. Sasankhurra, the son of Shiizil, the son of Sasanddhar, the son of 40 XIII. Bahram. Further, people disagree regarding this Bahram. Those who give the Buwaihides a Persian origin, contend that he was Bahrim Gri, and continue the enumeration of his ancestors (down to the origin of the ill i bis Fas SE 46 aLBirONi. family Shsin), whilst others who give them an Arabic origin, say that he was— Bahram ben Aldahhik ben Al’abyad ben Mu‘dwiya ben Aldailam ben Basil ben Dabba ben 'Udd. Others, again, mention among the series of ancestors— LAht ben Aldailam ben Bisil, and maintain that from this name his s He, however, who considers what I of this book, as the conditio sine qud mon for the knowledge of the proper mean between disparagement and exaggeration, and the necessity of the greatest carefulness for everybody who wants to give a fair judgment, will be aware of the fact, that the first member of this family who became celebrated was Buwaihi ben Fanikhusra. And it is not at all known that those tribes were particularly careful in preserving and continuing their genealogical traditions, nor that they knew anything like this of the family Buwaihi, before they came into power. It very rarely happens that genealogies are preserved without any interruption during a long period of time. In such cases the only possible way of distinguishing a just claim to some noble descent from a false one is the agreement of all, and the assent of the whole generation in ques- tion regarding that subject. An instance of this is the lord of mankind,— I. Muhammad, for he is the son of ‘Abd-allih ben ¢Abd-almuttalib ben Hashim ben . ‘Abd-Manaf ben Kusayy ben Kilab ben Murra ben Ka‘b ben . Lu’ayy ben Ghalib ben Fihr ben Malik ben Alnadr ben on Layéhaj derived his name. have laid down at the beginning THE KING CALLED BICORNUTUS. XV. Kindna ben Khuzaima ben Mudrika ben "Tlyas ben Mudar ben XX. Nizér ben Ma‘add ben XXII. ‘Adnan. Nobody in the world doubts this lineage of ancestors, as they do not 10 doubt either, that he descends from Ishmael, the son of Abraham. The ancestry beyond Abraham is to be found in the Thora. However regarding the link of parentage between ‘Adnan and Ishmael there is . considerable divergence of opinions, inasmuch as some people consider as the father the person whom others take for the son, and vice versd and as they add considerably in some places, and leave out in others. Further as to our master, the commander, the prince, the glorious and victorious, the benefactor, Shams-alma‘dli, may God give him a long life, not one of his friends, whom may God help, nor any of his opponents, whom may God desert, denies his noble and ancient descent, 90 well established on both sides, although his pedigree back to the origin of his princely family has not been preserved without any interruption. On the one side he descends from Wardinshih, whose nobility is well-known throughout Ghilan; and this prince had a son, besides the prince, the martyr Mardawij. People say, that the son of Wardéin- shah obeyed the orders of ’Asfir ben Shirawaihi, and that it was he who suggested to him (his brother Mardawij) the idea of delivering the people from the tyranny and oppression of 'Asfar. On the other side he descends from the kings of Media, called the Ispahbads of Khurisin and the Farkhwérjarshihis. And it has never been denied 30 that those among them, who belonged to the royal house of Persia, claimed to have a pedigree which unites them and the Kisriis into one family. For his uncle is the Ispahbad— I. Rustam ben @*y> ben Rustam ben Kérin ben V. Shahryir ben @y* ben Surkhéb ben s\ ben Shéapir ben X. Kayfis ben XI. Kubadh, who was the father of Andshirwin. May God give to our master the empire from east and west over all ¥ = ea I, ~~ ie Kons tsp A Arb 300 AA i sin” 4 4 j A 48 ALBIRONI. s he has assigned him a noble origin on both to do it, and all good comes from him. £ Khurisin. For nobody contests the the parts of the world, a sides. God’s is the power The same applies to the kings 0 fact, that the first of this dynasty — 1. ’Isméa‘il was the son of ’Ahmad ben ’Asad ben SAman-khudéh ben V. ss ben w\asib ben Sse ben Bahram Shiibin ben IX. Bahram Jushanas, baijan. the commander of the marches of Adhar- The same applies further to the original Shihs of Khwérizm, who belonged to the royal house (of Persia), and to the Shihs of Shirwén, because it is believed by common consent, that they are descendants of the Kisras, although their pedigree has not been preserved uninterruptedly. The fact that claims to some noble lineage, and also to other matters, are just and well founded, always becomes known somehow or other, 20 even if people try to conceal it, being like musk, which spreads its odour, although it be hidden. Under such circumstances, therefore, if people want to settle their genealogy, it is not necessary to spend money and to make presents, as ‘Ubaid-allih ben Alhasan ben Ahmad ben ¢Abdallah ben Maimfin Alkaddih did to the genealogists among the party of the Alides, when they declared his claim of descent from them to be a lie, at the time when he came forward in Maghrib ; finally he succeeded in contenting them and in making them silent. Notwithstanding the truth is well known to the student, although the fabricated tale has been far spread, and although his descendants are powe any contradiction. That one of them, who reigns in our time, is ’Abi- ‘Ali ben Nizar ben Ma‘add ben ’Ismé‘il ben Muhammad ben “Ubaid- allah the usurper. I have enlarged on this su people are to those whom they like, and how hostile towards those whom they hate, so that frequently their exaggeration in either direction leads to the discovery of their infamous designs. That Alexander was the son of Philip is a fact, too evident to be His pedigree is stated by the most celebrated genealogists bject only in order to show how partial concealed. in this way :— 1. is Philip, »re owe Hermes, oP rful enough to suppress 30 THE KING CALLED BICORNUTUS. V. sere Meton. © «*» Rome. we we Yinén. «aly Yifeth. . Oey &veyy Riimiya. by Byzantium. Joy Theophil. «*y Rome. XV. jolt Alagfar. yt Elifaz. =\ Esau. Sa! Isaak. XIX. wont Abraham. According to another tradition Dhi-alkarnaini was a man, called SP who marched against Simirus, one of the kings of Babel di ” with him, made him a prisoner and killed him; then he srl a OE the skin of his head together with his hair and his. two Ie tanned, and used it as a crown. Therefore, he was called Phila ini (Bicornutus). According to another version he is identi al vith Almundhir ben Ma-alsam4, i.e. Almundhir ben Imru’ulkais iti Some gs Loy go opinions are afloat segurding the bearer : s name, that, e.g., his mother was a dem ich is Ii i believed of Bilkis, for people say that her I TA Lee ‘Abdallah ben Hilal the juggler, for he was thought to be tho ir son-in-law, being married to his daughter. Such ad similar ridi He : stories people produce, and they are far known. KEY It is related, that ‘Umar ben Alkhattib, when he heard one day peopl entering into a profound discussion on Dhii-alkarnaini, said « Was it n . enough for you, to plunge into the stories on Vann bela 8 ot pe must pass into another field and draw the angels into the on Dn Some say, as Ibn Duraid mentions in his Kitib-alwishih, that Dh alkarnaini was Alsa‘b ben Alhammal Alhimyari, whilst ollicy take I on for ’Abti-karib Shammar Yur¢sh ben ’Ifrikis Alhimyari, and i that he was called so on account of two curls which “in dow Ga his shoulders, that he reached the east and west of as iss A traversed its north and south, that he subdued the Sonttriee, io reduced the people to complete subjection. It is this prince about a one of the princes of Yaman, ’As‘ad ben ‘Amr ben Rabi‘a ben Mi lik ben Subaih ben ‘Abdallih ben Zaid ben Yasir ben Yun‘im Alhi in boasts in his poems, in which he says: — a. « Dhii-alkarnaini was before me, a true believer, an exalted king on p. 41 the earth, never subject to anybody. 4 EL sa TY Tr I rd os pe. I -, ps ArBiRONS. ' He went to the countries of the east and west, always seeking imperial power from a liberal and bountiful (Lord). Then he saw the setting-place of the sun, at, the time when he sets in the well of fever-water and of badly smelling mud. Before him there was Bilkis, my aunt, until her empire came to an end by the hoopoo.” to me that of all these versions the last is the true one, | because the princes, whose names begin with the word Dh, occur only ii in the history of Yaman and nowhere else. Their names are always a ut compound, the first part of which is the word Dh, e.g., Dhii-almanar, 10 Dhii-Jadan, Dhi-Yazan, oi | Dhi-al’adhtr, Dhi-alshanitir, Dhi-Nuwis, in and others. Besides, the traditions regarding this Yaman prince, Dhi- alkarnaini, resemble very much that which is related of him in the Koran. As to the rampart which he constructed between the two walls, it must be stated that the wording of the Koran does not indicate its We learn, however, from the geographical works, as Jighrifiya and the Ttineraria (the books called Masilik wa- mamdlik, i.e. Itinera et regna), that this nation, viz. YAjlj and Maju] are a tribe of the eastern Turks, who live in the most southern parts of the 5th and 6th xAipara. ‘Besides, Muhammad ben Jarir Altabari 20 relates in his chronicle, that the prince of Adharbaijin, at the time when the country was conquered, had sent a man to find the rampart, from the direction of the country of the Khazars, that this man saw the rampart, and described it as a very lofty building of dark colour, situated behind a moat of solid structure and impregnable. ‘Abdallah ben ‘Abdallih ben Khurdadhbih relates, on the authority of the Khalif, that Almu‘tagim dreamt one endered accessible). There- Ni ‘ Now it seems t : geographical situation. the dragoman at the court of night, that this rampart had been opened (r Ran fore he sent out fifty men to inspect it. They set out from the road 1) which leads to Bab-al’abwib, and to the countries of the Lin and 30 Khazar; finally they arrived at the rampart, and found that it was con- structed of iron tiles, joined together by molten brass, and with a bolted Ei gate. Its garrison consisted of people of the neighbouring countries. | Then they returned, and the guide led them out into the district opposite Samarkand. From these two reports, it is ev 1b situated in the north-west quarter o I especially in this latter report, there is something which renders its authenticity doubtful, viz. the description of the inhabitants of that country, that they are Muslims and speak Arabic, although they are 40 without the slightest connection with the civilized world, from which they are separated by a black, badly smelling country of the extent of many days’ travelling; further, that they were totally ignorant as to both Khalif and the Khalifate. Whilst we know of no other Muslim nation which is separated from the territory of Isldm, except the ident that the rampart must be f the inhabitable earth. However, THE KING CALLED BICORNUTUS. 51 Bulghar and the Sawér, who live towards the end of the civilized world in the most northern part of the 7th xA{jua. And these people do ok make the least mention of such a rampart, and they are well acquainted with the Khalifate and the Khalifs, in whose name they read pa th Khutba ; they do not speak Arabic, but a language of their own : mixture of Turkish and Khazari. If, therefore, this report rests '- testimonies of this sort, we do not wish to investigate thereby the truth of the subject. y b Mion: it I wished to propound regarding Dhi-alkarnaini. Allih p- 42. aa Te a F gE fe AAA rr ; i i EE reo a i a— ALBiRONT. CHAPTER V. » THE MONTHS WHICH ARE USED IN THE PRE ERAS. ON THE NATURE oO CEDING HererororE I have mentioned already that every nation uses a special they differ in the use of the ora of its own. And in the same degree as eras, they differ regarding the beginning of the months, regarding the number of days of each of them, and the reasons assigned therefor. Of this subject, I mention what I have learnt, and do not attempt to find out what I do not know for certain, and regarding which I have no information from a trustworthy person. And first we give the months of the Persians. Months of the Persians.—The number of the months of one year ‘0 his book (Sura ix. 36): « With God the is twelve, as God has said 1 number of the months was twelve months, in the book of God, on the d the earth.” On this subject day when God created the heavens an there is no difference of opinion between the nations, except in the leap- So the Persians have twelve months of the following names :— Farwardin Mah. Mihr Mah. Ardibahisht Mah. Abén Mah. Khurdadh Mah. Adhar Mah. Tir Mah. Dai Mih. Murdadh Mah. Bahman Mih. Shahréwar Mah. IsfandArmadh Mah. years. I have heard the geometrician Abt Said ben ‘Abd-aljalil Alsijzi relating of the ancien that they called these months with Farwardin Mah. The names are these— I. 3 IL JW 2) Wp\eS ’Ahmad ben Muhammad t inhabitants of Sijistan, by other names and commenced likewise ON THE NATURE OF MONTHS. V. Vy IX. Yhusiy Ure ntl »¥ oss phe XII. Every one of the Persian months has 30 days, and to each day of a p.43 month the i a : . aaNet y give a special name In their language. These are the I. Hurmuz. XI. Khir. XXI. Rim Bahman. Mah. Badh Ardibahisht. Tir. Dai-ba-din Shahréwar. Gosh. Din ! Isfandarmadh. Dai-ba-mihr. Ard . Khurdadh. XVI. Mihr. XXVL Ashtadh Murdadh. Srosh. Asman : Dai-ba-ddhar. Rashn. Zamyidh Adhar. Farwardin. Mirasfand Abén. Bahrim. Anirin. : There is no difference among the Persians as to the names of these days; they are the same for every month, and they follow in the same order. Only the days Hurmuz and Anirin are called by some, the former Farrukh, the latter Bih-roz. : The sum total of the days is 360, whilst, as we have already observed heretofore, the real year (i.e. the mean solar or tropical year) has 365% days. Those additional five days they called Famji (Panji) and Andargih, arabized Andarjih ; they are also called Almasrika and Almus- taraka (i.e. fpuépar khompaiar), on account of their mot being reckoned as part of any one of the months. They added them between Abin Mah and Adhar Mah, and gave them names, which are different from those of the days of each month. These names I never read in two books nor heard them from two men, in the same way ; they are these— I saat IL saat IIL saad IV. s\Shessau) V. sSKaxig In another book I found them in the following form: I Syl IL Syzal III. dessa IV, pial V. cdi, The author of tdb- A'1 amuli gi aw or of the Kitdb-alghurra, Aln#’ib Alimuli gives them these L dp IL Syl IIL. dessant IV. page, VV. cdigede, ZAdawaihi ben Shihawaihi in his book on th : e causes of th i of the Persians, mentions them in this form— : imi I ag sae IL 835) qed IIL xed! squid IV. BL) Sapid ¥. 2S) Saud EE wp er Sal a — ES notre - REE ———— SE i Coca ie = EE TERE - * abi um by ) A } 4 ALBIRONI. a — rrr” er ON THE NATURE OF MONTHS. 59 i we flowers was put before the Kisrds, and likewise a special drink, in a well regulated order, regarding which there was no difference of opinion. I myself heard 'Abti-alfaraj ben Ahmad ben Khalaf Alzanjini say ET oe sg mp that the Mobad in Shiraz had dictated them to him in this form— I 8Sopat IL spat IIL Shared IV. 8\Saiagmy V. dSetypidd, And lastly, I have heard them from the geometrician ’Abti-alhasan Adharkhuri, the son of Yazdankhasis, in this form— I. dp II. Syl TIT. (geste! IV. piatd, (Ahunavaiti.) (Ustavaiti.) (Spentdmainyu.) (Vohukhshathra.) V. cdpindy (Vahistbisti.) The sum total of their days, therefore, was 365. The quarter of a 10 day (beyond the 365 days) they neglected in their computation, till these quarters of a day had summed up to the days of one complete month, which happened in 120 years. Then they added this month to the other months of the year, so that the number of its months became thirteen. This month they called Kabisa (intercalary month). And the days of this additional month they called by the same names as those of the other months. In this mode the Persians. proceeded till the time when both their empire and their religion perished. Afterwards the day-quarters were neglected, and the years were no longer intercalated with them, and, 20 therefore, they did not return to their original condition, and remained considerably behind the fixed points of time (i.e. real time). The reason was this that intercalation was an affair settled under the special patronage of their kings at a meeting of the mathematicians, literary celebrities, historiographers, and chroniclers, priests, and judges,—on the basis of an agreement of all those regarding the correctness of the calculation, after all the persons I have mentioned had been summoned to the royal court from all parts of the empire, and after they had held councils in order to come to an agreement. On this occasion money was spent profusely to such an extent, that a man who made a low estimate 30 said, the cost had sometimes amounted to one million of denars. This same day was observed as the most important and the most glorious of all festivals; it was called the Feast of Intercalation, and on that day the king used to remit the taxes to his subjects. The reason why they did not add the quarter of a day every fourth year as one complete day to one of the months or to the Epagomenz, was this, that according to their views, not the days, but only the months are liable to being intercalated, because they had an aversion to increasing the number of the days; this was impossible by reason of the pre- scription of the law regarding the days on which zamzama (whispering 40 prayer) must be said, if it is to be valid. If the number of days be increased by an additional day (the order of the days of zamzama according to the law, is disturbed). It was a rule that on each day a special sort of odoriferous plants and The reason why they put the Epagomenz at the end of Abéan Mah, between this month and Adhar Méh (lacuna). The Persians believe that the beginning of their year was fixed by the creation of the first man, and that this took place on the day Hurmuz of Farwardin Mah, whilst the sun stood in the point of the vernal equinox in the middle of heaven. This occurred at the beginning of the seventh millenium, according to their view of the millennia of the world. The astrologers hold similar opinions, viz. that Cancer is the horo- scope of the world. For in the first cycle of Sindhind the sun stands in the beginning of Aries above the middle between the two ends of the inhabitable world. In that case, Cancer is the horoscope, which sign according to their tenets, as we have mentioned, signifies the commence- ment of rotation and growth. Others say, that Cancer was called the horoscope of the world, because of all the zodiacal signs, it stands nearest to the zenith of the inhabit- able world, and because in the same sign is the Sopa of Jupiter, which is a star of moderate nature ; and as no growth is possible, except when moderate heat acts upon moist substances, it (i.e. Cancer) is fit to be the horoscope of the growth of the world. According to a third view, Cancer was called so, because by its creation the creation of the four elements became complete, and by their becoming complete all growth became complete. And other comparisons besides of a similar kind are brought forward by the astrologers. Further, people relate: When Zoroaster arose and intercalated the years with the months, which up to that time had summed up from the day-quarters, time returned to its original condition. Then he ordered people in all future times to do with the day-quarters the same as he had done, and they obeyed his command. They did not call the inter- calary month by a special name, nor did they repeat the name of another month, but they kept it simply in memory from one turn to another. Being, however, afraid that there might arise uncertainty as to the place, where the intercalary month would have again to be inserted, they transferred the five Epagomens and put them at the end of that month, to which the turn of intercalation had proceeded on the last occasion of intercalating. And as this subject was of great importance and of general use to high and low, to the king and to the subjects, and as it is required to be treated with knowledge, and to be carried out in conformity with nature (i.e. with real time), they used to postpone intercalation, when its time happened to occur at a period when the condition of the empire was disturbed by calamities ; then they neglected li ——————— AI A Ans et SAAN wisi in a lS a ET ll A TE 50 ALBIRON. ON THE NATURE OF MONTHS. 57 intercalation so long, until the day-quarters summed up to two months. Some people give the day ps the name ye. The names of the five Or, on the other hand, they anticipated intercalating the year at once by : Epagomense are the following :— two months, when they expected that at the time of the next coming Lowe ILgw WL IV. wily V i intercalation circumstances would distract their attention therefrom, as ye ¢ 2 * O° s LRA it has been done in the time of Yazdajird ben Sabir, for no other motive but that of precaution. That was the last intercalation which they carried out, under the superintendence of a Dasttir, called Yazdajird AlhizAri. Hizar was an estate in the district of Istakhr in Fars, from which he received his name. In that intercalation the turn had come to Those Svs days they sdd at the 4 of the Tub moti apts, Aban Mah; therefore, the Epagomenz were added at its end, and : : : ‘ , ’ : : : The Sughdian system of intercalation agreed with the practice of the there they have remained ever since OR account of their neglecting - : : : os . intercalation Persians, as also did their neglecting intercalation. The reason why Months of the Sogdians.—Now I shall mention the wonths of the Cie arose a difference between the beginnings of the Sughdian and the 4 ° Se . ersian years I shall describe hereafter. Magians of Transoxiana, the people of Khwirizm and of Sughd. Their : Nida Months of the Chorasmians.—The Khwirizmians, although a months have the same number, and the same number of days as those ‘ ‘ ct : os : branch of the great tree of the Persian nation, imitated the Sughdians of the Persians. Only between the beginning of the Persian and the os : : Som : as to the beginning of the year and the place where they add the Transoxanian months there 1s a difference, because the Transoxamians : : Epagomenz. These are the names of their months— append the five Epagomenz to the end of their year, and commence the Cid year with the 6th day of the. Persian month Farwardin, Khurdadhroz. bo of Ley yi rs) So the beginning of the months is different until Adhar Mah ; afterwards 20 PSY gyre? astyS) gl) @Upeal gob they have the same beginnings. | ry Hogs ey, Saeed gy) | SHH pee pS Sigil i ——— A ATS Hossa Regarding these names the same difference exists among the Sugh- dians as among the Persians. They are also called by the following names :— 1 Oya { & Oya IIT. yy IV. Sle V. 30jye ils, sacri, od RTT ar as oT Rasen These are the names of the months of the Sughdians. I Syup of 30 d VIL. ;\% of 30 d Saxe SN LP . Spy of 30 days. + 3% 01 30 days. | Sprte) prisgh (sel) y ”» = ) . ; ap Ts ’ Others abbreviate these names and use them in this form— St a Egle | L (pleV VIL (ope) tase lal ” Vows ve gti iit hs re 2 = op Some people add a Jim (z) at the end of s and eyte, and pronounce RIRVY rt) os and gregdy they add a Nin and a Jim (gg) at the end of <\wy 30 TY a sylaie) and ‘ae; and pronounce S\ and goa). They call each day by a : special name, as is the custom with the Persians. These are the names The thirty days they call by the following names :— 10. ye 21. oY Ele of the thirty days— 12. 22. 3 . O% 11. 21. % 12. 7 22. ig . Gatiy) 13. p= 23. p30 eto) 13. (ad 23. cams hr : be hy 24 oo Ao & . ) “ . 9 . a gl 15 2 25. 4) RI 17. wih : a9 16. hse 26. Sx 2 1 ol 2 gh Spe 17. Foye 27. (y= +) Cw . BY, Gow 18. gy 28. Sep » " 19. way 20. Aisye oa 19. 29. itd » gf 20. oR 30. & 20. pha 30. y% I have found that they begin the Epagomens, which are appended at oor 0010 © © WN CEG; @N- pt pd ec i 58 ALBIRONI. the end of the month Ispandirmaji, with the same name by which they begin the days of the month; the second day they call Azmin, the third Ardawasht, and so on till the fifth day Ispandarmaji. Then they return and commence anew with the first day op, the lst of the month NAwasérji. They do not use or even know special names for the Epagomen, but I believe that this fact simply arises from the same confusion, regarding these names, which prevails among the Persians and Sughdians. For after Kutaiba ben Muslim Albahili had killed their learned men and priests, and had burned their books and writings, they became entirely illiterate (forgot writing and reading), and relied in every knowledge or science which they required solely upon memory. . In the long course of time they forgot that on which there had been a divergence of opinion, and kept by memory only that which had been generally agreed upon. But Allah knows best ! As to the three identical names of days (the 8th, 15th, and 23rd,— Dai in Persian, Dast in Sughdian, Dadhi in Khwarizmian), the Persians refer them to the following, and compound them with these, saying Dai-ba-Adar, and Dai-ba-Mihr, and Dai-ba-Din. Of the Sughdians and Khwarizmians some do the same, and others connect the words in their language for “the first, the second, the third,” with each of them. In the early times of their empire the Persians did not use the week. For, first, it was in use among the nations of the west, and more particu- larly among the people of Syria and the neighbouring countries, because there the prophets appeared and made people acquainted with the first week, and that in it the world had been created, in conformity with the beginning of the Thora. From these the use of the week spread to the other nations. The pure Arabians adopted the week in consequence of the vicinity of their country to that of the Syrians. We have not heard that anybody has imitated the example of the Persians, Sughdians, and Khwéarizmians, and has adopted their usage (of giving special names to the thirty days of the month, instead of dividing them into weeks), except the Copts, ie. the ancient inhabitants of Egypt. For they, as we have mentioned, used the names of the thirty days till the time when Augustus, the son of Gajus, ruled over them. He wanted to induce them to intercalate the years, that they might always agree with the Greeks and the people of Alexandria. Into this subject, however, it would be necessary to inquire more closely. At that time precisely five years were wanting till the end of the great inter- calation period. Therefore, he waited till five years of his rule had elapsed, and then he ordered people to intercalate one day in the months in every fourth year, in the same way as the Greeks do. Thereupon they dropped the use of the names of the single days, because, as people say, those who used and knew them would have required to invent a name for the intercalary day. They (the names of the days of the month) have not been handed down to posterity. ON THE NATURE OF MONTHS. 59 Months of the Egyptians.—The following are the names of their months :— I. Thot 30 days. VII. Phamenoth 30 days. Paophi 30 Pharmuthi 30 Athyr 30 Pachon 30 Choiak 30 Payni 30 Tybi 30 Epiphi 30 Mechir 30 Li 30 These are the ancient names of the months. In the following we give 10 the names which were modernized by one of their princes, after inter- calation had been adopted :— I wy VIL wl\gep &\ 8d pep re ae «gS Gy dygb at yoo) Sy Some people call the months «less, wlan, ms, and (spe by the names &\sS, bygop, wie and (gyele. These are the forms on which 20 people agree; in some books, however, these names are found in forms 30 somewhat different from those we have mentioned. The five additional days they call, 'Ewayopéva, which means “the small month ;’ they are appended at the end of Mesori, and at the same place the intercalary day is added, in which case the Epagomenz are six days. The leap-year they call 531, which means “ the sign.” Months of the People of the West.— Abii-al‘abbis Alamuli relates in his Kitdb-dald’il-alkibla, that the Western people (of Spain?) use months, the beginnings of which agree with those of the Coptic months. They call them by the following names :— I. May 30 days. VII. November 30 days. June 30 December 30 July 30 January 30 August 30 February 30 September 30 March 30 October 30 April 30 Then follow the five Epagomene at the end of the year. Months of the Greeks.—The months of the Greeks are always twelve in number. Their names are these :— I. Tavovdpios 31 days. IV. Ampikis 30 days. ®efSpovdpios 28 ,, Mais 31 Mdprios 31 .,, Tovvios 30 wr BE I — Rr 60 ALBIRONT. | X. *OkroBpros 31 days. Noéufpros 30 5 Aexép pros 81 VIL. 'TotAwos 31 days. Adyovaros 381 SerréuBpros 30 5, The sum of the days of their year is 365, and as in all four years the | four quarters of a day are summed up, they append it as one complete day to the month February, so that this month has in every fourth year 29 days. He who first induced people to intercalate the years was Julius, called Dictator, who ruled over them in bygone times, long before Moses. He gave them the months with such a distribution (of the days), and with such names as we have mentioned. He induced 10 | them to intercalate the day-quarters into them (the months) in every k 1461st year, when the day-quarters had summed up to one complete So that (this intercalation) preserved these (the months, keeping i 1 them in agreement with real time). This intercalation they called the “great one,” after they had called the intercalation, which takes place every four years, the “ small one.” This “ small ”” intercalation, however, they did not introduce until a long period had elapsed after the death of the king (Julius Cmsar). A characteristic of their system is the division of the days of the months into weeks, for reasons which we EB have mentioned before. The author of the Kitdb-ma khadh-almawdkit (method for the deduc- tion of certain times and dates) thinks that the Greeks and other nations, who are in the habit of intercalating the day-quarter, had fixed the sun’s entering Aries upon the beginning of April, which corresponds to the Syrian Nisin, as the beginning of their era. And we confess that in his account he comes pretty near the truth. For astronomical observa- tion has taught that the fraction which follows the (365) days of the solar year, is less than one complete quarter of a day, and we ourselves have observed that the sun’s entering the first part of Aries precedes Therefore that which he mentions is possible, year. the beginning of Nisin. 30 and even likely. 3s Further on he says, speaking of the Greeks, that « they, on perceiving that the beginning of their year had changed its place, had recourse to the years of the Indians ; that difference between the two years (viz., year), and that in consequence the sun’s entering : again took place at the beginning of Nisin. If we on our side do the same, Nisin returns to its original place.” He has tried to give an example, but has not finished it, being incapable of doing so. On this occasion he has shown his ignorance, as he, in his account of the Greeks, 40 has also rendered it evident that he is inimical to the Greeks, and partial to others. The fact is, that according to the Indian system he has con- verted the difference between the Greek year and the solar year into fractions, putting it down as 729 seconds. Then he changes also the day the Greek year and the solar they then intercalated into their year the } the first part of Aries N 10 20 30 40 ON THE NATURE OF MONTHS. 61 into seconds, and divides them by that difference. So he gets 118 years 6 months and 62 days. This would be the space of time in which the calendar would necessitate the intercalation of one complete day, on account of this plus-difference. Further, he says, “ Now, if we inter- calate the past years of the Greek era,” which were at his time 1,225 years, “ the sun’s entering the first part of Aries again takes place at the beginning of Nisin.” But he has dropped his example, and has not intercalated the years. If he had done so, his conclusions would have led to the contrary of what he says and maintains, and the beginning of Nisin would come near the sun’s entering the first part of Taurus. For that date, which he wanted to treat as an example, would necessitate the intercalation of 101 days. Now the Greek year being too short (according to him), the beginning of Nisin precedes the sun’s entering the first part of Aries, and the time which it would be necessary to intercalate (portio intercalanda), would have to be added to the first of Nisin, so as to proceed as far as tothe 10th of it. Now I should like to know which equinox this man, who is so partial to the Indians, meant. For the vernal equinox took place according to their system at that time six or seven days before the first of Nisin. I should further like to know at what time the Greeks did what he relates of them. For they are so deeply imbued with, and so clever in geometry and astronomy, and they adhere so strictly to logical arguments, that they are far from having recourse to the theories of those who derive the bases of their knowledge from divine inspiration, when their artifices desert them and they are required to come forward with an argument ; not to mention the sciences of philosophy and theology, physics and arts, cultivated among the Greeks. “ However, everybody acts according to his own mode, and each community enjoys what they have got of their own.” (Stra xvii. 86.) That man had not read the Almagest, and had not compared it with the most famous book of the Indians, called the Canon Sindhind. The difference between them must be evident to anybody in whom the slightest spark of sagacity is left. To something similar Hamza ben Alhasan Alisfahani has applied him- self in his treatise on the Naurdz, at the time when he was partial to the Persian mode of treating the solar year, because they reckoned it as 365 days and 6.55 hours, while the Greeks neglected in their intercala- tion the fraction following the six hours. As a proof he adduced that Muhammad ben Msi ben Shikir, the astronomer, had explained this “subject, and had enlarged on it in one of his books on the solar year, and that he had produced the arguments for it, and pointed out the errors of the ancients, who had held erroneous views in this respect. Now, we have examined the astronomical observations of Muhammad ben Misi, and of his brother ’Ahmad, and we have found that they prove only that these fractions are less than six hours. The book, to which Alisfahani refers, is attributed to Thabit ben Kurra, because he p- 52. & 4 ilssiowims msi — ny — “ A BE a -t cole YY aii. LR} | } ‘ 1 t HH LB ’ ¥ p- 53. 62 ALBIRONT. of those people, entirely mixed up with them, and because was a protégé kL rk. He had collected it was he who polished for them their scientific wo ot Tw the materials of this book with the object o* A OB 1 1 to each other, 0 olar years not being always equa i of the apogee. With all this he was compelled to am ie circles, and equal motions along with their i ih 3 on i But he did not find eq > thereby the mean motion of the sun. , i i tric plane, described (viz. the except those which move in an excentric i a i ithin 1 :ch point is assumed exclusively round a point within it, which Pp Ty is ci ht for, extends the six hours by circles. And this circle, which was sought 10T, © ours iti i je. its tl ¢ revolution is 365 days 0 additional fractions (i.e. its time 0 a } lated. However, such a circle 18 nv fraction), as Hamza has relate et have defined already, tha ’ olar year, for the solar year 1s, as We AY all natural occurrences which are liable to growth and to decay return to their original condition. Jewish Months.—The Hebrews and all the Je related to Moses, have the following twelve months :— VI. Tishri of 30 days. Marheshwin of 29 Kislew of 30 Tébeth of 29 Shefat (Shebhat) of 30 of 29 ws, who claim to be I. Nisin of 30 days. Jvar of 29 Siwan of 30 Tammbz of 29 Abh of 30 A Elal of 29 » Adhir heir days is 354, being identical with the number of days of the lunar year. If they simply used as at Wy a \ d the number ol thel the sum of the days of their year and a be identical. However, after having st Pon jor wl Sage i laves of the Egyptians, 1-tih, after baving ceased to be the s poe delivered from their oppression, and hogeiins wasind fae 5 i i dinances an e laws > them, the Israelites received the or ver in the second book of the Thora. And this event took ple in the night of the 15th Nisin at full moon and spin] ims y 85 5 . - . . t is said in the second boo were ordered to observe this day, as 1 ui ii gM hall observe this day as an or Thora (Exodus x11. 17,18): “Yes Rap. p teenth of the first mont. y to your generations for ever on the four h of gh \ ih * re month” the Lord does not mean Tishri, but Nisan [hn the same book he commands Moses and Aaron, that the mon : “ir ol over should be the first of their months, and the beginning 0 y (Exodus xii. 2). “ ; Further, Moses spake unto the people: came out from bondage. Therefore ye shall not ” logvoned Ii <8 » seq > .« day in that month when the trees blossom. n con a use the solar year and the lunar months ; the solar ere compelled to ! ont] Ne in i that the 14th Nisan should fall in the beginning of spring, The sum total of t « Remember the day when ye 40 ON THE NATURE OF MONTHS. 63 when the leaves of the trees and the blossoms of the fruit trees come forth’; the lunar months in order that, on the same day, the body of the moon should be lit up completely, standing in the sign of Libra. And as the time in question would naturally advance for a certain number of days (the sum of the days of twelve lunar months not being a complete year), it was necessary for the same reason to append to the other months those days, as soon as they made up one complete month. They added these days as a complete month, which they called the First Adhdr, whilst they called the original month of this name the Second Adhdr, because of its following immediately behind its namesake. The leap-year they called ‘Ibbir (M2Y), which is to be derived from Me‘ubbereth DAN); meaning in Hebrew, “a pregnant woman.” For they compared ‘the insertion of the supernumerary month into the year, to a woman’s bearing in her womb a foreign organism. According to another opinion, the First Adhir is the original month, the name of which without any addition was used in the common year, and the Second Adhar is to be the leap-month, in order that it should have its place at the end of the year, for this reason, that according to the command of the Thérd, Nisin was to be the first of their months. This, however, is not the case. That the Second Adhér is the original month, is evident from the fact, that its place and length, the number of its days, the feast- and fast-days which occur in it, are not liable to any changes. And of all these days nothing whatsoever occurs in the First Adhér of a leap-year. Further, they make it a rule that, during the Second Adhér, the sun should always stand in the sign of Pisces, whilst in the First Adhér of a leap-year he must be in the sign of Amphora. Five Cycles.—Now for the leap-years they wanted a certain principle of arrangement as a help to facilitate their practical use. Therefore they looked out for cycles which were based upon solar years, consisting 30 of lunar months. Of those cycles they found the following five: — I. The cycle of 8 years consisting of 99 months, of which there are 3 leap-months. II. The cycle of 19 years, called the Minor Cycle, consisting of 235 months, of which there are 7 leap-months. IIL. The cycle of 76 years, consisting of 940 months, of which there are 28 leap-months. IV. The cycle of 95 years, called the Middle Cycle, consisting of 1,176 months, of which there are 35 leap-months. V. The cycle of 532 years, called the Major Cycle, consisting of 6,580 40 months, of which there are 196 leap-months. Of these cycles they choose that one, the observation of which would be the easiest and simplest. This quality is peculiar to the cycles of 8 and of 19 years, with this difference, however, that the latter one agrees RAI SR - 64 ALBIRONE. more closely with solar years. For this cycle contains, according to them, 6,939 days 165% hours. Those small particles of an hour they call Halaks (DW 71), of which 1,080 make one hour. If, therefore, you have got minutes, i.e. the 60th parts of an hour, and you want to change them into Halaks, you multiply them by 18, and you get the corre- sponding number of Halaks. And if you want the converse operation, you multiply the number of Halaks by 200, and you get a sum of thirds of an hour (i.e. the 60th parts of a second); these fractions you can then raise to wholes. Now, if we reduce this cycle (of 19 years) to fractions and change it into Halaks, we get the following sum of Halaks:— 179,876,755, expressed in Indian ciphers. The solar year is, according to them, 365 days 53734 hours long ; this latter fraction is nearly identical with 990 Halaks. If we now also reduce the solar year into Halaks, we get the sum of— 9,467,190 Halaks. If you finally divide by this number the number of the Halaks of the cycle of 19 years, you get as the quotient, 19 solar years, with a remainder of 145 Halaks, which is nearly the 7th part of an hour and a fraction. If we perform the same operation with the cycle of 8 years containing 2,923 days 12 hours and 747 Halaks, we get as the sum of its Halaks the number— 75,777,867 If we divide this sum by the sum of the Halaks of the solar year, we get 8 solar years, and a remainder of 1 day 13 hours and 387 Halaks, which is nearly + +3 (i.e. 5) hour. Hence it is evident that the cycle of 19 years comes nearest to real time, and is the best of all cycles which have been used. The other cycles are simply composed of duplications of the cycle of 19 years. Therefore the Jews preferred this cycle, and regulated thereby inter- calation. The three Ordines Intercalationis.—Now, although they agreed on the quality of the year as to the order of intercalation in the Mahzor (q3rm cycle), when it has to take place, and when not, they differed among each other regarding the nature of the beginning of the Mahzors. And this has also produced a difference regarding the order of inter- calation in the Mahzor. For some take the current year of the Ara Adami, of which you want to know whether it is a common year or a leap-year, and reduce the number of years to Mahzérs by dividing them by 19; then you get complete Mahzors, and as a remainder, the years of the Mahzor not yet finished, including the current year. And then the order of the leap-years is fixed according to the formula F32072 i.e. the 2nd, 5th, 7th, 10th, 13th, 16th, and 18th years. ON THE NATURE OF MONTHS. 65 Others take the years of the same Ara Adami, subtract one year, and fix the order of he leap-years in the remainder of the years of the imoemplets Megs according to the formula y=yyayays @-€. the 1st, 4th , 9th, 12th, 15th, 17th years. These t o the SS 1 wo cycles are attributed to the Others again subtract from the sum of years two years, and compute tas ora of oe leap-years by the formula yayamy, i.e. the 3rd, 5th —349), 8th, 11th, 14th (5+343+3), 16th (16=14 a (19=16 +3) years. : iii This latter mode of arrangement is the most extensively diffused among the Jews; they prefer it to others, because they attribute its invention to the Babylonians. All three modes of computation are to be traced back to one and the same principle, on which there cannot be any difference of opinion, as is illustrated by the following circular The small circle contains the formula A202 The larger circle the formula TTALYIN The largest circle the formula mann freee BRE AE n i nines ol ——— A A inl ee FA cs ce “ r———————— 1 = 5 a = x a ar 3 Ry ee ———————— SE ——————————— a i I ar a— _ second circle, the formula rN; © 66 arpirONi. The first (outer) circle indicates the quality of the year, whether it is a common year or a leap-year. The three other circles contain the three formule, indicating the order of the leap-years in the Mahzors ; the he third circle, the formula and the inner circle, the formula yawaX: The cycles which we have mentioned hitherto, are derived from the though not exclusively. The solar cycle consists of 28 years, what days of the week the solar years com- 365 days without the quarter- PIAL moon, and serves to indicate on mence. For if the J ewish year had simply the beginning of the year would in every seven years return to the they are intercalated once in four years, the beginning does not re t in 28 years, i.e. 4x 7 years. Likewise the other cycles, heretofore mentioned, do not, on being completed, return to the same week-day, except the largest cycle, on account of its arising from a duplication of the cycle of 19 years with the solar cycle. The three kinds of the Jewish Year.—I say further : If the Jewish years had simply the first two qualities, i.e. Were either common years d be easy to learn their beginnings, and to dis- h are proper to them, provided ation for the years of the day, same week-day. Since, however, turn to the same day, excep . or leap-years, 1t woul tinguish between the two qualities whic the above-mentioned formula of comput Mahzér be known. The Jewish year, however, is a threefold one. For they have made an arrangement among themselves, that New Year shall or Friday, i.e. on the days of the not fall on a Sunday, Wednesday, sun and his two stars (Mercury and Venus) ; and that Passover, by which the beginning of Nisin is regulated, shall not fall on the days of the inferior stars, i.e. on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, for reasons on which we shall hereafter enlarge as much as possible. Thereby they were compelled either to postpone or to advance New Year and Passover, when they happened to fall on one of the days mentioned. For this reason their year consists of the following three species :— perfect one men, in which I. The year called les, Ge. the im nly 29 days. the months Marheshwan and Kisléw have o 11. The year called @lys, i.e. the intermediate M122); lit. secun- dum ordinem Suu, in which Marheshwén has 29 days, and Kisléw 30 days. IIL. The year called reese , i.e. the perfect one (a) in which both Marheshwin and Kisléw have 30 days. Pa Each of these three species of years may be either a common year or So we get a combination of six speci a leap-year. fa genealogical diagram, and dis- have here illustrated in the form © tributed in the following representation. es of years, as We 40 ON THE NATURE OF MONTHS. TEE YEAR. Common year of 12 months. Leap-year of 13 month nths. Perfect, of ay a 5 5 Perfect, of hes da Kisléw, 30 days ys. Marheshwan, 30 8 : Kisléw, 30 days. ! Intermedi eo 2 pay Infermsdists, of 384 days, Kisléw, 30 days. Na a 5 ali Im 5 fmt a. i of 383 days. Kisléw, 29 days. os 3 dis - y have many modes of com- t fail to explain hereafter. ling their knowledge of the ich it is computed and used if which are the Rabbusites, y means of calculation from and moon), no regard being dy or not. For it was their to begin from the conjunc- accident they were, as they tem: at the time when they ds upon the tops of the ordered them to light a fire nal for them that new moon of the enmity which existed latter went and sent up the new moon was seen. This nths, at the beginnings of uded. Finally, people in w moon, on the 3rd and 4th n the east. Hence it was them. Therefore they had order to be protected by a i of their enemies, to tted to fix the beginning of ation, they referred to the it Noah computed and fixed because heaven was covered p. 58. 5 * ED , BSA iis 4 a a] on 66 ArBirONE. The first (outer) circle indicates the quality of the year, whether it is a common year or a leap-year. The three other circles contain the three formule, indicating the order of the leap-years in the Mahzbrs ; the . second circle, the formula INT; the third circle, the formula —————— . . TALI and the inner circle, the formula yap) i oned hitherto, are derived from the The cycles which we have menti gh not exclusively. The solar cycle consists of 28 years, hat days of the week the solar years com- mence. For if the J ewish year had simply 365 days without the quarter- day, the beginning of the year would in every geven years return to the 10 same week-day. Since, however, they are intercalated once in four years, the beginning does not return to the same day, except in 28 years, i.e. 4x 7 years. Likewise the other cycles, heretofore mentioned, do not, on being completed, return to the same week-day, except the largest cycle, on account of its arising e cycle of 19 years with moon, thou and serves to indicate on Ww from a duplication of th the solar cycle. The three kinds of the Jewish Year.—1 say i.e. were either common years their beginnings, and to dis- years had simply the first two qualities, or leap-years, it would be easy to learn tinguish between the two qualities whic the above-mentioned formula of computation Mahzér be known. The Jewish year, however, they have made an not fall on a Sunday, gun and his two stars (Mercury an which the beginning of Nisin is regu the inferior stars, 1:6. ON on which we shall hereafter enlarge as much as were compelled either to postpone or to advance when they happene For this reason their year consists of th I. The year called Les, te. the im the months Marheshwan and Kis LL The year called oY dum ordinem Suu, Kisléw 30 days. III. The year called pode, ie. both Marheshwin and Each of these three species of a leap-year. So we get a combi have here illustrated in the form © tributed in the following representation. h are proper to them, arrangement among themselve Wednesday, or Friday, d Venus); lated, shall not fall on the days of Monday, Wednesday, d to fall on one of the days mentioned. e following three species :— the perfect one (ao) Kisléw have 30 days. Ra years may be eithe nation of six species of year fa genealogical diagram, further : If the Jewish provided 20 for the years of the is a threefold one. For s, that New Year shall ie. on the days of the and that Passover, by and Friday, for reasons possible. Thereby they New Year and Passover, 80 perfect one men), in which léw have only 29 days. aS, i.e. the intermediate PD); lit. secun- in which Marheshwén has 29 days, and in which r a common year or §, as we and dis- ON THE NATURE OF MONTHS. Tar YEAR. Common year of 12 months. Leap-year of 13 month onths. Perfect, of Tosa, ob bos 209 8. Perfect, of hes d Kisléw, 30’ dows ays. Marheshwén, 30 i : Kisléw, 30 days. 73 Intermediat in Tafermentess, of 384 days. Kisléw, 30 days. Nf, ie ’ Ss. Imperf > ea : Ey 1 of 383 days. Kisléw, 29 days. Eoctow 50 a For the deduction of these diff putation as wel Sifiersnces thoy Love ning tu I wy which we shall not fail to Ey beginning of the month Moon. —Regarding their knowledge of th the Fone cos lid 5 # the mode in which it is computed and u y They derive the be a o two sects, one of which are the Rabbanite : the mean motions of th I o tae month by means of calculation f SY I e two luminaries (sun and moon), no regard b Tana 20 chou tolee oe Ww moon is visible already or not. For it Ww Ss tion of sun and sas time, that was to begin from the a ie relate themselves 2 the following accident they were, as gi returned to J erasers th o adopt this system: at the time when hs COAEIns es , ey posted guards upon the tops of id Rte io oy, and they ordered them to light a rr B fact had been son te : Sa hioptsn daw noon ctwoen tho . ’ count of the enmit . : Tr ilo Samaritans, these latter went Yan on Tatar nn one day before new moon was seen De 50 The a als e : uring several months, at the Deriuuin iB Yernistlots fc aad re sped to be clouded. Finally, peo To of (he Tori ase ol is, observing that new moon, on the 3rd a Sr idene tit “ . Maal Josten on the east. Hence it i recourse to t {4 5celys them. Ther system of Oy atu Hus, in order to be in i on de a ove that it was legall i the. month b ih gally permitted to fix the inni tee id oan Jn of observation, they ny 40 the beginuings of th ge. For they assert that Noah computed amd 4 , e months by calculation, because heaven was i p. 58 5% 68 ALBIRONG. and clouded for so long as six months, during which time neither new moon nor any other phase of the moon could be observed. The mathematicians, therefore, computed for them the cycles, and taught them how to find, by calculation, the conjunctions and the appearance of new moon, viz. that between new moon and the con- junction the time of 24 hours must elapse. And this comes near the truth. For if it was the corrected conjunction, not the mean one, the moon would in these hours move forward about 13 degrees, and her elongation from the sun would be about 12 degrees. This reform was brought about nearly 200 years after Alexander. Before that time they used to observe the Tekifoth (MDP), i.e. the year-quarters, on the computation of which we shall enlarge hereafter, and to compare them with the conjunction of that month, to which the Tekafa in question was to be referred. If they found that the con- junction preceded the Tektfs by about 80 days, they intercalated a month in this year, e.g. if they found that the conjunction of Tammiz preceded the Tekufd of Tammtz, i.e. the summer-solstice by about 30 days, they intercalated in that year a month Tammiz, so that it had one Tammuz and a second Tammiz (MD 20D). In the same way they acted with the other Tekaufoth. Some Rabbanites, however, deny that such guards were posted, and that they made a smoke as a signal. According to their opinion, the cause of the deduction of this system of calculation was the following : the scholars and the priests of the Israelites, feeling convinced that their people would be scattered and dispersed in consequence of the last destruction of Jerusalem, as they thought, were afraid that their com- patriots, being scattered all over the world, and solely relying upon the appearance of new moon, which of course in different countries would be different for them, might, on account of this, fall into dissensions, and a schism in their doctrine might take place. Therefore they invented these calculations,—a work which was particularly attended to by Eliezer ben Paruah, and ordered people to adhere to them, to use them, to return to them, wherever and under whatever circumstances they lived, so that a schism among them might be avoided. The second sect are the Milddites, who derive the beginning of the month from the conjunction ; they are also called Alkwrrd and Alish- ma‘iyya, because they demand that people shall only follow the wording of the text, no regard being had to considerations and analogies, etc., even if it may be illogical and impracticable. One party of them is called the ‘Andnites, who derived their name from ‘Anén, the head of the emigration (P02 WN), who lived between 100 and 110 years ago. A head of the emigration must of necessity be one of the descendants of David; an offspring of another family would not be fit for this office. Their common people relate, that only he is qualified who, standing upright, can reach his knees with the tops of his ON THE NATURE OF MONTHS. 69 fingers; just as people relate such things of the prince of the true believers, ‘Ali ben ’Abi Talib, and of those of his descendants who are qualified for the Imma and the rule of the community (the Muham- madan world). The genealogy of this ¢Anan is the following :— apy 2 bw a bea py MAY 2 ANT 2 MAND 2 NID 2 NTO 2 V1 “3 NIN 2 J ‘2 NF 2 TIRE 2 NTT 2 X1 NADL 2 MIDI 2 NDT 2 NAY 2 NIP RIT 3 XVI MODI 2 JY 2 NAME 2 jar 2 Ne 2 XXI TIDA ‘2 NAIST 2 3p 2 RDM 2 NT XXVI pom ‘2 brenbiet 2 baz a re 3 eam 2 XXXI Amar 2 NTF 2 FIEND 2 STIR 2 DP 2 XXXVI bt ‘3 DAM 2 FAN 2 FON 2 pew 2 XL T7132 XLVI He opposed a community of Rabbanites in many of their observances. He fixed the beginning of the month by the appearance of the new moon in a similar way, as is prescribed in Islam, not caring on what day of the week the beginning of the month happened to fall. He gave up the system of computation of the Rabbanites, and made the intercalation of a month depend upon the observation of barley-seed in ‘Irik and Syria between the 1st and the 14th Nisin. If he found a first-fruit fit for friction and reaping, he left the year as a common year; if he did not find that, he intercalated the year. The mode of prognosticating the state of the corn was practically this, that one of his followers went out on the 23rd Shebit, to examine—in Syria and the countries of a similar climate—the state of the barley-seed. If he found that the Saf, i.e. the prickles of the beard of the ear of corn, had already come out, he counted from that day till Passover 50 days; if he found that it had ) not yet come out, he intercalated a month into the year. And some added the intercalary month to Shefat, so that there was a Shefat and an U-Shefat ; whilst others added it to Adhar, so that there was an Adhdr and a We-Adhdr. The AnéAnites mostly use Shefat, not Adhér, whilst the Rabbanites use exclusively Adhdr. This system of prognosticating the state of the corn is a different one according to the difference of the air and the climate of the countries. Therefore it would be necessary to make a special rule for every place, and not to rely upon the rule made for one certain place, because this would not be applicable elsewhere. Syrian Months.—The Christians in Syria, ‘Irak, and Khurasin have combined Greek and Jewish months. For they use the months of the Greeks, but have adopted the 1st of the Greek October as the beginning Pp. 59. mo i ge i — i ———E A AE Si Md re SA AN 70 ALBIRONG. of their year, that it might be nearer to the Jewish new-year, because Tishri of the Jews always precedes that date a little. And they call their months by Syrian names, some of which agree with the Jewish names, whilst others differ. People have derived these names from the Syrians, i.e. the Nabatwans, the inhabitants of Sawéd ; the Sawéd of Trak being called Stristin. But I do not see why they derive these months from them, because in Islim they use the months of the Arabs, and at the time of heathenism they used the months of the Persians. Others say that Siristin means Syria. If that be the case, the inhabi- tants of this country were Christians before the time of Islam, and held a middle position between Jewish and Greek theories. The names of their months are these :— I. Tishrin kedim of 31 days. VI. Nisin of 30 days. Tishrin hrai of 30 Iyar of 31 Kinin kedim of 31 Haziran of 30 Kéintn hrii of 31 Tammiiz of 31 Shebit of 28 : Abh of 31 Adhér of 31 lal of 30 In the month Shebit they intercalate one day every four years, so that it then has 29 days. Regarding the quality of their year they agree with the Greeks. These months have become widely known, so that even the Muslims adopted them, and fixed thereby the dates of practical life. The words Kedim (primus) and Hrdi (postremus) have been translated into Arabic, and in the word yp! they have added an Elif, so as to make it bY, because a single yd (without Tashdid) is disagreeable to the organ of the Arabs, if this Elif is not added. Months of the Arabs.—The Arabs have the following twelve months :— I. Almuharram. VII. Rajab. Safar. Sha‘ban. Rabi‘ I. Ramadan. Rabi¢ II. Shawwal. Jumada I. Dhi-alka‘da. Jumada II. Dhii-alhijja. Regarding the etymology of these names various opinions have been advanced, Almuhkarram, e.g. was called so, because it was one of the Hurum, i.e. the four sacred months. Safar was called so, because in it people used to procure their pro- visions, going out in a company of men which was called Safariyya. The two months Rabi‘ were called so on account of the coming forth of the flowers and blossoms and of the continual fall of dew and rain. 10 ON THE NATURE OF MONTHS. 71 All of which refers to the nature of that season which we call “autumn,” but which the Arabs called “ spring” (Rabi). The two months Jumddd were called so, because in them the water frore (23). Rajab was called so, because in it people formed the intention of travelling, there being no fear of the evils of war. For “ rujba ” means sustentaculum (a thing by means of which a tree is propped up), and hence people say, “ a propped up (murajjab) palm-tree which bears a heavy load of fruit.” Sha‘bin was called so, because in it the tribes were dispersed. Ramaddn was called so, because of the stones being roasted by the intense heat. Shawwdl was called so, because of the increasing and the decreasing of the heat. Dhii-alkd‘da was called so, because in it people stayed in their homes. Dhii-alhijja was called so, because in it people performed the Hayy, v.e. the pilgrimage. We found, however, also other names of the months of the Arabs, which were given to them by their ancestors. “They are the fol- 20 lowing: — 80 I. Almu’tamir. VII. Alagamm. Najir. «Adil. Khawwén. Niafik. Suwan. Wighil. Hantam. Huwa‘. Zabba. Burak. The forms as well as the order of these names sometimes differ from what we have given. One of the poets, e.g. has comprised them in the following verses :— « We have commenced with Muw'tamir, Ndjira, and Khawwdn, to which follows Suwdn. And with Zabbd comes Bd’ida, its next follower. Then comes the turn of ’Asamm, in which hatred was deaf. And Wighila, Nétila, and ‘Adila, all three are noble and beautiful. Then comes Ranna, and after it Burak. Now are complete the months of the year, as you may count with your fingers.” In the following we shall explain the meanings of these names according to the statements of the dictionaries :— Almw’tamir means that it « obeys” all the decrees of fortune, which 40 the year is going to bring. pa % = 7 i so By n " iii pT ISAs ose BLN 72 ALBIRONT. Néjir is derived from nar, which means “ intense heat,” as it is used in the following verse :— « A stinking water, on account of which a man turns his face aside, Even he who is tortured by thirst, if he tasted it in a ¢ boiling hot’ month.” Khawwin is the form J of the verb « to deceive,” and Suwdn is the form Jd of the verb “to preserve, to take care.” And these significations agreed with the natures of the months at the time when they were first employed as names for them. Zabbd means a “ great and frequently occurring calamity.” The month was called so, because in it there was much and frequent fighting. Bid, too, received its name from the fighting in it, for many people used to “perish” init. This circumstance is expressed in the following proverb: « All that is portentous happens between Jumddd and Rajab.” For in this month people were in great haste and eagerness to carry out whatever blood revenge or warlike expeditions they were upon, before the month Rajab came in. ' Asamm was called so, because in it people abstained from fighting, so that the clash of weapons was not heard. Wighil means “ one who comes to a drinking-party without having been invited” This month was called so, because it suddenly comes in after Ramadan, and because in Ramadan there was much wine-drinking, on account of the next following months being the months of pilgrimage. Nitil means “ a measure, a pot of wine.” The month was called so, because in it people indulged in drinking debauches, and frequently used that pot. Adil is derived from ¢ ‘adl” (which means either “ to be just” or « to turn aside’). The month was called so, because it was one of the months of pilgrimage, when they used to abstain from the use of the Nitil, i.e. the wine-pot. Ranma was called so, because the sheep were “ crying } the drawing near of the time when they were to be killed. Burak was called so, because of the kneeling down of the camels on being led to the slaughtering-place. A better versification of these names than the above-mentioned one is that by the Wazir *Ismi‘il ben ‘Abbad :— ’ on account of « You wanted to know the months of the pagan Arabs. Take them according to the order of Muharram (Safar, ete.), of which they partake. First comes Muw'tamir, then Ndjir; and Khawwdn and Suwdn are connected by one tie. Hanin, Zabbd, ’Asamm, ‘A Burak.” dil, Néfik with Waghl, and Ranna with ON THE NATURE OF MONTHS. 73 If the etymologies of these two classes of names of the months are such as we have related, we must suppose that between the two periods of giving the names there was a great interval of time. Or else our explanations and etymologies would not be correct. For in one class of the months the highest pitch of the heat is Safar, whilst in the other it is Ramadan; and this (that the greatest heat should be either in Safar or in Ramadan) is not possible at one and the same period, or at two periods which are not very far distant from each other. Intercalation of the Ancient Arabs.—At the time of paganism the Arabs used their months in a similar way to the Muslims; their pilgrimage went wandering around through the four seasons of the year. But then they desired to perform the pilgrimage at such time as their merchandise (hides, skins, fruit, ete.) was ready for the market, and to fix it according to an invariable rule, so that it should occur in the most agreeable and abundant season of the year. Therefore they learned the system of intercalation from the Jews of their neighbourhood, about 200 years before the Hijra. And they used intercalation in a similar way to the Jews, adding the difference between their year and the solar year, when it had summed up to one complete month, to the months of their year. Then their intercalators themselves, the so-called Kaldmis of the tribe KinAna, rose, after pilgrimage had been finished, delivered a speech to the people at the fair, and intercalated the month, calling the next following month by the name of that month in which they were. The Arabs consented to this arrangement and adopted the decision of the Kalammas. This proceeding they called “ Nas?’,” i.e. postponement, because in every second or third year they postponed the beginning of the year for a month, as it was required by the progression of the year. One of their poets has said :— « We have an intercalator, under whose banner we march ; He declares the months profane or sacred, as he likes.” The first intercalation applied to Muharram; in consequence Safar was called Muharram, Rabi‘ I. was called Safar, and so on; and in this way all the names of all the months were changed. The second inter- calation applied to Safar; in consequence the next following month (Rabi I) was called Safar. And this went on till intercalation had passed through all twelve months of the year and returned to Muharram. Then they commenced anew what they had done the first time. The Arabs counted the cycles of intercalation and fixed thereby their dates. They said for instance: * From the time « till the time y the years have turned round one cycle.” But now, if notwithstanding intercalation it became evident that a month progressed beyond its proper place in the four seasons of the year, in consequence of the accumulation of the fractions of the solar year, and of the remainder of the plus-difference between the solar year 74 ALBIRONG. and the lunar year, to which latter they had added this plus-difference, they made a second intercalation. Such a progression they were able to recognize from the rising and setting of the Lunar Mansions. This went on till the time when the Prophet fled from Makka to Madina, when the turn of intercalation, as we have mentioned, had come to Sha‘ban. Now, this month was called Muharram, and Ramadin was called Safar. Then the Prophet waited till the farewell pilgrimage,” on which occasion he addressed the people, and said: “ The season, the time has gone round as it was on the day of God’s creating the heavens and the earth.” (Sfira ix. 38.) By which he meant that the months had returned to their original places, and that they had been freed from what the Arabs used to do with them. Therefore, the « farewell pilgrimage,” Was also called « the correct pilgrimage.” Thereupon intercalation was prohibited and altogether neglected. Months of the Themudeni.— Abu-Bakr Muhammad ben Duraid Al'azdi relates in his Kitib-alwishdh, that the people Thamtd called the months by the following names :— : I. Mijib i.e. Muharram. VII. Haubal. Mijir. : Mauha. Mirid. Daimur. Mulzim. Dabir. Musdir. Haifal. Haubar. Musbil. He says that they commenced their year with the month Daimur, ¢.e. Ramadan. The following is a versification of these names by ’Abii-Sahl ‘Isd ben Yahyd Almasihi:— «The months of Thamtd are Mijib, Mijir, Mirid; then follow Mulzim and Musdir. Then come Haubar and Haubal, followed by Mauhd and Daimur. Then come Ddbir, and Haifal,and Musbil, till it is finished, the most celebrated among them.” Arabic Names of Days.—The Arabs did not, like the Persians, give special names to the single days of the month, but they had special names for each three nights of every month, which were derived from the state of the moon and her light during them. Beginning with the first of the month, they called— The first three nights (1st-8rd) ghurar, which is the plural of ghurra, and means the first of everything. According to others they were called so, because during them the new moon appeared like a blaze on the forehead of a horse. The second three nights (4th-6th) nufal, from tanaffala, which means, “ beginning to make a present without any necessity.” Others call them shuhb, i.e. the white nights. ON THE NATURE OF MONTHS. 75 The third three nights (7th-9th) tusa‘, because the ninth night is the last of them. Others call them buhr, because in them the darkness of the night is particularly thick. The fourth three nights (10th-12th) ‘ushar, because the tenth night is the first of them. The fifth three nights (18th-15th) bid, because they are white by the shining of the moon from the beginning of the night till the end. The sixth three nights (16th-18th) dura‘, because they are black at the beginning like the sheep with a black head and a white body. Originally the comparison was taken from a coat of mail in which people are clad, because the colour of the head of him who is dressed in it, differs from the colour of the rest of his body. The seventh three nights (19th-21st) 2ulam, because in most cases they were dark. The eighth three nights (22nd-24th) kanddis (from hindis=extremely dark). Others call them duhm, on account of their being dark. The ninth three nights (25th-27th) da’ddi’, because they are remain- ders (or last parts). Others derive it from the mode of walking of the camels, viz., stretching forth the ome foot, to which the other is quickly following. The tenth three nights (28th-80th) mikdk, on account of the waning of the moon and the month. Besides, they distinguished certain nights of the month by special names, e.g. the last night of the month was called sirdr, because in it the moon hides herself ; it was also called fakama on account of there being no light in it, and bard’, because the sun has nothing to do with it. Likewise the last day of the month was called nahkir, because it is in the nahr (throat) of the month. The 13th night is called sawd’, the 14th the night of badr,” because in it the moon is full, and her light complete. For of everything that has become complete you say badara; e.g. 10,000 dirhams are called one badra, because that is supposed to be the most complete and the last number, although it is not so in reality. The Arabs used in their months also the seven days of the week, the ancient names of which are the following :— . 'Awwal, i.e. Sunday. . 'Ahwan. . Jubir. . Dubér. . Mu'nis. . ‘Ariba. . Shiyar. They are mentioned by one of their poets in the following verse :— “I strongly hope that I shall remain alive, and that my day (of death) will be either ’Awwal, or ’Ahwan, or Jubdr, 76 ALBiRONI. Or the following day, Dubdr, or if I get beyond that, either Mu'nis or ‘Ariba or Shiydr.” Afterwards the Arabs gave them the following new names :— Al-’ahad, i.e. one. Al-ithnén, ,, two. Al-thulathi, ,, three. Al-’arbi‘a, ,, four. Al-khamis ,, five. Al-jum‘a, gathering. Al-sabt, ,, sabbath. The Arabs fixed the beginning of the month by the appearance of new moon, and the same has been established as a law in Islam, as the Lord has said (Stra ii. 185): They will ask thee regarding the new moons. Speak : they are certain moments of time for the use of man- kind (in general) and for pilgrimage.” ; Determination of the length of Ramadan, the Month of Fasting.—Some years ago, however, a pagan sect started into existance somehow or other. They considered how best to employ the interpre- tation (of the Koran), and to attach themselves to the system of the exoteric school of interpreters who, as they maintain, are the Jews and Christians. For these latter have astronomical tables and calculations, by means of which they compute their months, and derive the knowledge of their fast days, whilst Muslims are compelled to observe new moon, and to inquire into the different phases of the light of the moon, and into that which is common to both her visible and invisible halves. But then they found that Jews and Christians have no certainty on this subject, that they differ, and that one of them blindly follows the other, although they had done their utmost in the study of the places of the moon, and in the researches regarding her motions (lit. expeditions) and stations. : Thereupon they had recourse to the astronomers, and composed their Canons and books, beginning them with dissertations on the elements of the knowledge of the Arabian months, adding various kinds of compu- _ tations and chronological tables. Now, people, thinking that these calculations were based upon the observation of the new-moons, adopted some of them, attributed their authorships to Jafar Al-sadik, and believed that they were one of the mysteries of prophecy. However, these calculations are based not upon the apparent, but upon the mean, i.e. the corrected, motions of sun and moon, upon a lunar year of 354} days, and upon the supposition that six months of the year are complete, six incomplete, and that each complete month is followed by an incomplete one. So we judge from the nature of their Canons, and from the books which are intended to establish the bases on which the Canons rest. ON THE NATURE OF MONTHS. 77 But, when they tried to fix thereby the beginning and end of fasting, their calculation, in most cases, preceded the legitimate time by one day. Whereupon they set about eliciting curious things from the following word of the Prophet: ¢ Fast, when she (new-moon) appears, and cease fasting when she re-appears.” For they asserted, that the words “ fast, when she appears” (82099 \poge), mean the fasting of that day, in the afternoon of which new-moon becomes visible, as people say, © prepare yourselves to meet him” (&\gae) \yed?)s in which case the act of preparing precedes that of meeting. Besides, they assert that the month of Ramadén has never less than thirty days. However, astronomers and all those who consider the sub- ject attentively, are well aware that the appearance of new-moon does not proceed regularly according to one and the same rule for several reasons: the motion of the moon varies, being sometimes slower, some- times faster; she is sometimes near the earth, sometimes far distant; she ascends in north and south, and descends in them; and each single one of these occurrences may take place on every point of the ecliptic. And besides, some sections of the ecliptic sink faster, others slower. All this varies according to the different latitudes of the countries, and according to the difference of the atmosphere. This refers either to different places where the air is either naturally clear or dark, being always mixed up with vapours, and mostly dusty, or it refers to different times, the air being dense at one time, and clear at another. Besides, the power of the sight of the observers varies, some being sharp-sighted, others dim-sighted. And all these circumstances, however different they are, are liable to various kinds of coincidences, which may happen at each beginning of the two months of Ramadin and Shawwal under innumerable forms and varieties. For these reasons the month Ramadan is sometimes incomplete, sometimes complete, and all this varies accord- ing to the greater or less latitude of the countries, so that, e.g. in northern countries the month may be complete, whilst the same month is incomplete in southern countries, and vice versi. Further, also, these differences in the various countries do not follow one and the same rule; on the contrary, one identical circumstance may happen to one month several consecutive times or with interruptions. But even supposing that the use which they make of those tables and calculations were correct, and their computation agreed with the appear- ance of new-moon, or preceded it by one day, which they have made a fundamental principle, they would require special computations for each degree of longitude, because the variation in the appearance of new- moon does not depend alone upon the latitudes, but to a great extent also upon the longitudes of the countries. For, frequently, new-moon is not seen in some place, whilst she is seen in another place not far to the west ; and frequently she is seen in both places at once. This is one of the reasons for which it would be necessary to have special calculations E" . wtf rin ii AR SSI a a — L a pe SH wn. Be ie EE 78 ALBIRONG. and tables for every single degree of longitude. Therefore, now, their theory is quite utopian, viz. that the month of Ramadén should always be complete, and that both its beginning and end should be identical in the whole of the inhabited world, as would follow from that table which they use. If they contend that from the (above-mentioned) tradition, which is traced back to Muhammad himself, the obligation of making the beginning and end of fasting precede the appearance of new-moon, follows, we must say that such an interpretation is unfounded. For the particle Lam (wdyd\ o9) relates to future time, as they have mentioned, and relates to past time, as you say, e.g.:—@sl (po (soe WS «i (““ dated from this or that day of the month”), i.e. from that moment when z days of the month were past already, in which case the writing does not precede the past part of the month. And this, not the first mentioned, is the meaning of that tradition. Compare with this the following saying of the Prophet: “ We are illiterate people, we do not write nor do we reckon the month thus and thus and thus,” each time showing his ten fingers, meaning a complete month or thirty days. Then he repeated his words, saying, “and thus and thus and thus,” and at the third time he held back one thumb, meaning an incomplete month or twenty-nine days. By this generally known sentence, the Prophet ordained that the month should be one time complete, and incomplete another time, and that this is to be regulated by the appearance of new- moon, not by calculation, as he says, “we do not write, nor do we reckon (calculate).” But if they say that the Prophet meant that each complete month should be followed by an incomplete one, as the chronologists reckon, they are refuted by the plain facts, if they will not disregard them, and their trickery in both small and great things, in all they have committed, is exposed. For the conclusion of the first-mentioned tradition proves the impossibility of their assertion, viz. “ Fast when she (new-moon) appears, and cease fasting when she re-appears, but if heaven be clouded so as to prevent your observation, reckon the month Sha‘bin as thirty days.” And in another tradition, the Prophet says, “If a cloud or black dust should prevent you from observing the new moon, make the number thirty complete.” For if the appearance of new-moon be known either from their tables and calculations, or from the statements of the authors of the canons, and if the beginning and end of fasting is to precede the appearance of new-moon, it would not be necessary to give full thirty days to the month Sha‘bén, or to count the month Ramadan as full thirty days, in case the horizon should be covered by a cloud or by dust. And this (i.e. to give full thirty days to Ramadén) is not possible, except by performing the fasting of the day in the evening of which the new- moon is first seen. ON THE NATURE OF MONTHS. 79 If, further, the month Ramadin were always complete, and its beginning were known, people might do without the observation of new-moon for the month Shawwil. In the same way, the word of the Prophet : “ and cease fasting when she (new-moon) re-appears,” is to be interpreted. However, party spirit makes clear-seeing eyes blind, and makes. gh Zharp- hearing ears deaf, and instigates people to engage in things which uo mind is inclined to adopt. But for this reason, suchideas would not have entered their heads, if you consider the traditions which occur in the books of the Shi‘a Zaidiyya,—may God preserve their community !— and which have been corrected by their authorities,—may God bless them !—as for instance, the following : In the time of the Prince of the Believers (‘Ali) people ad been fasting twenty-eight days in the month of Ramadan. Then he ordered them still to perform the fasting of one day, which they did. The fact was that both consecutive months, Sha‘ban and Ramadan, were imperfect, and there had been some obstacle which had prevented them from observing new-moon at the beginning of Ramadan ; they gave the month the full number of thirty days, and at the end of the month the reality of the case became evident. Then there is the following saying, related to have been pronounced by ’Abt ‘Abd-Allih AlsAdik : « The month of Ramaddn is liable to the same increase and decrease as the other months.” Also the following is reported of the same : “If you observe the month Sha‘bdn without being able to see the new- moon, count thirty and then fast.” The same ’Abi-‘Abd-Allih Alsadik, on being asked regarding the new-moon, said: “If you see the new moon, fast, and if you see her again, cease fasting.” All these traditions in the code of the Shi‘a refer only to the fasting. Tt is astonishing that our masters, the family of the Prophet, listened to such doctrines, and that they adopted them as a uniting link for the minds of the community of the believers who profess to follow them, instead of imitating the example of their ancestor, the Prince of the Believers (‘Alf), in his aversion to conciliating the obstinate sinners, when he spoke : “I did not hold out an arm to those who lead astray” (i.e. I did not lend support to them). As regards the following saying, ascribed by tradition to AlsAdik: “ When you observe the new-moon of Rajab, count fifty-nine days, and then begin fasting ;”” and the following saying ascribed to the same: “If you see the new-moon of the month of Ramadan at the time when she appears, count 354 days, and then begin fasting in the next following year. For the Lord has created the year as consisting of 360 days. But from these he has excepted six days, in which he created the heavens and the earth; therefore they (these six days) are not comprehended in the number (of the days of the year) ”—regarding these traditions we say, that, if they were correct, his (Alsidik’s) statement on this subject ~ would rest on the supposition, that it (the month Ramadan) was really Original Defective 80 ALRIRONG. greater in one place, and did not follow the same rule everywhere, as we have heretofore mentioned. Such a method of accounting for the six days is something so subtle, that it proves the tradition to be, false, and renders it void of authenticity. “«_Tn a chronicle I have read the following : ’Abf-Ja‘far Muhammad ben Sulaitan, Governor of Kifa, under the Khalif Mansir, had imprisoned ‘A pd-alkarine ben 'Abi-al‘aujd, who was the uncle of Mam ben Za ida, one of the Manicheeans. This man, however, had many protectors mn Baghdad, and these urged Mangir in his favour, till at last he wrote to 10 Muhammad ordering him not to put ‘Abd-alkarim to death. Meanwhile, ¢Abd-alkarim was expecting the arrival of the letter in his cause. He . said to ’Abi-aljabbar confidentially : * If the Amir gives me respite for three days, I shall give him 100,000 dirhams.” 'Abé-aljabbir told this to Muhammad, who replied: “ You have reminded me of him, whilst 1 p. 68. had forgotten him. Remind me of him when I return from the mosque. Then, when he returned, ’Abt-aljabbar reminded him of the prisoner, whereupon he (Muhammad) ordered him to be brought and to be beheaded. And now, knowing for certain that he was to be killed, he said, “ By God, now that you are going to kill me, I tell you et 2% I have put down 4,000 traditions (in my books), in which 1 forbi that which is allowed, and allow that which 1s forbidden. And verily, I have made you break your fast when you ought to have fasted, and I have made you fast when you ought not to have fasted. Thereupon he was beheaded, and afterwards the letter in his cause gi thoroughly did this heretic deserve to be the author of this subtle interpretation which they have adopted, and of its original (i.e. the text to which the interpretation refers)! ot ; I myself have had a discussion with the originator of this sect, 2 regarding the Musnad-tradition (i.e. such a tradition as 1s carried back by an uninterrupted chain of witnesses to Muhammad himself) . On which occasion I compelled him to admit that consequences, similar to those here mentioned, follow from his theories. But then in the end he declared, that the subject was one that of necessity resulted from the language (i.e. from the interpretation of the Lim-altaukit), and that the language has nothing whatever to do with the law and its corollaries. Thereupon, I answered : “ May God have mercy upon you! Have not God and his Prophet addressed us in the language generally known among the Arabs? But the thing is this, that you have nothing whatever to do with the Arabic language; and also in the science of the law you are utterly 40 ignorant. Leave the law aside and address yourself to the astronomers. None of them would agree with you regarding your theory of the per- petual completeness of the month of Ramadan ; none of them thinks that the celestial globe and sun and moon distinguish the moon of Ramadin from among the others, so as to move faster or slower just In i ON THE NATURE OF MONTHS. 81 this particular month. The luminaries do not mark out this month in particular as do the Muslims, who distinguish it by performing their fasting in it. However, arguing with people who are obstinate on purpose, and per- severe in their obstinacy on account of their ignorance, is not productive of any good, either for the student or for the object of his researches. God speaks (Stra lii. 44): “If they saw a piece of heaven falling down, they would say, ‘It is only a conglomerated cloud.’” And further (Stra vi. 7): “If we sent down to you a book (written) on paper, and they touched it with their hands, verily the unbelieving would say, This is nothing but evident witchcraft.” ” God grant that we may always belong to those who follow and further the truth, who crush and expose that which is false and wrong! Months of the Reformed Calendar of Almu‘tadid.—The months of Almu‘tadid are the Persian months, with the same names and the same order. But the Persian days are not used in these months, because to the Epagomens in every fourth year one day is added by way of intercalation ; and so for that reason which we have mentioned, when speaking of the months of the Egyptians, the (Persian) names of the single days have been dropped. The order of intercalation used in these months agrees with that of the Greeks and Syrians. As to the months of the other nations, Hindus, Chinese, Tibetans, Turks, Khazars, Ethiopians, and Negroes, we do not intend, although we have managed to learn the names of some of them, to mention them here, postponing it till a time when we shall know them all, as it does not agree with the method which we have followed hitherto, to connect that which is doubtful and unknown with that which is certain and known. We have collected in the following table the names of the months which have been mentioned in the preceding part of this book, in order to facilitate the study of the various kinds of them. God leads to the truth! Original Defective TABLE OF THE MONTHS. Their beginning is the appearance | of New-Moon. Their number begins with Daimur which corresponds with Ramadan. The beginning of the months is the appearance of New-Moon which is observed (not calculated). Beginning of the months is the appearance of New-Moon about the Vernal Equinox. The beginning of their months is the second Naurdz. The beginning of their months is the first Naurdz. The inha- bitants of Kubd. The inha- The ancient bitants of inhabitants \ of Sijistan. Farwardin-Mah Mijib Khwiriz- mians. Sughdians. Jews. Thamd. Muslim Arabs. Persians. Pagan Arabs. Wl Sygd Tishri Almu’tamir | Almuharram Ardibahisht- Safar Mih Khurdiadh- Mah Tir-Mah To) Or Marheshwén | Majir Najir Rabi‘ the first. Rabi‘ the last. Jumada the first. Juméda the last. Kisléw Mirid Khawwin Cc A 4 Shs 3 Sep or Mulzim Tebeth Bussin Naan | Murdadh-Mah | Shebat Musdir Hantam Shahréwar- Adhair Haubar Zabba Mah Mihr-Mah Aban-Maih Adhar-Mih Dai-Miah Bahman-Mah Isfandarmadh- Nisin Iyar Siwin Tammiz Abh "Ell Haubal Mauha Daimur Dibir Haikal Musbil Alagamm ‘Adil Nafik Waghl Huwa‘ Burak Rajab. Sha‘ban Ramadan Shawwil Dhii-alka‘da Dhii-alhij ja Nh Lo ee I have not been able to learn how long these months are, nor what they mean, nor of what kind they are. The beginning of these months is the conjunction taking place about the vernal equinox. The beginning of the leap-year is the 29th of Ab, the beginning of the simple year is the 1st of Dai-Mih. The beginning of these months is an assumed day which is not in rela- tion to anything else. The beginning of these months is the first day of the Syrian month Kénfn the last. Turks. Ulugh Ay Kiidiik Ay Birinj Ay Tkinj Ay Altinj Ay Beshinj Ay Sekizinj Ay Tokuzunj Ay Onunj Ay Tiirtiinj Ay Udiinj Ay Yetinj Ay Hindus. slag a) People of the West. May June July August September October November December January February March April Copts. Thoth Phadphi Athyr Choiak Tybi Methir Phamenoth Pharmithi Pachon Payni Epiphi Mesori Ancient Greeks. Audynaeus Peritius Dystrus Xanticus Artemisius Daisius Panemus Lous Gorpizus : Hyperbere- teus. Dius Apelleus _— (Pwpatod). Yanuarius Februarius Martius Maius Aprilius Yunius Yulius Augustus Septembrius Octombrius Novembrius Decembrius Syrians. Teshrin the first Teshrin the last Kinin the first Kinin the last Shebat Adhir Nisin Iyar Hazirin Tammuz Abh | lal | v -J ~ Sijkan Od Pars Tafshikhan Li Yylan Yont Kuy *SHINOW 40 HYOLVN HHL NO ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS. 85 ALBIRONE. Now let us begin with the traditions of those to whom a divine book was sent (Jews and Christians) regarding Adam, his children and their descendants. All this we shall fix in tables, in order to facilitate the pronunciation of their names, and the study of the different traditions regarding them. On this subject we combine the traditions of the Jews and Christians, placing them opposite to each other (in the same table). We commence by the help of God, under his guidance, and with his gracious support. - wil F iinet sisi as Sas = ~3 » Ec | | 4 cording to the Christians r each of them lived—according to the Jews. oie The Names of the Descendants P: 72. CHAPTE R VI. ; 10 | of Adam, who form the Chronological Chain of the Era, and the Chronological Differences ON THE DERIVATION OF THE ERAS FROM EACH OTHER, AND ON THE | beiwean Curistiany CHRONOLOGICAL DATES, RELATING TO THE COMMENCEMENTS AND | sAivesmisam THE DURATIONS OF THE REIGNS OF THE KINGS, ACCORDING TO THE VARIOUS TRADITIONS. to the Chris- born to them— How long altogethe era—according son was born to them— according to the Jews. fter a son had been born to him—according to the Jews. era—according to the Jews. son was tians. a The sum of the years of the “How old they were when a The sum of the years of the How old they were when a How long each of them lived i . . : ‘is . IL—Adam the father of mankind—till It is the special object at which Iaim in this book, to fix the durations the birth of his son Seth . Li the reigns of the kings) by the most correct and perspicuous method. Sep her fame] the birth of ut, now, wishing to explain the derivation of the eras from each other Bice won itil the Dirth of in conformity with the usual mode of the canons, which specify the his son Caivan . . _. various kinds of calculation and of derivation (e.g. stating one era in 10 Calas A the Lirth of the terms of another), and which contain rules and paradigms, I find i V.—Mahalaleel ben Cainan—till the this subject to be a very wide one, and the wish to embrace this whole 3 le ti the science compels me to cause trouble both to myself and to the reader. i. birth of his son Enoch ; Seay to the method which I have adhered to from the beginning Yosh bendnteteil the birth of oO 18 4 ) na is son husela . . . ook, I shall explain the intervals between the epochs of the Methuselah ben Enoch—till the jul os by a measure which is counted in the same way by all nations, L bith of i di de r.e. by davs ; , ; - sodv : oy : amec en Methuselah—t1 e {Bo ; for, as we have already mentioned, both years and months birth of his son Noah 3 i are differently measured. Everything else is generally mentioned in X.—Noah ben Lamech—till the birth years, but for the knowledge ¢ > ; : of his son Shem «iis ye a ue : dge of the intervals between the epochs of the Shem ben Noah—till the Deluge . | e statement in days is quite sufficient, since it has been im i From the Deluge till the birth of to obtal tooled itl : possible 90 Ee aim a knowledge of the rea ality \ vear . | rphaxad ben Shem . ’ : eal quality of the years of the various Arphaxad ben Shem—till the birth | eras, snd there has been but little need for the use of them. of his son Salah a Now, if we in some places wander about through various branches of : Selabe 2 Arges) the birth | science, and plunge into subjects which are not very closely connected XV.—Eber ben Salah—till the birth of wi the order of our discussion, we must say that we do not do this sy won Peleg fe bol ecause we seek to be lengthy and verbose, but as guided by the desire ! MssomBea =. «os. .;7 180 of preventing the reader from getting tired. For if the mind is con- Ret ben Dolegestil the birth of {35 tinually occupied wi Iv yr : : : | jesonSerag... + sa] AEE Hod a ccupied with the study of one single science, it gets easily Serug ben Reu—till the birth of | ind and impatient; but if the mind wanders from one science to 1 N js Son Nair “ill the birth of | 130 another, it is as if it were op! . : : & ahor ben Serug—till the birth of | ; T) is as if it were wandering about in gardens, where, when it 30 ; his son Terah : Jn is roving over one, another one already presents itself; in consequence g XX.—Terah ben Nahor—till the birth of which, the mind has a longing for them, and enjoys the sight of 1 of hisson Ashen» » » them; as people say, “ Everything that is new offers enjoyment.” . 86 ALBIRONE. Now, he who studies the numbers of years of this table, till the birth of Abraham, will become aware of the difference between the two systems (that of the Christians and that of the Jews). The Jewish copy of the Thora, although stating the duration of the lives of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Levi, Kohath, and Moses, does not specify how old they were when a son was born to each of them, nor how long they lived after that; except in the case of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. For it is stated that Isaac was born unto Abraham when he was 100 years of age, and that he afterwards lived 75 years more ; that Jacob was born unto Isaac when he was 60 years of age; that Jacob entered Egypt together with his sons, when he was 130 years of age, and that he after that lived 17 years more. Now, the Israelites stayed in Egypt 210 years, according to the state- ment of the Jews, that between the birth of Abraham and that of Moses there was an interval of 420 years, and that Moses was 80 years of age, when he led the Israelites out of Egypt. From the second book of the Thora, however, we learn that the entire length of the sojourning of the Israelites in Egypt was 430 years. If, now, the Jews are asked to account for this difference, they maintain that that space of time is to be counted from the day when God made the treaty with Abraham, and promised him to make him the father of many nations, and to give to his descendants the country of Canaan as an inheritance. But we leave the matter to God, who knows best what they mean. The chronological differences regarding the later periods of Biblical history, arising out of the three different copies of the Thora, are of the same kind as we have already explained. How little care the Jews bestow upon their chronology is shown to evidence, by the fact, that they, all of them, believe in the first instance, that between their exodus from Egypt and Alexander there is an interval of 1,000 years, corrected (i.e. made to agree with the sun or real time) by intercalation, and that they rely on this number in their computation of the qualities of the years (whether they be perfect or imperfect or intermediate). But if we gather from their books which follow after the Thora, the years of every one of their rulers after Moses, the son of Amram, and add them together, we get a sum which already at the building of Jerusalem goes beyond the millennium by such a space of time as cannot be tolerated in chronological computations. If this sum were too small (less than a millennium), the difference might be accounted for by assuming that an interval between two persons might have been omitted. But a surplus in this case does not admit of any interpretation whatsoever. : Being unable to give a satisfactory answer to such a question, some of them assert that the accurate specification of these years was found in the records of the family of Juda, and that these records are no longer at their disposal, but have been carried off to the countries of the ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS. 87 Greeks. For after the death of Solomon, the Israelites were split into two parties. The tribes of Juda and Benjamin elected as their king the son of Solomon, whilst the ten tribes elected as their king Jeroboam, the client of Rehoboam, the son of Solomon. And thereupon he led them astray (to idolatry), as we shall mention hereafter in the chapter on the Jewish festivals. His children reigned after him, and both parties made war upon each other. : ul The following is a synopsis of the years of their rulers, who rule over them after their exodus from Egypt, when they marched towards Bakr-al-kulzum (the Red Sea) in order to pass it, and to march to Altih, a desert in Alhijaz, in the direction of Jerusalem ; all of which rests on the authority of their chronicles. But they have another book which they call Séder-‘Glam ab 1D), i.e. the years of the world, which contains a less sum of years than that of the books which Jollow after the Thora, whilst in some respects it comes near to their original system. The statements of both these kinds of their historical records we have collected in the following synopsis. ALBIRONG. The Names of the Rulers, Governors, Priests, and Judges of the Israelites till the Foundation of the Temple, which is a space of 480 years. How long each of them ruled, according to the Biblical chronicle. The sum of the years. according to Séder-‘Olim. How long each of them ruled, The sum of the years. The Israelites left Egypt and dwelt in the desert till the death of Moses Yehoshii‘a ben Nin, the successor of Moses . ‘Othni’él ben Kenaz ‘ ‘Eglon the king of M&’ab and the Ama- lekites of the Bani-‘Ammon : 'Bhid ben Géra, the left-handed, of the Ephraimites . Shamgar ben ’Anath . Debora the prophetess and her lieu- tenant Barak ‘ . The Midianites, the oppressors Gid‘on ben ‘Ofra, of the tribe of Manassch ’Abimélekh ben Gid‘on . ‘ Tola‘ ben Pi’a, of the tribe of Ephraim Y&'ir from Gil‘dd, of the tribe of Ma- nasseh . The sons of ‘Ammdn the Philistine i.e. the people of Palestine Yiftah from Gil‘ad . ’Ibsén, also called N Nahshon,! from Beth- lehem ‘ 'Blén ‘Abdon ben Hillel . The Philistines Shimshon the giant of the tribe of Din The people without a ruler ‘ ‘Eli the priest . The ark in the hands of the enemies, until Samuel was sent : Samuel, till they asked him to give them a king, whereupon he made Tallt their king . Saul, i.e. Taltt David; he commenced building the Temple i in the 11th year of his reign . Solomon ben David—till he finished the Temple BS pt po a Ww 83 pos | uss 90 ALBIRONY. It cannot be thought strange that you should find similar dis- crepancies with people who have several times suffered so much from captivity and war as the Jews. It is quite natural that they were dis- tracted by other matters from preserving their historical traditions, more particularly at times of such distress, “when each woman who suckled a child forgot her child, and each pregnant woman gave birth to the burthen of her womb.” (Stra xxii. 2.) Besides, the governorships and headships were not always held by one and the same tribe, but came to be divided (among several tribes) after the death of Solomon the son of David; then one part of them was held by the tribes of Juda and Benjamin, another part by the other tribes of the Israelites. : Further, their rule was not organized so well; nor their empire and government handed over from one to the other in such good order as to render it necessary for them both to preserve the dates when each of their rulers ascended the throne, and to record the duration of his reign, except by a rough method of computation. For some people maintain that, after the death of Joshua, Kishan, the King of Mesopotamia, of the family of Lot, overpowered them, and held them under his sway during eight years; that then Othniel rose. And some people attribute to his rule more years, others less. Frequently, one author thinks that some ruler reigned over them so- and-so many years, whilst another assigns to his rule a less number of years, and maintains that the former number represents the duration of his whole life (not that of his rule) ; or a third possibility is this, that by adding the two spaces of time, mentioned by the two authors, you get a common space of time for two rulers, during which they ruled simultaneously. The chronological system of the Séder-‘6lim, although coming near to the sum (assumed by the generality of the Jews), differs considerably from the statements in detail ; this applies specially to the time of the first building of the Temple, not to mention the uncertainty which hangs over those points of their history which we have spoken of before. The length of the Human Life.—Some one among the inexperienced and foolish people of the Hashwiyya and Dahriyya sects, have rejected as incredible the long duration of life which has been ascribed to certain tribes in the past, specially to the patriarchs before the time of Abraham. Likewise they consider as monstrous what has been related of the huge size of their bodies. They maintain that all this lies altogether beyond the limit of possibility, drawing their conclusions from objects which they are able to observe in their own age. They have adopted the doc- trine of astrologers, regarding the greatest possible gift (of years of life) which the stars are supposed to bestow upon mankind in the nativities, if the following constellation occurs: The sun must be at such a nativity both mater familias and pater familias, i.e. he must stand 10 20 30 40 ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS. 91 in his domus (olkos), or in his altitudo (Wwpa), in a cardo, and in a con- cordant masculine quarter. In that case he bestows his greatest years, i.e. 120 years, to which the Moon » . adds 25 years. Venus - » nS: wm Jupiter - - » 12 » These are the smallest years of each of these three stars, for they are not able to add a greater number of years, if they have a concordant aspect (in relation to the horoscope). Further, the two unlucky among the stars (Saturn and Mars) must have no aspect to the horoscope, so as not to exercise any diminishing influence. The Caput Draconis must stand with the sun in the same sign of the ecliptic, but still sufficiently far from him, so as not to stand within the Spot ékAetrrukcol. If this constellation occurs, it increases the gift (of years of life) of the sun by one fourth, i.e. 30 years. So the whole sum of years makes 215 years, which they maintain to be the longest duration of life which mortal man may reach, if it is not cut short by any accident. The natural duration of life is to be 120 years, because the existence of the world depends upon the sun; and this number of years represents the greatest years of the sun. Those people have settled this question as it best pleases them. And if reality followed their desire, heaven and earth would be greatly the worse for it. They have built their theory on a basis, the contrary of which is approved of by astronomers, in so far as they ascribe ‘‘ greatest years ” to these planets. They say in their books that these planets used to bestow their « greatest years” in the millennia of the fiery signs of the zodiac, when in them the rule was exercised by the superior planets (Saturn, Jupiter, Mars), and when the years of the sun and of Venus were made to exceed by far the longest duration of life ascribed to any one of the patriarchs. This man is their master in chronology; they trust in his word, and do not oppose his audacity. He actually maintains that man may live during the years of a middle conjunction” (of Saturn and Jupiter), when the nativity coincides with the tramsitus of the conjunction from one trigon to another, whilst the ascendens is one of the two houses of either Saturn or Jupiter, when the sun is mater familias in day-time, and the moon at night, exercises the greatest power ; that the same is possible, if this same constellation occurs at the transitus of the con- junction to Aries and its trigons. And the argument for the assertion, that the new-born human being may live during the years of the “ greatest conjunction,” i.e. about 960 years, until the conjunction returns to its original place, is of the same description. 92 ALBIRONY. He has explained and propounded this subject in the beginning of his book, “ De Nativitatibus.” This, now, is their belief in the gifts (of years of life) of the stars. Regarding these years, which the single planets are supposed to bestow upon mankind, we have had a discussion with the astronomers who use them, in the Kitdb altanbih ‘ald sind‘at altamwik (i.e. the book in which the swindling profession is exposed), and we have given a direction how to use the best method in all questions where these years occur in the book entitled, Kitib alshumiis alshifiya lilnufis. Now, personal observation alone, and conclusions inferred therefrom, do not prove a long duration of the human life, and the huge size of human bodies, and what else has been related to be beyond the limits of possibility. For similar matters appear in the course of time in manifold shapes. There are certain things which are bound to certain times, within which they turn round in a certain order, and which undergo transformations as long as there is a possibility of their existing. If they, now, are not observed as long as they are in existence, people think them to be improbable, and hasten to reject them as altogether impossible. This applies to all cyclical occurrences, such as the mutual impreg- nation of animals and trees, and the forthcoming of the seeds and their fruits. For, if it were possible that men did not know these occurrences, and then were led to a tree, stripped of its leaves, and were told what occurs to the tree of getting green, of producing blossoms and fruits, etc., they would certainly think it improbable, till they saw it with their own eyes. It is for the same reason that people, who come from northern countries, are filled with admiration when they see palm-trees, olive-trees, and myrtle-trees, and others standing in full-bloom at winter- time, since they never saw anything like it in their own country. Further, there are other things occurring at times in which no cyclical order is apparent, and which seem to happen at random. If, then, the time in which the thing occurred has gone by, nothing remains of it except the report about it. And if you find in such a report all the conditions of authenticity, and if the thing might have already occurred before that time, you must accept it, though you have no idea of the nature nor of the cause of the matter in question. Irregular Formations of Nature.—There are still other things which occur in like manner, but which are called “faults of nature » (lusus mature), on account of their transgressing that order which is characteristic of their species. I, however, do not call them “ faults of nature,” but rather a superfluity of material beyond the due proportions of the measure of everything. To this category belong, e.g. animals with supernumerary limbs, which occur sometimes, when nature, whose task it is to preserve the species as they are, finds some superfluous sub- stance, which she forms into some shape instead of throwing it away ; ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS. 93 likewise animals with imperfect limbs, when nature does not find the substance by which to complete the form of that animal in conformity with the structure of the species to which it belongs; in that case she forms the animal in such a shape, as that the defect is made to lose its obnoxious character, and she gives it vital power as much as possible. This is illustrated by an example, which Thébit ben Sinn ben Thabit ben Kurra relates in his chronicle, viz. that he had seen near Surraman- ra’A an Indian chicken that had come out of the egg without a defect, and of complete structure; but its head had two beaks and three eyes. 10 The same author reports, that to T{zdn, in the days of his reign, people brought a dead kid with the round face, the jaws and teeth like those of man ; but it had only one eye, and something like a tail on its forehead. Further, he relates that in the district Almukharrim, of Baghdad, there was born a child, which died instantly ; it was brought before Ghurfr- aldaula Bakhtiyir at the time when his father Mu‘izz-aldaula was still alive, and he examined it. It was one complete body without a defect, and without an addition, except that two protuberances rose from it, and upon these there were two complete heads, with complete lineaments, with eyes, ears, two nostrils, and two mouths; between the loins were 90 genitals like those of a woman, out of which the orifice of the penis of a man was apparent. Another report of his says, that one of the nobles of the Greeks sent to Nisir-aldaula, in the winter of A.H. 352, two men grown together by the stomach ; they were Aramsans, and twenty-five years of age. He says, they were called Multahiyini (i.e. two bearded men). They were accompanied by their father. They turned their faces towards each other, but the skin, which formed the common connecting link between them, was long, and besides susceptible of extending so far as to permit the one to rise from the side of the other. People describe them as 30 having, each of them, separate and complete organs of generation ; that they did their eating and drinking, and the exoneratio alvi at different times ; that they used to ride on one animal, the one closely behind the other, but so as to turn their faces towards each other; that the one had an inclination for women, the other for boys. There is no doubt that the Vis Naturalis (the creative power of nature), in all work it is inspired and commissioned to carry out, never drops any material unused, if it meets with such; and if there is abun- dance of material, the Vis Naturalis redoubles its creating work. Such a double-creation sometimes proceeds in this way, that one being comes 40 into existence in close proximity to another, being at the same time something separate by itself, as, e.g. in the case of twins; sometimes a being comes into existence tied up to another being, as, e.g. in the case of the two Arammans; at other times, again, a being comes into existence inserted into and mixed up with another one, as in that case which we mentioned before speaking of the two Arameans. Lol : i 18 E i pi 4 HE HAR Ei i i $e Ey ] . i ey He yo oi 1 % { | ie i 3 A | i¥ { 94 ALBIRON?. The various kinds of double-creations of this and other descriptions are also found among the other animals (besides man). There are, e.g. said to be certain species of sea-fishes that are double ones. I mean to say, if you open such a fish, you find a similar one inside. Frequently, too, the reduplication of formation may pass into a multi- plication. All of which is alse found among the plants. Look, for instance, at the double-fruits that are grown together, at the fruits with double kernels, which are included in one shell. An example of such a double-formation, of which the one thing is inserted into the other, is an orange, in the interior of which you find another orange of the same kind. : : Frequently the Vis Naturalis has not succeeded in finishing the double- creation, and producing a complete whole. In which case, she increases the number of limbs, either in their proper places, as e.g. supernumerary fingers—for although they are more than usual and than is necessary, still they are found in that place which is appropriated to fingers,—or not in their proper places. And in this case it would be correct to call such a formation an Error of Nature. An instance of this is the cow that was in Jurjan at the time of .the Sahib, and when the family of Buwaihi held the country under their sway. Everybody, both young and old, had seen it, and they related to me that it had on the bunch close to the neck a foreleg like its other two forelegs, quite complete, with its shoulder, its joints, and hoof ; and that she moved it about as she liked, contracting and extending it. This case may justly be considered an error (of nature), because that supernumerary limb was quite useless, and because it had neither its proper place nor direction. Now, all these and similar classes (of uncommon creations), on which I have composed special books, would not be admitted as possible by anyone who did not witness them, because he would not find in them the conditions of authenticity. Length of the Human Life.—The length of human life is taught by experience to be regulated by a genealogical ratio. For instance, with the Himyarites and others, long life is a peculiarity. Besides long life occurs in one place to the exclusion of others, e.g. in Farghéna and Yaméma. For well-informed people relate that in those countries some people grow older than anywhere else. And in this respect they are still ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS. 95 a “God forbid ! The oixodeamorsjs moves backward in the crisis of Hips, pon In a domus cadens of the cardines, so as not to give ore than its small cycle. You must subtract fif . ty ye account of the retrograde motion.” ili ; Mid “ Those people are the inhabitants of a xA{ua, of whom = nows beforehand that they live very long, so that they frequently 1ve on in a decrepit state, whilst Saturn is their companion. Ihave been told that, if a man dies before reaching the middle cycle of Saturn people wonder that he has died so soon. If, therefore, Saturn occupies 10 ioni : is i the dignity of oikodesmorjs in a xAiua of his own, he does not, in most cases, give less than his gr i : aes? an his great and middle cycles, except he be in cadente _ we surely he is in cadente domo.” ‘Abl-Ma‘shar: “Quite so! He (Saturn) is Salli ! alling out of the fi of the Aspectus, but he is not falling out of the Directio.” Ee (Here is a lacuna.) . The mysteries of the second are numerous. It is likewise in a well hops the earth. In this circumstance ‘there is curious matter for onishment. Now, in this place, they have admitted that in one kAipa 20 people live longer than in another. 30 — another place he (CAbii-Sa‘id Shiadhan) relates of the same ’Abd- a iii oy bs ion in his company when he was asked by ’Abd-Isma e Wazir of Saffir, regarding something in the si f hi ily, which he "Abii-Isma) was alarmed about. : St a ’Abt-Ma‘shar : “Do k : you know of what : ” ’Abu-‘Isma : “Yes.” age your father died ? “Aba Mosher: “ Have you already reached the same age ? ” Abaya : “I have passed it already.” : Sha Men “Do you know at what age your mother died ? ”’ i : “Yes. That age, too, I have passed already.” u- af : ce r Sant shar: “Do you know how long your paternal grandfather "AbdToms “Yes. But that I have not yet reached.” Abi-Ma‘shar: “Then consider whether that difference, which is indicated by your nativity, agrees with the life of your grandfather 7” ’Abii-Isma: “Yes, it does agree.” Abii-Ma‘shar: “In that case you are right to be alarmed.” Then he surpassed by the Arabians and Indians. Of this same 'Abd-Ma‘shar Albalkhi, the following story is related by 'Abti-Sad Shadhan in his Kitib-almudhdkara-bil asrdr (i.e. the book in which he brings mysterious subjects before the mind of the reader) :— The nativity of a son of the King of Serendib (Ceylon) was sent to him. His Ascendens was Gemini II, whilst Saturn stood in Cancer %, and the Sun in Capricorn vf. Now, ’Abt-Ma‘shar gave his judgment that he would live during the middle cycle of Saturn. Thereupon, I said to proceeded to explain : “ Nature is most powerful. For in any mishap that befals a man when he is as old as his father or mother or his a 40 grandfather were at the time of their death, he is certain ae h except there be strong evidence (to the contrary). This is clear Eo plants and seeds. For thére are’ certain species of them which known to exist very 1 . : y long, whilst others soon meet with mi exist only a short time.” with mishaps and inp x a BA — eile © p- 88. 96 ALBIRONI. Now, ’Abéi-Ma‘shar again admits in this place that the duration of life is regulated by a genealogical ratio. Therefore, that astrological theory, to which they cling, is devoid of sense, since they admit such a genealogical ratio as not impossible. On the contrary, it is necessary, as we have already mentioned. If this sect will reject everything that does not occur in their time or place, so as to fall under their personal observation, if they do not them- i selves find this everlasting scepticism of theirs absurd, if they will not : admit anything that has happened in their absence, we can only say that extraordinary occurrences do not happen at all times; and if they, 10 i t 10 indeed, happen in some one age, they have in the course of time and i the passing of generations no other tie which connects them with pos- terity except the uninterrupted chain of tradition. Nay, if they would draw the last conclusions from their theory, they would be mere sophists, and would be compelled to disbelieve anybody who would tell them that there are still other countries in the world besides those in which they are living ; and other absurdities of a similar kind would follow. If you would listen to them on the subjects which they propound, you would find that they refer to the traditions of the Indians, and rely on various sorts of tricks which they attribute to them. By way of argu- 20 i ment they always mention an Indian idol, cut out of stone, the neck of . 20 which is surrounded by numerous iron collars, which represent the \ 3 Indian eras of 10,000 years, and, if counted, would amount to an enor- i mous sum of years. But if you then tell them what they, i.e. the & that the King of Jamalibadhra, that town whence and the Myrobalana bellerica are rode and hunted and married, Indians, maintain, viz. the Myrobalana, the Phyllanthus emblica, exported, even ab the age of 250 years, and behaved altogether like a young mat, and that all this was the consequence of a dietetic treatment, they will reject it, and declare that the Indians are evident liars, not really learned men, because they base 30 ] their sciences upon inspiration, and that therefore their doctrines are 3 30 not trustworthy. Besides, they will begin to speak of the subtlety of all the tenets of the Indians in all questions of law and religion, of reward and punishment (eschatology), and they will dwell op the various sorts of torture which they practise in castigating their own bodies. It is this sect whom God means in the verse of the Koran (Stra x. 40) : “Nay, they have declared to be a lie something, the science of which they did not comprehend ”’; and in the other verse (Stra xlvi. 10): « And as they would not be guided thereby, verily, they will say: That is an old lie.” They admit only that which suits them, although it be 40 3 feeble, and they avoid everything that differs from their dogma, although b 40 it be true. I have read a book of 'Abfi-‘Abdallah Alhusain ben 'Thrahim Altabari Alnitili, a treatise on the duration of natural life, where he maintains that its greatest length is 140 solar years, beyond which no increase is ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS. 97 possible. He, however, who denies this so categorically, is required to produce a proof, which the mind is obliged to accept, and in which it acquiesces. But he has not established the least proof for his assertion except that in his premises he lays down the following theory :— Three Status Perfectionis are peculiar to man— I. His attaining to manhood (or womanhood), the time when he becomes able to propagate his own race. That is the beginning of the second Seventh. II. When his thinking power ripens, and his intellect proceeds from Sévajus to moinous. That is the beginning of the sixth Seventh. III. When he becomes able to govern himself, if he be unmarried ; his family affairs, if he be married; his public affairs, if he exercise some public authority. The sum of these three Status Perfectionis is to be 140 years. We do not see by what proportion ’Abii-‘Abdallih has calculated these pumbers. For there is no proportion nor progression apparent among them. Verily, if we conceded to him that there are three such Status Perfectionis, if we then counted them in the way he has dome, and declared finally, pre-supposing we did not apprehend being required to establish a proof, that the sum of these Status is 100 or 1,000 or some- thing like it, his method and ours would be quite the same. However, there is this difference, that we find, that in our time man attains those phases of development, which he represents as the characteristic signs of the Status Perfectionis, in quite other Sevenths and times than those which he mentions. God knows best his meaning! As regards the (superhuman) size of the bodies (of former genera- tions), we say, if it be not necessary to believe it for this reason, that we cannot observe it in our time, and that there is an enormous interval between us and that time, of which such things are related, it is there- fore by no means impossible. It is the same, the like of which is related in the Thora of the bodies of the giants (Nephilim, Rephd’im, ‘Enakim), and the belief in this has not been abandoned since the time when the Israelites saw them with their own eyes. Therefore everybody may attack and ridicule this subject, if he likes! If the Thora was read to them, and they read it themselves, though up to that moment they had not, declared the readers of the Thora to be liars, yet even if the giants were something quite different from what they are described to be (i.e. less extraordinary), they would declare the reader of the Thora to be a liar, in case he related anything that is not borne out by their experience and observation. If, indeed, there had never been classes of men with bodies of an extraordinary vastness, God having given them an uncom- mon size (vide Koran, ii. 24), no recollection of them would have remained in the uninterrupted chain of human tradition, and people would not compare with them everybody who in size exceeds their genus, as it is 7 p. 84. 08 ALBiRONI. known to us. For instance, the people of ‘Ad have become proverbial in this sense. But how can I expect them to believe me regarding the people of ¢ Kailuhrdsp ben Kaiwaji ben Kajmanish ben | ki = KaikubAdh—till hé sent Bukhtanassar to fl 8 Jerusalem, who destroyed it . TheBactrian| 60 | 3006 i p-105. < The same after that event = 60 | 3066 | ii a Kaiwishtdsp ben Ltrispitll 4 the appearance | i Md | of Zoroaster ©. | Alherbadh | 30 | 3096 | i The same after that event pe 90 | 3186 B Kai Ardashir—Bahman ben Isfandiyr ben. ¢ Tall in | Wishtisp : tthe body. } 112 | 6208 i Khumdnt the daughter of 'Ardashir—Bahman . | Cihrizéd . 30 | 3328 i Dérd ben Ardashir—Bahman . The great 12 | 3340 | Dird ben Dird—till he was killed By Alexander | ti the Greek The second 14 | 3354 The account of the chronology of this Part I., which we have given, is stated very differently in the Kitib-alsiyar. Our account, however, comes nearest to that view regarding which people agree. The chro- nology of this same part, but in a different shape, I have also found in the book of Hamza ben Alhusain Alisfahdni, which he calls “ Chronology of great nations of the past and present.” He says that he has endeavoured to correct his account by means of the Abastd, which is the religious code (of the Zoroastrians). Therefore I have transferred it into this PF - place of my book. 10 20 30 40 20 ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS. TABLE II. or PART I. Gaydmarth. Gayo6marth the first man An interregnum of 170 years. Hoéshang Tahmirath Jam . Béwarasp Afrédin Minoésheihr . Firasyab ‘ ‘ ‘ An interregnum of unknown length. Zab . Garshéasp together with Zab An interregnum. Kaikobadh Kaikaus Kaikhusrau . - Kailuhrisp Kaibishtasp . Kaiardashir . Cihrazad Daria ben Bahman . Dara ben Dara NAMES oF THE PEsHDADHIAN KINGS, taken from the Abastd, beginning with How long each of them reigned. Sum of the Years. | p.106. Names oF THE KAvAniaAN Kines. 40 500 126 150 80 120 120 112 30 12 2226 2367 2494 2646 2726 2846 2966 3078 3108 3120 p-107. p-108. p-110. 114 ALBIRON{. Further, Hamza relates that he has found also this part of Persian chronology in the copy of the Maubadh, such as is exhibited ir the following table: — TABLE III or PART I | How long each of Sum of | i them vos Names oF THE PisHpApHIAN KiNes, reigned. ia taken from the Copy of the Maubadh. Gayoémarth . ‘ 30 30 Mésha and Méshand—till they i children ‘ 50 80 Till their death ‘ . 50 130 Interregnum : : ‘ ‘ . 94 224 Hoéshang : ! ‘ . ‘ 40 264 Tahmiirath . . : . ‘ 30 294 Jam—till he hid himself . a . ; 616 910 He remained hidden ‘ ‘ . . 100 1010 Béwarasp . : ' : . . | 1000 2010 Frédin : ‘ fh ‘ ‘ : 500 2510 Minésheihr . d . . . . 120 2630 Zu and Garshisp . 4 2634 Names oF THE KavAnian Kines. i Kaikobadh . . . ‘ «1 2100 2734 Kaikads . : ‘ : ‘ . 150 2884 Kaikhusrau . . : : ‘ : 60 2944 Luhrisp i . ‘ ‘ ‘ «1 120 3064 Bishtisp . ‘ ‘ : : . 120 | 3184 Ardashir . . : . : +1 12 | 8206 Cihrazad . . ‘ ‘ ‘ : 30 3326 Dari ben Bahman . . : . . 12 3338 Dara ben Dara : . : . : 14 3352 In the biographical and historical books that have been translated from the works of Western authors, you find an account of the kings of Persia and Babylonia, beginning with Frédfin, whom they call, as people say, Yafal (Pal?), and ending with Déri, the last of the Persian kings. Now, we find that these records differ greatly (from Eastern records) as to the number of the kings and their names, as to the durations of their reigns, their history, and their description. I am inclined to think that they confounded the kings of Persia with their governors of Babylonia, and put both side by side. But if we altogether refrain from mention- ing those records, we should deprive this book of something that forms a due part of it, and we should turn away the mind of the reader there- from. We, now, exhibit this tradition in a special table of its own, in ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS. 115 order to prevent confusion getting into the arrangement of the various systems and traditions of this book. Here it follows :— How wong | each of them reigned. TrE KINGs oF PERSIA, beginning with Frédin, according to Western authors. Yafdl, i.e. Frédin . : ‘ ‘ ‘ 35 | 35 Tighlath Pilesar . . ‘ ‘ ‘ $5] 70 Salmanassar, i.e. Salm . 14 84 Sanherib ben Salmanassar, i.e. in "Persian : San- raft : 9 1 93 Sardim (Ezarhaddon), i.e. Z4 ben Thmasp Bod 96 After him the following powerful kings reigned :— Kaikobadh . . . ‘ ‘ : 49 145 Sanherib II. ‘ . : . ‘ 31 176 Méijam : ‘ : : ‘ 83 | 209 Bukhtanassar, 7.e. Kaikads ‘ Sig . 57 | 266 Evilad ben Bukhtanagsar . : . . } | 267 Belteshagsar ben Evilad . . ‘ : 2 269 Dard Alméahi I., 7.e. Darius . : . . 9 278 Koresh, i.e. Kaikhusrau . ‘ . . 8 286 Cyrus, t.e. Lukmiep- ‘ ’ : ‘ 34 320 Cambyses . ‘ . . ‘ 80 400 Dara II. . . . ' 36 436 Xerxes ben Dara, 7.e. Khusran 1 . 26 | 462 Ardashir ben Xerxes, called HaKpoX J Féroz ben Bahram i Balad . . y ne KisrA ben Féroz ) : Barddih ] . 2% Narsi ben Féroz : . | Shikari . : 5 3% Ardawéan ben Narsi . . | The last . . | ; “ Next follows what corresponds to the Table II. of the same Part 1., that which Hamza has taken from the Abasti. This, again, I call the Tabula IL, for the purpose of connecting those portions of the three parts of Persian chronology that bear the same name (as Table I, IL, III. of Parts I, IL, II1.) with each other, and to bring the es thereby, into a good order. It will not be necessary to mention this another time :(— TABLE Il. oF PART II. IN THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE TABLES. How long Suri NAMES OF THE AsHGHANIAN KINGS, Seb | of the i 0 ing to Hamza. : Yeurs, ii : reigned. —— 14 14 Al der the Greek . dog HY Met Balésh ben Shaptr ben Ashkén ben Ash | the hero . . ‘ ‘ ; ‘ Shaptr ben Ashk . ne Jadhar ben Wijan ben Shapur , ; ot Wijan ben Balash ben Shéptr, the nephew of the | preceding . ‘ ‘ 52 66 24 90 50 21 ns 30 ben Wijan . 3 . ‘ wd a tos Balash, the uncle of the preceding Y Férdzin ben Hurmuzan ; . . 2 | Khusrau ben Férozan w | Balash ben Férozan ny 2 | Ardawan ben Balash ben Férozan . 5 | dae ee ————————————————— p.116. 118 ALBIRONS. To this I add that which in the order of the tables is the third one, which Hamza says he has taken from the copy of the Maubadh, in order that the snbject may be carried on, as it has been done in the two pre- ceding tables. Here follows the Table III. of Part IIL. :— TABLE III. or PART II ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS. | How long THE ASHEANIANS, | each of according to the Chronicle of ’Abfi-alfaraj. them | reigned. | ERE BT | How long Names oF THE ASHKANIAN KINGS, each taken by Hamza from the Copy of the Maubadh. of them reigned. Alexander the Greek ; 14 After him reigned a class of Greek princes, with their Persian vizirs, altogether 14 in number . 68 Ashk ben Dara ben Dari ben Dara . . 10 Ashk ben Ashkan . ; ‘ : ‘ 20 Shaptr ben Ashkan ‘ . ‘ . 60 Bahram ben Shapir . . . . 11 Balash ben Shapur . ‘ . ‘ ‘ 11 Hurmuz ben Balash : : ' ’ 40 | Féroz ben Hurmuz . . . : . 17 Balish ben Féroz . : ; . ; 12 ' Khusrau ben Maladhan ‘ ‘ . ‘ 40 | Balishan . : : . ‘ 24 | Ardawian ben Baldshin . . . 13 Ardawan the Great, ben Ashkénin : . 23 Khusrau ben Ashkénén : . ‘ ‘ 15 Bahifirid ben Ashkinian . i . ‘ 15 Jidhar ben Ashkinan ‘ . ‘ . | ~ 29 Balash ben Ashkanéan ‘ . . : 30 Narsi ben Ashkanan i . ‘ «f- 20 Ardawén, the last . ; : " «iad Next I shall produce what I found in the chronicle of ’Abii-alfara] ‘Ibrahim ben ’Ahmad ben Khalaf Alzanjini the mathematician. This man, on having taken pains to compare the discordant traditions with each other, gives the following account of the * Petty Princes,” and the durations of their reigns, as is exhibited in the following table. He maintains that the Persians fixed only the historical tradition regarding the Ashkénian princes, not regarding the other * Petty Princes,” and that the Ashkénians first brought ‘Irak and Jibal under their sway Anno Alexandr: 246. Alexander the Greek : : . «Fld The ¢ Petty Princes” . ‘ ‘ . | 246 Afghtirshah . ‘ . ‘ . 10 Shaphr ben Ashlin’ : . 1: 60 Jidhar, Senior . . ‘ ; «1 +10 Bizan the Ashkéanian . ‘ vl Jiudhar the Ashkéanian Narsi the Ashkanian Hurmuz Ardawén Khusrau Balash Ardawén, Junior We have also found a chronological synopsis of this same Part IL in the Shahnima by ’Abti-Manstr ‘Abd-alrazzik, such as we exhibit in the 20 following table :— How long Bum THE ASHKANIANS, each of ot according to the Shihndma. them Years, reigned. Ashk ben Dard, according to others a descendant of Arish . . ‘ : . . 13 Ashk ben Ashk ‘ . : . ; 25 Shaptr ben Ashk . ‘ . : . 30 Bahrim ben Shéapur . " ‘ 51 Narsi ben Bahram . ‘ . : . 25 Hurmuz ben Narsi . ‘ . : . 40 Bahram ben Hurmuz . ‘ : : 5 Hurmuz : . y ‘ : : 7 Féroz ben Hurmuz . : . ‘ : 20 Narsi ben Féroz : : ‘ : . 30 Ardawin . . : . ‘ The nature of this Part IL is brought to light by a comparative examination of these tables. Itisa period that begins with Alexander’s conquest of Persia, and ends with the rising of Ardashir ben Babak and his seizing the empire out of the hands of the Ashkinians. Both these limits are well known, and generally agreed upon. How, then, 120 ALBIRONT. can the interval between them be a matter of doubt to us? However, it must be kept in mind that we are not able to make out by a mere course of reasoning the duration of the rule of each of the Ashkénian princes, nor of the other Petty Princes,” nor the number of the persons who occupied the throne. For all this depends upon historical tradition, ank it is well-known to what mishap tradition has been subject. The least, now, we must try to do is to amend this Part II. as much as is in our power. It is evident and not unknown to anybody, that the year in which Yazdajird came to the throne was A. Alex. 943. This undeniable date we shall keep in mind as a basis, and establish it as a gauge by which: to measure all their records. Let us first take the sum of years which we get from the Table I. of Part II, i.e. 280 years. Hereto we add that sum which we shall exhibit in the Table I. of Part IIL. for the time from the beginning of the reign of Ardashir till that of the reign of Yazdajird, in order to combine the like tables (i.e. Table I, IL, IIL. of Part IL. respectively, with Table I., IL, III. of Part III.) with each other. This latter period is about 410 years. So we get a sum of . 690 years, which is less than our gauge by about 253 years. We shall drop this calculation and not take further notice of it. Next we consider the sum of years contained in the Table II. of Part IL. i.e. 358 years. Hereto we add the sum which will be exhibited by Table II. of Part III., corresponding to the sum that occurs in the first calculation, and we get the sum total of 818 years, which is again less than our gauge by about 125 years. We shall drop this calculation, too, and proceed to the Tables III. in Parts II. and III., and add them together in the same way as we have done with Table I. and II. Then we get the sum of 930 years, which is again below our gauge by about thirteen years. We drop this calculation, and do not further notice it. For chronology does not admit of this difference, although it may be so slight as nearly to approach the truth. If we make the same calculation with the years exhibited in the book of ’Abt-alfaraj, combining the corresponding tables with each other, we get the sum of 949 years, which exceeds our gauge by six years. ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS. 121 If we pass by this and add together the years as reported in the ShahnAma for this Part IL, with the result of any of the tables of Part IIL, this calculation would still less agree with our gauge (than the preceding ones). Now we shall put aside all these calculations, and try to derive an emendation of them from the book of Mani, called Shdbirkdn, since, of all Persian books, it is one that may be relied upon (as a witness) for the time immediately following the rise of Ardashir (ben Bibak). Besides, Mént in his law has forbidden telling lies, and he had no need what- soever for falsifying history. : Mani, now, says in this book in the chapter of the coming of the prophet, that he was born in Babylonia Anno Astronomorum Babylonice 527, i.e. Anno Alex. 527, and four years after the beginning of the reign of the king Adharbin, whom I believe to be Ardawin the Last. In the same chapter he says that he first received divine revelation when he was thirteen years of age, or Anno Astronomorum Babylonie 539, two years after the beginning of the reign of Ardashir the king of kings. Hereby Mani states that the interval between Alexander and Ardashir is 537 years, and that the interval between Ardashir and the succession of Yazdajird is 406 years. And this result is correct, being based upon the testimony of a book, favoured by God with a long duration, which is used as a religious code. Further, we are informed by traditions, the correctness of which is proved by their mutual agreement, that the last intercalation was carried out at the time of Yazdajird ben Shépir, and that the Epagomenz were put at the end of that month, to which the turn of intercalation had come, viz. the eighth month (Aban-Mah). If, now, we count the interval between Alexander and Ardashir as 537 years, we find the interval between Zoroaster and Yazdajird ben Shépir to be nearly 970 years, in which eight leap months are due, since it was their custom to inter- calate one month in every 120 years. But if we count that interval (between Alexander and Ardashir) as 260-270 years,or something more, as 300 years, as most authors do, we get a sum of about 600 years, in which only five leap months would be due, whilst we have already men- tioned their report stating that eight leap months are due in that period. The latter is therefore an irreconcileable supposition (viz. that the interval between Alexander and Ardashir is not more than 260-300 years). Likewise it is written in the books of astrologers, that the horoscope of the year in which Ardashir (ben Bibak) rose was about half of Gemini, and the horoscope of the year in which Yazdajird rose was the sixth degree of Cancer. If, now, we multiply 93} degrees, which is the surplus of the solar cycle over the whole days according to the Persians, by 407 years, we get the sum of 152} degrees. If we subtract this from the rising-place of the degree of the horoscope of that year, in which Yazdajird came to the throne, and take the arc of the remainder for the p.120. 122 ALBIRON?, rising-place of the region of ‘Irdk, which was the residence of the Kisras, the horoscope is half of Gemini close to the place, which the astrologers mention. If the years, however, are either more or less, the horoscope does not agree (with what it is reported to have been). So, of course, that which is confirmed by two witnesses is more trustworthy than that which is contradicted by many. If we add to the 407 years, mentioned by the astrologers, the 537 years which are reported by the Shabtirkin, we get the sum of 944 years. And that is the year of the Zra Alexandri for Yazdajird’s accession to the throne. The surplus of one year is only possible in the 10 reports of such authors as do not give detailed statements regarding the months and minor fractions of time, in consequence of the fact that the years of the Persians and Greeks commence at different times. Hamza relates that Misa ben ‘Isd Alkisrawi, on having studied this subject, and perceived the confusion we have mentioned, said: “The interval between Alexander and Yazdajird’s accession to the throne is 942 years. If we subtract therefrom 266 years for the period of the reign of the Ashkinians, we get for the rule of the Sasanians, from Ardashir till the accession of Yazdajird, 676 years. In their own traditions the Persians have no such chronological system.” Further, he says: “Thereupon we studied and examined the number of their kings. And here be it noticed that they have forgotten the names of some of them, whom the chroniclers have not mentioned, blending together some of their names on account of their similarity. I shall enumerate them as they really are.” Accordingly, he, i.e. Misa, has increased the durations of their reigns and their number, as we shall explain, when the order of our exposition comes to that subject, if God permits. Chronology of the Sasanians.—Now we proceed to treat of the third part of Persian chronology, the beginning of which is the rising 30 of Ardashir ben Bébak of the family of Bahman ben Isfandiyar. For he was the son of Babak Shih ben Sisin ben Babak ben Sisin ben Bahifirid ben Mihrmish ben Sisén senior ben Bahman ben Isfandiyér. This part of chronology also is not free from the same defects that beset the former two parts, but still they are less considerable. I commence this part with the Table I., corresponding to the (first) tables of each of the two preceding parts, and I shall proceed hereafter with Table II. and III. If you gather the dates from the single tables of the three parts, you get the consecutive course of Persian chronology. Here follows Table I. 20 40 ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS. pel. 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His son. . ‘ ' ’Abi-Muhammad ben Hamdan His son ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ 'Abti-alhasan ‘Alf ben Hamdan ‘Ali ben Buwaihi . . , ‘ ’ Abfi-alhasan ’Ahmad ben Buwaihi Alhasan ben Buwaihi : : ' Abi-Mansiir BakhtiyAr ben ’Abi- alhasan. ’Abt-’ Ishak ben Alhusain . 'Abti-Harb Alhabashi ben ’Abi- alhusain. ' Abfi-Mans{r Bisutiin ben Washm- gir. ’ Ab{i-Manstir Buwaihi ben Alhasan Almarzubin ben Bakhtiyar Kabtis ben Washmgir : . 'Abéi-’Ahmad Harith ben Ahmad 'Abf-Shuja‘ Fandkhusra ben Al- hasan. ’Abt-Kalinjar ben Fandkhusra ’Abti-Kélinjar ~~ Marzuban ben Fanikhusra. ’ Abti-alfawaris ben Fanikhusra ’Abti-Talib Rustam ben ‘Ali . ’Abti-alkdsim Mahmiid ben Sabuk- tagin. 'Abti-Nasr Khurra Féréz ben Fanikhusra. ’Abti-alhasan Muhammad ben Ibrahim. *Abti-al‘abbéds Tash Alhajib ’Abt-alhasan Fa’'ik-alkhassa . ’Ab{i-‘Ali Muhammad ben Muham- mad ben 'Ibrahim. Sabuktagin, first . ' ‘ . Afterwards he received the title of Mahmd ben Sabuktagin . 'Abti-alfawaris Bektfizin Alhajib ’Abti-alkdsim Muhammad ben Ibrahim. ’Ab{i-Manstir Alp Arslin Albalawi ER The Titles which were bestowed by Their Majesties the Khalifs. Waliyy-al-daula. ‘Amid-al-daula. Nagir-al-daula. Sa‘d-al-daula. Saif-al-daula. ‘Imad-al-daula. Mu‘izz-al-daula. Rukn-al-daula. ‘Izz-al-daula. ‘Umdat-al-daula. Sanad-al-daula. Zahir-al-daula. -Mu’ayyid-al-daula. 'I‘zéiz-al-daula. Shams-al-ma‘ali. Waliyy-al-daula. ‘Adud-al-daula wa Tij-al-milla. Fakhr-aldaula wa Falak-al-’'umma. Samsim-al-daula wa Shams-al- milla. Sharaf-al-daula wa Zaman-al-milia. Majd-al-milla wa kahf-al-’'umma. Yamin-al-daula wa ’Amin-al-milla. 30 Bahé-al-daula wa Diyi-al-milla wa Ghiyéth-al-’umma. Nasir-al-daula. Husdm-al-daula. ‘Amid-al-daula. Nasgir-al-daula. Mu‘in-al-daula. Nisir-al-din wal-daula. Saif-al-daula. Sindn-al-daula. Nasir-al-daula. Mu‘in-al-daula. ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS. 131 Also the Wazirs of the Khalifs have received certain titles, com- pounded with the word Dhi, as e.g. Dhil-al-yaminain, Dhii-al-r?’ dsatain, Dhii-al-kifiyatain, Dhi-al-saifain, Dhi-al-kalamain, ete. The Buwaihi family, when, as we have mentioned, the power passed into their hands, imitated the example of the khalifs ; nay, they made it still worse, and their title-giving was nothing but one great lie, when they called their Wazirs, e.g. Kdifi-al-kufit, Alkifi AUauhad, ’ Auhad- alkufat. The family of Simén, the rulers of Khurisin, had no desire for such titles, contenting themselves with their kunyas (such as ’Abii- Nasr, ’ Abil- al-hasan, ’Abi-Sdilik, ’ Abi-al-kisim, "Abii-al-kdrith). In their lifetime they were called Almalik, Alm’ ayyad, Almuwwaffak, Almansir, Almu‘az- 2am, Almuntagir, and after their death, Alhamid, Alshahid, Alsa‘id, Alsadid, Alradi, etc. To their field-marshals, however, they gave the titles of Ndsir-aldaula, ‘Imdd-aldaula, Husdim-aldaula, ‘Amid-aldaula, Saif-aldaula, Sinin-aldaula, Mu‘in-aldaula, Nisir-aldaula, in imitation of the ways of the khalifs. The same was done by Bughrikhin, when he had come forward (to claim supreme power) A.H. 882, calling himself Shikib-aldaula. Some of them, however, have gone beyond this limit, calling them- selves ’Amir-al-‘dlam and Sayyid-al-wmard. May God inflict on them ignominy in this world, and show to them and to others their weakness! As to the Amir, the glorious Prince, may God give a long duration to his reign! (to whom this book is dedicated), His Majesty the Khalif addressed him in a letter, and offered to him titles, such as those com- pounded with the word Daula (e.g. Saif-al-daula, Husim-al-daula, etc.). But then he considered himself superior to them, and abhorred the idea of being compared with those who were called by such titles but only in a very metaphorical way. He, therefore, selected for himself a title the full meaning of which did not exceed his merits (Shams-al-ma‘ili, Le. Sun of the Heights). He has become—may God give a long duration to his power !—among the kings of the world like the sun, who illuminates the darkness, in which they live, by the rays of his heights. He has come into high favour with the khalifs as a prince of the Believers. They wanted to redouble and to increase his title, but his noble mind declined it. May God give him a long life ; may he enlighten all the parts of the world by his justice, and bless them by his look; may He raise his affairs and those of the subjects who dwell in his shadow to perfection, increasing them everlastingly. God is almighty to do this, and sees and knows all the affairs of his slaves ! Intervals between the Eras.—After this digression we now return to the point whence we started, and proceed, after having finished the collection of chronological dates in the preceding tables. Next we must turn our attention towards fulfilling our promise of teaching the reader that knowledge by means of which he may compute the eras that are Q * a — a 3 A ie i nn % PB. aR ls ER 132 : ArLBirONI. used in the Canons, for astronomical observations, and elsewhere, e.g. In commercial stipulations and contracts. To this we shall prefix a twofold Tailasdn, which will indicate the intervals between the single eras in 2 constant measure, i.e. in days. In the lower half under the diagonal, you find the distances computed in days and written in Indian ciphers. In the upper half you find two kinds of numbers; the upper ones are these identical days written according to the sexagesimal system, whilst the lower ones are the same days in their various degrees (units, tenths, hundreds, ete.) transcribed from the Indian ciphers into the Huriif- aljummal. The following we notation. If we take [A633 sum, we get the total sum of the reduplications of all the checks of the chessboard, if we commence with one for the first check. This sum, noted in Indian ciphers, 18 the following : 18,446,744,073,709,551,615 ; noted according to the sexagesimal system : 30. 30. 27. 9. 5. 8. 50. 40. 31. 0. 15.; and transcribed into the H wrif-aljummal : NTT TRIAD BITTRING If you transcribe these characters one after the cther into Indian ciphers, you get the above-mentioned number. 20 Now, in the same way as this example, our Tailasin is to be under- stood. This threefold system of notation we use for no other purpose but this, that each mode should bear testimony to the other in case a doubt should arise regarding some of the characters and figures that denote the numbers. We mention our method only in a summary Way, and not at full p-136. length, because the reader of this book must be more than a beginner in mathematics. We say, if a man wants to find an (unknown) era by the help of a known one, let him reduce the whole of the known era into and this sum is called The Basis.” Then he must take the 30 the known and the unknown ones. 11-known calculation is an example of this system of 12 or 1616, and subtract 1 from the days, interval between the two eras, viz. This we call « The Equation.” If, then, the known era (i.e its epoch) precedes the unknown one, he subtracts the equation from the basis. If,on the other hand, the known epoch) follows the unknown one, he adds the equation to the era (i.e. its the number of days of the basis. And the sum which he gets 1s unknown era. Thereupon he that kind of ye division he gets complete years. distributed over the months of the yea which we have mentioned as peculiar to eac them. Here are the days of the intervals be d in the twofold Tailasin. must divide this sum of days by the number of days of ar which is ascribed to the era in question. By this And the remainder of days is to be 40 r according to the proper lengths h of the different kinds of tween the epochs of the various eras represente God is allwise ! NG | Era Diluvii, | with Egyptian Vy bonassari, with Egyptian | | | .4.13.56.58. 3. ee ZXEra Na- slo 133. 55.41. 4 Slag 20. 59. 42 2.35 | years and 2} | 1,014,933 months. 159,101 : | | L we} ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS. | | 1,124,068 | 1,182,87 11,019.274 | | | | 154,760 263,895 322,700 | 499,802 1,359,975 | i i i 4341 109,135 345,042 Era Philippi, 503,425 | 1,363,598 599,480 | 1,459,653 | 444,720 ears and ths. dao ZEra with Syrian | mon Alexandri, y Wega Nope -? od Hla Sopes ZEra Augusti, with Greek years and Egyp-| tian months. 0. 39. 46. | 55.18. 30. | 21. 12. 1. Vyg 177,02 | 235907 | 340,701 | Ew 5. 20. 16 Sah Era Antonini, with Greek years and Egyp-| | tian months. | | | | | | 1 56.1.44.5. (33.34. 28. 5.28.14.12. 5. 54.7. 43. 4. 15.46.17.6.) \onglday Re 9. 50.18. 2.143. 5.45.1. |20. 38.29.1.(15.18.13. 1.| 41. 11. 44. | | eye Vaghyee 33.27.45. 6.38.46.18. 6. | | | | | p-137. 20.31.46. 2.25.50.19. 2. Syd | abo | aby Eo olay years and months. 121,459 Noosa Syd .33.1. 10. 82.6. 1.147. 31. 5. 1.| 28. 47. 31. Saab 19.18.¢ cToeR st Lg 2.54. 0.1. | 39. 26.45. | 34. 6. 29. Diocletiani, | with Greek | with lunar years| and Arabic months ee) 42.50.35. 1. 23. 6.2. 1. | | | | Wlagk | ZBra Fuge, | | | | | 1121.88.34. 1. ot : 39. 19. 2.9, 44. 38.35. 1 | | | | | { | i | | 12. 50. | 49. 11. 49.23. 27. 15. Sees Tod 23. 0. 1. c 5. bye 37.25.1.1. 49. 44. 34.19. 44. 33. | Las 33 85S wig alls 41. 27. Legge 0.53.16.1. | 18. | Lo | | 10.82.8.2. | 5.51.36. 1. 180,725 | 239530 | 344324 | 348665 | E Era Yazdagirdi, with Persian | | | 291,137 | 276,780 | 335585 | 440,379 3623 99,678 | 05 | months. years and with Greek | years and Per- | 9% sian months. | “Bra 55. 40. 26. bong Mut | p.138. 134 ALBIRONG. The Chess Problem,—For the solution of the chess problem (lit. for the reduplication of the chess and its calculation) there are two funda- mental rules. The one of them is this: — The square of the number of a check z of the 64 checks of the chess- board is equal to the number of that check the distance of which from the check z is equal to the distance of the check z from the 1st check. For example : take the square of the number of the 5th check, i.e. the square of 16 (16%) =256, which is the number belonging to the 9th check. Now, the distance of the 9th check from the 5th is equal to the distance of the 5th check from the first one. The second rule is this :— : The number of a check z minus 1 is equal to the sum total of th numbers of all the preceding checks. Example: The number of the 6th check is 32. And 32-1 is 31, which is equal to the sum of the numbers of all the preceding checks, i.e. of — 1+2+4+8+16 (=31). If we take the square of the square of the square of 16, multiplied by itself (i.e. {[(16%?]2}2 or 166), this is identical with taking the square of the number of the 33rd check, by which operation the number of the 65th check is to be found. If you diminish that number by 1, you get the sum of the numbers of all the checks of the chessboard. The number of the 33rd check is equal to the square of the number of the 17th check. The number of the 17th check is equal to the square of the number of the 9th check. The number of the 9th check is equal to the square of the number of the 5th check. And this (i.e. the number of the 5th check) is the above- mentioned number 16. 'Abt-RaihAn says in his Kitdb-al- arkim (Book of the Ciphers): “I shall explain the method of the calculation of the chess problem, that the reader may get accustomed to apply it. But first we must premise that you should know, that in a progression of powers of 2 the single numbers are distant from each other according to a similar ratio. (Lacuna 7) If the number of the reduplications, i.e. the number of the single members of a progression is an even one, it has two middle numbers. But if the number of the reduplications is an odd one, the progression has only one middle number. The multiplication of the two ends by each other is equal to the multiplication of the two middle numbers. (In case there is only one middle number, its square is equal to the multiplication of the two end numbers.) This is one thing you must know beforehand. The other is this :— If we want to know the sum total of any progression of powers of 2, we take the double of the largest, i.e. the last number, and subtract ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS. 135 therefrom the smallest, i.e. the first number. The remainder is the sum total of these reduplications (i.e. of this progression). Now, after having established this, if we add to the checks of the chessboard one check, a 65th one, then it is evident that the number which belongs to this 65th check, in consequence of the reduplications of powers of 2, beginning with 1, is equal to the sum of the numbers of all the checks of the chessboard minus the 1st check, which is the number 1, the first member of the progression. If, therefore, 1 is subtracted from this sum, the remainder is the sum of the numbers of all the checks of the chessboard. If, now, we consider the 65th check and the 1st as the two ends of a progression, their medium is the 83rd check, the first medium. Between the checks 33 and 1, the check 17 is the medium, the second medium, Between the checks 17 and 1, the check 9 is the medium, the third medium. Between the checks 9 and 1, the check 5 is the medium, the fourth medium. Between the checks 5 and 1, the check 3 is the medium, the fifth medium. : Between the checks 3 and 1, the check 2 is the medium, the sixth medium, to which belongs the number 2. Taking the square of 2 (22), we get a sum which is a product of the multiplication of the number of the 1st check by that of the 3rd check (1x 4=2?). The number of the lst check is 1. This product, then, is the fifth medium, the number of the 3rd cheek, i.e. 4. The square of 4 is 16, which is the fourth medium in the 5th check. The square of 16 is 256, which is the third medium in the 9th check. The square of 256 is 65,536, which is the second medium in the 17th check. The square of 65,536 is 4,294,967,296, which is the first medium in the 33rd check. The square of 4,294,967,296 is 18,446,744,073,709,551,616. If we subtract from this sum 1, i.e. the number of the first check, the remainder is the sum of the numbers of all the checks of the chess- board. I mean that number which at the beginning of this digression we have used as an example (of the threefold mode of numeral rotation). The immensity of this number cannot be fixed except by dividing it by 10,000. Thereby it is changed into Bidar (sums of 10,000 dirhams). The Bidar are divided by 8. Thereby they are changed into ’Aukdr (loads). The ’Aukdr are divided by 10,000. Thereby the mules, that carry them, are formed into Ku¢‘dn (herds), each of them consisting of 10,000. The Kut‘dn are divided by 1,000, that, as it were, they (the herds) might graze on the borders of Widis, 1,000 kids on the border of each Wid:. 136 ALBIRONG. The Widis are divided by 10,000, that, as it were, 10,000 mountains should rise out of each Wid:. In this way, by dint of frequently dividing, you find the number of those mountains to be 2,305. But these are (numerical) notions that the earth does not contain. God is allwise and almighty ! Rules for the Reduction of the different Eras.—Now we shall give a detailed exposition of the subject of this chapter (i.e. the derivation of the eras one from the other), which cannot be dispensed with. We must, however, postpone our exposition of the derivation of the Aira Adami and Fra Diluvii according to Jews and Christians, because they are connected with the years and months of the Jews. And these are very intricate and obscure, and offer many difficulties for calculation,— a chapter, part of which we have already mentioned before. For which reason we must direct our attention exclusively to this subject, and explain it in a special chapter. And now we commence with the detailed exposition of the eras, pre-supposing the number of days which form the intervals between the epochs of the eras and that day which is sought to be known. These days we call Dies Parate. If we want to find the Fra Diluvii, according to ’Abi-Ma‘shar, who uses it in his Canon (or calendar), we divide its Dies Parate by 365, whereby we get complete years. If there is a remainder of days, we change them into Egyptian months. The 1st of Tét of this Ara Diluvii always coincides with the 18th of Bahman-Méh in the non-inter- calated Fra Yazdagirdi. If we want to find the ZFra Nabonassari or the Ara Philippi, we divide its Dies Parate by 365, whereby we get complete years. The remainder of days is distributed over the single months, to each month its proper portion. We begin with T6t, the 1st of which always coin- cides with [the 1st of] Dai-Mah in the non-intercalated Zra Yazdagirdi. If we want to find the &ra Alexandri, we divide its Dies Parate by 3651 days, i.e. we multiply the Dies Parate by 4, changing them into fourth-parts, and the sum total we divide by 1,461, i.e. by the days of the year reduced into fourth-parts. Thereby we get complete years. The remaining fourth-parts we raise again to whole days, dividing them by 4. Then we distribute them over the single months, to each month its proper portion, beginning with Tishrin I. If there is a remainder of days that do not fill up one month, this remainder represents the date of that identical month. To the month Shubéit we must give twenty-nine days in a leap year, and twenty-eight days in a common year. The leap year is recognized in this way, that we consider the remainder which we get after dividing the fourth-parts (of the Dies Parate) by 4. If the remainder is 2, the currrent year is a leap year. If the remainder is less or more (i.e. 1, or 3, 4), the year is a common year. ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS. 137 The reason of this is, that intercalation preceded the epoch of this era by two years, so that at the beginning of the era two fourth-parts of a day had already summed up. If, therefore, at the end of the era there is a remainder of two fourth-parts, these, together with the two fourth- parts at the beginning of the era, make up one complete day. In that case the year is a leap year. (In this calculation the Syrian year and months are used.) If we, however, compute this era according to the method of the Greeks, we subtract 92 from the number of its Dies Parate, because the beginning of the Greek year differs from that of the Syrian year. The remainder we compute in the same way as we have done according to the method of the Syrians. The remaining fourth-parts we raise to whole days, and distribute them over the single months, to.each month its proper portion, commencing with Januarius, i.e. Kintin the Last. The leap year is ascertained in the same way that we have mentioned before. If we want to find the Fra Augusti, we compute its Dies Paratee in the same way as we have done with the Ara Alezandri, so as to get complete years and a remainder of fourth-parts of a day. These latter we change into days, and distribute them over the single months, to each month its proper portion, beginning with T6t. If the year is a leap year, we count the Epagomence, i.e. the small month, as six days, whilst in a common year we count it as five days. The leap year is recognized by there being no remainder of fourth- parts of a day after we have converted them into whole days. Of which the reason is this, that the leap year preceded the beginning of the era. On this subject (the Epagomence) there cannot be much uncertainty, since they are placed at the end of the year, and the 1st of Tot always coincides with the 29th of the Syrian month Abh. Of the Zra Antonini, we compute the complete years in the same way that we have explained for the &ra August. The remainder (of fourth-parts of a day) we divide by 4, and distribute the whole days over the single months, to each month its proper portion, beginning with Tot. In a leap year we count the Epagomens as six days. The leap year is recognized by there being one quarter of a day as a remainder of the fourth-parts (of a day). Of the Ara Diocletiani, we compute the Dies Parate in the same way as we have done with the 4ra Augusti, ete., so as to get complete years and to convert the fourth-parts again into complete days. Thereupon we distribute them over the single months, beginning with Januarius, i.e. Kinin the Last. In a leap year we give to Februarius, i.e. Shubat, twenty-nine days, in a common year twenty-eight days. The leap year is recognized in the same way as for the Era Alexandri, by there being two fourth-parts as the remainder of the fourth-parts of a day. p.142. ———————— —— ison A 138 ALBIRONG. As regards the eras of the Arabs and their months, how they inter- calated them, and in what order they arranged them in pagan times, this is a subject that has been utterly neglected. The Arabs were totally illiterate, and as the means for the perpetuation of their traditions they relied solely upon memory and poetry. But afterwards, when the generation of those who practised these things had died out, there was no further mention of them. There is no possibility of finding out such matters. If we want to find the Era of the Hijra as used in Islam, we divide its Dies Parate by the mean length of the lunar year, i.e. 354141 days (8354%} days), which is effected by multiplying the number of days by 30, the smallest common denominator for both fractions, fifth and sixth parts. The sum we divide by 10,631, which is the product of 354 multi- plied by 30, plus 13=1+1. The quotient represents complete lunar years, and the remainder con- sists of thirtieth-parts of a day. If we divide these by 30, we get again whole days, which we distribute over the single months, giving to one month thirty days, to the other twenty-nine alternately, beginning with Almuharram. The remainder of days that does not make up one com- plete month, represents the date of that identical month. This is the method for the computation of the eras used in the Canons. But if there are still other methods which people adopt for this pur- pose, they all go back to one and the same principle. As for the calculation which is based upon the appearance of new moon, it must be remarked that two imperfect months (of twenty-nine days) may follow each other as well as three perfect ones (of thirty days), that the lunar year may exceed the above-mentioned measure (of 354.1% days), whilst it may not attain this length at other times, the reason of which is the variation in the rotation of the moon. Of the Aira Yazdagirdi, we divide the Dies Parate by 365, whereby we get complete years. The remainder we distribute over the single months, to each month its proper portion, beginning with Farwardin- Mah. In this way we come to know the era, the epoch of which is the beginning of his reign, that era which is used in the Canons. If we, however, want to find the Era of the Zoroastrians, we subtract twenty years from the Zra Yazdagirdi. The remainder is the Era of the Zoroastrians. For they date from the year in which Yazdagird was killed and their national empire ceased to exist, not from the year in which he ascended the throne. The Era of Almu‘tadid-billih we compute in the same way as the Aira Alexandri. We give to each month its proper portion, as to the Persian months, beginning with Farwardin-Mah, and proceeding as far as the beginning of Adhar-Mah. If, then, the year is a leap year, which is recognized in the same way as in the Ara Alexandri, by there being a remainder of tw fourth-parts of a day, (we count the Andargdhs or I 10 20 30 10 20 30 40 ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS. 139 Epagomence between Aban-Mih and Adharméih) as six days, whilst in a common year we count them only as five days. New-Year (Nauréz) always coincides with the 11th of Hazirdn, for those reasons which we have already mentioned by the help and the support of God! Now it would seem proper to add a chapter which is wanting in the Canons, and has not been treated by anybody except by ’Abt-al‘abbas Alfadl ben Hatim Alnairizi, in his commentary on Almagest. And still it is a subject of frequent occurrence, and those who have to employ it may not always know what to do with it. The thing is this, that you may be required to compute a date for a certain time, the known parts of which are various species that do not belong to one and the same genus. There is, e.g. a day the date of which within a Greek, Arabic, or Persian month i§ known; but the name of this month is unknown, whilst you know the name of another month that corresponds with it. Further, you know an era, to which, however, these two months do not belong, or such an era, of which the name of the month in question is not known. Example: — (a) On the day Hurmuz (b) in the month Tammiz (¢) in the year of the Hijra 391. In this case the proper method is to compute the ra Alezandri for the 1st of Muharram of a.m. 391. Thereby we learn with what month and day of the Arabian months the 1st of Tammiiz coincides. Further, we compute the Zra Yazdagirdi for the 1st of Tammbz, whereby we learn on what day of Tammiiz the day Hurmuz falls. In this way the three eras together with their species and genera are found out. If besides these elements the name of the week-day is known, this is an aid and a help for obtaining a correct result. Example: — («) On Friday (b) in the first third of Ramadan (¢) in the year of Yazdagird 370. Here the right method would be first to compute the Arabic era for the Naurdz of this year of the Fra Yazdagirdi, and thereby to compute the first third of Ramadin. Then we consider the week-days, to find which of them are the beginnings of the months. Thereby we find what we wanted to find. Likewise, if the week-day and its place within some month, together with some era, are known, and if also the name of the month is known, you can find this out in the same way as we have mentioned. The student who thoroughly knows all these methods will be able to solve whatever question of this sort be put to him; he will find out everything, if he considers the subject as it ought to be considered. If those parts of such dates, the numerical values of which are known, p.143. il fw — RRR wR : hg wale Tk a 140 ALBIRONI. should be composed of diverse elements, so that their units mean some- thing different from what the decades (tenths) mean,—e.g. you say of a day: the 25th, referring the 5 to a Persian month and the 20 to a Greek month, of which either one is known, or of which the two are unknown ; or if you say: Anno 345, referring the 5 to a Greek, the 40 to an Arabian, and the 300 to a Persian era,—in such cases the clever- ness of the student will manage to solve the problem, although the calculations necessary for such a derivation may be very long. God helps to find the truth! CHAPTER VIL ON THE CYCLES AND YEAR POINTS, ON THE MOLEDS OF THE YEARS p.144. AND MONTHS, ON THEIR VARIOUS QUALITIES, AND ON THE LEAP MONTHS BOTH IN JEWISH AND OTHER YEARS. Havine in the preceding pages explained the derivation of the eras from each other, with the exception of the Zra Adami and Ara Diluvii, according to the systems of Jews and Christians, we shall now have to explain the method by which we may obtain a knowledge of these two eras. To this we shall prefix a treatise on'the Jewish years and months, their cycles and the Mdléds of their years, followed by an investigation of the commencements of the years of other nations. And hereto we shall add such things as may prove a ready help towards obtaining the object in view. Now we proceed to state that the Hra Adami is used by the Jews, the Ara Diluvii by the Christians. If the 1st of Tishri coincided with the 1st of Tishrin Primus, the Ara Alexandri would be equal to the Zra Mundi, plus 3,448 years, which is, according to Jewish doctrine, the interval between Adam and Alexander. However, the 1st of Tishri always falls between the 27th of Abh and the 24th of 1141, on an average. Therefore, the Ara Alexandri, minus that time by which the beginning of the Jewish year precedes the beginning of the Christian one, is equal to the complete Fra Adami, plus the interval between Adam and Alexander. The reason why the 1st of Tishri always varies within those days (27th Abh—24th 1141), is this, that on an average the Jewish passover always varies between the 18th of the Syrian month Adhir and the 15th of Nisin, which is the time of the sun’s moving in the sign of Aries. For it is the opposition occurring within this time, on which all those cir- cumstances depend which form the conditio sine qui non for passover. This, however, is only an approximate calculation. For if the solar year went on parallel with the days of the Greek year (lacuna??). But this is impossible, since we have found by astronomical observation that this fraction (beyond the 865 complete days of the year) is 5h. 46' 20” 56". Therefore thé sun, rotating at the rate of velocity found by astronomical observation, reaches any place whatever of the 142 ALBIRONE. ecliptic earlier than he would reach it by that rotation on which their method is based, in each 165 complete days (sic!) We shall use, however, their own system, and shall now explain how we may find the beginning of their year, and how we may ascertain its nature, whether it be a common or a leap year, imperfect, intermediate, or perfect. Now, if we want to find this, we add to the date of the #ra Alex- andri, for the 1st of the Syrian Tishrin Primus, 3,448 years. Thereby we get the corresponding date of the #ra Adami for the 1st of (the Jewish) Tishri, that falls either in the end of Abh or in I1dl, both of which months precede that Tishrin Primus whence we started in this calculation. If we, further, want to know whether the year of which we have found the beginning be a common year or a leap year, we subtract 2 from the number of years, and divide the remainder by 19; the quotient we get represents the number of complete Minor Cycles. The remainder we compare with Circle I. of the Assaying Circle. There we find in Circle II., opposite to the year of the cycle, an indication of its nature, whether it be a common or a leap year. Further, we find in Circle ITI. the date of the Syrian month on which the beginning of the year in ques- tion falls. And lastly, we find in Circle IV. the name of this Syrian month. Here follows the diagram of the Assaying Circle :— -according to the Ordo intercalationis KO ALE 3 | i ASSAYING CIRCLE S2wWax 20 CYCLES, YEAR POINTS, MOLEDS, AND LEAP MONTHS. 143 If the Enneadecateris, on being complete, returned to the same day of the week whence it started, which, as we have already mentioned, is not the case, we should have added in the Assaying Circle a circle V., for the indication of the days of the weeks on which the New-Year days of the single years of the Enneadecateris would fall. Under these circum- stances, however, it is impracticable. If we want to find the week-day with which the day indicated in Circle ITI. corresponds, we compute, by methods which will be hereafter explained, the commencements of either Abh or Tlal of the year in question, in whichsoever of these two months that day may fall. On having carried out this, we learn what we wanted to know. This, our calculation regarding the lst of Tishri, is an average cal- culation, without any other correction being employed. But now the beginning of Tishri frequently falls on such days which the Jews, as we have already mentioned, do not allow to be New-Year’s day. There- fore it becomes necessary to fix it on a day earlier or later. If we, now, want to acquaint ourselves with this correction (lit. equation), we must first know the conjunction of sun and moon at the beginning of Tishri, according to the theory of the Jews themselves, not that of the astronomers. For between these two theories there are certain divergencies :— I. They give to the lunar month, extending from conjunction to con- junction, the length of— 29d. 12h. 793 Halaks, which is equal to (29d. 12h.) 44’ 3" 20”, [whilst modern observers have found it to be 29d. 12h. 44' 2” 17" 211V-] 12v Therefore the difference between the two computations is 17 2™ 38IV- 48¥ II. They give the solar year, if they reckon with mathematical accu- racy, the length of 365d. 53131h. whilst modern astronomers have found it to be shorter. III. Astronomers teach that that portion of the Nychthemeron which elapses between the time of conjunction and that moment when new moon becomes visible, varies according to the differences of both the longitudes and latitudes of the places, whilst the Jews compute it every- where according to one and the same rule. We do not know for which particular place this mode of computation was originally caleulated, but it seems rather likely that it was made for Jerusalem or its environs, for there was their central seat. p.146. 144. ALBIRONE. CYCLES, YEAR-POINTS, MOLADS, AND LEAP-MONTHS. 145 een the conjunction and Alexandri . Whilst it is well known a mo) al the Ordo intercalationis 2A). The remainder Sa | ivide ; i § corineion, | nl y 19; the quotient you get is the number of minor C » ¥ the mean, not the apparent \ Ta We Aine oye io est (T0IoNIF hoy drool a mle falls two complete days later A of years : ERE GA TH hep mn Wi hae y you have got. They are the current years of the cycle in IV. They determine this space of time (betw the appearance of new moon) by &pou KOLPLKOLL. that it is not allowed to use them for the computation 0 except on the equator. V. They compute the conjunctions by motion. Therefore passover frequently than the real opposition—one day in consequenc day in consequence of their postponing passove e of the Equations, another : r from a Dies illicita to a - question, according to the Ordo intercalationis JAMA) Divs licita. ! : ue great cycles, if you get such, compare with the table of the great Computation of the Moled of a Year according to the J ewish 10 | 10 4 on ad take the number of days, hours, and Halikim which wk find System.—If we, now, want to find the Moléd of a year, which term ol em. ’ . the Jews apply to th juncti t the beginni ! f each. month il The small cycles compare with pply to the conjunction at the eginning oO Hd snmberotd pare with the table of the small cycles, and the as well as the conjunction at the beginning of every cycle, we take ih Th . ays, hours, and Haldkim which you find opposite then the complete years of the Fra Adami, i.e. till the end of the year hi Ha 50 wo numbers add together, days to days, hours to Kodte 1 which is preceded by the month Tishri in question. on he it : itn Tih fois yon number of years into Minor Cycles, and multiply the number of cycles Hi 5Wm o the Basis, which is written in the tabl by 2d. 16h. 595, which you get as a remainder if you convert ie days Io n i ky i. om of the 12th year of the Zra tm duct which arises we keep in ’ {aldkim into an hour, each 24 h i : : i i! days into week . y ours into a day, and the mind. 1 s. The remainder of da . : A ! ys you get is the dista Thereupon, we consider the remainder of years that do not fill up one 20 | 20 fe beginning of the night of Sunday and the time of the ry Sana complete minor cycle. How many of them are common years, how many i iyi ning to 4 calculation. ] on: leap years, we learn by the Ord ntercalationis, FE J ed as the starting-point i : : : p years, we learn by the Ordo tnrercara ions | sing of the wight for ms $ Poe > ss Wi wo the begin- maa - Nuchth. . is, that they commence the fo the rig 5th, 7th, 10th, 13th, 16th, and 18th years of the cycle are ; wiry emeron with sunset, as we have mentioned in the first part of this $3D years): Here foll The number of common years Wwe multiply by 4d. 8h. 876%, the | we have oe fein, computed by that method of calculation which number of leap years by 5d. 91h. 589 . The product of these two plained in the preceding pages: — multiplications we add to the sum we have kept in mind. : To the sum we always add | 30 The Numbers, The Years of the of the 5d. 14h., tween the time of the conjunction and Small Cycles.| Small Cycl ‘ e8. y that was the commencement of of the minor cycle into weeks. The pro Hours. Haldkim. which represents the interval be the beginning of the night of Sunda the first year of the Aira Adami. Then we raise each 1,080 Ha hours ; each 24 hours we convert into 1 d days. The sum of days that arises we convert into weeks, and the re- mainder of days that are less than a week is the distance of the Moléd from the beginning of the night of Sunday. Now, that time to which in the last instance our calculation leads us, is the time of the conjunc- p.147. tion at the beginning of Tlishri. We have made such a computation for a year of the Ara Alexandr, in order to facilitate the process and to simplify the apparatus. If you want to find the conjunction at the beginning of Tishri, take the years of the Ara Alezandri, and subtract therefrom always 12 years, which are the remainder of the minor cycle at the epoch of the Ara 19 38 57 76 95 114 133 152 171 190 209 228 247 266 285 laks to 1 hour, and add it to the other ay, and add it to the other 40 jot © 00 TD UTE COBO - ei BOO UT OW OO WO OTD pd pd pd pd [SL VE Ut ALBIRONI. The Numbers of the Small Cycles. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 The Years of the Small Cycles. 304 323 342 361 380 399 418 437 456 475 494 513 532 CURD Ob Hs i UT CO © HS DO Ob CO The Single Years of the Small Cycle. Haldkim. Leap Years. pd fd fd fd fed © 00 71 Go Ot tin G0 BO = © 0 00 ~T Ob TT Hx CO BO PUTO BA NEBR TIOWER ONWO OWI 589 385 181 770 566 75 951 747 256 52 928 437 233 29 618 414 1003 799 595 Hijo je iio 0 CYCLES, YEAR-POINTS, MOLADS, AND LEAP-MONTHS. The Numbers] The Years of the of the Days. Hours. Haldkim. Great Cycles. Great Cycles. 532 1064 1596 2128 2660 3192 3724 4256 4788 5320 5852 6384 6916 7 460 14 920 22 300 5 760 13 140 20 600 11 18 2 9 17 0 440 900 280 740 120 580 fd pod fod fd LINO LO 00TO Ut 1h CODD = DONE TTODD UW UTD = CI Ox 3 1060 | | { | Astronomical Computation of the Moled of a Year.— If a mathe- matician wants to know the time of conjunction as determined by astronomical observation, not that one which is found by the rules of 20 the Jewish chronologers, he may use the (following) table, which we have tried to compute in the same way as the preceding ones, on the basis of the corrected observations that have been made not long before our time. For this purpose we have consulted the view of Ptolemy regarding the mean length of the month, the view of Khalid ben ‘Abd- almalik of Marwartdh, according to his measurements made at Damas. cus, the view of the sons of Misi ben Shakir, and of others. Of all these, we found the most deserving to be adopted and followed that of the sons of Mfisi ben Shakir, because they spent their whole energy in endeavouring to find the truth; because they were unique in their age 30 for their knowledge of, and their skill in, the methods of astronomical observations ; because scholars bore witness of them to this effect, and warranted the correctness of their observations ; and lastly, because there is a long interval between their observations and those of the ancients (Ptolemy, Hipparchus, etc.), whilst our time is not far distant from theirs (i.e. from the time when the sons of Misi ben Shakir made their observations). Now we have computed the Basis according to their view, viz. the date of the conjunction at the beginning of the 13th year of the &ra Alex- andri. It occurred at Baghdad, 21h. 20’ 50” 14" 291V. after noon on a 40 Tuesday. And because the meridian of Jerusalem, on account of its more western longitude, is behind the meridian of Baghdad by 14 Times, we have subtracted the corresponding space of time, i.e. 56 minutes from the date of the same conjunction at Baghdid. So we get as a remainder the Basis for Jerusalem, i.c.— 20h. 24/ 50” 14" 291V. after noon. 10 * p-151, 148 ALBIRONG. He who calculates on this basis subtracts always 12 from the incom plete years of the Ara Alexandr (i.e. from the Ara Alexandri, including the current year), and converts the r He takes that portion of hours, minutes, seconds, etc. which corresponds in the tables to each of these numbers of great and small cycles. The remainder of single years he compares with the table of the consecutive years of the small cycle; he takes the values which he finds in the table opposite this number of years, and adds these three Characters (of the Great Cycles, the Small Cycles, and the Consecutive Years of the latter) together. This sum he adds to the Basis, and raises the hours and fractions of an hour to days and the corresponding wholes. Thereupon he converts the days into weeks, and the remainder which he gets is that time which has elapsed between the noon of Sunday at Jerusalem and the conjunction at the beginning of Tishri. Here follows the table as based upon astronomical observations: — ( The Numbers The Years | of the of the | Days. | Hours. |[Minutes. Seconds. | Thirds. Fourths. Small Cycles. Small Cycles. | TheBuis. | 12 | 14 a. —- 57 55 53 51 49 47 45 43 40 38 36 34 32 30 28 26 24 21 19 19 38 57 76 95 15 13 11 BO BO BO BO BO DO BO BO hb pd ed pd fd pd fd bd = RR REE NS ARVN HOO IRD TAD NCB NWOENARRNONNAP~RRORPRB TN ro Qo emainder into great and small cycles. CYCLES, YEAR-POINTS, MOLEDS, AND LEAP-MONTHS. 149 The Single | | | | | | p.158. Years of the Days. i | Nis Small Cycles. ye. | Hows. Minties, Seconds. Thirds. Wourtha, | | | | 21 82. 29 4& | 3 6 20 | 87 | 18 | 3 4 9 24 oi 3 12 | af a7 | #8 21 | 30 | 21 55 | 82 19] 2! sia 9 3 81 1 19 9 | 4] 12 | 89 | 46 37 | B85 101 | 1612 | 80 19 g | 48 51 | 44 s{ @! WWW] 58 1 21 | a4] & | 83 10 10 8 38 | 47 18 58 | 86 2 | 1 16 Af 51471 ge 1 19 1 383 | 18 50 7 40 30 29 | 39 16. 25 | 57 | 57 | 8 00 J Ob UT i CO BO = tt ~~ pd fd pd fd CODD =O © = pd [4 NUTONE NHEBTIOWEHARONWH OO WU The Numbers | | of the | Their Years. | ; : Crat Cycles. ears | Days. | Hours. | Minutes. Seconds. Thirds. Fourths. 44 28 12 56 40 24 8 52 36 20 4 48 32 532 | 1064 1596 2128 2660 3192 3724 4256 4788 5320 5852 6384 | 6916 | | | | | 5 {8 11 9 16 33 29 4 3 | 85 9 | 6 14 87 20 | 8 1 39 7 10 12 | 41 18 12 | 23 | 43 | HO = 00 UTD = CD UT OH OO Or COX IS TR WON ~~ pt pd fd fd CODD = © 0 00 ~T O> UT ix CO BO = (In this our calculation of the conjunction 40 terminus a quo for no other reason but Te a oy ih a a plas the equation for the méléd by this method than by using the Ww (i.e. reckoning from sunset, as the Jews do). Ras The hours of the longest day for the latitude of Jerusalem are 13h plus a fraction. Therefore the calculation of the Jews by dpa: itp mp — SI SEITE 150 ALBIRONE. is incorrect, except in case the conjunction at the beginning of Tishri should coincide with the autumnal equinox. This, however, never hap- pens. On the contrary, the conjunction at the beginning of Tishri always either precedes or follows the autumnal equinox by a considerable space of time, as we have explained heretofore. Relation between the beginning of the Year and its Character. —If we, now, make out the time of the conjunction by the traditional cal- culation of the Jews, or by means of the table which we have constructed according to their theory, we arrive at the knowledge of the beginning of the year and of its character, whether it be imperfect, intermediate, or perfect, whilst we have already previously learnt how to know whether the year be a common or a leap year. Thereupon we look in the Table of Limits for a space of time in the week within the limits of which the conjunction as found by our calculation falls. If the year be a leap year, we look into the column of leap years; if it be a common year, we look into the column of common years. Having made out this, we find opposite the indication of the week-day on which the year commences, and of the quality of the year. Once knowing the beginning of the year (its precise date in the week) and its quality, and combining with it our knowledge as to whether the year is a common or a leap year, we come to know the beginning of the next following year. Here follows the Table of the Limits :— | The Limits of the Time Spheres as distributed | New-Year’s Character over the Week, in Common Years. Day. of the Year. till | Imperfect. | From noon of Saturday } 2 9h. 204H. in the night of Sunday | From 9h. 204H. in the night of Sunday till 3h. 589H. in the day of Monday, if the preceding year is a leap year; Perfect. till Noon of Monday, if the preceding year is | a common year From 3h. 589H. in the day of Monday, or From noon of Monday, Intermediate. | till | 9h. 204H. in the night of Tuesday | OYCLES, YEAR-POINTS, MOLEDS, AND LEAP-MONTHS. 151 | The Limits of the Time-Spheres as distributed Now. Year's Character over the Week, in Common Years. | Day. | ofthe Year. | From 9h. 204H. in the night of Tuesday till 5 | Intermediate. 9h. 204H. in the night of Thursday From 9h. 204H. in the night of Thursday till 5 Perfect. Noon of Thursday From noon of Thursday till Oh. 208H. in the night of Friday, if the | following year is a common year; Imperfect. till 9h. 204H. in the night of Friday, if the following year is a leap year | From Oh. 208H. in the night of Friday, s | From 9h. 204H. in the night of Friday, | 7 Perfect. till | 90 | Noon of Saturday. The Limits of the Time Spheres as distributed | New-Year’s Character over the Week, in Leap Years. Day. | of the Years. | From noon of Saturday till : Imperfect. | 8h. 491H. in the day of Sunday From 8h. 491H. in the day of Sunday till Noon of Monday | From noon of Monday till Noon of Tuesday - p.157. a a - cH 0. i ————_-— 5 RR A —————— sm crim — f= - i op HIRE : i 152 ALBIRONT. The Limits of the Time Spheres as distributed New-Year's Character over the Week, in Leap Years. Day. of the Years. From noon of Tuesday till ; Intermediate. 11h. 695H. in the night of Wednesday From 11h. a the night of Wednesday till Noon of Thursday From noon of Thursday till Imperfect. gh. 491H. in the day of Friday From 8h. 491H. in the day of Friday till Perfect. Noon of Saturday. | p.158. Further, of these conditions and qualities there are certain ones which exclusively attach to the year in case its beginning falls on a certain day of the week, the other conditions being excluded. If you call this cir- cumstance to help, it will prove an aid towards obtaining the object in view. In the following figure we represent this subject by means of divisions and ramifications :— Tre YEAR is either a common year or a leap year. Thursday (i.e. if New-Year’s day Thursday. is a Thursday). The year cannot be Imperfect. It cannot be Intermediate. Ix BorH CoMMON AND LEAP YEARS. Tuesday. Monday. Saturday. It is always It can never be It can never be Intermediate. Intermediate. Intermediate. p.159. Further, of these conditions there are certain ones which may happen in two consecutive years, whilst others cannot. If we comprise them in a Tailasin, it will afford a help towards utilizing this circumstance, and will facilitate the method. We must look into the square which belongs OYOLES, YEAR-POINTS, MOLEDS, AND LEAP-MONTHS. 153 in common to the two qualities of the two years; in that square it is indicated whether the two years of two such qualities can follow each other or not. Fe 2 1) Imperfect. Qualities of the years. | | | 5 4 Intermediate. 1 Cannot follow | each other. | Imperfect. | | 3 4 2 Intermediate. FARR ne 2 Cannot follow | Can follow Perfect. each other. | each other. gree enter 6 Can follow Can follow Can follow | 6 i rect, 3 each other. each other. | each other. | griech. | | The reason why two intermediate years cannot follow each other is this, that their ends and beginnings cannot be brought into concord with each other, as the Table of Equation at the end of this book will show. The reason why two imperfect years cannot follow each other is this, that the perfect months among the months of the cycle (Enneade- cateris) prependerate over the imperfect ones. For the small cycle com- prises 6,940 days, i.e. 125 perfect months and only 110 imperfect ones. For the same reason, three months which are perfect according to the appearance of mew moon, can follow each other, whilst of the imperfect months not more than two can follow each other. And their following each other is possible only in consequence of the variation of the motions of the two great luminaries (sun and moon), and of the variation of the setting of the zodiacal signs (i.e. the varying velocity with which the sun moves through the various signs of the Eeliptic). In what Period the beginning of the Jewish Year returns to the same Date.— If the conjunctions at the beginnings of two con- secutive great cycles (of 532 years) coincided with each other (i.e. if they were cyclical in such a way as to begin always at the same time of the week), we should be able to compute the qualities of the Jewish years by means of tables, comprising the years of a great cycle, similar to the Chronicon of the Christians. However, the méléds of these cycles do not return to the same time of the week except in 689,472 years, for the following reason : The Character of the small eycle, i.e. the remainder which you get by dividing its number of days by 7, is 2d. 16h. 595H. This fraction is not raised to one whole, except in a number of cycles, which is equal to the number of Haldkim of one Nychthemeron, i.e. 25,920. Because 154 ALBIRONE. fractions are not raised to wholes, except when multiplied by a number which is equal to the complete number of the same kind of fractions of one whole (i.e. by the denominator). : But as both the number of the Halikim of the Nychthemeron (25,920) and the number of the remainder of the Halikim of the cycles (595) may be divided by 5, the fractions will be raised to wholes if multiplied by a number of cycles, which is equal to i of the Haldkim of the Nychthemeron, i.e. 5184. Now, the conjunction (at the beginning of the year) does not return to the same time of the week except in a number of cycles which is the 10 sevenfold of this number (5184), i.e. 36,288. And this is the number of cycles which represent the above-mentioned number of years (wiz. 689,472). In general, conjunction and opposition return to the same place (i.e. happen again at the same time of the week) in each 181,440 months, which is the product of the multiplication of the number of Halikim of one Nychthemeron (25,920) by 7. Comparison between the Jewish Era and the Era of Alexander. —=Since it is not possible to use this method for chronological purposes, we have not thought it proper to deviate from the traditional method, 20 inasmuch as it tries to bring near that which is distant, and simplifies and facilitates that which is difficult and intricate. It is sufficient for us to know the beginnings and the qualities of the years, and the corresponding days of the Syrian months on which the days of New Year fall, for such a number of years as that the student will not require more in the majority of cases. This information we have recorded in three tables :— I. The first represents the day of the week on which the year com- mences ; the Tabula Signorum. II. The second, or Tabula Qualitatum, shows the qualities ofthe years. The letter ¢ (ry) designates an Imperfect year, because in their 30 language it is called }™DF. The letter « (3) means an Intermediate year, because they call it N02. The letter J» (15) means a Perfect year, because they call it om. ITI. The Tabula Integritatum et Quantitatum, representing the days on which the Jewish New Year falls, the days of Abh in red ink, the days of 1ldl in black ink. Using these tables you take the ra Alexandri for the current year, beginning with Tishrin I., which falls always (a little) later than Tishri. The whole number of years you compare with the vertical column of 40 years ; the single years (of the periods of nineteen years) you compare with the horizontal column of years. Then you find in the square which is common to both, that which you wanted, if God permits! [Here follow the three tables, which I have united into one.] 130A € 7 0A | * wa 1 TABLE OF KEBI‘OTH. 20110 2 | En lo I~ 1468 | | i 5210 | 1449 5229 | 5p OD 131 1 | 592m 31LA 1117 7 | oo] 901 10 1 7 21 1 2 55 § | | 31 2n | rn 1 Tw |7 5 W | 34 5 20A 1161 7 7m |B 1 81 | | 113i | © ~ so 31 (121 | A191 5 1(19 | * EY » ‘{ 1 13 131 | 31 Ww | 9 ~~ ‘ t of the Ara Alexandri. Years 512 * 7 * Tw 1799 | 3.3 21 1/14 mM 2 1 5 | 101 28A (171 oN I 28A1 2 | wm 21 1 | 7% | 11191: 8 40) 1 1 © 4 | &~ | 5 |: 2011121] | | | 5 Il Tw 231111 3a nt 260A 151 | +" 7 | ot 7m a) 179 |D 7 nn 191 nz 73 181| 61 | | es 1818 | Its character was - i.e. it was an intermediate year (354 daze). New-Year’s day corresponded with 19 1., i.e. the 19th 1101 of A. Alex. 1304. Leap-year. I="1l A The star * added to the squares indicates that the corre- sponding Greek year is a L= Abh. o A. Alex. 1305, except its {4 corresponds t ! belong to the year A. Alex. 1304. io The Jewish year 4 first 11 days, which . The Jewish year 4754 com- leap-year. first square i.e. with a Tuesday. [llustration.—V. the fi menced with 3, 3 fi 7 an Imperfect v mm mm mn Ww a Perfect. TID an Intermediate w= a= TABLE OF KEBI‘OTH. ees 1 Jo Io lo In i In 12 Iw [ | | f=) | xR es S oS BIR 1B IE IZ (EE (BIE IX 15 2 |3 |B 58 ou ~ |= ut hu — i fe * = = |S | 3 — | | | | | pod od | F 0 x ~ lee © | EEEEE | 0 = S - & dH oS 2 8 | 83 2 12 s Su SRE | I ts i 0 0 0 D0 xX S S 2 EF | F <# F 2 [9 3 |= F 1S 2 |B [RE | ) it met or © | 4 Be pe Be | | 82 | pd | pg —- le | =| p< | pd < | ~~ | ~ NE [108 |e RF ng |nE5 ~2 lag v-'nE | aS 2 |x ~ a | n—- po EE a = — | ay be . . | 5 | jon | a nla tee] nel pel reo [om [oe [en nm] | _- —- ots —_ DS [OR [20 NP mio te aS 2 (a ~ { : tien =| || ER |SR 25 255 | BR oR | 55 2 | lenin onin on Q ||P 3) PR IdR (PRR PRI NR OR [PR (ROR [A ® i J" : ; | . : : - in £2 Bo Be Be i) | Ee | 2 = (n= p= B= Be Be Nn ~ ® 10 NO | ® nO aT nF n® TF [OR NTF? 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F Be ne BZ | n= Pr nie I) Be A NPR |[ON | NN [OQ [DR | NN || DX OX RN [PN | DR [PQ | OR Fmt | ow | fw | Bm | im | ot | rot | fo | Ko | mt | re fre | 0 NCR CRN ol [a 100 (NOTIN [10 [NTF | oD NO [0 | 1a ‘Boo nF (0 1507 £ n™ ar ar 1 ~~ | =| ee ar horn. ar [ry pd oy ly pod nbs [thet n© | BS | eae | ZC Pe | Be Be © | ne | Be —~ |= Nm [OS NS (Qs (10 | 0 (ROS = : 3 | - « | « < | << | | | rl | | - . - 41 02)88 nO ES Es eT n2 a3 | ee Red | 93) Bg | BT jee [TN ERR (OR 108 |0R [2] (oS BF BB In | . . i a | PD | re | I | 8 | c=] re] Ba— | N= | 9. n— | fp? ROOD [ND [OD [100 SD [180 | ro’ o® NIN | pt — | Eyl | gg ee | oi To IR er | ct | = | pri oo 0S leo S | o o © © SH —~ TR So YD pi RNR | 2K — 0S nS | oR |] . | ma 10 aN i THE 2 |g |8 2 2 lp In 1g gE bh & on 5 or yy or a common or leap year), or by means of the Tabula Initiorum Mensiwm. You compare the Rosh-hashshind with the Table of the Signum (week-day) of Mishri ; in the table of common years, if the year be a common year; in the table of leap years, if the year be a leap year. At the side of this column you find another, which indicates whether the year be imperfect, intermediate, or perfect. After having made out this, you find in the corresponding squares the beginning of each complete month, and the two beginnings of each incomplete month. For the Jews assign to each month which is preceded by a complete month two beginnings (two first days), viz. one day which is in reality the beginning of the month, and the preceding day, or the 30th day of the preceding complete month. This you must keep in mind, for it is part of their bewildering terminology. God is allwise and almighty! BI oe ghz = at 30 TABLE SHOWING ON wHAT Days or THE WEEK THE BEGINNING OF P.169. rE MONTHS FALLS THROUGHOUT THE YEAR. Table of Common Years. sme Penne Gs TT | Quality | | —— a———— Year. Marheshwén. | mensis Tishri. — "| Signum initii | 6v. |4IIL | 21 | Perfect . 4 g 48 Imperfect LVIL 6V. |4IIL | Perfect . 6 5 | 4 mL | Imperfect mad res Su pk co A a TE 1 VIL 6 5 IV. | Intermediate es Es 4 2Y [7VL Perfect . ot or WW WN -3 - 4 3 IL x {ovi | Intermediate p-171, ALRIRONG. Table of Leap Years. 1 i Year. Marheshwin, Signum initii mensis Tishri. | Nisan. » Adhar Secun- 4TIL| 2 L | Perfect. 3 | 21 | Imperfect ov. lomm portent. 5 ; 6 5IV. | 3 2I |7|6V.|4IL | 21VI an slat a1 |7] or |7|6v. | am 2|ivi] i 5 | | | | | 4 III, | Imperfect | 5 IV. | Intermediate | | | | | 5IV. 3] 2L [7ve |8]emm 2 I. |7 VL | Perfect. diam 1 mp i 2 1 rv tet Sr Sk oO NO B® =3 3 . » They were induced to assume two Rosh-Hodesh, as I am inclined to think, by the circumstance that originally they counted the com- plete month as 29 days pure (i.e. without any fraction), and that is in fact the correct time of the interval between two consecutive conjunc- tions. Into the 30th day, however, fall the fractions of the synodic month (i.e. the first 12 hours 793 Halikim of the 30th day belong to Ist the latter 11h. 287H. belong to the the preceding month, whi referred this 30th day to the month following month). Therefore they that had passed, so that thereby it beca the incomplete month (just commencing), so that this latter one got two beginnings (i.e. the latter 11h. 287H. of the 30th day, and the first whole day of the new month). But God knows best what they intended ! Computation of the beginning and middle of the Months according to Jewish and Astronomical Systems.—1f we now want to know the time of conjunction at the beginning of a month, or the e middle of the month, according to the system time of opposition in th : m from the Table of Méléds and Fortnights, of the Jews, we derive the where we find the Conjunction opposite th the Opposition opposite its Fortnight ; for the common year in the column of common years ; for the leap years in the column of leap years. The number we find we add to the Moéléd Tishri, i.e. to the conjunction at the beginning of Tishri; the fractions we convert into wholes, the days into weeks. In this way we find what we wanted to know. pt << me in reality complete, and to 20 e moléd of each month, and 80 10 | The Moléds 30 CYCLES, YEAR-POINTS, MOLEDS, AND LEAP-MONTHS. 157 If we want to learn the same according to the doctrine of the astrono- mers, we make the same calculation with the Table of Conjunctions and Oppositions, using the table of common years if the year in question be a common year, and the table of leap years if the year in question be a leap year, and with the conjunction at the beginning of Tishri as com- puted by the astronomers. In this way we arrive at the knowledge of both conjunctions and oppositions which we wanted. : Here follow the tables :— TaBLE oF THE MOLEDS AND FORTNIGHTS. | | CoMMON YEAR. | The Mélsds | LEAP YEAR. and Fortnights and Fortnights | | of the Months. Days. Hours. Hale of the Months. | Days. | Hours. | i { le fey i FEE 5 | | Hala- | | 0 | Méléd Tisha . 396% Its fortnight . 793 | Mo6léd Marheshwén | 109% Its fortnight | 506 | Moléd Kisléw 902% Its fortnight 219 | Moléd Tébeth 615% Its fortnight 1012 | Moléd Shebath 328% Its fortnight 725 | Moléd ’Adhar I. | 413% 1ts fortnight . | 438 | Moléd ’Adhar 11. . | | 834% 1ts fortnight 151 Moléd Nisin . 547% Its fortnight 944 | Moléd ’Iyar . | 260% Its fortnight 657 | Mo6léd Siwén . 1053% Its fortnight 370 | Méléd Tammuz 766% Its fortnight | 83 | Mobléd Abh 479% Its fortnight Moléd ’Elal . Its fortnight Moéléd Tishri | Its fortnight | Moled Marheshwén | Its fortnight Moléd Kisléw Its fortnight ' Mdléd Tébeth Its fortnight Moéléd Shebhit Its fortnight Moléd ’Adhar Its fortnight | Moléd Nisan . | Its fortnight | Méléd 'Iyar . | Its fortnight Moléd Siwéan . Its fortnight Méléd Tammuz Its fortnight Moléd Abh | Its fortnight Méléd 'Elal Its fortnight | | 396} | 793 | 109} 506 | 902} | 219 | 6154 | 1012 328} 725 | 413 438 | 8343 151 54TH | 944 | NRF OOOMNERLNNHOOOUMARLWRND-HOO NERO UMUERNNHOOOOUEWWN=OO TaBLE OF CONJUNCTIONS AND QOPPOSITIONS. ALBIRONE. CYCLES, YEAR-POINTS, MOLRDS, AND LEAP-MONTHS. 159 We also find what we want to know regarding the Jewish years, by p.176. computing the next opposition (or full moon) after the vernal equinox, occurring in that space of time within the limits of which the Jewish passover varies ; then we consider on what day within this time it falls, reckoning the day from one sunrise to the next one. If the opposition occurs on one of Dies Licite, that day is the day of passover; if, how- ever, it occurs on one of the Dies illicite, i.e. the days of the three inferior planets, we postpone passover to the second (the next following) day. . | junctions and Oppositions of the Months. | Conjunction of Tishri. Its full moon . | Conjunction of | Marheshwan. | Its full moon . | Conjunction of Kisléw. | Its full moon . | Conjunction of Tébeth. | Its full moon . Conjunction of Shebhat. Its full moon . | Conjunction of | ’Adbhar. | Its full moon . | Conjunction of | | Nisan. | Its full moon . | Conjunction of *lyar. Its full moon . { Conjunction of Siwéan. | Its full moon . | Conjunction of Tammuz. | Its full moon . | Conjunction of Abh. | Its full moon . | Conjunction of Ble 0 | Its full moon . Ww WD = oO © [4] I > a oO wt — OO OO O&O rt » UW 0 wo ow CoMMON YEAR. The Con- junctions and Oppositions of the Months. Conjunction of Tishri. Conjunction of Marheshwan. Its full moon . Kisléw. Conjunction of Tébeth. Its full moon . Conjunction of Shebhat. Its full moon . Conjunction of >Adhar I. Its full moon . * Adhar II. Nisan. Its full moon . Conjunction of | Siwan. Its full moon . Conjunction of Tammuz. Its full moon . Conjunction of A yh. Its full moon . Conjunction of 141. Its full moon . Its full moon . | Conjunction of | Its full moon . Conjunction of | Its full moon . Conjunction of | Conjunction of | *Tyar. Its full moon . | This postponement of passover they call in their language 7 Daki. 10 Then you make the same computation in order to find the passover of the preceding year. To the Signum (i.e. week-day) of this latter pass- over you add two, whereby you get the day of the 1st of Tishri that lies in the middle between the two passovers. Then you count the days in- tervening between the two passovers; if they exceed the number of days of a solar year, that year in which the latter passover lies is a leap year ; if they are less, the year is a common year. In this chapter you may learn the primary qualities of the year (its being common or intercalary), but not its secondary qualities (its being perfect, intermediate, or imperfect). For frequently passover has been 20 postponed, when it ought to have been advanced according to the theory of the Jews, or it has been advanced when, according to them, it ought to have been postponed. Therefore, you get no exact information as to the quality of the year, whether it be perfect, intermediate, or imperfect. Frequently, even the opposition occurred near to ome of the limits of that space of time, within which passover varies, whilst each of the places of sun and moon, as made out from appearance, was at variance with its mean place, on account of the alternate acceleration and retarda- tion of the motion of sun and moon, in conformity with the total sum of their Universal Equations. Therefore, such an opposition not being 30 fit to be employed, either the preceding or the following opposition was adopted. For this reason there is a difference between the Jewish computation and this (astronomical) method, to such a degree that frequently according to the Jews the year was a leap year, whilst this astronomical calculation proves it to have been a common year, and vice versd. Likewise there is a difference between Jews and Christians regarding the leap year, as we shall explain in the chapter on the Christian Fast, if God permits. If, now, there is a difference between them, and they are willing to accept our decision, we shall consider the two oppositions of 40 their two passovers, and shall say, that that opposition at which the moon moves in the middle part of Spica or of Cancer, or the sun is about to leave Aries, is to be rejected according to both systems, whilst the con- LEAP YEAR. & 2 Bo Minutes. OD SN kh HD OD pe pe pe 5 RR & ® = © trary is to be adopted. To the lover of truth, the correctness of these two assertions will be apparent, if -the conditions we have mentioned are observed. ep son _—__n. a ee —— a T0 a —————— 160 ALBIRONT. The Cycles of Yobel and Shabu‘.—The Jews have still other cycles, e.g. the cycle of Yobél and the cycle of Shdbi, i.e. of seven years. The first years of both cycles are called restitution years.” For God says, regarding the cycle of seven years, in the third book of the Thora (Levit. xxv. 2-7): “ When ye come into the land of Canaan, ye shall sow and reap and prune your vineyards six years. But in the seventh year ye shall not sow nor gather your grapes, but leave them to your servants and maids, and to those who sojourn with you, and to the cattle and the birds.” The same command God repeats in thesecond book of the Thora (Exodus xxiii. 10, 11) : “ And six years thou shalt sow thy land, and gather in the produce thereof. But the seventh year thou shalt let it rest, and - shalt leave thy produce during that year to the poor and the cattle.” Likewise their religion and law allow a poor man to sell his child to a rich man, i.e. to give it in hire to him, to do service unto him; but not for sexual intercourse, for that requires a marriage-portion and a mar- riage-contract. The child does him service during the cycle of Shdbi, and it is set free, unless it does not choose to be set free. For God says in the second book of the Thora (Exod. xxi. 2-6) : “If anyone of you buy a servant from among the Israelites, six years he shall serve, but in the seventh year he will go out of his possession, and will be free to go where he pleases, he and his wife, if he have got one. But if ‘the servant say, I love my master and will not leave his service, then his master shall bring him near the door-post, and shall bore his ears with an awl, and shall keep him as a servant as long as he pleases.” The cycle of Yo6bél was wanted on account of the following command of God in the third book of the Thora (Levit. xxv. 8-13) : “ You shall sow the land seven times seven, which is forty-nine years. Then you shall cause the trumpet to sound throughout all your land, and you shall hallow it for the fiftieth year. You shall not sow nor reap. And in the ! fiftieth year the restitution shall take place.” “The land shall not be sold for ever, for the land is mine and you are its inhabitants and sojourners with me” (Levit. xxv. 23). ¢ Everything that has been sold is to be restored in the fiftieth year. You shall sell according to the number of years,” 7e. the remaining years of the cycle of Yobél (Levit. xxv. 13-15). In the same book (Levit. xxv. 39, 40), God says: “If thy brother be waxen poor, and be sold unto thee, thou shalt not compel him to serve as a bond servant, but as a hired servant and as a sojourner until the year of restitution.” Because of the circumstances brought about by these regulations they required these two cycles, in order that in their sales the higher and lower prices should always correspond to the remaining number of years of the cycle. There are still other religious regulations of theirs which rendered them necessary. If, e.g. a servant does not wish to be set free, ; 1 1 2 i : 3 ; 5 J r 5 2 g i ¥ : 5 ' 10 CYCLES, YEAR-POINTS, MOLEDS, AND LEAP-MONTHS. 161 and remains in the condition of a servant during the whole cycle of Yo6bél, he cannot be retained after that period. Now, if you want to know how many years have elapsed of each of the two cycles (at a certain time), take the years of the ra Adami, including the current year, subtract therefrom 1,010, or add thereto 740; divide the sum by 350, and neglect the quotient. The remainder, however, compare with the column of numbers in the Tabula Legum, opposite which you find the statement of the number of years which have elapsed in each of the two cycles. Here follows the Tabula Legum : TaBuvrLA Lecum. i | | | Cycle of Shabd*. Column of the Numbers | Cycle of Yobél. | Numbers. | Shiba‘. Numbers Numbers Numbers. | Shabh’ | ox 8g 3 Oo Cr w 0 © WO I BH Ct WO © BO I SH Lod WW © 0 TO Gt os WON SG EWN a © ONS COE WO obé © WN Ch WD — S — < -. == — < — pd it — pe NN = Oo SD Or = WD — nN ~~ — pe 0 pt 0 — 0 | Tébeth 0 | Kékhabh Hamma. | 22nd year . | Nisin. 540 4 . ] | Tammuz 0 | Lebhéna. | | Tishri 540 » | Tébeth 0 | Shabbethai. | 23rd year . | Nisin. 540 20 | Tammuz 0 | Sidek. | Tishrd 540.0. , | Tébeth 0 | Ma’adhim. | 24th year . | Nisan. 540 ; Tammuz 0 | Hamma. Tishri 540." , | ik Tébeth Sool 25th year . | Nisin. Nigh. | Tammuz Skh A | Tishrd Koékhabh Hamma. | Tare Lebhéna 26th year . | Nisan. ; Tammuz bethai | Tishri Shabbethai. | fa 27th year . | Nisin. Tammuz ‘ad hi | Tishri Ma’adhim. | 28th year . | Nisén. Tammuz | Nogal | : Tishri | Maphs ¢ | Tébeth | Kékhabh Hamma. | 9th year . | Nisén . Tammuz Tishri Tébeth 10th year . | Nisin. Tammuz Tishri Tébeth 11th year . | Nisin. Tammuz Tishri Tébeth 12th year . | Nisin. Tammuz Tishri Tébeth 13th year . | Nisén. Tammuz Tishri Tébeth 14th year . | Nisédn. Tammuz Tishri Tébeth 15th year . | Nisén. Tammuz Tishri Tébeth 16th year . | Nisin. Tammuz Tishri | Tébeth 17th year . | Nisén. . Tammuz Tishri Tébeth 18th year . | Nisin. | Tammuz Tishri Tébeth 19th year . | Nisén. | Tammuz Tishri | Tébeth Sédek. 12 0 | Kokhabh Hamma. | 19 540 | Hamma. 3 0 | Lebhina. | 10 540 % | BRO PORORHHEHOO OM OO Ot Or TUES Hi 1 CO 00 00 CO OBO BO Hi & | : | Names of the Planets and the Signs of the Zodiac.—The names p.192 . Lebhéna. | of the planets which we have mentioned in the Table of the Tekifith are | wo... | ! Hebrew names, in which form they are used by them. Each nation, | Shabbethai. | Pr however, if they want to mention the planets, must call them by the | Sédek. names of their own language. Therefore here follows a table exhibiting Gig the names of the planets in various languages. The reader will find Ma’adhim. here the Hebrew names which we have mentioned as well as the names » | 50 in other languages. CYCLES, YEAR-POINTS, MOLEDS, AND LEAP-MONTHS. 173 ALBIRONE. And now natural relationship (between the planets and the signs of the zodiac) demands, although it is not necessary in this place of our book, nor is it requisite, that we should do the same with regard to the signs of the zodiac which we have done for the planets, i.e. construct a table containing all that we know of their names in various languages. For he who wants this for the planets, wants something of the same kind for the signs of the zodiac. Here follows the table containing the names of the signs of the zodiac in various languages. 0 BE Il = < w= Bu Z BH b> wa wn wa = EH By Qo 0 £2 = < Zi a = & Sy Qo Hermes Kokhab Hamma| Lebhéni Alzubhara Aphrodite Alshams Mihr, Khurshid | Nahi Hamma Aditya Almirrikh Bahram Ma’adhim Mangala Almushtari Hurmuzd Sédek Vrhaspati Kaiwan Shabbethai ceara 2 Canal | | in Arabic in Persian in Hebrew in Sanscrit in Chorasmian Alhamal Alkabsh Althaur Aljauza Alasad Al‘adbra Almizan Al‘akrab Alkaus { | Alrimi | Aljady | 30 | Aldalw | Alhtit Alsamaka | Alsaratan Alsunbula 1 | Kpus Tatpos Géau Aéwv | Shir | ITapbévos | Khosha ) | Zvyos | Tarazt | Tofevrjs = Nimasp ’Avydkepuws | Bahi “Y8poxdos | Dol 'Ixfbes | Mahi | | ! Aldupo. | Diipaikar | J80]2 Altau’amén| 1502 Kapkivos | Karzang | lal: Ls (Was | Bt eto Skoprios | Kazhdum | loan Jao l25 lsd 1 Io Dds | | Ay | Mina Sanscrit. =e | Mésha MY Vrsha DOYAND Mithuna | ID | Karkata MIN Sinha mona | Kany OM | Tula wy | | | {rep | Dhanu | | Vrscika IY | Makara | om | Kumba OYCLES, YEAR-POINTS, MOLEDS, AND LEAP-MONTHS. 175 174 ALBiRONE. I. and multiply it by 98,496 | p.194 The Author criticizesithe Jewish computation of the Tekufoth.— jh B which is the number of fractions wt uiie day of their Solar year (of We return to our subject and say: The calculation and tables, given f u R. Addd), we get the sum of : in the preceding, enable the student to find the week day on which ; i | 171.280.305 | | the Tekaifa falls; the corresponding day of the Syrian month, however, i ki N q (Great lacuna.) i i p- 195 to which they bring us, differs from real time to an intolerable extent. Let us e.g. tak ; ishrd, the méléd of {I : cond et us e.g. take the Hhra Adami for the 1st of Tishri, the méléd o \'. Methods showing how to find the beginning of a year of any which falls on Sunday the 1st of 1ldlin the year 1311 of Alexander. oD The number of complete years of the Fira Adami is or 8 great cycles (8X 532=4256), 26 small cycles (26 x 19=494), and 9 complete years, arranged according to the Ordo Intercalationis FANT so that six out of these nine years are common-years and three leap- years. If we convert this sum of cycles and years into days, we get the sum of § 4759 A TABLE OF THE BEGINNINGS OF THE SYRIAC AND GrEEK MONTHS. I b i | December. Cycle. 1,738,200d. 7h. 253H This is the interval between the moléd of the first year of the Ara Adami and the moléd of the, present above-mentioned year (4. Adami 4759). We have already stated before that according to Jewish dogma the Tektifoth-Tishri, i.e. the autumnal equinox, occurred at the beginning of the Ara Adami, 5 days and 1 hour after the moléd of the year. If we subtract these 5d.1h. from the sum we have got, we get as remainder the interval between the Tek{ifath-Tishri of the first year of the era and the moléd of the present year. If we divide this interval by 3651d, we get 4,758 years Column of the Solar Tishrin I. Tishrin IT Leap-years. a OWI CW and a remainder of 835% days. Till this Solar year is complete, and night and day are again equal, 99d. 11h. 827H more are required. If we add this number of days, hours, and Haldkim to the méléd of the present year, i.e. to Sunday 7h. 253H of daytime, we advance as far as the night of Tuesday 9h. on the 1st day of the month Tishrin Primus. Now, this Tekf falls by 14 days later than the equinox as deter- mined by astronomical observation. Such a difference, even if it be much less, is quite intolerable, although popular use may be based upon it. This popular use we have illustrated by our table according to the theory of the Jews. If we, further, take this interval between the first Tekifd and the 40 mbléd of the present year, i.e. 1,738,195d. 6h. 2535, Ee ee ner URaT ERIN PO NTO UF ih DO = TT CO BO = AT Ct i OO ox 0 ED 1 = Ot 00 10 ~T OO Hs 10 4 - 4 W ON THE ERAS OF THE PSEUDO-PROPHETS. 189 sent in India, China, and among the Taghazghar; the people of Khurisan call them Shamandn. Their monuments, the Bahdras of their idols, their Farkhdras are still to be seen on the frontier countries between Khurdsin and India. They believe in the eternity of time and the migration of souls; they think that the globe of the universe is flying in an infinite vacuum, that therefore it has a rotatory motion, since anything that is round, when thrown off its place, goes downward in a circular motion, as they say. But others of them believe that the world has been created (within time), and maintain that its duration is one million of years, which they divide into four periods, the first of four hundred thousand years, the Aurea Aitas. (Great lacuna. The end of the chapter on Bhdhasaf, the whole chapter on Zaradisht, and the beginning of the chapter on Bardaisin are missing.) So he gets the sum of 3,457. We think they will dispute with us on the astronomical interpretation we propose, for we, as well as themselves, are familiar with the science of the subject. Therefore any arguing on the subject and any interpretation are altogether devoid of sense. What we have just mentioned regarding the division is a proof in favour of the Egyptians in the matter of the Termini. For according to them the duration of the Terminus of Venus in Pisces is 400 years, whilst Ptolemy reckons it as 266 years. We have already said before that the time between Alexander and Ardashir is longer than 400 years, and have endeavoured to settle this question of chronology. We return now to our subject, and go on to state that the Persians adhered to the Magian religion of Zaridusht, that they had no schism or dissension in it till the time came when Jesus rose, and his pupils spread through all the world preaching the Gospel. When they thus spread through the countries, one of them came to Persia, and both Bardaigin and Marcion were among those who followed his call and heard the word of Jesus. Part they took from him, part from what they had heard from Zaridusht. So each of them derived from both systems a separate doctrine, containing the dogma of the eternal existence of the two Principia. Each of them produced a gospel, the origin of which he traced back to the Messiah, and declared everything else to be a lie. Ibn-Daisin maintained that the Light of God was residing in his own heart. The difference, however, did not go so far as to separate them and their followers from the bulk of the Christians, nor were their gospels in all matters different from that of the Christians ; in some regards they contained more, in others less. God knows best! Mani.—After Bardaisin and Mareion, Mdni the pupil of Fidarfin came forward. On having acquainted himself with the doctrines of * the Magians, Christians, and Dualists, he proclaimed himself to be a 190 ALBiRONE. prophet. In the beginning of his book called Shdbirkdn, which he composed for Shiphr b. Ardashir, he says: “ Wisdom and deeds have : always from time to time been brought to mankind by the messengers of God. So in one age they have been brought by the messenger, called Buddha, to India, in another by Zariddusht to Persia, in another by Jesus to the West. Thereupon this revelation has come down, this prophecy in this last age through me, Mani, the messenger of the God of truth to Babylonia.” In his gospel, which he arranged according to the twenty-two letters of the alphabet, he says that he is the Paraclete announced by Messiah, and that he is the seal of the prophets (i.e. the last of them). His doctrines regarding the existence and the form of the world are con- tradicted by the results of scientific arguments and proofs. He preached of the empire of the worlds of light, of the TIpdros Avbpwrmos, and of the spirit of life. He taught that light and darkness are without beginning and end. He absolutely forbade his followers to slaughter animals and to hurt them, to hurt the fire, water, and plants. He established laws which are obligatory only for the Siddiks, i.e. for the saints and ascetics among the Manichwans, viz. to prefer poverty to riches, to suppress cupidity and lust, to abandon the world, to be abstinent in it, continually to fast, and to give alms as much as possible. He forbade them to acquire any property except food for one day and dress for one year; he further forbade sexual intercourse, and ordered them continually to wander about in the world, preaching his doctrines and guiding people into the right path. Other laws he imposed upon the Sammd* (laymen), i.e. their followers and adherents who have to do with worldly affairs, viz. to give as alms the tithe of their property, to fast during the seventh part of life-time, to live in monogamy, to befriend the Siddiks (saints), and to remove everything that troubles and pains them. Some people maintain that he allowed pederasty, if a man felt ni- clined, and as proof of this they relate that every Manichaan used to be accompanied by a young, beardless and hairless servant. I, how- ever, have not found in what I have read of his books a word indicating anything of this kind. Nay, even his life proves the contrary of this assertion. Mani was born in a village called Mardinfi on the upper canal of Katha, according to his own statement in his book Shabérkan, in the chapter on the coming of the prophet, in the year 527 of the era of the Babylonian astronomers, i.e. the Ara Alezandri, in the 4th year of the king Adharbén. He received the first divine revelation in his 13th year, Anno Astronomorum Babylonie 539, in the 2nd year of Ardashir, the King of Kings. This part of chronology we have already tried to correct in the chapter preceding that of the duration of the rule of the Ashkénians and the Mulik altawd’if. ON THE ERAS OF THE PSEUDO-PROPHETS. 191 According to Yahyd b. Alnu‘mén, the Christian, in his book on the Magians, Mani was called by the Christians Corbicius the son of Patecius. When he came forward, many people believed in him and followed him. He composed many books, his gospel, the Shabtrkain, Kanz-al'thyd (Thesaurus Revivicationis), the Book of the Giants, the Book of Books, and many treatises. He maintained that he had explained in extenso what had only been hinted at by the Messiah. Manichsism increased by degrees under Ardashir, his son Shapir and Hurmuz b. Shipfir, until the time when Bahrim b. Hurmuz ascended the throne. He gave ‘orders to search for Méni, and when he had found him, he said: “This man has come forward calling people to destroy the world. It will be necessary to begin by de- stroying him, before anything of his plans should be realized.” It is well known that he killed Méni, stripped off his skin, filled it with grass, and hung it up at the gate of Gundisaptir, which is even still known as the Méni-gate.” Hurmuz also killed a number of the Manicheeans. Jibrail b. Nth, the Christian, says in his reply to Yazdéinbakht’s refutation of the Christians, that one of Mani’s pupils composed a book, in which he relates the fate of Mini, that he was put in prison on account of a relative of the king who believed that he was possessed by the devil ; Mani had promised to cure him, but when he could not effect it, he was chained hand and foot, and died in prison. His head was exposed before the entrance of the royal tent, and his body was thrown into the street, that he should be a warning example to others. Of his adherents, some remnants that are considered as Manicheean are still extant: they are scattered throughout the world and do not live together in any particular place of Muhammadan countries, except the community in Samarkand, known by the name of Sdbians. As regards non-Muhammadan countries, we have to state that most of the eastern Turks, of the people of China and Thibet and some of the Hindus, adhere still to his law and doctrine. Regarding their prophet Méni they hold two different opinions, one party maintaining that he never worked a mircle, and relating that he only informed people of the signs and wonders indicative of the coming of the Messiah and his companions, whilst the other party maintains that he in fact worked signs and miracles, and that the king Shapfir came to believe in him when he had ascended with him towards heaven, and they had been standing in the air between heaven and earth. Mani, thereby, made him witness a miracle. Besides, they relate that he sometimes used to rise to heaven from among his com- panions, to stay there for some days, and then to redescend to them. I have heard the Ispahbadh Marzubin ben Rustam say that Shéapar banished him out of his empire, faithful to the law of Zaridusht which ON THE ERAS OF THE PSEUDO-PROPHETS. 193 192 aLpirONt. succeeded. Then they lamented his death in verses; one of the Bani Hanifa says : « Alas for thee, o’ Abli-Thuméama! [Thou wast] like the sun beaming forth from a cloud.” demands the expulsion of pseudo-prophets from the country. He imposed upon him the obligation never to return. So Méni went off to India, China, and Thibet, and preached there his gospel. Afterwards he returned, was seized by Bahrim and killed for having broken the Before Musailima in the time of heathendom the Band Hanifa had stipulation, as he had thereby forfeited his life. oA Wahlen 8 got an idol of Hais (i.e. a mixture of dates, butter, and dried curd), which iim oma Jwan Ba oo Ye ee bors | id yo i a long vi ou Teh being pressed by hunger, dddn, a native 0 . § . y 1% v they devoured it. So a poet of the anit Tamim said : . . A AA 1 d wl during the reign of Kobadh ben Férdz. He preached Dualism an « The Banfi Hanifa have eaten their Lord for hunger, A : ints. ht that both propert : : 3 followers. Another said : Kobadh, too, believed in him. But some of the Persians maintain « The Hanifas have eaten their Lord that his adhesion was a compulsory one, since his reign was not safe oo At the time of want and hunger. against the mass of the followers of Mazhdak. According to others, a They did not guard against the punishment, again, this Mazhdak was a cunning sort of man, who managed to fy Which their Lord might inflict upon them.” i nd to come forward with it simply because he ; : : Si ea charmed by a woman who was ey wife of his Bahafirid b. Molfnan These in the days of ’Abfi-Muslim, cousin ; and that for this reason KobAdh hastened to adopt it. Mazhdak the founger of ii ] bhiside dy Hy, came forward 3 Mah called ordered him to abstain from sacrificing cattle before the natural term of Bahdfirid ben Mh wridlitn m Khwat, one of the districts of Nishapr, their life had come. ‘Kobéadh said : « Your enterprise shall not succeed 20 ma place called Siviwand, being a native of Zuzan. In the beginning ke me master of the mother of Antshirwén, that I may of his career he disappeared and betook himself to China for seven unless you ynze 1 : . dered her to be handed years. Then he returned, and brought with him among other Chinese Muzhial dif os ha wished, sndonderad baz io Le ¥ curiosities a green shirt which, when folded up, could be held in the ’ grasp of a human hand ; so thin and flexible was it. He went up to a (Lacuna. Missing, the end of Mazhdak and beginning : temple during the night, and when he thence descended in the morning, he was observed by a peasant who was ploughing part of ee o : his field. This man he told that he had been in heaven during his Maseiling, "Ts DEN) Rr 2 So i bait of absence from them, that heaven and hell had been shown unto him, thee! ete, Guu.lin made me patiake Vii ” oi : the Kuraish that God had inspired him, had dressed him in that shirt, and had he Sa & helongs go ig 22 om bai © — ith . fossen ers sent him down upon earth in that same hour. The peasant believed his are evil-doing people. This loser he sels 9 Xa 0» 30 words, and told people that he had witnessed him descending from To Yost the Drones x rg OR eo A ay heaven. So he found many adherents among the Magians, when he oR soll “If it not the custom not to kill messengers, I \ ji ne Pe S83 prinasd his knew Sin Fel ver should behead both of you” Then he gave them his answer : “ From 16 GIHer6 Torn the Vagans in most rites, pat 8 he eved 1 d the Prot het of God to Musailima the liar. Greeting unto Zaridusht, and claimed for his followers all the institutes of Zaridusht. Mya follow on richt guidance! ete. The earth belongs to God, He maintained that he secretly received divine revelations, and he i ot an a to whomsoever of his servants he pleases. established seven pay ers for his foHaness De n Phase % he et And the end will be in favour of the pious.” God, one relating to t e creation o eaven an eart 1, one relating to The people of Yamima let themselves be deluded by him by such the creation of the animals and to their nourishment, one relating tricks introducing an egg that had been soaked in vinegar into a glass- | 2 death, on roan to Be Gp last Fdglnh 2 bottle, by fitting together the wings of birds, which he had previously 40 relating to ose i fa 4 : © ae what 1s prepar ’ ff. by means of similar feathers; and by such-like humbug and and one in praise of the people oi paradise. p10. cut Of, by He composed for them a book in Persian. He ordered them to i Hanifa kept possession of Yaméma until Musailima was worship the substance of the sun, kneeling on one knee, and in praying killed by Kbélid b. Alwalid in the year when 'Abd-Bakr Algiddik 13 enjoy her.” over of Musailima.) 194 ALBIRONI. always to turn towards the sun wherever he might be, to let their hair and locks grow, to give up the Zamzama at dinner, not to sacrifice small cattle except they be already decrepit, not to drink wine, not to eat the flesh of animals that have died a sudden death as not having been killed according to prescription, not to marry their mothers, daugh- ters, sisters, nieces, not to exceed the sum of four hundred dirhams as dowry. Further, he ordered them to keep roads and bridges in good condition by means of the seventh part of their property and of the revenue of their labour. When ’Abfi-Muslim came to Nishapir, the Maubadhs and Herbadhs assembled before him telling him that this man had infected Islam as well as their own religion. So he sent ‘Abdallah b. Shu‘ba to fetch him. He caught him in the mountains of Badaghis and brought him before ’Abfi-Muslim, who put him to death, and all his followers of whom he could get hold. His followers, called the Bahifiridiyya, keep still the institutes of their founder and strongly oppose the Zamzamis among the Magians. They maintain that the servant of their prophet had told them that the prophet had ascended into heaven on a common dark-brown horse, and that he will again come down to them in the same way as he ascended and will take vengeance on his enemies. Almukanna‘,—Thereupon came forward HAshim b. Hakim, known by the name of Almukanna‘, in Marw, in a village called Kawakimar- din. He used to veil himself in green silk, because he had only one eye. He maintained that he was God, and that he had incarnated himself, since before incarnation nobody could see God. He passed the river Oxus and went to the districts of Kash and Nasaf. He entered into correspondence with the Khikan and solicited his help. The sect of the Mubayyida and the Turks gathered round him, and the property and women (of his enemies) he delivered up to them, killing everybody who opposed him. He made obligatory for them all the laws and institutes which Mazhdak had established. He scattered the armies of Almahdi, and ruled during fourteen years, but finally he was besieged and killed A.H. 169. Being surrounded on all sides he burned himself, that his body might be annihilated, and, in consequence, his followers might see therein a confirmation of his claim of being God. However, he did mot succeed in annihilating his body ; it was found in the oven, and his head was cut off and sent to the Khalif Almahdi, who was then in Halab. There is still a sect in Transoxiana who practise his religion, but only secretly, whilst in public they profess Islam. The history of Almukanna‘ I have translated from the Persian into Arabic; the subject has been exhaustively treated in my history of the Mubayyida and the Karmatians. Alhallaj.— Thereupon came forward a Sufi of Persian origin, called ON THE ERAS OF THE PSEUDO-PROPHETS. 195 Alhusain ben Mdngir Alhalldj. He was the first to preach the coming of Almahdi, maintaining that he would come from Talakin in Dailam. They seized upon him and led him into Baghdad, parading him through the streets. Then he was put into prison, but he contrived to get out of it fagain. He was a juggler and artful sort of man, mixing himself up with every human being according to his belief and his views. Further, he preached that the Holy Ghost was dwelling in him, and he called himself God. His letters to his followers bore the following superscription: “From the He, the eternal, the first He, the beaming and shining light, the original origin, the proof of all proofs, the Lord of the Lords, who raises the clouds, the window from which the light shines, the Lord of the Mountain (Sinai), who is represented in every shape—to his slave N. N.” And his followers began their letters to him in this way: “Praise unto thee, O being of all beings, the perfection of all delights, O great, O sublime being, I bear witness that thou art the eternal creator, the light-giver, who reveals him- self in every time and age, and in this our time in the figure of Alhusain b. Manstr! Thy slave, thy wretched and poor one, who seeks help with thee, who flies for refuge to thee, who hopes for thy mercy, O thou who knowest all mysteties!—speaks thus and thus.” He composed books on the subject of his preaching, e.g. the Kitdb- Nir-Alasl, the Kitdb-Jamm-Alakbar and the Kitib-Jamm-AUag- ghar. AH. 301, the Khalif Almuktadir-billih laid hands upon him; he ordered the executioner to give him a thousand lashes, to cut off his hands and feet and to behead him; then they besprinkled him with nafta and burnt his body, and threw the ashes into the Tigris. During the whole execution he did not utter a syllable nor distort his face nor move his lips. A remnant of his followers who are called after him is still extant; they preach the coming of Almahdi, and say that he will issue from Talakdn., Of this same Mahdi it is said in the Kitib-Almalihim that he will fill the earth with justice as it heretofore has been filled with injustice. Somewhere in the book it is said that he will be Muhammad b. ‘Abdallib, elsewhere that he will be Muhammad b. ‘Ali. Nay, when Almukhtir b. 'Abi-‘Ubaid Althakafi called people to rally round Muhammad b. Alhanafiyya, he produced as artestimony an authentic tradition, and maintained that this was the predicted Mahdi. Even in our time people expect the Mahdi to come, believing that he is alive and resides in the mountain Radwi. Likewise the Banii- 'Umayya expect the coming of AlsufyAni who is mentioned in the Malihim. In that book it is also mentioned that Aldajjal, the seducer, will issue from the district of Isfahin, whilst astrologers maintain that he will 13 # i ad sr oss ee Bots a ue ea in RT - a a i or — — — BE oa SERRE EE 196 ALBiRONG. issue from the island of Bartd’il four > ixty-si Yazdagird ben Shahryar. Also in 4 oe - gins gon ei in signs that will foreshow his coming. In Greek, in ies oe a ’AvrixpuoTos, as we learn from Mar Theodorus the Bi n ag opsueste, in his commentary on the Gospel. rs a fa that ‘Umar ben Alkhattib on entering Syria was z id 8 ov of Damascus. They spoke thus: “ Greeting to thee ie ti ou art the Lord of Alia. We adjure thee by God, do a ntil you conquer it.” He asked them as to Aldajjal, whereupon they answered: “He will be one of the tribe of Benjamin. By God, 10 you, O nation of the Arabs ill kill hi , you will kill him twenty yards from the gate of Lydda.” ay io 12 times afler Alhalldj the Karmatians rose into power Abt Dr » Abi-Sadd Alhasan b. Bahram Aljannibi warded anh e akka a m. 318; he killed in an atroci cious w oe Tore passing round the circuit of the Ka‘ba, and Ns on Tome pt o e well Zamzam ; ‘he carried off the garments and the yA wi RE of fs Holy House, and destroyed its aqueduct; . took : ack stone, smashed it, sus ended it i : of Kiifa, and then he returned home. : i JE Auigstariygs. a the 1st Ramadin A.H. 319 came forward bel akariyyd, a native of Taméam, a young man of bad character i is Doge He called upon people to recognise him as the Tord pa J bs Boe Shim Be fh them to cut open the stomachs of , em and to them with wine ; to cut off : Shem! 3 the h vs Yody who extin guished the fire with his hand, the pug , 2 bors w hae Sn it by blowing ; to have intercourse with AN ,—but with this restriction, ne J . 1 : Rebuy J ’ Justo mags penem tere anybody infringed this rule, he should be en Rn z ra dista IG istance of forty yards. Those who would not practise pederasty were 30 kil : 9 ed iy ae Sung: He ordered them to worship and honour the ; sed all the prophets of former times i 4 : and their co i wong pare ii deceivers and on the wrong path,” and EE ge , whie ave sufficiently related i i a an y ed in my history of the Mubayyida fn a feanition they remained during eighty days, till God gav Lor 3 0 3 e pov of man who had originally brought Sn . He slaughtered him, and i formant Eo nd so their schemes turned back upon If : ! : , now, this be the time which Jamésp and Zarddusht meant, they 40 ’ are right as far as chronology is ¢ gy is concerned. For this h ; ronsing is happened at 2 i oo Alexandri 1242, i.e. 1,500 years after bE They jie ’ ever, as regards the restoration of 3 : vor, 88 top the empire t Wg Likewise "Abi-‘Abdallih Al‘adi has been en . Wis is stupidly partial to Magism and who hopes for an age a whi b c 10 that one who is ruling in the 17 0 ancient kings. 30 ‘Ali). They promise OX THE BRAS OF THE PSEUDO-PROPHETS. Fim is to appear For he has composed 2 book on the cycles and onjunctions, in which he says that the 18th conjunction since the h of Muhammad coincides with the 10th millennium, which 1s presided over by Saturn and Sagittarius. Now he maintains that then a man will come forward who will restore the rule of Magism; he will occupy the whole world, will do away with the rule of the Arabs and others, he will unite all mankind in one religion and under one rule; he will do away with all evil, and will rule during 73 con- Besides he asserts that no Arabian prince will rule after th conjunction. this man indicates must of neces but it has not brought about those events n place after their junctions. That time which sity refer to Almultafi and Almuktadir, which, according to his prophecies, were to have take time. People say that the Qasanian rule existed during fiery conjunctions. Now, the rule over Dailam was seized by ‘Ali b. Buwaihi called Tmad- aldaula during fiery conjunctions. This is what people used to pro- mise each other regarding the restoration of the rule to the Persians, although the doings of the Buwaihi family were not like those of the 1 do not know why they preferred the Dailamite dynasty, whilst the fact of the transitus into a indicative of the Abbaside dynasty, who are a Khur ailamites as well as Abbasides) are dynasty. Besides, both dynasties D alike far from renewing the rule of the Persians and farther still from restoring their ancient religion. Before the appearance of that youth (Ibn Abt Zakariyyd) the Karmatians believed in some dogmas of the Esoterics, and they were considered as ¢ the blessed House (of fiery Trigonon is the most evident proof A A A Asani, an eastern dherents of the family © tbe coming of him who is eX- i each other fiery Trigonon, pected to come during the 7th conjunction under a go that ' AbG-Tahir Sulaiman b. Alhasan says on {7:03 subject : «The most glorious benefit I bestow on you will be my return to Hajar. Then, after a while, When Mars rises from Babylonia, When the Two Stars have left him, then beware, beware ! Is it not I who is mentioned in all the scriptures ? Is it not I who is described in the Stra Alzumar? 1 shall rule the people of the earth, east and west, As far as the Kairawin of the Greeks, to the Turks And I shall live until the coming of Jesus the son of Mary. ve of what he ordered. will be in paradise, verily the news will reach you. and Chazars. Then he will praise my exploits and appro Then, no doubt, my dwelling-place Whilst the others will burn in fire and hell.” 198 ALBIRONT. Gaye came forward a man called Tin oe ag) an. He maintained that the Ho] » and composed a book which he called ( « . "Abi- Aliaxdir b. All by e abrogation of the rites, The 6th Sense, rela tings CHAPTER IX. ON THE FESTIVALS IN THE MONTHS OF THE PERSIANS. (Farwardin-Mah.) (1. Nauroz.) ~. . and he divided the cup among his companions, and said, « O that we had Naurdz every day!” A philosopher of the Hashwiyya-school relates that when Solomon the son of David had lost his seal and his empire, but was reinstated after forty days, he at once regained his former majesty, the princes came before him, and the birds were busy in his service. Then the Persians said, « Naurcz dmadh,’ i.e. the new day has come. Therefore that day was called Naurdz. Solomon ordered the wind to carry him, and so it did. Then a swallow met him, and said, «( king, I have got a nest with little eggs in it. Please, turn aside and do not smash them.” So Solomon did, and when he again descended to earth the swallow came bringing some water in his beak, which he sprinkled before the king, and made him a present of the foot of a locust. This is the cause of the water-sprinkling and of the presents on Naurdz. Persian scholars say that in the day of Nauréz there is an hour in which the sphere of Féroz is driven on by the spirits for the purpose of renovating the creation. The happiest hours of this day are the hours of the sun. On its morning, dawn is the shortest possible, and it is considered as a good omen to look at this dawn. It is a “preferable” day because it 1s called Hurmuz, which is the name of God who has created, formed, produced, and reared the world and its inhabitants, of whose kindness and charity nobody could describe even a part. Said b. Alfadl relates: On the mountain Damé in Fars every night of Nauroz there is observed a far-spreading and strong-shining light- 200 ALBIRONI. ning, whether the sky be clear or covered with clouds, in every state of the weather. Still more curious than this are the fires of Kalwidhé, although one does not feel inclined to believe the thing without having seen it. 'Abb-alfaraj Alzanjini, the mathematician, told me that he had witnessed it together with a number of other people who went to Kalwidha in that year when ¢Adud-aldaula entered Baghdadh, and that there are innumerable fires and lights which appear on the west side of the Tigris, opposite Kalwadha, in that night with the morning of which Naurdz begins. The Sultin had there posted his guards to find out the truth in order not to be deceived by the Magians. All, however, they found out was this, that as soon as they came nearer to the fires they went farther off, and as soon as they went away the fires came nearer. Now I said to ’Abd-Alfaraj, “The day of Naur6z recedes from its proper place in conscquence of the Persians neglecting intercalation. Why, then, does not this phenomenon remain back behind Naurdz? Or if it is not necessary that it should remain behind, did it then fall earlier at the time when they practised intercalation ? ”’ Upon which he could not give a satisfactory answer. The charm-mongers say: He who thrice sips honey on Nauréz in the morning before speaking, and perfumes his room with three pieces of wax, will be safe against all diseases. One Persian scholar adduces as the reason why this day was called Naurbz, the following : viz that the Sabians arose during the reign of Tahmérath. When, then, Jamshid succeeded, he renovated the religion, and his work, the date of which was a Naurdz, was called New-Day. Then it was made a feast day, having already before been held in great veneration. Another account of the reason why it was made a feast day is this, that Jamshid, on having obtained the carriage, ascended it on this day, and the Jinns and Déws carried him in one day through the air from Dabiwand to Babel. Now people made this day a feast day on account of the wonder which they had seen during it, and they amused themselves with swinging in order to imitate J amshid. Another report says that Jam was going about in the country,—that he, when wishing to enter Adbarbaijin, sat on a golden throne and was thus carried away by the men on their necks. When, then, the rays of the sun fell on him and people saw him, they did homage to him and were full of joy and made that day a feast day. On Naurdz it was the custom for people to present each other sugar. According to Adharbadh, the Mauladh of Baghdadh, the reason is this, that the sugar-cane was first discovered during the reign of Jam on the day of Naurdz, having before been unknown. For Jam on seeing a juicy cane which dropped some of its juice, tasted it, and found that it had an agreeable sweetness. Then he ordered the juice of the sugar- ON THE FESTIVALS IN THE MONTHS OF THE PERSIANS, 201 cane to be pressed out and sugar to be made thereof. It was ready on the fifth day, and then they made each other presents of sugar. The same was also the custom on Mihrjan. They have adopted the time of the summer-solstice as the beginning of the year for this reason in particular, that the two solstitial-points are easier to be ascertained by the help of instruments and by observa- tion than the equinoctial points, for the former are the beginning of the advance of the sun towards one of the two poles of the universe and of his turning away from the same pole. And if the perpendicular shadow at the summer-solstice is observed, and the level shadow at the winter-solstice, in whatsoever place of the earth the observation be made, the observer cannot possibly mistake the day of the solstice, though he may be entirely ignorant in geometry and astronomy, because a varia- tion of the level shadow takes place notwithstanding the small amount of declination, if the Height is considerable. On the other hand the two equinoctial days cannot be ascertained, unless you have found beforehand the latitude of the place and the General Declination. And this nobody will find out unless he studies astronomy and has profited something thereby, and knows how to place and how to use the instru- ments of observation. : Therefore the solstitial points are better adapted for marking the beginning of the year than the equinoctial points. And as the summer- solstice is nearer to the zenith of the northern countries, people preferred it to the winter-solstice ; for this reason, moreover, that it is the time of the ripening of the corn. Therefore it is more proper to p-217. gather the taxes at this time than at any other. Many of the scholars and sages of the Greeks observed the horoscope at the time of the rising of Sirius and commenced the year at that time, not with the vernal equinox, because the rising of Sirius coincided in bygone times with this solstice, or occurred very near it. This day, I mean Nauroz, has receded from its original proper place, so that in our time it coincides with the sun’s entering the sign of Aries, which is the beginning of spring. Whence it has become the custom of the princes of Khurisin on this day to dress their warriors in spring —and summer—dresses. On the 6th of Farwardin, the day Khurdadh, is the Great Naurdz, for the Persians a feast of great importance. On this day—they say— God finished the creation, for it is the last of the six days, mentioned before. On this God created Saturn, therefore its most lucky hours are those of Saturn. On the same day—they say—the Sors Zara- thustree came to hold communion with God, and Kaikhusrau ascended into the air. On the same day the happy lots are distributed among the people of the earth. Therefore the Persians call it «the day of hope.” : The charm-mongers say: He who tastes sugar on the morning of 202 ALBIRONG. this day before- speaking, and anoints himself with oil, will keep off all sorts of mishap during the greater part of this same year. On the morning of this day, a silent person with a bundle of fragrant flowers in his hand is seen on the mountain Biishanj ; he is visible for one hour and then disappears, and does not reappear until the same time of the next year. ZAdawaihi says that the cause of this was the rising of the sun from the southern region, i.e. Afdhtar. For the cursed ’Iblis had deprived eating and drinking of their beneficial effect, so that people could not satisfy their hunger nor quench their thirst ; and he had prevented the wind from blowing. So the trees withered up and the world was near to utter decay. Then came—by the command and under the guidance of God—Jam to the southern region. He marched towards the residence of ’Iblis and of his followers, and remained there for some time until he had extinguished that plague. Then people returned into a state of justice and prosperity and were freed from that trial. Under such circumstances Jam returned to the world (i.e. Eran) and rose on that day like the sun, the light beaming forth from him, as though he shone like the sun. Now people were astonished at the rising of two suns, and all dried-up wood became green. So people said roz-i-na, i.e. a new day. And everybody planted barley in a vessel or somewhere else, considering it as a good omen. Ever since, it has been the custom on this day to sow around a plate seven kinds of grain on seven columns, and from their growth they drew conclusions regarding the corn of that year, whether it would be good or bad. On the same day Jamshid issued a proclamation to those who were present, and wrote to those who were absent, ordering them to destroy the old temples and not to build a new one on that day. His behaviour towards the people was such as pleased God, who rewarded him by delivering his people from diseases and decrepitude, from envy and frailty, and sorrows and disasters. No being was sick or died, as long as he ruled — until the time when Béwarasp, his sister's son, appeared, who killed Jam and subdued his realm. In the time of Jam the population increased at such a rate that the earth could no longer contain them ; therefore God made the earth thrice as large as it had been before. He (Jam) ordered people to wash themselves with water in order to clean themselves of their sins, and to do so every year that God might keep them aloof from the calamities of the year. Some people maintain that Jam ordered channels to be dug, and that the water was led into them on this day. Therefore people rejoiced at their prosperity, and washed themselves in the water that was sent them (by the channels), and in this respect the later generations have considered it a good omen to imitate the former ones. Others, again, maintain that he who let the water into the channels was Zi, after Afrisidb had ruined all the dwellings of Erinshahr. ON THE FESTIVALS IN THE MONTHS OF THE PERSIANS. 203 According to another view, the cause of the washing is this—that this day is sacred to Harlidhd, the angel of the water, who stands in relation to the water. Therefore people rose on this day early, at the rising of dawn, and went to the water of the aqueducts and wells. Frequently, too, they drew running water in a vase, and poured it over themselves, considering this a good omen and a means to keep off hurt. On the same day people sprinkle water over each other, of which the cause is said to be the same as that of the washing. According to another report, the reason was this—that during a long time the rain was with- held from Erinshahr, but that they got copious rain, when Jamshid, having ascended the throne, brought them the good news of which we have spoken. Therefore they considered the rain a good omen, and poured it over each other, which has remained among them as a custom. According to another explanation, this water-sprinkling simply holds the place of a purification, by which people cleansed their bodies from the smoke of the fire and from the dirt connected with attending to the fires. Besides it serves the purpose of removing from the air that corruption which produces epidemic and other diseases. On the same day Jam brought forward all kinds of measures; there- fore the kings considered his way of counting as of good omen. On the same day they used to prepare all the necessary paper and the hides on which their despatches to the provinces of the empire were written, and all the documents to which the royal seal was to be applied were sealed. Such a document was called Espiddnuwisht. After the time of Jam the kings made this whole month, i.e. Farwardin-Méh, one festival, distributed over its six parts. The first five days were feast days for the princes, the second for the nobility, the third for the servants of the princes, the fourth for their clients, the fifth for the people, and the sixth for the herdsmen. The man who connected the two Naurdz with each other is said to have been Hormuz ben Shapir the Hero, for he raised to festivals all the days between the two Naurdz. Besides he ordered fires to be kindled on high places, because he considered it a good omen, and for the purpose of purifying the air, since they consume all unwholesome elements in the air and dissolve and scatter those miasmata that produce corruption. In these five days it was the custom of the Kisrds that the king opened the Naurbz and then proclaimed to all that he would hold a session for them, and bestow benefits upon them. On the second day the session was for men of high rank, and for the members of the great families. On the third day the session was for his warriors, and for the highest Maubadhs. On the fourth day it was for his family, his re- lations and domestics, and on the fifth day it was for his children and clients. So everybody received the rank and distinction he was en- 204 ALBIRONE. titled to, and obtained those remunerations and benefits which he had deserved. When the sixth day came and he had done justice to all of them, he celebrated Naurédz for himself and conversed only with his special friends and those who were admitted into his privacy. Then he ordered to be brought before him the whole amount of presents, arranged according to those who had presented them. He considered them, distributed of them what he liked, and deposited what he liked in his treasury. The 17th is the day of Serdsh, who first ordered the Zamzama, i.e. expressing yourself by whispering, not by clear speech. For they said prayers, praised and celebrated God, whilst handing to each other the food; now, speaking not being allowed during “prayer; they express themselves by whispers and signs. Thus I was told by the geometrician Adharkhérd. According to another authority, the Zamzama is intended to prevent the breath of the mouth from touching the food. This day is a blessed day in every month, because Serésh is the name of that angel who watches over the night. He is also said to be Gabriel. He is the most powerful of all angels against the Jinns and sorcerers. Thrice in the night he rises above the world ; then he smites the Jinns and drives off the sorcerers; he makes the night shine brilliantly by his appearance. The air is getting cold, the water sweet ; the cocks begin crowing, and the lust of sexual intercourse begins to burn in all animals. One of his three risings is the rising of dawn, when the plants begin to thrive, the flowers to grow, and the birds to sing; when the sick man begins to rest, and the sorrowful to feel some- what relieved; when the traveller travels in safety; when the time 1s agreeable ; when such dreams occur as will be fulfilled one day ; and when all angels and demons enjoy themselves. On the 19th, or Farwardin-Roz, there is a feast called Farwardagdn on account of the identity of the name of the day and of the month in which it lies. A similar feast-day they have got in every month. Ardibahisht-Mah. On the 3rd, or Ardibahisht-Roz, there is a feast, Ardibahishtagin, so called on account of the identity of the name of the month and the day. The word Ardibahisht means ¢ truth is the best,” or according to another explanation, ¢ the utmost of good.” Ardibahisht is the genius of fire and light; both elements stand in relation to him. God has ordered him to watch over these elements ; to remove the weaknesses and diseases by drugs and nourishments ; to distinguish truth from falsehood, the true man from the liar, by means of those oaths that are manifest in the Avast. The 26th, or Ashtidh-Roz, is the first day of the third Gahanbar; it lasts five days, the last of which is the last day of the month. In these days God created the earth. This Gahanbar is called Paitishahim- ON THE FESTIVALS IN THE MONTHS OF THE PERSIANS. 205 Gdh. The six (ahanbars, each of which lasts five days, have been established by Zoroaster. Khurdadh-Mah. The 6th day, or Khurdadh-Réz, is a feast Khurdddhagén, so called on account of the identity of the name of the month and the day. The meaning of the name is “the stability of the creation.” Harddha is the genius instructed to watch over the growth of the creation, of the trees and plants, and to keep off all impure substances from the water. The 26th, or Ashtadh-Réz, is the first day of the fourth Gahanbir, the last day of which is the last of the month. During this Gahanbar God created the trees and plants. It is called Ayathrema-Gdh. Tir-Mabh. On the 6th, or Khurdidh-Réz, there is a feast called Cashn-i-nilifar, considered to be of recent origin. On the 13th, or Tir-Roz, there is a feast Tiragin, so called on account of the identity of the name of the month and the day. Of the two causes to which it is traced back, one is this, that Afrisidb after having subdued Eranshahr, and while besieging Mindcihr in Tabaristin, asked him some favour. Minécihr complied with his wish, on the condition that he (Afrasiab) should restore to him a part of Eranshahr as long and as broad as an arrow-shot. On that occasion there was a genius present, called Isfandirmadh ; he ordered to be brought a bow and an arrow of such a size as he himself had indicated to the arrow-maker, in conformity with that which is manifest in the Avasti. Then he sent for Arish, a noble, pious, and wise man, and ordered him to take the bow and to shoot the arrow. Arish stepped forward, took off his clothes, and said: “O king, and ye others, look at my body. I am free from any wound or disease. I know that when I shoot with this bow and arrow I shall fall to pieces and my life will be gone, but I have deter- mined to sacrifice it for you.” Then he applied himself to the work, and bent the bow with all the power God had given him; then he shot, and fell asunder into pieces. By order of God the wind bore the arrow away from the mountain of Riyin and brought it to the utmost frontier of Khurdsin between Farghina and Tabaristin ; there it hit the trank of a nut-tree that was so large that there had never been a tree like it in the world. The distance between the place where the arrow was shot and that where it fell was 1,000 Farsakh. Afrisiab and Mindcihr made a treaty on the basis of this shot that was shot on this day. In consequence people made it a feast-day. During this siege Minécihr and the people of Erinshahr had been suffering from want, not being able to grind the wheat and to bake the bread because the wheat was late in ripening; finally they took the wheat and the fruits, unripe as they were, ground them and ate them. Thence it has become a rule for this day to cook wheat and fruits. 206 ALBIRONE. According to another report, the arrow Was shot on this day, i.e. Tir-Ro6z, and the festival of this day is the small Tiragén; on the other hand the 14th, or Gosh-Roz, is the great Tiragan, that day on which the news arrived that the arrow had fallen. On Tir-Réz people break their cooking-vessels and fire-grates, since on this day they were liberated from Afrasidb and everybody was free to go to his work. The second cause of the feast MTiragin is the following: The Dahii- fadhiyya, which means “the office of guarding and watching over the world and of reigning in it,” and the Dahkana, which means « the office of cultivating the world, of sowing in it, and of distributing it ” —these two are twins on whom rest the civilization of the world, and its _ duration, and the setting right of anything that is wrong in it. The Kitdba (the office of writer) follows next to them and is connected with both of them. The Dahiifadhiyye Was founded by Hoshang, the Dahkana by his brother Waikard. The name of this day is Tir or Mercury, who is the star of the scribes. Now Hoshang spoke in praise of his brother on this same day, and gave to him as his share the Dahkana, which 1s identical with the Kitdba. Therefore people made this day a feast in praise and honour of him (Waikard). On this day he (Hoshang) ordered people to dress in the dress of the Scribes and Dilkins. There- fore the princes, Dihkans, Maubadhs, ete., continued to wear the dress of the Scribes until the time of Gushtasp, in praise and honour of both the Kitiba and Dahkana. On the same day the Persians used to wash themselves, of which the reason is this—that Kaikhusrau, on returning from the war against Afrasiéb, passed on this day through the territory of Sawa. He went up the mountain which overhangs the town, and sat down at a fountain quite alone at some distance from his encampment. There an angel appeared unto him, whereby he was 80 terrified that he swooned. About that time Wijan ben Jidarz arrived, when the king had already recovered himself ; so he sprinkled some of that water on his face, leaned him against a rock, and said (hasbe i.e. do not be afraid. Thereupon the king ordered a town to be built around that fountain, and called it Mand ish, which afterwards was altered and mutilated into Andish. Fver since, it has been the custom of people to wash themselves in this water and in all fountain-waters, this being considered a good omen. The inhabitants of Amul go out to the Bahr-alkhazar, play in the water, and make fun, and try to dip each other on this day the whole day long. Murdidh-Mih. On the 7th, or Murdadh-Roz, there is the feast Murdadhagain, so called on account of the identity of the name of the month and the day. The meaning of the word Murdadh is « the everlasting duration of the ON THE FESTIVALS IN THE MONTHS OF THE PERSIANS. 207 world without death and destruction.” Murdadh is the angel appointed to guard the world and to produce vegetable food and drugs that are remedies against hunger, misery, and disease. God knows best! Shahréwar- Mah. On the 7th, or Shahréwar-Roz, is the feast Shahréwaragan, 80 called on account of the identity of the name of the month and the day. Shah- réwar means sperma and love. It is the angel who is appointed "to watch over the seven substances, gold, silver, and the other metals, on which rests all handicraft, and m consequence all the world and its 10 inhabitants. 7adawaihi relates that this feast was called Adhar-cashn, i.e. the feast of the fires that are found in the human dwelling-places. It was the be- ginning of winter, therefore people used to make great fires in their houses, and were deeply engaged in the worship and praise of God; also they used to assemble for eating and merriment. They maint: ined that this was done for the purpose of banishing the cold and dryness that arises in winter-time, and that the spreading of the warmth would keep off the attacks of all that which is obnoxious to the plants in the world. In all this, their proceeding was that of a man who marches out 20 to fight his enemy with a large army. According to the Maubadh, Khurshéd Adhar-cashn was the first day of this month, and only a feast for the nobility. Tt does, however, not belong to the feast-days of the Persians, although it was used in their months. For it is one of the feast-days of the people of Tukhéristin, and is a custom of theirs based on the fact that about this time the season altered and winter set in. In this our time the people of Khura- sin have made it the beginning of autumn. This day, i.e. Mihr-Rbz, is the first day of the fifth Gahanbér, the last of which is Bahrim-Réz. During this Gahanbir God created the 30 cattle. It is called Maidhydirim-Gdah. Mihr-Mih. On the 1st of it, or Hurmuzd-Roz, galls the Second Autwmm, & feast for the common people, agreeably with what has been before mentioned. On the 16th, or Mihr-Réz, there is a feast of great importance, called Mihrajan. The name of the day is identical with that of the month ; it means « the love of the spirit.” According to others, Mihr is the name of the sun, who is said to have for the first time appeared to the world on this day ; that therefore this day was called Mihr, This is indicated by the custom of the Kisris of crowning themselves on this day with a 40 crown on which was worked an image of the sun and of the wheel on which he rotates. On this day the Persians hold a fair. People maintain that the special veneration in which this day is held is to be traced to the joy of mankind when they heard of Frédan’s ALBIRONT. ] ON THE FESTIVALS IN THE MONTHS OF THE PERSIANS. 209 coming forward, after Kabhi had attacked Aldahhik Bévarasp, expelled RC they prefer autumn to spring. In their arguments they chiefly rely him and called upon people to do homage to Frédtn. Kabi is the : ae upon what Aristotle said in reply to Alexander, when he was asked by same whose standard the Persian kings adopted, considering it a good i him regarding them: “O king, in spring the reptiles begin growing, in omen ; it was made of the skin of a bear, or, as others say, of that of a EE autumn they begin to die away. From this point of view autumn is lion; it was called Dirafsh-i-Kdbiyin, and was in later times adorned preferable.” with jewels and gold. 1 This day used in former times to coincide with the beginning of On the same day the angels are said to have come down to help a i ks. winter. Afterwards it advanced, when people began to neglect inter- Frédtn. In consequence it has become a custom in the houses of the | LE calation. Therefore it is still in our time the custom of the kings of kings, that at the time of dawn a valiant warrior was posted in the al Khurisin, that on this day they dress their warriors in autumn—and court of the palace, who called at the highest pitch of his voice: 10 : 10 winter—dresses. “(0 ye angels, come down to the world, strike the Déws and evil-doers 3 8 On the 21st, or Rim-Roz, is the Great Mihrajin in commemoration of and expel them from the world.” | § » Frédim’s subduing and binding Al-Dahhdk. People say, that when he On the same day, they say, God spread out the earth and created the | a i was brought before Frédin he spoke : “Do not kill me in retaliation for bodies as mansions for the souls. In a certain hour of this day the | thy ancestor.” Upon which Frédtn answered, refusing his entreaty, sphere of Ifro~jawi breathes for the purpose of rearing the bodies. TE : “Do you want to be considered as equal to Jam b. Wijahin in the On the same day God is said to have clad the moon in her splendour Et | way of retaliation? By no means. I shall punish you for an ox, that and to have illuminated her with her light, after He had created heras a aahlas was in the house of my ancestor.” Thereupon he put him in fetters black ball without any light. Therefore, they say, on Mihrajan the i 13 and imprisoned him in the mountain DubAwand. Thereby people moon stands higher than the sun, and the luckiest hours of the day are & {98 were freed from his wickedness, and they celebrated this event as a those of the moon. 20 peal 90 feast. Frédimn ordered them to gird themselves with Kustiks, to use the Salman AlfArist has said : In Persian times we used to say that God HEE eg Zamzama (speaking in a whispering tone) and to abstain from speaking has created an ornament for his slaves, of rubies on Naurdz, of emeralds i va loud during dinner, as a tribute of thanks to God for having again on Mihrajan. Therefore these two days excel all other days in the same (HE MRES B made them their own masters with regard to their whole behaviour and way as these two jewels excel all other jewels. | 3) i to the times of their eating and drinking, after they had been living In Alérinshahri says: God has made the treaty between Light and Re {EAE fear so long as 1,000 years. This has come down to posterity as a rule Darkness on Nauroz and Mihrajan. CEE and custom on the day of Mihrajin. Sad b. Alfadl used to say: Persian scholars relate, that the top of HR £4 All the Persians agree that Bévarasp lived 1,000 years, although some the mountain Shahin appears always black during the whole length of | [ of them say that he lived longer and that the 1,000 years are only the summer, whilst on the morning of Mihrajin it appears white as if Li time of his rule and tyranny. People think that the Persian mode of covered with snow, whether the sky be clear or clouded, in any weather 30 : 30 salutation, according to which the one wishes the other to live as long whatsoever. as 1,000 years—I mean the words « Hazdr sil bazi”—comes down from Alkisrawi relates :—1I heard the Maubadh of Almutawakkil say : On : that time, because they thought it was allowed and possible (that a man the day of Mihrajin the sun rises in HAmin, in the midst between light ¥ i should live 1,000 years) from what they had seen of Al-Dahhék. God and darkness. Then the souls die within the bodies; therefore the i. knows best ! ; : Persians called this day Miragdn. ££. Zaradusht has ordered that both Mihrajin and Réam-Ro6z should be The charm-mongers say: He who eats on the day of Mihrajin a piece : Eb held in equal veneration. In consequence, they celebrated both days of pomegranate and smells rose-water, will be free from much mishap. 3 ER as feast-days, until Hurmuz b. Shapir, the Hero, connected {he two The Persian theologians have derived various symbolic interpretations Paes | a days with each other, and raised to feast-day s all the day $ heyyesd from these days. So they consider Mihrajin as a sign of resurrection gy them, as be lind 3 we wiih tho two Tarde. ASwes fs on A and the end of the world, because at Mihrajin that which grows reaches 40 ia 1 40 the people of Erinshabr celehuion as foust.Gaye all fe days I : its perfection and has no more material for further growth, and because oF Mihrajén till thirty days afterwards, distributing them over oi Severe animals cease from sexual intercourse. In the same way they make : classes of the population in the same way as we have hurts y = Nauréz a sign for the beginning of the world, because the contrary of hE 8 plained regarding Naurdz. Each class celebrated its feast for Ive all these things happens on Nauroz. n days. Some people have given the preference to Mihrajan by as much as md RC ; 14 210 ALBIRONI. Abdn-Méh. On the 10th, or Abin-Roz, there is a feast Abdnajdn, so called on account of the identity of the name of the month and the day. On this day Zau b. Tahmésp ascended the throne; he ordered the channels to be dug and to be kept in good preservation. On the same day the news reached all the seven xAiuara of the world that Frédtin had put in fetters Bévarasp ; that he had assumed the royal dignity ; that he had ordered people to take possession of their houses, their families and children, and to call themselves Kadhkhudd i.e. master of this house ; that he ruled over his family, his children anil 10 his empire with supreme authority; whilst before that, in the di of Bévarasp, they had been in a deserted state, and Déws and rebels had alternately been haunting their houses, without their being able to keep them off. This institute (that of a Kadhkhudd) has been abolished by Alndzir Alutrish, who made again the rebels partake of the Kadhkhudidom together with the people. The last five days of this month, the first of which is Ashtadh, are called Farwardajin. During this time people put food in the halls of the dead and drink on the roofs of the houses, believing that the spirits of their dead during these days come out from the places of their 20 reward or their punishment, that they go to the dishes laid out for them, imbibe their strength and suck their taste. They fumigate their houses with juniper, that the dead may enjoy its smell. The spirits of the pious men dwell among their families, children, and relations, and occupy themselves with their affairs, although tavisiile to them. Regarding these days there has been among the Persians a contro- versy. According to some they are the last five days of the month Abén, according to others they are the Andergih, i.e. the five Epagomence which are added between Abin and Adhir-Mah. When the controversy 30 and dispute increased, they adopted all (ten) days in order to esta- blish the matter on a firm basis, as this is one of the chief institutes of their religion, and because they wished to be careful, since the were unable to ascertain the real facts of the case. So they called id first five days the first Farwardajin, and the following five days the second Farwardajin; the latter, however, is more important than the former. The first day of these Epagomence is the first day of the sixth Salta in which God created man. It is called Hamagpatmaédhaém- gah. The reason of the Farwardajin is said to be this—that when Cain ¥ had killed Abel, and the parents were lost in grief, they implored God to restore his soul to him. God did so on the day Ashtadh of Aban-Méh and the soul remained in him for ten days. Abel was sitting erect and ON THE FESTIVALS IN THE MONTHS OF THE PERSIANS. 211 looking at his parents, but it was not allowed to him to speak. Then his parents collected— (Missing, the end of Abin-Mdh). [Adhdr-Mah.) [1. Bahdr-ashn, the feast of the Riding of Alkausaj. This day was the beginning of spring at the time of the Kisrds. Then a thin-bearded (Kausaj) man used to ride about, fanning himself with a fan to express his rejoicing at the end of the cold season and the coming of the warm season. This custom is in Persis still kept up for fun.] Tts most lucky hours are those during which Aries is the horoscope. 10 People consider the hour of morning as of good omen—I mean the charm-mongers—and they maintain that everything that is mentioned during this hour exists absolutely. Besides they say that he who tastes a quince and smells an orange in the morning of this day before speaking will be happy during that same year. According to Tahir b. Téhir, the Persians, in old times, used to drink honey on this day if the moon happened to stand in a fiery station, and to drink water if it stood in a watery station, always adapting them- selves to the character of the stations of the moon. Aléranshahri says: I heard a number of Armenian learned men relate 90 that on the morning of the Foz-day there appears on the highest moun- tain, between the Interior and the Eaterior country, a white ram that is not seen at any other time of the year except about this time of this day. Now the inhabitants of that country infer that the year will be prosperous if the ram bleats; that it will be sterile if he does not bleat. On the morning of the Foz-day the Persians thought it to be a good omen to look at the clouds; and from the fact whether they were clear or dark, thin or dense, they drew conclusions as to whether the year would be prosperous or not, fertile or barren. On the 9th, the day of Adhar, is a feast called Adharéashn, so called 30 on account of the identity of the name of the day and the month. On that day people want to warm themselves by the fire, for this is the end of the winter months, when the cold, at the end of the season, is most biting and the frost is most intense. It is the feast of the fire, and is called by the name of the genius who has to watch over all the fires. 7aradusht has given the law that on this day people should visit the are-temples, and that they should there offer offerings and deliberate on the affairs of the world. Dai-Mah, also called Khur-Mah. The first day of it is called Khurram-Réz. This day and the month are both called by the name of God, i.e. (Hormuzd), i.e. a wise king, gifted with a creative mind. On this day the king used to descend from the throne of the empire, to dress in white dresses, to sit on white carpets in the plain, to suspend for a time the duties of the chamberlains and all the pomp of royalty, 14 * p.225. 212 ALBIRONI. and exclusively to give himself up to the consideration of the affairs of the realm and its inhabitants. Whosoever, high or low, wanted to speak to him in any matter, went into his presence and addressed him, nobody pre- venting him from doing so. Besides, he held a meeting with the Dihkéns and agriculturists, eating and drinking with them, and then he used to say: “To-day I am like one of you. Iam your brother ; for the exist- ence of the world depends upon that culture which is wrought by your hands, and the existence of this culture depends upon government; the one cannot exist without the other. This being the case, we are like twin brothers, more particularly as this (royalty and agriculture) proceeds from twin brothers, from Hoshang and Waikard.” This day is also called Nuwdid-Riz (90 days), and is celebrated as a feast, because there are 90 days between this day and Nauréz. The 8th, 15th, and 23rd days of this month are feast-days on account of the identity of the names of these days with that of the month, as we have heretofore explained. The 11th, or Khir-Réz, is the first day of the (first?) Gahanbir ; its last day is the 15th, or Dai-ba-Mihr. This Gahanbir is called Maidhyo- zaremaya-gih. During it God created heaven. On the 14th, or Gosh-Réz, there is a feast called Sir-sawd, when people eat garlic and drink wine, and cook the vegetables with pieces of meat, by which they intend to protect themselves against the devil. The original purpose of the thing was to rid themselves of their affliction when they were oppressed in consequence of Jamshid’s being killed, and were in sorrow and swore that they would never touch any fat. This has remained as an usage among them. By that dish they cure themselves of the diseases which they attribute to the influence of the evil spirits. The 15th, or Dai-ba-Mihr-Réz, is called ¢\S&s, when they used to make a human-like figure of paste or clay and posted it at the gateways. This, however, was not practised in the houses of the kings. At present this custom has been abolished on account of its resemblance to idolatry and heathendom. The night of the 16th, or Mihr-Réz, is called, y\eylys, and also JS. Its origin is this, that Eranshahr was separated and liberated from the country of the Turk, and that they drove their cows, which the enemy had driven away, back to their houses. Further: when Frédin had put Bévarasp out of the way, he let out the cows of Athfiydn (Athwyina) that had been hidden in some place during the siege, whilst Athfiyin defended them. Now they returned to his house. Athfiyin was a man of high standing and noble character, a benefactor of the poor, busying himself with the affairs of the poor and taking care of them, and liberal towards all who applied to him. When Frédin had freed his property, people celebrated a feast in hope of his gifts and presents. On the same day the weaning of Frédin took place. It was the first day when he rode on the ox in a night when the ox appears which drags ON THE FESTIVALS IN THE MONTHS OF THE PERSIANS. 213 the carriage of the moon. It isan ox of light, with two golden horns and silver feet, which is visible for an hour and then disappears. The wish of him who looks at the ox when it is visible will be fulfilled in the same hour. In the same night there appears on the highest mountain, as they maintain, the spectre of a white ox, that bellows twice if the year is to be fertile, and once (if the year is to be barren). (Here follows a lacuna). [23. Feast of the third day, Dai.] Bahman-Mdah. [2. Bahmanja. 5. Barsadhak, or Nausadhak. 10. The Night of Alsadhak.] They fumigate their houses to keep off mishap, so that finally it has become one of the customs of the kings to light fires on this night and to make them blaze, to drive wild beasts into them, and to send the birds flying through the flames, and to drink and amuse themselves round the fires. May God take vengeance on all who enjoy causing pain to another being, gifted with sensation and doing no harm ! After the Persians had neglected intercalation in their months, they hoped that the cold would cease at this time, as they reckoned as the beginning of winter the 5th of Aban-Mah, and as the end the 10th of Bahman-Mah. 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ALBIRONG. CHAPTER X. ON THE FESTIVALS IN THE MONTHS OF THE SUGHDIANS. Tre months of the inhabitants of Sogdiana were likewise distributed over the four quarters of the year. The first day of the Sughdian month Nausard was the first day of summer. There was no difference between them and the Persians regarding the beginning of the year and the beginnings of some of the months, but there was a difference regard- ing the place of the five Epagomence, as we have heretofore explained. And they did so for no other reason but this, that they honoured their kings to such a degree that they would not do the same things which the kings did. They preferred to use as new-year that moment when Jam returned successful, whilst the kings preferred as new-year that moment when Jam started (set out). Some people maintain that these two different new-years were to be traced to a difference that was discovered in the astronomical observations. For the ancient Persians used a solar year of 365 days 6 hours 1 minute, and it was their universal practice to reckon these 6 hours plus the 1 minute as a unit (i.e. to disregard the 1 minute in reckoning). But afterwards when Zoroaster appeared and introduced the religion of the Magi, when the kings transferred their residence from Balkh to Persis and Babel and occupied themselves with the affairs of their reli- gion, they ordered new observations to be made, and then they found that the summer-solstice preceded by five days the beginning of the year, which was the third year after intercalation. In consequence, they gave up their former system and adopted what astronomical observation had taught them, whilst the people of Transoxiana kept the old system and disregarded the state of that same year (i.e. its deviation from real time), ON THE FESTIVALS IN THE MONTHS OF THE SUGHDIANS. 221 on which their calendar was based. Hence the difference of the begin- nings of the Persian and Sughdian years. Other people maintain that originally both the Persian and Sughdian years had the same beginning, until the time when Zoroaster appeared. But when after Zoroaster the Persians began to transfer the five Epago- mene to each of the leap-months, as we have before mentioned, the Sughdians left them in their original place and did not transfer them. So they kept them at the end of the months of their year, whilst the Persians, after they began to neglect intercalation, retained them at the end of Aban-Mah. God knows best! The Sughdians have many festivals and famous memorial days in the same way as the Persians. What we have learned of them, regarding this subject, is the following :— Nausard. The 1st day is their Nauréz, which is the Great Nauriz. The 28th is a feast for the Magians of Bukhari, called Rdimush-Aghdm, during which they assemble in a fire-temple in the village Ramush. These AghAms are the most important of their festivals, which they cele- brate alternately in each village, assembling in the house of each chief- tain, eating and drinking. Jirjin. Nothing mentioned. Nisanaj. The 12th is the first Mikhiraj. Basikanaj. The 7th is the 5 Aghim, a feast of theirs at Baikand, where they assemble. The 12th is the second Méakhiraj. The 15th is the feast wee Khwiro, when they eat leavened bread after abstaining from eating and drinking and from everything that is touched by the fire except fruits and vegetables. Ashnakhanda. The 18th is the feast Baba-Khwéra, also called Béimi- Khwira, i.e. drinking the good, pure must. The 26th is Karm-Khwira. Mazhikhanda. The 3rd is the feast Kishmin, when they hold a fair in the village «Xs+S. On the 15th they hold a fair in Al-tawiwis. There the merchants of all countries gather and hold a fair of seven days duration. Faghakan. The 1st is called Nim-sarda, i.e. the half of the year. The 2nd is a feast called se + Khwira, when they assemble in their fire-temples and eat a certain dish which they prepare of the flour of millet, of butter and sugar. Some people put Nim-sarda five days earlier, i.e. on the 1st of Mihr-Mih, to make it agree with the Persian calendar, whilst, in fact, the middle of the year ought to be celebrated when after its beginning 6 months and 23 days have passed. The 9th is the feast mews Aghim. The 25th is the first day of Karm-Khwira. p.235. 222 ALBIRONS. Abhanaj. The 9th is the last day of Karm-Khwéra. Figh. Nothing mentioned. Marsafigh. From the 5th till the 15th of this month they have a feast. After that the Muhammadans hold a fair of seven days in Alshargh. Zhimadanaj. The 24th is the Bidh-Amghim. Khsham. On the last day of this month the Sughdians cry over those who died in past times, they lament over them and cut their faces. They lay out for them dishes and drinks, as the Persians do in Farwardajéan. For the five days, which are the #uépor khomiypaiar to the Sughdians, they fix at the end of this month, as we have mentioned before. : Besides, they hold fairs in the villages in the districts of Bukhara and Sughd on those days that have only one name in every month (i.e. the 8th, 15th, 23rd, which are called Dast). CHAPTER XL ON THE FESTIVALS IN THE MONTHS OF THE KHWARIZMIANS. Tar Khwhrizmians agree with the Sughdians regarding the beginnings of the year and the months, and they disagree with the Persians in the same subjects. The cause of this is the same which we have described when speaking of the Sughdians. Their usages in their months are similar to those of the Sughdians. The beginning of their summer was the 1st of Nausarjl. They had festivals in their months which they celebrated before the time of Islim. They maintain that God Almighty ordered them to celebrate those festivals. Besides they celebrate other days in commemoration of the deeds of their ancestors. But at the present time there are only very few of the Magians among the Khwa.- rizmians left, who do not particularly care for their religion ; they know nothing of it except its outward forms, and they do not inquire into its spirit and real meaning. In consequence, they regulate their festivals by the knowledge of their distances from each other, not according to their real places which they occupy in the single months. Those, now, of their days and festivals that are not connected with their religion are the following: Nausarji. The 1st day is the feast of new-year, the new-day, as we have already mentioned. Ardiwisht. Nothing mentioned. fiaradadh. The 1st day is called @ly= ‘st. Tn ante-Muhammadan times this day was the time of extreme heat; therefore, they say, it was originally called oye es! which means : the dress will be put off, signi- fying that it was the time for baring and undressing themselves. 224 ALBIRONI. In our time this day coincides with the time of the sowing of sesame and what is sown together with it. So people have come to use it as an epoch. Girt. The 15th is called Ajghdr, which means: the firewood and the flame. In bygone times it was the beginning of that season when people felt the need of warming themselves at the fire, because the air was changing in autumn. In our time it coincides with the middle of summer. From this day they count 70 days, and then commence sowing the autumn wheat. flamdadh. Nothing mentioned. {Ehsharewari. The 1st day is called dy; but originally, they say, it was called Faghrubah, i.e. the exitus of the Shah. For about this time the kings of Khwirizm used to march out, because the heat was then decreasing and the cold drawing near; then they went into winter- quarters outside their residence, driving away the Ghuzz-Turks from their frontiers and defending the limits of their empire against their inroads. Omri. The lst day is the feast Azid Kand Khwdr, ie. the day of eating the bread prepared with fat. On that day they sought protection from the cold, and assembled for the purpose of eating the bread prepared with fat, around the burning fire-grates. The 13th is the feast Ciri-Réy, which the Khwarizmians hold in the same veneration as the Persians their Mihrajan. The 21st is likewise a feast, called Rdm-Riyj. Yanakhun. Nothing mentioned in this month. Adu. Nothing mentioned. Rimazhd. The 11th is called N imkhab. People say that it was originally called M imac Akhib, which was then wrongly altered for the sake of easier pronunciation, as it was frequently used. It means: the night of Mina. Now, some of them maintain that Mina was one of their queens or chieftains, that she left her castle intoxicated, dressed in a silk dress, at spring time. She fell down outside the castle and lost all self-control ; she fell asleep, was smitten by the cold of the night, and died. Now people were astonished that the cold had killed a human being about this {ime in spring. So they used it as an epoch for some- thing miraculous, extraordinary, that does not happen at its proper time. This day has been advancing beyond its proper time to such a degree, that now-a-days people consider it as the middle of winter. On this day and about this time the people of Khwirizm use perfumes and incense, and they make the smells rise up from the dishes which they lay out for the purpose of keeping off all the injuries of the demons and evil spirits. This proceeding is necessary, by way of careful precaution, if some ON THE FESTIVALS IN THE MONTHS OF THE KHWARIZMIANS. 225 spiritual matters are connected with it. I mean charms, incantations, and prayers, which the most distinguished philosophers have acknow- ledged and allowed, after having witnessed their effects, e.g. Galenus, and others like him, though they are few. These precautions are likewise to be recommended if people in doing so derive some help from astronomical occurrences, as, e.g. the Tempora Parata and the Tempora Selecta, with the constellations that are mentioned for such purposes. We cannot help taking notice of those who try to prove that all such precaution is futile and false by no other arguments but by mockery, derision, and sneers. The existence of jinns and demons has been acknowledged by the most famous philosophers and scholars, e.g. by Aristotle, when he de- scribes them as beings of air and fire and calls them “human beings.” Likewise Yahyd Grammaticus and others have acknowledged them, describing them as the impure parts of the erring souls, after they have been separated from their bodies, who (the souls) are prevented from reaching their primal origin, because they did not find the knowledge of the truth, but were living in confusion and stupefaction. Something similar to this is what Mani indicates in his books, although his indica- tions are expressed in subtle words and phrases. Akhamman. Nothing mentioned in this month. Ispandarmaji. The 4th is called Khézh, i.e. the rising. The 10th is a feast called Wakhsh-Angim. Wakhsh isthe name of the pi who has to watch over the water and especially over the river xus. The 20th is called &s=%', which means: houses that are built close together. Besides they have other festivals which they want for the affairs of their religion; they are the following six :— I. The first is called &) _s'\s< on the 11th of Néusarji. Common people call it Ndusdrjakdnik by the month in which it occurs. II. The second is called &) @s~ awe on the lst of Cirl. It is also called Jawardaminik, ie. oN and Ajghdrminik, so called from the posh Ajghar, because it falls 15 days before that feast (on the 15th of iri). IIL. The third is called % bis on the 15th of HamdAddh. It is also called «he\S3pmgit. IV. The fourth is called % _yoyjtee on the 15th of Umri, also called hei Ser) yo. V. The fifth is called (lacuna) on the 1st of Rimazhd, also called BRIN VI. The sixth is called %, ess)! on the 1st of Akhamman, also called «So we) 15 226 ALBIRONS. In the five last days of Ispanddrmaji and the following five Epago- mence they do the same which the Persians do in Farwardajén, i.e. they lay out food in the temples for the spirits of the dead. (The Lunar Stations with the Chorasmians).—They were in the habit of using the stations of the moon and deriving from them the rules of astrology. The names of the stations in their language they have preserved, but thosc who made use of them, who knew how to observe them and howto draw conclusions from them, have died out. Their using the lunar stations is clearly proved by the fact that in the Khwarizmi dialect an astronomer is called Akhtar-wénik, i.e. looking to the lunar stations, for Akhtar means a station of the moon. They used to distribute these stations over the twelve signs of the Zodiac, for which they also had special names in their language. They knew them (the signs of Zodiac) even better than the Arabs, as you learn by the fact that their nomenclature of them agrees with the names given to them by the original designer of their figures, whilst the names of the Arabs do not agree, and they represent these signs as quite different figures. For instance, they count Aljauzd among the number of the Zodiacal signs instead of Gemini, whilst Aljauza is the figure Orion. The people of Khwarizm call this sign (Gemini) Adhipackarik, i.e. having two figures, which means the same as Gemini. Further, the Arabs represent the figure of Leo as composed of a number of figures. In consequence, Leo extends in longitude over some- thing more than three signs, not to mention its extension in latitude. For they consider the two heads of Gemini as his outstretched forefoot, and the nebula, in the foremost part of which is Cancer, I mean Alnathra, as his nose. The breast of Virgo, I mean Al‘awwd, they consider as his two loins; the hand of Virgo, I mean Alsimik Ala‘zal, as one of his shanks ; and Alrdmih as his other shank. According to their opinion, the figure of Leo extends over the signs Cancer, Leo, Virgo, and part of Libra, and a number of constellations both of the northern and southern hemispheres, whilst in reality the matter is not what they assume. If you, likewise, inquire into the names of the Arabs for the fixed stars, you will see that they were very far from an accurate knowledge of the Zodiacal signs and the star-figures, although ’'Abt-Muhammad ‘Abdallih b. Muslim b. Kutaiba Aljabali used to make a great to-do and to be very verbose in all his books, and specially in his book on the superiority of the Arabs over the Persians, maintaining that the Arabs were the best-informed nation regarding the stars and the times of their rising and setting. I do not know whether he was really ignorant, or only pretended to be ignorant, of what the agriculturists and peasants in every place and district have got in the way of knowledge regarding the beginning of the agricultural works and other things, and of knowledge of the proper times for similar ON THE FESTIVALS IN THE MONTHS OF THE KHWARIZMIANS. 227 subjects. For he whose roof is heaven, who has no other cover, over whom the stars continually rise and set in one and the same course, p.239. makes the beginnings of his affairs and his knowledge of time depend upon them. But the Arabs had, moreover, one advantage in which others did not share; this is the perpetuation of what they knew or believed, right or wrong, praise or blame, by means of their poetry (Kagidas), by Rajaz poems, and by compositions in rhymed prose. These things one generation inherited from the other, so as to remain among them and after them. If you study those traditions in the ’Anwd books, and 10 specially his book which he called “The Science of the Appearance of the Stars,” part of which we have communicated to the reader at the end of this book, you will find that the Arabs had no particular knowledge on this subject beyond that which is familiar to the peasants of every country. The man (i.e. ‘Abdalldh b. Muslim Aljabali), however, is extra- vagant in the subject into which he plunges, and not free from Jabali (i.e. mountaineer) character, as far as obstinacy of opinion is concerned. The style of his book which we have mentioned shows that there must have been enmities and grudges between him and the Persians. For he is not satisfied at exalting the Arabs at the expense of the Persians, but 20 he must needs make the Persians the meanest, vilest, and most degraded of all nations, attribute to them even more want of belief and obstinacy against Islim than God attributes to the Arab Bedouins in the Sira Altauba (Stra ix. 98), and heap upon them all that is abominable. If he had only taken a moment’s consideration and had called to mind the first period of those whom he preferred to the Persians, he would have given the lie to himself in most of what he says about both parties from sheer want of moderation and equity. In the following we give the names of the lunar stations in the dia- lect both of the Sughdians and the Khwirizmians. Afterwards we shall 30 describe the constellations in which they appear, when we speak of the times of their rising and setting. TABLE OF THE LUNAR STATIONS. | Their Names in Arabic. | In Sogdian. | In Chorasmian. 1. Althurayya So SH Aldabarin PY ny Alhak‘a | Gps | Blast Alhan‘a Nerdy | 5. Aldhira‘ hid L ip Alnathra —id Spe Altarf : oT Sinadad Aljabha & yee Alzubra 83 & 15 * ALBIRONG. Their Names in Arabic. In Sogdian. In Chorasmian. err 10. Alsarfa 9329 Al‘awwi Alsimak Alghafr Alzubaniyan . Aliklil Alkalb Alshaula Alna‘d’im Albalda . Sa‘d aldhébih Sa‘d bula‘ Sa‘d alsu‘ad Sa‘d al’akhbiya Alfargh almukaddam . Alfargh almu’akhkhar Batn alhit Alsharatin Albutain pd rt be Zins syed ye & p28 A gid ald $y BS OS & pain ® Sas -N dh RE 2 135 gy add CHAPTER XII ON KHWARIZM-SHAH'S REFORM OF THE KHWARIZMIAN FESTAL CALENDAR. 'ABU-Sa‘rp ’AmMAD b. Muhammad b. Irik followed the example of Almu‘tadid-billah regarding the intercalation of the Chora smian months. For on having been freed from his fetters at Bukhari, and having re- turned to his residence, he asked the mathematicians at his court regarding the feast Ajghir, whereupon they pointed out to him its place in the calendar. Further, he asked with what day of Tammiiz it corre- sponded, and this also they told him. This date he kept in memory, and when seven years later at the same time of the year he again came to think of it, he rejected this sort of calculation. He was not as yet acquainted with the intercalations and all matters connected with them. Then he ordered Alkharaji and Alhamdaki and other astronomers of his time to be brought before him, and asked them as to what was the reality of the case. These scholars then gave him a minute explanation and told him how the Persians and Chorasmians had managed their year. Thereupon he said : “This is a system which has become confused and forgotten. The people rely upon these days (i.e. certain feast-days, Ajghdr, Nimkhab, etc.), and thereby they find the cardinal points of the four seasons, since they believe that they never change their places in the year; that Ajghdr is always the middle of summer, N imkhab the middle of winter ; certain distances from these days they use as the proper times for sowing and ploughing. Something like this (i.e. the deviation of the Chorasmian year from proper time) is not perceived except in the course of many years. And this is one of the reasons why they disagree among each other regarding the fixing of those distances, so that some main- tain that 60 days after Ajghér is the proper time for sowing the wheat, whilst others put this time earlier or later. The proper thing would be that we should find some means to fix those things uniformly and to 230 ALBIRONE. invariable times of the year, so that the proper times for these things should never differ.” Now, the scholars told him that the best way in this matter would be to fix the beginnings of the Chorasmian months on certain days of the Greek and Syrian months—in the same way as Almu‘tadid had done— and after that to intercalate them as the Greeks and Syrians do. This plan they carried out A. Alex. 1270, and they arranged that the 1st of Néausarji should fall on the third of the Syrian Nisin, so that Ajghdr would always fall in the middle of Tamméz. And accordingly they regulated the times of agricultural works, e.g. the time of gathering grapes for the purpose of making raisins is 40-50 days after Ajghdr ; the time of gathering grapes for the purpose of hanging them up, and the time of gathering pears, is 55-65 days after Ajghdr. In the same way they fixed all the times for sowing, for the impregnation of the palm-trees, for planting and binding together, ete. If the Greek year is a leap-year, the Epagomence at the end of Ispandirmaji are six days. If people had made this reform. of Khwérizm-Shih the epoch of an era, we should have added it to the other eras which we have before mentioned. A Ee en Regarding the festivals in the non-intercalated months of the Egyp- tians, although it is likely that they had similar ones with the other nations, we have not received any information. Likewise we have no information regarding their festivals in the intercalated months which they use now-a-days, except this, that people say that new-year of the Egyptians is the 1st of Thoth, and that the water of the Nile begins to swell and to increase on the 16th of Payni, according to another report on the 20th of Payni. It is likely that they would celebrate the same festivals as the Greeks and Syrians, because Egypt lies in the midst between them and because they all use the same kind of year. Some matters, however, are quite peculiar to the Egyptians, e.g. their country, Egypt, has certain peculiarities, in which no other country shares— appearances of the water, the air, the rain, etc. The famous days of the Greeks and Syrians are of two kinds, one for the affairs of any sort of secular life, for certain aerial appearances, ete., as we have already mentioned, and another kind for the matters of their religion, which is Christianity. We shall describe in its proper place as much as we have learned about both kinds, and as has been reported to us, if God permits ! CHAPTER XIIL ON THE DAYS OF THE GREEK CALENDAR AS KNOWN BOTH AMONG THE GREEKS AND OTHER NATIONS. Tae Greek year agrees with the solar year; its seasons retain their proper places like the natural seasons of the solar year; it revolves parallel with the latter, and its single parts never cease to correspond with those of the latter, except by that quantity of time (the Portio Intercalationis) which, before it becomes perceptible, is appended to the year and added to it as one whole day (in every fourth year) by means of intercalation. Therefore the Greeks and Syrians and all who follow their example fix and arrange by this kind of year all annual, consecu- tive occurrences, and also the meteorological and other qualities of the single days that experience has taught them in the long run of time, which are called ’Anwd and Bawdrih. Regarding the cause of these ’Anwd, scholars do not agree among each other. Some derive them from the rising and setting of the fixed stars, among them the Arabs. (Some poet says) : «Those are my people (a bad set) like the Banit-Na‘sh, Who do not bring rain like the other stars; 2 i.e. they are good-for-nothing people like the Bandt-Na‘sh, whose rising and setting do not bring rain. Others, again, derive them from the days themselves, maintaining that they are peculiarities of them, that such is their nature, at least, on an average, and that besides they are increased or diminished by other causes. They say, for instance: The nature of the season of summer is heat, the nature of the season of winter is cold, sometimes in a higher degree, sometimes less. The excellent Galenus says: “ To decide between p-243. 232 ALBIROND. these parties is only possible on the basis of experiment and examination. But to examine this difference of opinion is not possible except in a long space of time, because the motion of the fixed stars is very little known and because in a short space of time we find very little difference in their rising and setting.” Now, this opinion has filled Sinan b. Thébit b. Kurra with surprise. He says in his book on the ’Anwd, which he composed for the Khalif Almu‘tadid : “I do not know how Galenus came to make such a mistake, skilled as he was in astronomy. For the rising and setting of the stars differ greatly and evidently in different countries. E.g. Suhail rises at Baghdad on the 5th of 1141, at Wisit two days later, at Basra somewhat earlier than at Wésit. People say: ‘the ’Anwd differ in different countries.” But that is not the case. On the contrary, they occur always on one and the same day (everywhere) ; which proves that the stars and their rising and setting have nothing to do with this matter.” Afterwards he has given the lie to himself, though it is correct what he said, viz., that the rising and setting of the stars are not to be con- sidered as forming one of the causes of the ’Anwi, if you limit his assertion by certain conditions and do not understand it in that generality in which he has proclaimed it. Further he (Sindn b. Thabit) says : “ The ’Anwd of the Arabs are mostly correct for Alhijiz and the neighbourhood, those of the Egyptians for Egypt and the coasts of the sea, those of Ptolemy for Greece and the neigh- bouring mountains. If anybody would go to one of those countries and examine them there, he would find correct what Galenus says regarding the difficulty of an examination of the ’Anwd in a short space of time.” In this respect he (Sinin) is right. Galenus mentions and believes only what he considers as a truth, resting on certain arguments, and keeps aloof from everything that is beset with doubt and obscurity. Sinan relates of his father, that he examined the ’Anwd in ‘Irdk about thirty years with the view of finding certain principles with which to compare the ’Anwd of other countries. But fate overtook him before he could accomplish his plan. Whichever of the two theories may be correct, whether the ’Anwd are to be traced back to the days of the year or to the rising and setting of the Lunar Stations, in any case there is no room for a third theory. To each of these theories, whichever you may hold to be correct, certain conditions attach, on which the correctness of the ’Anwd depends, i.e. to prognosticate the character of the year, the season, the month, whether it will be dry or moist, whether it will answer to the expectations of people or not, to prognosticate it by means of the signs and proofs, of which the astronomical books on meteorology are full. For if the ’Anwd agree with those signs and proofs, they are true and will be fulfilled in their entire extent; if they do not agree, something different will occur. Thus the matter stands between these two theories. ON THE DAYS UF THE GREEK CALENDAR. 233 Sindn b. Thabit prescribes that we should take into regard whether the Arabs and Persians agree on a Naw’. If they do agree, its probability is strengthened and it is sure to take place; if they do not agree, the contrary is the case. : I shall mention in this book the comprehensive account of Sinén in his book on the ’Anwd and the proper times for secular affairs occurring in the Greek months. Of the rising and setting of the Lunar Stations I shall speak in a special chapter at the end of this book. For since the astronomers have found that their rising and setting proceed according to one and the same uniform order in these months, they have assigned them to their proper days, in order to unite them and prevent them from getting into confusion. God lends support and help ! Tishrin I. (October.) 1. People expect rain (Euctemon and Philippus) ; turbid air (Egyp- tians and Callippus). 2. Turbid winterly air (Callippus, Egyptians, and Euctemon) ; rain, (Eudoxus and Metrodorus). . Nothing mentioned. . Wearing wind (Eudoxus) ; winterly air (Egyptians). . Winterly air (Democritus) ; beginning of the time of sowing. . North wind (Egyptians). . South wind (Hipparchus). . Nothing mentioned. Winterly air, according to Sinin. . ’Emovjpawe (Eudoxus) ; east wind (Hipparchus) ; west wind (Egyp- tians). 10. Nothing mentioned. 11. Episemasia (Eudoxus and Dositheus). 12. Rain (the Egyptians). 13. Unsteady wind, Episemasia, thunder, and rain (Callippus) ; north wind or south wind (Eudoxus and Dositheus). Sindn attests that this is frequently true. On this day the waves of the sea are sure to be in great commotion. 14. Episemasia and north wind (Eudoxus). 15. Change of the winds (Eudoxus). 16. Nothing mentioned. 17. Rain and Episemasia (Dositheus); west wind or south wind (Egyptians). 18. Nothing mentioned. 19. Rain and Episemasia (Dositheus); west wind or south wind (Egyptians). 20, 21. Nothing mentioned. 22. Unsteady, changing winds (Egyptians). On this day the air begins to get cold. It is no longer time for drinking medicine and for 234 ALBIRONG. phlebotomy except in case of need. For the Favourable Times for such things are always then, when you intend thereby to preserve the health of the body. For if you are compelled to use such means, you cannot wait for a night or day, for heat or cold, for a lucky or unlucky day. On the contrary, you use it as soon as possible, before the evil takes root, when it would be difficult to eradicate it. 23. Episemasia (Eudoxus); north wind or south wind (Cwsar). 24. Episemasia (Callippus and Egyptians). 25. Episemasia (Metrodorus) ; change in the air (Callippus and Eucte- mon). 26. Nothing mentioned. 27. Winterly air (Egyptians). 98. Nothing mentioned. It is a favourable day for taking a warm bath and for eating things that are of a sharp, biting taste, nothing that is salt or bitter. 29. Hail or frost (Democritus); continual south wind (Hipparchus); tempest and winterly air (Egyptians). 30. Heavy wind (Euctemon and Philippus). The kites, the white carrion-vultures (vultur percnopterus), and the swallows migrate to the lowlands, and the ants go into their nest. 31. Violent winds (Callippus and Euctemon); wind and winterly air (Metrodorus and Cesar) ; south wind (Egyptians). God knows best! Tishrin II. (November.) 1. Clear (lit. unmixed) winds (Eudoxus and Conon). 2. Clear air with cold north wind and south wind. 3. South wind blows (Ptolemseus); west wind (Egyptians); north or south wind (Eudoxus) ; rain (Euctemon, Philippus, and Hipparchus). 4. Episemasia (Euctemon) ; rain (Philippus). 5. Winterly air and rain (Egyptians). 6. South or west wind (Egyptians) ; winterly air (Dositheus). Sindn says that this is borne out by practical experience. 7. Rain with whirlwind (Meton); cold wind (Hipparchus). This is the first day of the rainy season, when the sun enters the 21st degree of Cancer. Astrologers take the horoscope of this time and derive there- from an indication as to whether the year will have much rain or little. Herein they rely upon the condition of Venus at the times of her rising and setting, I believe, however, that this is only peculiar to the climate of ‘Irik and Syria, not to other countries, for very frequently it rains with us in KhwArizm even before this time. *Abti-alkisim ‘Ubaid-Allih b. ‘Abd- allah b. Khurdadhbih relates in his Kitib-almasilik walmamdlik that in Hijdz and Yaman it rains during Haziran, Tammfz, and part of Ilal. I myself have been dwelling in Jurjén during the summer months, but there never passed ten consecutive days during which the sky was clear and ON THE DAYS OF THE GREEK CALENDAR. 235 free from clouds, and when it did not rain. It is a rainy country. People relate that one of the khalifs, I think it was Alma’min, stayed there during forty days whilst it rained without any interruption. So he said : “Lead us out of this pissing, splashing country!” The nearer a district is to Tabaristin, the more its air is moist, the more rainy it is. The air of the mountains of Tabaristin is so moist that if people break and pound garlic on the tops of the mountains, rain is sure to set in. As the cause of this subject, the vice-judge, Alimili, the author of the Kitdb-Alghurra, mentions this, that the air of the country is moist and dense with stagnant vapours. If, now, the smell of garlic spreads among these vapours, it dissolves the vapours by its sharp- ness and compresses the density of the air, in consequence of which rain follows. Granted, now, that this be the cause of this appearance produced by the pounding of garlic, how do you, then, account for the famous well in the mountains of Farghdna, where it begins to rain as soon as you throw something dirty into this well ? And how do you account for the place called “the shop of Solomon the son of David,” in the cave called Ispahbadhin in the mountain of Tak in Tabaristin, where heaven becomes cloudy as soon as you defile it by filth or by milk, and where it rains until you clean it again? And how do you account for the mountain in the country of the Turks? For if the sheep pass over it, people wrap their feet in wool to prevent their touching the rock of the mountain. For if they touch it, heavy rain immediately follows. Pieces of this rock the Turks carry about, and contrive to defend themselves thereby against all evil coming from the enemy, if they are surrounded by them. Now, those who are not aware of these facts consider this as a bit of sorcery on the part of the Turks. Of a similar character is a fountain called “ the pure one” in Egypt in the lowest part of a mountain which adjoins a church. Into this fountain sweet, nicely-smelling water is flowing out of a source in the bottom of the mountain. If, now, an individual that is impuxe through pollution or menstruation touches the water, it begins at once to stink, and does not cease until you pour out the water of the fountain and clean it; then it regains its nice smell. Further, there is a mountain between Herdt and Sijistin, in a sandy country, somewhat distant from the road, where you hear a clear murmur and a deep sound as soon as it is defiled by human excrements or urine. These things are natural peculiarities of the created beings, the causes of which are to be traced back to the simple elements and to the begin- ning of all composition and creation. And there is no possibility that our knowledge should ever penetrate to subjects of this description. There are other districts of quite another character from that of the mountains of Tabaristin, e.g. Fustit in Egypt, and the adjacent parts, for EERE 236 ALBIRONG. there it rains very seldom. And if it rains, the air is infected, becomes pestilential and hurts both animals and plants. Such things (i.e. such climatical differences) depend upon the nature of the place and its situation, whether it lies in the mountains or on the sea, whether it is a place of great elevation or a low country; further, upon the degree of northern or southern latitude of the place. 8. Rain and winterly air (Euctemon); winterly air and whirlwinds (Metrodorus) ; south wind or ebpos, i.e. south-east wind (Euctemon) ; east wind (Egyptians). 9. Nothing mentioned. 10. Winterly air and whirlwinds (Euctemon and Philippus) ; north wind, or cold south wind and rain (Hipparchus). 11. Episemasia (Callippus, Conon, and Metrodorus). Sinan says that this is borne out by experience. 12. Winterly air (Eudoxus and Dositheus). 13. Episemasia (Eudoxus) ; winterly air on land and sea (Democritus). Ships that are at sea on this day put in to shore, and navigation to Persia and Alexandria is suspended. For the sea has certain days when it is in uproar, when the air is turbid, the waves roll, and thick darkness lies over it. Therefore navigation is impracticable. People say that at this time there arises the wind at the bottom of the sea that puts the sea in motion. This they conclude from the appearance of a certain sort of fishes which then swim in the upper regions of the sea and on its surface, showing thereby that this storm is blowing at the bottom. Frequently, people say, this submarine storm rises a day earlier. Every sailor recognizes this by certain marks in his special sea. For instance, in the Chinese sea this submarine storm is recognized by the fishing-nets rising of themselves from the bottom of the sea to its surface. On the contrary, they conclude that the sea bottom is quiet if a certain bird sits hatching her eggs—for they hatch in a bundle of chips and wood on the sea, if they do not go on land nor sit down there. They lay their eggs only at that time when the sea is quiet. Further, people maintain that any wood which is cut on this day does not get worm-eaten, and that the white ant does not attack it. This peculiarity perhaps stands in connection with the nature of the mixture of the air on this special day. 14. Winterly air (Cesar) ; south wind or Eurus, i.e. south-east wind (Egyptians). 15. Nothing mentioned. 16. Winterly air (Caesar). 17. Rain (Eudoxus) ; winterly air (Ceesar) ; north wind during night and day (Cesar). 18. Nothing registered. 19. Sharp winterly air (Eudoxus). 20. North wind (Eudoxus) ; severe winterly air (Egyptians). People say ON THE DAYS OF THE GREEK CALENDAR. 237 that on this day all animals that have no bones perish. This, however, is different in different countries. For I used to be molested by the gnats, i.e. animals without bones, in Jurjan, whilst the sun was moving in the sign of Capricorn. 21. Winterly air and rain (Euctemon and Dositheus). 92. Very winterly air (Eudoxus). On this day people forbid to drink cold water during the night, for fear of the Yellow Water. 93. Rain (Philippus) ; winterly air (Eudoxus and Conon) ; continual south wind (Hipparchus and Egyptians). On this day falls the feast of gathering the olives, and the fresh olive-oil is pressed. 24. Light rain (Egyptians). 25, 26. Nothing mentioned. 97. In most cases a disturbance of the air on land and sea (Demo- critus) ; Episemasia (Dositheus) ; south wind and rain (Egyptians). 28. Nothing mentioned. People say that on this day the waves of the sea roll heavily and that there is very little fishing. 29. Winterly air (Eudoxus and Conon) ; west or south wind and rain (Egyptians). 30. Nothing mentioned by the authorities hitherto quoted, nor by others. Kénin I. (December.) 1. Winterly air (Callippus, Eudoxus, and Cesar). On this day people hold a fair in Damascus, which is called “the fair of the cutting of the ben-nut,” i.e. Nuz unguentaria. : 9. Pure winds (lit. not mixed) (Euctemon and Philippus); sharp, winterly air (Metrodorus). 3. Winterly air (Conon and Cesar) ; light rain (Egyptians). 4. (Missing.) 5. Winterly air (Democritus and Dositheus). The same is confirmed by Sinén. 6. Winterly air (Eudoxue) ; vehement north wind (Hipparchus). 8. Nothing mentioned. 9. Winterly air and rain (Callippus, Euctemon, and Eudoxus). 10. Sharp winterly air (Callippus, Euctemon and Metrodorus); thunder and lightning, wind and rain (Democritus). 11. South wind and Episemasia (Callippus); winterly air and rain (Eudoxus and Egyptians). According to Sindn this is borne out by practical experience. Continued sexual intercourse on this day is objected to, which I do not quite understand. For sexual intercourse is not ap- proved of in autumn, in the beginning of winter, and at the times of epidemic disease; on the contrary, at such times it is most noxious and pernicious to the body. Although we must say that the conditions of sexual intercourse depend upon a great many other things, as, e.g. age, 238 ALBIRONE. time, place, custom, character, nourishment, the fulness or emptiness of the stomach, the desire, the female genitals, ete. 12. Winterly air (Egyptians). 13. Vehement south wind or north wind (Hipparchus). 14. Winterly air (Eudoxus) ; rain and wind (Egyptians). 15. Cold north wind or south wind and rain (Egyptians). 16. Winterly air (Cesar). 17. Nothing mentioned. People forbid on this day to take of the flesh of cows, of oranges, and mountain balm, to drink water after you lie down to sleep, to smear the camels with Nira (a depilatory unguent 10 made of arsenic and quick-lime), and to bleed anybody except him whose blood is feverish. The reason of all this is the cold and the moistness of the season. This day people call the « Great Birth,” meaning the winter-solstice. People say that on this day the light leaves those limits within which it decreases, and enters those limits within which it in- creases, that human beings begin growing and increasing, whilst the demons begin withering and perishing. Kab the Rabbi relates that on this day the sun was kept back for Yosua the son of Nin during three hours on a clouded day. The same story is told by the simpletons among the Shi‘a regarding the prince of 20 the believers, ‘Ali b.’Abi Talib. Whether, now, this story have any foundation or not, we must remark that those who are beset by calamity find its duration to be very long and think that the moment of liberation is very slow in coming. So, e.g. ‘Ali Db. Aljahm said in a sleepless night, when he had gone out to war against the Greeks, oppressed by wounds and fatigue : « Has a stream swept away the morning, Or has another night been added to the night?” Afterwards on being released he indulged in hallucinations and lying reports. Something similar frequently happens on fast-days, if heaven during the latter part of them be clouded and dark; then people break their fast, whilst shortly afterwards, when the sky or part of it clears up, the sun appears still standing above the horizon, having not yet set. The charm-mongers say that it is a good omen on this day to rise from sleeping on the right side, and to fumigate with frankincense in the morning before speaking. It is also considered desirable to walk twelve consecutive steps towards the east at the moment of sunrise. Yahya b. ’Ali, the Christian writer of ’Anbar, says that the rising-place 30 of the sun at the time of the winter-solstice is the true east, that he 40 rises from the very midst of paradise ; that on this day the sages lay the foundations of the altars. It was the belief of this man that paradise is situated in the southern regions. But he had no knowledge of the ON THE DAYS OF THE GREEK CALENDAR. 239 difference of the zeniths. Besides, the dogma of his own religion proves his theory to be erroneous, for their law orders them to turn in praying towards the east (i.e. the rising-place of the sun), whilst he told them that the sun rises in paradise (i.e. in the south according to his theory). Therefore the Christians turn to no other rising-place but to that one of the equator, and they fix the direction of their churches accordingly. This theory is not more curious than his view of the sun. For he maintains that the degrees through which the sun ascends and descends are 360 in number, corresponding to the days of the year; that during the 5 days which are the complement of the year the sun is neither ascending nor descending. Those are 2; days of Haziran and 2} days of Kénin L A similar idea hovered in the mind of ’Abfi-al‘abbis Alamuli when he said in his book On the Proofs for the Kibla that the sun has 177 rising and setting places, thinking evidently that the solar year has got 354 days. He, however, who undertakes what he does not understand, incurs ignominy. Those crotchets of his are brought into connection with the argument regarding the 5 supernumerary days of the solar year and the 6 deficient days of the lunar year, of which we have already spoken. 18. Nothing mentioned. 19. South wind (Eudoxus, Dositheus, and Egyptians). 20. Winterly air (Eudoxus). 21. Episemasia (Egyptians). 22. Nothing mentioned. 23. Nothing mentioned. 24. Winterly air (Cesar and Egyptians) ; Episemasia and rain (Hip- parchus and Meton). 25. Middling winterly air (Democritus). 26. (Missing.) 27. Nothing mentioned. 28. Winterly air (Dositheus). 29. Episemasia (Callippus, Euctemon, and Democritus). People forbid on this day the drinking cold water after rising from sleep. They say that the demons vomit into the water, and that therefore he who drinks of it is affected by stupidity and phlegm. This serves as a warning to people against that which they dread most. The cause of all this is the coldness and moisture of the air. 30. Winterly air on the sea (Egyptians). 31. Winterly air (Euctemon). Kinin II. (January.) 1. Nothing mentioned by the Parapegmatists. 2. Episemasia (Dositheus). Some people say that wood which is cut on this day will not soon get dry. 240 ALBIRONG. 3. Changeable air (Egyptians). 4, Episemasia (Egyptians); south wind (Democritus), which observa- tion is confirmed by Sinén. 5, 6. Nothing mentioned. People say that on the 6th there is an hour during which all salt water of the earth is getting sweet. All the qualities occurring in the water depend exclusively upon the nature of that soil by which the water is enclosed, if it be standing, or over which the water flows, if it be running. Those qualities are of a stable nature, not to be altered except by a process of transformation from degree to degree by means of certain media. Therefore this statement of the waters getting sweet in this one hour is entirely unfounded. Continual and leisurely experimentation will show to any one the futility of this assertion. For if the water were sweet it would remain sweet for some space of time. Nay, if you would place—in this hour or any other—in a well of salt water some pounds of pure dry wax, possibly the saltishness of the water would diminish. This has been mentioned by the experimenters, who go so far as to maintain that if you make a thin vase of wax and place it in sea water, so that the mouth of the vase emerges above the water, those drops of water which splash over into the vase become sweet. If all salt water were mixed with so much sweet water as would over- power its nature, in that case their theory would be realized (i.e. all salt waters would become sweet). An example of this process is afforded by the lake of Tinnis, the water of which is sweet in autumn and winter in consequence of the great admixture of the water of the Nile, whilst at the other seasons it is salt, because there is very little admixture of Nile water. 7. Winterly air (Eudoxus and Hipparchus). 8. South wind (Callippus, Euctemon, Philippus, and Metrodorus) ; south wind and west wind and winterly air on the sea (Egyptians). 9. Violent south wind and rain (Eudoxus and Egyptians). The authors of talismans say that if you draw the figures of grapes on a table, between the 9th and the 16th of the month, and place it among the vines as a sort of offering jat the time of the setting of the Tortoise, i.e. Alnasr Alwdki‘, the fruit will not be injured by anything. 10. Violent south wind and Episemasia (Caesar and Egyptians). 11. South wind (Eudoxus and Dositheus) ; mixed winds (Hipparchus). 12. Nothing mentioned. 13. Winterly air (Hipparchus); a north wind or a south wind blows (Ptolemy). 14. Nothing mentioned. 15. East wind (Hipparchus). 16. Nothing mentioned. 17. Violent wind (Caesar). 18. Winterly air (Euctemon and Philippus) ; change of the air (Metro- dorus). 10 20 ON THE DAYS OF THE GREEK CALENDAR. 241 19. Winterly air (Eudoxus and Cesar); suffocating air (Egyptians). 20. Clear sky (Euctemon and Democritus) ; north wind (Hipparchus) winterly air and rain (Egyptians). 21. Middling winterly air (Eudoxus). 22. Episemasia (Hipparchus) ; rain (Egyptians). 93. Nothing mentioned. On this day people do not smear the camels with Nira (a depilatory unguent of arsenic and quicklime), nor bleed anybody except in cases of special need. 24. Clear sky (Callippus and Euctemon); middling winterly air (Demo- critus). Besides, the rule of the preceding day as regards the use of Nira and phlebotomy refers also to this day. 25. East wind (Hipparchus). 926. Rain (Eudoxus and Metrodorus) ; winterly air (Dositheus). 27. Severe winter (Egyptians). 98. South wind blows and Episemasia (Ptolemy). 29. Nothing mentioned. 30. South wind (Hipparchus). 31. Nothing mentioned. Shubdt. (February.) Tt is the leap-month. It appears to me that the following is the reason — but God knows best !—why people have shortened this month in parti- cular so that it has only 28 days, and why it has not had assigned to it 929 or 30 or 31 days: If it were assigned 29 days and were then to be increased by the leap-day, it would have 30 days and would no longer be distinguishable from the other months in a leap-year. The same would be the case if it had 30 days, whether the year be a leap-year or not. Likewise if it had 31 days, the same similarity with the other months in all sorts of years would exist. For this reason the leap-month has been assigned 28 days, that it might be distinguished from the other months both in leap and common years. For the same reason it was necessary that in the Greek year two months of more than 30 days should follow each other. For at the beginning they intentionally gave to each month 30 days and took away 9 from Shubit. So they got 7 supernumerary days (i.e. the 5 Epago- meng and the 2 days of Shubit), which they had to distribute over 11 months, because Shubit had to be left out. Now, it was not possible to distribute the complete months of 30 days so as to fall each of them between two months of 31 days, for the latter (i.e. the months of 31 days) are more in number than the former. Therefore it was necessary to let several months of more than 30 days follow each other. But the most important subject of their deliberation was to add them in the places which would be the most suitable to them, so that the sum of the days of both spring and summer is more than the sum of the days of 16 242 ALBIRONE. autumn and winter, a fact which is the result of both ancient and modern observations. Further, their months are proportional to each other in most cases ; I mean to say: the sum of each month and of the seventh following one is 61 days, which is nearly equal to the time of the sun’s mean motion through two signs of the zodiac. However, the sum of the days of Ab and Shubat is 59 days. This could not have been otherwise, for the reason we have mentioned for Shubédt. For if Ab had been assigned more than 81 days, it would have been different from all the other months, and people would have thought that this in particular was the leap-month. As for Tammi and Kanon the Last, the sum of their days is 62. This, again, was necessary, because the number of the months of more than 30 days is greater than that of the months of 30 days. Wherever the supernumerary day is placed the circumstances are always the same. And, further, intercalation has been applied to Shubét to the exclusion of the other months only for this reason, that Adhar I, which is the leap-month in the Jewish leap-year, falls on Shubit and near it. : 1. Rain (Eudoxus). The cold decreases a little. 9. West wind or, south wind intermixed with hail (Egyptians). Sinin says that this is frequently the case. 3. Clear sky and frequently the west wind blows (Eudoxus). 4. Clear sky and frequently the west wind blows (Dositheus); severe winterly air, rain and unmixed winds (Egyptians). 5. Nothing mentioned. People say that the four winds are in uproar. 6. Rain (Cesar); winds ( Egyptians); the west wind begins blowing (Democritus). 7. Beginning of the blowing of the west wind, frequently the air is winterly (Eudoxus and Egyptians). On this day the first Coal falls, called the minor one. 8. The time of the blowing of the west wind (Callippus, Metrodorus, and Hipparchus) ; rain (Eudoxus and Egyptians). This is confirmed by Sinan as borne out by his observations. 9, 10. Nothing mentioned. 11. Winterly air (Philippus and Metrodorus) ; west wind (Eudoxus and Egyptians). 12. North and east wind (Hipparchus) ; east wind alone (Egyptians). 13, 14. Nothing mentioned. On the 14th falls the second Coal, called p.253. the middle one. As the poet says: « When Christmas has passed and Epiphany after it, And ten days and ten days and five complete days, And five days and six and four of Shubit, Then, no doubt, the greatest cold vanishes. That is the time of the falling of the two Coals; afterwards The cold remains only a few nights.” ON THE DAYS OF THE GREEK CALENDAR. 2438 15. Winterly air (Euctemon, Philippus, and Dositheus) ; changing wind (Egyptians) ; south wind (Hipparchus). This day is cold (Arabs), during which the coal is kindled. The Persians say: “The Summer has put his hands into the water.” On this day the moisture of the wood 1s flowing from the lowest parts of the trees to the highest, and the frogs begin croaking. 16. A change in the winds and rain (Egyptians). People say that on this day the interior of the earth is getting warm. In Syria the mush- rooms are coming forth ; those which stand near the root of the olive-tree 10 are deadly poison, as people maintain. This may be true, for it is not approved of to take much of the mushroom and fungus, nor of that which is prepared from them. Its pharmacological treatment is mentioned in most of the medical compilations in the chapter of preparing poisons from these materials. 17. Nothing mentioned. 18. West wind, and hail falls, or rain (Egyptians). 19. Cold north wind (Hipparchus). 20. Winds (Egyptians). 91. Nothing mentioned. On this day the third Coal falls, called the 20 great one. Between the falling of each of the two Coals there is an interval of one complete week. They were called Coals because they are days characterised by the spreading of the heat from the interior of the earth to the surface, according to those who hold this theory. According to those who hold the opposite view, this change is brought about by the air’s receiving heat instead of cold from the body of the sun, for the body of the sun and the near approach of a column of rays are the first cause of the heat. With this subject also the question is connected why the earthen jars or pipes of which subterranean channels are formed, and the water of wells, are warm in the winter and cold in the 80) summer. Between ’Abd.Bakr b. Zakariyyd Alrizi and ’Abi-Bakr Husain Altammér several questions and answers, expostulations and refutations have been exchanged that will satisfy the curiosity of the reader and inform him of the truth. The Arabs used these three days (the so-called Coals) in their months until they got into confusion, as we have mentioned, and these days no longer fell at their proper times. Thereupon they were transferred into (i.e. fixed on certain days of) the Greek months which keep always their proper places. On the first day, people say, the 1st and 2nd kAipara are 40 getting warm, on the second the 3rd and 4th, on the third the remaining kApara. Further, they say that on the Coal-days vapours are rising from the earth which warm the earth on the 1st Coal-day, the water on the 2nd, and the trees on the 3rd. According to another view, they are days noticeable for the rising of Lunar Stations, or some special parts of them ; whilst other subtle people 16 * 244 ALBIRON? - ON THE DAYS OF THE GREEK CALENDAR. 245 aintain that they are the termini of the cold in winter, and s t denote the differences in the beginning of heat and sold as ne ” the different countries. Some inconsiderate and over-zealous peopl of our ancestors have introduced these Coal-days into Khwirizm, nd the first fell on the 21st of Shubit, the second a week later, oe) a The 6th day is also called Shaibdn, and the 7th Milkdn. These days are scarcely ever free from cold and winds, the sky being dark and variously coloured. Mostly during these days the cold is most vehement, third t ; because it is about to turn away (i.e. to cease). And hence the Lunar wo weeks after the second one. Station Alsarfa has got its name, because its setting occurs about this 22. A cold north-east wind begi i i ; gins blowing and the swallows : time. (Euctemon and Hipparchus). appear 4 Nobody need be astonished at the fact that the cold towards its end, a ollie pe Mowing and the swallows appear (Callippus, Philippus when it is about to cease, is the most severe and vehement. Quite the wi, hi Bis rain at the time of the appearance of the I 10 same is the case with the heat, as we shall mention hereafter. Similar -east win uring four days (Eudoxus, Conon, Calli ? 10 ob ti ke i it hysical earances. I. Ti ’ , Callippus, and observations you may make In quite common physical app ces. E.g. pan ops . kd 2 if the lamp is near the moment of extinction, because there is no more or to north wind and west wind (Hipparchus); north-east wind oil, it burns with an intense light, and flickers repeatedly, like the a winds (Egyptians) ; days with changeable air (Democritus) quivering (of human limbs). Sick people furnish another example, 26. 97 imerly an (Cesar and Dositheus). specially those who perish by hectic fever or consumption, or the disease 28. Y Wi DD#anad of the belly, or similar diseases. For they regain power when they are : . ; old north wind (Hipparchus). near death; then those who are not familiar with these things gain new n this month fall the D . h hilst th ho k them f ri despair. BY Af tie OM Woman, be. Seven vonseitive a Oe rs "i Sais "% art oe a cause of this days beginning with the 26th ; i ‘ i ; if the year is a leap- bt into Shubit and three into Adhir; i it is WC i 20 | appearance in these days (i.e. of the vehemence of the cold during them). nto ‘Shubit and four into Adhér. They are called by the ch : 20 His whole argument comes to this, that the sun then reaches the quadra- special names; the 1st is called Al-sinn, i.e. the id gd ture of his apogee, which is the place of all changes, and that the sun’s 2nd is called Al-sinnabr, i.e. a man who Youves iin hn cod ie : influence upon the atmosphere is greater than that of anything else. something that is coarse and thick. The Nin in thi °3 re im os In that case it would be necessary that that change which the sun effects the same as in sat balansd, the plural of Py 8 rien —- mdi], in its own sphere should be proportional to that one which it effects in brother _4l-wabr, so called from the verb Js, i.e. & : 0 4hird fs their the atmosphere, and that this effect should on an average continue as these days. The 4th is called Alimir Hi In 6. followed, the tree of ¥ long as the moon stands in that quarter (of her own course) in which the people to beware of him. The 5th is Al pe ks Sn effect commenced, and in that quarter of the sun in which the effect took of doing harm to mankind. Th aie , t.e. he has an impulse i 1 , ‘ e 6th is Al-mu‘allil, i : place. by some relief which he affords. WoER, $e. he diveres people 1 have been told that ‘Abdallah b. ‘Ali, the mathematician, in Bukhéri, The 7th is Mutfi’-aljamr (the extingui 30 : 30 on having become acquainted with this treatise of Alkindi, transferred of them, when the ee bib a Hagia o Soul), the ost Severs y these days into the calendar of his people in conformity with the amount Mukfi-alkidr (who turns the kettl 5 inguished. It is also called of the progression of the apogee. Therefore they were called the Days Sitle upside down) in consequence of the of the Old Woman of *Abdallih. cold wind of this day. Some y- voet h ‘ versus memorialis in this way : as connected these names in a (Lacie) Regarding the reason why these days were called the Days of the Old Woman, the ancients relate the following : They are the days which God mentions in his Book (Stra lxix. 7), © seven nights and eight days, unlucky ones,” and the people of «Ad perished by their cold wind, their whirlwinds, a. and the other terrors which happened during them. Of all of them only Mu‘allil, and Muifi’-aljamr, 40 one old woman remained, lamenting the fate of her nation. Her story Tha ena away with the end of the month 3 Rares these days are said to have been called the wind) comes to thee from the beginni ; ays of the oman. ginning of then People say that the wind which destroyed them was a west wind, for month.” the prophet says : «T have been assisted by the east wind—viz. on the “The winter is closed by seven dusty (days) Our Old Woman's Days of the month; When her days come to an end Sinn, Sinnabr, and Wabr, ! Amir, and his brother Mw’ tamir, 246 ALBIRONG. 2 2 ON THE DAYS OF THE GREEK CALENDAR. 247 Yaum-alkhandak—and ‘A jh — d has been dest SA We poet says: sstroyed by the west wind” A the body of the sun towards the earth or from the warm body which “ The west wi : 4 touches the inside of the Lunar sphere, which is called Fire. So the : ok ns destroyed the sandy tracts of ‘Ad; Eo Regarding the rays of the sun many theories have been brought for- . y perished, thrown down like the trunks of palm-trees.” Po ward. Some say that they are fiery particles similar to the essence of urther, people sa : ine out from his body. Oth that the air is getting warm . » Pt y that the unlucky da : . § the sun, going out from his LO y- ers say that the airs getting xli. 15) coincide, each set of four of lg in the Coran (Sara 3 by its being situated opposite to the sun, in the same way as the air is ie date of which there is a 4, i.e. the 4th > a > x of ha month in i getting warm by being opposite to the fire. This is the theory of those eginning or end of the month ’ » OF the 24th from who maintain that the sun is a hot, fiery substance. Some people maintain that the Days of the Old W. . Others, again, say that the air is getting warm by the rapid motion of name from this, that an old woman, thinking that gy roccived thor a 10 the rays in the air, which is so rapid as to seem timeless, i.e. without time : her Miksha’ (a sort of i and ion ¥ in ~ threw 10 2 (« zeitlos »). This is the theory of those who maintain that the nature of ays: in the cold of these 1 the sun has nothing in common with the natures of the four elements. Some Arabs maintain is a diff £ opini ding the motion of th : : that the Days 7, eae ] Further, there is a difference © opinion regarding the motion of the given this name because they are Es i Le 0 Woman (A¥ajiz) were ¥ rays. Some say this motion is timeless, since the rays are not bodies. oer Gur, 16. pars pastica, of the Others say this motion proceeds in very short time; that, however, there e find that the Arabs hav : is nothing more ra id in existence b which you might measure the Ahan. MA ” e names f g p y y Ig eas Aban-Mah and Adhéar-Mah like those ) i im Ziagonong heiwen degree of its rapidity. E.g. the motion of the sound in the air 1s not so The 1st is called Hinnabr, the 2nd i b "y of the Old Woman. fast as the motion of the rays; therefore the former has been compared injury from cold ; the 3rd is called Kalib-alfihr vy vols mening the ; with the latter, and thereby its time (i.e. the degree of its rapidity) has hone upside down), viz. through the amy oy ens 20 been datavinined, : Halik-alzufr (i.e. cuttin : e wind ; the 4th, 20 As th of the heat which exists in the rays of the sun, people . g the nail), fort xe ah, | s the reason 2 y , peop sharp as e.g. to cut the nail; the ne 4 ws Epon Ly fis wnuism bi assign the acuteness of the angles of their reflexion. This, however, is about the dung), viz. in the plains, so that the har ny (whirling i not the case. On the contrary, the heat exists in the rays (is inherent in carries it to human habitations 'S smence of the wind them). en . Som : A verse in this way : sbody has brought them into » a Regarding the body that touches the inside of the sphere, i.e. the fire, people maintain that is a simple element like earth, water, and air, and After hi that it is of a globular form. According to my opinion, the warmth of a im comes Hinzabr, one who strikes with the fore-foot the air is the result of the friction and violent contact between the And pi Hit he comes who exercises justice. ? % sphere, moving rapidly, and his body, and that its shape is like a body — d i is justly called thus; : go which you get by making a crescent-like figure revolve around its chord. pp : alik-alzufr who evidently cuts ; This explanation is in conformity with the theory, viz. that none of the S splits the rocks by the cold. existing bodies is in its natural place, that all of them are where they »” : Bem the last of them, the fifth, i are only in consequence of some force being employed, and that force on @ ry-alba‘r, the biting and licking one. must of necessity have had a beginning. ere is no sixth name after it.” On this subject I have spoken “ha more suitable place than this book is, specially in my correspondence with the youth ’Abi-‘All Alhusain b. Adhér : ‘Abdallah b. Sin, consisting of discussions on this subject. 1. Noth dl | Both sorts of heat are brought to bear upon the earth in an equal manner . Nothing mentioned b . during the f The heat of th th ists either of tl : y the Parapegmatists. uring the four seasons. o heat of the earth consists either ol Lhe this day the locusts and all creeping in iy ee Say mam 40 solar rays that are reflected from its surface, or of the vapours that are y heaven and the heat of the earth meet each other oy R that Ge het produced—according to one theory—by the heat of the interior of the 3 Porhiatient expression for the beginning of die heat Bis pw i earth, or—according to another—by that heat which accidentally comes preading, and for the air’s preparing itself for th j grease and to the earth from outside, for the motion of the vapours in the air causes heat. For the heat is nothing but the rays of Ho re thew them to ge Wetlt. he sun detached from The heat of the fire (i.e the body touching the insid f : 0 3 g the inside of the sphere) ‘“ 3 The first of them is Hinnabr, an excessive day, 248 ALBIRONS. pastas ins at the same distance (from us, i.e. is always of the sam % a . om 5 rotation of the celestial sphere proceeds always om > d the reflected rays are not to be referred to the earth es is not to be considered as their source), and the ne only to a certain limit which they do not go fayoud _ mw. 3: i wi fu: I ae must believe that wits the earth proceeds from the interior t i he ior to the outside, a ond jis assim Joa through the rays of the sun. Thus oo po , each other. Thi , i wa, 1s, at all events, is a theory, if there is 2. Cold north wind (Hippar i Bor (Hipparchus) ; south wind and fall of hail : Nothing mentioned. 4 Coldpmih wind (Euctemon). Sindn says that this is mostly true mo: y air (Egyptians). Beginning of the XeAovia: (C ey blow during ten days. Hela 6. Troubled air (E i RE) : gyptians). Begi AT ‘ Bw So nine days Dae RA hea ell WI . Nothing mentioned. S IS ome people say that a change of the violent asad om north wind (Euctemon, Philippus, and Metro ; swallows and kites appear (E : : Pots of the Small Lake of aed Oa these day decide i Gy and Metrodorus) ; violent south wind (Hip ’ 1n tians) : : . =: 50 Neh 5 s) ; the kites appear (Dositheus). 11. The ancients do not menti Sa ention an a i Sinan says that there is frequently ae feng cations 12. M i i oderate north wind (Callippus). People say that on this day the ‘ ‘ : races of the winter disappear, and that phlebotomy is advisable 30 18. ’Opwifiac begin blowing; i Pn g owing; the kite appears (BEuctemon and 14. Cold north wind (Euct i : emon and H ; i (Egyptians) ; dpribia: begin blowing a Raa I Solan wind (Euctemon and Egyptians) . North wind (Calli is Sina a (Callippus). This Sinén confirms from his ex- 17. Nothi i os Noise usyonad. People say that on this day it is agreeable ogo oa A Re snakes open their eyes, for during the cold Season, un em myself in Khwarizm, the i iuterioe of the earth and roll themselves up one ay a ooh “eu i 2 part of them is visible, and they look like a b 0 In is on lin yi remain during the winter until this time id 1s day (the 17th) in a leap i -year, and on the 18th i year, takes place the equinox, called the first equinox. It is ‘be nip . ) ) ay 10 journey. There the water of the sea is dense, 20 90 As to the country beyond the Line, someone ON THE DAYS OF THE GREEK CALENDAR. 249 of the Persian spring and of the Chinese autumn, as we have mentioned. This, however, is impossible, for spring and autumn or winter and summer cannot at one and the same time alternately exchange their places except in countries north or south of the equator. And China, having only few degrees of latitude, does not lie south, but north of the equator, in the farthest end of the inhabited world towards the east. The country south of the Line is not known, for the equatorial part of the earth is too much burned to be inhabitable. Parts of the inhabited world do not reach nearer the equator than to a distance of several days’ because the sun so intensely vaporises the small particles of the water, that fishes and other animals keep away from it. Neither we nor any of those who care for those things have ever heard that any one has reached the Line or even passed the Line to the south. Some people have been beguile and « Linea quitatis,” so as d by the expressions “ Aquator Died” to think that there the air is equal (moderate), just as day and night there are equal. So they have made the equator the basis of their fictions, describing it as a sort of paradise and as being inhabited by creatures like angels. maintains that it is not inhabitable, because the sun, when reaching the perigee of his eccentric sphere, stands nearly in its utmost southern declination, and then burns all the countries over which he culminates, whilst all the countries of 65 degrees of southern latitude have the climate of the middle zone of the north. From that degree of latitude to the pole the world is again inhabitable. But the author of this theory must not represent this as necessary, because excessive heat and cold are not alone the causes which render a country uninhabitable, for they do not exist in the second quarter of the two northern quarters, and still that part of the world is 30 not inhabited. So the matter is (and will be), because the apogee and perigee of the eccentric sphere, the sun’s greater and less distance from the earth, are necessitated exclusively by the difference in the sun’s rotation. 'Abii-Ja‘far has designed a figure different from the eccentric sphere and the epicycle, in which the sun’s distance from the earth, notwith- standing the difference of its rotation, is always identical. Thereby he gets two regions, a northern and a southern one, equal to each other in heat and cold. The day of the equinox, as calculated by the Hinds according to their 40 Canon,—of which they are impudent enough to pretend that it is eternal, without beginning and end, whilst all the other Camons are derived therefrom,—is their Naurdz, a great feast among them. In the first hour of the day they worship the sun and pray for happiness and bliss to the spirits (of the deceased). In the middle of the day they worship the sun again, and pray for the resurrection and the other world. At the 250 ALBEROND, end of the day they worship the sun again, and pray for health and happiness for their bodies. On the same day they make presents to each other, consisting of precious objects and domestic animals. They maintain that the winds blowing on this day are spiritual beings of great use for mankind. And the people in heaven and hell look at each other affectionately, and light and darkness are equal to each other. In the hour of the equinox they light fires in sacred places. The omina of this day are the following, viz. : to rise from sleep lying on the back, the tree Salix Zgyptia and to fumigate with its wood before speaking. For he who performs this will be free from all sorts of pain. People say that a man who has no children, on looking to the star Al-Suhd in the night of this day and then having intercourse with his wife, will get children. Muhammad b. Mityar maintains that in the hour when this day begins to decline, (i.e. after noon,) the shadow of everything is half its size. This, however, is only partially the case, not in general. Itis true only for such places of which the latitude is about 27 degrees. On this day the crocodile in Egypt is thought to be dangerous. The crocodile is said to be the water-lizard when it has grown up. It isan obnoxious animal peculiar to the Nile, as the thesking is peculiar to other rivers. People say that in the mountains of Fustit there was a talisman made for that district. Around this talisman the crocodile could not do any harm. On the contrary, when it came within its limits, it turned round and lay on its back, so that the children could play with it. But on reaching the frontier of the district it got up again and carried all it could get hold of away to the water. But this talisman, they say, has been broken and lost its power. 18. Winterly air and cold winds (Democritus and the Egyptians). 19. North wind (Hipparchus); winds, and cold in the morning (Egyptians). 20. North wind (Cesar). 21. North wind (Eudoxus). 22. Nothing mentioned. 23. North wind (Cesar) ; rain (Hipparchus). 24. Rain and mizzle (Callippus, Euctemon, and Philippus) ; Episemasia (Hipparchus) ; thunder and Episemasia (Egyptians). On this day people like to purify the children by circumcision. The fecundating winds are said to blow. 25. North wind (Eudoxus); Episemasia (Meton, Conon, and the Egyptians). 26. Rain and snow-storm (Callippus); wind (Egyptians). 27. Rain (Callippus, Eudoxus, and Meton). Of the rest of the month nothing is mentioned. Sinin says that the 30th frequently brings an Episemasia. God knows best ! ON THE DAYS OF THE GREEK CALENDAR. Nisin. 1. Rain (Callippus, Euctemon, Meton, and Metrodorus). 9. Nothing mentioned. Svith to) . Wind (Eudoxus); rain (Egyptians and Lonon). gi : ham Se or south wind; hail falls. Sinin says that this 1s frequently the case. > South wind and changing winds (Hipparchus). on Yi 6. Episemasia (Hipparchus and Dositheus). This is confirmed by Sinan. 7. Nothing mentioned. ; 8. Rain (Eudoxus); south wind Tyne) ste) in (Hi 3 i inds (Egyptians). 9. Rain (Hipparchus) ; unmixed win a : 10. i winds (Euctemon and Philippus) ; rain (Hipparchus and Egyptians). The raining is confirmed by the experience of Sinn. pi West wind and mizzle (Eudoxus). 12. Nothing mentioned. 13. Rain (Cesar and Dositheus). : : . 14. South wind, rain, thunder, and mizzle (Egyptians). Sinan says that this is frequently the case. 15. Rain and hail (Euctemon and Eudoxus); unmixed winds Egyptians). ; Yo, 0 wind (Euctemon and Philippus) ; hail falling (Metrodorus). 17. West wind and rain (Eudoxus and Cesar) ; hail falling (Conon and Egyptians). : 18. Winds and mizzle (Egyptians). 19. Nothing mentioned. i : 90. Wind, south wind or another one, the air unmixed (Ptolemy). 91. Cold south wind (Hipparchus). SinAn maintains that this is case. The water begins to increase. : i ly winterly air (Cesar and Egyptians). People ips at sea. ; : i and rain (Egyptians). People hold a fair at Dair- 'Ayytib. ’Abt-Yahyé b. Kunésa says that the Pleiades disappear Me the rays of the sun during 40 days, and this fair is held ion | e Pleiades appear. So the Syrians make them rise 15 days Sole | an in reality they rise, because they are in a hurry to settle their 4 airs. This fair lasts 7 days. Then they count 70 days until the fair of Busra. Through these fairs, that are held alternately in certain piaces, fhe fon. merce of the people of these countries has been promoted and their 40 wealth been increased. They have proved profitable to the people, to both buyers and sellers. : ; 24. Froaoady hail falls (Callippus and Metrodorus) ; Episemasia (Democritus) ; south wind, or a wind akin to it, and rain (Egyptians). The Euphrates begins to rise. renters Rn Sr ——— * Ee Tm Li] ———— p.262 252 ALBIRONE. 25. Mizzle and rain (Eudoxus and Egyptians). 26. Rain and frequently hail (Callippus and Euctemon); Episemasia and west wind (Egyptians). ; 27. Dew and moisture (Cesar) ; winds (Egyptians). 28. Wind (Egyptians); rain (Eudoxus). Sinin confirms the rain from his own observations. On this, they say, the south wind blows, and then the streams and rivers begin to rise. This increase of the water, however, does not apply to all streams and rivers uniformly ; on the contrary, they greatly differ from each other in this respect. E.g. the Oxus has high water when there is little water in the Tigris, Euphrates, 10 and other rivers. The fact is this, that those rivers the sources of which are situated in cold places, have more water in summer and less in winter. For the greatest part of the ordinary volume of their water is gathered from springs, and an increase and decrease of them exclusively depend upon the fall of dew in those mountains where the rivers originate or through which they flow ; thereupon the springs pour their volumes into the rivers. Now it is well known that dew-fall is more frequent in winter and beginning of spring than at any other season. In the countries far up to the north, where the cold is intense, this dew-water freezes at those seasons. But when the air is getting warm and the Snow melts, at that 20 time the Oxus rises. As for the water of the Tigris and Euphrates, their sources are not so high up in the north. Therefore they have high water in winter and spring, because the dew that falls flows instantaneously into the rivers, and that portion of water that may have been frozen melts away in the beginning of spring. The Nile, again, has high water when there is low water in both Tigris and Euphrates, because its source lies in the Mons Lune, as has been said, beyond the Abyssinian city Assuan in the southern region, coming either exactly from the equator or from countries south of the equator. go This is, however, a matter of doubt, because the equatorial zone is not inhabited, as we have before mentioned. It is evident that in those regions there is no freezing of moist substances at all. If, therefore, the high water of the Nile is caused by falling dew, it is evident that the dew does not stay where it has fallen, but that it directly flows off to the Nile. But if the high water is caused by the springs, these have the most abundant water in spring. Therefore the Nile has high water in summer, for when the sun is near us and our zenith, it is far distant from the zenith of those places whence the Nile originates, and which in consequence have winter. As to the question why the springs have the most copious water in winter, we must observe : the all-wise and almighty Creator, in creating the mountains, destined them for various purposes and uses. Some of them have been mentioned by Théabit b. Kurra in his book on the reason why the mountains were created. It is the same cause which 40 10 are clean and pure, the water flows out just as it is, i.e. sweet. ON THE DAYS OF THE GREEK CALENDAR. 253 renders complete the intention (of the Creator) which he had in making the sea-water salt. ; : os Evidently more wet falls in winter than mn re: 5 Bs ns i i the wet falls and par more than in the plains. When, now, the Te away in the torrents, the remaining part sinks down into Can $ = the mountain caves, and there it is stored up. Afterwards1 begs se flow out through the holes, called springs. Therefore the Spt the most copious water in winter, because the hn by - uo ty i i se moun are nourished is then most copious. If, further, the Be is not the case, the water acquires different qualities and peculiarities, the causes of which are not known to us. : The bubbling of the fountains and the rising of the water in 3 un height are to be explained in this way, that their reservoirs i igi than they themselves, as is the case with artificial well-springs, Tor i d. is the only reason why water rises upward Many dies who attribute to God’s wisdom all they do oh of physical sciences (i.e. who excuse their ignorance by saying ; 4 v all-wise!”), have argued with me on this subject. In support of the 20 view they relate that they have observed. the water rise in rivers and other watercourses, that the water the more it flows away fom i$ source) the more it rises. This they assert in “oie oes > the physical causes and because they do not ufc y 4 : gs jo between the higher and lower situations (of the springs o Were Ros the rivers themselves). The matter is this, that they olive Me flowing in mountain streamlets, the bed of which was going Hig Ll the rate of 50-100 yards and more for the distance of one 5 8 4 peasants dig a channel somewhere in this terrain, and t bs jv : made to incline a little towards the country (i.e. if the channel 1s 2) 30 at first the water flows only very little, until it rises to an enormous height above the water of the river; (then it commences to flow ji en a man who has no training in these things believes that us natural direction of the river is to flow in a horizontal line i mis small inclination (upwards), he must of necessity imagine op a is rising in height. It is impossible to free their mind oss thus Ls ” unless they acquaint themselves with the instruments by his 1 P os ut soil are weighed and determined, and by which rivers ape Mn excavated—for if they weigh the earth through which the water ’ 40 the reverse of what they believe becomes evident to them ;—or unless they study physical sciences, and learn that the water moves le 1 centre of the earth and to any place which is nearest to the ce : There is no doubt that the water may rise to any place where you ia to have it, even if it were to the tops of the mountains, if poviousy “ descends to a place which is lower than its maximum of ascent (W 254 ALBIRONA. ultimately reaches), and if you keep away from it any substance which might occupy the place instead of the water when it finds the place empty. Now, the water in its natural function is only assisted by the co-operation of something forcible which acts like an instrument, and that is the air. This has frequently been carried out in canals I the midst of which there were mountains which it was suspossils to perforate. An illustration of this principle is the instrument called Water-thief, kheyidpa. For if you fill it with water and put both its ends into two vessels, in both of which the water reaches to the same level, then the water in the x\eyidpa stands still even for a long time, not flowing off into either of the two vessels. For the one vessel is not nearer (to the water) than the other, and it is impossible that the water should flow off equally into both vessels, for in that case the instrument would get empty. Now, emptiness is either a mon-ens, as most philosophers suppose, or it is an ens which attracts bodies, as others believe. If, now the vacuum cannot exist, the matter is impossible, or if it is soning which attracts bodies, it keeps back the water and does not let it flow oif except its place be occupied by some other body. But if you then place the one end of the kAeyvdpa a little lower (than the other), the water flows immediately off into that direction. For if its place has once become lower, it has come nearer to the centre of the earth, and so it flows towards it, flowing continually in consequence of the adhesion and connection of the water-atoms amongst each other. It flows so long until the water of that vessel, whence the water is drawn, is finished, or until the level of the water in the vessel where it flows is equal to Ye level of the water in the vessel whence it is drawn. So the question returns to its original condition. On this principle people have proceeded in the mountains. Sometimes even the water rises in artificial fountains out of wells, in case they have got springing water. For one sort of well-water, which is gathered from droppings from the sides, does not rise at all; it is taken from neighbouring masses of water, and the level of the water which is gathered in this way is parallel to the level of those waters by which it is nourished. On the other hand there is one kind of water which bubbles (springs) already at the bottom. Of this water people hope that it may rise to the earth and flow on over its surface. This latter kind of water is mostly found in countries near to mountains in the midst of which there are no lakes or rivers with deep ater If the source of such water is a reservoir much above the level of the earth, the water rises springing, if it is confined (to a narrow bed or channel); but if its reservoir be lower, the water does not succeed in rising to the earth. Frequently the reservoir is higher by thousands of yards in the mountains; in that case the water may rise up to the castles, and, e.g., to the tops of the minarets. ON THE DAYS OF THE GREEK CALENDAR. 255 I have been told that people in Yaman often dig until they come to a certain rock under which they know that there is water. Then they knock upon this rock, and by the sound of the knocking they ascertain the quantity of the water. Then they bore a small hole and examine it ; if it is all right, they let the water bubble out and flow where it likes. But if they have some fear about the hole, they hasten to stop it up with gypsum and quicklime and to close it over repeatedly. For frequently they fear that from such a hole a spring similar to the Torrent of Al‘arim might originate. As to the water on the top of the mountain between Abrashahr and Tis, a small lake of one farsang in circumference, called Sabzardd, one of the following three things must be the case : 1. Either its material is derived from a reservoir much higher than the lake itself, although it may be far distant, and the water flows into it in such a quantity as corresponds to that which the sun absorbs and vaporises. Therefore the water of the lake remains in the same condition, quietly standing. 9. Or its material is derived from a reservoir which lies on the same level with the lake, and therefore the water of the lake does not rise above that of the reservoir. 3. Or, lastly, the condition of its sources in some way resembles that of the water of the instrument called Al-dakj, and the self-feeding lamp. The case is this: You take a water-jug, or an oil-vase; in several places of the edge or lip of the vase you make fine splits, and you bore a narrow hole in it deeper than the mouth by so much as you wish the water to remain in the jug and the oil in the vase (i.e. the hole is to represent the line to which people wish the water or oil to rise). Thereupon you turn the jug upside down in the cup and the vase in the lamp. Then both water and oil flow out through the splits, until they reach the level of the hole. When, then, so much has been consumed as the hole allows to pass, then comes forth that which lies next to the hole. In this way both oil and water keep the same level. Similar to this little lake is a sweet-water well in the district of the Kimak in a mountain called Mankir, as large asa great shield. The surface of its water is always on a level with its margin. Frequently a whole army drinks out of this well, and still it does not decrease as much as the breadth of a finger. Close to this well there are the traces of the foot, two hands with the fingers, and two knees of a man who had been worshipping there; also the traces of the foot of a child, and of the hoofs of an ass. The Ghuzzi Turks worship those traces when they see them. Moreover, similar to this is a small lake in the mountains of Bamiyin, one mile square, on the top of the mountain. The water of the village which lies on the slope of the mountain comes down from that lake through a small hole in such a quantity as they require; but they are not able to make it flow more copiously. lS SA.» 256 ALBIRONI. Frequently the springing (rising of water) occurs also in a plain country which gets its water from a reservoir in a high situation. If the rising power of the water were kept down by an obstacle, and then this obstacle is removed, the water begins at once to spring (rise). E.g. Aljaihini has mentioned a village between Bukhéird and Alkarya Alhaditha, where there is a hill that was perforated by diggers for hidden treasures. Suddenly they hit upon water which they were unable to keep back, and it has been flowing ever since till this day. If you are inclined to wonder, you may well wonder at a place called Filawin (Failawén) in the neighbourhood of Almihrjan. This place is like a portico dug out in the mountain, from the roof of which water is always dropping. If the air gets cold, the water freezes and hangs down in long icicles. I have heard the people of Almihrjin maintain that they frequently knock the place with pickaxes, and that in consequence the spot which they knock becomes dry; but the water never increased, whilst reason would demand that it should always remain in the same condition if it does not increase. More wonderful even than this is what Aljaihdni relates in his Kitab-Almamalik wal-masdlik of the two columns in the grand mosque of Kairawan, the material of which people do not know. People main- tain that on every Friday before sunrise they drop water. It is curious that this should take place just on a Friday. If it occurred on any week-day in general, it would be combined with the moon’s reaching such and such a place of the sun’s orbit, or with the like of it. This, however, is not admissible, since Friday is a conditio sine qud non of this occurrence. The Greek king is said to have sent to buy them. He said : “Tt is better for the Muslims to utilize their prize than to have two stones in the mosque.” But the people of Kairawan refused, saying : « We shall not let them pass out of the house of God into that of the devil.” Still more marvellous than this is the self-moving column in Alkaira- win. For it inclines towards one side. People put something under- neath when it inclines, and this you can no longer take away if the column again stands erect; if glass is put underneath, you hear the sound of breaking and crushing. This is no doubt a got-up piece of artifice, as also the place where the column stands seems to indicate. We return to our subject, and say : 29. Winterly air (Caesar) ; winds, or moisture of the ground, and rain (Egyptians). 30. Episemasia (Egyptians); winds and dew, moisture and mizzle 40 (Callippus and Euctemon). Ayyar. 1. Mizzle (Egyptians). 2. Nothing mentioned. 3. Wind, mizzle, dew, moisture, and thunder (Egyptians). ON THE DAYS OF THE GREEK CALENDAR. 257 4. Rain (Eudoxus), mizzle (Egyptians). 5. Rain (Dositheus). Sinn says that this is frequently the case and that it brings a strong episemasia. 6. Wind (Egyptians), rain (Eudoxus), mizzle and episemasia. (Lacuna.) Some people extend the rainy season as far as this day. It is the time when the sun passes the (first) 20 degrees of Leo. In this respect the matter stands as we have explained it at the beginning of the rainy season, when the sun moves in Cancer. 7. Winds (Egyptians). Sinin says that this is frequently the case, more particularly so if on the preceding day heaven has a rainy appearance. 8. Gushes of rain (Eudoxus and Dositheus), rain (Egyptians). 9. Rain (Egyptians). 10. Episemasia and wind (Callippus and Euctemon), rain (Egyp- tians). 11. Episemasia (Dositheus). Sindn says that it is true. 12. Episemasia (Eudoxus, Metrodorus, and Hipparchus) ; rain (Cesar) ; west-wind (Egyptians). People say that on this and the following day there is no fear of frost doing harm to the fruits. This remark can, however, only apply to one particular place; it cannot be meant in general. 13. Rain (Eudoxus) ; north wind and hail (Egyptians). 14. Episemasia. (Callippus, Euctemon, and Egyptians). 15. Rain (Cesar). 16. Episemasia (Cesar). People say that on this day the first Samim is blowing. 17. South wind or east wind and rain (Hipparchus and Egyptians). 18. Episemasia (Eudoxus); rain and thunder (Egyptians). 19. Episemasia and mizzle (Hipparchus and Egyptians). 20. Nothing mentioned. 21. Episemasia (Cesar); south wind (Dositheus), west wind (Egyp- tians). 22, 23. Nothing mentioned. 24. Episemasia (Callippus, Euctemon, and Philippus) ; winds (Egyp- tians). 25. Episemasia (Euctemon, Philippus, and Hipparchus). 26. Episemasia (Callippus and BEuctemon) ; cold north wind (Egyp- tians). 97. Dew and moisture (Callippus and Buctemon) ; episemasia 40 (Egyptians). 28. Rain (Metrodorus and Egyptians). 99. South wind or west wind (Hipparchus). 30. South wind (Cesar). 31. Nothing mentioned. ALBIRON{ Haziran. 1. Dew and moisture (Eudoxus and Dositheus) ; west wind (Egyptians). 2. West wind (Egyptians). 3. Wind and mizzle (Egyptians), and thunder. 4. Rain (Cesar). : 5. Mizzle (Egyptians). Confirmed by Sinan. 6, 7, 8. Nothing mentioned. 9. West wind and thunder (Egyptians). 10, 11, 12. Nothing mentioned. The 11th is the Naurdz of the Khalif, “when people in Baghdad splash in the water, strew about dust, and play p-267. other games, as is well known. 12. SinAn says that frequently a change of the weather takes place. 13. West wind and mizzle (Egyptians). 14. Nothing mentioned. 15. Mizzle (Egyptians). 16. Nothing mentioned. People say that on this day the water sinks into the earth, whilst the Nile begins to rise. The reason of this is, as we have mentioned before, the difference of their sources and of other circumstances, those of the Nile standing in direct opposition to those of all other rivers. On this day in a leap-year, and on the 17th in a common year, the Plenitudo Maxima takes place, which is celebrated by Arabs and Persians. They call it Mirin, which means the Sun’s getting full, i.e. the summer-solstice. On this day light subdues darkness. The light of the sun is falling into the wells, as Muhammad b. Mityar mentions ; but this is only possible in countries’ the latitude of which is like the greatest declination, over which, therefore, the sun culminates. The Hayawdniyya-sect maintains that on this day the sun takes breath in the midst of heaven ; that, therefore, the spirits recognise each other in the greatest heat. It is considered as a good omen to look into the intense heat. People eat pomegranates before having eaten anything else, and Hippocrates is said to have taught that he who eats a pome- granate on this day before having eaten anything else, enlightens his constitution and his xvpds is pure during forty mornings. People relate, on the authority of Hanna the Hind, that Kisra Parwiz has said : “ Sleeping in the shadow of a pomegranate cures a man of bad disease and makes him safe from the demons.” Tt belongs to the omina of this day to rise in the morning from sleep on the left side, and to fumigate with saffron before speaking. 17. Episemasia (Dositheus) ; heat (Egyptians). 18. West wind and heat (Egyptians). 19. Rain (Egyptians). 10 ON THE DAYS OF THE GREEK CALENDAR. 90. West wind, rain, and thunder (Egyptians). 21. Nothing mentioned 22. Episemasia (Democritus). 93. South wind or west wind (Hipparchus). 94. Nothing mentioned. People say that on this day the Samims begin blowing during fifty-one days. The Oxus rises and frequently injures the shores and their inhabitants. 95. West wind and heat (Egyptians). 96. West wind (Democritus and Egyptians). 27. Nothing mentioned. 28. Episemasia (Eudoxus); west wind and south wind and rain (Democritus) ; then the north wind begins to blow during seven days. 29. Nothing mentioned. People say that practical obververs examine on this day the dew; if it is copious, the Nile rises p if it is not copious, the Nile does not rise, and they get a barren year. 30. Winds (Egyptians) and unmixed air. 31. Nothing mentioned. Tammiiz. 1, 2. Nothing mentioned by our authorities. 3. South wind and heat (Cesar and Egyptians). 4. Wind (Egyptians) ; frequently it rains in their country. 5. South wind (Callippus, Metrodorus, and Hipparchus) ; west wind and thunder (Egyptians). 6. South wind (Callippus and Metrodorus) ; west wind and thunder (Egyptians). 7. Episemasia (Ptolemy). According to Sindn the weather frequently changes. 8. Dew and moisture, according to Meton, in his country. 9. Dew (Euctemon and Philippus) ; west-by-west wind (Egyptians). 10. Bad air (Egyptians). On this day they begin to hold the fair of Busra during 25 days ; in the time of the Bani-'Umayya this fair used to last 30-40 days. 11. Nothing mentioned. 12. West wind (Metrodorus) ; winds (Egyptians). 13. Unmixed winds (Hipparchus). According to Sinn the weather frequently changes. 14. Heavy wind (Cesar); the north wind begins to blow (Hipparchus) ; heat (Egyptians). 15. Nothing mentioned. 16. Frequently it rains in rainy countries (Ptolemy); rain and whirl- winds (Democritus) ; heavy wind (Egyptians). 17. Dew and heat (Dositheus and Egyptians). 18. The Etesian winds (érnoiac) begin to blow (Hipparchus). Ac- cording to the general consent of scamen and peasants, and all those who 17 * EC . a em a SH as et EA —— BR, = 260 ALBIRON?. have experience in this subject, this is the first day of the dog-days, 7.e. seven consecutive days, the last of which is the 24th of this month. On each of these days they draw conclusions from certain changes of the weather regarding the months of the autumn and winter and part of spring; these changes mostly occur in the evening and morning. People maintain that these days are to the year what the critical days are to acute diseases, when their criteria appear, in consequence of which people conceive either hope or fear as to the end in which they will issue. Both words bdkir and bukrin in the Greek and Syriac languages are derived from a word which means the decision of the rulers (v. kplos and kplouuos juépa). According to another view, bukrdin is derived from bakr (the Arabic for sea), because the critical state of a sick person resembles the motion of the sea, called ebb and flow. This derivation is very likely correct, because of both appearances the motions of the moon, her cycles and phases, are the cause, whether the moon revolves in a Great Circle, as it is in the case of the flow, for the flow sets in when the moon reaches the western and eastern point of the horizon. The same is the case with the ebb, for it sets in when the moon reaches the sphere of the meridian of noon and midnight. Or whether it be that the moon revolves from one certain point of her cycle back to the same, or from the sun to that point. So the flow is the strongest in the first half of the lunar month, the weakest in the second half. Besides, also, the sun has an influence upon this. It is curious what people relate of the Western Sea, viz. that there is flow from the side of Andalusia always at sunset, that then the sea decreases at the rate of about 5-6 farsang in one hour and then it ebbs. And this appearance takes place always precisely at this time. If on the evening of the 18th there is a cloud on the horizon, people expect cold and rain at the beginning of Tishrin I. If the same is the case at midnight, the cold and rain will come in the middle of Tishrin I. ; and if it is the case towards morning, the same will come in the end of that month. The matter is the same, if you observe a cloud on the horizon during daytime ; however, the changes of the sky in the night are more evident. And if you observe those changes on all four sides of the compass, the same, too, will occur in Tishrin I. Herein the nights are counted after the days, as we have mentioned in the beginning of this book, in consequence of which those who count the nights before the days think that the night of the 18th is the 19th; therefore they consider the 19th as the first of the dog-days and the 25th as the last of them. The 1st of these seven days serves to prognosticate the character of Tishrin I, the 2nd that of Tishrin IL., the 3rd that of Kann I, ete. etc, and lastly, the 7th, that of Nisin. Practical observers prescribe the following: Take a plate some time before the dog-days, sow upon it all sorts of seeds and plants, and let it ON THE DAYS OF THE GREEK CALENDAR. 261 stand until the 25th night of Tammtz, i.e. the last night of the dog- p.269. days; then put the plate somewhere outside at the time when the stars rise and set, and expose it uncovered to the open air. All seeds, then, that will grow in the year will be yellow in the morning, and all whose growth will not prosper will remain green. This experiment the Egyptians used to make. Practical observers have produced many contrivances for the purpose of prognosticating the character of the year by help of these (the dog) days ; they have even gone as far as to use incantations and charms. So some people maintain that if you take the leaves of twelve different olive- trees, and write upon each leaf the name of some Syrian month, if you then put them, in the night we have mentioned, somewhere in a wet place, you will find that, if a leaf has dried up in this night, the month whick was written upon it will be rainless. According to others, you learn whether the year will have much rain or little, by this method: You look out for a level place, around which there is nothing that might keep off the dew, wind, and light rain; then you take two yards of a cotton dress, you weigh it and keep in mind its weight. Then you spread it over that place and leave it there during the first four hours of the night. Thereupon you weigh it a second time ; then each Mithkdl which it weighs more the second time than the first time signifies one rainy day in that month which stands in relation with this particular dog-day of which we have heretofore spoken. These dog-days are the time of the rising of Sirius (Kalb-aljabbdir or Alshi‘rd Alyamdniya Al‘abir). Hippocrates, in his book of the seasons, forbids taking hot drugs and bleeding twenty days before and after the rising of this star, because it is the hottest time of summer and the heat reaches its maximum, and because summer time by itself warms, dissolves, and takes away all moist substances. However, Hippocrates does not forbid those things if you take but very little of them. After- wards, when autumn comes with its cold and dryness, you cannot be sure whether the natural warmth may not be entirely extinguished. Some people who have no practice in physical sciences and no knowledge of the peréwpa, think that the influence we have mentioned must be attributed to the body of this star, to its rising and revolution. They go even as far as to make people imagine that the air is warmed by its great mass ; that, therefore, it is necessary to indicate and to explain its proper place and to determine the time of its rising. The same opinion is indicated by the verse of ’Abu-Nuds : «714i has gone and the hot night-wind passed away, And Sirius has extinguished his fire.” For this reason ‘Ali b. ‘Ali, the Christian secretary, maintains that the first of the dog-days is the 22nd of Tammuz, suggesting that the dog- 262 ALBiRONI. days have changed their place along with the star itself, whilst I maintain that Sirius always revolves during the whole year in one and the same orbit parallel to the equator. Hippocrates, however, meant by this time the central portion of the summer, the period when the heat is greatest in consequence of the sun’s being near to our zenith, whilst he at the same time begins in his eccentric sphere to descend from the apogee of his orbit. And this event was in the time of Hippocrates contemporaneous with the rising of Sirius. Therefore he has only said in general at the time when Sirius rises, knowing that no scientific man could misunder- stand the truth. For if Sirius changed its place so as to advance even as far as the beginning of Capricorn or Aries, the time during which he forbids taking drugs would not therefore advance in the same way. Sinin says in his Kitdb-alanwd that the shepherds have seven special days of their own, beginning with the 1st of Tammiz, which they use like the dog-days, drawing from them conclusions regarding the single winter months. They are known as * the dog-days of the shepherds.” The weather of these days is always different from that of the time immediately preceding and following. During all or at least some of them heaven is never free from a speck of clouds. 19. West wind or heat (Egyptians). The water dogs are getting strong and do much damage. 20. West wind or a similar one (Egyptians). Practical observers say that on this day frequent cases of inflammation of the eyes occur. 21. The Etesian winds are blowing (Euctemon); the heat begins (Callippus, Euctemon, and Metrodorus). 22. Bad air (Euctemon) ; beginning of the heat (Hipparchus); west wind and heat (Egyptians). 23. Winterly air on sea, winds (Philippus and Metrodorus) ; beginning of the blowing of the Etesian winds (Egyptians). On this day ’Abd- Ja‘far Almanstr began to build Baghdad, that part which is called Mans iir's-town, on the western side of the Tigris in the present Baghdad. This was A. Alexandri, 1074. Astrologers are obliged to know dates like this, and must date from such an epoch by means of their knowledge of the Permutationes, Terminationes, Cycles, and Directiones, until they find the horoscopes of those people who were born at those times. It was Naubakht who determined the time (for the commencement of building). The constellation which heaven showed at the time, and the stations of the planets which appeared on heaven, were such as are indicated in the following figure. ON THE DAYS OF THE GREEK CALENDAR. Capricornus Archana Scorpio aput Dracori 25 : Jt iter a 19.10 Surv a 840 Mercurtius 25-7 Taurus Genurd, Cancer 94, Winds (Philippus and Metrodorus); the Etesian winds blow (Hipparchus). 95. South wind (Budoxus and Caesar) ; west or south wind (Egyptians). Sexual intercourse and all exertion are forbidden, because it is the time of the greatest heat. The river Oxus begins to rise. 926. South wind and heat (Philippus, Meton, Metrodorus, Democritus, and Hipparchus). : 97. Dew and wet, and oppressive air (Euctemon and Dositheus). This oppressive air mostly occurs when heaven is covered and the air is in 10 perfect repose. But often, too, this is peculiar to a place where this cause does not exist, eg. to the region beyond that bridge which, according to Aljaihini, was in old times built by the Chinese, reaching from the top of one mountain to that of another on the road that leads from Khotan to the region of the residence of the Khikin. For those hich makes breathing difficult who pass this bridge come into an air w and the tongue heavy, in consequence of which many travellers perish there, whilst others are saved. The Tibetans call it the ¢ poison- mountain.” 28. Nothing mentioned. 20 29. Beginning of the Etesian winds (Dositheus) ; heat (Egyptians). They hold the fair of Busri for a whole month, and that of Salamiyya for two weeks. 30. The Etesian winds blow (Eudoxus); west wind and heat (Egyptians). 31. South wind (Cesar). Ab. 1. Heat (Hipparchus). 2. Nothing mentioned. 3. Dew falls (Eudoxus and Dositheus) ; episemasia (Cesar). 4. Great heat (Eudoxus). 5. Heat, still and oppressive air, then blowing of winds (Dositheus p-273. 264 ALBIRONE. and Egyptians). They hold a fair at ' Adhri‘at during fifteen days, also in Alurdunn, and in several districts of Palestine. 6, 7. Nothing mentioned. 8. The air is still and oppressive (Callippus) ; wind, and intense heat (Egyptians). According to Sinén, frequently there occurs a change of the air. 9. Heat and still air (Euctemon and Cesar) ; south wind and turbid air (Egyptians). 10. Heat and still air (BEudoxus, Metrodorus, and Dositheus); episemasia (Democritus). At this time the heat is very intense. 11. The northerly winds cease to blow (Callippus, Euctemon, and Philippus) ; heavy wind (Eudoxus) ; different winds blow together (Hipparchus) ; thunder (Egyptians). According to SinAn there is always a change of the weather on this day. He says: I do not know whether we, I and all those who make meteorological observations, are correct in describing a day like this. On this day there is almost always a change of the weather for the better. Tt is the first day when the air of Alrik begins to be agreeable. Sometimes this change is most evident, whilst at other times itis only slightly perceptible. But that the day should be free from such a change, almost never occurs. Some of the ancients consider this day as the beginning of the autumnal air, whilst others take as such the following day. SinAn says: Thabit used to say : If in a rare year that which we have described does not take place on this day, it is not likely to take place on the 13th or 14th, but rather in the middle of Ab. If it takes place on the 11th, a season of agreeable air is sure to return about the middle of the month, though it may only be short. 12. Heat (Euctemon and Egyptians). 13. Episemasia and still air (Cesar). Sinn says that on this day an irregular change of the air frequently occurs. 14, 15. Nothing mentioned. 16. Episemasia (Cesar). 17. Episemasia (Eudoxus). 18. Nothing mentioned. The Saméims are said to cease. 19. Episemasia, rain, and wind (Democritus) ; west wind (Egyptians). 20. Episemasia (Dositheus); heat and density in the air (Egyptians). 21. Nothing mentioned. 99. West wind and thunder (Eudoxus); episemasia and bad air (Caesar and Egyptians). 93. West wind (Egyptians). 24. Episemasia (Eudoxus and Metrodorus). The heat relaxes a little at the time when the sun passes the first 6 degrees of Virgo. 25. Episemasia (Eudoxus); south wind (Hipparchus); heat (Egyp- tians). 96. Rotating winds (Hipparchus). Between this day and the first of ON THE DAYS OF THE GREEK CALENDAR. 265 the Days of the Old Woman (i.e. 26 Shubit) lies one half of a complete year. On this day the heat, at the time when it is about to disappear, returns once more with renewed force, as does also the cold at the time when it is about to disappear. It is a time of seven days, the last of which is the 1st of Ill, called by the Arabs Wakdat-Suhail (i.e. the burning of Suhail). It is the time of the winds that accompany the rising of Aljabha (Frons Leonis, the 10th Lunar Station), but as Suhail rises in its neighbourhood, it has become the prevailing use to call the time by Suhail and not by Aljabha. The heat of these days is more intense than at any time before or afterwards. But after this time the nights begin to be agreeable. This is an occurrence generally known among people, which scarcely ever fails. Muhammad b. ‘Abd-almalik Alzayyat says: « The water had become cold and the night long, And the wine was found to be sweet ; Haziran had left you, and Tammfiz and Ab.” 27. Episemasia (Philippus). 28. West wind (Egyptians). 29. Rain and thunder ; the Etesian winds are about to cease (Eudoxus and Hipparchus). 30. Episemasia (Hipparchus). SL The Etesian winds are about to cease (Ptolemsus); changing winds (Eudoxus); winds, rain, and thunder (Cewmsar); east wind (Hipparchus). lal. 1. Episemasia and the Etesian winds are getting quiet (Callippus). A fair is held at Manbij (Mabbug). 2. Density in the air (Metrodorus). Conon says that on this day the Etesian winds cease. 3. Wind, thunder, and density in the air (Eudoxus); wet and dew (Hipparchus) ; fog, heat, rain, and thunder (Egyptians). On this day people begin to light their fires in cold countries. 4. Dense and changing air (Callippus, Euctemon, Philippus, and Metrodorus) ; rain, thunder, and changing wind (Eudoxus). 5. Changing winds and rain, and the Etesian winds are getting quiet (Cesar) ; rains and winterly air at sea, and south wind (Egyptians). On this day midsummer ends, and a time comes which is good for bleeding p-274. and for taking drugs during forty days. 6. West wind (Egyptians). 7. Density in the air (Philippus); episemasia (Dositheus). 8. West wind and episemasia (Egyptians). 9. Nothing mentioned. : 10. The air is not troubled (mixed) (Dositheus). 266 ALBIRONE. 11. The north winds are ceasing (Cesar). 12. South wind (Eudoxus). 13. Episemasia (Callippus and Conon). 14. The north winds are ceasing (Eudoxus) ; episemasia (Democritus and Metrodorus). After this time no swallow is seen. 15. Wet and dew (Dositheus) ; rains and episemasia (Egyptians). 16. Density in the air, and rain at sea (Hipparchus). On the 16th in a common year and on the 17th in a leap-year occurs the second equinox, which is the first day of the Persian autumn and the Chinese spring, as people maintain. But we have already explained that this is impossible. The winds, now, blowing on this day are said to be of a psychical nature. To look towards the clouds that rise on this day emaciates the body and affects the soul with disease. I think the reason of this is that people conceive fear on account of the cold and the disappearance of the agreeable time of the year. It is one of the omina of this day to rise from sleep in a worshipping attitude, and to fumigate with tamarisks before speaking. People say that if a woman who is sterile looks on this day at the star Alsuhd and then has intercourse with her husband, she is sure to conceive. Further, they say, that in the night of this day the waters are getting sweet. We have already heretofore shown the impossibility of such a thing. This second equinox is, according to the Canon Sindhind, a great festival with the Hindds, like the Mihrjan with the Persians. People make each other presents of all sorts of valuable objects and of precious stones. They assemble in their temples and places of worship until noon. Then they go out to their pleasure-grounds, and there they assemble in parties, showing their devotion to the (Deity of) Time and humbling themselves before God Almighty. 17. Rain at sea and density in the air (Metrodorus). 18. West, then cast wind (Egyptians). 19. Wet and dew (Eudoxus) ; west wind, mizzle, and rain (Egy ptians). On this day the water returns from the upper parts of the trees to the roots. 20, 21. (Missing.) 29. Nothing mentioned. 23. Rain (Eudoxus); west wind or south wind (Hipparchus). 94. Nothing mentioned. On this day the fair of Thu‘4liba is held. Practical observers say that people mark on this day what wind is con- stantly blowing until night or until the time when the sun begins to decline; for this will be the most constant of all the winds of the year. This day they called the Turning of the winds. The white-and- black crows appear on this day in most countries. ON THE DAYS OF THE GREEK CALENDAR. 267 25. Episemasia (Hipparchus and Eudoxus) ; west wind or south wind (Egyptians). 26, 27, 28. (Missing.) 29. Episemasia (Euctemon and Eudoxus); west wind or south wind (Hipparchus). 30. Nothing mentioned by the ancients, either about the air or anything else. This, now, is the calendar used by the Greeks, to which we have added all that Sinan has mentioned in his Kitdb-al'anwd. This is the concise summary of his book. We have not kept back anything which we have learned regarding the days of the calendar. We quote them by the names of the Syrians (i.e. as the 1st of Tishrin, Kinin, etc.) only, because they are generally known among people, and because this serves the same purpose (as if we were to call them by the Greek names). Next we shall speak of the memorable days in the months of the Jews, if God Almighty permits! ; ALBIRONI. CHAPTER XIV. OF THE FESTIVALS AND FAST-DAYS IN THE MONTHS OF THE JEWS. ArrEr having explained the method how to learn the beginning of the year of the Jews, and its character,—after having solved this problem by the help both of computation and tables,—after having shown the arrangement of the months according to their beginnings and to the number of their days,—we hold it now to be necessary to explain their festivals and memorable days. For getting acquainted with them we shall at the same time learn the reason why they, even New-Year’s Day itself, are not allowed to fall on certain days of the week. We begin with the first month, i.e. Tishri. It has 30 days and only one Rdish-Hodesh. As we have explained before, the 1st Tishri cannot fall on a Sunday, Wednesday, or Friday YT. When, according to calculation, it ought to fall on one of these days, it is disregarded, and New-Year’s Day is either the following day, if it is a Dies licita, or the preceding day, in case the following one is not a Dies licita according to the conditions that have been laid down in the Tabula Terminoruwm in the first part of this book. This proceeding of theirs they call 17. The 1st is the feast of New-Year, when they blow the trumpets and trombones, which are rams-horns. All work ceases on this day as on Sabbath. On this day, they maintain, Abraham offered his son Isaac, but then Isaac was ransomed by means of a ram. According to Jews and Christians, the person offered was Isaac, whilst there is a passage in the Coran in the Stra Wal-sdfiit (Stra xxxvii. 99- 113), showing that it was Ishmael. And, according to tradition, the Prophet is reported to have said: “I am the son of the two sacrificed ones,” meaning ‘Abdalldh b. Almuttalib and Ishmael However, the discussion of this question is a subject of great extent. God knows best ! FESTIVALS AND FASTS OF THE JEWS. 269 3. Fasting of GedalyA b. ’Ahikim, the governor of Nebucadnezar over Jerusalem. On this day he was killed, together with eighty-two people, in a cistern in which the water collected until it rose above their heads. In consequence the Israelites were stricken with sorrow, and have ever since fasted on the day of his death. 5. Fasting of ‘Akibhd. People wanted to compel him to worship the idol ; he, however, did not submit. So they put him into a cage where he died of hunger, surrounded by twenty fellow prisoners. 7. Fasting of punishment. Its origin is this, that David, on having counted the Israelites, rejoiced in their number, and people themselves were puffed up on account of their great number, so as to go astray. Therefore God became angry with them, and sent the prophet Nathan to David and the assembly of the tribes to threaten them with the sword, with famine, and sudden death. His threatening was fulfilled. So they were stricken with fright, and have ever since fasted on this day. On the same day the Israelites killed each other on account of the worship of the calf. They say that it was Aaron who made the calf, and so it is related in the Thora. The Jew Ya‘ktib b. Masi Alnikrisi (i.e. the physician) told me in Jurjin the following: Moses wanted to" leave Egypt together with the Israelites, but Joseph the prophet had ordered that they should take his coffin along with them. As he, however, was buried in the bottom of the Nile and the water flowed over him, Moses could not get him away. Now, Moses took a piece of a paper and cut it into the figure of a fish; over this he recited some sentence, breathed upon it, wrote something upon it, and threw it into the Nile. Waiting for the result he stayed there, following the course of the river, but nothing appeared. So Moses took another piece of paper and cut it into the figure of a calf, wrote upon it, recited over it, breathed upon it, but then, when he was just about to throw it into the water, as he had done the first time, the coffin appeared. So he threw away the figure of the calf which he just held in his hand, but it was taken up by one of the bystanders. Afterwards, when Moses disappeared on the mountain to speak with the Lord, and when the Israelites became anxious at his staying there so long, they pressed Aaron and demanded of him that he should give them a viceregent instead of Moses. Aaron, no doubt, did not know what to do; so he said : “Bring me all the precious ornaments of your women.” So he spoke in order to gain time, knowing that the women would not be in a hurry to part with their ornaments. Possibly Moses might return before that. But it happened that the women gave up their ornaments most speedily. They fetched Aaron and he melted the ornaments and poured them into a mould; but the result was nothing but broken pieces of ingots. The same work he repeated in a hurry, hoping for the return of Moses and for news of him. Now he happened to have with himself the figure of that calf (which Moses had cut out of paper). So Eo Re Ra - p-277. 270 aLBIRONE. he said to himself: “By the figure of the fish once a wonderful miracle has been wrought. Now, let me see what the figure of the calf will produce!” He took the figure and threw it into the molten gold ; when then the liquid mass was poured into a mould, it was formed into a calf which roared. Thereby the people were at that time seduced from the true belief without Aaron’s having intended it. 10. Fasting of Kippir, also called Al-‘Gshird. This fast-day is obligatory, whilst all other ones are voluntary. Kippir-fasting begins half an hour before sunset of the 9th and lasts until half an hour after sunset of the 10th during 25 hours. In this way, too, all the voluntary fast-days are held. Therefore it is impossible that two of their fast- days should immediately follow each other, because one hour would belong to both of them in common, and because there would be no possibility of breaking the fast between them. Ya‘kiib, however, main- tains that this is a peculiarity only of this fast-day, whilst in the case of all the other fast-days it is allowed to fast in the same way (i.e. the same length of time) that the Muslims do. On this day God addressed Moses the son of Amram. The fasting of this day is an atonement for all sins that are committed by mistake. The Jewish law orders everybody to be killed who does not fast on this day. They recite five prayers on this day, prostrating themselves upon the earth, which is not the custom on the other festivals. 15. The feast of Tabernacles, lasting seven consecutive days, during which they rest under the shadow of willows and reeds and other branches on the roofs of their houses. This is obligatory only for him who dwells at home, not for the traveller. On these days all work ceases, as God says in the third book of the Thora (Levit. xxiii. 34-43): “ And on the fifteenth of the seventh month is the feast of Tabernacles. Then you shall not work during seven days. You shall celebrate a feast before God and you shall sit in the tents, the whole house of Israel, during seven days, that your (future) generations should know that it was I who made the Israelites dwell in tabernacles, when I led them out of Egypt.” This feast is celebrated by the whole Jewish nation, whilst 'Abt-Isa Alwarrik says in his Kitdb-almakaldt of the Samaritans that they do not celebrate it. The last or seventh day of the feast of Tabernacles, the 21st of the month, is called ‘4rdbhd. On this day the clouds stood over the heads of the Israelites in the desert Altih. On the same day is the feast of the Congregation, when the Jews assemble in Harhard of Jerusalem, carrying around in procession the Ark of the Covenant, which in their synagogues is like the pulpit (Minbar) in a mosque. 922. The feast of Benediction, by which this feast-time is completed. All work ceases. They maintain that on this day the communication of the Thora was finished, and that the Thora was handed over to their 10 20 440) 10 20 30 FESTIVALS AND FASTS OF THE JEWS. 271 chiefs to be deposited in their synagogues. On this day they take the Thora out of its shrine, they bless themselves by it, and try to derive auguries from unfolding and reading it. Marheshwan. It has always two Rosh-Hodesh, and it has 30 days in a Perfect year and 29 days in an Intermediate year or in an Imperfect one. On these two Rosh-Hodesh there is no feast. 6. Fasting of Zedekia. Its origin is this, that Nebukadnezar killed the children of Zedekia, whilst he stood before them, patient and enduring, not weeping nor manifesting any sign of despair. Then both his eyes were put out. Therefore the Israelites were stricken with sorrow, and have ever since fasted on this day. Differing herefrom, other people fix this fast-day on the Monday falling between the 8th and the 13th of this month, This, however, is not like a method suitable to Jewish ways; it is rather like Christian theories. The generality of Jews fix their fast-days on certain dates in the months, not on week-days. Kislew. It has only one Rosh-Hodesh in a Perfect year. It has 30 days in a Perfect and Intermediate year; 29 in an Imperfect year. 8. A fast-day. Its origin is this, that Yehoyakim burned the papers, called May i.e. the Lamentations. They contained a promise of God, and were brought by the prophet Jeremia. They treated of the condition of the Israelites in future times and of the calamities that would befall them. Jeremia sent the book through Barukh b. Neriyya, but Yehoyakim threw it into the fire, and therefore there arose manifold lamentations. Other people fix this fasting on the Thursday falling between the 19th and the 25th of this month. 25. Beginning of the feast Hanukkd, i.e. purification. It lasts eight days, during which they light lamps at the door of the hall; on the first night one lamp for each inhabitant of the house, on the second night two lamps, in the third ‘three, etc. etc., and finally eight lamps on the eighth night, by which they mean to express that they increase their thanks towards God from day to day by the purification and sanctification of Jerusalem. The origin is this: Antiochus, the king of the Greeks, had subdued and maltreated them during a long period. It was his custom to violate the women, before they were led to their spouses, in a subterranean vault. From this vault two cords led outside, where two bells were fixed at their ends. When, now, he wanted a woman, he rung the right bell, and the woman entered; when he had done with her, he rung the left bell and dismissed her. Further, there was an Israelite who had eight sons, and one daughter whom another Israelite had demanded in marriage. Now, wanting to marry her, the father of his p.278. 272 ALBIRONE. bride said: «Give me time; for I stand between two things. If we lead my daughter to you, she will be dishonoured by the cursed tyrant, and she then is no longer a lawful wife for you. And if she does not submit to him, he will make me perish.” For this state of things he blamed and reviled his sons, who became greatly excited and angry. But the youngest of them jumped up, dressed like a woman, hid a dagger in his garments, and went to the gate of the king, behaving like the whores. Now, the tyrant rang the right bell, and he was ushered into his presence ; there, being alone with him, he killed him and cut off his head ; then he rang the left bell and was let out, and stuck up the 10 head (somewhere). Therefore the Israelites celebrate a feast on that and the following days (i.e. seven days), corresponding to the number of the brothers of this youth. God knows best ! Tebeth. It has one Rosh-Hodesh in an Imperfect year, Intermediate year. It has 29 days. ; 5. First appearance of darkness. Ptolemy, the king of the Greeks, had asked them for the Thora, compelled them to translate it into Greek, and deposited it in his treasury. They maintain that this 1s the version of the Seventy. In consequence darkness sprea three days and nights. 8. A fast-day, the last of the three Dark days, so called for the reason just mentioned. 9. A fast-day which they are ordered to keep, are ignorant of. 10. A fast-day, the day on which Nebukadnezar arrived before Jerusalem and laid siege to it. two in a Perfect and the origin of which they Shebat. d over the world during 20 FESTIVALS AND FASTS OF THE JEWS. 273 tribes of Israel; and to each tribe he sent one of her limbs, in order to rouse their wrath. Now, they assembled and made war upon that tribe, but they could not conquer them. Thereupon they fasted on this day and humiliated themselves before God. Finally He gave them victory over Benjamin ; forty thousand men of this tribe were killed and seventy thousand of the others. Adhar I. Tt is the leap-month in the leap-year. It does not exist in common years, and is not counted among their months. It has two Rosh-Hodesh and 30 days. There is not fast or feast day in this month. Adhar IL This is the original Adhar, which is called so in general (without the addition of I. or IL.) in common years. There cannot be any ambiguity about what we just mentioned, speaking of another Adhar preceding this one (because this only relates to leap-years). It has two Rosh-Hoédesh and 29 days. 7. A fast-day, because on this day Moses b. Amram died, and because with his death the manna and the quails ceased to appear. 9. A fast-day which the Israelites established for themselves at the time when the war between the people of Shamméii and of Hillel took place, in which twenty-eight thousand men were killed. Others fix this fast-day on the Monday between the 10th and 15th of this month. 13. The fasting of Albiri (Piirim), i.e. casting lots. Its origin is this: Once a man called Haman, a man of no importance, travelled to Tustar in order to undertake some office. But on the way thither he met with an obstacle which prevented him from reaching the end of his journey, and this happened on the identical day on which the offices (in Tustar) were bestowed. So he missed this opportunity and fell into utter distress. Tt has only one Rosh-Hodesh and 30 days. = 5. A fast-day on acconnt of the death of the saints in the time of 30 Josua b. Nin. Other people fix this fast-day on the Monday between 80 Now, he took his seat near the temples and demanded for every dead body (that was to be buried) 3} dirhams. This went on until the daughter of King Ahashwerosh died. When people came with her wd : 5 the 10th and 15th of this month. body, he d ded thing from the b d i i i : ois ody, he demanded something from the bearers, and on being refused he | 23. Fasting of the in bs Ag i ge: Tus Se did not allow them to pass, until they yielded and were willing to pay ml | dl d lawless set of people, who | i » i i " were a go as an I bo pane hrongh {llr coumtiy i him what he asked for. But then he was not content with his first ¥ Lot. Now, there came a ma fe Lis pilot 40 Jerusalem 2 demand ; he asked for more and more, and they paid him more and eB with his wife and a oki > De Sacedy ol i more, till at last it reached an enormous sum. The king was informed 13 is received hi 3 i im hi i h Some countryman © » tine lace surrounded the door of Lis of the matter, and he ordered them to grant him his desire. But after a : t darkness fallen when the people 0 0 plac : i the week he ordered him into his presence, and asked him: ‘ Who invested E house, demanding his guest for their lust. Now, ue Ta 3 ost 20 40 you with such an office?” But Haman simply answered this: “And 1 | house offered to them his own daughter; but a ts ol 25d who forbade me to do so?” When the king repeated his question, f ui want her.” Then he gave Bose iy us gory Ai a hod a Haman said : “If I am now forbidden to do so, I shall cease and give it J i rl expi . : : ol fit then they raped her the who e night. © gu up, and I shall give you with the greatest pleasure so and so many ten ! Ld Then her master cut her into pieces (12) according to the number of the ; 18 y 974, ALBIRONT. thousands of denars.” The king was astonished at the great pe money which he mentioned, because he with all his supreme mower 54 nothing like it. So he said : “A man who gathered so much money i the rule over the dead, is worthy to be made wazir and councillor. 0 he entrusted him with all his affairs, and ordered his subjects to obey 78 Haman was an enemy of the Jews. He asked the Harusproes wl Augures which was the most unlucky time for the Jews. They said : > Adhér their master Misi died, and the most unlucky time of this mon is the 14th and 15th.” Now Haman wrote to all parts of the Sth, ordering people on that day to seize upon the Jews and to kill t on The Jews of the empire prostrated themselves before him, and appeare before him, crossing their hands upon their breasts, except one ni Mordekhai, the brother of Ester, the king's wife. Haman hated her, i planned her destruction on that day; but the king’s wife understoo him. Now she received (in her palace) the king and his wazir, enter taining them daring three days. On the fourth day she asked Be ine permission to lay before him her wishes. And then oe asked i 0 spare her life and that of her brother. The king said : And who dares to attempt anything against you both?” She pointed to Haman, Now 20 the king rose from his seat in great wrath; Haman dashed towards i queen, prostrating himself before her, and then kissing her head, buss i pushed him back. Now the king got the impression that he wante to seduce her; so he turned towards him and said: © Hast thou in thy 1m- pudence come SO far as to raise thy desire to her?” So the king ordered him to be killed, and Ester asked him to have him crucified on the same tree whick he had prepared for her brother. So the king did, and wile to all parts of the empire to kill the partisans of Haman. So they were killed on the same day on which he had intended to kill the Jews, t.e. on the 14th. Therefore there 18 great joy over the death of Haman on 80 this day. os Sar This feast is also called the Feast of Megilld, and further Hdmdn-Sir. For on this day they make figures which they beat and then burn, imitating the burning of Haman. The same they practise on the 15th. ————— Nisan. It has only one Rosh-Hodesh and 30 days. 1. Fasting over the death of Nadab and Abihu, the sons of Aaron, who died because they introduced foreign fire into the temple of God. 10. Fasting over the death of Maryam, the daughter of Amram, and over the sinking and disappearing of the water, a miracle which occurred 40 on account of her death, as the manna and the quails ceased to appear in consequence of the death of Moses b. Amram. Some people fix this day on Monday between the 5th and the 10th of the month. 15. Passover-feast, of which we have already treated at such length FESTIVALS AND FASTS OF THE JEWS. 275 that there is no necessity for a repetition. This day is the first of the Days of Unleavened Bread, during which they are not allowed to eat leavened bread. For such is the command of God in the third book of the Thora (Levit. xxiii. 6), where He says: “ On the fifteenth of this month is the feast of the unleavened bread unto God. Then you shall eat un- leavened bread during seven days, and you shall not work during them.” These days end with sunset of the 2lst. On this day God drowned Pharao ; it is also called (mSa3\. Iyar. 10 It has two Rosh-Hodesh and 29 days. 10. Fasting over the Ark. It is the day when the Israelites were deprived of the ark, and when thirty men of them were killed. The priest Eli then managed their affairs. His gall-bladder split, and he fell dead from his seat, when he heard the news. Others fix this fasting on the Thursday between the 6th and 11th of the month. 28. Fasting, because on this day the prophet Samuel died. J ——— Siwan. Tt has only one Rosh-Hodesh and 30 days. 6. The Feast of the Congregation, a great festival, and one of the 00 D7 of the Israelites. On this day their elders were present at Mount Sinai, where they heard the voice of God from the mountain speaking to Moses, ordering and forbidding, promising and threatening. They were ordered to celebrate a feast on this day as a thanksgiving to God for having preserved them from all mishap in their country, and their crops from thunder, cold, and rain. God says in the second book of the Thora: “And you shall make a pilgrimage to me thrice in every year : first, at the time of the unleavened bread ; secondly, when the Thora was sent down, this is the pilgrimage of the Feast of the Congregation ; and the third time, at the end of the year, when you bring in your fruit 30 from the fields. Your feasting and your devotion to God shall be in sacred houses.” On this day they offer the first-fruits. Then they read prayers over them and invoke the blessing of God upon them. Between the first of the Days of the Unleavened Bread and the Feast of the Congregation there are fifty days. These are the celebrated weeks during which they received their commandments, when their law was completed, and they were taught all knowledge relating to God. Fasting on the Monday between the 9th and 14th. p-282. 93. Fasting. They say that on this diy Jerobeam b. Nebat ordered the 40 ten tribes to worship two golden calves, and that they obeyed him. His children ruled over them about two hundred and fifty years, until Salméin 18 * i gi A = _- in oe in: csp iE ee me Ne 5 ree EE EE i. i a TEE = et SS hb D — Te a = 276 ALBIRONT. Ala‘shar, the king of Mosul, conquered them and led them into cap- he other tribes in the time of tivity. Then they were united with t Hizkia. Yerobeam b. Nebit was one of the slaves of Solomon, the son of David ; he fled from his master, and the Israelites made him their king. Then he kept them from making pilgrimages to Jerusalem by the worship of these two calves, knowing that if they went to Jerusalem they would come to consider why they had made him their king; they would learn the reality of his case, and would depose and kill him. 95. Fasting over the death of Simeon, Samuel, and Hananya. 27. Fasting, for this reason : one of the Greek kings wanted to force Rabba Hananyé b. Teradhyon to worship the idol; he, however, did not yield. Therefore the king ordered a Thora to be wrapped round him, and him to be burned in it. Besides he put in prison Rabba ‘Akiba, and forbade people to follow him, and he strove to abolish the Sabbath. J kag Tammuz. It has two Rosh-Hodesh and 29 days. It has no feast. 17. Fasting, for on this day Moses broke the tables, and the fortifica- tions of Jerusalem began to be destroyed at the time when Nebukadnezar besieged them. Further, on this day they put up an idol for worship in 20 Jerusalem, and placed it in the altar-place of the temple, from sheer in- solence and rebellion against God. On this day the Thora was burned, and the sacrifices ceased to be practised. Abh. It has only one Rosh-Hodesh and 30 days. 1. Fasting, because on this day Aaron b. Amram died, and the cloud was raised as a miracle in his honour. 9. Fasting, because on this day they were told in the desert that they should not enter Jerusalem, and were sorry in consequence. On this day Jerusalem was conquered it by fire. On this day it was destroyed the second time, and its soil ploughed over. 25. Fasting, because the fire was extinguished in the temple. On this day Nebukadnezar left J erusalem, and the conflagration of its storehouses and temples was put an end to. 98. Fasting, because the lamp of the temple was extinguished in the days of the prophet Ahas, which was a sign of God’s wrath against them. ER It has two Rosh-Hodesh and 29 days, but no feast. 10 and entered by Nebukadnezar, who destroyed 30 od FESTIVALS AND FAST8 OF THR JEWS. 277 » 7 an os: he Spies On this day the spies returned to Moses, and Ings aa e report of the giants. Therefore the Israelites wer ry, bu Josua b. Nin refuted them. For this reason the f t-d : established. Other Jews, however, place this fast-day on the rns ” Thursday which falls withi of the riot yous in the last seven days before the beginning (On the MT of i Sn PR the Jewish Calendar.)—The reason why they 10 The first of Tishri should ever be YT (I. IV. VI. days of the week i Kippir be ws (I IIL VI), Te ” Purim or Haman Sir 373 (11. IV. VIL), 2 Pissorer "TD (A1.1V. V1), ” Asereth 1 (IIL V. VIL), os ig a he Faron to prevent a day for any work falling on a . ; Tor In thal case they would not have b b i since they are not allowed to work gl on a Sabbath. For God says in th Soma aun : “He who works on a Sabbath shall 4 killed . 00 um. xv. 32-36) it is related that th : 20 man of the Israelites in the desert worki See orking on a Sabbath and i wood. He was brought before Mos a ) es and Aaron, and the t him i prison. But God said “Kill Kis an on be Dien sald to Moses, “ Kill him,” and so he was stoned to — Pal oy they did not allow the feasts to fall on the days ) was this, that they wished to prevent a Sabb ay on which all work ceases following each other. Sek salen onl Sr {ey did not allow it to be New-Year’s Day, because In the third book (Levit. xxiii. 24-25) : “ On th : . : e first day of th o vi ans Jon.5l hers rest, and a memorial of et of re not work on that day, but you shall off i ” now, this day follows a Sabbath, the Jew wali A s & ew gets two consecutive d rest ; the means of his maintenance 1 Pim ‘nean are getting scanty, and he is b to a condition in which it is difficul Wy y FA : 248 t for him to make good the deficie i fds case, ‘ Sa falls on a Sabbath, and “arin and pi - or - wi t They differ among each other on the persons (ro mpdowma In Christ), on .“. * o * — ani se theory regarding Christ comes Soe > % * ae A it 1s at Non from that of Do re of Christians. Besides there are many other sects, but fs Et or lace to enumerate them. This subject has been 4 a a and followed up into its most recondite details in the 1 ic eligi tegories and doctrines, st books treating of philosophical and religious categ # Bin ibe ot wonae Se TAI, . and which at the same time refute those sects. : i : in their religion have nine :— ites and Nestorians, because ; Int g RAR ous of them are the Melkites an : : i , The Bn countries are all inhabited by Melkites, whilst y 1. Cantor, jan 0 2 dU Jc . A A Qh i * iseee po of Te inhabitants of Syria, ‘Irik and Khurisan are Dae 0; ajo ils : . ' 1 \ aconus. the i y The Jacobites mostly live mn Egypt and around 1t Ssus..c ] = ypodi i Sate Nes orians. a Sorin ments ar celebrated among them; : j . Diaconus, : ; Certain days o 3 others they differ. The reason of their . Presbyter, in Arabic Kass. some of thom they Sa = days Wore spread through the Christian : 40 . Bishop, in Arabic ’Uskuf. He stands under the metropolita. agreeing is this, gh os 4 doctrines was brought about. The i 7. Metropolita, who stands under the catholicus. The residence of the world before the schigm . : oP some days belong to one sect and to { metropolita of the Melkites in Khurisén is Marw. reason of the pe is this, tha : 8. Catholicus, in Arabic Jithelik. The residence of the catholicus of one province in particular. p.290 the Melkites in Muhammadan countries is Baghdad. the Patriarch of Antiochia. the Khalif on the presentation o Melkites, not among the Nesto in Christendom ; as soon as one chosen by the remaining patriarchs, dignitaries of the Church. One pa another in Rome, the third in Alexandria, an These towns are called fpovor. of the cantor. Frequently they count only and do not reckon the singers and altar-servan the Church. To each degree attac 284, ALBIRONT. He stands under The Nestorian catholicus is appointed by f the Nestorian community. 9. Patriarch, in Arabic Bafrik. This dignity exists only among the rians. There are always four patriarchs dies, at once a successor is created, being the catholici, and by the other triarch resides in Constantinople, d the fourth in Antiochia. triarch, and none below that from the diaconus upwards, ts among the officials of and conditions, There is no degree beyond that of the pa h certain rules, usages, on which this is not the proper place to enlarge. ’ Abfi-Alhusain Ahmad b. Alhusain Al’ahwazi, the secretary, reports in his Book of the Sciences of the Greeks, what he himself has learned in Con- stantinople of the degrees of the service both of Church and State. His report is this: — : I. Patriarch, highest Church dignitary, the empire. II. Xpvoxs (?) the prefect . "Emlokomos, i.e. bishop. IV. Muyrpomoirys, i.e. the governor V. ‘Hyolpevos, prefect of a monastery, VI. Kaéynpos. His degree comes near VIL. Ildwas, in Arabic Kass. VIII. Audkovos, in Arabic Shammds. supreme authority throughout 20 of the greatest monastery. [or ruler]. highly revered by them. to that of the Hegoumenos. nt of the matter is the one given Because *Abti-Alhusain has mixed up with the men of the official 30 degrees other people, who, although important personages, are not exactly dignitaries of such and such degree; Or perhaps they belong to one of those degrees, but then his description does not fit. service are the following :— However, the more trustworthy accou above. The laic degrees of the State I. Baoi\ebs, i.e. Cesar, king of the Greeks. IL. Aoyobérys, his vazir and dragoman. III. Tlapakoipuoperos, the first of the chamberlains. IV. AopéoTikos, commander of the army. 's special confidence in the army, V. Axcors (P), a man in the king f the same rank. similar to the domesticus, both being © VIL Apxvmipxv (7), the head of the marpikioL. VII. Harpikws, in Arabic batrik. These batriks are in the army some- thing like chief-commander, not to he confounded with the THE FESTIVALS, ETC. OF THE SYRIAN CALENDAR. 2835 Tt igui 10se who fear the ambiguity of the words call the clerical dignitary batrak. . Poydrwp, who i oy Dr Yotw to review the army and to pay the stipends of x Sh ; His rank is half that of a Marpikos. ‘ pum a man in the king’s confidence in the army of % ols ane the ITarpikios consults in every affair. ! 5 St Sef ” iy officer of the royal whip (Prefectus lictorum). Eo) oa , officer over 1,000 men. wri yedpuon, a commander of 100 men. ng 5 omyrovedpios, a commander of 50. Woy Spo a commander of 40. Kot) presipuon, a commander of 30. = y Eexourdpros, a commander of 20. ITI. Aékapyos, a commander of 10. Now we return to our subject. 5. Comm i a Spain > the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus, who are men- 20 ambassador anoth nas ° Khalif Almu‘tasim had sent along with his his own eyes, an » r eo who saw the place of the Seven Sleepers with known to Sve bod Sethe them with. Lis own Lands, This veport is them, 7.e. Mao b on sh bowever, observe that he who touched doubt whether they are ph > Shakir himself, makes the reader rather Bia fact, some sort oF ra OL $0 seven ponibaroiber 1 0, A . cretion gs, Sa relates that on returning from his of which i) the b i idontienl place, a small mountain, the diameter a % oH is a little less than one thousand yards. At the 30 the mountain terranean channel which goes into the interior of of three haired Passe through a deep cave in the earth for a distance open Tall i tho Bhs Then the channel runs out into a sort of half- columns. And in Roun the roof being supported by perforated Chore he. sore bes 18 : Sh there is a number of separate compartments in oe aw thirteen people, among them a beardless youth, Bn Jap ls and other woollen garments, in boots and tion, flatten them, but ih R the forehead of one of them, and tried to seven, which is th 2 id not yield. That their number is more than omen luigin 8 e uhammadan, and more than eight, which is th adition, is perhaps to be explained in this wir. that Ye 40 monk i onks have been added who died there in the same spot. For the corpses of monk ie Fo Jalinuiny long, because they torture themselves to such and skin only ver 4 Sn moist substances perish, and between bones tinguished Tr > 1ttle flesh remains. And therefore their life is ex- ike a lamp when it has no more oil Frequently they remain i pits — mi = Ce as tem cm 8 » — © 8| 1 22 | 8 1 27113 6/20 13 26 | 12 | otis ol Byala 2316] 2/23! of 2/16 22! 8] 1/22 BE 28 p—— — " pr —————————— —- Bs ry - = ae — RR TT. - - si CR Be En oe wR Sc 304 ALBIRONT. Festivals depending upon Lent. [ Lacuna. ] to give up their religion. Then they fled one night and perished to the last of them. This Friday they call also The Small Hosanna. The first Sunday after Fast-breaking is called the New Sunday, on which day Messiah dressed in white. They use it as the commencement of all kinds of work, and as a date for commercial agreements and written contracts. For it is, as it were, the first Sunday, because the preceding one is specially known by a more famous name, i.e. Fast- breaking. All Sundays are highly celebrated by the Christians, because Hosanna and Resurrection fall on Sundays. Likewise the Sabbaths are celebrated by the Jews because, as is said in the Thora, God rested on this day on having finished the creation. And, according to some scholars, Muslims celebrate their Friday because on that day the Creator finished the creation of the world and breathed His spirit into Adam. According to the astrologers, in all religions certain week-days are celebrated, because the horoscopes of their prophets and the constellations indicative of their coming stood under the influence of the planets that reign over these respective days. Forty days after Fast-breaking is the feast of Ascension, always falling on a Thursday. On this day Messiah ascended to heaven from the Mount of Olives, and He ordered His disciples to stay in that room where He had celebrated Passover in Jerusalem, until He should send them the Paraclete, i.e. the Holy Ghost. Ten days after Ascension is Whitsun Day, always on a Sunday. Itis the day when the Paraclete came down and Messiah revealed Himself to His disciples, i.e. the Apostles. Then they began to speak different tongues ; they separated from each other, and each party of them went to that country with the language of which they were inspired and which they were able to speak. On the evening of this day the Christians prostrate themselves upon the earth, which they do not do between Fast-breaking and this day, for during this time they say their prayers standing erect, all in conse- quence of some biblical commandment to this effect. The same (pros- tration) is proclaimed for all the (other) Sundays by the last Canon of the first Synod. The beginning of the Fasting of the Apostles, according to the Melkites, is a Wednesday, ten days after Whitsunday. It is broken always on a Sunday, 46 days after its beginning, The third day of this fasting, a Friday, is called the Golden Friday. For on this day the Apostles passed a lame man in Jerusalem, who asked people for a gift. He invoked the name of God, asking them for alms. They answered: “ We have neither gold nor silver. However, ON THE CHRISTIAN LENT. 305 a i your bed, and go to your business. That is the best we can do for you.” The man rose, free from pain, carried and went to his business. away his bed, Most of these festivals are mentioned in the Table of Fasting, which is ’ arranged in seven columns. If you find Fasting b . . : this t at the same time these festivals—if God pT ! tii di p-309. ALBIRONI. CHAPTER XVIL ON THE FESTIVALS OF THE NESTORIAN CHRISTIANS, THEIR MEMORIAL AND FAST DAYS. Nestorius, from whom this sect derives its origin and name, opposed the Melkites and brought forward a theory on the dogmas of Chris- tianity which necessitated a schism between them. For he eigved people to examine and to investigate for themselves, to use the eps ] logic, syllogism, and analogy for the purpose of being prepared to i i ar i ; in f: give up oppose their adversaries, and to argue with them; in fact, to g I the Jurare in verba magistri. This was the method of Nestorius himself. 10 He established as laws for his adherents those things in which he differed from the Melkites, differences to which he had been led by his investigation and unwearying study. Now I shall proceed to propound all I have been able to learn regarding their festivals and memorial-days. Nestorians and Melkites agree among each other regarding some memorial-days, whilst they disagree regarding others. Those days, regarding which they differ, are of two kinds: 1. Days altogether abolished by the Nestorians. 2. Days not abolished by them, but celebrated at a time and in a 20 manner different from that of the Melkites. Further, such Nestorian festivals, not celebrated by the Melkites, which are derived from the feast-times common to both sects (Lent, Christmas, Epiphany). Besides, there is a fourth class of Nestorian feast-days, not used by the Melkites, which are not derived from the (common) feast-times also used by the Melkites. A. Feasts regarding which Nestorians and Melkites agree among each other : Christmas, Epiphany, the Feast of Wax, the beginning of the THE FEASTS AND FASTS OF THE NESTORIAN CHRISTIANS. 307 Fasting, the Great Hosanna, the Washing of the Feet of the Apostles, the Passover of the Messiah, the Friday of Crucifixion, Resurrection, Fast-breaking, the New Sunday, Ascension, and Whitsunday, the fasting of Our Lady Mary, and some of the memorial-days which we have mentioned heretofore. B. Feasts common to both sects, but celebrated by the Nestorians at a time and in a manner different from that of the Melkites :— 1. Ma‘al‘thd (Ingressus). On this feast they wander from the naves of the churches up to their roofs, in commemoration of the returning of the Israelites to Jerusalem. It is also called 12,8 9200 (Sanctification of the Church). It is celebrated on the first Sunday of Tishrin IL, if the 1st of this month falls on a Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, or Sunday ; but if it falls on a Monday or Tuesday, the feast is celebrated on the last Sunday of Tishrin I. The characteristic mark of the day, as I have heard John the Teacher say, is this, that it is the Sunday falling between the 30th of Tishrin I. and the 5th of Tishrin II. 2. Subbir (Annuntiatio), Feast of the annunciation to Mary that she was pregnant with the Messiah, celebrated on the first Sunday in Kéntn I, if the first of the month falls on a Friday, Saturday, or Sun- day; but if it falls on a Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, or Thursday, the feast is celebrated on the last Sunday of Tishrin IT. In every case it is the 5th Sunday after the Sunday of Ma‘al‘thd. In the year when the Messiah was born, the 1st of Kantin I. was a Sunday. Between this day and that of His birth there are 25 days. Now, Christians say: Messiah differs from mankind in so far as He has not originated through an act of begetting; likewise the period of His sojourning in the womb of His mother is contrary to the ways of human nature. The annunciation (of the pregnancy) may already have occurred at a time when the embryo (or growing child) was already settled in the womb; it may also have occurred earlier or later. I have been told that the Jacobites celebrate Subbdr on the 10th of the Jewish Nisin ; this day fell, in the year preceding the year of Christ's birth, on the 16th of the Syrian Adhar. 3. The Fasting of Our Lady Mary. It begins on Monday after the Sunday of Subbdr, and it ends on Christmas-day. 4. The Decollation of John the Baptist. The Nestorians celebrate it on the 24th of Ab. 5. Commemoration of Simeon b. Sabbi‘?, i.e. son of the dyers, on the 17th Ab. 6. The Feast of the Cross, celebrated by the Nestorians on the 13th flal. For on this day Helena found the Cross, and she showed it to the people on the following day, the 14th. = Therefore the Christians came to an agreement among each other, the Nestorians adopting the day of the finding, the others the day when it was shown to the people. 20 * 308 ALBIRONT. CO. Feasts celebrated by the Melkites only, and fixed by them on certain dates of their own, are, e.g. :— 1. Commemoration of John of Kashkar, on the 1st Tishrin I. 9. Commemoration of Mar Phetion, on the 25th of Tishrin L 3. The feast of the Monastery of John, on the 6th of Kinin IL. 4. The feast of the Church of Mary in J erusalem, on the 7th of Kéantn II. 5. Commemoration of Mar \sy, on the 25th of Haziran. 6. Beginning of the Feast of Revelation, on the 6th of Ab; it is the last day on which Christ appeared to men. On the same day the feast 10 of Dair-Alnds. The end of the Feast of Revelation is on the 16th Ab. 7. Feast of Mar Mari, on the 12th Ab. 8. Commemoration of Crispinus and Crispinianus, on the 3rd lal. D. Feasts fixed by the Nestorians on certain week-days, regarding which the two sects have nothing in common. For instance: — 1. Commemoration of the monk Kita or Mar Sergius, on the 7th Mishrin L, if the 1st of the month is a Sunday ; in any other case it is postponed to the Sunday following next after the 7th. 9. Commemoration of Solomonis, on the following Sunday, according to the practice of the Christians of Baghdad. 3. The Feast of Dair-Abi Khalid, on the first Friday in Tishrin II. 4. Feast of the Monastery of AlkAdisiyya, on the third Friday of Tishrin IT. 5. Feast of Dair-Alkahhil, on the fourth Friday of Tishrin I 6. Commemoration of \iwy (Mar Siba ?), on the last Sunday of 11dl. 7. Feast of Dair-Althaélib, on the last Sabbath of Ill; but if the 1st of Tishrin I. of the next year be a Sunday, the feast is postponed to this day, and falls no longer in flal. In that case the feast does not at all occur in the year in question, whilst it occurs twice in the following year, once at the beginning and once at the end. 20 30 E. Of those feasts, depending on certain days, which are common to both sects, there are three classes: — I. Those depending on the Lent or Fast-breaking. II. Those depending on Christmas. III. Those depending on Epiphany. I. Feasts depending on the beginning or end of Lent are, e.g. :— 1. The Friday of yo\s\, the 12th day after beginning of Lent. 9. Alfirika, i.e. liberation, on Thursday, the 24th day after beginning of fasting. 3. Commemoration of Mar \suy and commemoration of Mar Cyriacus, 40 the Child who preferred death to apostasy, on Friday the 20th day after THE FEASTS AND FASTS OF THE NESTORIAN CHRISTIANS. 309 4. Commemoration of Sarin and Darin the Armenians, who were killed by the king Shiptr, on Sunday the 29th day after Fast-breaking. 5. Fasting of the Apostles, according to the Nestorians, always beginning on Monday, seven weeks after the Great Fast-breaking following after Whitsunday. It lasts during 46 days, and it is broken always on a Friday. 6. Commemoration of Mar Abda, the pupil of Mar Mari, on Thursday the 14th day after the end of the Fasting of the Apostles, which agin depends on the Great Fast-breaking. 7. Commemoration of Mar Mari on Friday, the 15th day after the end of the Fasting of the Apostles. 8. Fasting of Elias, beginning on Monday, 21 weeks after the Great Fast-breaking ; it lasts during 48 days, and it ends on a Sunday. Fasting of Ninive, on Monday, 22 days before the beginning of Lent, lasting three days. Tradition says that the people of the prophet Jona, after punishment had come upon them, and after God had again released them and they were in safety, fasted these three days. 10. The Night of Almdshiish (the spy) is the night of a Friday, in which—as people say—they seek Messiah. There is, however, a diffe- rence ; according to some it is the night of Friday, the 19th day after the Fasting of Elias; according to others it is the Friday on which Christ was crucified, called Alsalabiit; according to others it is the Friday of the Martyrs, one week after Alsalabit. The preference we give to the first of these three opinions. If, now, you know the beginning of Lent of a year in question, com- pare the column of the common year, if the year be a common year, or the column of the leap-year, if the year be a leap-year, and opposite, in the table of the feasts depending on Lent, you will find the Ante of every feast in question, and also the date of the Fasting of Ninive, 30 which precedes Lent. Here follows the table. & RC i wiv i Fast-breaking. ES, ik . ————— Gah " 5 - = — mani I — i RE ALBIRONT. | THE FEASTS AND FASTS OF THE NESTORIAN CHRISTIANS. 311 II. The feasts depending on Christmas are these :—The Feast of the Temple on Sunday after Christmas; the Commemoration of Our Lady Mary, lit. Mart Maryaw—DMdrt means maulier nobilis, domina—on Friday after Christmas. If, however, Christmas falls on Thursday, it is post- poned until the second Friday, for this purpose, that Christmas and this Commemoration should not follow each other immediately. For only the night of Thursday lies in the middle between the day of Thursday and the day of Friday (not one complete day). III. Feasts depending on Epiphany: —The Fast of the Virgins on Monday after Epiphany ; it lasts three days, and is broken on Thursday. Tt is also in use among the ‘Ibadites and the Arab Christians, who relate this story : Once the King of Al-hira, before the time of Islim, chose a number of women from among the virgins of the ‘Ibidites, whom he wanted to take for himself. Now, they fasted three days without any interruption, and at the end of them the king died without having touched them. According to another report, this fast was kept by the Christian virgins among the Arabs as a thanksgiving to God for the victory which the Arabs gained over the Persians on the day of Dhi Kar. So they were delivered from the Persians, who did not get into their power the virgin Al‘ankafir, the daughter of Alnu‘mén. Frequently this fast is connected with the Ninive-Fast. For if Lent J | s falls on its earliest date, the Monday after Epiphany is the Fast of the g|® a : | : Virgins. Then there are twenty-two days between this fast and Lent. | TEE | dirin. : In that case this day is also the beginning of the Fast of Ninive. Both 24 | 8d : fasts (Jejunium Virginum et Jejunium Niniviticum) last three days. 2 | 2 2 . Thereupon they celebrate the Commemoration of Mar Johannes on 27 b: Friday after Epiphany. 2 | | : The Commemoration of Peter and Paul on the second Friday after i Epiphany, that one which follows after the Commemoration of Mir Johannes. Paulus was a Jew. Now, they maintain that Messiah worked a miracle in blinding his eyes and making them see again, whereupon he believed in Him. Then Messiah sent him as an apostle to the nations. Petrus is the same as Simeon Kephas. The Commemoration of the Four Evangelists, on the third Friday. The Commemoration of Stephanus, martyr, on the fourth Friday. Some people place it on Thursday, one day earlier. The Commemoration of the Syrian Fathers, on the fifth Friday. The Commemoration of the Greek Fathers, i.e. Diodorus, Theodorus, and Nestorius, the bishops, on the sixth Friday. The Commemoration of Mar Abba Catholicus, on the seventh Friday. The Commemoration of the Children of Adam, i.e. of all mankind that have died up to that date, on. the eighth Friday. But if there are not enough Fridays, and Lent is near, they drop the Commemoration of the Syrian Fathers, and celebrate instead the Commemoration of Mar TABLE OF THE FEASTS DEPENDING ON LENT. rt — i = i < < < < —- fod i common in a leap-year. and Mar Cyriacus. Com. of Suren and | Dirin. Fast of the Apos- tles according to the Melkites. Fast of the Apos- tles according to | the Nestorians. Golden Friday. Mar Mari. Night of the Spy. Fast of Moses. The Ninive - Fast preceding Lent Fast of Elias. in a year. Com. of Mar bay 2 ‘Beginning of Lent | Beginning of Tent Commemoration of Commemoration of | Alfartka. | | | isan | Tammiz | Tishrin I. Kantn IT Shubat. | Ayyar. Ayyar | | 14.26 ” 1527 28 1628 29 17 1 Ad-| | har.| ge 3 4 5 6 3 7 4| 8 25 9 2610 2711 fd pd fd fd pd ok od pd NO Cn WOO BO bd ed Sow | | | | - Pd fd fd fod pd o> BRIO OW THU DTU et St SPILL ar gr RW > RR a BR i 312 ALBIRONT. a THE FEASTS AND FASTS OF THE NESTORIAN CHRISTIANS. 313 VI. VI. VI. TI. VI VI. VI. V1. VI v | Lado o Abba Catholicus, and then they proceed according to the original order. During Lent they drop the Fridays, and on the evening of every Friday they have a Kuddds, i.e. worship. : They have constructed for the days depending on Christmas and Epiphany and the week-days in question a table, indicating their dates in the Syrian months. If you want to use it, take the years of the Fra Alexandr, including the current year, and change them into solar cycles. With the remainder compare the Column of Numbers in the table of the Nestorian festivals. There you find opposite the number each festival ; if in red ink, its date in the month written in red ink at the top of the column; if in black ink, the date in the month written in black ink at the top of the column. Over the whole you find the week- day on which the feast always falls. If we knew the system of the Jacobite Christians, we should explain it, as we have explained those of the other Christians. However, we never met with a man who belonged to their sect or knew their dogmas. Here follows the table. _vir| pp 316, | 817. = < of < - — on] | — i ~ Tishrin IL. rin I rin I. “Tishrin I. Tishrin II. | Feast of the Monastery of | Tishrin II. of Mar | Shubat. ————— Kann II Shuabat. Kan(in II. of the | Shubit. Tishrin IL. / | Tishrin II. Kantn 1. Tishrin II. Kann 1. = Kan(n I. Kanan IT. Kantin I. KéanGn IT. or Kann 11. Kantin II. Shubat. Shubit. | ~ Shubat. of Adhir Bar | nal. id, Tishrin I. | Tish Paul | Kéantm IL. the | - the Ste- Column of the number. of Jo- Kanan II. of of of Our | of >= Commemoration Commemoration of Commemoration Feast of Dair-Altha‘alib. ation of Mar Tish Commemoration Fast of the Virgins. hannes of Dailam. Syrian Fathers. Commemoration Greek Fathers. Abba Catholicus. Children of Adam. > Ab(i-Khalid. east of the Monastery of Lady Mary. ast of the ‘Ibadites, Evangelists. Alkadisiyya. Feast of Dair-Alkahhal. phanus. Commemoration Sergius. : ; ommemoration of Solo- hannes. Safa. monis. Commemoration of the Feast of Annunciation. Feast of the Temple. Commemoration of Mar Jo- Commemoration of and Peter Commemoration | oo 5 | OMINEemor: Fast of Our Lady Mary. | | | Ma‘al‘tha. | Commemoration [© | IF F ro | | | | 1 @® to - ft oS 1 o © Ww — ~1 7 ro | << 3 a [57] @ NW os Or Hw tr oo ro Bp 0 Bb OH NY W Gt O&O NN =~ WW obs Gt O&O _ :- CER bf Be ALBIRONI. CHAPTER XVIIL ON THE FEASTS OF THE ANCIENT MAGIANS AND ON THE FAST AND FEAST DAYS OF THE SABIANS, Tar ancient Magians existed already before the time of Zoroaster, but now there is no pure, unmixed portion of them who do not practise the religion of Zoroaster. In fact, they belong now either to the Zoroastrians or to the Shamsiyya sect (sun-worshippers). Still, they have some ancient traditions and institutes, which they trace back to their original creed ; but in reality those things have been derived from the laws of the sun-worshippers and the ancient people of Harrin. As regards the Sabians, we have already explained that this name applies to the real Sabians, i.e. to the remnants of the captive Jews in Babylonia, whom Nebukadnezar had transferred from Jerusalem to that country. After having freely moved about in Babylonia, and having acclimatized themselves to the country, they found it inconvenient to return to Syria; therefore they preferred to stay in Babylonia. Their religion wanted a certain solid foundation, in consequence of which they listened to the doctrines of the Magians, and inclined towards some of them. So their religion became a mixture of Magian and Jewish elements like that of the so-called Samaritans who were transferred from Babylonia to Syria. The greatest part of this sect is living in Sawad-al-‘Irdk. These are the real Sabians. They live, however, very much scattered and nowhere in places that belong exclusively to them alone. Besides, they do not agree among themselves on any subject, wanting a solid ground upon which to base their religion, such as a direct or indirect divine revelation or the like. Genealogically they trace themselves back to Enos, the son of Seth, the son of Adam. The same name is also applied to the Harrinians, who are the remains of the followers of the ancient religion of the West, separated (cut off) 30 from it, since the Tonian Greeks (i.e. the ancient Greeks, not the Pwpatoc or Byzantine Greeks) adopted Christianity. They derive their system THE FEASTS AND FASTS OF THE MAGIANS AND SABIANS. 3815 from Aghiadhimin (Agathodemon), Hermes, Walls, Maba, Sawar. They believe that these men and other sages like them were prophets. This sect is much more known by the name of Sabians than the others, although they themselves did not adopt this name before A. H. 228 under Abbaside rule, solely for the purpose of being reckoned among those from whom the duties of Dhimma (perowia) are accepted, and towards whom the laws of Dhimma are observed. Before that time they were called heathens, idolaters, and Harrinians. They call the months by the Syrian names and use them in a similar way to the Jews, whom they imitate, the Jews being the more ancient and having a greater claim to originality. To the names of the months they add the word Hilil (new moon), so they say Hildl Tishrin I., Hildl Tishrin the Last, etc. Their New Year is Hilal Kinin the Last, but in counting the months they begin with Hilal Tishrin I. Their day begins with sunrise, whilst all others, who use lunar months, make it begin with sunset. Their lunar month begins with the second day after conjunction (new moon). If, now, conjunction precedes sunrise only by one minute, the third following day is the beginning of the month. But if conjunction coincides with sunrise or falls only a little later, the second day after conjunction is the beginning of the month. When in the course of three years, one month and some days have summed up, they add this time as one month to their months after Hilal Shubét and call it Hildl Adhdr I. Muhammad b. ‘Abd-Al‘aziz Alhdshimi has given in his Canon called Alkdmil a short notice of the feasts of the Sabians, simply relating the facts without investigating and criticising their origin and causes. His report I have transferred into this chapter, adding thereto whatever I have learned from other sources. Regarding the more external part of this feast-calendar (i.e. the purely chronological part) I have made com- putations on my own account, only by way of induction, since I have not the same means to investigate this subject which I had for the others. God helps to what is right! Hilal Tishrin I. 6. Feast of Al-Dhahbéna. 7. Beginning of the celebration of the feast. 13. Feast of Fudi Ilihi. 14. Feast of Ilati Fadi. 15. Feast of the Lots (Festum Sortium). Hilal Tishrin II. 1. The Great Bakht (i.e. Fatum). 2. Mar Shelama. remem pe————E fe a sie 316 ALBIRONI. 5. Feast of gle pelo for the shaving of the head. 9. Wp the idol of Venus. 17. Feast of \up (Tarsi). On the same day they go out of town to Batnz. 18. Feast of Sarfig; it is the day of the renewal of the dresses. According to ’Abfi-alfarag Alzanjini, they celebrate the Feast of Tents in this month, beginning with the 4th and ending on the 18th. Hilal Kantn I. 7. Feast of the addressing («\k) to y\w the idol of Venus. 10. Feast of the idols for Mars. 20. Feast of the Demons. 21. Beginning of the first fast, which is broken on the next following day of conjunction (new-moon’s day). During this time they are not allowed to eat meat. At the time when they break their fast they are wont to practise almsgiving and charitable work. 28. Feast of the invocation of the Demons. 29. Feast of the Fata for the Demons. 30. Feast of consultation. According to. ’Abt-alfaraj Alzanjani they celebrate on the 24th of this month the feast of the Nativity. Hilal Kanan 11. All the invocations, fast and feast days of this month are sacred to the Demons. 1. Feast of New-Year’s Day, like the calendar of the Greeks. 4. Feast of Dair-aljabal, and the feast of Balti, i.e. Venus. 8. Fast of seven days: it is broken on the 15th. 12. Invocation of Vgw=,. 20. They pray to the Bel of Harrin. 25. Feast of the idol of Tirratha (Tir‘athd, Atergatis). 26. Feast of the nuptials (wedding) of the year. Hilal Shubat. 9. Beginning of the minor fast; it lasts seven days and is broken on the 16th. During that time they do not taste any fat, nor anything of the feast-meals or what is taken from them. 10. Feast of the House of the Bridegroom for the Sun. 22. Feast of bre for the Sun. 24. Feast of the Venerable Old Man, i.e. Saturn. 25. Feast of the nuptials of ble, Hilal Adhar. 1. Fast of (s\; it lasts three days, and is broken on the 4th. 7. Feast of Hermes-Mercury. A I A is Ri > 20 THE FEASTS AND FASTS OF THE MAGIANS AND SABIANS. 317 8. Beginning of the Great Fast, during which only meat is forbidden. Its Signum is this, that they begin to lament on a day of this month, when the sun stands in the sign of Pisces (and the moon P—lacuna). They continue their lamentations until the 81st day, when the sun stands in the sign of Aries, and the moon in the sign of Cancer, both standing in the same degree. The former day is the beginning of the fast, the latter is its breaking. Frequently this fast lasts only 29 days, when Hildl Adhéar has less than 30 days. 10. Weaning of the children. Hilal Nisan. 2. Feast of Damis. 3. Feast of the Stibium. 4. Celebration of ITAovros. 5. Feast of y\ay, the idol of Venus. 6. Feast of ,uw and of the Living Being of the Moon. On the same day is the feast of Dair-kidhi. 8. The breaking of the Great Fast falls in most cases on the 8th of this month. On the same day is the feast of the birth of the spirits. 9. Feast of the Lords of the Hours. 15. Feast of the mysteries of Alsimik (Spica). 20. Feast of the assembly at Dair-Kadhi. 28. Feast of Dair-Sini. . Feast of Sallighé, prince of the Satans. . Feast of a Baghdadian house. . Feast of the vows. . Feast of glawe\, or feast of baptism, . Feast of Dahdik, the idol of the Moon. 11. Feast of Dahdik and \usys-. 12. Feast of \aty. 13. Feast of Barkhushya. 15. Feast of Barkhuriishya. 17. Feast of Bib-altibn (the straw-gate). 20. Feast of perfection for Dahdak, a blind idol. On the same day the feast of Tera‘liz. 7. Commemoration of Tammuiza with lamentation and weeping. 24. Feast of Alkurmis or feast of genuflection. 27. Feast of the butcher’s house. 15. Feast of the youths. 17. Feast of the nuptials of the elements. ALBIRONG. 18. Feast of the elements. 19. Also feast of the elements. Hilal Ab. 3. Feast of Dailafatin, the idol of Venus. 7. Also feast of Dailafatan. 24. Feast of bathing in the Therme of Seriig. 26. Another feast. 28. Feast of Kepharmisa. 30. End of the feast of bathing in the Therme of Seri. ThMAL 11a. 13. Feast of the Column of our Houses for the women, the end of a fasting. 14. Fasting of Ws, 24. Feast of the Lords of the coming forth of the New Moons. 25. Feast of the candle on the hill of Harran. In each of these months there is a fast of certain days which is obli- gatory for their priests. I think, either it lasts 14 days of each month, or it falls on the 14th. I cannot make out the truth. One of those who record their doctrines says, that on the 17th of each month they celebrate a feast, the reason of which is the beginning of the deluge on the 17th of the month [lacuna] ; further, that the days of the equinoxes and solstices are festivals with them, and that the winter-solstice is the beginning of their year. This is all that Alhashimi and others have related. We have collected these materials as we found them, simply transcribing the names as they were written. When we shall be in a position to hear these things from the people themselves (the Harrénians), and to distinguish between what is peculiar to the Sabians, the Harrénians, and the ancient Magians, we shall follow in this chapter the same method which we have followed elsewhere, if God permits ! (The author tries to form his information regarding the Harranian calendar into a system.) —Because their great fasting falls into the first phase (quadrature) of Hilal Adhdr, whilst sun and moon stand in two double-bodied signs (Pisces and Gemini?), and because the end of the fasting falls into the first phase of Hilal Nisin, whilst sun and moon stand in certain two inclining signs (Aries and Cancer), their months must of necessity revolve in the solar year in a similar way to the Jewish months, that is to say: on an average. And between the causes of each of these two things there is a connection. For the Jewish Passover demands that sun and moon should stand in the first opposition in two signs of the equinoxes—for they may stand in opposition, and not only once, but THE FEASTS AND FASTS OF THE MAGIANS AND SABIANS. 319 twice—and the Harrdnian fast-breaking demands that which we have mentioned (in Hilal Adhéir). Hence follows that the phase (quadrature) next preceding the Jewish Passover is the fast-breaking of the Harra- nians, and that the conjunction which falls next to the autumnal equinox is the beginning of their year, never falling beyond lil. : If we compute these elements for a cycle of 19 years, we get a rough sort of computation, but only a rough one, for they themselves try to correct it by means of the time of the conjunction, as we have men- tioned. : The methods of both Jews and Christians for the computation of Passover are based upon such motions of the luminaries, of which we have found out that they remain back behind real time, especially as regards the sun (the precession of the equinoxes having been neglected). If we examine the oppositions according to the motions that have been found by recent observations, we find that some of them precede the Easter-limit according to both Jewish and Christian systems; they, how- ever, disregard this precession, whilst it is really the case, and we find that others of them (the oppositions) fall near the end of the Easter- limit ; these latter oppositions they adopt and rely upon them, whilst they are utterly wrong; for the real time (or opposition) precedes that time already by one month. Now, since it has been our object hitherto to point out scientific truth, to mediate between the two parties (Jews and Christians), and to adjust their differences, we have put forward the methods of each of the two sects according to their own theory as well as that of others, so as to show to each of them the pro and the contra of the case. And from our side we have proved that we candidly adopt their tradition and lean upon their theory, in order to make the truth clear to them. In all of which we are guided by the wish that both parties should dis- miss from their minds the suspicion that we are partial to any side or try to mystify them ; that their minds should not shrink back from our opposition, when we pass in review the (chronological) canons which they produce. For if they are left such as they are, they are not free from confusion and mistakes, most of which we have already pointed out. Now we shall assume as the earliest date of the Terminus Paschalis the 16th of Adhir; we shall let the day of opposition in reality fall into the two signs of the equinoxes; upon this basis we shall arrange the Passovers of the cycle that none of them precedes this terminus, and that each of them falls so that sun and moon stand in opposition to each other in the manner prescribed; the end of the terminus is to be the 13th Nisin, and within this space the sun must once have stood in opposition to the moon, although the sun may also after this terminus still stand in Aries without standing in opposition to the moon. a Se I CA A a ——— —— ad a > on NNER RR is a “ - RR - eu ALBIRON]. 18. Feast of the elements. 19. Also feast of the elements. Hilal Ab. 3. Feast of Dailafatin, the idol of Venus. 7. Also feast of Dailafatan. 24. Feast of bathing in the Therme of Seriig. 26. Another feast. 28. Feast of Kepharmisa. 30. End of the feast of bathing in the Therma of Seri. Hilal 11al. 13. Feast of the Column of our Houses for the women, the end of a fasting. 14. Fasting of Ws, 94. Feast of the Lords of the coming forth of the New Moons. 95. Feast of the candle on the hill of Harran. In each of these months there is a fast of certain days which is obli- gatory for their priests. I think, either it lasts 14 days of each month, or it falls on the 14th. I cannot make out the truth. One of those who record their doctrines says, that on the 17th of each month they celebrate a feast, the reason of which is the beginning of the deluge on the 17th of the month [lacuna] ; further, that the days of the equinoxes and solstices are festivals with them, and that the winter-solstice is the beginning of their year. This is all that Alhéshimi and others have related. We have collected these materials as we found them, simply transcribing the names as they were written. When we shall be in a position to hear these things from the people themselves (the HarrAnians), and to distinguish between what is peculiar to the Sabians, the Harrdnians, and the ancient Magians, we shall follow in this chapter the same method which we have followed elsewhere, if God permits ! (The author tries to form his information regarding the Harranian calendar into a system.)—Because their great fasting falls into the first phase (quadrature) of Hilal Adhér, whilst sun and moon stand in two double-bodied signs (Pisces and Gemini ?), and because the end of the fasting falls into the first phase of Hilal Nisin, whilst sun and moon stand in certain two inclining signs (Aries and Cancer), their months must of necessity revolve in the solar year in a similar way to the Jewish months, that is to say: on an average. And between the causes of each of these two things there is a connection. For the Jewish Passover demands that sun and moon should stand in the first opposition in two signs of the equinoxes—for they may stand in opposition, and not only once, but THE FEASTS AND FASTS OF THE MAGIANS AND SABIANS. 319 twice—and the Harrdnian fast-breaking demands that which we have mentioned (in Hildl Adhir). Hence follows that the phase (quadrature) next preceding the Jewish Passover is the fast-breaking of the Harra- nians, and that the conjunction which falls next to the autumnal equinox is the beginning of their year, never falling beyond Tlal. : If we compute these elements for a cycle of 19 years, we get a rough sort of computation, but only a rough one, for they themselves try to correct it by means of the time of the conjunction, as we have men- tioned. : The methods of both Jews and Christians for the computation of Passover are based upon such motions of the luminaries, of which we have found out that they remain back behind real time, especially as regards the sun (the precession of the equinoxes having been neglected). If we examine the oppositions according to the motions that have been found by recent observations, we find that some of them precede the Easter-limit according to both Jewish and Christian systems; they, how- ever, disregard this precession, whilst it is really the case, and we find that others of them (the oppositions) fall near the end of the Easter- limit; these latter oppositions they adopt and rely upon them, whilst they are utterly wrong; for the real time (or opposition) precedes that time already by one month. Now, since it has been our object hitherto to point out scientific truth, to mediate between the two parties (Jews and Christians), and to adjust their differences, we have put forward the methods of each of the two sects according to their own theory as well as that of others, so as to show to each of them the pro and the contra of the case. And from our side we have proved that we candidly adopt their tradition and lean upon their theory, in order to make the truth clear to them. In all of which we are guided by the wish that both parties should dis- miss from their minds the suspicion that we are partial to any side or try to mystify them ; that their minds should not shrink back from our opposition, when we pass in review the (chronological) canons which they produce. For if they are left such as they are, they are not free from confusion and mistakes, most of which we have already pointed out. Now we shall assume as the earliest date of the Terminus Paschalis the 16th of Adhér; we shall let the day of opposition in reality fall into the two signs of the equinoxes; upon this basis we shall arrange the Passovers of the cycle that none of them precedes this terminus, and that each of them falls so that sun and moon stand in opposition to each other in the manner prescribed; the end of the terminus is to be the 13th Nisan, and within this space the sun must once have stood in opposition to the moon, although the sun may also after this terminus still stand in Aries without standing in opposition to the moon. dane =o EE ——— bea I a. — 320 ALBIRONT. From these corrected Passovers we shall then derive the fast-breaking of the Sabians, and thence the beginning of the year, i.e. the conjunc- tion in Hilal Tishrin L All this we have done and arranged in a table. Now if you take the years of the Ara Alezandri—the current year included—for the begin- ning of Tishrin I., which follows after the conjunction of their New Year, and add thereto 16 or subtract therefrom 3; if you divide the sum by 19, if you neglect the quotient and compare the remainder with the column of the numbers in the Table of the Corrected Cycles, you find opposite their New Year, the end of their Great Fasting, the corrected Passover, and, hence derived, the mean fasting of the Christians, all fixed on the corresponding days of the Syrian months. Here follows the Table of the Corrected Cycle. TABLE OF THE CORRECTED CYCLE. The month in which the cor- rected Passover falls. tians as derived from the corrected Passover. The first of Tishrin following after this Passover. The month in which the 1st The month in which the mean of Tishrin falls. The corrected Passover. fasting falls. in 1101 and Tishrin. Fast-breaking falls. The month in which the Great Column of the Numbers. Leap-years of the Cycle. Date of the Sabian New Year The Great Fast-breaking of the The mean fasting of the Chris- ee —————————————————— Nisin Nisin | | Shubét Adhér Adhdr | 9 | Shubédt Nisin Adbar | 28 | KénGnlIL Adhér Nisin 16 | Shubéit Adhér Adhir | 5 | Shubit Nisin | Nisin 24 | Shubéit Adhédr | Nisin 13 Shubét Nisin | Adbéir 2 | Shubat eH te no —- DD PeiSaIm rE CI WED ® = : Nisin Nisin 21 Shubit Adhér Adhér 10 Shubit Nisin | Adhar 30 | KéinOnIIL Adhér Nisin Adhér = | Adhdr | 7 Shubit Adhér 27 Kéntn II. Adhér | 5 | Nisin 18 Shubét | Nisin 15 | Shubit Adhar | Adhdr | 4 Shubit | Nisin | Nisin | 28 | Shubit f1a1 Adbér | Adhdr | 12 | Shubit = ET TE HORE RRIDRDO Nisén Adhér | 1 | Shubéit 30 | Ab pp EP ARERR ORINDA WN = 8 9 10 11 CHAPTER XIX, ON THE FESTIVALS OF THE ARABS IN THE TIME OF HEATHENDOM. WE have already mentioned that the Arabs had 12 months, that they used to intercalate them so as to make them revolve with the solar year in one and the same order, that the significations of the names of the months seem to indicate the reasons why they agreed among each other regarding this order, some of them indicating the corresponding times of the year, others indicating what the people did during them. We have already given the theory of some etymologists and historians 10 of the Arabs regarding them; we shall now add another theory. Al-Muharram, so called because four of their months were Hurum, i.e. sacred ones, one a separate one, i.e. Rajab, and three consecutive ones, i.e. Dhii-alka‘da, Dhi-alhijja and Almubarram, during which fighting was forbidden. Safar, so called on account of a contagious disease that used to befall them, when they became ill and their colour became yellow. Rabi* Primus ét Postremus ; they fell into the season of autumn, which the ancient Arabs called Rabi‘. Jumdidd Prima et Postrema, the time when the cold mornings, rime 20 and hoar frost appeared, and when ‘the water began to freeze,—the season of winter. Rajab, so called because then people said irjabil, i.e. abstain from fighting and warlike expeditions, because it was a sacred month. Accord- ing to others, so called because people immediately before it made haste, being afraid of it ; for you say rajibtuhu, i.e. I was afraid of him. Sha‘bin, so called because then people dispersed to their camps and went out in search of booty. Ramadin, the time when the heat commenced and the soil was burning hot. This month was held in high veneration in heathendom 30 Shawwil, so called because then people said shawwili, i.e. break up; according to another view: because about that time the she-camels throw about their tails, wanting to be covered. Therefore the Arabs did not _ like to marry their children in this month. 21 eerste TNE 322 ALBIRONG. THE FESTIVALS OF THE HEATHEN ARABS. Dhit-alka‘da, because then people said, sit down and abstain from fighting. Dhii-alkijja, so called because in this month they used to hold their pilgrimages. ! (The seasons with different nations.)—Their months were dis- tributed over the four seasons, beginning with autumn, which they called Rabi; then winter ; then spring, called Saif, or by others Rabi’ Secundus; then summer, called Kaz. This nomenclature, however, has altogether been dropped and forgotten. Of the way in which they divided the seasons, we know only so much that the beginning beginning of winter on 10 The natural philosophers who most of all deviate from reality The extreme natural philosophers who deviate from reality. *SIUOTY | II Antn A isan. | sere | 15 1 | Shubit 15 N Ayyéar 1 17 | Tammiiz | Pishrin IL.| 17 | Tishrin L of Rabi or autumn fell on the Srd Ildl, the the 3rd Kantn I., the beginning of Saif or spring on the 5th Adhér, and the beginning of Kaiz or summer on the 4th Hazirdn. This you learn by the way in which they distribute the risings and settings of the lunar stations over the seasons. Regarding the beginnings of these four seasons there has been a con- according Hipparchus to Sindn b. Théabit | *SYIUOTL | VAT ov 1. 2 A rin 11 | Shubit 12| Ay troversy. Ptolemy says, in his Introduction to the Spherical Art, that the ancient Greeks fixed their beginnings on the moments when the sun p.826. enters the equinoctial and solstitial points, whilst the Chaldeans are said to have commenced the seasons 8 degrees after the equinoxes and _golstices. The reason of this is, as it seems to me, that the computations 20 in the Chaldean canons are back behind the computations to which the The Egyp- tians according to Sindn b Thébit. *SYJUOIY II.|11 | Tish rin *8998([ 7 | Shubat 10 | Ayyér observations and canons of the ancient Greeks have led, and that just 8 degrees were assumed as the measure of this difference because they found such a difference in the progressive and retrograde motion of the sphere, the greatest extent of which is 8 degrees. But God knows best what they meant! The explanation of this motion you find in the Zij- to the according ’ Anwd-books. The Arabs [ | "SYJUOTY A__A iran "8938(] | 5 | Adhar 4 | Haz I.[11 | Tish antn K Li3 alsafd’ih of Abt-Ja‘far Alkhézin,and in the Book of the Motions of the Sun by Ibrdhim b. Sinén, the best and most appropriate explanation possible. The Byzantine Greeks and Syrians fixed the beginnings of the seasons earlier, one half sign (i.e. 15 degrees) before the equinoctial and solstitial 30 points. In consequence, their seasons commence when the sun enters the middle of the signs that lie before the year-points. Therefore these alled the corporeal ones (Gemini, Virgo, Arcitenens, Pisces). Sinin ben Thabit relates two theories on this subject on the authority of the Egyptians and of Hipparchus, both nearly to this effect, that they fix the beginnings of the seasons one whole sign before the four The Chaldeans according to Ptolemy. signs were ¢ TABLE OF THE SEASONS ACCORDING TO THE DIFFERENT THEORIES The ancient Greeks according to Ptolemy. | | | | ‘BUIuUoOl | *SYIUOTL | 23 | Adhar A_A iran 24 | Haz | | | A ira A A I.| 23 Kaniin A anun A ‘8a9e([ | 15 | Adhir year-points. The radicals among physical scholars make them precede the year-points by one sign and a half, and those of them who more than all deviate from the truth fix them on the times when the sun stands towards the equator at the half of his total inclination (15° Am- 40 The Byzan- tine Greeks, the Syrians, and the majority of Astronomers. | | | *SYIUOTY Li15 (K anun A 1 | Adhér 1 | 1141 1 |K phora, 15° Taurus, 15° Leo, 15° Scorpio). Such a division stands in direct opposition to common usage of mankind, and is in no way to be harmonized with the significations of the names of the seasons. These theories in all their varieties are represented in the following The different theories | | ‘so3e([ | "SUosRoy Spring AA Summer | 1 | Hazirin 16 | Haz Autumn Winter table. » jut | * a TN er a—————_1 I ee Tm TR Hr A Fon, p-328. 324 ALBIRONI. (On the fairs of the ancient Arabs.)—The Arabs used to hold fairs in certain places and on certain dates of their months which were inter- calated so as to agree with the solar year. Some of them have been mentioned by Abii-Ja‘far Muhammad ben Habib Albaghdadi in the Kitdb-Almugjir. He says: The fair of Diimat-aljandal was held from the 1st of Rabi I. till the middle of the month. There a bargain was concluded by the throwing of a stone, viz. if people gathered round an article of merchandise, he who liked to have it threw a stone. Now, frequently several people gathered around the same article, then the owner had to sell it to that man who threw the stone. : The fair of Almushakkar commenced on the 1st of Jumada II. There the touching was the mode of bargaining, viz. only to hint and to whisper, which they did for fear of swearing and lying. The fair of Suhr, from the 10th till 15th of Rajab. The fair of Dabé, on the last of Rajab. There the mode of bargaining was Almusdwama (i.e. chaffering). The fair of Al-shihr, in the middle of Sha‘ban. There the mode of bargaining was the throwing of a stone. The fair of ‘Adan, from the 1st till 10th of Ramadan. The fair of San‘d, from the middle of Ramadan till the end. The fairs of Alribiya in Hadramaut, and of ‘UkAz in the highest part of Alnajd, not far from ‘Arafat, fell on the same day, viz. the middle of Dhii-alka‘da. The fair of ¢ Ukdz was one of the most important, being frequented by the tribes Kuraish, Hawizin, Ghatafan, Aslam, ‘Ukail, Almustalik, the ’Ahabish, and by a motley crowd of other people. The fair was held from the middle of Dhii-alka‘da till the end. As soon as the new moon of Dhii-alhijja was observed, people went to Dhii-almajiz, a place in the neighbourhood of ‘Uk. Then they held there a fair until the day of Altarwiya (the 8th of Dhii-alhijja). Then they went up to Mina. The fair of Nata in Khaibar and that of Hajr in Alyamama were held from the 1st till the 10th of Almuharram. Since God has sent Islam, most of these customs have been abandoned. CHAPTER XX. ON THE FESTIVALS OF THE MUSLIMS. MusLims use the months of the Arabs without any intercalation, for reason which we have heretofore mentioned. They declared die fo . sacred months as sacro-sanct in consequence of the divine word (Sirs ix. 36): “Four of them are sacred ones (such is the right 1 oy Therefore you shall not wrong yourselves in them.” : ii The months Shawwal, Dhii-alka‘da, and the first ten days of Dhi alhijja they call the Months of Pilgrimage, of which God a (Stra i 193) : “ Pilgrimage lasts for certain months. Therefore those on ho He has imposed the duty of pilgrimage shall not speak indecently, nor commit any wrong, nor quarrel during pilgrimage.” They Wate ralled the Months of Pilgrimage because before this time the pilgrim is not allowed to enter .the holy precincts. There are controverdios ora 2 them between the lawyers of the four orthodox law-schools ; the holon ; however, to the science of law, and would swell this book oy much i we were to propound them. These (two and one-third) months a ns i the Pluralis Paucitatis (not dual), because the fraction filth of a month, is added to the other months as one complete The Months of the Treaty, which God describes in the following words (Stra ix. 2) : “ Therefore ye shall go about on earth during four in a are the time from the Day of Sacrifice (the 10th of Dhii-Alhijja) till the a for the Prince of the Believers (‘Alf) recited this Siira ople (as a messenger » } ons (i Do o gt i ophet) on the Dies mactationis (i.e. The Arabs celebrate the following days of their calendar. Almuharram. The 1st is celebrated because it is the beginning and opening of the 30 year. . o Se ————— ge TE GETS ogee a RRR RR a i hap 326 ALBIRONT. The 9th is called Tasi‘d, a word like ‘Ashird. It is a day on which the devotees of the Shi‘a say prayers. wt The 10th is called ‘Ashird, a most distinguished day. The Prophet is reported to have said: “0 ye men, hasten to do good works on Hes day, for it is a grand and blessed day, on which God had mercy on ; id . People celebrated this day until the murder of Alhusain b. ? : b. ' Abi-TAlib occurred on it, when he and his adherents were fronts in such a way as never in the whole world the worst criminals have goa treated. They were killed by hunger and thirst, through the sword ; they were burned and th trample over their bodies. s an unlucky one. : On the So the Banfi 'Umayya dressed themselves on this day in new garments, with various kinds of ornaments, and painted their eyes with stibium; they celebrated a feast,and gave banquets and parties, eating sweetmeats and various kinds of confiseries. : Such was the custom in the nation during the rule of ; the Bani "Umayya, and so it has remained also after the downfall of this dynasty. The Shi‘a people, however, lament and weep on this day, mourning Therefore people came to consider this day over the protomartyr (Alhusain) in public, as, e.g. in Baghdad and in 20 other cities and villages ; and they make a pilgrimage to the blessed soil (the tomb of Alhusain) in Karbala. As this is a mourning-day, their common people have an aversion to renewing the vessels and utensils of the household on this day. : When the news of the murder of Alhusain reached Medina, the daughter of ‘Akil b. ADbi-Talib came forward and said : « What will you say, if once the Prophet speaks to you: « What have you done, you, the last of all nations, With my next relations and my family, if I inquire for them * One half of them are prisoners and 20 mit tinged with blood. re proper reward for the advice 1 gave you, ; Ee SE : ae the part of my successors, should bring woe over those who had sprung from my loins.” On the same day Ibrahim b. Alashtar, the helper of the Prophet’s illed. Ra Ss on this day God took compassion on Adam, that the ark of Noah stood still on the mountain Aljadi, that Jesus was hore, that Moses was saved (from Pharao), and Abraham (from the fire 0 Nebukadnezar), that the fire around him (which was to burn him) he out of the ditch, Solomon was invested with the royal Powe the punishment was taken away from the people of Jona, Hiob was free from his plague, the prayer of Zacharias was granted and John was given to him. eir heads roasted, and horses were made to 10 old. Further, on this day Jacob regained his eye-sight, Joseph 40 : oR BRE RS SCRE Es is THE FESTIVALS OF THE MUSLIMS. 327 People maintain that the Dies ornationis, which is the time for the rendezvous of the sorcerers of Pharao, is this day ‘Ashura, especially the time after noon. Although it be possible that all these events should have occurred on this day, we must state that all this rests only on the authority of popular story-tellers, who do not draw upon learned sources nor upon the agreement between the owners of a divine writ (i.e. Jews and Christians). Some people say that ‘Ashtri is an Arabized Hebrew word, viz. ‘Ashir, i.e. the 10th of the Jewish month Tishri, in which falls the fasting Kippir; that the date of this fasting was compared with the months of the Arabs, and that it was fixed on the 10th day of their first month, as it with the Jews falls on the 10th of their first month. The Prophet gave orders to fast on this day in the first year of the Hijra, but afterwards this law was abrogated by the other law, to fast during the month of Ramadén, which falls later in the year. People relate that the Prophet of God on arriving in Medina saw the Jews fasting ‘Ashiird. On inquiring of them, he was told that this was the day on which God had drowned Pharao and his people and had saved Moses and the Israelites. Then the Prophet said: “ We have a nearer claim to Moses than they.” In consequence he fasted on that day and ordered his followers to do the same. But when he afterwards issued the law regarding the fasting of Ramadin, he no longer ordered them to fast on ‘Ashiiri, but neither did he forbid them. This tradition, however, is not correct, since scientific examination proves against it. For the 1st of Muharram in the year of the Hijra was a Friday, the 16th Tammiz, A. Alexandri 933. But if we compute the Jewish New-Year’s Day for the same year, it was a Sunday, the 12th of Eldl, corresponding to the 29th of Safar. Therefore the fasting ‘Ashird fell on Tuesday, the 9th of Rabi‘ I, and the flight of the Prophet occurred in the first half of Rabi I. When the Prophet was asked regarding the fasting of Monday, he said: “On this day I was born, I received my prophetical mission and divine revelation, and on this day I fled.” Further, it is a question on which Monday the flight occurred. Ac- cording to some, it was the 2nd of Rabi I., according to others the 8th, according to others the 12th of Rabi‘ I. However, according to the generally-adopted view, it was the 8th of Rabi‘ I. Both the 2nd and the 12th are excluded, since they were not Mondays, because the 1st of Rabi‘ I. of this year was a Monday (in consequence the 2nd was a Tuesday and the 12th a Friday). Now, for this reason the arrival of the Prophet in Medina (on Monday, the 8th of Rabi‘ I.) falls one day before the Jewish ‘Ashird (on Tuesday, the 9th of Rabi‘ 1.), and ‘Ashira did not fall in Muharram, except at the time 3-10 years before the year of the flight, or 20-30 years after the year of the flight. Therefore you could not maintain that the Prophet fasted ‘Ashéira on _— 328 ALBIRONT. account of its coinciding with the 10th in this year, unless you transfer ¢AshfirA from the first of the Jewish months to the first of the Arabian months, so as to make them fall together. (In the first year of the flight the 1st of Muharram was a Friday, and therefore the 10th or ¢Ashfir, Monday). Also in the second year of the flight the Jewish ‘Ashfira and the date of Muhammad’s arrival in Medina cannot have coincided. The assertion of the Jews that on this day God drowned Pharao is refuted by the Thora itself. For this took place on the 21st of Nisin, the seventh of the days of unleavened bread. Now, the beginning of the Jewish Passover after the arrival of the Prophet in Medina was a Tuesday, the 22nd Adhér, A. Alex. 933, coinciding with the 17th Ramadan, and the day on which God drowned Pharao was the 23rd Ramadan. Therefore this tradition is altogether unfounded. The 16th, Jerusalem was made the Kibla of the Muslims. The 17th, the Companions of the Elephants (Ethiopians from the south of Arabia) arrived before Mekka. Safar. 1. The head of Alhusain was brought to Damascus. Then he (Yazid b. Mu‘awiya) placed it before himself, and with a stick in his hand he struck out the fore-teeth (the central four incisors), reciting these verses: «I am not a descendant of Khindif, if I do not revenge On the sons of Ahmad what he has done. O that my chieftains in the battle of Badr had witnessed The pain of Khazraj, caused by the hitting of the spears. They would have praised God, and their faces would have beamed with joy, And then they would say: ¢O Yazid, do not ask for anything more ! We have killed the generation of their chieftains ; We have tried to take vengeance on him for Badr, and we have got it.” On this day the Imém Zaid b. ‘All was killed and crucified on the border of the Euphrates; then his body was burned, and the ashes thrown into the water. 16. First appearance of the illness in the Prophet. This was the illness in which he died. 20. The head of Alhusain was again laid to the body, and both were buried together. On this day the pilgrimage of the forty men occurred, when they entered the holy district after their return from Syria. 93. Alma'mén b. Alrashid (the Abbaside Khalif) gave up again the green dress, after he had dressed in it during five and a half months. THE FESTIVALS OF THE MUSLIMS. 329 He again adopted the black colours, the colours of the Abbaside party, after they had become excited against him. 24. Muhammad left Mekka and concealed himself in a cave together with Aba-Bakr. Rabi I. 1. Death of the Prophet. 8. The Prophet arrives in Medina on the flight. 12. The Prophet is born on a Monday in the Year of the Elephants. Rabi II. 10 3. The Ka‘ba was burned at the time when Alhajjij besieged ‘Abd- allah b. Zubair. 15. Birth of ‘Ali b. Abi-Talib. Jumddd I. 3. The Battle of the Camel in Basra with ‘A’isha, Talha, and Alzubair. 8. The death of the virgin Fitima, the Prophet’s daughter. Jumddd II. 2. Death of Abu-Bakr. 4. Fatima was born of Khadija bint Khuwailid. Rajab. 4. ‘Ali and Mu‘dwiya meet at Siffin. 26. God made Muhammad His Prophet to all mankind. 27. Night of Ascension and the night-journey to Jerusalem. Sha‘bdn. 3. Birth of Alhusain b. ‘Ali. 15. The great Liberation-night, also called Lailat-alsakk. 15. The Ka‘ba was made the Kibla instead of Jerusalem. The Harrénians turn in praying towards the south pole, the Sabians towards the north pole. I believe that the Manichaans, too, turn towards the north pole, because this is, according to them, the middle of the dome of heaven and its highest place. I find, however, that the author of the Book on Marriage, who is a Manich@an and one of their missionaries, reproaches the people of the three religions with turning to one direction to the exclusion of another. With this he reproaches them, besides other things, and he seems to indicate that a man who prays to God does not need any Kibia at all. } came ee tg clase esse ALBIRONT. THE FESTIVALS OF THE MUSLIMS. 331 The date of this night rests on universal agreement, because its real Ramaddin, date is not known. People say: “See, this night is the night of the 17th or the 19th, for it was between these two nights that the battle of Badr occurred, the conquest of Mekka, the descending of the angels as a help, marked with certain badges (Stra iii. 121).” This may be correct, for God says (Stra xcvii. 4): “The angels descend and the Spirit. There is freedom from everything in that night by the permission of their Lord.” the month of the obligatory fasting. on 6. Birth of Alhusain b. ‘Ali according to all authorities except Alsalami. 7. Alma’miin adopted the green colours. 10. Death of Khadija. : A ji adi ‘Ali b. Abi- ati 0 i hide oy yy People say that on the following days the holy books were communicated Ts on at the — the battle of Badr occurred ; according to 10 to the Prophet— another report, it occurred on the 19th. But this is not correct, because 10 | an 14 oF Rieti ia asss tor Abullm, there is an uninterrupted tradition saying that it occurred on a Monday I in the second year of the flight. If we compute the 1st of Ramadéin for ih this year, we find that it was a Saturday, and the Monday in question | IE al rs allsapon the Tze, . a the 24th the Furkdn to Muhammad. 19. Mekka was conquered. The Prophet did not perform the i hii pilgrimage, because the Arabian months were back behind real time in : Rk As regards the Coran, God says (Sura ii. 181): “The month of consequence of the Nas?’ (postponement of certain months in the times of Ramadén in which the Coran was sent down.” Therely we learn that it heathendom). Therefore he waited till the months returned to their proper J was revealed in this month. Some people quote besides the passage places, and then he performed the farewell-pilgrimage, and forbade to (Hira vill, 42): “And that eS CAE I asp {8 Nush. : 2 20 on the day of the decision (Alfurkan), on the day when the two hosts 21. Death of the Prince of the Believers, ‘Ali b. Abi-Tailib ; also death i : met,” inferring from this passage that the Coran was revealed on the of ‘Ali-Alridd Ibn Msi Alkdzim b. Ja‘far Alsidik b. Muhammad ; 17th of Ramadan, because on this day the two hosts (that of Muhammad Albékir b. ‘Ali AlsajjAd Zain-al‘dbidin b. Alhusain, the protomartyr, son t and his opponents) met at Badr. But God knows best! of the Prince of the Believers ‘Ali b. ADbi-Talib. According to others, o Regarding the Sogn iigosianine ys UIIIROON his death (that of ‘Ali-Alridd) occurred on the 23rd Dhi-Alka‘da. on the 6th of Siwan, on the feast of congregation (‘Azereth). If, at that 22. Birth of ‘All b. Abi.Talib, according to Alsat. time, Ramadén coincided with Siwan, the matter is so as has been said. 95. 'Abfi-Muslim ‘Abd-alrahman b. Muslim first raised the standard But there is no possibility of settling this question, because the year in of the ‘Abbésides in Khurisan. ; 2 : which the Thora was revealed is not known ; if it were known, we should 96. Revolt of Alburku‘i in Basra; according to some, he was ‘Ali b. inquire into the subject by chronological computations. The report Muhammad b. ’Ahmad b. ‘fsa b. Zaid b. ‘Ali b. Alhusain b ‘Ali b. Abi 30 30 regarding the Gospel is the saying of a man who does not know ite Talib ; according to others, he was ‘Ali b. Muhammad b. ‘Abd-alrahim character, nor TT a its b. Abd-alkais. There is a report saying that Alhasan b. Zaid, the other books is altogether unknown and cannot be found out. God Prince of Tabaristin, wrote to him at the time when he came forward in | knows best Basra, asking for his genealogy, in order to learn the truth of the matter, whereupon he received this answer: © Do you mind my business Soil i ‘ . as little). My compliments.” A wonderfully Ne Be fs SLI pr Tat which Wali-aldaula *Abi- 1. Feast of fast-breaking, also called the day of mercy. God selected short an 4 ' Ahmad Khalaf b. Ahmad, the Prince of Sijistin, gave, when Nih b. Gabriel as the bearer of His revelation. He inspired the bees and taught ig the Prince of Khurasin, had written to him threatening him § oo Low to Buse hay hs Se 70). : os things. He answered : « O Nih, you have quarrelled with us 40 i eople maintain that on this day God created Paradise. But why with various g hat with which you threaten us, if you i do they mention in their report such a thing with all that it may be a great deal. Now earry out that wi y 40 supposed to indicate and that may ‘be inferred therefrom? They go are a true-speaking man. is called Lailat-alkadar (Night of Fate), of ; even so far as to attribute to Him an ugly anthropomorphism—as to say 37. Tue ag Hse we oo than a thousand months. a that on this day He planted the tree Tiba with His own hand. And this which God says (Su . ALBIRON. THE FESTIVALS OF THE MUSLIMS. 331 The date of this night rests on universal agreement, because its real Ramaddin, date is not known. People say: “See, this night is the night of the 17th or the 19th, for it was between these two nights that the battle of Badr occurred, the conquest of Mekka, the descending of the angels as a help, marked with certain badges (Stra iii. 121).” This may be correct, for God says (Stra xcvii. 4): “The angels descend and the Spirit. There is freedom from everything in that night by the permission of their Lord.” People say that on the following days the holy books were communicated 10 to the Prophet— the month of the obligatory fasting. x 6. Birth of Alhusain b. ‘All according to all authorities except Alsaldmi. 7. Alma’min adopted the green colours. f Khadija. : ny ee rs b. Muljim Almuradi struck ‘Alib. Abi- TAlib on the head so as to injure the brain. : "On the morning of the 17th the battle of Badr occurred ; according to another report, it occurred on the 19th. But this is not correct, because 10 | an Cie 13008 insti the bssssto Atom there is an uninterrupted tradition saying that it occurred on a Monday : I Ca in the second year of the flight. If we compute the 1st of Ramadin for 5 A rs this year, we find that it was a Saturday, and the Monday in question 3 A hal 8 ilisupen Se 178 . the 24th the Furkdn to Muhammad. 19. Mekka was conquered. The Prophet did not perform the ! {lorimage, because the Arabian months were back behind real time in . 1. As regar ds the CiriniGoll dirs ihe 1 180: The taints of pug 8 i of the Nasi’ (postponement of certain months in the times of ] Bamenti TWEE the Coren Tae rb Ew Thais rs HY Therefore he waited till the months returned to their proper i SRT SRAIOE To TIE AE. Rate Both Ure eh a a pad chen Te performed the favewsll-pilgrinags, and foshadeige j (Stra viii. 42): “And that which we have sent down upon our servant p hooh Nas?’ 20 20 on the day of the decision (Alfurkdn), on the day when the two hosts jr > a of the Prince of the Believers, ‘Ali b. Abi-Talib ; also death : TAT ia i Se Ti sf a of Alt Alrigi Ibn Misi Alkizim b. Jafar Alsidik Db. Muhammad 17th of Ramadan, because on this day the two hosts (that of Muhammad Albékir b. ‘Ali Alsajjad Zain-al‘dbidin b. Alhusain, the protomartyT, son $ and his opponents) met at Badr. But God knows best! of the Prince of the Believers ‘Ali b. Abi-Talib. According to others, 1 Regarding the Thora, we have already mentioned that it was revealed his death (that of ‘Ali-Alridd) occurred on the 23rd Dhi-Alka‘da. on the 6th of Stwan, on the feast of congregation (‘Azereth). If, at that 22. Birth of ‘All b. ALL-Tilib, according to Alsaliu time, Ramadén coincided with Siwan, the matter is so as has been said. 95. *Abti-Muslim ‘Abd-alrahman b. Muslim first raised the standard But there is no possibility of settling this question, because the year in of the ‘Abbésides in Khurisin. ; ; which the Thora was revealed is not known ; if it were known, we should 26. Revolt of Alburku‘ in Basra; according to some, he was ‘Ali b. inquire into the subject by chronological computations. The report Muhammad b. ’Ahmad b. ‘Is b. Zaid b. ‘Ali b. Alhusain b ‘Ali b. Abi. 30 20 regrading the Gospel Ir the saying oF Sn DUES hs sept Talib ; according to others, he was ‘Ali b. Muhammad b. ‘Abd-alrahim character, nor arrangement, nor composition, and the revelation of the b. «Abd-alkais. There is a report saying that Alhasan b. Zaid, the other books is altogether unknown and cannot be found out. God Prince of Tabaristan, wrote to him at the time when he came forward in : Enows best) Basra, asking for his genealogy, in order to learn the truth of the | | matter, whereupon he received this answer: “Do you mind my business Saba i J ittle). My compliments.” A wonderfully | ch Has i that re Wali-aldaula *Abi- 1. Feast of fast-breaking, also called the day of mercy. God selected short an ) : I MC, Tus Teincent SIstn, gre when Nik b. Gabriel as the bearer of His revelation. He inspired the bees and taught ha 0 Prins of Khurdsan, had written to him threatening him ] ne ow to make hoy (Stra xm. 70). ; gar, , a: «0 Ni, you have quarrelled with us 40 ; eople maintain that on this day God created Paradise. But why with various things. He t with which you threaten us, if you do they mention in their report such a thing with all that it may be a great deal. Now earry out that wi y 1 40 supposed to indicate and that may ‘be inferred therefrom? They go are : emai Nar : day is called Lailat alkadar (Night of Fate), of 4 even so far as to attribute to Him an ugly anthropomorphism—as to say 27. The night of this da cs ig a months. 2 . that on this day He planted the tree Tuba with His own hand. And this which God says (Stra xcvil. 3) that it is better than a thousan 1 332 ALBIRONE. they have not tried to explain in any way ; ou the contrary, they believe it just as it stands, from sheer ignorance. 2. Beginning of a voluntary fasting of six consecutive days. 4. Muhammad and the Christians of Najrin argued with each other. Muhammad installed Hasan and Husain in the right of sons of his, and Fatima in the right of his wives, and ‘Ali b. » Abi-Télib he made his intimate friend, complying with the order of God in the verse of the cursing. 17. Battle of *Uhud ; according to others, it occurred in the middle of the month. In this battle Hamza was killed, and Muhammad lamented over his loss. 19. Death of Ab{-Talib. 98. On this day, they say, Yonas was devoured by the fish. Dhit- Alka‘ dat. 5. The Kaha was sent down. God took compassion on Adam. Abraham and Ishmael raised the bases of the temple of Mekka. 14. Jonas, they say, came forth from the belly of the fish. According to this view he must have stayed there twenty-two days, whilst according to the Christians he stayed only three days, as is mentioned in the Gospel. 29. On this day, they say, the tree Yaktin grew over Yonas. Dhii-Alhijja. 1. The Prophet of God married his daughter Fatima to his cousin, ‘(Ali b. Abi-Télib. The first 10 days of this month are also called Dies noti and Dies sacri. According to some, they are the time by which God completed the time which He had promised to Moses, saying (Stra vil. 188): “ And we have promised Moses thirty nights—which are the nights of Dhii-alka‘da—and we have completed their number by ten’ — which are the Dies sacri. 8. This day is called Altarwiya, because the pilgrim’s-well in the holy g0 mosque of Mekka used to be full of water about this season in the time of both heathendom and Islam, and the pilgrims drank from it so much as to quench their thirst. According to another view, it was called so because they used to carry the water from Mekka on Rawdyd, i.e. camels which are used to draw water from a well. According to a third opinion, because God made spring forth for Ishmael the well Zamzam, from which he drank so much as to quench his thirst. According to a fourth opinion, because on this day God revealed Himself to the mountain, as has been mentioned in the history of Moses. 9. This day is called ‘Arafa, the day of the great pilgrimage on 40 ‘Arafat. It is so called because on that day people recognise each other at the time when they assemble for the performance of the rites of THE FESTIVALS OF THE MUSLIMS. 333 mn or, because Adam and Eve recognised each other after they ad been driven out of Paradise in the place where > d a P people assembled, On this day God selected Abraham as a fri i i 2 ¢ a friend (Khalil). called the day of forgiving. ii 10. It is called the day of the victims, also Dies mactationis, because on this day the animals, that had been brought to Mekka to be sacrificed were slaughtered. It is the last day of the days of the pilgrimage. On this day Isaak was ransomed with the ram. On this day, too, the Road 10 en strata) to the Last Judgment is said to have been created 1. The d journi i 40} En ay of sojourning, because on this day people sojourn in 12. The day of going away, b i y, because on this day people ¢ the holy district hurrying. Fe 11, 12, 18, The days of Tashrik, so called because on these days the meat of the sacrificed animals was cut to pieces and exposed to the sun for drying. : The name is also derived from the saying, “’Ashrik thabir kaimd nughir ’ (i.e. Shine forth, O mountain Thabir, that we may break up). According to Ibn-Al’a‘ribi they were so called because the victims 20 (hostice) were not killed before the sun had risen. 5 These are the days which God means in His words (Stra ii. 199) : And ye shall remember God on certain counted days.” In the time immediately before and after these days people say Allih akbar after every prayer. Among the theologians there are differences regarding the beginning, the end, and the limits of the prayer of Takbir (i.e. Allah akbar), differences peculiar to their science 7 ’ 17. ‘Uthmén b. ‘Affan the Khalif was killed. 18. It is called Ghadir Khuwmm, which was the name of a station on the road-side where Muhammad alighted when returning from the fare- 80 well pilgrimage. He gave orders to collect the saddles and all the riding- rams into one heap; this he ascended, supported by the arm of Ali b.’Abi-Tilib, and said: “ O men, am I not nearer to you than yo yourselves ?” They answered, “ Yes.” Then he said: “ To every en whose friend I am, also ‘Ali is a friend. O God, befriend him who hig ‘Ali, and oppose him who opposes ‘Ali, help him who helps 1, and desert him who deserts ‘Ali. Let truth go about with him wherever he goes.” Then he i : . en he is said to have raised hi : raised his head heaven and said towards (Lacuna) 24. ‘Ali gave away his seal-rin i . -ring as alms, in praying. 25. ‘Umar b. Alkhattdb was killed ry hed p-335. RS) wat revered: : illed, and the Stira Hal’Ati (Sura 26. David was inspired to ask for pardon (Stra xxxviii. 23). 334 ALBIRONY. 99. Battle of Alharra, in which the Ban(i-'Umayya killed the people of Medina, when the honour of the Muhdjirin (companions of the flight of Muhammad) and of the ’Angsdr (his partisans in Medina) was stained and their wives were given up to the enemies. Therefore may God curse all those whom His Prophet cursed, of those who rebelled in Medina against the law of God, and may He let us belong to those who do not like wickedness on earth. God is the best Helper, and infinite thanks are His due! Ban a Gib eS ied . CHAPTER XXI. ON THE LUNAR STATIONS, THEIR RISING AND SETTING, AND ON THEIR IMAGES. It is now time for us to finish, after we have, as best we could, fulfilled our promise in explaining the science of that subject which our friends wanted to know, and in relating all we know regarding it. But above every knowing man there is God all-wise! To complete the representation of this science, only one more chapter is required, that of the rising of the Lunar Stations in the days of the solar year. For 10 this science is practised on account of its general usefulness for the 20 purpose of prognosticating all meteorological occurrences which revolve together with the Lunar Stations. Therefore we shall now proceed to explain this subject both at large and in detail, and we shall add some of the proverbial sayings relating to them, which we gather from the literature of this kind, e.g. from the book of Alkulthtimi, that of Ibri- him b. Alsarri Alzajjij, that of Yahyd b. Kunisa, of Abfi-Hanifa Aldi- nawari on the ’Anwd, the book of ’Abt-Muhammad Aljabali on the science of the configurations of the stars, the book of Abii-Alhusain on the fixed stars, and from other books. The Hinds divided the globe, in conformity with their 27 Lunar Stations, into 27 parts, each Station occupying nearly 131 degrees of the ecliptic. From the stars entering these Stations, which are called Jufir, they derived their astrological dogmas as required for every subject and circumstance in particular. The description of these Astrologoumena would entail a long explication of things, foreign to our purpose, all of which may be found in— and learned from—the books on Astrologou- mena. The Arabs divided the celestial globe into 28 parts, so that each Station 336 ALBiRONE. occupies nearly 12% degrees of the ecliptic, and each zodiacal sign con- tains 21 Stations. Some poet says : « Their number is, if you want to count them, Twenty stars, and a number 8 after them. In each of the zodiacal signs there are Two Stations and one complete third of a Station. A peculiar system of computation belongs to them, and they have their heliacal risings and settings, Which are the reason that winter and summer revolve.” The Arabs used the Lunar Stations in another way than the Hinds, as it was their object to learn thereby all meteorological changes in the seasons of the year. But the Arabs, being illiterate people, could ON THE LUNAR STATIONS. And full moon rises in heaven high overhead, so that The shadow of the tent-poles disappears, j When the night has reached its middle And the air is free from dark clouds.” For at that time the sun stands in Scorpio close to Alkalb (the 18th Lunar Station); it is the time of cold and of aorning frosts. The moon stands in some degree of northern declination aud free uently she stands in such a latitude from the ecliptic soars the Pi of the declination, that she culminates (stands right) over the heads of the Arabs. In consequence, the shadows of all bodies disappear at the tira when she reaches the middle of heaven, i.e. at the time of aldnisht Further: wil “ When the new moon of a month first appears not recognize the Lunar Stations except by certain marks, visible to the p.337. eye. Therefore they marked the Stations by those fixed stars which lie Yo the aves of pevple ab tl dEsy within them. And the rising of the fixed stars in the east early after rr people at the beginning of a night, standing in the rise of dawn they considered as a sign of the sun's entering some Then you ot cold winds f i one of the Stations, and so they could do, since the stars do not recede And you find it ns i” ie every side, from their places except after the lapse of long spaces of time, and, ; ® eable a little before dawn to wrap a turban / ry round the head. besides, the Arabs were not educated enough to notice such a variation. For at that time the sun stands in the first part of Sagittarius Further, they composed verses and rhymed poetry, so that these things could easily be remembered by illiterate people, and recorded therein 20 Further: the annual physical influences which, according to their observation and experience, coincided with the rising of each particular Station. These sayings and verses they use to indicate certain circumstances of “The complete night, with all that belongs to it, has become cold And the sun stands in the Station of Al‘awwd.” ; thst 00. For ths stars of AvaSwl (the 13th Lunar Station) lie around the p.338. on : ; : ; vernal equinox, as the table of the Lunar Stations il « When the moon joins (i.e. stands in conjunction with) the However, if I were to communicate to the Te th : : . vo or 8 e verses : Pies pl A iw ; » and sayings in rhymed prose which relate to the rising of each Lunar n a third night (of a month), then the winter 1s gone. Station, I should also have to interpret their eninge. and to expl , Hoy ¢ Xplam For the Pleiades occupy the place from 10° of Taurus till about 15° of iho mus words thal sectir in fom, This, howewss, we may emis, 4 Taurus. When, therefore, the moon joins the Pleiades in the 3rd night i has hoon sufficlenily fone by ie sniiors of ths books ot 5 hom of a month, the distance between sun and moon is about 40 degrees. 80 ‘we mentioned shove, - OE hor Ret Since the Arabs attribute all meteorological changes to the influen of the rising and setting of the stars, in conseiaanes of their cs of physical sciences, thinking that all changes of the kind de od 5 the bodies of the stars and their rising, not upon certain oD of oe celestial globe and the sun’s marching therein, they i a a many things similar to that which we have mentioned of the Sirius Jemenicus, during the rising of which Hippocrates in his time forbade BR iss taking hot drugs and phlebotomizing. Win £2 monn fois Abs | 5 And this subject reminds me of an occurrence in my life which serves to She 1400 0 0 0 i : to confirm the verses of Ahmad b. Faris: Beng ie riders who ride about, telling people to warm them- k f 4 wise man of by-gone times has said : i The importance of a man lies in his two smallest things.’ 22 « When full-moon is complete and stands with the Pleiades, Then you get the beginning of the cold season, the winter.” For when the moon stands in opposition to the Pleiades, the sun stands in the middle of Scorpio, and that time is the beginning of the cold geason. Further: ALBIRON. I on my part also speak like a wise man, saying: ¢The importance of a man lies only in his two dirhams.’ If he has not his two dirhams with him, His bride does not care for him. Tn consequence of his poverty he is despised, So that people’s cats piss at him.” For when I was separated from the court of His Highness, and was bereft of the happiness of the royal service, I met a man in Rai (Rhage) who was counted among the learned astronomers. He had studied the conjunctions of the stars which form the Lunar Stations, and he had 10 commenced to collect them in order to derive certain sentences (astrolo- goumena) from the Stations and their single parts, and thereby to prog- nosticate all changes of the air. Now, I told him that the truth is the very reverse of his theory, that the nature and peculiarities which are attributed to the first Station, and all that which the Hindtis relate of the connection of this Station with others, are peculiar to the first part of Aries, and never leave this place, although the star (or stars which form the Lunar Station) may leave it. In a similar way, all that is peculiar to Aries does not move away from the place of Aries, although the constel- lation of Aries does move away. But then the man became very haughty, 20 and treated me slightingly, though he was inferior to me in all his knowledge. He told me my theory was a lie, and behaved very rudely to me, being very lengthy about the difference between us in wealth and poverty, which changes subjects for glory into subjects for blame. For at that time I was in a miserable condition, tried (troubled) on all sides; afterwards, however, when my troubles had subsided (ceased) to some extent, he chose to behave in a friendly way towards me. Tt is evident that, if the science of meteorology were to depend upon the rising of the bodies of the stars, as observed by eye-sight, the times and seasons of the Meteora would differ in the same proportion as the stars change their places ; besides, they would be different in different countries, and we should require for them as well as for the appearing and disappearing of the planets various kinds of tiresome methods of calculations. In reality the rising of the Lumar Stations means this, that the sun on entering one of them covers it and the preceding one too, whilst the third one, according to the inverted order of the zodiacal signs, rises between the rise of dawn and that of the sun, at that time which Ibn Alrakka‘ describes in the following verses : «The observers saw Sirius distinctly, As he turned away, when the morning prayer approached. I recognize Sirius shining red, whilst the morning is becoming white. The night, fading away, has risen and left him. ON THE TUNAR STATIONS. 339 The night is not afraid to lose him, since he follows her, But the night is not willing to acknowledge that he belongs to the night.” : The rising of a Lunar Station they called its Naw’, i.e. rising. The influence of the rising they called Bdrih, the influence of the settin they called again Naw’. The interval between the risings of two ay secutive Lunar Stations is 13 days, except the interval between the risin of Aljabha (the 10th Station) and of the following Station, which is 1 days. So the following verses : . “All time, you must know, consists of fourths, And each fourth consists of sevenths. A complete seventh belongs to the rising of a star, And to the influence (Nau’) of a star setting in the west. Between the rising of each star And that of the following star there are four nights And nine nights more.” There is a differenc inion r i Pinion e of opinion regarding the ’Anwd. Some maintain ad hat each influence (of a Lunar Station) is brought about between the risings of two consecutive Stations, that therefore the influence is attri- 20 buted to the former of these two Stations. According to others, a , « certain space of time is peculiar to the rising and setting of each Lunar oi, and everything that occurs in this time is attributed to the tation in question; occurrences which fall after the end of this space of time are no longer attributed to it. The last view is the generall adopted one. y Besides, there are differences about the length of these spaces of time which we shall afterwards describe. : Ya the influence of some Station has been found out and is known ‘ . . ) and nothing happens at its time, people say: the star was empty; or: v ’ 80 the Station was empty, i.e. the time of its Naw’ has gone by without there being any rain, or heat, or cold, or wind. (On the Winds.)—Regarding the directions of the winds, the planes over which they blow, and their number, there are Aittorent Ae Some maintain that the directions of the wind are six, as Ibn Kuries relates, on the authority of ’Abi-Muhammad Ja‘far b. Sad b Samia b Jundub Alfaziri, whilst, according to most others, there re only fo as Khalid b. Safwan relates; the latter is the aplaiod of ost if although they differ regarding the planes of the blowing of the Si Both these opinions of the Arabs are comprised in the following oo 40 circles; the former view is repres i inner ci 1 epresented in the inner circle, the latter in p.340. h ITO Tro Vv he ower circle. There you also find the names of the winds and the directions of their planes. Here follows the circle 29 % ALBIRONI. In the first theory the author (Ibn Kunésa) places the wind Makwa near the south wind, whilst it is well known that Mahwa is the north wind, because it extinguishes (destroys) the clouds when they are empty, after the south wind has driven them on, full of rain. In the same theory he assigns a separate plane to the wind Nakbd, whilst it is well known that Nakba is every wind, the plane of which lies between the planes of any two other winds of the four cardinal winds. Dhi-alrumma mentions the winds, Nabkd included, in this way : « Heavy rain-showers of some Anwd and the two Haif (south wind and west wind), ; Which drove the sand-masses of the dusty-coloured mountains away over the house. ; And a third wind, blowing from the side of Syria, a cold one, Blowing with whirlwinds along its road over the sand. And a fourth wind coming from the rising-place of the sun, driving The fine dust of Almi‘4 and of Kurékir over the house. ON THE LUNAR STATIONS. 341 The side winds, carrying along the dust, excited it (the east wind) to still greater vehemence, So that it frequently roared like the she-camels in the tenth month of their pregnancy, when the throes are near.” The two Haif are the south wind and west wind; the wind; blowing from Syria is the north wind ; the wind coming from the rising-place of the sun is the east wind. The planes of the winds with the Persians are the same as with the ancient Greeks, and all physical scholars ; their centres correspond to the four directions. They are represented in the following circle : South ; 8 : § & Khurasarw or the cerdre of the east wind plane of the northu wind Soo Any wind that lies between the centres of the planes of two other winds is referred to that centre which is the nearest (and receives its name therefrom). Other people refer an intermediate wind to the rising and setting places of the sun at the time of the solstices, and call it by a Greek name. ; (Method for finding the time of the Nau’ and Barih of a Lunar Station.)—The following is a good method to find the times of the 349 ALBIRONT. influences (érwonuacia) of the rising and the setting of the Lunar Stations: Take the time from the 1st of Ill till that day the nature of which you want to find out, and divide the sum of days by 13. It there is no remainder, proceed in this way: If the moon stands opposite the sun or in one of her quadratures, you get rain, if it is the season for rain, or some change of the air in consequence of wind, or heat, or cold. For if there is no remainder (as in this case), it is the time of the rising of one Lunar Station and the setting of the opposite Station. On the 1st of 1ldl falls the Bérik (influence of the rising) of Alsarfa (the 12th Station) and the Naw’ (influence of the setting) of Sa‘d-al akhbiye (the 95th Station). From this date you begin counting, for this special reason, that it is the first of a month and the beginning of autumn. If, besides, the moon happens to be in one of her Foundations, the influence (of the Lunar Station) will come out very strong. : Abti-Ma‘shar says : “ We have tried this method A. H. 279 in Shawwil at the time of full moon. We counted the days from the 1st 1141 till this full moon. They were 130 days; dividing them by 13 you get no re- mainder, and the Ascendens of the full moon (or opposition) was Amphora. So we got rain on that day, and when the moon stood in her right quad- rature, also on that day we had rain.” Further, he says: “ We tried it also in the following year. We counted the days from the 1st T1il till Thursday the 13th of Kintm L; the sum of days we divided by 13, and there was no remainder ; the distance between sun and moon was as much as half a zodiacal sign (i.e. 15 degrees), the moon had turned away from the hexagon of Mars and stood in conjunction with Venus. At that very time we got rain.” Now, this is a testimony of Abéi-Ma‘shar, showing that through this method you obtain correct results. If, besides, you take to help the mansions (the places of the Lunar Stations) of the Hinds and their single parts, you are pretty sure in your calculation to come near the truth. People relate that among the Arabs the Banii-Mariya b. Kalb and the Banfi. Murra b. Hammam b. Shaiban had the most accurate knowledge of the configurations of the stars. In enumerating the Nujim-al akhdh, i.e. the Lunar Stations, the Arabs commenced with Alsharatin, since in their time they stood in the first part of Aries. Other nations begin with the Pleiades. I do not know whether they do this because the Pleiades are more easily and clearly visible without any study or research than the other Stations, or because, as I have found in some books of Hermes, the vernal equinox coincides with the rising of the Pleiades. This statement must have been made about three thousand and more years before Alexander. God knows best what they intended! : We shall adopt the Arabian system in enumerating the Lunar Stations, and shall begin, as they do, with ON THE LUNAR STATIONS. 1. Alsharatin (B, y Arietis), i.e. the two signs. They are called so for the same reason that the soldiers of the body-guard of a prince are called Shurat, since they mark themselves by some sign, by the black colour, or something else. It consists of two stars belonging to Aries (8 and y). Sometimes, also, a third star near them is added, and then this Station is called Alashrdt (plural instead of the dual Sharatin). Between the two stars, when standing in the middle of heaven, there is an interval of two yards according to eye-sight ; one of them belongs to the northern half, the other to the southern. All measures of distances between the stars according to eye-sight are to be understood only for that time when they stand in the middle of heaven, for these distances appear greater near the horizon in consequence of the intense refraction of the ray of light in the watery vapours that surround the earth. This has been explained in the books on the geo- metrical configurations (of the stars). Further, the distance between two stars increases in the direction from north towards the south ; frequently, too, when the stars march towards the horizon, it increases in the direction from east to west, or pretty nearly in the direction of one of the cycles of altitude. The reason of this is that the spheres decline from the perpendicular direction which they have on the equator. The Station Alashrdt is also called Alnath (i.e. horn), because the two Sharat are placed on the root of the two horns of Aries. The meteoro- logical influences of this Station are peculiar to the first (i.e. original) position of Aries, and in no way depend upon the stars from which the Station has got its name. These stars have migrated from their original place (in consequence of the precession of the equinoxes) and have in our time come to occupy a second position (different from the former). 2. Albutain (e, 8, m Arietis). It consists of three stars at the end of the womb of Aries, forming an isosceles triangle. The word is the diminutive of Bafn, so as to mean the little womb, so called in comparison with Ba¢n-alhiit (the womb of the fish), which is the 28th Station. 3. Althurayyi (Pleiades) consists of six stars close to each other, very similar to a cluster of grapes. According to the Arabs they form the clunis of Aries, but that is wrong, because they stand on the hump of Taurus. The word is a diminutive of Tharwd, which is originally identical with Tharwa, i.e. a collection and great number of something. Some people maintain they were called so because the rain, which is brought by their 344 ALBIRONT. Naw’, produces Tharwa, i.e. abundance. They are also called Alnajym (i.e. The Star). Ptolemy mentions only four stars of the Pleiades, since he had not observed more of them, because to eye-sight they seem to lie quite close together. The forty days during which this Station disappears under the rays of the sun, are, according to the Arabs, the worst and most unhealthy of the whole year. Al'asadi says: “ Althurayyd never rises nor sets unless bringing some harm.” And one of their medical men says: “ Warrant me the time between the disappearing and the rising of Althurayya, and I shall warrant you all the remainder of the year.” The Prophet is related to have said : “ When the Star rises, all harm (mishap) rises from the earth ;” and according to another tradition: “ When the Star rises, all mishap is raised from every place.” 4. Aldabardn (o Tauri), a bright red star, so called because it follows after the Pleiades, standing over the southern eye of Taurus. It is also called Alfanik, i.e. a great camel-stallion (not-serving for riding), because they call the stars around it Kilds, i.e. young she-camels (serving for riding). Other names of it are « The follower of the Star,’ because in rising and setting it follows immediately after the Pleiades, and Almukhdij (i.e. a she-camel giving birth to a young one of imperfect formation). 5. Alhak‘a (A, ¢', ¢" Orionis) consists of three small stars close to each other, looking like so many dots impressed upon the earth by the thumb, the fore-finger, and the middle-finger, the fingers being closely pressed together. They were so called because they were compared with a circle of hairs on the side of the horse at the joint of the foot ; such a horse is called Mahki’. They are also called Altahd’i (or Altahdyi). Ptolemy considers them as one cloudy star, and calls them the nebula on the head of Aljabbar, i.e. Aljauzéa (Orion). 6. Alhan‘a (y, ¢ Geminorum) consists of two bright stars in the Milky Way between Orion and the head of Gemini, distant from each other as far as the length of a whip. The one is called Zirr (button), the other Maisin (walking along proudly) ; they stand on the foot of the second twin. According to AlzajjAj, Han‘a is derived from the verb Hama‘a, i.e. to wind and twine one thing round the other, as if each of them were winding and twining round the other. According to others, this name is to be understood of a third star, standing behind their middle, which gives 40 eee —————— st TT RR REE A ON THE LUNAR STATIONS. 345 them the appearance of an inclined neck. The Arabs consider Alhan‘a and six other stars as the bow of Orion, with which he shoots at the Lion. 7. Aldhird (a, B Geminorum) consists of two stars, one yard distant from each other. The one is the blear-eyed Sirius or Sirius Syriacus, according to the Arabs, the out- stretched arm of Leo; the other is Sirius ‘Abr or Sirius Yemenicus, the arm of Leo which is not stretched out. According to the astronomers, the outstretched arm is the head of Gemini, and the other arm belongs to 10 the stars of Alkald Almutakaddim (Procyon). But people differ greatly regarding these stars and produce various futile traditions and stories in support of the names which they give them. The rising of Ghumaisd (the blear-eyed Sirius) in the year 1300 of Alexander took place on the 10th Tammiiz, and that of Sirius Yemenicus on the 23rd Tammiz. 8. Alnathra (Presepe (¢) et duo Aselli (y, 8) Canecri) is the place between the mouth and the nostrils of the Lion. It is also called Allahd (the uvula), and consists of two stars, between which there is a nebula, the whole belonging to the figure of Cancer. 9. Altaf, 20 the eye of Leo, two stars close to each other, one belonging to Leo, the other to the stars outside the figure of Cancer. In front of them there are stars called Al'ashfir, i.e. the eyebrows of Leo. 10. Aljabha (¢, vy, 7, a Leonis), the front of Leo, four stars, each star distant from the other by the length of a whip, lying athwart from north to south in a curve, not in a straight line. According to astronomers, they stand on the mane of Leo. The most southern star of them they call the Heart of the Royal Lion; it rises when Suhail rises in Alhijaz. Suhail is the 44th star of Argo Navis, standing over its oar. Its latitude is 75 degrees in the southern 80 half. Therefore it does not rise very high above the horizon, in conse- quence of which it has something unsteady for the eye. People say that a man, if his eye falls on this star, dies, as they also relate that on the island of Ramin, belonging to Ceylon, there is an animal the sight of which kills a man within forty days afterwards. The most curious instance of the connection between animal life and its material influence is the fish called Silurus Electricus. For the hand of the fisherman who has caught it takes care not to touch it as long as it is in the net still living. If you takea reed and touch the living fish with one end and keep the other end in your hand, the hand becomes feeble and drops the reed. 346 ALBIRONT. Further, the worms in Raghad, one of the districts of eastern Jurjan. For there you find in certain places small worms; if a man carrying water treads upon them, the water becomes bad and foul; if he does not tread upon them, the water remains good and keeps its nice odour and sweet taste. The death of a man bitten by a panther, when a field-mouse pisses at him—— (Lacuna. ] 11. Alzubra (8, 6 Leonis), i.e. the shoulder of the Lion, the place where the neck begins. According to Alzajjaj, it is the place of the mane on his neck, because the mane bristles wp when he is in wrath. According to Alnd’ib Alamuli, Zubra is a piece of iron by which the two shoulder-blades of a lion are imitated. This station consists of two stars, distant from each other by the length of a whip. They are also called the Two Khurt, i.e. holes, as if each of them were penetrating into the interior of the Lion, but in reality they stand upon the shank of the Lion, one of them on the root of the tail. When they rise, Suhail is seen in Al‘irik. 12. Alsarfa (8 Leonis), a bright star near to some very dim ones, called the Claiv of the Lion. It stands on the end of the Lion’s tail, and is called so because the heat turns away when it rises, and the cold turns away when it disappears. 13. Al'awwd (B, 3, vy, 8, € Virginis) consists of five stars in a line, the end of which is turned. And there- fore the Station is called so because the verb ‘Awd means to turn. Alzajjaj says: “I do not know of anybody else besides me who has explained the word in this way. Those who say that these stars are dogs running behind the Lion and barking are wrong.” They stand on the breast and wing of Virgo. 14. Alsimik Ala‘zal (Spica). It is also called the Calf of the Lion, and Alsimik Alrdmik is his other calf. This Simak is called *A‘zal (i.e. bare), because whilst the other Simak Alrdmih (the shooter) is accompanied by a star, said to be his lance, this one has no such accessory, and is therefore said to be bare of weapons. I ON THE LUNAR STATIONS. 347 According to Sibawaihi, Simdk is called so on account of its rising high, or, according to others, {because the moon does not enter this Station. But if that were the case, Alsimdk Ala‘zal would not deserve the name of a Lunar Station, for, of course, the moon enters it and frequently covers it (so as to make it disappear). It is a brilliant star on the left palm of Virgo, which some people call Sunbula. (the ear). But this is wrong, because the Ear (Spica) is Alhulba (i.e. hog’s bristle), which Ptolemy calls Aldafira, i.e. Crines plexi. This is a number of small stars behind the tail of the Great Bear, very much like the leaf of Lubldb, i.e. helxine. The whole zodiacal sign is also called so (i.e. Spica). According to the Arabs, Alhulba (the hog’s bristle) stands on the end of the Lion's tail, being the small hairs on the end of the tail. 15. Alghafr (4, k, A Virginis) consists of three not very brilliant stars on the train and the left foot of Virgo. According to the Arabs, it is the best of the Lunar Stations, because it stands behind Leo and before Scorpio. The evil of the Lion lies in his teeth and claws, the evil of the Scorpion lies in its venom and the sting of its tail. A Rajaz poet says: ‘The best night for ever Lies between Alzubani and Al’asad (Leo).” People say that the horoscopes of all the prophets lie in this Station ; but this does not seem to be true except in the case of Messiah, the Prophet who keeps off all mishap. The birth of Moses—according to the report of the Jews—must have coincided with the rising of the tooth of Leo and the moon’s entering the claws of Leo. It is called Ghafr, because the light of its stars is imperfect, from the verb Ghafara, i.e. to cover a thing, or, because it rises above the claws of Scorpio and becomes to it like a Mighfar (i.e. coat of mail). According to Alzajjij, the name is derived from Ghafar, i.e. the hair on the end of the Lion’s tail. 16. Alzubind (a, 8 Libra) consists of two brilliant stars, separated from each other as far as five yards, and standing in a place where the two claws of Scorpio might be; they belong, however, to Libra. The word is also derived from zabana (i.e. to push), as if the one of them were being pushed away from the other, not united with it. 17. AViklil (B, 8, = Scorpii) is the head of Scorpio, consisting of three stars which form one line. Ibn-Algufi declares this to be impossible, and maintains that it consists pe pn Te es Sa — re re 5 dy a La 348 ALBiRONT. of the 8th star of Libra and the 6th one of the stars outside Libra, as also Ptolemy has it in his Almagest. According to Ibn-Alstfi, those who consider the three bright stars in one line as A'klil are mistaken, for he says that the Crown, (i.e. Al'iklil) could not be anywhere but upon the head. However, the general view of the Arabs—in opposition to that of Ibn-Alsiifi-—is this, that the three stars in one line are Aliklil. The Arabs have a proverb applicable to this subject, saying: “The two contending parties were content, but the judge declined to give a judgment.” [18. Alkalb (a Scorpii) is a red star behind Al'iklil and between two stars called Alniyat (preecordia).] 19. Alshaula (A, v Scorpii) is the sting of Scorpio, so called because it is always mushdla, i.e. raised. It consists of two bright stars near each other on the top of the tail of Scorpio. 20. Alna‘@’im (y, 8, ¢ n, 0, ¢, 7, { Sagittarii) consists of eight stars, four of them lying in the Milky Way in a square, which are the Descending Ostriches, descending to the water, which is the Milky Way ; and four of them lying outside the Milky Way, also in a square, which are the Ascending Ostriches, ascending and returning from the water. AlzajjAj reads the word Alnu‘d’im, i.e. the beams placed above the mouth of a well, where the sheaves of the pulley and the buckets are fixed (attached), The stars were compared to ostriches, as if four of them were descending, four ascending. The Descending Ostriches stand on the bow and arrow of Sagittarius, and the Ascending Ostriches stand on his shoulder and breast. 21. Albalda is a desert district of heaven without any stars, at the side of the Horse, belonging to Sagittarius. According to Alzajjij, this station was com- pared to the interstice between the two eyebrows, which are not connected with each other. You say of a man ’ablad, which means that his eyebrows do not run into each other. ON THE LUNAR STATIONS. 22. Sa‘d-Aldhdbik (a, 8 Capricorni) consists of two stars, the one to the north, the other to the south, distant from each other about one yard. Close to the northern one there is a small star, considered as the sheep which he (Sa‘d) slaughters. The two stars stand on the horn of Capricorn. 23. Sa‘d-Bula* (pn, v, € Aquarii) consists of two stars with a third and hardly visible one between them, which looks as if one of them had devoured it, so that it glided down from the throat to the breast. According to others, it was called so because Sa‘d is considered as he who devoured the middle star, robbed it of its light and concealed it. According to Aba-YahyA b. Kunisa, this Station was called so because it rose at the time when God said: “O earth, devour thy water” (Stra xi. 46). Thisis a rather subtle derivation. These stars stand on the left hand of Aquarius or Amphora. 24. Sa‘d Alsu‘id (B, &¢ Aquarii) consists of three stars, one of which is more bright than the two others. It is called so because people consider its rising as a lucky omen, because it rises when the cold decreases, when the winter is past and the season of the continuous rains sets in. Two of these stars stand on the left shoulder of Aquarius; the third one stands on the tail of Capricorn. 25. Sa‘d-AUVakhbiya (y, , =, n Aquarii) consists of four stars, three forming an acute-angled trigone, and one standing in the middle, as it were the centre of a circumscribed circle. The central star is Sa‘d, and the three surrounding stars are his tents. According to others, this Station was called so because at the time when it rises all reptiles that had been hidden in the earth come forth. These stars stand on the right hand of Aquarius. God is all-wise! 26. Alfargh AlVawwal (a, 8 Pegasi), also called the Upper Handle (of the bucket), and the First Two who move the Bucket in the Well (in order to fill it). It consists of two bright stars, separated from each other, standing on the spine and shoulders of Pegasus. 348 ALBiRONS. of the 8th star of Libra and the 6th one of the stars outside Libra, as also Ptolemy has it in his Almagest. According to Ibn-Alstfi, those who consider the three bright stars in one line as Al'iklil are mistaken, for he says that the Crown, (i.e. Al'iklil) could not be anywhere but upon the head. However, the general view of the Arabs—in opposition to that of Ibn-Alstifi-—is this, that the three stars in one line are Al'iklil. The Arabs have a proverb applicable to this subject, saying: “The two contending parties were content, but the judge declined to give a judgment.” ; : [18. Alkalb (a Scorpii) is a red star behind Aliklil and between two stars called Alniyat (preecordia).] 19. Alshaula (A, v Scorpii) is the sting of Scorpio, so called because it is always mushdla, i.e. raised. It consists of two bright stars near each other on the top of the tail of Scorpio. 20. Alna‘d’im (y, 8, ¢ n, 0, ¢, 7, { Sagittarii) consists of eight stars, four of them lying in the Milky Way in a square, which are the Descending Ostriches, descending to the water, which is the Milky Way ; and four of them lying outside the Milky Way, also in a square, which are the Ascending Ostriches, ascending and returning from the water. Alzajjj reads the word Alnu‘d’im, i.e. the beams placed above the mouth of a well, where the sheaves of the pulley and the buckets are fixed (attached). The stars were compared to ostriches, as if four of them were descending, four ascending. The Descending Ostriches stand on the bow and arrow of Sagittarius, and the Ascending Ostriches stand on his shoulder and breast. 21. Albalda is a desert district of heaven without any stars, at the side of the Horse, belonging to Sagittarius. According to Alzajjij, this station was com- pared to the interstice between the two eyebrows, which are not connected with each other. You say of a man ’ablad, which means that his eyebrows do not run into each other. ON THE LUNAR STATIONS. 22. Sa‘d-Aldhabik (a, B Capricorni) consists of two stars, the one to the north, the other to the south, distant from each other about one yard. Close to the northern one there is a small star, considered as the sheep which he (Sa‘d) slaughters. The two stars stand on the horn of Capricorn. 23. Sa‘d-Bula‘ (pn, v, « Aquarii) consists of two stars with a third and hardly visible one between them, which looks as if one of them had devoured it, so that it glided down from the throat to the breast. According to others, it was called so because Sa‘d is considered as he who devoured the middle star, robbed it of its light and concealed it. According to Abu-Yahyid b. Kunisa, this Station was called so because it rose at the time when God said: “O earth, devour thy water” (Stra xi.46). Thisis a rather subtle derivation. These stars stand on the left hand of Aquarius or Amphora. 24. Sa‘d Alsu‘id (B, §¢ Aquarii) consists of three stars, one of which is more bright than the two others. It is called so because people consider its rising as a lucky omen, because it rises when the cold decreases, when the winter is past and the season of the continuous rains sets in. Two of these stars stand on the left shoulder of Aquarius; the third one stands on the tail of Capricorn. 25. Sa‘d-Alakhbiya (y, {, m, n Aquarii) consists of four stars, three forming an acute-angled trigone, and one standing in the middle, as it were the centre of a circumscribed circle. The central star is Sa‘d, and the three surrounding stars are his tents. According to others, this Station was called so because at the time when it rises all reptiles that had been hidden in the earth come forth. These stars stand on the right hand of Aquarius. God is all-wise! 26. Alfargh AlVawwal (a, B Pegasi), also called the Upper Handle (of the bucket), and the First Two who 30 move the Bucket in the Well (in order to fill it). It consists of two bright stars, separated from each other, standing on the spine and shoulders of Pegasus. ALBIRONY. ON THE LUNAR STATIONS. 3561 “BMBTIP[Y BJIUBH | A : “ 3 red rd ped ed MD We 27. Alfargh Althini (y Pegasi and a Andromedse), En ty LY ry ef ‘pERuUNn also called the Lower Handle (of the bucket), and the Later Two who -q $A{©X 0} SurPI000T pu RIO NON ONO Fr FOND He De Dremel : . . ‘ 5 ol move the Bucket in the Well (in order to fill it). It consists of two stars JON 1 step i — $i..y : . *SY00(-BMUY Jsow similar to Alfargh Alawwal. According to the Arabs Amphora consists | SurproooE=sjsuy (NOTBIE F | die ri ri GIO ri Ble oD ri FD OI Fri Wir pit 0 By i 0 Bur}}es oY} JO 9OULNPUI) of these four stars. 1 I ovo. Sv ATUar MOH (10 123 1 14 27 (9 122 ( 4 ‘117 Pishrin II. { ., 28. Batn-Alhkit (3 Andromeds), also called Kalb-Alhdt, is a bright star in the one half of the womb of a fish (a star) called Ribbon, which must not be confounded with the Two Fishes, one (the 12th) of the zodiacal signs. These stars stand i i *SY00(-BMUY }SOW above Libra and belong to Andromeda (Zit. the chained wife who had 03 SUIPI000B—SISV (torus i mt 8 mo I lp rl pl el —iii 8 JO SUISLI 9} JO douUINPUL not seen a husband). | es nd ped I. II. A anun A anun A On what days Syrian months Tishrin I. K KA @ HON O- HIND HD XN wo CERCA RPS NHN mH ea Nw — | ester A pvc Seva Sevnl SVL Seen Sev Sr Sends vy Nr’ The preceding notes we have condensed and have added thereto other Loree an fo notes relating to Lunar Stations; this we have arranged in the form of a table, showing the nature of the Lunar Stations according to the different theories. We have also noted the rising of the stars of the Stations for the year 1300 of Alexander according to mean calculation ; this we have also deposited in a table of the conditions of the stars of the Lunar Stations. If you look into these two tables you will find that the superscriptions at the top of each column render it superfluous to consult anybody beforehand as to their use. Here follow the two 20 tables. 11. pt = <3 «3 they rise. On what days Syrian months irin Haz Tammiiz Ap . Tishrin I. Tishrin IT Kann indicate dry or wet weather. srmediate | Dry, Moderate Whether they Moist Moist Inte Moist, Intermediate Moist Unlucky | Moist, Moderate | A little moist Intermediate Intermediate Unlucky | Moist 10 | Lucky Intermediate Intermediate Dry Moderate 18 | Unlucky | Moist Moist Moist Dry Moist Moist | Moist Moist | Dry { i | | wn 4 Oo i EH < EH wn 82 - Zz Po — E ust EH Ey [@) lea) - - BH Unlucky | Moist Middling Unlucky 10 | Unlucky Mixed 0 | Lucky 26 | Middling Lucky Mixed 9 | 25 | 42 | 52 | Unlucky 26 | Unlucky | Dry 0 | Middling | Intermediate 25 | 42 | 52 | Lucky 26 | Lucky 0 | Unlucky 26 10 | Mixed 10 | Lucky 0 8 | 35 | Lucky 0 4 17 0 12 | 51 18 | Lucky 18 | Lucky 44 35 ‘sIe)s 'Spuo0deg a3} jo wond, ER 0 pe UTC . a Li a |Soup “B[Mo[Bd 03 SUIPI0d -08 ‘uoijeis Yowvod JO 8} pu® SALIY jo Sutuurdeq oY} uoomijaq SeouwysI( | ‘susig |T8OBIPOZ 8 | 35 0 8 0 8135 0 4 17 0 12 | 51 51 42 | 52 | Unlucky | Moist 42 | 52 | Lucky 25 | 4 | Lucky 25 | 44 17 25 | 44 4 | 17 17 8 | 34 | 18 | Mixed 8 | 34 8 | 34 8 | 34 25 17 0 21 4 17 21 ‘so018a(T| 17 0 6] 12 | 51 25 12 025 421 0 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 4 5 5 6 6 10 10 | 21 11 11 (A Sa‘d-alsu‘dd ana A Names of 1-thurayya awwa ‘im Khar Batn-alhit . dam the Lunar Stations. Sa‘d-aldhibih Sa‘d-alakhbiya Alfargh Almukad- = | Alfargh Almu’akh- Al-hak‘a Al-han‘a Al-nathra Al.simik Al-ghafr Al-zub Al-iklil Al-kalb Al-shaula Al-balda Sa‘d-Bula‘ Al-na Al-* Al-dabarin . Al-sharatin 1-butain Al-dhirat | | | | A A “puns ‘nuniny | ‘suonwvls | . | . *Surad ummny TUT Jog 10 SUNY lo suorywg xeung ov} jo Surjes ayy £4q 1 a DousiLiopep su somes ay | 10 SIOHVIS | josuonuis | jo suonvis — ge a AL | ‘ 0 —_HIDY Ie O | | “NERS PRO HARI NCL ZSRRANRIRR XN B — ALBIRONI. Lunar ’ Arabs. s of Aries Stations according to the The belly of Aries The different constellations represented by the stars of the | The two horn | | g to the S. Astronomer: Stations accordin The different constellations, represented by the stars of the Lunar The two horns of Aries 4 | Clunis Arietis 17 | The bunch of Taurus 30 | The eye of Taurus § 13 | The head of Orion | | | 22 | On what days of the Syrian months | of A. Alex. 1300 they set. | Tishrin I. | | | 22 wn Z o i Er «| Ed n [4 «| Zi 2 = | =| i HO By | Qo | wn 2 | < E nn MR | orl BH 18,1. 25. The author’s transliteration of Hebrew words resembles very much the present pronunciation of the Jews of Galizia. Between the ous om and DY the Arabic has the signs (»\»y, and the last word NYT is written age for both of whicl Skins : NR ~ which variations I am unable p- 18, 1 35. Since the time when. The Arabic translation of this ay not quite correct, and next to unintelligible. It betrays a certain likeness to the translation of the Syriac Bibl ita ; : e (P i this passage is rendered by— 4 nme Lou Zany wooull holes jas) hol Soo “ And from the time when the sacrifice i i i asses away, p be given to destruction.” P Rina Accordingly I read the Arabic text: Slat] (MN Ege jo lp) jp (sigh) dre although I am aware that this is bad and ungrammatical Arabic. On p- \% L 20, read ym with PL instead of ya. 3: 1 . ¢ i ¢ a 3 & : r 9,1. 12. Sum of 1335. Read ¥, instead of Lep iy on p. W, p. 19, 1. 22. Urishlim, i.e. Jerusalem, ete. The author gives to this pro- phecy of Daniel a wrong date. It falls into the first year of Ten: v. Dan. ix. 1, not in the time some years after the accession of Cyrus to the throne. This latter date the author has taken from Dan. x, 1 (“in the third year of Cyrus,” etc.), and Dan. x. 4. dh y Perhaps in the Arabic text (p., 1. 11) the word «¥ has fallen out between the words _sée and (yet. 1. 19, p. 81. And before this, etc. This is a blunder of the authors. It ought to be, “ And after this,” ete. 1. 20, p. 43. Jerusalem. Here, p. 17, 1. 21, and in all other passages (p. 16, 11. 1,13, etc.) the correct reading is RA «~ according to Yakit, i al BE pm ey x cn ¢ « Fh REBREEAE SET ! wt ii "4 i \ 8 4 HR 4 be § qe 374 ALBIRON{. « Geographisches Worterbuch,” iv. 590, not ediadY ew. In the follow- ing line, p. 18, 1. 1, read 3 instead of $t (Fleischer). p. 22,1. 17. For Muhammad, etc. Read sees’ instead of aes on p- 19,1. 3. p- 22, 1. 40. Almathndi. Read aly instead of sally; and in the following line read & _ instead of &b oe (p. 19, L 13). p. 23,1. 16. Legions of saints who, ete. This passage is of Koranic origin, and formed upon the pattern of Stra iii. 121. The idea of war- riors wearing certain badges (as e.g. the cross of the Crusaders) occurs also in a tradition, vide Albaidawl ad Stra iii. 121, and Lane, Arabic Dict. 8.0. ayes. p. 24, 1. 5. After Nebukadnezar had conquered, etc. The last source of this tradition regarding the origin of the version of the Seventy is the letter of Aristeas, well known to Biblical scholars, and now generally admitted to be apochryphal, vide De Wette, « Lehrbuch der historisch- kritischen Einleitung,’” edited by E. Schrader, part i. p. 92. p- 24,1. 28. And each couple, etc. Read and every one of them had got a servant to take care of him.” And in the Arabic, ¥\, 2, read Joy instead of (yey, &ley instead of welie, and 1. 3, \gxeay instead of &xay. On the same page, . 6, read Jy& instead of Jy. p. 25,1. 2. Allimasdsiyya. This name is derived from the expression os\ee 3 (“ do mot touch), in Stra xx. 97 ; vide S. de Sacy, « Chrestomathie Arabe,” i. pp. 839, 342, 344. It is identical with ’Afiyyavo, the Greek name of a heretical sect, vide Du Cange, ‘ Lexicon infime Grecitatis,” and ¢ Etymologicum Magnum,” ed. Gaisford. p. 25,1. 25. Anianus. The Arabic manuscripts give the name (mye! i.e. Athenceus; but the well-known Athenszus cannot be meant here. I prefer to read (ey\, Anianus. This author, an Egyptian monk, con- temporary of Panodorus, is known as a chronographer; he is quoted in the fragmentary chronology of Elias Nisibenus, cf. Forshall, “ Cata- logue of the Syriac MSS. of the British Museum,” p. 86, col. 2, no. 5. p. 25,1. 28. Ibn-albazydr, from whose Kitab-alkirdnAt the author has taken the statement of Anianus, was a pupil of Habash, and lived in the 9th century, vide “ Kitab-alfihrist, p. 276. p. 26,1. 80. But no male children, etc. Read (y= 3 instead of uy» 3, p. '¥, 20. ANNOTATIONS. 375 p.- 27,1. 5. Now Joseph and Mary, etc. Read 3U instead of \3U, on p. 'V, 6, and \&b instead of _&b, 1. 15 (Fleischer). p- 28,1. 11. It is related that Tahmirath, ete. The last source of this report is the Book on the Differences of the Canons (astronomical hand- books), by Abu-Ma‘shar, cf. “Kitab-alfihrist,”” p. 240, and also “ Hamze Ispahanensis Annalium,” libri x. ed. Gottwaldt, p. 197. The word pyle in this report, p. 24, 1. 9, means scientific books, as also in the “ Kitdb-alfihrist,” p. 240, 1. 28: “ And he ordered a great quantity of scientific books (8,25 Leyle) to be transported from his storehouses to that place.” p- 28, 1. 16. Least exposed, etc. Read \gve instead of &we, on p. 24, 1. 10. p. 28,1. 23. That Gayomarth was not, etc. The same tradition occurs in the chronicle of Ibn-Alathir, ed. Tornberg, i. p. 34, 1. 5. p- 28, 1. 34. Some genealogists make the Lid of Genesis x. (in Arabic 3,9) the father of the Persians, Hyrcanians, of Tasm and Amalek, ete. (Tbn-Alathir, i. 56). The Arabs have mistaken the Hebrew DMN (Emaet, the original inhabitants of the country of Moab) for a singular, and for the name of a man ("Amim ben Lad, Ibn-Alathir, i. 56). p. 29, 1. 4. Abi-Ma‘shar, a native of Balkh, one of the fathers of astrology among the Arabs. He wrote numerous books on all branches of astrology, many of which are still extant in the libraries of Europe. He lived in Bagdad, was a contemporary of Alkindi, and died a.m. 272, at Wasit. Cf. « Kitab-alfihrist.” p. ¥¥v and notes ; Otto Loth, Alkindi als Astrolog,” p. 265. In the middle-ages he was well known also in Europe as Albumaser, and many of his works have been translated into Latin ; whilst modern philology has hitherto scarcely taken any notice of him. Wherever Albériini quotes him, he wages war against him, and, to judge by the quotations from his books which our author gives, it seems that the literary work of Abfi-Ma‘shar does not rest on scientific bases. p- 29, 1. 18. On the star-cycles, cf. J. Narrien, “ Historical account of the Origin and Progress of Astronomy,” London, 1833, p. 112. p- 29, 1. 28. Days of Arjabhaz and days of Arkand. According to Reinaud, “Mémoire sur I'Inde,” p. 322, the correct form of the former name would be Aryabhatta, and the latter would be the Sanskrit ahargana. Albérini made a new edition of the Days of Arkand, putting it into clearer words and more idiomatic Arabic, since the then existing trans- lation was unintelligible, and followed too closely the Sanskrit original, vide my “ Einleitung,” p. x1, in the edition of the Arabic text. - I TR Ny EE - Th aa _ RC RT BP Tt A ei # “—a—y = REE a » lo = - - AA 376 ALBIRONI. p. 29,1. 31. Muhammed ben Ishik ben Ustadh Bundidh Alsarakhsi, and Abéi-alwafd Muhammad ben Muhammad Albtzjani. : The latter was born at Bizjn in the district of Nishiptr, o.u. 328, he settled in ‘Irak, A.H. 348, and died 887. Cf. Sédillot, « Prolégoménes,” p. 58; “ Kitab-alfihrist,” p. 283 ; Ibn-Alathir, ix. av, 3. The former scholar is not known to me. p- 81,1. 15. In Hebrew, “ Nebukadnezar.” In the Arabic, tv, 3, read J\eide ys instead of jlaidep (De Goeje, Noeldeke). p. 31,1. 85. Callippus was one of the number, ete. Behind the words &ogs | (2% (vey there seems to lurk a gross blunder of the copyists. p. 32, 1. 16. Zoroaster, who belonged to the sect, ete. The passage, Libyadl as 42, YA, 2, seems hopelessly corrupt. My translation is entirely conjectural («ise (pe 429). p. 32,1. 22. Philip the father of Alexander. This is a mistake of the author's. He ought to have said : Philip the brother of Alexander. The source of this statement regarding the era of Philippus Arrideeus is Theon Alexandrinus, TIpéxepot kavéves, ed. Halma, p. 26; cf. I. Ideler, « Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie,” ii. 630. p. 33, 1. 8. Habib ben Bihriz, metropolitan of Mosul, is known as one of those scholars who translated Greek books into Arabic at the time of the Khalif Alma’mén (a.m 198-218). Cf. “Kitéb-alfihrist,” p. 244, 1.7; p. 248,1. 27; p. 249, 1. 4. p.83.1. 18. ’Akmad ben Sahl. This man of Sasanian origin was a Dihkdn (i.e. great landholder) in the district of Marw. He played a great rile in the history of his time, and was commander-in-chief to several princes of the house of Simin. His history is related by Ibn- Alathir, viii. 86 ; « Histoire des Samanides,” par M. Defrémery, Paris, 1845, p. 134. p. 33.1. 28. It was Augustus who, etc. On the origin of the Ara Augusti, cf. Theon Alexandrinus, Mpdyepor. Kavdves, ed. Halma, p. 30, 1. 32; Ideler, “ Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chrono- logie,” i. 153 ff. p. 33, 1. 34. Ptolemy corrected, ete. The source of this information is Ptolemy, pabypariky ovvrais, book vii. ch. 4 (ed. Halma, tom. ii. p. 30). p. 33, 1. 44. The prognostics, JS\adt, are questions relating to the decrees of the stars (py plot (3). The books on this subject con- tain the astrological answers to all sorts of questions, and the methods by which these answers are found. ANNOTATIONS. 377 p. 34, L 7. Maimiin ben Mihrdn, a dealer in cloths and stuffs of linen and cotton, was at the head of the administration of the taxes of Northern Mesopotamia (Aljazira) under the Khalif Omar ben ‘Abd- al‘aziz, and died A.=H. 117; vide Ibn-Kutaiba, ¢ Kitab-alma‘arif ”’ ed. Wiis- tenfeld, p. 228. p- 34,1. 26. Alsha‘bi, i.e. ‘Amir ben Sharidhil ben ‘Abd Alsha‘bi, of South-Arabian origin, was born in the second year of the reign of ‘Uth- mén ; he was secretary to several great men of his time, e.g. to ‘Abdallah ben Yazid, the governor of Alkdfa, for the Khalif Ibn-alzubair, and died A.H. 105 or 104; vide Ibn-Kutaiba, ¢“ Kitib-alma‘arif,” p. 229. p. 86, 1. 10. Reform of the calendar by the Khalif Almu‘tadid. Cf. Ibn-Alathir, vii. p. 325. p- 86,1. 14. Abii-Bakr Alsili, i.e. Muhammad ben Yahyd ben ‘Abdal- lah ben Al‘abbds, most famous as a chess-player in his time, the com- panion of several Khalifs, died a.m. 335 or 336, at Basra. In his Kitib- alaurdk he related the history of the Khalifs, and gave a collection of their poems and those of other princes and great men. Cf. Ibn- Khallikin, ed. Wiistenfeld, nr. 659, and “ Kitab-alfihrist,” p. 150. p. 86,1. 19. ‘Ubaid-alldh ben Yahyd ben Khikén was made the Vazir of the Khalif Almutawakkil, A.5. 236 (Ibn-Alathir, vii. 37), and died AH. 263 (loc. cit. p. 215). p- 86, 1. 42. Khilid ben ‘Abdallah Alkasri was made governor of Al‘irik by the Khalif Hishim ben ‘Abd-almalik a.m. 105 (Ibn-Alathir, v. 93), and held this office during 15 years, till aA.m. 120, (loc. cit. p. 167). Cf. Ibn-Kutaiba, *“ Kitab-alma‘arif,” p. 203. p. 87,1. 6. The Barmak family were accused of adhering secretly to the religion of Zoroaster, cf. « Kitab-alfihrist,” p. 338, 1. 14. p. 87, 1. 9. Ibrihim ben Al‘abbis Alsili, an uncle of the father of Ab{i-Bakr Alstli (on p. 36, 1. 14), a most famous poet and high official of the Khalif in Surra-man-ra‘q, died a.m. 243. The family of Sili, a family of poets, of eloquent and learned men, of whom several acquired a great fame, descended from a princely house of Hyrcania. According to our author, p. 109, 1. 44, the princes of Dahistin were called Sal. For the biography of Ibrihim and the history of his family, vide Ibn-Khalli- kan, nr. 10 (ed. Wiistenfeld). p. 87,1. 19. These verses of Albuhturi form part of a larger poem in the poet’s diwin which exists in the Imperial Court-Library at Vienna (Mixt. 125 £. 293, 294), vide Fligel’s Catalogue, i. 436. p. 38, I. 5. ‘All ben Yahyi was famous in his time as an astro- nomer and poet, and as a friend of several Khalifs. He died A.H. 275 at : Surra-man-ra‘d. Ibn-Khallikin, nr. 479. He was one of a whole family 25 Sa 378 ALBIRONG. of distinguished poets and scholars who traced their origin back to Yazdagird, the last Sasanian king. Cf. « Kitab-alfihrist,” p. 143. p- 39,1. 16. On these mythological traditions, cf. L. Krehl, ¢ Die Religion der Vorislamischen Araber,” Leipzig, 1863, p. 83; Almas‘adi, « Prairies d’or,” ed. B. de Meynard, iv. 46; Ibn-Alathir, ed. Tornberg, ii. 30. p. 39,11. 83. Band-Kuraish. In the Arabic, p. 34, 1.12, read God instead of (td; and p. 34, line 18, read (5 instead of (*3 (Fleischer). p. 39, 1. 34. The following famous battle-days of the ancient Arabs are well known to Arab historians. For more detailed information I refer to the chronicle of Ibn-Alathir, of which nearly one half of tom. i. (p. 820 ft.) is dedicated to this subject. Cf. also Ibn Kutaiba,® “ Kitab- alma‘arif,” p. 293; ‘“Arabum Proverbia,” ed. Freytag, tom. iil. p. 553 ff. The pronunciation of the word Alfadd (p. 39, 1. 44) seems doubtful. Yakit, iii. 804, mentions Alghadd, a place in the district of the Banf- Kilib, where once a battle took place. Therefore it would perhaps be preferable to read “ The day of Alyhadd.” p. 40,1. 26. On this war of Alfijir, in which Muhammad took part, cf. A. Sprenger, “ Das Leben und die Lehre des Mohammad,” i. 351, 423. p. 40, 1. 35. Notwithstanding, we have stated, etc. This passage proves that there is a lacuna in the order of the chronological tables, such as exhibited by the manuscripts. According to the author, his work con- tained also the tables of the princes of South-Arabia and of Alhira, but no such tables are found in the manuscripts. Their proper place would have been between the Sasanians and the Khalifs (after p. 128), but the table of the Khalifs is lost, too. I am inclined to believe that the author had scarcely any other in- formation but that of Hamza Alisfahni (transl. by Gottwaldt, pp. 73 and 96). The manuscript of the University Library of Leyden proves a considerable help for the emendation of Hamza’s work, but more manu- scripts will be wanted before a reliable and clear text can be made out. p- 40, 1. 89. For the following report on the antiquities of Chorasmia I refer to my treatise, Zur Geschichte und Chronologie von Khwdrizm I., published in the “ Sitzungsberichte der Kais. Academi¢ de Wissen- schaften in Wien,” Philosophisch-historische Classe, 1873, p. 471 ff. p.41,1. 7. On the name of Afrigh, vide my treatise Conjectur zu Ven- didad, i. 34, in * Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlindischen Gesell- schaft,” xxviii. p. 450. ANNOTATIONS. 379 p- 41, 1. 23. Piece by piece. Read \ell3 instead of \ells (text, p. 35, 1. 16 (Fleischer). p. 41,11. 33, 41. I prefer to read Azkdkhwdr instead of Azkajawir; also p. 42, 1. 26. p. 43,1. 24. The chief source of all information of eastern authors regarding Alexander is the book of Pseudo-Callisthenes (edited by C. Miiller, Paris, 1846, Didot). The book has been treated with the same liberty both in east and west, and it seems that the eastern transla- tions have not less differed from each other than the various Greek manuscripts of the book. The passage p. 44, 1. 30 ff. does not occur so in the Greek original, but something like it, cf. book ii. ch. 20, p. 77. The murderer of Darius, p. 44, lL. 8, has a Sasanian name (Nau- jushanas), whilst in the original there are two murderers, Bessus and Artabarzanes (ii. 20). That Nebukadnezar is introduced into the tale, occurs also elsewhere—Mas‘tdi, « Prairies d’or,” ii. 247 ; Tabari (Zoten- berg), i. 516. That Alexander was originally a son of Darius, is the tradition of the Shahnima of Firdausi, vide also Tabari, i. 512; Ibn- Alathir, i. 199, 1. For more information I refer to Fr. Spiegel, “ Die Alexandersage bei den Orientalen,” Leipzig, 1851. p- 45, 1. 8. Ibn-‘Abd-Alrazzik Altisi. A man of this name, i.e. Ibn ‘Abd-alrazzik is mentioned in the history of the Buyide prince Rukn- aldaula, by Ibn-al’athir, viii. p. 396, among the events of A.H. 349. p- 45,1. 5. Abt-Ishdk Ibrahim ben Hilil, the Sibian, was the secre- tary of the Buyide prince ‘Izz-aldaula Bakhtiyér, famous as an eloquent writer in prose and verse. He died a.m. 384, or, according to another statement, before A.u. 380. Cf.“ Kitab-alfihrist,” p. 134; Ibn-Khallikén, nr. 14; F. Wilken, Mirchond’s ¢“ Geschichte der Sultane aus dem Ge- schlechte Bujeh,” Berlin, 1835, p. 105. The title of his book (p. 45, 1. 6) read Altdji instead of Altdy. On the pedigree of the family of Buwaihi, cf. Ibn-Kutaiba, “ Kitab- alma‘arif,” p. 86; Ibn-Alathir, viii. 197; F. Wiistenfeld, Genealogische Tabellen T. 10 and Register, p. 152. Most of the names which occur in this pedigree are also found in Sehir-eddin’s “ Geschichte von Tabaristan, Rujan und Mazandaran,” ed. Dorn, p. 101, and the whole pedigree, loc. cit. p. 175. p. 45,1. 9. Read yywalss instead of ywa\sb (text, p. 38, 1. 8). p- 45, 1. 22. Abi-Muhammad Alhasan ben ‘Ali ben Nini, mentioned as the author of a history of the Buyide princes, is not known to me. 380 ALBIRONI. p. 46, 1.8. Read Jub instead of Jub (text, p.88, 1. 10); and Jub instead of Jebt (p. 38,1. 11). Read sed instead of (sme (p- 88, 1. 11). p. 46,1. 12. The names of Lahti and Layéhaj (p. 15) are unknown to me ; perhaps they have some sort of relation with the word Ldhijin, ©\s23, which is the name of one of the two capitals of Ghilan, cf. Dorn, « Sehir-eddin’s Geschichte von Tabaristdn,” ete. Vorwort, p. 11, note 1. p. 47,1. 23. Qhilin. Read Jeo\ instead of JesV (text, p. 39,1 5). p. 47, 1. 25. Asfir ben Shirawaihi. Under the Khalifate of Almuk- tadir (a.m. 295-320) the party of the Alides tried to occupy the countries south of the Caspian Sea, Tabaristin, Dailam, Ghilin and Jurjén, fighting against the troops of the Samanian princes of Khurisin and those of the Khalif. The first Alide whose efforts were crowned with success was Hasan ben ‘All, called Alndsir Al'utrush, about a.m. 302. Soon, however, the generals of the Alide princes, Laila ben Alnu‘man, Makan ben Kaki, Asfir ben Shirawaihi, were more successful than they themselves. The latter, Asfir, who abandoned the party of the Alides, succeeded, A.H. 315, in occupying Tabaristin, and in rendering himself an independent ruler. He did not long enjoy the fruits of his labours. After having made himself thoroughly unpopular, he was killed by his generals, at the head of whom was Mardiwij, A.H. 316. Mardawij was now the ruler of Tabaristin and Jurjin, and tried to extend his sway over the neighbouring countries. He was the founder of a dynasty who held the supreme power in those countries during one hundred and fifty years. He abandoned the party of the Alides, and adopted the black colour of the Abbasides. To the Khalif he made himself so formidable that he was invested and proclaimed as the legitimate governor of all the provinces which his sword had conquered. Cf. Weil, « Geschichte der Khalifen,” ii. 613-621. A history of this man and of his descendants is found in Sehir-eddin’s “Geschichte von Tabariston, Rujan und Mazandaran,” ed. by Dorn, 1850, on pp. 171-201 and 322. Mardawij was a _ks, i.e. native of Ghilin (not (ke, native of Aljabal or Media). The name of his father is written ,bj and oj, and I have not been able to make out which form is the correct ome. In Sehir- eddin’s chronicle, the name is always written ,b;. In the text, 1, 6, read Jeo instead of Jas. Between the words &, and y& (line 6), there seems to be a lacuna which I have no means of filling up. This lacuna is the reason why the following words do not offer a clear meaning. It is not clear who was the son of Warddnshih who instigated Mardawij to free the people from the tyranny of Asfar. ANNOTATIONS. 381 p. 47,1. 29. Khurdsin. Read g\ty, ¥, 8, instead of limped. The name Farkhwdrjirshdh may possibly be identical with that name which Anéshirwéin is said to have had as the governor of Tabaristin in the lifetime of his father, Hamza Isfahini, ed. Gottwaldt, ¢, 3,4. Cf. 5S olyah and 86S Ohya in Sehir-eddin’s “Chronik von Tabaristan,” ed. Dorn, pp. 19, 81, 42; P. de Lagarde, “ Beitrige zur Baktrischen Lexiko- graphie,” p. 50 ff. p- 47,1. 30. In the text on p. 39, read IY instead of «al, 1. 9; Jas instead of JS, 1.18; and Eyylalt instead of Eyal, 1. 19 (Fleischer). p. 47, 1. 32. The Ispahbad Rustam, the uncle of Shams-alma‘dli is also mentioned by Ibn-Alathir, viii. 506. To a son of this Rustam, Marzubén ben Rustam, the Ispahbad of Jiljilan, our author has dedi- cated one of his books, vide my edition of the text, Einleitung, p. xl nr. 7. The history of the ancestors of the Ispahbad Rustam is related in Sehir-eddin’s “ Geschichte von Tabaristan,” etc., ed. Dorn, pp. 201-210, 270, 822. They are called “the family of Biwand.” In p. 47, 11. 34 and 38, read yy» instead of gs. Cf. Yakit, “ Geo- graphisches Worterbuch,” iii. 283. p. 48,1. 5. The same pedigree of the house of Simin is also given by Ibn-al’athir, vii. 192, and in the geography of Ibn-Haukal, pp. 344, 345. p. 48, 1. 16. The Shihs of Shirwdn. According to Kazwini, ¢ Athér- albilad,” p. 403, Shirwan was first colonized by Kisrd Andéshirwin. The kings of the country were called ¢\iwstl. Anéshirwin is said to have installed the first governor and prince of Shirwin, a relative of his family. Cf. Dorn, “ Versuch einer Geschichte der Shirwinshihe,” p. 12 and 25. Mas‘idi, “ Prairies d’or,” ii. 4, makes the Shirwanshdh of his time descend from Bahram-Gr. p. 48, 1. 24. Ubaid-Allih, etc., founded the empire of the Fitimide dynasty in Kairawin and Egypt, a.m. 296. He pretended to be a descendant of ‘Ali ben Abi-Talib. Cf. Ibn-Alathir, viii. 27; Ibn. Kutaiba, “ Kitab-alma‘arif,” p. 57; Weil, “ Geschichte der Chalifen,” ii. 598. That prince of this dynasty who ruled at the time of our author, Abi- ‘Ali ben Nizir, etc. (p. 48, 1. 31) was Khalif of Egypt, A.1. 386-411, and is better known under the name of Alhakim, cf. Ibn-Al’athir, ix. 83, 2; 82, 14; 221, 14. a TREY 22 ov, ANNOTATIONS. 383 p. 48,1. 41. I feel inclined to suppose that in this pedigree there is SELLY Sui, a lacuna between db and yyw, that <3 the son of Noah was ori- ginally the end of the first pedigree, and that the second commenced with Alexander ben Barka, ete. This opinion is supported by Mas‘adsi, « Prairies d’or,” ii. 248, and Spiegel, « Alexandersage,” p. 60. However, I must state that the pedigree—such as it is given by Albérini—also occurs in Mas‘tdi, ii. 293, 294, and Ibn-Al’athir, i. 200, 5-9. If, there- fore, there is a lacuna, as I suppose, it is a blunder of older date, and must have occurred already in the source whence all, Mas‘tdi, Albe- rini, and Ibn-al’athir have drawn. ; p. 53, 1. 84. Read ’ . ’ » ; ES 0 STC EE ' : wn 4 fd] : | o bs Ho ® : 4 ¥ SE p. 49, 1. 87. On the supposed South-Arabian origin of Dhi-alkarnain, vide Mas“idl, « Prairies d’or,” ii. 244, 249; A. v. Kremer, “Siidarabische Sage,” pp. 70-75; Hamza, transl. p. 100. p- 49,1. 41. The name Subaik occurs also in Ibn-Hishdm. The life of Muhammad, i. 486. It seems to be the diminutive of wet 'Asbak (Ibn-Duraid, “ Kitab-alishtikdk,” p. 41), as Nu‘aim m= is the diminu- tive of *An‘am p=\ according to Ibn-Duraid, loc. cit. p- 85, 1. 14. Another name of the same root is glee in Hamza, ed. Gottwaldt, p. 132. The spelling of the name Alhammdl, 1. 34, is uncertain. : For the spelling of the name Tan‘um, vide Ibn-Duraid, loc. cit. p. 84, note. p. 50, 1. 4. Fever-water. _Read muddy water. Read Le instead of = (text, p. 41, 1. 8), and read y=3\ instead of yo (text, p. 41,1 5) (Flei- scher). p. 50, 1. 7. The following reasoning occurs already in Hamza, transl. p- 100. p. 50, L. 26. Ibn-Khurdddhbih was postmaster in Media, and wrote about the middle of the third century of the Flight (between 240-260). His geographical work has been edited and translated by B. de Mey- nard, “Journal Asiatique,” 1865. to me from any other source; vide p. 107, 1. 40 and p. 204, 1. 14. Read (» =31 instead of (s'y=y31 (text, p. 44, 1. 6). p. 54,1. 29. Read WY, instead of Jw, (text, p. 44, 1. 15). p. 54, 1. 39. The reason why the Persians did not like to increase the number of days of the year was, according to Mas‘adi, iii. 416, that thereby the established sequence of lucky and unlucky days would have been disturbed. p. 55,1. 3. The words 1. 5-27 do not in the least harmonize with the preceding, which makes me believe that after the word Adhar-Mih there is a gap, although the manuscripts do not indicate it. The explanation which is commenced in 1l. 3, 4, is continued in 1. 28 ff. p. 56, 1. 7. Yazdajird Alhiziri is also mentioned by Yakft, “ Geogra- phisches Worterbuch,” iv. 970. Yiékt may have drawn his information from this book. p.- 56, 1. 22. As these names, the scanty remnants of a long-lost Eranian dialect, are of considerable philological interest, I shall add the readings of the Canon Masudicus of Albérfini according to two manu- _ scripts, MS. Elliot (now the property of the British Museum, dated SE AE RL a tal Sr a arent 384, ALBIRONT. Bagdad, 4.1. 570, Rabi‘ I.), and MS. Berlin (the property of the Royal Library, acc. ms. 10, 311, or MSS. Orr. 8°. 275). : MS. Elliot, f. 14a. MS. Berlin. Sy? Oyas (HS © $ & ad Sn 4 tase lial toss Lay fists po Yarsype aut oh &p Ep Syblme Eble ay iy pyre 5 Whoever wants to explain these names will also have to consult the six manuscripts of the Kitdb-altafhim of our author, and the most ancient copy of the Canon Masudicus in the Bodleian Library. : In this book Albériini does not mention the months of the Armenians, but I have found them in a copy of the “Kitab-altafhim” (MS. of the Bodleian Library) in the following form (p. 165) : Syl (gp (shee (gp upd (read RS) eee «hl Slag (1) be eiSbe (read Sle) (rioyd (MS... 9y2) Cf. E. Dulaurier, “Récherches sur la chronologie Armenienne,” P- 2. p. 57,1.17. I am sorry to state that there are no tables of these Chorasmian names in the Canon Masudicus, nor in the Kitab- altafhim.” : The form est (p. 57,1. 2) reminds one of the Cappadocian name Ocpav, vide Benfey und Stern, «Ueber die Monatsnamen einiger alter Volker,” Berlin, 1836, pp. 110-113. a The name do (name of the 8th, 15th, and 23rd days) is, like the Persian Dai, to be retraced to Dadhvdo (Benfey and Stern, ib. pp. 109, 110). > corresponding Sogdian name (p. 56) is written was, which is, perhaps, a metathesis for (¢, which would be equal to Dathushd, the genitive of Dadhvdo, and would resemble the Cappadocian Aafovoa (Ben- fey und Stern, i. p. 79). ; The reader will easily recognize the relationship between the Sogdian and Chorasmian names of the days of the month and the Persian names ; this is more difficult in the case of some of the names of the months. ANNOTATIONS. 385 p.- 58, 1.10. And relied, ete. Read yy instead of ya (text, p. 48, 1. 14). Re p- 58,1. 16. Dai, vide note ad p. 57,1. 17. p. 58,133. It is not known that the Egyptians called the single days of the month by special names. p- 59,1.3. On the names of the Egyptian months, their forms and meanings, vide R. Lepsius, “ Chronologie der Aegypter,” pp. 134-142. p- 59, 1. 22. The small month. The Coptic name for the Epagomensm is p abot m kowji, “the small month,” cf. R. Lepsius, “ Chronologie der Aegypter,” p. 145; and this book, p. 137, 1. 22. On the Egyptian names of the 5 Epagomens, cf. R. Lepsius, loc. cit. pp. 146, 147. p- 59, 1. 25. Ladl. It seems, one must read this word kas), since the Coptic word for leap-year is Faron, i.e. 'Eraxrj, as Mr. L. Stern kindly informed me. In that case the author was wrong in translating the word by &ede 4.e. signum. p- 99, 1. 26. Abt-al‘abbds Alamuli, the author of a book on the Kibla, is mentioned by Haji Khalifa, iii. p. 286. His full name is Ab- al‘abbas Ahmad b. Abi-’Ahmad Altabari Alimuli, known as Ibn-alkass, and he died a.m. 335. The months which this author ascribes to the People of the West are our names of months in forms which can hardly be traced back to a Latin source (ancient Spanish ?). I suppose that by the People of the West he means the inhabitants of Spain. p. 60, 1. 21. Kitdb-ma’khadh-almawdikit. This book is not known to me. p. 61,1. 1. Twenty-four hours are = 86,400 seconds, which, divided by 729, give a quotient of 118378. p. 61,1. 13. Read piaxt instead of pissed} (text, p. 51, 1. 17). p- 61, 1. 45. Thabit ben Kurra was born a.m. 221 and died 288; vide “ Kitab-alfihrist,” p. 272, and notes. On his astronomical theories, vide Delambre, ““ Histoire de I’astronomie du moyen age,” p. 73. On the family of the Banii-Masa vide “ Kitab-alfihrist,” p. 271. Mu. hammad died A.=H. 259. p. 62,1. 16. The Hebrews and all the Jews. The word ‘Ibrdni= Hebrew, .was a learned name, known only to scholars; it meant that people of 26 A Seng Sap oP eg it A b as “ ong ‘ cm i ‘ " of fi i WN A iE 4 i 8c} 2 ah Bh Mi ail | f i 8 ! Au fi! % =% z ————t rx ene i : a hs ao f Flaps om. AE me wer ; ? A A of Rie a ad. wo is iis bs Can cn a oo A a Shou Sa = = 4 o- - on A 386 ALBIRONT. antiquity who spoke the Hebrew tongue and who lived in Syria under the law of Moses. Jew is a popular name which means the descen- dants of that people, who no longer live in Syria, but are scattered all over the world, who no longer speak Hebrew, but who still live under the law of Moses. p. 62, 1.18. The names of the months of the Jews occur also in Assyrian, cf. E. Norris, “ Assyrian Dictionary,” p. 50. Part of the following chapter has been edited by S.de Sacy, ¢ Chresto- mathie Arabe,” i. p. M (taken from Almakrizi). p. 62, 1. 40. Remember the day,” ete. This quotation is an extract from Exodus xiii. 8, 4 (Deut. xvi. 1). The words in that month when the trees blossom are the rendering of the Hebrew JYINFT wa. The month ’Abib has always been identified with Nisin by the whole exege- tical tradition of both Jews and Christians, but I do not see for what reason. p. 63,1. 15. This view, that Adhar II. is the leap-month, was held by the Karaeans, according to Eliah ben Mose in Selden, “ Dissertatio de civili anno Judaico,” cap. v. p. 166 ("2 TR AMR M2YD MN). p. 63, 1. 31. On the invention of the Octaeteris by Cleostratos of Tenedos (about 500 B.c.) vide Ideler, “ Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie,” ii. 605. The cycle of 19 years is the cycle of Meton, invented about 432 B.C. vide Ideler, loc. eit. i. 297 ff. The cycle of 76 years is the improvement of the Metonian cycle by Callippus of Cyzicus (about 330 B.c.), Ideler, loc. cit. i. 299, 344. The cycle of 95 years (5x19) has been used by Cyrillus for the com- putation of Easter, vide Ideler, loc. cit. p. 259. The cycle of 532 (=19x 28) was invented by the Egyptian monk Anianus, vide Ideler, loc. cit. pp. 277, 451. p. 63,1. 87. In the author's statement regarding the 4th cycle of 95 years there is a mistake: we must read 1,175 months instead of 1,176 months. The synodical month or one lunation is=29 d. 12h. 793 H. 1,176 lunations=34,727 d. 23 h. 528 H=900,149,208 H. If we divide this sum by the length of the solar year, i.e. 365 d. poo h,=9,467,190 H, we get as quotient 95 (years), and a remainder of 29 d. 13 h. 438 H, i.e. 1 lunation plus 725 H., i.e. one lunation too much. If we reckon 1,175 lunations, we get as the remainder 725 H., and sos inp Lan ANNOTATIONS, 387 this result is correct, because it is five times the remainder of the cycle of 19 years, of which this cycle is a five times multiplication. 95 years = 5x19 1,175 lunations = 5x235 35 leap-months = 5x7 725 H.remainder= 5x 145 This remainder represents the difference between the rotations of the sun and the moon at the end of the cycle. p. 64,1. 3. Halak, as I have written, according to the Arabic, is the Hebrew word sb, which in the Canon Masudicus is sometimes rendered by ks. Of the still smaller division of time, of the BY (one Réga’ =76 Halak), I have not found any trace in the works of Albérani. For the convenience of those who want to examine the following computations, I give a comparison between the Halaks and the other measures of time: IL 1 hour = 1,080 H 1 minute= 18 H. 1 IL — I H. 1 IIL i io H Rd = 1300 H- ly == TE0000 H. II. 1 Halak = +45 hour. 1H. = ;% minute. 1H. = 21 seconds. 1H. = 900 IL 1H = 12,000 IV. 14. = 720,000 V- III. 1,080 Halaks = 1 hour. 1 Halak = +5%7 h. 1 Réga‘ = 3455 h. In Jewish chronology there occur two kinds of years, the Julian year (in the calculation of R. Samuel), and a scientific year derived from the researches of Hipparchus, which is the basis of the calculation of R.’Adda bar ’Ahaba. The year which Albériini mentions, consisting of 365 d. 53751 h., is the year of R. ’Adda, equal to 365 d. 5 h. 997 H. 48 Rég. Cf. Lazarus Bendavid, “Zur Berechnung und Geschichte des Jiidischen Kalenders,” Berlin, 1817, p. 32. Regarding the origin of this year there cannot be any doubt. The [RAE SET a SEER - = -” “= ee 3 po a “ ‘ i i ' fi ! 3 § a 388 ALBIRONI. Jewish chronologists found it by dividing by 19 the Enneadecateris of Meton, which consists of 285 Hipparchical synodical months (7.e. 6,939 d. 16h. 595 H.). Tt will not be superfluous for the valuation of the following calcu- lations to point out the difference between the ancient Greek astrono- mers and the Jewish Rabbis who constructed the Jewish calendar. The elements for the comparison of the rotations of sun and moon are two measures: that of the length of the synodical month and that of the length of the solar year. When Meton and Callippus con- structed their cycles, these two measures had not yet been defined with a great degree of accuracy. Hence the deficiencies of their cycles. Centuries later, when the sagacity of Hipparchus had defined these two measures in such a way that modern astronomy has found very little to correct, comparisons between the rotations of sun and moon could be carried out with a much higher degree of accuracy. Thereby the Jewish chronologists were much better situated than Meton and Callippus, and the following calculations prove that they availed them- selves of this advantage. p. 64,1. 10. Computation of the Octaeteris and Enneadecateris. I. Octaeteris. The ancient Greeks counted the solar year as 365; days (i.e. too long), and the synodical month as 293 days (i.e. too short). The Jews counted— the solar year as 365 d. 53755 h. and the synodical month as 29 d. 12 h. 783 H. The 99 lunations of the Octaeteris, each lunation at 29 d. 12 h. 783 H., give the sum of— 2,923 d. 12h. 747 H. which is equal to the sum of— 75,777,867 H. If we divide this sum by the length of the solar year, i.e. 365 d. 3791 1) =9 467,190 H., we get as quotient 8 (years) and a remainder 4104 of— 1d. 13 h. 387 H. This would be the difference between the rotations of the sun and moon at the end of the first Octaeteris, i.e. the moon reached the end of her 99th rotation, when the sun had still to march during 1 d. 13 h. 387 H., till he reached the end of his 8th rotation. According to the calculations of the ancient Greeks, this difference ANNOTATIONS. 389 was less, viz. 1} days. Cf. L. Ideler, “ Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie,” i. p. 294 ff. As the author says, 387 Halaks do not correspond to 11 h. with mathe- matical accuracy (p. 64, 11. 24, 25). There is a difference of +1; h., for 387 ——— 43 T1080 h., = 120 h. whilst 1 ——— 4 4 1h = gh II. Enneadecateris. Meton discovered that 235 synodical months pretty nearly correspond to 19 solar years. In constructing his cycle of 19 years, he reckoned the solar year at 365% d., i.e. by -% d. longer than it had been reckoned in the Octaeteris (a mistake which afterwards Callippus strove to retrieve). More correct was the following Jewish calculation with Hip- parchic measures : 235 lunations, each = 29 d. 12 h. 793 H., give the sum of— 6,939 d. 165% h. = 179,876,755 H. If we divide this sum of Halaks by the length of the solar year of— 865d. 53121 h, = 9,467,190 H., we get as quotient 19 (years), and a remainder of only 145 H. According to this computation, the difference between the rotations of sun and moon at the end of the first Enneadecateris would not be more than 145 H., or 2% h., i.e. a little more than 1 h., or than 15 d., whilst, according to Callippus, this difference was greater, viz. 12 d. This reform of the Metonic Enneadecateris enabled the Jews to dispense with the 76 years cycle of Callippus, which he constructed of four-times the Enneadecateris with the omission of one day. The Jewish calculation is more correct than that of Callippus, who reckoned the solar year too long. p- 64, 1. 33. On the meaning of the word =m cf. an interesting chapter in the 527 “DD of Abraham Bar Chyiah, edited by H. Filipowski, London, 1851, book ii. ch. iv. (\ MMT DW tH"). At the beginning of this exposition (p. 64, L. 31, text, p. 55, 1. 8) there seems to be a lacuna. It is not likely that the author should intro- duce a technical foreign work (like Mahzdr) without having previously explained what it means (and this is not the case). p. 65. The difference of the Ordines intercalationis is caused and accounted for by the difference of the beginning of the Jewish Zra ; Munds. 5 i TR TRS SE ST ey 1 i eS i EEE xo a Re ii eo pa 7 ER 390 ALBIRONT. The world was created at the time of the vernal equinox, i.e. the Tek{ifat-NisAn. But the year as reckoned by the Jewish chronologists does not commence at the time of the vernal equinox, but at that of the autumnal equinox, i.e. the Tekifat-Tishri. Now, the question whence to begin the first year of the ira Mundi, has been answered in various ways. Some commence with the vernal equinox preceding the creation of the world, others with the first vernal equinox following after the creation of the world. Some counted the year in the middle of which the creation took place as the first, others counted the following year as the first year of the first Enneadecateris. Cf. =m NOD of Abraham bar Chyiah, iii. 7, p. 96. In conformity with this diffe- rence also the order of the leap-years within the Enneadecateris has been fixed differently. The Ordo intercalationis 321A), Which reckons the second (complete) year of the creation as the first year of the first Enneadecateris, occurs also in the valuable Teshiibhd (Responsum) of R. Hai Gaon ben Sherird, a contemporary of the author, vide Abraham bar Chyiah, p- 97, 1. 86. The Ordo intercalationis ITNT which has become canonical since and through Maimonides, is not mentioned by Albérini. The three Ordines intercalationis which the author has united in the circular figure, are constructed upon this principle: Of ithe seven intervals between each two leap-years, there are five intervals each of 2 years, and two intervals each of 1 year. p. 66, 1. 7. The solar cycle (mar =r) of 28 years consists of Julian years of 365} days. At the end of this cycle time returns to the same day of the week. Cf. TL. Ideler, «“ Handbuch,” ete., i. 72. p. 66, 1. 23. Of the five Dehiyyoth of the Jewish calendar YIN = - YR TTY TTA CEPA which are certain rules ordering a date, e.g. New-year’s-day, to be transferred from one week-day to another, our author mentions only the first one, viz. YN, i.e. the rule that New- year’s-day can never be a Sunday or a Wednesday or a Friday. The words that Passover by which the beginning of Nisin is regulated 1 understand in this way, that Passover, i.e. the 15th Nisan, and the 1st Nisan always fall on the same week-day. The rule YT is connected with the rule 72 i.e. that Passover shall never fall on a Monday, Wednesday, or Friday, in the following way : Passover must be the 163rd day from the end of the year. The divi- sion of 163 by 7 gives the remainder of 2. If New-year's-day were a Sunday, the last day of the preceding year would be a Saturday, and the 163rd day from the end would be a Friday. If New-year's-day were a Wednesday, the 163rd day from the end would be a Monday. ANNOTATIONS. 391 If New-year’s-day were a Friday, the 163rd day from the end would be a Wednesday. Cf. Lewisohn, “Geschichte und System des Jidischen Kalenderwesens,” Leipzig, 1856, § 92, § 127. On the correspondence between the four days that can be New-year’s- Gi i DY M12) and Passover, cf. Abraham bar Chyiah, ii. ch. 9. p. 67, 11. 28, 85. I should prefer to read JWad! instead of Jat and pale (ob instead of ye pales (pe (text, p. 57, 11. 18 and 21). p. 68,1. 4. On the calculation of the arc of vision NIT NUWH te. that part of the moon’s rotation between conjunction and the aromant of her becoming visible at some place, vide Selden, ‘Dissertatio de anno civili Judaico,” cap. xiii. ; Lazarus Bendavid, ¢ Zur Geschichte und Berechnung des Jidischen Kalenders,” § 86. The mean motion of the moon is called in Hebrew YIN Term, the real motion YANN Term, vide Maimonides, {3-117 wh, vi. 1; xi. 15. p. 68, 1. 82. Pariah ty is a Biblical name, vide 1 Kings iv. 17. p.68,1.85. If the Miladites commenced the month with the moment of the conjunction, they differed from the Rabbanites in this, that the latter made the beginning of the month (e.g. the beginning of the first month or New-year’s-day) depend not alone upon conjunction, but also upon certain other conditions, e.g. the condition IY (Lazarus Bendavid, § 36). The Rabbanites tried in everything to assimilate their calendar, based upon the astronomical determination of conjunction, to the more ancient calendar which had been based upon the observation of New Moon. The conservative tendency of this reform of the Jewish calendar is pointed out by A. Schwarz, “Der Jiidische Kalender,” pp. 59-61. Cf. also Abraham bar Chyiah 532377 “DD; p. 68, L. 6; p.69, 1. 21. . La 1. 36. Read \;d\ instead of \@\ as plural of (5 (text, p. 58, p. 69, 1. 5. ‘Andn, the founder of the great schism in the Jewish world, lived in Palestine in the second half of the 8th century. For his history, vide Graetz, “Geschichte der Juden,” ii. ed., tom. v. p. 174; for ‘Anan’s reform of the calendar, ib. p. 454. The pedigree of ‘Anén has been the subject of much discussion, vide Graetz, ib. pp. 417, 418, and J. Triglandii, “ Notitia Karaeorum,” Ham- burg, 1714, p. 46. p. 69, 1. 25. Read 3z{ instead of Se (text, p- 59, 1. 9). p. 70,1. 16. Read Y instead of J (text, p. 60, 1. 4, after Sly y\). 392 ALBIRONY. p- 72, 1. 86. Ismd‘il ben ‘Abbid, born a.m. 326, was Vazir to the Buyide princes Mu’ayyid-aldaula, and afterwards to Fakhr-aldaula. He died a.m. 885. Cf. Ibn-Alathir, ix. p. 77. The same man is quoted by Albérini as the Sihib, p. 94, 1. 19. On this title, vide Hammer, “ Linder- verwaltung unter dem Khalifat,” pp. 34, 35; “ Abulfedee Annales Mos- lemici,” ii. p. 586. p- 74, 1. 7. The farewell pilgrimage is described by A. Sprenger, “Leben und Lehre des Mohammad,” iii. p. 515 ff. On Muhammad’s prohibiting intercalation, etc., i. p. 534 ff. Read &s= instead of d= (text, p. 63,11. 1,8). (Fleischer.) p- 74,1. 15. Ibn-Duraid, a famous philologist of the school of Basra, died A.m. 821, in Bagdad. Cf. G. Fligel, “ Grammatische Schulen der Araber,” p. 101. p. 74, 1. 25. Abi-Sahl ‘sd ben Yahy4 Almasihi, a Christian physician, was a contemporary of Albériini, who lived at the court of ‘All ben Ma'miin and Ma’mén ben Ma’'min, princes of Khwirizm. The year of his death is not known; probably he died between a.m. 400-403. Cpr. Wiistenfeld, “ Geschichte der Arabischen Aerzte und Naturfor- scher,” p. 59, or. 118. p. 75, 1. 26. Read \e~ instead of \eb (text, p. 64, 1 6, (met) po \ge). p. 76,1. 86. Abh-‘Abdallah Ja‘far ben Muhammad Alsadik is one of the twelve Imams of the Shi‘a. He was born A.H. 80, and died A.H. 146. On the sect who derived their name from him, vide Shahristani, ed. Cureton, p. 124. Cf. also Wiistenfeld, “ Geschichte der Arabischen Aerzte und Naturforscher,” nr. 24. p. 77,1. 4. This tradition occurs in Bukhari, “ Recueil des traditions Mahométanes,” ed. L. Krehl, i. p. 474. The other traditions to which the author refers in the course of his discussion (p. 78) are also men- tioned by Bukhari, i. 476 ff. Cf. the Muwatta’ of Malik ben ’Anas, ed. Blak, ii. chap. 84. p. 77,1. 22. Read 8paSY, instead of 8,0, (text, p. 65, 1. 14), and 3 instead of V3 (p. 65, 1. 15). (Fleischer.) p. 80,1 4 Read Jk, instead of Jha (text, p. 67, 1. 17). p. 80,1. 5. The same fact is related by Ibn-Al'athir, vi. p. 3. In con- sequence of his killing ‘Abd-alkarim, the governor of Kifa, Muhammad was removed from his office A.u. 155 (or 153). The story shows that the ANNOTATIONS. 393 falsification of tradition has at certain times been practised wholesale in the Muslim world. Ibn-’abi-al‘aujd, also mentioned in “Kitab-alfihrist,” p- 338, L. 9. p. 80, 1. 27. Read and its origin instead of and of its original, ete. Read &loY, instead of akel, (text, p. 68, 1. 4). (Fleischer.) p. 80, 1. 84. Read wlye instead of whys (text, p. 68, 1.6), and goad — Basin = Jazaadly (text, p. 68, 11. 9, 10), as in the manuscripts. p- 82, col. 1. Kubéd was the second largest town of Farghéna, not far from Shash. It is described by Ibn-Haukal, p. 394; Ydakit, iv. 24. The word «h)\sy («h\s) I have not been able to explain hitherto. Perhaps the word bears some relation to Y,\e i.e. Bukhira. p- 82, coll. 1, 8. The names of col. 1 are in use among the eastern Turks (of Kashghar and Yarkand), vide R. B. Shaw, “ A Sketch of the Turki Language as spoken in Eastern Turkistan,” Lahore, 1875, p- 77; J. Grave, “ Epoch celebriores,” London, 1650, p. 5. The names of col. 8 seem to be in disorder; they mean: The Great Month, the Small Month, the First Month, the Second Month, the Sixth Month, the Fifth Month, the Eighth Month, the Ninth Month, the Tenth Month, the Fourth Month, the Third Month, the Seventh Month. Cf. Shaw, “Sketch,” etc., p. 75. Both columns are of particular interest in so far as they exhibit the most ancient specimen of the Turkish language. p- 82, col. 5. Octombrius. Perhaps it would be better to read Octembrius, in conformity with Octembre, which occurs in Provencal beside Octobre, vide Reynouard, “Lexique Roman ou dictionnaire de la langue des troubadours,” tom vi. p. 390. p. 86,1. 18. The 210 years for the stay of the Jews in Egypt are found in this way: Interval between the birth of Abraham and that of Moses ~~ - » - - - - 420 years. Moses was 80 years of age when he left Egypt - 80 Interval between the birth of Abraham and the Exodus - - - 2 - 500 Further: Abraham was 100 years of age when Isaak was born 100 Isaak was 60 years of age when Jacob was born - 60 Jacob entered Egypt when he was 130 years of age 130 Interval between the birth of Abraham and Jacob’s entering Egypt » > - 290 a 392 ALBiRON?. p. 72, 1 86. Ismd‘il ben ‘Abbdd, born a.m. 326, was Vazir to the Buyide princes Mu’ayyid-aldaula, and afterwards to Fakhr-aldaula. He died a.m. 385. Cf. Ibn-Alathlr, ix. p. 77. The same man is quoted by Albérini as the Sihib, p. 94,1. 19. On this title, vide Hammer, “ Lander- verwaltung unter dem Khalifat,” pp. 34, 35; “ Abulfedee Annales Mos- lemici,” ii. p. 586. p- 74, 1.7. The farewell pilgrimage is described by A. Sprenger, “Leben und Lehre des Mohammad,” iii. p. 515 ff. On Muhammad’s prohibiting intercalation, ete., ib. p. 534 ff. Read &5= instead of &a= (text, p. 63,11. 1, 8). (Fleischer) p- 74,1. 15. Ibn-Duraid, a famous philologist of the school of Basra, died a.m. 321, in Bagdad. Cf. G. Fligel, “ Grammatische Schulen der Araber,” p. 101. p. 74,1. 25. Abi-Sahl ‘Isi ben YahyA Almasihi, a Christian physician, was a contemporary of Albérini, who lived at the court of ‘All ben Ma’'mén and Ma’miin ben Ma'min, princes of Khwérizm. The year of his death is not known; probably he died between a.m. 400-403. Cpr. Wiistenfeld, “ Geschichte der Arabischen Aerzte und Naturfor- scher,” p. 59, nr. 118. p. 75, 1. 26. Read \g+e instead of \esb (text, p. 64, L 6, cuatdt pad \ge). p. 76, 1. 36. Abh-‘Abdallih Ja‘far ben Muhammad Alsidik is one of the twelve Imims of the Shi‘a. He was born a.m. 80, and died A.H. 146. On the sect who derived their name from him, vide Shahristani, ed. Cureton, p. 124. Cf. also Wiistenfeld, “ Geschichte der Arabischen Aerzte und Naturforscher,” nr. 24. p- 77,1. 4. This tradition occurs in Bukhari, “ Recueil des traditions Mahométanes,” ed. L. Krehl, i. p. 474. The other traditions to which the author refers in the course of his discussion (p. 78) are also men- tioned by Bukhari, i. 476 ff. Cf. the Muwatta’ of Malik ben ’Anas, ed. Bilik, ii. chap. 84. p- 77,1. 22. Read 82.9), instead of 8,aY, (text, p. 65, 1. 14), and instead of \3\ (p. 65, 1. 15). (Fleischer.) p. 80,1. 4. Read Jes, instead of Jey (text, p. 67, 1. 17). p- 80,1. 5. The same fact is related by Ibn-Al’athir, vi. p. 3. In con- sequence of his killing ‘Abd-alkarim, the governor of Kifa, Muhammad was removed from his office A.u. 155 (or 153). The story shows that the ANNOTATIONS. 393 falsification of tradition has at certain times been practised wholesale in the Muslim world. Ibn-’abi-al‘aujé, also mentioned in “Kitab-alfihrist,” p- 338, 1. 9. p- 80, 1. 27. Read and its origin instead of and of its original, ete. Read det, instead of kel, (text, p. 68, 1. 4). (Fleischer) p- 80, I. 84. Read wlape instead of whys (text, p. 68, 1.6), and pon — Sash — Jzally (text, p. 68, 11. 9, 10), as in the manuscripts. p. 82, col. 1. Kubé was the second largest town of Farghina, not far from Shash. It is described by Ibn-Haukal, p. 394; Yakit, iv. 24. The word «ljlss («bjle) T have not been able to explain hitherto. Perhaps the word bears some relation to Y)\s i.e. Bukhara. p- 82, coll. 1, 8. The names of col. 1 are in use among the eastern Turks (of Kashghar and Yarkand), vide R. B. Shaw, “ A Sketch of the Turki Language as spoken in Eastern Turkistan,” Lahore, 1875» p. 77; J. Grave, “ Epoche celebriores,” London, 1650, p- 5. The names of col. 8 seem to be in disorder; they mean: The Great Month, the Small Month, the First Month, the Second Month, the Sixth Month, the Fifth Month, the Eighth Month, the Ninth Month, the Tenth Month, the Fourth Month, the Third Month, the Seventh Month. Cf. Shaw, “Sketch,” etc., p. 75. Both columns are of particular interest in so far as they exhibit the most ancient specimen of the Turkish language. p. 82, col. 5. Octombrius. Perhaps it would be better to read Octembrius, in conformity with Octembre, which occurs in Provencal beside Octobre, vide Reynouard, “ Lexique Roman ou dictionnaire de la langue des troubadours,” tom vi. p. 390. p- 86, 1. 13. The 210 years for the stay of the Jews in Egypt are found in this way: Interval between the birth of Abraham and that of Moses - - . > » - 420 years. Moses was 80 years of age when he left Egypt - 80 , Interval between the birth of Abraham and the Exodus - - - - - 500 Further: Abraham was 100 years of age when Isaak was born 100 Isaak was 60 years of age when Jacob was born - 60 Jacob entered Egypt when he was 130 years of age 130 Interval between the birth of Abraham and Jacob’s entering Egypt - - - 2900 27 394 ALBIRONG. Now, the difference between the two numbers (500—290), i.e. 210 years, represents the time during which the Jews stayed in Egypt. p. 87,1. 11. Read &\ instead of &\ (text, p. 75,1 1). (Fleischer.) p- 87,1. 13. The Séder-Oldm, i.e. Ordo Mundi, is a well known He- brew book on the Chronology of Jewish history, carrying it down as far as 22 years after the destruction of the Temple by Titus. It is the NIN aby SD to which our author refers, not the NY} aby ND Cf. “ Chronicon Hebraeorum Majus et Minus,” ed. Joh. Meyer, Am- stelodami, 1699. I am, however, bound to state that some of the numbers which Albértini quotes on the authority of this book are not found in—or do not agree with—the text as given in the edition of Meyer. pp- 88, 89. In these tables there are three blunders in the addition. The last three numbers in the addition of the years of the Séder- ‘Olam ought to be 460, 500, 503 (on p. 88); and in the same column on p. 89 the eleven last numbers of the addition ought to be: 781, 810, 865, 867, 898, 909, 920, 990, 1080, 1563, 2163. p. 90, 1. 18. On Kishin, vide Judges, iii. 8, 10. p. 90, 1. 85. Hashwiyya and Dahriyya. The Hashwiyya or Hasha- wiyya are a heterodox sect of Muslim philosophers who adhere to an exoteric interpretation of the divine revelation, and consider God as a bodily being, vide “ Dictionary of Technical Terms,” i. p. 396. The word Dahr seems nearly to correspond to the Zrvinem akerenem (““ endless time”) of the Avastd. The Dahriyya are a heathenish school of philosophers who believe the Dahir (time) to be eternal, and who trace everything to the Dahr as last cause, wide ‘Dictionary of Technical Terms,” i. p. 480. p. 90, 1. 44. In the following the author attacks ’Abh-Ma‘shar, the author of the book De nativitatibus (p. 92,1. 2; p. 91, 1. 31; p. 94, 1. 44; p- 96,1. 1). Cf. note ad p. 29, 1. 4. The subject of the discussion is the Dona astrorum (vide Delambre, ¢“ Histoire de 'astronomie ancienne,” ii. 546), i.e. the question how long a man may live, if at the moment of his birth the planets occupy such places and stand in such relations to each other as are considered the most favourable. For a detailed explication of the astrological terms which occur in the following, and all of which are of Greek origin, I refer to the Dictionary of the Technical Terms used in the Sciences of the Musalmans, Calcutta, 1862. The Materfamilias ($45) is the indicium corporis, the Paterfamilias, the indicum anime (p. 90, 1. 45). ANNOTATIONS. 395 The house of the Sun is Leo, his altitudo is the 19th degree of Aries. Cardines are four points of the ecliptic: I. Cardo horoscopi, or Cardo primus, that point which rises in the east at the moment of the birth. IL. Cardo occasiis or Cardo septimus, that point which at the same moment sets in the west. III. Cardocoeli or Cardo decimus, the point between the preceding two points, but above the earth. IV. Cardo terre or Cardo quartus, the point between the points I. and IL, but under the earth. Cf. Dictionary of Technical Terms,” i. 465. In a concordant masculine quarter. By quarter I understand the divi- sion of the signs of the Zodiac into four trigones, the trigonum igneum, trigonum terrewm, ete., which are either masculine or feminine. Of. M. Uhlemann, “ Grundziige der Astronomie und Astrologie der Alten,” pp. 66, 67. The term concordant is applied to any two places of the ecliptic which lie at equal distances from one of the two equinoctial points so as to form with each other the constellations called Tasdis or Tathlith or Mu- kabala. Cf. “ Dictionary of Technical Terms,” ii. 1392, s. v. Sel, p- 91, 1. 10. Have no aspect. The word bi. is the contrary of Js, There are five aspects : Tasdis, i.e. the planets are distant from each other by 60 degrees. Tarbi’, i.e. the distance between them is 90 degrees. Tathlith, i.e. the distance between them is 120 degrees. Mukdibala, i.e. the distance between them is 180 degrees. Istikbdl, is the Mukéabala of Sun and Moon. Any other relation be- tween two planets is called Sukit (i.e. falling out). Cf. “ Dictionary of Technical Terms,” ii. 1385, s.v. J. p- 91,1. 18. The Caput Draconis is that point of the ecliptic which a planet cuts when moving northward. If sun and moon meet at this point in the same zodiacal sign and degree, they are said to stand within the dpor ékherricol (Ptolemy, “ Almagest,” vi. cap. 5; limites ecliptiques, vide Delambre, ¢ Histoire de l’astronomie ancienne,” ii. 226), and an eclipse takes place. Every eclipse is considered as unlucky. p- 91, 1. 16. The elements of this sum (215 years) are not quite clear. If the Sun gives 120 and 30 years, Moon, Venus, and Jupiter, 25, 8 and 12 years, we get the sum of 195 years. Whence the astrologers derive the missing 20 years is not stated. They are hardly to be considered as a gift of Saturn or Mars, since they are unlucky stars ; perhaps they are traced to the influence of Mercury. One may suppose that there is somewhere a lacuna in the text. A.D 396 ALBIRONI. p. 91, 1. 31. Read 0 lat wd) & pede) instead of dy pada) SO Blast (text, p. 78, 1. 19). p- 91, 1. 34. The middle conjunction of Saturn and Jupiter is 240 years, the minor conjunction 20 years, the major conjunction 960 years. Cf. O. Loth, “ Al-Kindi als Astrolog in Morgenlindische For- schungen,” Leipzig, 1875, p. 268. p- 93,1 10. Tizin was ’Amir-al’umard in Baghdad A.m. 331-334, at the time of the Khalif Almuttaki, whose eyes he put out. He was of Turkish origin, and commander of the Turkish troops who held Baghdad and some other parts of central Mesopotamia. p- 93,1. 15. Ghurir-aldaula. Read ‘Izz-aldaula. Mu‘izz-aldaula died A.H. 356, and ‘Izz-aldaula died A.m. 367, both princes of the family of Buwaihi. p. 93, 1. 23. Ndsir-aldaula, prince of Mosul and the north of Meso- potamia, of the family of Hamdan, died a.m. 358. p. 93,1. 42. Read 4's instead of oS (text, p. 81, L 7), days S25 C (p- 81, 1. 9), and p\=, instead of lsd, (p. 81, 1. 12). (Fleischer) 2 p. 94,1. 19. Sdkib. The author means ’Isméa‘il ben ‘Abbad, Vazir of the Buyide prince Fakhr-aldaula. Vide note ad p. 72, 1. 36. The time during which Fakhr-aldaula held the country of Jurjin under his sway was A.H. 372-388. p. 94, 1. 40. ’Abi Sa‘id Shidhdn is not known to me from other sources. A man called Shidhin is mentioned by Yakut, i. p. 204, 1. 20, and Haji Khalifa, v. p. 102. p. 95, 1. 2. According to “ Dictionary of Technical Terms,” i. p. 568, retrograde motion is any motion which does not, like that of the planets, proceed conformably with the order of the zodiacal signs. The ecliptic is divided into twelve equal parts, called houses. The 12th, 2nd, 6th, and 8th houses are called Domus cadentes. p.- 95, 1. 22. ’Abi-‘Isma. A man of this name was general to the Khalif Alhidi, and was killed by Harn Alrashid a.m. 170. Cf. Ibn- Alathir, vi. p. 74. The epithet Sikib alsaffir I cannot explain. p. 96, 1. 12. Read Jos instead of Jer (text, p. 82, 1. 21), and eatery instead of (pester (p. 83, 1. 1). p. 96, 1. 25. Jamdalabadhra, a town in India, is not known to me; the word can be read in various ways. ANNOTATIONS. 397 p- 96, 1. 43. Abh-‘Abdallah Alhusain, ete. Alnétili, a native of Nitila, a town in Tabaristin, is sometimes mentioned as the teacher of ’Abi-‘All ben Sind. He lived in Bukhara, and afterwards at the court of the prince Ma’m{in ben Muhammad of Khwirizm. Cf. my edition of the text, ¢ Einleitung,” p.xxxiv. p. 98,1. 18. Covering. Read (-L instead of (+ (text, p. 84 1. 10). (Fleischer.) p- 98, 1. 22. In some book. Albértini does not mention the author of the work whence he took the chronological tables of the kings of Assyria; in any case it must have been derived from the “Chronicon” of Euse- bius. Cf. A. Schoene, “ Eusebii Chronicorum libri duo, Berolini, 1866 and 1875’; vol. i. p. 63, and vol. ii. p. 11 ff. p. 100, 1. 24. Another table of successors of Nimrod is given by Mas‘adi, “ Prairies d’or,” pp. 96-100. A similar table is also found in Albértmni’s Canon Mas‘idicus (MS. Elliot, fol. 28a). Years of reign. Anni Adami. Nimrod - - . - 59 2951 Interval after the confusion of languages and the destruction of the tower - . - 43 2994 Rg - 85 3079 ogy - 72 3151 Papas 42 3193 bot . 18 3211 Interval - 7 3218 Then follow the Assyrian kings, Belos, Ninos, etc. p. 101. Table of the Kings of the Chaldeans. 1t is the table of Pto- lemy. Cf. “Chronologie de Ptolemée,” par I'abbé Halma, Paris, 1819, 2de Partie, pp. 3, 4,and “ Georgius Syncellus,” ed. Dindorf, Bonn, 1839, p. 390 ff. p- 102. This table of kings of Egypt begins with the 20th dynasty of Manetho. Cf. “ Eusebii Chronicorum libri duo,” vol. i. p. 145; vol. ii. p. 62. p. 103, 1. 13. This table of Ptolemsans is based upon that of Ptolemy. ¢ Chronologie de Ptolemée,” par Halma, 2de Partie, p. 4. In 1. 32 read: Cleopatra, till the time when Gajus Julius obtained supreme power in Rome. Read &weyn instead of &vey) (text, p. 92, 1. 15). C—O AA A 55 ~ -— - - - - wee : - £3 3 = : a : EXE 398 ALBIRONS. p- 104. The last source of this table of the Roman emperors seems to be the “Chronicon of Eusebius.” Cf. also “ Hamzm Ispahanensis annalium,” libri x., translation, pp. 51, 54. In the addition of the years there is a mistake; the last sum is 313, not 303. p- 105. Part of this table of Byzantine emperors seems to have been taken from Hamza Isfahani, translation, p. 52 and 55 ff. In this table the sum of the years is 526, not 528. In the text (p. 96, 1.12), read Lin instead of &lee (De Goeje). p- 106. The tradition of the judge Alwaki‘, see in Hamza Isfahani, translation, p. 57-59. Alwaki‘ seems to have lived in the first half of the 4th century of the Flight, vide Kitab-alfihrist,” p. 114. The addition of the years of this table is in great confusion, and Albé- rani has not made an attempt at correcting it. In the text (p. 98, 1. 10), read btw instead of Hi. p- 107, 1. 1. The following chapter on Persian chronology bears a close resemblance to that of Hamza Isfahani, translation, p- 6 ff. The explication of the word G ayomarth, 1. 5, see in Hamza, p. 48. p- 107, 1. 43. Abt-‘Ali Muhammad ben ’Ahmad Albalkhi, mentioned only in this place, is not known to me from other sources, Haji Khalifa, iv. p. 13, quotes from Albérin. Pp. 108, 1. 3. The following sources of ancient Persian history are also quoted by Hamza, p. 7. ‘Abdalldh b. Almukaffa‘ was killed in Albagra, probably a.m. 145. Cf. “ Kitab-alfihrist,” p- 118; Ibn-Khallikin, nr. 186. Muhammad b. Aljahm, of the family of Barmak, lived under the Khalif Almu‘tagim (a.m. 218-227). Cf. “ Kitab-alfihrist,” pp. 81, 245, 277, and notes ; Ibn-Khallikan, nr. 31, p. 40. Hisham b. Alkasim and Bahram b. Mardanshéh, Zoroastrian priest in Shipirstown, in Persis, are mentioned in the Kitab-alfihrist,” p. 245, among those who translated Persian books into Arabic. p. 108, 1. 19. The manuscripts have khzira. My reading, khrira, is a conjecture. The word may be identical with khrira of the Avastd (vide Justi, “Handbuch der Zendsprache,” p- 92), and also with yy» mentioned by Mas‘ddi, « Prairies d’or,” ii. 88, in a very curious chapter, where the author enumerates Ahriman and his son H. driyd in a table of kings of the Syrians. ANNOTATIONS. 399 p. 108, L 34. A young man. Intext (p. 100, 1 ) read oles) instead of GY; Jats (I. 11) instead of jaws; and stall instead of said) (1. 12). (Fleischer.) p. 109, 1. 14. Similar tables of the words for king, emperor, prince, etc. in various languages are given by several authors, e.g. by Ibn- Khurdadhbih, “ Journal Asiatique,” 1865, p- 249-257. Tadan. Perhaps we must read Tudun, and compare the following note of the “ Etymologicum Magnum,” ed. Gaisford, p. 763: Tovdovvor : oi Tomornpyral mapa Todpkots. On Sil, vide note at p. 87, 1. 9. The word ,\s Kabbdr (p- 110, 1. 1) is supposed by my learned friends P. Lerch, of St. Petersburgh, and W. Tomaschek, of Gratz, to be a mis- spelling for ju, i.e. Knaz, Knaez (a derivation from the Teutonic cuninga), a conjecture which I recommend to the students of Slavonian antiquities. The title Bukhdird-Khudih has been found by P. Lerch on the coins of the satraps of Bukhéri under Sasanian rule and later (as far as the time of Almahdi). The coins offer an original writing of Semitic origin ; the legend is without any doubt to be read Bukhdrd Khuddit (or Khuddih, Khudddi). A number of these coins are found in the coin- collection of the Royal Museum of Berlin. p. 110, 1. 26. The following verses are also found in Mas‘adi, “ Prairies d’or,” ii. p. 116. p. 111. On the pedigree and family relations of the Péshdidhians from Héshang till Frédbn, cf. Bundihish, chap. xxxii. On the chrono- logy of the Péshdadhians and Kayinians, ib. chap. xxxiv. In the text (p. 103, 11. 11, 15), read dase instead of dai, p- 112. On the descendants of Kawi Kawita or Kaikubddh and their names, cf. Néldeke, “ Kayanier im Awestd, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlindischen Gesellschaft,” tom. xxxii. p. 570. p- 113. With this table compare that of Hamza, translation, pp. 9,10. p- 114, 1. 4. With this table, compare Hamza, pp. 17, 18. Pp. 115, 1. 8. A similar table occurs also in the author's Canon Masu- dicus (MS. Elliot, fol. 29a). 398 ALBIRONG. p- 104. The last source of this table of the Roman emperors seems to be the “Chronicon of Eusebius.” Cf. also “ Hamze Ispahanensis annalium,” libri x., translation, pp. 51, 54. In the addition of the years there is a mistake ; the last sum is 313, not 303. p- 105. Part of this table of Byzantine emperors seems to have been taken from Hamza Isfahédni, translation, p. 52 and 55 ff. In this table the sum of the years is 526, not 528. In the text (p. 96,1. 12), read LL instead of Ls (De Goeje). p- 106. The tradition of the judge Alwaki‘, see in Hamza Isfahéni, translation, p. 57-59. Alwaki‘ seems to have lived in the first half of the 4th century of the Flight, vide “ Kitab-alfihrist,” p. 114. The addition of the years of this table is in great confusion, and Albé- rtni has not made an attempt at correcting it. In the text (p. 98, 1. 10), read Law instead of iu. p- 107, L. 1. The following chapter on Persian chronology bears a close resemblance to that of Hamza Isfahani, translation, p. 6 ff. The explication of the word Gaydémarth, 1. 5, see in Hamza, p. 48. p- 107, 1. 43. Ab-‘Ali Muhammad ben Ahmad Albalkhi, mentioned only in this place, is not known to me from other sources. Haji Khalifa, iv. p. 13, quotes from Albérini. p. 108, 1. 3. The following sources of ancient Persian history are also quoted by Hamza, p. 7. ‘Abdallah b. Almukaffa‘ was killed in Albasra, probably a.m. 145. Cf. “ Kitab-alfihrist,” p. 118; Ibn-Khallikin, nr. 186. Muhammad b. Aljahm, of the family of Barmak, lived under the Khalif Almu‘tagim (a.m. 218-227). Cf. “ Kitab-alfihrist,” pp. 81, 245, 277, and notes ; Ibn-Khallikdn, nr. 31, p. 40. Hisham b. Alkdsim and Bahram b. Mardanshah, Zoroastrian priest in Shéapirstown, in Persis, are mentioned in the “ Kitab-alfihrist,” p. 245, among those who translated Persian books into Arabic. p. 108, 1. 19. The manuscripts have khzira. My reading, khrira, is a conjecture. The word may be identical with Zkhrira of the Avasta (vide Justi, “ Handbuch der Zendsprache,” p. 92), and also with mentioned by Mas‘adi, ¢ Prairies d’or,” ii. 88, in a very curious chapter, where the author enumerates Ahriman and his son Hiriyd in a table of kings of the Syrians. TAIOL actos Rr i 1 AR dal 8 a a a a . 4 B § te ANNOTATIONS. 399 P. 108, L BL. A young man. Intext (p. 100, 1. )) read oles) instead of Shh; jas (L 11) instead of yhiws; and Sai) instead of Satedt (1. 12). is p- 109, 1. 14. Similar tables of the words for king, emperor, prince, ete. in various languages are given by several authors, e.g. by Ibn- Khurdadhbih, “ Journal Asiatique,” 1865, p. 249-257. Tadan. Perhaps we must read Tudun, and compare the following note of the “ Etymologicum Magnum,” ed. Gaisford, p. 763: Tovdovvor: oi Torornpyral mapa Tovpkots. On Sil, vide note at p. 37, 1. 9. The word ;\ Kabbdr (p. 110, 1. 1) is supposed by my learned friends P. Lerch, of St. Petersburgh, and W. Tomaschek, of Gratz, to be a mis- spelling for 3, i.e. Knaz, Knae:z (a derivation from the Teutonic cuninga), a conjecture which I recommend to the students of Slavonian antiquities. The title Bukhiri-Khuddih has been found by P. Lerch on the coins of the satraps of Bukhari under Sasanian rule and later (as far as the time of Almahdi). The coins offer an original writing of Semitic origin ; the legend is without any doubt to be read Bukhdri Khudddit (or Khuddih, Khudddi). A number of these coins are found in the coin- collection of the Royal Museum of Berlin. p. 110, 1. 26. The following verses are also found in Mas‘adi, “ Prairies d’or,” ii. p. 116. p. 111. On the pedigree and family relations of the Péshdadhians from Hoéshang till Frédan, cf. Bundihish, chap. xxxii. On the chrono- logy of the Péshdadhians and Kayénians, tb. chap. XXXIV. In the text (p. 103, 11. 11, 15), read Say instead of day, p- 112. On the descendants of Kawi Kawita or Kaikubadh and their names, cf. Noldeke, “ Kayanier im Awestd, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlindischen Gesellschaft,” tom. xxxii. p. 570. p- 113. With this table compare that of Hamza, translation, pp. 9, 10. p- 114, 1. 4. With this table, compare Hamza, pp. 17, 18. p. 115,1. 3. A similar table occurs also in the author's Canon Masu- _ dicus (MS. Elliot, fol. 29a). 5 rns Rm a pp a ot = a ST or 5 Fe ® = a PEL a gm. - pu avi ec Hy Ik 400 ALBIRONT. After the kings of Assyria and Arbaces the Median follow the kings of Babylonia and Media. Years of reign. Anni Mundi. Pil Jp, a descendant of Sardanapal - 35 4709 Tiglatpilesar . - - - - 85 4744 Salmanassar (owd~) i.e. Bukhtanas- sar L - - . - - - HW 4758 Sanherib Sargon gyye oles = = 9 4767 Ezarhaddon pdsye . . . - 3 4770 Merodakh Baladan ben Baladan, i.e. Mardokempad - - - . - 48 4818 Sanherib Minor - . - - - 31 4849 Kiniladan ges - - , wii 4866 Nabopolassar the Magian ~~ - - - 21 4887 His son Nebukadnezar, i.e. Bukhtanas- sar IL, who destroyed Jerusalem ~~ - 43 4930 Evilmerodakh ben Nebukadnezar - - 2 4932 His brother Belteshagsar - - - 4 4936 Darius the Median - - - - [17] [4953] Then follow the kings of the Persians: Cyrus - - - » . » . 9 4962 His son Cambyses . , - . 8 4970 Darius the son of Vishtasp - . - 36 5006 Xerxes, i.e. Xerxes Kisrd b. Darius - 20 5026 Artaxerxes (gp)\abl), i.e. Ardashir Longimanus - - - » - 41 5067 Darius Nothos - - - - - 18 5085 Artaxerxes plat o8 - - - - 40 5125 Artaxerxes Ochus, i.e. the black - . 5152 Arses ben Ochus - - - - - 4 5156 Darius ben Arsak - > . - 6 5162 Then follow Alexander and the Ptolemeeans. In a special column the author mentions some contemporary events of J ewish, Egyptian, Greek and Roman history. p. 115, 1 45. In the text (p. 112, 1. 4) read pol instead of wl (Fleischer). p. 116, 1. 8. Said b. Muhammad Aldhuhli is perhaps the same Dhuhli with whom Bukhéri (died a.m. 256) had a controversy, vide Haji Khalifa, iii. 172. : p. 116, 1. 34. Mih is Media or Aljibdl or Aljabal in the later geogra- phical terminology. Read Jat instead of the misprint Jleal. hie MC on amp SS . hata ak fei ed Ll a a ANNOTATIONS. 401 They were one of the families, etc. is a literal translation of the reading of the manuscripts, but I do not believe that this reading is correct, nor that Arabic grammar allows such a construction. My conjecture, ¢sy~' instead of w=! is not satisfactory, as it is not conformable to the usual construction of this word. One might think of reading ft (“They were the most daring and enterprising of the petty princes,” ete.), but this, too, does not seem to settle the difficulty. I am sorry to state that I have not been able to find the original upon which the term Mulik-altawd’if, “Petty princes,” has been coined. Cf. with this passage Hamza, p. 30; Tabari, ed. Zotenberg, i. 523 ff. ; Ibn-Alathir, i. 208-210, 271, 272; Mas‘adl, “ Prairies d’or,” ii. 136. The pedigree of Ashk is carried back to a son of Siyiwush, whose name I do not know how to pronounce. Another son of Siyiawush is mentioned by Ibn-Alathir, i. 173 (Férozad ojy») and Tabari, ed. Zoten- berg, i. 467 (Afroud). For another pedigree of Ashk, vide B. Dorn, “Sehir-eddin’s Ge- schichte von Tabaristan, Rujan und Masanderan,” p. 152. For the chronology of the Ashkanians, cf. Mihlau-Gutschmid in «Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlindischen Gesellschaft,” tom. xv. p. 664; Blau, ib. tom. xviii. p. 680; Gobineau, ib. tom. xi. p. 700; Muj- mil-altawArikh in ¢ Journal Asiatique,” 1841, p. 164: H. Schneiderwirth, “ Die Parther,” Heiligenstadt, 1874. p- 117, 1. 9. On the surnames of the Ashkanians I offer a few conjectures : Khoshdih, i.e. well-born, de race pure = setrivahya, vide Gobineau, « Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlindischen Gesellschaft,” tom. xi. p. 702. Zarrin, i.e. golden. Khiirin seems to be a mistake for jos i.e. Gotarzes. Gésiwar, i.e. curled, cf. the Persian word Gésidir=a man of au- thority. Barddih=%3 &\p happy-born. Balid=383 3 high-born ; but see note at p. 118, 1. 21. p- 117, 1. 30. See this table in Hamza, translation, p. 10. p.118,1. 5. See this table in Hamza, p. 18. p- 118, 1. 21. Besides the name Malidhdin there occurs a Parthian name Milid, in Mujmil-altawarikh, “Journal Asiatique,” 1843, pp. 393, 415, 416. Perhaps there is some connection between lye ole and the surname of Féréz ben Bahram, mentioned p. 117, 1. 17 (oh). 28 &_ T= ce = - . ER aE wh cp ac 402 ALBIRON?. p- 119, 1. 19. Abt-Mansgtir ‘Abd-alrazzdk is not known to me from other sources. ; p. 119, 1. 87. In the text (p.117, 1.13) read sé \e instead of ob be or p. 120, 1. 22. In the text (p. 118, 1. 8) read sas, instead of aby p. 121,16. Shdbirkin. Of this work of Méni’s very little is known, vide G&. Fliigel, « Mant, seine Lehre und seine Schriften,” Leipzig, 1862, pp. 865-367. ff p.121,1. 86. In the text (p. 119, 1 5) read a with the MSS., instead of da : p. 121,140. The following calculation is known in astrology by the name of Tasyir ywd (Directio). The calculation is this: 407 x 931=387,925. If you divide this product by 360, you get a remainder of 152% degrees. The meaning of the 931 degrees, the nature of the solar cycle here men- tioned, and the further details of the calculation, I do not understand, and cannot, therefore, guarantee the correctness of the text. p. 122, 1. 14. Misa ben ‘fsa Alkisrawi is also mentioned in the « KitAb-alfihrist,” p. 128. His chronological theory is stated by Hamza, translation, pp. 11-16. p. 122, 1. 82. For the pedigree of Ardashir ben Babak, cf. B. Dorn, « Qehir-eddin’s Geschichte von Tabaristan, Rujan und Masanderan,” pp. 146, 151. p. 123. With this table, cf. the history of the Sasanians according to Mirchond, translated by S. de Sacy in Mémoires sur diverses antiquités de la Perse, p. 273 ff. Instead of ssp read 83,5 Tiridates, surname of Shapir I The word sae\ is explained by Mirchond as ,\$y Cs [4 of so\aadly MNpall , Gale pon (1 12) instead of dials pee and sJodly (1. 13) instead of Ja (Fleischer). p- 180. This table contains a number of mostly well-known princes, statesmen, and generals : No. 1 was Vazir to the Khalif Almu‘tadid, and died a.m. 291. Cf. Weil, “ Geschichte der Chalifen,” iii. pp. 514, 539. His son, ‘Amid-aldaula, is not known to me. No. 3-5 are princes of the house of Hamdén in Syria (Mosul). No. 6-11, 13, 14, 17-21, 23, are princes of the house of Buwaihi or Biya, vide the pedigree of this family in F. Wilken, “ Mirchond’s Ge- PEW 404 ALBIRONT. schichte der Sultane aus dem Hause Bujeh,” p. 12; the Turkish chronicle of Munajjim Bashy, ii. pp. 484, 488, 495, 501. iL Ls No. 12, 15, are two princes of the family of the Banii-Ziyad of Jurjan. No. 16 is not known to me. ! No. 22, 28, 29, are the two founders of the famous Ghaznawi dynasty. No. 24, 27, 32, belong to the family of Simjir, governor of Khurdsin under the Samanide dynasty. Cf. Defrémery, “ Histoire des Samanides,” pp- 261, 169, 188, 201, 203. ; No. 25. Abi-al‘abbés Tash was governor of Nishiplr under Sama- nide rule, and died a.m. 379. Cf. Defrémery, ib. p. 168. ; No. 26. Abti-alhasan Alfd’ik, a general of the last Samanide princes, disappears before a.m. 389. Cf. Defrémery, ib. p. 196. al No. 31. Abdi-alfawaris Begtizfin was governor of Khurdsin and Vazir to the last Samanide princes ; he seems to have died before A.H. 389. No. 33. Abt-Mansér Alp-Arslan Albilawi was Vazir to the last Samanide prince Muntasir, and was still alive when this book was com- posed. Cf. Defrémery, ib. p. 202. p- 131, 1. 18. On Bughrikhén, prince of Kéashghar, the conqueror of Transoxiana, vide Weil, “ Geschichte der Chalifen,” iii. Anhang 1. p. 131, 1. 23. Here the author speaks of the prince of Jurjan, Kabis ben Washmgir, to whom he has dedicated his book, vide note at p. 1, 1. 25. ; p. 131, L 41. In the text (p. 135, L 6) read Vi instead of bis! (Fleischer). p. 182, 1. 38. Tailasin. (Cf. p.152,1. 34.) By the term twofold (or redoubled) Tailasin, the author means an oblong quadrangular field, divided into two equal parts by a diagonal. Tailasén is the name of a piece of dress, vide Dozy, “ Dictionnaire des noms des vétements chez les Arabes,” p. 278, and Lane, “ Arabic Dictionary ”” under this word. p. 182,1. 7. The Greek name of the sexagesimal system is énkoord, vide Delambre, “ Histoire de ’astronomie ancienne,” ii. pp. 577, 608 (Hexécostades). There is a chapter on the sexagesimal system of calcu- lation in Barlaam’s Aoywrrwy dorpovopuss) (Delambre, ib. i. 320). p- 133. A similar table of intervals between the epochs of the various eras is also given by Delambre, Histoire de I’astronomie du moyen age,” p. 96, on the authority of Ibn-Yinus. In the text of this table I had to correct some mistakes : At notes a, c. PL have the correct reading, 101 4933, guaranteed by dss The corresponding sexagesimal numbers 54, 7, 43, 4, are wrong in all manuscripts, for they represent the erroneous number 101, 9274. ANNOTATIONS. 405 I have printed instead of them the sexagesimal numbers which represent the number 101, 4933, i.e. 33, 55, 41, 4. At motes b, ¢, d. The reading of the manuscripts 123,8523 is wrong, for the addition of the constituent numbers gives the sum of 123,8516. Accordingly also Lasagse must be changed into Leal, The sexagesimal numbers have also been derived from the wrong number, for 3 (not 43), 2, 44, 5, represent the number 123,8523, whilst we must read 56, 1, 44, 5 as representing the number 123,8516. At d, read yp \ we & instead of yp os we & Pp. 134. The chapter on the chess problem I have separately edited and explained in the Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlindischen Gesellschaft,” tom. xxix. pp. 148-156. Regarding the English terminology of this chapter, I must say a word to justify the use of the word check. If I had used the com- mon expression for a field on the chess-board, i.e. square, my translation would have become very ambiguous, as frequently in one sentence I should have had to speak of a square (in the mathematical meaning) and a square (a field on a chess-board). The square (former meaning) of the number of a square (latter meaning) would have been intoler- able. To avoid this ambiguity I have adopted the word check in the common meaning of square, as check seems to be the next synonymous term, meaning a quadrangular field in a piece of Scotch cloth or tartan plaid. p- 136, 1. 7. The days of the epochs of the various eras according to Ibn-Ytinus have been communicated by Delambre, ¢ Histoire de ’as- tronomie du moyen age,” p. 96. Albatini’s rules for the comparison of eras between each other, see ib. p. 41. p- 186, 1. 20. The epochal day of the Fra Diluvii is a Friday, vide Ideler, «“ Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie,” ii. p. 627. p. 136, 1. 26. The epochal day of the Zra Nabonassari is a Wed- nesday, that of the ra Philippi is a Sunday; Ideler, ib. ii. pp. 627, 628. The correspondence between the I. Tot and the I. Daiméh, is also stated by Alfarghini, “ Elementa astronomica,” ed. Golius, p. 5. p- 136, 1. 30. The epochal day of the Zra Alexandri is a Monday ; Farghani, p. 6 ; Ideler, ii. 628. 406 ALBiRONS. p.1387,1.9. The Syrian year commences with the 1 Oct., the Greek year with the 1 January. The interval between these two New Year's Days is 92 days. p. 187, p. 17. The epochal day of the ra Augusti is a Thursday ; Ideler, ii. p. 628. ; p. 187, 1. 87. The epochal day of the Fra Diocletian is a Wednesday, see Ideler, ii. 628. p.188,1. 9. The epochal day of the Era of the Flight is a Thursday ; Ideler, ii. 629. ; p- 188, 1. 30. The epochal day of the ra Yarzdagirdi is a Tuesday, see Farghéni, p. 6, and Ideler, ii. 629. p.139,1. 7. Read Alnairizi instead of Altibrizi (also in the text, p. 142, 1. 22). In the text, p. 142, 1 21, read oelesdt gt instead of osledt LY p. 141, 1.29. The following lines (till p. 142, l. 2), are a torso of which I do not know a’ proper restoration. It seems the author gave an exposition of the length of the Jewish, the Christian, and the astro- nomical years, and pointed out some incongruity between Jewish and scientific astronomy. Both Jewish Years, that of R. Samuel (the Julian year), of 365 d. 6 h. and that of R. Adda of 365 d. 5 h. 997 H. 48 Reg. are too long, wide Dr. A. Schwarz, “Der Jidische Kalender,” pp. 65, 120. In the present state of the text I am not able to say what the 165 days (p. 142, 1. 2) mean. p. 142, 1. 12. The subtraction of two years in this calculation is neces- sitated by the Babylonian Ordo intercalationis, JWI, which the author uses in this place. Cf. p. 65, 1. 6. p. 142,1. 20. The Assaying Circle is based on the assumption that the Enneadecateris corresponds to 19 solar years (whilst there is a dif- ference between them of 145 Halakim, vide p. 64, 1. 16), and that the mean Lunar year has 354 days in a common year and 384 days in a leap year. The former, if compared with the Julian year, is too short by 11 days ; the latter is too long by 19 days. In the squares of the thirteenth year of the cycle read Ill 7, instead of Ilil 6 (also in the text). No regard has been had of the intercalation of the Julian years. p. 143, 1. 28. In the text (note i, last line,) read 4c &wy instead of Erte anny p. 144, 1. 5. By the apparent motion the author means that motion i MAAR EB A LE a . aa Ee ANNOTATIONS. 407 which at any time is found by astronomical observation, no equation or correction being used. p. 144. 1. 17. This space of time, 7.e. 2 d. 16 h. 595 H is the so-called Character of the Enneadecateris. p. 144, 1. 26. The 4 d. 8h. 876 H. are the Character of the Common Year, the 5d. 21 h. 589 H. the Character of the Leap-year. Cf. Lazarus Bendavid, “ Zur Geschichte und Berechnung des Jidischen Kalenders,” Berlin, 1817, § 32. p. 144, 1. 30. These 5d. 14h. are the Moléd of the Creation (10) i.e. Friday morning, 8 o'clock. Cf. Dr. A. Schwarz, “ Der Jidische Kalender,” p. 50, note 2. p- 145,1. 15. With the 12th year of the ra Alexandr: begins a new Enneadecateris of the Jewish #ra Adami, the 182 d. one. : The Basis, i.e. the Moled of AZ. Alex. 12 (i.e. ZH. Adami 3460) has been omitted in the tables of all manuscripts. It is, however, easy to find by the help of the tables on pp. 145-147. 3460 years are: d h MH 6 Great Cycles - - - = 3 20 600 14 Small Cycles - . . = 2 15 770 2 single years : - - = 3 6 38 9 18 675 Therefore the M6léd of the 12th year of Alexander is 2d. 18 h. 675 H. (cf. the astronomical calculation of this Méléd on p. 148, 1. 19). p. 145, 1. 80. The numbers of days, hours, and Halikim of this table the reader may check by always adding the Character of the Enneade- cateris, i.e. 2 d. 16 h. 595 H., and by subtracting 7, as soon as the addition of the days gives more than seven days. p. 146, 1. 20. The number of days, hours, and Halikim the reader may check by always adding for a common year 4d. 8h. 876 H., for a leap-year 5 d. 21 h. 589 H., and by subtracting 7, as soon as the addition of the days goes beyond this number. p. 147, 1. 1. The Character of the Great Cycle is 5d. 7h. 460 H., which you get by multiplying the Character of the Enneadecateris, i.e. 2d. 16 h. 595 H. by 28, dividing the sum by 7, and taking the re- mainder. : p. 147, 1. 42. Times. One time is equal to four minutes. A = a 1 A OTC TR HE wa ar TIS : lee i ! 1 BES ly { dE i 4 Her | Abad 1 * 1 ik li He : eh Lr Le i I i an i tha W | 1 ¥ | Hi! A : WY Fa (Ee Pd { §) f bo Be o E 1 § _ rv Tim z TR at ET x SA rg > a 408 ALBIR ONE. p. 148, 1. 15. In the following tables these measures have been used : : Character of the Enneadecateris 2d. 16h. 281 5711. 57 II. 53 IV. Accordingly the length of the Enneadecateris according to the sons of Miisd ben Shékir was 6939d. 16 h. 281. 57 IL. 57 IIL. 53 IV. The division of this sum by the number of the lunations of the Ennea- decateris, i.e. 235, gives the length of the synodical month as assumed by the sons of Misa ben Shakir, .e. 29d. 12h. 441 21. 17 OL. 21 IV. 10 V- Cf. p. 143, 1. 28, where the same measure is mentioned, with this dif- ference, that there the number of fifths is stated to be 12. Cf. note at p. 158. : The Character of the Common Year 1s 4d. 8h. 481 2711. 28 IIL. 14. 1V. The Character of the Leap-Year is 5d. 21h, 321 29 IL. 45 IIL 351V. The Character of the Great Cycle is 5d. 5h. 811. IL ( IIL 44 IV. p. 150, 1. 22. The Limits within which the M6léd of a year may fall are determined by the four Dehiyyoth, .e. 3 YTNTT TO » and VOY: Cf. Lazarus Bendavid, “Zur Berechnung und Geschichte des Jiidischen Kalenders,” §§ 35-39. On the relations between New Year's Day and the character or nature of the year, cf. Lazarus Bendavid, §§ 46-48. p. 152, 1. 34. Tailasdn, vide note at p. 132, 1. 3. Perhaps it would be better to read eye instead of WUyet (text, p. 159, 1. 1). p. 153, 1. 4. In this table as it occurs in the MSS. there is a mistake. uj and 5 can follow each other, as the Table of Kebi‘ith (at p. 154) plainly shows. Therefore, read in the text, in the corresponding field, SYS 1 See instead of JN ol gee Miele ) The three values of the table give the following six permutations: n+n J cannot follow each other. 3 w+ J+T7 ( can follow each other. w+n 2+u p. 153, 1. 14. The Table of Equation, vide pp. 280, 281. I ———st re ANNOTATIONS, 409 p- 153, 1.18. The number of 6,940 days is a round number, for in reality the Enneadecateris has only 6,939 d.16 h. 595. Regarding the preponderance of the Perfect years over the Imperfect ones in the Ennea- decateris, cf. Lewisohn, “ Geschichte und System des Jiidischen Kalen- derwesens,” Leipzig, 1856, § 90. 125 months of 30 days each, and 110 months of 29 days each, give the sum of 6,940 days. Table at p. 154. There was a fatal mistake in the first square of this table. The MSS. have the 20th [lil instead of the 19th Ilil (text, pp. 166,167). Dr. Schramm, of Vienna, kindly settled the question for me by computing the date in question by means of the formula of Gauss. The New-Year’s Day of the Jewish 4. Adami 4754 was the 19th Til A. Alex. 1304. However, according to Albértni, the corresponding Greek year is A. Alea. 1305, not 1304. This difference is to be explained in the following way : The Jewish year 4754 falls together or runs parallel with 4. Alea. 1305, with one difference: The New-Year’s Day (or 1st Tishri) of A. Adami 4754 was the 19th lal A. Alex. 1204. The Jewish New- Year's Day (1st of Tishri) fell 11 days earlier than the Greek New-Year’s Day (or 1st of Tishrin Primus). Therefore—to speak accurately—the beginning (i.e. the first 11 days) of the Jewish year 4754 falls into the Greek year 1304, but the whole remainder of the year corresponds with A. Alex. 1305. This seems to be the reason why the author has in this table com- pared the Jewish year 4754 with the Greek year 1305. The Jewish New-Year always precedes the Greek New-Year by a small number of days, vide the Assaying Circle on p. 142. The table comprises the years of Alexander 1305-1818, i.e. 532 years, or one Great Cycle of 28 Small Cycles. The Ordo Intercalationis in each Small Cycle is 2m2) 4.e. the 3rd, 5th, 8th, 11th, 14th, 16th, 19th years of the cycle are leap-years. It is a noteworthy fact that in every 247 years (i.e. 13 Small Cycles) nearly (not accurately) the same Kebi‘6th return, which the reader will find confirmed if he compares the years 1305 ff. with 1552 ff. and 1799 ff. On this subject, cf. Lazarus Bendavid, “ Zur Berechnung und Geschichte des Jidischen Kalenders,” § 45. p. 155, 1. 26. On the two beginnings of a Jewish month, or the two Rosh-Hodesh, cf. Lazarus Bendavid, § 11. In the following tables I have printed the real 1st of a month in Arabic numerals, and the fictitious first of a month, i.e. the last day of _the preceding complete month in Latin numerals. 29 = al Se CE ————————— Rr —— 410 ALBIRONT. p. 157,1. 10. The computation of this table rests on the theory that between the Mdléd of one month and that of the following there is an interval of 29d. 12h. 793 H. The half of this (the Fortnight) is 14d. 18 h. 3963 H. The Character of the month is 1d. 12h. 793 H. i.e. the Moléd of a month falls by 1d. 12h. 793 H. later in the week than the Moléd of the preceding month. The Character of the Fortnight is 0d. 18h. 3923 H. The table con- sists of additions of these two values. p. 158. The checking of this table gave some difficulty, as in the column of the fourths the fractions have been omitted in all the manuscripts of the text, whilst in the computation they have not been disregarded. This table shows that Albérini reckoned the interval between two con- secutive conjunctions (after the sons of Misi b. Shakir) at 29d. 12h. 441. 2 IL. 17 TIL 21 IV. 12 V. The half of this is 14d. 18h. 22 L 1 IL. IL 40 IV. 36 V. or 14d. 18h, 221. 1 IL. IIL 403 IV. With this measure, cf. my conjecture on p. 143, 1. 28, and note at p. 148, 1. 15. Accordingly the Character of this synodical month is 1d. 12h, 441 211 17 IIL 2] IV. ]2V. i.e. the beginning of a month falls by so much later in the week than that of the preceding month. The half of this Character is 0d. 18h. 22 I. 1 IL 8 IIL 403 IV. The table consists of additions of these two values. p. 159, 1. 11. The reason of the following calculation is this, that Passover always falls on the 163rd day from the end of the year. The division of 163 by 7 gives 2 as remainder. If, therefore, you add 2 to the week-day of the Passover of a year, you get the week-day on which the New-Year’s Day of the following year falls. p. 159,1. 29. The universal equations refer to the various inequalities in the rotation of both sun and moon, and they serve the purpose of changing their real motion into mean motion. ne pa a inn ki a ANNOTATIONS. 411 p. 160, 1 6. In the text (p. 176, 1. 21), read YAY; instead of Vyssh, p.160,1.29. In the text (p. 177, 1. 10), read 1,81 instead of Y<&T p. 161, 1. 4. The number 350 is the multiplication of the 7 years of the Cycle of Shabt by the 50 years of the Cycle of Yobél. After this cycle of 350 years the single years of both cycles in question return again in the same order. p. 163, 1.20. With sediment. Read 83% instead of Kop (text, p. 182, 1 12). - : p. 163, 1. 38. The solar year of 365} days, i.e. the Julian year, is called the year of Rabbi Samuel, whilst the year of 365d. 53751 h., the second of the two kinds of solar years which occur in Jewish chronology, is called the year of R.’Adda bar ’Ahabd. Converting this latter space of time into Jewish measures we get J 365d. 5h. 997 H. 48 Regi‘im. This length of the solar year has been found by dividing by 19 the Enneadecateris of Meton (6,939 d. 16 h. 595 H.), which comprehends 235 synodical months of Hipparchus, and which has been adopted by the Jewish chronologists. Cf. Dr. Ad. Schwarz, “ Der Jiidische Kalender,” p. 65 ff. p- 164,1. 1. For an astronomical examination of the following chapter (as far as p. 167), I refer the reader to Eine Berechnung der Entfernung des Sonnen-Apogaeum’s von dem Frihlingspunkte bei Albérini Mitgetheilt von Prof. Ed. Sachaw und Dr. Joh. Holetschek (p.19 ff), in the * Sitz- ungsberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien, Phil.-hist. Classe,” 1876, February. p- 167, 1. 7. Abt-Nasr Manstir, etc., a mathematician and astronomer, lived in Khwérizm and Ghazna and died, as it seems, in the latter place in the first quarter of the 5th century of the Flight. Cf. the text, * Ein- leitung,” p. xxxiii. p. 168. The Tekifoth are the chronological, not the astronomical year-points. Their calculation is based upon the Julian years of Rabbi Samuel. The following are the elements of this calculation : 1. The year contains four quarters, each of 91d. 7 h. 540 H. Dividing .this by 7, you get the remainder of 7 h. 540 H., i.e. 75 hours. - SCN oa Sey iy a =z — a f x If i te i is i ! ! i i t ¢ i | {| Ei fe =n 412 ALBiRON]. 2. The Character of the Tektfd is 71 hours, which is the amount of the precession of each year-point within the week. This precession amounts for one complete year to 30 hours or 1; day. 3. If you multiply 30 hours by 28 and divide the product by 24, you get no remainder, which means that after a cycle of 28 such years the year-points fall again on the time within the week. 4. The question is: whence to begin with this calculation ? with the Tektfa of Tishri or that of Nisin? The author fixes the Tekfifd of Tishri on the 5th Tishri, a Wednes- day, 9 o’clock in the morning, i.e. 4d. 15 h. after the Méléd of Tishri. By subtracting herefrom the amount of the weekly precession of two Tektfoth (i.e. 15 hours), the author finds the first hour of the night of Wednesday (or, according to our method, Tuesday, 6 o’clock in the evening,) as the time of the Tekifd of Nisan, i.e. 4d. Oh. after the Moéléd of Nisan. 5. In the Table of Tekiiféth the author has assumed as the beginning of his calculation the time of noon (of Wednesday), i.e. 4d. 18 h. instead of the sunset (of Tuesday) or 4d. 0 h. On this subject, cf. Dr. Ad. Schwarz, “Der Jidische Kalender,” pp. 65-69. p. 169, 1.10. The names of the planets as given by the author are well known in later Hebrew. As a matter of interest for the history of Hebrew pronunciation, I mention the spelling of yoo = mart and goo gS =MrT 2292 which reminds one of the pronunciation of the Jews of Galicia. p. 172. Regarding Oriental names of the planets, I refer the reader to Chwolsohn, “ Sabier und Sabismus,” ii. pp. 156-175. In the square of the Syriac names of Venus there occur two other names, which I have not been able to decipher. The one, So is, perhaps, a corruption for «yom p. 174. The author shows that a year-point, as calculated by the Tekafoth of Rabbi Samuel (i.e. according to the Julian year), in no way agrees with reality, i.e. with a year-point as determined by astronomical observation, and that on the other hand the Tekafoth, as calculated by the system of Rabbi Add4, come pretty near reality. The proof for this atter assertion has fallen out, as the chapter is a forso. Here (1. 21) the author states that the first Tekifa of Tishri fell 5 d. 1 h. after the Moléd of the year, whilst on p. 168, 1. 19, he has said that fell 4d. 15 h. after the same Moléd. I cannot account for this divergency. TT a re YI ANNOTATIONS. 413 p. 174,1. 16. The constituent parts of this sum are the following : d. h. H 8 Great Cycles . - 1,554,490 11 440 26 Small Cycles - - 180,431 22 350 9 years or 111 months - 8,277 21 543 Sum - 1,788,200 7 253 -5 1 Remainder - 1,738,195 6 253 This is the interval between the Tekiifd of Tishri of the first year of the Fra Adami and the Mbléd of A. Alex. 1311. The division of this sum by 3641 days gives 4,758 Julian years, and a remainder of 335% d. 253 H. i.e. one year minus 29 d. 11h. 827 H. Sunday, 7h. 253 H. of daytime is Od. 19h. 253 H., which, added to 29 d. 11 h. 827 H., gives the sum of 30d. 7h. If we count 30d. 7h. from the beginning of a Sunday (i.e. the pre- ceding sunset), the 1st of Eldl, we come as far as a Tuesday night, 7h, the first of Tishrin Primus. In 1. 33, read 7h. instead of 9 h., and in the text, p. 194, 1. 15, read wel Zoe (JV instead of wlohe gui (J p.175,1. 2. The year of Rabbi Adda contains 365 d. 5373+ h. Of this kind of fractions (i.e. 4104th parts of an hour) one day contains 98,496. The following is the conversion of 1,738,195 d. 6 h. 253 H into these fractions: 1,738,195 d.=171,205,254,720 6 h.= 24,624 253 H.= 9612 ———————— Sum - 171,205,280,3053. Hence it is evident that in the number 171,280,3052 (line 5, for so it is to be read) 205 millions have fallen out. If we divide this sum of 4104th parts of an hour by 85,975,351 (which is the solar year of R. Adda, reduced into the same kind of fractions), we get as quotient 4,758 years, and a remainder of 350 d. 21.4% h. If we compare this remainder with that of the former calculation, t.e. Frid ne ~ oe elles RT Ei RN ae ge ! 414 ALBIRONT, 335d. 18 h. 253 H., we get a difference of 15 d. 3 h 212 H., which means that, according to Rabbi Add4, the Tektfd of Tishri of A. Alex. 1311 falls by 15 d. 8 h. 22% H. earlier than that of Rabbi Samuel. 4104 This difference shows that the system of Rabbi Addi comes pretty near astronomical truth, for, whilst Ais autumnal equinox fell 15d. 3.210 h. earlier than that of R. Samuel, the astronomical equinox fell 14 days earlier, as the author says himself on p. 174, 1. 35. p- 174,1. 21. Read 8) instead of w#\ in the text, p. 194, 1. 9. p- 175,1. 5. That part of the text which is missing in this place (i.e. between the words \@\uwd and wsbede, in the text, p. 194, 1. 21, not be- tween the number and _swas,) originally contained rules by which to find the week-days on which the years of the eras of the Deluge, Nabonassar, and Philippus commence. Of the chapter relating to the Era of Alex- ander only the end is extant. The table on p. 175 contains a cycle of 28 Julian years, after which the single years begin again on the same week-days. The reason why the beginning of Tishrin I. in the first year of the cycle is fixed upon 2, i.e. Monday, is this, that Monday is the epochal day of this era. Cf. L. Ideler, “ Handbuch,” ii. p. 628. p. 176, 1. 1. Similar rules for the derivation of the beginnings of the years of the different eras are also given by Delambre, “ Histoire de l’astronomie du moyen age,” p. 41. The epochal days of the single eras are also given by Delambre, p. 96. p. 176, 1. 27. This rule for the derivation of the Signum Muharram: of any year of the Flight is very intricate, and the author does not explain the principle upon which it is based. Most people take Thursday, others Friday, as the epochal day of the era of the Flight. The lunar year of this era is generally reckoned at 35411 d.=354 d. 8h. 48, but in reality the mean lunar year is longer. Ideler (“ Handbuch,” ii. p. 479) reckons it as 354d. 8 h. 48' 36", and the author seems to reckon it as 854d. 22' 1"=354 d. 8 h. 48 min. 24 sec. (It must be noticed that in the former number minutes are 60th parts of a day, seconds 60th parts of a 60th part of a day, whilst in the second number minutes are 60th parts of an hour, seconds 60th parts of a 60th part of an hour.) ANNOTATIONS. 415 The author does not explain why he adds 34 to the minutes. To add 5 days and 34 minutes is the same as if you add 6 days. In this case we must assume Friday (6) as the epochal day of the era, and the addi- tion of 6 days brings us back to Sunday, the beginning of the week in which the Flight occurred (cf. p. 177, 1. 43 ff., and p. 180, 1. 19). Further : why does the author count all minutes above 15 as one hour, whilst, according to the general practice, the minutes below 30 ought to be disregarded, and those above 30 to be counted as one hour? The intricacies of this rule have not revealed to me the mystery of their mathematical ratio. As it seems, the author intended by some contrivance to meet the incorrectness of the common year (of 35413 d.) being too short. p. 176, 1. 38. The sum of the days of two months is 59, which, divided by 7, gives the remainder of 3, i.e. the day on which a month begins, advances in two months as far as 3 days within the week. p. 177,1. 2. Muhammad ben Jabir Albatténi, a famous astronomer of Harrinian origin, died A.H. 317 ; vide Kitab-alfihrist,” p- 279. Habash the mathematician, a native of Marw, author of famous astro- nomical tables, vide “Kitab-alfihrist,” p. 275, and notes, and Haji Khalifa, v. p. 515. p. 177,1. 44. Read J instead of Jess in the text, p. 197. 1. 15. p- 179. This table is the invention of the mathematician Habash, indicating the Signa Muharram: for 210 years; but some sectarian has in every place added 5 to the number of days, and thereby changed it into a table indicative of the Signa Ramaddini for the cycle of 210 years. In this form the table is given by Albértni. The title of the table, as given by me, must be corrected: “ Table showing on what week-days the Ramadins of the single years of the cycle of 210 years commence.” Accordingly also the superscription of col. B. is to be altered. For the intercalary system of the lunar calendar I refer the reader to L. Ideler, ii. p.479 ff. As the lunar year is reckoned as 354 days, 11 days must be intercalated within 30 years. After the cycle of 30 years the New-Year days do not again fall on the same week days, as there is a remainder of 5 days. There is no remainder of days if this cycle is repeated seven times, i.e. after a cycle of 210 years the New-Year days fall again on the same week-day. This is the reason why the table was constructed for a period of 210 years, cf. p. 180, 1. 26. ——— rma gr Za i Be TET i pen TY a A 416 ALBirONd. The following lis the Ordo intercalationis according to which Habash has constructed his table. Cycle of 30 Portio Cycle of 30 Portio Yn intercalanda. years. intercalanda. - > 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 L. 30 p> 1 we ah | ojo Oe Ol O Cd bt CO 0 Ga 2 | © 00 FO Utd WND = © 0) BO ge dis of, of ol ole of © jo 9 ©) < According to Habash, the following years of the cycle of 30 years are leap-years : 2, 5, 8, 11, 13, 16, 19, 21, 24, 27, 30, whilst, according to the common Ordo intercalationis, the following years are leap-years : 2, 5, 7, 10, 13, 16, 18, 21, 24, 26, 29, or 2, 5, 7, 10, 13, 15, 18, 21, 24, 26, 29. The principle of Habash is obvious: He intercalates the portio inter- calanda as one whole day, when the fraction has risen to more than 23, i.e. 2rds of a whole day. Habash has used Friday as the epochal day, because IV. (Signum RamadAni) minus 5 gives VL. (Friday) as the Signum Muharrami. In the text (vide the screw-figure, p. 198) there are four mistakes : 1. In the first square o (the Signum of the first Ramadan) has fallen out. 2. The Signum Ramadani for the year 9 has fallen out, viz. ¢ 3. The Signum of the year 25, read o instead of 4. The Signum of the year 131, read ¢ instead of p. 180, 1. 7. Tabula mediorum. The word Wasat or Medium means the corrected or mean motion of any celestial body. iociessmn SENS ANNOTATIONS. 417 p. 180, 1. 27. Read Ji! instead of oJ) in the text, p. 198, 1. 22 (Fleischer). p. 181. The Corrected Table of the author contains the Characters of the single years of the cycle of 210 years, i.e. the remainders which you get if you divide the sum of the days of the years by 7. The addition of 5d. 34' shows that the table is calculated for Friday as the epochal-day. It must be kept in mind that in order to find the Signum Muhkarrami for any year, we must look out in the Corrected Table for the Signum of the preceding year; e.g. to find the Signum Muhkarrami of a.m. 100, we take the Signum of the year 99, viz. 5d. 18 +5d. 34 10d. 52' —7d. 3d. 52'=1IV. or Wednesday. The author does not explain what system of intercalation he follows. p. 182,1. 1. The following passage and table are also found in the Kosmographie of Alkazwini, ed. Wiistenfeld, p. 74. The Octaeteris of lunar years is the basis of the Turkish calendar, vide Ideler, ii. p. 564. It rests on the observation that the beginnings of consecutive cycles of eight years fall nearly on the same identical time of the week, but there is a difference of four minutes, 7.e. the beginning of one Octaeteris, falls by four minutes later than that of the preceding one. If we compute the beginnings of the first Octaeteris by the help of the corrected table, we get the following Signa : Years of Signa the Cycle. Muharrami. © 1 @ on 10 | nnn 418 ; ALBiRONT. ANNOTATIONS. 419 I do not see the reason why the author orders 4 to be added to the We subtract 1 year, and write down its character, i.e. 44. 22, complete years of the Fra Fuge (11. 4, 5). Half of the remainder (88)=44. The first Signum Muharram: of the table belongs to the second year 1) 44x8=3524d. of the Flight. In 1. 7, read under 8 instead of under 7. II) 44x3=132 : 4=334d. ’Ahmad ben Muhammad ben Shihab is not known to me from other sources. The Kitab-alfihrist,” p. 282, mentions a mathematician Ahmad 352d. ben Muhammad, a contemporary of Muhammad ben Misa, who died 33d. AH. 259. 6d. (we add 6, taking Friday as epochal day, in agreement with Wiistenfeld’s Tables, p. 183, 1. 12. ’Abd-Ja‘far Alkhézin, a famous astronomer and mathe- : sum 391d. whilst Alkhézin adds 5, taking Thurs- matician, vide ©Kitib-alfihrist,” p. 282. He was a contemporary of day as epochal day.) Abb-Zaid Albalkht, who died a.m. 322. Cf. “Kitdb-alfihrist,” p. 138, | —0d. 44/ (60th parts to the amount of half the and G. Fliigel, ¢ Grammatische Schulen der Araber,” p. 204. | Seed. 16 number.) +4.d. 22' (character of the one year.) p- 183, 1. 13. The Characters of 30, 10, 5 years, and of 1 year, as given by the author, will be found to agree with the Corrected Table, if 394d. 88' (these 38’ are counted as one day.) 3 converted into the sexagesimal system. Therefore 395 : 7=remainder 3=C. ql Character of 30 years=>5d —5d. 0 ie. AH. 90 commenced on a Tuesday (cf. Wistenfeld, “ Vergleichungs- ; 10 years=1d. 16 h.=14. 40 Tabellen ™). ” 5 years=0d. 20 h.=0 d. 50' p- 184, 1. 24. The same rule for the Fra Yazdagirdi, vide in Delambre, h J » 1 year=4d. 84h.=4d. 22 « Histoire de I’astronomie du moyen ige,” p. 41. : The remainder of the rule does not require an explanation. p. 184, 1.33. On the Fra Magorum, cf. Bd. Sachau, Zur Geschichte und Chronologie von Khwirizm L” (“ Sitzungsberichte der Kais. p. 183, 1 84, The second rule of Allchdzin is ae correct as the fires Wiener Akademie der Wissenschaften, phil.-hist. Classe,” 1873, tom. 93, i one, but it is unnecessarily complicated. p- 485). R The character of the lunar year is 443 d. It is easy to multiply any p- 184, 1. 42. ‘The author’s report on the intercalation of the ancient A j : 4 Li ’ number of years by 4 (or half the number by 8), but for the multiplica- : Persians, vide on p. 38. hi RE a tion by 14 Alkhdzin has sought for a simplified method. | dl Ry 11 of a number is nearly equal to § of it, i.e. § of a number are more p. 186, 1. 27. Ibn-Sankild (the son of Syncellus ?) is not known to "3 i | Bl than 11 of it by 135 of the number, or ¢5 of half the number, e.g. : me from other sources. i | p——— — ps 2 of 60=223 i ¢ A ’ AM 3 ‘ iy! u iL 11 of 60=22 p. 187, 1. 13. ‘Abdalldh b. ’Ismi il is unknown to me, but ‘Abd- ‘3 i ) ia almasih Alkindi seems to be the famous philosopher of this name. As } | ve ¥ uo i The difference between both numbers is 3, i.e. tis of 60 (or 5 of 30). an authority on Sabians he is also quoted by the Kitab-alfihrist,” p. W | : § : i ht If, therefore, we multiply a number of years by § (i.e. if we multiply 318, vide also Chwolsohn, “ Sabier und Sabismus,” ii. pp. 3 and 56. i i : | | | half the number by 8 and divide the product by 4), we must subtract of ER from the product ~i of the number (or 4 of half the number), in order p. 187,1. 87. Tailasin, name of a piece of dress, cf. note at p. 132, 4 | 3 P 120 60 $4 i 1 to get 11 of the same number of years. 1.3. | LE ) I : te | & Example: a.m. 90. p.188,1. 85. Aljdmida was a large village in the district of Wisit, i a ii xh The number of complete years is 89, an odd number. between this town and Bagra. Yakit, ii. p. 10. 3 a i ; A Nahr-alsila in Wisit is mentioned by Yikit, iv. p. 841. i lpgh Lai ) p 420 ALBIRONI. A place, Al-ja‘far, I do not know, but Al-ja‘fari was a castle in the neighbourhood of Samarra, built by the Khalif Almutawakkil, vide. Yékit, ii. p. 86. p. 188, 1. 44. On the Sapavoio, vide a note in ¢ Kitdb-alfihrist,” p. 345. p. 189, 1. 2. Bahdr is the Sanskrit word vikdra ; of Farkhdra I do not know the origin. The author seems to think of the Buddhistic monu- ments of the Kabul valley. p. 189, 1. 14. On the sects of Bardesanes and Marcion, cf. “ Kitab- alfihrist,” i. pp. 338, 339, G. Fliigel, Mani, “Seine Lehre und seine Schriften,” 1862, pp. 159, 161. p- 189, 1. 20. The Termini Spo are an astrological term, meaning the division of each zodiacal sign into five parts. These parts stand under the influence of the planets (except Sun and Moon). They are deter- mined differently in different systems (that of the Egyptians and that of Ptolemy). p. 189, 1. 43. The chapter on Mani, cf. with G. Fliigel, Mani, “Sein Leben und seine Schriften,” Leipzig, 1862. p. 190, 1. 87. Yakat (iv. p. 817) mentions the canal of Katha, but he does not mention the name of Mardini (sic.). p.-191,1. 1. Yahyi b. Alnu‘mén, the Christian, is not known to me from other sources. p. 191, 1. 19. Jibrail b. Nth is not known to me. Yazdanbakht was a Manichean chief in the time of the Khalif Ma'min, vide Fligel, Miéni, pp. 108 and 99, etc. p. 191, 1. 44. On this prince Marzuban b. Rustam, vide note at p. 47, 1. 32. p. 192, 1. 6. The “XKitab-alfihrist” mentions two books on Mazdak, ANNOTATIONS. 421 p- 193, 1. 6. The story of the idol that was eaten by its worshippers is told by many Arab authors. Cf. “ Muhit-almuhit,” s.v. &. p. 193, 1. 16. On Bahifirld, cf. Shahristini, ed. Cureton, p. 187; « Kitab-alfihrist,” p. 344. The village or town of Sfrdwand is also mentioned by Yékit, s.v. Sty ii. p. 486. p-194,1. 12. I do not know an ‘Abdallah b. Shu‘ba in the early history of the Abbasides. In the “ Kitab-alfihrist,” p. 344, 1. 24, one of the two officers who were sent out in pursuit of Bahifirid, is called ‘Abdallih ben Sa‘id, and a man of this name is known as provincial governor of the Khalifs Hartn and Amin, vide Ibn-al’athir, vi. pp. 156, 214. p- 194, 1. 22. TIbn-al’athir, vi. pp. 25, 85, relates the coming forward of Almukanna‘ under a.m. 159, and his death under a.m. 161. p. 194,1. 45. The history of Alhallaj is told by Ibn-al’athir, viii. pp. 57, 92. p- 195, 1. 33. On the literature of the Kutub-almaldhim, cf. M. Stein- schneider, Apokalypsen mit polemischer Tendenz (“Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlindischen Gesellschaft,” xxviii. p. 627 ff.). p- 195, 1. 87. On Almukhtar, who waskilled a.H. 67, cf. Ibn-Kutaiba, “ Ma‘arif,” p. 204, and Ibn-al’athir, iv. p. 220. p. 195, 1. 42. Radwé is a mountain in Alhijiz, between Yanbu‘ and Medina, also mentioned by Yakat (ii. p. 790, 1. 20) as the residence of Almahdi. Cf. also Alkazwini, “ Kosmographie,” ii. p. 160. p- 196, 1. 1. On the island of Barta’il, cf. Alkazwini, “ Kosmographie,” i. p. 53. p- 196, 1. 13. On the history of the Karmatians, cf. De Goeje, “ Me- moire sur les Carmathes du Bahrain,” Leyde, 1862. p. 196, 1. 21. Tamim is mentioned by Yakt, iii. p. 547, as a town near one by Ibn-almukaffa‘ (p. 118), and one by ’Abén b. ‘Abd-alhamid Hadramaut. (p- 163). In the same book, p. 342, a chapter on Mazdak. = 5 » —— a i a p- 196, 1. 44. Abi-‘Abdallih Al‘4di is not known to me from other p. 192,1. 26. This correspondence took place A.H. 10, cf. Ibn-Hisham, sources. An Abt-‘Abdallih Aldi‘ (so a mistake for #1V7?) is pp. 965. 946 ; Ibn-al’athir, ii. 227; Ibn-Kutaiba, “ Kitdb-alma‘arif,” known in history as a chief of the Shi‘a in Dailam, vide Ibn-al’athir, p- 206. viii, p. 424, at A.H. 355, and viii. p. 443. ha J i SY — — ee a WET — i Se p. 193, 1. 8. In a different form this verse is quoted by Ibn-Kutaiba, p. 197, 1. 39. The Stra called Alzwmar is Stira 39. These verses were “ Ma‘arif,” p. 206. also translated by de Goeje, “ Mémoire sur les Carmathes,” p. 51. naan mle ST, MN, opin i ter se I pratate ’ ry a FTA a RO v i. he 422 : ALBIRONI. p-198,1. 1. Read ht Al‘azékir instead of yt Alghurdkir, and from Shalmaghin o\kels oe instead of b. Shalmakin ass or (text, p. 214, 1. 9). Cf. Yékit, iii. p. 814, and Ibn-al’athir, viii. p. 216. Shal- maghén was the name of a district belonging to Wisit. p.199,1. 1. An extraci from the author’s chapter on the festivals of the Persians is given by Alkazwini, “ Kosmographie,” ii. pp. 79-84; see also Alfarghani, « Elementa astronomiz,” note, pp. 20-42. p. 199,1.20. I am unable to tell what the author means by the sphere of Féréz (not Féroza) and by the sphere of Afranjawi (or Ifranjawi) on p- 208, 1. 15. p- 199, 1. 28. Sa4d b. Alfadl. (vide also p. 208, 1. 27) is not known to me from other sources. Yakdt, ii. p. 584, mentions. a place, Dummd, below Baghdad. Per- haps it would be preferable to read “ On the mountain of Dumma,” etc. p- 200, 1. 3. Kalwadha, a place not far south from Baghdad. Yakit, iv. 301. The year in which ‘Adud-aldaula entered Baghdad was A.H. 364. On Abt-alfaraj Alzanjani, cf. note at p. 54, 1. 1. p. 201, 1. 4 ff. If popular use may more easily determine the sol- stices than the equinoxes, it is just the reverse for their scientific deter- mination, as the author himself observes on p. 167, 1. 2. Cf. Sachau and Holetschek, « Berechnung der Entfernung des Sonnenapogaeums von dem Friihlingspunkt,” p. 25. p. 202, 1. 4. Biishanj. It would be better to translate ¢ on the moun- tain of Bshanj,” as Bishan] is a village in the district of Herat, not far from the road to Nishapiir, vide Yakit, i. p. 758. p- 203, 1. 32. With this innovation of Shéptr the Hero, cf. p. 209, 1. 37. p. 204, 1. 8. Afdhtar. Apadkhtara means in the Avestd north, not south. p. 204, 1. 51. Manifest in the Avastd (vide also p. 205,1. 24) is the common mode of quotation in Parsee books, vide “Bundihish,” ed. Justi, Glossary, s.v. <\x. p. 204, 1. 52. On the Géhanbérs, cf. F. Spiegel, “ Avesta,” ii. p. c. and p. 4, note 1; on the etymologies of their names, vide A. Bezzen- ANNOTATIONS. 423 berger, “ Einige Avestische Worter und Formen in Gottinger Gelehrte Anzeigen,” 1878, p. 251. p- 205, 1. 13. Cashn-i-nilifar means the feast of the water-lily. p- 205,1. 25. Arish. The older form of this name is Arshan, vide Noeldeke, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlindischen Gesellschaft,” xxxii. p. 570. p. 206, 1. 28. Sdwa was a town half-way between Rai and Hamadén, vide Yakdt, iii. p. 24. A town of the name of Andish or Mandish is not known to me. p. 207,1. 11. Here something seems to be missing, viz. that Adhar- cashn fell on Mihr-Réz, i.e. the 16th of the month. p- 208, 1. 21. Salmén Alfarisi, originally a slave of Persian descent, afterwards one of Muhammad's companions. He died in the beginning of the reign of ‘Uthman. p- 208, 1. 25. Alérdnshahri (also p. 211, 1.19) is not known to me from other sources. p. 208, 1. 28. Shdhin. A mountain of this name is not known to me. p- 208, 1. 32. Alkisrawi, vide note at p. 122, 1. 14. p- 208, 1. 33. Héamin. This place seems to be something like the Haméstagin, an intermediate place between heaven and hell, vide West, “ Mainyo-i-Khard,” Glossary, p. 97. p- 209, 1. 20. * Kustik means girdle, still an essential part in the costume of a Zoroastrian. p. 210, 1. 15. Alndsir Al'utrish was a descendant of Ali, who ruled for some years in Dailam and Tabaristin, and was killed a.m. 304. As a missionary he had endeavoured to spread Islim among the Zoroastrian people of these countries. Weil, “Geschichte der Khalifen,” ii. pp. 613-615. In the text, p. 224, 1. 9, read y\3\ Alndsir instead of LI Alndzir. p- 210, 1. 18. For a description of the feast of Farwardagin, vide F. Spiegel, “ Avesta,” ii., * Einleitung,” p. ci. p. 211, 1. 3-8. The lines between brackets have been taken from the Canon Masudicus of Albértni, MS. Elliot (British Museum), fol. 50a. p- 211, 1. 15. Tahir b. Tahir, unknown to me. ¥en eo i 1 — a ——— f ! Hh his. ke UR VEE i Tr : Et Ldn Fo TH i Hib 424 ALBIRONG. p. 212,1. 28. The name of the feast of the 15th Abin is also in the Canon Masudicus (ff. 49a, 50a) written ¢\Sws. p. 212, 1. 83. The second name of this feast is written in the Canon Masudicus (ff. 49a, 50a) JSS which is certainly more correct than J, p. 213, 11. 11-13. On these festivals, cf. Canon Masudicus, fol. 50a, 11. 18-22 : “On the day of Bahmanja they cook in caldrons all sorts of plants, kernels, blossoms, and all sorts of eatable meat. They drink the white Bahman-root, mixed with the purest white milk, maintaining that this helps to preserve the body and to defend it against evil. « Barsadhak means above sadhak, because it precedes Sadhak by five days. It is also called Nausadha, i.e. the new Sadhak. « Sadhak. They say that on this day the creation of a hundred souls of the family of Mésh4 and Méshana had become perfect, and that there- fore the day was called Saddak, i.e. Hundred-day. According to others there is an interval of 100 days between this day and Nauréz, if you count days and nights separately, and therefore the day was called Hundred-day in the same way as Nuwad-Roéz” (vide p. 212, 1. 12). p. 213, 1. 24. Karaj, a town midway between Hamadén and Ispahén, also a village near Rai, and another between Hamadin and Nahawand. Yakit, iv. p. 251. p. 214, 1. 28. Ab&-Uthmén Aljahiz is the well-known zoologist, author of a Liber animalium, Kitib-alhayawdin, who died at Basra A.H. 255. p. 214, 1. 28. ‘Ukbari, a village in the district of Dujail, near Sarifin and ’AwAna. Yak, iii. p. 705. p. 214, 1. 33. Aljaihéni, a famous polyhistor, vezir to the dynasty of the Samanides, beginning of the 4th century of the Flight, vide Reinaud, « Géographie d’Aboulféda,” i. p. Ixiii. p. 215, 1. 15. Adharkhérd is not mentioned by Yékft, nor does he know anything about Kim-Féréz (lL 39). Dard (1. 38) is not known as a place in Persis ; perhaps Dardbjird was meant. p. 216, 1. 22. In the text, p. 229, 1. 16, read instead of pw) as in the manuscripts. p. 216, 1.31. Dinar-Rézi. The spelling of this name is not quite certain. It is mentioned by Ibn-Haukal, ed. de Goeje, p. 275, lL. pen. It is a place on the road from Jurjan to Khurisan. p. 216, 1. 40. Zanjin, a town in Media towards Adharbaijin, not far from Kazwin. Yakit, ii. p. 948. Lk oS a fd emu eames. ANNOTATIONS. 425 p- 217, 1. 25. On the Feast of Kardfannikhusra, and the city of this name, cf. Yakit, iv. p. 258. p. 221,1. 6. Rémush is mentioned by Yak, ii. 737, as a village in the district of Bukhara. p- 221, 1. 21. The festivals called Makhiraj fell, according to the author’s “ Kitab-altafhim > (MS. of the Royal Library in Berlin, Peterm. 67, fol. 62b.), always on the 13th. P: 221, 1. 22. Instead of p\&} oC the “ Kitab-altafhim ” has ple ia i.e. the Agham or feast of Baikand, cf. RAmush-Agham, 1. 15. p- 221, 1. 32. Al-tawiwis, a town in the district of Bukhara, between this place and Samarkand, vide Yakit, iii. 555. @Xs4S is not known to me. p- 222,1. 5. Shargh (“Kitab-altafhim,” fol. 62b), called &= by Ibn- Haukal, p. 360, 11. 5, 6, was a large village near Bukhéri, vide Yakit, iii. p- 276. : p- 224, 1. 4. According to the “XKitib-altafhim” (fol. 63a) the festival Ajghar fell on the 16th of Ciri. is p. 224, 1. 12. Faghrubah is baga= God, and some derivative from the root arp (3). p. 224, 1. 18. Read Azdd instead of Azdd, and cf. Azditi=fat in the Avesta. p. 224, 1. 22. Instead of Ciri-Réj the ¢ KitAb-altafhim ” has Cir-roz Jn re. p. 224, 1. 28. Instead of Akhil ~~ one may think of reading Tkhshab «~se=q the night (as (sypysat= pus). p- 225, 1. 14. Yahya Grammaticus, a Jacobite bishop in Egypt who translated from the Greek and wrote philosophical and polemical books, lived in the first half of the 7th century of our era. p- 225, 1. 22. Khézh I hold to be a derivative from the same root whence (yx\s has sprung (cf. yee\swsyy and uzgadzanuha in the Avestd). p- 225, 1. 30. The following Chorasmian names of the Gdhanbirs are dialect-varieties of the names of the Avesta in the following order: Paitis-hahya (26-30 Shahréwar). Maidhyi-shema (11-15 Tir). 31 hp : A Rn ARE RR a a. rs Cg - P if i 8 3 3 } na 2 H & r | v ] i & i il i it Li : G4 i : TET § 0 my ’ li i Gi } i = ie 31 mn ill ' id ! 21 i bi o . : 4, y SE : Ee iE Re ' 4 £ . +o Bi } \ Hi 8 i § | Rh " 4 Er { ' 8's x 8 2 \ x 3 © RE T N BS ' i ih 1 ' {3 dg 5 3 he x i al ! i § } § ES Ew 426 ALBIRONI. Maidhydirya (16-20 Bahman). Maidhyb-naremaya (11-15 Ardibahisht). : Hamacpathmaédaya, which is omitted in this place, the five intercalary days at the end of Spendarmat. Aydthrema (26-30 Mihr). 17 p: 925, 1. 33. What the author means by oo I do not know. oS means young camels, and oo means relating to gourds (Es). p. 226,1. 10. Whatever the true Chorasmian form may be, Akhar, Akhkhar, or Akhtar, it is certainly identical with the Persian y\ Akhtar =star. p. 226, 1. 14. The author’s criticisms on the constellations of the single zodiacal signs as represented by Arabians and Chorasmians, may be compared with the book of L. Ideler, “ Untersuchungen uber den Ursprung und die Bedeutung der Sternnamen,” Berlin, 1809. p. 226, 1 21. Adhiipaékarik is a Bahuvrihi compound of two words corresponding to the Persian dil yo=1two, and paikar Sy=figure. p. 226,1. 87. Abt-Muhammad ¢Abdallah b. Muslim b. Kutaiba Aldi- nawart is in Europe known as Ibn-Kutaiba. He was a native of Kiifa, and lived as judge in Dinawar. He died a.m. 270. According to « Kitab-alfihrist,” p. 77, his books were highly esteemed, especially in Aljabal, i.e. Media, and to his Jabali or Median character Albértini seems to have certain objections (p-. 227, 1. 16). That one of his books which our author quotes is perhaps identical with that mentioned by ¢ Kitab-alfihrist,” p. 78, 1.3 (pemty ot ger Gynt P\X). p- 227,1.23. Im Stra ix. v. 98, Muhammad blames the ’A‘rdb, i.e. the Arab Bedouins, in the strongest terms: ¢ The 'A‘rib are the worst infidels and hypocrites, they do not deserve to learn the laws which God reveals unto His prophet, but God is all-knowing, all-wise,” etc. p- 227, 1. 832. Three of the Sogdian names resemble the corresponding Sanskrit names: Proshthapadi=\ ep (No. 24). Revati= sg, (No. 26). Maghi= & (No. 8.) Cf. E. Burgess, Sirya-Siddhénta (“ Journal of the American Oriental Society,” vol. vi. p. 327 ff.), and A. Weber, « Jenaer Literatur-Zeitung,” 1877 (7 April), p. 211. ANNOTATIONS. 427 The name ss in No. 7 is the catavaéca of the Avestd; the name &4, in No. 20, cf. with the vanaf of the Avesta. p- 229, 1. 3. Ahmad was the last prince but one of the ancient house of the Shihs of Khwarizm, who undertook a reform of the calendar A. Alex 1270=a.p. 959, i.e. 13 years before the author was born. Cf. Sachau, Zur Geschichte und Chronologie von Khwairizm I. (“ Sitzungsberichte der Wiener Akademie,” phil. hist. Classe, 1873, p- 503). A short report of this reform is also found in the ““Kitib- altafhim,” fol. 63. p. 229, 1. 18. Alkhariji and Alhamdaki are not known to me from other sources. p- 280, 1. 8. According to the « Kitdb-altafhim ” the 1st Nausarji was fixed so as to fall on the 2nd Nisin (ws eo WEY ppt (SF). p- 230, 1. 26. According to p. 258, 1. 18, the Nile begins to rise on the 16th Haziran, i.e. the 16th Payni. p- 283, 1. 5. Sinén b. Thébit died at Baghdad A.1. 331, and his father, Thabit b. Kurra, o.H. 288. They were both famous as philosophers, mathematicians, and physicians, both Harrdnians, the last representa- tives of ancient Greek learning, through whom Greek sciences were communicated to the illiterate Arabs. Cf.“ Kitab-alfihrist,” pp. 302, 272. Sindn had made a collection of meteorological observations, called Kitdb-alanwd, compiled from ancient sources, and enriched by the observations of his father and his own. The work of Sinin has been incorporated by Albérini into his chronology, and thereby he has pre- served to us the most complete Parapegma of the ancient Greek world. With the works of Sinin other works of a similar character may be compared : Geminus, *Ewaywyy es ta pawdpeva, the 16th chapter, edited by Halma in “ Chronologie de Ptolemée,” Paris, 1819, pp. 79-87. (Cf. Boeckh, “Ueber die vierjahrigen Sonnenkreise,” p. 22 ff.) Ptolemeeus, pdoes dmhavadv dorépwv kai gwaywyy émonuaciov edited by Halma, “ Chronologie de Ptolemée.” Johannes Lydus (“Corpus scriptorum Historie Byzantine,” Bonn, 1837), De mensibus, cap. iv., and De ostentis, in the same volume, pp. 357-382. . For calendaria of more recent times, vide J. Selden, “ De synedriis et prefecturis juridicis veterum Ebrsorum 1734 (contains three calendaria). ”» 428 ALBiriNi. Lobstein, “ Nachrichten und Ausziige aus den Handschriften der Kgl. Bibliothek in Paris,” i. pp. 415-424. Vide Hammer, © Geschichte der Osmanischen Dichtkunst,” i. pp. 76-81. Fleischer, “ Abulfede Historia anteislamica,” p. 163 ff. Kazwini, « Kosmograpkie,” ii. p. 75 ff. (extract from Albériini). A calendarium of Spanish-Arabic origin has been edited by R. Dozy, «Te Calendrier de Cordoue,” Leyde, 1873. Regarding the authorities quoted by Sinan, as Euctemon, Eudoxus, Philippus, Metrodorus, Dositheus, Conon, Cesar, etc., I refer the reader to the excellent work of A. Boeck, “Ueber die vierjihrigen Sonnenkriese der Alten, vorziiglich den Eudoxischen,” Berlin, 1863. p- 233,1.9. By Episemasia monpacia 1 have translated the word Naw’ =. According to Albértni, p. 839, 1.4, Naw’ means the rising of a Lunar Station. The meteorological influence of this rising is called Bdrik; the influence of the sinking of a Lunar Station is called Naw’. Albérini uses the word Naw’ in either of these two meanings. Comparing the conflicting opinions of the Arab philologists on this word (vide W. Lane, “Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlindischen Gesellschaft,” iii. p. 97 f£.). Iam led to believe that N aw’ is an ancient Arabic word, probably much used in ante-Muhammadan times, the meaning of which was no longer fully and distinctly understood by the Muslim Arabs. Afterwards when the Greek calendars were to be translated into Arabic, the word Naw’ was used to render the Greek émonpaiver, as the comparison of Sindn’s compilation with Geminus, Pto- lemy, and Johannes Lydus shows. The single days of these calendars do not correspond with each other, but the technical terms are every- where the same. p. 234, 1. 40. Ibn-Khurdadhbih, vide note at p. 50, 1. 26. p. 285, 1. 19. Ispahbadhin, a town in Tabaristdn, two miles distant from the Caspian Sea. Further inland in the mountains the castle Tik, with caves and wells in the neighbourhood. Cf. Yékit, iii. pp. 490, 491 ; Kazwini, ii. p. 270, 1. 10 ab inf. p. 238, 1. 24. ‘Ali b. Aljahm was a famous poet at the time of the Khalif Almutawakkil, who died A.H. 249. As he had made satirical verses on the Khalif, he fled, and was hunted about. At last, after having been wounded in a fight with his pursuers, in the agonies of expiring he is said to have recited this verse. Cf. Ibn- Khallikin, ed Wistenfeld, No. 473. §i355e He piss ETT ANNOTATIONS. 429 p- 288, 1. 39. Yahya b. ‘Alf is not known to me from other sources. p. 243, 1. 31. Abd-Bakr Husain Altammar, a contemporary of Raézi, who died A.m. 320, is also mentioned by Wiistenfeld, “ Geschichte der Arabischen Aerzte und Naturforscher,” p. 46, 1. 8. p. 245, 1.29. ‘Abdallah b. ‘Ali, a mathematician of Bukhdrd, is not known to me. p. 247,1. 2. On the fire as a spherical body within the lunar sphere, cf. also Kazwini, “ Kosmographie,” ii. p. 90; translated by Dr. Ethé, p- 185. p. 247, 1. 87. On the correspondence of Albérini with Ibn-Sini, cf. my edition of the text, “ Einleitung,” p. xxxv. p- 248,11. 17, 31, 34. In the text, p. 257, ll. 16, 23, and p. 258, 1. 2, read \stsy\ instead of \wyyt The word (meds if a genuine Greek word, might be read in various ways, but I hold it to be a mistake for (ugmS3\ Eudoxus. p. 250, 1. 15. Muhammad b. Mitydr (also p. 258, 1. 26) is not known to me from other sources. p- 251, 1. 33. Abi-Yahyd b. Kunisa, the author of a famous Kitib- al’anwi, was born at Kiafa a.m. 123, and died at Bagdad a.m. 207 ; vide “ Kitab-alfihrist,” p. 70. p. 252, 1. 6. The following discussion on the circumstances under which water rises, is of a technical nature, the due appreciation of which I must leave to physical scholars. p. 255, 1. 23. The word Dakj does not occur in any Arabic dic- tionary. If the writing is correct, it is probably a word of foreign origin. p. 255, L. 34. Kimék, or Kaimik, a province of the Chinese empire, inhabited by Turkish nomades, vide Kazwini, “ Kosmographie,” ii. p. 895, and Ibn-Khurdddbih, in “Journal Asiatique,” 1865, pp. 267- 268. p. 256, 1. 5. Alkarya Alhaditha is not known from other sources. p. 256, 1. 10. Mihrjin was the ancient name of Isfard’in, a village between Jurjan and Nishépir, also the name of a village in the district of Isfard’in and of another village between Ispahin and Tabs. Ci. . Yakit, i. p.246; iv. p. 699. WOR SEE 3 ” 430 ALBIRONI. p. 258, 1. 29. Hayawéniyya-sect, not known to me. p. 261,1. 39. Abi-Nu’ds, the famous poet at the time of the Khalif Héar{in, died a.m. 199. p. 261, 1 42. ‘Ali b. ‘(Alt is not known to me from other sources. p- 262, 1. 37. Naubakht. If the text is correct, and we must not rather read Ibn-Naubakht, this man may have been the father of Abi- Sahl Alfadl b. Naubakht, librarian to the Khalif Harn, and a great astrologer. Cf. “ Kitab-alfihrist,” p. 274. p. 263, 1. 21. Salamiyya, a village in the district of Hims, Yak, iil. p- 123,1. 18; p. 124, 1. 1. p. 266, 1. 40. Thu‘dliba. This reading may seem doubtful, as no place of this name is mentioned anywhere. The nearest approach is Thu'dlibdt, in Yakit, i. p. 925. p. 268, 1. 1. As useful material for the explication of the festal calendar of the Jews the following works have been used : Canon Masudicus, MS. Elliot (British Museum, ff. 37b-38a). Abulfedee, “ Historia anteislamica,” ed. Fleischer, p. 156 i Bartolocei, * Bibliotheca Rabbinica,” ii. 5538 ff. A. G. Waehner, ¢“ Antiquitates Ebraeorum,” Gottingen, 1742, sect. v. T. C. G. Bodenschatz, « Kirchliche Verfassung der heutigen, sonderlich der teutschen Juden,” Erlangen, 1748, vol. ii. pp. 87, 105. M. Briick, “ Rabbinische Caeremonialgebriuche,” Breslau, 1837. ayn nem ed. Jo. Mayer, Amstelodami, 1724 (cap. xil.). nNYn Poon id est: © Codex Talmudicus de Jejunio, ex Hebrzo Sermone in Latinum versus commentariisque illustratus a Daniele Lundio Succo.” Trajecti ad Rhenum, 1694. p. 268, 1.20. Read WIT instead of 17. Tt is a Hebrew form Jord meaning protrusus, i.e. advanced or postponed ; feminine : FINI, p. 269, 1. 1.* For the fasting of Gedalya, cf. 2 Kings xxv. 25, and Jerem. xli. 2. p- 269, 1. 20. The following story in a Hebrew garb is found in J. Zed- ner’s “ Auswahl historischer Sticke aus hebraeischen Schriftstellern,” Berlin, 1840, pp. 6-11, as was pointed out to me by Prof. H. Strack. p- 269, 1. 27. Read quietly ” instead of following the course of the river.” ANNOTATIONS. 431 p. 270, 1. 29. You shall celebrate a feast, ete. The words \s= Vygey (text, p. 277, 1. 11), can only be explained as a too literal translation of aT INR DNA) in Levit. xxiii. 41. p. 270, 1. 83. Abt-Isi Alwarrdk (also p. 278, 1. 22) is mentioned in « Kitab-alfihrist,” p. 388, as one of those who in public professed Islam, but in reality were heretics. p. 270,1. 89. On the same day (i.e. the 21st) is the Feast of Congrega- tion. This is a mistake. Congregation, or PIXY falls on the 22nd Tishri, i.e. the following day. Canon Masudicus gives the following series : 21st Tishri=r12"Y 22nd ,, =X) 23rd , =u se Cf. Bodenschatz, ii. p. 235. The word Hérhdra (1. 40) I cannot explain. The court of the temple is called FIV and the place where the willows are gathered is called NY (Mishna) or NIN (Talmud Palmstinensis). Canon Masudicus (fol. 38a) says: il Jp od gm We ey i.e. “ The feast of Arabha consists of a procession round the altar.” The ost of the text is the Hebrew ah p. 270, 1. 43. The feast of benediction is called FMM NM, vide Waehner, v. p. 111, and Bodenschatz, ii. p. 2445. ug p. 271, 1. 14. Between the 8th and 13th of this month. As possibly between the 8th and 13th there is no Monday at all, it may happen that this fast-day does not occur in some year (if the rule is correct). p. 271,1. 21. This fast-day falls according to Megillath-Ta‘anith on the 7th Kisléw, according to Waehner and Bodenschatz on the 28th Kisléw. Cf. on the origin of this fasting, Jerem. xxxvi. 27-32. p. 271, 1.85. The following story occurs also in Abulfede, “Hist. anteislamica,” pp. 160-162. Instead of the (mywtel of the manu- scripts, Canon Masudicus (fol. 38a) has o*ysUbY i.e. Antiochus, and so I have translated. In the text (p. 278, 1. 11) the words &w\3Y (3 2 © \ are a rather honk and incorrect expression for &t J Esl gpl sae eR Gt SI &ual, po rm ——— pL RSF - la nr — So TE A hg rE, ~. Ea ia a ——— aA Sn SE 432 ALBIRONE. p- 272, 1.17. Ptolemy is here called Talmd, as if the initial p were the Coptic article. In the Megillath-Ta‘anith, which fixes this fast-day . on the 8th Tébeth, he is called Jor MON (cap. 12). p. 272,1. 80. According to Megillath-Ta‘anith, cap. 12, this fast-day falls on the 8th Shubit. p. 278,1. 17. In the text, p. 279, 1. 20, there is a lacuna, which I have filled up with the help of Canon Masudicus, fol. 37b. and Waehner, v. p. 112. p- 275, 1.8. In the “ Kitab-altafhim ” (Cod. Berolin. fol. 58b), the author says: Sb pyedt V2 yay ; and in the Canon Masudicus (fol. 38v) he says: (Sepdl Jt poy SV pdt Vio ~~. In the same work, fol. 37v, the feast is called WV see, Accordingly the reading (~S seems to be preferable to that of (me: This word Kas seems in some way to be connected with the Syriac leo which means middle of the month, indicating the 15th, on which this feast falls. p- 275, 1. 12. Thirty men, a mistake for thirty thousand. The Canon Masudicus (£. 38b) has correctly Joy «8% @p¥. Cf. 1 Sam. iv. 10. p. 275, 1. 15. Canon Masudicus (f. 37b) mentions a feast also for the 15th Iyar: Jagat BUy Lit gy yell putt doe «The feast of the Small Passover, also the day of fast in commemo- ration of the death of Samuel.” p. 275,1. 19. The plural gys= (text, p. 281, 1. 16) seems to be a form coined by Albérini from a singular g= i.e. the Hebrew J, for the pure Arabic word g~ has the plural = In the Canon Masudicus the author gives two days to the Feast of Congregation, the second of which is called 80S \\ ge i.e. Fasting of the First-fruat. p. 275, 1. 26. With this biblical quotation, cf. Exod. xxiii. 14-17; Exod. xxxiv. 22, 23; Deut. xvi. 16. The reading of the MS. (text, p. 281, 1. 20), plea is unintelligible to me. My conjecture pSe\e= must be explained as the infinitive of a verb g~ a denominative formation from >=". ANNOTATIONS. 433 p. 276, 1. 12. The Megillath-Ta‘anith, cap. xii, has the following note on this fast-day : MY TIN ED) PYTN 2 NMA YN A p. 276, 1. 18. There are two unlucky days in the Jewish calendar, the 17th Tammuz and the 9th Abh. A short review of the disasters that have happened on these two days is given in the Massekheth- Ta‘anith, p. 55. The text (p. 282, 1. 11) is not quite correct in the manuscripts. With the text as given by me, cf. Canon Masudicus (ff. 87b 38Db): Ae (pet pe staal age p. 276, 1. 37. With the story of the lamp, cf. 2 Chron. xxix. 7, and Megillath-Ta‘anith, cap. xii. pp. 113, 122. The name of the prophet as given in the manuseript, ¢ y2\ ete., seems to be corrupt. There was at that time a prophet ‘Udéd (2 Chron. xxviii. 9), and Isaia (Isaia vii. and viii.), but no prophet of such a name. In the Canon Masudicus (f. 39a), the author. relates that it was the king Ahaz age j\s\ who extinguished the lamp. Therefore I have changed uy) into 3% and “ Ahaz the prophet” seems to be a mistake for «“ Ahaz the king.” p. 277, 1. 4 There is no lacuna as I have indicated in the text, p- 283, 1. 8. This fast-day is fixed by some on the 7th Eldl, by others on the 17th (vide Bodenschatz, Waehner, and Megillath-Ta‘anith). If, therefore, the author says that some people place this fast-day within the last week of the month, I know nothing by which to test this assertion. In later times there was a fast-day on the last of Ell as an atonement for the sins of the past year, but this is an institute of modern times. Cf. Bodenschatz, p. 88, § 2, 1. 1. Also in the Canon Masudicus the Fasting of the Spies (on the 7th Elal) is the last of the feast- and fast-days of the Jewish year. Therefore the words (text, p. 283,1. 8) Liicke,” etc. are to be cancelled. p. 277,1. 10. To this table of Dehiyy6th may be added that ‘Aribhi can never be § i.e. Saturday. The reason why the feast-day cannot fall on certain days of the week is this, that they wanted to prevent two non-working days from imme- diately following each other, as this might interfere with the practical welfare of the people. Besides, certain feasts cannot fall on a Sabbath, because they require a certain amount of work (e.g. the burning of Haman, etc.). 32 434 ALBIRONI. p. 277,1. 29. The words &y\ SS (text, p. 283, 1. 11) are the rendering of the bible-words WIRIN Yn PI Cf. P. de Lagarde, « Materialien zur Kritik und Geschichte des Pentateuchs,” ii. p. 134. The Peshittd has translated thus: loon lsans bujao Luan phn #90 > loou 1-aa00 aio aio 192020 Lea Gan p. 280. In the text, pp. 286, 287, I read the ¢ in the fourth columns, as Jl i.e. impossible. Tt stands always with \ which the MSS. write with black ink. It ought, however, to have been written with red ink, since a year beginning with \ is impossible. Therefore, in order to indicate what elsewhere is indicated by the red ink, the letter t= J\a* has been added. Impossible means that a year beginning on such a day is a calen- darian impossibility. Necessary means that in a year beginning on such a day there is no possibility of a {1T7, i.e. of postponing or advancing. Possible means that a year beginning on such a day is possible, if the year be ry (Imperfect) and a common year, whilst it is impossible, if it be 1 and a leap-year, and vice versd. The single numbers of the table may easily be checked in this way : 1. The |intervals between New-Year’s Day and Kippir, i.e. the 10th Mishri and ‘Arabh4, i.e. the 21st Tishri, are the same in every kind of ear. y 9. The intervals between New-Year’s Day and the other three festivals, Prim, Pésah, and ‘Aséreth, are different in different years. In a common year— Pdrim is in 17 the 161st, in 5 the 162nd, in yj the 163rd day of the year. Pésah, in 11 the 191st, in 5 the 192nd, in gj the 193rd day. ¢ Aséreth, in pp the 241st, in 5 the 242nd, in Rj the 243rd day. In a leap-year— Pdrim is in 7 the 191st, in 5 the 192nd, in yj the 198rd day of the year. Pésah, in py the 221st, in J the 222nd, in yj the 223rd day. ¢ Aséreth, in py the 271st, in J the 272nd, in tj the 273rd day. These sums of days are to be divided by seven, and the remainders represent the distances from New-Year’s Day. To this table the author has referred the reader already on p. 153, 1.15. It shows why two intermediate years, i.e. 5 cannot follow each other, in this way : Of the seven years J only those two are possible that begin with IIL and V. 1. If, now, after a common year J beginning with ITL., another year 3 . ANNOTATIONS. 435 were to follow, it would begin with a VII., Saturday, and that is impos- sible, as the table shows. If after a leap-year D beginning ‘with III, another year J were to follow, it would begin with II., which is again impossible, as the table shows. 2. If after a year 5 beginning with V. another year J were to follow, it would begin with IL. in a common year, with IV. in a leap-year; and both cases are impossible, as the table shows. “ p. 283, 1.14. For the emendation of the names of saints in the following chapter, I have used the Menologium Grecorum, jussu Basilii Imperatoris olim editum Greece et Latine. Studio et opera Albani. Urbini, 1727. p. 283, 1. 35. Regarding the degrees of the clergy of the Oriental churches, cf. Assemani, “ Bibliotheca Orientals,” iii. pp. 788-790 ; also Ami Boué, “La Turquie d'Europe,” iii. p. 421; Maurer, “ Das Grie- chische Volk,” Heidelberg, 1835, i. pp. 389, 403, 410. p- 284, 1. 16. Abi-alhusain Ahmad b. Alhusain Al’ahwazi. An author of this name is mentioned by Haji Khalifa, iv. p. 81. p. 284, 1. 20. There are certain Greek names which I have not been able to decipher, Xpvoxs (1. 22), akawrs (I. 39), and some others. The answer to these questions I must leave to those who are intimately acquainted with the archaology of the Byzantine empire. The word (mss might be a corruption for mwa ywperiokomros, but in that case the explication which Abi-alhusain gives is not correct. According to the explication, one would expect the word *Apxipuavdpirys. On rrapakoyudpevos, vide Du Cange, “ Lexicon infime greecitatis,” where it is explained as dpytewvoixos, mparméairos. A word poydrwp (p. 285,1. 4), I do not know. It seems to be a deri- vation from péya present and stipend, vide Du Cange (rogator). On the paylafBirs, cf. Reiske, commentary to “ Constantini Porphyro- geniti, De cerimoniis aule,” ii. pp. 53-55. On reooapaxovrdpuws, a soldier who received 40 aurei as stipend, ete. vide Du Cange. p- 285, 1. 23. Muhammad b. Misi b. Shékir, the eldest of three brothers, all great scholars in mathematical and technical sciences for whom Greek books were translated into Arabic. Muhammad died A.H. 259, vide “ Kitab-alfihrist,” p. 271. p. 285, 1. 26. ‘Ali b. Yahya, cf. note at p. 88, 1. 5. er ns - Be wnat - CARNE GL 5 z Ee EY a rie hes ar . gl ie a TR - a $i 3 : STE - 436 ALBIRONG. p. 286, 1. 81. The reading Cornutus is not beyond all doubt. A saint of this name is mentioned in the “ Menologium Graecorum,” at 12th Sept. p. 287,1. 8. Johannes the Father seems to be identical with Johannes Scholasticus, who died A.p. 578, as Patriarch of Constantinople. He had made a new arrangement of the canones of the church. Cf.XK.Hase, «“Kirchengeschichte” (8th edition), p. 149. Pp 287, 1. 14. On this Modestus, vide Le Quien, “ Oriens Christianus,” iii. 102 ff. p. 258. He was Patriarch after A.p. 614. p. 287,1. 15. The word Sisin is perhaps to be changed into Sis, vide p- 289, 1. 40. p. 287,1. 17. The epithet (Fly seems to have been derived from the Syriac Bible, where Joseph is called w4aNao Luke xxiii. 51. p. 287,1.19. Alma’'miin b. Ahmad Alsulami Alharawi (also p. 297, 1. 25) is unknown to me. p. 287, 1. 39. Abd-Rih is not known to me from other sources. p- 288, 1. 34. Every child is born, etc. On this well-known tradition, cf. L. Krehl, “ Ueber die koranische Lehre von der Preedestination,” p. 99 (in “Berichte der Kgl. Sichsischen Gesellschaft der Wissen- schaften,” hist.-phil. Classe, 1870, the 1st July). p. 289, 1. 39. The reading Belesys is entirely conjectural. The word might also be read Blasius (vide Calendar of Armenian saints, Asse- mani Bibliotheca Orientalis,” iii. 1, p. 645, at 10th Shubéit), but Blasius Episcopus was killed by the Romans, not by the Persians. P 292, 1. 12. Jiri-roses, the most famous of the east, so called from Jir, a town in Persis, vide Yakit, ii. p. 147 ; Kazwini, “ Kosmographie,” ii, 121. p- 293, 1. 10. The author seems to mean that two straight lines, cutting each other in the middle, and connected at the bottom by another straight line give the Cufic form of the word no, i.e. X, as it frequently occurs in monumental writing. . 293, 1. 30. } int io.” ; 2 iy 80. On the wood Peonia, cf. Kazwini, “ Kosmographie, ANNOTATIONS. 437 p- 295, 1. 15. Dadhishd‘, author of a commentary on the Gospel, is not known to me from other sources. p. 295, 1. 25. A Cyriacus anachoreta is mentioned in the “ Menolo- gium Grecorum,” at 29th Sept. p- 296, 1.18. Dometius is mentioned in the « Menologium Graecorum,”’ at 7th Aug., and Thuthael (1. 26) 1b. at 5th Sept. p. 297, 1. 29. With his tale regarding the blood of John, cf. Ibn- al’athir, i. pp. 214-216, also iv. p. 140. p. 297,1. 86. Cf. with this Tabart, traduit par Zotenberg, i. p- 569 ; Ibn-al’athir, i. pp. 208, 215. p. 298, 1.13. Church of the Sweepings &e\wd\ &aeS is a corruption of Kola) &weisS Church of the Resurrection, invented by Muslim malice. Cf. Farghani, “ Elementa astronomis,” ed. Golius, p. 138. p- 298, 1. 15. Among 40 martyrs who were killed by the Persians, Maruthas (Assemani “ Bibl. Orient.” i. pp. 192, 193) mentions Paul, Sabinus (not Sabinianus) and 1L. Besides Tatta also the form (Qf ; oy \ Tattin occurs, ib. i. p. 190, col. 1. p. 299. The following chapter contains the computation of Easter, as Albértni had learned it from the Christians of his time. The Easter which he means is the wdoxa oravpwoyudv, not the maoxa dvacracydy; cf. Augusti, « Christliche Archaeologie,” ii. p. 30. The chief elements of this computation are the following : 1. Easter depends upon the Jewish Passover, i.e. the full moon of the Jewish month Nisan. 2. Counting 1} lunation, i.e. 44d.7 h. 10’ backward from the full moon of Nisin, you find the new moon of the preceding month. 3. The Monday nearest to this new moon, if it does not fall earlier than the 2nd Shubét nor later than the 8th Adhdr, is the beginning of Lent. 4. Lent ends on the 49th day from the beginning. It begins on Monday and ends on a Sunday. Easter lies between this Sunday and the preceding Sunday, i.e. Palmarum. To use modern language: The wdoxa oravpeayéy Was celebrated on some day between Palm Sunday and Easter Sunday, but on what particular day it was celebrated the author does not explain. yay a oo os NR RN = fg x i aa wr - = = = = EEE g . | B% ' {age | bi ' oe : i i. tf Et } | Po i i i iy i ¥ \ i? by a : Es L : ti) 5 % hE EBay £ 2 i id t wy a LT es = RAR ani RE saad Lhe ih Rl wan NC + MK t § Jf a Se a cop 438 ALBIRONI. p- 299, 1. 27. It may seem doubtful whether I have correctly inter- preted the word \bywasY (text, p. 802, 1. 13). Indictio is certainly not identical with the Great Cycle of 28 years. p- 300, 1. 4. The Jews count 3,448 years between Adam and Alex- ander. If you divide this sum by 19, you get 9 as a remainder, i.e. the first year of the Zira Alezandri is the 10th year of the cycle. The division of 5180 by 19 gives a remainder of 12, i.e. the first year of the Ara Alewandri is, according to the Christians, the 13th year of the cycle. P 300, 1. 8. The whole passage, from “it is also well known,” ete. (line 8), till “you get as remainder 5180 years (as the interval be- tween Adam and Alexander)” in the Arabic text, p. 802, 1. 17 @E jyeealt 42) till p. 803, L 2 (gpWdy ley OT Bes gb), seems to be a later interpolation. p- 300, 1. 9. Khalid b. Yazid is considered as the father of alchemy among the Arabs, vide Haji Khalifa, v. p. 280. p- 800, 1. 30. The Easter-limits extend over 28 days, i.e. from 21st Adhér to 18th Nisan. The limits of Lent extend over 48 days, i.e. from the 2nd Shubit to 22nd Adhar, or from the 8th Adhar to 25th Nisan. The smallest interval between the beginning of Lent and Easter is 42 days ; the greatest, 49 days. p- 301,123. By 44 d. 7h. 6 min. the author means 1} synodical month. One synodical month is reckoned at 29 d. 12h. 44. p. 301, 1. 86. If full moon falls on a Sabbath, the 21st Adhar, count 44d. 7 h. 6, i.e. 45 days backward, and you find the new moon of the preceding month, viz. the 4th Shubat, a Wednesday in a common year, a Thursday in a leap-year. The next Monday is the preceding one, the lst Shubét in a leap- year, the 2nd Shubit in a common year. As, however, the 1st Shubat lies before the Terminus Jejunii, the year in question must be a common year. p- 302, 1. 1. If the Jewish Passover fell into Nisin, and the Jewish year was a leap-year, it might seem doubtful to the Christians ANNOTATIONS. 439 whether they were to make the new moon of Adhir I. (i.e. Shubit, February) or that of Adhar II. (i.e. Adhidr, March) the basis of their computation of the beginning of Lent. The author gives the computa- tions for both cases. I. Computation on the basis of the new moon of Adhér II. (Adhir) of a leap-year : If full moon falls on the 18th of Nisin, a Sunday, count 44d. 7h. | 6' backward, and you find the new moon of Adhir II, or the Syrian Adhir (March), viz. the 5th Adhar, a Friday. The next Monday is the following one, the 8th Adhar, which is the latest day of the Terminus Jejunii. II. Computation on the basis of the new moon of Adhir I. (Shubit) in a leap-year : If full moon falls on the 18th Nisin, a Sunday, count 2 lunations, i.e. 78d. 19h. 50’ backward, and you find the new moon of Adhér Primus or Shubit, viz. the 5th Shubit, a Thursday, if the Christian year is a common year. The next Monday is the preceding one, ¢.e. the 2nd Shubit. This calculation is impossible, for the reason which the author states on p. 302, 11. 14-16. If the corresponding Christian year is a leap-year, we find the 4th Shubit, a Thursday, to be the beginning of Lent. The next Monday is the preceding one, i.e. the 1st Shubit, and this date is impossible, as being outside the Terminus Jejunii (the 2nd Shubat to 8th Adhar). p. 302, 1. 30. In the genuine 20 canones of the Synod of Nicaea there is no mention of Easter. In the Arabic collection of 84 canones the 21st refers to Easter (vide Mansi, “ Collectio nova,” ii. p. 1048), but this collection is an invention of later times, vide Hefele, “ Theolo- gische Quartalschrift,” Tibingen, 1851, p. 41. That, however, the bishops of the Synod of Nicea had handled the Easter-question, is evident from the letter of Constantine, vide “ Eusebii vita Constantini,” iii. p. 18. To decide the question whether Albérini is right in ascribing the authorship of this Chronicon to Eusebius and the Synod of Nicea, I must leave to scholars in Church History. p- 303. This table contains the beginnings of Lent for a period of 532 years (i.e. 19x28). It resembles the period of Viectorius, cf. Ideler, “ Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie,” ii. p. 278. p- 804, 1. 3. This fragment treats of Still-Friday in the Easter-week. . Cf. Augusti, “ Christliche Archaeologie,” ii. p. 136. meses me snr NEE. om op - sy =n PARES TORRY ¥ ods ER pes el Ea = HE Baia Co RE a SEITEN LES on dR = # Tow NA —— Ea ge hap tT - EE a a an A TNR, ER : a wach aa 2 \ eh 440 ALBIRONT. p. 304, 1. 5. New Sunday, or Dominica nova, Dominica in albis, also Dies neophytorum, cf. Augusti, ii. p. 302. : p- 304, 1. 33. The canon to which the author refers is this: “Quo- niam sunt quidam qui in die Dominico genuflectunt et ipsis diebus pentecostes, ut omnia similiter in omni parochia serventur, visum est Sancte Synodo wt stantes Deo orationes effundant.” This is the last (the 20th) of the camomes of the Synod of Niceea, vide Mansi, “ Col- lectio conciliorum nova,” ii. p. 678, § 20. Hence it is evident that Albérént used the ancient and genuine camones of this Synod, not the later spurious collection, vide Hefele, Acten des ersten Concils zu Nicaea, « Theologische Quartalschrift, Tiibingen,” 1851, p. 41. p. 304, 1. 88. On the baalse) Loo 3 and D012? 1A20;s, cf. Asse- mani, Bibliotheca orientalis,” ii. p. 305, and iii. 2, p. 382; also Acts, iii. 2-8. p. 805,1. 4. The Table of Fasting of seven columns, mentioned in this place, is not found in the manuscripts. It must have fallen out. p. 306. With the chapter on the festivals of the Nestorians, cf. a similar chapter in Assemani, “Bibliotheca Orientalis,” iii. p. 2, and « Abulfedse Historia anteislamica,” p. 162 ff. p. 308, 1.8. Johannes Cascarensis and Phetion were killed in Hulwén between A.D. 430 and 465, vide Assemani, Bibl. Orient.” ii. p. 403, col. 1. Phetion Martyr is mentioned by Assemani, iii. 2, p. 386, on the 25th October ; vide also W. Wright, « Catalogue of the Syriac manuscripts of the British Museum,” part iii. p. 1184, No. 66. Yakdt (ii. p. 683) mentions a « Monastery of Phetion” ytd po. p. 308, 1. 8. I have not been able to decipher the name \yb. p. 308, 1. 16. The name Kita is known to me from Yak, ii. p. 689, where a Monastery of Kitd by po is mentioned. p. 308,1. 19. The Syriac form of the name Solomonis (mother of the Maccabsans) is «a3alae, vide W. Wright, Catalogue,” ete. iii. p. 1137, col. 1. p. 308, 1. 25. I do not know a saint of the name of \hwyp or dupe. p. 308, 1. 87. The word yo\=\ seems to be a corruption. In the Canon Masudicus (fol. 47a) a Friday of Eliezer yet is mentioned, but this Friday falls 40 days after the beginning of Lent. ANNOTATIONS. 441 p- 308, 1. 40. The two saints mentioned in this paragraph are not known to me. wp may be \u&p Bereshyd, i.e. Berekhyd, and a martyr child, the son of Cyrus, is mentioned by W. Wright, « C ? . . t ” : iii. p. 1136, col. 2. y ight, « Catalogue,” etc., P- 309, 1. 1. Two Armenian martyrs of the names of Ourenius and Surinus are mentioned under the 11th March by Assemani, “Bibl. Orientalis,” iii. 2, p. 650. The name Duranus oc ) ; : , ib. p. the 2nd October. curs, ib. p. 653, under p. 309, L 26. The common year is here called &yxave &u (text, p. 311 1.18). This term the author must have borrowed from the source whoa he took the information of this cha pter, for everywh common year Sas Ei, ’ ywhere else he calls the p. 310. This table is based upon the beginning of Lent, which in a common year falls between the 2nd Shubit—8th Adhar; & a leap- year, between the 3rd Shubat—8th Adhédr. The festivals Yop certain invariable distances from this date. The Latin numerals at the top of the table denote the week-days on which the single festivals fall. 2 p- 311, 1. 7. The reason why Christmas and the Commemoration of Our Lady Mary should not immediately follow each other seems to be this, that each two feasts must be separated not only by a night but by one complete day. The idea seems to be this, that ark feast requires a certain preparation on the preceding day. ; P- 311, L 11. The ‘Ibddites are the Arab tribe to which the poets Adi b. Zaid and Zaid b. ‘Adi belonged, vide Masudi, * Prairies d’or,” iii. Pp: 205, and Caussin, “ Essai sur l'histoire des Arabes avant I'Is- lamisme,” ii. 148. p- oa. 18. The expression & ool} wipes! Ewa (text, p. 314, 1. 8) was coined upon the pattern of a word of the Prophet, vid - ‘athi a phet, vide Ibn-Alathir, The name ‘Ankafir is mentioned by Freytag and Muhit-almuhit, not by the Turkish Kdmis ; it occurs also in Hamza Isfahini, text, p. 112 L. 6; translation, p. 88. : Pp 311, 1. 22. On the Ninive-fast, cf. Assemani, “ Bibliotheca Orient.” iii. 2, p. 387. p- 313. This table is based upon the cycle of 28 Julian years, after which every date falls again on the same week-day. on the Column of the number I have marked the leap-years by a 33 (it iE n ‘ i + \ ' i 5 8 , 442 ALBIRONGE. As all the festivals of this table are attached to certain week-days, they wander about within the space of 7 days. ! In common years each festival falls one day, in leap-years two days, later than in the preceding. The double column of numbers under the head Commemoration of Solomonis, is to be explained in this way : The first column represents the common computation of this day, whilst the second column represents the practice of the people of Bagdad, who made it fall a week later. “So, according to Canon Ma-~ sudicus (fol. 46b). The numbers of the column Feast of Dair-altha‘dlib are corrupt in the manuscript ; I have computed them according to the rule given on p. 308, 11. 26-30. The numbers I. 29, etc., mean that in this year the feast is celebrated twice, on the 1st Tishrin I. and on the 29th 1141, whilst the blank means that in this year the feast-is not celebrated at all, which is the case if the last Sunday of the year (or the Com- memoration of Bar Safi in the preceding column) falls on the 24th f1al The Latin numerals at the top of the table denote the week-days of the single festivals. p. 314. The following chapter, of which the text in many passages seems to be corrupt beyond hope, is to be compared with the re- searches of Prof. Chwolsohn (“Die Sabier und der Sabismus”). It would require a special commentary of its own, and whoever wants to undertake it must be thoroughly imbued with the knowledge of the last phases of Neo-Platonism and of the popular belief and supersti- tion of the dying Greek heathendom. The author distinguishes between the heathens of Harrin and the Mandweans of the south of Babylonia. His festal calendar is that of the people of Harran. This calendar, on pp. 315-318, the author has transferred from a book of Alhdshimi just as it was, with all the mis-spellings, faults, and lacunas, and since the time of the author the text has become worse and worse. He expresses the hope (on p. 318) that he will be able one day to correct this chapter, but his hope does not seem to have been fulfilled. Tt would have been more cautious not to translate this chapter at all, but I hope that the reader will accept my translation with indulgence as a first essay at unravelling the mysteries of this enigmatic but never- theless most valuable chapter. p. 314, 1. 7. On the Shamsiyya, vide Chwolsohn, i. pp. 292-295. p. 815, 1. 4. Chwolsohn, i. p. 140, gives for this event another date, viz. AH. 215. ANNOTATIONS. 443 p. 815,1. 26. Muhammad b. ‘Abd-al‘aziz Alhdshimi is not known to me from other sources. Perhaps he was a son of Abii-Muhammad ‘Abd- al‘aziz b. Alwathik, mentioned in Kitdb-alfihrist,” p. 39. p. 815, 1. 36. Dhahbéina, a place near Harrdn, vide Chwolsohn, i. p- 806, note 6; ii. p. 630; and also Yakit ii. p. 725, s.v. &ladt In Syriac the place is called laoony, vide Assemani, « Bibliotheca Orientalis,” i. p- 278. p.817,L 1. The text of this passage is very uncertain. If the moon stands on the 81st Adhar in Cancer, it must on the 8th Adhar have stood in Gemini or in the first degree of Cancer. p.817,11. 21,22. On Dair-Kidhi and Dair-Sini, cf. Chwolsohn, ii. pp- 24, 37,40, 41, 630, and 808. p.317,1. 88. I do not know a word Kurmis, but Turmis ge gaye (edo means panis in cinere coctus, vide Chwolsohn, ii. p. 27 at 15, Tammiz. p. 318, 1. 4. Dailafatdn, an old name of Venus, known as Aekégar from the Greek lexicographers, vide Hesychius, ed. M. Schmidt : AeAépar 6 is 'Abpodirns dorip two Xaldalwv. The name occurs also in Assyrian. p. 318,1. 32. From the rules relating to the computation of the Lent of the Harranians the author infers that their year was not a vague lunar year, running through all the seasons, but a kind of luni-solar year, like that of the Jews, which, though based upon lunar years, is made to agree with the course of the sun by means of the cycle of 19 years. Further, he infers that the Harrinian Fast-breaking depends upon the vernal equinox and their New Year upon the autumnal equinox. The double-bodied signs wows «yd gyyd\ are Gemini, Virgo, Arcitenens, Pisces. The inclining signs &Xaxed\ gyy\ are Aries, Cancer, Libra, Caper. The stable signs «2\y3\ gyd\ are Taurus, Leo, Scorpio, Amphora. In the following we give a survey of what seem to have been the elements of the calendar of Harrin: 1. The day begins with sun-rise. 2. The month begins on the second day after conjunction. 8. The year begins with Kinin IL or with Tishrin I. (with new moon, the next to the autumnal equinox), or with the winter solstice. 4. Lent begins the 8th Adhir, when the sun stands in Pisces, and ends after 31 or 29 days, when the sun stands in Aries. The last quad- 444, ALBIRONG. rature of the moon before Passover (of the Jews) is the time of their fast-breaking. Hence the luni-solar character of the calendar. 5. As Terminus Paschalis Albérini adopts the time between the 16th Adhar and 13th Nisan, i.e. 28 days. 6. The difference between the lunar and solar years (11d. 5 h. 45/, etc.) they insert in every fourth month as a leap-month, viz. Hilal Adhér I. (after Shubit). p. 820, 1.14. I am not able to explain this table in a satisfactory manner ; however, I offer a few remarks to which an examination of the nature of this table has led me: 1. On am average the common year is counted at 354 days, the leap- year at 384 days. The one is 11 days shorter, the other 19 days longer, than the Julian year of 365 days. 2. Once, however, in the 19 years of the cycle, the common year has been counted at 358 days, so that between its beginning and that of the following year there is an interval of 12 days. This subtraction of one day is perhaps to be explained in this way : 12 common years, each of 854 days= 4,248 days. 7 leap-years, each of 384 days ~~ =2,688 days. 19 years . - - - =6,936 days. As, however, 19 solar years, each of 365 days, give only the sum of 6,935 days, this difference of one day was to be removed by the sub- traction of one day in one of the 19 years of the cycle. 3. The following are the years which are counted at 353 days : Year 5 in col. 3. Year 4 in col. 4. Year 2 in col. 6. Year 2 in col. 8. Year 2 in col. 10. 4. In the columns of the Sabian New-Year and Fast-breaking we find the Ordo intercalationis Tye i.e. the 2nd, 5th, 7th, 10th, 13th, 16th, 18th years are leap-years, whilst in the columns of the Corrected Passover, Mean Fasting of the Christians, and the 1st of Tishrin I. of the follow- ing year, we find the Ordo intercalationis cies i.e. the 8rd, 5th, 8th, 11th, 14th, 16th, 19th years are leap-years. I cannot say on what principle this difference rests. 5. The New-Year in col. 3 and Fast-breaking in col. 4 are Sabian. The Corrected Passover in col. 6 is Jewish. The Mean Fasting and the 1st of Tishrin I of the following year in col. 10 are Christian. 6. The computation of the Corrected Passover rests upon an astro- ANNOTATIONS. 445 nomical computation of the vernal equinox, special regard being had to the precession of the equinoxes which had been neglected. The author does not communicate this astronomical computation of his. 7. The comparison between col. 3 and col. 10 shows that the Sabian New-Year falls always by one day (in some cases by two days) earlier than the Christian New-Year. 8. The author gives directions (p. 320, 1. 7), to add 16 to the years of the ra Alezandri, or to subtract 8 therefrom. This indicates that at the epoch of the era which he uses, already three years of an Ennea- decateris had elapsed. Which era this is, I have not been able to find out. p- 322, 1. 28. Ibrihim b. Sinén, known as an astronomer, of Harri- nian origin, lived about the middle of the 10th century of our era. Cf. Fihrist, p. 272, and Wiistenfeld, “ Geschichte der Arabischen Aerzte,” p- 87. p. 324, 1. 4. Albaghidi died a.H. 204, vide HAji Khalifa, v. p. 411. p. 324, 1. 22. The reading Alrdbiya is uncertain, as I do not know a place of this name in Hadramaut. A place of this name is mentioned by Yékit, iv. p. 891, s.v. ej but it cannot be identical with that mentioned by Albérini. Some of these fairs are also enumerated by Kazwini, ¢“ Kosmographie,” ii. p. 56. p. 825,1.1. A festal calendar of the Muslims is also found in Canon Masidicus (fol. 48) and in Kazwini, “ Kosmographie,” i. p. 67 ff. (taken from Albériini). p- 326, 1. 27. The same verses occur in Ibn-al’athir, iv. p. 76. p. 328, 1. 21. Two of these verses occur also in Kazwini, “Kosmo- graphie,” i. p. 68. p. 328,1. 89. On this day the pilgrimage of the forty men, ete. This fact is not mentioned by Canon Masidicus nor by Kazwini. I have not been able to find out what is the historical basis of this statement. p. 329, 11. 3-26. This passage is missing in the manuscripts. I have supplied it from the Canon Masidicus. p. 330,1. 4. Alsalimi. A poet of this name of the 4th century of the Flight is mentioned in “Kitib-alfihrist,” p. 168. Another author of the same name, author of the ¢ Kitib-nutaf-alturaf’’ is mentioned by Yakit, iv. p. 208. p. 830, 1. 32. Hasan b. Zaid, the Alide prince of Tabaristin and ; Jurjén, died A.B. 270, vide Weil, “ Geschichte der Chalifen,” ii. p. 450. —-c es 446 ArBiRONS. p- 330, 1. 87. Khalaf b. ’Ahmad ruled over Sijistdn at the end of the 4th century of the Hijra. It was Mahmid ben Sabuktegin who put an end to his rule. Weil, “ Geschichte der Khalifen,” iii. p. 62. p. 831, 1. 39. The Arabic text of this passage (text, p. 333, L 12, &' pds $b SH ly) seems to be corrupt. p. 332,1. 7. The verse of the cursing is Stra iii. 54. Muhammad’s negotiations with the Christians of Najrin are related in a special chapter of Ibn-Hishim, ed. Wiistenfeld, p. 401ff.; vide A. Sprenger, “ Leben und Lehre des Mohammed,” iii. p. 488 ff. p. 332, 1. 21. The tree Yaktin is mentioned in the Coran, Siira xxxvii, 146. p.333,1. 17. Thabir is a hill near Mekka, cf. Yakit, i. p. 917, where also this saying is mentioned (line 18). Muhit-almuhit, i. p. 1077, 1. 8 ff. : p. 333, 1. 19. Ibn-al’a‘ribi, a famous philologist of the school of Kfa, died A.H. 231, vide G. Fliigel, “ Grammatische Schulen der Araber,” p. 148. p. 834, 1. 1. The battle of Alharra occurred A.D. 683, the 26th Aug. The troops of the Khalif Yazid b. Mu‘dwiya stormed Medina under the command of Muslim b. ‘Ukba. Weil, “ Geschichte der Chalifen,” i p- 331. p. 335, 1. 15. Alkulthimi is not known to me from other sources. Ibrahim b. Alsarri Alzajjij, a famous philologist, died A.H. 310, vide « Kitab-alfihrist,” p. 61. Ibn-Khallikin, ed. Wiistenfeld, No. 12, men- tions his “ Kitab-al’anwa.” Abii- Yahyd b. Kundsa, vide note at p. 251, 1. 33. Abii-Hanifa Aldinawari, a grammarian and mathematician, died A.H. 150 ; cf. Ibn-Khallikin, ed. Wiistenfeld, No. 775, and “Kitab-alfihrist,” pp. 78, 88. Abii-Muhammad Aljabali, better known under the name of Ibn- Kutaiba, vide note at p. 226, 1. 37, and * Kitab-alfihrist,” p. 88. Abi-alhusain is ‘Abd-alrahmin b. ‘Umar Alsifi, who died A.H. 376. His book of fixed stars has been translated by Dr. Sjellerup, St. Peters- burg, 1874. Cf. “Kitab-alfihrist,” p. 284, and notes. p. 385, 1. 22. Jufilr, vide note at p.15, 1. 15. p. 336, 1. 20. Verses and rhymed poetry. The author means the Kutub-al'anwd (vide p. 337, 1. 29), frequently mentioned in the more ANNOTATIONS. 447 ancient Arabic literature. As far as I know, there is no standard work of this kind in the libraries of Europe, but it is highly desirable to search for one and to publish it, since most likely many of the verses, to the interpretation of which these books are dedicated, may claim a much higher antiquity than the Kasidas and Rajaz-poems of the earliest Arab poets. p. 337, 1. 40. Ahmad ben Firis, a native of Rai, a famous philologist and writer both in prose and verse, died at Rai, a.m. 390. Cf. Ibn- Khallikén, ed. Wiistenfeld, No. 48. p. 838, 1. 7. The author alludes in this passage to certain events in his own life, but unfortunately in such vague terms that we learn very little for his biography. Was he banished from the court of the prince? Of what kind were his troubles, mental or material? At present it is impossible to give an answer to these questions. p. 338, 1. 89. Ibn-alrakkd‘ is not mentioned by Ibn-Khallikéin, nor by the Fihrist, nor by Haji Khalifa. p. 839, 1. 85. Abfi-Muhammad Ja‘far Alfazéri is unknown to me. Perhaps he was a relative of the two brothers Muhammad and Ishék, the sons of Ibrahim Alfazari, vide “Kitdb-alfihrist,” p. 164, and Reinaud, “ Mémoire sur I'Inde,” p. 310. p. 339, 1. 37." Khalid ben Safwin, a famous orator at the time of the first Abbéside Khalif Alsaffih, vide Ibn-Khallikin, ed. Wiistenfeld, No. 808 (end), p. 315, and Ibn-Kutaiba, “ Ma‘arif,” p. 206. p. 341 med. The same division is mentioned by Reinaud, “ Géo- graphie d’Aboulféda,” i. p. 231. Instead of ab i.e. Apdkhtara, the ‘north is here called by the name of Adharbaijin (Atropatene). p. 342, 1. 13. Foundations. I do not know the word lols as denoting some particular part of the path of the moon, but I suppose that the author means the four Cardines, vide note at p. 90, 1. 44 (on p. 395). p. 342, 1. 81. Bani-Mdriya ben Kalb and Bawi-Murra ben Hammdm. Assuming that the writing of the manuscripts is correct, I must state that these two clans are not known to me from any other source. p- 343,1. 1. With the following description of the Lunar Stations, cf. Ideler, “ Untersuchungen iiber den Ursprung und die Bedeutung der Sternnamen,” Berlin, 1810, and Schier, “Globus coelestis cuficus,” Dresden, 1866. 448 ALBiRONT. p- 345, 1. 83. Rdmin. I do not know an island of this name. Perhaps the author meant the island Rdmani, described by Alkazwini, ¢“ Rosmographie,” i. p. 107. An island Rdmi, in the Indian ocean, is mentioned by Yékit, ii. p. 739. p. 346, 1. 1. Raghad. The reading of this name is conjectural, as I cannot prove it from other sources. p. 351. The distance between two Stations is not, as the second number of the table, 12° 51’ 26”, would have us believe, but 12° 51' 253", as the reader will find if he examines the addition in the column of seconds. The author did not think it necessary to note the fractions in this column, but he did not disregard them in his calculation. p. 357,1. 1. The following chapter on the projection of a globe on a plane (gehw\ Wle) is purely mathematical. Dr. H. Bruns, Professor of Mathematics in the University of Berlin, has kindly undertaken the trouble of revising my translation of this chapter. For purposes of comparison as regards both the subject-matter and the termini techmici I refer the reader to— L. Am. Sédillot, “ Mémoire sur les instruments astronomiques des Arabes,” Paris, 1844. B. Dorn, “Drei in der Kaiserlichen offentlichen Bibliothek zu St. Petersburg befindliche astronomische Instrumente” (“Mémoires de I’Académie,” tom. ix. No. 1) 1865. F. Woepcke, “ Ueber ein in der Kgl. Bibliothek zu Berlin befindliches Astrolabium ” (“ Abhandlungen der Kgl. Akademie,” etc.), 1858. On pp. 7-10 and 15, vide an explication of the stereographic projection and the graphic method, of other methods, on p. 17. p. 357, I. 34. Abt-Himid Ahmad ben Muhammad Alsidghéni, a famous constructor of astronomical instruments in Bagdad, died a.m. 379. Vide L. A. Sédillot, “ Prolégomenes des tables astronomiques d’Olough- Beg,” Paris, 1847, Introduction, p. 56, note 3 p. 858, 1. 1. My book. The author means his 3p) elacal lsS boll dare (5 Lead i.e. the book in which all possible methods for the construction of the astro- labe are comprised, of which there are several copies in European libra- ries, e.g. Royal Library of Berlin, Sprenger 1869; Bodleian Library, Marsh. 701. INDEX. ‘Adan, 324, 20. A Adhéar I., Jewish leap-month, 63, g 9. Adharbad, Mobed of Baghdad, 200, Aaron, 269, 35; 276, 26. al, Aaron’s Golden Calf, 270, 4. Adharbén, 121, 14; 190, 41. Mar Abba, catholicus, 311, 41; | Adharc’ashn, 207, 11; 211, 29. 313. | Abfi-alhasan Adharkhir (or Ad- Bant-‘Abbis, 129, 7, 20, 24. harkhiird), son of Yazdankha- Abt-al-‘abbds Al-Amuli, 59, 26; sis, geometrician, 54, 4; 107, 239, 13. 40; 204, 14. Mar ‘Abda, 309,.7 ; 310. Adharkhira, fire-temple in Persis, ‘Abd-alkarim b. ’Abi-al ‘anja, 80, 215, 15, 37. 7. ‘Adhri‘dt, 264, 1. ‘Abdallah b. ‘Ali, mathematician, | ‘Adites, 98, 1. 245, 29. ‘Adud-aldaula, 217, 24. ‘Abdallah b. Hildl, 49, 26. Alia, 25, 15. ‘Abdalldh b. Ismail Alhdshimi, | Zquator, 249, 15. 187, 14. Ara, definition, 16, 4. Aljabali, 226, 37; 335, 17. Ara Adami, 18,5; 141,6; 142, 8; ‘Abdallah b. Almukaffa‘, 108, 3. 300, 6, 22. Abh-‘Abdallah Alsadik, 79, 21. | Ara Alexandri, 32, 31; 136, ‘Abdallah b. Shu‘ba, 194, 12. 31. ‘Abd-almasth b. Ishik Alkindi, | Ara Antonini, 33, 33; 137, 30; 187, 13. 176, 13. ‘Abd-alrahmin b. Muljim Almu- | Are Arabum ethnicorum, 39, 8. radi, 330, 7. Ara Astronomorum Babylonie, Ibn-‘Abdalrazzak Altisi, 45, 3. 121, 12, 16 ; 190, 42. Abraham with the Harrinians, | Ara Augusti, 33, 11; 137, 17; 187, 1. . 176, 1. Abrashahr, 255, 10. Ara Diluvii, 136, 20. 34 450 INDEX. Ara Diocletiani, 33, 38; 137,37; 176, 19. Ara Fuge, 33,45; 74,5; 138,9; 176, 28. Ara Magorum, 138, 35; 184, 34. Aira Mundi with the Persians, 17, 10, 37. Ara Amtadid Chilis, 26, 10; 138, 40; 230, 5. Ara Nabonassari, 31,13 ; 136, 26. Ara Philippi, 32,22; 136, 26. Ara Yazdagirdi, 35, 43; 138, 30; 184, 25. Afrisiab, 205, 17. Afrijagin, 215, 6. Afrigh, 41, 7. Aghamat, feasts of the Zoroas- trians, 221, 17. Ahasverus, 273, 32. Ahaz, 276, 37. Abh-Sa‘id Ahmad b. ‘Abd-aljalil Alsijzi, geometrician, 52, 23. ’Ahmad b. Faris, 337, 40. Abf-alhusain ’Ahmad b. Alhusain Alahwazi Alkatib, 284, 16, 30; 288, 36. Abii-Sa‘id Ahmad b. Muhammad b. ‘Irak Khwarizm-Shéah, 229, Z. ’Ahmad b. Muhammad b. Shihab, 182, 1. ’Ahmad b. Misa b. Shakir, 61, 43. ’Ahmad b. Sahl b. Hashim b. Al- walid, 33, 18. ‘Ahmad b. Altayyib Alsarakhsi, 129, 17. Ahriman, 107, 18. ‘Akiba, 269, 6 ; 276, 14. ‘Akil b. ’Abi-Tailib, 326, 26. Alexander, 32, 81; 35,16; 48,38; 127, 5. ’Alfaniyya, Jewish sect, 279, 14. ‘Ali b. ADi-Talib, 69, 2; 230, 7, 21, 26; 294, 22. ‘Ali b. ‘Ali Alkatib, 261, 42. ‘Ali b. Al’jahm, 238, 24. ‘Ali b. Muhammad b. Ahmad, ete. Imam, 330,29. ‘Ali b. Muhammad b. ‘Abd-alrah- man b. ‘Abd-alkais, 330, 31. ‘Abd-‘Ali Ibn Nizar b. Ma‘add, 48, 32. ¢«Ali-alrida b. Misa, 330, 22. Ali D. Yahy4, the astronomer, 38, 5,15; 285,26. : Almagest, 13, 18; 381,29; 354, 17, 84; 358, 33. ‘Amr. b. Rabi, 39, 15. ‘Amr b. Yahyéi, 39, 16. , Amul, 206, 39. ‘Anén, 68, 41. ‘AnAnites, 68,40; 278, 34. Andargih, 53, 25; 210, 29. Andish, 206, 36. Anianus, 25, 25. ‘Ankafir, daughter of Nu‘min, 311, 21. Antichrist, 196, 4. Antonius ‘Martyr, alias Abd-Rih, 287, 38. Apogee, 164,1; 167,1. Feast of the Equinox with the Hindus, 249, 39; 266, 25. Feast of the Grapes, 296, 31. Feast, “ Harvest-home,” 295, 30. Feast of Lent-breaking, 331, 35. Feast of Mar-Mari, 308, 12. Feast of the Megilla, 274, 32. Feast of Mount Tabor, 297, 2. Feasts of the Muslims, 325, 2. Feasts of the Persians, 199,2. Feast of the Roses, 292, 11; 295, | 20. Feasts of the Sibians, 318, 20. Feast of Tabernacles, 270, 23. Feast of the Temple, 311,1; 313. Feast of the Renovation of the Temple, 298, 3. Feast of Wax, 289, 29. Feast of Wax of the Jacobites, 289, 29. Feast of the Virgins, 311,9; 313. Féroz, grandfather of Noshirwan, 215, 8. Féroz, 199, 20. Figures in the zodiac, 173. Al-fir, 41, 10. Fire, its nature, 246, 41. Formation of blossoms, 294, 10. Formation of double organs or | members in animalsand plants, | 94, 6. Frédim, 114,33; 115, 4; 207, 43; | 209,12; 210,7; 212,36,42. Friday, the golden one, 310, col. 9. Friday with the Muslims, 304, 15. Fukaim, 14, 8. Fustit, 235, 45. G. Gabriel, 331, 36. Gihanbars, 204, 42; 205, 9; 207, 28; 210, 38; 212,17; 217,11. GahanbéArs with the Chorasmians, 225, 30 ft. | Gajus Julius, 103, 32, 40. | Galenus, 225,3 ; 231, 27; 232, 25, 27 ; 293,38. Gedalja b. ’Ahikdm, 269, 1. Geometrical progression, 134, 4. Al-ghafr, 347, 14. Ghumdén, 41, 16. Ibn-Abi-Alghurikir, 198, 1. Ghuzz-Turks, 109, 23 ; 224, 15. ' Gilshah, 27,38; 107, 3. Girshah, 107, 2; 108, 15. Gomer b. Yapheth, 28, 24. Gospel, 25,39 ; 331, 14, 30. Gospels of Bardesanes, Marcion and Mani, 27, 9; 189, 43; 190, 7. Gospel, commentary to the, 295, 15. Gregorius, apostle of the Arme- nians, 298, 17. Greek fathers (Diodorus, Theodo- rus, Nestorius), 311,39 ; 313. | Greek names of the planets, 172. Greek names of the figures in the zodiac, 173, col. 2. Gundisapr, 191, 16. | Gushtisp, 206, 24. H. Habash, 177,38; 178, 8; 180, 4. Habib b. Bihriz, Metropolitan of Mosul, 33, 8. Hajr in Yaméima, 324, 32. Alhak‘a, 344, 23. " Alhékim, Chalif of Egypt, (Abd- ‘Ali ben Nizir), 48, 32. | Haman, 273, 25. Haman-Sar, 274, 32. Hamdadhén, 192, 6. Hémin, 208, 33. INDEX. 455 Hamza b. Alhasan Alisfahani, 36, 15; 61,33;62,12;106;112,41; 114, 1; 117, 22, 30; 118, 2; 122,14; 124, 1; 125,1; 127, 6; 128, 2. Hamza, 294, 21. Alhan‘a, 344, 32. R. Hananja b. Teradjén, 276, 12. Abh-Hanifa Aldinawari, 335, 16; 351, col. 13. Hanna the Hindu, 258, 36. Hanukka, 271, 29. Al-harra, 334, 1. Harrin, 186, 23. Harrinians, 13, 23; 32, 16; 186, 24; 188, 26; 314,29; 315,8; 329, 27. Haran Alrashid, 287, 39. Al-hasan and Al-husain, 332, 5. Abti-Muhammad Alhasan b. ‘Ali b. Nini, 45, 22. Hashim b. Hakim Almukanna, 194, 22. Alhashimi, 318, 24. Alhashwiyya, 90,35; 199, 7. Alhayawaniyya, 258, 29. Hebraica, 18,25, 34, 38; 19, 6. Hebrew names of the figures of the zodiac, 173, col. 5. Hebrew names of the planets, 172. Helena, mother of Constantine, 292, 21; 307, 41. Herat, 235, 37. Hermes, 187,44 ; 188, 24; 290, 18 ; 315,1; 316,41; 342, 40. Hijra, 327,13. Hilal, 315, 12. Hillél, 273, 20. Himyarites, 40, 31; 94, 34. Hindus, 15, 5; 83, col. 2; 96, 19; 249, 39; 266, 26; 335, 20; 342, 29. Hipparchus, 233, 22; 322, 35; Héshang, 108, 41; 206, 16; 212, 11 Hours, 9,18. Hubal, *Isaf, Na'ila, 39, 17. Hudhaifa b. ‘Abd b. Fukaim, 14, 6. Hulwén, 28, 1. Hurmuz b. Shapur Abbatal, 203, 32; 209, 37. Hurmuzén, 34, 13, 17. Alhusain b. ‘Ali, 326, 6, 20, 22; 328, 18, 37; 330, 3. Abii-Alhusain Alsifi, 335,18. Abii-Bakr Husain Altammar, 243, 31. Abf-‘Ali Alhusain b. ‘Abdallih b. Sina, 247, 36. Abti-Abdallah Alhusain b. Ibri- him Altabari Alnatili, 96, 43 ; 97,15. Alhusain b. Mansiir Alhalldj, 195, 1,18, Alhusain b. Zaid, prince of Taba- ristan, 330, 32. ‘Ibadites, 311, 11, 13. ‘Ibbir, 63, 11. Ibrahim b. Al‘abbas Alsili, 37, 9. ’Abii-alfaraj Ibrahim b. Ahmad b. Khalaf Alzanjani (vide Abii- alfaraj), 54, 1; 118, 31; 120, 38 Ibrahim b. ’Ashtar, 326, 34. Abi-Ishdk Ibrahim b. Hilal Alsdbi, 45, 5. Ibrahim b. Alsarri Alzajjij (vide Alzajjij), 335, 15. Ibrahim b. Sindn, 322, 28. Al-’iklil, 347, 38. Ilion, 99, 37. ‘Iméad-aldaula ‘Ali b. Buwaihi, 129, Hippocrates, 258, 33 ; 261, 25 ; 262, 3; 337, 37. Al-Hira, 40, 37. Hisham b. ‘Abd-almalik, 36, 43. Hisham b. Alkésim, 108, 5. Hizar, estate in the district of Istakhr, 56, 8. Homer, 99, 50. 22, Indian names of the figures of the zodiac, 173, col. 6. . Indian names of the planets, 172. ' Intercalary cycles of the ancient Arabs, 73,9. " Intercalation of Almu‘tadid, 81, 14. 456 INDEX. Intercalation of the ‘Anénites, 69, | | Jai, 28, 17. 33. Intercalation of the heathen Arabs, 18, 34; 14,27; 73,9. Intercalation (of days, months, years, etc.) of the Egyptians, 58, 33; 59, 1. Intercalation of the Greeks, 60, 4. Intercalation of the Hindus, 15, 6. Intercalation of the Jews, 68, 15. Intercalation of the Persians, 12, 40; 38, 32; 54, 10; 55, 29; 184, 42; 220, 22. Intercalation of the Péshdadians, 13, 11. Intercalation of the Sabians, 315, 24. Intercalation of the Syrians, 70, 19. Intercalation of the Zoroastrians, 55, 20. Interval between Alexander and the accession to.the throne of the last Yazdagird, 17, 30. Ion, son of Paris, 33, 10. Abh-‘Tsd Alisfahini, 18, 20. Abii-Sahl ‘Isié b. Yahyd Almasihi, 74, 25. Abd ‘IsA Alwarrdk, 270, 33; 278, 22; 279, 13. "Isif, 39, 18. Isaia, 22, 18, 28, 39. Isfahéin, 215, 3, 4. ’Ishma‘iyya, 68, 36. Abd-‘Isma, 95, 22, 24. Ismail, 268, 28. Ismé‘l b. ‘Abbad, 72, 36. Ismail the Samanide, 48, 5. Ispahbadhén, 235, 19. Ispandarmadh, 205, 22. ‘Izz-aldaula Bakhtiydr, 93, 15. Abti-aljabbar, 80, 13. Aljabha, 339, 8; 345,23. J. Jacobites, 282, 10, 24; 289, 30. Ja‘far b. Muhammad Alsadik, 76, 36; 182,28; 188, 35. Abti-Mahmad Ja‘far b. Sa‘d Alfa- zarl, 339, 35. Ab#-Uthméan Aljahiz, 214, 28. Aljaihani, 214, 83; 256, 5, 18; 263, 12; 279, 2. Jam, 202, 13, 33 ; 208, 20 ; 220,11. Jamésp, 196, 40. Jamshédh, 200, 25. Jeremia, 271, 23. Jerobeam, 87, 3. Jerusalem, 294, 16. Jews; 15; 22; 14,28; 62, 16; 196, Jibra’il b. Nh, 191, 19. John of Kashkar, 308, 3. John of Dailam, 313, col. 16. John, the teacher, 307, 15. John of Marw, 296, 27. John Baptist, 297, 25. Jona, 102, 2; 309,16; 332, 17, 21. Josua b. Nin, 272, 31; 277, 3. Joseph of Arimathia, 287,17. Judarz b. Shaptr b. Afktrshah, 297, 38. Judges, their chronology, 88. Al-judi, 28, 41. Jumada, 321, 19. Julius Cesar, 60, 8. Abt-Thuméima Junida b. ‘Auf, 13, 42. K. Ka‘b Al’ahbér, 238, 18. Ka‘b b. Lua'yy, 39, 22. Ka‘ba, 332, 15. Kabi, 208, 1. Kadhkud4a (cecodespotes), 95, 1. Alkadhkhudéihiyya, 210, 14. Kaikhusrau, 206, 27. Kain and Abel, 210, 41. Kairawin, 256, 28, 31. Kalammas, 13, 40; 14, 16; 73, 20. Kalb-aljabbér (Sirius), 201, 28. Kalwadha, 200, 6, 9. Kamferoz, 215, 39; 216, 1. Kanka the Hindu, 129, 19. Kargans (Alkurrd’), 68, 36. Alkaraj, 213, 24. Karbela, 326, 22. INDEX. Kardfanakhusra, 217, 28. Karmates, 196, 13; 197, 28. Alkarya Alhaditha, 256, 5. Kayéanians, 100, 11, 12; 110, 34; 111; 113, 20; 114, 21. Kayomarth, 107, 2,5, 7. Khalaf b. Ahmad (see Wali- aldaula), 330, 38. Khalid b. Abd-almasih of Marw- radh, 147, 24. Khalid Alkasri, 36, 43. Khalid b. Alwalid, 192, 44. Khalid b. Safwan, 339, 37. Khalid b. Yazid b. Mu‘dwiya, 300, 9. Abt Jafar Alkhézin, 183,12 ; 249, 34; 322,27. Khindif, 328, 21. Ibn Khurdadbih, 50, 26. Khurram-Roz, 211, 39. Khurshédh, Mobed, 207, 21. Khusrau Parwiz, 258, 36. Khutan, 263, 14. Khwaf, 193, 18. Khwarizm-Shéhs, 48, 15. Kibla, 328, 14. Kilwadh, 278, 16. Kimak, 255, 34. Kinéna, 13,39 ; 14,13, 20. Alkindi (see Yakib b. Ishék), 187, 13; 219, 18, 29; 245, 18; 294, 27. Kings of the Jews, 89. Kipptr, 270, 7; 277, 11; 327, 10. Alkisrawi, 127, 2; 208, 32. Klepsydra (water-thief), 254, 9. Koran, 331, 16. Kosmas, author of Christian canons, 289, 22. Kuba, 82, col. 10. Kubadh b. Féroz, 192, 8. Kifa, 28, 39. Al-Kulthtimi, 335, 15. , Kumm, 215, 1. Ibn-Kunésa (see Yahyd), 339, 34. Kishin, King of Mesopotamia, 90, 18 Kutaiba b. Muslim Albahili, 41, 38; 42,6; 58, 8. L. Lahf b. Diilam b. Basil, 46, 12. Take of Alexandria, 248, 23. TLakhmides, 40, 37. Al-lamasésiyya, 25, 2. Lamp, self-acting, 255, 22. Leap-month, February, 241, 19, 20. Life.—Duration of life, 90, 34. M. Maghribis (Spaniards), 59, 27. Maghribis, Jewish sect, 278, 23. Mah, Media, 116, 34. Almahdi, 194, 33, 39. Mah-rbz, 34, 15,18. Al-mahwa, 340, 1. Mahzér, 64, 83; 66,22; 146. Maimfn b. Mihrén, 34, 7. Makhiraj I., 221, 21. Makhiraj II., 221, 24. Ma’'min, 235, 2; 330, 5. Al-ma’miin b. Ahmad Alsalami Alharawi, 287, 19; 297, 25. Ma'min b. Rashid, 328, 41. Man b. Z4’ida, 80, 7. Manbij, 265, 27. “ Mani, 27, 11; 121, 6; 189, 43 ; 225, 19. Manichaans, 80, 8 ; 329, 28, 31. Manicheans of Samarkand, 191, 27. Mani. —Gate of Mani, 191, 17. Mankir, a mountain, 255, 34. . Ab#i-Mansiir b. ‘Abd-alrazzik, 119, 19; 127,16. | Abfi-Nasr Mangdr b. ‘Ali b. ‘Irdk, | 167, 7. | Abdi-Ja‘far Mangir, 80, 5; 262, 30. Marcian, 291, 34. Marcion, 27,9; 189, 30. Mard, Mardéna, 107, 39. Mardéawij, 47, 24. Mare clausum, 236, 17. . Mar Mari, 309, 7, 10; 310, col. 11. Martyrs of the Melkites, 283, 4. 35 458. INDEX. Marw, 283, 42; 296, 1. Marw-alshahijan, 36, 9. Marzuban b. Rustam, Ispahbadh, 191, 44. Abh-Ma‘shar, 29, 4; 31,4; 91,31; 94, 39, 44; 95, 5; 187, 34; 342, 15, 27. Masmaghéan, 214, 6. Al-masrika, 53, 25. Mazdak, 192, 6; 194, 32. Medinet-almansiir, 262, 32. Melkites, 282, 5, 21, 22. Melkites of Chorasmia, 283, 4. Ménoshc'ihr, 205, 19, 40. Méshd and Méshané, 107, 36 ; 116, 23. Messiah, 18, 16, 43; 19, 4, 11, 17. Meton, 234, 32; 239, 28. Meteodorn, parapegmatist, 233, 1 Midian, 98,10. : Mihrjan, 201, 3; 207,35; 208, 29, 33, 86, 39, 40, 45; 209, 11, 26, 35, 41. ! Milad, Méléd, 144, 10. Miladites, Jewish sect, 68, 35. Milhén, 245, 1. Mini, 324, 31. Miragén, 208, 35. Mirin, summer-solstice with the Persians, 258, 24. Moléd, its calculation, 147. Moléd-limits, 150, 22. Months of the Arabs, 71, 18; 75, 35; 82, cols. 3, 4. Months of the Chorasmians, 57,13; 82, col. 1. Months of the Egyptians, 58, 33 ; 59.1; 83, col. 8. Months of the Greeks, 83, col. 5; 241, 31. Months of the Hindus, 83, col. 2. Months of the Jews, 62,16; 82, col. 5; 143, 19. Months of Almu‘tadid, 81, 14. Months of the Persians, 52, 12; 82, col. 4. Months of the Romans, 59, 26; 83, col. 3. Months of the Saci, 52, 25; 82, col. 3. Months of the Sogdians, 56, 22; 82, col. 2. Months of the Syrians, 69, 40; 70,12; 83,7. : Mouths of the Thamd, 74, 27 ; 82, col. 6. Months of the Turks, 83, cols. 1, 8. Months of the people in the west (Spaniards ?) 59, 26 ; 83, 3. Months of the inhabitants of Kuba, 82, col. 10. Months of the inhabitants of Bu- kharik (?) 82, col. 9. Month.—The small month of the Egyptians, 59, 23. Months : beginnings in the cycle of 28 years, 175, 10. Months of the Pilgrimage, 325, 9. Moon, 163, 18; 219, 4. Stations of the moon of the Arabs, 226, 23; 335, 28. Stations of the moon, calculations of their risings and settings, 342,1; 354, 6. Stations of the moon of the Choras- mians, 226, 4. Stations of the moon, distances between them, 353, 1. Stations of the moon of the Sog- dians and Chorasmians, 227, 32. Stations of the moon: tables, 351; 352; 355; 356. Moonstone, 163, 24. Mordekhai, 274, 14. Mosque of Salomo, 127, 31. Mosque of Damasc, 187, 27. Al-Mubaéhala, 332, 4. Muhammad, 22, 17; 46, 31; 293, 15; 294, 18, 21. Muhammad b. ‘Abd-al‘aziz Alhéa- shimi, 315, 26. Muhammad b. ‘Abd-almalik Alzay- yat, 265, 12. Ab#-‘Ali Muhammad b. ’Ahmad Albalkhi, 107, 43. Abt-‘Abdallih Muhammad b. ’Ah- mad, Khwarizm-Shah, 42, 17. Muhammad b. ‘Ali b. Shalmaghin, 198, 1. Abti-alwafdi Muhammad Albuzé- jani, 29, 32. Abt-Bakr Muhammad b. Duraid or Ibn Duraid, 74, 15. Abt-Ja‘far Muhammad b. Habib Albaghdadi, 324, 4. 459 INDEX. Muhammad b. Alhanafiyya, 195, 38 : Muhammad b. Ishdk b. Ustadh "Bundadh Alsarakhsi, 29, 32. Ab&-Muhammad Aljabali, 335, 17. Muhammad b. Jabir Albattani, 177, 2; 358, 33. Muhammad b. Aljahm Albarmaki, 108, 4. Muhammad b. Jarir Altabari, 50, 20. Muhammad b. Mityar, 250, 15; 258, 26. Muhammad b. Masi b. Shakir, 61, 38, 43 ; 285,23. Abii-Ja‘far Muhammad b. Sulai- man, 80, 5. Abé-Bakr Muhammad b. Zakariyya Alrazi, 243, 31. Muharram, calculation of the lst "of Muharram, 183, 11; 321, 11. Mu‘izz-aldaula, 93, 15. Mukharrim, 93, 13. Al-mukhtir b. Abi-‘Ubaid Altha- kafi, 195, 37. Al-multahiyani, 93, 25. Mulik-altawd’if, 17, 32. Almundhir b. Ma-alsama, 49, 22. Misa b. ‘Isa Alkisrawi, 122, 14, 25 ; 127,1; 128. Ab#-Masa Al'ashari, 34, 26. Musailima, 192, 26. Al-mushakkar, 324, 12. Abti-Muslim, 193,16; 194, 10; 330, 27. Almu‘tadid, his months, 81, 14. Almu‘tadid, 12,29; 229, 5; 230, 5 ; 232, 8. Almu‘tasim, 50, 27; 285, 19. Almutawakkil, 37, 9. Alna‘d’im, 337, 15; 348,17. N. Nabateans, 70, 5. Néabulus, 25, 15. Nadab and Abihd, 274, 37. Al-na’ib Alamuli, Abfi-Muhammad, 15,17; 53,34; 346, 12. N#ila, 39, 18. aa iranjAt, astrologico - dietetical Bs re 200, 20 S01, 45 ; 208, 36; 211, 10; 238, 35. Al-najm, 344, 1. Najran, Pa : Al-nakba, y 5 Names of the planets, 171, 43. Nasa, 192, 7. Nasi’, 14,39; 73,25; 880, 17. Négir-aldaula, 93, 23. Nata, 324, 32. Al-nath, 343, 22. Nathan the prophet, 269, 12. Al-nathra, 345, 15. Nau’, 339, 6. Naubakht, 262, 37. Naujushanas b. Adharbakht, 44, 8. Nauréz the great, 201, 36. Nauréz of the Khalif, 258, 10. Naurdz, myths relating to, 199, 1. Nebukadnezar, 272, 26; 276, 19, 30, 34; 314, 13. Nestorians, 282, 8, 21. Nestorius, 282, 8; 291, 31; 306, 4, New-year’s feast of the Sdbians, 316, 24. New-moon, its calculation, 68, 1. New-moon, observed by the Mus- lims, 76, 12, 35. New-moon calculation, introduced amongst the Jews, 63, 3. New-moon, according to the Rab. banites and ‘Ananites, 67, 16 ; 69, 20, 33. | Nights.—Names of several nights with the Arals, 74, 37; 240, 24; 252, 27; 258, 18; 259, 14. Nile, 230, 25. Nimrad, 100, 20, 25. Nim-sarda, 221, 35, 38. Ninive-fasts, 311, 22. Notes from natural history, pro- portion of numbers in the formation of blossoms, stones, ete., 294, 2, 36. Abta-Nu'is, 261, 39. Nih b. Mansir, prince of Khuri- san, 330, 38. - Nuwad-réz, 212, 12. INDEX. 0. Observations of the Hindus, 29, 26. Observations of the Persians, 29, 25. October, first month of the year with the Syrians, 69, 42. Ordo intercalationis, 64, 32; 65, 1,6. Ozxus, 252, 10, 21; 259, 6; 263, 5. P. Pahlavi, 108, 15. Paraclete, 190, 9; 304, 25, 27. Paradise, 238, 41. Péran, 22,10. Parapegma, 233, 13. Passover of the Jews, 66, 29 ; 141, 28; 159, 6. Passover, 274, 44; 277, 13. Patriarch of Antiochia, 284, 2. Patriarchs, 284, 20. Patriarchs of the Bible, 85, 9. St. Paul, 314, 29. Pentecontarius, 285, 12. Persians, their @ra of creation, 17, 19. Persian kings, 13, 8. Persian chronology, 107, 1. Persian characters, 186, 16. Persian names of the zodiacal figures, 173, 10, col. 3. Persian names of the planets, 172. Péshdadh, 116, 17. Péshdadians, 13, 8; 110,18; 111; 113; 114. Petrus, 311, 34. Posie; 275, 8; 327, 18; 328, 12, Phétion, 308, 4. Philippus, parapegmatist, 233, 14. Pilgrimage.— Farewell-pilgrimage, | Sabians, 13, 23 ; 186, 23; 188, 26, 74,7. Projection, 357, 1. Prophets, 347, 22. Psalter, 331, 13. Ptolemaeus, parapegmatist, 234, 26. Ptolemaeus, 11,10; 33, 34; 35,19; 98, 25,27; 232,23; 322, 16. Ptolemeeus Philadelphus, 24, 15. Ptolemaeans, 103. Public offices in Byzantium, 283, 33. Parim, 273, 24; 277, 12. Pythagoras, 187, 44. R. - Rabbénites, 67, 16; 68, 21; 278, 41 Rabi, 321, 17. Alrabiya, 324, 22. Rai, 338, 8. Air Jewish pseudo-prophet, 18, 9 Rajab, 321, 12. Ibn-alrakka‘, 338, 38. Ramadan, 77, 10 ; 321, 28. Réamush, 221, 15. Ramush-Agham, 221, 15. Rata’il (Barta‘il?), 196, 1. Restoration of the Zoroastrian creed, 196, 43. Resurrection Church in Jerusalem, 287, 20. Ribas, 107, 36; 108, 27. Roman emperors, 104; 105. “Rosh-Galatha, 19, 6. Rosh-hashshéna, 152, 16 ; 268,13 ; 277, 10, 27,39; 278, 4. Rosh-Haodesh, 155, 18 ; 157. Abu-Ruh (see Antonius Martyr), 287, 39. | Rustam b. Shirwin, Ispahbad, 47, 32. Ryan, 205, 33. | Alsa‘b b. Alhammal Alhimyari, 49, 34. S. 42; 314, 11,23; 329, 27. Sabzarad, 255, 11. Sa‘d-aldhabih, 349, 1. Sa‘d-bula‘, 249, 6. INDEX. Sa‘d-alsu‘td, 349, 15. Sa‘d-al’akhbiya, 349, 21. Sa‘d-Nashira, 353, 32. Alsidik (vide Ja‘far), 79, 21. Safar, 321, 15. Abi-Hamid Aisaghéni, 357, 34. Said b. Alfadl, 199, 28; 208, 27. Sa‘id b. Muhammad Aldhuhli, 116, 8. Abu-Said Shadhéan, 94, 40. Sail-al‘arim, 255, 9. Alsalami, 330, 4. Salamiyya, 263, 21. Sallam b. ‘Abdallah b. Sallam, 27, 18. Salman the Persian, 27, 19; 208, 21. Salmanassar, 275, 41. Salomo-Legend, 199, 7. Samanides, 48, 5. Samaritans, 25, 2; 67, 27 ; 270, 34; 314, 20. Samarkand, 191, 30. Samarra, 99, 10. Samiras, 49, 17. Samma‘tn with the Manicheeans, 190, 26. Samuel, 275, 16. San‘a, 324, 21. Ibn-Sankila (Syncellus), 186, 27. Sarandib, 94, 42 ; 345, 33. Al-sarfa, 346, 19. Saruj, 316, 5; 318, 6, 9. Sasanians, 123; 124; 125; 126; 128. Sawa, 206, 28. Sawad-al‘irdk, 314, 22. Sawar, 51, 1. Seasons, table of, 323. Seasons of the Arabs, 322, 4, 15; 323, cols. 8,9. Seasons of the Byzantines and Syrians, 322, 29; 323, cols. 2, 3. Seasons of the Greeks, 322, 17; 323, cols. 4, 5. Sects, Muhammadan, 76, 16. Séder-‘6lam, 87,13; 88, col. 4; 90, 29. - Septuaginta, 24, 4. Seven Sleepers, 285, 18. Sexagesimal system, 132, 16. Al-sha‘bi, 34, 26. Shahin, 208, 28. | Shéhiya, 41, 6. Shahnima, 108, 1; 121, 2. | Shahrazir, 44,18. Shaiban, 245, 1. Shamanians, 189, 2. Shamma, 273, 20. Abt-Karib Shammar Yur‘ish, 49, 35. | Shams-alma‘dli, 1, 25; 2, 42; 12, 12; 47, 17; 131, 30; 365, 14. Al-shamsiyya, 314, 7. Shapir, Dhi-al’aktaf, 39, 19. Shéapir b. Ardashir, 190, 2. Shapir, 309, 2. Al-sharatéin, 343, 1. Al-shargh, 222, 5. Al-shaula, 348, 13. Shawwal, 321, 30. Shefat, 69, 31. Shi‘a, 177,7; 326, 2,19. Al-shihr, 324, 18. Shiraz, 217, 28. Shirwan-Shahs, 48, 16. Siamese twins, 93, 23. Sibawaihi, 347, 1. Siddiktn with the Manichseans, 190, 18, 29. Sijistan, 52, 25; 235, 37. Alsimak, 317, 20 ; 346, 30. Simeon b. Sabba‘¢, catholicus, 292, 6. Simon Magus, 291, 43. Sinan b. Thabit, 232, 6, 21, 27, 30 ; 233, 1, 5; 262, 14; 267, 9; 322, 34. Sindhind, 11, 12; 29, 27; 31, 5; 61,31; 266,25. Sirius, 261, 24; 337,36 ; 338, 40. SiyaAmak and Friawik, 108, 40. Siyawush, 40, 42. Slavonians, 110, 4. Snake, signification of the appear- ance of a, 218. Solar cycle, 66,7 ; 164, 9. Solar year, 141, 29. Solar year of the Jews, 64,1; 143, 31; 163, 42. | Solar year of Muhammad b. Misa and Ahmad b. Misi, 61, 39. ' Solar year of the Persians, 61, 35; 220, 16. 462 INDEX. Sophists, 96, 14. Spring of the Chinese, 266, 10. Star cycle, 29, 18. Abu-alhusain Algafi, 195, 1; 355; 358, 34. Ibn-alstfi, 347, 40. Al-suhi, 250, 13; 266, 20. Suhér, 324, 15. Aba-Tahir Sulaiman Aljannabi, 196, 13; 197, 32. Al-gtli, 36, 14; 37,9. Sun, 168, 21, 29. Sunday.—New Sunday, 304, 5. Sun.—Rays of the sun, 247, 3. Stristan, 70, 6. Surnames of the Ashkénians, 117. Surnames of the Peshdadians and Kayénians, 111. Surnames of the Sasanians, 123. Surra-man-ra’d, 93,7; 99,11. Synodus, 221, 9. Syriaca, 19, 10. Syrian names of the planets, 172, col. 4. Syrian fathers, 311, 88; 3813. Syrian names of the figures in the zodiac, 173, col. 4. T. Tabaristéan, 235, 5, 6. Al-tahir, 235, 30. Tahir b. Tahir, 211, 15. Tahmurath, 27, 44; 28,11. Tahrif, 23, 27. Tak, 235, 19. Talakan, 195, 2, 33. Abh-Talib, 332, 12. Talisman, 217, 4. Tall-Harran, 318, 15. Tammiz, 317,37. Al-tarf, 345,19. Ta’rikh, 34, 17. Tasu‘a, 326, 1. Al-tawawis, 221, 32. Tekufoth, their calculation, 162,27; 168,3,13,14; 169; 174, 1. Terminus paschalis, 300, 35. Thabir, 333, 18. Thabit b. Kurra, 61,45; 252,44. Thabit b. Sinan, 93, 6 ; 264, 23. Thales of Miletus, 31, 45. Thamtid, the names of their months, 74, 27. Theodorus of Mopsuestia, 196, 4. Theodosius Minor, 291, 30. Theodosius, son of Arcadius, 291, 26. Theon Alexandrinus, 12, 26, 88; 32, 30 Thora, 331, 12, 24. Thora of the Jews, 22,40; 23,39. Thora of the Seventy, 24, 4; 25, 36. : Thora of the Samaritans, 24, 18, 27; 29, 3. Al-thurayya, 336, 27, 29, 83; 342, 37, 38,41 ; 343, 34. Tiberias, 279, 3. The tides, 260, 13. Tigris, 252, 22. Tinnis, 240, 23. Tiragén, 205, 15. Titles of princes, 109, 14. Titles of the Samanides, 131, 9. Titles of the Vizirs, 131, 1. Titles during the Chalifate, 129, 1. Titles.—Table of Titles, 130. Taba, 331, 42. Turks, their months, 83, cols. 1, 8. Turtle-doves, 219, 11, 23. Tis, 216, 38. Tustar, 273, 25, 28. Thzan, 93, 10. Abt-alkasim ‘Ubaid-Alldh b. ‘Abd- allih b. Khurdéadbih, 234, 39. U. “Ubaid-Allah b. Alhasan Alkaddéh, 48, 38. Abii-alkdsim ‘Ubaid-Allah b. Sulei- man b. Wahb, 38, 4. ‘Ubaid-allah b. Yahya, 36,19. “Ukaz, 324, 22. “Ukbarai, 214, 28. “Umar b. Alkhattab, 34,7; 49,29; 196, 6 ; 333, 41. Umayyades, 326, 13. Al'-’urdunn, 264, 2. Urishlem, 19, 22, 25. | “Uthman b. ‘Affan, 333, 27. i Y. Vacuum, 254, 15. Ww. Waikard, brother of Hoshang, 206, 17; 212,11. Wakhsh, 225, 23. Wakhsh-Angim, 225, 23. Waki‘ Alkadi, 106, 3. Wali-aldaula Abéi-Ahmad Khalaf b. Ahmad, prince of Sijistan, 330, 37. ‘Wardanshih, 47, 24. Warmth, 246, 41. Waterspout, 253, 16. Wisit, 188, 34. Water.—Rising of the water, 253, 13. Weather.—Predicting the wea- ther, with the Arabs, 336, 26. Week, 58, 21, 32; 60, 19. Week-days, 75, 33. Wijan b. Judarz, 206, 32. Winds, Etesian, 259, 43; 262, 25, 30; 339, 32. Winds.—Swallow-winds, 248, 22. Winds.—Bird-winds, 248, 17, 31, 34. Y. Yahya b. ‘Ali Alkétib Al’anbéri, 238, 39. Yahy4 grammaticus, 225, 14. Yahya b Khalid b. Barmak, 37, 4. Abi-Yahya b. Kunisa, 335, 16; 339, 35; 351, col. 12. Yahya b. Alnu‘min, 191, 1. Ya‘kiib b. Ishak Alkindi, 245, 18. Ya‘kab b. Misa Alnikrisi, 269, 19; 270, 14. Ya‘kiib b. Tarik, 15, 18. Yaméama, 94, 36; 192, 38. Yaman 255, 1. Yazdagird Alhizari, 56, 7. Yazdagird b. Shahryér, 120, 16. INDEX. 463 Yazdagird b. Shapir, 38, 24, 31; 56, 5; 121, 25. Yazdanbakht, 191, 19. Year, definition, 11, 4; 12, 8. Great years, 91, 2, 20, 24. Small years, 91, 7. Solar year, 12, 26. Year, its beginning in the cycle of 28 years, 175. Year, its beginning with the Chor- asmians, 184, 37 ; 223, 1. Year, its beginning with the Egyp- tians, 230, 24. Year, its beginning with the Jews, 66, 10. Year, its beginning with the Per- sians, 201, 4. Year, its beginning with the Sa- bians, 315, 14, 18; 316, 24; 318, 22 ; 319,5; 320,2, col. 3. Year, its beginning with the Sog- dians, 184, 37 ; 220, 20. Year of the heathen Arabs, 13, 34. Year of Augustus, 103, 3, 5. : Year of the Chorasmians, 13, 5, 20. Year of the Christians, 13, 30. Year of Diocletianus, 103, 4. Years between the Flight of Mu. hammad and his Death, 35, 28. Years of the Harrdnians, 318, 32. Years of the Hindus, 15, 5. Year of the Jews, 62,25; 153. Rendle of Years with the Jews, 66, 17. Year of the Jews, Sabians, Harri- nians, 13, 22. Year of the Persians, 12, 40; 13, 19. Year of the Péshdadians, 13, 8. Year of Philippus, 103, 3, 4. Years of Restitution, 160, 3. Year of the Sogdians, 13, 5, 20. Year-quarters, their length with the Jews, 163, 34. Yehoyakim, 271, 21. Z. Zacharia the prophet, 19, 29. Zadawaihi, 53, 37 ; 202, 7; 207, 11, Zaid b. ‘Ali’ Imam, 328, 32. Sh i maT EO pA ARC EE — t a6 i dE 1) 464 INDEX. Zaidites, 79, 10. Alzajjj, 344, 87 ; 346,11,26; 347, 30; ; , 32. Tbn-Abi-Zakariyyéa, 196, 21. Zamzam, 332, 36. Zamzama, 194, 2; 204, 9,14; 209, 21. Zamzami, 194, 17. Zanjén, 216, 40. Zau b. Tahmisp, 202, 45 ; 210, 4. Zedekia, 271, 8. Zoological notes, 92, 42; 94, 18; 214, 11, 29. | Zoroaster, 17, 12; 55, 29 ; 186,21; 189, 26; 191, 45; 193, 34; 196,40; 201,40; 205, 2; 209, 35; 211, 35; 220,19; 221, 4, 5; 314, 4, 6. Zoroastrians, 17, 10; 35, 23; 814, 4; 818, 28. Zoroastrians in Chorasmia, 223, Ee. Zoroastrians in Transoxiana, 56, 14. Alzubéna, 347, 32. Alzubra, 346, 9. PRINTED BY W, H. 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