UC BERKELEY MASTER NEGATIVE STORAGE NUMBER 00-89.05 (National version of master negative storage number: CU SN00089.05) MICROFILMED 2000 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY PHOTOGRAPHIC SERVICE USAIN State and Local Literature Preservation Project Funded in part by the National Endowment for the Humanities REPRODUCTION AVAILABLE THROUGH INTERLIBRARY LOAN OFFICE MAIN LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA BERKELEY, CA 94720-6000 COPYRIGHT The copyright law of the United States (Title 17, United States Code) governs the making of photocopies or other reproductions of copyrighted materials including foreign works under certain conditions. In addition, the United States extends protection to foreign works by means of various international conventions, bilateral agreements, and proclamations. Under certain conditions specified in the law, libraries and archives are authorized to furnish a photocopy or other reproduction. One of these specified conditions is that the photocopy or reproduction is not to be "used for any purpose other than private study, scholarship, or research." If a user makes a request for, or later uses, a photocopy or reproduction for purposes in excess of "fair use," that user may be liable for copyright infringement. University of California at Berkeley reserves the right to refuse to accept a copying order if, in its judgment, fulfilment of the order would involve violation of copyright law. California Almond Growers Exchange Manual of special instructions for large scale blanching, salting... | San Francisco, Calif. [C1928] BIBLIOGRAPHIC RECORD TARGET University of California at Berkeley Library USAIN State and Local Literature Preservation Project Master negative storage number: 00-89.05 (national version of the master negative storage number: CU SN00089.05) Author: California Almond Growers Exchange. Title: Manual of special instructions for large scale blanching, salting, roasting & toasting of California almonds... San Francisco, Calif., California almond growers exchange [c1928]} Description: 30p. illus., tables. O. Subjects: Almond. Call numbers: CSL State Lib 641.3 C15 California Microfilmed by University of California Library Photographic Service, Berkeley, CA Filmed from hard copy borrowed from California State Library FILMED AND PROCESSED BY LIBRARY PHOTOGRAPHIC SERVICE, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY, 94720 DATE: 5/00 REDUCTION RATIO: 8 PM-1 3%"x4" PHOTOGRAPHIC MICROCOPY TARGET NBS 1010a ANSI/1SO #2 EQUIVALENT 0 wi= l= = l= j22 2 on l= ls = fl22 IL Jl Je | fa iz LE ka ba | UN CE TTI EY a. ‘ . » » —~— AT LHI | jad | 0 2037, 0513053 ¢ id | STATE LIBRARY ; | | Accessions No. 95226 ~~ Received : Class ! Donated by_Ben Allen ! \ ; I c641.5 California ‘almond Sronors le pi. Tn lh | C15 Bena. CL pi aR Sl Sah Lh ul Marual of special in- nell el | structions for large scald lanl sate Ph Se TT Blanching...of California | Hain Ey almonds 226 | | nn 8 } E : i L i ji : for . i fot . : a y i : 3 el IaH eo4l.& -GH22206 Ct S Table of Contents Page FOREWORD Opp. page 1 I. THE SALTING PROCESS 1. Grading for size . Scalding . Blanching . Cooking . Cooking oils . Salting II. THE ROASTING PROCESS 1. Varieties and grading 2. Satisfactory types of roasters 3. Time and temperature requirements III. THE TOASTING PROCESS IV. APPENDIX (Supplementary notes and experimental data referring to passages in main text.) Inside . LIST OF BLUE DIAMOND BRAND ALMOND PRODUCTS......back cover List of Illustrations Page Shelling and Manufacturing Plant of California Almond Growers Inside front cover Grading almonds for size : 2 Feeding almonds into scalder 6 Electric tray dehydrater 9 Automatic salter 13 Blancher at Manufacturing Plant 16 Group of processing machines 19 95226 | Cis 5 Table of Contents ; Page FOREWORD 1. THE SALTING PROCESS 1. Grading for size . Blanching . Cooking oils . Salting 8. Packing II. THE ROASTING PROCESS 1. Varieties and grading 2. Satisfactory types of roasters 3, Time and temperature requirements IIL. THE TOASTING PROCESS IV. APPENDIX ... (Supplementary notes and experimental data referring to passages in main text.) : : Inside - LIST OF BLUE DIAMOND BRAND ALMOND PRODUCTS......back cover List of Illustrations Page Shellin and Manufacturing Plant of California Almond Growers : Inside Exchange ... front cover Grading almonds for size Feeding almonds into scalder Electric tray dehydrater Automatic salter Blancher at Manufacturing Plant Group of processing machines foreword In presenting this Manual it is not our purpose to offer to confec- tioners of wide experience any general instructions on the handling and processing of almonds. Extensive investigation and careful laboratory experimentation have, however, brought to light two facts which indicate the need for a publi- cation of this character. Briefly stated, these are: 1. Many manufacturers are familiar only with European-grown al monds; : | 2. For successful processing, domestic almonds require somewhat dif- ferent methods from those commonly used in preparing foreign-grown nuts. It has been conclusively demonstrated, not alone in our own labora- tories, but by practical confectioners conducting impartial tests on their own behalf, that the California almond, correctly handled, is in all respects the equal of the European nut for blanching, salting, roasting, toasting and practically all other confectionery purposes. Obviously then, it is to the interest of all concerned to know how the two varieties differ, and what changes those differences necessitate in processing methods. This Manual accordingly treats briefly of the relative composition, chemical and physical, of European and California almonds,* and describes in detail ~ the methods which have been shown by exhaustive practical tests to give best results in all processes connected with the salting, roasting and toast- ing of California almonds. In the body of the text will be found, grouped under appropriate headings, instructions for salting California almonds, covering each step from grading to packing the finished product, together with descriptions and illustrations of apparatus in actual use. Similar instructions are given for toasting and roasting. The main text makes frequent references to supplementary material in the appendix. There may be found notes descriptive of experiments which: have led to certain of the conclusions set forth in the text, and which offer the large manufacturer with his own laboratory facilities material for further experimentation on his own behalf. The experiments on which this Manual is based have been conducted by trained food chemists and analysts from the University of California and the California State Department of Agriculture. These experts have worked with a free hand in the laboratories, and in the manufacturing department itself, of the big Shelling and Manufacturing Plant of the California Almond Growers Exchange at Sacramento, California. The results of all tests have been checked and rechecked, and the methods out- lined in the Manual are now in successful use in our Manufacturing Plant. With the hope that through its help more confectioners will come to a realization that American-grown almonds are fully as satisfactory for their uses as the European-grown varieties to which so many of them have been accustomed, this Manual is presented. Correspondence concerning it, and questions relative to any matter touched upon in its pages, are always "welcomed. *See note 12, Appendix, p. 30. CALIFORNIA ALMOND GROWERS EXCHANGE - ~ Manual of Special Instructions for large scale blanching, salting, roasting ae ‘and toasting of California almonds I. THE SALTING PROCESS 1. Grading for Size “¥ VHE first step in the actual production of salted almonds is to grade the J meats according to size. For salting purposes the most essential dimension A to grade for is that of thickness, as it is self apparent that a thin almond will obtain a satisfactory degree of cooking in less time than a fat or plump almond. Our investigations, both in the laboratory and in the Manufacturing epartment have demonstrated that the differences in treatment both as to blanching and cooking are dependent upon the thickness of the meats them- selves. The trade demands that salted almonds be of a uniform color, flavor and texture and this can only be accomplished by proper grading and processing of each respective size separately, under conditions which will produce a uniform product of the entire mass, which can then be blended together. Grading Essential When Mechanical Blancher is Used It is essential that graded almonds be used when mechanical blanchers are employed, as it has been found that when a mass of various sized almonds are run through such a blancher, very poor results are obtained. This may be attributed to the fact that the rolls of the blancher are set by the operator for a certain size almond, which will either permit small almonds to pass through unblanched or the large almonds to clog between the rolls. In this way the meats become split or otherwise damaged. Such damaged and unblanched meats must be removed prior to drying, and this requires additional labor, slows up production, and increases cost of production. : ; : As above stated, a difference in treatment is necessary in cooking various sizes of almonds in order to produce a uniform product.. Thus, grading results not only in uniformity of the finished product, which means quality, but in standardization of method, which tends to reduce operating costs. Simple Grading Methods Grading for size is best accomplished by a series of reciprocating or vibrat- ing screens, mechanically operated. Results obtained from any such grader depend upon its ability to maintain clear, free openings in the screens and sharp, rapid action. One type of machine giving good results consists of a series of slotted or perforated plates, each plate being punched with holes of uniform size, the holes increasing in size with each succeeding plate. These screens or plates are mechanically agitated with a reciprocating motion in order to insure an even flow of almonds over the entire surface. For Nonpareil almonds, the width of the slots varies from 12/64 inches to 20/64 inches, the length of all slots being 1; inches. If the round perfora- tions are used, the sizes vary from 24/64 inches to 44/64 inches. 2 THE SALTING PROCESS Grading almonds for size preparatory to blanching 2. Scalding The skin of the almond is firmly held in place by various gummy substances and in order that these may be removed, the almonds must be placed in scalding water for the proper length of time so as to soften, dissolve or hydrolyse these gummy substances. Scalding may be carried on either by the continuous or the batch system. The continuous system insures a steady, even supply of almonds in the proper condition for feeding to the blancher. A scalder for this purpose which has been found to give very satisfactory results may be described as follows: The scalder consists of a rectangular iron vat in which a steel wire conveyor belt moves at a constant speed. The vat holds about 100 gallons of water and the water and heat connections are such that a continuous flow of water at any desired temperature can be maintained. : When the scalder is in operation, the almonds are admitted in predetermined quantities by the control gate onto the meshed conveyor belt. The conveyor guide above this belt assists in keeping the product immersed and this, together with the vigorous circulation of the water, insures an even, thorough scalding. Prior to discharging, the almonds are allowed to drain for a short time. They are then carried from the scalder to the blancher by another belt such as that mentioned above. ; THE SALTING PROCESS 3 The Batch System ge a In the batch system, sufficient almonds are scalded at one time to feed the ner for twenty to thirty minutes. To obtain the most satisfactory results, essential that the water be circulated freely and the almonds vigorously fated in order to break up the air pockets formed, and to maintain an even mperature of the entire mass throughout the operation. 2 Many of the difficulties ordinarily encountered in blanching, may be attrib- ‘uted to scalding too large a mass of almonds at one time. The layer of almonds in the scalder should not be over four inches in thickness, as otherwise the percentage of split and damaged meats will be excessive, This is caused by the weight of the upper layer of almonds breaking the softened meats underneath; | J als o by the necessity of agitating the almonds by means of paddles and mechan- Difficulties Involved in Scalding Large Quantities h It has been the practice of some to scald as large a batch of almonds at one time as the equipment will hold, then to immerse the hot meats in cold water several seconds in order to keep them in condition for blanching, the cold ter cooling the hot meats and preventing evaporation. Under this procedure, 7 the ‘amount of moisture absorbed by the blanched almonds is excessive, and as ie re almonds must be thoroughly dried before cooking, the drying time is greatly ised. Unless proper allowance is made for this increased drying, the finished product will be of an inferior quality. Better results are obtained by scalding small quantities at more frequent intervals. Li There is no doubt but that the cost of equipment is less for the batch system, as usually installed, than for the continuous system. It is also a fact that it costs less to scald large batches of almonds than small, frequent batches. How- ever, the difficulties encountered in this case more than offset the advantages. Of the two, it is felt that the continuous system is far superior where the production is on a substantial scale. Time Required for Scalding The following tabulation shows the time required for scalding at various temperatures to secure the most satisfactory results in blanching almonds: he of Scaldi Time Necessary to Obtain a 100 a ake of g Per Cent Blanch—Using Finger: emperature sing Fingers a to Remove the Skins 212 Degrees F Two Minutes 200 n Two Minutes 190: Two Minutes, Ten Seconds 180 ” Two Minutes, Thirty Seconds 170 Three Minutes "160 » Four Minutes 150 » Seven Minutes 140 Twelve Minutes 130 ” Twenty-five Minutes 120 » Forty-five Minutes 110 ” One Hour, Fifteen Minutes 100 ” One Hour, Forty-five Minutes The actual difference in time required for scalding water at 180 degrees F. and in water at 212 degrees F. is about one-half minute. Below 160 degrees F. the time actually required is too long to be practical. From the above it can safely be said that any temperature above 180 degrees F. is suitable, were the 4 THE SALTING PROCESS matter of time alone the chief consideration. However, as it will hereinafter be noted, temperatures above a certain degree are detrimental to the quality of the finished product, and should be avoided. . A careful study of the results in tests covering blanched almonds show that those scalded in boiling water are of a shriveled, discolored appearance and contain the maximum amount of water. Investigations furthermore indicate that in a commercial operation, the actual scalding time and temperature of the water are decidedly affected by the following: Thickness and toughness of the skins which is characteristic in various varieties; quantity and kind of gum under said skins, also characteristic with certain varie ties of almonds; the efficiency of the blancher, etc. All of these elements should be taken into consideration in each individual case and necessary allowances made for them. Best Scalding Temperature, 180° F. Based on our extensive experiments, we recommend that Nonpareil almonds, a California variety much used for salting, should be scalded for three minutes in water of 180 degrees F. At this scalding time and temperature the minimum amount of water is absorbed. Another investigation as to the solubility of the natural dyes in the skin of the Nonpareil almonds shows that same increases as the temperature increases and reaches a maximum in boiling water. : From tests described in the appendix,* it has been found that approximately one gallon of water should be used per pound of raw shelled almonds, scalded. This water should not be used a second time, as it will then discolor the kernels in the scalding process.} Iron or Steel Equipment Necessary The scalding equipment should be made of iron or steel, as the almond skins liberate tannic and other acids during scalding, which will corrode metals such as aluminum, tin or copper very quickly, forming tin and copper salts that are very poisonous. Iron and steel are not materially affected by the acids liberated in scalding. Directly after using, the scalder should be thoroughly washed, scoured and then dried, after which it should be inspected to see that it is ready for the next day’s run. 3. Blanching Where production is on a substantial scale, power driven mechanical blanch ing machines are strongly recommended. This type of equipment brings the almonds in contact with one or two pairs of rubber-faced rolls running at different speeds. Skins as removed are carried away by suction or air blast and the blanched almonds are discharged onto sorting tables or into suitable con- tainers prior to drying. As stated in the discussion under grading for size, blanching machines are designed to operate with properly graded almonds, their efficiency otherwise being very low. It should be clearly understood, however, that a one hundred per cent blanch is never accomplished by any machine and that certain hand work must be done in this connection.’ This is accounted for by the fact that a machine capable of handling any volume of almonds cannot be made so mechanically delicate that it will adjust itself to the slight variations of each almond. Then again, the nature of the operation itself is such that any mechan *See note 1, Appendix, p. 22. {See note 2, Appendix, p. 22. i . THE SALTING PROCESS 5 ical device is bound to break or split a certain per cent of the almonds passing through. Such breakage may be attributed to irregular feeding of the rolls, to the rolls being set too close for some almonds, and to broken kernels which always occur in any lot of mechanically shelled almonds. Uniform Rate of Feeding Desirable _ Experience has shown that the blanching rolls must be fed at a uniform rate with properly scalded almonds in order to obtain the best results. If fed too rapidly or intermittently, a mass of almonds will at times accumulate in the - feeding hopper and then will tend to cause congestion between the blanching rolls. When such a congestion takes place, splitting and other damage to the almonds will result, owing to the fact that the almonds have not had sufficient time to adjust themselves between the rolls. It is for this reason that some blanchers have only very small feeding hoppers above the blanching rolls and that unblanched kernels are fed directly onto the rolls as fast as the latter are capable of blanching them. It will be found that a machine using two pairs of blanching rolls is much more efficient than one using a single pair, as it is then possible to set the first pair of rolls a little farther apart than the second pair. Under this arrangement greater variation in the size of the almonds is permissible; and furthermore, almonds only partially blanched by the first pair of rolls stand a better chance - of being blanched by the second pair. It is also found that the percentage of _ split and damaged almonds is much less with the use of this type of blancher, as pressure is applied to the almonds gradually. With a little experience the operator will learn to adjust the blanching rolls for the different varieties of onds by closely watching the kernels after they have passed through, and noting differences in size and in texture of the skins. Removal of Skins by Air Blast The air blast which removes the .skins as they are separated from the almonds must be adjusted so that the split or damaged almonds are not removed with the skins. Such split and broken meats should be separated from the whole meats before cooking and may be processed separately and blended with the whole almonds after cooking and salting. However, the air blast should be sufficiently strong to remove the skins completely, in order to avoid the neces sity for additional hand labor in sorting. : The almonds that are not blanched the first time they pass through the blanching rolls should be returned at once to the, blancher, the rolls of which may be readjusted as necessary. Where a second run is not successful in remov- ing the skins, they should be immediately blanched by hand. Under no circum- stances should they be allowed to accumulate, as they will dry on the surface, making it necessary to scald them again before such re-blanching. Furthermore, while so accumulating, they are absorbing additional moisture, which will cause the almonds to become soggy, and will result in an inferior finished product. Specifications of Satisfactory Blancher - There are many mechanical blanchers on the market that give satisfactory results. Before purchasing such equipment, however, it should be checked for the following specifications: (A) The diameter of the blanching rolls should not be too small, as this will pinch the almonds, causing breakage. The rolls should have a diameter of six inches or more. THE SALTING PROCESS Feeding raw almonds into scalder preparatory to blanching (B) It has been found that a thick, rubber-covered surface on steel rolls will give (©) (D) the most satisfactory results. This surface should be at least 34 inch thick. The rolls should be so constructed as to cause no difficulty in changing the rubber covering as it wears down. : : The size of the corrugations on the rubber surface should be approximately Ys inch by 4 inch for the best results. The speed ratio of the rolls varies with different machines but should be from 2tolto4tol. : j (E) The speed at which the rolls should operate depends: to a certain extent Jha the diameter. The high speed roll generally operates from 50 to 150 R.P. and the other roll in proportion. Many machines have a series of gears so that this speed can be varied to suit conditions, which is often desirable. (F) The distance between the rolls should be easily and accurately adjusted without (G) (H) stopping the machine. This is a very Faportent feature, as it is often necessary to adjust the rolls slightly in order to relieve congestion which is apt to occur even under most favorable conditions. The tension on the rolls should be sufficient to remove the skins, but not too rigid, as otherwise the percentage of split and damaged meats will be excessive. It is desirable to be able to adjust this tension from time to time as occasion demands. There must be adequate means of removing the skins as separated. This is usually accomplished by air suction or by means of an air blast. THE SALTING PROCESS 7 ih ~The machine in the plant of the California Almond Growers Exchange ~ has been giving good results. Its dimensions are as follows: Diameter of rolls........... 8 inches Corrugation of rubber... 8" x 1B” Speed ratio... : -~2 to 1 and the rolls operate at 80 to 40 R.P.M. ‘Width of rolls 18” Capacity ........................ bd i Approximately 750 to 1000 lbs. per hour 4. Drying ~ The amount of total moisture in blanched almonds is extremely variable. A series of investigations shows that almonds originally containing 3.3% native " ‘moisture, after being scalded for three minutes at a temperature of 180 de- grees F. and then immediately blanched by hand, will contain 10% to 12% total moisture. If, however, the scalded almonds are allowed to stand for thirty ‘minutes, they will contain 12% to 15% moisture. If the almonds originally ~ contained 4.5% moisture and were treated as first above stated, they will con- tain 12% to 14% total moisture, and if they are allowed to stand thirty min- utes, they will contain 15% to 20%. In other words, experiments show that the total moisture in blanched almonds will vary with the amount of native moisture in the raw product, the scalding time, the temperature of the scalding water and the treatment that _ wet scalded almonds receive during and after blanching. * Fin Controlled Drying Gives Best Results It is essential that this moisture variation should be controlled by drying ‘the blanched almonds to a definite pre-determined moisture content of two pet «cent or less. By so doing, a uniform cooked product, free from toughness, light in color and having an extremely fine flavor, is produced. In addition there'is a saving in the cooking costs, the life of the cooking oil is increased, together ‘with many other minor advantages. As the amount of moisture remaining in the blanched almonds prior to cooking plays such an important part in the manufacture of salted almonds, we have included a description of various methods of determining the moisture content of blanched almonds.} For commercial operation one of the more simple methods should be selected and used daily to check up on the blanching and drying operations. An Efficient Dehydrater for Large Quantities Where there is a large volume of almonds to be dried, a progressive type of tunnel dehydrater, using the counter current air system, will give the most effective results. While any type of dryer or dehydrater can be used, we believe that the above type is the most desirable. A brief description of such a dehydrater follows: An air tight housing in which trucks loaded with trays containing blanched almonds, slowly move to- wards the source of heat. The warm air with the lowest degree of humidity comes in contact first with the driest almonds. The almonds should be placed on these trays directly after blanching, after which the trays are placed on trucks and wheeled into dryer. Both trays and trucks should be of metal con- struction, galvanized, tinned or otherwise treated to resist corrosion. ‘The trays should be light in weight and capable of withstanding rough handling. They *See note 3, Appendix, p. 23. {See note 5, Appendix, p. 24. 8 THE SALTING PROCESS should also permit the maximum amount of air circulation to the blanched al- monds. The size of the trays should be such that they can be conveniently handled by a single man. A size 30 x 36” has been found satisfactory. Calculating Capacity of Drying Tray For calculating the capacity of the tray, the weight per cubic foot of the dry almonds, percentage of moisture in the almonds before and after blanching, and percentage of skins removed must be known. Assume that the dry, raw shelled almonds of the Nonpareil variety weigh approximately forty pounds per cubic foot and that the raw almonds contain 4% native moisture and the blanched almonds 12% total moisture; furthermore, that 4% of the dry weight of almonds is removed as skins in the course of blanching. From the foregoing, one square foot of tray surface covered to a depth of one inch will hold 3.3 pounds of raw almonds. Allowing for skins removed and moisture absorbed in the course of blanching, the net weight of the wet blanched almonds would be approximately 3.4 pounds, and the dry weight 3 pounds per square foot of tray surface. The weight for any size drying tray can be calculated from the above, proper allowance being made for any variation in the depth which almonds may be spread. While the above are not the exact weights, they are sufficient for the calculations of a dryer capacity. It will readily be seen that in this type of dryer, the air’ carries the heat to the almonds, and carries away the moisture; and that the higher the air velocity in the dryer, the greater the drying capacity. It is recommended that an air velocity of 500 to 750 feet per minute be used for the most satisfactory results. It is important for uniform drying that a constant air velocity be maintained and evenly distributed over all the trays. As the drying depends upon the relative humidity of the air, it is necessary that same be maintained at 6% to 10% in the dryer. Higher relative humidities than this will increase the drying time; or the blanched almonds will dry only to a certain moisture content and will then remain in equilibrium with the air. This means that drying will go so.far and then no further. Best Drying Temperatures A thorough investigation covering various drying temperatures shows that at temperatures of 140 degrees F. and below, the drying time is so prolonged as to be impractical for commercial use. At 160 degrees F. and above, certain decomposition products are formed in the blanched almonds before they are dried to the desired moisture content. The best drying temperature lies there- fore between 140 degrees and 160 degrees F. A few tests will determine the exact temperature at which best results will be obtained in any particular fac- tory. At the temperatures suggested, the average drying time will be from sixteen to eighteen hours. With a little experience the person in charge of drying will be able to determine by the texture and from the “feel” of the almonds, their approximate condition as to dryness. A dried almond has lost all springiness and is firm as well as being brittle. When broken in two, the color should be white or a white with just a tinge of yellow. After the almonds are dried, they should be cooked at once or stored in air- tight metal containers as dried almonds readily absorb moisture from the air.* *See note 4, Appendix, p. 24. THE SALTING PROCESS 9 Entrance to electric tray dehydrater, with loaded trucks in place 5. Cooking The quality of the salted almonds is largely dependent upon the cooking. In order to obtain accurate information of practical value to manufacturers, a series of approximately two hundred experiments was conducted.* In these tests every possible variation in cooking was tried. It was found that the three most important factors involved were: the amount of moisture in the blanched almonds to be cooked, the time of cooking, and the temperature of the oil. Summarizing the results of the 200 experiments—in order to produce al- monds that are free from toughness, light in color, crisp, and uniform in flavor and texture, the following requirements must be adhered to: (A) The moisture content of the blanched almonds must be less than two per cent. (B) Sufficient time must be given for the heat to penetrate and cook the center of the almonds. On the average, six to seven minutes is required. (C) The time of cooking should not exceed eight minutes, otherwise oil-soaked al- monds are produced. (D) The temperature of the oil must be maintained constant at the cooking tempera- . ture used to insure a satisfactory product. (B) The temperature of the cooking oil, to fulfill the above requi over 285 degrees F. and below 300 degrees F. fuitements, wus: be (Under the conditions in our Manufacturing Department we use a cooking time of seven minutes and an oil temperature of 290 degrees F., all almonds before cooking being dried to a moisture content of two per cent or less.) *See note 6, Appendix, p. 25. 10 THE SALTING PROCESS Two Methods of Cooking : As stated under the discussions on scalding and blanching-—almonds can be cooked either by the continuous method or by the batch system. In the con- tinuous method, the almonds are fed at a definite rate into an endless steel conveyor belt, said belt moving at a definite rate through oil held at a constant temperature. The single layer of almonds on the belt and vigorous circulation of the oil insures an even, thorough cook. From this belt, after draining a few seconds, the almonds are discharged into the cooler. ~The construction of the continuous cooker is similar to that of the scalder, which has been described in detail. AEST RE £4 If the batch system is used, the almonds dre placed in steel wire baskets in a layer not over two inches in thickness, These baskets are lowered into oil maintained at a constant temperature. Agitation of the almonds and vigorous circulation of the oil insure a uniform product. After cooking, the almonds are emptied from the baskets into the cooler. fan ts LL Drain Almonds While Cooling ~~ = During the cooling period, the almonds should be allowed to drain and the cooking should be checked at once by strong air blasts or suction. Air suction is the most efficient of the two and the air should be so directed that the cold air first strikes the almonds, then the screen. By cooling in this manner, the cook is checked at once. If the almonds are allowed to cool slowly, they will continue to cook while cooling. i ig Candin After the almonds have been treated as above, they should be salted and packed at once.* Tests made with cooked almonds before salting show that they will absorb moisture readily and after a few days exposure to the air, they lose their crispness. It was also found that if they are exposed to heat after cooking the flavor is impaired. Furthermore, if this is continued for any length of time, the flavor is entirely spoiled and the packed almonds will turn rancid within a very short time. 6. Cooking Oils A. Handling of Cooking Oil While various types of oils have been tried it has been found that for commercial production any neutral cocoanut oil will give satisfactory results. No oil with a distinct flavor, odor or color should be used, as any of these will detract from the characteristic flavor, odor or color of the cooked almonds. ~ There will always be a question as to the amount of oil to be used to the weight of almonds cooked. So many different types and sizes of cooking vats and heating systems are used that no set and fast rule can be given. The volume of oil used must be sufficient to take care of the drop in temperature which occurs when the cold almonds are placed in the hot oil. As has been heretofore stated, it is essential that the almonds be cooked at practically a constant tem- perature and the volume used must be large enough for this purpose. It has been found that a large volume of oil in comparison to the amount of almonds to be cooked will give the best results. Agitation of the almonds and vigorous circulation of the oil insure uniformity of cooking because a fresh supply of hot oil is brought to the entire surface of the almonds. In this manner, the tem- perature of the raw almonds and the oil are practically constant. Otherwise the almonds on the inside of the mass will be only partially cooked while the outside almonds are cooked to the desired degree. *See note 7, Appendix, p. 27. CALIFORNIA STATE LIBRARY THE SALTING PROCESS 11 Replace Oil Lost in Cooking i ~The loss of oil due to absorption is about four per cent of the weight of the ~ cooked meats, other minor losses bringing up this total to six per cent. At least ‘this amount of oil should be replaced after each day's cooking. The proper time to add this oil is after the day’s cook, when the oil has been filtered, or in the morning before beginning the day's work. It must be borne in mind that ‘while oil may be added every day in small amounts, it is not good policy to add new oil to that which is about to be discarded. The life of any oil used for cooking almonds is determined by the free fatty acid content and as a general rule, the oil is used to a free fatty acid content of three to five per cent and then discarded. If for some reason the oil should become badly discolored ‘before this acid content is reached, it should be discarded, as it will discolor the cooked almonds. There is no direct relation between the color of an oil and its acid content and, therefore, the practice of using an oil to a certain color is not recommended. The only way of determining the exact condition of the oil is by a free fatty acid determination.* An oil high in free fatty acids imparts “a distinctive taste to the cooked almonds and such almonds are liable to ‘turn rancid. It has also been noticed they are darker in color than almonds cooked in neutral oil. It is believed that this is caused by the acids in the oil acting on . the carbohydrates contained in the almonds which by some series of reactions form sugars which are easily caramelized. It is a well known fact that each time an oil is heated it loses a part of its body and that the free fatty acid content is increased. If the oil is heated to what is known as the breaking point, it becomes partially decomposed and is unfit for cooking purposes. This is most likely to happen if blast burners and ~ a small volume of oil are used. It is for this reason that we strongly recommend that a large volume of oil and a smaller flame be used. Filter Cooking Oil Daily The oil in a short time will become contaminated from small pieces of skin and particles of almonds. These small pieces of organic matter will carbonize if left in the hot oil and will liberate organic acids. These acids will react with the oil and will result in the liberation of the free fatty acids of the oil. Thus, ~~ the total acid content of the oil is made up of organic acids from the carbonized almonds and the original free fatty acids in the oil. By filtering the oil these small pieces of organic matter are removed and this trouble is largely overcome. The oil should be filtered at least once a day. It should not be mixed with ‘water, as this tends to assist oil in becoming rancid. Rancidity can be deter- mined by a peculiar flavor and odor of the oil. When oil and water are heated together most of the water evaporates, but a small portion will react and de- compose the oil. Thus if wet almonds are cooked in oil the life of the oil is short. To Prolong the Life of Oil There are several methods practiced to prolong the life of the oil by various manufacturers, the most successful being: (1) Filtering the oil through silk. This removes the larger pieces of solid matter and prevents their carbonization. The very small particles go through the silk and continue to do harm. Unbleached china silk gives the most satis- factory results. *See note 9, Appendix, p. 28. 12 THE SALTING PROCESS (2) Mechanical filters have been used with some success, those working along the principles of a cream separator giving better results than filtering through cloth. (3) Some of the largest users of cocoanut oil have a complete refining plant. While this process gives good results on a very large scale, it is not adaptable to most users, as it requires a large amount of special equipment. Their process in brief is as follows: The oil is received with a free fatty acid content of about three per cent at the refining department. The free fatty acids are neutralized by heating with the required amount of concentrated sodium hydroxide, or sodium carbonate. The resulting soap is separated and sold to soap factories. The now neutral oil is decolorized by passage through steel towers filled with bone coal and heated with steam coils. The decolorized oil is filtered through a series of filter presses and goes to the deodorizer, where by treatment in vacuum with superheated steam or by blowing a warm stream of air or carbon dioxide through the heated mass, it is deodorized. The actual cost of the oil per pound of almonds is surprisingly low. It is apparent that only a simple means of filtration can profitably be employed, as any method, to be practical, must be inexpensive, easily and quickly accom- plished, with but a small amount of special equipment and labor. It should be adaptable to both small and large bodies of oil. It is a fact that many users of oil are expending more money per pound of oil in attempting to prolong its life for a short time than the oil itself is actually worth. Cleanliness Essential to Good Results Cleanliness is not only a very important item but is essential for the pro- duction of a first-class product. It is as necessary as keeping the apparatus in good operating order. The entire equipment should be washed and scoured thoroughly every night. Plenty of steam and hot water should be used for this purpose and after washing, it should be dried thoroughly. At least once a week every portion of the equipment that comes in contact with grease should be washed first with plenty of hot water, then with sodium hydroxide solution, better known as caustic lye. After the use of lye, the apparatus should be thoroughly washed again and then dried carefully. All belts, trays and screens should also be cleaned well at the same time. B. Kinds of Oil* Of the many oils and fats with which we have experimented, we have found cocoanut oil to be the most desirable. The origin of this oil is from the cocoa- nut palm (Cocos Nucifera) indigenous to the South Sea Islands and to the East India Archipelago, but now grown in most tropical countries. Cocoanuts are grown on large plantations for the production of copra. Usually the nuts are broken open with a hatchet and then sun dried. During the drying period, the meats lose about fifty per cent of their weight and separate from the shell. This dried meat (or copra) is shipped in bulk to the United States and other countries. | The Copra generally contains about sixty per cent of oil and in extracting this oil, it is first shredded, then heated by steam and pressed in an expeller, after which it is ground, heated again and put through a hydraulic press. As the pressed cake is high in protein and still contains oil, it is sold as stock food. The crude oil is completely refined and the resulting edible cocoanut oil has a white color, a characteristic odor and a mild taste. It has been found that if the free fatty acids are low the oil possesses fair keeping qualities.t In the sSee note 8, Appendix, p. 27. tSee note 9, Appendix, p. 28. THE SALTING PROCESS 13 Automatic salting machine at Manufacturing Plant presence of water or heat, or if the free fatty acid content is high, it has a decided tendency to turn rancid. * 7. Salting Salt is added to the cooked meats in order to enhance the delicate flavor of the almonds. It will be found that most people prefer almonds that have been highly cooked if no salt is used, but if salt is used, a preference is shown for the medium cooked product. From this it will be seen that cooked almonds are slightly flat in flavor if no salt is added. : ; Directly after the application of the adhesive, if used, the required amount of salt is added. On the average the amount of salt used is equivalent to two per cent of the weight of the cooked almonds. However, the amount can be varied according to taste. Where the continuous cooker is used, salt is best applied by means of a continuous salter, several satisfactory types of which are in use. This apparatus feeds salt from the bins at a definite rate per minute over a given surface, the almonds being agitated as they pass under the shower of salt on a perforated plate, in order to insure an even distribution of the salt. Excess salt is gathered in a suitable container below the perforated plate and is sifted to remove any *See note 10, Appendix, p. 29. 14 THE SALTING PROCESS small particles of almonds or small lumps of oil and salt, and then is used again. By this means salting is accomplished with the minimum amount of labor. When the batch system, of cooking is used, the required amount of salt is sprinkled directly over the almonds by means of a hand shaker. This is done, as above stated, directly. after the application of the adhesive—if same is used: The almonds are then mixed by hand to thoroughly distribute the salt. In either case the almonds are again cooled immediately after salting. | Medium Grained Salts are Best Extensive experiments both in the laboratory and in our Manufacturing Department show that medium grained salts give the most satisfactory results. Under the action of the heat from the adhesive and that of the almonds, the fine grained salt effloresces; and the excess oil carries the resulting amorphus salt to concentration centers. These when cool, form white mattes on the sur- face of the salted almonds which detract from their appearance. The large grained salts do not adhere well and there is a tendency for the sharp crystals to scratch the roof of the mouth before they have dissolved. An Ideal Sale* Only a pure, refined, free-running salt that is uniform as to size of granules should be used. Our experience shows that salt should comply to the standards given below: Salt should not contain more than 0.03% of calcium chloride or more than a trace of magnesium chloride, because more than this will cause salt to become deliquescent, thereby becoming lumpy. oh It should not contain over a trace of magnesium sulphate as this will give the salt a bitter taste. ; It should not contain much over a trace of chlorides other than sodium chloride, as these will irritate the linings of the mouth and produce thirst. As a general rule the salt used should not contain more than 0.02% of insoluble matter. Substances like sand will scratch the lining of the mouth while the oxide of iron will give the salt a reddish tinge. There are a number of salts that have had 1% magnesium carbonate added to make them free-running. It has been found that these give very unsatisfactory results. Use of Adhesives It is often felt advisable to use an adhesive in order to keep the salt from separating and falling off the salted almonds. As to the necessity or wisdom for using an adhesive—this is largely dependent upon personal opinion. Where almonds are packed for future consumption and are subject to considerable handling the use of an adhesive is undoubtedly beneficial. Investigations have been carried on to determine the most satisfactory type of adhesive, but to date the best results have been obtained by using a cocoanut oil with a high melting point (92°F. to 110° F.). The procedure recommended is to spray the thoroughly cooled almonds thinly with the melted cocoanut oil. Tests have shown that 0.1 % of the weight of the cooked almonds or less of the adhesive oil should be used, only a very thin coating being necessary. More than this amount accumulates in small drops and when cool detracts from the appearance of the almonds, *See note 11, Appendix, p. 29. I rem EE THE SALTING PROCESS 15 Adhesive Must Be Odorless and Tasteless ~ Experiments show that a satisfactory adhesive should have no odor, no flavor, should be colorless or white, easily applied and should require neither water for its application, nor heat to dry it. It should however, hold the salt firmly but dissolve readily in the mouth. Of the large number of adhesives tried, including for example—silicate of soda, Indian gum, glucose, rosin, gum arabic, gelatin, paraffin and a large number of others, including several commercial preparations—all were found ‘to be unsatisfactory. The objections to these will be listed below with an . example or two. a tg ¢ (A) Some are not allowed to be used by the Pure Food and Drug Act, such as’ - . silicate of soda and paraffin. i J (B) Some have a bitter after taste—such as gum arabic if applied of too heavy a consistency. : ; i : (C) Some iy a characteristic flavor or odor as some hydrogenated oils—glucose. (D) Some do not give an even coating to the almonds, or the substance dries in such a manner as to detract from the appearance of the almonds, such as albu- min, Indian gum. fo es (E) Those in water solution must be heated to evaporate the water and dry the - almonds. The combination of heat and water causes the cooked almonds to “become tough, spoils the flavor and also tends to turn them rancid. Gum arabic and glucose belong to this group. Lin ; : (F) Some of the oils tried have too high a melting oint and give one the impres- ‘sion that they are eating candles in place of almonds. All hydrogenated oils with melting point higher than 110 degrees F. belong to this group. Hydrogenated Oils as Adhesives Recently liquid oils have been transformed into solid fats on a commercial scale by reduction with hydrogen. This reaction is known as “hydrogena- tion.” - For example—olein may be converted into stearin according to the following reaction: "i 140 BE Cll) ve HOR Ol Hydrogenation is usually accomplished by heating the oil in an autoclave under pressure, to 150-250 degrees C. with pure hydrogen and a finely divided catalyser, such as nickel or platinum. Most oils lose their characteristic odor by hydrogenation; thus cocoanut oil loses most or all of its odor and flavor. It is for this reason that we recom- mend a hydrogenated oil without taste or odor, as an adhesive. 8. Packing After the almonds have been salted, they are packed in various types of containers, depending entirely upon whether they are to be used immediately or whether they are to be kept for some time. | For supplying local candy stores as well as other local trade, the almonds may be packed in cardboard containers or in glassine bags. It is better to supply the local trade once a week or oftener with freshly salted almonds than to supply them once a month with larger orders. Under these conditions, however, the life of the salted almond is short—usually for about two weeks— in first class condition. In small containers, they may last longer. Vacuum Packing Retains Freshness If the almonds are to be kept for any length of time, they should be vacuum packed in glass or tin. Only freshly cooked and thoroughly cooled almonds should be packed in this manner. If they are packed while still hot 16 THE SALTING PROCESS Blancher in use at Manufacturing Plant and allowed to cool off slowly in the containers, a chemical reaction takes place, which will spoil the flavor and cause them in time to turn rancid in the cans. Furthermore, the gases that are retained in the container will give off an offensive odor upon being opened by the consumer, giving the impression that the contents are spoiled. The actual life of almonds when properly packed in vacuum has not been determined, although it is a known fact that almonds packed three years ago still retain satisfactory crispness and flavor. ~ While in a certain sense, glass is glass, not all grades are suitable for pack- ing almonds. A clear, colorless glass, free from the common greenish tinge, should be used in order to display contents to best advantage. Almonds vacuum packed in glass should not be exposed to the direct rays of the sun in display windows. Once a glass is thoroughly warmed, it will retain the heat for a considerable length of time, the heat causing the almonds to lose their crispness as well as causing them in time to turn rancid. Packing in Tin When packing in tin—only a can that will hold a high vacuum should be used. Almonds keep well only under a high vacuum and this requires a strong, THE ROASTING PROCESS 17 well'made can with proper gaskets. There are a number of cans equipped ‘with paper, rubber or composition gaskets some of which show a slight tend- ency to leak if too high a vacuum is used. While these may be sealed lightly enough to exclude micro-organisms, they will still leak air. The gasket, which is the weakest point in the larger majority of these cans, acts as an air filler and such cans are known as “breathers.” Many remedies have been suggested ‘but it is far more advisable to buy a strongly made can that will hold its vacuum. Even when the proper type of can is used, it is always necessary to inspect the seams of the cans and make frequent tests to determine that satis- factory vacuum is being developed. It is essential at all times to roll the seams as lightly as possible in the double seamers. Not only must the air be effec tively removed from the cans and contents before sealing, but it is equally as important that the entrance of air be prevented by perfect sealing of the can. 5% II. THE ROASTING PROCESS 1. Varieties and Grading While any variety of ‘California almonds can be roasted and satisfactory results obtained, the trade in general has shown a preference for certain varie- ties or grades for particular purposes, these varieties being listed below: + Variety : Used for Type of roast Neplus or Seedling Ice Cream Heavy Drake or Seedling Toasted Medium Drake and Nonpareil Chocolate and Confectionery ~~ Light to heavy to suit . particular purposes Using the above varieties and with proper roasting, the product is second to none in flavor, color and texture. We believe this is due to the carbo- hydrate content of the domestic almonds being such that flavor, color and texture are developed and brought out by the proper application of heat. In the roasting of almonds, the skins are not removed; i. e. the almonds are not put through the blanching process. Grading for size is, however, essential for some purposes, such as for chocolate and confectionery work, and for toasted almonds. For the ice cream trade, there are some who believe grading is not so essential. In this case, the almonds are given a heavy roast and are shredded before using. Thus, small irregularities are not so noticeable. However, for the most satisfactory results, the almonds should be graded for this purpose also. The principles and methods used for grading have already been given under "Salted Almonds” and the same will apply here. Clean Almonds Before Roasting Shelled almonds are usually sold in sacks and when these sacks are opened, there are apt to be small pieces of twine, etc. mixed in with the almonds. It is very essential to see that these small pieces of foreign matter are removed 18 THE ROASTING PROCESS before roasting as they char very easily and have a characteristic flavor and odor, which may effect the quality of an entire roast. A thorough inspection of the almonds before they are placed in the roaster is accordingly advisable. 2. Satisfactory Types of Roasters Practically all types of coffee, cocoa and peanut roasters have been used for the roasting of almonds, with fair results. It is our opinion, however, that cylindrical revolving roasters with agitators and without perforated shell are best suited for almond roasting. : The roaster should be filled to capacity if satisfactory results are to be obtained. If a large roaster is filled to but half its capacity, a very irregular roast is the result. The sharp, pointed end of the almond, or the apex, usually becomes charred, the oil is lost and the flavor is impaired. | Any fuel can be used to heat the roaster providing there is proper control of the fire during the roasting period and when the roast is being discharged. It has been our experience that gas is the most satisfactory and the most easily controlled, as well as being one of the cleanest fuels. Two Dampers Necessary Practically all roasters have two dampers—one for the escape of the com- bustion products of the fuel used after they have passed around the cylinders and one for the escape of water vapor and other gases given off during roasting. The rear damper generally is the one that controls the escape of combustion products. This damper should be carefully adjusted so that the fire burns evenly and with as perfect combustion as possible. If this damper is open too ‘wide, too much air is drawn in, thus removing the heat so rapidly that there is not sufficient time for a proper transfer of the heat from the air to the metal cylinder. If this damper is closed too tightly, the fuel does not get sufficient air for proper combustion and latent heat is lost in this manner. The front damper usually controls the escape of water vapor and other gases from the charge roasted. This damper is usually closed until the charge is warm. After five to ten minutes have passed, this damper is opened and left wide open until the roasting is completed. If the damper is left closed, the water given off condenses on the sides of the roaster, thus resulting in a soggy product. Practically all roasters are emptied mechanically, most of them having some means of performing this operation manually in case of an accident such as the source of power being stopped for a short time. The stopping of a motor, for instance, may damage an entire roast, if there is no means of removing the charge. A crank, etc. should be kept in a convenient place near the roaster for an emergency. There should also be some means of removing a sample so as to watch the condition of the roast. The sample removed should be representative of the charge and should be taken from the center of the roast. 3. Time and Temperature Requirements Almonds must be roasted over a slow fire in order to obtain satisfactory results. The co-efficient of heat absorption of the almond is very small and so sufficient time must be given in order that the almonds will heat and finally roast slowly. If the heat is applied rapidly, the skins will become charred, the roast will be very irregular and the flavor impaired. In this case there is a THE ROASTING PROCESS 19 Group of machines used in cooking and salting almonds variation of color from the outside to the center—the outside being a very dark brown, becoming lighter towards the center. If the proper time and temperature are used, the color is uniform throughout. Almonds are roasted entirely to color. It has been found that the flavor varies with the color and that the full flavor of the almonds does not develop until they are thoroughly cooled, or as is termed, “set.” The reason for roasting almonds according to color is on account of the large number of variable factors connected with roasting that have not been investigated, and because the apparatus used has never been actually standard- ized. Some of the variables mentioned are—the amount of moisture in the substance being roasted, the fuel used, material and constructional details of wastes and damper openings. Until standardized equipment and methods are adopted, one cannot roast to a definite time and temperature, but as stated above, must go according to color. Average Roasting Time Under existing conditions in our Manufacturing Department, using a five hundred pound roaster filled to capacity, with gas as a fuel, the average time required for a roast is as shown in the table below: i f Product Type of Roast Approx. Time Approx. Temp. Color o Licht 1 Hour 240 Deg. F. Very light brown Medium 114 Hours 245 Deg. F. Light brown Heavy 115 Hours 250 Deg. F. Dark brown 20 THE ROASTING PROCESS It was found that by roasting to the same color, there was a variation of ten minutes more or less in the roast. From this it will be seen that there is quite a variation in the temperature of various roasts, even when it is desired to roast all to the same degree. Roasting Times for Various Purposes The following may be used as a table for the various products. It must be remembered that this is only a guide and the variations mentioned in the pre- ceding paragraph are liable to take place. In other types of roasters, these varia- tions are liable to be either greater or smaller. Purpose Type of Roast Approx. Time Approx. Temp. Color Teetes Medium 114 Hours 245 Deg. F. Light brown Ice Cream Heavy 112 to 134 Hours 250 Deg. F. Dark brown Chocolate Medium 114 Hours 245 Deg. F. Light brown Confectionery Light to Heavy 1to 134 Hours 240 to 250 Deg. F. Very light to dark brown It is found that a first roast takes longer than succeeding roasts, owing to the fact that additional time is required to compensate for starting up with a cold roaster. In the second roast, the equipment being warmed, the almonds to be roasted are quickly heated due to radiation from the roaster itself. Remove Roast Immediately onzCompletion After the almonds are roasted to a proper degree, the fire should be shut off and the charge withdrawn immediately. The usual method is to allow the almonds to flow from the roaster onto the cooling trucks. These trucks have false bottoms and sides that are made of perforated iron. Air is drawn by means of a suction fan through the almonds, cooling them evenly and thoroughly in from ten to fifteen minutes. It is very essential that immediately after the charge has been withdrawn, the almonds be treated in this manner, because if the hot, roasted almonds are allowed to cool gradually, the roast will continue to greater or less extent, and be extremely variable, the almonds at the bottom of the batch having a much higher roast than those on the top. Care should be taken to allow the roasting chamber to cool slowly after being emptied, as it may otherwise crack or warp. Packing Process Same as for Salted A roasted almond is similar to a salted almond in that it will readily absorb moisture from the air, becoming soggy and losing its flavor. Such being the case, it is necessary to pack immediately after cooling, and as recommended for salted almonds, to pack roasted material in vacuum or in air-tight containers. 4 III. THE TOASTING PROCESS For toasted almonds the trade in general has shown a preference for the Drake, Seedling and Nonpariel varieties. The sequence of operation which must be closely observed in toasting is as follows: CALIFORNIA STATE LIBRARY THE TOASTING PROCESS 21 Following the directions previously given, under the discussion on “Roast ing"—almonds are given a medium roast, without removing skins. They are | then cooled sufficiently to prevent the continuation: of roasting after removal from the roaster. The average temperature of the almonds when cooled should not be over 100 degrees F., the best results being obtained at tempera- tures of 90 to 95 degrees F. It will be noted that the procedure here is slightly different from that of the preparation of roasted almonds. Application of Adhesive The warm toasted almonds are now in exactly the suitable condition for the application of an adhesive preparation to cause salt to adhere to the roasted material. While various adhesives have been tried, there seems to be a prefer- ence for gum arabic solution. The recommended procedure is to spray the warm almonds with a thin coating of gum arabic solution prepared in the following manner: Mix powdered gum arabic with water 48 hours before using. Shake or stir fre- uently, and filter through silk before using. Best results are obtained by heating the solution to 150 degrees F. just before application. The strength generally is: 150 grams powdered gum arabic (14 pound) 1000 cc. of water (1 quart) The above time of mixing can of course be materially reduced if mechanical agitators are used. : After application of this adhesive, the warm almonds are allowed to stand and partially dry for ten minutes. The required amount of salt is ‘then sprinkled on and the almonds are thoroughly mixed by hand or gently agitated by mechanical means to insure an even distribution of salt, Generally, the weight of salt added is equivalent to two per cent of the weight of the almonds to be salted. This amount may be varied to suit the taste. (See instructions for salting blanched almonds.) By using this procedure, the adhesive on the almonds is sufficiently moist to allow the individual salt grains to adhere. In this manner as stated above, an even, thorough salting results and the product is of a pleasing appearance. Drying After Salting After salting, the almonds are dried for twenty to thirty minutes at 140 degrees to 150 degrees F. This is necessary inasmuch as the water used in the adhesive solution must be removed from the almonds. If this is not done a soggy, water-soaked product will be the result, which will soon turn rancid. For drying, any type of dryer may be used. A tray dryer such as described for blanched nuts is best adapted for this purpose. However, the almonds should not be dried any longer than necessary, as prolonged application of heat will tend to remove some of the delicate almond flavor. After the drying operation is completed, cool at once and pack. Toasted almonds absorb water from the atmosphere readily and should be packed in vacuum or air-tight containers. In fact, toasted almonds so closely resemble salted and roasted almonds that in order to avoid repetition, we have not included a technical discussion on each respective operation as the process is essentially the same. 22 APPENDIX IV. APPENDIX In this section will be found detailed descriptions and tabulated results of some of the many tests and experiments used in working out the processes elsewhere described in this Manual. I. THE SALTING PROCESS 2. Scalding degrees of temperature in water used for scalding. : MOISTURE IN ALMONDS Note 1. Percentage of moisture absorbed by blanched almonds at various Scalding Time -3 Mi Volume of Water............... PERRI arssanimmssesinnniinede 4000 C0, i Weight of Sample dn men iipanniieneions 330 Grams. - 150 Degrees F............. reverence 1.68% Average 1 . 897% 180 » 19 —103995. © ™ 200 ' » . . . » oir 10.99% MOISTURE IN ALMONDS—AFTER BLANCHING Scalding Time Volume of Water Weight of Sample 160 Degrees HE TTI 7.56% Average 170 » ratin il 8.18% " 180 58 hs 190 - §, » 212 : ie a fades ». Meats drained on screen after soaking and also before moisture determina tions. It will be noted that the moisture absorbed increases as the temperature increases. SHE Ta Note 2. Using the above recommended time and temperature in scalding, it was found that when 200 grams of Nonpareil shelled almonds and 1000 cc. of water was used, there was 0.27 grams of solid matter left in the water after the scalding per 100 cc. or about 1.2% of the weight of the raw almonds, scalded.” Upon repeating this test, but using the water twice, it was found that the solid had increased to 0.57 grams per 100 cc. of scalding water or to about 1.34% of the weight of the almonds scalded. In another series of tests, the time was maintained constantly at three minutes and the temperature varied from 160 degrees F. to 212 degrees F. by variations of 10 degrees F. In this case, 250 grams of Nonpareil almonds were scalded in 4000 cc. of water. After skins were removed, the moisture in blanched almonds was determined by the vacuum oven method. (See Note 5.) APPENDIX 23 a 4. Drying MOISTURE GIVEN OFF ALMONDS IN COURSE OF DRYING AT 150 DEG. F. ~~ TEMPERATURE WITH AN AIR VELOCITY OF 750 FEET PER MINUTE Per Cent Loss Per Cent Total Loss of Weight Moisture Simonds : in Weight Wet Basis in Almonds 1294 0 1156 98 1134 : 120 1122 132 1116 138 1110 144 1106 148 1100 154 1096 158 1092 162 1090 164 1086 168 1085 169 1084 170 1082 172 1081 173 Dehydration may be defined as the evaporation of water from substances in a current of dry air, the temperature, humidity and flow of which are subject to control. «© 2 The amount of water vapor in the air at any particular time is commonly expressed as the relative humidity of the air. Relative humidity is the ratio of od bs “wn Boho wsnu-oBl INN OO ~Y : VANE RORNRD Ne AND ANDO Pa pI II 00 13 42 (8 th Jb Wt WA nT SOA OwIOWwOoY the weight of water vapor actually present in a given space to that which the same space would hold at the same temperature, if it were saturated. It will be seen from this, that the lower the relative humidity in" the dehydrater, the faster the rate of drying. Ordinarily if we use a drying temperature of 150 degrees F. we can maintain a relative humidity of six per cent to ten per cent in the dryer and still re-circulate a part of the air. ~~ The capacity of any dehydrater depends not alone on the temperature of the air, but more particularly on the volume of heated air which is brought in contact with the surface of the almonds. It should be noted that a much larger volume of air is required to conduct heat to the drying chamber than to transfer water vapor away from the substance being dried. Because of this fact, it is customary in modern dehydraters to provide for re-circulation of a portion of the air used in drying. Re-circulation means the re-use of a portion of the warm exhaust air to which is added sufficient fresh air to make the resultant mixture, after re-heat- ing, contain no more water vapor than it did before passing over the almonds previously. If this is done, the humidity of the air in the dehydrater can be maintained at any desired percentage and drying will progress steadily with the minimum loss of heat in the exhaust air. Heat is required primarily to secure the evaporation of the water in the material being dried. By the evaporation of the water, it is meant that the water changes from the liquid to the vapor state. To accomplish this change, it requires a definite amdunt of heat—approximately 1100 B.T.U. per pound of water evaporated. 24 APPENDIX If almonds at a temperature of 60 degrees F. are placed in a dryer and dried at an average temperature of 150 degrees F., 90 B.T.U. will be required to raise the temperature of each pound of water in the blanched almonds, from 60 degrees F. to 150 degrees F. The heat required to transform one pound of water from the liquid to the vapor state at 150 degrees F. is 1010 B.T.U. Consequently, the total amount of heat theoretically required to heat the water in the blanched almonds to the average temperature of the dryer and then evaporate that water is 90 plus 1010 or 1100 B.T.U. per pound of water evaporated. The actual amount of heat theoretically required will vary some- what with the original temperature of the almonds and the average tempera- ture at which the dryer is maintained. However, for practical purposes, 1100 B.T.U. per pound of water evaporated may be taken as the basic requirement. The mere fact that heat is conducted to the product by air and evaporation of the moisture from the product occurs without boiling, does not alter the amount of heat required for evaporation. - Note 4. A sample of almonds was blanched and dried to a moisture con- tent of 1.79%. They were then exposed in incubators at 80 to 100 degrees; also 120 degrees F. for 24 hours in atmospheres where the relative humidity was maintained at from 95% to 98%. The amount of moisture was then determined as follows: After 24 Hours Gain Gain In Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Original Moisture 80 Degrees : : 2.00 0.21 11.7 100 Degrees - : 2.12 0.33 18.4 120 Degrees 2.68 0.89 49.6 From the above, the necessity for storing dried almonds in air-tight con- tainers is very apparent. Moisture Determination Note 5. It has already been shown that moisture plays an important part in the preparation of salted almonds and we cannot emphasize too strongly the necessity of accurately determining the moisture content in blanched almonds after drying and prior to cooking. It is only by such an accurate control of the moisture in the almonds that a high quality product is produced. While there are many ways of determining the moisture in food products, the Association of Agricultural Chemists have adopted the vacuum oven method as official. While there are other ways of determining moisture con- tent which may or may not be as accurate, any of these can be calibrated by the official method and use of such methods employed with good results. Many of these other methods require only a short time to perform, are inex- pensive to operate and are sufficiently accurate for commercial use. Preparation of Sample for Moisture Determinations Use about 250 grams of material, whether raw, blanched or dried. Before taking sample, mix the entire lot together so that sample will be representative. Grinding of Sample Preparatory to Making Test Use an ordinary food grinder, making certain that same is thoroughly dry and as cool as possible—pass material to be tested through coarse grinder and mix well, then use a fine grinder. After so grinding, mix sample thoroughly, weigh at once and then proceed with any of the following methods. APPENDIX 25 Vacuum Oven Method (Official) Weigh five or ten grams of sample into a metal dish about 8.5 cm. in diameter, provided with a cover, and break down all large lumps. Dry in a vacuum oven at 70 degrees C. for 12 hours at as low a pressure as possible— not to exceed four inches (100 millimeters) of mercury. During the drying, admit to the oven a slow current of air, about two bubbles a second, dried by ~ bubbling through concentrated sulphuric acid. The metal dish must be placed in direct contact with the metal shelf of the oven. Replace cover, cool in desiccator, weigh and compute loss of weight as percentage of moisture. Dis- regard any temporary drop of oven temperature which may occur during the forepart of the drying period, owing to rapid evaporation of water. Water Oven Method (Not Official) Weigh a. five to ten gram sample into a metal dish about 8.5 cm. in diam- eter, provided with a cover and break down all large lumps. Place the dish on the shelf, not on the bottom, in an oven having a vent on top to afford ventila- tion. Dry for required number of hours at a temperature of boiling water— not lower than 96 degrees C..Replace cover, cool in a desiccator, weigh and compute the loss of weight as percentage of moisture. Time must suit product to be dried. Calibrate against vacuum oven method. Kingman Method ~ Place a 50 gram sample on a dry flask and add 250 cc. of dry acetylene tetrachloride. Connect flask to condenser and burette. Fill burette to 5 to 10 cc. mark with acetylene tetrachloride and start -distillation. Boil continu- ously and vigorously for 15 minutes. The acetylene tetrachloride forms the lower layer in the burette. The number of cc. of water times two is the per cent of moisture in the sample. Calibrate against vacuum oven method. Electric Dry Oven Prepare a 10 gram sample in aluminum pans as above directed. Place in an electric drying oven at 200 degrees F. for one and one-half hours. Put in desiccator and when cool, weigh. The difference in weight multiplied by ten is the percentage of water. Calibrate against vacuum oven method. 5. Cooking Note 6. While the tests were in progress it was found that if the results were to be compatible, we had to adopt a definite standard. It has already been ascertained that the trade in general showed a preference for almonds that were thoroughly cooked, light in color, free from toughness but crisp and of a uniform flavor and texture. These almonds were used as a standard and all results were compared to same, decisions as to color, flavor and cook being arbitrarily made. | As has already been stated, the moisture content of the blanched almonds is an extremely variable quantity. If the temperature of the oil is kept constant at 290 degrees F. and the time of cooking at seven minutes, the effects of cook- ing almonds with various moisture contents can be ascertained, the table below showing the results we obtained. 26 APPENDIX TIME OF COOKING—SEVEN MINUTES TEMPERATURE—290 DEGREES F. SHOWING THE EFFECT OF COOKING ALMONDS WITH VARIOUS MOISTURE CONTENT iin Do Cent Toughness * Color: - Crispness Flavor - i ~ None Light Yellow Good Good None Light Yellow. Good : Good Slight Golden Brown . Fair Good Slight radually Fair ; Good then oY. : gradual Fair gradually and decrease Fair . increasing changing ipo Fair ; crispness . Pair ! * Fair Fair i COTO Vth po = From this it will be seen that according to our standards a properly cooked product can only be produced if the moisture content is less than two per cent. As the moisture content increases, the color deepens and turns to a brown, the toughness gradually increases and the flavor ant crispness gradually decrease. While we have made a number of tests using various cooking times and temp- eratures of oil when the moisture content was higher than the amount stated above, i. e., ten per cent, the results were practically the same. While tables could be prepared, they would be almost identical to the above. It was also found that almonds dried to the proper moisture content will cook quietly, there being no bubbles or froth on the top of the oil until after two minutes of the cookirig time has passed. Then there is only an occasional bubble as a little moisture escapes from the center of the almond. If froth appears on the top of the oil when sample of almonds is tried, the almonds should be placed back in the dryer and their moisture content reduced. a The next series of test runs were in respect to varied cooking times. For this purpose all almonds used had a moisture content of two per cent or less and the temperature of the cooking oil was maintained constant at 290 degrees F. The table below shows the tabulated results. TEMPERATURE OF COOK—290 DEGREES F. TIME—VARIABLE = 1 MOISTURE CONTENT OF ALMONDS—2% OR LESS Time Color Flavor Uneven Raw Uneven Raw Light Yellow Light Fair Light Yellow Medium : Good Golden Brown High High Brown High Too High 10 Brown High Too High Good It can be seen that sufficient time must be given for the heat to penetrate to the center of the almond if a uniform thorough cook is to be obtained, on the average of six to seven minutes. If a shorter time is allowed there will be a white spot at the center of the kernel showing that the almond is not thor- oughly cooked. If a longer time than the above is used, the color of the resulting cooked meat is from a golden to a deeper brown. If the almonds are cooked longer than ten minutes, they will generally be oil-soaked. APPENDIX 27 If cooking time is held constant at seven minutes, using almonds with a ‘moisture content of two per cent or less and varying the temperature of the oil, the following results are obtained: NE TEMPERATURE OF COOK—VARIABLE TIME—SEVEN MINUTES MOISTURE CONTENT OF ALMONDS—2% OR LESS Temp. of Oil Color Flavor Cook 270 Uneven Raw Not Sufficient 280 Light Yellow Fair Lignt 290 Light Yellow Good Medium 300 Golden Brown Good © Medium 310 Golden Brown High High 320 Brown Too High Too High 330 a Brown Too High Too High 340 Brown Too High Too High From the above it will appear that if a temperature of less than 280 degrees F. is used, the almonds are not thoroughly cooked and will contain a white spot in the center, as stated above. With a temperature above 300 degrees F. the color varies from a golden to a deeper brown, depending upon the temp- erature used. We next carried on tests to determine the actual time to cook almonds at various temperatures, the moisture content being held at two per cent or less. From these it was shown as the time decreases, the temperature of the oil increases. It was found that in using a temperature above 300 degrees F. an uneven cook was obtained. Thus, if an almond was broken in half, the cross section would show a graduation of color from the outside to the center, the color becoming less intense as the center is approached. Below 280 degrees F. the almonds were oil-soaked, due to the length of time it was necessary to keep them in the oil. Note 7. In tests covering cooked almonds containing 1.03% moisture, they were stored .24 hours in incubators, the relative humidity in same being maintained between 95 to 98 per cent. ; Increase in % : Moisture After Increase in yo Flavor After . Temp. 24 Hours % Moisture Sriginal 24 Hours 80 1.45% 0.42% 29.0% Fair 100 1.57% 0.54% 34.4% Od Paver 120 1.77% 0.75% 41.7% Flavor Spoiled 6. Cooking Oils B. Kinds of Oil Note 8. The characteristics of an acceptable cooking oil are as follows: Refractive Index at 60 C. or 140 Deg. F.....coccoeeveee.. 1.43 to 1.44 Iodine Number Softening Point Breaking Point Melting Point 73.4 to 79 Deg. F Saponification Value 246 to 268 Specific Gravity at 100 C. or 212 F................ 0.86-0.9 28 APPENDIX The low iodine value of cocoanut oil shows that it consists largely of satur- ated glycerides. Cocoanut oil chiefly consists of palmitin, laurin, myristin and caprin. The approximate composition is given below but it must be borne in mind that it is liable to vary to a certain extent: Fatty Acids ~ Per Cent Glycerides Caproic Acid 0.25 % Caproin Caprylic 0.25 % Caprylin Capric 19.50% Caprin Lauric 40.00% Laurin Myristic 24.00% Myristin Palmitic 10.6% Palmitin Oleic 5.4% nC) edn Note 9. Determination of Free Fatty Acids FREE FATTY ACID CHART 10 Gram Sample (For Normal Caustic) No. cc. X 2.82 = FF.A. No. cc. % FFA No. cc. % FFA No. cc. 9% FFA No. cc. 9% FFA .05 14 1.85 5.22 3.65 10.29 5.45 15.36 10 .28 1.90 5.36 3.70 10.43 5.50 15.51 15 42 1.95 5.50 3.75 10.57 5.55 15.65 20 56 2.00 5.64 3.80 10.72 5.60 15.79 25 J1 2.05 5.78 3.85 10.86 5.65 15.93 30 85 2.10 5.92 3.90 - 11.00 Ji 5.70 16.07 .35 99 2.15 6.06 3.95 11.14 5.15 16.21 .40 1.13 2.20 6.20 4.00 11.28 5.80 16.36 1.27 2.25 6.35 4.05 11.42 5.85 16.50 1.41 2.30 © 6.49 4.10 11.56 5.90 16.64 1.55 2.35 6.63 4.15 11.70 5.95 16.78 1.60 2.40 6.77 4.20 11.84 6.00 16.92 1.83 2.45 6.91 4.25 11.99 6.05 17.06 1.97 2.50 7.05 4.30 12.13 6.10 17.20 2.11 2.535 7.19 4.35 12.27 6.15 17.34 2.26 2.60 7.33 4.40 12.41 6.20 17.48 2.40 2.65 7.47 4.45 12.5% 6.25 17.63 2.54 2.70 7.61 4.50 12.69 6.30 17.77 2.68 2.75 7.75 455 12.83 6.35 17.91 2.82 2.80 7.90 4.60 12.97 6.40 18.05 2.96 2.85 8.04 4.65 13.11 6.45 18.19 3.10 2.90 8.18 4.70 13.25 6.50 18.33 3.24 2.95 8.32 4.75 13.39 6.55 18.47 3.38 3.00 8.46 4.80 13.54 6.60 18.61 3.53 3.05 8.60 4.85 13.68 6.65 18.75 3.67 3.10 8.74 4.90 13.82 6.70 18.89 3.81 3.15 8.88 495 13.96 6.75 19.03 3.95 3.20 9.02 5.00 14.10. 6.80 19.18 4.09 3.25 9.17 5.05 14.24 6.85 19.32 4.23 3.30 9.31 5.10 14.38 6.90" 19.46 4.37 3.35 9.45 5.15 14.52 6.95 19.60 4.51 3.40 9.59 5.20 14.66 7.00 19.74 4.65 3.45 9.73 5.25 14.80 7.05 19.88 : 4.79 3.50 9.87 5.30 14.94 7.10 20.02 1.75 4.93 3.55 10.01 5.35 15.08 "7.15 20.16 1.80 5.07 3.60 10.15 5.40 15.22 7.20 20.30 Weigh 10 grams oil or fat into an Erlenmeyer Flask, add 50-75 cc. of neutralized 95% alcohol, warm on a water bath until fat is melted and shake thoroughly to mix, and titrate with normal sodium hydroxide, using phenol- phthalein as indicator. Stir or shake vigorously while adding the sodium hydroxide, taking as the end point the first faint pink color which persists for APPENDIX 29 one minute with vigorous shaking or stirring. As the fatty acids are relatively low, it is usually better to use one-tenth normal sodium hydroxide as a slight mistake in over-titrating does not mean a great deal. In this case divide the number of cc. used by 10 and calculate as below: The number of cc. of the normal ‘sodium. hydroxide used multiplied by 2.82 gives the per cent of free fatty acids in the 10 gram samples of of used as oleic acid. For your convenience we have added a table with these calculations already made. You have merely to look up the number of cc. of normal solution used and opposite it is shown the per cent of free fatty acids (see chart, p. 28). In practice one or two check titrations are always ‘made. Chemical Tests for the Detection of Rancidity Note 10. The method described in an article by Robert H. Kerr in the Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 10, has been found best adapted for commercial use. 10 cc. of the suspected oil or melted fat are placed in a large test tube (8 x 1), and 10 cc. of strong HCI (sp. gr. 1.19) added. The tube is closed with ~ a rubber stopper and shaken vigorously for approximately 30 sec. Ten cc. of a 0.1 per cent solution of phloroglucin in ether are then added and the tube closed and shaken as before. It is then allowed to stand. If the fat is rancid, a i. red or pink color will appear in the acid layer. The depth of this color is roughly but not exactly proportional to the degree of rancidity. To determine the intensity of the reaction the original fat is diluted with kerosene or with an oil or fat which does not react and the intensity judged by the degree of dilu- tion at which a reaction ceases to be observed. In judging this point a recog- nizable red or pink shade is regarded as a reaction; a faint orange or yellow is not. The intensity of the reaction is reported in terms of the highest dilution at which a reaction is obtained. For example, if a fat is found to react when so diluted that there is 1 part of the fat in 20 parts of the mixture but not in higher dilution, it is reported as reacting in dilution 1 to 20. 7. Salting Note 11. 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