FOOD HABITS AND NUTRIENT INTAKES
IN A SIAMESE RICE VILLAGE

Studies in Bang Chan, 1952-1954

HAZEL M. HAUCK, SAOVANEE SUDSANEH and JANE R. HANKS

with the assistance of Anusith Rajatasilpin,
Sapha Indrasud, Mary B. Campbell and Dana Thorangkul

CORNELL THAILAND PROJECT
* INTERIM REPORTS SERIES
NUMBER FOUR

 

 

DATA PAPER: NUMBER 29

SOUTHEAST ASIA PROGRAM

DEPARTMENT OF FAR EASTERN STUDIES

CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, NEW YORK

PRICE ONE DOLLAR MAY 1958

 
 

FOOD HABITS AND NUTRIENT INTAKES
IN A STAMESE RICE VILIAGE
STUDIES IN BANG CHAN, 1952-1954

Hazel Hane, Saovance Sudsaneh and Jane R., Hanks
with the assistance of
Anusith Rajatasilpin, Sapha Ingrasud,

Mary Be. Campbell and Dana Thorangkul

Cornell Thailand Project
Interim Reports Series

Number Four

Data Paper: Number 29
Southeast Asia Program
Department of Far Eastern Studies
Cornell Unlversity, Ithaca, New York

1958

Price One Dollar
PUBLIC HEALTH LIB.

THE CORNELL UNIVERSITY SOUTHEAST ASIA PROGRAM

The Southeast Asia Program was organized at
cornell Uriversity in the Department of Far Eastern
Studies in 1950. It is a teaching and research pro-
gram of interdiscipliinary studies in the humanities,
social sciences and some natural sciences. It deals
with Southeast Asia as a region, and with the in-
dividual countries of the area: Burma, Caabodia,
indonesia, Laos, Malaya, the Philippines, Thailand,
and Vietnam

The activities of the Program are carried on
both at COTRELL and in Southeast Asia. They include
an un@ergjreduate and graduate curriculum at Cornell
which provides ins“yuction by specizlists in South-
east Asian cultural history and present-day affairs
and offers i training in cach o# the major
languages of the area. The Program Sponsors group
research prcjects on Thailand, on Indonesia, on the
Philippines, and on the area's Chinese minorities.
At the same tine, ShaLviduat staff and students of
the Progran nave done field search in cvery 3ocuth-
east Asia country. stud; centers are maintained in
3angkok and Djakarta in addition to special library
and other resszurch facilities at Cornell.

A list of Program staff and publications is
given at the endl cf this volume. Information on cur-
rent course cifering., fellcwships, and requirements
for degrees will ka :icund in an Announcement of the
Department of Fer E=stern Studies obtainable from

the Director, Souticast Asia Program, Morrill Hall,
Cornell University, Ithaca, New Ycrk.

 

 

 

ii
7X 360

TH HZ
FOREWORD i

The research sector of the Cornell Thailand Project
concerned with health, sanitation, nutritional status, and
diet has been directed since 1950 by the senior author of
this paper, Dr, Hazel M. liauck, Professor of Food and Nutri-
tion in the New York State College of Home Fconomics, Cornell
University, In this report, she and two of her colleagues
present come of the results of a field research project de=-
signed by her and carried out by the authors among the rice
farmers of the village of Bang Chan in the central plain of
Thailand during 1952, 1953, and 195%, Professor Hauck's
account of otlier aspects of this field investigation was
issued in 1956 as Data Paper Number 22 of the Cornell Univer-
sity Southeast Asia Program under the title, Aspects of
Health, Sanitation and Nutritional Status in a Siamese Rice
Village. Since 1940, Thal and Americans have been working
in the Bang Chan farming community to define some of the
problems involved in changing peasant cultural behavior, in-
cluding health and food habits.

While in the field in 1952-53, Professor Hauck began
the arduous task of systematically collecting detailed data
on the diets of a carefully selected sample of Bang Chan
villagers. This work was continued during 1953-54 by Miss
Saovanee Sudsaneh, the junior author of this report, Her
assignment was a demanding one, for once begun there could be
lit :le deviation from an established schedule designed to
cover diurnal and annual cycles in the preparation and con-
sumption of food. Miss Saovanee together with a suitable
companion had to sleep in the village, rise before dawn, and
proceed during the dry season by foot, and by boat during the
longer wet season to the homes selected for study. Some of
these households were situated two or three miles from the
Project's village headquarters. Only one could be visited in
a day. All homes had to be reached well before pre-daylight
breakfast preparations were begun so that equipment could be
readied and preliminary observations made. After a year of
this dawn to dusk visiting, Miss Saovanee retired to a more
normal daily round of post-graduate study in nutrition at
Cornell, where she received her M.S, degree in 1956, and at
Harvard, where she 1s a candidate for the doctorate. She
plans to return to Thailand to teach and do research in nutri-
tion at Kasetsart University,

The necessary companionship for Miss Saovanee during
her field work in Bang Chan, a companionship involving, of
course, the same rigorous and taxing schedule, was cheerfully
provided by Dr. Jane Richardson Hanks of Bennington College,
the third collaborator in the preparation of this report. Dr.
Hanks has worked with the Cornell Thailand Project since early

517

iis
1953 as Research Associate in Cultural Anthropology. Her re-
search in the field during 1953-54 and subsequently in the
United States, which has been primarily concerned with various
aspects of Thai family behavior, has enabled her to contribute
valuable data and insights to the present report.

Lauriston Sharp, Director
Cornell Thailand Project

Cornell Research Center

Bangkok, Thailand
November, 1957

iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

For the period of her field study, 1952-53, one of us
(HM.H.) received an award for advanced research from the
United States Educational (Fulbright) Foundation in Thailand.
Another (S.S.), who was field worker with the Cornell Thai=-
land Project during 1953-54, was enabled to come to the
United States for graduate study through a travel grant from
the same Foundation. She held an assistantship in the South-
east Asia Program at Cornell University 1954-55, and the Anna
Cora Smith Scholarship for Research in Home Economics, 1955-
20

To thelr co-workers in the field, Dr. Anusith Rajata~
silpin and Miss Sapha Indrasud whose services in connection
with the medical inspection were provided by the Food and
Drug Administration, Bangkok, through the courtesy of its
director, Dr. Yong H. Chutima, the authors express their
appreciation,

Most helpful information concerning techniques which
might be used in carrying out dietary studies was provided by
Miss M., W. Grant of the Applied Nutrition Unit, London School
of Tropical Medicine. Dr. Amara Chandrapanond suggested
adaptations suitable to the local situation,

The transcription of Thai terms was checked by Mr,
Marviii Brown. Dr. I. J, Dress assistec by checking the
scientific names of food plants for which the authors had
previously obtained identification. Many minor points were
cleared up by discussion with Thai students in this country.
The help of all these persons 1s gratefully acknowledged.

Most of all, the authors are indebted to the people of
Bang Chan: to all who patiently answered their questions, to
Khruu Sawad Sangtong and Khruu Yod Nakon who obtained diet
records from children in the third and fourth grades, and
especially to the members of the eleven households that
participated in the quantitative dietary study. These people
not only cooperated generously, but accepted us as friends,
For their kindly assistance the authors are deeply grateful.
CONTENTS

Page

BUIMBTY + + « « 2 5 ¢ « « 5 2 5 + so 3 5 6 8 3 35 5 0 0 ¢ + 1
Introduction + o « o 5 o os o « o o o ¢ + oo + 8 0 os
The Community . . © os + 4 es oe eo 5 6 + eu . ss se 5 0
Location, Climate, Transportation . « « « + 2 o « o
Home Sitcs and HOUSES 4 o so o o os 5 6 s 0 s o so s o
General ArrangCimCnt + « « o« 2 o o © + + 0 0 + 0 +

The Kitchen Arca . ° . ° . ° ° e ° 2 e 2 2 ° ° . o

General Social Factors Affecting Nutritional Level .

\O ~3 oN w wo w

The Buddhist Priesthood .« + ¢ ¢ ¢ ¢ 5 ¢ ¢ oo o 0 so oo
Seasonal Activities . ° ° . ° ° ° . ° ° . . ° . ° ° ° 11
General Description of Family Fare in Bang Chan + + «+ « « 15

Sources OF F008 + + o 5 + « 5 % » » « 8 2 & 5 ¢« » » » 13
Home Prcducticn, Storage and Freservation . . + + + 15

h. “C8 ° © . . 2 ° . ° ° ° ° ° ° ° . ° ° 15

lesh Foods Other than Fish « vw » « » o + « 16

4 sh ° oo - ° ° . . . ° . ° ° ° ° ° . ° ° . ° . 17

peas © ¢ ° ° ° 0 ° ° . . © ° . ° ° ° . . . . 19
Vegetables and Fruit 3 >» » » # a « » » wu 20

Foods Purchased and Cash Expenditures for Food . . 21

Bale of Home Produced F088 « 4 6 2 o + + 5 3 0 35 + » 25
Annus Calendar of Foods Commonly Used » o o o o o « o 25

Meal Proparaticn and Service ¢ « o o o +o « os so oo o 31
Procasces and Dauinment ° a ° ° ° a - © ° ° ° ° e © 31

Persons Fcaponsiblz for Food Preparation + +» » 31
Meal Poy Le ne and Preparation of Typical Thai
D3.a: 16 : < ° a © ° e ° 3 ° o ° o on . . ° ° ° . ° 32

Meal Service anc Te hnaiques of Bating « « « « + « + 35
Symes rE ET EE EE EE EE EE EEE EEE
Comments on Foods Eaten by School Children + « o o « o 37
Family Food Shared With OLRGTS « « o o » oo o + « « » 40
Attitudes Toward FOOA « o o o o o so o o o « o oo o o o 142

Food in Connection with Festivitics and Ceremonies o « + 47

vii
CONTENTS (cont.)

Quantitative Dietary Study: Foods Eaten and Estimated

Nutrient Intake of Selected Families in Bang Chan .

Procedure . . Cb BG. .% Bb mB 4 BE»
Selection of the "sample ’ * + 4 s+ ee
Estimation of Caloric and Nutrient "Allowances .
Method of Collecting Data « «+ oe

Calculation of Nutritive Value of the Diets >

Results and Discussion « . “ow ww . .

Socio-economic Situation of the Two Groups of
Households Studied . « « ¢ ¢ o ¢ o +
General Socio-economic Conditions

Cash Expenditures for Food . «

Home Production of Food .

Rice ° © ° . . .

ruits and Vegetables

Eggs and poultry .

Fi sh ° ° 0 ° .
Preservation of Foods at Ho
Dried Fish + «+
Fermented Fish ,

Shrimp Paste

FishSoY « o ss
Buffalo Meat +
Comparison of Caloric and Nutrient Intakes 0

Two Groups With Each Other and With the

Estimated Allowances « « ¢ o o ¢ 0 o so o o
Contribution of Food Groups and Certain Common
Foods to the Nutritive Values of tne Diets .
Contribution of Food Groups and Individual
Foods o ° ° o . a ° * 0 . ° ° . .
Rice and Other Cereals s 5 5 &
Animal Products Other than Pork Fa

ee ®e ® 3 ® 8 °° © e ° *

eo eo eo 2 Se e © ®
oO

ee © =
e © © 8 © © ® © ee ® oo & °

cte © © © © © @ oo 9 eo © © oo

=

f

Vegetables o
Fr uit ° 0 9
Fats and 0ils

Aan
Sugar 6° «

Spice S v J . ° ? °
Alcoholic Beverages + « o
Summary of Nutrient Contributions of Foods

® eo es
e oe ©® oo © @ te

eo - ° ° .

Me « 5 0 © © @ » % ©o» © e es ©

Commonly Eaten in Two Groups of Households

Contribution of Snacks to the Nutrient
Content of Diets o « « o a 2 o o o o o¢

viii

Page
CONTENTS (cont,)

Results and Discussion (cont.)

Seasonal Variation in Food Preparation, Meal
Pantornds Food Costs and Calcrie and
Nutrient Value of Foods Eaten . « « o so

Number of Meals Prepared « » o o ¢ o
Time for Mzal Preparation and Number of
Dishes Prepared + o + os os o « o o o
Cost of Food Purchased « . . . s ov

Caloric and Nutrient Value of Food Faten

Some Recommendations for Improvement of Diet and
Nutriture Among Residents of Bang Chan + « «

References Cited  o 6 o o o 6 o os o o s a os o

Sources of Nutrient Values for Foods Used in Bang Chan.

APPENDIX A

Degoription of the Ri pohen and Some Woves oa Foag

Description of Food Preparation Arca in a Relatively

Poor Household = a o eo o sa o oo ¢ o ¢ oo o o o o
Notes on Meal Service « « o os o o o os 2 o o os o
Equipment Used for Food Preparation « « o« o o o
Equipment Used in Serving Food and Fating « « «

Examples of Notes on Food ZFaten by Individuals

Examples of Diet Records Submitted by School Children

Notes on Tilapia Culture in Bang Chan « « + « o
Notes on Mushroom Culture in Bang Chan + «+ « +

Food for Homage-to-the~Teacher Rite Performed by a
Buddhist Priest Who Was a Traditional Practioner

ix

°

Page

77
77

72

79
79

81
89
92

93

ok
95
96
96
$7
98
101
101

102
CONTENTS (cont.)

APPENDIX B

Table 16. Estimated Dietary Allowances for Residents
0 T Bang Chan . ° . . ° . . ° ° ° . . o . °

Table 17, Estimated Dietary Allowances for Persons in
Two Groups of Households Participating in
the Dietary Study, Bang Chan, 1953-54 . .

Table 18, Average per Capita Dietary Allowances for
Persons in Two Groups of Households
Participating in the Dietary Study, by
Found and for the Year, Bang Chan, 1953-54

APPENDIX C

Guides Prepared for the Observer Vho Carried Out the
Dietary Study ° . ° . . ° ” °o - . ° e ° ° . ° c . o o

Preliminary Visit to Participating Households . « «

Dietary Survey Proper: General Procedures With
Alternative Suggestions +
Twenty-four Hour Period .
Number of Visite « o «
Scheduling of Visits .

° . ° 2 © ° °

« ® ®
-« oo

« © eo ©
- ° - °
° ° .o e

Directions for Use of Schedule 8 on Vhich Data
Obtained During the Dictery Study are to be

Recorded + » « os o 6 o 5 o os o os 0 so o os o so oo a @
Schedule for Dietary StudlesS «+ o os « ¢ ¢ o oo o so o + o
Form for Calculating Raw Weights of Foods Daten +. + «
Nutritive Value of Total Foods Eaten in 24 Hours . . .

Foods for Which Values Were Obtained from Miscellaneous
Sources, or Imputed by the Authors . . + « « « a o

Foods for Which Nutritive Values Were Not Calculated
and the Total Amounts Eaten by Two Groups of House-
holds Throughout the Study «+ « o « ¢ + o o oo os o os

List of Foods Included in Each Food Group (with some
scientific names) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ° .

Notes on the Preparation and Nutritive Value of
Coconut Milk and Coconut Cream « o o o o o oo o 0 5 »

X

Page

10k

105

108

109
109

110
110
110
111

111
116
121
122

124

125

126

128
 

LIST OF CHARTS AND TABLES IN TEXT

Chart No. Page
1. Saasonal Cycle - Bang Chan, Thailand,
1053mbl 4 4 4 4 ee es 6 se as se ee 12
2 Araual Calendar of Fresh Foods Commonly Used
in Rang Chan ° E) 2 ° . . ° . ° LJ < ° . ° Q 26
Table No,
1, Mean Annual Consumption and Cost of Purchased

Foods, for 106 Households in Bang Chan,
1953 © © . ° ° L] © ° ° o ° . eo . ° © ? ° °o 22

Zs Division of Food Erpenditures by Food Groups,
for Eleven Families tnat Participated in
the Dietary Study, 1953=-5% + & 4 &¢ o o o 23

3 Number and Percentage of Children Who Ate
S:iacks and Who Missed Tunch, Arranged by
Montns in hich Records Vere Obtained . . 37

L, Frequency of Occurrence of Various Food Groups
in the Daily Diet of 147 School Children in
Bang Chan . ® . ° ° . ° ° 6 - . ° ° ° ° ° ° 39

iP Diet Classification for 75 School Children in
Bang Chan, and Percentage of Children With
Fach Diet Classification Who Missed Lunch . 40

6. Persons in the Two Groups of Families in the
Dietary Survey, Matched According to Age
and Sex, So Far As Possible + o o o o o « 56

7. Order and Dates of Visits to Houscholds
Participating in the Dietary Study . « + 58

8. Summary of Economic Conditions of the Two
Groups of Households Participating in
Dietary B0ulY » «  » o « 5 o o 5 % 5 6 » » 62

9. Use of Heome-milled and Polished Rice by
Households Participating in the Dietary
Study . . - < . . ° . ° . ° . . . ° . ° . * 65

10, List of Edible Plants Grown by the Two Groups
of Households Studied + « » o o o » s o o 66

xi
 

Table No,
11.

12.

13.

1k,

15.

LIST OF CHARTS AND TABLES IN TEXT (cont.)

Page

Comparison of Calories and Nutrients Avail-
able to Groups A and B, With Each Other
and With the Estimated Allowances « « « » 68

Percentage of Total Caloric and Nutrient
Intakes Provided by Each Food Group « « « o» 71

Contributions in Terms of Calories and
Nutrients of Selected Foods Commonly Eaten
Ly Groups A and B 2 + 4 5 5 2 » & & vs » + # 75

Summary Concerning Meal Preparation, by Rounds
for Two Groups of Households Studied + + » 78

Seasonal Variation in the Average per Capita

Intake per Day of Calories and Nutrients, by
Two Groups of Households + ¢ « o o o o o » 80

xii
SUMMARY

A general description is given of conditions in a
Siamese rice village, 1952-54%, as they relate to food supply
and food habits. Activities at various seasons of tne year
are described, The heavy work scasons occurred during trans-
planting and harvest. In the dry season, many cercmonials
and festivals were held in which food played an Important
role. Such occasions provided opportunity to "make merit"
and add to onc's prestige as did the regular offering of
food to thc priests, throughout the ycar. The relatively
large financial obligations undertaken by those sponsoring
ceremonies was a major factor in the economy of the village,

Food was mostly home produced and an important factor
in the standard of living was the number of productive hands
available, Rice was the first essential for any real, Home
milled rice was used, even in part, only by a mincrity of
households, Tish, fresh or preserved, was the food next in
importance to rice, Use of flesh foods other than fish was
probably inhibited by Buddhist tenets which prohibit the tak-
ing of life, but some poultry, oxen, and other flesh foods
were used. Nearly all of the familles in Dang Chan raised
chickens, ard some raised ducks, but about 3/5 of all eggs
produced were sold. DIvery family had come sort of kitchen
garden, including banana trees and other pisnts, but spices
and chili were much more commonly grown than vegetables and
fruit. Swamp cabbage, the green leafy vegetable used most
often, grew wild in the canals. A calendar of fresh foods
commonly used in Bang Chan is prescentcd.,

Cash cxpenditurcs for food werc small, When canals
were navigable, boat venders brought produce and during the
busy work scasons farmers often bought fish as well as the
usual foods: onions, garlic, limes, coconut, palm sugar and
small amounts of vegetables.

Many households increased their income by the sale of
eggs, vegetables gathered from the canal and other items,
Culture of tilapia and mushrooms, begun during the period of
study, was undertaken by a considerable number of farmers be-
tween 1953 and 1955, Both enterprises were apparently regard-
ed primarily as a supplementary source of cash rather than
as a means of improving the home food supply, and both
efforts had been largely if not entircly abandoned by 1957.

Preparation of some typical dishes, mcal service and
techniques of cating are described. Yor adults, two meals a
day were usual, except during the busy work seasons when a
third meal might be caten, Menus werc similar for all, Two
observations from records of school children were 1) that
over 90% of them ate snacks, many of which were bought from
venders on the school grounds, Sweets and fruit were the

x
2

items most commonly eaten. Fruits were seldom eaten except as
snacks.

The customary beverage with meals was untreated water.
Rain water was preferred for drinking, but for 3 or 4 months
of the year, water from the canal or fish pond was used.

Attitudes toward food, and foods considered appropriate
for the very young, the old, for the pregnant or nursing woman
and for use during illness, are briefly discussed.

Quantitative food intake for 11 families was recorded
on a total of 44% survey days distributed throughout the year.
Two groups of families, in which individuals were matched so
far as possible as to age and sex, were selected on the basis
of apparent difference in nutriture. The sample was not strat-
ified with respect to cconomic conditions, but those in Group
B, chosen for apparcntly better nutriture proved to be, in
general, more prosperous than those in Group A, chosen because
of signs of poor nutrition,

Food values ucre calculated on the basis of published
analyses. Conservative nutrient allowances were cstimated for
residents of Bang Chan, On the average, calories, protein,
iron, niacin and ascerbic acid in the diets of persons in Group
B approximated or czceeded these allowances, For Group A, this
was true for niacin and ascorbic acid only. Average intakes
of riboflavin were estimated to be about 1/3 or less of the
allowances, and estimates of calcium intake were about 20% of
the allowance for Group A and 30% of that for Group B. Vita-
min A values of diets for both groups appcared to bc low, and
thiamine intakes marginal or low, The signs observed among
persons in these familics were generally thosc assoclated with
low intakes of thiamine, riboflavin and vitamin A,

Rice contributed about 4/5 of the calories and over half
the protein in diets of bota groups. Animal foods, chiefly
fish, furnished about 2/5 of the protein. Intake of fats and
sugar was small. Snacks of fruit contributed about 1/6 of the
total ascorbic acid for Group A, and about 1/9 for Group B.

Seasonal variations in food preparation, meal patterns,
food costs and caloric aad nutrient values of foods eaten are
discussed. Higher caloric intake during hcavy work seasons
was largely accounted for by larger amounts of rice eaten.
The highest intake of protein for both groups occurred in the
post-harvest season, when fish ponds were drained.

Questions for further study are proposed, and possible
approaches to improving food habits and nutritional status in
Bang Chan are suggested.
 ——. ————_

\

This study of food habits and nutrient intakes in a
Siamese rice village was undertaken in connection with the
Cornell Thailand Project. The project is one of several
under the auspices of the Department of Sociology and Anthro-
pology, which are focused on the process of cultural change
in non-industrialized societies, Dietary studies designed to
contribute to a base-line description of the community were
carried out from September, 1952 through May, 195%. Local
headquarters, where members of the research group kept equip-
ment, and could stay overnight, were maintained in the village.

The observations to be reported fall into two general
categories: 1) descriptive information concerning many
aspects of the food situation in Bang Chan and 2) quantita-
tive information on food intake, and its estimated nutrient
value, for 11 selected families, Qualitative information on
food in Bang Chan was obtained from several sources: 1) field
notes made by various members of tlie Cornell research group,
2) structured interviews with mothers about their own food,
and that of small children in the family, 3) records of food
eaten during 24-hour pericds, submitied by children in the
third and fourth gradss of the elementary school as homework
for the health class, and 4) weighed dietary studies carried
out in 11 selected households. Quantitative information on
food intakes was obtained from the lattsr source only. Most
of the data to be presented were obtained between September
1952 and June 1954, but supplementary information was obtained
from a diary for 1955, kept by a school teacher at the request
of the research group, a study of innovations made by Ralls
in May 1955 (Goldsen and Ralis, 1957) and information pro-
vided at our request by members of the Cornell research group
who were in Thailand in the summer of 1957.

A general account of the economic, political and social
organization of Bang Chan in 1948-19, together with some
material on health and diet was given in the first interim
report issued on the Thailand Project (Sharp et al., 1953),
The second interim report concerncd aspects of health, sani-
tation and nutritional status in Bang Chan in 1952-54 (Hauck,
1956), and the third was a report on factors related to
acceptance of innovations (Goldsen and Ralis, 1957).

THE COMMUNITY
Location, Climate, Transportation

Bang Chan is situated in the rice-producing area of
central Thailand, about twenty miles by road northeast of
L

Bangkok. The tropical monsoon climate divides the year into
three seasons, a hot,wet season from late May to November, a
cooler, dry season from December to early February, and a hot,
dry season from late February to mid-May. The community,
scattered over an area of approximately five square miles, was
composed of seven neighboring hamlets. In 1954, the population
was approximately 1700, divided among 336 households, About

60 per cent of the households were made up of independent fam-
ilies, parents with unmarried children, with an average family
size of 5.7 persons. The main occupation of 80 per cent of all
families was rice farming.

The climate together with the overflowing Chao Phraya
river, provided natural conditions for raising a single crop
of wet rice. From May or June to February, the principal activ-
ities were those connected with rice production, This crop
greatly exceeded the needs for local consumption as human food,
feed, and seed, The surplus of rice which was sold, was esti-
mated for 1953 as 1.4% times the amount used for all purposes
within the village (Janlekha, 1955).

Wat Bang Chan, the Buddhist monastery and place for re-
ligious exercises, was also the center of social life in the
community. When data for this study were being gathered, the
one primary school in the village was located on the grounds
of the wat, The community was defined simply by the clientele
which patronized Vat Bang Chan and this elementary school,
Within the area of the community lived a small mincrity of Thal
Moslems who patronized a mosque and school just outside Bang
Chan, The few Chinese in the village were considered as part
of the Thai-Buddhist community. Information to be presented
on food habits refers primarily to habits of the Buddhist major-
ity, although some reference will be made to ways in which
Moslem practices differed therefrom.

Although for six or mors months of the year the fields
were covered with water, sometimes to a depth of a meter or
more, a year-round road, connecting Bangkok and Minburi, the
nearest market town, ran through one edge of the village, Bus
service was available along this road, to either Bangxok or
Minburi but withir the community one went by boat on the net-
work of canals during the wet season, and during the dry season,
on foot along the dikes or across filelds., From late January
through May, when subsidiary canals were apt to be dry, getting
about was somewhat difficult, Boat travel was considered easy,
but as many families had caly one boat, a trip to the store or
even to a neighbor's home had to be planned with reference to
the activities of other family members.

Large scale purchases, as for a ceremony, were always
made at a big market, but in general, instead of people going
to the market-town, the "market" came to the people. Boat-
venders brought not only fresh produce and staples but also
sweets, ices, soft drinks, and cooked foods such as Chinese
voodles. Their prices were higher than in Minburi or Bang-
kok, but their service was such a convenience that many people
rarely went to town. Some adults in Bang Chan had never been
to Bangkok though almost all had visited Minturi, about 3
miles from the temple. Venders often extended credit, and
also accepted items such as fresh fish, fruit, and eggs on a
barter basis, thus providing an outlet for small amounts of
home products, When the subsidiary canals were cry, however,
venders could not get to some parts of the village.

Home Sites and Houses

General Arrangement

 

Since the canals provided the chief means of local
transportation for much of the year, and also supplied water
for many household uses, houses were bullt near the canal,
usually within sight of a neighbor's. Home sites were
mounded up to a level of two or three feet above that of the
fields, but even sc, water might cover the mound at the peak
of the rainy season, O01id wooden houses were set in a grove
of bamboo, bananas and other fruit trees and vines, occa-
sionally betel and coconut palms. Nearby might be a shed for
the water buffalo which were the draught animals used in farm-
ing. Rarely one saw a walled privy. On tne same mound
might be a cottage built by parents for married children or
by an affluent farmer for a hired hand. In this case, the
threshing floor, firewood from trees on the mound, and area
for kitchen garden would be shared. Many houses were built
on stilts to avoid flooding when the water level was high.

If the house was elevated sufficiently, the area underneath
provided a relatively cool shelter during the hot season for
the buffalo, and even for family members for some of their
daytime activities.

Depending on the resources of the family, houses were
built of either thatch or wood, roofed with thatch, galvan-
ized iron or occasionally, tile. Split bamboo or matting
might be used for dividing walls if the house had more than
one room. ilooden flooring was usual, but in simpler thatched
houses with dirt floors, the buffalo might be sheltered under
the same roof with the family. In such a house, one or more
low wooden platforms were built for sitting and sleeping.
Wide cracks between floor boards conveniently permitted betel
chewers to spit without the need for a spittoon. Those who
were preparing food or clearing up after a meal could also
thus discard refuse or dispose of leftover food that was to
‘be given to chickens, without leaving the kitchen. Some

1, cf. Hauck, 1956, p. 45-6 for description of latrine
facilities.
 

6

garbage was customarily fed to animals, As previously reported
(Hauck, 1956) "Each family seemed to have its own pattern for
disposal of garbage which was not fed to stock. Those who
threw it in the canal, did so consistently, except when the
nearby canal was dry, and those who threw garbage elsewhere,
did this consistently. No one was observed to burn or bury
garbage."

The Kitchen Areca

In the larger houses, the kitchen was usually a small
separate room with a wooden floor and at least one window for
ventilation. A low table or wooden case with sides built up
several inches, and filled with clay, served as the "fireplace."
On this stood the clay stove, and hot pans and pots were set
there when removed from the fire, In homes with an earthen
floor, the fireplace might be built directly on the ground.

The clay stove was several inches high, shaped so that rice

pots and curved frying pans would fit into the large segment

of a circle which was its top. An open space was left in

front to facilitate building and maintaining the fire. Fire-
wood was kept nearby. lost families also had a portable clay
stove in which charcoal was burned. This might be used as an
auxiliary unit, for outdoor ccoking on a hot day or when travel-
ing by boat,

Matches, although available, were hard to protect from
dampness. Kerosene filled cigarette lighters of a cneap and
efficient type were commonly used. As kindling, one might use
coconut husks or purchase resinous bits of wood that would hold
a flame for sometime.

Although only a small amount of firewood was needed, as
it was used for cooking culy, local supplies were inadequate.
In all seasons, some was brought ia from other areas, One
family participating in the survey planted trees each year for
firewood. The wife in enother household used to return to her
parents! home to gather a boatload cf wood as needed, Because
charcoal was more expensive than wood, and none was produced
in the village, it was used for home cooking by only about 10
per cent of the villazc families, primarily those such as
storekcepers and venders wno did not have time to cut firewood.

In many kitchens clean dishes were placed upside down on
a slatted wooden rack. The other common item of furniture was
a free standing ventilated cupboard or food safe. At its best,
this was screened, and the legs antproofed in some way, as by
putting them into small containers partially filled with kero-
sene, or rubbing them with powdercd pitch; but relatively few
village families had such well constructed food safes. Fami=-
lies that did not own a food safe often kept leftover cooked
foods in a basket, or covered with large dishes on a tray.
Fish and sugar must be kept away from ants, but cooked rice,
which did not attract them could be left anywhere out of
reach of dogs, Raw rice was stored in a large jar or oil
can while salt, fcrmented fish, shrimp paste+ and fishsoyl
were kept in smaller jars or bottles. Such containers were
customarily covered, Dried food materials such as onions,
garlic, chili peppers and other seasonings were often kept
in a basket hung from the roof. Paddy, i.e. unhusked rice,
was kept in a large bin of matting or wood, the excess some-
times simply piled on an uncovered mat on the floor.

Descriptions of two kitchens, one in a relatively
prosperous household and one in a poorer home in Bang Chan,
are included in excerpts from field notes, Appendix A, p. 93.

In a few homes, a clay water jar was kept in the kitchen
or nearby, but more frequently foods were washed, and cooking
water obtained at the canal or fish pend.

The water level varied between heavy flocd and threat-
ened drcught, There were no deep wells in the whole areas
Rainwater was ccliected from the roofs and stored in jars,
but during the dry seascn, the canal or fishpend, although
low, must supply the needs of the houschold, In some, drink-
ing water drawva from the fishpond was preferred, and an effort
might be made to keep buffalo from wallowing in it, and to
avoid ccntaminating it with fecal or food wastes or by bath-
ings Others considered the moving waver cof the canal prefer-
able to pond water.

General Social Factors Affecting Nutritional Level

a

 

In Bang Chan, most farm and houschold tasks were shared
by men and women. Both sexes plowed, planted, harvested and
dealt with rice buyers; managed buffaloes, boats, and
children; cooked, fished and cut wood for fucl; hired out as
labor hands, "living in" 1f desired.

Though there were clear differences in soclo-economic
status, the daily life of the people was much alike:
whether owners of land or renters, whether farming large or
small acreages, tne rich and the poor worked in the fields
at the same tasks, produced or gathered much of their susten-
ance, and ran out cf casa periodically. Socio-economic
status was roughly defined in terms of food: a poor man
"had one meal only to forego another;" a rich man "had or
could get what he wanted to eat." (Sharp ct al, 1953,
Ps 26%.)

I —————  ——— ——. c———_ a o—

l. Description of these products will be found on,
Pp. 17-18.
What differences in circumstances existed that might
affect nutritional level? On the one hand were relatively iso-
lated nuclear families, which we estimated as 15-20% of the
families, living in tiny separate cottages.t Usually with in-
adequate or no land, they earned an irregular income by hiring
themselves out for farm or other work. At the other extreme
in a hamlet-like cluster of dwellings, lived a closely affili-
ated group of kin. A senior couple more or less hcaded the
married sisters, brothers, or children, maybe with a hired man,
or family that as autonomous households cooperated amicably in
economic and domestic tasks, We estimated these as 20-25% of
the Bang Chan families, The larger social unit, having more
hands to produce, and to share tasks, was better able to pro-
vide good food and general health care to its members, than a
small isolated family, Four problems more casily handled by
the larger group were household chores and child-care, farming,
borrowing, and earning money.

Young children had to be constantly tended lest they
fall into the water, the fire, or under the buffalo's feet.
They never entered the fields during work, Fishing and gather-
ing of water plants was ccadlicated because in boats, small
children had to be held. Where there were but two parents and
young children, one parent could not do many things until the
other came home, Perhaps neither partner could stay away long
enough to get a big batch of fish or greens from the canal, or
go to the store, Cooking was simplificd; or fecod mignt be
prepared once a day only. Respite came canly when ihe first
born was able to help oversee a younger child, sometimes stay-
ing home from school to do so, Where the adult cooperative
group was larger, movement was freer, All the strong adults
could work in the fields or at a job, confident that the home
was well tended, They camc home to a well-prepared meal, ready
when they wanted it. Such households had more frcsh fish be-
cause farm work could be completed sooncr, hence more persons
could devote themselves to { «hing. Some physically able
members could even be spared znd financed to go beyond the re-
quired four gradcs of elementary school,

Plowing could be done by a men and wife, but for both
transplanting and hasvestiag which had to be done within a few
days, large groups wore necessary. Two patterns of auxiliary
group labor prevailed: reciprocal cooperative work, and hir-
ing of labor.

1. Janlekha, 1955, categorized familics as 5% '"one-
person," 59% nuclear, 8% limited extended (including one or
more parents of a spouse), 27% cxtended (including dependent
married couples or other collateral relatives), and the temple
residents, At least 32% of the families had inadequate or no
land. His figures do not indicate the degree of domestic
cooperation which was an ameliorating factor in well-being.
Because of scattered farms and frequent shortage of
cash, borrowing food and other items, and many exchanges of
service vere necessary. DBlood-kin were easier to approach,
and in the larger social unit, nearer. Borrowing from a non-
kin neighbor was supposed to be less frequent, and the favor
had to be returned more promptly and exactly.

Most opportunities for increasing cash income such as
hiring oul as temporary farm labor, digging canals, marketing
eggs, mushrooms, or cooked snacks, tock one oul of the home,
often overnight. In the small familly, one partner was left
at home. Both could not go because fear of theft forbade
leaving a home unoccupied for any lengtn of time.

The Buddhist Priesthond

At the temple lived twenty or thirty priests under the
abbot, with a group of boys to serve them. The priesthood
was maintained by daily voluntary offerings of food, with
larger donaticrs of food and commodities at certain times.
Persons who thus "wade merit," by supporting the priesthood,
by giving to the needy, and adhering to the ethical tenets of
the Buddhist religion, rcaped a reward of health, happiness,
wealth and eventually, freedom from rshirth. The immediacy
of these belicfs must not be underestimated. lien only vere
ordained. They might resign at any vime after three months,
but some spent their lives in the priesthood.

In Bang Chan, throughout the year, the priests set out
at dawn to receive cooked food for the day. They appeared
at houses by more or less specific arrangement and were given
a generous share of the food prepared by the family for its
own use, sometimes with the addition of fruit and other deli-
cacles, Each pricst stopped at two or more houses. The food
then was brought to the temple to be eaten at 8 and 11, For
the rest of the day the priests fasted, i.e, they ate no
solid food, but drank liquids such as tea, soft drinks, and
recently, tinned milk and a fortified malted milk drink,
Priests were also invited to eat in homes not only at large
ceremonies, but at small merit-making occasions, Sporadic
speclal food offerings were also received. If a buffalo died,
much of the meat was usually given to the temple, Traditional
practiticners, mid-wives, and ceremonialists aluays gave the
priests a portion of the fees from their practice which con-
sisted in 1 or 2 liters of milled rice, a bunch of bananas,
and perhaps cash, On the numerous Buddhist holidays and at
specially organized temple convocations, quantities of
cooked, preserved and raw foods were brought to the temple
and apportioned among the priests. From this bounty a meal
was served to the priests, who ate while the villagers
looked on in satisfaction.

One of the duties of the abbot was to coordinate the
10

village offers of regular service, the holiday offerings, home
invitations and sporadic gifts so that all priests had places
to go, no one had much more than any other, and that the whole
temple did not undergo periods of undue glutt or hardship.

About mid-July, Buddhist Lent changed the food habits
somewhat, This three-month period corresponded with the height
of the rainy season, Priests did not leave the temple to
gather offerings on rainy mornings, but younger priests, assis-
ted by the temple boys, cooked meals from supplies on hand.

On the first day of Lent, people brought less perishable foods:
green bananas, coconuts, sugar cane, pomelo, sweet potatoes,
taro, onions, garlic, salt, sugar, dry salted beef paste, dried
fish, canned goods, and milled rice. During Lent fresh or
cooked foods wera brought in, and some ladies volunteered to
cook for varying periods of time. On a holiday in September,
families made up such quantities of a sweet of "puffed" glutin-
ous rice, sesame seed, and peanuts pounded and held together
with sirup and sometimes covered with grated coconut that
priests were tired of it and many children got diarrhea from
overeating of it.

In mid-October, the Lenten restrictions ended with an-
other holiday offering, and thereafter the priests went regu-
larly on their anpointed rounds.

On Buddhis® holidays, the people did not usually eat any
of the food brought to the temple, but on (3)thauaud (2)ka-
(5)thin®, an all-day festival held in October cor November,
after feeding the priests, the people also ale bountsously.

Residing at Wat Bang Chan in 195% werc 22 boys, aged 10
to 16, sent to serve the priests, get their living and attend
school, Most of them were from poor or disorganized homes,
They shared the food offerines from which they received three
meals a day, Among the children’s food records, the food
listed by these boys as zaten the day before was comparatively
diverse,

1. Amounts of food given usually excceded the actual
needs of the priests and temple boys. One instance was noted
in which food was sent Ly the priests to a needy old person
nearby, Leftover rice was dried and sold for chicken feed.

2. The transcription used throughout this report is
that described by Sharp et al.,, 1953, pp. 12-15. Numbers in
parentheses represent the different tones of the syllables.
 

 

11

Seasonal Activities

 

A chart has been prepared to siow the climatic condi-
tions in Bang Chan and what people were doing at different
seasons (Chart 1), For convenience, the periods covered by
the four rounds of the dietary survey (pe. 58) are included.

The ycar starts with May, the beginning of the rice-
year. At this time the rains began to soften the parched
ground, and the heat slackened. School re-opened. Farmers
turned to plowing, harrowing, ralsing the seedlings. Poth
sexes worked about equally in field Tabor, boys from 14% and
girls from about 15 years of age performing tasks according
to skill and strength. IZveryone was in the field at dawn,
The buffalo, but not the farmer, rested through the noonday
heat (about 10 a.m. until 2 p.m.) and also on the weekly holy
day. Meals were usually eaten about 10 a.m, and after re-
turning from the field at dark, Although two moals a day
were usual at other times, at this season, some had a third
meal about 2 p.m. If the buffalo were brought home to rest,
this meal could be eaten at home, but hired laborers or those
working far from home often took with them rice and other
foods in a (2)pin~(l)too, or tiered lunch kit,

With the rains, the canals had filled, so that by June
buyers with big rics boats could return. The few farmers who
could afford to hold onto a portion of their last year's crop
sold it for a better price at this time. Vegetables and
fruits which had died in the long drought were replaced, and
trees were planted,

In July the heavy transplanting season began. Because
of cooperative work habits or hiring out, people worked
solidly day after day for two months on their own or on an-
other's fields, It was dawn-to-dark, back-breaking work.

This was an anxious time, The seedlings had to go in
at exactly the right time, Water level was only partly con-
trollable., Lack of rain might be remedied by pumping water
from the canals but flooding would drown the plants. School
vacation was scheduled at this time so both teachers and
children could help. Older children might work in the fields,
while younger ones, from 8 to 13, and the aged took over the
care of bables and toddlers, fished, cooked, gathered food
for the family and grass for the bufialo, People knew the
crop was subject to drought and flood, pests of rats and
worms, destruction by birds or wandering buffalc or duck, and
in the end to the mysterious fluctuations of the price of
rice on the world market, Moreover, some persons worried
about debts, acquired from giving a ceremony or making a
capital investment and sometimes from heavy gambling during
the rest season.
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chart 1. SEASONAL CYCLE - BANG CHAN, THAILAND, 1953-54
May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr.
Season | uh femmes ss WET - mmm mmm mm mm mmm em > Emm COOL-===~~ > €eewu-HOT===m=
Temperature (°C)L 30 29 28 29 29 28 26 25 25 28 30 30
Humidity, rel., 2. 77 80 81 31 80 78 74 70 70 65 66 67
Rainfall | === heavy moderate 4--~-heavy-—=3 fmmmme=light-ceaed {ommmeee negligible mmmmmm——
Canals | rising high (floods) lowering fast low,dry
Cultivation plowing-===—==3 growing early var.
of Rice | seedhad grown mature
: TRANSPIAXRTING {worm mmm HARVE ST = mm = mmm Bs

School 1 vacation vacation vacation
Cash available f cash in hand------- mm ee g-—--- cash shortage--=--- > cash in hand--

Source rice cash jobS==wmmmme—m > main rice sale
Fruit;vegetables |--3 ¢-new plantlig-» Lorrain annuals die----=
Fish: Supplies | ponds drained--= mmm ponds drained-------

Maturation | fommmme many varieties-————-meem- > _ &---best varieties--->

Preserving pdm =UCH mmm fmm mmm mmm TE i HOS fm oo mms >
Ceremonies | CETEMONIES—mmmm——} Ermemn Buddhist Lent-=-=-- ? ¢--ceremonies---
Dietary survey one fmm=w-Round I--====3 {-------R0vUnd Il--=---- 3 ¢~---Round III----> £--Round IV-

1

 

1. Mean temperatures and relative humidity estimated from charts for Bangkok and the central
plain of Thailand (Bunnag and Dhararak, 1947), Mean monthly temperature range from 25-30°C corre-
sponds to 77-36°TF ; diurnal variations are greater, averaging 18°F (10°C) in April and 22°F (12°C)
in January.
13

Despite the availability of fish and of vegetables in
the canal, the highest cash outlays fer family food occurred
in this transplanting season. Several factors probably con-
tributed to tnis: increased food energy needs because of
long hours of work, venders again accessible because of high
water, cash from sale of last year's crop still in hand, the
converience cf cocked foods and snacks, and perhaps the need
to replenish household supplies after the long drought, or
after thelr depletion by a ceremony.

The two months of September and October during which
the rice grew afforded some respite. People slept a little
longer and breakfast was not prepared so early, The skilled
cook might take over and could give mere attention to food
preparation, All who could, took tne opportunity to visit
and take trips, A few might go on a pilgrimage. Therefore,
in this season, all family members were less often together
at the evening meal, Fishing was a continuous occupation,
with some preserving and home craft, Jcbs such es selling
food in the market were undertaken for reacy cach; houses and
equipment were bullt or repaired, Finally the threshing
floor was prepared,

High water caused time-consuming inconvenience only in
earth-floored cottazzs whare it vas recessary to keep the
rice stores and chickens dry, move the cook-stove, and elther
build plank walks or cook standing ankle deep in water.

By November, the earliest varieties of rice matured.
Those who cwnad several rice fields could put at least one
into an early type. Many persons, by then short of rice,
were glad to be thus tided over. Cne grandmcther divided her
first harvest among her several loag-since-independent
married children; 2 tongst of milled rice per family, 40 for
herself.

The heroic labor of harvest occupied December, January,
and February. Farmers raced against the all-too-~fast lower=-
ing of the water in the canals, without which sheaves could
not be moved and buyers could not come for the paddy. People
worked all dayiight hours in the flelds, threshed far into
the night. A% this time also many varieties of fish matured
and men fished night after night. Just when the convenience
of purchased food was greatest, cash was exhausted, ith
rice money in sight, venders might be generous with credit,
but they could navigate only the larger canals, so were not
available to many.

There was an important psychological difference between

1, One tang equals 20 liters, Milled rice weighs
about 16 kg. per tang.
1h

the two work seasons, At planting time, people were anxious;
at harvest they were happy. People saw cash just ahead, for
the crop was now safe, Each host of a cooperative work party
gave at least one big convivial feast, the best he could pro-
vide and even the hired laborers got a round of liquor. People
joked more than usual at work, Two boat loads of workers were
observed racing down a canal at 6 a.m., shouting and cheering,
although they had probably worked long hours for days or weeks
before, Everyone knew that a joyous season was at hand.

When the crop was in, the people rested, fished, and be-
gan to prepare for big ceremonies demanding organized work.
Supplies of fish were needed for preserving or for fcasts.
Labor and engines were now available, and with water low, fish-
ponds could be conveniently drained, and the fish on the muddy
bottom caught. A pond might be drained two or three times a
year, but timing was dctermined by the availability of equip-
ment and workers and by the needs of the annual ceremonial
cycle. One pot of fish was given to each helper at a coopera-
tive pond-draining.

Most farmers sold their rice in February. Capital was
invested in farm cquinment, buffalo, housing and cercmoniecs.,
Debts were cleared if possible. Cash expenditures for food,
which had declincé progressively since the beginning of the
rice year, reached the yearly minimum, mostly bacause people
had ample time to fish, People also saved up tacar noney if
they were sponsoring a ceremony, ate lightly at home if they
were going to one, Since school closed from March 15 to May
1, because of the heat, money was not given to children for
snacks.

The land dried up and cracked, rainwater for drinking
gave out, and some canals were reduced to mud. Cherished
plants were kept alive by waterinz, bat no new planting could
be done. Buffzl», which at cihar seasons were confined and
fed, now roamed the fields, nibbling stubble, Everyone was
busy and happy. Ordinaticas, waddings, cremations, merit-
making feasts and several big holldays came one after another.
Of the four New Ycar's Days observed in Bang Chan, the Budd-
hist New Year, which beceuse of the lunar calendar fell about
mid-April, was the most Important, being celebrated over two
days with extensive offeriazs of food to the priests and with
other activities. The official New Year's Day, January 1,
and the traditional New Year's Day about November 1, had rather
slight observances. Chinese New Year's, in February, was
celebrated by the Chinese rcsidents who presented a school
teacher and their hamlet headmen cach with a boiled chicken
and a Chinese sweet. Lent officially closed the ceremonial
season, but the advent of plowing-time slowed the pace consid-
erably.

When the rains finally came, the rice year started again.
15
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF FAMILY TARE IN BANG CHAN

 

As we turn to a detailed description of the family fare,
we should like to point out that starvation was unknown in
Bang Chan. Although much room remains for improvement in
diet, "hollow hunger" was uncommon, In the few times when
disastrous flood destroyed the year's crop, the government
was able to provide enough rice so that it need not be ra-
tioned. People still ate their fill. Even floods had thelr
advantage : one could fish out the window. That gross caloric
undernutrition was rare was borne out by examination of the
school children (llauck, 1996). "On the average . . . Bang
Chan children could not be considered as markedly under-
weight. Few were so thin that one could ‘count thelr ribs’
and still fewer would be ccnsicered plump by American
standards." In a random sample of village households that
included about 10% of the population, the heaviest man
weighed 69 kg. (151.8 pounds) and the heaviest woman 70 kg.
(15% pounds). We noted no more than half a dozen adults who
appeared to be "overweight." Most were middle aged or older,
and none of them did strenuous field work.

Sources of Food

Home Production, Storage and Preservation

 

Rice, ~ Rice is an essential part of any Thai meal.
The majority of the rice farmers in Bang Chan had rice for
home consumption milled for them at Minburi. In general,
they took their own paddy to the mill, and brought the re-
sulting milled rice home, where it was stored in a box or
mat-bin, Although, according to a recent survey (Goldsen and
Ralis, 1957) nearly a third of the households cwned a home
rice mill, undermilled or home-pounded rice was not widely
used in Bang Chan. Information on this point was obtained
for 333 of 336 "kitchen-unit"l households in the village. Of
these 5 consumed home-milled rice only, 51 used home-milled
rice in major part, 78 in minor part, and 199 not at all.

In households where home-milled rice was used, during
June enough would bs pounded to last until harvest, at which
time hands were sore and bleeding from the ficld work and
home pounding was impossible. At the time when data for the
present report were being gathered, most families took paddy
to the mill when water in the canal was high enough so that
it could be transported by boat. If a farmer on a subsidiary

———  ———— S—. ————_. a —————

l. In some large houses, two related family groups
lived together but maintained separate kitchens.
16

canal misjudged his needs for milled rice and ran out, he had
to mill his own paddy. Since the main canal was deepened in
1953, year-round transportation of rice by boat has been poss-
ible for many more farmers, and this may further decrease the
consumption of home-milled rice.

Of 105 households which had and used a home rice mill,
99 used the polishings for feed but no family in Bang Chan
used them for human food (Goldsen and Ralis, 1997), One far-
mer, headman of a hamlet, who lived near the main canal and
the road to Minburi but who used home-milled rice, offered as
the reason that the polishings were good chicken feed, and if
he took rice to Minburi to be milled, the miller would keep
the polishings,

As reported by Janlekha (1955) consumption of milled
rice in 106 households amounted to about 285 kilograms per
capita per year or 780 grams per person per day. Such '"house-
hold consumption" includes "losses to pests and poultry, daily
gifts to priests, contributions to temples and outlays for
feasts and rites in undetermined but considerable amounts"
(Sharp et al., 1953, pp. 265-266).

Flesh Foods Other than Fish. - The people of Bang Chan
had a Taste and apprecisi.on for flesh food, but the production
and use of meat was certainly inhibited uy Buddhist tenets
which prohibited the taking of life.t X:lling of poultry,
fish, etc. was tolerated among the relatively young, but was
considered unsuitable to the aged who shouid be precccupied
with living virtuously. People felt, hovever, that the sin of
taking life was condoned if they offered part of an animal to
the priests.

 

Since manv villagers were unwilling to slaughter buffa-
loes even whan they becoue aged and useless, such animals were
commonly kept until they died, Animals which had died of old
age or disease were not, heucwver, regarded by Thal Buddhists
in Bang Chan as unfit for human consumption. Usually they
were cut up and given to the priests. When the buffalo belong-
ing to one family (llousehold 67)2 participating in the dietary
survey died, some oi the meat was used fresh for curry, much

1. Meat such as water buffalo and pork as well as fish
was sold by venders. Since meat was relatively expensive and
was usually used in small amounts with other foods, it was
offered for sale in chunks which no longer resembled the liv=-
ing animal. Seeing such small quantities spared the sensibil-
ities of the Buddhists who were thus removed a step from the
killing. Actual butchering was done by Moslems or Chinese who
did not object.

2. Households were identified by numbers assigned by
lot.
37

was given away fresh to selected kin and friends, including
those who helped to butcher, and the remainder was salted

and dried. Of this, 7 kg. were kept and 5 kg, sold. Moslems
are forbidden to eat an animal with two or four legs which
"dies," although eating dcad locusts or fish is not forbidden.
Some Moslems in Bang Chan reported offering dead animals to
Buddhists in barter for other materials,

Ozen, a sign of prosperity, were bought as calves by
the Moslems and fattened for meat, usvally with a ceremony in
mind, In 1955 (Goldsen and Ralis, 1957) only 5 houscholders
in Bang Chan raised hogs, and “ of these had 1 or 2 only,
Moslems ate no pork. A permit from the district officer was
necessary for slaughtering a buffalo or an ox but not for
hogs. Natural deaths of such animals were supposed to be re-
perted.

Poultry was not commonly used fcr food in Bang Chan.
It was the poor man's "feast" food suitable for guests, One
couple in the lowest income level killed one chicken or a
duck once a year to providc the traditionally good meal for
their cooperative harvest helpers. Others, better off, might
serve chicken especially at men's dinners, Pigeons vere
raised for sale in the market by cnc Moslem family. In 1953-
54, one person was trying to raise a few turkeys for sale, as
word had »ceched Bang CTnan that turkeys were in demand for
foreigners! holiday dinncrs. By 1957 turkey-reising for cash
was spreading, but some villagers objected to having them
around "because they look like vultures and bring misfortune."

Various wild creatures were used for food whenever they
were caught. Turtle curry was considered a great dclicacy,
but as turtles, which could bc caught from May to February,
brought a good price in Bangkol, experts usually sold their
catch, Trogs and turtles vere sometimes kept in a jar until
needed, Eels, frogs, cobra and other snakes were used for
curry. Field rats, available all year, were roasted.

Fish, =~ Next to rice, fish constituted the most abun-
in the diet in Rang Chan, Dither fresh or pre-

dant £o5d
served,* they wcre available throughout the year. Killing

 

1. According to observation in 1952-54, fish caught in
excess of immediate needs were preserved for later use, Ser-
pentheads ( (l)plaa (3)chauvaun), which are about 7 or 8
inches long, and pilot fish ( (1l)plaa (2)sa-(2)1id), about
or 5 inches long, were commonly salted and dried. Heads and
tails werc removed and the fish were split open and salted
overnight. The following morning the fish werc washed and
spread on fiber trays in the sun to dry. Some excess fish
might be dried at anytime of ycar, but larger quantitics vere
done during the hot, dry season. The process was usually
complete within a wcek.
 

18

fish was apparently regarded more lightly by many Buddhists
than killing of larger animals, but fishing on (1)van (4)phra,
the weekly holy day, was forbidden, Fish were caught from the
canal with nets, traps, spears and hooks. Some were trapped
in trenches in the rice fields. Techniques varied with the
varieties of fish mature and plentiful at different seasons, t
Moreover, every house had a fish pond. It was usually the
hole from which carth had been removed for mounding the home
site, and was coanccted by a ditch to the canal, I'ish were
lured from the canal into the pond by clearing it of injurious
undergrowth, planting appropriate fish-feeding plants, of

a

Smaller fish were preserved as fermented fish. The fish
with bones left in, werc salted overnight. This preduct was
called (1)plaa (1l)raa. Tor fermented fish to be used as
seasoning, in various dishes, the liquid was drained off, then
the fish were washed and mixed with salt and specially pre-
pared rice. This had bcen soaked overnight, fried and pounded.
The mixture was allowed to ferment in a cmall jar for from 2
weeks to 2 or 3 months, depending on the product desired,

Large bones were removed by putting the product through a col-
ander before use. Fermented fish had the advantage that it
could he eaten without further preparaticn, and the flavor was
generally liked.

Small shrimp, which were caught in quantity during only
about 3 weeks in February, were made into shrimp paste as
follows: the shrimp were washed, mixed with salt and allowed
to stand overnight. The liquid was drained off, and the shrimp
were spread out on trays and exposed to thc sun for a day or
so. Larger ones might then be beaten to loosen the shells,
which could be winnowed away. For very small shrimp, this
step was omitted. The sirims wera then pcunded thoroughly in
a mortar, and stored in & jar for abcut a ponth before use.
Very small fish were sometimes made into fish paste in the
same way. The yield was apoub 2 kg. of the tannish or grayish
colored shrimp paste from 4 baskets (4/5 tang) of shrimp.
Shrimp paste or (2)ka=-(2)pi was an essential ingredient of
Thai hot dishes.

The liquid which was draincd off from the mixture of
fish or shrimp and salt 2a the first stage of preparing fer-
mented fish or sarimp paste was uscd by some villagers to pre-
.pare (4)nam (l)piaa or fishsoy. The liquid was boiled with
certain green leaves such as mango leaves, onion, garlic and
salt for from 30 minutes to an hour, then it was strained.

The resulting red-brown liquid was bottled and was ready for
use as a condiment,

1, Sharp et al. (1953, pp. 185-196) described some
common fishing techniques and listed 32 varieties of fish
known to be found in Bang Chan in 1948-49,
 

which the leafy vegetable (2)phag (2)ka-(2)cheed is one, and
digging a decp hole at its entry. At the proper time the
ovening was riveced, The fish grew in tho nool and were
VAHOM ns NGasd, sonobings, tor convanleney, several al a
time, to be kept alive in a large pot near. the house. By
draining the pond fish were "harvested" (p., 12). Yiclds
varied, but villagers had the impression that they had de-
clined considerably over a period of years. In 1952, at the
suggesticn of TAO, the Thal government tried to inercase the
supply by introducing tilapia culture. During the first
three years of the experiment about one-third of the families
in Bang Chan had tricd to raisc tilapia, but in the summer of
1957 members of the research group were told that no one had
persisted (sce Appendix A, p. 101).

Eggs. ~ Chickens werc raised by about 904 of the fami-
lies in Bang Chan, and over 70% owned 10 or more. In contrast,
only 37% of the houscholds had ducks. and only 13% had 10 or
more (Goldsen and Rallis, 1957, p. 56). Ducks were regarded
as trouble makers. Moreover, chickens could feed "naturally"
and certainly helped themsclves to paddy from the bin, whereas
ducks did not eat paddy, but had to be provided with bran and
broken rice,

Most of the cggs produced were sold, Janlekha (1955)
estimated the annual production of chicken eggs in Bang Chan
as 366,540, and that of duck eggs as 268,200 eggs. According
to the information which Janlekha obtainad from 106 housec-
holds in 1953, about 4/5 of the chicken eggs were sold as a
secondary source of farm income whereas more than 3/4 of the
duck eggs were home consumed. Slightly over 2/5 of all eges
produced in the village vere consumed there. On a per capita
basis, the average annual consumption of 708 eggs for an
average family size of 5.7 persons (Janlekha, 1955) amounted
to a little over 1/3 of an egg per day. Home consumption of
eggs might be less in households in which enough chickens
were raised to make regular sale of eggs possible, Thus in
5 of the 31 households studied by Sharp et al, (1953, p. 197)
all hen's eggs produced were consumed at home. For these
families, an average of 452 eggs per family per year or about
1-1/4% egg per family per day, were thus available. Home con-
sumption in the 26 families which sold eggs amounted to an
average of 215 per year or about 0.6 egg per family per day.
One informant commented that a rich man could eat an egg
every day, but she could not afford to do so, She said she
sold eggs, when she had them, and bought foods to eat with
ice.

 

1. Sharp et al., 1953, pp. 191-192,

2. This probably means that eggs were not sold in
quantity, not that none were used in barter {el p, 5); thus
the number of eggs available may be overestimated.
 

20

Vegetables and Fruit. - Although kitchen-gardening has
been encouraged by the Thal government, vegetables and fruit
were grown in Bang Chan to a limited extent only. Every family
had some sort of kitchen garden, but many edible plants which
can be grown in the village were grown by relatively few fami-
lies. The list of fruits grown in Bang Chan in 1948-49 (Sharp
et al., 1953) included four times as many items as were grown
by one or more of the 11 families that participated in the
dietary stucy. The list of vegetables and spice plants grown
or gathered by these families included 27 items, as compared
to 41 listed by Sharp et al. Spices a chili were more com-
monly grown than vegetables and fruit.

 

One affluent household whose food expenditures for 1949
were reported by Sharp et al., (1953, pp. 214-215) produced
for home use, 125 kg. of palm sugar valued at 200 baht and
500 coconuts, valued at 450 baht. Home production of both of
these was unusual, Tew families in Bang Chan grew either
sugar palms or coconut palms and expenditures for coconuts
and palm sugar were usual, During the major flood of 1942,
villagers noted that coconut palms survived whereas all other
fruit trees were destroyed. After this, a number of farmers
planted coconut palms, but they had not yet begun to produce.

In 1954, about 120 acres (300 rai) of the total of about
2800 acres (7000 rai) of land in the village were used for
home sites and home gardens for 336 households. Individual
home sites usually varied in area from about one-quarter to
one acre, and were occupled by buildings, threshing floor and
space for poultry as well as trees and garden space, Portions
of this might be under water for several months of the year.
Increased home production of fruit and vegetables would 1n
many cases necessitate increasing the size of the home site by
purchase, mounding or both, Ordinarily, increased land for
the kitchen garden was obtained at the expense of some of the

 

l. In a typical farm garden in Bang Chan one would find
bananas growing, and a number of plants used for seasoning
curry. Various kinds of chilies, lemongrass, bergamot, of
which both rind and leaves are used, and galangal were grown
by all families who participated in the dietary study. Both
sweet and holy basil were commonly grown. Many families grew
one or more varieties of gourds and of eggplant, some of which
can be trained to grow on a tree or trellis, The inflores-
cence of the banana was also used as a vegetable. Leafy vege-
tables were not commonly cultivated but some families grew
(2)phag (2)ka-(2)cheed, a green water plant, in gardens staked
out at the edge of the canal, or in a pool, and some had trees,
the leaves of which were edible. Swamp cakbage or (2)phag
(3)bung grew wild along the edge of the canals and was the
most commonly used green leafy vegetable, A few families
grew guava, jujube, star gooseberry, Manila tamarind, mango
and pineapple.
21

rice land. Water-ways, however, were public areas, and any
convenient wide spot might be selected as a private garden.
It was marked with stakes, and was apparently not disturbed
by others,

Mushroom culture as a side line activity of rice far-
mers developed during the period when this study was in
progress, After threshing, in early 195k, tio of eleven
families that participated in the dietary study started rals-
ing mushrooms, Although most of these were sold, hoth fami-
lies reported frequent inclusion of mushrooms in the family
diet, One informant commented that families that planted
mushrooms also ate them almost every day, and sald "Adults
complain that it is a wearisome food but children still like
it." Mushrooms were used fried, with pork, in soup or in
CUTTY.

As with tilapia, mushroom culture appears to have been
undertaken primarily to increase cash inccre, and was aban-
doned when it was nc longer prefitable financially (see
Appendix A, pp. 101-102),

Food Purchased and Cash Fxpenditureg for Food

 

Relatively few fools were purchased, bul some of these,
such as onion, garlic, limes, temarind, coconut and palm
sugar were so frequently used that wichout cazn to buy them,
villagers would have considered their diet monctonous. Many
had their own supply of fresh and drisd chilies, fishsoy, and
shrimp paste, which might, however, b: inadequate for their
needs, Other foods not commonly produced in Bang Chan were
purchased for varlety.

Estimates of mean annual consurption and cost of pur-
chased foods, for 106 households in Bang Chan are shown in
Table 1.

The list of purchased foods presented by Janlekha (1955)
was complled after preliminary interviews with a number of
household heads. It inciudes the principal food items which
were commonly purchased in Bang Chan. In addition to these,
the affluent hcuschold studied by Sharp et al. (1953) spent
appreciable amounts for vegetables (listed as cucumbers,
lettuce, cabbage, etc,) and fruit (pineapple, mangoes, melons,
etc,) and small amounts for peanuts, soy sauce and vinegar
sauce. PEggplant and white radish were bought by more than
half the families that participated in the dietary study, and
were used on 11 and 8 survey days respectively. Other vege-
tables and fruits, bought by one or two of the 11 families,
and used on not more than 3 of the Wh survey days vere: mung
beans, snap beans, bean sprouts, Chinese celery, cucumber,
leeks, lettuce, mushrooms, sugar cane, sweet potato, taro,
turmeric, (2)ma-(l)faj or rambai, Thal nutmeg, orange, pine-
apple, rambutan, sandorica and watermelon. Salted and
pickled white radish and pickled bamboo shoots were the only
22

Table 1. Mean Annual Consumption and Cost of Purchased Foods,
for 106 Households! in Bang Chan, 1953
(Adapted from Janlekha, 1955, p. 316)

 

 

Estimated Estimated
Foods purchased Amount Cost
baht
Raw fish 16.6 kg. 83
Fish sauce (fishsoy) 36 bottles 54
Shrimp paste 6 kg, 27
Pork and beef 8.4 kz. 84
Vegetables 1 kg. 1
Onion 11.3 kg. 3h
Garlic3 11.3 kg. 3k
sosonue® 196 fruit 292
Chilies, dried 7.6 kg, 53
Limes? 80 fruit 16
Tamarind 6.3 kg 19
Palm sugars 71.4 kg. 152
White sugar + kg. 16
Total 865
Average cost per day 2.53

Average cash expenditure per person
ver day for food 0h

1, Average size, 5.7 persons.

2, At the time of the study, one baht equaled about 5
cents.

3. Not produced in Bang Chan (Sharp et al., 1953,
pp. 295 and 299).

4, Little production in Bang Chan.
23

preserved vegetables which were purchased and used frequently
by families participating in the dietary study.

The food costs reported by Janlekha (1955) were esti-
mates recorded from memory at relatively frequent intervals.
The average per capita cost, O.44+ baht per day, was similar
to the average cash expenditure of 0.47 baht per person among
11 families participating in the dietary study (based on the
average of 4 survey days for each family). Trus, in Rang
Chan, cash expenditure for food appeared to Le relatively
small, i.e¢. farm families produced a large share of all food
consumed, If money were not available to buy, they would
still have enough to eat, but it might lack variety. One in-
formant said, for instance, that he usually bought a coconut
every other day, tut during October, when cash was short, he
bought none. Janlekha (1955) considered the estimates ob-
tained for cxpenditures for fruits and vegetables less re-
liable than for items purchased more regularly.

In Table 2, the percentage distribution of food

Table 2, Division of Fecod Fxpenditures by Food Groups, for
Eleven Tamilies that Participated in the
Distvery Study, 1953-54

- A in ———— —— | ]_———  _——. 4 — T_T.

 

 

tn 2 0 Ol Sl. TR A SI. AT

6rainiest 5 famiiest

7 7
Animal foods 30.8 39.3
Fruites 30.3 26.3
Vegetables3 28.7 17.0
Fats and Oils 3.3 8.4
Sugar 3.5 3.5
Pulses, nuts wo 0.9
Spices, etc. 2.7 it

Miscellaneous 0.7 4,5

 

1. Based on 4 days per family,
2, Primarily coconut.
3. Chiefly non=-leafy

4. The dash indicates no purchase or a value of less
than 0.1%.
 

oly

expenditures by food groups is shown for the 11 families that
participated in the dietary study.

Consumption of canned foods was negligible, Some canned
fish and fruits were on sale at stores in the village, in 1952-
5%, but were seldom seen in homes,

Sweetened condensed milk, which was served in coffee
sold at the stores, was occasionally bought for the children.
On one occasion, a woman was seen buying milk diluted with
hot water as a beverage. Among 526 records of food eaten by
school children during 24% hour periods, milk appeared twice
only, once with coffee. Dried milk, for infant feeding, was
used occasionally. During 1952-54, several instances were
noted in which dried milk, mixed with water, was used to feed
an infant while the mother was at work in the field or engaged
in vending, but we encountered one case only of an infant who
was not breast fed, This was an infant whose mother died when
he was five days old, and who was reared by grandparents.

Relatively few items of food were available at the vil-
lage stores. In the inventory of the largest of the three
stores in the village in 1948-49 (Sharp et al., 1953, pp. 211-
212) the following items of food were listed: big dried
chilies, shrimp paste, onion, garlic, fish sauce (fishsoy),
salted fish, fresh chilies, limes, coconut, coconut oil™,
brown (palm)sugar, tea, coffee, condensed milk, orargeade and
lemonade (carbonated), sweets, liquor, ingredients (including
a lime paste) used together in betel chewing.

New stock received in December by a local vender who
kept a few items for sale at her house included mature green
beans, black beans, peanuts, sweet potatoes, salted turnip,
pickled garlic and tomato sauce.

Larger stores served as informal men's clubs where tea,
coffee with condensed milk, and carbonated beverages were
sold primarily for consumption on the premises, The proprietor
of a new store, built in December 1952, sold no liquor.

We have no estimate of the amount of liquor sold in Bang
Chan, although for those who drank it, its caloric value might
be of significance,3 Avout 9% of the householders interviewed

1, Listed by Sharp et al. with non-food items, as much
of it was burned in lamps.

2. Included here as food since some calcium may be ob-
tained from this source.

3. One observer estimated the intake of certain village
men who drank regularly as at least 2 oz, of rice liquor (28~
35% alcohol) per day, representing about 100 calories. The
estimated intake of women who drank regularly was about 1 oz.
per day.
 

25

in 1955 (Goldsen and Ralis, 1957, p. 57) said they drank
whiskey often, 22% drank occasionally, 47% seldom, and only
22% sald they nover drank it,

Sale of Home Produced Foods

Atm

Although a majority of the families in Bang Chan made
most of their cash inccme by rice farming, sale of other home
produced foods, fish, and food materials such as swamp cab-
bage and lotus stems which grew wild in the canals was a
minor but relatively steady source of income for many fami-
lies. Six of the 11 families that participated in the dietary
study obtained some income from sale of food+. The woman fre-
quently had major responsibility for these activities. As
noted by Sharp et al, (1953), a few poor families cnly, added
to their income by selling fish.

In connection with this study, our concern with sale of
home produced foods is primarily with the nutritional rather
than the economic aspects,= although the two cannot be com-
pletely dissociated. Do activities of this sort on the part
of some familiss make a greater variety of foods available to
the villagers as a whole? Are some focds sold for cash which
from the nutritive standpoint, might well be kept for home
use? If so, is the cash thus obtained used to purchase other
foods or non-food items? Is the food purchassd as useful,
from the nutritive standpoint, as that sold? From the stand-
point of improving the nutritive value of the diet of Bang
Chan families in general, would more rome production of
fruits, vegetables, fish and eggs by most families he feas-
ible, or should a few families be encouraged to develop these
activities on a year round basis, to increase the local supply
of food other than rice? Questions of this sort must be con-
sidered by anyone attempting to improve food habits in the
village.

Annual Calendar of IPocds Commonly Used

From the records extending over the period of a year,
of foods used by various families participating in the dietary
study, and from food records provided by children in the
health classes in December 1952, February, May, June, July,
September, October and November 1953, and January 195%, a
calendar has been constructed showing the approximate times
of year at which the foods most commonly used in Bang Chan
were available (Chart 2). Foods included in this chart were

— i ——— trot

1, See Table 8, p. 62.
2. See Janlekha (1955).
 

 

 

 

 

 

Chart 2. Annual Calendar of Fresh Foods Commonly Used in Bang Chan™
No.™
Records May June July Aug.2 Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb, Mar. 2 Apr.2
Fish
Climbing perch 114 x3 x X x X X X x
Eels 27 X X X X X X X X
Field crab (salted before use) 16 X x X x
Oysters 22 X X X X
Notopterus notopterus 10 2 X X X
Serpent head 929 X X X X X x X X X
Silurus 66 x 3 x X X X x ¥ x
(1)plaa (1)thuu 163 x X x x x X 3 X
Other Animal Foods
Beef 30 X X X X Xx X X
Chicken 72 X x X X X X X
Eggs 142 i X x X x X x ¥ X x ¥ x
Frogs 18 X x X x x
Pork 51 X X X X = X 3 x X

 

1. Based on 539 records obtained from school children, and observations in 11 lLiouseholds on
44 survey days. Figures in the column headed No. Records indicate the number of 1-day records on
which the item appeared.

5. TNo records were obtained from school children during March, April or August, hence absence
of the item from these columns means simply that the 4 households visited in each of these months
did not use the item.

3. X indicates that the item appeared frequently on records obtained in this month. Note
that frequency of use may be influenced by farm work and circumstances other than relative avail-
ability.

9c

 
Chart 2. (continued)

 

No.l
Records May June July Aug.2 Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb, Mar. 2 Apr.
Green and Yellow Vegetables

 

Basil, swest X X X X X X X X X X X X
Chili, fresh X X X X X X X X X X X X
(3)&hii-(2)1eg 10 2 = x x

Lettuce \ 49 x x X X X x X X

(2)Phag (2)ka-(2)cheed™ 133 X X pd X X X X X X X

Pumpkin 19 X 4 x Xx - x x

Snap beans iz X ¥ X X = x X X X
Swamp cabbage 147 x X x X X X x x x X

Sweet potato 72 X X X X X X
Other Vegetables

Bamboo shoots 53 x X x X x x X Xx

Banana, inf{lorescence 25 X X X X X X X X

Calabash 31 X X X X

Cucumber “ 10 X X X ¥

Egg plants” 29 3 X X 3 X X Xx = x X X X
Garlic X % X X X X 1 X X x X X
Gourds, bitter 11 x X X

Gourds, towel 11 X X X X

Lotus stalks 48 x x x X %

Mushrooms 25 X 1 x X x i 4 X

Onions X x X X X X % X X X X X
West India pea tree flowers 39 X x X X X X

 

Lt, Thai names are given when English equivalents are not known. For scientific names See
Appendix C, pp. 126-127.

5. Several varieties of egg plant were used. On many records the variety used was not
indicated.

Le
 

 

 

 

Chart 2. (continued)
No.l
Records May June July Aug.2 Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar .2 Apr.©
Fruits?
Banana’ 129 X X X X X X % X X X X x
Chico 17 X -
*Guava 14 Xx X x
Jujube 18 X x 3X
Longan 41 x
*Limes X X X X X X X
*Mango 2 X X b4
*Qrange 48 - = xX X x
*Papaya 11 X X xX X X
*Pincapple 3 x 0X X - ¥ x
Rambai 46 5 x X
Sandorica 18 X X
Singharanut 22 X X X x
xStar gooseberry 28 X X X
{y
Source of water”
For drinking:
Rain X X X X X X % X X X X X
Canal X X X X
Fishpond Xx Xx X X
Tor food preparation:
Canal % Xx X X % % X X " X X Xx
Fishpond X X X

 

6. Good sourccs of ascorbic acid have been

/

8. Data for households participating in the dietary study.

7. Pananas of the (4)nam-(4)waa variety were most commonly used,

marked with an asterisk,

gC

 
29

listed on 10 or more of the 24-hour dietary records obtained.
For items which vere major ingredients, the number of records
on which the item appeared, is given. Thus (1)plaa (1)thuu,
which 1s bought by residents of Bang Chan during the busy
work seasons, was used more often than any other single vari-
ety of fish named. Of the varieties caught locally, climbing
perch, serpenthead, and silurus were most commonly used,
Fermented fish, not included in the calendar, appeared on 53
records, and fish with kind not specified, on 130. Eggs were
used mere often than any animal food other than fish, Among
green vegetables, swamp cabbage and (2)phag (2)ka~-(2)cheed
vere commonly used, Bamboo shoots and lotus stalks were
prominent among the non-leafy vegetables. Bananas which are
grown in every garden and are available all year round were
much the most common fruit, although other seasonal fruits
were eaten more often in 6 of the 9 montns in which school
children submitted records.

Some idea may be obtained of peak seasons for use of
varlous common foods by noting the months designed by x,
Thus In January and May, serpentheads were listed cn about
1/3 of the records, ard were frequently served at more than
one meal. OSweat potalo, usvally fried and eaten as a snack,
was listed on 35 of 52 records obtained from schocl children
in September, Flowers of the West India pea tree were listed
on 10 of 5) records in October, and 12 of 8 in Novenber,
with occasicnal mention on reccrds obcaincd in ‘+ other months.

Fruits were eaten much less often than none might expect
in a tropical area where many varieties are available and
fruit can be grown the year round. Thay were most often
eaten by children as snacks, although pineapple and papaya
vere usually, and banana occasionally cooked in "with-rice"
dishes such as curry. In September, fruit was included in
the diets of less than 1/3 of the children. An average of
more than one serving of fruit per child per day was recorded
in 5 months only, May, June, October, November and February.
In May, when (Wma- (13a j or rambal was in season 46 of 76
children repcrted having eaten it, Pineapple, listed by 35
of 61 children in June, was most often served in curry at
one or more of the family meals, In October, cranges were
eaten by 30 of 55 children who submitted records, Bananas
(mostly of the (Y4)nam-(4+)waa variety) topped the list in
November and February.

Items mentioned on fewer than 10 records, and hence
arbitrarily omitted from the chart, are worth noting as they

RE

1. No figures are given for sweet basil, garlic,
onions, chili or limes, which were so often used in small
amounts as seasoning that the count obtained vould give no
clear idea of the cxtent of thelr use. Some common spice
plants were not mentioned on the records.
30

might provide clues to ways in which the diet may be improved.
Most of these items were included in lists given by Sharp et
al. (1953)1., To those lists should be added the following
items from our food records:

Green leafy and vellow vegetables: Leaves of bergamot,
chili, morinda, onion, potato, pumpkin, (2)sa-
(5)noo, and of the following trees: (2)ma=-(l)dan,
(4) khlybe and West Indian pea tree; (2)kha-
(1)cavaun flowers.

Other vegetables: flowers of leek and pumpkin, and
Chinese or black truffle (water chestnut).
Fruits: Thal nutmeg and tomato.

Fresh foods other than fish: buffalo, duck, cobra,
turtle and field rat.

 

At the end of Chart 2, sources of water for drinking and food
preparation have been included, not only because water is
properly considered a nutrient, but also because the water
used in preparation of food may affect the wholesomeness of
foods eaten raw or with 1ittle cooking.

Untreated water was the customary beverage with meals.
Ordinarily no distinction was made in source of drinking water
for children and adults although boiled water was glvaen to
mothers and infants to drink during the post partum rest
period (Hauck, 1956). Occasionally a sick person would be
given boiled water to drink; for example one man who sald he
was "a little sick" and "not working" was observed to drink
hot boiled water from a thermos bottle. In 1955, Ralls? found
that tea was seldom or never drunk by nearly 3/4 of the respon-
dents, Less than 7% drank it frequently, Thus in Bang Chan
no custom had grown up which would afford the general popula~-
tion with a measure of protection against infection from

1. See Sharp et al,, 1953, pp. 193-196 for a list of 32
fish known to be found in Bang Chan; pp. 293-294 for 34 fruits
grown in Bang Chan, and p. 295 for 11 fruits known to be used
but not grown there; pp. 296-298 for 41 vegetables grown in
Bang Chan, and pp. 299-300 for 24 other vegetables used.

2, (4)Xhlyb was the term used in Bang Chan for an uni=~
dentified tree of the family Leguminosae. Its sweet tasting
leaves were washed in boiling water to get rid of a bad odor,
thon were eaten with (4)nam (4)phrig, a chill sauce.

3. Golden and Rallis, 1957, p. 57. The answers to:
"Do you drink tea frequently, occasionally, seldom or never?"
were: often, 22; occasionally, 68; seldom, 158; never, 85.
31

contaminated drinking water, but the traditional use of boiled
water for neuborn infants and their mothers, and its occasional
use for sick persons, might provide the starting point for a
desirable change,

Mcal Preparation and Service

 

Processes and Equipment

The principal processes involved in food preparation
for which equipment was required are: cutting solid food
into bite-size pieces, pounding spices and flavoring mate-
rials, grating coconut, straining, boiling, sauteing in a
small amount of fat, steaming, and roasting on a stick or
metal support over the fire. Although foods were steamed or
roasted only occasionally, thc processes werc familiar to
all,

The Thai kitchen had no oven. hen the term "baked"
was used, it might mean cooking with dry heat on a rack over
the fire (as banana baked in the skin) or without fat in the
frying pan (as small dried fish toasted in this way).

Equipment used during meal nre
lies observed on 4b survey days 1 ]
p. 96, that used in serving and cating ¥

The type of food preparation and service was much the
same in the relatively well-to-do and the poorer households
in Bang Chan, The chief difference in equipment for food
preparation and service in familics of different economic
status was in the number of items of one kind which were
owned, Thus a poor family might own one knife and one clay
water jar, whercas an affluent family would probably own
several knives and a number of water jars. Equipment used on
special occasions, as in preparation of food for large num-
bers of people, was owncd by well-to-do families only. Some
had enough equinment for large cooperative work parties,

Persons Responsible for I'ood Preparation

 

Food was usually prepared by the homemaker and/or older
daughter, if one were at home, but all members of the family
who were old enough to help, had some kncwledge of food pre-
paration and did prepare food as the occasion demanded.

While preparing, cooking and serving food were more frequently
carried out by women than by men, adults and school-age chil-
dren of both sexes had some competence in this area, - "While
certain activities are normally assigned to men and others to
women, the Thai maintain no rigid compartmentalization and

are unembarrasscd when a woman does a man's job or a man docs
32

a woman's" (Sharp et al., 1953, p. 88). For instance, the
husband cooked when his wife was away from home, e.g. selling
in the market or in farm labor, and of course when she was
sick or resting after childbirth. The ability of boys as well
as girls to cook rice and some of the accompaniments was taken
for granted. A girl or boy could cook rice 'as soon as he
could lift the rice pot," c.g. at 6 or so; by age 12 he could
cook a creditable meal. In mid-December, 1952, on the last
day of school before vacation, one of us saw committees of
school children (aged 7-14 years) preparing food for a special
meal, on the school grounds. The variety of dishes prepared
and the ease with which the children went about their tasks
gave evidence of the home cxperience these children had had
(Hauck, 1953). Responsibility for food preparation increased
with age up to about 195 years, after which all available able-
bodied family members did field work during the busy seasons
(cf. p. 11). Several hours per day were spent in cooking and
by middle age, parents werc eager to turn this job over to a
daughter or daughter-in-law. If they had no daughter, this
was an explicit rcason for adopting a baby girl.

Certain men of eminence, c.g. headmen and elders, would
not be asked to cook at all, but as they aged, they might re-
turn to the task, Onc old headman, all of whose children had
married and left home, sald that he was doing the cooking for
2 months because his wife nad back trouble. Some dishes were
cooked by men only, even when their wives stood by: turtle,
frog and cobra curries, for instance. These were also food
for men only, suitable to serve at a drinking party.

A premium was put on good cooking, and certain women
who were noted for their cooking were in great demand for large
scale food preparation during the ceremonial season. One far-
mer planned to send his daughter to learn from such a skilled
cook, having in mind the focd preparation which would be
needed when his sons were old enough to be ordained, Adverse
comments might be made if the food did not come up to expecta-
tion; thus, a small boy complained that his curry was "too
salty," and an old woman said loudly that the curry made by
her 1é-year old grand-daughter was "not good," although this
girl was the only one at home to cook,

Meal Patternst

and Preparation of Typical Thai Dishes
Food was commonly prepared twice a day, in the morning
and late afternoon. The meal pattern was the same for breakfast

1. Suvarnakich (1950) described the Thal diet in a
general way and Sharp et al., (1953, pp. 263-274) summarized
the small amount of information on diet in Bang Chan obtained
during the preliminary study in 1948-49,
33

and dinner, either meal taking an hour or two to prepare,
Snacks might be eaten at any time. Adults often ate just the
two principal meals, but children, especially the small ones
who were not in school, might eat whenever hungry. The
school children often purchased snacks from venders on the
school grounds. If food was to be offered to the priests,
who went around the village about seven o'clock in the morn-
ing, breakfast preparation was begun early, between 4:30 and
5:30 a.m,, although family members might eat at various times
during the morning: the husband before he went to the field,
older children, before school time, babies and small chil-
dren when the mother had time to feed taem, and so on (Appen-
dix A, p. 95). Preparation of supper usually took place
sometime between 2:30 and 6 p.m. Whenever possible, family
members ate together at the evening meal, but many exceptions
were noted.

Rice 1s the principal item in every Thai meal. In Thai
the general term meaning "to eat" is translated literally "to
eat rice." All food items are divided into two classes:
rice and "with rice," or (2)kab (3)khaau. Among the families
studied three or four "with-rice" dishes were usually pre-
pared during the day, l.e. for the two main weals, but the
number varied in different families, and according to season.
One or two of these dishes would usually be "hot" i.e. highly
seasoned with fresh or dried chili ypenpers. ish was the
food item second in importance to rica, but the typical
"with rice" preparation, vhether hot or mild, contained more
than one food item in addition to a variety of spices and
flavoring materials (Appendix C, p. 118).

Between meal snacks might be any avallablg leftover
food, 1 fruit, or items purchased from a vender, Such snacks
were not regarded as meals, however, as no Thal considers
that he has eaten a meal unless he has eaten liberally of
rice.

The general method of cooking rice was the same through-
out the village. The rice was washed two times in water from
the canal or fish pond, and was then boiled in a large volume
of unsalted water for about 2% minutes. The rice pot was

1. Leftover foods from breakfast were eaten later that
day with or without reheating, "With-rice" was seldom left
over from the evening meal, but rice was frecuently kept over
night.

2. Deep fat frying of bananas, sweet potato slices and
the like was commonly observed, both among venders who sold
their wares on the school ground, and those who travelled by
boat, This method of cooking was never observed in ordinary
home food preparation probably because fat was in relatively
short supply.
3k

usually covered. A common practice was to remove the cover
and stir the rice once, toward the end of the cooking process,
When the rice was almost done, surplus cooking water was
drained off, and often aftar a lapse of time, the covered pot
was put back onto the fire which had been allowed to die down,
for about 6 minutes. Thus the final cooking was essentially
a process of steaming. Total cooking time varied from a little
over 20 minutes to three-quarters of an hour, depending pri-
marily on the amount of rice cooked. The finished product was
moist enough to form a ball when pressed between the fingers.
Left-over rice, if not eaten cold as a snack, was reheated hy
being added to the hot rice at the next meal. Rice water was
commonly given to pets if there were any. In 4 families which
participated in the dietary study, rice water was given to in-
fants, one ll-year old boy served himself liberally to it, and
one adult man was observed to drink rice water before meals.

The many recipes for preparation of "with-rice" dishes
may be grouped into two categories, hot and mild. Hot dishes
always contain chili and varieties of spices which are hot
tasting. One type of hot dish is curry which may be designated
as either "hot" or "sour", Thai curry consists chiefly of fish
or any available kind of meat, with or without vegetables, To
make curry, shrimp paste, chili and spices were pounded thor-
oughly and then mixed with the meat and condiments and fre-
quently with coconut milk, All were boiled together. Vege-
tables, if used, were added when the mixture was nearly done.
Both vegetables and meat were cut into small pieces and washed
before cooking. With the exception of dried chilies and tama-
rind, foods were not ordinarily left to soak in water, Sour
curry differs from hot curry in that it contains less chill
and spices and has a mixture of tamarind ( (4)ma--(1l)dan might
be substituted) crushed with water added to it.

The other type of hot dish is (4)nam (3)phrig or chili
sauce, It is mace of shrimp paste, chili, garlic and other
spices ground together in the mortar and then mixed with lime
Juice, sugar and salt or fishsoy, (4)Nam (3)phrig was always
served with elther raw or cooked vegetables, One informant
commented that (4)nam (3)phrig vas the everyday food among the
villagers,

Preparation of mild dishes varied. These included
panned vegetables, meat or eggs cooked with small amount of
fat and a variety of spices and condiments including black
pepper but not chili. I'ish were sometimes roasted or boiled.
Vegetables might be eaten either raw or cooked in coconut milk
without seasoning. If vegetables were simply boiled in water,

 

 

1. Median times for a series. In 15 instances cooking
time before draining ranged from 18 to 33 minutes and rice was
steamed from 2 to 12 minutes after draining.
35

cooking water was discarded. In Bang Chan, foods were not
usually cocked a long time,

In most village homes, one fire only was bullt for
ordinary meal preparation. Rice was cooked first, then
"with-rice" dishes, no attempt being made to serve the rice
and accompanying foods hot. Indeed, with the frequent use of
chilies, one might have the sensation of eating hot foods, no
matter when they were taken from the fire, IIotes on the pre-
paration of a meal in one household that participated in the
dietary study, are included in Appendix C, p. 110,

Meal Service and Techniques of Eating

 

Food was generally served in the kitchen area. When
possible, family members ate together at the cvening meal,
sitting on the floor, each one old enough to feed himself
having a bowl of rice before him. The '"with-rice" dishes
were placed in the center of the group. Family members
helped themselves to portions of the "with-rice," using the
right hand to teke solid foods, and a serving spoon for fluid
foods. DInough rice for a bite was pressed together with the
fingers of the right hand, so that grains would not be
scattered as the rice was conveyed ito the mouth, "Withe-rice"
of semi~-fluid consistency was eaten by dirping the ball of
rice into it, or more exactly, touching one side of the ball
of rice to it, The amount of "with-rice" was generally small,
and to take more than one spoonful onto the pliate at a time
would appear greedy.

When families did not sit down to eat together, those
who ate first were expected to take no more than their share.
The wife saw to it that her husband had a liberal serving of
the best food avallable, She also gave generously to the
children, holding back, cating last or what was left, her-
self, In a well-to-do household, where food was ample, the
mother would be as well fed as others; in a poor household
she might be short-rationed day after day.

When priorities in serving were observed, ™ young chil-
dren, "not old enough to know better" were not expected to
walt until the elders had been served. A frequent pattern at
both breakfast and dinner was for older children to feed the
younger ones hefore their own meal; elders in the family then
ate, and husband and wife atctogether if possible, or as
convenient to their separate schedules, In the morning if
food was to be offered to priests, family members did not
ordinarily eat until after the priests had been served, If
necessary, however, the priests! food could be served onto a
tray, then others might eat. The observer often had

 

1. Sec footnote 1, p. 49.
36

opportunity to make notes on foods eaten by various family
members. Two examples of these are included in Appendix A,

Pe 27.

Snacks

We have noted that various family members ate the morn-
ing meal, in particular, at different times, and that children
especially might eat_leftover food between meals. Most Bang
Chan school childrenl ate snacks, which were usually different
from foods eaten at a regular meal. Doubtless most of them
were purchased from one of the venders who were to be seen on
the school grounds daily, Fruits and "desserts" were most
commonly eaten, although a variety of other foods, not a part
of the usual Thal meal, were also listed. Sweets were listed
about 450 times on the 539 records obtained. Many of them had
a base of rice, rice flour or glutinous rice with sugar, and
included coconut, banana or other fruit. Some were made with
legumes, and a few contained egg. Fried bananas, fried sweet
potato slices, bananas cr beans cooked in syrup, and bananas
cooked in sweetened coccnut milk were also listed, A few
items such as ices, flavored syrup poured over shaved ice, and
candies, had little nutrrsnt value other than caloric content,

A glass of milk, and milk with coffee, wers each listed
once, These might have heen obtained at tne ctore adjoining
the school grounds. These instances are worth noting primar-
ily because, although dried and tinned milks were obtainable,
milk was seldom given to village children after weaning.

Many children were given a bit of cash each day, and
Janlekha (1955) commented that some children who did not have
any might barter an egg for snacks, One could tell fairly
well from the children's records what the venders offered for
sale on a given day. Some InTlucnce of season was apparent;
thus ices and syrup over shaved ice were eaten more often dur-
ing the hot dry season, and cooked foods such as fried Chinese

noodles appeared primarily in the cool season.

 

l, With the cooperation of teachers of the third and
fourth grades in the Bang Chan elementary school, reccrds of
food eaten during 24-hour periods were obtained from children
in these grades at intervals of about one month during the
school year, This was a regular activity in the health class.
A total of 539 records (from 1 to 8 for each child) were ob-
tained from 75 boys and 72 girls, To facilitate recording,
each child was given a sheet of paper, with spaces for his
name, the date, and kinds of food other than rice, eaten at
the morning, noon and evening meals, and as snacks, These
records were collected primarily for information on meal pat-
terns of village families for comparison with the limited
sample in the dietary survey, and on seasonal use of various
foods.
37

Some snacks, i.e. seasonal fruits, may have been picked
from the home garden, and items such as lotus szeds were
probably gathered wherever the children found them.

Comments on Foods Eaten by School Children

 

In addition to the high percentage of schecol children
who ate cnacks, a conspicuous observation was that many ate
no regular lunch (Table 3). We did not ask the children to
record when they ate snacks, but only what they ate. The
number of snacks recorded by individual children did not,
however, appear to be related to whether or not they had
eaten lunch, For example, among the 76 children who provided
24-hour food records during May, 1953, the average number of
snacks recorded by the 39 children who ate a regular lunch
and the 37 who did not, was about the same, i.e, a little
over three per child.

Table 3+ Number and Percentage of Children Who Ate Snacks,
and Who Missed Lunch, Arranged by Months in
Which Records Ware Obtained

 

 —— —— i — ————" — 5 5 S————————— rr o_o

 

 

 

J a a ——

 

 

Month! No. of Children who children who
Records ate snacks _ nlgged lunch
No. Percentage No, Percentage
May 1953 76 73 96 37 9
June 1954 61 56 92 32 53
July 1953 72 77 98 53 67
Sept. 1953 52 Lg ok 36 69
Oct. 1953 55 50 91 20 40
Nov. 1953 a8 81 92 57 65
Dec. 1952 18 14 78 10 56
Jan, 1954 69 El 93 41 59
Feb, 1953 _4l1 39 95 33 81
Total 539 503 93% 321 60%

1. Note that although the figures are arranged by
month, the records were obtained over a period extending
from December 1952 through June 1954,
38

Most of the children who ate lunch regularly brought
rice and some of the "with-rice" dishes prepared for a family
meal in a lunch pail. Menus for breakfast and noon meals
were often identical. Children who lived at a distance may
have found it harder to carry lunch, especially when they had
to walk to school, but the month by month record of the per-
centage of children who missed lunch (Table 3) does not indi-
cate any clear seasonal trend. Even children who lived nearby
might neither bring lunch nor return home during the noon re-
cess. We were a® the home of a school teacher, a short dis-
tance on foot from the school, when his two children returned
in the afternoon, The mother said that they usually walted
until after school to eat, but were having no snack on that
day because for the first time, they had carried lunch to
school,

Thorangkul (1957) scanned all of the dietary records to
note the frequency with which the following food groupe
occurred: protein-rich food, carbohydrate-rich food other
than plain boiled rice, vegetables and fruits. She considered
the records of each child as a unit; thus if a boy for whom 5
daily records were availes-le, had recorded protein-rich food
such as fish, eggs, or beans 16 times, he was regarded as hav-
ing more than 3 Wservings"l of such food per day. The fre=-
quency with which varicus food items occurred in the daily
diets of these children is chown in Table lH.

Considering the day's record as a whole, some protein-
rich food, usually fish, was included in the records of 97%
of the children. Such protein-rich food appeared two or more
times per day in the records of over 80% of the boys and about
90% of the girls. In ccntrast, no frult was mentioned in the
records of about 10% of the children, although fruit was one
of the commonest snacks. Vegetables were not mentioned in the
records of 10% of tine bovs ard 37% cf the girls. Only about
one-fourth of thc vegeiables recorded were green or yellow.

For 75 children for whem we had 4 or more records,
Thorangkul (i957), to obtain a rough estimate of the adequacy
of the children's diets, grouped the records into three cate-
gories, based on the number of times protein-rich foods, vege-
tables and fruits appeared. On the average, children whose
diets were placed in Class I had at least 3 "servings" of pro-
tein-rich food, 3 "servings" of vegetables and 2 of fruits,
Diets in Class II included some from each of the food groups
each day, but the items were recorded less frequently than in
diets in Class I. Diets in Class III did not include foods
from each of the food groups emphasized, each day. On this

1. The term serving is used here to designate each
time an item appeared in the daily food record. Thal do not
have "servings" as the term is used in Western countries.
39

Table 4, Frequency of Occurrence of Various Food Groups
in the Daily Diet of 147 School Children
in Bang Chan

{Adapted from Thorangkul, 1957)

 

 

 

 

Number of Protein-rich Carbohydrate-
servings food rich food? Vegetables Frult

 

Percentage, based on records of 75 boys

3 or more L7 8 28 8
2 to 2,9 36 15 23 18
1 to 1.9 13 +0 30 37
0.1 to 0.9 3 37 9 26
None 1 - 10 11

 

Percentage, based on records of 72 girls3

3 or more 68 13 21 10
2 to 2.9 2i 17 383 27
1 to 1.9 4 22 3h 38
0.1 to 0,9 3 48 a 15
lone 4 - 3 10

 

1. The term serving is used here to designate each
time an item appeared in the daily food record.

2. Other than plain boiled rice, which is an essential
part of every Tnai meal.

3. Average frequency of occurrence was computed, con-
sidering the records of each child as a unit.

basis, nearly a third of the children who provided diet
records had diets which were classed as III (Table 5), Al-
most all of the girls and about 4/5 of the boys in this group
missed lunch. Indeed the common habit of eating just two
main meals, with snacks, was probably one important deter-
minant of the number of servings of protein-rich foods and
Lo

Table 5, Diet Classifications for 795 School Children in
Bang Chan, and Percentage of Children with
Each Diet Classification who Missed Lunch

(Adapted from Thorangkul, 1957)

 

 

 

Diet Percentage of Percentage of children
classification? children wno missed lunch
Class I 8 Boys 46

Girls 45
Class II 61 Boys 73

Girls 68
Class III 31 Boys 31

Girls 98

 

l. See text for basis of classification.

vegetables eaten, since Lltems from these two food groups were
not commonly eaten as snacks. Note, in the 1lluctrazive
records presented in translation (Appendix A, p. 9¢). that the
child whose diet was considered to be in Class III did not eat
a regular lunch on any of the six davs for which records were
avallable, whereas the child whose diet was classified as I
ate a regular lunch six times out of seven.

I

——

QO

miiv Food Crhamnad With Othars

 

Throughout the year families prepared especially good
meals for percons who came to work cooperatively with them.
Every rice-grower zntertained his cooperative harvest crew,
some the transplanters, Iired laborers were not usually served
such feasts, but the conviviality of the harvest season called
for a round of liguor even for them, One harvest dinner for
48 cost 50 baht, plus eels (50 baht) and rice. Cooperative
home pounding of rice was still practiced in some households
and thought to be fun, In one day enough rice to produce 40
tang (640 kg.) was pounded by groups of 15 to 20 workers; in
an evening 20 tang were done. If 40 tang were milled, workers
were served a full meal; if 20 tang, a dessert only. Other
occasions were fish-pond draining, house raising and repalr.
Each participant in the fish-pond draining at Household 21
was fed (3)khaaw (3)tom (soupy rice) for lunch and "an enor-
mous supper," in addition to receiving the traditional pot of
fish, If good food were not served at these functions people
41

would not come willingly to work, When a family with a repu-
tation for stinginess diluted the (3)khaaw (3)tom too much,
the group refused to eat any, thereby reminding the host of
his obligation for hospitality.

Guests to whom meals were served fell into four cate-
gories: 1) kin, 2) visiting dignitaries, 3) priests and 4)
drinking ccmpanions, Xinfolk who came as guests were married
children, or those who were away at school cor vcrk, cr kins-
men from Dangkok or elsewhere, The older the relative or the
greater the distance travelled, the greater the honor accorded
him. Foods were exchanged. Two visiting ladies travelling
in a large boat, made an annual round of all thelr relatives,
bringing certain "city" foods and receiving substantial gifts
of rice, fish and fruit. They stayed for several days as
guests of one family, then moved on. Every parson [rom Bang
Chan who visited a relative in Banglok carried big packages
of food, usually rice or eggs, as gifts, With the inflated
prices in Bangkok, it was advantagecus to have a 'country
cousin" who might bring food. Visiting kinsmen always recog-
nized the need for eventual reciprocity.

Visiting dignitaries were usually entertained by hamlet
headmen, Meals served to visiting cfficials, pclicemen and
others might be elahorate, invclving cooperative help in pre-
paration, but reciprocity, if ary, rarely took the form of a
return meal,

Regular visits of the priests, as vell as the invitation
of priests to the louse for special events, have been men-
tioned. Priests might also come from afar, usually staying
at the temple but receiving generous offerings of fecod from
people of the community.

The custom of convivial get-togethers of either or both
sexes- was well established. Men traditionally enjoyed "stag"
dinners of four up to twenty or more whenever the ingredients
for a turtle, frog, cobra or other snake curry were avallable,
Chicken curry migat also be thus served, and once a catfish
mash was prepared by a male visitor from the north. These
curries were cooked by men, and the host served liquor freely.
The all-male character of the occasion reflected the old re-
strictions on women's partaking of flesh foods (see p. 42),
but older women did not hesitate to join in the drinking.
Women also got together in drinking parties, sometimes to
play cards,

In addition to sharing food with people in these four
categories, the general rules of hospitality required that
anyone who came to the house at meal time, should be offered
food, or at least a drink of liquor, tea, or plain water,
 

L2

Attitudes Toward Food

 

To older Bang Chan residents, to lack rice was to starve
even though fish or vegetable fare were at hand. Since rice
was the staff of life, many important customs clustered about
it. Ceremonies to the Rice Goddess accompanied the raising,
selling, and storing of rice, When the unhusked rice was in
the bin, it could not be withdrawn at any time as needed, but
astrological charts had to be consulted to make sure the day
was auspicious. Paddy could never be withdrawn on Friday, a
day sacred to the Rice Goddess. After cooking, the best rice
was said to be at the mouth of the pot, so this was offered
on ceremonial occasions, Important rules wcre that when cook-
ing rice, the cover of the pot must never be laid in a mortar
and it must be inverted, never lald down flat; otherwise one
would be short of rice. One must never scrape thc top of the
rice with the cover, or the "soul" of the rice would be scraped
out of the pot, Moslem rcsidents murmured an Arabic prayer
avery time the rice was put into the pot, and every time the
pot was put onto the fire, as well as before eating.

Rice has been generally regarded as the strength-giving
food par excellence, A portion of Chutima's (1939) descrip-
tion of the "old system™ foilows:

Our children and young women are forbidden by
ancient doctrine from eating any fair quantity
of animal products, but must eat plenty of rice
which is considered as the cnly true food, the
others being only appetizers. And to stimulate
the palate, large quantities of hot and irritat-
ing condiments (chilies and peppers principally)
are consumed at everv meal, Some vegetables,
boiled or raw, are also included, but in small
quantities in spite of abundant supply.

The quotation indicates first that in the past, rice was con-
sidered much mcre important as food than the "with-rice"
dishes, Since the Food and Drug Division of the Ministry of
Public Health has been attempting to encourage the eating of
more "with-rice," the attitudes found in Bang Chan are of
interest. One informant stated that only rice can make chil-
dren fat, and that the "hot taste" foods help them to cat
more rice. Another commented that rice makes children strong,
and "with-rice" makes them weak. Another, a mother of seven
children, said that if babies were given too much "with-rice
they would be potbellied. The more modern view was expressed
by an informant who said that a certain child ate only rice
with fish, and was weak; he refused vegetables and banana.
Onc affluent farmer, an elderly man whose orphaned grandchild
was being raised on cow's milk (cvaporated or dried milk,
diluted with boiled water) expressed the opinion that the
ancient belief was based on thrift, He said that thrifty
43

people did not want to spend much on a baby, therefore thay
sald that if a child ate too much "with-rice" he would be
potbellied but thin in the upper part of the body, and that
eating eggs would cause dental caries, This grandfather
said he believed the truth to be just the opposite, but that
goods things were expensive, As an illustration of the idea
that thrift was the basis of restriction of "with-rice,"

one young mothcr said that an egg wes regarded as equivalent
to one (l)plaa (1l)thuu (fish), and was enough for two per-
sons, Scmetimes one egg would serve an entire family. She
said that a child would be punished if he ate a wholc egg

at a meal,

Secondly, Chutima suggests that particular foods were
associated with, or suitable for, particular age levels, and
a given sex, Data obtained in Bang Chan indicate that cer-
tain foods were associated with conditions such as pregnancy,
lactation, and the puerperium, with occupation, and cven
socio-economic levels, For infants, breast milx was con-
sidered most suitable. The newborn infant was ant usually
put to the mother's breast fcr about 3 days after birth, and
if a relative or neighbor did not nurse the infant, the small
banana called (3)kluaj (4)nem-(4)waa (sce p. 46), raw or
baked, was crushed and fed to him before his mother's milk
was available. This baraaa and rice, as (3)khaaw (3)tom and
(3)khaaw (2)piag (two watery prcparaticns), sometimes crushed
with (3)kluaj (4)nam-(4)waa, were always thc first solid foods
introduced while the infant was breast fed. No other foods
vere introduced carly. Some infants received fish and egg by
6 months of age, and a majority ate these locds by the time
they were a year old. Some two year olds had not yet been
given vegetables, and very few infants ate them before they
were one year old.

Giving of 'holy food"! to children suggests concern for
strengthening children through dietary as well as other ritual
means.

At the other end of life, as old age approached, the
diet was supposed to change, ideally to a completely vege=-
tarian one. Since one was coon to face death, one gave up
cating meat and cven fish, if possible, so as to avoid taking
life, It was considered pitiful or wrong for an old person
to fish. Being abl: to go without food was asscclated with
merit. Those who stayed overnight at the temple on the Budd-
hist holy day went without solid food from before noon until
the next morning as the pricsts did. One clderly woman re-
marked that when she stayed overnight at the temple she did
not feel hungry, and did not cat anything at night, but other
women, fecling hungry, drank coffee or milk at night. She

1. Sce p. 50.

 
Ah

understood that her merit helped her not to be hungry. Once
she asked an eminont layman about eating at night. He said,
"If you are not hungry, do not cat. If you feel hungry, it

is better to cat. If someone invites you to eat, it is sin=-
ful to refuse,"

Even young adults had a strong rcvulsion against glut-
tony. One of the symptoms of a man who went mad and had to be
committed to an institution was that "he ate too much." A
woman was despised because "she ate in secret. She stole eggs
from her husband, sold them in the market, and then spent the
cash on food which she ate there, instead of bringing it home.
Definitions of a glutton were, ng 'with-rice! eater," or simply
as ''one who eats alone." The se comments highlight thc counsels
of eating in moderation and in company. On the other hand, a
full stomach was valued for "home is where one cats one's fill."

At maturity, when farm and other tasks were sharcd as
cquals, men and women ate almost the same fecod, The oid pros-
cription against animal food for women was somewhat relaxed,
but not entirely. To sustain farmers during the seasons of
hard work, however, extra quantities of rice and rice alone,
were considered essential, "With-ricc' was pleasant but not so
necessary. Any shift away Sym a diet of rice as ordinarily
cooked in Bang Chant was construed as a shift either in occu-
pation or in health, Fer ks an eminent citizen vho gave
up farming took to ayeing (3)khaaw (3)tom green, This soupy
rice, a staple dish for infant fceding, had intcresting socio-
cconomic connotations. It was served as a 1ign luncn to
cooperative farm-workers to be followed at the day's end by a
real meal. It was also '"dclicate" food, suitabic for the sick,
for city-people, for those who did not toll with their hands
and backs, Consequently, when this man ate this "delicate
food" more often, he was ccnsclously or unconsciously serving
notice on the cormunity that he was not geing to do farm work
any more, for (3,khaaw (3)tor could not possibly have sus-
tained a farmeris strength. Caustic villagers hinted that he
was putting on airs,

   
 

Among conditions ian which some change from the usual
diet was found were pregnancy, post parturition and lactation.
Relatively few foods were generally considered to be tabooed
under any of these conditrLons, but many women preferrcd to
limit intake to "safe! focds if therc were any possibility that
certain foods might cause harm.

Information was obtained from 42 mothers about the food
they ate during the post-partum rest period. Two said they
ate as usual, but for the remainder, thc diet was considerably

 

l, Literally "beautiful rice." For method of cooking,
see p. 33.
4g

curtailed. About half atc soupy rice rather than rice as
usually prepared. All atc fish, but over half ate salted
fish only, and about onc-fourth atc fresh fish only. Rice
and fish wercg apparcitly the only foods considered safe by
all of these mothers. The only other food eaten by half or
more of them was banana of the (4)nam-(4)waa variety, baked
bananas being commonly specificd. Vegetables, when they
werc eaten, ware usually in (L)kacacng (1)liang, a broth
made with dricd fish, and reputed te be valuable for milk
stimulation. In Bang Chan, the inflorcsccnce of banana was
commonly used in making this product, but other vegetables
were favored by some. When asked what foods they considered
good for a woman who had rccently borne a child, no mother
knew of any such food, but the list of foods mentioned as
being bad for the mother during thc post-partum rest period
included more than a dozen items mentioned from 1 to times
each: egg, swects, bcef, vegetables, meat, pork, poultry,
fresh fish, sour tasting foods, jackiruit, mangoes, fruits
of all kinds, and glutinous rice.

Fear of illness from cating incompatible foods after
child birth was razher strongly expressed by many informants,
even by some who kncw of Chinese customs which were different
from the ancient Thal customs. Some also knew that foods
which were customarily Jorbidden to the woman who had her
child at hcme in the village, were not forbidden at the
government ncealth and maternity center at Minouril,

The 45 mothers who were intervicwad during lactation,
but after work had hecca resumed, atc more nearly the usual
diet than was the case during the post-partum rest period,

As in pregrancy, tiie mothers apparently had no notion of
special dietary needs during lactation, but foods considered
undesirable during lectation were mentioned 27 times. The
list includ=d 12 kinds of food, and fcur attributes of food,
i.e, sour anil het tastes. fernented foods and raw foods. No
food was considered harmful by a majority of mothers, the one
which occurred most frequently, jackfruit, being mentioned by
8 only of the 45 informants.

Reasons were seldom advanced for considering various
foods unsuitable for mothers or children. During pregnancy,
the hot-tasting focds. l.e. those mace with chili, were sald
by one informant to injure the baby's complexion. When asked
at what age a child cculd have adult focd, mothers might say
at one or two years, but often spascified without giving a
reason, that the child cculd have anything but the hot-tasting
foods. A reason given for omitting jackiruit from the diet
during lactation was that it would causc diarrhea in the baby.
One informant said that if a mother nursing a young baby, 1
or 2 months old, ate fresh vegetables, the baby would, have
diarrhea. Some informants sald the "fragrant banana"~ caused

BN U.S

l, The type of banana most familiar to people in the
United States.
 

46

constipation in infants, others that it caused diarrhea, whether
eaten directly by the infant or by the mother,

The belief that eggs would cause dental caries, and
should therefore be omitted from children's diets, was ex-
pressed by the mother in a poorly nourished family. The possi-
bility that such ideas arose from unwillingness to spend much
money on food for a child has already becn noted (see p. 42),

Information on food suitable in illness was obtained
only incidentally. The Thai did not appear to have a consis~
tent theory as to the cause of diseasc (Sharp et al, 1956,

p. 489), and residents of Bang Chan did not seem to associate
any of their illnesscs with contaminated food or water.
Choice of food in illness was probably associated in some in-
stances with the idea that the body is compcsed of the four
elements: wind, water, fire and earth, and that sickness re-
sults from or is a symptom of Imbalance in the proportions or
arrangement of these elements, Thus the "fragrant banana" and
eggs, because of their "cooling effect," were said to be for-
bidden in measles, A chllid who was getting measles was re-
stricted to rice and dricd fish, In ccntrast the small
rather flavorless banana, designated (3)klnaj (Ynan- (4jwaa,
was sald to have no cooling effect" and was considered an
acceptable food in illnesc, as well as for newborn infants,

In one instance, when a patient had been teken to the
hospital with severe diarrhea, a nurse instructed other family
members not to eat ices, syrup (see p. 36;, or raw vegetables,
nor to drink unboiled water, The informant whc told us about
this offered no reason for these precautions, These foods
were simply "forbidden" to the family of a patient with severe
diarrhea.

~
Cy
~

“a

Notions as to vhat is fortunate or unfortunate may also
affect agricultural processes. The many ccremonles agsoclated
with culture and use of rice have been mentioned (pe 42). The
idea that a papaya tree growing near the house was "unlucky!
was attributed to Thai by a young Thal Moslem in Bang Chan.
When we commented on the papaya tree near his frent door, he
said the papaya tree dies casily and does not like water, but
his was planted on high ground, According to this informant
few villagers would be willing to grow papaya trees near the
house. He considered the nca-speciric threat of harm as un-
reasonable, though he said that if specific harm were said to
result, he would be concerned about it. The midwife at Min-
buri Health Center sald that she urged each woman who came
there for delivery to have morc banana, mango and papaya trees
planted for home use. Before raising of papayas can be suc-
cessfully encouraged, however, the idea that papaya trees
bring back luck must bec overcome.
47

FOOD IN CONNECTION WITH FESTIVITIES AND CEREMONIES

 

A discussion of food habits in Bang Chan would bec in-
complete without somc description cf ceremonies ( (1)ngaan)?t
which dominate the village scene during the dry, post-harvest
season. These events are of interest in connection with food
habits because of 1) the prominent place that food occupies
in them, 2) the cultural significance and relatively large
cost, both of which must be taken into account in any plans
for dietary improvement and 3) the possible influence of
differences in food habits at the cercmonial scason and of
problems of sanitation incident to large-scale food prepara-
tion on the nutrition and health of village residents.

The season for ceremonies and festivities opened with
the harvest rites to the Rice Goddess and clesed with the be-
ginning of Buddhist Ient in mid-July, The big occasions were
cremations, ordinatio~as into the Buddhist priesthcod, weddings,
and rites ror cutting of the topknot= or homage-to-the=
teacher. Smaller family celebrations might mark such events
as the raising and dedicating of a house, the return of a son
from the army, or even public events such as the completion
of a road or a bridge. Whatever the focal activity, a gala
meal was served first to priests and then to guests,

Offering food to priests brought merit, which ensured
happiness in later rebirths (sce pr. 9). Bccause the greater
the number of priests served, the grecter the merit, people
were spurred to put on as large an affair as they could
afford, Moreover, a person was judged throughout the commun-
ity by the abundance and quality of the food served daily and
at festivities. Thus, there was reason to make a (l)ngaan
as opulent 2s poseivie, tutu celebraticns of every degree
occurred in Bang Chan, from lavish feasts to simple cere-
monies,

1. £ignificantly the same Thal word is used for work
and for ceremony.

2. Topknots, formerly worn by all Thai children, used
to be cut ritually at thc time of puberty. In Bang Chan, the
3 ” + 2 Ce] 4
growing of a topknot had hecome primarily an attempt to im-
prove a child's health. Tew school age children worc top-
knots, They were usually cut carlier than puberty.

3. A person who had received specialized knowledge
from a teacher gave thanks annually in a ceremony, to which
those who had profited by this knowledge were obliged to
come and/or contribute. Thus, all the patients of a tradi-
tional medical practitioner helped him to honor his teacher.
 

48

The actual ritual of these ceremonies did not take a
great deal of time although it was important. Most of the
time and effort went into preparing and serving food. Even a
small celebration involved cooperative cffort among relatives
and friends, For every cvent, the Buddhist altar in the home
was decorated and cfferings were made to the house-spirit. A
big cremation might require planning in detail for years ahead:
invitations to priests and rclatives in distant parts of the
country; hiring an orchestra and obtaining ceremonial gear.
For the largest events, when the guest lists ranged upward to
60 or so priests and HOO other guests, one borrowcd the hun-
dreds of trays, dishes and bowls owned by the temple, No
rental fee was charged for these, but such items had to be re-
turned the next day, clean, and damaged articles replaccd or
paid for, As the day or days drew near, boat-lcads of fresh
provender werc bought at big markets, and organized cooperative
cooking went on under the direction of a competent person,
usually onc of the "professional" cooks of the village. The
day before one ordination, 33 women were seen preparing vege-
tables, fish and soup; 13 others were making 7 kinds or des-
serts; about 50 others of both sexes werc at different tasks,
the men in particular ccoking Chinese noodles, grating coco-
nut, stirring, stoking fires, The picture was one of rows of
stoves, pots so large they were stirred with a boat paddle,
buckets of sugar, eggs by the hundreds, a hired generator to
run a mechanical coconut=-grater. On this occasicn two meals
were served, At another sgiendid (1l)ngaan, the priests were
fed three meals, other guests up to eight meals, over a period
of two and one-half days. Workers had reccived additional
mcals beforchand.

The banquet comprised rice and many dishes not met with
in daily fare: Chinese noodles; "with-ricce! dishes of scveral
kinds, rich in fish, mcat and vegetables: for example, fried
chicken with internal organs, garilc and pepper; fried pork
with mung bean; (2)mii (a fried vermicelli) with fish, vege-
tables, and a tomato sauce; many different desserts made of
eggs, rice flour, glutinous rice, agar, coconut and coconut
milk, sugar, sweet potato, dried green beans; flowers served
in syrup, fresin fruit such as watermelon; iccs and coffec.

In Appendix A, p. 102 is a list of foods bought for an
annual homage-to-the-teacher rite, It is the ncarcst approxi-
mation to a quantitative rccord of food for a ceremony that
the research group obtained. The prominence of purchased
foods, espccially of flesh focds, is noteworthy.

On the great day, the priests werc served first, either
at 7 a.m, or 11 a.m., or both, always at least in part by the
host, who sat and chatted with them, No onc else ate until
43

the priests had finishedt. The trays of food from which each
guest served himself were bountiful, but it was not proper to
eat very heartily, lest the Lost suifer the shame of running
out of food. If there were a dramatic show or movie at night
it was open to the public. In one casa 2000 people attended.
At that time eight commercial venders turned up to sell
coffee, soft drinks, ices and other foods. Venders came to
every large ceremony, and were heavily patronized, At the
end of a (l)ngaan, the sponsors felt satisfaction and secur-
ity. Where there was plenty of food to take home, the success
was even greater, An earthy compliment was, "the fields were
full of feces,"

In addition to the banquet were ceremonial offerings of
food to spirits and ritual food sometimes consumed as a
sacrament. For each ceremony, appropriate selections were
made from a specific list: a cooked pig's head, or at least
a slice of cooked pork; two kinds of sweetmeats, red ( (2)kha-
(5)nom {(2)tou (l)deeseng) and white ( (2)kha- (530m (3) tom
(5)khaaw); a cooked #ish, usually (1)plaa (3)chauaun, with
its head and tail; a green coconut with its coconut water; a
bunch of bananas either cof the (3)kluaj (¥)nam-(+)waa or
(3)kluaj (%)nam varieties; a hard-boiled egg, usually duck;
and liquor,.< Other kinds of sweets, fruit, sugar cane, items
for betel chewing, cniclien, salt, and rice might appear. As

these ceremonies were thought to be auspicious, purifying,
therapeutic and protective, they were most elaborate at the
great (1l)tham-(l)khwan (soul-strengthening) cersmony, at
house-raisings and at rites to locel guardian spirits. The
necessity of these ceremonies explains why when public struc-
tures vere raised, a portion of the pablic funds were used
for a repast., In Dang Chan when donations for a new school

1, Other prirrities in service might be observed; for
example, at a celebration preceding ordination the priest-
candidates were served next, At one small affair, when 11
pricsts came to a home to conduct a service for a disabled
old man who could not go to the temple, this elder was
served after the priests, then the research group who counted
as visiting digailteries, and finally the other family members,
with the women who prepared the food, and the children, eat-
ing last. The general sequence prescribed by etiquette was:
priests should be served before anyone else, old before the
young, the meles before females, percons with high status
such as teachers and ceremoniallists before low, urban before
rural. Those who cooked and served came last of all. When
the number of participants was large, guests might be served,
as they arrived, over a period of hours,

2. The presence of meat, fish and alcohol is this
ceremonial food reflected non-Buddhist elements in Thai
culture, and should not be viewed as a gross violation of
Buddhist precepts.
50

bullding warranted buying the foundation materials, so that
volunteer labor was solicited for their installation, some of
the money went into food, despite additicnal donations of
food. This was in no way misappropriation, Helping to cook
was as important as helping to dig the holes,

The spirit-offering, or the portions eaten by a partic-
ipant as a sacrament, were actually tiny bits of each food,
Afterward, the entire lay-out, pork, sweeimeats and all, was
eaten. Because all this was holy food, it was felt to be
especially strengthening, so was usually given to children,
but might he eaten by family members and occasionally, priests,
The pork was cut up and eaten with a hot sauce, or put into a
"with-rice'dish. It was especially appropriate with liquor.

The use of food ritually was not limited to the ceremon-
ial season nor to big cvents, The same purposes underlay the
use of a hard-boiled egg eaten in the ceremony that was de-

signed to restore a child "sick from temporary loss of its
soul," and in another verfcrmed in order to wean a baby.

The benefits of a (1)ngean accrued to cvery participant
down to the last worker and contributor according to the degree
of assistance, With status in thls and in later lives at
stake, no one hesitated tc plunge into debt or even to sell
land. For the sake of eccnomy two different ceremonies might
be performed on the same day, for example a child's toplnot
cutting at a daughter's wedding .d The saving was in tine and
expense for food preparation, but such multiple ceremonies
were performed less often than one might expect.

One assistance in the financing was that every invited
guest made a contribution, customarily 5 to 10 baht, which
helped defray the costs. In 1552, housechcld heads reported
these contributinns as totalling from 20 to 1,000 baht, with
an average of 243 for the vear (Janlekha, 1955). Of 96 house-
hold heads who provided information cn special. expenses during
the 5-year period March, 1948 through February, 1953, 36 had
given (1l)ngaan wih net expenditures (costs minus contribu-
tions) ranging frem -102 to 15,000 baht, The average net cost
was 4,361 baht (Jenlekha, 1955). These figures might repre-
sent a single (1l)agaan or several events,

 

1, Every desired ritual could be carried out at little
cost. Thus a priest-~candida%te whose father was dead, was in-
cluded in the pre-ordination festivitics planned for a friend;
and on one occasion five bodies were cremated at the same
ceremony, which was sponsored by the kin of one of the deceased,

2. The -10 meant that contributions exceeded the cost.
51

Some information as to the cost in baht of the larger
ceremonies held in 195%, and their scale, was obtained from
the school teacher's diary. Examples follow:

Ordination: Total cost 8,000, including food 1400,
liquor 800, Guests contributed 4000,

 

Top~knot_ tonsure: Total cost 1550, including new
utensils 550; 6 priests fed; each priest
given 12 baht; 12 (2)pin-(l)toos filled to
take to tlie temple; 100 duck eggs donated,
and 300 baht received from 30-40 guests.

Crematiohl: Total cost 40,0002, including about 10,000
for food; 61 vriests fed3. About 500
guests contributed 4377.

Homage~to-the~teacher ritual:
A: Total cost 715, including food 565 and
liquor 150; %0 tang (800 liters) fish and
3 tang Chinese noodles, donated.
B: Total cost, 11,0007,

 

Wedding : A: Thai Buddhist: Total cost 5000,
Guests gave 2300,
B: Rite of forgiveness after elopement:
a meal, with 5 bottles of liquor,
C: Moslem: 2 buffalo siaughvered.
400 guests.

Arranged marriages could be large merit-malking affairs,
with a huge procession from one house to the other of twenty-
four "pairs" of specified foods, i.e. two bearers each of
sugar cane, fruits, sweetmeats and other things. At more
modest weddings and the rite of forgiveness for a couple who
had eloped, food might
cluding the three essen
alcohol.

Lfrer from the usual fare only by in-
ials of a wedding: pork, chicken and

A
C
T

Increased conswaption of alcoholic beverages during the
ceremonial season was indicated hy the sales of one local

rrr ms

 

l. Cremation was the last of several rites at death.
Private 7-day, 30-day and 100-day rites were held, when
priests came to the home to chant and to ke feasted.

2. With cooperative assistance from well-situated
relatives in Bangkok,

3. The whole chapter of priests from Wat Bang Chan
was always included at cremations, and often others from a
distance.

4, See list of food purchased, Appendix A, pp. 102-103.
 

52

storekeeper: about 800-900 liter bottles per month during
the 3 months dry season as compared to about 350 bottles per
month during the 9 wonths of the rice season, :

Moslems never served liquor at their weddings, crema-
tions, and other auspicious events. Moslem residents occa-
sionally attended Buddhist .(l)ngaan in spite of dietary pro-
scriptions that Buddhists did not observe.,+ A medium (spirit-
valist) commented however that because pig's head was essen-
tial for her homage-to-the-teacher rites, some Moslem sick
persons preferred to go to the Buddhist temple for treatment.
There the priest-practitioner could afford to set up a separate
kitchen for his Moslem patients, and so spare them the dis-
tress of confronting pork. To one blg ordination Moslem
guests brought their own food. Buddhists came somewhat more
often to Moslem ceremonies,

We do not have enough information to appraise the nutri-
tional significance of food eaten at ceremonies, Some indi-
viduals got a great deal of it, others very little. One must
remember that the (1l)ngaan was not a public but a private
event at home, to which guests came on invitation. Although
cremations and the teacher-rites of priest-practitioners were
held at the temple, and so had a semi-public character, no one
who was not invited preseated himself for food. Cf the par-
ticipants, the working group undoubtedly received the most
food; they were there the longest time, had regular meals,
tastings and snacks throughcut the (l)ngaan meal itself, This
group comprised the host, co-sponsors and their immediate kin;
other relatives and friends wio were asked or who volunteered
to help, The feeling was, if one were "very fond" of the
host, one volunteered to cook, If less clcse, one was invited
as a guest, but made the usval cash donation. Sociable per-
sons combining skill and energy were invited often and volun-
teered often, hence spent many cays al cercmcnles. Young un-
married men and vomen were asized and liked to be asked to
work, for such occasions offered a great chance for fun and
flirting.

Different degrees of participation may be ectimated
from Janlekha's (1955) figures for reported contributicns
ranging from 30 to 1000 baht in a year, Since a contribution
of 5 to 10 baht per (1l)ngaan was customary, the villager with
the lowest reported contribution probably attended from 3 to
6 ceremonial occasions. Attendance at 100 or more (l)ngaan
is unlikely, hence the villager who gave as much as 1000 baht
probably made larger contributions per (l)ngaan,

What sort of persons or groups in the village were in-
vited as guests? Every host's list included his older

l. Moslems were said to resist army service because
they were afraid they would have to eat pork.
relatives, his other kin and friends according to bonds of
affection and respcct. Certain priests of pleasing person-
alities, wide acquaintance or kinship in the community, or
of valued skills, were invited more often than others, as
vere prominent clders and hamlet headmen. An invitation
usually went only to the elder couple in a family. It did
not automatically include the children. If married sons or
daughters vere invited, they were asked separately. Poor
individuals were included only in the festivities of their
close kinfoll, their immediate neighbors, maybe their own
hamlet headman, or persons to whom they were obligated. Un-
less they were aged, their presence was validated only by
hard work. Reciprocity was a factor, for one who could not
reciprocate presumably would not be asked, nor would he vol-
unteer. The few who were "anti-social" for whatever personal
reason rarely attended.

Most members of the working group and guests left at
home thelr children of such age as to require watching.
Nursing bables might Le there, hung in a hammock, Though
the children who ran cxcitedly about seemed numerous, most
of them were the children, grandchildren, nieces and nephews
of host, co-spcnscrs and relatives, so could not be excluded.

To sum up, thosa who shared least in the diet of the
ceremonial season wore the dependent children, i.e. up to
the age cf 6 or so, the less gregarious, and the poor who had
no way to reciprocate, Children from 7 to adolescence shared
in a limited way, attending (1l)ngaan of their oun close kin
or of a geographically close neighbor, Parents sometimes
took snacks from the feast home to the children. On the
other hand, persons of prestige and popularity, especially
if aged, were asked frequently,

Doubtless for thcse who attended many (1l)ngaan, the
food eaten during the ceremonial scascn differed consider-
ably from the usual family farce. Ve have no way of knowing
whether 1t was better than usual because of a larger intake,
for instance, of porl: and meat in general, or whether the
total nutritive value was less satisfactory because of in-
creased consumption of "empty calories" in the form of sugar
and alcohol,

During the (1l)ngaan season tiie home meal schodule was
frequently disrupted in the families of the participants,
The maln cook might be absent, too tired, or too full to feel
like cooking a big mcal at home. In anticipation of a feast,
preparation of the usuval brealifast or dinner or both might be
abandoned, with reliance on a few snacks for the stay-at-
homes to add to thelr rice. Thus the food intake of family
members who did not attend the ceremonials might be adversely
affected.

One other aspect of (1l)ngaan which should be mentioned
5k

in connection with food and health is the opportunity for con-
tamination of food, The villagers did not associate sanitation
with health, hence the hazards of a community meal which many
persons helped to prepare were many. Two incidents observed
the day before an ordination in early April, will illustrate.
In the final stage of making Chinese noodles, rice flour paste
was extruded through a perforated disk into an enormous pot of
boiling water. When done, the product was removed with a fish
net, and plunged into the canal to cool, after which women
helpers spread it out on banana-leaf covered trays. Dishes
were also washed before use in the canal, which was then too
low for boats. Since, however, many people drank untreated
canal water at this season (see p. 28), the added hazards for
the participants caused by these procedures may have been
slight.

In summary, food plays a major role in ceremonies and
festivities, which are concentrated in the 3 months'dry season.
Proposals for dietary improvement in Beng Chan must take into
account not only the possibie effects of the (l)ngaan season
on the total nutrient intake, and on opportunity fcr exposure
to contaminated food, but also the importance of these affairs
from the standpoint of merit and prestige, and the relatively
great financial burdens which villagers therefore undertake
because of them.

QUANTITATIVE DIETARY STUDY: FOODS EATEN AND ESTIMATED
NUTRITNT INTAKE OF SELECTED FAMILIES IN BANG CHAN

Procedure

Selection of the Sample

Medical inspection designed primarily to discover pos-
sible signs of nutritional deficiency was carried out in ad-
vance of the family dietary study. The suggestion of Grant
(1948) that matched groups, of contrasting economic or other
status be studied, appeared to be appropriate to the situation
in Bang Chan. Our hope was to be able to select from the ran-
dom sample of families given medical inspection (Hauck, 1956)
a group of families (A) in each of which several members had
clinical signs which might be evidence of malnutrition, and a
group of families similar in age and sex distribution (B) in
each of which the members were largely or wholly free from
such signs.

When the medical inspection of the random sample was
complete, however, too few of the families were found to meet
our criteria for inclusion in Group A, i.e. the group of appar-
ently less well nourished families, Additional families for
59

this group were located by checking the list of school chil-
dren, all of whom had been examined, for instances in which
2 or 3 children in one family had signs possibly indicative
of malnutrition. The remaining members of their families

~ yere then examined, Families appropriate for Group B were
chosen from those in the random sample.

Note that the groups for inclusion in the weighed
dietary study were selected on the basis of apparently con-
trasting nutritive status. They did not represent a random
sample of village families, although 7 of the 11 families
included in the dietary study were in the random sample
chosen for the medical inspection. In the absence of recom-
mended dietary allowances for Thal, study of food intakes of
two such groups seemed likely to yield more useful informa-
tion than would be obtained from a dietary survey of a random
sample of the population.

The groups chosen for study included 11 households, 6
in Group A and 5 in Group B, with 30 members in each group,
paired so far as possible according to age and sex. When
the survey was begun, however, 2 additional members were
found in the households in Group A and 7 additional members
in Group B, These were relatives and hired helpers who re-
mained in the households throughout the survey year. The
field worker who carried out the dietary study rearranged the
matching plan somewhat, so that 32 reasonabiy well matched
pairs were obtained (Table 6). In planning this rearrange-
ment, the observer had in mind pairing persons of similar
size, so far as possible, in addition to pairing by sex and
approximate age.

Estimation of Caloric and Nutrient Allowances

Because of the 5 additional unmatched persons in Group
B, males aged 23, 15 and 4 years, and females aged 79 and 82,
some means was sought of checking the validity of comparing
calculated per capita food and nutrient intakes for the two
groups. By selecting matched groups differing in apparent
nutriture, we had hoped to avoid comparing calculated nutrient
intakes with an arbitrary standard, but comparison of esti-
mated per capita nutrient needs of the two groups appeared to
provide one means of checking the probable comparability of
our groups, even though their members were not all matched as
originally planned. No nutrient allowances had been proposed
for Thai, however, so Nicholls' (1951, p. 315) allowances for
people in the tropics were modified by taking into account
information in Recommended Dietary Allowances of the National
Research Council, Food and Nutrition Board (1953) and FAO
recommendations concerning caloric requirements (FAO Committee
on Caloric Requirements, 1950). The resulting basic table of
allowances for Thal people in Bang Chan (Table 16, p. 10W is
conservative, and probably represents something like a
56

Table 6. Persons in the Two Groups of Families in the Dietary
Survey, Matched According to Age and Sex,
So I'ar As Possible

 

 

 

 

 

Gr oup A Group B
(6 families, 32 persons) (5 families, 37 persons)
Code Number Sex Age Age Sex Ccde Number
521 M 63 64 M 713%
621 M 52 53 M 201
995 M 50 L8 M 601
001 M 41 L.2 M 753.
981 M 38 39 M 731
971 M 30-33 25 M 603
523 M 23 20 1 605
623 M 3 2 M 733
522 F 0 9 F 912
622 r hol Lo Mls 2 703
996 F LL LL F 602
992 F 37 38 F 732
982 F 33 3% F 752
905 F 31, 31 Fe 704
525 r 20< 22 PF 60%
986 M 152 15 M 606
309 M 12 13 M 75k
206 M 11 12 M 485
184 M 10 10 M 755
153 M 103 13 Mey 3 905
266 M 10 7 M 167
524 M 2 6 M 733
483 F 13 15 r 702
320 F 12 1 r 229
130 F 10 10 r 128
107 F 8 8 F 180
187 Tr 7 7, ne 706
997 F 83 16 F3 753
983 F 6 6 Fe 707
98% F 34 4 Mt 756
972 M 1 2 M 735
985 M 3 moo, 3 mo, M,, ) 757
23 ME 709
82 Ft 758
79 m2, WH 708
15 MH 714%
in it 73%
l. Not matched by sex.
2. Extra persons who were not in groups as selected.

3 Not matched by age. In the case of the 10 and 13
yr. old boys, actual body sizes were comparable.
4. No corresponding person in Group A.
57

nutritional floor for this population, beneath which mainten-
ance of health cannot be assumed, From this table, allow-
ances were estimated for persons of each age and sex, for
Groups A and B (Table 17, p.10%. Estimates were made for
each quarterly period or Round, during which each family was
visited once, and these were averaged to obtain mean per cap-
ita allowances for each group for the year (Table 18, p. 108.
In each group, one woman was in late pregnancy during the
third Round, and a new infant had been added to each group in
the fourth Round, Since young infants in Bang Chan are given
little more than mother's milk, allowances for the fourth
Round were adjusted to account for an additional nursing
mother, but not for the infant itself, Differences in esti-
mated per capita allowances for Groups A and B were trivial
(Table 18, p.108), hence we felt justified in comparing the
estimated food and nutrient intakes of the groups as orig-
inally planned, even though Group B contained 5 persons not
matched with persons in Group A.

Method of Collecting Data

 

The procedures we planned to use were first pretested
in several households to give the observer experlence and to
be sure that the method would actually work under conditions
in Bang Chan, Tollowirg the prevest, each family chosen was
told in a preliminary interview, what the observer wished to
do, and in what ways family members would be expected to
cooperate (Appendix C, pe. 109. All familles that were asked
to participate in the study consented. They were not noti-
fied in advance just when the observer would visit, Observa-
tions on each family included food intake for a 24-hour
period, Y4 times during the year: twice during the rainy
season, and once each during the cool and the hot, dry
seasons.

Survey days were planned so as to avold special festli-
vals when food preparation might be unusual. Six of the 4h
survey days fell on (1)wan (4)phra, the weekly holy day. The
families visited on (1l)wan (4)phra did not, however, take
food to the temple on those days, hence food preparation and
consumption was probably not unusual,

Alternate visits to the families in Groups A and B were
planned so that seasonal variations in food supply would not
be apt to account for any observed differences in food intake.
Again, our plan could not be fully carried out. Occurrence of
cooperative transplanting and other interfering circumstances
made some modifications in schedule necessary. Since the ob-
jective was to learn about the usual family food intake, the
study was not carried on when several members of the family
vere away from home, or when the participating family was
preparing to feed neighbors who were helping with farm work.
In such a case, the field worker would go to the nearest
58

participating household which had not been visited during that
Round of the study, The order and dates of visits to Groups A
and B, data from which w2re used in calculating food and nu-
trient intakes are shown in Table 7, During three pariods of
about one month each all visits were to families in Group A,
hence some differences in the use of foods between the two
groups might be attributed to the order of visits.

Table 7. Order and Dates of Visits to Households Participating
in the Dietary Studyl

 

 

 

 

House= House ~

Round Date Group hold Round Date Group hold
No. No.

I May 26, '53 A 67 III Nov. 26, '53 A 67
June 4, 153 A 222 Dec. 3, !'53 A 222
June 11, '532 A 2 Dec. 10, !'53 A 2
June 2%, '53 4A 12 Dec, 17, 53, B 2l
July 2, '53 BD 21 Dec, 21, '532 B 23
July 8, !53 B 23 Jan. 7, 'S% A 103
July 16, '53 A 103 Jan. 14, '54% A 12
July 23, '%3 B 16 Jan. 18, 54 B 16
July 31, 'S3 B 2 Jan, 23, '5% PB 25
Aug. 6, '53 B 20 Feb, MW, 'S+ B 20
Aug. 13, '53 A 215 Feb, 10, '54% A 215

II Aug. 27, '53 A pep IV Feb. 18, '542 A 67
Sep, 3, '53 A 2 Feb. 25, '54+. A 222
Sep. 10, '53 A 67 Mar, &, '54e a 2
Sep, 24%, 153 B 21 Mar. 9, '5% B 23
Oct. 1, '532 BR 23 Mar. 18, 'S% B el
Oct, 15, '53 A 103 Mar. 24, '5% A 103
Oct. 22, '532 4 12 Apr. 1, 'S% A 12
Oct, 29, '53 B 25 Apr. 5, 'S5% B 16
Nov. 5, '53 B 20 Apr. 25, '5% B 25
Nov, 12, '53 A 215 Apr. 30, '54% B 20
Nov. 19, '53 B 16 May 8, 'sh A 215

 

l, Two visits, data from which could not be used due to
abnormal circumstances, are not included.

2. (l)wan (4)phra, the Buddhist holy day.
59

On the basis of experience during the pretest, the ob-
server began the 24-hour period of observation with an un-
announced visit in the afternoon, in time to see the prepara-
tion for the evening meal, This proved to have several
advantages. A householder whose home had been visited at the
evening meal, and who anticipated the observer's return before
breakfast, could restrain the dog, if necessary; or the home-
maker might postpone washing the rice until the observer
arrived to weigh it. Without such cooperation on the part of
the homemaker, our records would have been much less complete
than they were. Since few village families had clocks, the
time when the homemaker said she would start breakfast was
always approximate.

Foods were weighed in both the raw and cooked states,
and foods given to priests, fed to animals, left over, etc.
were weighed so that the actual amount eaten by the family
could be calculated. Previously cooked foods included in
the survey meals were weighed and raw weights estimated from
information obtained in other observations. If possible,
snacks were weighed, School children and others who ate
snacks away from home were asked to report them to the obser-
ver, and weights were estimated. The guides prepared for
the observer are included in Appendix C, pp. 110-111. Data
were recordsd on the schedule, shown in Appendix C, PD. 116-120.
and essential information such as the weights of food, after
allowing for weight of containers, was later transferred to
the shorter form shown in Appendix C, Pe 121. As examples
some of the data obtained on 3 of the 4 survey days are
shown, Examples of notes on procedures in food preparation
are included with these records. For examples of notes on
the food intake of individuals see Appendix A, p. 97.

Calculation of Nutritive Value of the Diets

 

Figures from the original records were transferred to
the Form for Calculating Raw Weights of Foods Eaten (Appendix
C, p» 121), and the edible portion of each raw ingredient con-
sumed was calculated by adjusting the gross amounts according
to the use made of the cooked food and the number of family
members present. Procedures followed are outlined in Appendix

C, pp. 113-1151

Few analyses of Thal foods had been made in Thai labora-
tories, and most of these were for proximate composition only.
Therefore, data from other available sources were used. Since
Handbook No. 34 of the United States Department of Agriculture
"Composition of Foods Used in Far Eastern Countries" (Leung

mn

 

1. Many of the calculations were checked by Mrs. Mary
Barkley Campbell, who made independent use of the data.
 

60

et al, 1952) included more of the foods used than any other
table, it was used as the primary source of information.

Other food value tables (», 92) were used to supplement it,
When two or more values were found for a given food, the more
suitable one was selected on the basis of the nature of the
food and the method of preparation for sampling, i.e, whether
this method was similar to procedures used in Bang Chan. While
this study was in progress Tables Showing Food Valuss for Cal-
culation of Diet Records compiled by the "ood and Drug Division,
Department of Health (1953) and intended for use in Thailand,
were published, These tables, however, included few analyses
made in Thailand, and references were not given to the sources
from which the values were compiled. For these reasons, the
Thai table was used as a supplement only when values could not
be found elsewhere,

 

For convenience in calculation, a table was compiled
which contained the most appropriate values available for all
items of food eaten on the survey days (Sudsaneh, Campbzll and
Hauck, 1954). A list of foods for which no nutritive values
were calculated, for lack of available information, is given
in Appendix C, p. 124 Foods for which values were found else-
where than in tables, or for which values were imputed by the
authors, are listed in Appendix C, pp. 124-125,

Although values for coconut milk were found, they did
not seem to be appropriate for the product as prepared in Bang
Chan. Coconut milk, (Y4)nazm (2)ka=-(4)thi, is a product made at
home from fresh coconuts, and used frequently in preparing cur-
ries and other dishes. [families in Group A used considerably
more water in proportion to coconut meat in making coconut milk
than families in Group B, hence a single set of figures was
not appropriate for hoth groups, Since "expressed coconut
milk" which had been analyzed in Hawalil (Hawaii Agr. Expt. Sta.
Bull, 77, 1936) appeared “oc bz similar to coconut cream,
(5)hua (2)ka=-(4)thi, as prepared in the village, the composi-
tion of coconut milk was estimated by assuming 1t to contain
carbohydrate, protein and fat in the same proportions as "ex-
pressed coconut milk" but to be more dilute (Appendix C, PP. 128-129)

Division of food into various food groups, and foods
included in each, is chown in Appendix C, p.1l26. Tor each
survey day, the adjusted consumption of like foods was added
together and the calculated total intake of each food item
for each household during one 24-hour period was transferred
to the Form for Calculating Nutrien®s in Foods Faten, Tne
nutrient content was then calculated. Two such calculations
are shown (Appendix C, pe. 122). Nutrients availablel per capita

l. Figures used were for the edible portion of raw food,
or the food as used in food preparation, i.e. dry salted
radish, shrimp paste, etc,, with no allowance for cooking
losses.
61

per day were calculated for Groups A and B by Round and for
all survey days (24% days for 6 families in Group A, 20 for

5 families in Group B). The total amounts eaten per capita
per day, of various food groups, and the relative nutrient

contributions of these groups were also calculated.

Results and Discussion

Socio-Economic Situation of the Two Groups of Families Studied

 

General Socio-Fconomic Conditions. ~ In the course of
the study the observers were able to obtain information, both
by inquiry and direct observation, on the economic condition
of the families. Questions about land holdings, the amount
of land farmed, number of working buffaloes owned, number of
priests to whom food was given and sources of income, were
asked during the second Round of the survey, after the par-
ticipants were acquainted with both the field workers and the
procedures, As raw foods were weighed, the observer asked if
they were home grown or prepared, and recorded the cost of
foods purchased,

 

Although our sample was not stratified with respect to
economic condition, the families in Group B, i.e. those
chosen for apparently better nutriture, proved to be more
prosperous than those in Group A (Table 8). With the excep-
tion of Household 222 in Group A, rice production was the
main source of income. Families in Group B had a greater
capital investment in land and buffalo, and worked more land,
having more productive hands per family available. Farm work
was finished sooner, hence members could begin intensive
fishing earlier than in Group A. All children aged 13-15, in
both groups, did light farm work and/or selling in market,
cooking, baby tending and care of buffalo. In all households,
husband or wife or both came from old families in the commun-
ity, hence had extensive kinship relations.

From the viewpoint of parents, the "peak of life" was
the time when children were no longer dependent, but produc-
tive, unmarried workers whose earnings stayed within the
family. Household 16 was such a family, forward looking,
progressive and optimistic. The successful and respected
couple in Household 25 would enter this '"peak of life" situa-
tion in a few years. Household 20 included a widower and his
almost grown daughter living with his younger brother and the
latter's family, and their senile mother, in harmonious
cooperation. Ample land, housing, buffalo and farm labor
combined with other skills, made for good living. In House-
hold 21, two strong, unmarried sons still lived with their
elderly parents, The only poor family, of low status, in
Group B, was Household 23. By great industry, especially in
Table 8.

Summary of IZconomic Conditions of the Two Groups
in Dietary Studies

of Households Participating oN

RW

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Household Land , - Food Coste i No. of
Croup and Mem- Rai Rai | Buf- | “Per Priests
Code No. bers Uorked:@ Owned | falot Total: Cap, | red | Sources of Income
Group A | ! . Labor contractor; hired out as labor;
222 5 0 0 | © i 2.96.0.59, 0 boat repair; fishing; vegetables sold;
i i : canal digging.
12 3 12 0 ' 1 2.70!0.90 0 i Rlce production; occasional work in
i ; Dangkok.
215 5 1h O ‘+ 1 ' 1.59'0.32 O {Rice production; wife, a medium.
67 5 16 6 1 1-0. 2.52'0,50 0 ' Rice production; eggs sold; road jobs.
2 63: 20 GC 2 3.97 0.66 | 3 Rice production; "professional cook".
103 8 + 49 12 5 2.04 0.26 | ol Rice prcduction; eggs, fish, mushrooms
, TT sold; buffaloes raised.
Mean 15.2 © 3.0 . 1.6 2.37.04! C.7
Group EF : ; : ' Rice production; selling fish and
23 g83i 6 0 | 1  1.,56.0.19. 0 vegetables; masseur.
21 Lt 25 25 + 3 | 1.92'0,b8° 3 | Rice production; headman
16 8 L7 4 { 5 © 2.70:0.3%; 2 | Rice production; vegetables, fruit
f i sold; road jobs.
25 8 50 50 3.; 7.971.00, 2 Rice production; eggs, mushrooms sold.
20 9 66 51 11 2.47 0.27 2 Rice production; ceremonialistj doctor;
= eT ‘carpentry: trading; eggs collected and
Mean 33.8 © 34.7 2.61 3.320.845. 1.8 sold.

1. The buffalo belonging to Household 67 died during the year. In Eousenold 20, tae
brother who moved in owned several tuffalo, thus the total for Group B was more than the number
shown. - Iousehold

2, Average cash expenditure per day, in baht. (One baht equalled about 5 cents) Househo

222 received rice as pert cf wages.

3.
4.

Babies born during Round IV vere not included.
served as temple boy and was avay from home much of the time.
Rainy season only, when priests could come by boat;

In Household 23,

a 12-year old scn

counted as 1 in computing average.

 
63

fishing and selling vegetables, they managed to obtain a fair
diet. The father's skill as a masseur was valued especlally
at periods of heavy farm work, after childbirth, and by the
cooks at a ceremonial feast, This brought in from 2 to 12
baht per week,

In Group A, Families 67 and 103 werc at the most diffi-
cult period of life, with young, dependent children, and
housing, land and equipment to be acquired, By great indus~-
try, including egg production from a flock of 60 chickens,
and by severe '"belt-tightening," Household 103 was lifting
itself into a propertied position. The parents in Household
67 were shy. One or the other of the two older children
often stayed home from school to look after the baby, so
that both parents could work. Husband and wife in Household
12 were both very shy, the only ones in the survey group who
were at all reluctant to participate. They seemed ashamed
of limited food. The wife was frequently ill. In Household
222, the 14-year old daughter often gathered and sold vege-
tables at Minburi before school in the morning. She might
nave full charge of the younger children for days at a time.
A daughter who worked as a servant in Bangkok contributed 50
baht per month to this household. In Household 215, the
activities of the wife as medium were predominant, Pay in-
cluded food, often cooked, and the free use of 3% ral of
land, as well as cash, Maintenance of a son in school in
Bangkok cost about 1000 baht per year plus 60 tang of rice.
In Household 2, the elderly wife's services as 'Dboss-buyer
and cook" at ceremonials, and as marriage go-bectween did not
bring in cash, but gifts, clothing and much participation in
feasts,

All families in the survey group were Thai Buddhists,
and 6 of them offered food to priests more or less regularly.
On 17 of the 24 survey days when the observer visited these
households, food was offered, Two of the 5 families that
did not customarily give food to priests, did so on one and
two survey days, respectively. In one case food was offered
to a son who had been recently ordained. Rice was always
included in the food offered, and in 3 of the 20 instances
observed rice only was given. The weight of cooked rice
given by one family in one day ranged from 185 to 1210 grams,
with an average of about 600 grams, In 16 instances, some
cooked food such as fish or vegetable curry was given with
the rice; in one instance fresh pineapple was given,

Cash Expenditures for Food. - Mean total, and per
capita dally cash expenditures for food for survey days, are
shown, by household in Table 3. (See Table 2, p. 23 for
division of food expenditures for Groups A,R) Although cash
expenditures for food varied considerably, the amounts in
all cases were small, and approximated figures obtained by
Janlekha (1955) for 106 households. Larger consumption of
animal products, which were the most expensive 1ltems purchased,
bl

appeared to account in large part for the greater cash ex-
penditurcs of some families than others, Thus Household 25,
with the highest total and per capita cash expenditure for
food among théase 11 families, consumed a larger quantity of
meat than others, and often bought beef, which was the most
expensive ltem purchased, This household bought fruit, meat,
and vegetables from venders almost covery day. They said
"Some do not pay money to buy food, but pick or get it from
the canal or gardens =--this family cannot live like that be=-
cause they come from a rich family and cannot live on poor
food, so most of the money goes for food," The husband said
"I cannot work on poor focd." In Group A, Houschold 12,
which had the highest per capita food expenditure, had little
home produced food, The wife, who went to Rangkok often,
usually bought food when in town. Houschold 2, with a total
cash expenditure for food higher than others, did not have
pork or beef on survey days, but atc morc (13plaa (1)thuu,

a sea fish which is purchased,

Home Production of Frod. -In keeping with the general
pattern in the community, the familics surveyed produced most
of thelr own food,

 

Rice. - The hired laborer received rice as part of his
pay, but all other familics produced thelr own. Seven house -
holds used polished rice exclusively (Table G6). Tne only one
to use home pounded rice in major part was Hoaschold 1C3.
This family lived ncar a little canal which was dry in summer,
so they were using home pounded rice when visited toward the
end of March and in mid-July (Rounds IV and I). When the ob-
server came in January (Recund III), transportation of rice to
the mill by boat was possible, but the family members had
little farm work to do and were willing to spend some time
milling rice, This family, which lived in tne home-milling
area (sec p. 40), took rice to be milled only during the har-
vest season when they were busy, and the level cf the canal
was still high. The familics which used home pounded rice in
minor part did not live in tho home-milling arca, and appar-
ently milled rice at home only when they were unable to get
to the mill by boat,

Fruits and vegetables, - Although the Thal government
has attempted to encourage kitchen gardening, few vegetables
and fruits were produced by the families which cooperated in
the dietary study (Table 10), All families grew bananas, and
certain common ingredients of currics: chilies, bergamot,
galangal and lemongrass. No other plants werc grown by as
many as half of the families studied.

Of the edible plants which grew wild, swamp cabbage was
used by 7 families on 11 of the 44+ survey days. Bamboo shoots,
the white flovers of the ‘lest Indian pea tree and yellow (2)sa~
(5)noo flowers were used by 3 families on one day cach;
65

Table 9, Use of Home-milled and Polished Rice by Households
Participating in the Dietary Study

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

LL
Round of Dietary Studyt
Group
and I | II III | Iv
Cnde Nn, HM2 Pe HM P| HM P| HM P
" = 1
Group A | |
2 - x | x | x
12 x x x | x
67 IX x X | x
| |
103 PX X | X X
215 | X X X X
222 LL IE x | x X
Total No. | 2 L 1 5 i 0 6 1 1 5
Group B | |
16 x x | X | x
20 x z ! x | x
21 x x * *
23 x xX x | %
i ;
25 3 x x | 3
; ( ! 1
Total No. 2 3: 2 4 0 5 0 5

 

1, For dates, see Table 7, p. 58.

2. HM and P stand for home-milled and polished rice
respectively.

truffles were used as snacks on 2 occasions, and (1) bauvaun,
(2)phag (2)tob, lotus stems and lotus seeds, the latter as a
snack, were uscd once each, The two groups of families
appeared to grow fruits and vegetables and to gather cdible
wild plants to about the same extent. Two familles, one in
cach group, raised mushrooms during the period when farm
work was slack.
66

Table 10, ‘List of Edible Plants Grown by thc Two Groups
cf Houscholds Studied

 

on cnt. ——

Number of Families

 

 

Name of plantl oo Group A Group B
Green-and-lcafy vegetables

Basil

Bean, string
Chili

Coral?
(3)Enii=(2)leg?
(4)Khlyb
(4)Ma=-(1)dan
Morinda
(2)8a=(1)daw?

101 HI ONHW
PERRO, Eo

Other vegetables

Bamboo

Calabash

Egg plant

Gourd
(2)Kha=-(1l)cavaun
Mushrooms, straw
West Indlan pea tree

= OW
HE LER

2

Frults

Banana

Guava

Jujube
(4)Ma=-(1)dan
Mango

Manila tamarind
Star gooseberry
(2)Ta-(1l)koo

2
<

LH HOE EON
HEED EO

Spice plants

Bergamot
Galangal
Ginger
(2)Ka=(1l)chaa}j
Lemongrass

NFR
iho 1 via

1, See list, Appendix C, p. 126 for botanical names,

2, Trees
67

Eggs and poultry. - Every household which took part in
the survey raised chickens, and 3 of the 1ll households had
ducks also. In both groups of families, most of the eggs
produced were sold, Home consumption of eggs on survey days
was small.

Fish. = Each family studied had a fish pool. One fam-
ily only, Household 25 in Group B raised tilapia, They began
tilapia culture during the third round of the study, too
late to ascertain how this might affect fish consumption in
the family.

Preservation of Foods at Home. - Home food preservation
was practiced to a very limited extent only, fish products
being the principal ones produced,

 

Dried fish, - Families in both groups salted and dried
fish throughout the year whenever they were available in ex~-
cess of 1lmmedlate needs,

Fermented fish, - In 10 of the 11 households, fermented
fish was prepared. The 6 families in Group A had prepared a
total of 30 kg., and 4 of the 5 families in Group B, a total
of 29 kg. The largest amount prepared in one household, for
one year was 10 kg.

Shrimp paste. - Because shrimp were caught in lnsuffi-
cient quantity, shrimp paste was prepared by only 6 of the
11 families. Four families in Group A prepared a total of
26 kg., and 2 families in Group B prepared a total of 7 kg.
The se amounts were insufficient for thelr needs.

Fishsoy. = One family only, in Group A, prepared fish-
soy. All others in both groups purchased thls product.

Buffalo meat, = During the survey year, the buffalo
belonging to one family died, Some of the meat was used
fresh for curry, and the remainder was salted, dried and sold.

Comparison of Caloric and Nutrient Intakes of the Two Groups
With Each Other and With the Estimated Allowances.

In Table 11, the estimated calories and nutrients avail-
able to the two groups of families, are shown together with
the estimated allowances,

On the average, the number of calories, and amounts of
protein, iron, niacin and ascorbic acid in the diets of per-
sons in Group B, the apparently better nourished group,
approximated or exceeded the conservative allowances. For
Group A, this was true for niacin and ascorbic acid only,
the calories being 11%, protein 15% and iron 21% below the
allowances.
68

Table 11, Comparison of Calories and Nutrients Available to
Groups A and B, with Each Other and with the
Estimated Allowances

Average per capita per day

 

 

 

Estimated amounts
availablel Allowance

Group A Group B Group A Group B

 

 

 

Food energy, calories 1731 2009 1935 1955
Protein, gm 50 59 59 59
Fat, gm 1k 22 - -
Carbohydrates, gm 342 384 - -
Calcium, mg 129 194% 650 650
Phosphorus, mg 847 89 - -
Iron, mg 6.9 8. B.7 8.8
Vitamin A, I.U. 2047 13402 2522 2548
Thiamine, mg 0.68 0.76 0.93 0.96
Riboflavin, mg 0,37 0.28 1,073 1.06
Niacin, mg 11.3 11.5 9.3 g.6
Ascorbic acid, mg 27 23 24 24
Thiamine/caloric ratio 0.39 0.38

Thiamine /non-fat
calorie ratio 0.42 0.42

— re ©

l. Estimates based nn values for edible portion without
allowance for cooking losses. Analyses for a number of common
foods were incomplete (See Tabla 13, Dp. 75).

of
2. No valucs found for flowers, Sesbanla roxburghii,
therefore these are not included.

3. Slightly higher allowance for Group A because of
presence of one more nursing mothcr in this group than in
Group B.,
69

Average intakes of riboflavin were estimated to be
about a third, or lcss, of the allowances, Estimates of cal-
cium intake were, on the average, only 20% of the allowance
for Group A, and 30% of that for Group B., Although the cal-
clum allowances were thought to be conservative, estimated re-
quirements based on calcium balance experiments are believed
by some investigators to reflect usual intake rather than
need, and the extent to which man may adapt to a low calcium
diet 1s still undetermined. Among residents of Bang Chan, no
evidence was noted other than short stature and small bones,
which might suggest a calcium deficiency.

The vitamin A value of diets of both Groups A and B
appeared to be low, Clinical signs possibly associated with
vitamin A deficiency, i.e. xerosis and phrynoderma, occurred
among residents of Bang Chan (Hauck, 1956), and as would be
expected from the method of selection of the two groups, such
skin signs were more prominent among members of Group A than
Group Bs, On this basis one would expect the vitamin A intake
of Group A to be less than that of Group B, whereas the re-
verse appeared to be the case on the survey days; but the
higher estimated vitamin A value for the diets of Group A than
Group B may not represent a real and consistent difference.
The yellow (2)sa-(5)noo flowers, for which no nutrient values
were found, were used rather liberally by some families in
Group B at one season and may have contributed vitamin A value,
Moreover, owing to unavoidable changes in the plan for alter-
nating visits to the two groups of families, those in Group B
were visited more often when the level of water in the canals
was low and the leafy water plants were not avallable, The
unusual intake of a large amount of yellow sweet potato by one
family in Group A on one survey day may also have tended to
distort the picture, Families in Group A, however, used sub-
stantial amounts of sweet basil leaves, whereas in Group B,
this herb was used for seasoning only.

The estimated amount of thiamine available per capita,
before cooking, was 73% of the estimated allowance for Group A
and 79% for Group B. Since over four-fifths of the thiamine
content of the foods used by each group came from rice, and
the thiamine loss when rice is cooked as it was in Bang Chan
has been estimated as 75% or more (Tmangraksatve and Srisukh,
1955) the actual per capita intake of thiamine must have been
below the value of 0.23 mg. per 1000 calories which the Food
and Nutrition Board, National Research Council (1953) con-
sidered to be the minimal requirement. for adults. According
to Nicholls (1951, p. 87), a ratio of Thiamine: DNon-fat
Calories of 0.3 - 0,35 is borderline and too low, and ratios
below 0.3 are assoclated with beriberi-producing diets, That
the dlets of some of these people, as eaten, were in fact
dangerously low in thiamine, is attested by the occurrence of
beriberi and history of beriberi among them, Of the 15 per-
sons, 20 years of age or older in Group A, 7 had knee jerk
70

absent, and in 6 of these, ankle Jerk was absent also, In
Group B, the apparently better nourished group, one adult and
two school boys had knec jerk only absent. In Group A, House-
hold 12, the father, mother and 21 year old son all had both
knee jerk and ankle jerk absent. The son was diagnosed by the
examining physician as having frank beriberi at the time of the
medical inspection. In Household 2, the father and 23 year old
son had both knec jerk and ankle jerk absent, but the mother
had no signs of thiamine deficiency. In Household 67, mother
and father had both knee jerk and ankle jerk absent. The
mother had lost 3 of her 6 children when they were 3 or 4 months
old, with symptoms such as convulsions and voiceless crying,
suggestive of infantile beriberi. When the third child died,
the mother had symptoms of beriberi, and the physician who
conducted the medical inspection considered the death of this
child to be due to infantile beriberl, Clearly the thiamine
content of diets of some of the families studied was inadequate
to meet their needs under varying conditions of activity and
stress, Beriberi was the one frank deficiency disease observed
while these studies were underway in Bang Chan (Ilauck, 1956).

Fat provided only about ¢ to 10% of the calories, Coco-
nut oil contains only about 0.5% of linoleic acid (Anantakrish-
nan, et al,, 1949), but the essential fatty acld content of the
diet as a whole was not estimated.

In summary, although the estimated nutrient inftakes of
Group B were in general more favorable than these of Group A,
the contrast between the two groups was not striking. Perhaps
we should have anticipated this from the fact that the groups
did not present a clear contrast in apparent nutriturc. In
Group A, 19 of the 30 persons examined had a total of 36 poss-
ible signs of nutritional deficiency. In Group B, 8 persons
had a total of 9 such signs. Judging by both the apparent
nutriture of the househcld members, and by their estimated
nutrient intakes, the diets ol both groups vere in need of im-
provement,

Contribution of Food Groups and Certain Common Foods to the
Nutritive Values cf the Diets

on ma -

 

 

Contribution of Food Groups and Individual Foods. - The

 

percentages of tue total calorie and nutrient intakes provided
by various food groups for households in Group A and B are
shown in Table 12.

Rice and other cereals, - Rice was the staple food,
which provided over 4/5 of the calorie intake and morc than
half of the protein for both groups. Much of the difference
in calorie and protein intake of the two groups was due to
the greater rice consumption of Group Be. Rice was also the
1

 

 

 

 

 

Table 12. Percentage of Total Caloric and Nutrient Intakes Provided by Each Food Group
Yamlly Calo- Pro- Carbo- Minerals Vitamins
Food Group group ries tein Fat hydrate Ca P Fe A B1 Ribo. Niacin C
Rice and other cereal A 85 57 23 02 23 75 52 1 82 38 66 -
Home-milled rice 20 14 7 22 8 - 26 13 25
Al11 other 65 43 16 3 15 - 56 25 41
| B 82 5h 16 93 16 75 46 - 8+ 51 6h -
Home-milled rice 9 6 2 10 3 - + 9 13 -
All other 73 48 14 83 13 " 70 42 51 -
Fish and other A 7 37 LO > 3h 18 15 Lt 7 21 28 -
animal foods B 7 Lo 29 - L3 19 15 10 8 29 29 -
Green and leafy A 1 2 1 - 14 1 8 79 2 31 1 25
vegetables B 1 2 1 1 23 1 17 76 2 10 2 38
Other vegetables A 3 3 3 3 15 5 13 15 7 8 3 58
B 2 3 4 2 8 Lt 7 7 5 8 Lt 37
Coconut and products A 2 1 18 1 - - - - - - -
(other than oil) B 3 1 21 1 - - - - - - - -
Fruit A 1 1 1 3 1 2 Z 2 2 1 17
B - - - - 2 1 1 9 1 2 - 23
Fats and oils A 1 - 1k - - - - - - - - -
3 3-29 - = = = - -
Sugar A 1 - - 2 be > 9 - - = 1 =
BE 2 = = 3 y - 1 -  - 1 -~
Miscellaneous and A - - - 1 7 - i - = = =
spices B - - = = Ly - - wi — — - —-
1. Figures rounded to nearest whole number. The dash indicates value less than 0.5%.

Analyses for a number of common foods were
2. Group A included apparently less

nourished families.

incomplete (see Table 13, Do 75).
well nourished families, Group B, apparantly better

Ts
72

most significant source of phosphorus, iron, thiamine, ribo-
flavin and niacin in these diets, Although the calcium content
of rice is 1lgw~, about 23 and 16% of the estimated cal~-

clum content< of diets of Groups A and B respectively came from
the cereal groups. Clutinous rice and various products such

as noodles made of rice flour were eaten occasionally in small
amounts. These and other cereals and cereal products, such as
wheat bread and popcorn contributed little to the total nutri-
tive value of the diets,

Animal products other than pork fat. - Fish and other
foods of animal origin furnished about 2/5 of the protein in
the diets of both groups. From 20 to 30% of the riboflavin
and niacin and substantial amounts of phosphorus and iron were
provided by this food group, also, For families in Group A
these animal products provided substantially more fat than the
group of fats and oils as such, whereas Croup B obtained about
the same amount of fat from these two food groups. The esti-
mated contribution of vitamin A from this group was small,
Specific analyses for most of the varieties of fish used in
Bang Chan were not avallable, however, hence many calculations
were made on the basis of average values for "fat fish," "lean
fish," and "dried fish."

Although a substantial part of the calculated calcium
content of the diets came from animal products, the amounts
were only about 8 and 9% of the estimated allowances for Groups
A and B respectively, Fermented fish are reported to contain
1126 mg. per cent of calcium (Knudson, 1955) but the amounts
eaten were relatively small, Two families only in Group A
used a total of 217 grams of fermented fish on survey days,
and two families in Group B used a total of 608 grams. These
amounts, though they represented servings of only 20 grams per
person for the two families in Group A, and of 36 grams per
person for those in Croup B., nevertheless increased the esti-
mated average calcium intakes sudstantially, so that 43% of
the calcium in diets of Group A, and 347 in diets of Group B,
were provided by animal products, The tiny dried fish which
are eaten whole, were not used by the families studled on any
of the 44 survey days,

On the average, the contribution of animal products other
than fish to the nutricnt content of these diets was small,

1. According to Knudson (1955), additicn of calcium
carbonate to rice during thc milling process was not practiced
in Thailand.

2. No attempt was made to cstimate calcium intake from
betel chewing, although this might be considered a dietary
source of calcium. Six of 19H persons twenty years of age or
older, in Group A, were betel chewers, whereas among 14 persons
over twenty in Group B, 9 chewed betel regularly and one
occasionally.
73

Eggs were eaten occasionally; pork and beef were bought in-
frequently and in small amounts by some families. One family
only, ate chickens; other meats zaten on survey days included
buffalo, frogs, cels and ficld rats.

Vegetables, - More than three quarters of the estimated
vitamin A value of these dicts was provided by green and
leafy vegetables, although the pale yellow sweet potatoes,
eaten in quantity by one family in Group A increased the vita-
min A from other vegetables substantially. The greater use of
swamp cabbage, a wild aquatic plant by families in Group A,
may be explained by the fact that morc visits to this group
occurred when the water level in the canals was relatively
high, Families in Group B, however, used a greater variety
of greens, cspeclally leaves from a number of trees, For
families 1n Group A, sweet basil contributed substantially to
the vitamin A and riboflavin content of the diets, whereas
families in Group B uscd this herb in trivial amounts for
flavoring, No nutrient values were found for lemongrass,
which was used regularly in substantial amounts for flavoring.
Persons in Group B got a greater parcentage of their calcium
and iron from grcen than from other vegetables, whereas those
in Group A obtained as much or more of these nutrients from
other vegetables,

Nearly 3/5 of the ascorbic acid intake of Group A was
provided by other vegetables as compared to 1/4 from green
vegetables, whercas Group BD obtained about cqual amounts o
ascorbic acid from green and other vegetables, Egg plants—,
calabash and white radish wcre most commonly uscd in quan-
tity. Onion, garlic and dried chilics were used dally, but
in smaller amounts, With the exception of one family which
ate a large amount of sweet potato on one survey day, con-
sumption of tubers, i.c, sweet potato and taro, was small and
usually in the form of snacks caten by children, Legumes
were seldom eaten in Bang Chan. Two families had bean sprouts
on survey days, and children occasionally ate mungbeans and
peanuts as snacks,

Fruit. - Although technically a fruit, the coconut does
not rcsemble fruits as a group in its contributions to the
diet, hence coconut and other fruits are treated here as two
sub-groups. Coconut meat, and its products, coconut milk and
coconut cream (Appendix C, p.128), were used almost daily in
the participating households. These coconut products con-
tributed about 1/5 of the total fat of the diet, for Group A,

E.R SSE.

l., Many varictics of eggplant are grown in Thailand.
Three were uscd on survey days: the pea=size variety which
was frequently put in hot curry, a round type which was scrved
raw with chill sauce and a long variety which was cither
panned with a small amount of fat or used in curry.
74
more than fats and oils as such.

Bananas were grown hy all families that participated in
the study, but were eaten only occasionally, primarily as
snacks, Tamarind and lime were used often in small amounts in
making sour curry and chili sauce, and bergamot rind was used
for seasoning, Papaya and mango, both of which are good
sources of vitamin A and C, were each eaten once only during
the survey. The green papaya was used in curry. Fruits are
relatively abundant in Thailand, the year round, yet fruit
made minor contributions to the 'diets of families studied in
Bang Chan.

Fats and oils, - Fats were used in small amounts to pan
fish, meat, eggs and vegetables, and provided about 1/7 of
the total fat in the diet of Group A, and 2/7 for Group B.
Coconut oil, which was less expensive than pork fat, was more
often used in Group A.

Sugar. - Palm sugar was used in small amounts in the
preparation of many '"with-rice" dishes, and occasionally in
snacks, i.e. guava dipped in a mixture of sugar, salt, chili,
mung beans cooked in palm syrup and the like, The amounts
used were small, and the contribution to nutritive value was
slight. By Western standards, the consumption of sugar in
Bang Chan was almost negligible,

Spices. = Spices were commonly used in food preparation,
particularly in hot dishes (i.c, those made with chilies) but
little information on their nutritive value is available

Alcoholic beverages. - In the families surveyed, all men
except the elderly father in Household 21 drank occasionally,
but most of the women did not. The husbands in Households 12
and 67 drank heavily at times, Ilo estimate can be made of the
contribution of alcoholic beverages to caloric intake in these
households.

Summary of Mutrient Contributions of T'oods Commonly
Eaten in Two Srouns or Households, - - The contribution in terms
of calories and nutrients of certain foods used by 25% or more
of the families studied, i.e. by 3 or more of the families on
at least one survey day 1s shown in Table 13, Items celected
for inclusion in this table are those which either made signi-
ficant contributions to the nutrient content of the diets of
Groups A and B respectively, or were major items in terms of
amounts used or frequency of use. I'or certain items used fre-
quently for seasoning, information on nutritive value was too
scant to warrant inclusion in this table. Figures given are
for average consumption per capita per day, based on all per-
sons in the specified groups, and all survey days, Tor items
used by all or most families every day, such as rice, fresh
fish, chili, coconut products, and sugar, the figures repre-~
sent "approximately the usual daily per capita consumption,

 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 13. Contributions in Terms of Calories and Nutrients of Selected Foods Commonly* Eaten by
Groups A and B
Average values per person per day
Fre- 1 Car-
quency Cal- Pro- bohy- Vit. B Nia- Vit.
Foods of Use Vt. ories tein Fat drates Ca P Fe A 1 Ribo. cin C
gm gn gn gm mg mg mg I.U. mg mg mg mg
Group A .
Rice 399 1440 28 3 316 28 é34+ 3.5 (0) 0.54% 0.1% 7.5 (0)
Eggs 9 Lt 8 1 1 0 3 8 0.1 48 0.01 0.01 C 0=
Fish, fresh 3 57 58 10 2 0 19 124 0.6 0 0,03 0.04% 2.4 0
Fish, dried 8 6 12 3 0 0 L 2 0.2 0 0 0.02 0.2 O
Fish, fermented 2 2 2 0 0 1S 0 0 0.01 0
Fishsoy 5 2 0 0 0 0 0 0.1
Shrimp paste 33 3 3 1 0 0 0 0 0.2
Swamp cabbage L 20 3 0 0 1 c 6 0.3 750 0.01 0.01 0.1 4
(2)Phag (2)ka-

(2)cheed 4 3 1 0 0 6 0.1 204 0 C.01 C 2
Sweet basil Lt 4 0 0 1 3 2 0.1 504 0.09 0
Calabash 3 11 2 0 0 0 1 2 0.1 8 0 0.01 8.1 1
Chili, fresh 17 Lt 1 0 0 0 0 0 126 0 0 0 8
Eggplants 10 13 3 0 0 1 2 5 0.1 4 0.01 0,71 0.1 1
Radish, white 5 7 2 0 0 0 C 6 0 1 0 0 0 1
Sweet potato 1 18 22 0 0 3 5 9 0.1 Zz c.02 0,01 0.1 4
Banana 2 3 3 0 0 1 0 1 0 1k 0 0 0 0
Coconut milk> 22 14k 30 0 2 2
Coconut oil 2 15 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 C 0 0 0
Lard - Ly 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sugar, palm 6 22 0 0 5 7 2 0.6 C 0
Total 1637 43 10 332 10% 799 5.8 1733 0.62 0.36 10.8 21
Total from all foods 1731 50 14 342 129 847 6.9 2047 0.68 0.37 11.3 27

NJ.
1

See footnotes pe.

76.
Table 13, cont.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fre- Car-
quency’ Cal-  Pro- bohy- Vit. By Nia- Vit.
Foods of Use Wt. ories tein Fat drates Ca P Fe A Ribo. cin C
Group B gm gm gi gm mg ng mg I.U. mg mg mg mg
Rice 438 1579 20 3 345 29 654% 3.7 (0) 0.5 0.15 7.4 (0)
Glutinous rice 8 30 1 0 7 1 12 0.1 (0) 0.01 - - (0)
Leggs 7 5 9 1 1 0 3 10 0.1 58 0.01 0.01 0 0
Fish, fresh 32 72 75 13 2 0 25 158 0.7 0 0.04 0.05 2.0 0
Fish, dried 10 12 22 2 0 0 7 0.3 G 0.01 G.03 0.5 0
Fish, fermented 2 4 5 1 0 46 0 0 0.01 C
Tishsoy 3 2 0 0 0 o 0 0.1
Shrimp paste 28 2 3 1 0 0 0 0 C.l
Swamp cabbage 5 ° 2 0 =~ 1 6 4 0,2 sk 0,01 0.01 0.2 3
(2)Phag (2)ka-

(2)cheed 2 3 1 0 0 0 6 0.1 198 0 0.01 0 2
Calabash 1 10 2 0 0 0 1 2 0.1 7 0 ¢. 01 0.1 1
Chili, fresh 3 3 0 0 0 0 o 0 4 © C C 6
Eggplants 3 5 3 C 0 0 X 2 0 2 0 0 0 0
Radish, white 2 12 3 C 0 0 4 3 0.1 3 0 0 0 2
Coconut milk 16 76 52 1 L 3
Coconut oil 3 27 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 O 0
Lard 3 30 0 3 0 O C 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sugar, palm 11 03 0 0 11 9 4 1.3 0 Oud
Total 1636 53 16 367 138 Sho 6.7 858 0.64 0.28 11.4 1k
Total from all foods 2009 59 22 33% 194 895 8.4% 1340 0.76 0.283 11.5 .23

 

 

 

 

1. All items were eaten by 25% or more of the participatin
the number of times the item was used as a main ingredient of a

24 survey days for Group A and 20 survey days for Group B.

2. ( ) means imputed value; O means none or insig
probably contains measurable amount; blank space m
3. Different values were used for the calculation of nutrient content

and B (see Appendix C, pp. 128-129).

nificant amount;

g families,

Under "frequency of use,"
"with-rice" dish is indicated for

- means no values available, but
cans that no information was found.

of coconut milk for Groups A
77

For items used less frequently, the figures are correspond-
ingly less than the usual amount eaten. Thus, sweet potato,
which is represented as 18 grams per day per person in Group
A, actually appeared on 3 records only. One family of 8 per-
sons ate 1200 grams of sweet potato at one meal and a sub-
stantial amount later the same day. Most items appear on the
lists for both groups, but sweet potato, sweet basil and
bananas were included on the list for Group A only, and glu-
tinous rice which 1s used as a sweet in this area, appears on
the list for Group B only. Note that a few common foods
account for most of the nutrients in the diets of both groups.
These common foods account for only about 80% of the calcium
and vitamin A value and slightly less of the ascorbic acid in
the diets of Group A. The list for Group B accounts for

about 70% of the calcium and 60% of the ascorbic acid in the
diets of this group. The variety of green leaves used once

or twice only on survey days by Group B, and the number of
different seasonal fruits used by both groups in small amounts
as snacks, probably account for this,

Contribution of Snacks to the Nutrient Content of Diets. -
On the average, 4 out of 5 children had one snack per day,
whereas only one adult in 6 did so, The following items
appeared most commonly: various kinds of fruit, LO times
(orange 7, banana 6, pineapple, vatermelon and mango each 5
times, guava, jujube and Manila tamarind each 2 times, olives,
rambutan, rambal, star gooseberry, (2)ta-(l)koo and Thal nut-
meg each once,) coconut and bread each 13 times, giutinous rice
8, mung bean 7, truffles 6, products made of rice flour 6
times, and a variety of other items including rice noodles,
sweet potato, taro, bean sprouts, lotus stalks, lotus seeds,
popcorn, products made of cassava flour, sugar cane, pork and
milk from 1 to 4 times each. Salt, and/or palm sugar were
eaten with a number of the snacks. Although they contributed
only about 2% of the total calories, and from 1 to 3% of most
nutrients, snacks contributed 16% of the total ascorbic acid
for Group A and 11% for Group B.

Seasonal Variation in Food Preparation, Meal Patterns, Food
Costs and Caloric and Nutrient Value of Foods Eaten

In Table 14, a summary including the number of meals
prepared, time spent in meal preparation, number of "with-
rice" dishes, and cash expenditures for food is given by
rounds, for families in each group.

Number of Mcals Prepared. =- Food was cooked twice on
each survey day in 3 of 6 households in Group A and 3 of 5
households in Group B. Heavy farm work or vending which kept
the mother away from the house sometimes accounted for once-
a-day food preparation. One housewife who took food to market
in Bangkok, cooked food twice a day only during the period
shortly before the birth of a child, when she was not vending.

 
 

 

 

 

Table 14%. Summary Concerning Meal Freparation, by Rounds! for Two Groups of Households Studied ~3
i - Qo
Group A Group B
Description of Items Round Round Round Round Round Round Round Round
I II ITI Iv I II III Iv
No. of meals prepared - 2 3 4 Lt L 4 4 g 3
- 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 0 2
Range of cooking time, hrs. 0.8-6.02 1,0-2.6 1.3-2.7 1.3-4.0 1,7-3.2 1.4-%,2 2,2-3.3 1.0-3.2
Average cooking time, hrs. 3.7 2.0 1.3 2.4 2.5 3.1 2.3 2.0
Range of no. of dishes
prepared 2-8 2-5 1-4 1-4 2-5 2-7 2-6 2-5
Average no. of dishes precpared3 5 3 3 3 3 5 3 3
Range of no. of hot dishes 0-3 0-2 0.-2 1-3 0-2 1-2 1-2 0-2
Average no. of hot dishes 1 1 l 2 1 2 1 1
Range of no. of mild dishes 2-7 0-3 0-3 0-3 1-3 1-5 1-4 1-3
Average no. of mild dishes L 2 2 1 2 3 2 2
Range of cash expenditure 1.53- 0.61- 0,12- 0,66 0.71 1.07-  1.12-  O.h5-
for meals/day (bahts)™ Lb 45 6.30 4.52 2.88 16.24% 11.86 4.13 3.47
Average cash expenditure ~
for meals/day (bants) 3.01 2.66 2.39 1.70 4.85 4,11 2.561 1.36

 

l. For dates, see Table 7, p. 58.

2. If time walting for a vender was not counted, the range of cooking time would be

0.8-%.1 and the average would be 3.2 hours.

3. "With-rice" dishes only.

4. One baht was ecual to 5 cents at the time of studies.

Rice is always cooked whenever a Thai meal is prepared.
79

‘nother, who had time during Round IV to prepare food twice a
day, preferred to prepare more in the morning when she expected
to offer food to her son who had just been ordained. In two
instances an evening meal was not prepared because the father
and mother had been invited to a feast in connection with an
ordination ceremony, on one occasion a mother did not prepare
food because she was gambling, In all of these cases, the
evening meal at home consisted of leftover rice and other
foods prepared earlier. The housewife in Household 215 some=
times received cooked foods from visitors in return for her
services as medium, and these were used, together with left-
over foods, for the evening meal, The meal patterns of the
two groups of families did not appear to differ greatly.

Time for Meal Preparation and Number of Dishes Pre-
pared. - In general, the time for meal preparation varied
with the number and type of "with-rice'" dishes prepared. The
"hot" dishes usually required more preparation time than the
mild ones, because of the time required to pound epices, and
to cut up ingredients, Oncc-a=-day food preparation reduced
the time required for cooking. lore time was apt to be spent
on food preparation when the housewife was least busy with
farm work or other work outside the home, Some of the fami-
lies visited early in Round I had not begun heavy farm work,
and in some, children, who were less skilled, did the cooking.

Cost of Food Purchased. - The lowest cash cxpenditure
for food by any household on a survey day was 0.12 baht, for
a family in Group A, and the highest 16.24 bahts, for a house-
hold in Group B (Table 14, p. 75). On a per caplta basis,
however, the mean cash expenditure for food by Group A house-
holds, for all survey days, was slightly higher than for
households in Group B (Table 8, p. 62), and no evidence was
obtained that in gencral households in one group tended to
spend more for food than houscholds in the other. Despite
the wide variation in cash expenditures for food on the sur-
vey days, the tendency for cash cxpenditures for food to
decrease in both groups of households as the survey year pro=-
gressed was apparent. Most of the rice was sold at the end
of Round III. The cash went for capital investments, not
food, during Round IV, With time to drain ponds and to fish
intensively, and with ceremonies to attend, people did not
need to buy fish and meat which were relatively expensive,

 

Calorie and Nutrient Valuc of Foods Eaten. - The
seasonal variation in calorie and nutrient intake of the two
groups of families is shown in Table 15, As onc would expect,
the average calorie intake was higher during Rounds I and III,
when relatively heavy farm work assoclated with planting and
harvesting was under way, than during Round II, which was
primarily the growing season for rice, or Round IV, when the
harvest was in, and the earth was dry so that preparation for
the next planting had not yet begun. Greater consumption of
rice in Rounds I and III was largely responsible for the
80

Table 15. Scasonal Variation in the Average per Capita Intake
per Day of Calorics and Nutrients

 

by Two Groups of Houscholds

 

—— v-

 

 

 

: Roundl
Family
Group I II ILI IV

Calories A 1906 1560 1752 1708
B 2262 1757 2156 1862
Protein, gm A 53 Ll 48 55
B 59 Lg 59 68
Fat, gm A 15 15 14 13
B 25 21 19 21
Carbohydrate, gm A 382 302 349 33%
B 437 334 Loy 340
Calcium, mg A 239 84 86 107
B 243 181 223 123
. Phosphorus, mg A 953 782 73% 917
B 1033 757 oco 851
Iron, mg A 9.0 6.4 5.6 6.65
B 7 71 12.5 6.1
Vitamin 4A, I.U, A Ll 582 1392 1802
B 1337 1939 11.97 884
Thiamine, mg A 0.86 0.63 0,59 0.63
B 0.92 0.57 0.72 0.57
Riboflavin, mg A 0.61 0.27 0.3% 0.24
B 0.43 0,24 0.27 0.25
Niacin, mg A 13.2  1i.1 9.2 11.8
B 14,1 0.2 11.7 11.2
Ascorbic acid, mg A 48 19 21 18
B 15 45 21 15

 

l. For dates of Rounds, sce Table 7, p. 58.
81

higher calorie intake in these periods, In general, the
level of calories, phosphorus and thiamine and to some cxtent
the protein varied with the rice consumption, The greater
consumption of fish when fish ponds were drained during Round
IV, accounted for the relatively higher protein content of
the diets of both groups at this time, even though calorie
intake was not at its peak. During this period, animal foods
provided 45 and 53% of the total protein intake of Groups A
and B respectively, whereas for the year as a whole, 37 and
L0% of the protein intake of these groups was of animal
origin.

The relatively high vitamin A and C intakes of fami-
lies in Group A, during Round I as compared to other periods,
was associated with a higher consumption of green lcafy vege-
tables, and the use of sweet potatoes in quantity by one
family, During Round II, families in Group A had few green
vegetables, and their average intake of vitamin A was very
low. The usc of papaya, obtained as a gift, by onc family
in Group B during Round II raised thc average ascorbic acid
intake for this group substantially, Better average intakes,
by one or both groups, of vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin
and calcium during the first Round, were not such as to pro-
vide liberal body stores to be called upon when food supplies
of these nutrients were low,

SOME RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVEMENT OF DIKT
AND NUTRITURE AMONG RESIDENTS OF BANG CHAN

Attempts to improve nutritional status in Bang Chan
should be directed both toward increasing the supply and in-
take of certain nutrients and toward improvement of sanitary
conditions so that intestinal infestation, diarrhea and other
related illnesses will not lcad to needless loss or increased
requirement of nutrients.

Solution of the related problems of disposal of human
excreta and provision of a year-round safe water supply are
in the province of the sanitary engineer. Intestinal para-
sitism was common, but little can be done through treatment
of individuals so long as the water supply is contaminated.
Rain water was preferred for drinking, so provision of ade-
quate and sanitary storage for rain water, coupled with
sterilization of water from ponds and canals when rain water
is not available, would do much to ensure safe drinking
water. The custom of giving mother and infant boiled water
only, during the post-partum rest period, provides a start-
ing point for extending use of boiled water to other ages
82

end conditions. An improved stovel, by making more efficient
use of fuel, would reduce one obstacle to boiling drinking
water, The alternative, chemical treatment, might be regarded
as "wedicine," and people might be more willing to spend money
for this than for firewood, Water supply and latrine facili-
ties at the school and wat should be such as to set a gocd
example, Since links between sanitation and health have not
been established in the minds of the villagers, no proposed
solutions are apt to be effective without a strenuous ard con-
tinued educational campaign.

Since the nutrient content of many foods used in Bang
Chan has not been ascertained, the responsible Thai government
personnel should as soon as possible seek to analyze those
more commonly used, in particular fish, fermented fish, shrimp
paste, fish paste and fishsoy, both commercial and home-made
products, edible green leaves and flowers. Discovery, among
the many varieties of fish used, of some which are good sources
of vitamin A, would be particularly useful, Of the calculated
vitamin A values in diets for the two groups of households
studied 90% or more of the vitamin A value was from vegetable
sources, therefore in the precursor fcrm., Among foods of
animal origin which were used, eggs were the only food known
to contain appreciable amounts of vitamin A. With more, and
more complete, analyses of Thal foods, some of unusual nutri-
tive value would prchably be discovered, Also, Information
on composition of coconut milk should permit reasonably
accurate calculation if the weight of coconut meat and the re-
sulting product are known. Use of figures now available in
food value tables, for coconut milks as prepared in Bang Chan,
would lead to gross overestimate of caloric value and fat con-
tent of diets,

In using present knowledge to improve nutrient intake,
emphasis should te placed on changes which would improve the
everyday diet for all members of the family. We would start
with familiar foods and methcds of preparation, stressing the
types of food which should be produced and used in increasing
amounts, Advice cf specialists in agriculture at nearby Kaset-
sart University should be sought in making choices appropriate
to the location, among vegetables which would enhance the
nutrient content of the diet, particularly in vitamin A value
and riboflavin, Since garden area is often limited, vine
vegetables which can be trellised may be useful, In introduc~
ing innovations, we would, if possible, build on procedures
known to be acceptable to some respected persons in the commun-
icy.

1. The "Hyderabad Smokeless Chula" would be useful in
Bang Chan. In Smokeless Kitchens for the Millions, S. Po.
Raju (1953) incTudes designs for models with one to three
cooking holes and hot water pot (The Christian Literature
Society, P, 0. Box 501, Park Town, Madras, India),

 
83

First steps toward a better diet are suggested by the
best dietary practices observed, Although the calculated in-
take of no family on any survey day approximated or exceeded
the estimated allowances for all nutrients, sharp contrasts
were evident in individual records. Two sample calculations
in Appendix C (pp. 121-122) represent one of the better and
one of the poorer records obtained, The food for Household
12, on Jan. 14%, 1954 consisted chiefly of polished rice, fish,
and non-leafy vegetable, with seasonings. In contrast, on
July 23, 1953, Household 16 used home-milled rice, and about
60 gm, per person of swamp cabbage, with other vegetables and
fish. These choices enhanced the potential nutritive value
of the diet markedly without increasing its cash cost.

Family labor was involved, however, in gathering greens and
milling rice,

Since rice is the chief solid food for all ages, improv-
ing this major item will be considered first. An Important
step would be to teach the people to cook rice with just
enough water so that all would be absorbed. The Thal govern-
ment has sought to encourage this. So long as the practice
of cooking rice in excess water persists, much of its vita-
min and mineral content will be discarded, and efforts to
improve the nutrient content of rice will be largely nulli-
fied. Some rice water could be used as a beverage, and for
cooking certain vegetables which are commonly served with a
thickened sauce. This would be preferable to discarding the
rice water, but encouraging its use must be considered as an
alternative to cooking rice without excess water, since the
two practices are mutually exclusive,

Use of under-milled and processed rice, and of the
rice polishings, has the advantage that a large part of the
original B-complex content is conserved, whereas vitamins
for enrichment are at present imported, and are apt to be
for years to come, Since home milling persisted to some ex-
tent in Bang Chan, it might be encouraged, in some families,
One highly respected headman continued to mill rice at home,
hence the "prestige value" of white rice may not be so im=-
portant in Bang Chan as it 1s among city Thal, who sometimes
regard undermilled rice as "prisoner's food." The time and
effort involved in home milling, however, may deter those
who have given it up from returning to it; and since deepen-
ing the main canal has made the mill accessible to more
families the year round, a program based on the assumption
that commercial milling of rice will increase 1s probably
more realistic than an attempt to encourage the return to
home milling where it has been abandoned,

At present, no processed rice is made in Thailand. A
plan to buy and install a Malekizing plant to process rice
for the Royal Thai Navy was announced in 1953, but the plan
has not materialized. Enriched rice has been sold by the
Thai Rice Company for some years, but the best grades only,
8h

90 to 100% unbroken grains, are used. To benefit rice far-
mers, enrichment should either be done at the nearby mills,
or premix sold locally, and farmers taught to mix it with
their own rice, Because the premix used and marketed by the
Thal Rice Company contains riboflavin as well as thiamine,
niacin and iron, the treated grains can be readily distin-
guished from ordinary rice. Enrichment at the mill would be
convenient, but would probably entail some government super-
vision and would not automatically ensure a better nutrient
intake unless people learned the value of the conspicuous
yellow grains, From this standpoint, separate purchase of
premix might have advantage, at least in the initial stages
of the program.

As far as we know, use of rice polishings in preparing
"with-rice" dishes has not been explored in Thailand, Incor-
poration of rice polishings into a variety of soups and other
"with-rice" dishes which would be acceptable to the Thai pal~
ate should not be difficult for the Thai home economist in-
terested in experimental cookery. Nutrients usually lost in
milling could thus be returned to the human diet, If adopted
this procedure could he effective even in families that cling
to the customary metnod of cooking rice in excess water. One
old lady with beriberi, whose doctor had prescribed rice
polishings, said she found them tasty. Information on the
health value of rice polishings would probably be received
more favorably if homemakers were shown acceptable ways of
using them. A watery extract of the polishings might be used
as a stop-gap preventive of thiamine deficiency while the
slow process of changing food habits is going on, Such an
extract could be used as a strengthening medicine for women
during pregnancy and lactation, for infants and young children,
and for those doing heavy field work, i.e. for vulnerable
groups. The "second class doctors" at Minburi, the priests
who practice healing, other traditional practitioners and mid-
wives, because of their basic desire to help, would provide
natural centers of information for this purpose.

Efforts being made by Thai government agencies to en-
courage eating more "with-rice" and less rice should be
continued. A Thal co-worker suggested that "an educational
program enjoining less peppery forms of with-rice would have
the effect of encouraging consumption of a larger proportion
of with-rice" (Sharp et al. 1953, p. 2783). Various food items
including those with a hot taste, were sometimes sald to be
bad for children, pregnant women, sick persons, etc,, but sel-
dom was any food mentioned as being good to eat under these
circumstances, The concept that hot tasting {foods are not
healthful might be coupled with the idea that more generous
amounts of mild dishes, especially those including green and
yellow vegetables, should be used instead. The most widely
used vegetables in Bang Chan were the wild swamp cabbage, and
(2)phag (2)ka~(2)cheed, both leafy aquatic plants, Planting
more (2)phag (2)ka=-(2)chced, and liberal use of both of these
plants while they are available should be encouraged.
85

Growing other kinds of green and yellow vegetables
should be fostered. Although vitamin A value and riboflavin
content appear to be critical, in choosing vegetables to be
stressed, specialists in agriculture should consider greens
with high calcium and low oxalic acid content also. A
variety of edible leaves of trees were used by a few fami-
lies; some used sweet basil as a vegetable rather than just
a seasoning; pumpkin and sweet potato were familiar, but
less often used than would be desirable. More green or
yellow vegetables which mature when canals arc low and
aquatic plants no longer available, would be especially good.
If increased production by most households+ is not practi-
cable, a few of the more successful gardeners might be
persuaded to produce vegetables and fruits which would help
to bridge the gap between rainy scasons, Mushrooms, which
can be grown readily, would provide a good source of ribo-
flavin when leafy vegetables are in short supply. The boom~
and-bust experience in mushroom culture (See Appendix A,
pp. 101-102) might, however, make its revival as a source of
healthful food for home use more difficult than if the
villagers did not think of mushrooms as a cash crop for
which the market failed.

Eating more fruit would help to tide over the dry
season, Fruits were commonly used as snacks, not at meal-
time, hence snacks of fruit should be encouraged for adults
as well as children, Bananas grew in all gardens and were
available the year round, The (4)nam (4)waa variety, which
was used in ceremonies, and considered safe for all, should
be stressed. More families could grow pineapple, which is
relished both raw and in curries. Mango and papaya, fruits
of outstanding value for both vitamin A and ascorbic acid,
would be excellent, but the idea that growing papayas is
"unlucky" must be taken into account, If a few of the more
thoughtful and forward-looking farmers could be persuaded to
start papaya trees, even though they were not willing to
plant them near the house, the practice might spread in time.

On the average, the Bang Chan dict did not seem to be
very deficient in protein, but distribution 1s not propor-
tional to need, and protein deficiency may be in part re-
sponsible for periods of weight loss, or failure to gain, so
common among infants and children. The presence of other
essential nutrients in animal foods is important also. If,
the local supply of fish is indeed diminishing, cfforts to
increase it through pond culture should be continued. Aban-
donment of tilapia culture in Bang Chan, after about one-
third of the families had tried it, (Appendix A, p. 101)
suggests that not enough of the right kind of help was given

l. Tenant farmers may not he permitted to enlarge
gardens by mounding at the expense of rice fields.
86 3

concerning 1ts culture and use, Tilapia culture was learned
largely by trial and error, and was considered primarily as a
source of extra cash. If it had been regarded also as a means
of improving health through increasing the family's food
supply, and if the homemaker had been shown how to use this
unfamiliar fish in familiar ways, the outcome might have been
different. Increased use of fermented fish and of small dried
fish which are eaten whole, should be encouraged. So long as
the ability of human beings to adapt to such low calcium in-
takes without harm has not been proved, any feasible means of
increasing the calcium content of the diet seems worth trying.

More home consumption of eggs would be desirable, but
their ready sale and acceptability for barter may present an
obstacle to increased home use. Increased production would
probably lead to some increased home use at least at the peak
season, Duck eggs which arc less often sold, might be stressed
both for this reason, and because of their greater size. The
idea held by scme that eggs are not good for children nor for
pregnant women should be countered when possible, Since hard
cooked eggs have many ceremonial uses, they might be presented
as "strengthening" fcod. Hard cooked eggs, which could be pre-
pared the night before, would be convenlent as breakfast for
workers who would otherwise go to the field without food, for
lunch to be carricd to the field or to school, and for occa-
sions when parents arc to be away from home, as at a ceremonial,
and should leave food at home for children,

Milk, as canned, drisd or malted milk preparations, was
considered an aporopriate gift for the priests, who arc for-
bidden to eat solid food after the 11 a.m. meal. Some of this
may be shared with the temple boys. The respected old ladies
and others who stay overnight at the temple on the Buddhist
holy day, and who observe the same rules as the priests for
this time, also like to drink milk, often with coffee, Perhaps
the wat committee could be taught how dried or canned milk
should be reconstituted, and could direct that this be done.
They could both spend some of the cash offerings for milk and
encourage those who buy gifts of food for the pricsts to in-
clude milk among them, People gladly bought food for the
priests and would probably accept on the authority of the hcad
priest or respected elders, the idea of buying certain foods
of high nutritive value, even though these cost more. If a
small group of lcaders, such as the wat committee or the ham=
let hcadmen were instructed in the dangers of contaminated
water and the values of good food, with the implication that
the best available should be offered the priests both daily
and on ceremonial occasions, improved practices might spread
to home consumption, since most food is prepared in the home.

The importance of merit making and the relatively large
cash expenditures involved in ceremonilals, will probably
influence acceptance of any improved practices which involve
cash outlay. If some leaders were interested in dietary
87

improvement, (1l)ngaan sponsored by them might serve to
acquaint a large group with a ncw practice, Suppose, for
example, that addition of premix to rice, and cooking rice
without excess water werc being promoted. If one of the
respected priest-practitioncrs could be persuaded to intro-
duce these practices at his homage-to-the-teacher rite and
give them some pvhiicity, this might help tec create a favor-
able attitude tovard the suggested change.

Every change will require continuing education, and a
varicty of approaches should be used, some of which have been
mentioned, If the elementary school teachers ware persuaded

of tho importance of & goon €lat znd irmprovsencnt in sonita-
tion, awd hod a scund wrdersiandlng of thc desired changes in
practice, they could Juflucnce boil the oncoming generation,

and their ncighbors th:cugh teaching ard example, Continued
practical health cducation for school childrcn should ulti-
matcly bear fruit. The value of cating more grcen leafy vege-
tables should be taught, and the children could lcarn about
leafy greens available in the village, but not widely used at
present. Good focds to bring to school for lunch might be
stressed, Hard cooked eggs have already been mentioned, If
convenience as wcll as health valve were stressed, this might
lead in time to incrcascd consumption of eggs by growing
children, and ultimately by adults as well. If a simple
school lunch program werc organized, either on a coopcrative
basis or subsidized, the inclusion of peanuts would help to
increase both the protein and the thiamine content of the
children's diets, Though unfamiliar to many of the children,
lightly roasted peanuts were enjoyed as a treat offered at
the end of the medical inspection. If tcachers could influence
venders to prepare and scll morc of the snacks which would be
desirable additions to the children's food, this would be a
gain, Fruit could be stressed for school lunch, At any time
of year, a banana a day for cach child would probably be
possible, and bananas should be emphasized cven though their
nutritive valuc is not so outstanding as that of many other
fruits. Values of other fruit in season should be taught.
The school garden could be used to demonstrate how to grow
some of the morc nutritious vegetables. Awards for those
with the best home gardens could be used to stimulate im-
provement, Similarly, rccognition for improvement in home
sanitation might bc useful.

In adult discussion groups, both men and women should
learn about good food and health practices. The slack
period between transplanting and harvest, when people can get
about casily by boat, would be thc best time for such meet-
ings. Since many adults in Bang Chan werc illiterate or did
net read with case, very simple teaching material 1s nceded.
Association between good food and hcalth must be built up
gradually. Appeal to economic and other motives may be used
where such motives reinforce the desired cnds. The extension
method of adult education, just in its beginnings in Thailand,
88

offers a means of tcaching local lcadcers who in turn could
tcach neighborhood groups.

Where alternative solutions are being considered, a well
designed experimental program would help to decide which would
be more acceptable. Teachers and advanced home economic
students at nearby Kasctsart University might plan and execute
such an experiment on a small scale. Thus, after lcarning in
the laboratory how to include ricc polishings in scme common
"with-rice" dishes, this might be taught to pcople in one
village. In anothcr, addition of premix to milled ricc at
home, and cooking rice without cxccss water, could be taught,
In both, thc health valucs of undermillcd rice could be
stressed and the ncecd to keen or to restore these if white
rice 1s used, A followup should be made to see how many have
tried, and how many have adopted the proposed change. Exper-
ience in pilot projects under the Thailand-UNESCO I'undamental
Education Project (TUFEC) should provide clues as to methods
likely to be successful. In Bang Chan, where frank deficiency
disease is uncommon, improvements in health and nutriture may
not seem spectacular. Improving nutrition, which implies
changing attitudes, food habits, agricultural and sanitary
practices, must be seen as a long term goal, requiring continu-
ing education,
89
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Chutima, Y. H. 1939 Siam: Height and Weight of Population
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Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 1950
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93
APPENDIX A

Description of the Kitchen and Some Notes on Food
Preparation in a Relatively Prosperous Houscholdl

 

Friday, May 22, 1953

Arrived at 5:15 a.m. When we reached the house, the
mother was holding the dog. The house was dark, and we
walked around sleeping babies and children. . . . . The
15 year old niece who preparcs meals here, was already at
work, For light she had an oil lamp, a tin of about 1 pt.
capacity, with wick. The rice was alrcady measured, but she
waited until SS could weigh it, before putting it on to cook.
SS used her flashlight to sce the scale and her notebook.

The kitchen here has a thatched roof, well smoked, but
the walls and "windows" are of woven split bamboo. A sliding
wooden "window" can be pushed back to allow access to a
broad shelf outside, Herc a large pan of pond water is kept,
so that dishes may be rinsed and hands rinsed after each
operation, Dishes are stacked upside down, on a wooden rack
ncarby, to dry.

The stove area in the corner has place for one fire,
but several places for pots to stand, Downstairs, undcr the
shed near the fish pond, is a larger clay stove, where the
niece cooks the rice in the morning (enough for noon as well)
and some other items; for cxample the (3)khii-(2)leg leaves
which were cooked last night for use in sour curry this a.m.
- This probably keeps the kitchen cooler than it would other-
wise be. Waste, fish boncs, vegetable parings, etc., which
are to be given to the chickens, can be thrown below through
the space between two floor levels (kitchen and main rooms).

Rice water, coconut water, and food left in the serving
bowls when the meal is over, are given to the dogs. A bowl
is kept below, near where rice is draincd, for dog food,

Food left in pots is kept for humans to eat.

Fish caught in the pond arc kept alive in pond water,
in a water jar. When a fish is wanted, the niece catches
one from the jar, stuns it with the back of her knife, and
scales and cleans it on a split log ncarby (rounded side of
log up). The fish is put into a small basket, and the niece

1. In reproducing these notes, slight changes have
been made such as substitution of descriptive terms for per-
sonal names whlch appeared in the original,
ok

tales it down the steps to the fish pond, where she swishes
the basket around to wash the fish, and rinscs her hands at
the same time,

There are some hazards to the food--chickens trying to
get at the edible part of fish while the nicce cleans it (she
leaves the scales, etc. for them to eat); cat and kittens in
the kitchen, having to be driven away from the grated coconut
and coconut milk, and getting an occasional unweighed nip.
Whether we start to weigh food for the evening mcal or a.m.
meal, some cooked foods are apt to be used, either left over
from a previous meal, or cooked in advance, This a.m., for
example, buffalo meat, already cooked (but not weighed before
cooking) was used, and (3)knii-(2)leg lcaves, which SS weighed
last night. These latter were cooked last night, to reduce
bitterness, then put into curry today,

Description of Food Preparation Arca in 2
Relatively Poor Houschoid

 

Wednesday, May 27, 1953

Arrived about 5:45 a.m. While other food was being pre-
pared, the ll-year old con came in with a package of salted
white radish and a small milk tin with some cocoaut oil which
had just been bought. This is the housc which we found flooded
when they sent for us to sec the baby last fall. The roof
seems to be well thatched. The floor is not wet after last
night's downpour, The bed platform, in one corner, 1s about
8 x 10 feet, The baby's cradle hangs above it, In the oppo-
site corner is a shelf where utensils are kept. Some food
in paper bags, is in a basket hung from the roof, Fresh fish
is kept in a jar of water unsil necded, The stove 1s on a
small mound of earth, and further clevated on a small box
(‘just big enough for the stove) filled with earth,

We sit on a mat, spread on the mud floor, with the
scales, plastic bowls and waxed paper rcady for weighing food.
The children lie on a mat ncarby. In the house is a fresh
mound of earth, a small straw bin with rice, and various
pieces of equipment,
25

Notes on Meal Service

 

In a Relatively Prosperous
Household Friday, May 22, 1953

Before breakfast is served, the six-ycar old girl comes
with a piece of jack fruit. SS weighs it and tells her to
bring back what she does not eat. Later she comes with hands
full of stones (14% of them). She has eaten this much as a
"snack" before the regular meal, The grandmother finishes
the piece (7 stones) and gives the rind to SS to weigh.

At breakfast the family sits in a circle on the kitchen
floor, Each person except the baby has his own bowl of rice
before him. In the center of the circle, within reach of
all, are four small dishes of "with-rice" which has been pre-
pared for breakfast: sour curry of buffalo meat, curry of
(3)khii-(2)leg leaves, bean sprouts and one small fried fish.
The mother takes a very small bit of fish on a spoon with
rice, and feeds baby. During breakfast baby has 6 bites of
rice with fish, nine small spoonfuls of rice with sour curry.
The mother herself eats one bite of fish, She takes four
spoonfuls of sour curry on plate with rice. This is shared
with baby. Mother and baby eat mainly rice, fish and sour
curry of buffalo meat, whereas grandmother and the six-year
old girl have curry of (3)khii~(2)leg leaves and bean sprouts
with their rice,

In a Relatively Poor
Houschold Wednesday, May 27, 1953

 

While the mother finishes the meal preparation, the
seven-year old girl feeds the baby, first rice with some
chopped egg, then rice with the "water" from the egg. The
mother remarks that she cannot cook unless someone looks
after the baby.

Technique of eating -- A tray with the "with-rice" is
set out, also a bowl with water, for rinsing the hand, and
a basin or bowl with drinking water. There are spoons in
the "with-rice," but these seem to be used for taking some
of the julce, which may be eaten directly or put on the in-
dividual's bowl of rice. Solid pieces are taken from the
serving dish by hand, and mixed with some of the rice, which
is then picked up in the right hand. Occasionally the per-
son eating will rinse his hand with water. When finished,
each person rinses his bowl (using either water from the
bowl nearby, or from the gencral supply -- in this case the
canal). Dishes are turned upside down on the platform near
the stove, to dry.
96
Equipment Used For Food Preparation

Equipment used for food preparation by 11 families par-
ticipating in the dietary study: clay stove; pots and covers
of clay, light weight aluminum, and enameled iron; frying pans,
curved, of sheet iron, with home-made wooden handle on one
side, or metal handles on opposite sides (shallow clay pans
were also used for frying); basins, pails, chopping boards;
grater for coconut: a metal, toothed instrument mounted on
one end of a low wooden stool (often called a "wooden rabbit"
because the seat of the stool might be shaped like a rabbit);
mortar of pottery or stone; wooden pestle; fiber strainers
usually with rigid handles, to hold them in place on top of a
pots a large-bladed all-purpose knife; in some households, one
or morc smaller knives; metal turner, with home-made wooden
handle; spoons, with bowls of coconut shell, gourd or wood;
tin cans for dipping, measuring rice, etc,; fiber trays used
for winnowing rice, for drying food, storing dried chilies,
onions, etc.; metal tray for serving food to priests, and for
household use; baskets for storing food; (5)faa-(1l)chii, or
fiber cover, to keep flies and insects off cooked food; large
earthenware water jars.

Other items less often used, and owned by relatively
few families in Bang Chan, included: steamer; a perforated
clay pot or metal pan with cover, designed to fit tightly in-
to another pot in which water was boiled; large wooden mortar,
made of a hollowed trec trunk; spring-type cgg beater (a
strong spiral spring attached to a stick); scales; glass water
jars,

Equipment Used in Serving Food and Eating

The equipment for serving and eating food might include:
flat bottomed bowls with a deep edge, similar to Western-
style soup plates, used as individual rice bowls; plates;
small bowls for "with-rice" dishes; sauce dishes with stand,
for chili sauce; enameled iron or china spoons (Chinese type)
used for serving moist foods; forks, used by some families on
special occasions jd teapot and cups; large rice bowl for cere-
monial use (silver or aluminum); large brass spoon with ser-
pent-tail handle, for serving rice; drinking glasses; tiered
lunch pail; canteen; thermos bottle.

1. A relatively poor family (Sharp et al. 1953, p. 223)
had one pair of fork and spoon for eating.
97

Examples of Notes on Food Eaten by Individuals

 

Household 16 July 23, 1953

Family members obscrved at mecal-time: All, as they ate
breakfast at various times.

 

Notes re kind and amount of food eaten:

 

Breakfast: Girl aged 12 and boy aged 7 start eating at
7:20 a,m. Each one has one dish of rice and stew of swamp
cabbage and salt fish for breakfast, They are through eating
at 7:40 a.m,

9:10-9:30 a.m, Father eats two dishes of
rice with stew and mother does also.

10:10-10:20 a.m, Son, 18 yrs. old, returns
home and eats two dishes of rice mixed with stew.

10:40-11:00 a.m. Sons aged 25 and 20 have
breakfast. The older onc eats two dishes of rice but the
younger one cats three,

11:30 a,m. Daughter aged 22 has two
dishes of rice and stew. She is through eating at 11:45 a.m.
Household 67 May 26, 1953

Family members observed at meal-~time: Mother and
children.

 

Notes re kind and amount of food caten:

 

Dinner: Girl aged 7 scems to be fond of fish but dis-
likes vegetables. Boy aged 11 likes to eat the vegetables
from the curry. Each one eats two dishes of rice mixed with
small amount of hot curry (5:02-5:17 p.m.)

One year old baby is fed by his older sister,
eating two spoonfuls of rice mixed with boiled coconut milk.
Whenever he refuses to eat, his mother nurses him,

5:40-5:55 p.m. Mother cats 3 dishes of rice
with 2 dishes of hot curry, containing a small amount of
fish,

Father begins cating at dark so we can't see
him,
Examples of Diet Records Submitted by School Children

 

 

Snack

 

 

 

 

 

 

Date Breakfast Lunch Dinner
Diet Record! of 10-year 01d Girl: Diet Class 12
May 19, '53 Sour curry of (2)phag Cooked fish Star gooseberry
(2)ka=-(2)cheed (sour) Jack fruit seeds
Curry of swamp cabbage (2)phag (2)ka- Fruit of egg tree
Boiled vegetables (2)cheed Sweet made of flour, sugar,
Fried mushrooms Chili sauce coconut milk
Roasted pilot fish Sweet made of flour, sugar,
Chill sauce sugar palm
July 7, 33 Curry of (2)phag Boiled fish Boiled egg (LD 1lam-(1)jaj (Fruit of
(2)ka-(2)cheed Boiled fer- Roasted fish Euphoria longana)
Boiled swamp cabbage mented fish Jack fruit seeds
Sweet made of flour and
sugar
Sept. 13, '53 Cooked climbing perch Fried towel Boiled climb- Sweet made of flour, sugar
and other fish (sour) gourd with ing perch and coconut milk
pork and silurus Hog plum
Fried serpent-
head
Oct. 29, '53 Sour curry of katurail Hot curry of Sour curry of Jack fruit seeds

flowers with (2)phag
(2)ka=-(2)cheed

Fried pork with swamp
cabbage

serpenthead
(2)phag (2)ka-

(2)cheed
Chili sauce

lotus stalks

Fried banana
Jambean

 

36
Examples of Diet Records Submitted by School Children (cont.)

 

 

 

 

Date Breakfast Lunch Dinner Snack
Nov. 25, '53 Curry of lotus stalks Curry of Roasted Orange
Fried salted fish swamp cabbage salted fish Fried banana
(2)phag (2)ka=-(2)cheed Fried salted Curry of Sweet made of flour, sugar,
Chill sauce fish (2)phag (2)ka- coconut and corn
(2)cheed Sweet made of flour, sugar,
egg and coconut
Jan. 30, '54% Sour curry of (2)phag Sour curry of Fried Jack fruit seeds
(2)ka~(2)cheed with green papaya sweetened Rice flour chips
katural flowers fish Sweet made of {lour, sugar,
coconut, corn
June 4%, '54% Fried fermented fish Fried egg Curry of Star gooseberry
Curry of egg plant Salted crabs pineapple Ice
Cooked salted pork Curry of Sweet made of flour, sugar
chicken and coconut milk
Curry of Sweet made of flour, sugar

bamboo shoots

and coconut

 

Diet Record of 12-year 01d Girl:

Feb. 14, '53 Hot curry of fish
Tried dried meat
with sugar

July 7, '53 Curry of chicken

Diet Class TIT

Sour curry of
swamp cabbage

Curry of

white gourd

Sweet made of rice, banana

and coconut milk

Longan

 

 
Examples of Diet Records Submitted by School Children (cont.)

 

 

 

 

 

00T

 

Date Breakfast Lunch Dinner Snack
Sept. 13, '53 Curry of (3)khii- Curry of Fried sweet potato
(2)1leg chicken Star gooseberry
: Hog plum
Oct. -- '53 Sour curry of Hot curry Guava
green papaya ; of fish Sweet made of dried beans
Fried swamp cabbage and sugar
Nov. 28, '53 Fried Chinese Fried fish Fried banana
noodles Boiled Fried Chinese noodles
Boiled vegetables vegetables Sweet made of rice, banana
Chili sauce Chili sauce and coconut milk
Jan. 30, '54% Beef curry. Sour curry of Chinese cake

swamp cabbage Jujube
Sweet made of flour, sugar,
coconut and corn
Sweet made of dried beans
and sugar

 

1. "With-rice" dishes only are listed for brealzfast, lunch and dinner.

2. Adapted from Thorangkul (1957).
101
Notes on Tilapia Culture in Bang Chan

In 1952, the Thai government, at the suggestion of FAO,
began to encourage tilapia culture, Fingerlings and some in-
formation on tilapia culture could be obtained from the Min-
buri district office, where a demonstration pond was main-
tained, Early in 1953, we learned from the records of the
district officer that three persons in Bang Chan, two of them
hamlet headmen, had obtained tilapia from this source. In
1953 the commune chief called a meeting in the village and
explained the importance of tilapia raising. In May 1955
when Ralis conducted a survey in Bang Chan (Goldsen and Rallis,
1957), tilapia raising had been tried in nearly a third (31%)
of the households, but was considered by 2/3 of the respon-
dents to pay little.

The authors comment:

From discussions with the people 1t appears that they
are learning by trial and error to raise tilapia.
Though fish culture is, for them, mainly a sideline
activity, nevertheless, it requires the building of a
special dam, care in preventing other fish from de-
vouring young tilapia and maintaining the appropriate
balance of fresh water in a given pool, The loss re-
sulting from the fish dying or being eaten by others
is relatively high. Although tilapia multiply
rapidly, the cash return is not as great as that
realized from mushroom growing. The cycle of raising
tilapia lasts about four months,

From the comments just quoted, tilapia culture appears
to have been undertaken for the anticipated cash return. No
information was obtained by Ralls concerning the extent to
which the villagers used tilapia to increase thelr supply of
fish for home use. In the summer of 1957 members of the re-
search group who visited Bang Chan found that no one was
raising tilapia; they were neither a source of food nor of
cash. Some indication was obtained that their flavor and
texture were not agreeable, Clearly the attempt to introduce
a rapidly growing but unfamiliar variety of fish failed in
Bang Chan. An understanding of the reasons for this failure
might help to prevent other costly failures in future.

Notes on Mushroom Culture in Bang Chan

Goldsen and Ralis (1957) commented as follows:

Three years ago the commercial growing of mushrooms
in Bang Chan was unknown. By 1955, the practice of
growing mushrooms had reached into many homes (44+ per
102

cent of the respondents report that they have engaged
in this activity). Even if no mushrooms have ever
been grown in a given household, it is still likely
that the individuals in it are aware of the practice
and have observed it closely through the mushroom
growing activities of their friends, relatives, and
nelghbors (reported in 43 per cent of the households).
Only a few housenolds (13 per cent) report that they
have never grown mushrooms or have never been exposed
to it in this way,

At the height of the boom, the demand for rice straw
swept many of the fields clean of the stubble usually left
there after harvest, thereby decreasing food for the roaming
buffalo and the small increment of nutrients usually plowed
back into the soil.

The advantages of mushroom culture cited by Goldsen and
Ralis (1957) were 1) the cash outlay required was small, 2)
returns were realized quickly as the cycle was completed in
two to three weeks, 3) little heavy work was required and
4) at the time when Rzlis made the survey, a ready market was
avallable, When, in 1957, the price dropped sharply, most of
the growers gave up.

Food for Homage-to-the-Teacher Rite
Performed by a Buddhist Priest Who Was
a Traditional Practitioner

 

 

 

 

 

 

Cost Cost
ia in
Item Amount Baht Item Amount Baht
Cereals and Legume Seeds: Fish and Meat (cont.):
Rice noodles 10, Dried fish 6 gift
Soybeans & 25 kg. 12s Roasted fish 3 kg. gift
fermented Shrimp paste 2 kg. 13,
vegetables Lobsters 15.
Mung beans 10 lit. 25, Lobsters 7.50
Cassava flour 2.25 (for soup)
Pig's skin 10.
Sugar and dessert: (for soup)
: Beef 15 kg. 150,
Palm sugar 1 pail 67. Ingredients 27.
Cane sugar 14 kg. 82. for Musse]-
(2)Kha-(5)nom 500 cups 39, man curry ~
(3)tuaj=-(1l)foo Boiled chigkens< 2 23.
Pig's head=~ 4 heads 222.
Fish and Meat: Pork 4 kg. Lo,
Fish ( (1l)plaa Ge
(2)myk) for soup
Silurus and 60 kg. gift

serpenthead
103

Food for Homage-to-the-Teacher Rite (cont.)

 

 

 

 

 

Cost Cost
in in
Item Amount Baht Item Amount Baht
Fruit: Vegetables (leafy green
& yellow) cont. :
Bananas 5 ban. from i
( (3)k1luaj father Lettuce -
(4)nam=-(4)waa) Parsley sr
Chico Se Pumpkin 3 fruits 12.
Coconut 150 180, Sweet basil
Coconut 30 30. leaves 1.
(young, to Sweet potatoes 6 kg. 6.
make dessert) (3)Teng=-(5)o0 -=3
Job's tears 3 lit. 3.
Plums, yellow? 5e Seasonings ectc,:
Pomelos 6.
Rose apples? 2 Vinegar 1 bottle 1.
Tamarind 7.50 Fishsoy 1 jar 10.
Tomato sauce 8, (2)Ka~-(1l)chaaj 2% ke. 12,50
Young palm 7 bun. 3. Sodium
fruit glutamate Se
Papper 14,
Vegetables (non leafy): Agar 400 gms. 36.
Baphon Shops, 1 pail 2k, Miscellaneous:
Cucumber --3 Cola beverage 72 Payies Nay
Egg plants ies) Liquor 16 bottles oO.
Garlic 5 kg. 26,50 Ice 30.¢
Gourd, white 1. Cigarettes 2 pkgs. =- 6
Onion, fragrant? Gu Tobacco 1 heap =--
Onion? 4 ke, L4, Bctel pepper 9.
Onion, welsh? --3 Fresh areca nut 10.
Mushrooms 3. Dried areca nut 8.
Radish, white nd Dried palm 1 hig
leaves bundle 2
Vegetables (leafy green Firewood 50.
and vellow) : )
Cabbages ~=3 Total 1577.75
Chinese kale ~~
Chili, green 7.50

 

1
Ze
ceremony
Se

5.
6,

For Moslem guests.
Food items placed on
proper.

~

ci

tray and used in the

Items so marked cost a total of 140 baht.

Not identified,

Several kinds of onions, both fresh and dried,
are commonly used,
Prices not stated; estimate for liquor.
Table 16. Estimated Dietary Allowances for Residents of Bang Chant

HOT

 

 

 

oz Pro- Cal- Vita- Thia- Ribo- Ascorbic
Calories? tein3 cium Iron min A mine flavin Niacin acid
am m I JA, 1

Adult man (52 Kg) © ¢ 2 Bh uy ne "5 Rg

Active 2500 60 Gd. 8 2500 ’ ’
Adult woman (47.3 Kg) ’ ’ ’ 1 to te 22
Active 1900 55 0.5 10 2500 1.0 1.0 10 25
Pregnant (latter half) 2300 80 0.8 18 4LOooo 1.2 1.5 15 25
Lactating 2500 85 1.0 15 L000 1.5 5.0 15 30

Adolescents
Boys 15-12 years 3000 80 1.0 12 4000 1.5 1.5 15 30
13-14% 2500 70 1.0 12 3000 1.2 1.2 12 25
11-12 n 2000 0 0.75 10 2500 1.0 1.0 10 25
Girls 13-17 " 2500 70 1.0 12 30C0 1.2 1.2 12 30
11-12 n" 2200 65 0.75 10 2500 1.0 1.2 10 25
Children ©-10 n" 1700 60 0.75 8 25C0 0.7 1.0 7 25
7-3 " 1600 60 0.75 7 2500 0.6 1.0 6 20
5-6 y 14:00 50 0.5 6 2000 0.6 1.0 6 20
3-4 n 1200 40 0.5 6 2000 0.5 1.0 5 18
1-2 " 900 35 0.5 5 1500 O.h4 1.0 Ly 15
under 1 year 80/kg 3/kg 0.5

5 1. Tors table was modified from Dietary Allowances Under Tropical Conditions (Nicholls,
1951, p. 31
2. Adjustment of calories was made for adult man and adult woman, taking age, body size,

climate and activity into account (Food and Nutrition Board, 1953. pp. 3-7 and FAO Committee on
Calorie Requirements, 1950, p. 22); 400 calories extra were allowed for late (obvious) pregnancy
and 1000 calories extra for lactation. Nicholl's estimates have been accepted for children and
adolescents.

3. Protein allowances for sedentary man and woman were chosen for adults.

L. Allowance for niacin is 10 x thiamine allowance except that 15 mg rather than 12 mg

was used for pregnancye

d XIQNHEddY
Table 17. Estimated Dietary Allowances for Persons in Two Groups of Households, Participating
in the Dietary Study, Bang Chan, 1953-54

 

 

 

 

Group A
Average Pro~ Cal~ Vita- By Ribo- Ascorbic
Age Group Number Age Calories tein cium Iron min A flavin Niacin Acid
gm gm mg I.U. mg me mg me
Men
60+ 1 63 2000 60 0.5 8 2500 1.0 1.0 10 25
50-59 2 51 4380 120 1.0 16 5000 2.2 2.0 22 50
40-49 1 41 2315 60 0.5 8 2500 1.2 1.0 12 25
oa 2 35 4750 120 1.0 16 5000 2.4 2,0 oh 50
25-29 -
20-24 2 22 5070 120 1.0 16 5000 2.4 2.0 2k 50
Women
70+
£542 1 60 1570 55 0.5 10 2500 1.0 1.0 10 25
50-59 -
40-49 2 46 3420 110 1.0 20 5000 2.0 2.0 20 50
30-39 1, 34 1805 55 0.5 10 2500 1.0 1.0 10 25
2 5610 170 2.0 30 8000 3.0 4.0 30 60
20-29 1 20 1945 53 2.59 10 2500 1.0 1:0 10 25
Boys
1-19 1 iz 3000 80 1.0 12 Looo 1.5 1.5 15 30
13-1 ~
11-12 2 11.5 L000 120 1.9 20 5000 2.0 2.0 20 50
Girls
13-17 1 13 2500 70 1.0 i2 3000 1.2 1.2 12 30
11-12 1 12 2200 65 0.75 10 2500 1.0 1.2 10 25
Children
9-10 4 10 6800 240 3:0 32 10000 2.8 4,0 28 100
7-8 3 8 4300 180 2.25 21 7500 1.8 3.0 18 60
5-6 2 5e5 2800 100 1.0. 12 LOo00 1.2 2.0 12 Lo
3-4 1 3 1200 40 0.5 6 2000 0.5 1.0 5 18
1-2 1 i 000 35 0.5 5 1500 O.k4% 1.0 L 15

SOT
Table 17. (continued)

 

 

 

 

——

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Group A
Average Pro- Cal- Vita- By Ribo- Ascorbic
Age Groupl Number Age Calories tein cium Iron min A flavin Niacin Acid
gm gm mg I.U. mg mg mg mg
Under 1 yr. 13 3 mo. 720 27 0.5 -
Total 32 61585 ~~ 1882 20,5 274 80000 29.6 33.9 295 753
Round II 4 61985 1507 20.8 282 81500 2.8 3h.4 300 723
Round IV 62585 1912 21.0 279 81500 30,1 34.9 300 758
1. Based on age at beginning of the study.
2. Two nursing women (no. 932 and ¢05), age 30-30,
3. One additional infant in group, during Round IV.
4, One 20-year old woman (no. 20k] was obviously pregnant in Round III and nursing
mother in Round IV of the dietary survey.
oo Group B
Men
60+ 1 64 2000 60 0.5 8 2500 1.0 1.0 10 25
50-59 1 £3 212% €0 0.5 8 2500 1.1 1.0 11 25
40-49 3 L6 6750 180 1.5 2k 7500 3.3 3.0 33 75
30-39 1 3° 2315 60 0.5 8 2500 1.2 1.0 12 25
25-29 1 25 2500 60 0.5 8 2500 12 1.0 12 25
20-24 3 21 7650 130 1.5 2k 7500 3.6 3.0 36 75
Women
704 2 80+ 2760 110 1.0 20 5000 2.0 2.9 20 50
60-69 -
50-59 1 59 1570 55 0.5 10 2500 1.0 1.0 10 25
Lo-L49 1 Ly 1710 55 0.9 10 2500 1.0 1.0 10 25
30-39 2 36 3610 110 1.0 20 5000 2.0 2.0 20 50
12 2505 85 1.0 15 Loco 1.5 2.0 15 30
20-29 1 22 1930 55 0.5 10 2500 1.0 1.0 10 25

901
Table 17. (continued)

 

 

 

 

 

Group B
1 Average Pro- Cal- Vita- By Ribo- Ascorbic
Age Group Munber Age Calories tein cium Iron min A flavin Niacin Acid
gm gm mg 1.U. mug mg mg ng
Foys
15-19 2 15 6000 160 2.0 24% 8000 3.0 3.0 30 60
13-14 2 13 5000 140 2.0 24 6000 2.4 2.4 24 60
11-12 1 12 2000 60 0.75 10 2500 1.0 1.0 10 25
girls
Ry 2 15.5 5000 140 2.0 24% 6000 2.4 2.4 oh 60
11-12 -
Children
5-10 3 10 5100 180 2.25 24 7500 2.1 2.0 21 75
7-8 3 8 4800 130 2,25 21 7500 1.8 3.0 18 60
5-6 2 6 2800 100 1.0 12 LOooo 1.2 2,0 12 40
Jt 3 Lt 2400 80 1.0 12 L000 1.0 2.89 10 3
1-2 1 2 900 35 0.5 5 1500 0.4 1.0 4 1
Under 1 yr. 13 3 m0. 240 g 0.5 LL
Total 37 71965 2154 23,75 321 03500 35.2 38.8 352 876
Round 11% 72365 2179 24.05 329 95000 35.4 39.3 357 376
Round IVY 72065 218% 24.25 326 95000 35.7 39.83 337 881

 

1. Based on age at beginning of the study.

2. One nursing woman (no. 752), age 30-39.

3. One additional infant in group, during Round IV,

4, One 38-year old woman in Group B (no. 732) was obviously pregnant in Round III and
was a nursing mother in Round IV of the dietary survey.

401
Table 18. Average per Capita Dietary Allowances for Persons in Two Groups of Households
Participating in the Dietary Study, Round and for the Year,
Bang Chan, 1953-5

 

 

 

 

1 Pro- Cal- Vita- Ribo- Ascorbic
Calories tein cium Iron min A Thiamine flavin Niacin Acid
gm gn mg I.Us mg mg mg mg
Group A
Round I 1925 55,8 0.64 8.6 2500 0.93 1.06 9.2 24
Round II 1625 53.8 C.b% 0.6 2500 0,23 1.06 2.2 24
Round III 1937 50,6 0.65 8.8. 2541 0.93 1.08 9.3 ok
Round IV 1956 55,7 0.66 8.7 254Y, 0.04 1.09 9.3 oly
Average per capita 1636 50.2 0.65 8.7 2522 C.93 = 1.07 9.3 24
Group B
Round I 1943 53.2 0.0k 2.7 2527 0.95 1.05 c.5 2k
Round II 1cL5 58,2 0.64% 3.7 2527 0.95 1.05 0.5 2
Round III® 1056 58.0 0,65 8.9 2568 0.26 1.06 9.6 ol
Round IV2 1972 50,0 0,66 3,8 2568 0.96 1.08 0.6 ol
Average per capita 1955 56.6 0.695 8.8 2543 0.96 1.06 9.6 ol

 

 

1. Adults were considered to be "active." The estimates therefore represent values
intermediate between those appropriate for heavy farm work, during planting and harvesting,
and the relative inactivity of the intervening periods. } ]

2. One 24-year old woman in Group A and one 38-year old woman in Group B were obviously
pregnant in Round III, and they were both nursing mothers in Round IV of the dietary Sunes,
Young infants were not counted separately in Round IV, as they were recelving mothers milk only.

 

g0T
109

APPENDIX C

Guides Prepared for the Observer ho Carried
Out the Dietary Study

Preliminary Visit to Participating Households

Households selected for dietary study are to be visited
in advance, acquainted with the procedure which we wish to
follow, and asked for their cooperation.

The following points should be emphasized:

1) Meals should be prepared as usual both in amount
and kind, Workers wish to know how much food and what kind,
the family eats.

2) Each item of food which enters into the meal pre-
paration will be weighed before cooking.

3) Each prepared food (as cooked rice, fried fish,
curry, etc.) will be weighed when the preparation is finished.

4) Amounts of prepared food given to priests, fed to
animals or left over, must be weighed, so that the amount of
food actually eaten by the family can be calculated.

5) As often as possible survey members would 1like to
be present during the meal, but will not accept food from the
household.

6) Each member of the family will be asked to report
to the survey vorker what is eaten between meals, If the
snack is eaten at home, it should be brought to the survey
worker first, to be weighed. If the snack is eaten away from
home, individuals are asked to tell the survey worker as

clearly as possible what was eaten, and how much.

Preliminary information to be obtained at this inter-
view:

1) Usual number of meals taken by the family at this
season.

2) Usual time of meals.

3) Time when food preparation is started in the morn-
ing, and when evening meal is over.

The family should be told that the survey workers will
come sometime during the next two weeks. They should not be
told which day, as that might lead them to make some changes
in their usual diets, either consciously or unconsciously.
110

The schedule of visits should be such that each day of
the Buddhist "week" will be appropriately represented, l.e.
the day before the holy day, the Buddhist holy day, and the
5 or 6 days which follow, Days of special festivals should
not be included in the dietary survey, although the investi-
gators should attend many of these, and record observations
on the foods served.

Dietary Survey Proper: General Procedures, with Alternative
Suggestions

Twenty-four hour period. =~ Each visit should cover a
24-hour period, After preliminary experience, a good plan
seems to be to go in the early afternoon, in time to see the
preparation for the evening meal, and to return early the
next day, remaining until the 24-hour period is up. This
plan has several advantages over making one's first appear-
ance before breakfast:

1) The homemaker may be introduced to the procedure
at a time when she is less hurried than she is apt to be in
the morning, when she must have food ready for the priests at
a fairly definite time,

2) Scales and other equipment may be left overnight,
so that these need not be carried before dawn, along with
food and water for the survey worker,

3) The risk that food preparation will be started be-
fore the worker comes is less if the homemaker expects the
survey worker before breakfast.

4) If the worker's visit is anticipated, someone at
the house will restrain the dog if necessary.

5) For the more remote households, arrangements can
probably be made to stay overnight at the home, or nearby,
without previous notification as to the exact date of onels
visit.

Because the observer may leave in the afternoon before
children return from school, she should ask about snacks
eaten away from home on the first afternoon, so that record
wlll be obtained of such snacks eaten on one day, though not
necessarily during the same 24-hour period as the other meals
recorded.

Number of Visits. - Aim to visit each of the 11 families
once each 3 months, i.e. 4 times in the year. This means once
during the cool season, once during the dry season, and twice
during the rainy season, i.e. early and late, From May 25,
1953 to the end of April 195% there are 49 weeks, In a sched-
ule calling for one survey day each week, this would allow
5 weeks for unforeseen circumstances which might interfere,
111

or for planning time off because of holidays, celebrations,
atc,

Scheduling of Visits. =~ Plan to see the families in
rotation, going to those in groups A and B on alternate
weeks, so that seasonal variation in food supply will not be
a major difference between the two groups. The survey worker
must have in mind another nearby home, however, which might
be visited if the original plan cannot be carried out on a
given day,

 

The survey worker should not give advance notice of
the exact day when she plans to come, unless the householder
has specifically requested this. Even when notice is re-
quested, it need not be long in advance, i.e. one could stop
by in the morning and ask if it wculd be all right to come
back in the afternoon to watch supper preparation,

Directions for Use of Schedule 8 on Which Data Obtained Dur-

 

a —— A —... 1 OT. SAD NO OD

Most of the items in this schedule may be filled in from cen-
sus information or by direct observation by the survey worker.
The worker will need to enquire re item E. the makeup of the
food consumption unit, and J 4, the cost of raw foods pur-
chased, The survey worker should try to observe other items
during the day, and fill in by inquiry, if necessary, at the
end of the day. Note whether information was obtained by ob-
servation (ob) or inquiry (q).

A. Hamlet and house number should be written in from the
census information, and should correspond to that on schedule
3 for the same houschold.

 

B., Each Houschold to be visited for dietary survey will be
given a key number in advance, This number should be inserted
here.

 

C. Head of household (from census information).

 

D. Religion. - Some dietary practices are associated with
religion, therefore indicate whether the household is Budd-
hist or Islam by checking the appropriate space.

E., Composition of food consumption unit: List here all per-
sons whose food 1s prepared in the kitchen which the observer
is visiting. Note that all persons living in one household
(i.e, at the same house number) may not belong to one food
consumption unit.

F. Source and treatment of water. - Find out, by observation
if possible, from what source or sources water is obtained
for drinking and food preparation, at this season. Note

 
112

whether or not water is holled or treated otherwise before
use,

G. Garbage disposal. = hile making the dietary survey, the
observer should note what is done with garbage. Is edible
waste given animals? Is garbage disposal carried out in such
a way that it will not attract flies, etc.?

H. Protection of food against contamination. - The observer
should note what means are used by the householder to protect
both staple and perishable foods from contamination by in-
sects and animals. If the householder's practices are not
consistent, the observer should note this, either on the
schedule, or in her note book, In the latter case, the sched-
ule should be plainly marked "see notes,"

I. Fanily member observed at meal time. - We have been unable
to think of any plan for weighing foods consumed hy individual
members of the family without disturbing the customary eating
procedures. The observer may be able, however, to get some
idea as to how food is distributed in the family, by observing
one person at a time, and recording her estimate of the indi-
vidual food intake,

The person chosen for observation should be one of the
family members who would be most vulnerable to an inadequate
food supply, for example a pregnant or lactating woman, a
young baby, a growing child or an old person. The observer
should fix her attention on the person to be observed, through-
out the meal, and should record as well as possible the amounts
eaten of each type of food, Record amounts taken onto the
plate, amounts left on the plate at the end of the meal, nun-
ber of bites or spoonfuls of each item eaten a) directly from
the serving dishes and b) after the food is put on the plate.
Check your estimates of amount eaten by the person observed
with reference to the total prepared for and consumed by the
family.

From observations of this sort we hope to get informa-
tion on questions such as the following:

1. When a child is said to eat all adult food, does
this mean that the kinds of '"with-rice" and the proportions
of rice to "with-~rice" are the same for him as for adults?

2. If a pregnant or lactating woman says she cats as
usual except for the hot tastes, does this mean a) that she
omits or decreases intake of peppery foods and eats no more
than usual of other foods or b) that she omits or decreases
intake of peppery foods and eats more rice and/or less highly
seasoned "with-rice" 1ltems? In the case of a child, note
carefully any remarks made by adults urging him to eat more
of, or suggesting that he eat less of a given item,
113
J. Food preparation and consumption

In the schedule, each column has a descriptive heading
and a number, On the sheet used for calculating "adjusted
consumption," the numbers alone are used,

l. Menu. Record title of meal as "breakfast" or
"dinner" and timc served, List all foods served at each
meal, including leftover - foods from the previous day. If
foods left over from an earlier meal on the same day are
used, note this fact, since weight of raw food, noted when
the food was prepared can be used in calculation.

Raw lngredients

2. Xind. llote here the name of each ingredient, and
any description nceded, i.e, fat or lean pork, hen or duck
egg, atc. Since rice 1s served at each meal the terms "home
milled" and polished are listed here, Cross out the inappro-
priate one,

3. A:.P., (as purchased)weight. Record here the weight
of the food as it is purchased, or as it comes from the store-
house, garden or canal. If several food items are used in
preparation of one dish, bracket thesc together.

}, Cost, For foods which have been purchased, record
cost of the amount used, For example, if 3 fish were pur-
chased for 1 baht, but one only was prepared at this time,
record 33 stg. as the cost. If the food was produced at
home, grew wild, or was received as a gift, note this,

5. Inedible refuse. Note weight of inedible refuse
which 1s discarded during preparation, If the inedible
portion is included in the cooked dish, weigh it later and
record the weight in this column.

6. E., P, (edible portion). Add together all weights

of inedible refuse for a given item to get the total for item
5. Subtract 5 from 3 to get this figure.

Note on weighing raw food: So far as possible, weigh
raw food and inedible refuse on waxed paper (weight negli-
gible) or in standard utensils (enamel plate, plastic bowl,
etc.) the weights of which are known. Record: weight of
A.P, food on utensil minus weight of utensil equals weight
of food. For example, if rice is weighed in a plastic bowl
weighing 90 g., and the total weight is 870 g., 870-90 =
780 (g. rice). The observer is less apt to make mistakes if
she uses the same containers repeatedly, than if containers
used are provided by the household, and vary widely in
weight, The balances provided for weighing food are 3 kg./
10 g. and 1 kg./% go Small amounts of food should always be
welghed on the 1 kg. scale, since it 1s more sensitive than

 
114

the 3 kg. scale, If a number of items are used in small
amounts, weights may bc approximated mere closely if the items
are placed one after another, on a piece of waxed paper, not-
ing each time the added weight causcs the indicator to move.
Thus the red or green pepper alone might not weigh enough to
affect the indicator, but these together with other green or
leafy materials used (as lemon grass, coriander leaves and
sweet basil) might weigh 8 grams, In a marginal diet, the
contributions of such items to the nutritive value of the diet
should not be overlocked.

Cooked foods. ~- Tor cooked foods, which must often be
weighed in a container provided by the family, columns are
provided for weight of dish (7), of dish plus food (8) and of
food (9). For example, if rice is to be cooked in an aluminum
kettle, weigh the empty kettle and record this weight in column
7. When the rice 1s done, and ready to serve, weigh kettle
plus cooked rice, and record this in column 8, Subtract 7
from 8 and get the weight of food, to be recorded in column 9,

Use of cooked food

10, If food is given away, weigh dish and food before
and after the food is offercd, to get weight of food given
away. Record the weights bhefcre and after and the difference,
in column 10, Specify whether the recipient is priest, neigh=-
bor, relative etc. If inedible portion is included, note this
and weigh it if possible.

11. Fed to stock. If inedible portion is given, note
this and weigh 1t if possible, Specify if fluid only is given,
or if part of the complete dish,

12, Edible waste, Specify if this is fluid only or a
representative part of the complete dish.

13. Left over, Specify if this is fluid only or a ropre-
sentative part of the complete dish. Note if inedible portion
1s included and weigh it if possible. If you must leave in
the evening before all family members have eaten, explain that
you wish to weigh all left over food, and arrange to have 1t
kept in separate dishes so that you can weigh it in the morn~
ing,

1%, Food caten. Weigh the pot or serving dish before
and after the meal. At the end of the meal, weigh inedible
portions left on plates or in the pot, and correct for those
to get the weight of cooked food actually eaten.

15, Persons cating, Record here the number of persons
in the consumption unit (item E) minus the number absent from
this meal (x), plus the number of guests (y). Thus if there
are 6 members of the family, one of whom is away, write
6 = 1x = 5, Similarly if therc are 6 members of the family,
115

plus a guest, write 6 + 1 y = 7, If one member of this family
is away but a guest is present, write 6 - 1 x + 1 y = 6. In
calculating, if the number of persons eating a given meal
differs from the usual number in the houschold, thc amount of
a given food caten is multiplied by a factor representing the
riumber of persons in the household/number of persons present,
Thus if a guest shares the meal in a household consisting of
6 persons, all of whom are present, the weight of each food
eaten should be multiplied by 6/7 to get the "adjusted con-
sumption," for which nutritive value is to be calculated.
Similarly, if 5 only of the 6 members of the household eat a
given meal at home, the weight of each food eaten should be
multiplied by 6/5 to get the "adjusted consumption.™

16. Methods of preparation. Describe the method of
preparation clearly enough so that one who was not present
could visualize it, Specify if soaking or cooking water is
discarded. Note cooking time and appearance of cooked
product when these give a clue as to probable nutritive value.
Thus greens which are added at the last, cooked only a short
time so that they retain their color, may be expected to re-
tain a maximum amount of their vitamin C., Note type of
equipment used,

 

K. Snacks. Record snacks caten between meals on the separate
sheet provided. Ask persons who eat snacks at home to bring
them to you first, to be weighed. Question each member of the
family about foods eaten away from home during the day, and
record the kind of snack, description, and weight. (Estimated
welghts should be put in parenthesis, to distinguish them
from observed weights.) If the snack was purchased, record
the cost. Under "person eating" note the name of the family
member who ate each snack.

From these data we hope to get an idea as to the nature
and probable nutritive value of snacks, and whether these are
eaten by all or most members of the family, or by certain
ones only, as by the school children at recess,
116

SCHEDULE FOR DIETARY STUDIES

Cornell University Thailand Project 1952-53 Schedule 8

A.
Ce

E.

DatCeooeosssssceses
Bamlot.sscvnose HOUSE BOuienssess B. Household NOocoscseeso

Head of Buddhisteecoaroso
Household Blesessanssass Blsssnssovsses De. I8latie secs suns

Food consumption unit, List here the names of persons who
usually eat food prepared in the kitchen where observations
are being made:

Ilevovsnnmesenses BYeescenosencsennss DYsamssieen snsassdess
2s swvsrsenso sense Blosnnsesasvensens sell) ssvesonevnnonsnney
3Ysconeconnrnovss Zlovssewsnrswscvnsvsddoncveerssracsnvave

¥Yesonsssnsneas sn BD ossssssosent sss st bd Yssss sess ssssgrnees

At this season what kind of water is used for cach of the
following purposes, and what treatment, if any, 1s given
to ito

USE SOURCE TREATMENT
| Rain|Canal Fish-| None | Alum, Boil~! Other (what)
pond | 3 Ling
1 i
Drinking, | | i
adults |
Drinking, !
children !
Washing veg-
etables
Cooking |

 

1
em

T

i

 

 

! tn A np eben | wn y ]

| :

 

 

 

 

 

Washing = f= ! !
dishes | ! ! :

How is garbage disposed of? (check)
1, Buricdecesesceessaccsss Ho Thrown elsevhereivceeecess
2.5 BURN d ss ss von is s05 55 0850 Se Fed to animalSeeococeosses
3. Thrown into cont les ees e é. OLB acoso scossnosnsnsos

* Indicate whether answer is obtained by query (q) or obser-

vation (obs,)
117

H., Does the householder attempt to protect food against
contamination by insects, animals etc? Note mcans used.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Type of food
1) Dry rice and other | 2) Perishable
nonperishatle foods & left-
Means used foods over cooked
foods
l. Container covered:
a) Solid cover
b) Fiber cover
2, Food safe:
a) Screencd
b) Ant-proof legs
3 . Other
4, None
I. Family member observed at meal-time . . « » « & s

Notes re kind and amount of food eaten by this DET EON;
Household No. 21

 

 

Food Preparation and Consumption Sept. 25, 1953

Raw Ingredients :

 

Cooked Foods

 

 

 

 

 

 

T
Wt. © Cost | TIned. ! | Dish +
Menu | Kind A.P. ; b Ref. E.P, | Dish; Food | Food
1 2 3 Bt.|Ste. 5 1 6 177i 8 1 9
Meal Time oo | | 8001 2990 [2190
20 a.m. ' 2180-800 | 120; 1280 {1160
Cooked rice Polished = 1380 | : 190! 850 | 660
Lo1oTr!
(1) Bauaun stew (leftover) | 450; 915 | 465
(2) Sa-(5)noo Coconut meat (to 700-180 ;
stew . make milk) = 520 | 50 | | 520)
Dried chilies 2k ; t 15 24 )
Onion 5 8 | Ch | | g)
Galangal (HG) 8 : i 8)
Garlic Lt 2 4) ;
Lemongrass (HG) 12 : ’ 12 yo. on | af
- Bergamot rind (6)? 4 : i ; 4) | #50. 1390 940
Salt 30 ; : ; 30 ) 130 312 182
Serpenthead (C)¢  320-120=200 : | 200 | 130° 300. 170
Shrimp paste 6 1 3 6) 130. 260 L130
(2)8a~(5)noo 550 | 5350-520 €40-150 | Th22T
flowers (G) {= 60 i_= 490 3
Coconut milk | ! i 12202450 !
Cy b=) i
Palm sugar 2L0-200= 40 | P22 4G) | |
Cooked rice (leftover) i 520, 800; 280
Fried duck 1 Duck egg 76 i 21 | 20-185
egg ! ! : = 35 [ | |
Coconut oil 16 P08 | 16 | |
~ Onion 4 Po 2 | , | 1a : a
' Fishsoy 10 5 4 10 130. 260 0

 

1. T equals total weight. }
2. HG, G and C stand for home grown, gathered and caught, respectively.

b=

—

co
Food Preparation and Consumption (continued)

Sept. 25, 1953 Household No. 21

 

Use of Cooked Foods

 

 

Fed to Ed. ; ! Persons!
Given away i Stock | Waste: Left Over; Eaten , Eating
10 ’ 11 / 12 | 13 C14 0 15 Method of Preparation
Cooked rice i } C 3350: L | Rice, %:30 a.m. She washes rice two times

506s : | | :
(to 3 priests) '

(1)Bauvaun stew

; (leftover)

; 0 Po L65
(2)Sa-(95)noo ! ; :
stew ; : ; |
312-130=182 ; i i i
300-130=170
260-130=130 :

LR2T 0 lo

(to 3 priests):

!

i t

i

: Cooked rice |
! (leftover)

| 0 280
i Fried duck cge ,
' 0 : 80

 

and lights the fire. Then she puts rice
pot on fire at 4:35. Rice water is
drained off at 5:00. Rice pot is put on
fire again from 5:15 to 5:25.

(1)Bavaun stew is reheated from 5:00 to
515 A.M.

(2)Sa=(5)noo stew, 5:20 a.m. Dried chilies
(after soaking in water for a while), onion,
garlic, galangal, lemongrass, bergamot rina,
and salt all pounded together. 5:27 She
crushes coconut meat with water five times
over colander. Shrimp paste is mixed with
(4)nam (4)phrig at 5:40. The pot ol coco-
nut milk is put on fire at 5:42. (4)Nam
(W)phrig is mixcd with boiled coconut milk
at 5:55. Trish is put into the pot and
water from crushed tamarind at 6:00,
(2)sa—-(5)noo flowers at 6:05. The pot 1s
put down at 6:12 a.m.

Fried duck egg. The pan is put on fire at
6:15 a.m. Duck egg is mixed with pleces
of onion and fishsoy. Coconut oil is put
into the pan at 6:20. Stirred egg is

fried from 6:20 to 6:25.

6TT
Food Preparation and Consumption (continued)

K. Snacks

a

Household No, 222, June 4-5, 1953 S

 

 

 

 

is bought from the store near Wat.

 

; Weight (or approx. wt.) Cost
Person : — 7
eating Time j Kind and description i AP. ' Ined. refe.i E.P.
1 2° 3 Ly 5 6 i Bt. 18%,
| i Ee Ege oe ' ;
June 4/53 | | °
Girl, 12:00m '| She ate a half fruit of pineapple (375) (195) oo. p20
8 yrs. | at home. It was bought from the | :
selling beat. :
| : | :
June 5/53 | |
: |
Girl, ) i 7:40 - The pot of truffles (gathered | | :
8’ yrs. ) | | from the fields) is put on fire. : |
) | It is boiled with water and salt. | :
Boy, )IoA1l | | |]
10 yrs. ) day | Truffles: 525-72 = 453 gn, 1 L453 |
} Salt: 35 gm. | |
Girl, ) i :
13 yrs. ): It is finished at 8:28, |
| | :
Boy, 8:46 | He eats boiled banana (HG) Lg i |
10 yrs. ;
$ ; ) :

Girl, Early , She drinks coffee which is bought ! 40
13 yrs. acme | from the store near the Wat. |
Father 10:13 . He drinks one glass of milk which | ; | 50
| |
i i

 

 
Dietary Survey,

Form for Calculating Raw Weights of Foods Eaten

Bang Chan

Amounts of foods prepared and eaten

Household No.

12

Date Jan. 14, 1954

No, persons in household __3

 

 

 

 

: Cooked |, ¢ Adjustments-
teal — i Raw ingredients i food Use of cooked foods raw wt.
menu | 1 : Po ' For | . For

1 | : boy amt. , | No.

1 2 i 3 ty 9 110:11{12)13 , 14% : eaten. 15] people

i : i k ' | ‘ !
4:00 p.m. | : : | j : |

SE | SE

Cooked rice ' Polished © 610 © 1640 , 50C 11140 3
Baked egg plants | 3 egg plants 370 | 3701 240 | | Lf 0, 240 |
Fish "salad" : Lemongrass (HG)? 26 36) ; : | |

, Holy basil (HG) 20 2 45 Vt 11 ols

'1 fish (cooked) 52 12 40): 7 i |

I Lime (1/2 fruit) 306112 13): ; | :

Cooked rice ' (Leftover) 250 i Lo 0) 250

t i |

6:55 a.l. | | | ; |
Cooked rice { Polished a50 i 2390 ! ] 800 | 11590 P3
Roasted fish 2 fish '1i2 bo 96 | C10!
Cooked rice (Leftover) ; 500 0 5C0 |
Chili sauce ' Bird pepper (HG) 12 12)

Shrimp paste 10 10). ; !
Garlic 3 8y 45 : 20! 25 :
Palm sugar 10: C10)
Lime 122. 4, 8) ; |

 

 

1.
2.

For ide

HG stands for home grown.

ntification of column numbers, see the original schedule, pp. 118-119 and pp. 113-1

114% =
Dietary Study, Bang Chan - Nutritive Value

Date: July 23, 129

 

 

 

 

of Total Foods Eaten in 24 Hours Household No. 16 Persons Eating:
Do Pro- ; | vit, | , | Nia- | Vit.
‘Adj. |{Cal- tein’ rat | Carb., Ca i F . Fe A By ‘Rivo. | cin Cc
Raw Ingredient cons. !ories| gm. gm. | gm. | mg. ! mg. mg. | I.U. | mg. ' mz. | mg. mg.
| | I | | I
Rice, home milled 3877 | LHO7N 295 | 43 i 3036 | L426 8568 | 46.5 | el 7.37] Jon | 120.2 ol
Dried fish "450 0 864! 189, 71 Oo! 293 111.37 0 | 0.27! 1.h0 20.7 0
Bottle gourd 1535 1 261 51 31 531 18% 276 9.2! 1075! 0.611 0.77 15.4 | 15%
Swamp cabbage © Lgo! 13 14] 11 261 3501 245! 12,00 30240, 0.3L; 0.58 3.4 § 15k
(2)Phag (2)ka- | | ; !

(2)cheed wo! 13] al ot 21 66d | 1.20 2400] 0.04] 0.081 0.3 | 28
Coconut milk? 1010 © 735 8 59. 42 | | | |
Pork fat i 36 0 325 0 | 36 Oi O 0: 0 oc: 0; O o' ©
Fishsoy th 53 at “ai i : | 0. 0.01! 0.04%: 1.1 |
Shrimp paste ! 16 19 | L! 0 | ; | 0, ot c,02! 1.0; =
Chilies, dried 120 49 33 11 61 32) 74% 0.5] 115] 0: O | Ci 10
Garlic L16 15: 1: ©0f i Tol 21: 0.2 0 0.04 0.01] 0.1 : 2
Bird pepper 10! 3! of oy 1; 2} -! 0. 6000.01; O Cc} 20
Onion | 4 1: oy oi oO, 1: 2: 0 © 2. 0, o! oO. 1
Lime L 2 of ol! 1! (@: (1) (0), ol (oy: ©} (0) | 1
Palm sugar ! 25 ; 96 Of 0} 24% 1 20: 10) 2.%. 0; 0: oO; 0.34 ©
Salt © 20; 0 oi ol! 0, uw6 0j 0,1 0, 0. 0 0! 0

; TT 1 ! ; " }

Total 1 16617 526. 150 | 3200 | 1429 | 9197 1 84.0. 34432: 8.69 4.84. 162.5 | 370

i vod
Average/cap. 2077 66! 19 400 179: 11501 10.5. 430%: 1.09! 0,60. 20.3 : 46

 

 

 

 

1. ( ) means imputed value;
able, but probably contains measurable amount;

2. See Appendix C, pp. 128-129.

 

0 means none or insignificant amount; - means no values avail-
blank space means no information found.

=
ro
ne
Dietary Study, Bang Chan - Nutritive Valuel Date: Jan. 1, 195%

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

of Total Foods Eaten in 24 Hours Household No. 12 Persons Eating: :
: = =F a = :
| | Pro- Vit. | | Nia- Vit,
! Adj. | Cal- | tein! Tati Carb. Ca | P | Fe = A | By Ribo.| cin C
Raw Ingredient ! cons. ! ories gm. | gM. | gM. mg. t mg. | Mg. | I.U.! mg. | meg. | me. me.
T ] : 7 !
Rice, polished 1335. 4806¢ 91 © 9 | 1053 | 801 1869} 10.7} (0) | 1.60! 0.40 | 20,0 | (0)
Egg plant : 370 39 i Lo 1 20 © 56, 137! 1.5; 111 ; 0.15 | 0.19 | 2.2 | 1S
Fat fish : 152 275, 28 18 0 56i 321 1l.5¢ O 0.09: 0.06 | 6.1 | 0
Lemongrass 36 : ! | } |
Holy basil 2k 23; 2 0 | 4 19 | 2, 0.73024 | - | 0.55 | = 1
Lime 22 | 8: 0 o 3 9 5! 0.1: 0 |(0.01) oO | O 6
Bird pepper 7 2, © 0 | 0 1 -! 0.1} “02 o 0 | 0 13
Shrimp paste 6 6: 1 Ol 0 0 0 0.01 | 0.3
Palm sugar 6, 211 ©. 0 | 5 1h 21 0.6! © | 0.1
Garlic % | 4! 0: 0 - 1! 2 6 Cj; O C.01 0 oO | 1
| 106 | of | PR |
Total | 52341 126 | 28 | 1086 | 227] 2342] 15.2{3537 | 1.86 | 1.21 | 28.7} 40
| | FT | |
Average/cap. 1745 | 42 | 9 | 362 76 5) 5.111179 0.62 | 0.40 9.6 i 13
} { { 1
‘ ! i L | 3 ¢
1. ( ) means imputed value; O means none Or insignificant amount: - means no values avail-

able, but probably contains measurable amount; blank space means no information found.

£21
 

124

Foods for Which Values Were Obtained from Miscellaneous Sources,

or Imputed by the Authors

 

-

Name of Food

Cereals
Rice, glutinous, black
Animal Foods

Fermented fish

Shrimp paste

I'ishsoy

Pield rats

Frults
(2)Ma-(l)dan, fruit

Manila tamarind

Rambal

Thal nutmeg
Vegetables

(1) Bauaun

Bergamot rind
Celery leaves, Chinese
Coral

Cucumber

Source or
Basis for Imnuted Values

Values for glutinous rice

Values from Thal table; vitamin
analysis for AO by Hoffman-La
Roche, Ca value from Knudson (1955).

Values from Thal table; vitamin
analysis for FAO by Hoffmann-La
Roche,

Values from Thal table; vitamin
analysis for FAO by Hoffman-La
Rocha,

Values from Chatfield et al.
for mammals, dressed.

Leung et al, Unspecified fruits,
tropical areas,

ung et al. Unspecified fruits,
opical areas.

Willimott

Values for persimmon

Values for eggplant

Aykroyd et a2l., values for lime
peel.

Values for celery leaves and
stalks, Chinese.

Leung et al., values for dark
green leaves

Watt et al,, for flgures for Fe
and Vitamin A in cucumber with skin.
 

12%

Galangal Leung et al., values for ginger
root,

(1) Javan Leung et al,, values for dark
green leaves.

(3)Knii-(2)1leg Leung et al,, values for dark
green leaves,

(4)Khlyd Leung et al,, values for dark
green leaves,

Lotus stalk Leung et al., values for lotus
root,

(2)Ma=-(1l)dan leaves Leung et al., values for dark

green leaves,

(4)Ma~(9)khya (2)khaj Values for eggplant.
(2)taw

Morinda Leung et al., values for dark
green leaves,

(2)Phag (2)ka~(2)cheed Leung et al., values for dark
green leaves,

Sweet potato Chatfield, values for vitamin A
in pale variety.

Foods for Which Nutritive Values Werc Not Calculated and the
Total Amounts Laten by Two Groups of Households

Throughout the Survey

rt et 4 A A SE A AAR 05 Sl HE.

 

 

Amounts Faten

 

Name of food Group A "Group B
& g
Bergamot leaves 5 15
(2)Ka=(1l)chaa}] 15 7%
(2)Kha=(1l)cauaun flowers 25 0
Lemongrass 135 154

(2)8a~(5)noo flowers 216 1078
126

List of Foods? Included in Each Food Group

 

 

rtm ee .. S— —— n. |  T — St or —

I.

II.

iil.

Rice and other cereals

 

Popcorn

Rice flour

Rice, glutinous

Rice, glutinous, black
Rlce, home-nilled
Rice, noodles

Rice, polished

Wheat bread

Fish and other animal
foods

 

Beef
Chicken

Crab, salted field
Eel
Eggs,
Eggs,
Fish,
I'ish,

duck

hen
canned
dried salted
Fish, fermented
Fish, fresh
I'ishsoy

Frogs

Milk

Oysters, dried
Pork

Rats, field
Shrimp paste
Water buffalo

Green and leafy vegetabies

 

Beans, string
"Bergamot! leavas
{Citrus hystrix)?
Chilies, fresh, green and
red (Capsicum annuum)
Chilies, small, or bird-
pepper (Capsicum
frutescens)
Chinese celery
(Brassica pekinensis)
Coral (Erythrina fusca)
(2)Kha=-(1l)cauvaun leaves
(Telosma cordata)
(3)Khii-(2)1leg
(Cassia siamea)
(4)Khlyb (see footnote

De 30.)

Leeks
Lemongrass
citratus)
Lettuce, head
(4)Ma- (1)dan leaves
(Garcinia schomburgkiana)
Morinda, (1)jauau
(Morinda citrifolia)
Onion leaves
(2)Phag (2)ka=-(2)checed
(Neptunia prostrata)
(2)Sa-(l)daw (Melia indica)
(2)8a-(5)noo, leaves and
flowers {Sa gnania
rozburghii)?
Swamp cabbage, (2)phag
(3) bung
Sweat basil (Ocimum
basilicum)

{Cymbopogon

IV, Other vsgotablaes

(1)Bavaun - (a member of the
Araceae (aruam family)
perhaps a species of
Alocasia)

Bamboo shoots

Bean, mung

Pean, sprouts

Calabash

Cassava

Chill, dried

Cucunber

Fgg plants

Garlic

Gourd, bitter (liomordica
charantia)

Gourd, bottle (Lagenaria
Jeucantha)

(2)Xha=-(l)cavaun flowers
(Telosma cordata)

Leeks, flowers

Lotus stems (Nelumbo
nucifera)

Mushrooms, straw

Onion, mature or bulbs

(2) Phag (2)tob (Eichhornia
crassipes)

Peanuts
Radish, white
Radish, salted

Sweet potato (pale yellow)
Other vegetables (continued)

Taro

Turmeric, white

Water chestnut, Chinese or
black truffle
(Eleocharis dulcis)

West Indian pca tree,
(1)Khacae flowers,
(Sesbania grandiflora)

Fruits

Coconut and its products
Coconut meat
Coconut sport
Coconut milk
Coconut cream

VI,

Fruits other than coconut

 

VII.

Banana, (3)kluaj (4)nam-
(4)waa

Guava (Psidium guajava)

Hog plum (a species of
spondias)

Jack fruit (Artocarpus
heterophyllus)

Jujube (Zizyphus jujuba)

(2)Ka~(4%)tauaun
(Sandoricum indicum)

Limes

Lotus sceds (Nelumbo
nucifera)

(4)Ma=(1)dan fruit
(Garcinia schombrrgkiana)

Mango

Manila tamarind
(Pithecellobium dulce)

Muskme lon

Olive

Orange, sour

Orange, sweet

Papaya

Pineapple

VIII.

1. English names, where known, are glven first.
terms are given where no common English name was known,

127

Rambai, (+)ma-(1)faj
(baccaurea sapida)

Rambutan (Nephclium
lappaceum)

Star gooseberry
(Cicca acida)

(2)Ta=(1)koo (a species
of Diospyros)

Tamarind (Tamarindus
indicus)

Thai nutmeg (a species
of Diospyros)

Watermelon

Fats and oils
Coconut oil

Pig's skin
Pork fat

Sugar

Palm sugar
Sugarcane

Miscellaneous and
snicas

 

Agar

Bergamot, rind

Cardamom

Cinnamon

Coriander seeds

Fennel

Galangal (Alpinia
of ficinarum)

Ginger (Zingiber
officinale)

Holy basil (Ocimum
sanctum)

(2)Ka-(1)chaaj
(Poesenbergha

pandurata)
Nutmeg
Pepper, black
Salt
Vinegar
Thai
Both

Thai terms and scientific names are given for plants which

may be unfami

liar to many Western readers.

2, Foods for which no nutritive values were found nor
imputed,
 

128

NOTES ON THE PREPARATION AND NUTRITIVE VALUE OF
CocoNUT MILK AND COCONUT CRIAM

The term coconut cream ( (5)hua (2)ka-(4)thi), as it
was used in Thailand, referred to the product which was made
by squeezing grated coconut with little or no addition of
water, Coconut milk ( (4)naam (2)ka=-(4)thi) was made by
squeezing grated coconut repeatedly with water. Coconut
cream might be made first, and the residue extracted one or
more additional times to obtain coconut milk. The terms
coconut milk and coconut cream apparently are not used con-
sistently. Losec (1952) commented on this when he described
the preparation of coconut cream in Samoa, and sald that it
was sometimes called coconut milk, Miller et al. (1936), in
describing the preparation of coconut milk said "If a thick
coconut milk to serve cver puddings, taro lcaves, etc. is de-
sired, 1/2 to 3/% cup of coconut water or boiling water should
be poured over 3 cups of grated coconut, . . . If the milk is
to be used in curry sauce for chicken, eggs, shrimps, or in
cornstarch pudding, a larger quantity of water (1 to 2 cups
of water to 3 cups of grated coconut) may be used."

In carrying out the dictary study, the observer weighed
the grated coconut meat, tle residue and the final products,
coconut milk cr cream, cr woth, ©She did not weigh the water
as 1t was added in successive portions, but the amount of
added water could be calculated,

The ratio of coconut milk to mcat varied considerably,
but on the average, houscholds in Group A obtained coconut
milk which weighed more than eight times as much as the coco-
nut meat from which it was made. Households in Group B ob-
tained less than 2% times as much milk by weight as coconut
meat. The number of extracticins made varicd from 2 to 6,
with a mode of 3, Obviously, the products made by Groups A
and B, although both called coconut milk, had markably difler-
ent percentage composition, and neither was similar to "coco-
nut milk" for which values could be found. These valucs were
as follows:

Coconut milk
grams per 100 gm, E, P.

Authors Location Pro, Fat Carbo.
Bocobo et al, Philippine Islands 3.6 33.2 38.
Food and Drug

Division Thailand 3.32 34,75 1.52
Miller ct al. Hawaii 4,0 27.0 18,91

l. Personal communication
129

In calculating values to be used in our estimates of
nutrient content of diets in Bang Chan, we made two assump-
tions: 1) that the "expressed coconut milk" described by
Miller et al. was similar to coconut cream as made in Bang
Chan, and 2) that coconut milk as made in Bang Chan differed
from coconut cream primarily by dilution. When coconut milk
was made by successive extractions after coconut cream had
been prepared, the combined weights of cream and milk were
taken to represent the yield of coconut milk from the weight
of meat used,

The ratio of coconut cream to coconut meat was approxi-
mately the same, 0,30 for households in Group A and 0.33 for
those in Group B, but Group A used more water in making coco-
nut milk than Group B., By calculation, we obtained the
following figures for the percentage of protein, fat and
carbohydrate in coconut milk as made in the two groups of
households.

Estimated Composition of Coconut Milk as
Made in Two Groups of Households, Bang Chan

__ Grams per 100 gm. E. P,

Protein [lat Carbo.
Group A 0.15 1.0 0.7
Group B 0.5 3.6 2.4

The need for a gulde for calculating composition of
various coconut milks, based on actual analysis of the
products as made at hom: 1s apparent, Since coconut milk
was uced almost daily in Bang Chan, use of the figures which
we found in the literature would have introduced a major
error into our calculations. Using figures from the table
designed for use in Thailand (FFood and Drug Division, Bang-
kok, 1953), the average per capita caloric intake per day,
from this source for the families studied would have heen
over 300 caleries, as compared to about 45 calories, using
the figures calculated on the basis of observed precedures
in the village.
CORNELL UNIVERSITY SOUTHEAST ASIA PROGRAM
OFFICERS, FACULTY AND STAFF: 1957-58

Officers

Deane W. Malott, President of the University

S. S. Atwood, Provost of the Uanlversity

John McConnell, Dean of the Graduate School

Francis E. Mineka, Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences

John M. Echols, Chairman of thc Department of Far Eastern Studies
Lauriston Sharp, Director of the Southeast Asia Program

Faculty

J. Marvin 3rown, Instructor in Linguistics (Thai and Burmese
Languages)

John M4. iachols. Professor of Linguistics (Indonesian Languages
and Southeast Asian Literatures)

Frank H, Golay, Associate Professor of Economics

Charles FF. Hockett, Prcfessor of Linguistics (Chinese Languages)

Claire Holt, Visiting Professor of Far Eastern Studies

R. B. Jones, Jr., Assistant Professor of Linguistics (Burmese,
Thai and Vicinemese Languages) /Cn leave in Burma/

George McT. Kahin, Associate Professor of Government and
Associate Director of the Southeast Asia Program

Lauriston Sharp, Professor oi Anthrcpolozy

Cooperating Faculty from Other Devartments

E. A. Burtt, Susan Linn Sage Professor of Philosophy
Hazel M. Hauck, Professor of Foods and Nutrition

F. G. Marcham, Goldwin Smith Professor of History
Robert A. Polscn, Professor of Rural Sociology

Staff
William J. Gedney, Research: Ascoclate, Thai Literature Project
Jane R. Hanks, Research Associate, Thailand Project

Lucien MM. Hanks, Jz. {Bennington College), Research Associate
and Field Director, Thailand Project

Kamol Janlekha (Kasetsart University), Research Associate,
Thailand Project

Giok Po Oey, Southeast Asgian Collection, University Library

G. William Skinner, Field Director of the Program and Research
Fellow, Modern Indonesia Project

Jan White, Administrative Secretary to the Program

Roswitha T. Djiajadiningrat, Teaching Assistant in Indonesian
Herbert Feith, Research Fellow, Modern Indonesia Project
Deliar Noer, Research Assistant, Modern Indonesia Project
Nwe Nwe, Teaching Assistant in Burmese

Phanom Smitananda, Teaching Assistant in Thai

Andrea Wilcox, Research Assistant, Modern Indonesia Project
 

Cornell University Southeast Asia Program

 

VISITING PROFESSORS: 1951-58

 

1651-52: Tag C. Grondahl
1952-53: Jchn #. Cady
Hadji Agus Salim

1953-54: Charles Wolf, Jr.
1954-55: John S. Furnivall
1855-586: Tooi Xoomsail

Valter F. Vella
1956-57: Brian Harrison
1657-58: Claire Holt

SCUTHEAST ASIA PROGRAM DATA PAPERS

 

Issued by and cbtainable Irom the Southeast Asia Program,
Morrill Hall, Correll University, Ithaca, New York; price one
dollar a copy, exc2nt as noted. The series is designed to pro-
vide materials on Southeast Asia which are not suitable for
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-

for additional numb2rs will be welcomed.

Number l. REPORT ON TEE CHINE3® IN SOUTHEAST ASIA, DECEMBER
1850, by G. William Skinner, 1931. (Supply exhausted)

Number 2, A CENTRAL, JAVANESE VILLAGE IN 1850, by Paul M. Katten-
kurg, 1851. (Supply exhausted)

Number 3. AN ACCCUNT CF AN ACOILSTITION TRIP IN TEE COUNTRIES
OF SOUTHIAST ASIA, by Cecil Hobbs, 1952. (Supply
exhausted)

Number 4, THAI CULTURE AID BEHAVICR, An Unpubliched War Time
Study Dated Septemrer 1S43, by Ruth Benedict, 1952;
reissued 1°55. (Supply exhausted)

Number 5. RURAL ORGANIZATION AND VILLAGE REVIVAL IN INDONESIA,
by Ch. J. Grader, 1l¢52. (Supply exhausted)

Number 6. TEACHING AND RESEARCH RELATING TO SOUTHEAST ASIA IN
AMERICAN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES, APRIL 1952, by
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Number 7. LABOUR AND TIN MINING IN MALAYA, by Nim Chee Siew,
1953. (Supply exhausted)
Number

Number

Number

Number

Number

Number

Number

Number

Number

Number

Number

Number

10.

11.

12.

13.

15,

jo
on
°

17.

18.

12.

 

Cornell University Southeast Asia Program

 

SURVEY OF CHINESE LANGUAGE MATERIALS ON SOUTHEAST
ASIA IN THE HCOVER INSTITUTE AND LIBRARY, by Giok
Po Oey, 1953. (3upply exhausted)

VERB CONSTRUCTIONS IN VIETNAMESE, by William W. Gage
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AN ACCOUNT OF THE JAPANESE OCCUPATION OF BANJUMAS
ESIDENCY, JAVA, MARCH 1942 TO AUGUST 1945, by

S. M. Gandasubrata, Resident of Banjumas, 1953.
(Supply exhausted)

ACCOUNT OF A TRIP TO THE COUNTRIES OF SOUTHEAST ASIA
FOR THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, 1852-53, by Cecil Hobbs,
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PCLTITICAL INSTLTUTIONS OF OLD BURUA, by John F. Cady,
1954. (Supply exhausted)

TADACGALE: A SJRMESE VILLAGE Ii 1950, by Charles S.
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THE VIET-MINE REGIME: GOVERNMINT AND ADMINISTRATION
IN TEE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC CF VIETNAM, by Bernard

B. Fall, 1954; reissued in a revised enlarged edi-
tion, 19556. (Issued jcintly with and obtainable
from the Institute of Pacific Relations, 333 Sixth
Avenue, New York 14, N. Y.) $2.50.

SELECTED ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS IN BURMA AND
INDONESTA~-NOTES AND COMUTNTS, bv Charles Wolf, Jr.,
1954, (Supply exhausted)

[os

SOMT OBSERVATIONS CONCERNING THE ROLE OF ISLAM IN
NATIONAL AND INTERNATICHAL AFFAIRS, by Mohammad
Natsir, 1954. (Supply exhausted)

MALAYA: A STUDY Of GOVERNMENTAL RE3PONSE TO THE
KOREAN BOOM, by John Paul Meek, 1S55. (Supply
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CONCEPTIONS OF STATE AND KINGSHIP IN SCUTHEAST ASIA,
by Robert Heine-Geldern, 1956.

THE PHILIPPINES: A SURVEY OF CURRENT SOCIAL, ECO-
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man, 1956. (3upply exhausted)
Numbar

Number

Number

Number

Number

Number

Number

Number

Number

Number

20,

2%.

22.

25.

27.

28,

29.

 

Zornell University Southeast Asia Program

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THAILAND, A Selected List of Books
and Articles with Annotations by the Staff of the
Cornell Thailand Rasearch Project, by Lauriston
Sharp, Frank J. ioore, Walter F. Vella and associ-
ates, 1936. Reissued 1957 without corrections or
additions.

THE STATUS OF RURAL LIFE IN THE DUMAGUETE CITY TRADE
AREA, PHILIFPINES 1852, by Rcbert A. Polson and
Agaton P. Pal, 19Ec.

ASPECTS OF HEALTH, SANITATION ALD NUTRITIONAL STATUS
IN A SIAMESE RICE VILLAGE: STUDIES IN BANG CHAI,
1952~L4, by Hazel Md. Hauck and asscclates, 1956.
Cornell Thailand Project: Interim Reports Series:
Number Two.

THE REVISED UNITED STATES-PHILIFPPINE TRADE AGREEMENT
OF 1925, Wr Frank H., Golay, 1956.

CCUREES RIOLATED TO SOUTHEAST ASIA IN AMERICAN COL-~
LESES AWD UNIVERSITIDES, 1955-56, by Barbara S.
Dohrenwend, 1957. (Supply exhausted)

FACTORS RELATED TO ACCEPTANCE OF INNOVATIONS IN BANG
CHAN, THAILAND, Analysis of a Survey Conducted by the
Cornell Cross-~Culturel Methodology Project, May 1955,
by Rose K. Goldsen and ilax Ralis, 1957. Cornell Thai-
land Froject: Interim Reports Series: Number Three.

THE ROLE AND IHPCRTANCE OF PHILIPPIITE INTERISLAND
SHIFFING AND TRADE, by Frederick L. Wernstedt, 1957.
$2,00,

 

CN THE WAYANG KULIT (PURWA) AND ITS SYMBOLIC AND M1YS-—
TICAL ELEMENTS, by KX.G.P.A.A. Mangikiunegara VII of
Surakarta, (Translated by Claire Holt), 1957. $1.50.

FIVE FAPERS ON THAI CUSTOM, by Phya Anuman Rajadhon,
lez8,

FOOD HABITS AND NUTRIENT INTAKES IN A SIAMESE RICE
VILLAGE: STUDIES IN BANG CEAN, 1952-54, by Hazel M.
Hauck, Saovanee Sudsaneh, Jane R, Harks and associ-
atee, 1958. Cornell Thailand Project: Interim Re-
ports Series: DMNumber Four.
Cornell University southeast Asia Program

 

CORNELL MODERN INDONESIA PROJECT PAPERS

 

(Obtainable from the Cornell Modern Indonesia Project)

Interim Reports Sexies
THA NATIONAL STATUS OF THE CHINESE IN INDONESIA, by Donald E.
Willmott, 1956. (Supply exhausted)

DECENTRALIZATION IN INDONESIA: LEGISLATIVE ASPECTS, by Gerald
S. Maryanov, 1957. $1.00. (Supply exhausted)

THE SOVIET VIEW OF THE INDONESIAN REVOLUTION, by Ruth T. McVey,
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THE INDONESIAN ELECTIONS CF 1955, by Herbert Feith, 1857. $1.50.

SOM FACTORS RELATED TC AUTONOILY AND DEPENDENCE IN TWELVE
JAVANESE VILLAGES, by Barbara S$. Dohrenwend, 1957. 51.50.

PRODLEMS CF REGICONAT, AUTONOMY IN CONTEMPORARY INDONESIA, by
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THE CALCUTTA CONFERENCE AND THI SOUTHEAST ASIAN UPRISINGS, by
Ruth T. McVey, 1938. $1.00.

Translation Series

STRUCTURAL CHANGES IN JAVANESE SOCIETY: THE SUPRA~VILLAGE
SPHERE, by D. H. Burger, (Translated by Leslie H, Palmier) ,
1656. (Supply exhausted)

 

INDONESIAN WRITING IN TRANSLATION, edited with an introduction
by John M. Echols, 1256.

LIVING CONDITIONS CF PLANTATION ORKERS AND PEASANTS ON JAVA IN
1939-1940, ky Coolie Budget Commission, (Translated by Robert
van Niel), 1956. 1.50,

STRUCTURAL CHANGES IN JAVANESE SOCIETY: THE VILLAGE SPHERE, by
D. H. Burger, (Translated by Lesiie H. Palmier), 1957. (Supply
exhausted)

THE OFFICE OF PRESIDENT IN INDOMNSSIA AS DEFINED IN THE THREE
CONSTITUTIONS IN THEORY AND PRACTICE, by A. K. Pringgodigdo,
(Translated by Alexander Brotherton), 1957. $1.50.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AS A CULTURAL PRCBLEM, by Soedjatmoko,
i988, § .50,

THY TOBA BATAK, FORMERLY AND NOW, by J. Keuning, (Translated
by Claire Holt), 1958. $1.00.
Cornell University Southeast Asia Program

 

Monograph Series
THE BIGINNINGS OF THE INDONHSIAN~DUTCH NEGOTIATIONS AND THE HOGE

VELUWE TALKS, by Idrus N. Djajadiningrat, 1957. $2.50.

THE WILOPO CABINET, 1952-1953: TURNING POINT IN POST~-REVOLUTIONARY
INDONESIA, by Herbert Feith, forthcoming. $2.75.

OTHER STUDIES SECIISORED OR AIDED BY THE PROGRILM

THE TEACHINGS OF THE COMPASSIONATE BUDDHA, by E. A. Burtt,
Editor, New York: The New American Library, 1955. 247 pp.

CONFLICT IN INDOCHINA AND INTERNATIONAL REPERCU33LONS: A Docu-
mentary History, 1945-55, edited by Allen B, Cole and associates.
Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1956. xxix, 256 pp. (Published
under the auspices of the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy,
Tufts University and the Southeast Asia Program, Cornell Univer-
sity.)

A HISTORY OF MODERN BURMA, by John F. Cady. Ithaca: Cornell
University Press, 1953. xiii, 322 pp.

THE ROOTS OF FRENCH IMPERINLISH IN BASTERN ASIA, ky John FF. Cady.
Ithaca: Cornell Uriversity Press, 1654. xii, 322 pp. {Published
for the American Historical Association.)

VILLAGE LIFE IN MODERN THAILAND, by John E. de¥Young. Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1955. x1li, 225 pp.

TENG ANH CHO NGUOT viffT (ENIZIISH FOR VIETNAUESE), by William W.
Gage and assistants. Washinston: American Council of Learned
Societies, 1955. 366 pp.

THE CO-ORERATIVE MOVEMENT IN INDONESIA, by Mohammad Hatta. Ithaca:
Cornell University Press, 19587, xuxiv, 121 pp. (published under
the auspices of the lfodern Indonesia Project, Southeast Asia Pro-
gram, Cornell University.)

ECONOI1IC CHANGE IN THAILAND SINCE 1850, by James C. Ingram.
Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1955. 254 pp. (Issued
under the auspices of the International Secretariat of the
Institute of Pacific Relations.

A STUDY OF THE ECONOMY OF Zi RICE GROWING VILLAGE IN CENTRAL
THAILAND, by Kamol Janlekha. Bangkok: Ministry of Agriculture,
1957. 199 pp.
Cornell University southeast Asia Program

 

THE BURMESE WRITING SYSTEM, by Robert B. Jones, Jr. and U Khin.
Washington: American Council of Learned Societies, 1953. v, 37 pp.

INTRODUCTION 70 SPOKIN VIETMNAMESE, by Robert B. Jones, Jr. and
Huynh Sanh Thong. Washington: American Council of Learned
Societies, 1957. xix, 258 pp.

NATIONALISIA AND REVOLUTION IN INDONESIA, by George McT. Kahin.
Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1952. xii, 490 pp. (Pub-
lished under the auspices of the International Secretariat of
the Institute of Pacific Relations and the Southeast Asia Pro-
gram, Cornell Universitv.)

THE ASILAN~-AFRICAN CCNFERFNCHE, Bandung, Indonesia, April 1955,
by George AcT. Kahin. Ithaca: Ccrnell University Press, 1936.
vii, 88 ob.

THE POLITICAL AND CONSTITUTIONAL IDEAS OF THE PHILIPPINE REVO-
LUTION, by Cesar Adib Majul. Philippine Social Sciences and
Humanities Review, XXII (March-June, 1957). Quezon City, Phil-
ippines: College of Liberal Arts, University cf the Philippines,
1657. xiv, 212 pp,

ILOCANO: AM INTEMSIVE LAMNSULGE COUR3E, by Howard McKaughan and
Janette Foster. Glendale, Califernia: Summer Iastitute of Lin-
guistics, Box 870, 1932. Revised Edition, 1953. (Processed)

SPOKEN LAO, Book I, bv G. Bdward and Thelma VI. Roffe. Washing-
ton: American Council of Learned Societies, 1956. viii, 3562 DP.

 

SIAMESE RICE
1942, by Laur pi Sharp, Hazel il. Hauck, Kamol Janlekha and
Robert 3. Textor. Bangkok: Cornell Research Center and Ithaca:
Cornell University Southeast Asia Program, 1653. xiii, 300 pp.
(Cornell Thailand Project: Interim Reports Series: Number One.)

VILLAGE: A PRELIMINARY STUDY OF BANG CHAM, 1948-

HANDBOOK ON THAILAND, by Lauriston Sharp, Frank J. Moore, Walter
F. Vella and associates, New Haven: Human Relations Area Files,
Inc., 1955. xii, 568 pp. (Preliminary edition.)

CHINESE SOCIETY IN THAILAND: AN ANALYTICAL HISTORY, by G. William
Skinner. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1957. xvii, 459 pp.

LEADTRSHIP AND POWER IN THE CHINESE COMMUNITY OF THAILAND (Mono-
graph of thc Association for Asian Studies) , by G. William Skin-
ner. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1658. xvii, 364 pp.

 
Cornell University Southeast Asia Program

THE SOCIAL SCIENCES AND THALLAND: A Compilation of Articles on
Various Social Science Fields and Their Application to Thailand,
by G. "illiam Skinner, Kaw Swasdli Panish, J. Marvin Brown, edi-
tors and associates. Bangkok: Cornell Research Center, 1956.
(In Thai and English.) xvi, 185 pp. and xiii, 125 pp. (Published
under the auspices of the Education Society of Thailand.) $1.50.

BAHASA INGGERIS (ENGLISH FOR INDONESIANE) , by Gerald 3, Williams.
Washington: American Council of Learned Societies, 1954. 431 pp.

UNPUBLISHED DOCTORAL DISSERTATIONS

(Available on microfilm (*) from University Microfilms, 213 Noxth
First 3treet, Ann Arbor, iichigan; or thrcugh inter~library loan)

THE CRASCENT AND THE RISING SUN: Indonesian Islam under the
Japanese Occupation of Java, 1942-1945, by Harxy J. Benda.
Cornell University, 1955. (*)

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THI IRIAN PROZLEM, by Robert C. Bone, Jr.
Cornell University, 1957. (¥)

BURMESE RELIGICN AND THE 3URMESHE RELIGICUS REVIVAL, by Jchn F.
Brohm. Cornell University, 1957. (¥%)

POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT OF VIET NA: V-J Day to the Cease Fire,
by Bernard B, Fall. Syracuse University, 1954,

VOIAGE DE SIAM DU PERE BOUVET, by Janette Collet Gatty. Cornell
University, 1953. (¥)

THE PA~O PEOPLE OF THE SHAN STATS, UNION OF 2URMA;
and Ithnographic Study of the Pa-o (Taungthu) Peopl
D. Backett, Cornell University, 1953.

A Sociological
e, by William

BANGKHUAD: A COMMUNITY STIDY IN THAILAND, by Howard X. Kaufman.
University of Indiana, 1955. (*)

KU DAENG--THE RED TOMB: A Village Study in Northern Theiland,
by Konrad Li. Kingshill, Cornell University, 1957. (¥)

THE TINFLECTION AND SYNTAX OF MARALNAQO VERBS, by Howard P, McKaughan.
.Cornell University, 1857. (¥)

A PHILIPPINE BARRIO: A 3tucdy of Sccial Organization in Relation
to Planned Cultural Change, by Agaton P. Pal. Cornell University,
1936, {*»)

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Cornell University Southeast Asia Program

 

COLONIAL LABOR POLICY AND ADMINISTRATION: A HISTORY OF LABOR
IN THE RUBBER PLANTATION INDUSTRY IN MALAYA, 1910-1941, by
J. Norman Parmer. Cornell University, 1957. (*)

A SOCIAL POLITICAL STUDY OF THEI EURASIANS OF INDONESIA, by
Paul van der Veur. Cornell University, 1955. (¥*)

DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDONESIAN ELITE IN THE EARLY TWENTIETH
CENTURY, by Rokert Van Niel. Cornell University, 1954. (*)

STUDY AND TEACHING MATERIALS

 

MODIFIED THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TESTS OF FORTY~SEVEN THAI CHILDREN
AND ADULTS, by Lucien M. Eanls, Jr., in Pert Kaplan (ed.), Pri=-
inary Records in Culture and Personality, Vol. 1. Madison, Wis-
consin: The Microcard Foundation, 1957.

THAI INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC, Performed or directed by Kamol Ketusiri,
recorded and narrated Ly Caroli Skinner in Thailand. Ithaca:
Cornell University Scutheast Asia Program, 1954, Two 12-inch,
long-playing records {four sides). $10.00.

BUA: A BUDDHIST ORDINATICN IM BANG CHAN, TIAILAND., Ithaca:
Cornell University Southeast Asia Program, 1954. One reel
(400 £t.), 16 mm. silent film in color. Copies available,
price on application.

DAWADUNGS: A DANCE OF THE SECOND HEAVEN. A Thal classical
dance performed by Miss Yibbhan Xoomsai., Ithaca: Cornell
University Southeast Asiz Prcgram, 1956. One reel (400 ft.),
16 mm. sound film in color, Cozies available; price on
application.

 
li i BERKELEY iii I

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