A TABLE

OF THE

ARYAN LANGUAGES

WITH

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS

HENRY ATTWELL

WILLIAMS AND NORGATE,

14, HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON;
AND 20, SOUTH FREDERICK STREET, EDINBURGH.

1874.

 
 

 

 

 
A TABLE
ARYAN LANGUAGENS

BY

HENRY ATTWELL

 

WILLIAMS AND NORGATE,

14, HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON;
AND 20, SOUTH FREDERICK STREET, EDINBURGH.

1874.
 
PREFACE.

NSS

This Zable, originally published as a large wall-map, is repro-
duced, with additions, for the convenience of those who may wish to
use it as a manual.

That the science of comparative philology is still immature, and
that, hence, such generalisations as our Table presents are of necessity
imperfect, is no reason why the young student should be kept in the
dark as to the relationship between his mother tongue and the kindred
languages (Greek, Latin, German, French, &c.) to which he devotes
so large a portion of his time, or be allowed, erroneously, to regard
those verbal likenesses he cannot fail to notice as simply the result
of direct “derivation.”

By keeping before a class some of the general principles upon
~ which the inflections of words and the construction of sentences
depend, those repetitions of declensions and conjugations which usually
exercise the ear and memory only, may be made instrumental to the
development of the judgment.

The experience of every educator who has enlivened that hortus
siceus the grammar book by examining with his pupil the growth
and offshoots and decay of an etymon, proves the power of the know-

881
Iv

ledge we advocate to excite interest in what seemed dull and dry.
But mere hap-hazard glances at the curiosities of language will be
of doubtful good. The pupil should early possess a knowledge of the
natural classification of letters, and the laws that control their per-
mutations. This will serve as a basis to such methodical teaching as
may be brought to bear upon whatever language he studies.

 
TABLE

ARYAN LANGUAGES.
oo

Indie. Iraniec. Keltiec.

 

 

Sanskrit Zend. i Cornish
Prakrit Cuneiform In- £Welsh
Pah scriptions |Armorican
Indian Dialects |p. pai o|Gaelie
Gipsy Dialects [Persian se. =| Erse

se. 2 Manx «e.

 

The red type indicates extinct languages.

The term Aryan, or, less conveniently, Indo-European, is applied to the
languages derived from the speech of those peoples whose earliest seats seem to
have been the highlands of Central Asia, and who were the ancestors of the
Indians and Persians, of the Kelts, Greeks, Romans, Slavonians and Teutons.
Professor Max Miiller writes “as sure as the six Roman dialects point to an
original home of Italian shepherds on the seven hills at Rome, the Aryan
languages together point to an earlier period of language, when the first ancestors
of the Indians, the Persians, the Greeks, the Romans, the Slaves, the Kelts, and
the Germans, were living together within the same enclosures, nay, under the
same roof.”

The root of the word Aryan means fo plough. We find it in the Latin
arare, and in the Greek aroo, and again in the English ear in the sense of to #/l.
The Aryans seem to have chosen this name to distinguish them from the nomad
Turanians. In later Sanskrit, Arya came to mean noble, in which sense we have
it in the Greek aristos, the best, in the German Ehr-e¢, and, probably, in Erin.

The Aryan population of Western Asia and of Europe resulted from several
waves of immigrants Westward. The order in which these tribes left their
pristine seats, and in which they proceeded from ome resting-place to another,
‘cannot be accurately determined: but it is evident that the ancestors of the
3

Graeco-Latin. Slavonic.

Greek Old Prussian

 

 

Dorie. | Lithuanian
Ate,  |Lettish
Greek «. zl Ancient-Bulg.
Latin - Bulgarian
Portuguese ‘Russian
‘Spanish {Polish
{Provencal |“ {Bohemian
[French [92 *

Italian
Roumansch, Wallachian, «.

 

Indic and Iranic nations went South and West,
spreading over Hindustan, Persia and Afghanistan;
and the settlers of the Aryan race in Europe seem
to have taken their way along the shore of the
Caspian Sea, and then to have passed over the Cau-
casus, continuing their course along the Northern
coasts of the Pontus. It is possible that the Greek
and Italic tribes were the first to go forth from the
great group, and it may be that the Teutons pre-
ceded the Slavonians; but the order we have given
| above is generally regarded as the most probable.

‘ueuIdx) YS

‘URULIIY) MOT

‘URIARUIPURBIY

Teutonic.

Oldand Middle-
High German

German

Gothic

Anglo-Sax.

English

Old Saxon

Old Frisian

Old Dutch
Platt-Deutsch

Frisian
Dutch

Old Norse
Icelandic
Swedish

 

Danish «ec.
Indic.

Sanskrit, the ancient language of the Hindus, has been extinct
for about two thousand years; but it continues to be studied by the
learned, and is better known by the educated Brahmins than Latin
is by the educated classes of Europeans. Its literature, the oldest
expression of which is found in the four sacred Vedas, 1s very rich
and interesting; and the study of the language has thrown an im-
portant light upon the growth of the Aryan tongues, richly repaying
the labours of such eminent philologists as Sir William Jones, Wilson,
Bopp, Schlegel, Burnouf, Goldstiicker. — At the time when the Greek
authors had produced their greatest works, and when Rome had hardly
as yet a literature, Sanskrit was no longer commonly spoken in India,
but had degenerated into various dialects, among which were the
Prakrit idioms, bearing somewhat the same relation to Sanskrit
as Italian bears to Latin, and ancient Pali, in which most of the
sacred books of the Boudhists were written, representing an interme-
diate stage between Sanskrit and Prakrit.

The Gipsies, long erroneously regarded as Egyptians (hence
their name), speak a language, or, rather, fragments of a language,
evidently of Indian origin, and confirming other testimony that they

are exiles from Hindustan.
Iranic.

Zend, the sacred language of the fire-worshipping Zoroastians, in
which their Zend-avesta was written, was brought to light about a
hundred years ago, and shown to be closely allied to Sanskrit. The
date of Zoroaster, to whom are attributed the more ancient books
of the avesta, is uncertain. Probably he lived about a thousand years
before the Christian era.

The Cuneiform Inscriptions (so called from the wedge-
shaped characters of which they are composed) found upon the ancient
monuments of Persian cities, belong to a later period than the old
Zend writings. They must not be confused with cuneiform inscrip-
tions brought from the sites of Babylon and Nineveh, which belong
to the Semitic, not to the Aryan family of languages.

Parsi, derived from the language found in the Zend writings
and the cuneiform inscriptions, was the language of the Persians,
until, after their conversion to Mohammedanism, their vocabulary be-

ame increased by the admixture of Arabic words.
Keltie.

The Kelts whom we meet with as the conquerors of Rome
under Brennus (390 B. C.), and, a hundred years later, as the invad-
ers of Macedonia and Greece, and who, according to Herodotus,
occupied the country south of the Ister (lower Danube), spread into
Switzerland and the Tyrol; and after occupying Gaul, Belgium, and
Britain, were driven by the pressure of the Teutons to the extreme
West and North of the British Isles.

Cornish, which was generally spoken in Cornwall three cent-
uries ago, has gradually become extinct. In Cumberland, British
has not been currently spoken for five or six hundred years.

Welsh is still extant. It is noteworthy that the term Welsh
(a Teutonic word meaning foreign) was not only applied by the Anglo-
Saxons to the Britons, but also by the Germans to the Italians ( Welsch-
land being German for Italy): again, the Valais districts are the dis-
tricts peopled by the Welsh, i. e. the non-Germans; the Walloons
border on Germany, but are not German; and Wallachia is simply
Wales.

The Western Bretons, who occupy part of ancient Armorica,
still retain the Keltic tongue, called by them Breyzad.

The Gaelic dialect of the Keltic race is still spoken by the
Highlanders, who occupy the districts lying North and West of the
Grampians.

In Ireland, although the majority of the people are Keltic, Eng-
lish prevails. Irish is spoken in Donegal, in the Glens of Antrim, and
in various localities of the West and South.
7

Graeco-Latin.

In grouping the Greek with the Latin languages, it must not
be understood that Latin, as was long supposed, grew out of Greek.
They are sister languages, and in some of its forms Latin is the more
primitive of the two. The close affinity between Sanskrit, Greek and
Latin is so evident that when first, through the labours of Sir William
Jones, the Sanskrit literature was opened to European students, it
was readily seen that these three languages must have had a common
origin.

Ancient Greek, in passing through the stages out of which mod-
ern Greek has been developed, has lost some few forms of conjugation
and declension, and has adopted new words; but it has suffered much less
loss and change than Latin has undergone in assuming its new phases.

The term Romance (Lingua Romana) is applied to the languages |
that were formed by the infusion of Latin into the different barbarous
tongues of Southern and Western Europe with which it came into
contact. |

We may date the origin of these Romance dialects from the |
ninth century. 7

The oldest monument we possess of the Romance language is
the oath of Louis the Germanic (842). This he swore in the Lingua
Romana that the troops of Charles the Bald might understand him.

By the close of the ninth century there were in France two
distinct Romance languages, the Provencal in the South, and the
French proper in the North. These were named langue d’oc¢ and
langue d’oil, from the words in the two languages expressing owi
(yes). The langue d’oil supplanted the langue doc, in which the
Troubadours of the XI", XII" and XIII" century composed their
lays. Modern Provencal is no longer a literary language.

Roumansch (or Romanese) is spoken in the Grisons of Switzerland.

The Wallachians (or Romani, as they call themselves) and Mol-
davians speak a Romance language; and kindred dialects are spoken in
parts of Hungary, Transylvania and Bessarabia.
Slavonic.

The Lettic languages might conveniently be placed as a separate
branch. Max Miiller groups the Lettic and Slavonian languages under
the name Windic.

Old Prussian, the original language of the North East of Prus-
sia, has been extinct since the XVII® century.

Lithuanian is spoken by about a quarter of a million people
of Eastern Prussia, and by about a million people in the neighbouring
parts of Russia.

Lettish, the language of Kurland and Livonia, is closely allied

to Lithuanian.

The most ancient Aceves of the Eastern Slavonic branch is
the authorised Slavonic bible translated into ancient Bulgarian in the
Winth century. |

The oldest specimen of Polish is a psalter of the fourteenth
century.

Bohemian poems exist which are supposed to belong to the
ninth century, and a translation of St. John’s Gospel dating from the

tenth century.
Teutonic.

It is interesting to recognise in the word Teutonic the same root as in Deutsch and Dutch. The old
High German form of the word is dieutisca, from diot, diota, a race, a nation, which we meet with in Anglo-
Saxon,* dhkeod, in Icelandic, thiod, and in Gothic, thiuda.

If we trace towards their sources the Rhine, the Main, and the Neckar, we come to the lands where Old
High German, the mother-tongue of modern German, was spoken a thousand years ago.

The period of Middle German extends from the twelfth century to Luther’s time. Luther, by trans-
lating the Bible into the High German dialect did much towards establishing High German as the literary language
of Germany.

The Low German dialects, akin to the Old Low German of the time of our Anglo-Saxon * forefathers,
are spoken in the Northern lowlands of Germany, and in Holland and Belgium. Its literature is not nearly so
rich as that of German proper.

Gothic, known to us through Bishop Ulfilas’s translation of the Bible (about 350 A. D.), was spoken
by the Teutonic tribes who invaded the Roman Province of Mesia. Gothic is very interesting as the oldest form
in which we can examine a Teutonic dialect, its grammar being far older than the oldest Anglo-Saxon or High-
German.

Anglo-Saxon,” the term that has been applied to the oldest form of English, is made up of the two
names by which the Teutonic immigrants were for the most part known. They called themselves Angles, and
their tongue Englisc-Spreec; but the Kelts and Romans called them Saxons. Anglo-Saxon™ literature, dating
from the seventh century, extends over about four hundred years. The Anglo-Saxon* language not only contained
many words wanting in modern English, but many of its grammatical forms are lost. Some of these lost forms
we recognise in German, Dutch, and other Teutonic languages.

Although the Normans, in Edward the Confessor’s time, brought with them to England the French lan-
guage they had themselves adopted, and continued to use it here for two centuries after the Conquest, English
remained the language of the masses, and finally prevailed over Norman French. But the Conquest caused a
great infusion of French words into our mother-tongue; and besides the words of Latin derivation thus introduced
through the French, many others of direct Latin origin have been adopted. We have also formed many technic-
al terms from the Greek; and have borrowed words from Hebrew, Arabic, British, Danish, German, Dutch,
French, Spanish, Italian, Persian, Hindustani, &e. = Still, although our dictionaries show so large a proportion of
words in our language traceable to a Latin source, the groundwork of English remains Teutonic; for not only
our pronouns, prepositions, numerals and common words, but our grammatical forms, remain native.

By Old Saxon we understand the Old continental Low German. The oldest document in continental Low
German dates from the ninth century. Old Frisian and Old Dutch, the mother tongues of modern Dutch
and Frisian, were not cultivated as literary languages until a period when our Anglo-Saxon* had lost most of its
characteristic inflections. Our table shows at a glance that it is an error to regard Dutch as a patois of German.

Platt Deutsch, or “Low German”, is the language of the people of the Northern coast of Germany,
descendants of the same tribes — Angles, Saxons, Jutes, &c. — as settled in our island. It might readily be
taken for an English dialect.

In the above table only the more important members of the Aryan family of languages are mentioned.
We might have placed in our list of Low German Flemish, spoken by the Teutonic part of the population of
Belgium.

The oldest fragments of Scandinavian literature belong to about the same period as the oldest speci-
mens of High German. The oldest Scandinavian compositions were songs of the gods and heroes, sung by the
skalds. The famous Eddas, — one, the Elder, in poetry, the Younger, in prose — were composed in Iceland
by Norwegian refugees.

The Scandinavian branch consists of three dialects, those of Denmark, Sweden and Iceland. Old Norse,
which consisted of many dialects, seems, on the continent, to have resolved itself, about the twelfth century, into
two predominating languages, Swedish and Danish, while in Iceland it remained, and still remains, almost unal-
tered. Danish is spoken in Norway, except where the fiords and valleys have preserved dialects more nearly
akin to Icelandic.

* As the Germanic population of this island called themselves simply English, many modern grammarcansgobject to the term
Anglo-Saxon, and replace it by Old English.
10

Illustrations.

~ Words.

 

 

Indic Keltic Graeco-Latin

Sanskrit ~~ Welsh Irish Greek
é-ka (é-na, this one) un aon ag =aov-g)”
dva dau do duo
{ri tri tri TOES
chatur pedwar  ceathair 7erT008s,76000008¢
panchan pump urig TIEVTE
shash chwech sé é8
saptan saith seacht  émro
ashtan wyth ocht: 0%T()
navan naw noi EVVEQ
dasan deg deich dena

* In appending a very few illustrations of the relationship between the members of the
Aryan family of languages, it is important to note 1°, that such words as pronouns and numerals,
being the least likely to be borrowed, are of the greatest importance in illustrating the family
likeness; 2°, that this relationship is not established by mere verbal similitude; likeness is not
only seen in the words which make up the languages, but also in their grammatical forms.
Thus, when it was first observed that a great number of Hindu words were very similar to Greek
words of the same sense, it seemed possible that these words had made their way into Sanskrit
through Alexander's expedition; when, however, it was found that this likeness extended to the
commonest words in use, the theory was no longer tenable; and when closely corresponding gram-
matical forms were found running through both languages, the proof of their having a common
origin was complete.

** In these tables we have avoided obscuring the Greek characters by the insertion of accents
which, however important in continuous writing, can readily be dispensed with in isolated words.
Graeco-l.atin

11

Slavonic

 

Latin

Italian French Polish Russian Lithuanian

 

unus uno un jeden odin venas
duo duo deux dwa dva du
tres tre trois  trzy tri trys
quatuor quattro quatre cztery chetyre keturi
quinque cinque cing  pieé pat’ penki
sex sel SIX szese shest’ Szesz1
septem sette sept siedm sem’ septyni
octo otto huit osm vocem astini
novem nove neuf dziewieé dévat  devyni
decem dieci dix dzisie¢ deésat’ deszint
Teutonic
German Gothic Ang.-Sax. Dutch Danish’
eins) ains an een een
zwei twai tva twee to
drei threis thri drie tre
vier fidwor feover vier fire
funf fimf’ fif vijf fem
sechs saihs SIX Zes sex
sieben sibun seofon zeven SyV:
acht ahtau eahta acht otte
neun niun nigon negen ni
zehn tathun tyn tien tl

* Both here and in the lists below we might have made the illustrations fuller, if our aim
were is to show that words can be found in which the likeness between all the branches of
the Aryan family can be exhibited.
12

Head.

Sanskrit, kapdla. — Greek, xcpaiy. — Latin, caput. — Old German,
houbit. — German, Haupt and Kopf. — Gothic, haubith. — Dutch,
hoofd. — Danish, hoved.

Tooth.
Sanskrit, danta. — Hindu, dant. — Welsh and Armorican, dant. —
Cornish, danz. — Greek, odove, (-orroc). — Latin, dens. — French,
dent. — Lithuanian, danti. — German, Zahn. — Gothic, tunthus. —

Anglo-Saxon, foth. — English, tooth. — Dutch, tand. — Danish and
Swedish, fand; &c.

 

Eye.
Sanskrit, akshi, the eye; gavara, a hole, a window; xara, twinkling,
from dz, to see. — Old German, auga. — German, Auge. — Gothic,

augjan to show; &ec.

Chin.

Sanskrit, ganda (the cheek), gambha, the chin. — Greek, ycreior (the
beard, the chin). — Latin, gena. — German, Kinn. — Gothic, kinnus.
— Ang.-Sax., eyn. — Dutch, kin. — Icelandic, kinn; &c.

Foot.

Sanskrit, pada (from pad to go). — Zend, padha. — Welsh, fod, a

shank. — Irish, faoidhim, (I go). — Greek, ove (modoc). — Latin,

pes (pedis). — "Lithuanian, padas. — Old High German, Fuoz. —

German, Fuss. — Gothic, fotus. — Anglo-Saxon, fot. — Low German,
Joot; &c.
13

Cat.
Persian, kit. — Gaelic and Irish, cat. — Welsh, cath. — French,
chat. — Spanish and Portuguese, gato. — Italian, gatfo. — Russian,

kot. — Polish, kot. — Old German, chaz. — German, Katze. — Eng-
lish, cat. — Dutch, kat. — Danish, kat. — Swedish, katt. — Icelandic,
kottr ; &ec.

Goose.

Sanskrit, hansa. — Greek, yn. — Latin, anser (—— hanser). — Russian,
gus. — Old High German, kans. — German, Gans. — Danish, gaas;
&c. Compare gander.

Linen.
Greek, Awvor. — Latin, linum. — Welsh, lin. — Armorican, lin. —
Russian, len, lon. — Lithuanian, linnani. — Gothic, lein. — Anglo-
Saxon, lin. — Icelandic, lin; &c.

Deal. Dole.

Sanskrit, dal (to sever). — Cornish, dal (a part). — Welsh, de. —
Greek, dun (to divide). — Lithuanian, dalis. — German, The: and
Urtheil. — Gothic, dails. — Anglo-Saxon, dael; &c.

Water.
Sanskrit, uda. — Hindustanee, nuddee, a river. — Greek, vdwg. —
Latin, unda (udus, wet). — Armorican, dour. — Lithuanian, wandu. —
Slavonic, woda. — Old German, wazar. — German, Wasser. — Gothic,

vato. — Anglo-Saxon, waeter.
14

Sour.

Welsh, Gaelic and French, sur. — Polish, surowy. — German, sauer. —

Anglo-Saxon, Danish, Swedish and Icelandic, sur; &c.

To Know.

Sanskrit root Jud. — Greek, yrouw. — Latin, (g)nosco (nomen &c.). —

German, kennen. — English, know, ken, con; &c.
To Stand.
Sanskrit, sthdé. — Persian, astardan. — Greek, ioryw. — Latin, sto,

stare. — Slavonic, stoju. — Gothic and Old Saxon, standan.

Salt.
Sanskrit, sara (salt), saras, a lake. — Greek, ic (salt), (Faiaooa, the
sea). — Latin, sal. — German, Salz. — Gothic, salt. — Anglo-Saxon,
seall. — The German proper name Hall points to the existence. of

salt mines or springs,

/
15

Sanskrit root™ VID {to discern, to know.

Greek, cw, c0cw. — Latin, video. — Gothic, wita, wait. — German,
weiss. — English, wit. — Russian, wiedati, wiedaiu.
Vaidan, discerning. ~ Greek, (dw. — Latin, videns.
Vidvas, knowing. w  E0me.
Vittas, known. ww SUIS,
Vidya, perception. wy &0éa. German, Witz.— English,
wit.
Vaidas, Vaidanam, knowledge. ,, dog, clderon. German, wissen.
Vaittr, knower. yw (0700. German, Weiser. — Eng-

lish, wizard.

Sanskrit root JAL to condense, to cool.

Latin, gelo. — German, kihle. — English, cool. — Russian, cholozhu.
Jalam, water, coldness. — Greek, xyicc. — Latin, gelu. — Russian,
cholod.

Jalas, Jalitas, cold, icy. — Latin, gelans, gelidus. — Gothic, kalds. —
German, kali. — English, cold.
* By a root is meant the simplest and most original form in any language or family of

languages, in which any idea or emotion can be expressed, and whence spring words relating to

the same emotion or idea.
16

 

PAD , foot.

 

Nom. and Voc. Accusative. Genitive. Locative. Dative. Ablative. Causative.
Sanskrit pad padam padas padi padai  padas pada
Greek wove ~~ 00a 1000¢ jr pede
Latin pes pedem pedis pedi
Sanskrit padas padas padam  woo:, Todsoyu
Greek.  modec moda:  woOwY 0A form
Latin pedes  pedes pedum pedibus pedibus

re ~— rem! ———
Sanskrit padau padaus padbeyiam
Greek T0068 T000LY T000LY
MA, I (me).

Nom. and Voc. Accusative. Genitive. Locative. Dative. Ablative. Causative.
Sanskrit aham md or mdm mai or mama mayi mahyam . mat maya
Greek Ey ue wou uot
Latin ego me mei mihi me, med
Gothic ik mik meina mis (compare other languages.)
Russian ia mia, menia menia mnie - mnoiu
German ich mich mein mir
Plural. Nom. vayam. Acc. asmin. — Goth. weis. — Germ. wir. — Grk. auuec,

nuete, yuos. Another Ace. nas. — Lat. nos. — Russ. (my), nas.

Dual.

Nom. avam. Ace. ndu. — Goth. wit. — Grk. vow; &e.
17

AS, to be.
Indicative.
Sanskrit  asmi asi asti smas sta santi
Greek Stl, SUL Ete, 800L ECT EOUSY . | S0TE YT
Latin = sum es est sumus estis sunt
Italian sono sel é siamo siete SONo
Spanish soy eres es SOMOS sois son
French suis es est sommes ¢tes sont
Russian iesm’ iesi iest iesmy iestie  suti
Gothic im is ist sijum sijuth sind
German  “(bin) (bist) ist sind seid sind
English am art is are are are

AP, to obtain.

Indicative.
Sanskrit  dp-ami -ayasi -ayati -ayimes  -ayat’-a -ayanti
Latin | hab-eo -es -et -emus -etis -ent
Italian ho hai ha abbiamo  avete hanno
French al as a avons avez ont
Gothic haba habais habait habam habaith haband
German habe hast hat haben habet haben
English have hast has have have have

Rajaputras, king's son.
Latin, regis puer.

Agnidévas, fire-god.
Greek, atyine Geoc. — Latin, ignis deus.
To these a hundred other equally fertile roots might be added.

* The German curiously takes its first two persons from bin, Eng. be, Lat. fio, Russ. byw

Sanskrit bhi.
3
18

 

Sanskrit k
Greek k
Latin ¢c, q
Gothic h (g)
German h
English h

i
T
2
Js
F
bo

g

2

k g

k 2
es k

ch) |. gy

 

 

 

 

* This table of comparative symbols, in which we have given the more important
Fhamads only, exhibits a physwlogical law. Climate and other natural causes have
effected the modifications of pronunciation which characterise the different dialects of
the great Aryan family. To Jacob Grimm belongs the credit of tabulating these modifi-

cations of similar utterances." ¥,

; . # i
“3 CR ar ay

é X / 0.0} w
/
19

Law.

 

6. 7

dh P|

th p

f (d, b) p

th (d) d £
(v)

f

SE
“AAAS

d 7, 55 th [t, 4) {.£
th t d

 

 

 

 

 

 

It will be seen that the letters representing sounds formed at the root of the tongue.
are placed first on our list, and those that stand for sounds formed by the lips last.

The trilling letters | and r, the dental m, and the labial m (which are sometimes
grouped as liquids), readily combine with other letters, and interchange less regularly

than these “mute” consonants.
Sanskrit
Greek
Latin
Gothic
German
English

Sanskrit
Greek
Latin
Gothic
German
English

Sanskrit
Greek
Latin
Gothic
German
English

Sanskrit
Greek
Latin
Gothic

German
English

20

kirsha
keras
cornu
haurn
horn
horn

Janu
gonu
genu
kniu
knie

knee

hjas
chthes
hes-ternus
gistra
gestern
yesterday

Ag

fanus
lenuis
dunni
dinn
thin

kas, ka, kad

kos and pos
quis, quae, quid
hvas, hvo, hva

was
what

Jati

genos
genus
kum

kind

kin, child

hari

chloe

green

sthag

stegos and Zegos

tectum
thak «¥

decke and deck

thatch
Sanskrit
Greek
Latin
Gothic
German
English

Sanskrit
Greek
Latin
Gothic
German
English

Sanskrit
Greek
Latin
Gothic

German
English

Sanskrit
Greek
Latin
Gothic
German
English

21

J.

dasan
deka
decem
faithun
zehn
fen

dwar
thura
foris
daur
thure
door

1.

purna
pleos
plenus
Sulls
voll
Jull

8.

bhratr
phrator
Jrater
brothar
bruder
brother

ad
edein
edere
fan
essen
eal

ther
Jera

dius

thier
deer

para
para
per-
Jra-
ver-

Jrom, fro

bhrag
phlego
Slagro, fla 8 Jma
bairht
percht (Old Germ.)
bright
22

Kindred Words and Borrowed Words.

It is often difficult for a student of English to decide whether a word bearing a likeness
to a Latin word of the same sense has been borrowed from the Latin or whether it is simply
a kindred word. “Grimm’s Law” will often help him to decide correctly, — as he will see upon
examining the two following sets of words; in table A the words are kindred, as the permu-
tations will show; in table B the English words are derived from the French.

English.
Halm
row and (h)rook

Lair (German Lager)

Night
Sack -
Crane

Harvest (A.-S. hearf-est)

Gall
Garden

Tear (Gothic tags)

Seven
Toe
Tame
Eel
Thou
Hide
Full
Yawn

L at 1 n.
Ebur
Rabies
Lepus
Nepos
Pauper
Brevis
Serviens
‘Acutus
Pacare
Quadratum
Ratio

A.

Latin.
Calumus
Cornix and Corvus
Lectus
Nox, noctis
Saccus
Grus
Carpo (I pluck)
Fel: — hel
Hortus
Lacrima, dacrima
Septem
Digitus
Domo
Anguilla
Tu
Cutis
Plenus
Hio

B.

-

French.
Ivoire
Rage
Lievre
Neveu
Pauvre
Bref
Sergent
Aigu
Payer
Quarré
Raison

Greek.

Kalamos
Korax
Lechos

Nux, nuktos
Sakkos

(GGeranos
Karpos
Chole

Chortos
Dakry
Hepta

Daktulos
Damao

Enchelus

Su and Tu
Skeptos
Pleos
Chaino

English.
Ivory
Rage
Leveret
Nephew
Poor
Brief
Sergeant
Ague
Pay
Square
Reason

Note 1) that where Latin words have reached us through the French, the. initial consonant is rarely altered, except that
in the older words ¢ before a becomes ck, as in chair, chien, chef, from caro, canis, caput; 2) that the tendency of French
is to shorten words by apocope* and contraction; 3) that many French words when adopted retained the Latin s which they have
now lost, as prestre (Old French), now written prétre, English priest.

* The cutting off of the last letter or syllable of a word.

A
LATIN-FRENCH

 

TABLE OF LETTER CHANGES.

The student should bear in mind that the Romance languages were not formed from Classical Latin, but grew out of the
language spoken by the Roman soldiers and colonists. The popular, or ‘‘rustic’, Latin differed considerably from the literary language
even before it came into contact with the languages it replaced.
Uhsitionion of Consonants.”

Labials

or lip-letters.
p, i b

Liquids.

         

| Dentals

 

or throat-letters.

Hard k,c’ q; ch.|

tr 8 x}.

 

lL, r.m,n

Soft b, Vv.

Nasal).

(Fr.

 

 

Palatal.
Lingual.
2 Labial.

 

1. There is no permutation (so far as
French is concerned) between the orders of con-

a Or, preferably, perhaps, Palatals, palate-letters.

b Here we might place 2, the sound of which in Latin closely
resembled f. Ph had, with the Latins, the same sound as f, the
Hebrew wvaw, which fell into disuse as a letter with the Greeks.

¢ Such details as the force of c (ch) before a (canis, chien;
catena, chaine; masticare, macher) will be noted and illustrated
in the vocabularies.

d The Sibilants, or /Aissing-letters, s, sh (Hard), z, zh (Soft)
should be distinguished from the Dentals with which they are
generally classed.

* Extracted from ‘“T'wenty Supplementary French Lessons” by the author;

or teeth-letters.

 

sonants. A Latin labial, for instance, cannot be-
come a French dental.

2. The interchange of letters of the same
order is not*a hap-hasard change. Strong Latin
consonants when modified in a French word be-
come weak, rarely the reverse. Ex. gr. ficus, figue;
tunc, donc; nepotem, neveu; saponem (Merovingian
Latin sabonem) savon.

3. The modification of a consonant depends
greatly upon its position, —initial, middle, or final.
Ex. gr., initial d is persistent; denfem, dent: mid-
dle d generally disappears; claudere, clore: final d
disappears, or is mute; fidem, foi, pedem, pied.

4. With double Latin consonants, the former
of the two undergoes change, or disappears, in
French ; subjectus, sujet; submissum, soumis ; cub(i)-
tus, coude; subl(eviare, soulever.

see advertisement at the end of this book.

Yowel-Changes.

/

Vowel changes are, naturally, less marked
than the permutations of consonants. Their care-
ful study would require a long treatise. Illustra-
tions of the following remarks will be furnished
by our vocabularies.

French retains® the Latin tonic (i. e. accen-
tuated) syllable, and loses the atonic® (i. e. un-
accentuated) syllable:

a amdrem, amour; sevérus, sévere;
aimable; finite, finer; mortdlis, mortel;
grdcilis, gréle; ménsis, mois; spica, épi.

b amare, aimer; cervus, cerf; amabidis, aima-
ble; discipulus, disciple.

An atonic Latin vowel immediately preceding
the tonic vowel disappears in French when short®),
and is retained when long").

amdbilis,

a sepdrare, sevrer; desidérare, désirer; clari-
tatem, clarté; colldcare, coucher; rotulare,
rouler.

b ornamentum, ornement.
An atonic Latin vowel separated by another

vowel from the tonic vowel, is always retained
in French:

 

positura, posture;

tum, vétement.

In the following table of vowel-changes the

vowels are arranged with regard to their com-

parative firmness; i being the most persistent,
and long vowels firmer than short ones.

sanitatem, santé; vestimen-

Latin. i

7 . filius, fils; punire, puna.

i long by position e. mittere, mettre; ; firmus, ferme.

i. . + + ©,01, possidare, posséder sitis,
soif ; pilus, poi.

u . . OU. myrus, mur; unus, un.

u long by Y position, and %.... 0,00 ‘ungula, ongle’;
nuptiae , mnoces; surdus,
sourd ; numerus, nombre;
ubi, ow.

4. ..... ...«a, oi, e atbor, grbre; va;
aile ; sal, sel.

0 and 0 . eu, oeu, o. hora, heure; mores,
moeurs; opera, OCuUvre;
pomum, pomme.

0 ony by position, and aw . . . o. fortis, fort;

claudere, clore.
29

Latin. French.
e long by position. oi, e. serus, soir ; avena, avome ;
crudelis, cruel.
ona. Lo. ocenbum, cent ferva, fervel
and oe. . e. coena, céene; poenalis, pénal.

Latin. French.
¢ long by position. ie. mel, miel; heri, hier.
ae .’. . . .. .. 1e,e. saeculum,siécle; Graecus,
grec,

La feuille.

De ta tige détachée,
Pauvre feuille desséchée,
Ou vas-tu?—Je n’en sais rien.
1’orage a frappé le chéne
(Qui était mon seul soutien;
De son inconstante haleine
Le zéphyr ou l'aquilon
Depuis ce jour me promene
De la forét a la plaine,
De la montagne au vallon.
Je vais ou le vent me mene,
Sans me plaindre ou m’effrayer;
Je vais ou va toute chose,
Ou va la feuille de rose,
Et la feuille de laurier.
ARNAULT.
La. The Latin demonstrative pronouns i-lum, -
la, il-los, il-luic (ill’huic), id-lorum, have given the
French language the so-called articles le, la,
les, lui, leur. :
Feuille. L. folia (plural of folium).
ted Latin 6 becomes in French eu, oeu:
novem, neuf; soror, soeur; volo, veux, &c.
N. B. All unaccentuated vowels, when they
terminate a Latin word, either disappear in French
or are softened into e mute. See table of vowel
changes. Latin neuter nouns are generally mascu-
line in French; most of those that become femi-
nine have, as in feuille, the final e mute.
Feuillage (foliage); feuiller (to come into leaf);
feuilleton (a fly-leaf’; also used for light composi-

The accentua-
thus

tions that appear in French newspapers). See
par, 11.
De. L. de. The Latin prepositions preserved in |

French are ad, a; inter, entre;
tre; ultra, outre; per, par; pro, O. F. por, pour;
sine, sans ; versus, vers; super, O.F. sour, sur. Ab,
cs, ex, ergo, ob, prae, propter have disappeared.
Ta. L. Tam from tuam. |
dropped to avoid an hiatus. The final m we shall
often see fall ; this occurred in popular Latin.
Tige. 1.. tibia, the bia changing into bja, by what

in, en; contra con- |
: Tu 1. tu.

The u of ua and wu is often |

 

is called consonification of the i. With the Romans,
the i and j had originally but one sound, and in
the confusion of the two letters i has, in certain
cases, thereby become j or the soft g; thus jour,
singe &c., from djurnus and simja.

Détacher. From de and tacher. Tacher appears to be
a Teutonic word, akin to the English tack, and take.

Détachement *

Pauvre. L. paupér(us). Pauvre like other French
adjectives derived from the few Latin adjectives
in er, a, um, has one termination in French ; as-
per, apre; dexter, dextre ; liber, libre. In like man-
ner adjectives in er, is, e, are, in French, adjec-
tives of one termination: acer, aigre ; celebris, cé-
lebre ; campestris, champétre. This word is a good
illustration of the contraction by which the atonic
(unaccentuated) vowel is dropped, and of the soft-
ening of the labial p into wv.

Compare, leporem, lievre ; aperire, ouvrir ; pipur,
poivre; separare, sevrer; also, ripa, rive: cupa,
cuve ; lupa, louve ; &c,—Pauvresse, appauvrir &c.

Dessécher. L. de and siccare. Note the change of
the atonic Lat. I and e, and of the Lat. ec into
French ch. Compare divinus, devin; primarium,
premier; diluvium, déluge : also bucea, bouche; bec-
ca, béche: peccatum, péché.

Desséchement.

Ou. L. ubi; the medial b suffers syncope, as in ayant,

from Aabentem, and the u becomes ou as in loup
from lupus; coucou from cuculus; &c.

Vas. Second person singular of aller. The French

verb aller has borrowed its tenses from three
Latin verbs, vadere, ire, anare (from adnare) ; thus
(je) vais, (tu) vas, (il) va, is the Latin vado, vadis,
vadit.

Je. Lat. ego. O.F. eo, io, and by the thirteenth cent-
ury jo. The medial g suffers syncope both when
it precedes and when it follows the accentuated
vowel : as in regina, reine ; castigare, chitier ; neg-

* The meaning of derivatives is not given where the word is
familiar, or its sense obvious.
1
26

are, nier; and in regem, roi; plaga, plaie; legem,
loi. So that the j in je does not replace the g of
ego, but the i of io (as the word was written in
the ninth century), which became consonified.
See tige.

Allée, (passage, alley). :

N’. (ne). L. non. O.F. nen. For the softening of the
o to e see je, above; the n was thrown off the

nen as in ta (p. 25).

En. L. inde, supplying the place of a genitive pro-
noun. In the Low Latin of the period of the Mero-
vingian kings (beginning of the fifth to the mid-
dle of the eighth century) inde is commonly used
for ex illo. Inde became int, then ent, and en.

Sais. Second pers. sing. of savoir. L. sapere. Sapére
became sapére then sapire by the change of e into
i (as in florere, fleurir ; cere, cire; ecclesia, église):
and sapire by the change of p to v as in pauper,
pauvre.

Savoir-faire (untranslatable; cleverness, a ready
knowledge how to act); savoir-vivre (good-breed-
ing, a knowing what “good” society requires).

Rien. L. rem. The Latin accusative, the most famil-
iar case, eventually became in French the one
case for each number. This should be borne in
mind in looking for the Latin etymon of a French
noun. The e becomes ie, as in bene, bien ; petra,
pierre; tertius, tiers: the m had already often
become n in Latin, quen, tan, ren, being often
found for quem, tam, rem. The change of m ton
occurs in the beginning, the middle, and the end
of words : mappa, nappe ; somniuin, songe; suum,
son ; &c.— Used both as a subs. and an adv.

Orage. l.. aura, auratica. O represents the rustic
pronunciation of the Lat. diphthong au, and was,
hence, naturally carried into French, which was,
as we have seen, derived from popular, not
from classical, Latin. Sometimes also the au be-
comes ou. Causa, chose; auricula, oreille; aut,
ou; caulis, chou; &c. Further, the aticum be-
comes age by the fall of the medial t; as dotare,
douer ; catena, chaine &c. The Latin suffix aticum
became very common in the popular Latin of the
sixth and seventh centuries; and in passing into
French was contracted from atcum to atge and
atlast to age. Carnaticum, carnage; hominaticum,
homage; viaticum, voyage, &c.

Orageux, Adj.

A. 1. habere. The Lat. h suffers syncope (as it has
a tendency to do in English!), as in hordjums,

 

orge ; homo, on; horridus, ordure,&c.: the b (which
even in Latin we find interchanging with v) sof-
tens to v, as in faba, feve; hibernum, hiver ; ta-
berna, taverne ; and e becomes oi, as in me, moi;
dolere, douloir ; se, soi.

It does not come within the limits of these vo-
cabularies to study the connexion of the French
conjugation with the Latin. It will be seen at a
glance that many Latin inflections have been
quite lost, and that others have reached the last
stage of phonetic decay. The remark made upon
interchange and syncope of letters in these voca-
bularies will it is hoped, stimulate the student to
a more complete examination of the structure of
the language.

Frapper. One of the four or five hundred words that
form the Germanic element of the French vocabu-
lary. Of these, some were introduced by barbar-
1an Roman soldiers, some were war terms intro-
duced by the Frankish, Gothic and Burgundian
invaders, and a great number were imported by
the Normans in the tenth century. Frapper is akin
to the English rap.— Frappé (struck; powerful;
iced, of liquids).

Chéne. Lat. casnus- (from quercinus, by the change
of re (=rs) into 8, as in dorsus (or dossus), dos;
persica, péche. The qu appears as ¢ in the Latin
of the Empire, and appears in French both as
the hard and the soft ¢: as in quare, car; quad-
ratus, carré; qunque, €inq; quisque, chacun.

Qui. L. qui.

Seul. L. solus. (For o into eu see feuille.)

Etre. L. esse (essere). Etre in O.F. is written estre.
In order to examine the phonetic decay of the
Latin inflections it would be necessary to com-
pare the three dialects of the langue d’Oil (Bur-
gundian, Picardian, Norman) with the Latin and
Modern French Forms.

The ending ais (était) of the imperfect tense
superseded the ois mainly through its adoption
by Voltaire, and was hence commonly the Vol-
tarian orthography. Long before his time, how-
ever, it was urged that the spelling of this termi-
nation should correspond with its pronunciation.
The change was extended to verbs in oifre and
their derivatives; connaitre, connaissance; faibler;
raider ; raide, raideur: also to some adjectives in
ois; Anglais, Francais, &c.

Mon. L. meum. (For m into n, see rien, p. 26.)

+ Indicates a Rustic-Latin or an obsolete word.
27

The Lat. plur. meos, meas, gives mes. O.F. had
mis (meus) ma (mea) for the singular subjective,
and mi (mei) me (meae) for the plural. The same
formula applies to ton, ta, tes: son, sa, ses.

Soutien. From soutenir, anciently written
soustenir. L. sustinere. (For u into ou see orage,
p- 26, and for e into i see sais, p. 26.)

Inconstante. L. inconstantem.

Haleine. Y¥rom the old verb alener, from aneler,
L. anhelare. Note the addition of h (as in haut
from altus; huit, octo; huile, oleum), the trans-
position of the liquids 1, n, and the change of e
into ei before n. Thus, vena, veine; plenum,
plein; serenus, serein.

Zéphyr. L. zephirus.

Ou. L. aut. (For the change of au to ou see orage
p- 26.) The dental t is thrown off, as in acutus,
aigu; virtutem, vertu; abbatem, abbé. Note that the
Lat. t became d before it was dropped, a change
that sometimes took place even in classical Latin,
as in quadraginta, quadratus, from quatuor.

Aquilon. L. aquilonem.

Depuis. 1. de and post. For the fall of the t see
ou (above). O has changed into ui, as in coctus,
cuit ; noctem, nuit; octo, huit.

Ce. 1. ecce hoc. Note the loss of the h and of the
final e¢, and the softening of the hard ce into ¢
(ecce-0, ecco, ico, co, ci, ce).

Jour. L. diurnus. See tige (p. 25).

Journal (from L. diurnale).

Me. L. me.

Promener. 1. prominare; for i into e see sais (p.26).

Promenade, promeneur. S.

Forét. L. forestis-, O.F. forest. In the Carloving-
lan texts ™* forestis- is the unenclosed wood (as
opposed to parcus), from foris (outside).

A. L. ad. The d was already dropped in 1. L.

Plaine. I. planus. .

Montagne. 1. montanea, from montem. 1.. ni and
né become gn before a vowel. Vinea, vigne:
Imea, ligne ; catenionem, chignon.

Montagnard, 8. Montagneux, Adj.

Au. The French articles reproduce the Lat. pro-
noun lle, illa, declined with de or a (ad). In au,
O.F. al, we see a le contracted by vocalisation of 1.

* The addition of a letter
at the beginning of a word is called prosthesis
intheawddle. . .x... . 0. epenthesis
at thetend,. . LL. L000 epithesis.
** The Carlovingian dynasty lasted from the middle of the
eighth until towards the close of the tenth century.

 

Vallon. L. vallis.

Vent. L. ventus.

Venter (to blow, said of the wind, “il vente”); ven-
teux (windy); éventer (to fan, to air); éventail
(a fan); contrevent (outside-shutter); paravent
(screen).

Mener. L. minare. (For i into e see sais p. 26.)

Sans. (O.F. sens.) L. sine. (For i into e see sais.)

Plaindre. L. plangere; hence plang’re, plan’re. Note
in French the frequent intercalation of a new let-
ter between two liquids : pon(e)re, pondu; min(o)r,
moindre; Aum(i)lis, humble ; num e)rus, nombre;
spim(u)la, épingle.

Plainte, S. .

Effrayer. L. ex-fiigidare| (ex, frigidus). The short
i disappears before the tonic a; and gd becomes
reduced to d (as in frigida, froide; Magdalena,
Maude); x, becomes 8, O.F. esferoyer; and by
the fall of the s, effroyer.

Effroi, S.; effroyable, adj. Both are derived from
the old form effroyer.

Tout. L. fotus. The oin Latin becomes ou (except
when it precedes » or m as non, non; pomum,
pomme; corona, couronne).

Chose. IL. causa (a cause); which in later Latinity
came to mean res. This word chose furnishes
an opportunity of remarking that where (as here
chose, causa) pairs of words derived from the
same Latin root occur, the word of recent intro-
duction will generally have suffered comparatively
little change of form :

Calculus. Caillou. Calcul.
Caput. Chef. Cap.
Causa. ‘hose. Cause.
Decimare. Dimer. Décimer.
Isara. Oise. Isere.
Romanus. Romain. Roman.
Ligare. Lier. Liguer.
Potionem. Poison. Potion.
Rigidus. Roide. Rigide.
Strictus. Etroit. Strict.
Bt. Lat. ot.

Laurier. L. lauwrariust, from lauwrus. The a in Latin
becomes ai before the liquids /, m, n, when they
are followed by a vowel, and e before the other
simple consonants: in some words, as in laurier,
a becomes ie, the i helping to represent the diph-
thong of the etymon: thus gravis, grief; canis.
chien ; pietatem, pitié.
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