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ILLUST.LTED WIITH‘,”

 

AD‘VARD SIIA‘V, ARCHITECT.»

 

 

 

 

 

B
THIRD EDITION,
REVISED AND ENLARGED.
BOSTON:
PUBLISHED BY MARSH, CAPEN 6L LYON.
1834.

 

 

TIIE

0R

SYSTEM OF BUILDING.
a CONTAINING
FU N DA \l EN'l‘AL PRINCIPLES 0F ’1‘]! E

WITH

THE FIVE ORDERS OI' ARCHITECTURE.I

ALSO A GREAT VARIETY OI“ EXAMPLES.

SELECTED FROM

CIVIL ARCHITECTURE:

ART.

VITRUVIUS, STUART, CHAMBERS, AND NICHOLSON.»

I'V

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WAX“! WQETWIh A8320 IBZBECBAE‘ITB CDCBEFIAXIILBLI‘HESIS

AND RULES FOR PROJECTING THEM.

ILLUSTRATED WITH ONE HUNDRED COPPERPLATE ENGRAVINGS.

 

BY EDWARD SHAVV, ARCHITECT._

 

THIRD EDITION,

REVISED AND'ENLARGED.

 

 

BOSTON:
PUBLISHED BY MARSH, CAPEN 6L LYON.
1834.

 

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,1.

 

A,DVERTISEMENT

TO THE FIRST EDITION.

IT is obvious that most Writers on Civil Architecture have not entered into those Mathematical
Principles, on which this noble art ultimately rests, and from which it derives its very existence.
. They may rather be said to consider it merely as an art, than as a science also; and are more cal-
culated to instruct the student in drawing Architectural, Plans, than to point out and elucidate
those unalterable rules, and first principles, which, however unperceived, (as Mr Nicholson justly
observes,) must enter into the very essence of every plan that is correct and practicable.

The Student, in the outset, should commence his inquiry, by going back to the most simple
elements of Mathematical knowledge, there to obtain the real clue to his future 'studies, and from
thence gradually and scientifically to proceed to more complex problems, and more diversified plans.
On this principle is: founded the superior skill of the Grecian and Roman Artists, which has as yet

f

been unrivalled.
We should not content ourselves by merely drawing from their works, and then superadding the

invention of our own imagination ;' but we should continually recur to the ground on which they trod,

and make that the criterion of all our attempts“ It is principally to assist the practical Mechanic,

as well as the student, that this work has been projected ; and, as will appear, much pajn‘sehave

been taken to lay down the fundamental principles of architecture in a clear, distinct, and intelligi-

ble manner, and to apply the Whole to practice, by plain and obvious examples and illustrations. I V
have endeavored to arrange the centents so as to be useful to‘ the student, as well as to all classes of

operative Builders. ‘ ' ,

Those workmen, therefore, who aspire’to any degree or superiority and taste in either of these
branches, will be able,,fror’n hence, by improving their leisure hours, in a short time to understand
the principles of their respective occupations; and to execute with taste and pleasure what they
do now but mechanically. ' .. . ' .

In this work is given whatever ahe'experience of the most judicious professors has sanctioned,
as the best mode of affecting their professional purposes ; with the reasons on which that preference
is founded. To this are added examples both of Grecian and Roman antiquities, and remarks on a

. the beauties of each. Particular attention is paid to the theory of Shadows, both from direct and '
reflected light, and examples adduced of the relative degrees of light and shade, on different sur-
. faces, variously inclined to the luminary and,the eye". Also, a select set of problems are drawn from
Nicholson’s writings, entirely new, and allintimatelyjconnected, Withlthe subject in hand. They

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iv ADVERTISEMENT.

are disposed in methodical order, and are preceded by the necessary definitions. It is not intended
by this part, Wholly to set aside the study of Euclid, and authors who have written on Conic Seo-
tions. An attentive perusal of their works will always amply repay the student’s trouble.

When the vast importance and utility of Geometry are considered, the student will never regret
any pains he may take to’make himself thoroughly master of every part of it. Particular attention
has been paid to Ellipses, and Curves ; the problems relating to which, will be found par-
ticularly useful in describing elliptical and Gothic arches ; finding theirjoints, and describing mould-
ings of every degree of curvature under various circumstances, with Conic Sections—alsofthe
Sections of Solids, a thorough acquaintance with them being absolutely necessary for understanding
the theory and disposition of shadows, the explanation of which will be highly gatifying to every
scientific reader. ,

In view of the present taste for architectural knowledge, and the inadequacy of means to obtain
that science, arising from the costly and voluminous works on the subject, I have been chiefly in-
duced to compile a work of this kind. Being fully convinced of its utility, from very arduous research
into its constituent principles, from my early apprenticeship to the present time having had more
than twenty years practice in the art of Building, I have brought together the following system in a
concise, but intelligible manner; which consists principally of extracts from Vitruvius, Stuart,
Chambers, Nicholson, and other authors of eminence. If I have made ajudicious arrangement of
the several subjects, I have accomplished all I anticipated ; and under these considerations,“therefore,
I submit this work to the public, for their approbation and patronage.

 

EDWARD SHA‘V.

 

ADVERTISEMENT

TO THE THIRD EDITION.

THE rapid and extensive sales of the two former editions of this work have encouraged the author
to prepare a third. He has carefully revrsed thrs edition, and added three new plates, viz : Plate
G—I on Imposts, and Plates 71 and 72 on Cornices. He feels confident It comprises as great a

'variety of useful matter as can be produced for the price at which it is afforded; and he has not,

as will be seen by a careful perusal, filled this work with useless pictures, and essays of uulneaning
matter, more for show than utility : he therefore submits it to an enlightened public, after tendering
his sincere thanks for their very liberal patronage of the two former editions, hoping to receive a

share that may be due in this. . .
BOSTON, DEC. 1833. E. S.

\

Q»

  

INTRODUCTION.

W

THE term Architecture is‘oi'iginally derived from the
Greek language, in which it signifies the principal hand-
craft, or mechanicil operation; an expression very appli-
cable to the construction of habitations‘for civilized men,
without which, few of the other° practical arts could be de-
sirable, or indeed of any value whatever. In the genial
climates of the interior of Asia, where“ human beings first
appeared, defence from the inclemency of the weather was
not an object of research. Shelter from the intense rays
of the sun, and from the torrents of rain peculiar to
those climates; protection from the wild beasts of the
field; the necessity of privacy, and complete separation
from their fellow-creatures; these and other motives, which
might easily be specified, would, nevertheless, render ar-
chitecture, however rude and simple, one of the earliest arts
of'lif'e. To attempt to trace architecture back to its origin
wuuld,therefore, be an idle enterprise. From the Hebrew
Scriptures we learn, that it was arrived at considerable per-
fection, even under the second generation of mankind; for
there we learn, that Cain, after the murder of his brother,
vithdrew from the-habitation of his parents, and built a
city in a remote qtiarter of thegvorld. ;’ ,

The progress of architecture, from rudeness to refine-
ment, is thus related by Vitruvius, whose celebrated trea-
tise on architecture appeared in Italy in the reign of Au-
gustus Caesar, about the beginning ofthe Christian era.
His notions were formed on tradition and conjecture; for
the writings of Moses, which contain the most ancient ac-
count ofthe origin ofthe human race, and ofhuman society,
were Qither unknown, or generally disregarded in his time
in Europe. ,

‘ In the first times,’ says Vitruvius, ‘ men lived in woods
and caves, but at last, borrowing hints from the birds,
which built their nests with equal ingenuity and industry,
they began to form hhts for themselves. These huts were,
probably, at first conical, because that figure is of the most

 

 

 

 

obvious construction, composed of trees or branches fixed
in a circle on the ground, and joined together in a point at
the top; the whole covered with reeds, leaves, and clay.
Finding, however, in the course of time, this conical figure
inconvenient on account ofthe slope ofits sides, the form
of the hut was changed to that of a cube, or ofa parallelo-
piped. Marking out the space to be occupied by the in-
tended structure, they fixed in the ground upright trunks
of trees to form the sides, filling the intervals with branches
closely interwoven, and covering the whole with clay.
The‘sides being thus completed, four long beams were
placed on the upright posts, which, being well joined at
the angles, kept the sides firm, and likewise served to sup-
port the covering, or roof of the building, composed of
other beams, on which were laid beds of reeds, leaves, and
clay. When the art of constructing habitations was so far
advanced, men bethought themselves of methods of render-
ing their dwellings not only commodious for present use,
but elegant and durable. They stripped the bark and oth-
er inequalities from the trunks and branches employed in
the walls, raised them above the damp ground, by placing

them on flat stones, and covered each post with a flat stone,

to throw off the rain. The spaces between the ends of the
joists were closed with clay, and the ends of the joists
themselves were covered with thin boards, cut in the form
ofwhat are called triglyphs. The position of the roofs was
also altered : being flat, they were ill calculated for throw-
ing off the rain; they were therefore raised up im the
middle, so as, with the horizontal beams connecting the
uprights of the walls, to form a triangular pediment or
gable. From these simple elements, architecture took its
beginningf for when wood was found inconvenient for
constructing durable dwellings, and men set themselves to
erect more solid and extensivgbuildings, of clay dried in:-

the sun, or stone, they still imitated the forms of tliOse parts '

which necessity had originally introduced. The upright

 

' 1531;? "i" "

 

6

posts, with the flat stones under and above them, were con-
verted into columns with their bases and capitals; the
beams, rafters, and layers of materials composing the roof,

“were gradually improved into architraves, friezes, triglyphs,’

cornices, and the other ornamental parts of modern architec-
ture.’—-—So far Vitruvius. -

It may be further remarked that in many countries,
among the rudest tribes of men, excavations and fissures
of rocks, hollows of trees, and caves of the earth, have
served as habitations. Travellers inform us ofa tree grow-
ing in Africa, the hollow of which affords a habitation for
thirty negro families; which is said to be the largest tree
in the world. They also inform us of a subterraneous city
or cave, occupied by moors, in which there are several
hundred inhabitants. Armstrong, in his ‘Journal of trav-
els, in the seat of war between Russia and Turkey,’ has
the following observations: ‘ The Georgian, or Tartar dwell-
ings are seldom to be found above ground: the tops are
covered with beams of wood, branches of trees, and above
all, with a coat of earth, which make them level with the
ground. The natives are frequently disturbed, when sit-
ting around the fire, by the leg of some unfbrtunate cow
or camel making its appearance down the chimney; and
it is not uncommon for the lambs to fall through, and spoil
whatever may happen to be cooking.’ But among a civ-
ilized people, the desire of seeking for more agreeable

~habitations must be soon felt. The nature of the climate
and the materials which it more readily afforded, regula-
ted, in a great degree, the construction of the first build-
ings in which men sheltered themselves. According to
Diodorus Siculus, the first buildings of Palestine were of
reeds and canes interwoven, and so compact as not to ad-
mit of the rain and wind. Wood appears to be a material
so piopei for building and so easily wrought, that men

would, in all ages, employ it for these purposes, in places“

where it could be easily procured. The branches of trees,
stuck in the ground and rudely interwoven, formed a ma-
terial for constructing them. It is probable that this
method of setting trees on end and binding them together
at the top and bottom, first gave rise to the idea of base
and capital of columns. When these branches were daub—
ed with clay and covered over with leaves and turf, they
presented a model of those cabins ,in which, according to
Vitruvius, the ea1liest t1ibes of men were accustomed to
dwell. At first, bef01e men became acquainted with edge-
tools of iron, trees were felled by means offire, or by axes
made ofsharp stones. They u11de1mi11ed the trees by little
at a time, by continuing a fire at their roots; and by the
same means they could dtgide a t1ee into the iequisite
length. By degrees, however tools for cutting and smooth-
ing wood, were invented. the tools 1‘01 smoothing were at

 

IN TRODUCTION.

first nothing more than sharp stones, sufficiently hard and
free from brittleness. Some of our North American In-
dians make use of the same kind of tools at the present
time. ‘ The use of bricks or masses of clay formed in
moulds and dried in the sun, or baked in stoves, as the
materials of buildings, is of very great antiquity, and is,a
sufficiently obvious invention.’ According to Moses, the
tower of Babel was built of bricks: Go to, let us make
BRICKS, and burn them thoroughly; aml they had brick for
stone, and slime had they for mortar—Gen. ch. xi. v. 3.
Pliny informs us that in the most remote ages of the Egyp-
tians, they made use of bricks for building their houses,
and tiles for coverng them. To employ stones for the
same purpose was very natural, where they were abundant,
and found in masses sufficient to be removed by manual
dexterity. .

Architecture is arranged in different orders, according
to the nations by whom, or the country in which it was
originally employed; such as the Greek, the Roman, the
Saxon, the Norman, the Saracenic or Arabian, the Gothic,
See. The Greek architecture is divided into the Doric,
the Ionian, and the Corinthian, so named from the invent—
ors, or from those parts of Greece, or of the Grecian colo—
nies in Asia Minor, where each kind first appeared. Ro-
man, or Italian architecture was divided into the Tuscan,
and the Composite, the first being employed, as it is said,
by the ancient inhabitants ofTuscany, and the last being a
later improvement adopted by the Romans, compounded of
the two Greek orders, the Ionic and the Corinthian.

When architecture was in its glory in ancient Greece,
the Ionic was the favorite order, as being the most graceful,
light, and elegant. Of this order were the temple of the
Delphic oracle, the temple of Apollo, at Miletus, and the
temple of Diana, at Ephesus. '

‘ The Ionic then, with decent matron g1ace,
He1 airy pillar heaved ——

 

After the Ionic, the Corinthian was introduced, which, in
attempting greater perfection, has deviated from the true sim-
plicity of nature. It marked an age ofluxury and magnifi-
cence, when pomp and splendor had become the predominant
passion, but had not yet extinguished the taste for the sublime
and beautiful. Attempts were made to unite all these char-
acters, but achastenedjudgment is not satisfied; a corrupted
taste is only pleased:

 

D

The rich Corinthian spreads her 11 anton 11 reath.’

In the Composite order this detiation 13 more remark-.1
‘ ble: this was invented by the Italians, and although rich
1 and profuse in its ornaments, disco1ers an. ob1 lOUS 11ant
iofcorrect taste and judgment, and shows that the Greeks

. .__———.——-—Luxuriant last,
l

1

“whom they conquered.*

   

INTRODUCTION. , _ 7

had exhausted all the principleSsof grandeur and beauty,

in the original orders. And in these, they had arriVed at
the acme of perfection, becalfle the Composite could not
possibly have been introduced' without combining all the’
rest; consequently,’ simplicity is destroyed; which is in
conformity with nature, and the great concomitant ofbeaut‘y.
It is said this order was first used by the Romans in their
triumphal arches, to show their dominion over the people

.An order in architecture consists of two principal parts,
the column and the entablature,.or parts supported by the
column. Of these two principal parts, each consists ofthree
subdivisions; those of the column are the base on which
it rests, the shaft, or tall tapering portion, and the capital,
or ornamental part crowning the shaft; those ofthe entab-
lature are first, the architrave, then the frieze, and above
all, the cornice. Each of the smaller parts is again sub-
divided and distributed in various ways, according to the
orders to which they belong, as existing in antique mon-

uments, but more frequently according to the taste and ’

 

 

 

. l
i l
“ An anonymous writer on the history of architecture observes, i
that the Art is supposed to have arrived at its glory in the time of
Augustus Caesar; but was, as well as other polite arts, neglected
under Tiberius. Nero, indeed, notwithstanding his vices, retained
an uncommon passion for Architecture; but luxury and dissoluteness [
had a greater share in it, than real magnificence. In the time of Tra- ‘
jan, Apollodotus excelled in the art; by which he obtained the favor
of that prince, and erected that famous pillar called ‘ Trajan’s,’ w ich ’
is remaining to this day. But after this time, Architecture began to
decline, though it was for some time supported by the care and mu-
nificence of Alexander Severus; yet it fell with the western empire,
and sunk into corruption. All the most beautiful monuments pf an- ,
tiquity were destroyed by the ravages of the Visigoths, and from that
time, Architecture became so coarse and artless, that these professed l
Architects were totally ignorant of just designing, wherein the
whole beauty of Architecture consists : hence a new manner
of Architecture called Gothic, took its rise. Charlemagne indus-i
triously labored for the restoration of Architecture; and the ‘
French applied themselves to it with success, under the encour-
agemant of Hugh Capet. His son Robert prosecuted the same
design of modern Architecture, and by degrees, ran into as great an
excess of delicacy, as the Goths had before done of massiveness. To
those we may add the, Arabesks and Moresk or Moorish Architec- H
ture, which were much of the same nature with the Gothic, except
that as the former were brought from the north, by the Goths and
Vandals, the latter was brought from the south by the Moors and
Saracens. The Architects of the thirteenth, fourteenth, fifteenth
and sixteenth centuries, who had some knowledge of sculpture,
seemed to make perfection consist wholly in the delicacy and mul-
titude of ornaments, which they lavishly bestowed on their buildings,
but frequently without conduct at taste. In the two last centuries,
the Architects of ltaly and France assiduously endeavored to retrieve
the primitive simplicity and beauty of ancient Architecture; nor did
they fail of success,—insomuch that now most churches, palaces, &c.
are built entirely after the antique.

 

 

 

 

fancy of the authors who have written on the subject of ar-
chitecture.

The principal character of the various kinds of architec-
ture depending on the column and its requisite accom-
paniments, the whole is commonly and almost universally
divided into five species or orders, viz. the Tuscan, the
Doric, the Ionic, the Corinthian, and the Composite. This
distribution and arrangement would seem to have been
founded on the progressive proportion, strength and orna-
ment of the orders; they are, however, well calculated to
mislead the student’ and the architect, in tracing the ori-
gin and gradual advancement of each order. Without at-
tempting to search for the commencement of either of the
above orders, it is suflicient for us to know, that the Greeks
employed only the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian;
and that the Tuscan and Composite, were only used in
Italy; the one more rude and the other more ornamented
than theGreek orders, which occupied a middle rank. To
attain, therefore, a proper knowledge of the principles of
architecture, the student ought to confine himself to the
three Greek orders, not only because in them these prin-
ciples are the most displayed, but because of all the monu-
ments of antiquity which have subsisted to modern times,
few, perhaps none, can be pointed out in which the R0-
man or Italic mode of construction is certainly to be traced.

In architecture, various terms are employed in a peculiar
sense, of which the following are the chief;—C'olumn is a
Latin word signifying, in general, a pillar or supporter of
some superincumbent load ; but is now confined to a round
pillar, smaller above than below, and thereby closely im-
itating the trunk of a tree, from which it was originally
drawn. When the pillar is not round and tapering, but
square and of equal dimensions above and below, it is
called a pilaster. The column consists of three principal
divisions: lst, the base, from the Latin term basis, the
foundation on which any thing rests : 2d, the shaft, or cir-
cular tapering portion ; and 3d, the capital, from the Latin
term for the head, or the principal member?

The base is subdivided into different small parts, accord-
ing to the order to which the column belongs; but all the
lowermost part is the plinth; from the Greek term for a
brick, because the ancient bricks were in general about
square, and comparatively thin, resembling our paving bricks
or tiles. Above the plinth lay the torus, a round mould-
ing resembling a rope, so called in Greek, and imitating the
band tied round the bottom of the original tree, as the
plinth did the flat brick or stone on which it stood, to keep
it from the ground. Between these two members was
sometimes introduced a holler channel, called scotia, from
the Greek word for darknesg because little light could

i enter it. .

a

.14.

8 ‘ INTRODUCTION.

The column was generally quite plain and smooth in its
whole length; but in buildings where ornament is particu-
larly admitted, the shaft was cut into a succession of small
perpendicular channels, resembling the inside 'of a pipe or
flute cut lengthwise into two parts; hence the shaft is call-
ed fluted. In some instances one third part-of the flutings
from the bottom, was, as it were, filled up with the halfof a
round rod lying in the hollow. It is singular, that although
the flutings may have been originally intended as an imi-
tation of the natural hollows ofthe bark of a tree, and might
therefore be expected in the earliest productions of archi-
tecture, it is only in the more improved works that fluted
columns are to be found.

The capital is variously subdivided and ornamented in
the different orders ; simple in the Doric, more ornamented
in the Ionic, and highly enriched in the Corinthian. In
all, however, a narrow moulding runs through the shaft,
near the upper end called the aslragal, because it seemed
to occupy the position of the upper bone of the neck. Be-
Cause the word astragal also means, in the Greek, the heel,
it is in some treatises on architecture most ridiculously call-
ed by that name. The uppermost member of the capital
is the abacus, so called, as being broad and thin, like the

board or tablet employed by the ancients in arithmetical cal-

culations.

The volutc is an ornament introduced in the Ionic order,
being, as its Latin word implies, aspiral scroll, imitating the
ends of some flexible substance loosely rolled up.

The capital of the Corinthian order is encircled by rows
ofleaves ofditferent sorts. The parts which rest upon, and
are supported by the columns, are comprehended under the
general name of the cntablature, because, agreeable to the
meaning of the term tabula, in Latin, they consist of boards,
planks, or stone slabs of different forms and magnitudes.
The entablature is a compound of three principal parts, first,
the architrave, next the frieze, and uppermost the cornice.
The arcleitrrwe is so called by a name partly Greek and
partly Latin, as being the principal beam which, resting on
the capitals of the columns, supports the remaining parts
of the entablature. In some cases it is plain, in others it
is broken in two or three pieCes, like so many separate
beams lying 011 each other.

The frieze consists of one piece, but commonly enriched
with Sculpture of dilfcrent sorts. In the Doric order, the
ornament consists of two whole channels, and two half
channels, forming one, if joined together, and therefore
called by a Greek name triglyplts, or three hollows. The
square spaces between the successive triglyphs are called
mctopcs, a te1 111 expressing the hollow open spaces bet11een
the beams, the ends of which are rep1esented by the tri-
glyphs. In these metopes are sometimes represented the

 

 

head of some divinity, the skull of some animal used in

sacrifice, or other emblem of the purpose to which was des- ‘

tined the building on which the ornaments were intro-
duced.

The cornice, from the French comic/1e, and the Latin
corona, is so called because, being the uppermost part of
the entablature, it crowns the whole architedtural distribution
of the columns; and it is divided and ornamented in dif-
ferent ways, according IMO the order employed

1. The first Grecian order in point of antiquity is the
Doric, so named from the Dares, a small tribe 1n Greece,
or, as some say, from Dorus, an Achaian chief, who first
employed that order in erecting a temple to Juno at Argos.
In all the most perfect specimens of this order now remain-
ing, the column springs immediately from the foundation,
having no base properly so called, but only a small swelling
round the bottom, resembling what we see at the root of a.
tree, and sufficient to show that we see the whole of the
shaft. The base, we learn from Vitruvius, first appeared
in the Ionic column. The Doric column being short in
proportion to its diameter, and consequently strong; the
entablature placed upon it, is, of course, more massive than
that of the other orders, being in height one-fourth part of
the total height of the column.

.The Ionic order derives its name from the Iones, a
Greek people on the east coast of the Archipelago, whose
capital was Ephesus, celebrated 011 many accounts, but par-
ticularly for the magnificent temple of Diana. This admir-
able structure was ing length 4725 feet, and in breadth “2'20
feet. ' it was surrounded on all sides by a double range of

marble columns, 70 feet in height, and consequently7 feet
9 1-2 inches 1n diameter at the bottom.

The Ionic column is taller than the Doric, containing 9
diameters, or 18 modules; and, although simple, is never-
theless graceful and majestic. If the Doric were meant
to represent the manly iobust figure of Hercules, the Ionic
might prope1ly be the emblem oi the dignified simplicity
and elegance of Diana. In this order, as has been already
observed, the base supporting the column was tirst intro-
duced. An ornament peculiar to the Ionic column is the
volute, or spiral scroll already mentioned, which is described
by a succession of portions of circles, drawn from differ-
ent central points. The height of the whole entablature is
Q-(iths of that of the column, being the medium between
that of the Doric,11h1cl11s Q-nths, and that ofthe Corinthian
which Is '2-1tlths. The height ofthe base is one module, or
half the diameter of the shaft.

3. The Corinthian order took its rise in the flourishing
days of Co rinlh, a celebrated city commanding the com-
muuicalion of the peninsula of Peioponnesus with the con-
tinent of Greece. The beautitul foliage (if); the capital of

i.‘

 

 

 

 

. , .. INTRODUCTION. 6 9

this order is traced back to the following incident. "A‘
young lady of Corinth dying, her nurse carried her play-
things in a basket, the day after. her funeral, and placed it
on the grave. The basket, . ereo WIth a flat tife,'1vas
pld'ced accidentally on the ate" of the plant a'canthus,

which, sending out leaves, soon enclosed the basket ,having
their ends turned downwards when they reached the tile.’
This object struck the chy of a celebrated sc.ulptor of

those days," Callimrzchus, who immediately introduced a
figure of it on the top of an elegant column of his iMention.

Thus the capitdi of the Corinthian column always resem-
bles a deep narroii' basket covered with a tile, and com-
pletely sorrounded by foliage. Such is thé‘tipcount‘ ‘given
by Vitruvius; but later writers on architecture have 1magin-

   

Cod they coulddiscmer this ornamented capital, 1n the de-

scription given ofthe Temple erected by‘ Solomon, in Jerusa-
lem; with this difference, that there, the foliage represented
branches of the palm, andynot‘the lieaves of the acanthus.
It is, howevei', to be obsem, that the foliage of the Com
rinthian capital, is frequently an imitation of the leaves,
not of the acanthus, but of the olive, and of other plantS,
according to the taste of the architect. The Corinthian
column IS in height 10 diameters, or 20 modules, of which
the base is l module, and the capital ‘2 l-3 modules, con-
sequently the shaft measures 16 2-3 modules. The entabla-
turle is _1.5 of the column.

The first Italic order 13 called the Tuscan, as having
been employed by that ancient people, once very powerful
in Italy. It IS, however, remarkable, that no vestiges now
exist of any building in which the Tuscan column was em-
ployed to support an entablature, or any other weight. Vi-
truvius, it is true, gives instructions for erecting temp es ac-
but it does not appear that such edi-
fices were actually erected. 'I he only examples of the use
of the Tuscan column that ha1e come down to our times,
are the admirable monuments still subsisting in their orig-
inal perfection, the columnof'l‘rajan aud Antonius ,"iit Rome,
and the column of T/zcmloszus, in Constantinople. The
column erected to the honor of Trajan, (next to Julius
Cmsar, perhaps the most valuable of the Roman emperors, )
who flou1ished a century after Christ, is in all “8 feet high
Tlie shaft of the column is in length 14 1‘8 modules or 7
1-4 dia eters, each ll feet 2 inches.

'1‘ be pedestal supporting the column 1s a cube of 3 rho-
dules , the base IS 1 module, and the capital 2- 3 module-
Gil the capital is another pedestal on which stood a colos-
sal statue of Trajan : but this was removed, and one of St.
Peter now occupies the same place. The other column,

cording to this order;

commonly said to have been erected to Antonius, is of the

 

 

same kind, but a little smaller; it now supports the statue of
St. Paul.

The magn‘ificju, but unhappily situated column,

 

(or monoment, erected in London; to commemorate the

dreadful conflagration, which in 1666, laid waste the greater
part of that city, although copied from those in Rome,
and of considerably larger dimensions, is not properly .Tus-
can, but a fluted Doric. , ' r

2. The other Italic order is called the Composite, be-
cause it seems to be a. combination of the Ionic and the
Corinthian orders, to which last it bears the greatest re-
semblance, imitating the former only in the adoption of
the complete volute in the capital, in addition to the Corinth-
ian foliage. A specimen of the Composite order, richly or-
namented, is to be seen in the triumphal arch, of which
are represented in scripture, the golden candlestick of seven
branches, and other precious articles, carried away from the
last temple of Jerusalem.

Besides columns, properly so called, which are always
circular, another kind of pillar called pilasters, are frequent- ,
ly employed, especially where a great weight is to be sup-
ported. The plan of apilaster is usually a square; but
those, the plan of which is a parallelogram, are also intro-
duced. The chief use of pilasters is to support arches.
Thus the piers of a bridge are in fact short pilasters; the
arches separating the nave from the side-aisle of St. Paul’s
church in London, and of St. Peter’s in Rome, are sup-
ported on pilasters. In some buildings, it is true, we fimL .
ranges of arches supported on columns of even the delicate

i Corinthian order; but as columns are of a tapering form,

l and magnitude.

the upper diameter being less than the lower ; and as this
diminution is increased in the eyes of the spectator, by the
distance of the upper part, the columns have a slender, and
even a feeble appearance, and consequently are ill adapted
for supporting an arch. On the other hand, pilasters being
ofequal dimensions all over their height, and very short
in proportion to their diameter, possess a solidity and
strength capable of bearing arches of the greatest weight
By pilasters we also mean an ornament

3 applied to 'walls, internal and external, resembling in parts

|
l

Pilas-

and form, a colurnn,'but flattened instead of round.

' ters of this sort have their base, shaft and capital, and are

plain or fluted, according to the architéCtural order to
which they belong. It is a matter still unsettled whether
such a pilaster ought to diminish in breadth, like a column,
or to retain the same breadth above and below, like a solid
pier. Pilasters usually project one fourth part of their
breadth from the wall to which they are applied. Both
columns and pilasters are frequently raised from the ground,

2 and on pedestals; a construction not without its propriety

in certain cases, as in our churches, where the galleries
rest upon pilasters and the front of the gallery coincides
with'the pedestal of the column which rises to the roof.

1 Pedestals are'by no means essential to columns or pilasters;

10

,but when employed, they must be formed and ornamented,
conformably to the order of the columns they support. .

Columns are placed at different distances, according to
their destination, and the spaces between them are termed
intercolumm'ations. This separation in the Greek orders,
varies ftom one diameter and a halfofthe lower end of the
column to four diameters; but if theTuscan column were
the architrave being supposed to consist of
beams of timber, the intercolumniation may be much
wider than ifit consisted of blocks of stone. That interval,
however, between columns, which has received the sanc-
tion of the best monuments of antiquity, and of the most
judicious architects, is equal to two diameters and a quar-
ter ofthe column. Hence it is called Eustyle, from two
Greek terms; expressing the proper arrangement of col-
umns. The latter term, styles, a column, enters into the
composition of several other architectural terms, as pycnos-
tyle, to express columns placed close together ; prostyle, a
number ofcolumns placed as in a portico, before the en-
trance, front ofa building, of which we have examples in
London, in the churches of St. Martin-in-the-Fields, of
St. George, Hanover square,.of St. George, Bloomsbury, in
imitation of ancient edifiCes in Rome, &c. When ranges
of columns are carried quite round the outside of a build-
nO, they form a peristyle.

Arches may perhaps be considered less magnificent than
ranges of columns; but they are very solid,‘and liable to
few accidents. The importance of arches, in affording a
commodious passage over a river, needs no illustration.
It has long been the practice to construct bridges of arches
increasing in width, and consequently in height, from each
end to the middle, so that the road formed the segment of
a large circle. The arches have also been generally semi-
circles. The practice was first laid aside in France, where
many noble bridges are now to be seen, consisting, like the

employed,

ancient Greek and Roman, of arches, all of the/same span.

or width, and the same height; so that the road is carried
on a level all the way along the bridge. In order to keep
the bridge low, the arches vary greatly from a semi-circle,
being segments of circles oflarge diameter. Nay, in some
instances in France, the arches are portions of ellipses, and
not circular, by which measure the crown of the arch is
kept very low. On this most improved plan, a bridge is con-
structed in London, over the Thames, between Blackfriars’
and Westminster bridges, which, for excellence of materi-
als and structure, for magnificent simplicity and extent, is,
perhaps without a parallel in Europe. It consists indeed
of only 9 equal elliptic arches; but each is of 120 feet
span; the extent of each pier, between the arches is 20
feet, and the length of the bridge 1280 feet, very nearly a
quarter ofa mile, on the same level line from one end to

 

 

INTRODUCTION.

the other. To enable the reader to form some judgment
of the properties of this work, (called the Strand bridge,

because itleads into that street, on the west side of Somerset
place,) the following account of some other remarkable
bridges 1s given. Of the adjoining communications over

the Thames, London bridge, consists of 19 arches and is
in length 915 feet; Blackfriar’s bridge consists of9 arches,

and is 995 feet long; and Westminster bridge, consist-
ing of 15 arches, is in length 1223 feet. The celebrated
bridge (filer the Loire at Tours in France, is horizontal,
consisting of 15 elliptic arches, and in length 1335 feet.
The bridge over the Moldaw at Prague, the capital of B0<
hemia, is in length 1700 feet. But these are all far sur-
passed in length by the antique bridge over the rapid
Rhone, at St. Esprit, in the south part of France ; which;
constructed on a multitude of small arches, extends to the
length of 3000 feet; possessing this singularity, that instead
of being straight, it consists of two lines of direction, meet-
ing in the river at a very obtuse angle, pointed up against
the stream, as if the better to resist its violence.

In various edifices, ancient and modern, we find columns
and arches placed in ranges one above another. ,Iii such
works, care must be taken that the more massive are made
to support the more slender; placing first the Doric order,
next the Ionic, and above all the Corinthian or Composite.
In this arrangement, the upper diameter of the superior col—
umn is usually made equal to the lower diameter of the in-
ferior column ; giving the succession of columns the air of
one tall tapering tree, cut into so many separate portions.

The most remarkable edifices of antiquity, which have
subsisted with tolerable entireness to our days, are temples
ofvarious sorts. The structure ofthese temples is extremely
simple, the building being a parallelogram, seldom of great
dimensions. Some have aportico of columns at the en-
trance, and the external walls plain or adorned with pilas-
ters. Older temples, however, are surrounded on all parts
by a single, and even by a double range of columns, sup-
porting the archit1ave, frieze and cornice, together 111th the
roof; so that the temple itself is in a manner concealed
from the view, and receives no light but from the en-
trance. Such a construction is evidently very ill adapted
to the purposes of a Christian, and especially of a Protest-
ant place of worship. It has nevertheless been imitated in
many magnificient structures, with some alterations, and
the addition of projections in each of the long sides, for the
purpose of resembling the cross, the emblem of the Christian
faith. According to the system of divine service which, for
many centuries, has prevailed in the Roman Catholic wor-
ship, the sacred offices may be conducted, without mutual
interference, in sundry parts of the church at the same time.
In the Protestantisystem, however,nvhether Lutheran, Cal-

 

INTRODUCTION.

vinistic, or Anglican, in which nothing is done as it were
in secret, and in which every member ofthe congregation

'is to hear, and participate in every part of the‘séfv’ice,

sacred edifices must, to be itseful, be limited in magnitude
and form. To be satisfied ofthe truth of this observation,
it will be quite sufliciefifito enter St. Paul’s church, in Lon-
don, at a time when service is performing. A comparatively
small portion of that gaittl structure is set apart for the
congregation, while thegreat body of the buildin presents
the appearance of a vast useless void, neither app ied, nor
indeed applicable to any purpose of the Protestant worship.
The same observation belongs to the most ancient Gothic
Cathedrals; but these were constructed with}! very different

view.

" The columns of the portico, and pilastérs of the body of

St. Peter’s, at Rome, reach at once from the ground to the
attic; but in St. Paul’s, of London, the whole of the edifice
is divided into two ranges of columns and pilasters: an ar-
rangement, which, by breakihg the whole into a repetition
of small parts and members, counteracts the effect which
would be produced by the great dimensions of the edifice,
were it adorned with columns, occupying the whole height
ofthe building. On the other hand, the intervals between
the grand columns of‘thé portico of St. Peter’s having been
built up into two storibE-of arcades and balconies, tic accom-
modate tie Pope in certain ceremonies, the effect of the
portico-is destroyed ; and instead of one open range oflo'fty
pillars, the eye is ofl'ended to see them halfsunk, as it were,
into a wall, the use of which is by no means at first si ht
apparent. From this material defect, the front ofSt. Paul’s,
although broken into two ranges of pillars, is fortpnately
free. .

Columns grouped, or placed two and two together, have
always a bad effect; for they suggest to the observer the
idea that single columns have been at first employed, and,
being found too weak for their load, another set of columns
had been placed beside them, tortake off a part of 4113? bur-
then. Grouped or double columiis are wholly a modern
invention ;' nothing of the kind being found in any antique
work, and althotfgh they were employed by the first-rate
architects, who constructed the celebrated colonnade of the
palace ofthe Louvre in Paris, the front portico of St. Paul’s,
the entryice into Somerset Place in London, &c., the

. grouping of columns is, nevertheless, a departure from the

genuine rules of the art. *1

Instead of difl'erent ranges of columns, it is usual to
throw the ground-floor of an edifice into the form' of a base-
ment, on which rise the columns or pilasters to ornament
the front. This basement ought 'ri'ever to be less in height
than halfthe length of the order it suppogs. Basements

are generally rusticated;‘that is, the stou‘es are cut and ;, mon.

 

 

 

 

l
l
l
l

I
ll
i!
ll

u

 

 

 

11 .

placed so as to resemble the rude blocks as they are sup-
posed to rise from the quarry. In the application of this
rustication, however, the judgment and taste of the architect
will be displayed, In London we have examples of the
judicious employment of rusticated walls, and of the vei'y
reverse. The huge ponderous masses, apparently in all
their native rudeness, composing the exterior of Newgate
prison, admirably indicate and characterize the nature of
the edifice. The less rude, it is true, but still rusticated
walls of Carlton-house, are, on the contrary, equally incon-
gruous with the delicate, and richly ornamented portico, and
with the purposes to which that structure is appropriated.

When a building is divided into different floors or stories,
it seems proper that each story should have its separate
range of columns or pilasters, which then appear each to
support the entablature, and the projecting timbers of the
superincumbent floors. When, on the contrary, two and
even three tiers of windows are all included in the height
of one range of columns or pilasters, the want of use, and
even of connection, in columns of such a length, must strike
every observer.

When a range of columns, surmounted with their proper
entablature, supports the end o'fa roof, a triangular space is
formed, called the pediment : the two inclined sides being
finished agreeably to the cornice below them, the inclosed'
triangular space or tympanum is often filled with historic or
emblematic sculpture. Pediments on a small scale, trian-
gular or as arches ofcircles, are frequently placed alternately
over windows in modern buildings; and instances of the
same intermixture are not wanting in vestiges of ancient
structures. The most proper proportion of a pediment,
whether triangular or circular, is to make its perpendicular
height from one fifth to one fourth part of the base.-

The preceding observations belong to the Grecian and
Roman systems of architecture; but another system, con-
ducted on very different ideas, and of which many speci-
mehs of admirable contrivance and execution, still adorn
the principal states of Europe, namely the Gothic, remains
to be noticed. The term is often improperly employed to
express every mode of construction, not reducible to the
ancientGrecian; in this way, works erected by the Sax-
ons and the Normans, in the northern and middle parts,
and by the Saracens or Moors from Africa, in the southern
parts of Europe, are often confounded under the general
name of Gothic, with those to which that name properly
belongs. This last speciespf Miilding is supposed to have
first appeared in England, after the conquest, in the reign
of Henry the 2d, who died in 11489; introduced most
probably from Normandy, and other parts of France, where
splendid monuments of Gothic architecture are very com-

fir .

12 ‘ . IngaonUCTIoN.

On the origin of the Gothic mode of building, ingenious
men have varied much in opinion ; and even on the'origin
of the name. The Goths were, in early times, the inhabit-
agtsiof Sweden; but in the decay of the Roman empire,
they, with other northern tribes, invaded, and even over-(run
all the southern parts of Europe, even to the Straits of
Gibraltar. Ignorant of every art but that of war, the sci-
ence and skill introduced into those parts by the Romans,
were overwhelmed, and architecture gradually assumed
forms unknown to the Romans and the Greeks. Hence
buildings, constructed on principles different from those of
antiquity, came to be distinguished as Gothic; not because
the Goths alone were their founders, but because the Goths
and their neighbors, the Vandals, having established a
regular succession of Kings in Spain, their name became
more famous than that of any other northern race. The
Saxon, Norman, and Gothic styles of architecture, though
nearly related in sundry particulars, have still each its pe-
culiar character.

The Saxon and Norman agree in this, that the form of i

the building is in both the same; the pillars are round,
square, or polygonal, and very short, massive, and strong;
but the arches and heads of the doors and windows are
semi—circular. If, in these particulars, any difference be
found, it consists in the superior massiveness and large di-
mensions of the Norman architecture. The Saxon church-
es, ofwhich sundry examples, or parts at least, have remained
to our times, were often well constructed, and even elegant,
but generally of moderate size. Those erected by the
Normans, on the other hand, were usually large and mag-
nificent, carried up to a great height, with two, and even
three ranges of pillars, one above the other, of various di-
mensions, but connected by circular arches. In the centre,
was a lofty tower, with two others at the west end, where
was the principal entrance. In. the course'of time, how-
‘ ever, the Normans introduced pillars of a much more
agreeable form, tall and slender. ’In England, the Saxon
and Norman styles are generally found mixed in the same
building ; the latter, introduced in the twelfth century, being
ingrafted on the former, which had been in use for centuries
preceding. .

The principal marks by which the true Gothic architec-
ture is distinguished, are its projecting buttresses around the
exterior of the building, its pinnacles and spires, its large
branching windows, its niches, its canopies, and. sculptured

angels, saints, and kings, fhe fretted roof, the clustering pil- z

lar ; but above all, the arch always more or less acutely point-
ed. As plainness and solidity constitute the leading features
of the Saxon and Norman buildings, so the'Gothic architec-
ture is distinguished by the lightness ofthe work, the lofty
boldness ofits elevation,the peculiar slenderness ofits pillars,

the profuse and delicate richness of its ornaments, and, we
must addf‘ithe aStonishing excelleffce ofthe masonry.

' Ininqui‘ries into the origin of the proper Gothic style of
building, we meet with no less genius and fancy than in
similar inquiries concerning the Greek orders, and much
greater variety.of sentiment. So'me writers imagine the

1 Gothic style was brought'into England by the crusaders,on
l their return from the Holy Land, and other parts of the
, east; and think that this style should be called Saracenic.
l Others would call it Moresqne, as having been introduced
1 into Spain by the Meors. On the other hand, the pointed
arch, which characterizes the Gothic, is by some traced to

 

lthe intersection of two semi-circles, such as is frequently
:seen in Saxon buildings; the one arch being described

i from the end of the diameter, and passing through the cen-
l tre of the other. Such an intersection would form an angle
l of 60°, and lines from it to the other extremities of the
1: arches, would, of course, form an equilateral triangle; a.
l form certainly not nnfrequent in Gothic buildings. The
‘ scheme, however, which has gained the most general as-
it sent, is, that the Gothic is derived from the ancient prac-
l tice of religious ceremonies being perforated in groves of
ijlofty trees. The eye being accustomed to contemplate
; the arches formed by the branches of trees that shaded
l their altars, and sheltered their assemblies, it wrs natural,
l when covered buildings succeeded to the groves as places
i of worship, that men should endeavor -to introduce some
similitude between them and those places in which they had
been accustomed so long to perform their religious ceremo-
nies. Accordingly we find, not only the intersecting arch-
es, formed by the branches, exactly imitated by the pointed
arch, but also the stems of the trees as accurately rep-
resented by the slender and clustering pillars of a Gothic
cathedral. Indeed, no attentive observer ever viewed a
tregular avenue of well grown trees, intermixing their
l branches over head, but it presently put him in mind ofthe
. long vista through a Gothic chi rch; or ever entered one
1 of the larger and more elegant edifices of this kind, but it.
presented to his imagination an avenue oflofty trees, into"-
miugling their branches over his head. Under this id ea
of so extraordinary a species of architecture, all the irreg-

ular transgressions of art, all the monstrous offences against

nature, as some men speak, disappear; everything has its
, reason, everything is in order, and a harmonious whole aris-

 

es from the studious application of means proper and pro-
portioned t0 the end. For, could the arches be otherwise
, than pointed, where the workmen were to imitate the curve

l, one another? Could the columns be otherwise-than split
i into distinct shafts,'when they to were represent the stems of

l
I; made by two opposite trees, by their mutual insertion in:
i a clump of trees growing close together ’! On the same prin-

 

IN TRODUCTION ; 1 3

ciples they formed the spreading ramifications of the stone-
work in the windows, and the stained glassin the open inter-
stices ; the one to represent the branches, and the other, the
leaves of an opening grove : both concurring to preserve that
gloomy light, which, in the greater number of men, inspires
religious awe and veneration. Hence we see the reason
of their studied aversion to apparent solidity in these stu-
pendous masses of building, deemed so absurd by men ac-
customed to the apparent, as well as real strength of Gre-
cian architecture ; for the surprising lightness of the Gothic
building, united with real strength, was necessary to com-
plete the execution of their original idea of a sylvan temple.

The origin of Gothic architecture here pointed out, has
been very happily illustrated and exemplified by Sir James
Hall, in a dissertation published in the Transactions ofthe
Royal Society of Edinburgh, and in a subsequent separate
publication on the same curious subject, well worthy of at-
tention.

In the architecture of the Greeks and Romans, the co]-
umns were admired for the elegance of their proportions;
but in the Gothic, the column is seldom, if ever diminished
in diameter; nor do we find any fixed proportion between
the diameter and the height of the column; nor is the in-
tercolumniation, or space between any two pillars, regu-
lated by the diameter of their height. Examples of the

widest difference in the intercolumniations are common; .

for instance, in the nave of the cathedral of York, and in
the aisles of the conventual church of Newark-upon-Trent;
both.edifices deservedly admired, but widely differing in
the proportions of their columns, and the intervals between
them.

The Gothic column not being diminished above, and
having no entablature, is the better suited, in point of sta-
bility, to support the arch springing immediately from it, as
An arch
springing from a Greek or Roman column, has always, as
was before observed, an unfavorable effect. The striking
impression of a Gothic structure is produced by taking in the

only a continuation of one half of the column.

whole in all its relations ; but in the Greek architecture, our
pleasure often arises from contemplating the elegance and
fine proportions of its several parts.

On viewing a Gothic building, we soon perceive how ad-
mirably the parts are constructed for the eye to embrace
the whole. The column is generally an assemblage of ver-
tical mouldings, or a bundle of rods, inclosing a tall slender
post or trunk of a tree, acting as a cpnductor to the eye.
The capitals present little or no interruption to the sight,
which glides up along the pointed arch, and embraces the
whole upper portion of the edifice. One ofthe vertical rods,
forming the column, pierces through the capital, and ascends
to the roof, and from it spring the ribs of the vaulting.

 

 

’ The exterior of a Gothic edifice has an effect similar to
that of the interior ; the vertical rods of the columns run up
to the top of the pediment and the terminating pinnacle, and
the pyramidal buttresses on the outside, produce similar
effects on the eye of the beholder.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF
HOUSES.

In building, the situation is the first point to be determin-
ed. For dwellings, the position ought to [be sufficiently
elevated to be free from damps and noxious vapors; but
at the same time not exposed to the wintry blasts. The
neighborhood of fens, marshes, and stagnating waters,
should always be avoided; but water for domestic uses
should always be easily and plentifully attainable. When
a full southern aspect cannot be procured, the next best is
a western, for the heat is always greater, at equal distances
from noon, in the afternoon, than in the morning. With
respect to the ground to be built upon, it should be carefully
examined by boring or sinking pits. Stone or gravel afford
the best foundations, but if these be not of considerable
thickness, dependence ought not in all cases to be placed
upon such soils. If, however, it becomes necessary to found
upon sandy, or upon marshy, boggy ground, the foundation
must be secured by piling, planking, laying large ledges, or
other contrivances of the same nature.

The situation being determined upon, the architect or
builder prepares plans of the intended edifice, general and
particular, with elevations of the fronts and ends, not drawn
as they would appear to the eye ofa spectator, agreeably to
the rules of perspective, but according to their several di-
mensions as measured on a given scale. To the plans of
each separate story must be added sections in length and
breadth of the whole building, to show the elevation of the
internal parts. As, however, no building can ever appear
to the eye in the precise form of a geometrical elevation
upon paper, and as it requires considerable skill and prac-
tice to be able, from such an elevation, to form a judgment
of the appearance ofthe edifice when actually erected, it is
most satisfactory, and indeed, but just to the proprietor, to
furnish him with views of the intended structure from dif-
ferent points of sight, accompanied by its attendant out-
buildings, shruhbery, &c. such as they may be expected to
be when brought to perfection. ' From the want of such
general perspective representations, many a proprietor has
beheld with disgust or mortification the completion of a
residence on which vast sums were expended, and the archi-
tect has very unjustly been blamed; nay, in some cases,
ruined in his business, in consequenceof such vexations and .
disappointments, occasioned by his unscientific employer.

14'

In cases of great public buildings, models of timber are often
constructed, which, when done upon a properly adapted scale,
convey a very perfect conception of the intended structures.

The external form, ‘and the internal distribution of
houses, are necessarily susceptible of such variety, that it
is impossible to lay down any particular rules on these
heads. A country seat is, of late years, usually arranged
with a centre building for the family, and two wings con-
nected by covered passages with the centre, for various other
purposes. The proportion that these wings should bear
to the centre, has never yet been ascertained: yet every
passing spectctor will exclaim against the architect, when
the disproportion between the wings and the centre strikes
him as extravagant. In some modern buildings of this
nature, we find the length of its wings in front, each only
oue-third part of that of the centre ; in others one-half; but
nothing has a worse effect than disproportion between the
body and the wings in point of height. The connecting
passage, or colonnade, always’ looks best when it forms
exactly a quarter of a circle.

The great difficulty in architecture is to combine utility
with ornament and magnificence. This can indeed be
properly done in structures of a certain extent alone, but
even space and expense have not always been sufficient to
insure these essential ends.

Excess of ornament is always misplaced in small build-
ings, which have then more the air of models of other
great Works, than real places of abode. It was observed of
Chiswick house, on the banks of the Thames above Lon-
don, (built in imitation, but on a small scale, of a noted
structure of Palladio near Vicenza, in the north of Italy,)
that it was too large to hang to one’s watch-chain, and too
small for a man to live in.

DOORS.

The size and proportion of doors must be regulated
by the purposes of the building to which they belong. The
door of a dwelling house, corresponding to the human
size, is confined to seven or eight feet in height, and three
or four in breadth. In private houses, four feet may be
the greatest breadth. In small doors, the breadth or width
may be to the height as three to seven, but in large doors
as one to two. Doors intended to have but one leafor close,
should never exceed three feet six inches in breadth, other-

wise the door becomes too heavy for convenient use. Doors i
of a wider aperture, especially in the outer wall, are best l

formed with two folding leaves.

As to the modern fashion of opening a wide communica-
tion between rooms on the same floor, by means of broad
folding doors, the practice sets all rules of proportion com-
pletely at defiance.

 

 

elNTRODUC TION.

The external lintels of doors and' windows should always
be on the same level ; and the doors should never be nar-
rower than the windows. When the outward wall is orna-
mented with halfcolumns, and arches forming blank arcades,
the doors and windows should just rise ’up to the springing
of the arches.

The most common way of ornamenting the aperture of
a door, is by an architrave on the top, and also down the
sides. Sometimes a cornice and even a complete entablature
may be placed above the lintel. Pilasters, and semi-columns
have also a good effect, when applied to outer doors. Por-
ticos of four or more columns are properly adapted to
large buildings.

WINDOWS.

The number and size of the windows of a building,
must be regulated by the nature and purposes of that build-
ing. The climate, the aspect, the extent, the elevation,
even the thickness of the walls must be taken into consid-
eration. When the walls are thick, which is commonly the
casein detached stone buildings, the windows may have
a considerable opening inwardly, which will admit nearly
as much light as if the whole aperture in the wall were
enlarged. The proportions of windows depend on their
situation; only their width ought to be the same in every
story ; those in each, however, being proportioned in height
to that of the apartments in each story. In the principal
floor, the height of the windOWS may be two and one-eighth,
to two and one-third of the width. In the ground story,
where the apartments are lower, the apertures of the windows
seldom exceed a double square; that is, the height is just
double the breadth. When the basement is rusticated, the
height is generally much less. In the second floor, the
height of the windows may be from one and a half, to one
The
window in the attics, and mezzaninos or entresols may be a.

and fourififths, or rather three fourths of the width.

perfect square, or even lower.

The windows of the principal floor are the most enrich-
ed. The simplest ornament of such windows is an archi-
trave carried round the aperture, with a. frieze and cor-
nice on the top.
times entirely plain ; at other times they are surrounded with
Those of the second floor
are generally closed with an architrave, crowned at times,

The windows of the ground floor are some-
rustics, or a regular architrave.

with a frieze and cornice : but these last ornaments would
be improper in the attics. The breasts of all the win-
dows on the same floor, ought to be on the same level, and
raised from two feet six inches to three feet above the floor.
In warm climates, or in country houses in our own climates,
seated amid gardens and pleasure-grounds, the windows of
the ground story being cut down to the floor, render the

 

 

5.

INTRODUCTION. 15

apartments pleasant and agreeable. In country hams, in-
deed, in France, Italy, and other warm parts of Enrope,
the principal apartments are-* all on the ground flt'iorf; and
‘he other floors diminish in height as they riseflabove
.* .. 1‘he windows of the ground floor being cut down
even with the doors, and thus affording a ready com-
munication with the garden or lawn, have a peculiar pro-
priety. How far the same practice in the windows of the
first and other floors, in the streets of large cities, by which
the damps and cold of Winter must inevitably penetrate into
the apartments, ought to be avoided, is a point to be decided
by those who prefer comfort and health to' absurdities, how-
ever fashionable.

Not contented with adopting usages suited to the genial
temperature of the south of Europe, a stranger, on passing
along the new quarters of London, might be tempted to
imagine himself transported to the burning climates of
India, when he beholds the fronts of the houses, whatever

with vast projecting galleries, intended, but very unnatur-
ally, to imitate the Iight,,airy, and refreshing varandahs of
the East. '

In so far as these galleries are on the outside of the win-
dows and walls, they are certainly of'use to intercept the
immediate action of the sun’s rays. On the same account,
what we call Venetian blinds ought to be placed on the
outside, and not on the inside of our windows. On the in-
side, they keep off the glare of the sun’s rays, but not the
heat, which communicates to the air of the room, warming
it just as much as if no blind intervened. On the outside,
the blinds reflect and repel the heat as well as the light,
and the air within the room preserves a desirable coolness
of temperature.

The intervals of walls between windows should never
be less than the aperture of the windows, nor in dwelling
houses greater than twice that aperture, otherwise the light
will be deficient. The usual rule for proportioning the
quantity oflight to a room, is to multiply the length of the
room by the breadth, and the product by the height; the
square root oithe last product gives the number of square
feet of aperture requisite for properly lighting the room.
Thus, suppose a room to be in length 3'2 feet six inches, in
breadth 24 feet, and in height 15 feet, the product ofthese
quantities multiplied successively into each other, will be
1700, the square root of which in even numbers, 108, will
be the number of square feet of aperture required to lighten
the room. This quantity, distributed amongthree windows,
gives 36 square feet for each window, the width of each
being four feet, the height must be twice and one-fourth, or
9 feet. Had it been proper to open four windows in the
same room, each must have contained only 27 square feet;

 

 

 

is
be their exposure, adorned, or rather loaded and blocked up i

" would immediately strike and offend the eye.

1 1'

and if the breadth of each were 3 feet 6 inches, the height
would be 7 feet 8 1-2 inches. It is, however, to be observed,
that both internal and external openings in houses, such as
windows, doors, &.c. ought always to consist of the uneven
numbers, 1, 3, 5, 7', 9, &c. and never of the even numbers,
2, 4,6,8, 10, &c. '

This rule cannot always, it is true, be observed in the
confined spaces allotted to houses in towns; but in other
situations, if the number of windows be even, the door can-
not be opened in the centre of the building, and the want
of an equal corresponding extent and balance on each side,
must strike the most careless spectator. The same rule
is to be observed in distributing the arches of a bridge
, or an arcade, the intercolumniations of a portico or colon-
nade. I

The proportions of rooms, in length, breadth, and height,
l are more the objects of taste and experience, than of geo-
' metrical regulation. A circle or a square is a more per-

 

i feet figure than an oval or a parallelogram; and a globe,
la cylinder, or a cube, than a parallelepiped. A room,
i however, in the form of a cylinder or a cube, would in
general be neither useful nor agreeable. The parallelopi-
ped is therefore the form universally adopted for rooms or
chambers of every sort: in which the greatest dimension
1 is the length, the next is the breadth, and the smallest is
the height. Some architects have made the breadth one
half more than the height, and the length [one half more
than the breadth. Thus, for example, if the height of the
room he 16 feet, the breadth will be ‘24 feet, and length 36
feet; and on the other hand, if the length be given, 2‘2 feet
1 6 inches, the breadth will be two-thirds of it, or 15 feet,
‘ and the height two-thirds of the breadth, or £0 feet. Such
: a rule, however, must evidently be subject to many modi-
_ fications.

l The rooms on the ground or the second floor, may be
of the same length and breadth with those on the principal
floor 2 —- but ifthey were ofthe same height, the impropriety
No defect
1 in proportion, however, is more offensive than that in the
height, and none takes more off from the appearance of a
A low apartment, whatever be its other dimensions,

i room.
never can possess either dignity or beauty.

It is the common remark of every one, who, for the first
time enters the matchless fabric of St. Peter’s in Rome,
that it by no means strikes the eye as so vast as it is known
to be. This effect arises from the correct propdrtions of
the whole edifice, in length, breadth and height, and of the

various members of which it consists. Had it been nar-
i row, our attention would have been attracted to its great

llengtlp; had the ceiling been low, we should have been

’ offended by its disproportionate length and breadth. Such,

p

‘ fl $1 v, ,,
16 ’ fiyhouucrlon.

”g"
on the contrary, is the harmony of the several dimensioris of
the building, that no excess or defect in either of them
leads us to institute acomparison between them. It is only
by observing the time necessary merely to walk round, and
give a cursory glance to the interior of St. Peter’s, that the
stranger can be convinced ofc.its prodigious extent in all
directions. Comparisons are seldom pleasing, and not
always just: it would therefore be on many accounts, unfair
to compare St. Paul’s of London, with St. Peter’s of Rome.
It must, however, be acknowledged, that the first view of
the former has an efl'ect very different from that produced
by the latter; the chief cause of which, is, that the nave
of St. Paul’s is really gloomy, and apparently narrow and
low for its length; so that the spacious and lofty dome, in-
stead of being only accessory, becomes the principal part
of the edifice. '

The proportions and dimensions of rooms must be regu-
lated by their uses. A dining-room and a bed-chamber,
require very different proportions. A gallery for exercise
in bad weather, especially if to be adorned with paintings
and statues, must be of a length in proportion to its height
and breadth; which last must be governed by the necessity
of possessing light from windows on one side only, to ex-

hibit with due advantage the paintings and sculpture ranged J1

along the opposite side.
enough to give a convenient communication between the

several parts of the house, and if it be wider, we are 5;
vi

ofl'ended with the waste of space, which the architect ought
to have turned to some other use.

There is no part of a building in which the taste of a
builder can be better displayed than in the position and
distribution ofstairs. Even in the most spacious buildings,
a step may be'made too broad, so as to require a sort of
effort to move up or down from one to another: In spa-
cious stairs, the steps should vary from 12 to 18 inches in'
breadth, and from 4 to 7 inches in height; the length also
varies from G to 15 feet. Even in small houses, a step
over 7 or 8 inches high would be inconvenient; and the
breadth should never be less than 9 inches nor the length
shorter than three feet.

We have thus given a pretty lengthy account of the theory
of Architecture ; and would now invite the attention of the
student to the subjoined remarks on the practical branch of
the science.

A com etent knowledge of the methods of drawing on
paper, a of working in stone, timber or other materials,
the several kinds or orders of columns, &.c. is absolutely
indispensable to enable the architect to discharge his duty
to his employer, and the artisan to execute his commission.

It has been already mentioned, that an order of architec-
ture consists of three principal parts, viz. the column, its

 

A passage should be just wide

i ?

 

pedestal, and its entablature. Each of these parts is again
subdivided into 3 parts, thus: the pedestal into its base or
lowes‘ti member, the cubical body, called from its figure, the
die or-l'treunk, and the cornice above all. The column into
the base, the shaft and the capital: The entablature into
the architrave, the frieze and the cornice.

To give a minute, full and perfect explanation of the
proportions and manner of constructing these several mem-
bers, with the various ornaments appertaining to each, would
require an extent and a number of engravings totally incom-

patible with the design of the present work. Nor is this
particular explanation deemed essential; for the number of

publications on this head, is already so numerous, that it is
probable the student will find it more difficult to determine
which to follow, than to find a guide. Our observations
will, therefore, be general and limited.

 

to be to determine the best form for a column. The length
‘ and the weight, (that is, the quantity of materials in the
column,) being given, it is of importance to investigate the

form which affords the greatest pogsible strength ; but it is
. somewhat difficult to ascertain the precise nature and di-
l rection of all the forces to be resisted which act upon the
column. If a column were considered only as a beam fixed

in the ground and acted upon by a force pressing trans-

l, . .
'5 versely, or on one Side, it ought to be much tapered, and

reduced almost to a point at the upper end. But it is sel-
l dom that any force of this kind can be so powerful as to do
more than overcome the weight of the column. The only
thing, therefore, to be considered, is the load which presses
on it from above; hence, whether we regard the force as

; tending to bend the column or to crush it, the forms common
ly employed appear sufliciently eligible. Some mathemati-

cians have erroneously recommended the cylinder as the

strongest form to resist bending; and in this opinion, those

who have not considered the subject, are ready to join them ;
because a cylinder standing perpendicularly on one end,
i being of equal thickness, seems also to be of equal strength
i throughout. From the principles of mechanical philosophy,
l however, it can be shown, that the strongest form of an up-
right column approaches, in fact, much more nearly to that
5 of an oblong spheroid or spindle of which the outside is an
arch of an ellipsis. But the consideration of the tlexure ofa
: column is of the less practical importance in architecture,
l that, upon a rough estimate of the properties of the materials
i usually employed, a column of stone, (in order to be capable
i of being bent by any weight which will not crush it,) must
i be at least forty times as high as it is thick ; although a bar
of wood or ofiron may be bent by a superincumbent load,
ifits length exceed about twelve times its thickness. But

‘ as even in the Composite order, the tallest and most delicate

The simplest problem in mechanical architecture, seems '

mime-11m which a. fioetmof a column a, '1

, remaining more slender.

. often-depends as much on the weight as on the cohefi'on of

.sihn everywhereWualmahe force, the form must be

own npped‘parts ton
beisbmnm . menu, .by efier'

emsy toa'gmtn ameigMg that the outline 7
MlMMMnmpon to swell a little (3th outside of a
sflght l'llr'fivjnining thesextremities of tWt, and more
Mediation than below; :th-isjs the usuahlflt‘not the uni-
versal practice. An elliptic arch is perhaps the mat eligi-
ble decline, or a curve liar-med by bendingra rulegfiixed at
the summit of the column. It is very natural in forming a
0911111111,“) copy the working of nature mgforming the trunk
three, which may be considered 1n ageneraal sense, as a
péition of a taperingmone, enclosed by straighglines jO g
tli‘e'top and the 1mm But independent 9f other co

rafihn’s, it is to be remembered, that the great load of the
boughs', branches, and act upon the trunk of the tree
very difi'erently from the msually to be borne by’a col-
umn. A light-bones placed upon a rock 1n the sea, maydg‘e
considered as acolumn erected, not to support a weight, but.
to withsmd thgaction of wind and water. If we calculated
what would be the best form for a wooden pillar, intended
to remain always immersad to a certain depth in water, we
should find that a cone or a pyramid would possess the
greatest possible strength for resisting the motion of water;
and a cone still more acute than this would be equally.
capable of resisting the force of the wind, supposing it to
be less powerful than thatzof the water. The part below
the surface of the ~water might, therefore, be widened, so as
to become a part of a more obtuse cone, the upper part
"And the agitation of the sea
being greatest at its surface, the basis of the pillar might be,
a little contracted, so as to have the outline of the lower part
alittle convex outwards, if the depth of water were con-
siderable. But in the case of a building of stone, the strength,

the’materials ;' and the lateral adhesion, which is materially \
influenced by the weight, constitutes a very important gart
of the strength. » For resisting a force tending to overseathe
buil-ding,the form in which the'weight gives the greatest
strength isr‘that'ofxa conoid; that is, a solid of. which the
ohtline isa‘para‘l‘aola, (a section of a. cone pfiallel to its
sides» condflfiflhWards the axis, and convex outwardly.
And for prohuringf'by ineans of the weight, a lateral adhe-

  
 
 
  
   
  
  
  
 

are; ahhqngh.‘

' i ,1 le,examply1g,tw

 

cylindrical: ' H'éric‘em building such as this plllargis sup-
«- ~45W§Aa~rah v.1

f

 

.‘17

 

. :1; gonvgg ggvvra ds te

 
 
  

«WW3 coges 1mg t

‘3‘er rgmmb $01119 £05111 adopted 16+ a huddlfg
mil-“i9 the‘ygrggnfiqf both gate; ggd wind, we have a
ight- -hou_se erected on the Eddy-
ston grock, s1tuated 311;, the entrance of Plymouth haven
about 14 miles out from the land. The top 9f the rock on
whichthe light-house IS founded IS, it is true, constantly.
above the surface of the water when the sea is calm, but in
rmy weather every part of the buildingaleXposed to the
tion of the waves, the water being often thrown up to a
height far above that of the light-house , so that it may be
considered as egposed to the force of a fluid agting more and
m5: 1‘ ilgy, as it is nearer to the foundation. On this
o - architect, thelate mgenious Mr. Smeaton, chose
"9515, a slope concave outwards, differing 111 form but
I. that which the most accurate theory could have
pointed out. The building, however, is probably a little
weaker nearly as high as the middle ofits height, than 11111183
other part. The light- house 15 wholly composed of cut stone,
and about 16 feet in diameter at the bottom. The height
of the building is 73 feet 6 inches from the rock to the top
of the cornice; thence to the base of the lantern ’7 feet 6
inches, and thence to the summit of the ball on the top, 17
feet 6 inches , making the whole height 98 feet 6 inches.
In diminishing their columns, various rules seem to have

  
 

‘ been» practised by the ancient architects; sometimes the

diminution began at the base, the shaft being formed by
straight lines tending to a junction at a point beyond the
summit of the column, by which measure the shaft became a
frustum or portion ofa very acute cone. In other instances
we iii the column carried "up perfectly cylindric, or of the
same gameter, for one-fourth, or more commonly for one-
third of its height, at which points the diminution begins,
and extends to the capital, Thisjunction, however, of the
lein and the cone, although the angle formed by their
outline be almost imperceptible to the eye, appearing an
imperfection, it was proposed ”'and practised by eminent
architects, to form the outline ol_ the shaft bwcurve running
within the cylinder, but without the cone, from the base to
the capital, in such a way, that the diameter of the shaft was
in every part, less than that base, but greater than
that at the capital The obser‘va ions made Oh this point by
Vitruvius, the, grea1 gher of architeuural mechan1 who
flourished about the ginning of the Christian eréfiavigg

in late times been misunderstog‘d, it is no ungo _ ing,
in different parts of Europe, (to say nothing $111,0wa
Ich con-

country) to megt with columns, the outlines of
s1gtp f a curve pctil-ifilly swelling Wards, so that lit one-
t iii“; of their heig their d1au1§onmderably exceeds
tw at the bags; a practgq soofi‘ e to the eye, as well

b

so

 

t

. and along them, and through the two extreme pomfi’fo’f that.

   
 

18 -
a.
as to reason, as to create wonder hptfii it shou,

adgpted by men who had ever seen, or even 119$ o. the
monuments remaining of ancient architecture. ,'

The different methods of giving to columns the piper
diminution and most elegant sweeping outline, are par
larly described 1n the body of this work. In this place. we;
must content ourselves with giving the following plain 1n-
structions, by which every practical artisan may form his
model and plan, with accuracy sufficient for ordinary occa-
sions.

Take the loxgr and upper diameter of the shaft of a col-
umn to be drawn.
describe a semicircle, and erect a perpendicular to represent
the axis ofa column. Through the extremity of the upper
diameter, draw a line parallel to the axis of‘e column,
cutting the semi- circle at the base; now divide the a5 «o‘fthe
semi-circle made by the intersection of the last 6ioned
line and the extremity of the base line, into any fiumber of

equal parts, the more the better, as into 4, by points marked
1, 2, 3, GLO. In the same way, divide the axis into the same
number of equal parts, through each of which draw indefinite
rightlines, at right angles, to the axis. Through the points
ofthe are at the base, draw lines parallel to the axis, produc-
ing them respectively, until they meet the transverse lines
drawn through on the axis, which willthus become points in
the surface of the column. To assist in drawing these par-
allel perpendiculars, it will be convenient, through the points
in the are at the base, to draw lines to the axis, paraljel to
the diameter, and setting off a distance equal to one ofthese
lines upon the transverse line passing through the first line;
another equal to that of the second, the points of the axis will
be obtained as before. The setting on the transverses
through the first point, a distance equal to the extreme
points; in this manner the points on the opposite sidéi‘ofthe
axis may be obtained. If, now, nails or pegs be fixed in the
several points in the surface of the column thus ascertained,

upper and lower diameters a thin slip of timber, e$1ally
flexible in every part, be applied, it will show the contou1 or
section of the exterior of the column. Th‘eicurve thus form-
ed being carefully transferred, will mark thefedge ofthe rule,
to be used in diminishing the shaft. In this phgcess it is
evident, that the more numerous the points ofthe surface as-
certained, the more accurately will the slip of timber assume
the proper form, and the diminishingi’scale be constructed.

at?»

.5'

Va;

MOULDINGS.

Although the shaft of a column may not admit of any
ornament on its body, ’et at each end, in the base and the
capital, various ornamental pants are introduced,‘ in the due

 

.-

On the centre of the lower diamete‘f-f‘.‘

.35 scotia, because the interior is dark.

 

 

' "ODUGTION.

"
distribution and proportion of which consists their principal

beauty. These are, in general called mouldings, because
they are always of the same shape, as if they all proceeded

fromghe same mould or form.’ Mouldings are, by some

writer divide into Grecian and Roman, with areference
to the remalnsuof the architecture of those nations still 1n
existence. T difference consists in this, that the Romans
generally employed circular arches 1n their ornaments, while
the (31$ng often introduced parts of an ellipsis, or of so

other section of a cone varying from the circle. The princi-
pal parts of mouldings are these,—-1st, the flat part under or
above a mouldingiis a fillet, as resembling a bandage or
turban tied round the column. 2d, When the moulding
projects in the form ofa quadrant, or a smaller portion of a
circle,” , " comes an echinus or Romano ovolo, from its
likeness to a portion of the shell of a sea-hedge-hog, or ofa
3d, But ifthe moulding, reversing that figure,
it is therefore called a ca-

common egg.
be a hollow of the same shape,
vclto. 4th, A small projecting semic ir, ulat moulding is in
general called abead, as particular! ,7 _ ‘ing to the asha-
gcfior neck; but 5th, Ifthe moulding be much larger, with

’et above or below it, it then becomes a torus, as iniitat~
ing a rope or cable applied to the ‘column. tith, I the see-

the a concave semi- -circle, 01" semi- ellipsis, it becomes a
7th,\Vl1en the projec-

 

tion .is not properly a part of a 'circle, but rather of an ellip-
sis,‘,or of some other section of a cone, returning in quickly
at the upper part, it is called a Grecian 01010; and the quick
return in it is by workmen called a quirk. 8th, A contour
or section, partly concave and partly convex, is a cymatz'um,
because it imitates the waves of the sea. 9th, Ifthe con-
cave part-be uppermost, it is a cyma recta; but if the convex
part be uppermost, it is a cymurcversa, or ogce.

VOLUTES.

A volute is a kind of spiral scroll, used in the Ionic and
Composite capitals, of which it makes the principal charac-
teristic and ornament. 11m 11 born
its figme, which bears a neat resemblance to it. \Iost archi-
tects i§uppose that the ancients intended the \olute to repre-
sent the bark ofa tree, laid under the abacus, and 111 istetl thus ".
at each extreme, where it is at liberty : others regard it as a
sort of pillow or bolster, laid between the abacus and eclri-
nus, to prevent the latter from being broken by the weight of
the former, and theentablature over it. Accordingly, they
call it pulvinus. Others, after Vitruvius, contend that it is
designed to represent the curls or tresses of a woman’s hair.
in the

It has been called the 111/11’

The number of volutes 111 the Ionic 01d: 1, is four:
Composite, eight. There are also eight annular volutes 1n
the Corinthian capital, accompamed 111th eight other smaller

1:.

\

~. man; \wwm - .1.

,_ man , and that ol Palladio.

k one-seventh, will be nearly 3 feet 8 inches.

. the enti1e height,) would have give? feet for the pedestal,l

INTRWUC
.a‘h

ones, called helices. 1There are several diversities practised
{iii the vqute. In so the l1st or edge thr‘oughdfi‘t all
the circumvolu1 1011s, isfi'the same line or plane ‘hSHEh
are the antique Ionic volutes‘, and those of Vig _“ ,11
others, the spires, or circumvolutions, fall back; i ers,
they proje‘bt or stand out. Again, in Some, Wh cir-l
cumvolutions are'oval ; others, the cane or one cir-
cumvolution is detach‘v" from the list of .an er, by a
vacuity or aperture. In others, the rind is pa to the
abacus, and springs out from behind the flo ’ of it.
In others, it seems to spring out of the vase from behind the:
ovum, and rises to the abacus, as in most 6f the fine Com-
posite capitals. The volute is a part of greati ortance to
the beauty of fine column. Hence architects h’givented
divers ways of delineating it. The principal that ot
Vitruvius, which was long lost, and at last restored by Gold-

_ NG A COLUMN. ,1-

 

In drawing a column f any particular order, the sefltal
dimensions and membegfigfl measured by a proportional
scale, founded on the diameter of the lower extremifl
the shaft, immediately above the projection of the ,
where the sh becomes rcctilineal. This diameter is dis:
vided into two equal parts, each being the radius-10f the
trans1erse section of the column, and it is termed a 1310(I-
ulc. The whole diameter is subdivided into sixty equal
parts, or minutes, of which, consequently, thirty are con-
tained in a module. These proportional quantities are easi-
ly con1erted into real, when the lower diameter of the col-
umn is gi1en in measure. Thus, if the lower dia’méher of
a Doric column be 5 feet, for 60 inches, the module must be

2-71? feet, or 30 inches, and each minute will be 1 inch;
and the Doric column being in height Sdiameters,the height
of the given column will be 40 feet: hence the cntablature,
being one fourth of the height of the column, its height in
this case will be 10 feet, and so on.

In the Tuscan order, the height of the column is 7 times
the lower diameter, or l4 modules; the entablature 111111.
fourth of the column, and pedestal one fifth of the ‘fieight
of all the parts. Hence, let the whole height of a Tuscan
column, with its pedestal and entablature, be‘fixed at 40
feet, the pedestal, being one fifth of the whole, will be’8
feet high. The remaining 32 feet, divided by 5, will give
nearly 6 feet5 inches for the entablatiire, and" 5 feet 7
inches for the column, of 11 hich the lower ,d1ameter being
Had the order
been Ionic, the whole height, 40 feet, digided as before by
5, (for 1n all the orders, the pedestal 1s always one fifth of

 

 

f
fi .

I

0 _ C .
aini‘ng eetvj divided by 6, 5111.1 have given
5 feet ‘tffihches‘fb‘fi the entablatuie', leavihg 25 feet 8 inches
for the column, 3f Which tlfié ninth part, or 2 feet 11 1-2

1 hesitis the lower diameter. But in general, when the
file height of the column, with its pedestal and entabla—

 

:31 is given, the several portions are thus found 1n all the

ers. For the Tuscan, divide the entire height by 5,
the quotieh’lt 15 the pedestal, and the remaining height divi-
ded by 5, will gi1e the entablature. The remainder, divi-
ded by 7, gives the lower diameter of the column. In the

oric, divide the whole height by 5, for t‘ pedestal; one-
fth of the remainder is the entablature; the rest is the
column, of which the eighth part is the diameter. Ionic——
Deductina om the ehtire height, one fifth for the pedestal,
011*' i the remaining height is the entablature, and one-
nint' the remainder is the diameter of the column.

‘1

CORINTHIAN.

After cutting off the pedestal as before, the entablattft’e
is one-sixth of the remainder,
tenth of the rest is the diameter of the column. For the
Compositegrder, the same proportions are employed. In

laying down any order on paper, draw 'a perdendicular .

right line, to represent the axis of the column. Near the
bottom, draw another l1ne (horizontally) at right angles,
hich, from the perpendicular, set off, on each side,
a d1stance equal to a module, on one half the diameter.
Ona separate line, equal to this diameter, form a'scale
of 60 equal parts, or minutes, by which to measure all
the dimensions, reducing them to minutes from the num-
ber of feet and inches in which they are usually given.
The ebnstruction of such scale is, however, generally un-
necessary, from the variety to be found on Gunter’s and
other scales of wood, brass, 6130., sold by the makers of
at .. ical instruments. On the axis of the column
rod1‘99d below it, set off, procressively downwards from
the bdttom of the column, the lIeights of the several mem-
bers composing the base and pedestal; and through each
of those points draw pencillines at right angles to the axis.
Again, from the same bottom line of the column, set up
along the axis the several heig‘fiof the capital, architrave,
frieze, and cornice, drawing, as before‘lines at right angles
through each point thy ascertained. Then from ,th axis
set off on each horizontal line, the proper projection f all
the several parts in order;, by which rneanflfifle ele-
vation and projection of each will be obtained he ex-
tremities of these horizontal lines aye then connected by the
fillet, the ovolo,cymarecta,&.c.d,1ng to the kind of
ornamental pgpfile belonging to ”particlglar order (if
architecture. ' ,

a.

as in the Ionic; and one- .

ilk

The relativemopgtlongm the vfiouspalg
ders be gaccurqtelywarked $ the pie, pa,-
them liere might be hegarde as a Wer %1.
tIOIIl..I ,3“ W111

A‘spec1men oQ the Composite order, singularly,
beautiful, exists at Rome, in the triumphal arbh,
to cenimemo1ate the awful and predicted
brOught upon the city and temple of Jerusalem b the Roo-
mans, in the year 70, under Titus, during the reign of his
father Vespasian. *

bread, and other spoils, carried away from the temple It
is the ingenious, and not improbable fancy,“ of some emi-
nent writers on architecture, that the general ea of the
Composite order, as it appears in the arch of ‘it 1:, = is
borrowed by some Roman artist in the suite of thII
from the structure of the Temple of Jerusalem its" I
the conquest of the city, but before its final overthrow. Jo-
s,e ths, it is true, says, the columns of thd’t‘emple were Co-
nn‘thian but the differences between that order and the
womposite, might not attract his attention, nor would they

 
 

 

9 1-51,

,* The .remains of this “Triumphal Arch,” stand ve‘i‘y‘fiear the,
South Western limits of the ancient Forum. They are thusiilgptieedj
by Theodore Dwight, Esq. in the Journal of his Tour in ltaly: “ It ‘III

(the Arch) 1s built with solidity, of large blocks of marble, in the form
ofa simple gate- way: but the deep channels worn into its surface
by time, and the immediate historical conne‘étion it has Wit the
overthrow of JeruSalem, have 1m parted to it a moral grandeur which
evéh superior antiquity or magnitude alone could ne .er possess.
Those who have read the scriptures from infancy, and been tanght to

Under the arch are sculptured the: ‘
golden candelabihm of seven branches, the tables of show-fit The feelings

 
 
   
 
  
     
   

have been gun i
triump al “I
h "5,5119 ari'
ture of the tropheal or triumph
ans-an exardple soon afterwar s
by the a 3% adulation of the people, or rather ‘bv
~_,,,c=>;1 vanit of their pridibes—until at last suc‘
lav1shed without discrimination, ceased to
II honorab e, distinction.

  

 
    
   
 

 
   
  
    
 

uties 'of human beings in a social
_ rally spring fi'om that state. To a
(1111 infancy in absolute solitude, such
duce misery, and such duties would
Let, owever, two persons be placed 1n mu-
nication, and that instant feelings of kindness or
dislike, of affection or hatred, will arise. Lét both be hun-
gry, and let an apple or an orange onl _ be procured ; this
I I I Iohimself; for an

.. s,betwe?zth$1,
g and re eChon,

_ Ialert than the other, he
KW avail himself of these advaii ges over his fellow- -being
‘ gorgeéhe dbject of his wishes. By this so appropriation,
susta1ns,r§ta imaginary, but a 91111055. The

state of existenc

    

 
  
  

s ogdisappointment and defeat, intoI3 av ersion, resent-
I ment and revenge, against his spoiler; and should he be fre-
quently thwarted 111‘ a similar way by his companion, noth-

mourn with the saints and prophets of Israel, over the tigeolation of ‘1 ing short of the entire destruction of that companion, will

the city of David and the house of God, can never appro'ac una ected
and regard this monument of heathen triumph. As we entegr the
shelter of the arch, we trod thetehes of the old Sacred Way, whibIh
lay yet undisturbed under ourifeet: probably the samegave‘ment that
Titus passed over in his tritrrnphal march to the Capitol, .- - ‘
brought the spoils of the Holy Temple, and a large“Y :
ish captives On the right are seen, beautifully sq1§lptur:I3I . , y
the seven golden candlesticks, the silver mm ,t‘he‘table .shIoh'va-
bread, and the book of the law, alh borne by priestsmarehing irfi‘rder ,
and on the other side is the emperor, in his nwhal” CIR!
four horses, harnessed abreast, and represented with t I
of the sculptor. 'lhe chariot is accompanied by th6.": _.. .
Senate and Victory, bearing a grown of a branch of Palm ‘ ' Pales-
tine. This record of history, containing more details than I hatre
enumerated, still speaks to the eye and to the mind in language as
clear and impressive as when it was first erected. But the unyielding
spirit of the captives retains to this day all its pride and stern
There ar "9; ews now in Rome, the deseeridants of the prisoners
of Titus; t it is said that not a son of Israel has ever passed this
detested spot, and trodden thi‘pfirt of the Sacred Way, since the day

efihis triumph. Th, 'll delight to trace back their pedigree to
thesis whose hu’milia’a~ have inherited; vyhile, it is said, not a
man in :heing. W esta ish'a clear and findoubtéd claim to the blood
of any ancient Roman family. "

drawn by
'1 hest skill

   
 
 
 

 
  

  
 
  
  

appear su'flicient to secure himself from future prit ations and
erings. This process will takafiflage ,1n the breast of the
weaker being,'eve11v althtggli the stronger s [£1111 not attempt

to assume to himself stillgreater advantages consequence

‘I of his acknowledged superiority. That the latter will, hou-
' never, be governed by sentiments so moderate is extremely . .

improbable. The self-gratulation, arising from conscious-
Lof power, will yield a flower too delicious not to induce

f again experiencing such delight. He will thus
11th

  

natui'
when the (#15 of necessity only, but whenthe suggestions

va‘ '1 or caprice, may furnish opportunity. Hence, his
neighbor will, by degrees, be reduced to absolute
e y, dependent on the other for even the necessary means
I ' _ nce , and ofthis existence itself, should he long con-
tinue refractory, he willéprobably be at last deprived. Thus
may be traced the origin of the worst feelings and actions by
which human befigs are distinguished; and by a similar,
butfiopposite process,,111ay the rise and progress of the best

 
  
  

 

 

sentiments and condufi be explained. In absolute seques-

it

deisposed to exercise his superior faculties,n no?
0

- - Klan-W7 «your, ~

without virtue nuisance 1 ctetyg; 19:21,
no existence. When this S1mple *

cite no surprise, that the fistory of mankind, under even the
"tit ,,

most incurable circumstances, should present lit ~‘

an endless chain 06 deplorable wickedness and ."999 "

 

ty; meriting, forsooth, punishment the most severe and dis-

graceful, because we appropriate to ourselves the»?

 
 

more frequently by secret stratagem than by .opiforce,3
and; even in some measure authorized by thessanctiOn of
necessity. Thou, ,9 .9the other hand‘; born to indepen-
deuce-,9 to wealth,V ' , to supremeedominion, without
1 .o obstruct the gratification of thy
9 ' ‘99, without invitation, without
necessity, without any ‘ ’or reason which a man of
genuine courage and tru , friend to human kind, wold
avow; thou destroyest cities, the abode of industry, 11110 I-
edge and patigotism; thou layest waste peadeahie and“
flourishing countries, where thou hast’i‘eceived 110‘ injlity—
thou causest to flow torrents of the blood of natiOns wisp
never even heard of thy name—and all this thou dost“ at the
head of armed myriads, in open defiance of e mmbn jus-
tice and humanity , therefore art thou exalted to the rank
of a Hero, a conqueror of wor‘ds, a derni-god.” In such a
strain, we are told, was the mighty Alexander of Macedon,

addressed by the chiefdf a petty band of pirates, who fell
into his hands, and whom he conheived himself authorized
to punish, in an exemplary manner, for their outrages on
society; and the Observations are fully warranted by the
undeviating practice of all people and of all times. Hence,

we find in the most ancient records of human society,
applause and reward lavishly bestowed on the successful

  
     
   
 

,x‘.

warrior, whether just or unjust, the cause in which 9 Was 1

Mgaged. But beside this and other marks of the real or
supposed admiration and gratitude of their armies and
people, conquerors were in the habit of constructing 89,111e
more substantial evidence of their victories, on the scenie‘i ”pf
their exploits. 1', ’2
At one time a rude block of stdne, at another a motild
or hillock of stones and earth, raised on the field of battle,
served at once to pomt out the spots where the honors of
the victor were achieved, and where rested from their toils
the human bei6ngs thus cut off, in the performance of the

ii
11
1

1» ”5%

! '“"

   
  
 
   

. 9 "' ,91‘999 .999
still 5111 vs _, ~9 1’

11‘

1

happened about 120 years before England’s era.

 

 

.1‘9

    

 
 

‘1 many examples
_ flages, “1h“Great Britain, ‘

Cornwall, 111 W "s, and irlé , cotland’ These dumb mem‘o-
99ca1fie at rah into disrepute: they recorded, indeed a
' liter and a many but shoceeding generations, when
- 1 11 grew feebigr' Or entirely died away, were left to
conjethu {the cause of their erection; and the riiighty
warrior was thus bereft ‘of half his glory When the R0-
mans began to establish themselves 1n the southern parts of
Gaul, and to extend the boundaries of thejr prevince, now
Provence, Languedoc and Dauphiny, 1n France, they first
constructed durable memorials of the success usually ac-
companying the exertions of united and well drsc1pl1ned
bands,
titu‘ , of irregular ungovernable barbarians. Two Ro-
man ge érals, Domitius zEnobarbus and Fabius Maximus,
erected on the banks of the Rhone, sazoce tru-res, towers

 

built of stone, supporting trophies, consisting of arms of- .

fensive and defensive, standards, instruments of martial
music, and other pledges of victory, taken from the ancient
Gauls. This conduct on the part oftheir commanders was
highly r'eproved at Rome ;-for until then the Romans had
never allowed themselves, even after their most signal suc-
{bess ii'n war, to erect, in the midst of a conquered people,
any monument whatever, by which they should be remind-
ed of their subjection, and consequently be excited to en-
deaVOr to regain their former independence. “Never be-

fore this,” says the historian, “ did the Roman people up-
braid any conquered nation with their own defeat.” This
Some

time afterwards, Pompey constructed,'on the summit of the
Pyreiiees, near their eastern extremity, a permanent build-
ing, as a memorial of his successes, slight enough, indeed,
over the partial but patriotic attempt of the Spaniards to
_;;thr0w,," the Romish yoke. This action was severely rep-
9 The same magnanimous sentiment ac-
wit the free states of Greece only, but even the des-
potic and military kingdomeracedon. f‘ States and na-
tionsg” said thOSe ancients, “like individuals and families,
will differ upon particular points, where their interests, real
or supposed, are coan'ed. ”These differences will lead
to quarrels, and even to the most hostile proceedings and
open warfare. It rs not unnatural that, in these contests
in arms, the victors should endeavor to confirm the courage
at'fd‘ ardor cf their own people, and to depress9 the spirit of
their adversaries, by some public testimony of th superi-
ority. For such a purpose, a few’helmets, and breast-plates,
and shields, andts'fiords, taken from 1119s vanquished and
supported againsta spear, or suspendedt on a tree on the
scene‘of victory, will be fully sufficient :-—'let not, however,

  
 

with

although far from numerous, against countless mul— _

a?

  

sions of men Will. (1061 their pews of mterest w
and the par-ties WhiCh tosday meet with deadlthn‘cpr'
field, will be found in a short time united 111' .one co ,
cause, and fighting, as friends and brothers, against an all

of one of the parties On a former occasion, but now become“ "

a common foe. It 1s, besides, to be consrderetjw'
cess in war is not always attached to one side: no nation
was ever always victorious, nor always discomfited. Let us
never, therefore, by permanent records of our temporary su-
periority, labor to cherish aha foment among our neighbors,
that spirit of hostility which, at no distant day, it may be
equally our desire and our interest entirely to e11tinguish
Injuries men often will and do forgive: insults, perhaps,
never.’ Such were the wise and magnanimous senpments
and principles of the Greeks and Romans, the two most en-
lightened nations of antiquity, in their best days. In the
degenerate days of Titus and Vespasian, however, when
'Rome reigned paramount over the greater portion of the

civilized world, the feeling of national importanceand in-,

iidependence, the source and support of every manly, gene-
rous and patriotic principle, was next to extinct in” the na-
tions of Europe. ,
was speedily followed; and not only Rome itself, butnum-
bers of the principal cities over the empire, were adorned
with edifices, triumphal, trophial, and commemoratory,
many of which still remain, exhibiting admirable specimens

of architecture and sculpture ; and by the inscriptions and

representations with which they are charged, serving to il-
lustrate and establish the dates of many important historical
facts.
and, as such, never (let weak, and consequently narrow-
minded men, say what they n1ay,) can be inexpedient, or out
of season. Human nature is'at this day what it was twenty

centuries ago.

inte1ested adulation on the other, by which later periods
have often been characterized, suggest the most commend-
able models for modern imitation. 2’

But to 1eturn to the arch of Titus—1t may jus 11,)
that the unfortunate branches of the Hebrew nation estab-
lished' in Rome, made an arrangement, many years ago,
with the government, agreeably to which, for the payment
ofa certain sum of money, they were permitted to open a
narrow passage by the side of that arch, which, although
not now connected with the inhabited part of the town, is
situated 1n the heart ofthe old city, on a very public thor-
oughlfare, that their minds might not be tortured unnecessa-
rily'li'y the display of the emblems of the final destruction

  

11'" go, -'

The example set in the case of. Titus,

Wisdom, justice, and moderation are immutable—'

Let, then, the prudence and humanity, by.
which states were then governed, and not the overbearmm
presumption and insolence on the one hand, and the abject,

 

 

 
 
        
 
 
 

perhaps, suggest certain s"bdr‘iSidera-
1 ,1'1profitable. ..
With respeE’tfio the kind and degree of ornaments to be
introduced into acolumn and its appendages, it is a maxim
founded 1n our natural sentiment of what is decorous and,
beautiful that if we are in doubt concerning the proper me?
dium, We should aljgays stop short of the proposed point,

and be careful ne', Vito go beyond it. The pupil of an an-
cient painter in Greece produced a Venus loaded with jew-
els. fif'Uhable to make the goddess beautiful,” said his

.....

‘ :e'isubject arid: inay,"'

410% not entire, 1 -. ,1,

 

 

 

making‘her'rich and fine.” The dignified sobriety and grav-
ity becoming an edifice, appropriated to religious purposes,
or to the senatorial and legislative assemblies of a great and
enlightened people, the massive solidity? and strength inhe-

 

rent in our idea of a fortress, the Jig”? "airy, exhilarating
notion attached to the name of a theatre, or other places of
amusement; all these qualifications of the edifices‘to be
constructed, will, to an architect of genius, suggest the spe-
cies and the measure ofthe ornament suitableb to each. A
slender, delicate, and highly enriched Corinthian portico to
Wettgate prison, could not be more incongruous, nor indi-
cate a greater want of taste in the builder, than a massive,
heavy, clumsy Doric (if Doric it be ,) range of pillars, and
their pediments corresponding : apparently forbidding, but
doubtless, meaning to invite the passing stranger to enter
the theatre of Covent Gardens. When we examine the
monuments remaining from antiquity, we find that the cy-
ma, the cavetto, or other ornam‘enthormed by cutting into
the substance of the work, is employed as a finishing only,
and never, where strength is required, 111211 the ovolo and
talon are employed to support the essential parts of the en-
tablature, such as the modillions, dentiles, and corona ,
that the principal use of the torus and astragal is to secure

and strengthen the extremities of the columns; being also

.employed for the same purpose in pedestals, carved so as to

resemble a gope or cable, agreeably to the original signifi-
cation ofthmterm torus; that the scotia serves merely tow
separate the members of the base, as does also the fillet,
not only in the base, but in profiles of all kinds. By the
term profile, is heie meant the assemblage of parts, mouldn
ings, and ornaments of a cornice, &c. in which the eleva-
tion. and projection of each member are exhibited. The
most perfect profiles are those consisting of the fewest
mouldings, adapted to the order of the Column, so disposed
that the right lined and the curied members succeed one

another alternately. In every profile one member should

 

the predominant, to which all1 others must appear subb‘filiq
mate; thus, in ascermcfithet commit 1s the~eh1ef meter?
the cyma of the oilvetto covers ail, '
while the modifiions, dentils; ovole', and talon, seas
port it. In the arrangemenfof the exterior of at ,.
whatever does not tend to characterize its destinitng how:
ever beautiful in itself, 1a.:always misplaced Greatnessiof
character in an edifice, is principally produced Ilitrgeiiess
and simplicity of parts; such parts not only hEir ‘own
magnitude, by the great ma es of light and shade they ex-
h1b1t whetttefully illuminated, excite athe. idea of grandeur
An object may be great, and not be grand'——but grandeur
and smallness of parts are incompatible:- . ’
' extensive edifices 1n Europe, is the king of ,
at the Escurial, not far from Madrid. It were vast ex-
‘tenta‘fdf ground, enclosing a number of cOurts, portions, chap-s
'el§,""&;c. in its bosom. Having, however, beemconstructe‘d
as a monastery, rather than as a palace; (for the royal apart~
:ments are confined a very small portion of the structure ,)
the building 15 dim into various floors, and consequentlyb
the exterior walls are pierced with various ranges of com7
paratively small wmdovisgghdapted to the cells and halls of

    
   

  

monks
grandeur and magnificence raised in the mind of tfie spec

tater, while approaching it from 5‘ distance, and‘ob‘serviiig
its prodigious dimensions, entirelfivaii’l'shes avidity; galleria, on,
a closer view, the whole 1s dischvered to be only an?" assem-
blage of' small diminutive parts and members, suchfis might
be suitably introduced into a manufactory, a bhrraclfj a hos-
pital, or a convent. Many objections have beeii made to,‘
Blenheim palace, in Oxfordshire, England, as clumsy, pon-
derous, inelegant, and} by no means corresponding to the
customary notiOn ofa country residence That magnificent
edifice was 't‘ted at the expense of the nation, to com.
memora‘te 1115‘ signal victory obtained 1n 1704, near Blen-,,

heim, a village on the north bank of the Danube, by the,
allied army‘;‘under the Duke of Marlborough; That distin-
guished and modest commander stands next to Julius Cae-
sar, unrivalled in history for perfect coolness and possesstou
of himself in action; who, so far from ever expdstilgh jhj’fielf
to the possibility of being surprised, whatever might have

been the talents of his opponent, never rested _until he was
so close upon the enemy, as, in many cases, to dissiDVer
their measures, and prevent their forming any project against
himself, for the greater part of the campaign. Like Grader

also, in person a hero, he was sci'upulously tender of the

lives of his men” and to spare therri, would often forego the

opportunity ofa‘ brilliargt, but sangu’iiiary and useless victory,

for the more slow; but more secure, and difficult advantages

 

 

   

M5ported by human figures.

 

to be obtained by a skilful occupatiofiof ground. On a due

t
1, ‘i

‘r r '
. I:
r. 9
. A
vs :.

. sh,
1» Ed; , i

6% .dhstmattenrofiBlenheim it .Willbe man-

 
  

 

lfest thatiiii 7 ,
throwing.- the. 1

’retiring glassesofthtnldmg, to1 produce broad and powerful

e§eefsidfi light andf- shade, —and by that contrivance to fill

 

nwf the whole, far beyond what their real magnitude,
censideréd as it is, could be expected to excite. ~

Besides regular columns and pilasters, we sometimes
meet, in ancient and modern architecture, entablatures, sup-
These are termed Caryatides,
from the following circumstance: Five hundred. years be-
fore our era, Xerxes, the powerful menarch of Persia, led a
m5dlg1ous army and fleet against the free and independent
republics of Greece. Successful at first, more by treachery
than figmlor, he was at last discomfited at every point, and
compelled to return in disgrace and ruin to his own coun-
try. Carya, atown of'Peloponnessus, had basely formed a
league with the invader ; and upon his flight it was beseiged
by the other states, levelled to the ground, the svmale in-

habitants put to the sword, and the unhappy, perhaps inno—i‘

cgnt females, reduced to slavery of the severest kind. To

peopia of Carya, in Athens, and in many other parts of
Greece buildings were erected, in which were introduced,
in the place of columns and pilasters, figures ofCaryan wo-
men, supporting the load of a cornice and entablature. In
general, these figures are attached, like pilasters, to the
wall, but 1n Athens they are also found detached, and fier-
forming the duty of coltimns. Male figures are also employ-
ed to thmsame way in some ancientbuildings in Greece

The consequence of all this is, that the idea of gperpetuate to future ages the infamy and punishment of the

and-511 Rome , in Greece they are evidently intended to rep-

resent Persian prisoners taken from Xerxes. F rom this ac-
count it is @vident that human figures, in the place of col-
urn or, pilasters, ought, if at all, to be introduced on very
gparti roccasions indeed. They nevertheless are often
seen ingthe palaces of princes, and even in private dwell-
lugs»; Our churches thems‘elvés, in which all adventitious
distinctions among mankind ought, if anywhere, to disap-
pear, are not free’ fi’om this absurdity. These poor females,
humiliated, borne dots; with a heavy load are meant, we
are to understgpd, forwthe muses and the graces, the virtues
and the angels themselves. Could the vices which corrupt,
and the ifpries which torment the human race, he thus
chained down, and so rendered 1n some sort subservient to
our use, such an application of Persians and Qaryatides
might easily be reconciled to reggsn.

Net only entire human figures, but simple busts, are
also employed Occasionally, to support the entablatures of
arguments, chimney-pieces, 6w.

gt

v

21;? ‘

The headis placed on A

F?

24.

a stand, smaller below than above; and the wholeiiis alled
a term, from terminus, a boundary, the Roman fitt’hi :of the "
land-marks, or march-stones, erected on fields and posses-V ’ y ,
sions, to point out the boundaries between the landsof di” 3, and “he oarv'ture of 111a“ chain is greatest in the middle

, the chain forms What 1s called catenarian curve, from cate-

ferent proprietors.

industry and commerce, being entrusted to Mercury, ,by the
Romans as well as the Greeks, the top of the stone or pest
was carved 1n resemblance of hislhead , so that to destroy,
or remove, or deface such monuments, was regarded, not

only as gross injustice to men“: but asia voluntary and‘i'm--

pious offence against the powers above.
It now remains to 'give a few observations on the con-_
' structions of Bridges, one of the most important and difli¥
cult applications of architectural skill. . I
{511'

CONSTRUCTION OF BRIDGES.

By a bridge we mean a structure of stone, brick, timber,
. or iron, erected over a river, a canal, a valley, or other de-
pression in the ground ; and supported on piers and ar-
ches, or on post, for opening a communication for passen-
gers, cattle and cariages, across from the one side to the other-

The perfection of a bridge consists in its having a good
foundation, that it may be durable; of an easy ascent and
descent, that it may be convenient; and of a just propor-
tion in its several parts, that it may be beautiful. Bridges
shgnld always be placed at right angles to the course of the
river, doc. and the piers should never be thicker than is
just necessary to support the structure against the force of
the current

The simplest theory of the arch, supporting itself in
equilibrio, (that is, in such a state that thettendency of
every part to fall down or give way is perfectly equal,) is
that of Dr. Hooke, the greatest of all philosophical mechaé
nics, who flourished in the latter part of the seventeenth
century. The arch when it has only its own weight to
bear may be considered as the reverse of a chain suspended
fieely at each end; for the chain hangs 1n such a form that
the weight 1n eaclilink 15 held 1n equilibrio, by the result of
the two forces acting at its extremities. Two forces or ten-
sions are produced, the one by the weight of the portion Of
the chain below any particular link, the other by the same
weight, increased by that of the link, both of them acting
originally in a vertical direction. Now, supposing the
chain inverted so as to constitute an arch of the same form
and weight, the relative Situation of all the lines, indica-
ting the direction of the forces, will remain the same, the
throes acting only in contrary directions; so that they are
com‘pbunded in a similar manner, and balance each other

  
 

The protecting charge of these land-1‘
marks, as of everything else connected With the affairs of 4'

 

 

outline to appear horizontal.

 

 

 

   

on the same cond1trons but with this difference, that the

, equilibrium d.) the chain is stable, and of the arch 1s totter-

  

. ._ Whey”, ,h’e links are supposed to be infinitely smali,

na, archarn In common cases, this form of an a’i'éh
differs but little from a circular arch of about 120 degrees,
or dii‘eithird of a whole circle, rising from the abutments,
with an rncl1nat101‘i 3f 30 degrees to the perpendcular; the
arch, however, becomes more curved at some distance
below the summit, 11d then again less curved. The sup-
position, however, of an arch resisting a weight, acting

, only 1n :1 vertical direétion, 1s by no means perfectly applica-

ble to (times usually occurring in practice. The pressure
of loose stones and earth, moistened as they generally must
be by rain, is exerted very nearly in the same manner as
the pressure of fluits, which act equally in all directions;

'and even if the stones and earth were united in a solid

mass, they would constitute a sort of Wedge, and produce a
pressure of a similar nature.

A bridge must also be so calculated as to support, itself
without being in danger of falling by the defect of the la-
teral adhesion of its parts. In order that it may, in this
respect, be of equal strength throughout, the depth at each

.point must be proportional to the weight of the parts

beyond it. This property belongs to the logarithmic

'curvealone, the length being made to correspond with the

logarithm of thedepth. But in the construction of bridges
it is necessary to inquire what is the best formfor support-
ing any weight'which may occasionally be placed on the
bridge; in particular, on its weakest part, which is ususally
the middle of the arch. Supposing the depth at the summit
of the arch and at the abutments‘ to be given, it may be
considerably reduced in the intermediate parts, without im-
pairing the strength; and whether the road along the
bridge be horizontal or a little inclined, it is agreed that an
elliptic arch, not differing much from a circular, is the best
calculated for complying, as much as possible, with all ne-
cessary conditions.

The tier of bricks cut obliquely, which is placed over
a door or window, is a real arch, but so flat as to allow the v
Little dependence however
can be placed on so flat an arch, since it produces a lateral
thrust that might easily overpower the resistance of a side
wall. For the horizontal force required to support each
end of an arch, is always equal to the weight of a quantity
of, the materials supported by its summit, supposed to be
continued of their actual depth, to the length of the radius
of the circle, of which the summit of the arch is a portion.
This simple calculatiOn will enable an architect to avoid
such accidents as but too often happen to bridges, for want

    
 
 
 
 
 

attended ' '7 gr. 1101,1111 thm
:s hradge ipiliqndon, 01;, whether the;

 
  
  

; orre‘spobmiing”
$59, comparatively but ligle
it was Mpunded in 173 , 111151 he former
60. Erie new Strand bridge is built
ite, the least' ' ct th cay of alL stone, for e er-
{,mployed 1n construe the grand
nal of Woolwich {:3 land,

fDundee, in Scotlan,anda:1,§‘
mu better in such a situa I, where
i atei‘y, with Show intervals, wet and dry,wan any

  
   
    

   
     

, r OW‘g:
if. mearema '

          

  
  

are and apti‘éoC pressfi

, 1i‘ar errors, unh‘ess; some d

 
 
   
  
  
 

 
 
   

_ ‘ irahle th1t the plersgof bridge " -. '~
,, able, not 0% to support the, ' h? , alf -
fijoin ng arch, but always to sustgi the lde thug”; fdi‘mélty m‘ loyed. It has been likewise used in some of
" e 111 th< m, shqu. d thcéither g 11%, war“ ‘The 1.531113 héfi'éreat‘ "fig afldflpghsfgm L6ndon, and 1n constructing
ition is ne 1 the 833%“ w 05? any kind i the piers toI Isupport Ith'e Iir9n bridge over the Tharnes, at
’ yed 1n supp arched'fi. 11$ roof, lieqfiI V‘au‘ihall , 7 V 2i ~ '
;' fifty of the (#ernaigbuttresses which strengthen .and I "'I‘ I“ Bugldmg a bridge the mOSt es 0mm] part of the en-
adme Gothic Isa-11mm, ere are tWQ' ' herprioseI‘I: to secure 3 good foundation. The most simple
pié'r or Iafiall m1y fig§ ft flayethe’r . I 1‘ doing this, and carrying up the piers to the
caused to slide away horizontally. 1 F‘lieigIht ofthe water, is to turn the river out of its
0.“ adhesion which resists the side Q0 ' , .. . ,, . above the position of the bridge, into a new chan-
than on” third of the pr.e- sure, it. I' ' ’ I ’nel. ened fqr it, near the place where it makes an el
whole thrust of the amp is so 019 - “2‘01. to 41’ ‘ , . or'héid; or by raising an enclosure round the spot, where
sufficient vertical pressure for 5,32%,ng gmbil fie pier is to height, to keep out the water, by driving a
respect and it isppiy 99085?“ jnake I ' , uble row of st es mto theb d of the riicr, vIer earf
enough to resist the forge WW .1: - , It b 1 andther, With their topiabi1ve§t$ surface OI be water.

7'“ a“;
not however Ithe weight ththfi What? but “1 tof 1111.11" Hurdles are then put within this ouble row 1) akes, the
hat lgSiStS. ever fi'or‘t t1” SId‘B’iSf row which is 11e'xt the intended pier is closed

. gier mayfltand the sum % 'ahd theIa hollow between the 1011s filled with rushes
, . , ,

. " . d down that water will not ass
i'th o ei 1, 1 a r e ual. to hal ahd mud losely rpmme p
:he thick; e pi 1- _ t‘ If 5:21:15? Q qiliivalent to‘; 11110ngth 3* mud, sasnd, stones, &c., within this enclo-
the horizont l‘ 7“ tggdtfflggn the whole hei ht of the sur 5:! "V out “m" asolid foundatm" Iappears: when
' K ’ ' g g " "1 datio cari‘hot be toned, one of wooden piles,
pier The pier may also be considered simply as forming i
’ " ~ eir Io er ends 1611111111,,“ ed, to mnt‘rottm
a continuation of Ighe arch; and the stability will be pre- 5 2' ~ p
served as i ng as the curve, indicating the dlrthIOI . I-- 5 ven ‘9“; the bog-0,111,, ”’éi er as cslose together as
pressure remains within its substance, I . ,. ‘IvPossfile . Shbegj _ 1 “511%; architects ha1e formed a
of the piers must depend on the Size "apt

I I I fbole length of the bridge, and
arch, as,also on to ce of th'eféurrent to be ' osengsgI In . «1, rs. In ,doing this, first. one part
tide 1111915, the c ent acts twi day 111 contrary"

,' and then another, ,Iu until the whole
tions, rising considerably above the surface ofthe rive‘

, Wherryiver 15 but of? deflate depth,
and returning to that level. The finessure on the pie‘xsf‘ ‘ 2 , d as maygserve for a na foundation,
therefore veggunequal and fr .

the stonefimttsg he thus id a con -I

      
     
  
  

   

     
 
  

  
  
   
       
     
    
  
 
    
 

     

  
 
   
  
 
    
 
  

  
    
 

        
 
  

overset it, and lit 035:! ,

   

 

    
    
   
 

 
 
   

 

       
  
 
  

   
  
 

alt. alteration - between
i .of the materials, m:- “:1
11Ge. Some persons '
s IQCstonh rd he action of water

7 a "'1

   
   

I “310%, ,cramped together
" hyIstrpn terras mortar; t

hiding-fies ‘ ecifiofiiiy heqaiier tbdmtihi:

cred gently i6 13th 11mm to the bottom 1&1 ere
4 it,

cgmes a matter. 9f; eiéreatest i111
age pf opinion they

fl

”'2‘,

A.

it

.31., ‘

26 i 6: ' . 1
,1 If it be:

 
  

the pier 15%) stand, erred in eonstr , f .
acrossfia brain _ ,1ver, or aicaiiai, where «thefl co;
water may be turned ofl', either by a wood; :3," ‘
obliquely across the river, or by a c1annel (3.11
then a dam must be formed entngely across th "- ,
‘3' piles, at a convenient distance above the6 plea .
tended bridge. The ground is then dug out 11 ,. , _
solid foundation presents 1tself,,and all the piers ma ‘
founded and raised up to the usual iglit of the river, at;
the same time , after whic' the; riv permitted to 1'er
to its original channel. hen the ,stream is by far too

   
   

  

considerable to be turned aside coffer dams are formed,

 

charred at the lower end, when the bed 18 easily penetrable

or shed for several .feet with iron, where it isahard. The”.

piles are forced into the ground by repeated bloWs from the
pile engine; the piles are covered with boarding, without
and within, so as to be tolerably water tight,- and the'wate'r
which does make its way through the walls, or which springs
out ofthe enclosed bed, is drawn off by pumps and hand"
labor, or, if the undertaking be considerable, by! means of a9
steam engine. ~ 1 .
cBesides bridges, other bodies of masonry are also regui— ‘
site, ifnot completely to transverse, at least to advan e a
considerable way into the water , such are the moles and.

preys carried out from the land intq,the sea, from opposite?

points of the shore, and mutuarlyi bending round towards
each other at their extreme points, where they 19%? an in-
terval sufficient for the pas ssge of ships out or in. In 0
seas, 11 here we have the advantage of the retreat of the 52%
twice a day, at low water such structures 0 fie founded
and carried up in general without particular drfl'iculty
the Mediterranean, however, where the rise and fail ofi’the
tide is either very un11npo1tant or wliblly ihisensible, as a on'g
the coasts of Spain, F rance, Italy, See. the ’constructlon of
a mole becomes an enterprise of vast labor, dlfliculty and
expense. .4 , _, yw

The 11 01k begins at the shore, by throwing

  

 

blocks of rock or stone, the larger the more usefu. it These i

find their place 111, the bottom, and by accumulating bibe
upon blocli' eye: them, they afilast rise above theisurfacefef
the water. The work being so far advanced, advantage is
taken of the blocks above water, to form a road, by which
other blocks are carried (gut and rolled into the sea, beyond
those already placed; and these again in their turn serve,
when they come to the Surface, to convey another succession
1 of bhiipks, until the foundation 0! the mole be carried out to
the intended extent. When we take into consideration the
inequalities of the bottom of the sea, where not covered

9““ 71”

at

 

 
      
    
  

., a.

, ,gby themmds , ,thaté .most rdeks 31131 stones
V” tat; their weight, when immersetmn salt
n’Qare finéequently more easrly moved about'fim
{to filaeelty motion of the waters; also the great
an breadt .i'iiwhich rude blocks of stone or rock will
,f ., _ they find a bed, either in the bottom =
10f the sea or on ,e» another: when all these things are
} considered, the structure of93:eles«1and piers, in such seas,

  
 

11 must ap’fiear to be 11 enterprise of extreme difficulty and

expenby. In such ‘seas, however, no other mode of con-

  

foundgtiorh IS supposed to be sufficiently consolidated, and

is raised above {the surface of the ,, ter, the mole rs com-
pleted by dig/structure of hewn stonéifounded in the inter-
sticesrrof the sunk blocks, adapted to the purposes of com-
mercial and maratime affairs. ’ Of this construction are the

’ old and new models of Gibraltar, of Alieant, Tarragona and

Barcelona, in Spain; of Sette arid Toulon, in France; of
Genoa, Le rn, inita Vecehia, Naples, and Anchona, in
Italy, &c The famous. antique mole at Pozzugli, in the
bay of Naples, is constructed with piers and arches founded
1171.11 the seaZ andgig from its appearance called Caligula’s
bridge, havihg beep, as is supposed, erected by that im-
perial monster. On the same principles with the moles just
deserrbed rseconstructed What is called the breakwater, in
flieentt'ance of Plymouth haven; in England; in the view of
' abating tahe vroieiice'of the; waves and currents which have,
on many occasions, proved most prejudicial to the fleets

1-,resorting‘t01that otherwrse admirable station for shipping of

every sort. In the report laid before the British Parliament,
‘eoncerning this prgrligious enterprise, which was carried on
at" the public expense, the engineers, Messrs. Rennie and
Wliitby, (the former the engineer for the Strand bridge in
London,) state that there are, properly speaking, three en-
trances into Plymouth Sound or Haten, viz. one on the
west side of the. bay, bounded by along cluster of small
mcks, tilled Scott’s ground, and the depth is only from 3 to

. 4 fithorris, (from 18 to 24 feet) at low water , and on the ,

east by the Knap and Panther, on which rs about the same
depth of water This channel rs about 500 fatlronrs wide,
andxthe general depth rs from o 1-2 to 6 tathoms at low
Water. The middle channel rs bounded by the Kuap and
Panther on the west, and by the Tinker and Shovel on the
east, ' about 300 fathoms wide, and the general depth from
661-2 to 8 fathoms at low water.

From this description it appears that a large part of the
middle of Plymouth, Sound is shut up by the Shovel, and
St. Carlos’ rocks; that is, as a channel for large'ships. Of
course, works erected on those rocks would be no obstruc-

 

iv y 1 ' ' 4.

 
  

Wdfifl‘a p’ai’ssdge ”16‘5in '
deter were Mtflfitfid "an I .
westward, so 63"! . '
sand the Pan 3 and also W‘de or nar
:bdtlween- Sttrfla’rlos' 101mm Mm point, ti: '
then confined to a narrdlw sfié‘rthé eluéi '. "theiflef engweers, a double
rent M be increased, and cenSeq' " . . , 1’3. dubhlniasshflif stoheWork leaving an intei'val
. whereitpassedu dissented . ' 1 ""II I apiefior H 55511 eachmo Imasses aubt'ive, equal to theig diameter ,
breaknniter shouldme can , " in the Scum; airing ig‘i” .Idhig the mats - ann'e ir3w opposite to, and coverin the
eastern end about 69 fith'I ‘ ' ast from St Eaflos‘sr als between, .taaasse’s' ‘the other row. By t (star-
mid its weiihrn end abdu 1‘ athiims Weed-item ..' ement, while : ‘ ’6 16% 1h conjunctiom'formed a cum-
«firmingin the whole a 1511gth of Wtho ”f thili teI bfitacle‘“9 he direct course df the wavgsifgthe tide
pier 5001fathoms 1n the middle should :be'atra' 1‘. ' 5H would 1.1111116111121110 pass freely‘ between the
at eachsend inclined anon angle of‘ 1% 11111111,», fibflgo’ht t’he' Wh6l5 extent of the akwater;
fiondxi'rthis breakwatfi, another should. xteuil'efi frog f M301 5113‘ eveiiiifihall vessels might, in oderate
Andéin point on thevsho‘fi, stewards theilbrme , of about ass through the intervals without danger. Not-
400 fathoms in length, ham: also a part'incPhIiedint an Irwfilista’ndiw they? dbfections and proposals, 'the sgdheme of
equal angle. These inclin parts were torepehthe, anes I ‘ldessrs imRenriie and Whitby, all circumstances duly bal-
Wch a manner £5) ern‘t them firmingaviole ' glitide‘d, was adopted by government, and ordered to be car-
through the opening betwe'erréthe piers,1 and to sheiteqfifimed hito effect. On’ a plan much of the kind proposed
Saund within, astifiibrmigfl'ty sail oflingfl' le ships- J ‘ifi Mr. Benham fias’ begun, in France before the revolu-
ride at Wot“ 1n safh’tfiin‘éitll'windi and went! '1» and w . : ect for forming an artificial roadstead, or place
ample room to work their way Out to set, by onesov' other 0 "a. 'dfitor’agi‘for ships of war, in front of Cherbourg, on the
the channels, asthei'xlposition'and thesteflfiflfii 'gmorii'coafi‘ of Normandy. This place, situated in the
render most conve’nien; 31,1 ‘ bdttoin of a'lide open bay, on a part of the coast project-
These great wmhs were to figWstru'_," Min considerably into the British Channel, lies only about
blocks of stone thrdwn at ram ' s - «,1. . 1311 miles south lion‘n the Isle of Wight, and therefgre ofi'ers
of the intended breglrménvo ‘ ' 0st advantageous s ioh f atching fld’imotronfiof
from a ton and athaif to‘tt 1’ a W 'Brfirsh fi'ébtsl’, moving and the chi!” ' l, or pro-
sist the swell of the Sound, in; 'l f 91!. Agate the ceedtnggfihbr 'into the great place of rendezvous at Ports-

water is 5 fathoms deep, the baserof% diam 731161111» »%outli tliead. Clie'i‘btrurg pessesses no natural qual.

such ”S,11 ncreased action
- 6 parts l5l'" ,as could 'dot
”die ’61“ I593 injuring ,according to
(Ether local circumstances. M.r

*in" the sea, 'H'dt In a line of di-
41

  

  
 

   
  
  
 
  
 
   
      
  
 

   
 

     
        
     
   

  
 
     
 
    
   
  
   
  
  
  
   
 
 
 
  
 
  
 
    

  

  

    
  

   
 
  
  
 
  

not be less than seven times ”at; depth,- w 705‘ y'fl'rds in
' breadth, and 10 yards broad fiat 'h'ei‘ghtmm fewgbdfe the". mea' mall rire falling into the Sea. Basids have
level at low vigor er lordiuary spring tides.» The slope of fiema ,‘and lotiks constructed 1n lbrmer timeh, by
this foundatibn on' the outer side next to’ the. sea, Ishoiild be gme film!“ fnfites and smaller v’essels 600“ be con-
in the proportion of 3 yards horizontal ,‘fc’r use yard perpens Ifeme y‘fifdtectfid; age With Ipncéfimon "1"“th 1 and at
di'euiar; but the slope on the inside next the sound, would ’a vet; moderate exp ' waqalot enough°lIbr an engi-
require an inclination of only half that quantity, 61' 1' user in' FgInce t0 glVehpr genius grid Skill 111 his
yafil horizontal for one yard perpgudjcmflyI TfiIIII‘IfI ." biofessmn 1m ptqdiff lug. til I. I it method of accomplishing
l13.11am, described, (and now completed) various 1"sz -. any desifid objegi’ ' merit consisted in imenting
Werearnfide; part'I ‘ fly by Mr: Bentham who had 5:55:91; to acmlis Object in the most ccondlu'ie'dl as
ted Wiworksii " "heernes5, at We cunflux of the Th :1 i -: If?! lflgefllauwnner Byagiiing Itgis turn
and therfledway, somewhat of- the same nature, but v, _, . " , #Q works 0 e highest 1wce to the
cumstaheewincomparably more easy to manage, than 111 , Stateiauw‘ujmdlvidual's we're carried on, 171 it country,
open StoflhWtrance at Plymouth Sound. He bbser'vhi {01: 81'lFifi Which Mine other co’untnes, “7001111)“. regarded
that such‘ Wins thatlfiproposed by Messrs. Rennie and 1 - ' “all? 19,4119 P31” Tim.” ml Perseus char ed
1 Whitby, even supposing suflicient fti‘ecaution to have been Vltlfllia exzé’ilt'ihn orpubhc fit even those we call civil
taken to premévsngifirjuryito the harbor during' 115 execu- 1 1%?“ emploied 1n ind condfi’udhon chharborsfi ,bridges,
tied, dad that the‘fivflflewere coihpldféd in its greatest perJI" , {95%. 519:1 '9! 1111111th “89% egularly bredngnd
feetion, would, nevertheless ,by opposing throughout its ex; "3 WED} lmeral" t?g,LIénjdy1Ig ridk and emolh-
' tent a complete interruption to the water, occasion such ed- meu‘t sufficient {015155811 station infiociety A“ insiance 0f

4% 1 5’ !’=‘* Ii

‘1 . ' 1.
‘ v of x.
1 , ' 1
.

      
   
   
   
  
 

 

 

   
   

 

 
 

atrons lI'orI a: shipping tation, "being merely a tide harbor- .

fl

. “ti

I28

3&5} ,%t

'9'?" % 1,1,3; 'i
a superior officer of the retro ,6 _
uspected accfpsed tried, and copyieted of ,1. 1.
worlgsiwhlch he well knew to be uniig ces's '
prejudlclal that he might have an opp‘ortumty'g
himself during their execution; or of conmvm
say 1nvent1ng, endrmou'd" abuses add“ extrgyagafi?
ture,’ in the management of the publre’ monifi's'x 1 ' 1 __(
he might be suffered, by the plunderers un 1 him, quie "1

that a 121d, 4

‘ a

 

  
 

to amass his treasures;
shou be proved to have st ped so
false returns of the quantityg‘ cdals
for his official business; an Instance of sd‘dli‘degradi
linquency is unknown in the history of Frencglig‘d

{as even to "

 
 

‘ ‘1'

jurisprudggee. How far the same remark cg'nm‘liie‘apqge i
lit

to anoth country, the constant riyal and often the anehiy‘
of France, the records of the courts Which take. coghfiafid?
of such offences aga nst duty, honors and ev3n Common
honesty, will bear ample but hum111at1n0' testim'diiy. A
Cherhourg possessed no outer harbor or read, such ’as

Portsmouth possesses at Spithead, it became necessary

or breakwaters of continued construction were thong 4‘1
but at last it was resolved to sink a long rangd’iof weeden
truncated cones into the sea at certain distances asunder
which being afterwards filled with massy blo3’ks of 5.0
would form a succession of solid, ime 'eable masses, iiif-
ficient to break the violence of the external 11:11esa1id1.IE
render the spgce within incompa'r i'vely more ,quiet apd':
secure than 'it was in its natural ate. The cones were
strongly compacted of oak, narrower above tK below
and resembling a deep tub stan'dir'ig on its base thout
bottom. By most mgemous'contrlygances the cones wer ‘
floated out to their destined situa ions, by m of empty
casks made air tight, which We‘re afterWards detached,a “£11 "

the f1 ame allowed to sink to the bottorii‘ T'he sidesii

‘ of sufli cient height to be always above Water, and when fil-

led with stone, withstood the actibn of the tide and w'av'es.
This great enterprise, the only thing of' the kind in the
world, was naturally interrupted by the disordei's 03' the revo-"d ,
lution' 1n France, but was afterwards resu'nie'd, ”w thwareat
activity; so that in future wars with France, Cher'bourg in
become a most troublesome neiahbor to Britain 3"" "

t

 

11'-.1 Sf;- I1

2 *3? _ 131133119? 2':
' 7&9, v . 15.1,...”
IWOODEN tBRIDGESI - ., .. 1

'1.

Besides stone, timber IS on many occasions employed to
open a communication across a river; and 1n s'ome cases
it has Greatly the advantage, as when the current is particu
larly rapifi for there the posts or piles supporting the road,

  
 
  
  
   

s a + I
. - yfi, ' ' ’3

3&3 candles necessaryr '1.

336 ' 4 .:

pigstone %ri'3g'es are quite unknown.

' pieces of timber reaching from each ba

 

{'miiidi'dUally or‘ bilefiiiyety” lint :1 small
When 211163111511): fési‘éfihts violénce,
Mt “$6M” easrly be constfnctedfiin uch
#111131on keep’ itsgfo'und.Hei1c‘£tis,
laih‘d‘ but more 1'5 rticularly on fie,
".gssresyhr great rive-fix are compare-,1
iil’ie Rhone, for Instance which ,rising:
SWitzerla‘n‘d, makes its way to the

tier of engmeei? sea thii‘ough the dispenser France 'ridges of stone

311%? dft’e'n been dofi’st cte‘d‘mand! as often carried away
by’m stfiam, so 111511 this-13111131, perhaps not more than
tWoi’re'fiin The thne is,"vhov1?ever, the most rapid
riv3l‘ flrfisize' In Europe 011 the Rhine, which, rising
am“ i‘aifi‘frdih the sot rce o'f the‘eRlié‘na, takes an opposite
course’through ‘Germany and Henge, into the German
ocean, ”and is so m'uch less rapiH as its course is longer,
But this is oving not
only tp the great body of water it caries along, but also

' testhe relicy' fill" the different states along its banks, each
‘ unwilling that the opposite stat: should, by a standing
to enclose a portion of the bay answer that purpose. Flew/gt

bridge ofm Jury, ,posSess means of melting hostile attempts
£31385 the" river?" At Sf‘rasburg for instance, a [Erge and
prosperous city; 1 Alsace in France, seated on the west bank
oithe Rhine cdtrfirgandin: by 113.101 ifications a much fre-

1 queiite'd prestige 01/61 the‘ river into: Germany, the bridge
’ was; sand perhaps 415,- “(firmed by ranges Of piles dri1en into

the river, 11151111 spaceg to space“; to form the piers, support-
inter raffligs and planks’for theiroad, kept in their place

yan63eé‘1 boltsonti'een il’s ;‘.~so that with a few strokes of
a hammer 61 11311111913111; planks 0011 ‘d be cast loose and

' gemoved’zan‘d all passage 'along the bridge effectually cut

eff.'l"l1'e German end of the bridge was also guarded by
works, to prevent the French from penetrating by that com-
munication. g This 15 the bridge of Kehl, celebrated in e1 ery
history of hostilities between France and Germany- '
fVarious are the methods employed in the construction of
wooden‘bridges, governed principally by the extent of water
they are‘to cross.
trust to' the’ resistance ofbeams reaching from bank to bank
for they ought to be trussed; that is, to be supported by --

k, near the water,
obliquely towards the middle of the brida. '1 his contri-
van'c‘b will add greatly to its strength, and pre1ent its bend- s '
i110 under passing loads.‘

One of the most important particulars to be considered,
in wooden bridges, is the seasoning of the timber, It is
wdl‘hhown, that- the d'eca1 of fir timber 15 generally owing
to the moist, sappy nature of its exterior surface. This
r'noisthre must be completely remo1ed before any paint or
priming be applied, in the view of securing it from the

Even in the narrowest it is impro; :er to

 

weather. Ifleft in this natural state, this sap would, by

the action of the wind and heat, be gradually carried off,
and the fir beam become internally dry and solid; b '
the surface be powered wi aint, oil, pitch,‘
stances of this kind, the sap is confined and will0
ruptxthe timber, which will give way before its,
without any external symptom of decay. .9, In 01.. . V
sipate the moisture or sap of the surface, it is s9-
the practise to scorch the timbers ovejsra fire tu n1ng it
round regularly. The heat wjfltattract the moisture to the
surface, and evaporate it, anflethe timber will acquire a
hard crust, of great service in“ resisting the weathen; when
this is done, the parts that are to be under watel’i’fipuld,
be carefully covered with pitch and tar, sprinkledflfthsand
and powdered shells. Those which are in sighfii'i‘js'hould’
while the wood is still,» hot from the fire,@ rubbed ’over
with linseed oil, mixed with a little tar, which *will then
strike deep into the wood, and, soon become so hard as to
be fit to paint. Fir timber, thus prepared, is found to be
nearly equal to oak in durabi‘ity. At Schafi'hausen, in the
north part of Switzerland, was once to be seen awooden
bridge over the Rhine, there very rapid, so the; no stene
bridge codd resist it, admirable in its construction, and ’
being the production of a plain country carpenter. The
builder was directed to avail himself of a part of one of
the piers of the stone bridge still remaining in, its place,
to support the intended structure, With this order he ap-
parently complied, but so contrived matters, that, in the
opinion of the best judges, his bridge actually consisted but
of one immense arch of near four hundred- feet (the breadth.“
of the river,) having a part stooping down, as it were, to
rest upon the pier in the water, but not, as'far as'cOuld be
discovered actually resting on it. With very long fire beams,
prepared for the purpose, extended at an angle of moderate
elevation above the horizon, from both sides of the river,
and in conjunction with intermediate timbers, meeting over
the water, two arches were formed, being segments of large.
circles, and resembling the circular frame of the centering
of a stone bridge. These arches were placed parallel to one
another, at a distance sufficient for the breadth of the mad;
which was formed upon timbers suspended from the arches
on each side, so as to be quite horizontal from end to end;
and instead of going» over the supporting arches, was in
fact let down between them. The whole was roofed over,

 
 
    
    
 

. ,4
Il‘y'l‘RODUCTI'Oltii1

 

 

 

 

 

and enclosed at the sides, with windows at convenient di' ‘
tances, to defend the timber from the weather. This most
ingenious and most useful piece of carpentry, which had
gained the applause of all men of genius and skill, com-
pletely answered, its destination, from 1740, when it was
constructed, to 1799, when it was destroyed by the French.

8

 

 

IRON BRIDGES.
a *1

«1* Bridgeyof W11 are the production of British ingenuity,
Wsively' Iron beifg the great staple metal of the coun-
tqgiihas onate been employed 1n many works where great
sitrengie required 1n proportion to the weight of the mate-
rive; fitted or cast iron, possesses several advantages
stone or wood ; and these, in their turn, possess advan-

tagps over cast iron. To stone, iron is superior in tenacity
and sticity, and t e in strength, in facility of forma-
tion.1n any desired shflpe, and in extent of the masses' in
which it may formed; qualities all conducing to its supe-
Mghtness and cheapness. To wood, iron is superior in
t , Ric particulars, together with durability; but 1n this
last Jrespect, stone has greatly the advantage over iron
equally xposed to the weather, or other natural agents.
:I‘he greater 1,durability of stone arises from' its being less
liable to decomposition from the atmosphere; and from its
being less elastic, and consequently less subject to friction
among its component particles, in yielding to the load and
motion of' carriages passing over it. Several ways may,
hugger, be adopted, to remedy in a great degree, these
defects of iron. Paint will prevent it from oxydation, or
rusting, for’many years, and the application may, when
necessary, be‘;epeated without much expense. Cast iron
cariag‘és of garrison guns have, by various external appli-
cations, been perfectly preserved for upwards of a century.
The vibratory motion of an iron bridge may also be consid-
kerably diminished by the Sihanper;of placing and connect-
ing the bars of which it consists“ so that each bar shall
act as neany as possible at right angles, against another,
arfi be at the same time so short, as not to be in danger of
beihg bent or: gushed by‘the pressure against its length.
The reatest Objection in lhis respect to cast iron is this,
that (i apcount of the‘lmperceptible differences 1n the purity
and dther qualities of the metal, it‘is impossible to cast
two bars or blocks even in the same mould, which shall
shrink perfectly and equally limcooling, and consequently
be of precisely the same dimmijqns when employed 111 the
work. When such piéces come to be joined together, there—
fore, some empty space‘nust necessarily exist among them,
which, is a large work, where many pieces are employed,
must produce a very sensible Nay 1n the joinings and con-
sequently great vibration or reciprocal motion, iif the whole
structure. This inaccuracy of the joinings may, it is true,
he in some measure corrected, by inserting pieces of sheet
lead in the Joinings; but this metal possesses by far too
little cohesion of parts, and too little elasticity to be of use
for any length of time. In order to prevent the evils aris-
ing from these defects of cast iron it has been proposed to

 

 

fill up the vacant spaces, left between the iron framing,

’I

'3

3' 1

i with semi? compact "cheap materials, such as brick now

with tl1e'con1position Called Roman or Park's cé‘t‘tten’t‘,‘ or
Pozzolano, or terras, which would readilwand intimately
combine with the 1ron;thus defending it frtfin the aétioptof

the atmosphere. The interstices between t& bars'b g "

thus also filled up by a consolidated subst5‘n the play,
friction, and vibratory motion of the bridge, 1116:? greatly
diminished. Lightnes being, however :11 mos’i des le
prOperty, it has also been proposed to form hollow s
sohély for this purpose, which, being atfikfully and thoroughly
baked or even semi- witrifié‘d on theasurface,11ould be 00f
against the effects of the atmosphere. 1In many arts,
bricks are still seen in remains of Roman buildings, fifteen
or sixteen hundred years old in perfect preservation, @ile
the stews, with Much the bricks are built up in altfinate
layers, are often greatly decayed, unless when enveloped in
the admirably’constituted mortar of those days. on may
be used for bridges, either on the principle of equilibration:
as stone is employed, or 011 that of connection, by framing,
as w=10d is sometimes employed, in bridges, but generally in
roofing houses. For bridges of considerable dimensions,
the former is, by many judges, esteemed the best modg'j but

93 the
cheapest. As iron bars, rods, or blocks, my be firmly

for small bridges, the latter mode will probably be fonn

1 connected together by bolts, or other n1eans,1'ar1 {iron arch

may be constructed much flatter; that is ,"in”'tl1e segmfiht of
a much greater circle, than it it were 42f stone; an ad-
vantage of 1ery great importance in certain positions,

where arches of great‘ span! arerrequiredp T he first iron
b1idge, of any note constructed in England, was that of
Colebrookdale 1n Shropshire. It consists of fifle ribs, each
of three concentric arches, bound together by pieces inthe "
direction of a radii of the circleXfiThe interior arch fontns

a semicircle; but the others iiehch only to‘ sills under the
road way. These arcs pass through an, uprightffrififlie ,of
iron at each end serving as a guide; and the smallrspace
in the haunches, between the frames and outer arc, is filled
up with a large iron ring Q11 the ribs are laid cast iron
plates to support the road. The span, or opening of the
arch is 100 f'etS inches, and the height from the base line
to the centre is 40 feet. '1 he read along the bridue is '24
feet broad, formed on a bed of clay and non slag ,(the ref-
use from the furnace where, 'iron ore is sn1elteda)a‘foot in
depth.

Another bridge of the same material was afterwards
erected over the mouth of the river Were, forming the har-
bor of Sunderland, a great coal port in the county of Dur-
ham. The peculiar construction of this bridge, consist-
ed in applying iron, or other metallic substance or com-
pound, to form arches on the same principle with stone
arches, by a subdivision into blocks easily portable, an-

{‘-

Iia'rrtonuc'rion. ,. g
' V I .. .1

swering to fiieflieysstones of a common arch, which, being
made to b i one another, will have all the firmness of

5 fit the same time, by the great open spaces
the blocks and their respective lateral distances,
Liecomes materially lighter than if it were of
. andfi the tenacity of the metal, the parts

‘ alntimately
pensz we calcu of the size and weight ofthe stones
composing the are 1 becomes of but little importance. ' This
1 bridge is in span 236 feet, and as the stones, from 11 hich
“the arch springs on 31h side project 2 feet, the whole
'fs ‘240 feet. The arch is a segment of a circle
tradius, and the height from the chord to the
top '65 this}: arch IS 34 feet: but the whole height of the
middle 'of the arch, above the surface of the ri1er at low

   
   

 
 

11 ater, is about 100 feet, so thaf'ships can pass under
it. A cries of 105 blocks from one rib, and six of such
ribscor'npose the width of the bridge. 7"I‘l1e vacant spaces
bet'fireen tile arch and the road [are filled up by cast iron
”circles, which touch the outer circumference of the arch,
an? als‘os port the road, gradually diminishing from the
abutments towards thecentre of the bridge. Di gonal iron
bars are laid 011 the top of the ribs ,reaching‘to the abut-
merits, to keepzthc ribs from twisting. The superstructure
is a strong f1'11ne5f timber, planked o1er to support the car-
i'riage road, composed of marble, limestone and gra1tl,11ith
a cement of tar aiid‘cha'lk laid en the planks 111 order to pre-
Nerve them. The whole width ofthe bridge 1s '32 feet. The
abutments are masses almost of solid masonry, 94 feet in
’thicirness, 42 111 breadth at the bettom and 37 at the top.
The weight ofthe iron in the whole work 15 ‘26:) tons, of
which 214 are cast, and 4' 11 rought iron. The expense of
the whole, foi'ty years ago, 11:15 27,000/, or $119 ,8‘0 The
Waterloo ridge, met the Thames, will be illustrated by a
plateifm that p1i1pose.

:1

’ ’ BRIDGES IN BOSTON.

Some ofthe most striking objects which attract the notice
of strangers 011 visiting Boston, Mass. are the bridges which
lead from its various points. Although. we cannot boast of
so grand superstructures as the ancient city of London, we
nevertheless have a greater number of those convenient

fivenues. Except Cragie’s and the \Varren Bridges, whose

carriage ways are covered with earth, the others with plank,
they are very similar. The Western Avenue is a splendid
mill dam, built of solid materials. “’arren Bridge was built
in 1828. All these bridges are well lighted by lamps, when
the evenings are dark, and the lights, placed at regular dis-

 

 

tances, have a splendid and romantic appearance.

onnCCted, that the delicate but indis-'

Woman—1.... .

91111119121111!va

WESTERN AVENUE. 3' ,,

This splendid work was projected by eriah ,
who, with others associaté31, received an act of, ' 3:31; ‘
tion, June, 1814,, under the title of“ The Boston :
bury Mill Corporation} "It was commenced 1n _ _
Mr. Cotting’s direction, but lie did not live to . 'tgesgits
completion. His place was suppliedb Col. L W i'B‘5ld-
win, and the road was opened fof passgffgers, 1:11 2,1821.
This avenue, or Mill Dam, leads from Beacon-swtreet 1n Bos-
ton, to Sewall’ 5 Point 1n Brookline, and is composed of solid
materials, water-tight, with a gra1elled‘su1 face raised three
or four feet above high-water mark. It ;s one. Q and a
half in length, and a part of the way 100 f ingwidth.
The water, which 13 admitted, is rendered subservient and
manageable. Very extensive mill privileges are gained
by the aid of a cross dam, running from the principal one to

  
   
  
 

a point of land in Roxburynwhich divides the r‘escrvoir or'

full basin on the west, from the running or empty basin on
the east. There are five pair of flood-gates in the long dam,
grooved in massy piers of hewn stone: each pair moves

I from their opposite pivots towards the centre of the aperture,

on a hoflzontal platform of stone, until they close 1n an ob~
tuse angle, on a projected line cut on the platform, from the
pivots in the piers to the centre of the space, with theii an-
gular points towards the open or uninclosed part of the bay,
to shut against the flow of tide, and prevent the passage of
water into the empty basin. In this manner, all the water
is kept out from this basin, except what is necessary to
pass from the full basin, through the cross dam, to keep
the mill works in operation. The reservoir is kept full by
means of similar flood-gates, opening into the full basin,
(when the rising of the tide gets ascendancy over the water
in the reservoir,) and fills at every flow, and closes again on
the receding ofthe tide. In this way, at every high tide,
the reservoir is filled, and a continual supply of water to
pass through sluice-ways in the cross dam, sufficient to keep
in motion, at all times, at least 100 mills and factories, is
obtained. At low water the flood-gates of the receiving ba-
sin open and discharge the water received from the reser-

voir.
WARREN BRIDGE.
The cohstruction of this Bridge was commenced in June,

a
a,

g
.31

‘.

531828; and was completed ,in November following, under

the superintendence of Joshua Burr, Esq. of Charlestown,
Mass. It is ope of the most perfect and elegant works of
its kind in the Confilonwealth53 perhaps we might, with
~strict pgopriety, say in the United States. It is certainly

'of tr‘r’k‘el‘i It opens on the Charlestown side, about ten rods
above (West) Charles’ River Bridge, and, running in a
southerly direction, terminates on the westerly part of the
Mill Pond Land,- (so called) 1n Boston, just east the
Mffidlesex Canal. 1t 1s the most direct, and the shortest
communication between Boston and Charlestowm
3, ,. The Bridge is supported by 75 piers, placed at equal
distances of 18 feet. It 15 1390 feet in length, and 44 in
wrflth: allowing 30 feet for the carriage-way, angon either
side, handsomely railed,‘ for foot passengers. The floor
of the bridge 15 composed of hewn hemlock timber, about
14 inches deep; the apertures between which are well
I chinked with small pieces of stone : the whole covered with
6 inches of tempered clay. On this is spread 8 inches of
i coarse gravel, covered with 8 inches of McAdamized stone.
i The sides of the carriage- way are secured by edge-stones,
1% inches deep and 9 thick. The floor- timbers are placed
lower than those of other B1idges, in order that they may
be occasionally wet by the high tides, which, it is thought,
will» tend to their preservation. That teams pass over this
Bridge with great ease, is sufficiently demonstrated by the
fact that a single yoke of oxen has been known to convey
16 1-2 tons, at one timg. from the draw into Charlestown,
without any unusual effort.
The draw, in the centre of the Bridge, is of sufficient
' width to admit vessels of 300 tons. It has wharves on each
side, built on piers, which are planked from the capsil to
low-water mark, for the more safe and easy passage of ves-
sels, Its conveniences, in this particular, are in strict
agreement with the general excellence of the whole struc-

 

ture.
TOWN’S IMPROVED BRIDGES.

A minute and accurate‘ilescription of Town’s improve-
ment in the construction‘of Wooden and Iron Bridges, is
given in a succeeding‘part of this work. We commend the
article to the learner as being particularly worthy of his
serious and attentive consideration.

 

 

K

» not eXceeded by any other in point of durability and ease . ,

Plate

21

22 .
Q3, Q4
25 .
96 to 30
31 to 35
36 to 88
39 to 4‘2.
43

44 .
45 to 48
49 to 55

DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER

To face Page

FOR PLACING

34
36
37
40
4Q.
43
44
46
47
48
50
5Q
55
58
60
65
69
70
71
73
74
75
79
80
83
84
92
93
94
95
96
97

 

 

THE PLATES.

Plate 56, 57
58, 59 .
60
61
6‘2
63
64
65
66
67
68
69, 7o
71, 79
73, 74
75
76 to 79
80
81
8‘2
83, 84
85
86
87
88, 89
90, 91
99, 99
94, 95
96
97
98
99

100

To f'ace Page

98

99
100
101
103
104
107
112
113
114
116
117
118
120
1'32
123
1'34
1117
1'28
129
133
134
136
137
138
144
145
146
1-17
153
174
177

 

 

branch of mechanical science.

of objects. By it stdne-cutters, carpenters, ship-builders,
dimensions admit of a rigorous definition.

That a knowledge of geometry is essential to the greater part of our practical mechanics, does not admit of a doubt; yet they have too ‘ ’
generally regarded the subject with a degree of indifference; as though the ends I I.
and much more easily attained by other means. This erroneous notion, however,
and perhaps more attention is paid to the subject at the present time, by operative

[THE System of Geometry here introduced, is as concise and sim

PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. ' . I} gags,“

v I 5 Descriptive Geometry is employed to communicate a knowledge of different objects. It furnishes the means of constructing geog 5
charts, plans of buildings and machines, architectural designs, sun dials, &c. .
&c. find the dimensions of the works which they execute, inasmuch as t, sag,

of the science. Many attempts have been made to simplify the study,

many instances, these attempts have been partially successful;

 

 

‘ DEFINITIONS.
:4 - . j

 

PLATE 1.

1. GEOiIETRr'is' that Science 'which treats‘vof the
descriptions and properties of magnitudes. in general. '
, 2. A point has neither parts nor magnitude, as A.
1‘3:- 3. A line is length,“‘\iiithout breadth 0r thickneSs, as B.
k 4. Superficies has lengthand breadthfonly.
5. A solid is a‘figdre’ of three "dimensicns, havihg

 

 

‘ , ,jixextremities of solids, and lines the extremities diffstirfaces,
T '3,an points the extremities of lines,._ 9;; ‘6 1 ,
6. Lines are either right, cirrve'dji‘or 'm‘iix’edf' as
’7. ”A right or straight line-lies in' the same}: I
between‘its extremities, and is the shorte’s‘hdistf?‘

o

tween two points. . 1 w .

     

 

length, breadth and thickness; ' Herreefisurifiacesi’are the ~

but the student will bear in mind the memorable reply of Euclid,—~
‘ there is no royal road to geometry.’ There is no turnpike, though there are'some cross-roads; but we doubt not that he who travels the old
road, which has been so often proved'to be good, and over which so many have travelled
when it is accomplished, as he who arrives at the end by a shorter route.
. . . the generality of mechanics are displeased at the sight of a geometrical theorem. If so,
‘t’hem that no study can be better calculated to awaken the dormant facultiesof the mind, and toforcc them into action] ',

ple as is compatible witha pmper understanding: ,@

its extreme points, as F.

. and will never meet,
' and'D. ’ - ' ‘ ‘ “ "

, one another, meeting in a point, as 'J .1

A . 5 . w”. -‘ t,
. ‘ 16. Arzght anglers that wlnclii‘s-‘madc'b‘y one _
’ perpendicular to another, or when the 'angles‘bn catch 1;

 

 

5: ' .9 " -- 5' Var; '

 

 

c Iv IL A R c H I T E \C TU R E .' _

    

, $5.“
. 3’31"

   

‘1
Vs

 
 
    
  
  
    
    
    
 
   
   
 
 
  
  
    
 
  

'1 .

It is used likewise to describe the forms and relative po "tr

proposed to be accomplished by it, could be as accurately,
is fast giving way to the force of truth and demonstrati’orrir;4‘;$
mechanics, than at arntydprevioustperipd since the discovery ‘3 5
and to render the acquisition of it more easy to the learner. In. ’

before him, will be as well pleased with his 51mm

It has been said, but we trust with more severity than truth, till?”
a very little attention to the subject will satisfy

8. A curve continually changes its directions between“ 7;:
. Z, . I , j '"i
perpendicular, :“t‘é‘ V
' ’ "I ’ j; .

*9. Lines areeither parallel, oblique,
tangential.
10. Parallel lines are alwa‘ysi’at the 'sitaine distant."x
though exert Sq far ‘sp11sodruccd,vas"1@

.‘,.A,¢«
’h

11. Obliqueirighl "line‘s; 1b the same plane, chariifrgéw‘ _'
their distance,‘anéliwou’ld meet, if prodiitgtgjirlg as I. i ' I
12 One line is perpendicular to‘anfidyééfi‘?‘
clin'esL noimorief tobnc side than another, as‘H Vi:
113. One line is tangent to another, when-1t 1i
it with-but cutting, when both are produced, as .G.
14. An tangle is the inclination of/ttwo lines to? '
3.32 £14.. ‘

"1'5. Angles are either right, acute, Or obliq‘nealais?

are equal, as M. ' ”i 3‘ ‘

  

84

17. An acute angle is less than a right angle, as N, 2.

18 An obtuse angle is greater than a right angle, as N

19'. Superficies are either plane or curved.

20 A plane, or plane surface, is that to which a

Q. , right line will every way coincide; but if not, it is
urved

21‘.‘ Plane figures are bounded either by right lines
01 curves. . .

22. Plane figures, bounded by iight lines, have
names acCording to the number of their sides, 'or angles,
for they have as many sides as angles—the least numbe1
is thlee.

23. An equilater al triangle 1s that whose three sides
a1e equal, as O.

24. An isosceles triangle has only two sides equal,
as P. '

~.25 A scalene triangle has all its sides unequal, as Q
or U.

26. A right angled triangle has one right angle, as R.

. 27. Other triangles are oblique angled, and are either
obtuse or acute. ‘

28. An acute angled triangle has all its angles acute,
‘as S or T.

29. An obtuse angled triangle has one obtuse angle,
as U.

30. A figure of four sides and angles, is called a quad-
rangle, or quadrilateral, as V, W, X, Y, Z, 66.

31. A parallelogram is a quadrilateral, which has both
pairs of its opposite sides parallel, as V, W, X, Y, and
takes the following particular names.

32. A rectangle is a parallelogram, having all its
angles right ones, as V and W.

33. A square is an equilateral rectangle, having all its
sides equal, and all its angles right ones, as W.

q 34. A rhombus is an equilateral parallelogram, whose
angles are oblique, as X. ' '

35. A rhomboid is an oblique angled parallelogram,
as Y.

36. A trapezium is a quadrilateral, which has neither
pair of its sides parallel, as Z.

37. A trapezoid has only one pair of its opposite
Sl(l( s parallel, as (36.

38. Plane figures, having more than fou1 sides, me in
general called polygons, and receive other particular
names, accouling to the number of their sides or an-
gles.

’39. A pentagon is a polygon of five sides, a hexagon
has six sides, a lieptagon seven, an octagon eight, 3. non-

 

 

 

 

PRACTICAL GEOMETRY

agon nine, a decagon ten, an undecagon eleven, and a
dodecagon twelve sides.

40. A regular polygon has all its sides and angles
equal; and iffthey are not equal, the polygon is irregu-
lar. ‘ , , ' , -

41. An equilateral triangle is also a regular figure of
three sides, and a square is one of four; the former being
called a trigon, and the latter a tetragon.

 

- PLATE 2.

42. A circle is a plane figure, bounded by a curve line,
called the circumference, which is everywhe1e equi-
distant from a certain point within, called its centre.

43. The radius of a circle 13 a right line drawn f1om
the centre to the circumference, a b, at A.

'44. A diameter of a circle is a right line drawn through
the centre, terminating on both sides of the circumference,
as c d, at B.

45. An arc of a circle is any part of the circum-
ference.

46. A chord is a right line joining the extremities
of an arc, as a b, at C.

47. A segment is any part of a circle, bounded by an
arc and its chord, as D.

48. A semi-circle is half the circle, or a. segment cut 011'
by the diameter, as E.

49. A sector is any part of a circle bounded by an arc
and two radii, drawn to its extremities, as F.

50. A quadrant, or quarter of a circle, is a sector,
having a quarter of the circumference for its arc, and the
two radii are perpendicular to each other, as G.

51. The height or altitude of any figure, is a perpen-
dicular let fall from an angle, or its vertex, to the oppo-
site side, called the base, as a b, at H.

52. When an angle is denoted by three letters, the
middle one is the place of the angle, and the other two
denote the sides containing that angle; thus, let a b c be
the angle at I, then b will be the angular point, and a b,
and b c, will be the two sides containing that angle.

53. The measure of any right lined angle, is an arc
of any circle contained between the two lines which
form the angle, the angular point being in the centre, as
K. Thus if the arc b c d be double of the arc b c, then
the angle b a d will be double that of b a c.

] ’Z/I/fl / .

 

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PROBLEMS.

0

a.

PLATE-

PROBLEM I. ’

'10 bisect a given line, A B.

1 From the points A and B, as centres, with any
distance greater than half A B, describe arcs cutting each
other 1n 0 and d.

2. D1aw the line 6’ d, and the point E, where it cuts
A B, will be the middle of the line required.

 

w. “; ‘- ma,-

PROBLEM 11.

Erom a given point, C, in a given right line, A
B, to erect a perpendicular.

1"“

Frc 1.‘ When the point is new: the middle of the line.

   

”1,. On each side of the point C take any two equal
‘ d‘isfiféhces C d and C e. I

2. From d and 9, with any radius greater than C d, or
(«1,218 describe two a1cs cutting each other inf.

" BHTIHOUOh the pointst, draw the linefC, and it

ill be the perpendiculai 1equired.

 
 

1G. 2. 1Vhen the point is at, or near the and of the li7‘ie.

  

11,. Take any point d above the line, and with the ra-
,dius‘ or distance d C, describe the arc e Cf, cutting A B
'in e and C.

., ‘ 2'. Through the centre (1 in the point e, draw the
1. iline e (If, [cutting the, arc e Cf, inf.

I 's3.'Through the points f C, draw the line f C, and it
'iLbc the perpendiculai‘ required.

  

BROBLEM 111. . .3

   
 

:om a given point, C, out of a gW’e

A B, to let fall a. perpendmular

 

 

PRACTICAL

 

9

GEOMETRY. 35

PROBLEM IV.

At a given point, D, upon the right line, D E,
, 1.3 make an angle equal to a given angle,ea B b.

 
 
 
   
  
  
 

1. From the point B, with any radius, describe the are
a b, cutting the. legs B a, B b, in the points a and b.

2. Draw the line D e, and from the point. D, with the;
same radius as before, describe the arc e f, cutting D E
1n e.

3. Take the distance I) a, antltIflpply it to the are e f,
from e to f

4. Through the poii'n’iB Dfdrawv the 1% , '
angle e D f will be equal to the angle “I
required. '

.1".
11;;

p 1

PROBLEM V.

. . . . , . TM
'10 dlvlde a given :angle, A B C, into two equal,
. , 7

, 3 angles.

 

1. From the point B, With any radius, describe the
‘ are A C.
2. I‘1orn A and C, with the same or any other radlus
describe arcs cutting each other in d. 3""
3. D1aw the line B d, and it will bisect the angle A
B C, as was required.

 
 
     
     
   
 

.TI‘

 
 

PROBLEM VI.

 
 

'Ito

    

‘To trisect or divide a right- angle, A B C 1

three equal angles.

1.

 
     
 

. 1. From the point« B, with my radius B A, describe! _ 1
the me A C, cutting the legs B A, and B C, in A ’
and C. “it. i
2. From the pomt 3A .{andf‘ J, with the :radius A 3719;“;
B C, CIOSS the are A C, in d and e. ’
3. T hrough the points e d, draw the lines B e, B 11',» >
and they will trisect the angle, as was required-J’- t

 
      
    

 

    
 
     

 
 

 

  

  
 
 

PROBLEM VII.

‘i

   
  
  

 

 

    

'to a glven l1ne, A B."

  

I.“
n

1. Take any point; d,,1sn A B, uporqu and C

    

 

 

distance C 11, describe tw a,rcs e C and df,c
line A B, in e and d.’ ' '

 
 

’53,“

    

 

2 Make elf equal to e C; th1ough C andf,
f, which will be the line required. "

I \ FIG. 2 When t/te parallelis to be at agiven distance,
' CD,fromAB ‘

_ 1. F10111 any t1110 po1nts c and d, in the line A B, with
a radius equal to C D describe the arcs e and f..

, 2. Draw the line C B, to. touch those arcs WithOUt

cutting them, and it will be pa1allél to A B, as was re-

quired. .

PROBLEM V III

To divide a given line, A B, into any proposed

~number of equal pairs.

1. From A, one end of the line, draw Ac, making any.

angle with AB ;-}and from B, the other end, draw B d,
making the angle A B d equal to B A c.

2. In each. of the lines Ac, and B at, beginning at A
and‘ B, set 011“ as many equal parts, of any. length, as
A B is to be divided into.

3 Join the points A 5,1 4, 2 3, &.c., and A B will

be divided as was required.
PROBLEM IX.

To find the centre of a'vgivenwcircle, or one

already described.

1. Draw any chord A B, and bisect it with the per-
pendicula1 C D.

2. BisectC D with the diametei Elf, and the inter-
section 0 will be the centre 1equi1ed.

PROBLEM X.

‘To draw a tangent to a given circle, that shall
pass through a given point, A.

1. From the centre 0, draw the radius 0 A,
2. Through the point A, draw D E perpendicular to
O A, and it will be the tangent required.

PROBLEM XI.

To draw a tangent to a circle, or any segment
of a circle, A B C, through a given point, B,
Without making use of the centre of the circle.

1. Take any two equal divisions upon the circle,

 

  

 

 

 

, I. from theg e11 point B, towards d and e, draw the
’ ' chord 6 Bl: M

2. UponskB as a centre, with the distance B d, de-
scribe the arc,f d g, Cutting the chord e B inf.
3. Make d g equal to df, through g draw g B, and it

will be the tangent required.

' PROBLEM XII.

A circle, A B C, being given, and a tangent D
H, to that circle, to find the point of contact.

‘1. Take any point‘e, in the tangent D H ; from 6, to
thé’ centre of the circle G, draw e G.

2. Bisect e G in f, and with the radius f e, orfG,
describe the semi—circle e C G, cutting the tangent. and the
circle in C ; it will be. the point required.

PROBLEM XIII.

Given three points, A, B, C, not in a straight
line, to find a number of points lying between
them, so that they shall all be in the circum-
ference of a circle, Without drawing any part
of thecircle, or finding the centre.

1. From A, through B and C, draw A B and Af.

2. On A, as a centre, with any radius Af, describe an
arcfe ()3, cutting A B in d, and A C inf.

3. Bisect arc df in 8; through 8 draw A e h.

4. Join C B, bisect it in g, draw g It perpendicular,
cutting A e I), at It, then It will also be in the same cir-
cumference with A, C, B. In the same manner may a
point be found between C It, and II. B.

PROBLEM XIV.

Given three points, A, B, C, not in a right line,
to find another point without these points, so
that the four points shall all be in the circum-
ference of a circle, without drawing any part
of the circle, or finding the centre.

1. Draw A e and A C, from A, through B and C.

2. On A, as a centre, with any radius A e, draw the
arc efg, cutting A B in e, and A C inf.

3. Make f g equal to f e, through A and g draw A g
indefinitely towards d.

4. Upon C, with the distance C B, cross the line A g
at cl ; it will be the point required.

”‘11“...

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If a fif‘h P"int 01‘ any otliér nufiiber of Points‘ariéiré‘ '

   
   
 

 

' . ‘ , n ,. .2. 31}:
quired, the process Will be thegsame. ,, . ...u'p,e;a-:'“‘.,3
. , .. «3"; fl - V
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a». at»
P L A T E 3 .
PROBLEM xv. ,Wm

Givenrthree points, A B C, not in a straight
line, to draw a circle through‘them.

1. Bisect the lines A B, and B C, by the perpendic-
ulars, meeting at d.
2. Upon d, with the distance d A, d B, or d C, de-
‘scribe A B C; it will be the circle required.

PROBLEM XVI.

To describe the segment of a circle to any
length, A B, and breath, C D.

l. Bisect A B, by the perpendicular D g, cutting A B,
in C.

2. From 0, make c D on the perpendicular equal tot

C D.

3. Bisect A D, by a perpendicular e f, cutting D g
in g.

4. Upon g, the centre, describe A D B; it will be the

I‘ segment requrred.

PROBLEM XVII.

To describe the segment of a circle, by means
of two rules, to any length, A B, and per-
pendicular height, C D, in the middle of A B,
without making use of the centre.

It will be most convenient for practice to make the
rules C E and C F, each equal to A B, as room is some-
times wanted.

1. Place the rules to the height at C, bring the edges
close to A and B, lack them together at C, and fix a rod
across to keep them tight.

2. Put in pins at A and B, then move your rules
round these pins, hold a pencil to the angular point at C;
it will describe the segment required.

10

‘ '7 it Farthing-getadfipMETIt‘fi-r "

 

 

m;

 

. “ya? . q”. . " M, ,. "
‘ RIG. 2. By. means of a triangle.

Let A B be the length of the segment, and C D the
perpendicular height in the middle. '

1: Tlirough the points D arid B, draw D B.

2. Draw, D E parallel to A B for conveniency; make
D E equal to D B, and join E B. i

3. ' Make atriangle, E, D, B, put ‘in pins‘jat the points
A, D, B, then move your triangle round the points D
and'B, and the angular point will describe half, the
segment; the other half will be described in the same
manner, which will complete the whole segment, as was
required.

FIG. 3. Anotfier Method, by means of points.

Let A B be the length, and C D, bisecting A B, the
perpendicular height.

1. Through D, draw G H parallel to A B.
' 2. Draw D B, the half chord. .

3. From B, make B H perpendicular to D B, cutting
G H in H, and make D G equal to D H.

4. Draw A F and B E, each perpendicular to A B,
cutting G H in‘F and E.

5. Divide D G,D H; C A, CB; and AF,BE,
each into a like‘ number of equal parts, as five.

6. Draw the cross lines, 4 4, 3 3, 2 2, 1 1, &.c.

7. From the division, on A F, and B E, draw
lines to D, cutting the other cross lines at d, e, f, g,

650.

‘ 8. Put pins in these points, bend a slip round them,
and draw the curve by it, which will be the segment re-
quired. "

FIG. 4. Another Method, by points nearly true, when
the Segment 2's veryflat.

Let A B be the length, and C D, bisecting A B, the
perpendicular height.

1. Draw A E, and B F, perpendicular to A B, each
equal to C D.

2. Divide C B, and C A, each into the same number
of equal parts, as five.

3. From the points, 4, 3, 2, 1, 660., on A B, draw the
perpendicular 4 4, 3 3, 2 2, 1 1, 650., to A B.

4. Divide A F and B E into five equal parts each.

5. Draw lines from the points, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, at each

38 PRACTICAL

end, to D, and complete the segment in the same man-
ner as fig. 3.

PROBLEM XVIII.

To describe a circle Within a given triangle, so
that A B C will be tangical.

1. Take equal distances on A C, from A, also of C
B, from C ; intersect toward D.

2. Draw lines E D, from A and C, through the in-
tersection E and D; from E let fall a perpendicular,
which will be the radius of the circle required.

PROBLEM XIX.

In a given square, A B C D, to inscribe a regu-
lar Octagon.

1. Draw the diagonals A C, and B D, intersecting
at e.

2. Upon the points A, B, C, D, as centres, with a ra-
dius e C, describe arcs It 8 l, k e n, m e g,f e i.

3. Join f n, m l, k i, [L g ; it will be the octagon re-
quired.

PROBLEM XX.

In a given circle to inscribe an equilateral Tri-
angle, an Hexagon, or a Dodecagon.

FOR THE EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE.

1. Upon any point A, in the circumference, with the
radius A G, describe the arc B G F.

2. Draw B F, make B D equal to B F.

3. Join D F, and B D F will be the equilateral tri~
angle required. '

FOR. THE HEXAGON.

Carry the radius A G, six times round the circum-
ference, the figure A B C D E F, will be the hexagon.

FOR THE DODECAGON.

Bisect the are A B in It, and A It being carried twelve
times round the circumference, will also form the do-
decagon.

I

 

GEOMETRY.

PROBLEM XXI.

I

In a given circle to inscribe a Square or an Oc—
tagon.

1. Draw the diameters A C and B D, at right an-
gles.

2. Join A B, B C, C D, D A, and A B C D will be
the square.

FOR THE OCTAGON.

Bisect the are A B in E, and A E being carried eight
times round, will also form the octagon.

PROBLEM XXII.

In a given circle to inscribe a Pentagon or a
Decagon.

FOR A PENTAGON.

1. Draw the diameters A C and B D, at right
angles. .

2. Bisect B C inf, uponf; with the distance f D,
describe the are D g upon D; with the distance D g,
describe the arc g H, cutting the circle in H.

3. Join D H, and carry it round the circle five times,
which will form the pentagon.

FOR THE DECAGON.

. Bisect the are D H in 2', and D i being carried ten
times round, will also form the decagon.

PROBLEM XXIII.

In a given circle to inscribe airy regular Poly-
gen.

1. Draw the diameter A B, from E the centre ; erect
the perpendicular E F C, cutting the circle at F.

2. Divide E F into four equal parts, and set three
parts from F to C.

3. Divide the diameter A B, into as many equal parts
as the polygon is required to have sides.

4. From C, through the second division in the diam-
eter, draw C D.

5. Join A D, it will be the side of the polygon re-

 

quired.

M

. . ‘ [’1 .3.
‘\ ‘ - XVI .

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

XX”. ‘1‘ XXIII . (1' XXIV.
n

 

 

 

XXV. . XXV]. [7:42. i22/.3. XXVII.

 

 

 

 

 

   

 

 

PRA01111;:§,:L

PROBLEM XXIV 7 - - ‘ 11..

Upon a given line, A B, to describe an equrlat-
era] triangle. 3:

1. Upon the points Aafi‘d B, with a radius equal to
A B, describe arcs cutting each other at C.

2. Draw A C and B C; it will be the triangle re-
quired.

1 3‘

iv

PROBLEM XXV.
Upon a given line, A B, to describe a square.

1. Upon A and B, as centres, with a radius A B,
desciibe two arcs, A e C, B e D, cutting each other

at e.
2. Bisect A e atf; from 8 make 3 D and e C equal

to cf.
3. Join A D, D C, C B, and it will be the square

required.

PROBLEM XXVI.

Upon a given line, A B, to construct any regular
polygon.

1. Upon A and B, as centres, with a radius A B, de-
scribe two arcs intersecting each other at F. .

2. From B, draw B C perpendicular, and divide the
are A G into as many equal parts as the polygon is to
have sides.

3. Through the second division D, draw B G, make
F E equal to F D, and through E, draw A G, meeting
B G at G, then G will be the centre, and G A the radirrs
ofa circle, that will contain A B to any number of sides
required.

PROBLEM XXVII.

To make a triangle, Whose three sides shall be
equal to three given lines, D, E, F, if any
two are greater than the third.

1. Draw A B equal to the line D.

2 Upon B, with the length of E, describe an are I
at C.

3. Upon B, with the length F, describe another are,
intersecting the former at C.

4. Draw A C and C B, and A B C will be the triangle
required.

TEG‘EOMEERi. ~ - - 39

PROBLEM XXVIII.

To make a trapezium equal and Similar to a giv-
‘ en trapezium, A" B Cif D

1. Divide the given trapezium A B C D, into two
triangles, by a diagonal, A C.’
2. Make E F equal to A B upon E F construct the

to the triangle A B

triangle E G H, whose two sides E H, and G H, are
respectively equal to A D and C D, then E F G H will
be the trapezium required.

In the same manner may any irregular polygon be

dividing the given polygon into triangles, and construct-
ing rhea triangles in the same manner in the required
polygon, as is shown by figures.

PROBLEM XXIX.

T 0 make a triangle equal to a given trapezium,

ABCD.

1. Draw the diagonal B D, make C E par allel to it,
meeting the side A B, produced in E.

 

 

1 2. Join D E, and A D E will be the triangle.

PROBLEM xxx. 3

To make a triangle equal to a given right- -lined
figure, A B C D E.

1. P1oduce the side A B both ways at pleasure.

2. Draw the diagonals A D and B D, and make E F
and G H parallel to them.

3. Join D F, D G, then D F G will be the triangle
required.

Much after the same manner may any other right-
lined figure be reduced to a triangle.

1'
1

PROBLEM XXXI.
To reduce a triangle, A B C, to a rectangle.

1. Bisect the altitude C G 1n D, throughD (Dlr'aw E

 

 

F parallel to A B.

triangle E F, whose three sides will be respectively. equal

.11 rade equal and similar to a given irregular polygon, by _

as}.

3. Upon E G, which is' equal to A 0, construct the A

a

40.

2. From B draw B F perpendicular to A B, through ._,\
A draW A E parallel to B F, then A B F E will be the g

rectangle required

PROBLEM XXXII.

To make a rectangle, having a side equal to a
given line, A. B, and equal to a given rectangle,

CDEFV

1 Produce the sides of the rectangle C F D E, F E,
and C D

2. Make E G equal to A B, through G draw L H
parallel to F E, cutting C F produced at L.

3. Draw the diagonal L E, and produce it till it cut
C D at K.

4. Draw K H parallel to E G, then will E I H G be
the rectangle required.

PROBLEM XXXIII.

To make a square equal to a given rectangle, A
B C D.

1. Produce the side A B, make B E equal to B o.

2. Bisect A E in I, on I, as the centre, with the radius
I E or I A, describe the semi—circle A H E.

3. Produce the side of C B to cut the circle in H, on
B H describe the square B H G F, it will be the square
required.

PROBLEM XXXIV.

To make a square equal to two given squares,
A and B.

1. Make D E equal to the side of the square A, and
D F perpendicular to D E, equal to the side of the
square B. I i

2. Draw the hypothenuse F E; on it describe the
square E F G H, it will be the square required.

PROBLEM XXXV.

To make a square equal to three given squares,

A, B, C.

1. Make D E equal to the side of the square A, and

D F, perpendicular to D E, equal to the side of the
square B.

PRAd'I‘ICAL GEOMETRY

7CD::EF:

 

 

 

2 .16in E draw F G perpendicular to it.
3 Make F G equal to the side of the square C , join
G E, then G E will be the side of the square required.

j PROBLEM XXXVI.

Two right lines, A B, and C D, being'given, to
find a‘third proportional.

71.’ Make an angle H E I at pleasure, from E, make
E F equal to A B, and E G equal to C B ; join F G.
2. Make E H equal to E G, and draw HI parallel to
E G, then E I will be the third proportional required,
thatis, E F : EG: :EH:EI,01‘AB: CD : :
C D ‘: E I.

PROBLEM XXXVII.

Three right lines, A B, C D, E F, being given,
to find a fourth proportional.

1. Make the angle H G I, at pleasure; from G make
G H equal to A B; G I equal to C D;
H I.

2. Make G K equal to E F, draw K L through K
parallel to H I, then G L will be the fourth proportional
required; that is, G H : G I : : G K : G L, or A B :
G L.

and join

PROBLEM XXXVIII.

To divide a given line, A B, in the same propor-
tion as another, C D, is divided.

'1. Make any angle K H I; and make 11 I equal to A
B 3 then apply the several divisions of C D from H to K,
and join K I.

2. Draw the lines h e, i f, k g, parallel to I K,
and the line H I will be divided in It, 2', Is, as was re-
quired.

PROBLEM XXXIX.

Between two given right lines, A B, and C D,
to find a mean proportional.

1. Draw the right line E G, in which make E F equal
to A B, and F G equal to C D.

XXIX.

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XXXIX.
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PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.‘

2. Bisect E G in H, and with H E or H G describe
the semi—circle E I G.

3. From F draw F I perpendicular to E G, cuttin" .

b
the circle in I, and I F will be mean proportional

required.
PROBLEM XL.

To find a line nearly equal to the circumference

of its circle, A B C D.

1. Draw the diameters A B and C D at right

angles.

2. Produce A B, till the part A G without, be three I

quarters of the radius.

3. Draw E F through B, parallel to C D, through G, I
and the points C and D; draw G E and G F, cutting 3

the tangent in E and F; then E and F will be equal to
half the circumference.
Much after the same manner may a straight line be

found equal to any part of a circle, as is shown at FIG 2, I

41

I but the following method is much better for small arcs,
l as it requires less room.
I

REMARK.

H

II If any number of divisions E I, I K, K L, L B, are

II taken on E F, and from the points I, K, L, lines are

II drawn to G, to cut the circumference i, k, l, the di-

I visions on the circle, viz. C i, i/c, k l, l B, will be
respectively equal to their corresponding divisions, E I, I
K, K L, L B, on the tangent line E F; that is, to k i,
and I E equal to i C.

PROBLEM XLI.

'To find the length of any are, A C B, of a

circle.

1. Draw the chord A B indefinitely towards E, and
bisect the are A C B at C.

2. Make A D equal to twice the half chord A C ; di-
I vide B D into three equal parts, and set one towards E

then will A E be the length of the arc line A C B.

I

 

CONIC SECTIONS.

OF THE
DEFlNITIONS.

PLATE 5.

 

1. If two pins are fixed at the pcints E and F, a I
string being put about them, and the ends tied to-
gether at C; the point C being moved round, keeping
the string stretched, it will describe a curve called an
Ellipsis. I

2. Foci, are the two points E and F, about which the II
string is made to revolve. II

I
l

3. Transverse axis, is the line A B, passing through
the foci, and terminated by the curve at A and B.
11

 

a

ELLIPSIS.

4. Centre, is the point G, bisecting the transverse axis
A B.

5. Conjugate art's, is the line C D, bisecting the
transverse axis at right angles, and terminated by the

6. Latus rectum, is a right line passing through the
focus I“, at right angles to the transverse axis terminated
by the curve, this is also called the Parameter.

7. Diameter, is any line passing through the centre
G, terminated by the curve. ‘

8. Conjugate diameter, is a right line drawn through
the centre, parallel to a tangent at the extreme of the
other diameter, and terminated by the curve.

9. Double ordidate, is a line drawn through any diam-
eter, parallel to a tangent at the extreme of that diameter,
terminated by the curve.

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PROBLEMS.

PROBLEM I.

The transverse and conjugate axes, A B, and C
D, of an ellipsis being given, to find the two
foci, from thence to describe an ellipsis.

1. Take the semi-transverse A. E, or E B, and from
C, as a centre, describe an arc, cutting A B at F and G,
which are the foci.

2. Fix pins in these points, a string being stretched
about the points F C G, then move the point C round
the fixed points F and G, keeping the string tight; it
will describe the ellipsis, as in the first definition.

PROBLEM II.

The same being given, as in the last problem, to
describe an ellipsis, by an instrument called
a trammel.

The trammel, as used by artificers, is two rules, with
a groove in each, fixed together, so that the grooves will
be at right angles to each other; to this, there is a rod
with too moveahle nuts, and another fixed at the end, with
a hole through it, to hold a pencil; on the under side of
the sliding nuts are two round pins, made to fill the
groove of the tramrnel, and are used as follows : ——

OPERATION.

Set the distance of the first pin at B, from the pencil
at A, to half the shortest axis, and the distance of the
second pin at C, from A, to half the longest axis, the
pins being put in the grooves, as is shown by the figure ;
then move the pencil at A; it will describe the ellipsis
required.

PROBLEM III.

A

A dlameter, A B, and a double ordinate, C D,
to that diameter, being given, to find the
parameter.

I. Join A C, A D, and B C, B D; bisect A B in H,
through H draw H 1 parallel to D C, cutting B C in I.
2. From A, make A F equal to H I; through F

 

 

PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

draw G H parallel to C D, cutting A C in G, and A I)
in H ; then G H is the parameter sought.

PROBLEM 'IV.

To describe an ellipsis by finding points in the
curve, having the two conjugate diameters A

B and C D, given.

1. Find F G half the parameter; through G, draw
H H parallel to A B.

2. Draw E H parallel to C I), cutting II II, at G.

3. Set otl‘ any number of equal divisions, from H,
towards G ; set the same parts from E towards C.

4. From the point B, through the points 1, 2, 3, in
E C, draw the lines B i, B It, B l.

5. From A, through the points in A G, draw the lines
A i, A k, A l, intersecting the former lines in i, 1:, 1;
they will be in the periphery of the ellipsis.

PROBLEM V.

Having a diameter, and a double ordinate to that
diameter, to describe the ellipsis, by finding
points in the curve.

This problem will be completed in the same manner
as problem V, and as is plainly shown by the figures :2
and 3.

PLATE 6.

PROBLEM VI.

To describe an ellipsis, or any segment of an
ellipsis, having a diameter and a double ordi-
nate, by means ot‘ points being found in the
curve, without finding the parameter.

Let A B be the diameter or double ordinate, let C D
be its conjugate, and let E D be the height of the seg-
ment. '

1. Through D draw F G parallel to A B; also through
the points A and B, draw A F, and B G, parallel to D
E, cutting F G in F and G.

2. Divide A E and E B into a like number of equal

 

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PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. . . 43

parts, as four; likewise B G, and A F, into the same
number of equal parts.

3. From the point D, through the points, 1, 2, 3, in
A F, and B G, draw 1 D, 2 D, 3 D.

4. From the point C, through the points, 1, 2, 3, in
A B, draw C a, C I), C c; cutting the lines 1 D, 2 D,
3 D, in a, b, c, they will be in the periphery of the ellip-
sis ; a curve being traced through these points, will form
the ellipsis required.

But if the curve is very large, as in practical works,
the best way is to put in nails or pins at the points, a, I),
c, &c., bend a slip round them, and draw a curve by it ;
it will appear quite regular.

PROBLEM VII.

To draw the representation of an ellipsis, with

a compass to any length, A B, and width, C '

D.

1. Draw B P parallel and equal to E C, and bisect it
at 1, then draw 1 C and P D, cutting each other at K;
bisect K C by a perpendicular, meeting C D at O , and
on O, with the radius 0 C, describe the quadrant C G
Q.

2. Through Q and A, draw Q G, cutting the quadrant
at G : then draw G 0, cutting A B at M ; make E L
equal to E M; also E N equal to E O. From 0,
through M and L, draw 0 G, and O K; likewise from
N, through M and L, draw N H and N I ; then M, L,

N, O, are the four centres: by help of these, the four'

opposite sectors will be described.

FIG. 2. To describe an ellipsis more accurately with a
compass than the foregoing, having the two arses A
B and C D given.

1. Draw A 3 parallel and equal to E C, divide it into
three equal parts, and draw 2 C and 1 C ; then divide
A E also into three equal parts, and from D, through the
points 1, 2, in A E, draw D Q, and D P, cutting the
lines 1 C and 2 C, in Q and P.

1. Bisect C P by a perpendicular, meeting C D pro-
duced at S, join P S, cutting A E at X; then make E
1V equal to E X, and E U equal to E S; and through
X and \V, draw P S and O S ; also through the same
points X and 1V, draw U K and U L.

3. Bisect P Q by a perpendicular, meeting P S at F;

 

 

 

 

. ellipsis.

draw Z F parallel to A B ; then with the radius F Q,
describe the arc Q Z, cutting F Z at Z; through Z and
A draw Z y, cutting the arc Z Q at y ,' and join 3/ F,
cutting A B at V. On X, make X I equal to X F;
with the same radius on W, make \V H, and W G;
through V, draw I R, make E T equal to E V, through
'1‘ draw H M and G N; then U, S, G, H, I, F, T, V,

are the centres.

PROBLEM VIII.

Having the two axes, or any other conjugate
diameters, A B and C D, given, to describe
an ellipsis through points, at the extremes of
any diameters taken at pleasure.

1. Through D, draw P Q, parallel to A B from D ;
draw D F perpendicular to P Q, and make it equal to
E B, or E A; upon F, with the distance F D, describe
the circle n l) k.

2. Through the centre E, draw the line P E N, t E
M, s E L, doc. at pleasure, cutting the tangent P Q, at
P, I, s, &c. Join P F, tF, s F, &,c., cutting the circle
n I) Is, at the points m n I, 65c. ; likewise join E F, if
necessary, and draw 72, N, m M, l L, doc. parallel to it,
cutting the diameters N N, M M, L L, &c. at N, M,
L, &c.; then these points will be in the periphery of the
If the diameters are produced to the oppo-
site sides, at N, M, L, and the distances E N, E M,
E L, &c. are made respectively to their corresponding
opposite distances, E N, E M, and E L, &c., then the
points N M L, on the under‘ side of the diameter A B,
will also be in the curve.

PROBLEM IX.

To draw an ellipsis by ordinates, having the
axes, or any other conjugate diameters, A B,

and C D, given.

1. From E, the centre, draw E F perpendicular to
C D. Upon E, with the radius E C, describe the quad-
rant C F; divide E F into any number of equal parts,
as four; from these points draw 1 a, 2 b, 3 0, parallel
to E C, cutting the quadrant at a, b, and c.

2. Divide E A, and E B, each in the same number
of equal parts; through the points 1, 2, 3, &c. draw
a a, b I), c c, &c. parallel to C D.

QB

t
t

 

44

3. Make the distances 1 a, 2 b, 3 0, (Sec. equal to their
corresponding distances, 1 a, 2 b, on the quadrant ; then
the points a, b, c, &0. will be all in the periphery of the
ellipsis.

PROBLEM X.
All ellipsis, A B C D, being given, to find

the transverse and conjugate axes.

1. Draw any two parallel lines A B, and C D, cutting
the ellipsis at the points A, B, C, D, bisect them in e
and f.

2. Through e andfdraw G H, cutting the ellipsis at
G and H ; bisect G H, at I ; it will give the centre.

3. Upon I, with any radius, describe a circle, cutting
the ellipsis in the four points, ls, l, m, n.

4. Join I; l, and m n ; bisect I; l, or m n, at 0 or p.

5. Through the points 0 I, or I p, draw Q R, cutting
the ellipsis at Q and R; then Q R will be the transverse
axis.

6. Through I, draw T S parallel to k l, cutting the
ellipsis at T and S, and T S will be the conjugate axis.

 

PLATE 7.

PROBLEM XI.

An diameter A B beinor 0'iven and an ordi-
a ) b b 7

nate, C D, to find its conjugate, without

drawing any part ofthe ellipsis.

1. Draw C I perpendicular to A B; bisect A B in
F, and draw F H parallel to C D.

2. On F, with the distance F A, or F B, describe
the semicircle A I B, cutting C I at I.

3. Make A E equal to C I; draw E G- parallel and
equal to C D ; through G and A, draw A II, cutting F
H at H ; then F H is the semi-conjugate.

Much after the same manner, if two conjugate diame-

 

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PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

ters are given, an ordinate may be found without drawing
any part of the ellipsis.

PROBLEM XII.

Any two conjugate diameters, A B and C D,
being given, and a right line, G H, passing
through the centre, F, to find a diameter
which will be conjugate to G H, Without
drawng any part of the ellipsis.

1. Through D, draw E K parallel to A B, and pro-
duce the given line II G, to cut the tangent in E.

2. From I), make D I perpendicular to E F, and
equal to F A, or F B.

3. Join E I ; from I, draw I K perpendicular to I E,
cutting the tangent E K, at K ; through the centre F,
draw F K.

4. Through the points g, and m, wherethe lines E I,
and I K, cut the circle ; draw g G, and m )1, parallel
to I F, cutting E I“, and K F, at the points G and )1;
make F H equal to F G, and F L equal to F M; then
M L and G II will be the two other conjugate diame-

§ ters.

PROBLEM XIII.

Any two conjugate diameters, A B and C D,
being given, to find the two axes, from thence
to describe the ellipsis.

1. Through D, draw E F, parallel to A B; draw D
I perpendicular to E F, and equal to M A, or II B.

2. [pen I, with the radius I D, describe the are 3‘ D l.

3. Join I M, and biseet it by a perpendicular, meeting
the tangent E F at N.

4. On N, as a centre, with the distance N I, describe
a semi-circle E I F, cutting E F at the points E and F.

5. rI‘hrough the centre M, draw F K, and E II.

6. Join I E, and I F, cutting the are D l, at

0‘
D

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and I.

7’. Draw I L, and g G. parallel to I )1, cutting K F
and H E, at G and L : make M K equal to )I L, and

M H equal to M G, then E II and K L will be the two

‘ axes required.

 

 

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PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

PROBLEM XIV.

An ellipsis, A D B C, being given, to draw a
tangent through a given point H, in the curve.

1. Find the foci F and G, join F H and G H.

2. Prcduce C G H to I, upon H, with any radius,
describe the arc K L I, cutting G I, and F H, at K
and I.

3. Bisect the arc K L I, at L; through L and H
draw L H; it will be the tangent required.

PROBLEM XV.

To draw two tangents to an ellipsis from a given
point B, without it, having any two conjugate
diameters, A B, and C D, given, withdut
drawing any part of the ellipsis.

1. Let the point E be in the diameter D C, pro-
duced. '

2. From the centre H, make H I equal to H C, and
join I E.

3. Through C draw C K parallel to I E, cutting H
B in K.

4. Make H L equal to H K, through L draw F G
parallel to A B, find the extreme points F and G of the
ordinate F G, by Problem XI. From E, through the
points F and G, draw E F and E G; they will be the
tangents required.

Ifthe point B, is in neither of the given diameters A
B, or C D, when produced ; draw a line from the given
point E, through the centre; by Problem XII, find a
conjugate to that line, and the extremities of both, then
the construction will be the same as in this.

PROBLEM XVI.

To describe an ellipsis similar to a given one. A
D B C, to any given length, I K, or to a given
width M L.

1. Let A B, and C D, be the two axes of the given
ellipsis.

:2. Through the points of contact A, D, B, C, com-
plete the rectangle G E H F, draw the diagonals E F,
and G H, they will pass through the centre at R.

12

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

45

3. Through I and K, draw P N, and O Q, parallel to
C D, cutting the diagonals E F, and G H, at P, N,
Q, 0. '

4. Join P O, and N Q, cutting C D at L, and. M,
then I K is the transverse, M L the conjugate axis of
an ellipsis that will be similar to the given one, A D B
C, which may be described by some of the foregoing
methods.

 

PLATE 8.

PROBLEM XVII.

Given the rectangle, A B C D, to' circumscribe
an ellipsis, which shall have its two axes in
the same ratio as the sides of the rectangle.

1. Draw the diagonals A C, and B D, cutting each
other at S, the centre. ‘

2. Through S, draw E F, and G H, parallel to A B
and A D.

3. Upon S, with a radius S I, equal to half A D,
or B C, describe the quadrant I K L, cutting E F
at L.

4. Bisect the are I K L, at K; through K, draw M
N parallel to E F, cutting the diagonal B D, at N.

5. Join I N; through B, draw B G, parallel to it,
cutting G H at G, and make S H equal to S G.

6. Join N 0; through B, draw B F, parallel to it,
cutting E F, at F ; make S E equal to S F, then E F,
and G H, are the two axes which may be described by
some of the methods which are shown in the foregoing
problems.

PROBLEM XVIII.

Given the trapezium, A B C D, and a point E,
in one of the sides, to find a point in each of
the other sides, so that if an ellipsis was to
be inscribed, it would touch the trapezium in
these points.

1. Produce the sides of the trapezium, till they meet
at K and L.

 

 

346 '~ ' ' , PRACTICAL, GEOMETRY.

2. D1aw the diagonals A C, and B D, cutting each
'-other at F; prodUce B D, till it cut K L at M

3. Through F, and the given point E,_ draw E G,
cutting B C at G.

4-. F1om M, thmugh the points E, and G, draw M H
and M G, cutting theh‘other two sides in the points I
and H, then E, H, G, I, will be the four points re-
quired. "

PriOBLEM XIX.

A trapezium, A B C D, being given, and a
point E, in one of the sides, to find the centre
of an ellipsis that may be described in the
trapezium, and pass through the point of

-, contact E, Without drawing any part of the
ellipsis.

1. Find the points of contact H, G, I, E, as in the
last problem.

2. Join the points G, and E, by the right line G E;
bisect it in' M, and from K, Where the opposite sides A
D, and B 0, meet, and through “the point M, draw K M
indefinitely.

3. Also Join any other two points of contact, as H I,
bisect H I, . at N, from L, whe1e the opposite sides B A
and C D meet; draw L N, meeting K M, at P, then P
will be the centre of the ellipsis required.

And in like manner, if the points G, and H, were
joined, and bisected at Q, and a line being drawn from
B, where the opposite sides A B, and C D, meet through
Q, it would also meet. in P, the centre, 650.

PROBLEM XX.

Given a trapezium, A B C D, and a point E, in

 

 

one of the sides, to find the. two axes of an
ellipsis that may be inscribed in the trapezium
and pass through the point E, Without draw—
ing any part of the ellipsis.

1. Find the opposite points of contact, H, E, F, G,
by Problem XVIII.

’ 2. From thence, find the centre P, by the last prob-
lem. '

3. From E, and through the centre P, draw E M,
making P M equal to P E.

4. Through H, or any other point of contact, draw
H K, pa1allel to D C, cutting E G at K; then K H is
an 01dinate to the diameter E M. ,

5. Th1ough P, the centre, draw P R parallel to
H K.

6. Find the extremities R and S, of the diameter R
S, by Problem XI.

7. The conjugate diameters E M, and R S, being
now found, then find the two axes V W, and X Y, by
Problem XIII.

PROBLEM XXI.

To find the centre and transverse aXis of an
ellipsis by means of a square and rule.

1. Apply the square A B, Problem XXI.

2. Place the ellipsis tangical to A B, at pleasure.

3. Draw lines C D, touching the opposite sides of the
ellipsis.

4. Draw lines E F, intersecting the cllips1s ; and C is
the centre and E F the transverse axis required. Also
E F is equal added together, in whatever direction the
ellipsis may be applied to the square and rule.

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.GEOMETRfiY. ” ‘ , 47

OF THE PARABOLA.

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DEFINITIONS.

PLATE 9.

1. Ifa thread. equal in length to B C, be fixed at C,
the end ofa square, A B C, and the other end fixed at.
F; and if the side A B, of the square be moved along
the right line A D, and if the point E, be always kept
close to the edge B C, of the square, keeping the string
tight, the point or pin B, will describe a curve E G I
H, called a parabola.

2. Focus is the fixed point F, about which the string
revolves.

3. Directrizz' is the line A D, \Vllltll the side of the
square moves along.

4. Axis is the line L K, drawn through the focus F,
perpendicular to the directrix.

5. Vertex IS the point I, where the line L K cuts the
curve.

6. Latus rectum or parameter, is the line G H, pass-
ing thlough the focus F, at light angles to the axis I K,
and terminated by the curve.

7. Diameter is any line M N, drawn parallel to the
axis I K. ,

' 8. Double ordinate is a right line R S, drawn parallel
to a tangent at M, the extreme of the diameter M N,

 

 

, terminated by the curve.
i 9. Abscissa is that part of a diameter contained be-
]: tween the curve and its ordinate, as M N.

PROBLEMS.

I PROBLEM I.

To describe a parabola by finding points in
the curve, the axis A B, or any diameter be-
ing given, and a double ordinate C D.

1. Through A, draw E F parallel to C D.

2. Through C and D, draw D F and C E parallel to
A B, cutting E F at E and F.

3. Divide B C and B D, each into any number of
equal parts, as four.

4. Likewise divide C E and D F into the same num-
ber of equal parts, viz. four.

5. Through the points, 1, 2, 3, &c. in C D, draw the
lines 1 a, 2 b, 3 c, doc. parallel to C D.

6. Also through the points, 1, 2, 3, in C E and D F,
draw the lines 1 A, 2 A, 3 A, cutting the parallel lines at
the points a, b, c, thenvthe points a, b, c, are in the
curve of the parabola.

 

FIG. 2.

_ Another Method.

1. Join A C and A D, from A make AE equal to
B C or B D.

2. Through A and E, draw H I, and F G, parallel to
C D, cutting A C and A D in the points F and G.

3. Through F and G, draw F H and G I parallel to
A B, cutting H I at the points H and I.

4. F1om the points H and I, take any number of
equal divisions on the lines H F and I G, from these
points draw lines to A.

5. From B, set the same divisions towards C and D,
d1aw the parallel lines 1 a, 2 b, 3 c, &c. intersecting the
former at the points a, b, 6, they will be in the curve of
the parabola.

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48

PRACTICAL ,GEOMETRY.

OF THE HYPERBOLA.

._.._...

DEFINITIONS.

1. If B and O, are two fixed points, and a rule A B,
be made moveable about the point B, a string A D O:
being tied ”to the other end of the rule, and to the point
C, and if the point A isi‘moved round the centre B;
towards E, the angle D, of the string A D C, by
keeping it always tight and close to the edge of the
rule, A B, will describe a curve D F H G, called an
hyperbola.

2. If the end of the rule at B, was made moveable
about the point C, the string being tied from the end of
the rule A to B, and a curve being described after the
same manner, it would be an opposite hyperbola.

3. Fact are the twompoints B, and O, about which the
rule and string revolve.

4. Transverse axis is the line I H, terminated by the
two curves passing through the foci, if continued.

5. Centre is the point M, in the middle of the trans- "

verse axis I H.

6. Conjugate axis is the line N O, passing through
the centre M, and terminated by a circle from H, whose
radius is M C, at N and O.

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7. Diameter is any line V W, drawn through the cen-
tre M, and terminated by the opposite curves.
V 8. Conjugate diameter to another, is the line drawn

through the centre, parallel to a tangent with either of

the curves, at the extreme of the other diameter, termi-
nated by the curves.

9. Abscissa is when any diameter is/contained within
the curve, terminated by a double ordinate and the curve,
then the part within is called the abscissa.

10. Double ordinate is a line drawn through any diam-
eter, parallel to its conjugate, and terminated by the curve.

,11. Parameter, or latus rectum, isa line drawn through
the focus, perpendicular to the transverse axis, and ter-
minated by the curve. .

12. Asymptotes are two right lines drawn from the
centre M, and the points R S, which are parallel to the
conjugate axis N O, and drawn through the end of the
transverse axis I H ; H R, and H S being equal to )1
N or M 0, then M X, and M Y, are asymptotes.

13. Equilateral or right angled Izyperbola is when
its transverse or conjugate axes are equal.

PROBLEMS.

PLATE 10.

PROBLEM I.

To describe an hyperbola by finding points in
the curve, having the diameter, or axis A B,
its abscissa B C, and double ordinate D E.

1. Through B draw G F parallel to D E; from D
and E draw D G and E F parallel to B C, cutting G F
in F and G.

2. Divide C D and O E, each into any number of
equal parts, as four : through the points of division 1, 2,
3, draw lines to A.

 

 

3. Likewise divide D G and E F into the same num-
ber of equal parts, viz. four ; from the divisions on D G
and E F, draw lines to B, and a curve being drawn
through the intersections at B a b c E, will be the hy-
perbola required.

PROBLEM II.

Given the asymptotes A B, C D, and a point
E, in the curve, to describe the hyperbole.

1. Through the given point E, draw any right line E
F, cutting the asymptotes in the points i and I.

 

 

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PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 49

2. Make 2' F equal to I E" from F draw as many

lines as you please, cutting the asymptotes in the points .

g,h,i, k, &c. andG, H, I, K, 650.

3. Make G f, H f, K f, 61.0. respectively equal to g F,
II. F, k F, &.c. through the pointsf,f,f, describe acurve,
and it is the hyperbola required.

'In the same manner may the opposite, hyporbola be
described.

PROBLEM III.

Given the two conjugate diameters A B and C
D, to find any number of points in the curve.

1. Through B, draw F G, parallel to C D, make B
F, and B G, equal to E C, or E D from E, through F,
and G, draw E II, and E I, the asymptotes.

2. From A, draw any lines A C, A D, A E, and A
F, cutting the asymptotes at the points, a, a, a, (See. and

c, d, e,f, &c. Make the distances a C, a 1), a. E, a F, .
65c. equal to A c, A (I, A e, and Af-, &c. then the points !

C, D, E, F, will be in the curve.

' FIG. 2.
Another M etILod.

1. From the centre E, draw E I perpendicular and
equal to E A or E B.

2. Join B C, take any number of points F, G, H, in
E B, and draw I‘f, G g, H IL, parallel to B C, cutting
E C atf, ,9, IL.

3. Throughf, 47, IL, B C, drawf/r, g 1, IL m, in, &c.
take the distance F l, and inakef/r, equal to it; then
take G I, and make {4' Z equal to it; in the same man-
ner find.the points m n. And if E B and E C are pro-
duced indefinitely beyond B, and C, and lines be drawn
parallel to B E, as before, any number of points beyond,
will be found in the szune manner.

PROBLEM IV. -

Given the asymptotes, and a point in the curve,
to find two conjugate diameters.

1. From the point B, draw B H D parallel to the
asymptote C G. Make H D equal to HB, draw D C E,
making C E equal to C D. Make C A equal to C B,
then D E is the conjugate to A B.

13

 

 

PROBLEM V.

To describe a conic section through five given
points A, B, C, D, E, provided that all these
points, are joined by right lines, and that any
exterior or angle, formed by. these lines, be
less than two right angles.

1. Join any four points, A, B, C, E, forming the quad-
rilateral A B C E.

2. Through the fifth point D, draw Df, and D g,
parallel to A E, and B C, meeting A B, produced both
ways at the pomtsf and g, if necessary.

3. Also, th10ugh D, draw IL L, parallel to E C, meet-
ing B C, and A E, produced at the points IL and 'i.

4. Divide D IL, D 2', and D f, D g, into any number
of equal parts, as six; likewise divide D F and D G,

I. . .
Into the same, v1z. 31x.

5. From the point 1;, and through the points 1,2, 3, 4,
5, in D i, draw the lines 1 E, 2 E, 3 E, 4 E, 5 E, cut-
ting the lines B a, B b, B c, B d, B e, and B f, at the
points a, b, c, d, c, draw from B, through 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,

i in D F, which are all in the curve.

In the same manner, the points between B, and D,
will be found, viz. by drawing lines from the points A,
and C, through the lines D g, and 1) IL.

And if the lines D i, and Df, are produced, and the
equal parts 7, 8, 9, extended upon these lines, you
would obtain as many points g, IL, i, &c. between A

and B.

 

PLATE ll.

PROBLEM VI.

To describe a conic section to touch a right line
A B, in a given point C, to pass through three
other points, D, E, and F. f

'.1 Join D C, E C, and D E, throngh F, draw F‘A,
and F B, parallel to F E, and DC, cutting A B, at A
and B.

2. Through F, draw G H parallel to D E, and pro-
duce the sides C D, and C E, to cut it at G and H.

3. Divide F G and F H, F‘A,,an’a F B, each into".

any number of equal parts, as fours. ’

magi“:

 

 

50 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

4. From C, through 1, 2, 3, in F H, draw C a, C b,
C c, &.c.

5. From E, through 1, 2, 3, in F H, draw 1 E, 2 E,
3 E, &c. cutting the former in the points a, b, c, which
are in the curve.

In the same manner may points be found 1n the other
side.

PROBLEM VII.

' To describe a conic section to touch two light

lines, A B and B C, in the points A and C,
and to pass through a given point, D.

 

 

l

1. Join the points A and C; through D, draw D E,
and D F parallel to B A, and B C.

2. Through D draw G H, parallel to A C, cutting B
A and B C, in G and H, and divideg G, and D H,
D E, and D F, “each into the same number of equal
pa1ts.

3. F1om A, through the points 1,2, 3, in D E, draw
the lines A a, A b, A c.

4. From C, through the points 1, 2, 3, in D H, draw
1 C, 2 C, 3 C, cutting the former in a, b, c, which are
in the curve. _

In the same manner may points he found between A

i and D.

 

SECTIONS OF" SOLIDS.

OF A CYLINDER.

DEFINITIONS.

1. A cylinder is a solid generated by the revolution of
a right angled parallelogram, or rectangle, about one of
its sides, and consequently the ends of the cylinder are
equal circles.

2. Axis is a right line passing from the centres of. the
two circles which fo11n the ends of the cylinder.

3. If a cylinde1 is cut by a plane, pa1allel to a plane
passing through its a\is, it will be cut in two pa1ts, which
are called segments of the cylinder

4. A segment of a cylinder is comprehended under
three planes, and- the carve surface of the cylinder; two
of these are segments of circles: the other plane ls a par-
allelog1a1n, which is l1e1e, for distinction’s sake, called

3 .

 

 

the plane of the segment, and the circular segments are
called. the ends of the cylinder.

5. The two sides of the parallelogram, which is paral-
lel to the axis of the cylinder, are called the sides of the
segment of the cylinder, and the other two sides of the
parallelogram are chords to the ends of the cylinder.

6. If a cylinder, or segment ofa cylinder, stands upon
one of its ends, that end on which it stands is called the
base.

7. If the segment of a cylinder is cut obliquely by a
plane, the intersection of that plane, with the plane of the
segment, is called the cho1d of the section.

8. I‘he section of a C) hnde1 cut by any plane inclined
to its aXis, is an ellipsis.

This re proved by the writers of conic sections.

.6

3

ii

‘ 3 ~ . P111.

 

 

T SECTJUIDNS <0) mm §2
P1101311. « M F m

Ofa Cylinder.

 

 

'M‘nl'ub. n

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 51

.r.‘
. .\
WE.

PROBLEMS.

PLATE 11.

PROBLEM I.

To find the section of a semi-cylinder, cut by a
plane at— right angles to the plane A B F l,
which passes through its axis, making a given

angle E FB, with either of the sides B ‘F.

1. Let A D B, be the circle of the base, and C its
centre.

2. Through the centre of the circle C, draw G D,
parallel to F B, cutting the circle of the base in ‘ D, and
E F at G ; from G, draw G H perpendicular to E 'F ;
make G H equal to C D, then E F is the transverse
axis, and G H the semi-conjugate.

Or it may be described by ordinates, as in FIG. 2, ta~
ken from the base and transferred to the section, as the
figures direct.

In the same manner may any segment be found, viz.
by drawing lines parallel to the sides of the plane of the
Segment, till it cut the chords of the section ; from these
points, draw perpendiculars to the chord, make their sev-
eral lengths from the chord equal to those of the base
corresponding to them ; a curve line being drawn through
these points, will be the true section of the segment re-
quired, as is plainly shown by FIG. 3.

PROBLEM II.

To find the two axes of the section of a semi-
cylinder cut by a plane, making a given an-
gle A B C, with the plane E F G H, passing
through its axis ; also in a given direction K 1

with the side K F.
1. Let E M F, be the circle of the base and L its

centre.

2. From the angular point B, of the given angle A B
C, draw B D perpendicular to B A, and equal to L E
or L F, the radius of the base; draw D C, parallel to
B A, cutting B C at C.

 

 

 

 

3. Draw Q R, at the distance D 0, parallel to I K;
through the centre of the circle L, draw 0 M parallel to

"K F, cutting the circle of the base at M, and I K, at 03
through the point 0, draw 0 P parallel to E F, cutting

Q R, at P ; also through M, draw M N parallel to E F,
from P draw P S perpendicular to Q R, and P N paral-
lel to O M, cutting M N, at N; join L N, cutting the
circle at Z ; make U S equal to B C, and join 0 S upon
0 S ; from 0, make 0 V equal to L Z, then 0 V is the
semi-conjugate axis.

4. Through O, draw W X perpendicular to O S;
draw L 'I‘ perpendicular to L N, cutting the circle of the
base at T ; from T, draw T Y parallel to L N, cutting
the base F E, produced at Y ; from Y, draw Y a parallel
to O M, cutting K I produced at a; from a, draw a
W parallel to O S, cutting W X, at W; making 0 X
equal to O W, then W X is the transverse axis.

PROBLEM III.

To find the section of a segment of a cylinder,
by ordinates cut by a plane through a given
line 1 K, in the plane of a segment, making
a given angle, A B C, at l K, with the plane
E F K I.

1. Draw the tangent Z M, parallel to E F, and draw
0 M parallel to K F, cutting the tangent at M, and I K
at O.

2. Take the distance L M, and make B D, perpen-
dicular to the angular point B, of the givenfangle A B C,
equal to it; proceed as in the last problem, find 0 V,
and L Z. "

3. Draw any number of lines a a, b b, c c, &,c. par-
allel to O L, cutting the lines I K, and E F, at the points
a, b, c, &c.

4. From the points a, b, c, &c. in I K, draw lines a
1, b 2, c 3, 6Lc. parallel to O V. /

5. Through the points a, b, c, in E F, draw lines a 1,
b 2, c 3, (Sec. parallel to L Z, cutting the arc line of the
base at 1, 2, 3, &c. -

6. Make all the distances a 1, FT??? 3, 61.0. from I K,

e
.
vg,

 

 

52 A ' PRACTICAL GEOMEiI‘it‘ir; "

equal to all their corresponding distances at 1, b 2, c 3,
"‘ &c. on the base;

i 7. A curve line being traced through these points, I

W K will be the section required.

In the same manner the section of any irregular fig-
ure may be found, as is plainly shown by: FIG. 2.

FIG. 3, shows how to find the section when the angle
A B C, is oblique.

OF A CONE.

+

DEFINITIONS.

1. A cone is a solid figure standing upon a circular
base, diminishing to a point at the top, called its vertex,
in such a manner, that if a straight line be applied from
the vertex round the circle of the base, it shall coincide
everywhere with the curve surface of the cone.

2. A right line passing through the cone, from the ver-
tex to the centre of the circle at the base, is called the axis.

3. If a cone be cut byga plane, not parallel to its base,
passing quite through the curve surface, the figure is an
ellipsis.

 

 

4. If a cone be cut by a plane, parallel to a plane tou ch-
ing the curve surface, the section is a parabola.

5. Ifa cone be cut by a plane, parallel to any plane
within the cone that passes through its vertex, then the
figure is an hyperbola.

These three last definitions are proved by the wri—
ters of conic sections.

NOTE. The cone in the following problem, is sup-
posed to be an upright one.

PROBLEM.

PLATE 12.

PROBLEM I.
To describe the conic section from the cone.

Note, A D N is a section of the plane, passing
through its axis at right angles with the sections of the
ellipsis, parabola, or hyperbola.

FOR THE ELLIPSIS.

1. Let G H be its transverse axis in the plane A D N;
bisect it at K ; through K, draw R Q parallel to A D.

2. Bisect Q R, at M, with the radius M R or M Q,
describe the semi-circle R P Q.

3. From K, draw K H, perpendicular to Q R, cut-
ting the circle at H : then K H is the semi-conjugate
axis, from which the ellipsis may be described as at No. 1.

 

 

FOR THE PARA BOLA.

1. Let S E be the axis of the parabola, parallel to the
other side, N D.

2. From E, draw E C at right angles to A D, the
base, cutting the semi-circle at C : then E C is an ordi-
nate or half the base of the parabola, which may be de-
scribed at NO. 2.

FOR. THE HYPERBOLA.

1. Let I F be the height of the hyperbola, produce it
till it cut the opposite side A N, produced at L, then F
L is the transverse axis.

2. From I, draw I B at right angles to A D : then I
B is half the base, which may be described as at No. 3.

NOTE. The letters are made to correspond at No. l,
2, and 3, with those of the cone from where they are taken.

TROB. I.

SECTIONS OF SOLIDS.

of il (‘nne- ,
3"" z

 

    

nt‘n (‘vlulnn
I.

T112.

 

[‘

 

PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

5.3

OF A GLOBE.

*—

DEFINITIONS.

A globe is a solid figure, and may be supposed to
be generated by the revolution of a semi-circle about its
diameter, which becomes the axis of the globe, and the
centre of the semi-circle is the centre of the globe.

Corollary 1. Hence all right lines drawn from the
centre to the circumference of a globe, are equal to one
another, for the semi-circle touches the surface of the
globe in every point as it revolves round.

Corollary 2. The section of a globe by a plane

 

 

passing through its centre, is a circle, whose diameter
is equal to the diameter of the generating semi-circle.

Corollary 3. Every section of a globe cut by a
plane, is a circle, for all the lines drawn from the centre
to its surface, are equal, consequently the generating
semi-circle may revolve round any line, as an axis, there-
fore every point in the semi-circle will generate a circle,

Corollary 4. If a semi-globe is cut at right angles to
the plane of its base, the section is a semi—circle.

 

PROBLEMS.

PLATE 12.

PROBLEM I.

To find the section of a semi-globe at right an-
gles to the plane AB D, through its centre,
and pass through the line A B in that plane.

Bisect A B in D ; on D, as a centre, with the radius D
A, or D B, describe the semi-circle A E B, and it will
be the section required.

PROBLEM II.

Given two segments of circles A B C, and D E
F, equal or unequal, having their two chords A
C, and D F, equal to each other, and the seg-
ment A B C, being placed upon D F, so that
A C shall coincide with D F, and the segment
A B C, at right angles to D E F, to find the
radius of a globe, so that the are lines A B C,
and D E F, shall be in its surface when the
two segments are placed in the above posi—
tion.

1. Make a rectangle A D F C, so that the opposite
14

 

 

sides A C, and D F, will be the bases of the segments
A B C, and D E F.

2. Find the centres G and H, of these segments.

3. Through H, draw I K parallel to G F, and com-
plete the semi-circle I D E F K.

4. Through G or H draw H L parallel to G F, cut-
cing A C and I K, at L and H ; make H M equal to L
G, join M K or M I, and it will be the radius required.

If upon E, as a centre, with the distance M I, or M
K, a segment I N K, is described, it will be part of the
greatest circle that can be drawn in the globe.

PROBLEM III.

A figure being generated by the revolution of a
plain figure, having two perpendicular legs,
and the other side being irregular, or straight,
or a curve line of any kind; the figure being
made to revolve about one of its perpendicu-
lar legs. To find the figure of the section,
cut anywhere across the base, and right an-
gles to the plane of the base, having that sec—
tion which passes through the axis given.

1. Let A F E G B be the circle of the base, and let

the section required be cut across F G; also let A B C
be a section of the solid passing through the axis.

 

—”‘ <“7W”?jx¢" "1 lava-‘l’wsi'TT-‘AP': ’1, '._ ., .‘ =53,
. . 1

 

 

”“117 7". kfxTT‘v . .mwmm

~54 PRACTICAL GEOMETIW.

2 From the cent1e O, draw the concentric circles
Hh, Iz,ch Ll, tocutAB, inthepoints H, I, K, L,
and F G, in the points it, i, k, l.

3 Erect perpendiculars to the lines A B and F G,

I both ways from these points, to out A C in H, I, K, L.

4. Make the distances [1. It, i i, k k, l l, equal to their
corresponding distances H H, II, K K, L L; a curve

being drawn through these points, it will be the section
required. ,

If the given section is triangle, the section is an up-
right hyperbola.

If the given section is a semi- -circle, the required sec-
tion will also be a semi-circle; these appear plain by
the figures, and in this case there is no tracing required.

OF A SPHEROID.

+

DEFINITIONS.

1. A spheroid is a solid, generated by the rotation of
a semi-ellipsis about the transverse 01' conjugate axis,
and the centre of the ellipsis 1s the centre of the spher 01d.

2. The line about which the ellipsis revolves, is called
the axis.

3. If the spheroid is generated about the conjugate
axis of the semi- -ellipsis, then it is called a prolate
spheroid.

4. If the spheroid is generated by the semi-ellipsis
about the transverse axis, then it is called an oblate
spheroid.

PROPOSITION I.

Every section of a spheroid is an ellipsis, except when
it is perpendicular to that axis about which it is gene-

 

rated, in which case it is a circle.

 

PROPOSITION II.

All sections of a spheroid parallel to each other, are
similar figures.

PROPOSITION III.

If a semi-spheroid is cut by a plane at right angles
to the base,* then the section is a semi-ellipsis, and the
intersection with the base will be one of its axes; and if
a line is drawn perpendicular from the middle of that
intersection to the base of the spheroid, to cut its surface,
that line will be half the other axis, whether transverse
or conjugate.

* It is here meant that the base is a section made by a plane, pass-
ing through the centre of the spheroid, at right angles to the transverse
or conjugate axis of the spheroid.

PROBLEMS.

PLATE 13

I
PROBLEM I. '-,
5

Given the base A D B C, which is a section
through the longest axis of an oblong split;
mid to find the folrn of the section, byD cutting i
the base through the line E F, at right anglesf
to its plane. 9

1. Let A B be the transverse, and C D the conjugate l

 

axis of the base ; through the centre G, draw H I paral-
lel to the given direction E F, cutting the ellipsis at the
points H and I.

2. Produce E F towards K, make Q, K equal to G H

~ or G I ; and erect the perpendicular K M.

3. Make K M equal to C G or G D, and bisect E F
at Q, and draw M Q. Erect the perpendicular F P,
cutting M Q at the point P, through Q, draw Q R paral-

* lel and equal to K M, then Q R will be the semi-conju~

gate, and E F the transverse axis of the section required,

from which, the ellipsis may be described by any of the

foregoing methods.

 

 

3.
.J
_.|.
. D1

THE SECTIONS OF SOLIDS .

II.

.PROB.I.

 

 

 

 

.
Q}
A

 

D.L

 

 

Of a Cycloid and Epicycloid .

 

 

 

4-K Cone amiits SectionsJ’age 47.

:\ Spher oid 8:9

 

O

 

 

ACjfimler and its Sections . Page 45.

 

 

Q

j\ Sphere 0r Globe.

  

"3 {'1 3* 1‘: g

.s -' "1r 1,131,113" 311135,; “,3 ., ' . ,th ,
PRAC’PIC‘A’D dEOME‘TRY. , "55
PROBLEM 11, the right line D E: towards E, viz. 2, 3 4 5, 6,

, and from the arc A B 0; ,‘take the remairiing part B C
To find the length of any are A B C, of a cirg and place it on the right, lineeDE , J. from 6 to E;
cle mechanically, very near; or to“transfer then Wlll the length 01,1111. tight line D E, be nea1ly
the same _on the circumference of another, eqml to the 51,0311,ng f’hemé‘ttt‘m
Circle F G H, of a diflerent radius, from 'a . In the same i‘nanner may AB C, be transferred to
given point F. ‘ the circle.F ’G H, viz. by taking the divisions 1, 2,
‘ . . 3, $1, 5, 6, and beginning at F, with the same open-
1. Take your compass at any small opening, begin-1 ing of your compass, setting off the divisions, 1, ‘2, 3,
ning at A, and take the equal '1 parts, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, on 4, 5, 6,3 on the arc F G H, and transferring the part
the are A B C. 6 C to 6 H, as before, then will the arc F G, H, be

2. From D, lay the same number of equal parts on equal to the are A B Q.

’m
~-
~ t. .w/
«A k” , .

 

. .5,
o F A 0 YO L 01D 02R. 113.1210 YC L oID. :. ,
wc‘r'fl-«K ' '2

+— Hf” M3“. 13/;

. f’x \f“ ' ,3

1-1 1 .1 1. 5,

DEFINITION 71. 1"-

.. ,1 , , , y 1 ,
A cycloid or epicycloid, is a figure generated by a circle rolling along the straight} edge of a ruler, or another circle
at rest, while a point in the circumference describes a figure on the plane called a cycloid or epicycloid.

__.__ \ ,
.\ 1‘
r

PROBLEMS.

PLATE l3. ' circle; make the distance 1 f, 2 g, 3 It, 650. respec?

tively to them, then these points will be in the curve of
—' the cycloid.

PROBLEM I. PROBLEM II.

To describe a cycloid. , . To describe an epicycloid.

2. Let B C be the edge of a straight ruler: erect A 1. Let B A C be the edge of the circle round which
D perpendicular to B 0, equal to the diameter of the the other 011016 Is to turn' through the centre S
generating'circie; upon the diameter A D, describe and the point A, in the circumference, draw the right
a circle: through the centre at E, draw Q R paiallel to line S D 1 make A_D equal to the diameter of the gene-
B C. rating circle.

2. Divide the semi-circumference D 1 2 3, doc. to A, 2. Divide the circumference D', 1, 2, 3, &c. into
into equal parts, and lay the same number of equal equal parts, and place them upon the arc A C, from A
parts upon the right line A B, from A towards B ; from to 1, 2, 3, dcc. to 8.
all the divisions on A C, erect perpendiculars, cutting 3. With. the radius S E, on the centre S, describe
Q R, at the points F, G, H, &c. the arc Q R; through the centre S, and the points

3. With the radius E D or E A, on the points F, G, 1, 2, 3, doc. draw lines, cutting Q. R at F, G, H, doc.
H, &c. as centres, describe arcs 1 f, 2 g, 3 h, &c. and proceed in every other respect, as in the cycloid7
take the chords A 1, A 2, A 3, &.c. from the semi- and you will get the curve.

 

 

 

" a; . “I’m

 

   

3 ., (“V : , f . l" x
l)

56" ;. PRACTICAL GEOMETR’ii

V SECTION or PLANES.

' 0E THE‘POSITIONS 0F LINES ANL PLANES, AND THE PROPERTIES ARISING FROM THEIR INTERSECTIONS.

DEFINITIONS.

1. A plane 1s a surface in which a straight line may
coincide In all directions.

2. Astraight line, Is in a plane when it has two points,
in common with that plane.

3. Two straight lines which out each other in space,

or would intersect, if produced, are in the same plane;
and two lines that are parallel, are also In the same plane.

4. Three points given in space, and not in a straight

line, are necessary and sufficient for determining the

position of a plane. Hence two planes which have three
points common, coincide with each other.

5. The intersection of two planes is a straight
line.

‘PROBLEM.

PLATE l4.

.—

When two planes A. B C D, A B F E, FIG. 1,
intersect, they form between them a certain
angle, Which is called the inclination of the
two planes, and which is measured by the
angle contained by two lines; one drawn in
each of the planes, perpendicular to their

’ line of common section.

1. Thus, if the line A F, in the plane A B E F, be
perpendicular to A B, and the line A D, in the plane
A B C D, be the perpendicular also to A B, then the
angle F A D, is the measure of the inclination of the
planes A B E F, A B C D. When the angle F A D,
is a right angle, the two planes are perpendicular.

2. FIG. 2. A line A B, is perpendicular to a plane
P Q, when the line A B, is perpendicular to any line B
C, in the plane P Q, which passes through the point B,
Where the line meets the plane. The point B is called
the foot of the perpendicular.

 

 

3. Aline A B, FIG. 3, is parallel to a plane P Q,
when the line A B is parallel to another straight line C
B, in the plane P Q.

4. If a straight line have one of its intermediate
points in common with a plane, the whole line will be
in the plane.

5. Two planes aIe parallel to one another when they
cannot intersect in any direction.

6. The intersections of two parallel planes with a
third, are parallel. Thus in FIG. 4, the lines A B, C D,
comprehended by the parallel plane P Q, R S, are par-
allel.

7. Any number of parallel lines, comprised between
two parallel planes, are equal. Thus FIG. 5, the paral—
lel lines A a, B b, C c, . . . . , comprised by the paral-
lel planes P Q, B S, are all equal.

8. If two planes C D E F, G H I J, FIG. 6, are
perpendicular to a third plane P Q, their intersection
A B, will be perpendicular to the third plane P Q.

9. If two straight lines be cut by several parallel
planes, these straight lines will be divided in the same
proportion.

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PLAJ‘E 14.

Given the inclination and seat of the axis of an
oblique cylinder or cylindroid, . to find the
angle which a tangent makes at any point in
the circumference of the base, with the plane
of the base. is...

1. FIGS. 1, 3, Plate 14. Let A E B 0 be the base
of the cylindei' or cylindroid, 03' the seat of the axis,
and letB C D be the angle of inclination, and let 0
be the point where the tangent plane touches the curved
surface of the solid.

2. Draw 0 N a tangent line at the point 0 in the
base, and draw 0 P paralllel to C B. Make the angle
P 0 R equal to B C D, and draw P R perpendicular
to P O.

3. Then, if the triangle P 0 R be conceived to be
revolved round the line P 0, as an axis, until its plane
becomes perpendicular to the plane of the circle A E

BC, the straight line, 0 R, will, in this position, co-,

incide with the cylindrical surface, and a plane touching
the cylinder or cylindroid at 0,,will pass through the
lines 0 N and 0 R. Here will now be given the two
legs P O R, and P O N,of a. right—angled trehcdral to
find the angle which the hypotenuse makes with the
base. Draw P Q perpendicular to 0 N, intersecting it
in m, and draw P S perpendicular to P 0,. Make P S
equal to P R, and join m S ; then P m S is the angle
required.

4. The hypotenuse will be easily constructed at the
same'time, thud—make m 0,, equal to m S, and join 0
Q, then N O Q will be the hypotenuse required.

5. In FIG. 1, the method of finding the angle which
the tangent plane makes with the base and the hypote-
nuse, is exhibited at four different points. In the two
first points, 0 from A, in the first quadrant, the tangent
planes make an acute angle at each point 0 ;-'but in
the second quadrant, they make an obtuse angle at each

point 0.
6. FIG. 2, is the second position of the construction
15
a

.’W’

 

 

 

 

116;: the point A, for finding the angle which the
tarigent plane makes with the base, and for finding
the hypotenuse enlarged; in order to show a more
convenient method by not only requiring less space,
but less labor, it may be thus described, the two given
legs P' 0’ R’ and P’ 0’ N’.

7. Draw P’m’ perpendicular to 0’ N’, meeting 0 N
in m’. In P' 0’, make P’ 12’ equal to P’ m’ and draw
the straight line 12’ R’, then P’ v’ R’ will be the inclination
of the tangent plane at the point 0. '

8. Again, in 0’ P/ make 0’ t’ equal to 0’ m’ and draw
t’ u’ parallel to P’ R’. From 0’, With the radius 0’ RI,
describe an are meeting t’ u’ in u’, and draw tlie straight
line 0’ u’, ' then 1’ 0' u’ is the hypotenuse.

9. For since P’ S’ 15 equal to P’ R’ and P’ 71’ equal to
P’ m’, and the angles m’ P’ S’, and 'v’ P’ R’, are right
angles; therefore the triangle '0’ P’ R’, is equal to
the triangle m’ P’ S’, and the remaining angles of the
one, equal to the remaining angles of the other, each
to each ; hence the angle P’ v’ R’ is equal to the angle
P’ m’ S’.

10. Again, because 0’ t’ is equal to 0’ m’, and 0
Q’ is equal to 0’ R’, and 0’.u’ is also equal to 0’ R’ ;
therefore 0’ u’ is equalto 0’ Q’, and since the an-
gles 0’ t’ u’ and 0’ 772/ Q’ are each a right angle,
therefore the two right angled triangles, have their by—
potenuses equal to each other, and have also one leg in
each, equal to each other, therefore the remaining side
of the one triangle is equal to the remaining side of
the—other, and therefore also the angles which are op-
posite to the equal sides are equal; hence the angle
P' 0’ u', is equal to N’ 0’ Q’.

11. By considering this construction by the transpo-
sition of the triangles, the whole of the angles which
the tangent planes make at a series of points 0, in fig—
ures 1 and 3, their hypotenuses may be all found 1n one
diagram, as in FIG. 4.

12. Thus, 1n FIG. 4, if the angles A C 0,, A C 0,
A C 0”, A C 0’” be respectively equal to A C 0,
A C 0’, A C 0”, A,C 0’“, FIG. 1, and in FIG. 4,
the semi-circle A 0" B, be described, and if C D be

‘0. '3

 

 

 

1A?-

519 1 1,, _ is,

.558 s *
drawn pe1pendicular to A B, and the angles G A D,
G B D,..be made equal to B C D, FIG. 1; then each

half of FIG. 4, being constructed as in F14} 2, the

angles at m m’ m” 771/”, will be lespectively equal to _

the angles P m S, P’ m’ S’, Q” m” S”, Q” m’“ S”, in
FIG. 1.

Also, 1n FIG. 4, the angles 0 AB, C A g, C A h,
C B 7., C B k, C B F will be the hypotenuses at the
points A, O, O’, O”, 0’“, B,' In FIG. 1. 7*

r

 

PRAc'I‘Ica’L GEOMETICY

1 v.
k;

We may here observe, FIG. 1, that the angles which
the tangent planes make with the plane of the base
4'in the first quadrant are acute; and those in the sec-
ond quadrant at? obtuse; and those in the second
quadrant are the supplements of the angles P m S;
aridmoreover, that all the angles which constitute the
‘hyip'Otenuses of the trehedra], are all acute, whether

in the first quadrant or_ the second quadrant of the semi-
ll circle A O B.

 

 

SECTIONS .

ON THE PROJECTION OF A STRAIGHT LINE BENT UPON A CYLINDRIC SURFACE, AND THE METHOD OF
DRAWING A TANGENT TO SUCH A PROJECTION.

PLATE 14.

. PROBLEM I.

Given the developement of the. surface of the
semi- cylinder, and a straight line in the de-
velopement, to find the projection of til???
straight line on a plane passing through the
axis of the cylinder, supposing the derel—
opement t0 encase the semi-cylindric surface.

FIG. 5. Let A B C be the developement of the
cylindric surface, B C being the developement of1the
semi-circumference, and let A C be the straight line given.

Produce C B to D, 'making B D equal to the diame-
ter of the cylinder. On B D, as a diamet 1', de-
scribe the semi-circle B E D, and divide the semi—
circular arc B E D, into any number of equal parts,
at l, 2, 3, &c. and its developement B G, into
the same number of equal parts, at the-points f, g, 11,
&c. Draw-the straight lines f k, g l, hfm, &.c. paral-
lel to B A, meeting A C at the points Ir, l, m, &.c.

. also parallel to B A, draw the straight lines 1 o, 2 p,
3 q, 660. and draw Ir 0, lp, m (1, &c. parallel to C D;
and the points 0, p, g, 61.0. are the projections 01 seats
of the points k, l, m, &c. in the develope111ent of the
straight line A C.

The mojectiona of a screw is found by this meth-
od: B D may be considered as the dia111ete1 of the
cylinder from which, the screw is formed; and the

1 4

r , ,'

angle B A c, 1113 "inclination of the thread, with a
straight line on the surface; or B C A the inclination
of the thread with the end of the cylinder. The same
principle also applies to the delineations of the hand-
,rails of stairs, and in the construction of bevel bridges,
of which we shall treat irf a sul sequent part of this
work.
PROBLEM II.

"Given the entire projection of a helix or screw,
in the surface of a semi—cylinder, and the
projection of a circle in that surface perpen-
dicular t0 the axis, upon the plane passing
through'the axis, to draw a tangent to the
curve at a given point. -
FIG. 6. Let I) P Ii he the

or screw, and B

projection of the helix
A the projection of the circumfer-
ence of a circle, and since this circle is in a plane
perpendicular to the plane of projection, it will be
projected into a straight line A B, equal to the diameter
of the cylinder.

On A B as a diameter, describe the semi-circle
A 7‘ B, and draw P r perpendicular to, and inter-
secting A. Bin ‘q, join the points 0, 1‘, and produce 6
r to f.

Produce A B to C, so that B C may be equal to
the semi-circular arc B 7' A. Draw C D perpendic-
ula1 to ,B C, and make C D equal to A K, and (llEhV
the stlaight line B D, then B D will be the develope-

 

 

 

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PRELIMINARY PRINCIPLES OF PROJECTION.

1

)5
PROBLEM.

PLATE m.

If from a point A’, FIG. 1, in space, a perpendicular A’ .
a, be let fall to any plane P Q whatever, the foot a of 3

this perpendicular is called the projection of the point A’
upon the plane P Q. ‘

If through different points A’, B’, C’, D’,....FIGS. 2,
3, 4, of any line A’, B’, C’, D’, . . . . whatever in space,
perpendiculars A’ a, B’ b, C’ c, D’ d, . i .v . be let fall
upon any plane P Q whatever, and if through a, b, c, d,
...... the projections of thelpoints A’, B’, C’, D’, in
the plane P Q, a line be drawn, the line thus drawn will be
the projection of the line A’ B’ C’ D’ . . . . given in space.

If the line A’ B’ C’ D’ . . . . FIG. 3, be straight, the
projection a b c d . . . . 'will also be astraight line; and
if the line A’ B’ C’ D’ . . . . FIG. 2, be a curve not in
plane perpendicular to the plane P Q, the curve a b ed

. which is the projection of the curve A’ B’ C’ D’,

. . in space, will he of the same species with the origi-

nal curve, of which it is the projection. Hence, in this

case, ifthe original curve A’ B’ C’ D’ . . . . be an e1-

lipse, a parabola, a hyperbola, &c. the projection a b c d

. . will be an ellipse, a parabola, an hyper-bola, &c.

i The circle and the ellipse being of the same species, the

projected curve maybe a circle or ellipse, whether the
original be a circle or ellipse, as in FIG. 4.

The plane in which the projection of any point, line,
or plane figure is situated, is called the plane of projec-
tion, and the point or line to be projected is called the
primative.

 

 

 

The projection of a curve will be a straight line when
the. curve to be prej'ected is in a plane perpendicular to
the plane of projection. Hence the projection of a plane
curve is a straight line.

- If a curve be situated in a plane which is parallel to
the plane of projection, the projection of the Curve will
be another curve equal and similar to the curve of which
it is the projection.

The projection upon a plane of any curve of double
cunvature whatever, is always a curve line.

In order to fix the position and form of any line what-
ever in space, the position of the line is given to, each of
twp planes, which are perpendicular to each other ; the
one is called the horizontal plane, and the other the verti—
cal plane; the projection of the line in question is made
on each of these two planes, and the two projections
are called the two projections of the line to be projected.

1 Thus we see in FIG. 5, where the parallelogram U V
'W X, represents the horizontal plane, and the parallelo-
gram U V Y'Z, represents the vertical plane, the pro-
jection a b of the line A’ A’ in space upon the horizon-
tal plane U V W X, is called the horizontal projection,
and the projection A B, of the same line upon the verti-
cal plane U V Y Z, is called the vertical projection.

The two planes, upon which we project any line what-
ever, are called the planes 'of projection.

The intersection U V, of the two- planes of projection,
is called the ground line. .

When we have two‘projectionsha‘b, A B of any line
A B’ in "space, the line A’ 'B’ will be determined by

. O

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60 ,Mi Ar PRActddAL
erecting to the planes of projection the perpendiculars a
A’, b B’ . . . A A’, B B’ . . . through the projections a, b,
. . . '3 A, B, ..... of the original points A’, B’, . . . ..
of the line in question. For the perpendiculars a‘ A’, A
A’ erected from theprojections a, A of the same point A’
will intersect each other in space ‘in a point A’, which
will be one of these in the line in question. It is clear
that the other points must be found in the same manner
as this which has now been done.

When we have obtained the two projections 'of a line
in space, whether immediately from the line itself, or by
any other means whateverfwe must abandon this line in
order to consider its two projections only. Since, when
we design a Working drawing, we operate only upon the
two projections of this line that we have brought together
upon one plane, and we no longer see anything in space.

However, to conceive that which we design, it is ab-
solutely necessary to carry by thought the operations into
space from their projections. This is the most difficult
part that a beginner has to surmount, particularly when
he has to consider at the same time a great number of
lines in various positions in space.

The perpendicular A’ a, FIG. 5, let fall from any point
A whatever in space upon the plane X V of projection,
is called the projectant of the point A’ upon this plane.
Moreover, the perpendicular distance between the point
A" and the horizontal plane X V, is called the projectant
upon the horizontal plane, or simply the horizontal pro-
jectant; and the perpendicular distance A’ A between
the original point A’ and the vertical plane U Y, is called
the projectant upon'the vertical plane, or simply the ver-
tical projection. '

We shall remark, so as to prevent any mistake, that
the horizontal projectant A’ a, is the perpendicular let
fall from the original point upon the horizontal plane, and
that the vertical projectant is the perpendicular let fall
from that point upon the vertical plane. Hence the hori-
zontal projectant is parallel to the vertical plane, and is
equal to the distance between the original point and the
horizontal plane ; and the vertical projectant is parallel to
the horizontal plane, and is equal to the distance between
the original point and the vertical plane.

We may remark, that if through a, FIG. 6, the hori-
zontal projection of the pOint A’, we draw a perpendicular
a to U V the ground line, this perpendicular a. a will be
equal to the measure of the vertical projectant A’ A;
consequently the distance of the point .A’ to the vertical
plane, is equal to the distance between a, its horizontal

GfiOMETRY.

projection, and U V, the ground line measured in a per-
pendicular to U V. In like manner, if. through A, the
vertical projection of the point A’, we draw a perpendic-
ular A a to U V the ground line, this perpendicular A a,
will be equal to the measure of the horizontal projectant
A ag- consequently, the distance of this point A’ to the
horizontal plane, is equal to the distance between A its
vertical projection, and U V the ground line measured
in a perpendicular to U V.

To these very important remarks we shall add one
which is not less so. Two perpendiculars, a a, FIG. 6,
A a, being let fall from the projections a, A to the same
point A’ upon the ground line U V, will meet each other
in the same point a, of the said ground line U V.

If we now wished the two projections of a point A’,
FIG. 6, or of any line A’ B’ whatever to be upon one or
the same plane, it is sufficient to imagine the vertical
plane U V Y Z, to turn round the ground line U V, in
such a manner as to be the prolongation of the horizon—
tal plane U V \V X ; for it is clear that this plane will
carry with it the vertical projection A or A B of the
point, or of the line in question. Moreover we see, and
it is very important, that the lines A a, B b, perpendicu-
lar to the ground line U V, will not cease to be so in the
motion of the plane U V Y Z ; and as the correspond-
ing lines a a, b b, are also perpendiculars, to the ground
line U V, it follows that the lines, a a’, b b’, will be the
respective prolongation of the lines a a, b b.

Hence it results, when we consider objects upon a.
single plane, the projections a, A of a point A’ in space,
are necessarily upon the same perpendicular A a to the
ground line U V.

It is necessary to call to mind that the distance A a,

‘measures the distance from the point in space to the hor-
izontal plane, (the point A being the vertical projection
of this point,) and that the line a a, measures the dis—
tance from the same point in space to the vertical plane.

It follows, that if the point in space be upon the hor-
izontal plane, its distance with regard to this last named
plane will be zero or nothing, and the vertical A a will
be zero also. Moreover, the vertical projection of this
point will be upon the ground line at the foot a, of the
perpendicular a. a, let fall upon the ground line, from the
horizontal projection a of this point.

Again, if the point in space be upon the vertical plane,
its distance, in respect of this plane, will be zero, the

 

 

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of the point in question will be the foot a, of the perpen‘

 

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PRACTICAL

dicular, A a, let fall upon the ground-line from the verti-

111 general, we suppose that the vertical projection of
a point is above the ground~line, and that the horizontal
projection is below; but from what has been said, it'd-is
evident that if the point in space be situated below the
horizontal line, its vertical projection will be below the
ground~line ; for the distance from this point to the hor-
izontal plane, cannot be taken from the base-line to the
top, but from the top to the base with respect to its
plane.

So if the point in space be situated behind the vertical
plane, its horizontal projection will be above the ground-
line ; from which we conclude~

lst. If the point in question be situated above the hor-
izontal plane, and before the vertical plane, its vertical
projection will be above, and its horizontal projection
below, the ground—line.

2d. If the point be situated before the vertical plane,
and below the horizontal plane, the two projections will be
above the ground-line.

3d. If the point be situated above the horizontal plane,
but behind the vertical plane, the two projections will be
above the ground-line.

4th. Lastly. If the point be situated above the hori-
zontal plane, and behind the vertical plane, the vertical
projection will be below, and the horizontal projection
above, the ground-line.

The reciprocals of these propositions are also true.

If a line be parallel to one of these planes of projec-
tion, its projection upon the other plane will be parallel
to the ground-line. Thus, for example, if a line be par-
allel to a horizontal plane, its vertical projection will be
parallel to the ground— line , and if it is parallel to the ver-
tical plane, its horizontal projection will be parallel to the
ground—line. '

Reciprocally, if one of the projections of a line be
parallel to the ground-line, this line will be parallel to the
plane of the other projection. Thus, for example, if the
vertical projection of a line be parallel to the ground-
line, this line will be parallel to the horizontal plane, and
vice versa.

If a line be at any time parallel to the two planes of
projection, the two projections of this line will be par-
allel to the ground-line; and reciprocally, if the two pro-
jections of a line be parallel to the ground-line, the line
itself will be at the same time parallel to the two planes

of projection.
16

 

 

as»

as '

.LGDOMETRY j, i ., 61

 

If a line he perpendicular to one of the planes of pro-

jection, its prejectionzupon this- plane will enly be a point, ~-
and its projection upon the othe1 plane Will be perpen-

dicular to the ground-line; Thus, for example, if the
line in question he perpendicular to the horizontal plane,
its horizontal projection will be only a point, and its ver-
tical projection will be petpendicular to the ground- -line.

Reciprocally, if one ’of the projections of a straight
line be a point, and the projection of the other perpen-
dicular to the ground-line, this line will be perpendicular
to the plane of projection upon which its projection is a
point. Thus the line will be perpendicular to the hori-
zontal plane, if its projection be the given point in the
horizontal plane.

If a line he perpendicular to the ground-line, the two
projections will also-be perpendicular to this line. The
reciprocal is not true; that is to say, that the two pro-
jections of a line may be perpendicular to the ground-line,
without having the same line perpendicular to the ground-
line.

If a line be situated in one of the planes of projection,
its projection upon the other will be upon the gr-ound -line.
Thus, if a line be situated upon a horizontal plane, its
veitical plojection will be upon the ground-line; and if
this line were given upon the vertical plane, its horizontal
projection would be upon the ground-line.

Reciprocally, if one of the projections of a line be
upon the ground-line, this line will be upon the plane of
the other projection. Thus, for example, if it be the
vertical projection of the line in question, which is upon
the ground, this line will be upon the horizontal plane ; if,
on the contrary, it were upon the horizontal projection
of this line which was upon the ground-line, this line
would be upon the vertical plane.

If a line be at any time upon the two planes of projec-
tion, the two projections of this line would be upon the
ground-line, and the line in question would coincide with
this ground-line. Reciprocally, if the two projections of
a line were upon the groundoline, the line itself would be
upon the ground-line.

If two lines in space are parallel, their projections upon
each plane of projection are also parallel. Reciprocally,
if the projections of two lines are parallel on each plane
of projection, the two lines will be parallel to one another
in space.

If any two lines whatever in space cut each other, the
projections of their point of inrersection, will be upon the
same perpendicular line to the ground-line, and upon the

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" .manneiithat their points or i” _ 1p” ,1.
» ‘f same perpendicular to the ground- line, these tWo lines in’
_ question will cutxeach other in space ~ 1

’3"

The position of a plane is determined“ 1n space when

  

‘ ”it? l l
of projection. ‘1

The intersections, A B, A C, of- the plane 1n question,
with the planes of projections, are called the traces of

s plane. [1:

The trace, situated in the horizontal plane, is called
the horizontal trace, and the trace, situated 1n the ver-
tical plane, is called the vertical t7 ace.

A very important remark 1s, that the two traces of a“

plane intersect each other upon the ground-line.

If a plane be parallel to one of the planes of projection,
this plane will have only one trac‘e, which will be parallel
to the ground— —line, and situated in the other plane of
projection. Reciprocally, if a plane has a trace parallel
to the ground line, this plane will be parallel to the
plane of projection, which does not contain this tr‘ace.
Thus

1st. If a plane be parallel to the horizontal plane, this
plane will not have a horizontal trace, and its vertical
trace will be parallel to the ground-line. Likewise, if a
plane be parallel to the vertical plane, this plane will not
have a' vertical trace, and, its horizontal trace will be par-
allel to the ground line.

2d. If a plane has only one trace, and this tr‘ace par-
allel to the ground -line, let it be in the vertical plane,
then the plane “ill be parallel to the horizontal plane.
So if the trace of the plane be in the horizontal plane,
and parallel to the mound line, the plane Vt 111 be parallel
to the vertical plane.

If one of the traces of a plane be perpendicular to
the gr-ound line, and the other trace in any position
whatever, this plane will be perpendicular to the plane
of projection, in which the second trace is. Thus, if it
be a horizontal trace which 1s perpendicular tothe ground—
litre, the plane wr ill be perpendicular to the vertical
plane of projection , and if, on the contrary, the vertical
trace be that which is perpendicular to the ground line,
then the plane will be perpendicular to the horizontal
plane. 1
Rflecipr‘ocallJ, if a plane be perpendicular to one of the
planes of projection, without being parallel to the other,

 
 
  
 

 

 

    

, "t‘ace‘Will be perpendrcular‘to the ground-
lrne 1 Thus crekample, if the plane be perpendicular
to the verticaltplitne, the vertical trace will be perpendic-
ular to the gr V“ ndline. The reverse will also be true,
if the plane be perpendicular to the horizontal plane.

If a plane be perpendicular to the two planes of pro-
jection, its two traces will he perpendicular to the ground-
line. Recipr'ocally, if the two traces of a plane are in
the same straight line perpendicular to the ground- -line,
this plane will be perpendicular to both the planes of pro-
jection.

If the two traces of a plane are parallel to the ground-
line, this plane will he also parallel to the ground-line.
Reciprocally, if a plane be parallel to the ground-line, its
two traces will be parallel to the ground—line.

When a plane is not parallel to either of the planes of
projection, and one of its traces is parallel to the ground-

‘line, the other trace is also necessarily parallel to the

ground-line.

If two planes are parallel, their traces in each of the
planes of projection will also be parallel. Recipr ocally,
if on each plane of projection the traces of the two planes
are parallel, the planes will also be parallel.

If a line be perpendicular to a plane, the projections
of this line will be in each plane of projection, perpen-
dicular to the respective traces in this plane. Recipro—
cally, 11 the projections of a line are respectively perpen-
dicular to the traces of a plane, the line will be perpen-
dicular t0 the plane.

[fa line be situated in a given plane by its traces, this
litre can only intersect the planes of projection upon the
traces of the plane which contains it. Moreover, the line
in question can only meet the plane of projection in its
own projection. W'l‘rence it follows, that the points of
meeting of the right line, and the planes of projection,
are respectively upon the intersections of this right line,
and the traces of the plane which contains it.

If a right litre, situated in a given plane by its traces,
is parallel to the horizontal plane, its herizontal projec-
tion will be parallel to the horizontal trace of the given
plane, and its vertical projection will be parallel to the
ground-line. Likewise, if the right- line situated in a
given plane by its traces, is parallel to the vertical. plane,
its vertical projection will be parallel to the vertical line
of the plane which contains it, and its horizontal projec—
tion will be parallel to the ground-line.

tr- ,
.- ; p .7
,,_ “r“

m Reciprocally, if a line be situated In a given plane by ,

egg;- its traces, and that, for exatrIple, let its horizontal pro-

jection be parallel to the horizontal trace of the given;
plane, this line will be parallel to the horizontal plane,

and its vertical projection will be parallel to the ground-

  

r».

1...);1 ,."

  

 

plane, this lIne,W1lL bee parallel to the vertical plane,
and its horizontaL; projection will be parallel to the
g1onnd line. . , ., .

S E C T1 0 N
ON THE DEVELOPEMENTSOF THE SURFACES OF SOLIDS.

~ A

 

PROBLEMS,

PLATE 15.’

PROBLEM I.

To find the developement of the surface'of a
right semi-cylinder.

FIG. 1. Let A C D E be the plane passing through
the axis. On A C, as a diameter, describe the semi—cir-
cular are A B 0. Produce C A to B, and make A F
equal to the developement of the are A B 0. Draw F G
parallel to A E, and E G parallel to A F; then A F G
E is the developement required.

PROBLEM II.

To find the developement of that part of a semi—
cylinder contained between two perpendicular
surfaces.

FIGS. 2, 3, 4. Let A B C D E be a portion of a
plane passing through the axis of the cylinder, C D and
A E, being sections of the surface, and let D E and F
G be the insisting lines of the perpendicular surface ; also
let A C be perpendicular to A E and C D. On A C, as
a diameter, describe the semi-circular are A B C. Pro-
duce C A to H, and make A H equal to the develope-
ment of the are A B C. Divide the are A B C, and its
developement, each into the same number of equal parts
-. at the points, 1,2,3.

Through the points 1, 2, 3, &c. in the semi-circular
arc, and in its developement, draw straight lines parallel
to A E, and let the>paralle1 lines through 1,2, 3, in the

 

 

are A, B, C, meet F’ G, in p, ”q, r, &.c. and A C in
k, l, m, 6130. Transfer the distances kp, lq, mr, &c.
to the developement upon ’the lines 1 a, 2 b, 3 c, 1350.
Through the points F, a, b, c, &.c. draw the curve line,
F c 1. In the same manner draw the curve line, E K ;
then F E I K will be the developement required.

PROBLEM III.

To find the developement of the half surface of
a right cone, terminated by a plane passing
through the axis.

.FIG. 5. Let A C E be the section of the cone pass-
ing along the axis, A E; and C E the straight lines
which terminate the conic surface, or the two lines which
are common to the section C A E, and the conic surface,
and let A C be the line of common section of the, axal
plane, and the base of the cone. .

On A C, as a diameter, describe a semi-circle, A B C.
From E, with the radius E A, describe the arc, A F, and
make the am A F, equal to the semi circular are A B C,
and Join E F ; then the sector, A E F, is the develope-
ment of the portion of the conic surface required.

PROBLEM IV.

To find the developementiof that portion of a
conic squace contained by a plane passing
along the axes, and two surfaces perpendicu-
lar to that plane.

FIG. 6. Let A C E be the section of the cone along
the axis, and let A C and G I be the insisting lines of
the perpendicular surfaces. Find the developement A

.g‘»
anmth.

w .
.. » a...» .7

Asa-x:

64 ‘ PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

E F, as in the preceding problem. Divide the semi- l allel to one side, E C meeting A C in the points t, u, v,
circular arc, A B C, and the sectorial arc, A F, each 65c. Also from the points 1, 2, 3, in the sectorial arc,
into the same number of equal parts at the points 1, 2, A F, draw the straight lines 1 E, 2 E, 313, &0. Trans-
3, 660. From the points 1, 2, 3, 650. in the semi~circu- fer the distances pt, qu, m2, (Vac, to 1 a, 2 b, 3 c, 356. then
lar arc, draw straightlines, 1 /c, 2 l, 3 m, 650. perpendicu- through the points A, a, b, c, 650. draw the curve A c F,
lar to A C. From the points Ir, 1, m, 660. draw straight and A c F'is one of the edges of the developement, and
lines 16 E, l E, m E, 650. intersecting the curve, A C, in by drawing the other edge, the entire developement, A G

p, q, r, 650. Draw the straight lines, pt, qu, 1'72, &0. par- J H F, will be found.

 

 

 

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[In the annexed definitions and problems, the student will find enough to
portance of this useful branch of science , and he will also find occamon toap‘ply th

to have acquired from the preceding pagesml’ the present work ]

 

1. When straight llnes are drawn, according to a cer—
tain law, from the several parts oflany figure or object cut
by a plane, and by that cutting midfitersectlon describe
a figure 011 that plane, the figure so described is called
the projection of the othe1 figure or object.

2. The lines taken altogether, which produce the pro-
jection of the figure, are called a system of rays. 1

3. When the system of rays are all palallel to each
other, and are cut by a plane perpendicular to them, the
p1ojection 0n the plane ls called the o1thog1aphy of the
fignle p1 oposed

4 Vi hen the system of parallel rays is perpendicular
to the h01iz0n, and p1ojected on a plane parallel to the
ho1izon, the 01thographica1 projection is then called the
ichnography, or plan of the figure proposed.

5. \Vhen the rays of the system are parallel to each
othe1 and to the ho1izon, and if the projection he made
on a plane perpendicular to those 1ays and :1‘to: ~thet
hon/on, it is called the elevation of the figure prov
posed.

[In this kind of projections, the piojection of any par-
ticular point, or line, is sometimes called the seat of that
point or line, on the plane of projection. ]

   

DEFINIT'ist.

 

6. If a solid be cut by a plane passing quite through
17

 

fine. a correct and sufficiently perfect idea of the nature and 1m-
ometrical principles, a knowledge of which he 15 presumed

~_‘

it, the figure of that part of the solid, which is cut by the
plane, is called a sectiOn;

7. vVVhen any solid is projected orthographically upon
a plane, the outline or boundary of the projection is
called the contour or profile of the projection.

[NOTE. Although the term orthography signifies, in
general, the projection of any, plane which is perpendicular
to the projecting rays, without regarding the position of
the plane on which the object is projected ; yet writers
on projection substitute it for elevation, as already de-
fined, by which means it will be iinpossible to know
when we mean that particular position of orthographical
projection, which is made on a plane perpendiculm to
the horizon] _ ‘

:AXIOM. -

If any point, line, or plane oliila'ny original figu1e, or
object, touch the plane on which it is to be projected,
the placevgp‘ene it touches the projecting plane, is the
projection Of tbét point, line, or plane of the original
figure or obJect 1.:

   
 

:“PROPOSITION. 1
_ ical projection of a line, which is paral—
' " projection, is a line equal and parallel

 

Ln.”

*3. 1

,1»

66

‘ PROJECTION OF PRISMS.

PROBLEMS.

PLATE 16. ' ; PROBLEM I.

FIG. 1.

To project the elevation of a prism standing on
a plane perpendicular to the projecting plane;
given the base of the prism, and its position
to the projecting plane.

Let A B C D, No. 1, be the base of the prism; let
H F be the intersection of the projecting plane, with‘the
plane on which the prism stands.

Draw lines from every angle of the base, 1:111th H F
at H, and F will be the projection of the points. A
and C; the angle D touching H F at D, is its pro-

jection.
From each of the points H, D, F, in No. 2, draw the

lines H I, D E, and F G, each perpendicular to H F;

make D E equal to the‘ 1 eight of the p1isn1 , tlnough E 3

draw I G, cutting H I and F G at I and G, which will
give the projection sought.

PROBLEM II.

FIG. 2.

the ichnography is to be described; given
the iehnography A L, of an angle, which the
two under planes make with each other; the
angle M a l, which the angle of the solid
makes with its ichnoglaphy A L; the inter-
section A a, oi one of its ends with the plane
01 tl1e.icl11 1og1anhv: the angle D A a, which
one side of the end makes at A, with the
intersection A (10f that end; also given one
of the sides of the ends, and the length of the
prism.

At the given point A, with the intersection A a, make

an angle a A D, equal to the angle which one of the sides ‘

 

 

of the end makes with A a ; make A D equal to one of
the sides of the end ; then on A D, construct the square
A B C D; through the angles of the square B, C, D,
draw lines B H, «C I, and D M, parallel to A L ; then at.
the point a, in the right line D M, make an angle M a l,
with a M, equal to the angle of the solid, whose projec-
tion is A L with A L ; make a, 1 equal to the length of
the solid; through the points a and Z, No. I, draw the
lines a e and l 2', perpendicular to a l ,' through the
points B and C, No. 2, draw B R. and C S, paral-
lel to A a, cutting D M, produced at R and S; on
a, as a centre with the distances at D, a R, and (1S 1}, de-
scribe arcs‘P g, Rf, and S 3, cutting a e, No. 1, at g rr,f,
e ,' through the points g, f, e, draw the lines g 1:, f it,
and e 2', parallel to a. l, and No. 1, will be completed,
which will be the projection of the prism 011 a plane par-
allel to A L. Through the points g, f, e, draw the lines
a E,f F, and g G, perpendicular to D M, or A L, cutting
D E, C I, and B H, respectively at G, E, F ; also through
the points 1, Is, It, i, draw the lines I L, I; K, h H, and i
I, likewise parallel to A L, cutting A L, G M, B H, and
C I, respectively at thepoints L, K, H, and I; join E

F, E G, and H I, I K, K L, L H, then will the planes
. . ., . E 13 HI, '13
'10 project the 1chnographjr and elevatlon of a ,

“ll‘dle PM" to, re“ 19’0“ one 0f “5 angles A G be joined then will F A G 13 1‘ 1 L H, and G _1
upon a glven pomt A, 1n the plane, 011 winch 1

I K L, and H I K L, represent the ichnog-
raphy of the upper sides of the solid; and if F A and
L K, 1"ep1es cut the sides of the solid ne\t to the plane
of plojection. Then to ploject the elevation 011 a plane
whose intersection is T U ; from F, E, G, A, H, I, K,
and L; that is, from all the points in the ichnography

‘1 representing the solid angles, draw the lines Ff, E e,

 

 

 

G g, A a, H h, I ‘i, K In, and L l, perpendicular to the
intersection T U, cutting T U at p, q, a, g, 0, m, and
1:; make pf, q 6,0‘ g g, n 11, 0 i, m l, and 1.: k, at No 3,
respectively equal to Pf, Q 8, Grr g, N ll, 0 i, M l, and
Kk,atN01; thenjoinfa,ag,gr e,ef, ei, £11, Lg,
kl,andla,' andfag egg 8 i 11,3 kla,willbethe
elevations of the outside planes of the solid; and by
joiningfh, and It i, f h i e, f It l a, and i I). l I: will be
the elevations of the planes of the solid, next to the plane
on which the elevation is projected.

{3,1, '
‘1

SHADOWS.

[This is one of the most interesting

4

branches of architectural science ; or, perhapsfit may, with more propriety, be termed a branch of geom—

etry ; for’it is almost entirely dependent on, and governed by, geometrical principles.

From a knoweldge of it, the architect is enabled to draft his plans,

corfstruct his windows in order to receive light to the best advantage, 8m. &c.

and to give them their true effect, or representation of light and shade ; to

The art of keeping a proper gradation of light and shade

on objects, according to their several distances, colors, and other circumstances, is of the utmost consequence to the artist]

THE EFFECT OF DISTANCE

The art of giving a due diminuntion or degradation to
the strength of the light and shade and colors of objects,
according to the different distances, the quantity of light
which falls on their surfaces, and the medium through
which they are seen, is called Keeping.

1. When objects are removed to a great distance from
the eye, the rays of light which they reflect will he less
vivid, and the color will become more diluted, and tinged
with a faint bluish cast, by reason of the great body of
air through which they are seen.

2. In general, the shadows of objects, according as
they are more remote from the eye, will be lighter, and
the light parts will become darker; and at a certain dis-
tance the light and shadow are not distinguishable from
each other; for both will seem to terminate in a bluish
tint, of the color of the atmosphere, and will , appear
entirely lost in that color.

3. If the rays of light fall upon any colored substance,
the reflected rays will be tinged with the color of that
substance. '

4. If the colored rays be reflected upon any object, the
color of that object will then be compounded of the color
of the reflected ra 75’ and the color of the object ; so that
the color of the object which receives the reflection, will
be changed into another color.

5. From the closeness or openness of the place where
the object is situated, the light, being much more vari-
ously directed, as in .ijects which are surrounded by

 

ON THE COLOR OF OBJECTS.

buildings, will be more deprived of reflection, and conse-
quently, will be darker than those objects which have no
other objects in their vicinity ; except the surrounding
objects are so disposed, as to reflect the rays of light upon
the surrounded objects.

”6. In a room, the light being more variously directed
and reflected than abroad in the open air, (for every aper-
ture gives an'inlet to a different stream) which direction
is various, according to the place and position of the aper-
ture, whereby every different side of the room, and even
the same side in such a situation, will be variously affected
with respect to their light, shade and colors, from what
they would in an open place when exposed to rays com-
ing in the same direction.

Some original colors naturally reflect light in a greater
proportion than others, though equally exposed to the
same degrees of it ; whereby their degradation at differ-
ent distances will be different from that of other colors
which reflect less light. '

The art of keeping a degradation of light and shade
on’objects, according to their several distances, colors, and
other circumstances, is of the utmOst consequence to the
artist. .,

In orthographical projections, where equal and similar
objects stand in the so me position to the plane of projec—
tion, they. ill be represented similar, and of an equal
magnitude, at every distance from that plane ; and conse-
quently planes which are parallel to each other, would not

 

 

 

68"

appear to have any distance; so that the representation
of any number of objects, at different distances from each
other, would be egtirely confused, and no particular
’ object could be distinguished from the others 7; but by a
proper attention to the art of keeping, every object
Will be distinct and separate, and their} respective
distances and colors from each other will be preserved ;

SHADOWS.

but though a proper degradation of light and shade
ought to be preserved, according to the respective distan-
ces of objects from each other, artists in general take too
great liberties with nature; we frequently. see in the
drawings of architects, the art of keeping carried to so
great an extreme, as to render their performances ridicu-
lous. l“

—-+—-

DEFINITIONS.

1. A body which is continually emitting a stream of
matter from itself, and thereby rendering objects visible
to our sense of seeing, is called a luminary ; such as the
sun or any other body producing the same effect.

2. The stream of matter which is emitted from the
luminary, is called light.

3. A substance or body which light cannot penetrate,
is called an opaque body.

4. If a space be deprived of light by an opaque body,
it is called a shade.

5. The whole or part of any surface on which a shade
is projected, is called a shadow. .

6. A body which will admit of light to pass through it,
is called a transparent substance.

’7. A line of light emitted from the luminary, is called
a ray. “

PROPOSITION I.

The rays of light, after issuing from the luminary,
proceed in straight lines.

PROPOSITION II.

If the rays of light fall upon a reflecting plane, the an-
gle made by any incident ray, and a perpendicular to the
reflecting plane, is called the angle of incidence, and will

 

C

whether concave or convex, or mixed of the two, the
angle of reflection‘will still be equal to the angle of in—
cidence.

PRO POSITION IV.

Any uneven reflecting surface, whose parts lie in vari-
OUs directions, will reflect the rays of the sun in as many
different directions.

DEMONSTRATION.

If any ray fall upon a part of the surface which is
perpendicular to that ray, it will be reflected in the same
line as the incident ray ; but the more or less any part of
the surfuce is inclined to a ray, falling upon that part of
the surface, the greater or less angle will the reflected
ray make with the incident ray. For, imagine a perpen-
dicular to be erected to that part of the surface where
any incident ray impinges on the surface, it is evident
that the measure of the angle of incidence is equal to the
obtuse angle made by the incident ray, and the reflecting
surface atthe impinging point, made less by a right angle;
but the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of inci-
dence; wherefore it follows that the whole angle formed

 

be equal to the angle that its reflected ray will make with l

the same perpendicular, called the angle of reflection; 1_
these two propositions are known from experiment.

PROPOSITION III.

If the rays of light fall upon any curved surface, l

by the incident and reflected rays, is double of the angle
of incidence; and consequently a reflecting surface,

j whose parts he in various directions, will reflect the sun’s
l rays in as many directions.

I

1

Corollary. Hence appears the reason why objects
jand their parts become visible to our sight when im-
1 .

} mersed 1n shade.

 

UN 5 HA l‘)'{})'\\,’3 .

 

 

SHADOWS.

, 6'9.

DEFINITIONS.

1. If a given straight line pass through or cut a given
plane, and if an imaginary plane be supposed to pass
through any two points in the straight line, perpendicular
to the other plane, the angle made by the intersection of
the two planes, and the given straight line, is called the
inclination or altitude of the given line, on the given plane.

2. The intersection of the planes, is called the seat of
the given line on the given plane.

Corollary. The angle made by a ray of light, and
the seat of that ray, is the angle of the sun’s inclination.

3. If, on the surface of any solid, there be any point
or points in the surface where the sun’s rays fall perpen-
dicular, this point or points which the sun’s rays fall per-
dicular to, are called points of light.

 

 

4. If, on the surface of any solid, there be any line
drawn upOn that surface, and if the line so drawn upon
the surface be lighter than any other line that can be
drawn upon the said surface, then the line first drawn is
called the line of light.

5. If the sun’s rays fall upon any solid, and if a line
or lines be drawn on the surface of the solid where the
sun’s rays are a tangent, or upon the place or places of
the surface which divide the dark side from the light side1
then the line, or lines, so described, are called a line or
lines of shade.

6. If the sun’s rays be parallel to any plane, that plane
to which they are parallel, is called a plane of shade.

PROBLEMS.

PROBLEM I.

Given the ichnography and elevation of a prism,
whose sides stand perpendicular to the hori—
zon, and whose ichnography is a figure of any
kind, regular or irregular; given the seat of the
sun on the ichnography, also on the elevation;
and the intersection of the plane of the eleva-
tion with the plane of the ichnography ; the re-
presentation of the point being likewise given
on the elevation, and also on the ichnogra—
phy, to determine the representation of the
shadow on the elevation.

Through the representation of the given point in the
plane of the ichnography, draw a line parallel to the seat
of the sun’s rays on that plane, and produce it till it cut
the intersection; from that point on the elevation, draw
a line perpendicular to the intersection ; then through the
representation of the ,given point on the elevation, draw

a line parallel to the sun’s seat on the elevation, cutting
18

 

 

the line that was drawn perpendicular to the intersection,
and that point will be the representation of the shadow
on the elevation.

PLATE 17.

PROBLEM II.‘ FIG. 1.

Given the altitude and seat of the sun on the
horizon and the intersection of a plane, mak-
ing a given angle With the horizon; to find
the seat and altitude of the sun on the other
plane.

Let D F be the seat of the sun on the horizon, and D
F G, the angle of the sun’ s elevation, E F the intersec-
tion of the plane with the horizon, and A B C, the angle
which that plane ls to make with the horizon.

P1oduce D F till it meet E F in F , through any
point D, in the seat D F, draw D G perpendicular to D
F, cutting F G in G ; also through D draw D K, per—
pendicular to E F, cutting E F in E ; through D, draw

77: 770 '
D I, peipendicular to D K; make the angle D E H,
equal to the giVen angle A B C; make D I equal to
D G; through I, draw I H, perpendicular to E H,
”cutting it in H, make E K equal to E H ,_join K F;
:from K. makeK L,_ perpendicular to K F; frOm K
make K L equal to H I, join L .;F then will _I K be
the seat of the sun on the other plane, and K F L will be
the angle of the altitude.

If the plane K E F stands perpendicular to the hori-
zon, as in FIG. 2, the operation will be more simple, as
follows, the same letters standing for the same things :

Make E K equal to D G; join K F ; draw K L, as
before, and make K L equal to D E; join L F, then
will K F be the seat of the sun on the horizon, and K F
L be the seat of the altitude.

 

PLATE 18.

\ .PROBLEM III. FIG. 1.

Given the ichnography A B C D E F G H I K,
and elevation L M N O of an upright prism,
Whose base or iehnography is a regular poly-
gon, and the seat of the sun’s rays on the base,
to determine the various degrees of light and
shade on the different sides of the prism.

Let I’ Q, in the ichnography, be the seat of the sun;
and it it cut C D perpendicular, then will C D be the
lightest side of the prism, the sides D E, and C B, will
be a small degree darker, as P Q is more inclined to D
E and C B; and in general, according as the sides re-
code on each side of C D, they Will be continually darker
until they become wholly deprived of light; then suppose
the sun’s ray to touch the Side G H, then G H will
be theplane of shade, or that side Where the light will
end.

Much in the same manner may the different degrees
of shade be found on the surface of a cylinder, as in FIG.
2, where A B C D is the ichnography, and G H IK the
elevation: that is, if B P be the direction of the sun’s
rays, cutting the ichnography in B, then will B be
the lightest place ; and it will be continually darker and
darker in each side of the point B, until it arrives at
the point C, where the ray touches the side of the cyl-
inder; and there the light will end, and the darkness
begin.

 

 

SHADOWS.

PROBLEM IV.

FIG. 3 and 4.

To represent the boundaries of light and shade on
the elevation of a cone illumined by the sun, .
given the angle that any ray of light takes
With the base of the cone; also to determine
the line of light, or that place on the surface
that Will be the lightest.

Let A E D be the elevation of the cone, and let F I
L G be the ichnography or base of the cone ; let F L be
the seat of any ray in a plane, passing through the axis,
and let the angles M L F, FIG. 3, and L F M, FIG. 4, be

the angles which a ray of light makes with the base of

the cone, and let F N L be a section of the cone passing
through the axis, and through F L; consequently the
rays M L and F M, will be in that plane.

Produce the rays M L and F M, if necessary, until
they cut the sides of the section N F and N L ; FIG. 3
will be cut at the points M and L, and FIG. 4 at the points
F and M: bisect each of the lines M L and F M: and
through N, the vertex of the cone, and the point of bi-
section, draw N K ; through K, draw I K G, at right an-
gles to F L ; through the points G and F, drawthe lines
G C and F B, perpendicular to A D, the representation
of the base, cutting A D at B, and C in the elevation,
and join B E and C E ; then will B E be the lightest
line that can be drawn 011 the surface of the cone, and
C E will be the representation of a line which will divide
the light side of the cone from the dark side, and B E C
will be the representation of half the enlightened side of
the cone.

 

PLATE 19.
PP OBLEAI V.

Given the ichnography and elevation of a poly—
gonal ring, or a ring made of cylinders of
equal lengths, and making equal angles with
each other, to determine the representation
of the boundaries of light and shade, 011 the
ichnography and elevation; the sun’s altitude
and seat to the plane. on which the ichnogra-
phy is described, being given.

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nography, cutting the thickness of the ring at A and B ;
let A C D be the angle which the sun’s rays make with

the plane of the ichnography, or seat A C.
Bisect A B 1n 0,- with the radius 0 A or c B, describe

a circle , and through the centre 0, draw c d parallel to C i

D, cutting the circle at 11; also through c, draw the line
a b, at right angle. to c d, cutting the circles at a and b ;

through the points (1 and b, draw lines parallel to the

sides A and B of the ring ; then the dark line nearest to
A, will represent the line of light; and that which is
nearest to B, will represent that line which separates the
light side from the dark side.

To find the lines of light and shade on the next side
of the ichnography : from the centre C draw C E at right
angles to the side E, cutting the sides E and F at E and
F; through the point A draw H A G, at right angles to
E C cutting E C at G ; from G make G H equal to A D:
join H C, and bisect E F at c; then with the radius 0 E
on c F describe a circle, and tli1ougl1 its centre 0, d1awc
1; parallel to C H, cutting the circle at I; , also through c
draw pfat right angles to c k,- through the points k
andf, draw lines parallel to the sides E and F: then
will the line next to E, that cuts C F at p, be the line of
light, and the line next to F, the line of shade.

In like manner proceed with the side, I and K : that
is, through 0 draw the line C I, at right angles to the
side I, cutting the sides I and K, at I and K; bisect I
K at c ; with the radius 01 01' c K, describe a circle;
through the point A, as before, draw the line A L per-
pendicular to C I, cutting C I at L; from L, make L
M equal to A D; join M C ; through c, draw 0 m par-
allel to C M, cutting the circle at m, also through c,
draw g h perpendicular to c m, cutting the circle at g
and It ,' then through the points m and h, draw lines par-
allel to the sides I and K; then the line next to I, which
cats I K at s, will give the line of light, and the line
next to K‘the line of shade.

111 like manner to find the common boundary of light
and shade, upon that side of the ring next to the ich-
nography, draw lines through the points a, p, g, parallel
to the sides A, E, l, as are shown by the dotted lines,
“ l11t11 will gives lines of shade on the unde1 side of each
cylindrical pa1t. The lines for one qualter of the ring
being found, the other quarter, on the other side of the
seat A C, may be found from the last quarter, each being
in the same order, receding from the line A C, or
drawing towardsit. One half being new found, the other
half will be found by observing that opposite sides of

 

 

11‘ _ 71
the 1ing are parallel to each other; and consequently

if one is found, the other will also be found, for the
light will be at the same distance upon the same sides

.of that which is to be :found,,-,as that cylinder which is

found. Then’ to find the lightest lines on the elevation,

.FIG. 2, and also thosélineswhich will be the boundaries '
__ofthe light and shade, proceed as folloWs:

Through the points ’11, 0, p, q,_."‘draw the lines 72 N,

o O, pP, (1 Q, perpendicular to‘lthe elevation, cutting

the line P K, which represents a plane 5':paSSing through
the axes of all the straight cylinders, at the points P, Q,
N, O ; make P H equal to p 1-5; from Q, make Q E
equal to q 8 ,' from N make N D equal to n d, from 0,
make 0 A equal to o a; then through the points H, D,
E, A, FIG. 2, draw lines parallel to P K: then will the
lines H and D, represent the lines of light, and E and
A will represent the lines of shade. Now since the side
D A, in the elevation, FIG. 2, represents the cylindrical
part A B, on the ichnography, and because that the lines
of light and shade are in the same order on each side of
A B: that is, the light and shade will be the same height
from the plane of ichnography, on each of the cylin~
drical parts that are equi—distant from the cylindrical part
A B, on each side of it, and consequently will be repre-
sented on each of the cylindrical parts, FIG. 2, equi—
distant from A D, at the same altitude ; then make P H
and Q E, the next cylindrical part to the centre of the
elevation, equal to P H and Q E, on the outside cylindri-
cal part, which the side E F, on the ichnography, repre-
sents ; make S M and R G, in the elevation, equal to s m
and r g, on the ichnography ; the height of the lines on
each side of the elevation representing the light and shade,
being taken from its corresponding place on the ichnog-
1aphy, as is already shown, will complete the lines of light
and shade on the elevation.

OBSERVATIONS. _

I. If the seat of the sun’s rays be drawn on any plane,
and if a cylinder lay on that plane with its axis perpendic-
ular to its seat, and parallel tothe plane, the lightest line
on the cylinder, will be nearer the plane in this position
than in any other. 2. But if the axis of the cylinder
make oblique angles, then the line of light will be higher
on the cylinder. 3. Again, if the axis of the cylinder be
parallel to the seat of the sun, the lightest line on the

cylinder, in this case, will be at its greatest distance

 

172

frOm the plane, because then the line of light will be
whe1e a plane passing through the axis of the cylinder,
cuts the upper surface pe1pendicular to the plane on
which the cylinder lies; the line of light in the first po-
sition of the cylinder, is brighter than the line of light 1n
the second position of the cylinde1, and the line of light
in the second position of the cylinder is brighter than
the line of light in the third position of the cylinder ; the
axis of the cylinder in all these cases being parallel and
equi-distant from the plane of the ichnography; conse-
quently the lines of light in the first and third positions
of the cylinder, are the extremes of all the varieties
which happen between these two positions; that is, the
first is the lightest possible, and the third is the darkest
possible. The boundaries of light and shade, called in
this book the lines of shade, or those lines which sepa—
rate the light side from the dark side, are always at a
quadrant’s distance from each other; and consequently
that arc which is the under line of darkness, in the first
position, will be higher in the second position, and still
higher in the third position, and if a plane be made to
touch the cylinder upon that line, it will be perpendicu—
lar to the plane 011 which the cylinder lies, and therefore
its ichnography will be represented "by the edge of the
cylinder. Now suppose that cylinder to be turned
round by moving continually the same way, until the
axis of the cylinder comes into that position in which the
aXis would be perpendicular with its seat, then the line
of darkness would be in its highest position.

 

P L A T E 1 9
PROBLEM VI.

To find the lightest line, also the line that
divides the lightest side fiom the da1k side

on the ichnog1aphy and elevation of a ci1cular

ring.

Let A C be the seat of the sun, or any line parallel
to it, passing though the centre C, of the ichnog1aphy,
FIG. 1,cutting the thickness of the ring at B and H; and
let B C D be the sun’s altitude, take the point G, at
one quatter of the cir'cumfe1ence of the ring, distant from
the point B; and take any points E and F in the cir-

 

 

SHADOWS.

cumference between B and G, and d1aw the lines E C,
F C, and G- C, cutting the inside of the ring at I, K,
and L, through the point B, draw the lines B M, B N,
and B U, each respectively perpendicular to E C, F
C, and G C, cutting E C, F C, and G C, at O and P,

makeOM, PNfandCU, onBH,,EI FK,and
G L, as diameters, describe ci1cles whose centles are
a, b, c, a; through these centres draw the lines o d,
c m, c n, and w u, parallel to C D, C M, C N, and
C U, cutting the circles at a, m, n, u, and c, c, c, w ,-
also through the centres a, b, c, v, draw lines 23 q, p s,
I: 3/, and L G, respectively perpendicular to C D, C M,
C N, and C U, cutting the circle at i, q, 1), s, k, 3/, L
and G.

Through the points d, m, 72,16, draw the lines cl g,
m e, n o, and u v, perpendicular to the diameters B H, E
I, F K, and G L, cutting B H, E I, F K, and G L,
respectively at the points g, e, 0, 'v ,' draw a curve which
will be part of the line of light for one quarter; also
through the points 9, s, y, draw the lines (1 r, s t, and y
:0, cutting the diameters at r, t, .1'; then through the
points 7', t, 3;, and L, draw a curve line 7' t x L, which
will be the upper line of shade for that quarter, or that
line which divides the dark side from the light side,
upon the upper side of the ring on that half which is
next to the luminary.

One quarter being now found of the line of light and
shade, on the ichnography of the visible side of the ring,
the other three quarters will be found from that quarter
which is already found, in the same manner as in the
last problem, and the points D, M, N, U, I, P, K, G, also
in the elevation of the curves D, M, N, U, and I, P,
K, G, being drawn, then D M N U will be the line of
light, and I P K G the line of shade.

 

PLATE 720.

PROBLEM VII.

To represent the lines of equal gradation on
the surface of a sphere given; the seat of a
ray of light on the plane of projection, and
the elevation of the ray.

Let A B‘be the diameter of the sphere and seat‘of
the sun. Find the centre C, and describe a circle with

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SHADOWS. ‘ I - ' _ 2 , :73.
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the radius C A or C B, this circlewill represent the
contour of the sphere. Make the angle A C D, equal
to the elevation of the ray above the seat 0 A ; and ,let
C D be produced so as to'cut the circumference lineli‘n
D and E. Draw the lines F G, H I, K A, L‘M, N
0, P Q, perpendicular to D E, to cut the circle at the
points, F, G, H, I, K, A, L, M, N, O, P, Q, then
will F G, H I, K A, L M, N O, P Q, be the diame—
ters of circles, which have equal intensities of light around
each circumference on the sphere. Draw D R, G S,
F T, H V, K C, L W, N X, P Y, perpendicular to
B A; then R will be the projected point, representing
the lightest point on the surface; T S is the shorter
axis of the ellipsis, and F G the greater. Describe the
ellipsis a T b s, which will represent a circle of equal
intensity of light in every part of its circumference on
the surface of the sphere. In like manner, if the ellipsis
cV d e, be drawn, it will represent another circle of
equal intensity. Proceed in this manner, and represent
all the intermediate circles of the sphere to that, the di-
ameter of which is P Q, where a ray of the sun would
at any point he a tangent, and the representation of this
last circle K Y Z, will be the line of separation of light
and shade; then every succeeding ellipsis towards the

lightest point R, will represent graduating lines continu- 3

ally lighter.

PROBLEM VIII.

Given the ichnography and elevation of a cyl-j _
' . .- - , ; ichnography, and 0 It, the seat of the sun on the eleva—
lndel, haying a square pl‘qjecture 0r abacus, D ‘

and the seat of the sun on the ichnography,
also its seat on the elevation; to find the
shadow of the abacus, also the line of‘light
and shade on the cylinder.

Let A H I K L M N O B be the ichnography of the
cylinder; D E F G be that of the abacus; V \V the
elevation of the cylinder ; and E F the elevation of the
abacus; let CF be the seat of one of the sun’s rays
on the ichnography, passing through the centre C ;
draw F 0, making an angle with E F, equal to the angle
which the seat of any of the rays make with E F;
through C, draw C H, perpendicular to C 0, cutting the
ichnography at H; between the points H and 0, take
any points I, K, II,9M, and N ; then through the points

 

 

 

 

11,-. I, K, L, M,“N,til5wiines B B, I a, K R,'L 3;, '
M T, N U, parallel to5,C.F,.cutting H P at P, Q, R,.S,.'

T, U ; through the points,;P,'Q, R, S, T, U, draw line’s
parallel to F o ,- also, through the points B, I, K, L, M, N,
O, draw lines H h, I-t', K k, L l,7M m, N n, O 0, par-
allel to the sides of the cylinder, cutting P 11, Q i, R lc,
S l, T m, Un, F 0, at the points It, i, k, l, m, n, 0;
through these points draw a curve, and it will be the
shadow of the abacus; H It will be the line of shade
and O o the line of light.

PROBLEM IX.
FIG. 2.

Given the ichnography and elevation of a cylin—
der having a circular projection over it ; the
seat of the sun on the ichnography; also its
seat on the elevation being given; to find
the shadowiof the projecture on the cyl—
inder; also the line of light and shade.

Let A D E F G H I B be the ichnography of the cyl-
inder, R K L M N O P Q, the ichnography of the
projection: let U T be the elevation of the cylinder,
and V S that of the projecture; also let C 0 be the seat
of the sun’s rays, passing through the centre C of the

tron.

Through C, draw C D perpencliCtilar‘, cutting the cir-
cumference of the inner circle at D, take any point E,
F, G, I, B, in the circumference, draw the lines B K, E
L, F M, G N, H O, I P, and B 0, parallel to C H, cut—
ting the outward circle at the points K, L, M, N, O, P,
Q, from the points D, E, F, G, H, I, draw the lines D
d, E e, F f, Gg‘, H It, I i ; also through the points K,
L, M, N, O, P, Q, draw the lines K k, L l, M m, N n,
O 0, P p, Q (1, cutting V S a the points ls, l, m, n,
0, 72,71 ; through the points k, l, m, 72, 0,1), q, draw I; d,
l e, m f, n g, o h, p 17, parallel to o h, cutting the lines
D d, E e, F f, G g, H h, I i, at the points, d, e,f, g, It,
i; a curve being traced through these points, will be the
representation of the shadow upon the cylinder: D (1
will be the line of shade, and H, the line of light.

 

‘.,74“' ”. j;a,. ‘ 1,. .SHADOWS.

PLATEQL'
, _ PROBLEM X.
.. The: ichnography and elevation of the prism
” Standing upon a polygonal base, haying the
' "projecture or cap of the same figure upon it,
projecting equally over its sides; given the
seat of the sun’s rays on the plane of the
ichnography, and also on the elevation; to
project the, shadow of' the cap on the prism,
and also on a plain parallel to the axis of the
prism. ‘ '

1 Let A B C D E F G be the ichnography of the prism,

H I J K L M N the ichnography of the cap W A, and G
P, parts of the ichnography of the plane on each side of
the prism, J W be the projection of a ray on the ich-
nography, and j w, on the elevation. From all the
points H, I, J, K, L, M, N, in the ichnography of the
angles of the cap, draw the lines H /l, I i, Jj, K 15, L Z,
M m, N n, perpendicular to W P, to cut the under side
of the cap at h, i,j, Ir, l, m, 72. Draw the lines A 4 a,
B 5 b, C 6 c, D 7 d, E 8 e, F 9f, G 10g, perpendicu-
lar to W P, cutting the bottom of the prism at 4, 5, 6,
’7, 8, 9, 10, then the lines 4. a, 5 b, 6 c, '7 d, 8 6, 9f,
10 g, represent the angles on the elevation. Draw the
lines H Z, I X, J W, K Q, L» R, M T, N U, parallel
to J W, cutting the ichnography of the plane at the
points Z, X, W, and the ichnography of the prism, at Q,
R, T, U. Through the points ll, 2', j, k, l, m, n, the
projection of the angles of the cap on its under edges,
and parallel to y to, draw the projections of the rays It z,
i x,j w, k q, l 7‘, m t, n u. Draw the perpendiculars Z
z, X 3:, W 20, Q (1, R r, T t, U u, then the points z, x,
w, are the projections of the angles of the cap on the
plane, and (1, 7“, tea, the projection of the other angles
on the elevation of the prism. Draw 0 Y, to touch the
prism at C, and draw Y 3/ perpendicular to IV P, then
Yg/ Will be the termination of the shadow of the body
of the prism on the Wall. Then because that the point
(1 is in the plane 6 c d 7, the point r in the plane 7de 8,
and the points 2‘ and u, in the plan 9 fg‘ 10, and the
lines j, Ic, l, m, 71, parallel to these planes; the lines j, ls,
l, m,‘n, will make parallel shadows; therefore, draw 9‘,
c, r d, tu, parallel to j lc, [C l, or m n, to cut 0 6 in e, A:
’7 in d, and G g at u .' join d q ; then to find the depth
of the shadow of lm on the elevation, draw (Sr .9 on the
ichnography parallel toJ W ; draw (5* 65 perpendicular to

 

 

W P, likewise (f)? s, parallel to the ray on the elevation,
and S .9, parallel to the axis of the prism; then s is the
depth of the shadow; but as the projections of the ex-
tremities of l m, fall upon the adjacent planes at r, and t,
draw e f through 3, cutting 8 e at e, and 9f at f; then
join e r, f t. Lastly, draw G V on the ichnography par-
allel to W J," cutting the projection of the cap at V:
draw V v perpendicular, cutting the cap at v, and draw 1)
g parallel to the rays on the elevation, and join u g;
then o q d, r 6 fl u g will be the shadow of the cap
on the elevation; but as the shadow of the parts of
the abacus H I, I J will be from the top of the cap ; make
to 1, x 2, z 3, parallel to the angles of the prism on
the elevation, and equal to the thickness of the, cap.
Join l, 2; 2; 2, 3: then will 3, 2, 1 w y be the shad—
ow of the abacus on the wall. Through g draw g m
and k iin the same straight line with g m, cutting 3 2,
at k; then i k 2, l w (1/ is the complete shadow of the cap
on the plane.

Much after the same manner may the shadow of a.
cylinder be found, having a circular projection over it,
as is shown at FIG. 2 ; and also the shadow of the cylin-
der projecture may be found on a plane parallel to the
axis of the cylinder, having the same thing given as be-
fore ; but for more easy inspection, letters are placed
on the ichnographyr and elevation, representing the cor-
responding parts of each other; that is, capital letters
are placed on the ichnography, and small letters of the
same name on the elevation, representing those of the
same name on the ichnography.

_ PROBLEM XI.

Given the seat and altitude of the sun on any
plane, also the seat and altitude of a line to
the same plane; to determine the shadow of
the line "upon that plane.

Let K L be the seat of the line upon the plane, and
G H FIG. 3, the angle which the line makes with its
seat ; make the angle M K L FIG. 2, equal to the angle
H G I; through L draw L M, perpendicular to K L,
cutting K M at M; also through L draw L O paral-
lel to the seat of the sun; again, through L draw
L N perpendicular to L O, and make L N equal to L
M; then upon the right line L N, and from the point N,
make the angle L N 0 equal to the complement of the

angle of the sun’s inclination to a right angle; produce

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N 0, cutting L O at 0; then join the points K and ‘0,
and the line K 0 will be the shadow required.

This p1oblem will be found of great use in finding the
shadows upon inclined planes. .

NOTE. If the seat and altitude of the sun be given.

on any other plane, making a given angle with the plane
on which the shadow 18 to be p1ojected, the sun’s altitude
and seat may be found by Problem II, I

PROBLEM XII.

Given the seat and angle of inclination of the
sun on the horizon, and the intersection of a
plane perpendicular to the horizon; to deter-
mine the angles which a plane of shade, made
by a right line, parallel both to the horizontal
and perpendicular planes, will make with each
of the planes.

Let A B be the seat of the sun on the horizon, and A
A D as FIG. 1, the angle of inclination to the seat A B,
and let G B be the intersection ofxa plane perpendicular
to the horizon; take any point C in C B, and from C,
draw C A perpendicular to C B, cutting A B at A;
from A, draw A E perpendicular to A C, and A D per-
pendicular to A B, cutting D B at D ; make A E equal
to A D, and join C E, then will the angle B C E, be
the angle which the plane of shade makes with the per-
pendicular plane, and the angle A C E the angle which
the plane of shade makes with the horizon.

This problem will be very useful in shading mould-
ings which project from planes that stand perpendicular
to the horizon, the sun’s altitude and seat being given to
the horizon ; as will be shown in the next problem.

PLATE 22.

' PROBLEM XIII.

A moulding of any kind being given, and the
angle which a plane of shade makes with a
perpendicular part. of, the moulding, either
being given or found by the last problem,

 

 

having the sun’s"7altitude and seat on the ho- I I

rizon; to determine the shadow on the
moulding.

Let the ovolo,vfillets,y and. hollow, FIG 1, be the given‘

moulding; drawC D parallel to the inclination which the
plane of shade makes with the vertical part of the mould-
ing, touching the ovolo at C, and cutting the vertical
pa1t below D; then a line drawn through D perpendic—
ular to the fillet will give. the lower edge of‘ the shadow,
and an imaginary linevsuppotsed to be drawn through C,
will give the line of shade ;- and if aline is drawn through
A, the lower edge of the fillet above the ovolo parallel
to G D, cutting the ovolo at C, then a line being drawn
through B, parallel to thefillet, will give the edge of the
shadow from the fillet.

Much in the same manner may the shadow upon the
cima reverse and cima recta be found, as shown by the
dotted lines. ’

ON MOULDINGS.

. PLATE 22’

The form or shape of . mouldings, in most cases,
may be ascertained from the various degrees
of light and shade upon them, Without ob-
serving the profiles; which will appear evi-
dent frorn the following observations.

Observations on Surfaces, and their Power to reflect
Light.

It has already been observed in the second proposi-
tion, that if the sun’s rays fall upon a reflecting plane,
the angles made by the reflected rays, with perpendicu-
lars at the impinging points, will be equal to the angles
made by their corresponding incident rays with the said
perpendiculars; so that the rays in this case will have
only one direction after reflection: but by experiment

(.1 . .
we are shown that there 13 no such th1ng as a perfect

plane; for if a surface is even polished to the greatest
degree, yet this polished surface will be but rough and
uneven; for if viewed through a microscope having a
great magnifying power, the surface will appear quite
irregular, and the different parts of the surface will be

 

 

 

: manner of directibns by the difl‘erentepositions of the sur—

_ ' higher any surface can be polished, the nearer it approx-
_ imates to a plane, and consequently; the rays will be more

the rays of light.

   

' SHADOWS

direetrontbut a- great pa1t of them Will be reflected in all

 

Lby proposition LIV. It. may be observed, that. the

and more reflected 1n the same direction but there is
no surface which Will 1eflect the sun’s: rays entirely in
the same direction , that is, parallel. to each other; but
a great part of them will-'be-reflected in all manner of di-
rections: it will be also necessary toobserve, that the
power of reflection will depend very much on. the light-
ness of the color of materials ; for the darker any sub-
stance is, the more will the rays of light be absorbed in
that substance, and consequently will have a less power
to reflect.

_:White being the lightest of all colors, will reflect the
most rays ; and the more any substance inclines to a
white, the greatest power will that surface have to reflect

' Observations on Illauldings in Shade.
CASE I.

if the sun’s rays fall uponany building ; also upon the
ground or horizon below'the building; and if there are
any projectures from the building, such as mouldings or
other ornaments, and if any of the parts of those mould-
ings or ornaments are entirely in shadow by the projec-
ture of something else which prevents the rays of the sun
from falling upon them, those parts of the mouldings
which are in shade will become visible; for, besides a
reflection from the ground, there will be a strong reflec-

tion from the surface of the building, i1111nediatelyunder '

the mouldings or ornaments. It has already been ob-
served, that these 1'ays will be reflected in all directions,
and consequently a part of~them will be reflected upwards
011 the mouldings above, and ther'efore 111ll show light
and shade on the mouldings,according as the refleCted‘
rays fall, more or less perpendicular on their surfaces.

Hence the 1eas011 why all per pendicular sides of fillets
will be darker in shade than the horizontal sides.

An ovolo, having a projecture over it, so as to prevent
the sun’s rays from falli' g upon it, the reflected 1a) s be-

 

ing more and more inclined from the under edge towards

 

the upper edge, Will be lightest beloW, and Will be gradu-
ally darker and darker upw ar.ds ' . .

A ‘cavetto or hollow, imn1e1Sed in shade, Will, for the
same reason, he darkest below, and will be continually
lighter to the upper; edge. '

A cimareversa, in" shade, will be darkest above and
below, and lightest in the middle; for this moulding is
composed of an ovolo-above and a cavetto below.

A cimarecta, in shade, will be lightest above and be~
low, and darkest 1n the middle.

These are general rules for shading horizontal mould-
ings.

Observations 0n vertical Mouldings.
CASE II.

All upright perpendicular mouldings,in shade, or being
in part so, will receive a reflection from those surfaces

‘ which are next to them ; for they cannot receive a reflec-

tionfrom the contrary side, by reason of their projection,
which will prevent the ray, reflected from that side, from
falling 011 them. a _

Therefore it is plain, in these cases, the forms of mould—
ings may be known by reflection.

Artists give this rule for shadowing : that is, to shade
all mouldings or other ormaments which are in shade,
inverse to those on which the sun’s rays fall, from the
contrary side of the reflected rays. But this rule is not
only very uncertain, depending much on the situation of
other objects which surround these mouldings or orna-
ments, but in some cases very erroneous, as in the exam-
ple of mouldings perpendicular to the horizon ; for
mouldings in this situation, as has been observed, will
receive a reflection from that side, which is next to the
front of the moulding, if something else does not project.
to a great distance from that surface from which the
reflection comes. Ifa cylinder or column is attached to
a wall in a vertical position, and if it has any projecture
over it, so as to cause that part under the projecture to
be in shade quite round the cylinder, there will not only

,be a reflection from the wall on the contrary side of the

cylinder, to the sun upon that side of the cylinder which
is next to it, but also from that part of the wall 011 that
side of the cylinder next to the sun, which will make that
part of the ‘cylinder 11 hub is in shadow, lightest at the
two sides and darkest 1n the middle. Something of the
same kind may be seen in Ionic columns attached to a

SHADOWS. ' 77

wall; where it may be observed, when the sun shines
upon one side of them ; suppose that side of the column
"which is on the right hand, then the right hand volute
will throw a shadow upon the light side of the column,
which. shade will be lightest on that edge which is next
to the wall and to the luminary, and darkest at that edge
next to the middle of the Column.

Observations on Mouldings in Shade, when situate on
the side of an Object which is entirely in Shade, and
also the ground under that side in Shade.

CASE III.

In one building where one end or side is entirely in
shade, and also a great part of the ground under that end
in shade, there will be little or no reflection from the
ground upwards, nor from the surface of the building, and
consequently little reflection upon the mouldings from
below ; the only light which they receive is from a kind of
scattered or confused rays in the atmosphere, and small
reflections from the horizon ; and threfore horizontal
mouldings, or ornaments, in this situation, which have
but small projectures ocer them, will have a contrary
eflect to mouldings 1n shadow, situate on the light side of
an object.

An ovolo, placed horizontally, and whose greatest pro-
jecture is upwards, upon the dark side of an object, will
be lightest above, and centinually darker and darker tothe
under edge.

A cavetto, having its greatest projec ture upwards

placed horizontally on the dark side of an object, will ‘

be darkest above, and continually lighter and lighter to
the under edge.

A cimareversa, placed horizontally on the dark side
of the object, having its greatest projection upwards,

will be darkest in the middle, and lightest above and
below.
A cimarecta, whose greatest projecture is upwards, and

placed horizontally, will be darkest above and below, and
lightest in the middle.

All horizontal projectures on the dark side of an object
will condense the shade under them, and consequently
vVill appear more or less dark, according as the projec-
ture is more or less.

These are general rules for shading mouldings on the
dark side of an object from scattered light; however,
there are some exceptions to these rules; that is, when

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

any of these mouldings have a very great projecture over
them, this projecture will hinder the scattsred rays from
falling upon the mouldings; but as they will receive a
small reflection from the horizon below, the most of the
scattered and reflected rays will fall obliquely on the
moulding; thus the lighted place of an ovolo will not be
exactly on the under edge, but somewhere between the
under and upper edge, and will be nearest to either,
according as the shadow on the ground is less or more
distant from that side of the object, and according as the
projecture over the moulding is more or less, and also
according to the position and distance of other surround-
ing objects; all these different circumstances combining
together, will vary the places of light and shade on hor-
izental mouldings, which are_situate on the dark side of
an object.

An horizontal cavetto on the dark side of an object
havinga projecture over it as before, the lightest place
will be somewhere between the upper and under edge,
as in the ovolo, and both mouldings would have actually
the same appearance if their profiles could not be ob-
served; when most of the scattered and reflected rays
are in a plane, making equal angles with the hor-
izon, and with that side of the object in shade: that
is, forty-five degrees with each other; and, consequently,
mouldings in this situation will be less distinct than
mouldings in shade, on that side of the object which the

sun shines on.

Further Observations on the Efiect that reflected
Light will have on Cornices, which have [Wodillions
or Mutules, Dentils, (See. or any other projecting
Ornaments of a nature similar to them.

The reflected light from the ground and from the
object being scattered 1n all directions, it will therefore
follow, if there are any projecting parts from mouldings,
or cornices, which are in shadows, such as mutules,
modillions, dentils, doc. these projecting parts will hin-
der a great part of the scattered'rays from falling in the
spaces between, them ; and therefore the spaces will be
deprived of reflection, and consequently will be much
darker than the prominent parts, even if these prominent
parts were also 1n shadow.

For this reason the intervals between mutules, modil-
lions, dentils, 660. are darker than on their fronts; for
every projecture will condense the shadow on each side
of it, if recessed on both sides; therefore the spaces

 

 

4...“- 1 A

‘ 1...;- -

 

 

 

 

 

 

tan-2w,

 

I,"
1“

will be lightest 1n the middle, and darkest nearest to

the edges of the muttil'es, modillions, dentils, 650. but
to show on which side of the mutules, 650. the great-
eSt’ shade Would fall, according to the place of the lumin-
at y, would be almost impossible, as it depends so much

on the situation of other objects. But suppose all the '

surrounding objects in the vicinity to be removed, and
the ground and building to be of a light color, and sup—
pose the rays to proceed from the right to the left hand
of the object, and parallel to a vertical plane which is
inclined at an angle of forty-five degrees with the eleva-
tion of the object; then it is plain, that since the angle
of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence, the great-

' est patt of the rays which fall upon the 1101izon will be

reflected from the gtound parallel to the vertical plane;
and seeing that the vertical plane would be on the
right hand of another vertical plane, perpendicular to
the face of the object, and to the horizon, it follows,
that most of the rays will come from the right hand, and
be reflected towards the left on the object; and conse-
quently, any projectures from cornices, as mutules, &c.
which are in shadow, will condense or darken the shade
upon the left hand of the projecture; and that vertical
side of the mutules which is next to the luminary, will

. be lighter than the other vertical side 011 the left of the

mutule, doc. As to the direction and effect, which most
of the reflected rays would take from the face of the ob-
ject, imagine a plane parallel. to the sun’s rays and per»
pendicular to the face of the building or object; then
most of the rays will be reflected from the building or
object downwards, parallel to this last mentioned plane;
and that part of those rays which are reflected upwards,
would take no particular direction to the right 01' to the
left, and therefore would cause no sensible difference
upon the vertical sides of the niutules, but would reflect
most light upon the horizontal or under sides, &c.

What has now been said of mouldings in shade having
projectures from them, or of the tecessed parts of any
object, will apply to ornaments in shade which ate deep-
ly 1elieved;f01 their recessed patts, acco1ding to the
fetegoing obsewations, will be dep1ived of reflection by
the more p1ominent pa1ts of them; they will therefote
be datkest in their receding patts, and lightest on the
prominent parts.

1.

 

 

 

. «SHADOWS.

Observations- on the Shades of Projectures from
Buildings, or from any other plain Surface which
is made of light Materials.

If there is any vertical plane, and if a rectangular
prism is attached to that plane, having two of its sides
parallel to the plane, and consequently the other two
sides perpendicular to it; then if the sun-shine on the
plane be on either side of the prism, the other opposite
side of the prism will cause a shadow to be projected
from its edge upon the plane; and if the shadow upon
the plane be of no considerable breadth, and if the plane
be extended at any considerable distance beyond the
shadow, then the lightest part of the plane on which the
rays fall, will reflect a great part of the rays towards the
prism: but as these reflected rays will not fall upon the
shadow, it will be deprived of reflection: but as the side
of the prism which projects the shadow, is opposed to
the reflected rays, that side of the prism will receive a.
strong reflection, which will cause it to appear much
lighter than the shadow it throws on the plane ; but if
the shadow be projected farther on the plane, it will
diminish the reflecting surface behind the prism, and
will also cause the reflecting surface to be at a greater dis-
tance from the side of the prism, and consequently will
receive less reflection from the plane; and in general
the reflection on the prism will be continually diminish-
ed, according as the shadow on the plane is increased,
till at last there will be no difference between the shadow
on the plane, and the side of the prism which projects
that shadow; and if the plane be entirely deprived of
light, by the extensive breadth of the shadow, the side
of the prism will in general be darker than the shadow

on the plane: but this will depend very much on the

situation of other objects.

A building consisting of light colored materials, hav-
ing a break in the front whhich projects a shadow on the
building, at a small distance from the break, will, for the
reason before mentioned, be much lighter on the side of
the break, than the shadow projected by it on the build-
ing behind it; also columns which are attached to a
wall, will project a darker shadow on the wall than any
part of the columns which throw the shadow, provided
that the shadow is not any considerable distance from

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SHADOWS. » ‘ '79

the column; for, according to the above observations,
the broader the shadow, the less the column will appear
to be relieved from it.

Observations on the Light Side of the Prism, and the
Eflect that a reflection from the Horizon and from
the object will have on the Plane behind the Prism.

The rays of the sun being reflected from the horizon
in all directions, the projecture of the prism will prevent
a part of the reflected rays from proceeding to the plane
behind the prism, and consequently the plane would be
something darker than the face of the prism which is
parallel to it; but the side of the prism adjoining to the

plane will throw a reflection upon the plane, and there-.

fore it would be difficult to perceive the difference be-
tween the face of the prism, and the plane parallel behind
the prism. As to the difference of light between the
side of the prism, which is perpendicular to the plane,
and the plane, it will very much depend on the sit-
uation of the luminary ; for if the luminary is in a plane
equally inclined to both, there will be nearly the same
degree of light on each; for very little difference will
arise from the reflection, except the luminary is more
inclined to one surface than another; and then that sur-
face will be darker than the other, according. to the ob-
liquity of the rays of the sun on that surface.

PLATE 23.

PROBLEM I.

Given the ichnography and elevation of a base
and capital, and the. seat of the sun’s rays on

the ichnography, and on the elevation; to.

project the shadows caused by the several
parts of itself, and the line of shade upon the
base.‘

Imagine the object to be sliced, or cut, by as many
planes, parallel to the axes of the columns,* and to
the sun’s rays, as may be thought convenient for the
purpose: then it is plain, if a ray of light enter any
of those planes, that every part of the ray will be in that
plane, and that the projecting parts upon the edges of

 

 

* It is not absolutely necessary to suppose the plane parallel to the
axis of the column, as in this problem; but the sections formed by
planes in this position are more easily found than in any other, for
which reason I prefer the above position of planes.

 

 

 

these planes will withhold the 1:in from a part of the edge
of the plane ; and the lowesti ‘ int of that part will give
the edge or projection of the shadow of the part which

throws the shadow : then if a suflicieht number of these

points are found, a line drawn through them, with a
steady hand, will give the shadow; the line of shade
will be found by drawing lines to touch the several sec-
tions parallel to the seat of the‘sun’s rays on the eleva-
tion ; and a line being drawn through the points of con-

tact of the sections, will give the line of shade.

Let H I J K be the ichnography of the abacus ; H S
K the ichnography of the ovolo; and M P L that of the
astragal; the lines G Y, F X, E W, D V, C U, B T
and A S, are lines drawn parallel to the ichnography,
cutting the front I J, of the abacus, and from the seats

ion‘the ichnography and the several seats on the ele-

vation, the shadows may be described, as is shown in
the elevation: then lines are drawn to touch the most
prominent parts of those sections; and the places where
they cut the other parts of the sections will be the pro-
jection of the several points as before: and a line being
drawn through these points will give the shadow.

The part gf e, is the shadow from the abacus, and d c
h the shadow from the ovolo ; thus the point g in the el-
evation is the shadow ofp ,' fis the shadow of n, and e
the shadow of m ,' and the shadow of the other part of
the abacus would be where the dotted curved line is rep-
resented: but as the sun shines on the ovolo, in the
middle of the abacus, it will throw the shadow lower
than the dotted lines. This will be found by drawing
lines to touch the several sections, which will give the

points B, C, D. '

NOTE. That the line of shade on the torus might
have been found in a very different manner than is
shown in this example, may bgseen by the circular ring,
plate 19.

Much after the same manner may the shadow and
lines of shade be found on the attic base ; as is shown in
plate 24.

P L A T E 2 5.
PROBLEM II. FIG. 1.

To find the shadow of a cylindrical recess in
a wall, whose axis is perpendicular to the
plane of the wall; having the seat of the

“L ixm'ée-x EL;

} Lfi" ii,

\ newt

t .311

80

sun’s rays on the, ichnography and eleva-
tion.

Let FIG. 1, be the elevation of the wall, and C D the
diameter of the cylindrical recess; and let E F G H be
the ichnography; bisect C D at a ,' draw A a perpen-
dicular to E H, cutting it at A; through A draw A B
parallel to the seat of the sun’s rays on the ichnography,
cutting F G at B ; through B draw B [2 parallel to A a ,-
and through a draw a 6 parallel to the seat on the eleva-
tion, cutting B b at b ,- then on B as a centre with one
half of C D, describe a part of a circle, as is shown by
the dark line, and it will be the edge of the shadow.

Much in the same manner may the shadow of a recess,
which has a back parallel to the plane of the wall, be
found ; as is shown at FIG. 2.

PROBLEM III.
FIG. 3.

To find the shadow of a recess constructed as
in FIG. 2, when the sides of the ichnography
are inclined to the intersection of the two
planes of the ichnography and orthography
given, the intersection of a number of planes
passing through the luminary perpendicular
to the plane of the elevation.

Let Z I), W Y, T V, and Q S, be the intersection
of as many planes passing through the sun perpendicular
to the elevation, and let Q R be the projection of one
of the sun’s rays on that plane ; also let H I be the
seat of the sun on the ichnography, cutting the back F
G, of the elevation at I ; from I draw I N perpendicular

 

 

SHADOWS.

to I d, the common intersection of the ichnography and
orthography; from M draw M N parallel to Q R, cut-
ting I N at N ; through N draw N 0 parallel to M U;
on O as a centre, and with the distance 0 N, describe
the are N R, cutting the side of the recess at R ; through
the points S, V, Y, I), draw S R, V U, Y X, and b a,
parallel to I d ; and through the points Q, T, W, Z,
draw the lines Q R, T V, W X, and Z a, cutting the
lines S R, V U, Y X, and B a, at the points U, X, a ;
then through the points R, U, X, a, draw the curve R
U X a, and the line I N R U X a, will be the edge of
the shadow required.

PLATE 25.

PROBLEM IV. FIG. 4,

To find the shadow of a hemisphere niche;
given the seat and altitude of the sun’s rays
on the elevation.

Let I N, G M, E L, and C 0, be lines parallel to the
seat of the sun’s rays ; and on these lines, as diameters,
describe semi-circles I K N, G H M, and E F L ; draw
the line A B, bisectiug O C ; from any of the points C,
E, G, I, as C, make the angle 0 C D, equal to the sun’s
altitude, cutting the side of the niche at D ; through the
other points E, G, I, draw E F, G H, and I K, parallel
to C D, cutting the semicircles E F G, G H M, and
I K N, at the points F H K ; through the points D, F,
H, K, draw lines D d, F f, H IL, and K k, perpendicu-
lar to the diameters, cutting them at the points d,f, It, I: ;
and through the points, A 1:, h, f, d, draw a curve, which
will be the edge of one half of the shadow, from which
the other half may be drawn, as is shown by the figure ;
and this will give the shadow complete.

 

OBSERVATIONS.

I have given one example of the effect of light and
shade on mouldings of different curvature; I shall en-
deavor to show the effect of light and shade also, on

many other examples, especially on the five orders of

Architecture.

 

From what has been said on this‘subject, many practi-
cal and useful rules in shadowing, may be deduced; but
as I have far exceeded the bounds first assigned for this
part, I must end with observing, that from a considera~
tion of the foregoing examples, the shadows of all Oh-

 

 

SHAH OWS o

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m. I,

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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SHADOWS. 81

jects, however complicated, may be found, as every ob-
ject may be considered as compounded of prisms, cylin-
ders, spheres, and annuluses; therefore, each part being
projected separately, according to the rules for its particu—
lar kind of figure, the projection of all the shadows in
that object will be completed.

Although I have given correct methods for shadow- i

21

ing, I have no reason to think that the artist will always
be at the trouble to project his shadows, for as drawings,
in general, are shadowed to an angle of forty-five degrees,
and as I have made choice of that angle, he will still find
these examples to be his only guide in practice, as all
the forms will be sufficiently near when copied by the
eye, and drawn by the hand of a judicious artist.

 

 

FOLIAGE.

[Both the elements and composition of Foliage are here considered, and illustrated by plates.

the most esteemed buildings of Grecian and Roman antiquity.

The examples are taken from the remains of

The learner is recommended to go through all the variety of ornaments exhibited

in this department, by which means he will be enabled to apply himself to any other species, however different]

DEFINITIONS.

1. An artificial arrangement or disposition of leaves,
is called foliage.

2. The subdivisions of single leaves are called raf-
fles. The leaves which, are chiefly used in architecture,
are the acanthus, olive, parsley, laurel, and lotus.

3. An artificial arrangement of leaves, branches, fruit,
flowers, drapery, &c., either singly or combined in any
manner with each other, are called ornaments in archi-
tecture. I

4. A string, consisting of flowers, fruit, leaves, and
branches, either singly or intermixed with each other,
and supported at the two extremes, the middle part form-
ing itself into a curve by its gravity, is called a fes-
toon.

‘ 5. A curve line, which is continually changing its po.
sition in contrary directions on the same side of it; that
is, first concave and then convex, concave again and then
convexagain, and so on alternately, in this manner, to
any number of curves of contrary flexure, is called a ser-
pentine line.

6. If from a stalk, in the form of a serpentine line, a
number of branches issue out, twisting themselves in the
form of spiral lines, on each side of the serpentine, in all
the concave parts on the alternate sides of it, and if these
spirals and the stalk be decorated with foliage ; a compo-
sition, so formed, is called winding foliage.

 

 

PROBLEM I.
To draw Ornaments.

The learner should, in the first place, draw a great
variety of curve and spiral lines of different descriptions,
and compare these figures with each other; by which
means he will be able at sight to distinguish each partic-
ular species of curve from another: then he ought to en-
deavor to imitate, with precision, the same things by hand
in every variety of position which he can suggest to him-
self, and hence he will acouire a freedom of hand in every
direction. When he proceeds to copying leaves, a gen-
eral outline ought to be drawn, circumscribing the whole
leaf; he should then form outlines of all the ratlles, and
round every compartment, circumscribing all the different
sets of points or raffles ; and afterwards proceed to draw
the raffles themselves. '

The learner having, after sufi’icient practice in copying,
acquired a freedom of hand, he is advised to draw from
nature a variety of such things as will be most suit-
able for the purposes to,which they are to be applied.
By so doing, the parts of his compositions will always
appear rich and natural; and hence he will obtain a great-
er facility of invention. Having had sufiicient practice
in drawing from nature, he may then apply himself to the
designing of ornaments; for which purpose he will find the
first part of the problem, viz. that of drawing curve and
spiral lines by hand, to be of the utmost utility in form-

 

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ELEMENTS oF FOLIAGE. .1

I

ing the general outline of his design; and for finishing
the smallei parts, such as raffles, flowers, fruit, 650., he
must apply the knowledge he has acquired in drawing
from nature, which will complete his composition.

 

LEAVES.

Of the acanthus, or bear’s—breech, or brank-ursinae,
there are several species.

1. The mollis, or common bear’s-breech, a native of
Italy.

2. The spinosus, or prickly bear’s-breech, the leaves
of which are deeply jagged in very regular order, and
each segment is terminated with a sharp spine, as is also
the complement of the flower, which render 'it trouble-
some t.o handle them.

3. The ilictfolious, or shrubby bear’s-breech, grows in
both the Indies. It is an evergreen shrub, which rises

. about four feet high, and is divided into many branches,
garnished with leaves like those of the common holly,
and armed with spines in the same manner; the flowers
are white, and shaped like those of the common acanthus,
but smaller.

4. The nigra, or Portugal bear’s-breech, with smooth
sin uated leaves, of a livid green color.

’5. The middle bear’s—breech, with entire leaves, hav~
ing spines on their borders.

 

 

EXAMPLE.

  
  

and will represent a figure similar to FIG. 1, Plate 27.

ing examples, however dissimilar they may be. In the
following descriptions, it will be only necessary to men-
tion the names of the buildings from which the examples
Were taken. - - , -

P I. A T E ' 2 7‘.
FIG. 1 1s taken from the arch of Adrian, at Athens.
No.1. The profile of FIG. 1.
FIG. 2. From the monument of Lysicrates, at Athens,

commonly called the lanteln of DemOsthenes.
No. 2. Profile of do.- '

PLATE 28.

FIG. 1. From the temple of Pola, in Istria.

No. 1. Profile of do.

FIG. 2. From the arch of Adrian, at Athens.

No. 2. A profile of do.

FIG. 3. Elevation of a leaf taken from the capitals of
the columns on the Baths of the Dioclesian, at Rome.

No.3. P1ofile of do.

 

ROSES IN THE CAPITALS 0F COLUMNS,‘”’-l

-———-

 

 

 

 

 

Plate 26 shows the method of beginning to draw leaves,
as g1» en in the general Problem I.

Suppose it were required to draw or copy Plate 27,
either of the same size, or in any other ratio to it.
'First inspect Plate 27, and draw with a pencil a faint
curve line, circumscribing the contour, or general outline
of FIG. 1; then describe curve lines similar to it, as at
FIG. 1, Plate 26; then draw lines faintly with a pencil,
circumscribing the compartments or divisions of FIG. 1, t1;
Plate 27; then draw lines in a similar manner, as at FIG.
1, Plate 26, observing that all the parts are similar to FIG.
], Plate 27; next draw the raffles and veins in the com—
partments of FIG. 1, Plate 26; and, lastly, with a pen,
draw in ink, all the parts'of the leaf represented by FIG.

 

PLATE 29.

FIG. 1. Elevation of the rose in the'abacus in the
temple of Vesta, at Tivoli. / ‘

FIG. 2. The elevation of a rose taken from the temple
of Jupiter the thunderer, at Rome. - ,

'FIG. 3. Elevation of a rose from the abacus of the
capitals of the temple of Vesta, at Rome.

FIG. 4. Elevation of a rose in the abacus of the capi:
tals of the pilasters of the frontispiece of New, at
Rome.

PLATE 30.

FIG. 1. Elevation of a rose in the abacus of the cap-

 

1, Plate 27; then rub your drawing clean; the pencil

itals of the arch of Titus, at Rome.

lines Will be- rubhe . out, and the ink lanes will be left, l‘

This explanation will be Sufl‘icient for all the follow-if- I,

 

84

FIG. A. Elevation of a rose in the abacus of the cap-

itals of the Pantheon, at Rome.
FIGS. 2 66 3, are designs for the ornaments of modil-
lions in cornices or corner pieces for pilasters.

PLATE 31-.

FIG. 1, the outline, and FIG.~2, the shadowed leaf
taken from a frontispiece. ' "
P L A T E 3 2. ' '
FIG. 1. From the portico of the temple of Antonius

and Faustina, at Rome.
FIGs. 2, 3 &, 4-. For corners and centres of pannels.

 

ORNAMENTS FOR MOULDINGS.

PLATE 33.

No. 1. A general outline of Example I.

 

 

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ELEMENTS OF FOLIAGE.

No. 2. The outline of Example 11., from the cyma-
tium of the temple of Minerva Polias, at Priene.

Example 3. From the cima-recta in the cornice of
the temple of Bacchus, at Tees.

Example 4. From the cima—recta of the cornice of the
temple of Peace, at Rome.

PLATE 34.

FIG. 1. From the arch of Titus, at Rome.

FIG. 2. From an impost moulding in the arch of Sep-
timius Severus, at Rome.

FIG. 3. From the cima-recta of the cornice 0f the
frontispiece of Nero, at Rome.

PLATE 35.

FIG. 1. The side, and FIG 2, the front of a key stone
of the arch of Septimius Severus, at Rome.

FIG. 3. The ichnography of the modillion in the cor-
nice of the temple of Jupiter Stator, at Rome.

FIG. 4. Side of the modillion in the cornice of the

portico of the Pantheon, at Rome.

FIG. 5. ' Ichnography of do. inverted.

 

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DEFINITION OF THE GRECIAN ORDERS.

[The Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian were the only orders of architecture employed by the Greeks.
used only in Italy : the one more rude, the other more ornamented than the Greek orders, which occupied a'middle rank.

I

The Tuscan and Composite were
To attain, therefore,

a proper knowledge of the true principles of architecture, the student should devote most of his attention to the three Greek orders ;.,not only be-
cause in them these principles are the most displayed, but because of all the monuments of antiquity, which have subsisted to modern times, few,
or perhaps none, can be pointed out, in which the Roman or Italic mode of construction is certainly to be traced]

1. IF any number of frustrums of cones, or frus-
trums of conoids of similar solids, and equal magnitudes
with each other, he so arranged that their bases, which
are the thickest ends of the frustrums, may stand upon
or in the same horizontal plane, and their axes in the
same plane with each other, and perpendicular to the hor-
izon; and if on the tops of these frustrums be laid
a continued beam; and if over this beam be laid the
ends of a number of equidistant joists, the other ends
being either supported in the same manner, or by a
wall, or any piece of building whatever, so that the upper
and under surfaces may be in the same horizontal planes;
and if over the ends of these beams, be laid' another
beam parallel to the former, which lays upon the frus-
trums, but projecting farther out from the axis of the
columns than the vertical face of the lower beam, which
is over the frustrums; and if this beam supports the
ends of rafters, whose upper surfaces lay in the same
inclined plane, so as to support a covering 0r roof: the
Whole of this mass, together with the frustrums support-
ing it, is called an order.

2. If the bottom or lower end of the frustrum finish
with an assemblage of thoirldings, projecting equally all

22 ‘

 

 

as

round beyond the bottom of the frustrum,‘ then this as-
semblage is called a base. '

3. If the upper end of the frustrum finish with mould:
ings, or any kind of ornaments, and if these ornaments
or mouldings be covered with a solid, whose upper" end
and lower sides are squares, and the vertical or perpen-
dicular sides rectangles, then this solid, together with the
ornaments or mouldings under it, is called a capital.

4. If the frustrum has no base, then the capital and
frustru m together, is called a frustrum column ; but if the
frustrum has a base, then the base, frustrum, and capital,
taken together, are simply called a.,§plu1nn. j

5. The mass supported by the columns, is called an
entablature. » i

6. The under beam of the entablature, is“ called an
architrave, or epistylium. ' n

7. The space comprehended between the upper side
of the epistylium, or architrave, and the under edge of
the beam over the joists, is called the frieze or zopho—
rus. “

8. The edge, or profile, of the inclined roof, supported
by the joists, or cross beams, jetting out beyond the face
of the zophorus, or frieze, is called a cornice.

 

 

9. The lowest or thickest pait of a column, is called
the diameter of the column.

10. Half of the diameter of the column is called a
module.

11. If a module be divided into thiIty, or any other
number of equal parts, then these parts are called

.. minutes. a.

12. The shortest distance fiom the bottom of the

:‘fiustrum of one column, to the bottom of the frustium of
Ethe next column, 1s called the intercolumniation.

13. When the intercolumniation is one diameter and
a half a column, it is. called pycnostyle, or columns thick
set. ‘

14. When the inte1columniation has two diameters of
the columns, then it is called systyle.

 

 

‘86 ‘ \ DEFINITION OF THE GRECIAN ORDERS.

15. When the space between the columns is two
diameters and a quaiter, then the intercolumniation is
called eustyle.

16. When the intercolumniation is three diameters of
the columns, then it is called decastyle.

17. When the distance between the columns has four
diameters of the columns, then that intercolumniation is
called araeostyle, or columns thin set.

18. When there are four columns in one row, then
that number is called tetiastyle

19. When there are six columns 1n one row, then it
is called hexastyle. ;

20. When theie are eight columns in one row, then it
is called octastyle.

x.

3

. ,, _ _,:

GRECIAN ARCHIfiTECTURng ~*

CORINTH‘IAVN ORDER. 9
(From the Cltomgidb Monument at Lysicmtes.) ‘V

1- l -;,‘t
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up it?!

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0n the architrave of this monument was the following inscription:

“LYSICRATES, or KIKYNA, THE SON OF LISITHEIDES, WAS CHORAGUS, (or gave the chorus at'his own expense.)
THE TRIBE or AKAMANTIS OBTAINED THE VICTORY IN THE
THEON WAS THE PERFORMER ON THE FLUTE; LYSADES, At} ATHENIAN, WAS THE
TEACHER or THE CHORUS. EVAENATUS WAS ARCHON.”

CHORUS 0F BOYS.

From this we conclude that on some solemn festival, which was celebrated with games and plays, Lysicrates, of Kikyna, a demos or bortfiigli-
town of the tribe of Akamantis, exhibited, at his own expense, on behalf of the tribe to which he belonged, rat-Imusical or theatrical entertain), ent,
in which the boys of Akamantis obtained the victory ; also, that in commemoration of the victory, this monument was erected to perpetuate‘the
same to posterity, by the name of the archon, or magistrate in whose time this took place. It appears that the build'pg was erected aBfifit three
hundred and thirty years before the Christian era, in the time of Demosthenes, Apelles, Lysippus, and Alexander the Great. The Tripod seems to
have been the peculiar reward bestowed by the people of Athens on that choragus, who exhibited the best musical or theatrical entertainment ;
and we find this particular custom obtained for these tripods the name of choragic tripods. It “was customary for the victor to. dedicate the tripod
he had won, to some divinity, and to place it either on one of the temples already built, or on the top of some edifice erected and consecrated by
him for the purpose. Thus they participated of the sanctity of the place, and were secured from injury or violence. B

A tripod thus dedicated was always accompanied With an inscription ; so that it became a permanent, authentic, and public monumentiof the
victory, and of the person who had obtained it, , 'i I'M ‘

Stuart and Revett deduce many circumstances to prove that it was erected for the above purpose, which appears rational and conclusive.‘ , , '
‘ b. ‘o ‘T
continued cylindrical wall, which was divided froin top to
bottom into six equal parts by the junction of the panels.

DESCRIPTION.

The Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, which we
are about to describe, is commonly called by the mo-
dern Athenians, ‘to phanari tou Demosthenios,’ or the
lantern of Demosthenes. '

This monument of antiquity, which is exquisitely
wrought,"stands near the eastern end of the Acropolis,
and is partly enclosed in the hospitium of the Capuchins.
It is composed of three distinct parts ; first a quadrangu-
lar basement; secondly a circular colonnade of which
the intercolumniatio'ns were entirely closed, and thirdly
a tholus or cupola with the ornament that is on it.
There is no entrance or aperture in the basement, which
is entirely closed on. every side. The basement supports
the circular colonnode, and was constructed in the follow-
ing manner. Six equal panels of white marble placed
contiguous to each other, on a circular plan, formed a

I

 

 

On the whole length of each juncturewas cut a semi-circu-
lar groove, into which a Corinthian column was fitted with
great exactness, so as effectually to conceal the junc~
tures of the panels.* These columns projected some-
what more than half their diamelg's from the surface of
the cylindrical wall, and have the attic base. filThe
shaft of the column is fluted iii a singular manner ; it con—
tains thirteen‘flutes; the lower extremities of theSe flu-
tings descend below their usual limits, and fie cut into
the apophyges, or scape of the column, and the upper
extremities terminate in the form of leaves ; the annular.
channel, immediately above them, which divides the
shaft of thepalumn from the capital, was probably filled
with an astragal or collarino of bronze. Under thister-

_ * The two tripods are wrought in Basso-relievo on each of the panels;
they are probably of the kind described by Homer and Hesoid.

 

 

 

 

 

 

88 , GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE.

minated the fluting in the form of an annular tier of
leaves, turning outward from the shaft of thecolumn.

This capital exhibits a specimen oftthelGrecian art.

The’annular tier of leaves springing from the neck in form
of the palm, the acanthus forms the‘seCOnd tier With the
flowers. In the third tier is shown the beautiful branches

3%..." and the scrolls, terminating under thegangular, extremity

ii

‘9“ 4t . . . . .
S of the abacus, the pomts of which are cut short ; it in this

.fQ‘Spect,:,2;§tls well as in the disposition of the foliage differs
cons'ulerably from any other example of the Grecian Co-
rinthian capitals.

‘” The entablature; . The architrave is divided into four
divisions, the band or ogee and three parallel planes or
faceas projecting one over the, other ; the lower edges
standout one or two degrees from a perpendicular line.

The frieze of this entablature is ornamented with sculp-
ture representing the story of Bacchus and the Tyrrhenian
pirates. The figure of Bacchus himself, the fauns and the
satyrs who attended on the manifestation of his divinity,

the "chastisement of the pirates, their terror and their
' O

transformation into dolphins, are expressed in this Basso-
relievoiwith great spirit and elegance.

The cornice is very plain, composed of dentals and
plain mouldings, in the place of the cyma or cymatium,
having an upright front ; it is ornamented with scrolls and
honey-suckle foliage in basso—relievo,in the Vitruvian style.
This cornice is composed of several pieces of white

 

 

{

marble, and bound together by a cupola of one entire
piece.

The cu pola is ornamented with elegant workmanship ;
its covering imitates that of thatch or of laurel leaves;
the teret‘standin'g‘ directly over the wall resembles a Vitru-
vian scroll ; next above the laurel leaves, the covering of
the dome, spring three scrolls at equal distances from each
other, in imitation of those branches in the capital shown
in this plate. The flowers that ornament the top, rise from
the centre, and are composed of workmanship of foliage,
which terminate in three divisions of scrolls, of great
richness, on the top, of which it is believed was supported
the tripod gained as the prize, from the circumstance that
cavities'are cut on the three principal projections in an
equilateral triangle, into which the feet of the tripod were
probably fixed, and in the fourth cavity, which is in the
centre, and much the largest, was erected a haluster to
support the tripod.

PLATE A. FIG. 1.

This figure represents the elevation of the Grecian Co-
rinthian order, from the choragic monument of Lysicrates,
proportioned to modules and minutes.

FIG. 2. The inverted projection of the cornice.

FIG. 3. The base is attached to the basement.

FIG. 4. The capital inverted.

“—5.1“

t3

GRBQJIAN (‘QRHNTMHAN ((DJRJDJJEJIR ‘, FLA.

[1'7 712 My (h 725712 1/0me (if-[szcIaZen

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GRECIVAN DORIC.

[The first Grecian order, in point of antiquity, is the Doric, so called from the Dores, a small tribe in Greece ; or, as some say, from Doms,
an Aehaian chief, who first employed the order in erecting a temple to Juno, at Argos] .

DEFINITIONS.

1. IF a plane, A B C D E F G E, one side of which
A B is a straight line, B C and A E, at right angles
to A B; and if C D be an ovolo, D, E, and F, fil-
lets; F G a hollow, and G E, a straight or convex
curve line; so that no part of it between the points G
and E, may be farther distant from A B than E is
from A B; then if this plane, so constructed, be turn-
ed round the line A B, it will generate a round solid,
and if a. parallelopiped, the two ends of which are
equal squares, each side of these squares being a lit-
tle more than twice B C, and the other four sides
equal rectangles; then if this parallelopipied be fixed
upon the end of the round solid, so that one of its
square ends be fixed upon the end generated by B C,
and the angles of the square to project equally over
the round solid, then a solid so constructed is called a
column. .

2. The parallelepiped fixed on the top, is called an
abacus.

3. The figure, or annulus, generated by the echinus D
G, is called also an echinus.

4. The annuli generated by the fillets D, E, and F,
are each of them called an annulet.

5. That part of the Column or the frustrum, gene-
rated by the curve line G E, is called the shaft of the
column.

23

 

 

 

6. If, through the axis of the shaft, be supposed
to pass twenty vertical planes, making equal angles
with each other, which'will cut the surface of the
column in twenty places; and if the surface of the

‘column be curved or hollowed between each two
lines, from the bottom to the top of the shaft, termi-‘

nating immediately under the lowest annulet; then the
shaft will have twenty curved sides, and as many
angles ; and if nearly at the upper end of the shaft be
cut one or more grooves of an equal depth, from the
surface of the hollowing, each groove being parallel to
the annulets under the echinus, then a column so form-
ed is called Doric. ’

7. That part of the column contained between the
upper channel and the lower annulets, is called the hy-
potrachelion, neck, or freize of the capital.

8. That part of the Doric column, comprehendng the
abacus, echinus, annulets, and hypotrachelion, is called
a Doric capital.

9. If the ends of the cross beams in the frieze, which
lay upon the architrave, be at right angles to the sides of
the beams, and parallel to the front or the architrave,
and if the two vertical right angles of each beam, form-
ing by the two vertical sides, and the ends be cut away
by vertical planes, making equal angles with the sides
and ends,h—-that is, 135 degrees with each; and if two
other vertical channels are cut on the end, so that the
planes, which are three in number, left on the ends of

 

 

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a 90 ‘ a ' GRECIAN DORIC.

,each beam, may be equal rectangles, and the two, sides
of each channel make 135 degrees, with the ends of the
. joists, and are so disposed that there may be arectangle
next to each semi-channel, and then two whole chané
ne‘ls, leaving a rectangle in the middle ; the end of the
beam, so formed, is called a triglyph.

10. If the spaces between the triglyph be filled up

with planes parallel to the front of the triglyphs, or to the
front of the architrave; and if these planes be in the

, same plane with each other, and recessed beyond the
ends of'the triglyph, so as to show a small part of the
vertical sides of the beams ; that is, to be further in than
the channels of the triglyph ; then these spaces so filled
up, are called metopes.

11. If the front of the beam, which supports the raft.
'ers that lay upon the joists, project at some distance be-
yond the face of the triglyph, the plane of the front being
parallel to the ends of the beam; and if a recess be cut
from this beam directly over the metopes, the plane of
the front of the recess being parallel to, and having a
small projecture over the metopes, and the ends of the
recesses over the metopes, be in the same plane with the
vertical sides of the beam; then that part of the front of
the beam over the triglyph, is called the capital of the
triglyph. I

12. The whole face of the work comprehended be—
tween the upper edge of the beam which forms the capi—
tal of the triglyphs, and the lower end of the triglyphs
and metopes, is called a Doric frieze.

13. If from the top of the architrave, project a fillet,
whose upper edge is in the same plane with the top of

, the architrave, or the lower end of the triglyph, the front
of the fillet being a vertical plane, parallel to the front of
the architrave, having a small projecture beyond the front
of the triglyph ; this fillet being supposed to be continued
the whole length of the architrave, and returning in the
same manner round its ends; and if fillets be placed un~
der this fillet, whose fronts stand a little within the front
ofthe upper fillet, but projecting beyond the face of the
architrave, and the ends of these fillets, in the same
plane with the sides of the triglyph, and consequently
each fillet equal in length to the breadth ofthe triglyph ;
and if under each of these fillets be fixed six equal semi-
lar frustrems of cones, at equal distances from each oth-
er, whose axes are perpendicular to the horizon, and the
same distance from the face of the architrave, so that the

 

 

 

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extremities of these frUStrums may not reach beyond the
perpendicular of the ends of the fillets above them ; then
the front of the architrave, so formed, is called a Doric
architrave. , . . ‘ ‘ . ,

14-. The'upper filletof the Doric architrave, is called
a tenia. . , , «

15. The fillets'under the tenia of the Doric architrave,
are each of them called a regula.

16. The little conical frustrums under each regula,
are called guttae, or drops. ' .

1'7. The plain part of the architrave under the tenia
and regulae, is called facia.

18. If over the capitals of the triglyph be laid another
beam, whose front is parallel to the metopes, or to the
front of the triglyphs in the frieze, having a small pro—
jecture from the front of the metopes; and if over this

‘ beam be laid the ends of the rafters which support the

covering, the ends having a projecture forward and par-
allel to the beam under them ; one rafter over each trig-
lyph, and also one over every metope, placed directly in
the middle of each ; that is to say, a vertical plane per-
pendicular through the middle of every metope, and also

through the middle of every triglyph, would pass through-

the ends of all the rafters, and divide them into-two equal
rectangles; and if over the rafters be laid a beam, the
front of which, being a plane parallel to the ends of the
rafters, has a projecture ; and if the void spaces between
each two rafters, and the under side of the beam above
the rafters and the upper side of the beam below the
rafters, be covered in, so that the front of the spaces so

covered may be in the same vertical plane with the .

face of the beam under the rafters; then those ends of
the rafters, projecting over the face of the beam under
them, are called mutules.

19. If to the under side of the mutules be hung three
rows of small conical frustrurns, of the same size as those
under the regulae of the architrave, so that there may be
siX in length in each of the rows, and three in width ;
then these conical frustrums are also called guttee, or drops,
as those in the architrave.

20. The front of the beam lying over the mutules, is
called corona, or drip, or larmier.

21. The under side of the beam, lying over the mu-
tules, if called soflit, or lacunar. '

22. A building, whether of wood or stone, or any
other material, having columns supporting an entablature

_ MA. "Ms’émtfiimtc.

(

GRECIAN DORIC. ' ‘ “/91

over them, as described in‘the preceding definitions;
such a building, so constructed, is said to be of the Doric
Order. - ‘

Having defined the principal parts of this order, it
may not be improper to observe, that the Doric order
has in general more 'mouldings in the cornice; but as
these vary in different buildings, and as the members
already described, form its most striking features, t
would have been useless to have taken any account of
them in the definitions.

PROBLEM I.

To draw the elevation of a Grecian Doric
Order.

Make the lower diameter of the shaft of the column
one eighth of the entire height of the order; divide the
diameter of the column into two equal parts, then one
of these parts is a module ; divide the module into thirty
equal parts, and each of these parts will be a miunte ;
make the height of the column twelve modules, the
height of the capital one module; divide the height of
the capital into five equal parts ; give one to the hypo-
trachelion, and two parts to the annulets and echinus ;
make the annulets one quarter of the echinus, and the
remaining two parts to the abacus: make the upper diam-
eter of the shaft three quarters of the lower diameter of
the shaft; the length of each side of the abacus two
modules and one fifth, or two modules andtwelve minutes;
the height of the entablature will be four modules, of

which the height of the cornice will have one module,

and the frieze, and architrave, each forty-five minutes, or i

one module and a half; divide the height of the frieze
into eight parts: give the upper one to the capital of
the triglyph, and the three lower for the channels; make
one edge of the triglyph in the columns at the angles of
the building, directly over the axis of the column, the
breadth of the triglyph twenty-eight minutes, having the
other edge of the. triglyph directly at the angle of the
building; and make the distance between the triglyph,
or width of the metopes, equal to the height of the frieze,
forty-two minutes; place all the columns between the two
extreme ones, directly under the middle of the triglyphs.
Make the height of the tenia one tenth of the height of
the epistilium; and the height of the regula, together
. with the guttae, equal to the height of the tenia. The

height of the cornice being one module, make the heigh
of the small bead on the lower part of the cornice one
minute ; the height of the mutules, including the guttae,
four minutes and a half; the length of the mutules equal
to the breadth of the triglyphs, and their projection beyond
the faces of the triglyphs, .two thirds of their length,
observing that one should be directly over the middle of
every triglyph, and one over the middle of every metope;
make a fillet above the mutules one minute and a half
high, to project beyond the mutules half a minute over-
this fillet; make the height of the corona one third of a

one minute ; make the height of the small echinus one
minute and a quarter; over the echinus, make a fillet of
the'same height; over the fillet, make another echinus
six minutes and a half high, and two minutes will re-
main for the height of the fillet above the echinus.

In order to establish the proportions and true taste of
the original Doric Order, the following examples are
taken from the most celebrated buildings now remaining
of this order. The module is divided into thirty parts,
or minutes ; the measures are all numbered in these
parts ; the projections are reckoned from a line represent-
ing the axis of the column, and are figured at the ext
tremities of each member. ‘

PLATE 36.

ELEVATION OF THE DORIC ORDER ON THE TEMPLE OF
MINERVA, AT ATHENS, CALLED PARTHENON.

This temple, dedicated to Minerva, the chief goddess
of the Athenians, is the most beautiful piece of antiquity
remaining It was built by Pericles, who employed
Ictimus and Callicrates for his architects. The entabla—
ture is charged with historical figures of admirable
workmanship; the figures of the pediment, though seen
at so great a height, appear to be as large as life, being in
alto-relievo, and well executed; the figure in the middle
seems to have been made for Jupiter, its right arm being
broken off, which probably held the thunder. It is likely
that between his legs was placed the eagle; for the
beard, and majesty and expression of his countenance,
and the figure being naked, as he was usually repre-
sented by the Greeks, sufficiently show it to have been
made for Jupiter. A his right hand is another figure,

 

 

covered half way down the legs, coming towards him;

 

 

module, or ten minutes, having a projecture over the fillet ,

 

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,~;Whif_c'h”:j“perh'aps "was a Victory, leading the horses of
1.,Miherva’sf“triumphal chariot, which follows it. The
horses areVfinishedwith great art; the vigor and spirit

peculiar to'those animals seem here to receive addition,
asif'inspired‘by the goddess they drew. Minerva, in

g the Chariot, is represented rather as the goddess of learn-
v .ing than of war, without helmet, buckle‘r,or a Medusa’s
"heard On her breast, as Pausanias describes her image

within the temple- Behind her is another figure of a
woman sitting; , The next tWo figures in the corner, are

the Emperor Hadrian, and his Empress Sabina. On '

the left hand of Jupiter are five or six figures, which
appear to be an assembly of the gods, where Jupiter in-
troduces MinerVa, and acknowledges her his daughter.

The pediment at the other end of the temple was
adorned With figures, expressing Minerva’s contest with
Neptune, about who should- name the city of Athens; of
which there only remains a part of a sea-horse.

The frieze is charged with basso-relievos, of excellent
workmanship, on which are represented the battles of the
Athenians with the Centaurs : these appear to be as old
as the temple itself. .‘ ,

Within the portion on high, and on the outside of the
cella of the temple, is ‘another border of basso—relievos
around it, at least en the north and south sides of it,
which is without doubt as ancient as the temple, and of
admirable workmanship, butnot in so high a relievo as

the other. On it are represented sacrifices, processions,

and other ceremonies of the heathen worship.
This temple is now turned into a Turkish mosque.
FIG. 1. Elevation of the Doric order; the proportions
of the parts in numbers.

FIG. 2. Ichnography or plan of the one quarter of the
column. '

FIG. 3. A section through the upper part of the cor—
nice.

PLATE 37.

FIG. 1. This example shows the return of the flank
at the angle of the building. The figures in the nietope
are omitted.

Fres. 2 and 3 show the forms of the moulding and
upper part of the cornice.

FIG. 4. Elevation of the capital, and of striking the
ovolo by conic sections.

 

 

I92 J ~ J FGRVECIAN DORIC.‘

FIG. 5. Section of one half the column.

FIG.'6. Section through the annulets, of a large
size. . 4

FIG. 7. Plan of the soffit inverted.

l

.PLATE 38.

ELEVATION OF THE DORIC ORDER ON THE TEMPLE
' 0F THESEUS, AT ATHENS.

- This temple is one of the most ancient examples of
the Doric oider now existing ’;~~it was erected about ten
years after the battle Salamine, by Cimon, the son of
Miltiadesp The ceiling of the porch'is remarkable for
its construction: there are great beams of marble, the
upper sides of which are level with the bed of the cornice
and the ends corresponding exactly to the triglyphs iri
the frieze, which give the idea of the disposition of the
timbers which wefe first used in buildings, and from
which the Doric order had its origin.

This building is adorned with beautiful sculpture: the
rnetopes of the frieze are charged with historical figures,
on which are represented various exploits of Theseus;
the battle he had with Sinis, the notorious robber, who
dwelt in the Isthmus of Corinth. Theseus is represented
making Sinis undergo those torments which he had in-
flicted on others.

In the basso-relievo is represented a man taking hold
of another by his middle, and endeavoring to throw him
down; this is. doubtless intended to represent Theseus
throwing Sciron from a rock; the combat of Theseus
with the wild sow of Crpmniyon, which was killed by
that hero. In another basso-relievo is represented a man
prese. ting his hand to a woman, perhaps to express the
rape of Ariana, or Helen, by Theseus.

Some others of the basso—relievos in the metopes are
less distinguished. The two mentioned by Pausanius
are still to be seen on the front of the temple: one repre-
sents the battle of the Athenians with the Amizons; the
other the dispute of the Centaurs and the Lapithre, in
which Theseus kills a Centaur with his own hand.

The first seems to represent the instant when the
Athenians granted peace to the Amazons; for there the
women are represented as sitting.

' The inside of the temple is not ornamented like the
outside.

 

     

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This temple is now a Greek church, dedicated to
’ St. George, and 1s at present in high esteem among the

Athenians.

FIG. 1. The elevation of the order, with the heights
and projections of the members in numbers.

The figures in the metopes are omitted.

FIG. 2. Represents the ovolo above the facia of the
cornice. V - . ' ‘

FIG. 3. ' Plan of the soflit inverted.

FIG. 4. Plan of the ovolos and annulets of the largest
size. - i ' .

FIG. 5. Section of one half of the column.

PLATE 39.

ELEVATION OF A GRECIAN DORIC, OF A LIGHTER PRO-
PORTION THAN ANY OF THE PRECEDING, WITH THE
PROPORTIONAL MEASURES IN NUMBERS.

The ratio of the parts of this elevation, is the same
as that on the portico of Philip, King of Macedon, in
the island of Delos ; but the profile of the cornice differs
as follows : Instead of the ovolo which I have introduced
in this example, a cima—recta, in the original, occupies
its place; and instead of the next ovolo under the fillet in
this, there is in the original a cima-reversa. The pro-
file in this plate I conceive to be more beautiful than the

original, as it will produce a greater variety of light and .
shade, and consequently the mouldings will be more clear- ,
ly defined; but as the reader maybe desirous of a knowl- ‘

edge of the true form and taste of the original mouldings,
I have shown them in FIG. 3.

FIG. 1.
numbers.

FIG. 2. A section through the upper part of the cor-
nice, showing the fo1m and taste of the mouldings intro-
duced into this elevation by P. Nicholson.

FIG. 3. A section of the anta: of the same portico.

Elevation, with the proportional measures in

PLATE 40.

ELEVATION OF THE GRECIAN DORIC PORTICO, AT
' 'ATHENs

This example of the Doric order is built of white
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marble, and Is OI a. much later date then any of the pre— . V .
ceding examp‘ es; as some inscriptions on this portico., i i
cleaily prove that it was built in the time when Nicius‘f’ .
was archon; and Eucles, son of Herod had the care of A
the work. -' *
FIG. 1.
tion, figured.
FIG. 2. Soffit of the mutules and corona, inverted.
FIG. 3. The ichnog1aphy of a quarter of the column
at the top and‘bottom, showing the flutes. K

The proportion of the members of the eleva-

..

PLATE 41.

FROM THE DORIC PORTICO, AT ATHENS.

FIG. 1. Section through the entablature, showing the

‘ capital of the antae.

FIG. 2. Section of the upper moulding of the entab-
lature within the portico next to the ceiling.
FIG. 3. Section through the capital ofithe antae.

PLATE 42.

FROM THE CHORAGIC MONUMENT OF THRASYLLUS.

FIG. 1. The proportional measures in numbers.
FIG. 2. Section through the cornice.
FIG. 3. Sect on through the capit tl.

PLATE 43.

To draw the flutes of the columns of the Doric
Order.

Divide the semi-circumference into ten equal parts:
then with one of those parts, as a radius, and the extrem-
ities of any division, as at 3 and 4, describe a1cs, cut-
ting each other in C, and through C describe a ci1cle,
or a part, and draw lines from the cent1e, cutting that
ci1cle, which will give the centres for desc1ibing the
flutes.

'94 ' . GRECIAN DORIC.

01‘ thus, for deeper flutes.

Bisect any division, as 5, 6, at f; then on 5, with the
distance 5 f, describe an arc f D, cutting the radius pro-
duced through 5 at D, and draw the radii through the
points 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, cutting that circle, which will
give the centres of the flutes. '

FIG. 2. The elevation drawn from the plan FIG. 1.

 

 

To draw the flutes of the Ionic and Corinthian
Orders.

FIG. 3. Divide the semi-circumference into twelve
equal parts ; divide any division, as between 5 and 6, into
eight equal parts, then with a radius of three of these
parts, on the points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12,
as centres, describe the flutes, which will leave the
fillets.

FIG. 4. The elevation drawn from the plan, FIG. 3.

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GRECIAN IONIC.“ '

THE IONIC TEMPLE.
PLATE 44.

[F1 G. l. A ground plan of the Temple on the Ilyssus, with a portico at each end. The columns G G are wanting ; but in the place where
they stood, circles are marked on the pavement, which are exactly of the same dimensions with the remaining columns, and were evidently de-

signed as an accurate guide to the workmen, when they erected those columns which are now destroyed ; for which reason it was thought nec-.

essary to make these circles likewise on the plan which is here given. The capitals of the antaa, belonging to the posticus or back-front, remain
entire, and are of the same form and dimensions with those of the portico, except only that the sides contiguous to the back wall of the cell, are
but half so broad as the faces next to the columns ; whereas, in the antae of the portico, the sides next the pronaos, and the faces next the
columns, are equal. The architrares of the back-front project considerably beyond the antm, and there are sufficient remains of them, to show
exactly how far the columns of the back-front were distant from the back wall of the cell.

FIG. 2. The elevation of the south side of the temple.

JVote. The ground plan and elevation are here given as measured by Stuart and Renett, in feet, inches and decimals.

The Ionic order derives its name from the Iones, a Greek people, on the east coast of the Archipelago, whose capital was Ephesus, celebrated
on many accounts, but particularly for the magnificent temple of Diana. If the Doric were meant to represent the manly, robust ggurei‘of Her-
cules, the Ionic might properly be the emblem of the dignified Simplicity and elegance of Diana.

It has been already observed, in the general definitions of the orders, that every order consists of a column and an entablature ; that every col-
umn consists of a base, a shaft, and a capital, except in the Doric, where the base is omitted ; that every entablature consists of an architrave, a.
frieze, and a cornice ; that the base, shaft, capital, architrave, frieze and cornice, are the principal members of an order ; and‘ that the peculiar
mode or form of the members, determines the particular name of the order. But since many of the' mouldings are common to all the orders,
and are generated in a similar manner, what has been said in the general definition, add also on the Doric order, will render it unnecessary to
repeat the same things in the Ionic, as such mouldings cannot form any particular feature of any particular order. It is therefore shown, in the
subjoined definitions, how these members ought to be modified, so that they may constitute the Ionic order.]

2. An order which has volutes and mouldings in the
capital of the annular kind, and the ichnography of

1. IF from the under side of the abacus of an order the abacus square, as in the Doric order, the archilrave
there project two or more spirals on each end of the finishing of plain facize, and mouldings either plain or
front, in a plane, parallel to the frieze, so that the enriched, the frieze a plain surface, the cornice to con-
extremity of each shall be at the same distance from sist of a cima-recta, then a fillet and an echinus only;
the axis of the column, and also two others upon the and if to the under side of the corona are hunga row of
opposite side of the abacus, parallel to the former, and equal and similar parallelopipeds equi-distant from each
projecting the same distance from the axis of the column, other, whose fronts are in a plane parallel to the plane of

DEFINITIONS.

so that each of the spirals shall have the same number
of revolutions, and equal and similar to each other, the
projecting part contained between any two spirals is

called a volute. '
24

 

the frieze, then each of these parallelopipeds is called a
dentele.

3.. An order so constructed is similar to that invented
by the Ionians, and consequently is the Ionic order.

1 , 1"

 

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96 « ' .. ' GRECIAN IONIC.

PLATE 45.

FROMLTHE IONVIC TEMPLE ON THE RIVER ILYSSUS,
AT ATHENS.

The simplicity and greatiigiiilé'ss of the parts, their judi-

' cious arrangement, the beautiful turning on the volutes,
’ and the graceful curve'of the hem hanging between'them,

rendels this one of the most beautiful and bold examples
of this order.
The elegant base of the column, the grand proportion

v-of the entablature, the massy mouldings of the cornice,

and the spacious surface of the frieze, well adapted for
sculptured ornaments, and the architrave for its strength,
as it is not broken in two or more faciae, are considera-
tions which should recommend this example.

\

FIG. 1; The elevation of the order and details figured
in proportional parts for practice.

0 FIG. 2. A drawing of the order by dividing the whole
height into 21 parts which are disposed of in modules
and minutes, as shown In the example , one of the parts
makes a module or 30 minutes.

FIG. 3. Shows how to form the curve of the fluting;
the Grecians used the ellipsis form, While the Romans as
uniformly made use of a semicircle as in Fig. 4..

FIG.;:4. {lxplained the same as Fig. 3, in Plate 43.

PLATE 46.

FIG. 1. The capital inverted, of the different tastes of
forming the volutes.
FIG. 2. The elevation of the same.

PLATE 47.

FROM THE TEMPLE 0F MINERVA POLIAs, AT PRIENE,
IN IONIA. ‘

The small projection of the cima-recta, and its great
height, is of itself beautiful and well contrived for the
ornament, as it is less obscured by the shadow from the
concave and convex parts of the moulding. This small
projecture is also well adapted for a low corona ; for the
greater the projecture of the cima-recta, the more it will
predominate over the corona, by the principles of optics;
and, on the contrary, the less the projecture of the lcima-
recta, the less it will predominate over the corano. It
follows, therefore, that a low corona will require a cima—
recta, of a small projecture ; but a greater height of the

 

 

corona will require a greater projecture of the cima-recta,
and a less height. The denteles, which are a striking
feature in this order, show here to very great advantage,
their bold and singular projecture greatly relieving them
from each other.

The architrave is well proportioned to itself, and also

.to the cornice; the capital is elegant, and the spirals of

the volutes are beautifully drawn.

The surprising delicacy of the ornaments, and their
bold relief, with the grand ratio of the parts and mould-
ings to each other, render this one of the most beautiful
examples of the Ionic order.

FIG. 1. The elevation of this example, the proportional
measures in numbers.

FIG. 2. Ichnography of the denteles.

FIG. 3. Profile of the mouldings in the base to a
larger size.

The cymatium, 01' crown of the architrave, was taken
from the designs of Mr. Wood, who visited this temple
before Mr. Rivett.

The base of the column is true Ionic : it has no plinth;
the upper scotia is inverted, which diversities and gives
the contour a greater beauty than is the Vitruvian base,
in which the scotia are one over the other, uninverted.
The torus is elliptical and fluted.

The eyes of the volutes are bored two inches, and a
half deep ; the hem, or border, with its fillets resting on
the echinus, and connecting with a graceful curve the
spirals of the volutes, seeming to keep them secure in
their place, adds greatly to the beauty of this capital.

P L A T E 4 8
FROM THE TEMPLE 0F MINERVA POLIAS, AT PRIENE.

FIG. 1. Section through the cornice of the pediment.

FIG. 2."Fr0nt of the cornice, showing the ornaments
on the mouldings. It is remarkable that the enrichment
of the upper moulding diflers from that on the lateral
cornice.

’FIG. 3. The mouldings of the capital, with their pro-
portion in numbers. '

FIG. 4. Volute, with the measure in feet, inches, and"
tenths.

FIG. 5. A section through the upper torus of the base,
which is of an elliptical form, the transverse axis being
inclined to the plane of the horizon.

 

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PLATE 49.

FROM THE SAME TEMPLE.

FIG. 1. The elevation of the front of the capital; to
larger size.

FIG. 2. The ichnography of half of the capital.

FIG. 3. Side elevation of the same.

P L A T E 5 0.
FROM THE TEMPLE OF BACCHUS, AT TEos, IN IONIA.

This temple was first begun of the Doric order, by
Hermogenus; but afterwards he changed it into the
Ionic, and dedicated it to Bacchus.

This example is drawn from accurate measures, taken
from that celebrated building.

The denteles, in the cornice, add greatly to the char-

acter of the order.

FIG. 1. The elevation of the order. It may here be
observed that no measures have been taken of the parts
which are marked in this example with letters, as none
of them could be found. They are here supplied by
mere conjecture.

The base of the columns. It is thought from the little
(litlbrences between the shaft at the base, and that imme-
diately under the capital, that the base which is here ex-
hibited did not belong to the capital shown at FIG. 1, but
to some of the interior columns; for the ancients always
made the interior ranges of columns less in diameter
than the exterior, as is to be found in the celebrated
Athenian buildings, the temple of Minerva and the Pro-
pylea.

FIG. 2. Profile of one half the front of the capital, with

 

 

 

 

 

 

97

the measure of the volute and proportional measures in
numbers.

P L A T E 51 .
FROM THE TEMPLE 0F ERECTHEUS, AT ATHENS.

This example has been reduced to a proportional scale
in numbers.

FIG. 1. The elevation of the order.

FIG. 2. The elevation of the antae.

FIG. 3. The ornamental moulding in the capitals.

FIG. 4. The ichnogrophy of the ornamental moulding
in the cornice at the angles.

FIG. 5. The elevation of the same.

PLATE 52.

FROM THE SAME TEMPLE.

FIG. 1. Formation of the volute, in feet, inches, and

tenths.
FIG. 2. Section from A to B, showing the formation

of the face mouldings.

PLA TE' 53.
FROM THE TEMPLE OF MINERVA, AT ATHENS.

FIG. 1. Another example of a volute, showing the
different sections and formation of the face mouldings
thereof.

FIG. 2. A section through A B.

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= will be the module, which 111 G1eek is called Embates,
and by which all the othe1 pa1ts a1e p10po1tior‘1ed.’

[Some architects have maintained, that the one 61‘ er,

   

 

. larlty.‘ This opinion was held by

Tarchesius, Pytheus, and Hermogenus. The latter, after having prepared marble materials for building", iDpi‘ic temple, changed the order and
made it Ionic, dedicating it to Bacchus. The Doric order, however, is not deficient 1n grandeur. , but an inconvenience arises in the distribution
of the triglyphs and lacunaria , for it is necessary that die triglyphs should be placed over the middle quarters of. the columns, and the metopes,

which are between the tliglyphs, must be as long as high?

 

' ;"the triglyphs ‘at the angles are placed at the extremities, and not over the middle
of the columns , the1efo1e, the metopes which are next the angular triglyphs, will not be square, but longer by half the breadth of a t11wl1ph

some, who wish to make the metopes equal, lessen the extreme intercolumniation by half the breadth of the triglyph. However, the metope, or

the contracting of the intercolumniation, is a defect.
shown, in its proper place, how far we ought to follow our masters. ]

THE front of a D01 10 temple, where the columns me I

placed, is difidedf—if it be terastyle, into twenty-eight:
parts; if hexastyle,-into forty-four. One of,’ theseVparts

The thickness of the column must be two modules;
the height, with the capital, fou1teen , the height of the
capital one module, the breadth two modules and a sixth:
The height of, the capital is divided into three parts, of
which one is given to the abacus, with the cimatium;
another to the echinus, with the annulets; and the third
to the hypotrachelion. ‘The columns are} diminished, as

 

described on the plates.
The height of the epistilium, with the the. tenia and ‘

drops, is one module. The tenia has the seventh of a

' module, the length of a guttae under the tenia coinciding

the 1egula, is, one sixth of a module, the breadth of the
epistilium also answets to the hypotrachelion of the col-
umn.

On the epistilium are placed the tliglvphs with the
metopes, having the height of one module and a half,
and the breadth in front one module; they must be so
distributed, that they may be over the centre of the col-
umns at the angles, and two between each column. The
breadth of the triglyphs is divided into twelve equal parts,

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of which the breadth of the femur in the middle will be

 

Though the ancients have been observed to neglect exact regularity in Doric buildings, it is

two‘parts; then a'channel is cut on each side of the fe-
mur, the breadth of each channel being equal to two parts;
next to the channels two other femurs are left, one on the
right, and the other on the left, each equal to the
breadth of the middle femur, or two pa1ts; then a part
will remain next to the edge of each trigly p11, which is
to be cut away in the form. of a semi-channel. On
either Side of- this, channels are sunk, as if imprinted by
the elbow of a. square: to the right and left of these, an-

.other femur is formed. In the same manner, semi~chan-

nels must be sunk at. the extremities. The triglyphs
being thus disposed, the metopes are as high as leng;
on the angles also the semi—111etopes are made half a
module in width.

Thus all the errors arising from the wrong distribution
of the metopes, intercolumniations, and lacunaria, will
be rectified.

The capitals of the triglyphs must have one sixth of a.
module. On these capitals is placed the corona, project-
ing a half and asixth part of a module, having a Doric
cimatium below, and another above; the corona, with the
ciniatiums, are half a module in thickness. 111 the under
part of the corona, perpendicularly over the triglyphs
and metopes, the guttae are so distributed, that there may
be six in length, and three in breadth. The spaces be-
tween the metopes, being rather broader than the trig-
lyphs, are either left plain, or carved with thunderbolts,

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ROMAN DORIC.

and at the edge of the corona a channel is cut, called
Scotia; all the 1en1ainder, as the tympanum, the sima,
and corona, me the same as in the Ionic 01 de1

Conte1 111116 the diminution of the column according to

V1t1‘111‘ ins, he gave the following rule for all kinds of 001-.

1111111s, the Tuscan excepted. _

The diminution of the top of the column at the hypo-
t1achelion, is thus legulated; if the columnbe not-less
than fifteen feet high, the thickness
into six parts, and five of these pa1 ts ale given to the
thickness at top. ,

‘ If the height 1s from fifteen to twenty feet, the bot-
tom of the shaft 1s divided into six parts and aghalf, and
five and a half of these parts make the thickness of the
column atvtop ; and if from twenty to thirty feet, the bot-
tom is divided into seven parts, and six of these make
the diminution at the top. ' If it is from thirty to forty
feet high, the bottom thickness is divided into seven parts
and a half, of which six and a half is the measure of the
diminution at the top. If from forty to‘fifty feet, it is
divided into eight parts, whereof seven will make the
thickness of the hypotrachelion at the top of the shaft.

‘ And if it is still higher, the same proportional meth-
od is observed; for, as a greater height causes them to
appear more diminished, they aretherefore to be cor-
rected by an addition of thickness; beauty being the
province of the eye, which, if not satisfied by the due pro-
portion and augmentation of the members, correcting ap-
parent deficiencies with proper additions, the aspect will
appear coarse and displeasing.

‘ Concerning the augmentation which is made in the

 

 

at bottom is divided

 

 

 

 

97.

middle of columns,” which the Greeks called entasis, the "

manner of forming it Just and gradual is shown’ on plate ,
63, FIG. 2. - . 1 '

PLATE 541;. '

ELEVATION OF THE DORIC ORDER, FROM THE BATHS
OF DIOCLESIAN, AT ROME, WITH THE PROPORTIONS
V IN NUMBERS. ,

iiThe cornice of this example is not Doric; it is too
abundant with mouldings, and overcharged with enrich-
ments.

The disposition of the triglyphs and metopes in the
flieze ls according to the rules of Vitruvius.

The capital 18 not Doric, but of another kind, nor
could this composition be known to have the least resem-
blance to the Doric order, if the triglyphs in the frieze
were omitted.

FIG. 1. The elevation of this example.

FIG. 2. A section. of the column, showing the flutes.

PLATE 55.

This plate shows the elevation of the Roman Doric, as
given by Palladio.

FIG. 1. The elevation.

FIG. 2. The cornice inverted.

F101. 3. The capital inverted.

ROMAN

IONIC.

‘ The Ionic order is sometimes called the female order since it is more slim and elewant than the Doric and is thouwht to exhibit a matron-like
[ 9 z: ’ a

appearance. Wherefore many of its ornaments imitate the female habit ;

were, curled. They are peculiar to this order.’]
P L A T E 5 6 .

FROM THE TEMPLE OF CONCORD, AT ROME.

THIS is a singular example; the cornice has mutules
or modillions, resembling the Doric order, and also den-
teles, as in the Ionic. There are no ai‘chitrave moulds
ings on the front of the portico of this temple, nor on
one of its sides; the architrave on the other side is en-
tirely sunk within the plane of the frieze: each face of
the capital of the column is alike ; that is, the sides are
the same as the fronts; the abacus is curved, each two
volutes meet together at every angle of the abacus, which
is not to be met with in any other antique example what-
ever ; the volutes in the capital are much too small, and
the annular mouldings are too much multiplied, and too

 

 

particularly the volutes, by which the capital of the column is, as it

great for the volutes, which renders this capital clumsy,
and its aspect displeasing to the eye; the columns have
no plinth, excepting the two extreme ones. This edifice
is thought to be the temple of Concord, built by F.
Camillus, and stands at the entrance of the Roman Fo-
rum, near the arch of Septimius Severus.

FIG. 1. The proportional measures in numbers.

PLATE 57.

FIG. 1. The ichnography of the capital inverted.

FIG. 2. Front of the capital.

FIG. 3. Soflit of the cornice.

FIG. 4. The base of the columns between the two ex-
treme columns, without the plinth.

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[The Corinthian order took its rise in the flourishing days of Corinth, a celebrated city, commanding the communication of the peninsula of
Peloponnesus, with the continent of Greece. It is generally regarded by writers on architecture, as being more delicate than the Ionic; and is
thought to resemble the graceful figure of a virgin. Among the ancients it had much resemblance to the Ionic : according to Vitruvius, it imitated
that order in every part, but in the capital of the pillar. In the introduction to this work, we have alluded to the pretty Greek story told of the
origin of the capital. Villapandus gives another equally dubious account of its origin ; and Aldrich conjectures, as more probable, that, as the "
shaft ofa pillar represents the trunk ofa tree, so the tree, being lopped and sprouting again, furnished the hint for the design of this capital. But
however this may be, we believe it will be generally conceded that, in attempting too much, this order has deviated from the true simplicity of
nature. It marked an age of luxury and magnificence, when pomp and splendor had become the predominant passion, but had not yet extinguished
the taste for the sublime and beautiful. Attempts were made to unite all these characters, but a chastened judgment is not satisfied]

f} FIG. 1. Elevation of the order in numbers.

if FIG. 2. Section of one quarter of the column next the
1' AN order ““011 has two annular rows 0f leaves ,1 capital, also a section of one quarter of the column next

in the capital, each leaf of the upper row growing be- the base.

tween those of the lower row, in such a manner that §

a leaf of the upper row may be in the middle of each ’

side or face of the capital; and if between each space i

of the upper leaves there spring stalks with volutes, two

DEFINITIONS.

FIG. 3. Elevation of the base of a larger size.

of which meet at the angles of the abacus, and two in ‘ P L A T E 59.

the middle of the capital, either touching or interwoven i

With each other; a capital 50 CODSUUCted: is called F1G.1. Is the outline of the leaves and elevation of
Corinthian. the capital, from the Pantheon, as shown in Plate

2. An order which has aCorinthian capital, and an Ionic 57,
or any other entablature, is called the Corinthian Order. FIG“ 2. The capital inverted, showing an angle of the
architrave.
P LA T E 5 8. FIG. 3. The elevation ofa leaf in the same.

FIG. 4. The elevation of a leaf in the capital of a
column, from the temple of Jupiter Stator, at Rome.
. FIG. 5. The side elevation of the modillion, from the
This example, though plain, is yet beautiful and chaste, temple of Jupiter.
and is an excellent model of the order. FIG. 6. The modillion inverted.

THE CORINTHIAN ORDER, FROM THE PANTHEON,
AT ROME.

 

 

100 CORINTHIAN ORDER.

PLATE 60.

FROM THE THREE COLUMNS IN THE CAMPO VACCINO,
SUPPOSED TO BE THE REMAINS OF THE TEMPLE
OF JUPITER STATOR, AT ROME.

The engraving exhibited in this plate, of that cele-
brated example of the remains of Jupiter Stator, is more
accurate than any yet published ; the capital and entabla-
ture are restored from the drawings of an artist, Who was

 

 

so obliging as to favor me with sketches of the ornament,
which he had from the original. The elegance and
beauty of the capital ; its graceful form ; the grandeur and
excellent proportion of the entablature, With the delicacy
of the ornament, render this one of the most complete
examples now existing of the Corinthian order.

FIG. 1. Elevation of the order in numbers.
FIG. 2. The cornice inverted, showing the enrich-
ments of the modillions and mouldings.

 

 

 

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[The Romans added the Tuscan, or Etruscan, to the three Grecian orders , as they subsequently did the Composite. tThe idea of the Tus-
can is undoubtedly derived from the Doric order, from which it differs, according to the View taken of it by Aldrich, asunuch as the appearance
of an inhabitant of the country does from one of a city. There is extant no specimen of it with an entablature. It the first of the Italic
orders, and is called Tuscan, as having been originally employed by that ancient people, once powerful in Italy. ‘ Vi vius speaks of it as

rustic even to deformity ; nor are modern artists more favorable to it, except Palladio.’
that which is given in this work is taken from the description of Virtruvius. ]

PLATE 61.

FROM VITRUVIUS, WITH THE PROPORTION OF THE
PARTS IN NUMBERS.

WE have no complete example of this order remain-
ing from antique buildings; and all that we know of
it is from the description of Vitruvius, from which
this example is taken, and is therefore the only stand-
ard.

The proportions of the parts are exhibite by equal
divis1ons on the plate

That celeblated building, St. Paul’s, Covent Ga1-
den, is the only true specimen the1e is of the Tuscan
order in England. It may be adapted with great pro-
priety to Market Places, as the simplicity of its parts, and
the extraordinary projection of the cornice, render it suit-
able for that purpose.

 

 

 

FIG. 1. Elevation of the order from Vitruvius.
26

 

Having no complete examplegrom antique/buildings,

FIG. 2. The ichnography of the mutules in the cor-
nice.

FIG. 3. Profile of the upper patt .of the cornice.

The column is seven diameters high; the base and
capital are each ‘half a diameter ;’ the base is divided
into two equal parts, one of which is given to’the plinth,
the other to the torus and fillet; divide the capital‘ into
three equal parts, give one to the hypotrachelion, one. to
the ovolo and fillet, and the upper one to the abacus.
The mutules in the cornice are to project one fourth of
the length of the column.

FIG. 4. A modern example of the Tuscan order, with
the proportional measures in numbers.

'To diminish the shaft of a column.

FIG. 2. Describe the semi-circle a a, at the bottom
of the shaft. Draw a straight line through one extremi-

 

102 TUSCAN ORDER

ty of the upper diameter to meet the arc of the semi-
circle in 1; divide the are cut ofi“ by this line into five
equal parts. Divide also the axis into five equal parts,
making the points of divisions 1 2 3 4; and draw the
lines 1 1, 2 2, 3 3, 4 4, and a a, perpendicular to the
‘axis. Then transfer lines of sines 1 1, 2 2, 3 3, 4 4,
5 5, to the perpendicular of the axis, and apply them on

each side of the axis from the points, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
Through the extremities 1, 2, 3, 4, a, on each side,
draw a curve, by a thin slip of wood bent round the
points I, 2, 3, 4, 5. It will be perceived that two di-
ameters are first taken out, and the remainder of the
shaft divided into five equal parts. This is the modern
practice. See plate 63. -

Pl. 6].

T US CAN ORDERS. Rt.

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[The second Italic order, and last of the five orders of architecture, Is the Compoiti which some writers have divided into three species, or , ; ., I; f
orders. The first (called the Composite, ) is composed of the Ionic and Corinthian: ‘ which two exhibit moregraces in combination, than either j ' ' ' _ I}
of them would, if joined with the Doric. The Composite' 15 more slender than the Corinthian, and more 'ornamented WIfB’sculpture if the ‘ _'.
latter bears any resemblance to a young maid, the former represents an harlot.’ - - ' '

The second species, as given by Aldrich and Smyth, is‘ Dorico- Ionic , the only remaining instance if whiQ may be. seen at Rome, as the
ruins of the temple of Concord (See plate 55. ) The base of the column 1s Attico-I‘onlc, and without a plinth, e'x p} lg " ‘
The capital 15 Ionico- Doric, with the volutes projecting, as in the Italian , the abaciis isCmritman the frieze is scplp "
plain. It has a beautifal appearance} -_ . ’3, 7. (1

The third species of Composite is where the column is of one order and the entablatlfi'elof aliother.‘ for ce.— ,
and the entablature Doric: in which case it would, therefore, be very properly termed DOrlco-Connflian. "This 1s approved ofeven 1133171115.
vius , and, in fact, was introduced into the Temple of Solomon, whose columns were Corinthian supporting a D‘oric- entablatnre. '

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The Romans first introduced the Composite order into their triumphal arches, to show- their dominion 8391' the people Wham they aonqueredd ,4 . _ , ,
OF this order we have many examples from the an- 5 . W J‘PL AT E 52 . 3,"; I 3! ,7 i :j- .' ‘l‘
. ‘ '11", “" Zr ' i1, !
cients; but the following is the most celebrated. it is “QM THE ARCH 0F TITUS, Am fiOME'. V1.1». ,1, .t
taken from the arch of Tltus, whlch was executed soon ' a .. . . . s... . ._ . " . ‘i . .
after the destruction of Jerusalem, in order to commence: This most beautlful and elegapt BEWPIG 19 1113501 '9’ 1
rate that remarkable event. choice of, as the most'proper motel for this order. . ,- ' ..
'+, I If Vi; ' “
p . ‘ : - ' I. ' ,- ,Cll- .. A
. .h T A B L E, _ , 351's.- . ’ j _ ‘ , I. ’ '1. ‘ 1 “"
SHOWING THE RELATIVE PROPORTIONS 0F GRECIAN DORIC COLUMNS CONTAINED IN THIS WORK. ' i '1
Columns. . I Capital.’
‘ '{NAMES 0F BUILDINGS. ' .
. .«f‘i: Modules. Min. r‘Minut'es. A ‘
Portico of Philip, King of Macedon . . .7 l3 2% "E4
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The Portico at Athens . ' . - ‘ 2.
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Found 1n Asia, near the Temple of Minerva Polias , 1 ,. ,1 26 .

 

 

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fiw‘;j'pPEDESTALs

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[Most writers considef the pedestal as a necessary part of the order, without which it is not esteemed complete. It is indeed a matter of small
importance whether it be considered in that light, or as a distinct composition. Vitruvius only mentions it as a necessary part in the construction
of a temple, without signifying that it belongs to the order, or assigning any particular proportions for it, as he does for the parts of the column and
the entablature. But triangular, circular, or polygonal pedestals, or such as are swelled and have their die in the form of a balluster, or are sur-

rounded with cinctures, are, in no case, to be made use of in buildings.
laid aside wherever good taste prevaits.]

A pedestal, like a column‘ or an entablature, is com-

. posed of three principal~ :parts, ”which are the base, the

body, or the-die, andathecornice. The die is always
nearly of the same figure, being’constantly either a cube
or a parallelopiped ; but the base and cornice are varied,
and adorned with more or less mouldings, acccirding to
the simplicity or richness of the composition in which the

pedestal is employed. Hence pedestals are, like columns, i

distinguished by the names of Tuscan, Doric, Ionic,
Composite and Corinthiaii.

Some authors are vei'y averse to pedestals, and com~
pare a column raised on a pedestal to a man mounted on
stilts, imagining that they were first introduced merely
through necessity, and for want of columns of a suliicient
length. ,

It does not seem proper to suppose that, tiliey were
first introduced merely through want of columns of a
sufficient length, since there are many occasions on which
they are evidently necessary, and some in which the

order, were it not so raised, would lose much of its beau- ‘

ful appearance. Thus, within our churches, if the col-
umns supporting theivault were placed immediately on the
ground, the seats would hide their bases and a good part
of the shafts ; and in the theatres of the ancients, if the

 

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Such extravagances, though frequent in some foreign countries, are now

columns of the scene had been placed immediately on the

stage, the actors would have hid a considerable part of

them from the audience; for which reason it was usual
to raise them on very high pedestals, as was likewise cus-
tomary in their triumphal arches: and in most of their
temples, the columns were placed on a basement or con-
tinned pedestal, so that the whole order might be ex-
posed to View, notwithstanding the crowds of people with
which these places were frequently surrounded. And

1 the same reason will authorize the same practice in our

 

churches, theatres, courts of justice, and other public

And in a
second order of arcades there is no avoiding pedestals, as
without them it is impossible to givethe arches any toler-
able proportion. These instances will sutliciently show
the necessity of admitting pedestals in decorations of
architecture. “Tith regard to the proportion which their

buildings where crowds frequently assemble.

height ought to bear, to that of the columns they are to
support, it is by no means fixed, the ancients and mod-
erns too having in their own works varied greatly in this
respect, and adapted their proportions to the occasion, or
to the respective purposes for which the pedestals were
intended. Thus, in the amphitheatres of the ancients,
the pedestals in the superior orders were generally low:

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PEDEsTALs.

because in the apertures of the arches, they served as
rails to inclose the pertic’o, and therefore were, for the
conveniency of leaning over, made no higher than was
necessary to prevent accidents ; and the case is the same
in most of our modern houses, where the height of the
pedestals in the superior orders is generally determined by
the sills of the windows. The ancients, in their theatres,
made the pedestals in the first order of their scene, high,
for the reason mentioned in the beginning of this chapter,
but the pedestals in the superior orders were very low,
their chief use being to raise the columns so as to prevent
any part of them from being hid by the projection of the
cornice below them ; and thus on difl‘erent occasions
they used different proportions, being chiefly guided by
necessity in their choice.

Nevertheless, writers on architecture have always
thought it incumbent upon them to fix a certain determi-
nate proportion for the pedestal, as well as for the parts of
the order. It would be useless to enumerate in this place
their different opinions, but I must beg leave to observe
that Vignola’s method is the only true one. His pedes-
tals are all in the orders of the same height, being one
third of the column, and as their bulk increases or dimin—
ishes, of course in the same degree as the diameters of

 

 

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their respective colutfihs do, the ‘character of the order is

always preserved, which according to any other method
is impossible. ' "7

With regard to the divisions of the pedestals, if the
whole height be divided into nine parts, one of them may
be given to the height‘of the cornice, two to the base,
and the remaining six to the die; or if the pedestal is
lower than ordinary, its height may be divided into eight
parts only, of which one may be given to the cornice,
two to the base, and five to the die, as. Palladio has
done in his Corinthian order, and Periault in all the
orders.* _

The plan of the die is always made equal to that of
the plinth of the column; the projection of the cornice
may be equal to its height, and the base, being divided
into three parts, two of them will be for the height of the
plinth, and one for the mouldings, of which the projec-
tion must be somewhat less than the projection of the
cornice, so that the whole base may be covered and shel-
tered by it.

These measures are common to all pedestals, and in
Plate 63 there are designs of proper ones for the Tus-

 

* Ordonnanee des cinq Especes de Colonnes, 1 Partie, ch. 6 et 7.

. TABLE,

SHOWING THE HEIGHT 0F I’EDESTALS IN

ANTIQUE AND

momma: WORKS, 1N MINUTES, EACH

ONE SIX’l‘lETH OF THE DIAMETER. OF THE SHAFT.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

\Iou! ding :s
Plinth. 1'1l101t: Die. Cornice. Total
‘ Plinth. —_ Height.
Minutes. l Minutes. Minutes. Minutes. Minutes.
Palla 1'0 '26 l 14 80 20 140
Demo, ...... { Scairirizzi . 30 15 68% 2-2.;— 1;}6T1I
[Temple of Fortune. Virilis 44 19% 93% 23% 180%
Coliseum . 33% 9%. 8115; ll 141%
IONIC ...... { Palladio 28% 1.1% 97g 21% 162}:
Scamozzi 3” 15 825;, ' 5233:}- 150
I{Arch of Constantine 17% 29 153 * ~‘ 29% 2‘28
Coliseum 23 ll; . 78 19% 1312-
ConINTHIAN, .{ Palladio 23% 14% - 93 19 150
Scamozzi 30 15 132% 2-37} 200
Arch of Titus . '55 30 141 ‘29 255
YA rch of the Goldsmiths :16 25% 143% 23% 241
COMPOSITE, . . . Palladio . 33 17 13-3 1r 200
Scamozzi . . . 30 15 112% 22% 180
[Arch of Sep. Severus . . I 30 30% 140:}— 29g 182%

 

 

27

106 PEDESTALS.

can, Doric, Ionic and Corinthian orders, in which the
forms and dimensions of the minuter parts are accurately
drawn and figured. With regard to the application of
pedestals, it must be observed that when columns are en- i
tirely detached, and at a considerable distance from the
Wall, as when they are employed to form porches, peris-
tyles, or porticos, they should never be placed on de— ‘

I

tached pedestals, for then they may indeed be compared ,

 

to men mounted on stilts, as they have a very weak and
tottering appearance.

The base and cornice of these pedestals must run in a
straight line on the outside throughout ; but the dies are
made no broader than the plinths of the columns, the in-
tervals between them being filled with ballnsters, which
is both really and apparently lighter than if the whole
pedestal were a continued solid.

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IMPOSTS.

[lmposts are explained in the glossary. By some, however, they are called the walls back of the inserted column, rising from the base to
the spring-line of the arch, and extending on each side of the column about 30 minutes; forming the side of the apertures of doors or windows,
and, when used without the columns, are appropriately termed pilasters. But they are most generally used for those assemblages of moulding,
which divide the perpendicular part of the wall from the spring-line of the arch. In some instances regular pilasters are introduced, when the
column may be termed isolated ; as it stands detached from the walls. We find imposts introduced in the Temple of Solomon : and they are
common in Roman edifices ; as in the Arch of Titus, and most of their other triumphant arches, &c. In most: parts of Europe imposts are found;
as also in some parts of the United States. The origin of this style of building cannot be clearly traced. HOWever elegant its aspect in many in-
stances may be, it seems now to be giving place to a more magnificent and majestic style of architecture. Where we once saw one range of col-

umns rising above another, each supporting a distinct entablature, we now find the whole height supplied by one length :

principles of good taste]

I HAVE thought proper to give several designs for
imposts in this place, for the use of those who may
have occasion for them. Strict attention should be
given to the uniformity of the order, as a Tuscan
impost would not look well connected with a Corinthian
column. Therefore, I have arranged them in their order,
as the Tuscan, Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. See Plate
64. FIGS. 4, 5, 6 and 7. FIG. 1, is an elevation of the
Ionic order, with its imposts.

When the Ionic order is executed on a pedestal, I
have, in some cases, divided the whole height of the
order into 14 parts, which give two to the entablature,
nine and 35 minutes to the heightof the column, and one
to its diameter; which are to be divided into sixty parts
or minutes, by which scale its several members are pro-
portioned throughout. These proportions, when executed

 

thus preserving the

’ of a heavier proportion,‘for the interior of Churches, &c.
; A, the impost, b, the architrave; c, the key stone. The
I spring-line of the arch should in no case exceed six

diameters of the column. FIG. 3, is a scale by which
i Pics. 4, 5, 6 and 7, are drawn. Also their architraves
as shown on the top of each.

FIG. 2. In this figure is shown the manner of striking
or working a raking moulding to fit and miter with the
same on a horizontal line or flank. First divide the
width of the moulding into 1, 2, 3 and 4 parts, as in A ;
raise a perpendicular line, in B, at O; trace the curve of the
moulding from the intersection of 1, 2, 3, 4, on the curve
line of the moulding; draw a, b, c, d, e,f, g, It, at right
angles with the perpendicular line 0, to the point It, f, d, b,
in the curve or face of the moulding ; transfer to A, It 1,
‘f 2, d 3, b 4. In the like manner the curve at C may be

 

on a pedestal, I have found to succeed better than those found. All to miter in their several parts with each other.

I

   

 

 

 

,PILASTERs

[Pilasters are, it is believed, a Roman invention, and certainly an improvement. The Greeks employed antae in their temples, to receive the

architraves where they entered upon the walls of the cell.

These, though they were, in one direction, of equal diameter with the columns of

the front, were in flank extravagantly thin in proportion to their height, and neither their bases nor capitals bore any resemblance to those of the
columns they accompanied. The Roman artists, disgusted, probably, with the meagre aspect of these antce, and the want of accord in their
bases and capitals, substituted pilasters in their stead, which being proportioned and decorated in the same manner with the columns, are cer-

tainly more seemly, and preserve the unity of the composition much better.

remarks, in relation to the Pilaster,‘ in the introduction to this work]

Pilasters differ from columns in their plan only, which
is square, as that of the column is round. Their bases,
capitals, and entablatures, have the same parts, with all
the same heights and projections as those of columns,
and they are distinguished in the same manner, by the
names of Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Composite, and Cor-
inthian. 0f the two, the column is doubtless most per-
fect. Nevertheless, there are occasions in which pilas-
ters may be employed with great propriety; and some
where they are, on various accounts, even preferable to
columns. '

If we go back to the origin of things, and consider
pilasters, either as representing the ends of partition
walls, or trunks of trees reduced to the diameter of the
round trunks which they accompany, but left square for
greater strength, the reason for diminishing them will, in
either case, be strong and evident.

It is likewise an error to assert that pilasters are never
necessary, but that columns will at all times answer the
same end, for, at the angles of all buildings, they are evi-
dently necessary both for solidity and beauty, —— because
the angular support, having a greater weight to bear than
any of the rest, ought to be so much the stronger; so
that its diameter must either be increased, or its plan

 

The reader will find some additional, and perhaps, not unimportant

altered from a circle to a square. The latter of which is
certainly the most reasonable expedient on several ac-
counts, but chiefly as it obviates a very striking defect,
occasioned by employing columns at the angles of a.
building, which is that the angle of the entablature is left
hanging in the air without any support; a sight very
disagreeable in some oblique views, and in itself very
unsolid.

It is indeed customary in porches and other detached

‘ compositions, to employ columns at the angles, and it is

judicious so to do, for of two defects the least is to be
preferred.

Engaged pilasters are employed in churches, galleries,
halls, and other interior decorations, to save room, for
as they seldom project beyond the solid of the walls

, more than fifteen minutes of their diameter, they do not

occupy near so much space as engaged columns.

 

They
are likewise employed in exterior decorations; some-
times alone instead of columns, on account of their being
less expensive ; at other times, they accompany columns,
being placed behind thcmto support the springing of the
architraves ; or on the same line with them to fortify the
angles; they may likewise be employed instead of col-
umns, detached to form peristyles and porticos, but there

:-

‘lsmg': .

PILASTERS.

is 'no instance of this that I_ remember, in all. the

remains of antiquity; neither has any modern architect,

I believe, been so destitute of taste as to put it in prac-

tice.

\Vhen pilasters are used alone, as principal in the comé
position, they should project fifteen minutes of their
diameter beyond the walls, which give them: a sufficient
boldness, and, in the Corinthian and Composite orders,
is likewise most regular, ——because the stems of the vo-
lutes, and the small leaves in flank of the capital, are then
out exactly through their middles. But if the cornice
of the windows should be continued in the inter-pilaster,
as is sometimes usual, or if there should be a cornice to
mark the separation between the principal and second
story, or large imposts of arches, the projection must, in
such cases, be increased, provided it is not otherwise
sufficient to stop the most prominent parts of these deco-
rations; it being very disagreeable to see several of the
uppermost mouldings of an impost or cornice cut away
perpendicularly, in order to make room for the pilaster,
while the cornice or impost on each side projects consid-
erably beyond it. Mutilations are, 011 all occasions, stu-
diously to be avoided, as being destructive of perfection,
and strong indications either of inattention or ignorance
in the composer.

Where pilasters are placed behind columns, and very
near them, they need not project above seven and one
half minutes of their diameter, or even less, excepting
there should be imposts or continued cornices in the
inter-pilaster; in which case what has been said above
must be attended to. But if they be far behind the col-
umns, as in porticos, porches, and peristyles, they should
project ten minutes of their diameter at least ; and when
they are on a line with the columns, their projection is to
be regulated by that of the columns, and consequently
it can never be less than a semi-diameter, even when the
columns are engaged as much as possible. This extra-
ordinary projection, however, will occasion no very great
deformity, as the largest apparent breadth of the pilaster
will exceed the least only in the ratio of eleven to ten, or
thereabouts But if columns be detached, the angular
pilasters should always be coupled with a column to hide
its inner flank, because the pilasters will, othem 1se, ap-
pear disproportionate when seen from the point of View
proper for the whole building , especially if the fabric be
small, and théj pomt of v1ew nea1.

It is sometimes customary to execute pilasters without
any diminution. In the antiques there are several 1n-

 

 

1
1
1

1
1

1 flutes can be so distributed as to have

1.». gee
stances thetedf, am well as of the cannery pract1ce, wand
Palladio, Vignola, Imgtfirlones, and many of the greatest.
alchitects have frequently doge so. Nevertheless, it is '
certain that diminished pilasters are, on many accounts,
.much preferable. There is more. variety in their form;
their capitals me better proportioned both 1n the whole
and in tl1ei1 parts, particula1ly 1n- the Composite and Co-
rinthian orders; and the irregularities ”occasioned by the
passage of the archit1aves, from ’dimihrshed columns to
undiminished pilasters, are thereby avoided; as are like-
wise the difficulties of regularly distributing the modillions
and other parts of the entablature, either when the pilas-
ters are 'alone, or accompanied with columns.

,Another disagreeable effect of undiminished pilasters
is likewise obviated by rejecting them. Indeed I am at a
loss to account_ for it, and it is diametrically opposite to
a received law in optics I "imagined it might be the
result of some defect 1n my own sight, till by inquity I
found otl1e1s 'wele affected in the same manner. It is
this, the top of the shaft always appeals bioader than the
bottom.

The shafts of pilasters, are sometimes adorned with
flutings in the same manner as those of columns, the
plan of which may be a trifle above a semi-circle, and
they must be to the number of seven on each face,
which makes them nearly of the same size with those

of the columns. The interval between them must be

jeither one third or one fourth of the .flutejn breadth,

and when the pilaster is placed on the pavement, or‘
liable to be broken by the touch of passengers, the angle
may be rounded off, in the form of an astragal; between
which and the adjoining flute, there must be a fillet or
interval of the same size with the rest, as in the porch of
the Pantheon at Rome.

The flutes may, like those of columns, be filled with
cablings to one third of their height, either plain, and
shaped like an astragal, or enriche:,l according 1-.s the
rest of the composition is simple 01 much adomed.
Scamozzi' 1s of opinion that the1e should be no flutings
on the sides of engaged pilasters, but only in front;
and, whenever cornices or imposts are continued home
to the pilastel, this should be particuluily attenthd to,
that the diffe1ent mouldings of these 111c111be1s,by entel-
ing into the cavities of the flutes, may not be cut off in
irregulai and disagreeable forms. But if the flanks of
the pilasters ale entitely free, it may be as well to en-
rich them 1n the same mannei as the front, ptovided the
ea fillet or interval

110

adjoining to the wall; which is always necessary to mark
the true shape of the pilasters distinctly.

The capitals of Tuscan or Doric pilasters are profiled
in the same manner as those of the respective columns;
but in the capitals of the other orders, there are some
.trifling differences to be observed. In the antique Ionic
capital, the extraordinary projection of the ovolo makes
it necessary either to bend it inwards considerably towards
the extremities, that it may pass behind the volutes, or
instead of keeping the volutes flat in front, as they corn-
monly are in the antique, to twist them outwards till
they give room for the passage of the ovolo. Le Clerk
thinks the latter of these expedients the best, and that
the artifice may not be too striking, the projection of the
ovolo may be considerably diminished, as in Plate 50,

~44.-r

 

 

PILASTRS.

FIG. 2 ; which, as the moulding can be seen in front only,
will occasion no disagreeable effect.

The employing half, or other parts of pilasters that
meet, and, as it were, penetrate each other’s inward
or outward angles, should, as much as possible, be
avoided, because it generally occasions several irregu-
larities in the entablatures, and sometimes in the capital
also. Particular care must be taken never to introduce
more than one of these breaks in the same place, for
more can never be necessary. In many of the churches
at Rome, we see half a dozen of them together, which
produce a long series of undulated capitals and
bases, and a number of mutilated parts in the entabla-
ture, than which nothing can be more confused or dis-
agreeable.

MOULDINGS.

[Although as observed in the Introduction of this work, (to which the student is referred,) the shaft of a column may not admit of any orna-

ment on its body, yet, in the base and capital, various ornamental parts are introduced

same shape, as if they proceeded from the same mould or form.

are generally divided into Grecian and Roman, with reference to the ex-

isting remains of the architecture of those nations.

in this, that the Romans usually employed segments of circles in their orna~

merits, while the Greeks often introduced parts of an ellipsis, or some other

section of a cone, varying from the circle.

The regular Mouldings are variously disposed in different orders, and may

reasonably be supposed to have had their origin in the ingenuity of man rather

than in any essential necessary law in nature or art.

resents their form and character.

Mouldings

The difl‘erence consists

The annexed figure rep-

; which are called Mouldings, because they are always of the

The fillet, listel, annulet, or square.
Astragal, or head.

Torus, or tore.

Scotia, trochilus, mouth, or casement.
Echinus, ovolo, or quarter Jound.
Grecian echinus.

Inverted cyma, talon, or ogee.

Cyma-recta, or cymatium.

C avetto, or hollow.

 

Of these, the Roman ovolo and cavetto are never found in Grecian Architecture, nor the Greek echinus in that of the Roman ; the rest they

possess in common]
DEFINITIONS.

]. MOULDINGS are figures composed of various curves
and straight lines.

If the mouldings are only composed of parts of a circle
and straight lines, they are called Roman, because
the Romans, in their buildings, seldom or never em-
ployed any other curve for mouldings than that of a cir-
clc ; but if a moulding be made part of an ellipsis, or a
parabola, or an hyperbola, the mouldings are then in the
Grecian taste.

 

Corollary. Hence it appears that mouldings in the
Greek taste are of a much greater variety than those of
the Roman, where only parts of circles are concerned.

Mouldings have various names, according to the man-
ner in which they are curved.

2. The straight lined part under or above a moulding
in general, is called a fillet.

3. If the contour of the moulding be convex, and a
part of a circle, equal to or less than a quadrant, then the

moulding is called a Roman ovolo, or an echinus, such
as FIG. B, Plate 67.

.112

4. It the contour of the moulding be concave, and
equal to or less than a quadrant, it is called a cavetto or
hollow, such as FIG. D, Plate 67.

Corollary. Hence a cavetto is just the reverse of an
ovolo.

l 5. A bead is a moulding whose contour is simply a
convex semi-circle.

6. If the contour be convex, and a complete semi-
circle, or a. semi-ellipsis, having a fillet above or below
the moulding, it is called a torus, as FIG. 1, Plate 67. .

Corollary. Hence a torus is a bead with a fillet;
and is more particularly distinguished in an assemblage
of mouldings from a bead, by its convex part being much
greater.

7. If the contour of a moulding be a concave semi-
ellipsis, it is called a scotia, as FIG. 2, No. 2, Plate 66.

8. If the contour be convex, and not made of any
part of a circle, but of some other of the conic sections,
having'a small bending inwards towards the top, the
moulding is called a Grecian ovolo, or echinus, such
as FIG. 1, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4; FIG. 4, Nos. 1, 2 and 3,
Plate 65.

9. If the contour be partly concave, and partly
convex, the moulding in general is called a cimatium,
such as FIG. 2, Nos. 1 and 2; FIG. 3, Nos. 1 and 2,
Plate 65.

10. If the concave parts of the curve project beyond
the convex part, the cimatium is called a cimarecta;
such as FIG. 2, Nos. 1, 2 and 3, Plate 65.

11. If the convex part project beyond the concave,
the cimatium is called a cima-reversa or ogee, as FIG. 4,
Nos. 1, 2 and 3, Plate 66.

12. The bending or turning inwards of a small part
of the convex curve of a Grecian moulding, is, by work-
men, called a quirk.

 

GRVECIAN MOULDINGS.

PLATE 65.
FIG.4,N02.

To describe the Grecian echinus or ovolo; the
tangent A B, at the bottom, the point of con—

._.4_

 

 

MOULDIN GS.

tact A, and the greatest projection of the
moulding at C, being given.

From A draw A D E perpendicular; through C
draw 0 D parallel to the tangent B A, cutting A E at
D ; make D E equal to A D; then will D be the cen—
tre of an ellipsis, and C D and D A will be two semi-
conjugate diameters; from which the ellipsis may be
described by Plate 6, Geometry.

FIG. 4, No. 1.

This figure is described in the same manner, and
shows a greater projection ; the tangent being also taken
in a higher position.

FIG. 4, No. 3.

The same things being given, to describe the
moulding nearly, when the point of contact A
is at the extremity of the transverse axis.

From A draw A D E perpendicular to the tangent
B A; parallel to it draw 0 G, cutting the tangent A B
at G ; also through C draw C D parallel to the tangent
A B, cutting A D E at D, the centre of the ellipsis, for
which D C and D A are the semi-transverse and semi-
conjugate axis ; and proceed as before.

PLATE 66.

. FIG. 1, Nos. 2 AND 3.

The semi-transverse and semi-conjugate axis
being given, to describe the moulding.

Proceed as in Plate 6, Geometry, and you will have
the contour of the moulding required.

FIG. 2, 'No. 1.

To describe the cima-recta, the perpendicular
height, H L, being given, and its projection,

LI.

Complete the rectangle I L H F, and divide the
whole rectangle into four equal rectangles ; then inscribe
the concave quadrant of an ellipsis, in the rectangle l K
C B, and a convex quadrant in the rectangle C G [1 I).
and it is done.

 

 

 

 

 

 

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[221. 1.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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an.

 

 

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Pl. ()6.

 

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:14 Dj‘LVLc‘XN NVWUIILIDEN‘G‘: S a

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

MOULDIN GS.

FIG. 3, No 3.

To describe a Cima-reversa, the point A being
nearly the greatest projection at the top; D
the extremity of the curve at the bottom;
and D C a line parallel to a tangent, at the
point of junction of the opposite curve“

Draw A C at right angles to C D, cutting C D at C,
and complete the rectangle A C D E ; then proceed as
before, but in a contrary direction, and you will have the
contour required.

FIG. 2, No. 3.

To describe an Echinus having the depth of
the moulding C D, the greatest projection
at D, and to be quirked at the top and
bottom.

Complete the rectangle C B A, and proceed as in
Plate 6, Geometry.

FIG. 2, No. 2.

To describe a Scotia.

Join the ends of each fillet by the right line A B;
bisect A B at D; through D draw C D E parallel to
the fillets, and make C D and D E equal to the depth
of the scotia; then will A B be a diameter of an
ellipsis, and C E its conjugate. Proceed as in Plate 6,
Geometry.

FIG. 4, Nos. 1, 2 AND 3.

How to describe Grecian Mouldings, whether
elliptical, parabolical, or hyperbolical; the
greatest projection at B being given, and the
tangent C F at F, the bottom of the mould-
mg.

Draw G F a continuation of the upper side of the
under fillet ; through B draw B G perpendicular to B F,
cutting it at G, and the tangent F C at the point C;
also through B draw B E parallel to G F ; and through
F draw F E' D A parallel to G B, cutting B E at E ;
make E A equal to E F, E D equal to C G, and join
B D ; then divide each of the lines 'B D and B G into

29

 

 

11.3

a like number of equal parts; from the point, A andr“
through the points 1, 2, 3, 4, in B C, draw lines cut-
ting the former, which will give the points in the curve.

If the point C, where the tangent cuts the line B G,
be less than one half of B G, from G—the moulding will
be elliptical, as in FIG. 4, No. 2.

If G C be one half of B G, then the moulding 1s para-
bolical, as in FIG. 4, No. 1.

If G C be greater than half of B G, then the moulding
is hyperbolical, as in FIG. 4, No. 3.
~ By this means you may make a moulding to any form
you please, Whether flat or round.

 

ROMAN MOULDINGS.

PLATE 67.

FIGS. A, B AND C.

To describe an Ovolo in the Roman taste , the
plOJBCthflS at a and b being given at each
extreme of the curve.

Take the height of the moulding; on the points a
and b as centres, describe an are at c ; on c, as a
centre, with the radius c a or c b, describe the arc a
b, and it will be the contour of the moulding required.

FIG. D.

To describe a Cavetto, having the extremes of
the curve.

Tire cavetto is described in the same manner, but on
the opposite side.

FIGS. E AND F.

To describe a Hollow, to touch with two straight
lines, b d and d a, one of them at a given
point a.

Let d be the point of their meeting ; make (I b on the
other line equal to d (1.; from the points a and b draw
perpendiculars to each of the lines db and d a, meeting

114

fiat c , on c as a centre, with the rad in c b or c (2, describe
up an are 6' a, and it is done.

FIG G.

To describe a Cima- -recta, the projections at a
‘ and I) being given.

a. "

W Join a b ; bisect it at e ,' then on the points a and I),
describe arcs meeting each other on the opposite sides at
c and d ,- on the points 0 and d, with the same radius,
describe the opposite curves at e and e d, and it is
done.

FIG. H.

The cima-reversa is described in the same manner, but
in an opposite direction.

FIG. I.

To describe a Torus.

Bisect the diameter at a ; on it with the radius, describe
a semi-circle, and it is done.

FIG. J.
‘ Is a semi-hollow.
FIG. K.
Is a bed-mould.
FIG. L.

Is an ogee and bead.

GRECIAN MOULDINGS, COMPARED WITH THOSE OF
THE ROMAN, TO SHOW‘ THE DIFFERENCE OF THEIR
FORM AND APPLICATION.

I. Of a Bead.

This moulding is similar in both Greek and Roman
architecture.

11. Of the Torus.

The torus in most cases is similar to a bead: it is
always so in Roman architecture, but not always in

. Amhgu‘dn, A; _

 

 

MOULDINGS.

Grecian; as may be seen in various examples where
the contour of the moulding is elliptical. The bases
of the columns of the temple of Minerva Polias, and
also the bases of the column on the monument of
Lysicrates, are instances of the elliptical forms of
toruses.

III. 0f the 012010, or Echinus.

The Greek ovolo differs greatly from that of the R0-
man : its; contour is generally a part of the ellipsis; in
some cases it is hyperbolical, and even in some a straight
line; the elliptical ovolo is always used in cornices, ar-
chitraves, and likewise in all mouldings projecting from
plain surfaces. It is also to be met with in the capitals
of columns.

Of such forms are the echinus of the capitals of
the Doric portico at Athens, the temple of Corinth,
and the temple at Pmstum, in Italy, which are all
elliptical; but the hyperbolical form is oftener to be
met with in the capitals of Athenian buildings, than any
other.

Of such are the echinus of the capitals of the temples
of Minerva and Theseus, and also the capitals of the
columns of the Prophylea, or grand entrance into the
citadel. These are all Athenian buildings, which were
erected during the administration of Pericles; and the
portico of Philip, King of Macedon, is an instance in
which the echinus is a straight line.

In Roman architecture, the echinus is always some
part of a circle, never exceeding a quadrant, but often

less.
IV. 0f the Cavetto.

The cavetto is the same both in Roman and Grecian
architecture, except in its application. There is not
an instance to be met with in Greece,* Where the
crown moulding is a cavetto, but there are many in
the Roman.

V. 0f the Doric Cimatium.

This moulding is constantly used in Greek buildings,
under the fillet of a finishing or crown moulding, but 111

 

* There are some out of Greece; but of these there are few instanc es
which may not be looked on as dexiations from the established methods
that were used by the Greeks.

MoULntNes,

Roman buildings there are no instances whatever of any
such moulding.

VI. 0f the Cima-recta.

This moulding is nearly of the same form, both in the
Grecian and Roman architecture, and is also applied for
the same purpose in both.

VII. 0f the Cima-reversa.

This moulding is nearly similar in the Grecian and
Roman architecture, and is in general applied under the
fillet of the crown moulding of the cornices of Roman
buildings; but is never so applied in Greek buildings,
one instance excepted, which is the portico of Philip
King of Macedon.

THE EFFECT OF GRECIAN MOULDINGS, COMPARED
WITH THE ROMAN OF THE SAME KIND.

1. Of the Quote.

The bending or turning inwards of the upper edge of
the Grecian ovolo, causes, when the sun shines on its
surface, a beautiful variety of light and shade, which
greatly relieves it from plane surfaces ; and if it be en-
tirely in shadow, but receive a reflected light, the bend-
ing or turning inwards at the top will cause it to contain
a great quantity of shade in that place, but softened
downwards round the moulding to the under edge.

In the Roman ovolo there is no turning inwards; * as
the top, therefore, when the sun shines on its surface, it
will not be so bright on its upper edge, as the Grecian
ovolo; nor will it cause so beautiful a line of distinction
from other mouldings which it is combined ,with when
it is in shadow, and when lighted by reflection.

II. 0f the Giana—reversal.

In the Greek cima-reversa, the turning in of its upper
edge, and the turning out of its under edge, will cause it,
when the sun shines, to be very bright on these edges,
which will greatly relieve it from other perpendicular sur—
faces when combined together; and when it is in shadow,

 

* That is to say, the upper edge of the moulding does not recede
from a plane touching its surface, and perpendicular to the horizon.

 

 

am

and lighted by reflection, the inclination of the upper and

under edges will also make a strong line of d1stmct19n on
both edges, between it and other mouldings or planes
connected with it; whereas the upper and under edges
of the Roman cima-reversa* being pendieular to the
horizon, the lightest place on its surface, will not be
brighter than a perpendicular plane surface, nor Will it be
better relieved 1n shadows than perpendicular plane sur-
faces also 1n shadow. . ' ’ iii, ‘

' 3

THE EFFECT OF GRECIAN MOULDINGS, COMPARED
WITH ROMAN MOULDINGS OF A DIFFERENT KIND,
BUT IN SIMILAR SITUATIONS.

I. Of the Greek 0vol0, compared with the Roman
Cavetto, when used as finishing Mouldings.

The upper mouldings, in all the remains of antiquity,
are either entirely destroyed or very much defaced. It
is certain, that if ovolos, which are strong mouldings,
had been employed instead of cavettos,T_ many of them
would have been almost entire; and as the degrees of
light and shade on the surface of the ovolo, whether from
sunshine, or from any other light, is beautiful and soft
but the shadow of the cavetto from sunshine is very hard,
and will not contain so great a variety of light and shade
on its surface, it will therefore be less pleasing to the
eye

[1. The Doric Cimatinm used by the Grecians under
the fillet of the Crown flfonlding compared with the
Cima-reversa in the same situation.

The front of the Doric cimatium is a convex ellipti-
('al curve, and is sunk at the upper edge in the manner
of a Grecian ovolo; therefore the light and shade on its
front will be nearly similar to an ovolo; and as the sink-

 

* There are some instances in Roman buildings where the cima-
reversa is turned inwards at the top, and outwards at the bottom ; but
this seldom occurs, except there is not suflicient projection to its height.

1‘ Some authors say, that the cima—recta and cavetto were always
used as finishing mouldings, but it is quite the reverse; for in the antique

buildings now remaining in Greece, there is not a single instance where a

cavetto is used for the upper member ofa cornice; but in Doric build-
ings the cornice always finishes with an ovolo; and in buildings of the
Ionic and Corinthian orders, they are finished with cima-rectas.

‘ .

 

116
ing upwards behind the front will cause it to contain a
quantity of shade, which will form a line of separation
from the corona, and consequently make it appear more
distinct at a distance ; but the Roman cima-reversa being
so 'very' flat, would not be well relieved, and its profile
would be lost entirely at a distance.

 

MODERN MOULDINGS.

I have given several modern designs for mouldings;
not that in my own opinion they are more tasteful than

 

 

 

MOULDINGS.

the Grecian or Roman, but that by combining them, it
affords a greater variety, and, as some are fond of new
things, they may be preferred.

PLATE 68.

A is a cima-recta. B is a cima-reversa, or ogee. C
is a bed-mould. These differ from the Roman, only in
their curves being more graceful, but are formed on the
same principle.

D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K and L, are formed on the
principle of the Grecian, with a slight alteration in their
curves.

11.68. ‘

71w mil T’Efl DIN 1;: S o

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BASES.

[In no example of antiquity is the Doric column provided with a base. This circumstance, says Mr. Partington, has occasioned no small per-
plexity to some of those writers who seek, in every point, some analogy to the human figure. Vitruvius has indeed said, that the base is a shoe,
first invented to cover the nakedness of the matronly prototype of the Ionic order. ‘ But,’lsays Monsieur Le Clerc, ‘ I must own I cannot consider
a column without a base, comparing it to a man ; but I am, at the same time, struck with the idea of aperson without feet, rather than without
shoes ; for which reason I am inclined to believe, either that the architects had not yet thought of employing bases to their columns, or that they
omitted them in order to leave the pavement clear, the angles and projections of bases being stumbling blocks to passengers, and so much the
more troublesome, as the architects of those times frequently placed their columns very near each other, so that had' they been made with bases,
the passages between them would have been extremely narrow and inconvenient.’ To supply this defect, as it is generally considered, most
architects have employed the attic base, which is common to all the orders except the Tuscan, though belonging, perhaps, more peculiarly to the
Ionic. \Ve have, therefore, here given a representation of it, as furnished by Mr. Partington from Vignola.

It is seen that it consists of two tori, with a scotia and fillets between, the upper ofwhich in this version, resembles
an inverted ovolo. The fillet, above the upper torus, is always connected with the shaft by a curve, as is also that under
the capital, for which reason they are commonly considered as part of the shaft. The plinth, or square member
beneath, is usually understood, in Roman architecture, as an indispensable appendage to the base, though Palladio has
omitted it in his Corinthian order ; but it is rarely found in the Greek specimens. To save this order, however, from
2Mod the sad humiliation of being obliged to borrow a shoe, when required to wear one, Vignola provided it with this appen-

 

mfi'fl—Jti . . . -
dage. His base consrsts of one large Torus, with one considerably smaller, resting upon it, surmounted by the fillet.

M. Le Clerc has, in the opinion of Mr. Partington discovered the true reason why, at least in the latter Greek specimens, the base is omitted ;
namely,the very narrow intercolumniations. In the Greek order, alteration is not probable, and, perhaps, not desirable ; but in the Roman,
where this addition has been long provided for us, and the intercolumniations adjusted accordingly, the omission would he certainly improper.]

'1 MODERN BASES.

ROMAN BASES. :
5 P L A T E 7 0.
Several designs for Bases after the Roman taste, are
given, which may be applied to Columns, Pilasters, and

i

I FIGs. A, B, C, D, E, and F, are Bases in the modern
- - . . I ‘
in some instances to Rooms, Chimney pieces, Q'c. ‘

style, adapted to the present taste of finishing rooms and
inside finish.

The line a, shows the line of projection from the
ground; I), the thickness of the ground, and H the

 

P L A T E 69.
height of the base in proportional numbers.
‘ Rule. To proportion these designs, divide the height
316- G. The Tuscan order. of the room into thirty equal parts; take one part for the
F IG- E and A. The Doric. height of the base, and proportion its members as figured
FIG“ B and C' The Iomc- on the design. 6 shows the manner of joining the base
FIG. D. The Corinthian. to the plinth.

30

_CORNIeEs

+—

A

[THE orders consist of a composition of parts. When considered in gross numbers, they consist of two parts, viz. the Column and Entabla-
ture. These divisions are subdivided : the Column comprises the base, capital, and their appendages, as shown in the orders. The Entablature
conSists of the architrave, frieze and cornice. The Architrave, in all the orderS, has the band. The Grecian: Doric, however, does not furnish us

"with more than two divisions, the band and frieze. The Band or Fillet, which constitutes the upper part of the larchitrave, is projected under the

triglyph; and an annulet is dropped from the fillet, a little on the frieze ; to the soffit of which are attached sixdrOps,as in the Grecian examples.

In the Ionic and Corinthian orders, the Greeks have divided the frieze into three projecting parts, as shown in the example from the Temple of Miner-
va Polias. The divisions are, 1st. 10$~ ; 2d. 1241 ; 3d. 14% minutes. The Romans, in this respect], have-followed the Greeks,except in the propor-
tions of the divisions ; as seen in the Doric'elevation found at Albano, near Rome ; in the Dioclesigndiathse; and-in the example from Andrea Palladio.

2d. The Frieze or Entablature is ornamented, in the Doric order, with triglyphs, and sometinjétsfiizfili sculpture, as shown in the example from the
Temple ofTheseus,at Athens. Aldrich has introduced triglyphs into the composite order, which I'ée‘nsid‘éfa composition of the three orders. This
practice, however, is seldom adoptedr; although there may not be much impropriety in borrowing frontthé Doric as well as from the two higher order-5.

The capital of the triglyph is from 4 to 6 minutes wide. The width of the tl‘iglpyh is commonly from 28 'to 30 minutes, having an angle of 135
degrees, from the outer corners ; cutting from the face 2% minutes. The intermediate space is divided into five parts ; the second and fourth be-
ing cut at right angles from the ‘centre.

The Frieze of the two higher orders, viz : the Ionic and Corinthian, afford a variety of ornaments, of which the Romans have been very profuse;
as on the Temple of Fortuna Virilis, at Rome. See also the example from the Arch of Titus. '

3d. Cornices. This assemblage of parts affords much variety ; from the plain bed-mould, mutules, dentals and modillions. The mutules
are common in the Doric planeeer. The Dentals are common in the Ionic, and are placed between the hollow and the quarter-round, as shown
in the bed—mould. An exarnple of this is found in the Temple of Fortuna Virilis, and in the Coliseum, at Rome. The quarter—round is some-
times ornamented with the egg and dart. The Corinthian order has dentals and modillions, as shown in the example from Jupiter Stator. The
mouldings are often ornamented with carvings of various designs.

The Facia, in the Grecian Doric, projects from 27 to 30 minutes from the triglyphs. In the Roman Doric, it sometimes projects from 34 to 37
minutes. The height of the Facia varies from 7 to 11 minutes. The crown moulding is a cima-recta, and in modern times the ovolo has been
introduced in many instances, which is preferred on account of its superior strength, and the beautiful variety oflight and shade which it presents
to the eye. “To find some examples overcharged with mouldings, which is not only offensive to the eye, but it destroys the appearance ofstrength
and proportion. An error of this kind is found in the Dioclesian Baths, in which the graceful simplicity is lost, when compared with the Grecian
Temple of Theseus. In the cornice, the facia has too much projection, and is not deep enough, and would have a far better appearance were the
dentals, quarter-round, and bead left out. They are not considered as properly belonging to the Doric order. Palladio, and others, (as shown
in some of the Roman examples given in this work,) made use ofa plain, simple bed-mould, composed ofa hollow and round, under the planceer.
This is as much as belongs to the Doric.

In the Ionic, the Greeks have made use ofthe echinus, dentals, an angular fillet, and a quarter-round, under the planceer ; as in the example
from the Temple ofMinerva Polias. The extraordinary projection of the dentals, rising above a plain frieze, has a beautiful effect, as well as the
rnodillions in the Corinthian order. This modillion is frequently ornamented with foliage ; a decoration properly belonging to, and supporting the
planceer. The ornamented ovolo under the modillions, as found in the Portico of the Pantheon, by its chaste appearance, occasioned by not add-
ing a surplus of variety, is rendered one of the best specimens of the Romans. The example taken from the Temple of Jupiter Stator, is very
beautiful. The majestic proportions of the capital and entablature would give it the superiority, were it not overcharged with too much tinery.
The addition of dentals, however, can be no objection to its pleasing effect, as in cities eave~cornices are not often viewed to advantage, at a great-
er distance than the angle of 45 degrees, and within that distance the ornamented planceer shows to good advantage. The proportions of cornices
should invariably be regulated according to these distances. If, at the angle of 45 degrees, the height should be equal to its projections. If short
of this, its projections should increase, in regular proportion, in all its members. The crown-moulding of the cornices should be projected with
some variation : the Grecian ovolo at 45 degrees ; but the cima recta should not project so much, in order to open it more to the rays of light ;
'for if the swell does not receive a strong light, it is rendered obscure at any considerable height.

I have introduced in this place, several designs for cornices, which may assist in some measure the fancy of those who may wish to vary from

.the original Greek and Roman styles and proportions. They may be executed on frontispieces, and many other places, to advantage]

P L AT E 7 1 , ' modillion and manner of drawing it, viz: from A,
Presents four Cornices, with the scale to which they radrateirom 1 ‘0 2; from B to 1 and 3; from C to 3 and
are drawn. The scale is supposed to be the diameter of 4 ; which completes the lower curve.

 

 

the shaft of the column, at the bottom; from which these FIG' 2' A 0.0mm? Without the entablature.
designs are figured in proportional parts. FIGS. 1 ,3ij Dre. 1. Design of the planceer, wrth mutulcs and.
are plain planceers; 3 and 4 ornamented friezes and en- ornament. ‘
tablatures. No. 1, plan of the planceer of Free. 3 and 4. FIG- 3‘ Design Of a D0110 entablature.
No. 1. Ornamented planceer.
P L A T E 7 2. - -
FIG. 4. A Doric entablature and cornice.
FIG. 1. Design of a. modillion cornice. No. 1, the No, 1. Mutules with a reset.

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CHIMNEY PIECES.

[It is a remarkable fact, that neither the Italian nor the French, nor indeed any of the continental nations, have ever excelled in composition:
of chimney pieces. It is believed that Inigo Jones. eminently distinguished among the architects of England, was the first who arrived at any
great degree of perfection in this important branch of architectural science. 0ther-architects have, since his time, wrought upon his ideas, or
furnished good inventions of their own; and of our many ingenious and very able artists, whose province it is to execute magnificent chimney
pieces in marble, happily much in vogue, it may be said that, for taste of design, and excellence of workmanship, they are not surpassed by those
of any other nation. It was facetiously observed by Sir William Chambers, thatchimney pieces should be ‘ so situated as to be immediately
seen by those who enter, that they may not have the persons already in the room who are generally seated about the fire to search for.’ There
is much good sense in this remark]

As the Egyptians, the Greeks, and the Romans, to , still very common in Italy ; the Dutch are very fond of it,
whom architecture is so much indebted in other respects, :and it may be found in many old English country
lived in warm climates, where fires in the apartments 1 houses. -
were seldom or never necessary, they have thrown but The size of the chimney must depend upon the di-
little light on this branch of architecture. Amongst the ‘ mensions of the room wherein it is placed. In the small-
antiquities of Italy, I do not recollect any remains of ‘est apartments, the width of the aperture is never made
chimney pieces. Palladio indeed mentions two; the one less than from three feet to three feet six inches; in
at Baia, and the other near Civita Vecchia; which stood ‘ rooms from twenty to twenty-four feet square, or of equal
in the middle of the room, and consisted of columns, sup- r superficial dimensions, it may be four feet wide ; in those
porting architraves, whereon were placed the pyramids i of twenty-five to thirty, from four to four and a half; and
or funnels through which the smoke was conveyed. Sca- i in such as exceed these dimensions, the aperture may
mozzi takes notice of three sorts of chimney pieces, be extended to five, or five feet six inches: but should
Used in Italy at his time. One of these he calls the R0- the room be extremely large, as is frequently the case
man, the aperture of which is surrounded only with a f; with halls, galleries, and saloons, and one chimney of
clumsy architrave; another he calls Venetian, which is l these last dimensions neither afford sufficient heat to warm
likewise adorned with an architrave, upon which are the room, nor sufiicient space round it for the company,
placed a frieze and cornice, and on the sides thereof are it will be much more convenient, and far handsomer, to
pilasters with consoles. The third sort he calls a Pa- have two chimney pieces of a moderate size, than a sin-
diglioue. ~ gle one exceedingly large, all the parts of which would

This last be particularly recommends where the walls appear clumsy and disproportioned to the other decora-
are thin, if not being hollowed into the wall, as both the tions of the room. The chimney should always be
other sorts are, but composed of a projecting entablaturt- situated so as to he immediately seen by those who
supported by consoles, termini, or caryatides, on which enter, that they may not have the persons already in
the pyramid is placed. This sort of chimney piece is the room, who are generally seated about the fire,'to

 

 

 

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120' " i . . CHIMNEY PIECES.

4

I search for.f The middle of the side partition wall is

the most proper place in halls and saloons, and the other
rooms of passage to which the principal entrances are
commonly in the middle of the front, or of the back wall;
but in drawing rooms, dressing rooms, and the like, the
middle of the back wall is the best situation, the chim-
ney being then faithest removed ftom the doors of corn-
munication. The case is the same with respect to gal-
leries and libraries,,whose doors of entrance are generally
either at one, or both ends. In bed chambers the chim-
ney is always placed in the middle of one of the side
partition walls and in closets,'or other very smalllyplaces:
it is, to save room, sometimes placed in one corner.
Whenever two chimneys are introduced in the same
room, they must be regularly placed, either directly
facing each other, if in differentlwalls, or at equal dis,-
tances from the centre of the wall in which they are both
placed. The Italians frequently put their chimneys in
the front walls, between the windows, for the benefit of
looking Out while sittinor by the fire; but this must be
avoided, for by so doing that side of the room becomes
crowded with ornaments, and the other sides are left too
bare; the front walls are much weakened by the funnels,
and the chimney shafts at the top of the building, which
must necessarily be carried higher than the ridges of the

roofs, have, from their great length, a very disagreeable ‘

effect, and are very liable to be blown down.

In la1ge buildings, v here the walls ate of a considera-
ble thickness, the funnels are catried up in the thickness
of the wall; but in small ones, this cannot be done: the
fines and chimney pieces must necessarily advance for-
ward into the rooms, which, when the break is consider-
able, has a very bad effect; and therefore, where room
can be spared, it will always be best, either in show or
state apartments, to make niches or arched recesses on
each side ; and in lodging rooms, presses, or closets,
either covered with the paper, or finished in any manner
suited to the rest of the room. By these means, the cor—
nice or entablature of the room may be carried round
without breaks, 1f the ceiling be perfectly regular, and the
chimney piece have no more apparent projection than
may be necessary to give to its ornaments their proper
relief.

The proportion of the apertures of chimney pieces of

 

 

 

 

a moderate size is generally near a square ; in small ones
a trifle higher, and in larger ones somewhat lower.
Chimney pieces are made either of stone or marble, or of
a mixture of these with wood, scagliola, or molu, or some
other ‘unfragile substances. Those of marble are most
costly, but they are also most elegant ; and the only ones
used in high finished apartments, where they are seen
either of white or variegated marbles, sometimes inlaid
and decorated with the materials just mentioned. All
their ornaments, figures or profiles, are to be made of the
pure white sort, but their friezes, tablets, panels, shafts
of columns, and other plain parts may be of party—colored
marbles, such as the yellow of Siena, the brocatello of
Spain, the jaspers of Sicily, and many other modern as
well as antique marbles, frequently to be had in this
country. Festoons of flowers, trophies and foliages,
frets and other such decorations, cut in white statuary
marble, and fixed on grounds of these, have a very good
effect. But there should never be above two or at the-
utmost three different sorts of colors in the same chim-
ney piece, all brilliant and harmonizing with each other.
In the inferiOr class of houses, and in upper chambers,
wood is generally used in the construction of chimney
pieces, painted and varnished so as to resemble marble.
The use of wooden chimney pieces, when judiciously
applied, materially lessens the expense, and answers every
purpose of utility or ornament.

In many places the wildest notions have been indulged,
in the designs of this part of architecture. Sometimes
we see Chimney pieces, the shelf of which is supported
on a numerous variety of mouldit’igs, piled one above the
other until they project nearly as much as the shelfitself;
this I contend is useless and out of good taste, for they
cannot be seen to any advantage, as in ordinary cases
they fall below the eye; except when seated, and then
they are so nearly on a level with it, that they cannot be
seen to any advantage: If therefore one half of the ex-
pense of mouldings should be laid out in the frieze and
pilasters or columns, they would have a much better ap-
pearance, and display a more refined taste. To illustrate
my opinions, I refer to plates 73 and T4, and to the
chimney pieces in ‘Tremont House,’ Boston, designed
by Isaiah Rogers, Esq, Architect.

 

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DOORS.

[In our northern climate, the fewer doors a room has, the more it will be comfortably habitable ; for as we have much more cold than hot
weather, it is very necessary to make the rooms as close as possible, otherwise they will not be fit to live in, the greater part of the year. Where-
fore it will be advisable, never to make either more windows or doors than are absolutely necessary ; and the feigning doors to correspond with

the real ones, may certainly be omitted on many, or on most occasions.

In this country, the real and feigned doors of a room, with their oma-

ments, frequently cover so great a part of the walls that there is no place left for either pictures or famiture.]

DOORS of entrance to private houses should not be less
than three feet wide, nor more than six feet; but to
churches, theatres, and other public structures, where
there is a constant ingress and egress of people, and fre-
quently great crowds, the apertures must be larger, and
their width cannot be less than six feet, nor should it
exceed ten or twelve.

In settling the dimensions of the apertures of doors,
regard must. be had to the architecture with which the
door is surrounded. If it be placed in the intercolumnia-
tion of an order, the height of the aperture should never
exceed three quarters of the space between the pave—
ment and the architrave of the order; otherwise there
cannot be room for the ornaments of the door. Nor
should it ever be much less than two-thirds of that space,
for then there will be room suflicrent to introduce both an
entablature and a pediment, without crowding: whereas,
if it be less, it will appear trifling, and the intercolumnia—
tion will not be sufiiciently filled. The apertures of doors
plar'cd in arches, are regulated by the imposts; the top
of the cornice being generally made level with the top
of the impost. And when doors are placed in the same
line with windows, the top of the aperture should level
with the tops of the apertures of the windows; or if that

31

 

 

 

 

be not practicable without making the door much larger
than is necessary, the aperture may be lower than those
of the windows, and the tops of all the cornices made on
the same level.

With regard to the situation of the principal entrance,
Palladio observes, that it should be so placed as to admit
of an easy communication with every part of the build-
ing. Scamozzi compares it to the mouth of an animal ;
and as nature, says he, has placed the one in the mid-
dle of the face, so the architect ought to place the
other in the middle of the front of the edifice,—that
being the most noble situation, the most majestic and
convenient. In several of the palaces at Rome, as those
of the Pamfili in the Corso, and of the Bracciano, at
Santi Apostoli, there are two principal entrances in the
same aspect; but this is, in general, to be avoided, as
it leaves strangers in doubt where to seek for the state
apartments, which should always be contiguous to the
principal entrance. In interior dispositions, the doors
of communication must be situated, as much as possible,
in a line ; the advantages of which are, that it contributes
towards the regularity of the decoration, facilitates and
shortens the passage through the apartments, in summer,
or on public occasions, when the doors are set open,

" 122
it produces a free, circulation of air, and likewise gives
’ a much more splendid appearance to the apartments, by
exposing to View at once the 'whole series of rooms,
which is more particularly striking when the apartments
. are illuminated, as on occasions of balls, routs 01 other
‘Ti’rejmclngs There should, if possible, be a window at
‘ ”«‘.each end of the, building, directly facing the line of. the

5 a“ doors of communication , so that the View may be more

7 extensive, and take In at. once, not only all the roams,
,"but likewise parts of the gardens, or other prospects
su1rounding the building , and whenever this IS not prac-
ticable, it will do well to place mirrors at each end of
the apa1tment, or to counterfeit doors, and fill them
with large plates of glass, or with sashes and squares
of looking-glass, as is theeustom“ in France, which by
reflection multiply the 1ooms, the doors, and other objects,
making an apartment, though limited or small, appezu
very consider.able »
The (1001 of entrance from halls, vestibules, or anti-
chambers, either to the principal apartment, or to any
even of the inferior ones, should be in the middle of the
room, if possible, and facing a window; those that lead
to galleries, or any other long rooms, should be in the
middle of one of the ends ;; and‘in‘ general, all entrances
should be so contrivedns to offer to View, at the first

 

glance, the most 111agni’ificent and extensive prospect of

the place they open into.‘ The doors of communication

from one room to another, of the same apartment, must

be at least two feet distant from the front walls, that the
tables placed against the piers, between the windows, 01'
other pieces of furniture put there, may not stand in the
V way of those who pass. In bed-rooms, care must be

taken to make no doors on the sides of'the bed, unless it

be to communicate with a water closet, wardrobe, bath,
or other conveniency of that kind, as well on account of
the draught of air as of the noise communicated through
them, or attending their opening and shutting; both of
which are always troublesome, and on some occasions
dangerous. Neither ought doors to be placed near chim-
neys, for the same reasons, and as the opening of them
would disturb those who sit by the fire.

In composing doors, regard must be had, both in
their size and enrichments, to the place they lead to.
Those that give entrance to churches, theatres, state
apartments, or other places of consequence, must-be
large and profusely enriched; but such as open to
humbler habitations, may be small and sparingly deco-
rated, unless the nature of the building should require

broken.

 

 

DOORS.

otherwise. Where several doors are in the same
aspect, as on the inside of a hall, saloon, or gallery,
they should be all of the same size and figure, unless
there be many, in which case the principal ones ,plo-
vided they stand in the middle of a side, or in the
middle of the ends of the room, may be la1ge1 of a.
diffeIent form, and more abundantly adorned than the
rest. But, whenever more than two sorts are intro-
duced in one room, it always tends to confuse the
spectator. . - ‘

The commonest sort of doors are made of pine,
painted in various manners, and'the better kind of them
are of mahogany or oak, or different sorts of rare
Wood inlaid. With regard to their const1uction,
st1ength, beauty and straightness me to be considered:
all which purposes are answered by composing them of
seveIal panels. The number of these must depend
on the size of the d001, which should likewise 1egulate
the thickness, both of the panels and the f1ami11g.If
the doo1s be adorned with ornaments of sculptme, as
is sometimes usual in very rich buildings, they must
either be sunk in, or kept very flat upon the surface,
both for the sake of lightness, and to prevent their being
The panels may be either raised or flat, and
surrounded with one or two little plain or enriched
mouldings, contained in the thickness of the framing;
not projecting beyond it, as is sometimes seen in old
buildings.

Doors that exceed three feet and a half in breadth,
are generally composed of two flaps; by which means
each part is lighter, when open does not project so far
into the room, and when required, may be made to
fold entirely into the thickness of the wall. It is to
be observed, that all doors should open inwards, other-
wise in opening a door to give a person entrance,
it must open in his face, and may chance to knock him
down.

For a variety of Doors in the modern taste, see Plates

75,76,77,78,and_79.

PLATE75

FIGS. 1 and 2. Designs for outside doors.

FIGS. 3 and 4. Horizontal section of the same,
with a projection of the threshold, steps and pilas—
ters.

FIG. 5. Section of the style, panel and 1110111di11g.

FIG. 6. Section of the pilaster and plinth.

P1 7.5 .

DESIGNS INNER DILTTlSELJDE D©©RSU

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DOORS.

PLATE 76.‘

FIG. 1. Door enclosed in a portico, and the styles
rails and muntens, marked in inches.

FIG. 2. The triglyph of the portico in the Grecian
style, showing the angle applied to the corner.

FIG. 3, shows the projection of a portico.

FIG. 4. Projection of the wall of a building.

PLATE 77.

This plate represents the modern and most approved
method of constructing Shop Fronts.

FIG. 1, is a Doric elevation.

N0. 2. The ground plan.

FIG. 3. Elevation of Shop Front, with stone posts
and caps.

No. 3. Ground Plan.

PLATE 78.

FIG. 1. Front door finished in the Ionic style, the
pillars supporting the cap in the wall.

FIG. 2. The recess and side view of the column.

FIG. 3. The recess of the door from the column and
step on which the pillars stand.

FIG. 4. The ceiling of the recess and inverted capi-
tals of the column.

FIG. 5. Style, panel and moulding of the door.

PLATE 79.

FIGS. 1, 2 and 3. Design for inside doors.

FIG. 1, shows the finish with double architrave.

No. 1. Design of a single architrave.

Nos. 2 and 3. Designs of double architraves.

Nos. 1, 2 and 3 are drawn to the scale represented in
FIG. 5.

 

123

FIG. 4. Section of the finish of a door with pilas-
ters.

No. 1, shows the frame of the door jamb.

No. 2. The grOunds.

No. 3. The stop.

Nos. 4 and 5. The pilasters.

Nos. 6 and 7. The projection of the plinth.

No. 8. The lath and plastering.

Good taste has taught us to avoid the multiplication
of small members, on inside finishing, and to adopt in
their place plane surfaces, or appropriate mouldings of
a proper size with their necessary arrangements, as it is
much easier executing a proper finish of painting; the
necesssry application of a pomice stone or sand paper, to
produce a smooth surface, is rendered impracticable, by
numerous close quirks, without injuring the paint on the
other parts. On a plane surface the work is much
easier cleansed, and by this style of finish, which re-
jects everything that is mean and trifling, that manly
character is given to the work, which the refined taste of
ancient and modern architects have so much admired.

The proportions‘of the architraves and pilasters for
inside finish. The architraves for windows and doors in
any one apartment should be nearly of the same width,
, where a uniformity of appearance requires it. Add to-
gether the width of the door and of the window and the
splay, find the mean width, then divide it by 7, which
gives the width of the architrave; but where fancy pilas-
ters are required, divide by 6, which gives one sixth of
the width of the opening for the width of the pilasters.
The designs in Plates 79, 82, and 83, give nearly the
ifull size that those in general use are executed.

 

 

SLIDING aPARTITIONS.

MANY attempts have been made to improve the con- I

struction of folding and sliding doors in dwelling houses,
in order to enlarge the apartments so as to accommodate
large parties, or at such other times as may be required.
A very economical plan has been adopted in this country,
that is, to slide the doors on castors between the two
close partitions, so that they can be moved in opening
and closing with little exertion. The finish of these
doors should correspond with the rest of the room.
There has, of late, been introduced another sort of slid-
ing door or partition, which in many situations is deci-
dedly the best, as the aperture can be much widened
thereby, and afford a more systematical finish, as regular
columns can be inserted on either side, and any one of
the orders can be selected, as circumstances may require.
In the first—mentionedplan, one half, only, of the distance
across the room can be thrown into the aperture ; whereas,
by the latter method, only one fourth of the width of the
room will be taken for the columns and necessary finish,
and may be so constructed as to be moved up and down
with less force than those moving in a horizontal direc-
tion. To illustrate this subject, I refer to Plate 80. Fig.

 

 

 

 

1 is the design of the panel doors ; B, the thickness of
the flooring; (S, S, S, S, the stationary parts of the
partition.

FIG. 2. A section showing the thickness of the slid-
ing partition, with the projection of the plinths and col-
umns at A, R, R.

FIG. 3. A section through the partition in the story
above. C, the thickness of the flooring; D, the floor—
ing of the next story above; E, the weights and cord
by which the partition is suspended. Here I would
observe that the weight of the partition should be ascer-
tained, and the weights made to overbalance it, so
as to overcome nearly one half of the friction; if care
is taken in the proper construction of the pullies, it can
be moved With ease. . G G, the pully posts: H I, the
furring.

FIG. 5. J K shows the groove and tongue to guide
the partition.

FIG. 4. ,A section through the partition. 1.. the
pully; XX, the finish each side of the box; (1. the
box; N M, a‘section of the girders, between which the
partition slides; P, the partition ; Q, the girder.

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CONSTRUCTION OF W'INDOWS.

[There has been in this branch of architecture, as well as all others, a variety of changes and modifications to suit the taste and fashion of the

times.
sary requisites.
ient, economical and ornamental.
with most of the grand principles of the arts and sciences]

The proportions of the apertures of windows, depend
upon their situation ; their width in all the stories must
be the same, but the dili‘erent heights of the apartments
make it, necessary to vary the heights of the windows
likewise. In the principal floor it may be from two and
one'eighth of the width to two and one third, according
as the rooms have more or less elevation; but in the
ground floor, where the apartments are usually somewhat
lower, the apertures of the windows should seldom exceed
a double square; and when they are in a rustic basement,
they are frequently made much lower. The windows of
the second floor may be, in height from one and a half
of their width to one and four fifths ; and those of attics
or mezzanines, either a perfect square or somewhat lower.
The character of the order in which the windows are em-
ployed, and that of the profiles with which they are
enriched, must, likewise, in some measure be consulted,
and the apertures be made more or less elevated, as the
order of the whole decoration, or of the window itself, is
more or less delicate.

The windows of the principal floor are generally
most enriched. The simplest method of adorningthem
is with an architrave surrounding the aperture, covered

32

 

 

In civilized countries, convenience and beaut are consulted ; whereas in barbarous countries strenrrth and safet ' are their most necex

y ’ b 3 5
In this enlightened and happy country, every man of taste adorns his habitation With such as he may deem to be most conven-
The enriching of windows with ornaments is of ancient date, and has been handed down to us, in common

with a frieze and cornice suited thereto; but when the
aperture is remarkably high with respect to its width, it
becomes necessary to spread. the ornaments on the sides
thereof, by flanking the architrave with columns, pilasters,
or consoles, in order to give the whole compOsition an
agreeable proportion. The window: ot‘ the ground floor
are sometimes left entirely plain, without any ornaments
whate e ; at other times they are surrounded with an
architravc, or with rustics, or have a regular architrave
err-suited wih its frieze and cornice. Those of the
second floor have generally an architrave r ried entirely
round the aperture; and the same is the method of
adorning attic or mezzanine windows; but these two last
have seldom or ever either tr’eze or cornice, whereas the
second floor windovs, whenever their aperture ap-
proaches a double square, are often adorned with both.

The sills of the windows on the same floor should
be on the same level, and raised above the floor,
from two feet nine inches to three feet at the very
most. When the walls are thick, they should be re
duced under the aperture of the windows, for the cons
veniency of looking out, and seats may be contrived
to fit these recesses, as is the custom in many mod-.

cold in winter; and the iron work, which in France, and

126 . WINDOWS.

tious practice of intermitting the architrave and frieze of
an order, in the intervals between the columns or pilas-
ters, to make room for windows and their enrichments,
which are carried close up to the cornice, can on no ac-
count whatever he suffered in regular architecture, it
being in the highest degree absurd to carry the windows
above the ceiling, and great wantofjudgmentin an archi-
ltect to intermiX and crowd together such a number of
l rich complicated parts, as are those of the entablature of
i the order and the entablatures of the windows. Besides,

ern houses. In France, and now too often here, the
windows are carried quite down to the floor, which,
when the building is Surrounded with gardens or other
beautiful prospects, renders the apartrrrents excedingly
pleasant in summer, but then they become exceedingly

    
  

latterly very much here, is placed on] the outside by way
of fence against accidents, ought never to take place
where regular architecture is intended ; for' all the gilding
and flourishing in the world can never make it toler'ably
accordant with the rest of the composition.

In regular built lrouses,'t.he sills of the windows on
the ground floor should be raised six feet above the pave-
ment on the outside of the building, to hinder passengers
from looking into the apartments ; but when this cannot

the whole beauty of the or',der when so mutrlated is
destroyed; its pr'oportions and figure being entirely
changed. An interruption of the whole entablature, to
make room for a window, and converting it into an im-
post to the architrave, is a license equally unpardonable.
be done without raising the floor itself more than may be The common sort of builders 1n this country are ex-
necessary, the lower parts of the windows may be fur— i tremely fond of varietyin the ornaments of windows ,and
nished with blinds. The tops of the apertures of' Indeed 1n ever'yother par'tofa building, imagining, prob-
windows should never, within the apartments, be carried ably, that it etrays a barrenness of invention to repeat
the same object frequently. I have seen a house with

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up .close to the cornice of the room; a sufficient space i
ought always to be left for an architrave, 01' at least two , only eleven windows in the whole front, and 1et there
01' three inches betweeen the architrave and cornice. A i\ “"016 seven different sorts. At another place, the case is
space usually occupied by the curtain-lath. J the same, t'here being se1 en or eight sorts of win lows 1n
The interval between the apertures of windows de- l thes same aspect; and the like rs to be met with 1n many
pends, in a great measure, on their enrichments. The ' 011191 1111111111135; 110111 1“ 10‘1'11111111 111 the 00111111? These
’ inventive gentlerrren would do 11 ell to give their attention
I to some professors of the mechanic arts, who, though

1

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exercising their talents on mearrer objects, are neverthe-

widtlr of the aperture is the smallest distance that can be
between thorn, and twice that width should in dwelling-
houses be the largest ; otherwise the rooms will not be suf-
ficiently lighted, and the building will have rather the ap
pearance of a prison than of ”a structure caculated for the

less worthy of their imitation. No tailor thinks of em-
plo1ing seven or eight kinds of buttons on the same
conveniences and enjoyments of life. The purpose for coat; a cutler will not nrake ten different sorts of I1‘ni1 es
which the buildingis intendedslrould regulate the quantity fOI' the $511113 891; 11111] 1f 11 0111111101 1115111131119 11'113'911 10
of liglrtto be intr'oduced ; and therefore in dwelling—houses, furnish a room, Ire seldom introduces more than one or
and all places where comfort and pleasure are the main two 50118 0f charrs. Their P1301100 1’3 f011111l01l 011 0X-
pur'poses, there cannot, be too IIIUCl]. But, in sacred perience; the general approbation 0f nrankirrd is the
structures, which should effect the mind with awe and standard they go by.
with reverence, or in other great works where grandeur We (10 1101 1113601'81', 0111101 111 1119 works 0f 1111111111115' 01'
of style is aimed at, it should be cautiously and rather those of the great modern architects, any traces of this
sparingly distributed childish hankering after variety. The sanre object is
The windows nearest to the outwar'dangles must be at frequently by them repeated a hundred times over, and
least the width of their aperture distant from the angle, this is one of the causes of that amazing grandeur, that
and a larger space will be still nrore seemly, and render noble simplicit ', so much to be admired in their produc-
the building more solid. In all the stories of the same tions.

 

l

aspect, the windows must be placed exactly one above This sameness must, however, have its limits, for, when
the other, and those to the left symmetrize with those to carried too far, the imagination of the beholder stagnates
the right, in size, situation, number and figure. for want of occupation. In the most admired marks of

 

The reasons for all these things are obvious enough, architecture we find the same object generally continued
and therefore it is needless to mention them. The licen- throughout the same level : thus one order and one sort

 

 

WINDOWS.

.of windows or niches generally reign throughout. the
story; but in other stories, where the eye and the imagi-
nation necessarily assume a fresh course, the decoration
is altered. .

Sometimes, however, it may be necessary to increase
the size, and vary the figures of the windows, either in
the centre break or in some other prominent part of a
front, in order to light a saloon, a gallery, or a hall,
higher than the rest of the room. But then it will always
be advisable to repeat the same form if simple, as an arch,
three, five, or more times, according to the extent of the
plan, so that the mind may be in some degree satiated,
before it is conducted to a new object.

Venetian windows and Venetian doors too, are on some
occasions necessary, particularly in small buildings, to
light a hall, a vestibule, or such other rooms as cannot
admit of two windows, and yet would not be sufficiently
lighted with one. But where they can be avoided, it is

best; for the columns which separate the large interval ‘
from those on the sides, form such slender partitions, that, 3

. n I,
at a distance, they are scarcely perce1ved, and the whole ,

looks like a large irregularbreach made in the wall ; and
however advisable it may be to repeat the same form as
has above been mentioned, the repetition of these Venetian
windows should always be avoided.

The sashes of windows are generally made of pine,

 

 

cherry, or mahogany, and sometimes of iron, copper, or

other metals.

 

Our artificers excel in these works ; they ‘

make them very neatly, and though in appearance slight, 3

very strong.

placed one above the other, and either the lowermost, or

The squares of glass are proportioned to;
the size of the windows, there being commonly three in ‘
width and four in height, whatever he the dimensions of i

the window; each sash is composed of two equal parts, 5 , , _ ,
, on a right line With the plastering.

both ofthem, being hung on pullies and counterpoised ‘
with weights, and moved up and down with great ease, j

both the cords and the weights being concealed.

.These ‘
are tnuch neater,and much more convenient, than the 1
French ones, which are composed of two vertical divis- ,

ions, turn on hinges, and are shot with an apparatus of;
iron work, always in the way, and weighing almost an 3

hundred weight. The shutters are always within the

apartments wherever beauty is aimed at, those on the ,

outside destroying the appearance of the front. They
are divided into several vertical slips, folding behind each

other, for the conveniency of ranging or boxing them, ‘

when open, in the thickness of the wall. Each slip or
fold is framed and composed of several panels, either

 

42.7

' raised or flat, surrounded with small mouldings contained

in the thickness of the framing, which, when the profiles
in the room are enriched, should likewise be so, at least
on the fold that faces the aperture when the shutters are-
turn'ed back; the front of which must stand flush with
the inner edge of the architrave surrounding the window,
all the other folds being ranged behind it. I have given
in Plates 81 and 82, the mode of finishing Window
Frames, Sashes, and Shutters.

PLATE 81.

FIG. 1. Shows the disposition of the members of a
window frame and shutters.

No. 1. The outside moulding against the wall.

No. 2. The outside casing.

No. 3. The pulley style.

No. 4. The inside casing.

1'0. 5. The back casing.

No. 6. The parting slip.

No. 7. The parting bead.

No. 8, 8. The weights.

No. 9. The recess of the wall.

No. 10, 10, 10, 10. The styles of the shutters.

No.11, 11. The panels of the shutters.

No. 12. The back furring for the splay of the
window.

No. 13. The ground.

No. 14. Section of the pilaster.

No. 15. The back lining. .

No. 16. The thickness of the plastering. ,

FIG. 2. Shows the disposition of shutters folding back

No. 1. The inside casing.

No. 2. Hinge casing.

No. 3, 3, 3, 3. Styles of the shutters.
No. 4. Panels.

No. Back casing.

No. Box casing.

No. Plastering.

No. 8. Band moulding.

.‘1 .C‘ 9‘ 1‘“

FIG. 3. Section of part of a shutter.
No. 1. The style.

No. 2. Panel.

No. 3. Moulding.

FIG. 4. Moulding, different from FIG. 3.

128

9

FIG. 52'. [Sectign'g through the .frarne'and sash, and

' .. shoWs the manner Qf setting the sash. into the frame.-

No.51..'1"he mannéi of Jommg the soflit to the frame.
No.2 Cap of the frame. . .
No 3, 3 Casings of the fral‘nev ‘ .
No.4. Top rail of the sash.
No 5. Munten of the sash.
No. 6, 6. ‘ Meeting rails.

' No. ’7. Munten.’ '
No. 8. Bottom» rail.

No. 9. Window sill.
No. 10. Stop bead.

No.11. ~Back.

N0. 12. Back bead.

No. 13. Outside moulding.
FIGS. 6 and 7. . Sections~of sash muntens.

PLATE 82.

INSIDE FINISH OF VVINDOXVS.

FIG. 1. The soflit, showing the grooves at each end

 

~ tion through the plinths.

 

 

 

WINDOWS.

for the back lining, also the manner in which the shut-
ters are enclosed under it'.

FIG. 2. The back and elbows.
No. 1., the back. 2, 2, the elbows. Ir, [6, the grooves
from the back. 2', i, the tongues for the elbows.

The dotted line shows the height the plinth should
cover.

FIG. 2. a, d, d, section of the back and elbows.
the skirting of the floor.

1;,

FIG. 4. a, e, c, the plinths to the back and elbow.
A, A, plinths of the pilasters or architraves. B, B, sec-
C, the head of the architrave.
E, stop head for the sash. F, moulding for the panel.

. H, parting bead.

FIG. 5. Outside fold of the shutter.

FIG.6

Meeting fold of the shutter.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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FANCY PILASTERS-

HAVING treated upon the composition of pilasters,
in page 108, it is deemed proper in this place to give
a description of a composition called pilasters, differ-
ing in their construction and use from those before
mentioned.

They are ornamented with parallel grooves, elliptical
or regular circles, &c., and are in most cases adopted in
the composition of inside door or window furnish. These

33

 

 

J

kinds of pilasters are in many cases very convenient, and,
when executed with taste, strike the eye very agreeably,
They do not project so far as the regular proportions of
those given in the description before alluded to, and con—
sequently The hinges need not project so far into the
room in order to let the door swing back to a parallel
line with the partition. In plates 83 and 84, a variety
of specimens of this style of pilasters, are given.

 

~ , fimw.‘

STAIRS.

[This is one of the most important subjects connected with the art of building, and should be attentively considered, not only with regard to
the situation, but as to the design and execution. The convenience of the building depends on the situation ; and the elegance, on the design
and execution of the workmanship. In contriving a grand edifice, particular attention must be paid to the situation of the space occupied by
the stairs, so as to give them the most easy command of the rooms. '

‘ Staircases,’ says Palladio, ‘ will be commendable, if they are clear, ample and commodious to ascend ; inviting, as it were, people to go up :
they will be clear,'if they have a bright and equally diffuse light : they will be sufficiently ample, if they do not seem scanty and narrow to the
size and quality of the fabric ; but they should never be less than four feet in width, that two persons may pass each other : they will be con-
venient with respect to the whole building, if the arches under them can be used for domestic purposes ; and with respect to persons, if their

ascent is not too steep and difficult, to avoid which, the steps should be twice as bread as high.]

W’ITH regard to the lighting of a good staircase, a sky—
light or rather lantern, is the most appropriate ; for these
unite elegance with utility—that is, admit a powerful light,
with elegance in the design ; indeed, where the staircase
does not adjoin the exterior wall, this is the only light that
can be admitted. Where the height of a story is consid-
erable, resting places are necessary, which go under the
name of quarter-paces and half—paces, according as the
passenger has to pass one or two right angles; that is,
as he has to describe a quadrant or semi-circle. In very
high stories, which admit of sufficient head-room, and

‘Where the space allowed for the staircase is confined,

the staircase may have two revolutions in the height of
one story, which will lessen the height of the steps; but
in grand staircases only one revolution can be admitted,
the length and breadth of the space on the plan being
always proportioned to the height of the building, so as
to admit of fixed proportions.

The breadth of the steps ought never to be more than
fifteen inches, or lessthan nine; the heightnot more than
seven, or less than five: there are cases, however, which

 

 

are exceptions to all rule. When the height of the story
is given in feet, and the height of the step in inches, you
may throw the feet into inches, and divide it by the
number of inches the step is high, and the quotient will
give the number of steps.

It is a general imaxim, that the greater breadth of a
step requires less height than one of less breadth: thus
a step of 12 inches in breadth will require a rise of 52}
inches, which may be taken as a standard, to regulate
those of other dimensions.

Though it is desirable to have some criterion as a guide
in the arrangement of a design, yet workmen will, of
course, vary them as circumstances may require. Stairs
are constructed variously, according to the situation and
destination of the buiding.

Geometrical stairs are those which are supported by
having one end fixed in the wall, and every step in the
ascent having an auxiliary support from that immediately
below it, and the lowest step from the floor.

Bracket stairs are those which have an opening or well
with strings and newels, and are supported by landings

STAIRS.

and carriages; the brackets are mitred to the ends of
each riser, and are fixed to the string-board, which is
moulded below like an architrave.

Dog-legged stairs are those which have no opening, or
well-hole, and have the rail and balusters of both the pro-

gressive and returning flights falling in the same vertical -

planes, the steps being fixed to strings, newels and car-
riages, and the ends of the steps of the inferior kind ter-
minating only upon the side of the string, without any
nosing. In taking dimensions and laying down the plan

and section of staircases, take a rod, and, having ascer— '

tained the number of steps, mark the height of the story
by standing the rod on the lower floor; divide the rod
into as many equa parts as there are to be risers, then, if
you have a level surface to work upon below the stair,
try each of the risers as you go on, and this will prevent
any excess or defect; for any error, however small, when
multiplied, becomes of considerable magnitude, and even
the difference of an inch in the last riser, will not only
have a bad effect to the eye, but will be apt to confuse
persons not thinking of any such irregularity. In order
to try the steps properly by the story rod, if you have not
a level surface to 'work from, the better way will be, to
lay two rods on boards, and level their top surface to that
of the floor; place one of these rods a little within the
string, and the other near or close to the wall, so as to
be at right angles to the starting line of the first riser,
or, which is the same thing, parallel to the plan of the
string; set off the breadth of the steps upon these rods,
and number the risers ; you may set not only the breadth
of the flyers, but that of the winders also. In order to
try the story rod' exactly to its vertical situation, mark the
same distances of the risers upon the top edges, as the
distances of the plan of the string-board and the rods are
from each other.

In bracket stairs, as the internal angle of the steps is
open to the end, and not closed by the string as in corn-
mon dog-legged stairs, and the neatness of workmanship
is as much regarded as in geometrical stairs, the balus-
ters must be neatly dove-tailed into the ends of the steps,
two in every step. The face of each front baluster must
be in a straight surface with the face of the riser, and, as
all the balusters must be equally divided, the face of the
middle baluster must stand in the middle of the face of
the riser of the preceding step and succeeding one. The
risers and heads are all previously blocked and glued
together, and When put up, the under side of the step nail-
ed or screwed into the under edge of the riser, and then

 

 

131

rough brackets to the rough strings, as in dog-legged stairs,
the pitchingvpieces and rough strings being similar. In
gluing up the steps, the best method is to make a templet,
so as to fit the external angle of the steps with the
nosing.

The steps of geometrical stairs ought to be constructed
so as to have a very light and clean appearance when
put up: for this purpose, and to aid the principle of
strength, the risers and treads, when planed up, ought
not to be less than one eighth of an inch, supposing the
going of the stair, or length of the step, to be four feet,
and for every six inches in length, another one-eighth
may be added. The risers ought to be dove-tailed into
the cover, and when the steps are put up, the treads are
screwed up from below to the under edge of the risers.
The holes for sinking the heads of the screws ought to
be bored with a centre bit, then fitted closely in with
wood, well matched, so as entirely to conceal the screws,
and appear as one uniform surface. Brackets are mitred
to the riser, and the nosings are contined reund. In this
mode, however, there is an apparent defect; for the
brackets, instead of giving support, are themselves un-
supported, and dependent on the steps, being of no
ether use, in point ofstrength, than merely tying the risers
and treads of the internal angles of the step together; and
from the internal angles being hollow, or a resentrant

angle, eiccept at the ends, which terminate by the wallat ,

one extremity, and by the brackets at the other, there
is a want of regular finish. The cavetto, or hollow, is
carried round the front of the riser, and is returned at the
end, and mitred round the bracket, and if an open string,
that is, the under side of the stairs open to View, the hol~
low is continued along the angle of the step and riser.

The best plan, however, of constructing geometrical
stairs is, to put up the strings, and to mitre the brackets
to the risers, as usual, and enclose the soffit with lath and
plaster, which will form an inclined plane under each
flight, and a winding surface under the winders. In
superior staircases, for the best buildings, the soffit may
be divided into panels. If the risers are made from tw0~
inch planks, it will greatly add to the solidity.

In constructing a flight of geometrical stairs, where the
soffit is enclosed as above, the bearers should all be framed
together, so that when put up, they will form a perfect
stair-case. Each piece of frame-work, which forms a
riser, should, in the partition, be well wedged at the ends.
This plan is always advisable when strength and firmness
are requisite, as the steps and risers are entirely depens

V .wrfir

132 I STAIRS.

dent on the framed carriages, which, if carefully put
together, will never yield to the greatest weight.

In preparing the string for the wreath part, a cylinder
should be made of the size of the well-hole of the stair-
case, which can be done at a trifling expense; then set

- the last tread and riser of the flyers on one side, and the

first tread and riser of the returning flight on the opposite
side, at their respective heights; then on the centre of the
curved surface of this cylinder, mark the middle between
the two, and with a thin slip of wood, bent round with
the ruling edge, cutting the, two nosings of these flyers,
and, passing through the intermediate height marked on
the cylinder, draw a line, which will give the wreath line

formed by the nosings of the winders; then draw the ‘

whole of the Winders on this line, by dividing it into as
many parts as you want risers, and each point of division
is the nosing of such winder. Having thus far proceed-
ed, and carefully examined your heights and widths, so
that no error may have occurred, prepare a veneer of the
width intended for your string, and the length given by
the cylinder, and after laying it in its place on the cylin-
der, proceed to glue a number of blocks about an inch
wide on the back of the veneer, with their fibres paral-
lel to the axis of the cylinder. When dry, this will form
the string for the wreath part of the staircase, to be fram-

ed into the straight strings. It is here necessary to '

observe, that about five or six inches of the straight
string should be in the same piece as the circular, so that
the joints fall about the middle of the first and last flyers.
This precaution always avoids a cripple, to which the
work would otherwise be subject.

The branch of Stair-building that falls under our next
and last consideration, is that of hand-railing; which calls
into action all the ingenuity and skill of the workman.
This art consists in constructing hand-rails by moulds,
according to the geometrical principles, that if a cylinder
be cut in any direction, except parallel to the axis
or base, the section will be an ellipsis; if out parallel
to the axis, a rectangle; and if parallel to the base, a
circle. ‘

Now, suppose a hollow cylinder be made to the size of
the well-hole of the stair-case, the interior concave, and
the exterior convex ; and the cylinder be cut by any in-
clined or oblique plane, the section formed will be bound-
ed by two concentric similar ellipses; consequently, the
section will be at its greatest breadth at each extremity of
the larger axis, and its least breadth at each extremity of
the smaller axis. Therefore, in any quarter of the ellipsis

 

 

there will be a continued increase of breadth from the
extremity of the lesser axis to that of the greater. Now,
it is evident that a cylinder can be cut by a plane through
any three points; therefore, supposing we have the height
of the rail at any three points in the cylinder, and that
we cut the cylinder through these points, the section will
be a figure equal and similar to the face-mould of the
rail; and if the cylinder be cut by another plane parallel
to the section, at such a distance from it as to contain
the thickness of the rail, this portion of the cylinder will
represent a part of the rail with its vertical surfaces
already worked : and again, if the back and lower surface
of this cylindric portion be squared to vertical lines, either
on the convex or concave side, through two certain paral-
l el lines drawn by a thin piece of wood, which is bent on
that side, the portion of the cylinder thus formed will
represent the part of the rail intended to be made.

Though the foregoing only relates to cylindrical wellu
holes, it is equally applicable to rails erected on any seat
whatever.

The face-mould applies to the two faces of the plank,
and is regulated by a line drawn on its edge, which line
is vertical when the plank is elevated to its intended po-
sition. This is also called the raking~mould.

The falling-mould is a parallel piece of thin wood ap-
plied and bent to the side of the rail-piece, for the pur-
pose of drawing the back and lower surface, which should
be so formed, that every level straight line, directed to the
axis of the well—hole, from every point of the side of the
rail formed by the edges of the falling mould, coincide
with the surface.

In order to cut the portion of rail required, out of the
least possible thickness of stufl“, the plank is so turned up
on one of its angles, that the upper surface is nowhere
at right angles to a vertical plane passing through the
chord of the plane: the plank in this position is said to
be sprung.

The pitch—board is a right-angled triangular board
made to the rise and tread of the step, one side forming
the right angle of the width of the tread, and the other
of the height of the riser. When there are both winders
and flyers, two pitch-boards must be made to their re-
spective treads, but, of course, of the same height, as all
the steps rise the same.

The bevel by which the edge of the plank is reduced
from the right angle when the plank is sprung, is termed

the spring of the plank, and the edge thus bevelled is
called the sprung edge.

sums.

The bevel by whiCh the face mould is regulated to
each side of the plank, is called the pitch.

The formation of the upper and lower surfaoe of a
rail is called the falling of the rail ; the upper surface
of the rail is termed the back.

In the construction of hand-rails, it. is necessary to
spring the plank, and then to cut away the superfluous
wood, as directed by the draughts, formed by the face
mould; which may be done by an experienced work-
man, so exactly, with a saw, as to require no further re-
duction; and when set in its place, the surface on both
sides will be vertical in all parts, and in a surface per-
pendicular to the plan. In order to form the back and
lower surface, the falling mould is applied to one side,
generally the convex, in such a manner, that the upper
edge of the falling mould atone end, coincides with the

face of the plank; and the same in the middle, and ,

leaves so much wood to be taken away at the other end
as will not reduce the plank on the concave side; the
piece of wood to be thu: formed into the wreath or twist,
being agreeable to their given heights.

PLATE 85.

FIG. 3, AND 4.

To find the projection of a Helinet, on a
Plane parallel to the axis of the Cylindrome

and perpendicular to the cutting plane of
the Solid.

Let A B C D E F G H I K L M A (FIG. 3) be the 21 2, 1,, respectively equal to T B, U C, V D; and com-

plan of a helinet, the qnadrantal part being B C D E F
G H I K L B, and the straight part being A BL M A.

Let FIG. 4 be the falling mould corresponding to the

none “I there ' ' - t ' S . . _‘ _
co 1 st le of s mi ()thltl, founl m the dual man . quadrant. meets it.

her; viz. draw any straight line X V W U; make U V

equal '0 the “mum!“ ””6 0f the livers, “Pd V X Pq'ml ‘ helinet, which will give the thickness ofthe stuff required
to the stretch of B l~ ; draw X ”_ in‘lll'lnlm'k” m U X' l to make the rail; by drawing a straight line in contact
equal to the height of as many winders as are contained 3 with two points on the under side without cutting the
III the Circular part, together with the height ofthe flyer; mm, and another parallel to it from the point x, then
draw. V t perpendicular to U X? film" in l'e'gl'l '0 a glpp’ the dislance between these parallel lines is the thickness
and Join t n ,' then complete the falling mould, of which ‘

the undr-r edge is n o p ‘I r a U and the upper edge

2 st 7112 10$; make V W equal to B A in FIG 3; draw

IV a perpendicular to X U, cutting the under side of the

falling mould at 0, {ml (If parallel to U X; then afis

the stretch of A B C D E F, FIG. 3. In FIG. 3dividc
E4

’0

133

l the quadrant B F into any equal parts B C, C D, D
i E, E F, which stretch upon af, FIG. 4, according to
l the corresponding letters. In FIG. 3 besect C D at I ;

draw I P radiating to the centre N, cutting the con-

l vex side of the plan at P; draw F P R and F O and

l
l

1

P Q parallel to each other, making an angle with F
R. In FIG. 4 bisect c din y, and draw y y perpendic-
ular to a f, uniting the under edge of the falling mould
at y ,' dividef n and y g each into the same number of
equal parts as here into three. In FIG. 3 make F 0
equal to one third off 72, and P Q, equal to one third
of y y; join 0 Q, which produce to meet F P in R.
Draw R M, which produce to s. In R 3 take any point
m, and draw m f perpendicular to R s ,- then parallel to
Rs,drawA as,Bbr t,chu,dev,Eeow,F

lf tax.

From FIG. 4, transfer the heights 1) r, c q, d p, e o,
andf n, to the corresponding lines b r, c (1, d7), 6 0,
fn, FIG. 3 ; also from FIG. 4, transfer the lines a s, 1‘ t,
{1",}; v, o w, and n x, to a s, 7‘ t, q u,p v, 0 w and n 2‘,
FIG. 3 ; then through the pointsn o 7) q r a draw a curve,
which will be the line representing the under edge of the

. inside falling mould ; also draw the curve :17 w v u t s,

which is the line representing the upper edge of the same
falling mould. The upper and lower edges of the outside
falling mould will thus be found ; N being the centre of

l the quadrants B C D E F, and G H I K L; draw N E
1 II, N D I, N C K, N B L, cutting the convex side at

H, I, K; and draw H W, I V, K U, L T, parallel to
R s ; and E \V,‘ D V, C U, B T, parallel tof m. Also

draw 3 s, t t, 2/, u, v 2;, parallel tofm ; and make t t, u u,

plcte the parallelogram t t, s s, and draw the curve t u 22 J,

‘ which will meet, the curve st u v w :1: at J, the point

t

 

where a perpendicular drawn from the centre N of the
In the same manner find the curve
u, o r; and we shall have the whole projection of the

of the stuff.

ON THE FORMATION OF THE FALLING MOULD.

To find the falling Mould for a semi-circular
Stair with Winders round the semi-circular

,www

 

I34 ' STAIRS.

part {hr the Falling Mould for a semi-'circular
Staircase level round the semi—circle, joined
below and above the flyers.

PLATE 85.

No. 1. FIG. 1. is in the plan of the rail round the cir-
cular part, and of a small portion of the straight part
with the seats or plans of the risers round the semi-
circular part.

b c d and g f e terminated by the radii b landgl;
i then, suppose two equal straight lines, one erected upon
6 and the other upon f, perpendicular to the plane of
the plan of the rail, and let 0 I be any intermediate
radius, cutting the interior quadrant at f ,- produce a h'
and c l to meet each other in k.

Now, if a straight line be supposed to extend from
It: to the top of the line which stands upon f, the straight
line thus extended, if produced, would be higher than

 

Make a b (No. 2) equal to the height of the win-.

de‘rs; draw a e and b d at right angles with ab ; make
a e and b f each equal to the development of lp or
p m (No. 1); draw 8 l and d k parallel to a b ; make
9 l and d It: each equal to the height of a step; and join
9 g and f k. This description so far applies both to
FIGS. 1 and 2.

In FIG. 1, No. 2, join e f; make 9 h equal to eg,
andf 73 equal tof k, and draw the touching curves g
r h and is It” ,' anti g 7" It is I: will be the line of the
rail.

In FIG. 2, No. 2, produce g e to t, and kf to u;
bisect a b at s, and through .9 draw t u parallel to a c
or b d; from g t cut 011' t w, and from u 16 cut off u 2',

each equal to g e or f 1c; and describe the touching.
curves g z s and s y x, and g to z s y .7; It will be the

line of rail.

The breadth of the falling mould in common cases is
about two inches; therefore draw the curve lines each
at an inch distance from the line of the rail, and the
falling mould will be completed.

ON THE RESTING POINTS.

PROBLEM.

'To find the position of the Plane of the Plank,

and the Resting points, so that the thickness

of stuff required to make the Helinet may be
the least possible.

PLATE 86.

FIG. 1. Let a b c d e f g It be the plan of the rail,
of which the part b c d efg is the quadrant of a cir-
cle, and the part a b g h of arectangular figure; the
straight lines a b and kg being tangents to the outer
and inner arcs at b and g, and the circular quadrants

 

the top of the line which stands upon 0 ; therefore, if a.
plane pass through a It? and through the top of the line
insisting upon f, the plane will pass above the top of ‘
the line standing upon 0, and this will be the case with
every section except the section b g, which is parallel
to a k ,' therefore, if the plane of the plank rest upon the
lower section a h, and upon any two other points in the
circular part, these points must be in the concave side;
therefore, in this case, the resting points are upon h,f, e,
in the concave side of the rail.

Again, in FIG. 2, let I c and a b be produced to meet
each other in k ; then if a straight line be extended
from k to the top of the line which stands upon 0, the
straight line thus extended, if produced, would be higher
than the top of the line which stands upon f; therefore,
the plane which passes through a b and through the top
of the line which insists upon 0, will be above the point
which terminates the top of the line insisting upon f,-
whence the resting points a, c, d, are all upon the convex
side of the rail.

Lastly (in Frc. 3), if a plane rests upon the top of the
two lines insisting upon 0 and f, and pass through the
point a; and if a line be supposed to stand upon 6,
perpendicular to the plane of the base, of such a length
as to meet the plane which passes through a, and
through the upper ends of the lincsinsisting upon 0 and
f; it is evident that if another line be supposed to be
erected upon d, also perpendicular to the plane of the
base and equal in height to the line insisting upon 9, the
plane which passes through the point a, and through the
tops of the lines insisting upon c,f, 9, must be above the
top of the line insisting upon d; and that the intersec-
tion 7) q of the plane passing through a, and the points
in the lines insisting upon 6 and f,tnust be parallel to
c f-

It is now evident that if a, b be produced to r, and h a
to s, and as the intersection always passesthrough a,the
line a p of the intersection of the plane must always fall
within the right angle r a s.

 

     
     
        
 

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STAIRS. 135

It is likewise evident, if the resting section of the rail
fall between of and a h as at b g, the middle resting
point will be over I) in the convex side of the rail ; and
if the resting section fall between 6 f and d e, the resting
point of the middle section must be on the concave side.

SCHOLIUM I.

In stairs constructed upon the letter D plan, with win-
ders in the cemi-circular part joined to a series of flyers
below and above, where the winders have a higher pitch
than the flyers; the two first resting points beginning at
the lowest point, will be on the convex side of the rail,
while that at the highest point is on the concave side.

FIG. 4. \Vhen the lower line of heights is nothing,
and the highest double to the middle one, the line of
intersection will be found by drawing a line through the
seat of the highest and middle resting point, and produ-
cing the line on the other side of the seat of the middle
resting point, until the part produced be equal to the
part between the two seats, and drawing a line through
the lowest point a, and through the extremity of the
point thus found; then the line thus drawn will be the
intersection.

Thus, in the present case, a c and e are the resting
points; join 8 c and produce 9 c to 1:; make c I: equal to
c c, and join a I; then a k is the intersection, and this
agrees with what has been observed ; for if a It: and l c
be produced they will meet in 72?, therefore f is not the
seat of the resting point : iff were the seat of the resting
point, making fi equal to fe, and joining a 2', then at
would be the intersecting line, but it. is not, for the point
c is nearer to a m thanf.

Corollary. —— From what has been observed (see FIG.
5,) that the intersecting line u 12 never falls within the
right angle at a or upon the plan a c d e It, therefore the
point e is always nearer to u 1) than the point (I; therefore
the point e is the seat of a resting point.

SCHOLIUM II.

FIG. 5. From the same given heights, and from the
same three resting sections of the rail, there cannot be
more than four intersecting lines by making choice of
one resting point from each section.

For, suppose we make choice of the points (I and c as

 

 

the seats of the resting points, and join the line (1 c, and
produce d c suppose to some imaginary point X ; and
find the pointX from the heights upon d and c ; in such
a manner that the line thus drawn may not Cross the plan,
even if produced. The same thing may be done through
the points (1 and f, also through the points e and c, and
through the points 8 and f; then, whichever of the points
d or e is nearest to the intersecting line u 27, that point is
the seat of the resting point.

With regard to the ratio between the whole line drawn
through the seats of the resting points and the part of it
between the said seats, it is the same as the ratio be-
tween the highest line and the line insisting on the seat
of the middle section.

Suppose (in FIG. 5) the seats of the resting points are
e and c ,- join 8 c and produce it to 2' ; draw 8 l and c k
perpendicular to e i; make 6 l equal to the height insist-
ing upon 9, and c It: equal to the height insisting upon 0;
join ll; and produce it to 2'. Then because of the simi-
lar triangles e 1' land 0 i k, i e : i c : .' e l: c k, that is,
i c is the same part of i e that c k is of at ,' therefore, if
e l be double of c k, e i will be double of c 2', or t' c will
be equal to c e.

If the workman should not understand the demonstra-
tion now given, he may proceed mechanically thus, the
seats of the resting points being a, c, e.

Join e c and produce 8 c to i; draw 6 l and c It: per-
pendicular to i e ,' make 9 1 equal to the height upon 6,1 c
k equal the height upon 0; join l 16 and produce it to i,
and join 1' a; then i a is the intersecting line. Produce
i a both ways to u and v, cfto o and v, and d e to 0 and
u ; draw d 7", e m and 0 q perpendicular to d u; draw 0
p,fw and c n perpendicular to o v ,- make 0 71. equal to
c 1:, and join 22 n ,' produce 12 n to p ; make 0 9 equal to
o p, and e m equal to e I; join m q ; then ifm (1 be pro-
duced, it will meet u v in u. This may easily be con-
ceived by raising the triangles ie l, 1) Op and u e m, upon
their bases, 13 e, v c and d u; then c [C will coincide with
c 72, e l with e m, and o p with o q; and the lines i l,
v p and r u, will all be in the inclined plane of which
its intersection is u 12.

CONSTRUCTION OF THE FACE MOULD.

PLATE 86.

FIG. 7. Let a d efg h i be the plan of the rail, ef
g h a portion of the straight part, 2' being the upper and

 

136

f the lower resting points. But as the place of the mid-
dle resting point d will affect the thickness of the stuff,
it ought not to be arbitrarily assumed ; though it would
be difficult to show upon any principle where it should be
exactly. It is, however, ascertained by trial, that its
position may vary to a considerable distance without
affecting the thickness of the stuff in any great degree;
and as experiment shows that it, is nearly in the middle
of the development of a d ef, it. is here taken in the
middle, so that the stretch-out of a d may be equal to the
stretch-out of d f.

FIGS. 6and‘7. In the figure of the falling mould,
produce the base a e of the winders tof,'then a 6 (FIG.
6) being equal to the development. of a 8 (FIG. 7,) make
a d (6) equal to the development of a, d (7,) and make
cf (6) equal to ef(7); drawfl parallel to a b (6,) cut-
ting the upper side of the falling mould at l (6); parallel
tof a draw I 2', cutting a b at 13(6); in 2' l make 13 61(6)
equal to i d (7) ; draw d m (6) parallel to a 1), cutting
theiupper side of the falling mould at m; draw m n par-
allel tof a, cutting a b, at n; draw d r parallel to a 1),

cutting m n at 7“ (6.)

Join 0 1‘ and produce it to meet 2' l at 9; make 73 q (7)
equal to i q (6) ; join f q (7) and producefqto I: i.
Through g draw I; l perpendicular to I: q. Through i
draw i 2 parallel to Is (1, cutting It: I at z. Make z 7: equal
to i o (6); and join I: z (7) and produce k z to l: draw
a l parallel to z .2'.

TO FIND THE FACE MOULD.

FIG ’7. Draw 1 a, and z b perpendicular to I: l;
make la equal to la, z iequal toz i, and join i a; then
'i a will form the part of the face mould represented by 7'
a, on the plan. Draw I: f perpendicular to It: I, and
make lcf equal to /:f. Draw g‘g parallel to z z, cutting
15 l at g, and join gf. Again, draw It 21 parallel toz 2,
cutting I: l at u and I; l at”. Drawn It perpendicular to
k I, and make n It equal to It It ,- draw It (2 parallel to gf,
andf e parallel to g /I ,- then efg II will form the part of
the face mould corresponding to the straight part efg II,
in the plan. The intermediate points ofthe face mould,
which form curves of tne outside and inside of the rail,
are thus found. Through any point. cin the convex side
of the plan draw I: _I/ parallel to z z, cutting lel at y 7',
and I: l at y, and the concave side of the plan at t. Draw
3/ c perpendicular to I: I, andvin ’1 c makey tequal to y t,
and y c equal to y c; then i is a point in the concave

 

 

STAIRS.

side, and c a pointin the convex side of the face mould
A sufficient number of points being thus found, the curved
parts of the face mould may be drawn by hand, or by a
slip of wood bent to the curve.

It will be perceived, that I have been obliged in some
instances to use the same letter of reference twice ; but
they are so placed, that the one referred to can be ascer—
tained without any difficulty.

RECIPROCAL SPIRAL AND SCROLL.

To draw the Reciprocal Spiral for a Scroll.
P L A TE 8 7. '

Suppose the ordinate 0 q (Fig. 1) to be given. Make
a b (Fig. 2) equal to 0 q, and through I) draw I; (1, making
an angle with a b; then take 6 c in a greater or less
ratio to b 1, as a less or greater part of the scroll is
wanted, or as the scroll is required to have a flatter or
quicker curve at the remote extremity ; for instance, I) c
in this example is double to I) 1.

Suppose the point c‘to be now fixed ; draw 0 e paral-
lel to a b, and a (3 parallel c (I, make 1, 2; 2, 3; 3,
4; &c. each equal to b l, and draw the lines 1 e, 2 c,
3 c, 4 6, (ice. cutting a b respectively at eflg‘, &c.

In Fig. 1, divide the space round the centre 0 into
eight equal angles, which will be easily done by drawing
a circle through (I, and dividing the circumference into
eight equal parts, beginning at (1 ; draw the portions 07),
0 (1,0 7‘, 0 s, (S's. Make 0 1) (Fig. 1) equal to twice a b
(Fig. 2,) 0 (1, (Fig. 1) is equal to a b (Fig. 2) ; also make
0 7', 0.9, o t, &c. (Fig. 1) respectively equal to a c, af, a
g, &c. (Fig. 2.) Through all the points p, (I: r, s, t,
&c. draw the curve 7) (11‘ s t, doc. which will be the
spiral required.

For want of room, a b (Fig. 2) is only made equal to
half the length it ought to have been; fora I: will he di-
vided into parts of the same length, whether a b is double

and b 0 equal to b 1, or a I) as it is, and b 0 double of
b 1.

SCHOLIUM.

This spiral is well adapted to the purpose of hand»
railing, for it may be made close or to extend at pleasure,
as may be seen by the subsequent examples.

This spiral may be extended so as to form the rail
.itself by a gentle curve, which will approach nearer to

I77.

1%

STAKES .

 

 

”an ,

 

 

 

4

 

 

 

 

 

Pl. 625

- STAWLS a

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ALKWfiLmJ

.
w
,
,_

 

 

 

 

 

' IE‘OBMA'JI‘JIQN 03F THE FACE AND FALLING MKDUIUD NOR '1[“lHDEa~ $<CR©LL0.

VWWVV‘WV

 

 

 

 

H:

 

[2/4 2.

77) ,

 

 

 

 

 

'\\

 

 

()7

. fl. (319'. , W

 

 

3a.;

S'I‘AIRS.

a straight line the more it is extended. The forms of
stairs attached to pulpits are often very fanciful; their

plan requires to be formed in the most graceful manner;
the reciprocal spiral may be applied to this purpose with
advantage, as the effect produced will be both beautiful
and elegant. It may also be applied to form the plan
of the riser of the curtail Step into a gentle curve, which
will he in perfect uniso. with the scroll itself. The
plans of the other steps may be formed to the same

curve; but the curvature may be made less in each, as l

the other risers recede from that of the curtail step, till
at last the risers become straight. The property of this
scroll may be shown arithmetically, thus : let any given
radius be called unity, or one, and let this radius so
called, be the greatest radius; let n be any constant
number, which must be in the same scroll, but variable
in different scrolls, and let 2: be a variable number in the
same scroll, then will 7+"? represent any ordinate; thus
the first,
respectively 0, 1,
£2511 532, &c. By giving n a value, the form of the
scroll will be determined. Thus, make 71:2, and we
shall have the series of ordinates, 5 § g g, g, &c.
This will give the scroll, FIG. 1, Plate 87.

second,

'1

1\’I:1l<en=4; then 3. 11:1‘fl‘:__2 7:3, &c.1\ill become
3, g. 11,—. $5, doc, respectively. These are the respective l.‘

ratios of the ordinates 0 a, 0 b, 0 c, 0 d, o 6, (Sec, FIG. 1,
Plate 88.

Lastly, maken=8; then 3 111*}? ”T2, ":3, &c., “ill
hecmne8 g, g, T95, T87, &c., respecthely. These {116 the
respective ratios of the ordinates 0 a, 0 b, 0 c, 0 d, &c.,
FIG. 3, Plate 88.

So that we have both a geometrical and an arithmetical
rule for drawing the reciprocal spiral.

It may here he observed that this spiral is the onlv '

third, 650. ordinates, by making .7:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

join H E .
1 lines perpendicular to H G';

2, 3, &c., will be respectively ,1, l tiVer to n 1', 0 k, p l, (I m. r n.

lp

137

at d, ' draw e G parallel to c a; and through a, draw
F G parallel to c I) make G F equal to the b1 eadth of
astep; d1aw F H perpendicular to G H; make F H
equal to the height of a step, and Join H G, then G H
is the pitch line of the stait. Draw lines parallel to a he,
cutting the Inner edge of'the scroll? at the poi11ts,f, g,h
the oute1 edge at 73, k, 1, m,n ;tl1e straight line F G 111
the points 12, 0,11, q, 'r, and H G at the points N, O,
P, Q, R;- let a 0 cut the concave side of the scroll at t,
and let it he p1oduced to cut H G at A; liom the point
It, whele the line d e c'uts the concave spiral of the
scroll, d1aw It W parallel to 'a 0, cutting A G at W, F
G at v, and the convex spilal at 11. Draw W H and
G E pe1pend1cular to H G.

Make W H and G E each equal to '12 h, 01 G e, and
through the points N, O, P, Q, R, draw
in the perpendiculms make
A T, N F, O G, each respectively equal to at, nf,0
also make N 1,0 K, P L, Q M, R N, each 1espec-
' draw '1‘ X pa1allel to
H G, and (haw the cutves T F G H and A I K L M
N E, which will complete the face mould I111 the t\\ 1~ted

pa1t of the SCIOll, which is to be glued to the other pa1t
fo1med 111 one level piece.

T he falling mould is constructed as follows: FIG. 2.
Let F G H be the pitch board, as in FIG. 1.1 Divide F

i G into eight equal parts, and make F a equal to three of
the parts; through a draw (l q perpendicular to F G,
cutting II G 1117).
l puallel to F G, and make q 3 equal to the suetch- out of
, the first two qua1te1s, a, I), v, of the outwa1d spiral, FIG.
_ 1.; through 3 draw 71. (1 parallel to H I“:

p1oduce H G to d.“

d1awany liue qs

in H cl take

‘5 any distance d I) and draw I) a parallel to F G, cutting

one that can be employed in forming the volutes of the ‘

Co1inthia11 capital.

FIG. 3, Plate 88, exhibits the scroll with the scale '1

drawn 011 the first radius.

To describe the Face and Falling Mould for

preparing the scroll.

PLATE 89.

Leta b be the first quarter of the scroll. c the cen-

;'d1aw d e palallel to b c, touching the oute1 spital
35

l
I
l
l
l
i
l
1
l

 

; 21 data ,' again, in H (I take [1 0 equal to l) a and join
‘ c a, 'through I) draw 7) t parallel to c a, cutting 2/!) int;

(haw t1; parallel to F G, cutting H d at 1); then will 1) t
be equal to 11]), divide v p and v t each into the same
number of equal parts, and draw the intersecting lines
to the points of division, and the curves formed will be
the upper edge of the falling mould ; the’other edge will
be formed by gauging ofl'the thickness of the rail.

APPLICATION OF THE FACE MOULD TO THE PLANK

To form the Figure of the Face Mould upon
each side of the Plank, so that when the su-
perfluous Wood is cut away, the carved Sur-

r

 

V 2:. re’y—TW' ; -‘_

138

- faces formed thereby may stand perpendicular
to the plan, supposing the Piece thus formed
7set in due Position-

- P L A T E 90.

‘ Let a. b c d efg be the FIG. 1, of the face mould,

placed in due position to‘ the pitch line g i, as when
traced from the plan ; and let FIG. 2 represent a devel-
opment of the plank where X represents the top, Y the
edge, and Z the under side of the plank. 3, _

The face mould is first applied to the top X, so that
the points g and the ‘chord line g e ofthe mould may
make the same angle at g with the arris line g e of the
plank, that the figure ofthe mould at FIG. 1 makes with
the pitch line; draw g K, making the same angle with
ig that the pitch line makes with any connecting line or
perpendicular, and draw the figure of the mould on the
plank ; apply the same mould to the other side Z of the
plank to the point K, so that the chord may make the
same angle with the other arris as on the first side, and
draw the figure of the mould on this last side; then the
solid which is formed by cutting away the superfluous
wood is the piece required. ‘ ‘

But as it may be desirable to apply the tips of the
- mould g and 8 close to the edge of the plank; FIG. 3
shows how. the plank is to be lined out according to this
application. Here the pitch line g K make the same
angle with the upper arris ofthe plank as before; draw
g L perpendicular to either arris, cutting the lower arris
at L; make the angle K L G equal to the angle e gt
FIG. 1, make L g equal to L K, and draw the chord
g e in the plane Z, parallel to the arris line ; in the plane
Z apply the tips g and e of the face mould to the lineg e
as exhibited in the figure, then draw the form of the face
mould as before.

DEMONSTRATION.

FIG. 2. Draw g3 L in the plane Y, cutting the lower
arris of the plank at L; draw the chord K e of the face
mould in the. plane Z, and draw L M in the same plane
parallel to K 8; also draw L s perpendicular to K 6, cut-
ting K e at s. Now imagine the figure M L K e to be
moved so as to revolve on the point, L, until L M come
into the arris L m ; it is evident that the point K will
move in the circumference of the circle, K15, and will
come into the position I: ,' and that the angle K Llc will
be equal to the angle m L M; but the angle 77?. L M is

 

 

 

 

 

STAIRS.

equal to the angle a g i, FIG. 1. Again reverting to FIGs.
2 and 3, it is plain in FIG. 3, that if the angle K L g in
the plane Z be made equal to the angle e g i, FIG. 1,
and if L g be made equal to L K, and the mould applied
to each side of the plank as in the figure, the solid, when
cutout, by taking away the superfluous wood, will be
equal and similar in all its corresponding parts to that
cut out according to the oblique chords, FIG. 2.

FIG. 4 shows another application where the chord of

\the face mould is neither applied to the angle 6 g 2', nor

parallel to the arris lines; but as this application is rather
curious than useful, the bare inspection of the diagram
will render it sufficiently clear to those who will take the
trouble to consider it.

ON THE FORMATION OF THE STRING.

PROBLEM.

To form the Soffit of a Stair with Easings at
the junctions of the Flyers and Winders.

PLATE 91.

Let FIG. 1, be the plan of the stair, the breadth of the
steps being divided equally along the middle line. Sup
pose the winders to begin at riser C, and let the string
from the riser of the curtail step to the point C be
straight.

The first thing to be done is to stretch out the string ;
but in this development it will not be necessary to ex-
hibit it entirely, the circular part and a small portion of
the straight part at each end will be sufficient; therefore,
beginning at A, we shall take in the two flycrs over A B
and B C.

In FIG. 2 draw p I parallel to the rail, and make p I
equal to the length of the line a b c d cfg h. Draw
I K perpendicular to p I, make I I-; l, 2; 2, 3; equal
to the heights of the three risers over A B C, FIG. 1;
also in FIG. 2, make 3, 4; 4, 5; 5, 6; 6, 7’; 7’, 8;
each equal to the height of the winders over 1), E, F,
G, H. In the plan FIG. I, suppose a line drawn through
the centre .z‘ perpendicular to the rail, cutting the middle
line at D, and let this line he produced to 21, FIG. 2; in
FIG. 2 draw 3 6 parallel to p I, cutting a; u at u ; join
u p and u 7 ; draw 1) a in the same straight line with the
riser A, b b in the same straight line with the riser B,

 

‘ APTLHCATION (DIE THE FACE MWULDQ \ H.905

 

a)
’)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

| \' ‘ ' r' x J 1'2; m ' ‘

l

k - \

i ‘ . ‘i
ON THEE FORR‘IA’THQN 019‘ THE STRINGO ' - 1’2. Elli ‘

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

sums.

and c c in the same straight line. with the riser C, to out
p u at b and q ; make u 1'" equal to u q, then form the
easing curve q 1"; draw 3 c, 4 d, 5 e,_6 f, 7 g, parallel to
p 1, cutting the easing curve at d and e, and u 7' at f and
g; draw d d, e e,ff, g g, parallel to I K; make c d
equal to c d, d 8 equal to d e, efequal to ef,f g equal
mfg, and g 11. equal tog h; then D H being divided
into equal parts at the points E, F, G, join D d, E e, F
f, G g, and produce them to the wall line; in FIG. 2,
draw the curve P Q, R parallel to p q 7‘ at a proper dis-
tance, which completes one half of the string. The man-
ner of completing the other half is evident.

OBSERVATIONS.

Having given the details of Finishing, I shall now pro-
ceed to offer a few general remarks in relation to this
subject.

The selecting of building materials has not, in general,
received that care and attention which this important sub-
ject demands. Many buildings have been ruined, the
owners of others have been displeased, and not without
just cause, and the workman has lost his reputation, and
forfeited his claim to public patronage, solely from neg-
lert in this important particular.

The first care of a Master-builder should be, to see
that, his lumber is properly seasoned. The best method
of seasoning, is, after boards or plank have been sawed
at the mills, they should be immersed in salt or fresh
water for the space of one or two months ; larger lumber
should remain in this situation till the sap is properly
extracted from the wood ; this operation preserves the
lumber in some degree from the dry rot; next take the
boards or plank out of the water and stick them in a sit-
uation where the air may have a free circulation through,
and on all sides of the piles. They should remain in
this situation for one year, then take them down and
select such as are suitable for finishing; these should

 

 

 

139

again be stuck ina. building, or covered in such a manner

as to be secure from the weather; they should remain m
this situation at least six months before they are used.
While'preparing the stuff for finishing, it should be spread
to the sun’every fair day, and put under cover at night,
for three or four weeks before it is put together. The
mechanic will feel himself well. paid for his time and
trouble, when he shall examine his work at any subse~
quent period. '

Framing timber should be squared up, soon after being
taken out of the water, and stuck up under cover for the
space of six months before it is worked into buildings;
this will correct the erroneous idea, in many cases, where
the settling of the floor has been attributed to bad work-
manship, when in fact, it has been occasioned by the
shrinking of the timber. ,

The kind oflumber in general use for building in the
New England States is White, Yellow, Pitch and Nor-
way Pine; Spruce, Cedar, and sometimes Hemlock,
White and Bass Wood. The hard woods are Oak, Ma-
hogany, Maple, Cherry and Ash. In the Southern States
there is found a superior species of Pine, which, for du-
rability is preferable to northern Pine, when used for
floor boards or joists.

Pine Boards and Joists are sorted into different quali-
ties, known as Nos. 1, 2 and 3. ' No. 1 is square-edged,
free from knots, shakes,. and rot. No. 2, the second
quality, is sound, not entirely free from knots, and is
square-edged. No.3 has knots, shakes, is wane-edged
and has some rot. No. 1 is used for the best of finish-
ing, No. 2for rough boarding, such as roofs, side and
end boarding, &c. where the edges are required to be
tongued and grooved or rabbited. From this quality, by
properly sorting them, good floor boards may be selected,
which should be sawed from four to seven inches wide ;
many of them will be clear, and after they are wrought
to a thickness, the clearest may be used for the best
rooms, and the others as they may be suitable for the
different rooms.

 

...‘W

CARPENTRY.

{The art of Carpentry, in the general acceptation of the term, includes every method of working or employing timber, or its substitutes, in the
construction of buildings ; but as it is evident that course rough work requires very different management from the delicate finish of interior ar-
rangement, most writers have very properly divided it into two classes :—-Carpent1y, properly so called, to which belongs flooring, roofing,

course, is treated of in this department]

THE ORDER OF CARRYING ON A BUILDING; THE DI-
MENSIONS OF THE TIMBERS; THEIR DISTANCES
AND PLACES OF INSERTION. '

THE designs of buildings being of such a variety,
they not only require various methods of construction,
but some require appendages which are unnecessary [in
others, and thus the order of proceeding will be varied.
The order, however, of proceeding with any description
of edifice, will easily be understood, when that of the
usual manner is given.

Lintelings very soon occur; their thickness ought
never to be less than as many inches as the aperture has
feet in width. Some recommend that lintels should be
laid on templets; but when the mortar dries, this prac-
tice, though it may seem to bind a new building together,
is injurious to the strength of the walls. The old authors
say that bond timbers should be dovetailed at the angles;
but this method ofjoining timbers is not sufficient to ‘pre-
vent, in two return walls, the one from descending while
the other keeps its place; halving and bolting is much
more secure.

Where bond timbers are carried all round apartments
or rooms, or entirely round a building, the thickness of
these timbers will depend upon the mass of the work over
them ; but where they are only partially inserted for tin-
ishings, their thickness must be the thickness of a brick.

 

 

drawing, and the working of all large pieces of wood ; and Joinery, which includes all ornamental works in wood, (except what are obiiously
within the province of the cabinet maker,) besides doors, windows, sashes, and other objects intended for close inspection.

The former, of

Some old authors think it would not be amiss to place
bond timbet's at the distance of six feet. through the
whole height of the building; but in our opinion they
ought to be used with great caution ; for as the moisture
dries out of the timber, these ligatures will shrink and
cause the walls to bulge, which will not only produce a
very unpleasant effect to the eye, but will endanger the
building, by weakening the walls, and make them liable
to fall. Therefore, in good work, bond timbers ought to
be dispensed with ; and, if necessary, other means ought
to be resorted to, which will be equally effective in point,
of strength; but as neither stone nor iron will answer
the purpose of fixing, we will recommend plugging,

.built in with the brick work.

 

FLOORS.

we now come to the consideration of floors. Instead
of mortising the ceiling joists, we would rather recom-
mend to notch them upon, and fasten them to the binding
joists by means of nails. In some single joisted tloors,
every third or fourth joist is made deeper than the inter-
mediate joists, and the ceiling joists are fixed to the

M”

CARPENTRY. 141

deep joists. This construction is adapted to the pre~
vention Of sound, by reason of the space which destroys
or cuts off the conducting power.

As no timbers must enter a wall where there are fire
places or flues, the ends of the joists, instead of being
supported by the wall, must be supported by trimmers
and trimming joists. As the trimming joists have to
support the trimmers, and these again the ends of the
joists, the trimming joists should be increased in their
thickness about one fifth part more than the breadth of
a common joist.

ln double floors the under sides of the binding joists
are frequently framed flush with the under side of the
girder, and about three or four inches below the top, in
order to receive the bridging joists. Some old authors
direct that the bridging joists should be pinned down to
the binding joists; but this is unnecessary, and besides
it weakens the binding joists; this method is therefore
inadmissible. It was formerly the practice to place the
binding joists about three feet or three feet six inches
distant from each other ; the mean distance of the pres-
ent practice is about five feet. Single floors, consist-
ing of the same quantity of timber, are much stronger
than fratned floors ; but a preference is sometimes given
to framed floors in superior buildings, on account that
they are not so liable to fracture the ceilings, and because
they conduct sound more imperfectly than a common
joist floor : and hence it is that single floors can only be
employed in inferior buildings. Framed floors differ
from double floors only in the binding joists being framed
to girders.

In single floors, where the joists exceed eight feet
bearing, pieces of board ought to be inserted in the
spaces between the joists in a vertical position, and nearly
the whole depth of the joists, and in one continued line
at right angles to the joisting. The pieces of timber
thus inserted are called struts, and the floor is said to
be strutted; the struts ought not to be driven in with
great force, but their ends should be in close contact with
the vertical sides of the joists, and should be fixed there-
to with a nail at each end.

The strutting of a floor is of great use, when the joists
are thin and deep, in preventing their buckling by pres-
sure ; but for this purpose there is another method called
keying, which consists of framing short pieces of timber
between the joists; but as the mortices which receive
the tenons, weaken the joists, and as the keys cannot be

in a straight line, and since this method adds considerably
36

 

 

 

to the expense, this practice is not so eligible as that of
strutting. Single-joist flooring may be used to any extent
not exceeding sixteen feet: but when it is desirable to
preserve the ceiling free from cracks, and prevent the
passage of sound, a framed door'is necessary.

The ceiling joists in double floors are generly put in
after the building is up; if, therefore, they are fixed by
means of mortices in the sides of.tlie binding joists, to
receive the tenons on their ends, the space between
every other two mortices must be grooved out alternately
upon the opposite sides of the two adjacent binding
joists; by this means the ceiling joists may easily be
put in their places, by insertingthe tenons in each ceiling
joist in the mortices at one end, and sliding the tenon
on the other end along the groove in the arc of a circle,
until the ceiling joist come at a right angle with the bind-
ing joist. The long mortices or grooves in the sides of
the binding joists are called chace mortices, or pulley
mortices. The ceiling joists may be thirteen or fourteen
inches apart; the thickness of the bridging joists and
celling joists need not be greater thanwhat is sufficient
to resist splitting by the driving in of the nails in order
to fix them. It has been found, by experience, that two
inches is a sufficient thickness for the purpose.

In double-framed floors the distance of bridgingjoists
in the clear, ought to be about twelve inches, and should
never exceed thirteen. It is a good practice to plane the
upper edges of the bridging joists straight, because when
the boardng is laid, the faces for walking upon will be
more regular, than if the boards had been laid down upon
the edges of the bridging joists when rough from the saw.
The straightening of the edges of the bridging joists will
not only give greater facility to the making of a level
floor, but will contribute greatly towards making sound
work, anti will prevent that disagreeable creaking noise
which arises from the parts not being brought into con-
tact; for when the tops of the joists on which the floor-
ing boards are laid are uneven, it will be impossible to
avoid furring up the joists, or what is still worse, inserting
chips in the hollows, which will give way in the nailing
of the boards to the joists. The general practice is to
make binding joists half as thick again as common joists ;
so that if a common joist be two inches thick the bind-
ing joists may be three inches thick.

Girders should always be placed upon walls which are
solid underneath; but when it becomes necessary to lay
them over apertures, the lintels should be sufficiently
strong to support them. W'e cannot recommend the

 

 

142

practice of laying girders obliquely across the room, since
it divides the binding joists so very unequally.

All joists should be laid with a camber upwards, so as
to raise the middle of the floor about three quarters of
an inch higher than the sides of the rootn, and a similar
observation applies to ceiling joists, viz. that the under
horizontal sides should rise with a concavity, so that the
middle of the ceiling, should be three quarters of an inch
above the margins at the cornices or walls. The distance
of girders from each, or the walls, should never exceed
twelve feet. '

Girders should always be made of timber of the great-
est dimensions that can be found, and particularly those
which have long bearings. When the bearing exceeds
twenty feet, it is difficult to procure timber of sufficient
dimensions; the only method is to allow a sufficient.
thickness between the surface of the boarding and the
ceiling, since it is found by experiments that have been
made, that a truss girder is ‘not even so strong as a solid
beam of the same depth; the reason is obvious, for braces
which have only a small inclination to the horizon, throw
the most enormous compression on their abuttnents,
which consequently must give way, and the effect of
trussing will be rendered useless: but if a sufficient
height were allowed for trussing, girders might be made
capable of supporting any weight whatever. Two feet,
or even three feet in the height of a building, would be
an ample allowance for framing girders of sufficient
strength, and would not occasion any considerable ex—
pense to the structure, but would give solidity to the walls,
by having a greater distance between the apertures, and
would therefore allow more room for the display of orna-
ments. But where the depth is limited, and the bearing
considerable, girders ought to be made solid of cast iron.
In order to equalize the strength of solid girders, builders
frequently cut them longitudinally along the middle,
and turn the ends of the flitcbes contrary to tvhat they
were at first in the solid, and apply the sawn sides so as
to face each other, and then bolt. the two pieces together
in a sufficient number of intervals; but it is evident
that since the holes made for the passing of the bolts
will weaken the timber, very little strength will be
gained. This process, however, affords the opportunity
of examiningr the timber, as in large trees the heart is
frequently found in a state of decay. When this pro,—
cess of reversing and bolting is used, the two sawn sides
of the timber should not be brought in contact, but
should be separated by parallel pieces of wood, so as to

 

 

CARPEN TRY.

allow a sufficient circulation of air to pass between the
two sides of the flitches of the beams thus bolted.

To prevent the sagging of short girders, it is usual to
cut them camber; that is to cut them with an angle in
the midst of their lengths, so that their middles shall rise
above the level of their ends, as many half inches as the
girder contains ten feet lengths. And, indeed, girders
of the greatest length, although trussed, should be cut
camber in the same manner.

It may be proper here to notice, that the cambering of
girders does not prevent them from sagging, though per-
haps it may obviate their becoming concave on the upper
side. “Tith regard to trussing girders, the flitches
should not be out to a camber, but brought into this state
in the act of trussing.

 

 

 

PARTITIONS.

Partitions are usually lathed and plastered, and some-
times the spaces between the timbers are filled with brick
work. A partition ought to be so constructed, as to be
capable of supporting its own weight in whatever situa-
tion the door is placed, or whether there is a door in the
middle or two doors near the ends. Partitions that rest
upon a solid wall do not require tt'ttSsing; but when there
is no support, except at the ends or at two given fixed
points, the braces ought to be so disposed as to discharge
the weight of the whole mass upon these points' andiit
is better to support a partition by the extreme walls it is
connected with, than upon any solid from the bottom;
for in the settlement of the walls, the partitions will be
carried along with them; but if supported from the
ground by light materials, the walls and partitions will
descend unequally, and cause large fissures and cracks in
the ceilings, and in the plaster upon the walls and par-
titions.

When a partition is supported at each end by walls
of unequal heights, the wall which is the most ponderous
will sink in a much greater degree than that which is the
lighter; therefore, in this case, whatever care may be
taken with the framing of the partitions, it will not
be possible to avoid the cracking
plaster upon the walls and ceiling.
should be guarded against in the
tect.

and splitting of the
Such consequences
design of the archi-

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ii

CARPENTRY. ' . . 143

FRAMING.

This mechanical science is divided into two principles,
the Scribe and the Square Rule.

The Scribe Rule.

1. First, the mortices should be made and the faces
got out of wind. Second, after finding the length of
the timber, in which the tenons are to be made, for con-
venience apply the two foot square. Third, take out the
size of the morticed timber on the end of the square;
suppose ten inches to be the one morticed, then fourteen
inches remain on the square ; make a distinct mark at the
end of the square, which is called the two feet mark.
Fourth, measure from this mark for the shoulder, fifteen
inches, which leaves one inch to be scribed; after the
tenon is made and entered, the mortice and the shoulders
are brought together or to a bearing, then cut the shoul-
ders tothe scribe, and when put together they will remain
out of wind, as when scribed. The process is generally
applied to sills, pests, and principal rafters.

Z. A process called tumbling, and is applied to tim—
bers, both ends of which are to be tenoned, as girders,
t\‘c.. also to sides and ends in section framing.

'l'he girder should be placed so that both ends shall
rome directly over the lower end of the mortices. For
the tenons you are about to strike, place the lower edges
of the girder to the line of the lower end of the mortices;
make a scratch on the girder at both ends, exactly to the
face of the mortice. Cant the girder so as to leave those
marks up ; fetch the girder again over the mortice, and
apply the edge of the square to the face of the mortice,
the square extending above the girder. Move the girder
by a hammer for that purpose until the scratch on the
corner of the girder is brought to the outer edge of the
square. Then with your compasses draw a line across

the girder by the edge of the square; then move the

square on the Opposite side of the girder, and draw
another line; in the same manner draw lines at the other
end of the girder. Strike :1 line across the top and bot-
tom of the girder, meeting the end of those which give
the exact length of the shoulders: then strike the tenons.

3. Cant or plumb marks, are those which are applied
to all principal timbers that are to be employed in section
framing, after having been put together in the sides. At
some part of the post try on the square and fit that part

(which may be up, in the laying out of the section) to a

 

 

 

right angle with the level plane of the side framing, pro-
vided the section should be at right angles with the sides.
But if the section should be required at any other angle
with the side, the plumb should be made according to J
that angle. The angle should be taken with a bevel set
for that purpose ; and on these fittings of the posts, a
right angle should be struck, to guide the direction of the
square across the section framing. The posts should be
brought by means of wedges in a horizontal plane across
the section.

The Square Rule.

This principle is considered more simple than the
Scribe Rule, as it can be applied in many cases with less
help and more convenience.

In order to make a good frame of any considerable
magnitude, it should be the first care of the master-work-
man (after examining the plan of the frame with care,)
to make out a proper schedule of the various sizes of
the timber. Set down their appropriate marks on the
schedule, and when you have finished Nos. 1, 2, 61.0.,
check them on the schedule. It is of importance that
all mortices, tenons, pin-holes, 650. should be struck with
a patron. All the timber should be lined to its proper
size, and the mortices faced to the same. Care should
be taken in applying the patron; for striking, it should
be governed by the appropriate lines. This method has
the preference in detached framing: the timber admit-
ting of being framed in different places, and not tried
together until its raising.

PLATE 92.

OF THE POSITION OF MORTICES AND 'TENONS.

If a piece of framing stand perpendicular to the hori-
zon, such as a partition, and if there be no pressure on
either side, the mortice and tenon ought to be in. the
middle. Where the pressure is entirely on one side, as
in floors, the mortices and tenons ought to be nearest that
side which receives the pressure: for this reason, if a
piece of timber be cut at right angles to its edges, to a
certain depth from one of its faces, and a piece of hard
wood be driven into the cut, the piece of timber will not
be weaker to sustain a weight applied upon the side thus
cut, than before the incision was made ; so that in floor-
ing the pressure of the tenons, by the weight of the tim-

 

 

Mfr-W j

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‘ 4

144 - _ . CARPENTRY.

here, will tend to split ofi“ the part under the mortices;
theconsideration is therefore to proportion the thickness
of~ the tenon, and thickness of part of the beam under
the mortice, so that when the tenon breaks, the part
under the mortice may split off; therefore the mortice
and tenon ought to be as shown at A, a, and B, b; that
at A and a is the most simple method. B, b, is another
method, by which we obtain more strength in the tenon
by an additional bearing below, which is further assisted
by the inclined shoulder above. This form of the tenon
is what is called a tusked tenon.

D, shows the manner of framing two wall plates at
the corner of a building, with the dragon beam and an-
gle tie to support the rafter.

E, is part of the hip rafters framed into the dragon
beam.

F, is part of the wall plate at the angle, notched to
receive the other wall plate and the angle tie.

G and g, the manner of adapting the principal rafters
to the tie beam.

It, exhibits another method much in use for cutting the
heel of the principal rafters, and forming the sockets to
receive them; but as the beam in this case is necessarily
cut across the fibres in order to receive the rafter, that
part of the tie beam which is left standing to receive the
heel of the rafter is easily split away; a more effectual

-method, therefore, of obtaining a double resistance is

exhibited at I, where the socket is cut parallel to the
grain of the wood.

H, exhibits a section of the tie beam across the socket,
showing the mortice to receive the heel of the rafter ex-
hibited at I.

K, exhibits the manner of strapping the king post and
tie beam together ; the best manner of forming the abut-
ments to receive the brace.

m, exhibits a section of the king post, showing the
manner of wedging, and lightening the strap of a
single wedge, in order to draw the beam up to the king
post.

L, a method of strapping a pair of struts to a king
post, and suspending the tie beam. That part of the
king posts on which the struts rest being liable to shrink,
the struts of consequence must follow, by which the prin-
cipal rafters, losing their support, will bend; now if a
strap is fixed, as shown by this figure, the struts will be
kept secure in their position, and the rafters of conse-
quence will not bend.

M, the method of strapping a strut to the principal

rafter, when the strap which unites the king post to the
rafters goes over the upper edges of the rafters.

C- and c, are double mortices and tenons, applied only
in deep timbers, the depth being three times the thick-
ness, and are adapted to floors.

J, a method of strapping the principal rafters to a king
post. When the ends of the rafters meet, as in the con-
struction shown by this figure, the roof will be but little
liable to swag in the middle: as there is no substance
between the rafters, there can be no shrinking.

 

 

 

TRUSSES.

PLATE 93.

FIG. 1, represents a truss partition. (1, the truss plate.
I), the sill. c c, the posts. (I, the truss beam. 0 e, the
trusses. ff, the studding. g g, the stays. It It ll, the
door frames.

FIG. 2. Design for a truss gallery or floor.

FIG. 3. Method of scarfing and splicing timber.

FIGS. 5 and 6, show the best method of trussing
girders.

FIG. 4. The horizontal section of FIG. 5.

The king bolts through FIGS. 5 and 6, show the two
sides which incline to each other so as to form a
wedge, and thereby force the trusses upon their abut-
ments.

TO LIGHTEN THE GIRDERS.

Having grooved the sides of the Hitches for the trus~
sing pieces, so as only to be close at the ends, about an
inch and a half deep on each side, and having greased
the head of the king bolt, and put the whole slackly
together sideways by the screws; proceed then to turn
the nutof the king bolt, and let another person strike the
head with a mallet; the stroke will make the king bolt
start every time it is hit, and give fresh ease for the turn-
ing of the nut ; by this means the grinder may be catn-
bered at pleasure ; the deflection from the straight line is
generally one inch in twenty feet.

FIG. 7, shows the manner of joining the beam to the
wall plate.

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CARPEN TRY.

FIG. 8. The manner of keyingthe tenon through the

girder. '3
FIG. 9. Profile of the tusk tenon.

 

PLANS 0F FLOORS.
PLATE 94.

FIG. 1. Plan of the floor suitable for buildings of any
magnitude.

or a a a a, girders resting upon the walls. b b b b,
binding joists. c c c, trimmers. d d d d d, bridging
joists.

FIG. 2. Section of the floor.

FIG. 3, shows the method of framing floors with plank
or deep joists. '

a a a, the girders resting upon the walls, and should
be 10 by 12 inches. b b b b b, trimmer joist, 4 by 12
inches. 8 e e, deep joist. d d d d, wall girders, 6 by 12
inches. 0 c 0, deep joist stays, 2 by 12 inches.

This floor is adapted to rooms 16 or 18 feet square,
and the size of the joist should be 12 inches by 2 1-2 or
3 inches.

 

DESIGNS FOR ROOFS.

A roof in Architecture, is a cover of a building for
protecting its inhabitants from disagreeable changes of
weather, and from the depredations of evil-disposed per-
sons; but a roof in Carpentry, is the timber framing
made to support the actual covering of boards, shingles,
slate, lead, &e. As the roof may be made one of the
principal ties of a building, it should not be made too
heaVV to burden the \\ alls, nor too light to be incapable
of keeping them togetheI.

The principal timbers of a roof are the wall plates,

tie beams, principal rafters, common rafters, pole plates,
purlines, king posts, queen posts, struts, straining beams,
strong sills, doc. Hence, since the pressure of the roof
is wholly discharged upon the wall plates, these should
be made of sufficient thickness and breadth to distribute

the weight of the roof to the best advantage.
37

 

 

145
PLATE, 95.

FIG. A. The manner of joggling a pair of struts into
the bottom of a king post, when its thickness will not ad-
mit of square joggles. This figure also shows the method
of uniting or suspending the ie beam to the king post by
an iron bolt and nuts.

FIG. 1, is a roof for the purlines to be framed in,
and the common rafters to come fair with the principals.
B, a section of the purline, and principal and common
rafters. 1

FIG. 2, is a roof designed for a span of fifty or sixty
feet, supported by two queens instead of a king, to give
room for a passage, or any other conveniency in the
roof. ,

FIG. 3, represents a roof of seventy feet span, de-
signed for an arched ceiling. The perpendicular height,
from the base line to the ridge, is equal to one third of
D, is a perpendicular section of the tie
The tie beams are so locked into
The
king post is made in two parts, with a space cut away in
each, to admit the tie beams, as shown in E. The tie
beams should be made six by four inches, and the king
post, when bolted together, must be twelve inches wide
and fourteen thick. C shows the method of connecting
the tie beam with the principal rafters. F the way plate.
G the tie beam. H the common rafter. I the principal
rafter. L iron strap.

No te. It will be seen that an alteration has been made In
this roof, since the publication of the first edition of this
work. It has been thought that a collar beam, crossing
the tie beams and passing under the king post, to which it
is fastened, would throw a much greater proportion of the
strain more directly on the footing of the principal rafters
and wall plates, and at the same time more effectually
relieve the lateral strain upon the walls. This opinion
is sanctioned by experiment, and by the corroborating
opinions of many of the most experienced architects
among us.

The horizontal beam above the collar beam, and the
two braces, formed on the principles of an arch, prevent
the sagging ofthe roof, and of course take 011‘ much of
the lateral pressure. The design is drawn to a scale of
10 feet to 1 inch.

the base line.
beam and king post.
each other that the outsides are in the same plane.

PLATE 96.

FIG. A, shows how to glue up the head of a niche

146

in five or more blocks, or rings, according as the work-
men shall see necessary.

FIG. B, is ,the plan of a circular dome, C the section,
which shows at d and d how to square the purlines, so as
to make them tend to the centre, or to stand square to
the surface of the dome; but there is not the least. occa-
sion for the squaring of any purlines, which is attended
, with a deal of trouble and waste of stuff; yOu need only
to get them out of the same curve as that of a great cir-
cle ofa sphere, ‘of which the dotne is a segment, and
quite square at the satne time, which purlines being fixed
between the ribs, the middle of them will be above the
level at the joints; but will be in the true surface of the
dotne, and stand in a plane surface to the centre.

To find the form of a board to bend upright: to
the crown.

Divide E into eight parts, that is, one quarter or any
other number, the more the truer; set one on the out-
side of 1 l 1, &c.; draw 7 e and 1 e, to e in the cen-
tre; take the dixisions 12 3 4, &c. round E, and lay
them from 8 in F along the line 1 l l 1, &c.; then
circle them round e, and take 1 ], l 2, l 3, &c. in E,
and set them off on each side to 1 1, 1 1, 12, 1 2,
1 3, 1 3, &c. ; those when traced will give the form of
the board F.

To find the centres for bending the boards
~ horizontal in I).

It is evident the more parts anything of this nature is
divided into, the truer it will be; but I shall only divide
into four, for the sake of conveniency; draw 4 3, to
meet the perpendicular at d; and 3 2, to meet at c,
650.; then d c b a will be the centres for the boards G,
H, I, K.

FIG. C, is a method of finding the length and bevel
of hip and jack rafters.

The [tip rafter.—rt b is the base line; c the perpen-
dicular height; draw a line a c, then c is the bevel at
the highest point of the king post, a the bevel at the
beam, and a c the length of the hip rafter.

To find the bevel and length of the jack rafters.

d e is the base line, ef the height equal to e g, then

CARPEN TRY.

d e g is the right angle; describe an arc g h, of which
d g is the radii, cutting a b at h ; :then draw the line h d;
g is the down bevel, and h the top bevel, and h d is the
length of the jack rafter.

For this tnethod of finding the length and bevel of
jack rafters, I am indebted to the politeness of Mr. Sal-
mon Washburn, whose skill and ingenuity first discovered
this mode, which has met with the decided approbation
of the few to whom it has been communicated, and it is
now published for the first time.

PLATE 97.

FIG. 1. a a a a, wall plate. b b, jack beams. c c c 6,
tie beams. d d, ridge line and jack beam. 8 9 ea,
dragon piece. f f f f, angle tie. g g g, hip rafters.
h h, jack rafters. ii, principal rafters. j, king post.
I: k, strut braces.

‘To find the length and backing of Hip Rafters.

 

, Draw 7, 4, 8, the base lines; then draw 4, 5, at right
; angles with 8, 4, which will givethe perpendicular height
‘ of the backing of the hip rafter. From 9, extend one
foot of the dividers to 10, describe the are cutting the
; base line at 2 ; then the lines from 2 to 1 and from 2 to
3 give the angle required for the backing.

! of the hip rafter.

l, a section

To find the angle and intermediate ribs of Oc—
tagon Roofs.

FIG. 2, is the plan of an octagon dome, a I) being the
base line of the given rib. N0. 2 shows the curve of
the dome, in this case half of a circle drawn from the
centre (1. Draw a 1, cutting the circle at 1 and at right
angles with d I), and produce it to a ,' divide b I into
Make a b No. 3 parallel and

equal to a b No. 2, b c equal to I) c No. 1. and draw 6

seven or more equal parts.

a. Then draw ordinates from a b No. 2 to a c No. 3,

parallel to a 1, cutting the circle in No. 2 at 2, 3,4,5,
6. 7, and ll 0 No. 3 at 2, 3, 4, 5, (5, 7. Dzaw a 1 at
right angles with (I 1‘, also 2 2, 3 3. 4 4-, 5 5, 6 t5, and

7 7, parallel to a 1. anti equal to 7 7, 6 6, 5 5, 4 4, 3
3, 2 2, and a l, in No. 2, and then trace the curve c 7
ti 5 4 3 2 and l, which will. when placed in its right
position, correspond with the given circle.

 

 

Pl. (94/.

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____ gr.__-___.._.________. .,

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A

CARPEN TRY.

To find the form of a board to bend upright to
the crown.

FIG. 2. Produce the line’af to e No. 1. Take the
divisions 2 3 4 5 6 7’ on the curve line b 1 No. 2, and
lay them from f in F along the line 1 1 1 1, &c. to c,
then the linef e No. 1 will be equal to the curve line b
1 No. 2. Transfer the ordinates 2 3 4 5 6 7 in the an-

 

 

147

gle a b c No. 3, and lay them from f in F No. 1 along
the line 1 1 1 1, 650. at right angles with the linef e, and
set them OFF on each side to 1 '7, 1 7, 1 6, 1 6, 1 5, 1 5,
14,14,13,13,and12,12.
Those when traced, will give the form of the board F.
FIG. 3. An octagon roof of a different curvature from

that represented in FIG. 2, but is formed on the same
principles.

71 see

 

BUILDING.

[Aldrich tells us that in choosing a situation for building, its vicinity to public edifices should be principally attended to 2 that is, we should
build as near as convenient to the place where the business of the owner chiefly calls him. ‘ Every one would wish to be near a church,’ (or
perhaps, should wish to be so), ‘ but especially a priest : the lawyer near the hall of justice ; the merchant near the exchange ; the trader in the
principal street ; and every other citizen in the same manner would choose his dwelling according to his occupation -— not far from the river, if
any flow near the city ; at a distance from a tallow-chandler, a brewer, a soap-boiler, or any other business attended with an unsavory smell ; far
from the noise of the anvil, the hammer, and the saw ; and, above all, (as Cato says), at a distance from bad neighbors. In short, that spot is
most eligible, in which you can construct a regular house ; that is, one with right angles ; where room, leisure and cleanliness may be obtained,
and you may procure to your house the advantages ofa rural situation. If all the above conveniences cannot be met with, (and it is very seldom,
if desired, that they can be), it is prudent to aim at such as may be desirable, and are attainable]

UNDER this general term, which implies the construc-
tion of an edifice, according to the rules laid down by
the different artificers employed, we purpose to treat of
the respective business of the Mason, Bricklayer, Plas-
terer, Slater, Plumber, Painter, and Glazier; previous
to which it will be necessary to consider the sinking of
the foundation, the due mixture of the ingredients which
compose the mortar, and the art of making bricks; upon
the whole of which materially depends the stability of an
edifice.

As firmness of foundation is indispensable, wherever
it is intended to erect a building, the earth must be
pierced by an iron bar, or stuck with a rammer, and if
found to shake, must be bored with a well—sinker’s imple-
ment, in order to ascertain whether the shake be local or
general. If the soil is in general good, the loose and

 

soft parts, if not very deep, mast be excavated until the
laborers arrive at a solid bed capable of sustaining the
pier or piers to be built. If not very loose, it may be
made good by ramming into it very large stones, packed
close together, and of a breadth proportionate to the in-
tended weight ofi the building; but where very bad, it
must be plied and plunked.

In places where the soil is loose to any great depth,

W“_.v W-.____ . ,_.

 

and over which it is intended to place apertures, such as
doors, windows, 8:9. while the parts on which the piers
are to stand are firm, the best plan is to turn an inverted
arch under each intended aperture, as then the piers in
sinking will carry with them the inverted arch, and by
compressing the ground, compel it to act against the
under sides of the arch, which, if closely jointed, so far
from yielding, will, with the abutting piers. operate as
one solitl body; but, on the contrary, if this expedient
of the inverted arch is not adopted, the part of the wall
under the aperture, being of less height, and consequently
of less weight than the piers, will give way to the re-
sistance of the soil acting on its base, and not only injure
the brick-work between the apertures, but fracture the
window-heads and sills. "

1n constructing so essential a part as the arch, great
attention must be paid to its curvature, and we strongly
recommend the parabolic curve to be adopted, as the
most effectual for the purpose; but if, in consequence
of its depth, this cannot conveniently be introduced,
the arch, should never be made less than a semi-circle.
The bed of the piers should be as uniform as possible;
for though the bottom of the trench be very firm. it will
in some degree yield to the great weight that is upon it,

BUILDING.

and if the soil be softer in one part than in another, that
part. which is the softest will of course yield more to the
pressure, and cause a fracture.

If the solid parts of the trench happen to be under the
intended apertures, and the softer parts where piers are
wanted, the reverse of the above practice must be resort-
ed to; that is, the piers must be built on the firm parts,

and have an arch that is not inverted between them. In ;

performing this, attention must be paid to ascertain
whether the pier will cover the arch ; for if the middle of
the pier rest over the middle of the summit of the arch,
the narrower the pier is, the greater should be the curva-
ture of the arch at its apex. When suspended arches are
used, the intrados ought to be kept clear of the ground,
that the arch may have its due effect.

\Vhen the ground is in such a state as to require the
foundation merely to be rammed, the stones are hammer
dressed, so as to be as little taper as possible, then laid of
a breadth proportioned to the weight that is to be rested
upon them, and afterwards well rammed together. In
general, the lower bed of stones may be allowed to pro-
ject about a foot from the face of the wall on each side,
and on this bed another course may be laid to bring the
bed of stones on a level with the top of the trench. The
breadth of this upper bed of stones should be four inches
less than the lower one; that is, projecting about eight
inches on either side of the wall. In all kinds of walling,
each joint of every course must fall as nearly as possible
in the centre, between two joints of the course immedi-
ately below it; for in all the various methods of laying
stones or bricks, the principal aim is to procure the greatest
lap on each other.

 

MORTAR.

In making mortar, particular attention must be paid to
the quality of the sand, and if it contain any proportion
of clay or mud, or is brought from the sea-shore and con-
tains saline particles, it must be washed in a stream of
clear water till it be divested of its impurities. The ne-
cessity of the first has been clearly proved by Mr. Smea-
ton, who, in the course of a long and meritorious attention
to his profession of an engineer, has found, that when
mortar, though otherwise of the best quality, is mixed
with a small proportion of unburnt clay, it never acquires

38

 

 

149

that hardness which, witho‘ut it, it would have attained ;
and, with respect to the second, it is evident, that so long

‘ as the sand contains saline particles it cannot become

hard and dry. The sharper and coarser the sand is, the
better for the mortar, and the less the quantity of lime to
be used ; and sand being the cheapest of the ingredients
which compose the mortar, it is more profitable to the
maker. The exact proportions of lime and sand are still
undetermined; but in general no more lime is required
than is just sufficient to surround the particles of the sand,
or sufficient to preserve the necessary degree of plasticity.

Mortar, in which sand forms the greater portion, re-
quires less water in its preparation, and consequently is
sooner set. It is also harder and less liable to shrink- in
drying, because the lime, while drying, has a greater ten-
dency to shrink than sand, which retains its original mag-
nitude. The general proportions given by the London
builders is 1% cwt. or 37 bushels of lime, to 2;} loads of
sand ; but if proper measures be taken to procure the best
burnt lime and the best sand, and in tempering the ma-
terials, a greater portion of sand may be used. There is
scarcely any mortar that has the lime well calcined, and
the composition well beaten, but that will be found to re-
quire two parts of sand to one part of unslacked lime; and
it is worthy of observation, that the more the mortar is
beaten, the less proportion of lime suffices.

Many experiments have been made with a view to ob-
tain the most useful proportion of the ingredients, and
among the rest Dr. Higgins has given the following: —-

Lime newly slacked, one part,
Fine sand, three parts; and
Coarse sand, four parts.

He also found that one fourth of the lime of bone-ashes
greatly improved the mortar, by giving it tenacity, and
rendering it less liable to crack in the drying.

It is best to slack the lime in small quantities as requir-
ed for use, about a bushel at a time, in order to secure to
the mortar such of its qualities as would evaporate were
it allowed to remain slacked for a length of time. But if
the mortar be slacked for any considerable time previous
to being used, it should be kept covered up, and when
wanted should be re-beaten. If care be taken to secure
it from the action of the atmosphere, it may thus remain
covered up for a considerable period without its strength
being in the least affected ; and, indeed, some advantages
are gained, for it sets sooner, is less liable to crack in the
drying, and is harder when dry.

Grout, which is a cement containing a larger propor-

 

150

BUILDING.

tion of water than the common mortar, is used to run into’ tion are much inferior to those where the facing and back-

the narrow interstices and irregular courses of rubble-stone

ing are built of the same material, and with equal care,

walls; and as it is required to concrete in the oeurse of a ‘ even though both of the sides be uncoursed. When‘the

day, it is composed of mortar that has been a long time
made and thoroughly beaten.

Mortar, composed of pure lime, sand and water, may
be employed in the linings of reservoirs and aqueducts,
provided a sufficient time is allowed for it to dry before
the water is let in; but if a sufficient time is not allowed,
and the water is admitted while the mortar is wet, it will
soon fall to pieces. ' There are, however, certain ingre-
dients which may be put into the common mortar to make
it set immediately under the water ; or, if the quick-lime
composing the mortar contains in itself a certain portion of
burnt clay, it will possess this property. For further in-
formation on this head, the reader is referred to the sub-
head -——Plastering.

 

MASONRY.

Masonry is the art of cutting stones, and building them
into a mass, so as to form the regular surfaces which are
required in the construction of an edifice.

The chief business of the mason is to prepare the
stones, make the mortar, raise the wall with necessary
breaks, projections, arches, apertures, &c. as indicated by
the design.

A wall built of unhewn stone, whether it be built with
mortar or otherwise, is called a rubble wall. Rubble
workis of two kinds, coursed and uncoursed. In coursed
rubble the stones are gauged and dressed by the ham-
mer, and thrown into different heaps, each heap contain-
ing stones of equal thickness; and the masonry, which
may be of different thicknesses, is laid in horizontalcourses.
In uncoursed rubble the stones are placed promiscu-
ously in the wall, without any attention being paid to the
placing them in courses; and the only preparation the
stones undergo, is that of knocking off the sharp angles
with the thick end of a tool called a scabling hammer.
Walls are generally built with an ashlar facing of fine
stone, averaging about four or five inches
and backed with rubble work or brick.

Walls backed with brick or uncoursed rubble, are lia-
ble to become convex on the outside, from the great num-
ber of joints, and the difficulty of placing the mortar,
which shrinks in proportion to the quantity, in equal por-
tions, in each joint; consequently, walls of this descrip-

in thickness,

 

outside of a wall is faced with ashlar, and the inside is
coursed rubble, the courses of the backing should be as
high as possible, and set within beds of mortar. Coursed

; rubble and brick backings are favorable for the insertion

 

of bond timber: but in good masonry, wooden bonds
should never be in continued lengths, as in case of either
fire or rot the wood will perish, and the masonry will, by
being reduced, be liable to bend at the place where the
bond was inserted.

When timber is to be inserted into walls for the pur-
poses of fastening buttons for plastering, or skirting, &c.
the pieces of timber ought to be so disposed that the ends
of the pieces be in a line with the wall.

In a wall faced with ashlar, the stones are generally
about 2‘feet or 2;}- feet in length, 12 inches in height, and
8 inches in thickness. It is a very good plan to incline
the back of each stone, to make all the backs thus lllt‘llllCd
run in the same direction, which gives a small degree
of lap in the setting of the next course ; whereas, if the
backs are parallel to the front, there can be no lap where
the stones run of an equal depth in the thickness of the
wall. It is also advantageous to the stability of the wall
to select the stones, so that a thickerand a thinner one may
succeed each other alternately. In each course of ashlar
facing, either with rubble masonry 0r brick backing,
thorough-stones should occasionally be introduced, and
their number he in proportion to the length of the course.
In every succeeding course, the thorough—stones should
be placed in the middle of every two thorough-stones in
the course below; and this disposition of bonds should
be punctually attended to in all cases where the courses
are of any great length. Some masons, in order to prove
that they have introduced sutlicient bonds into their work,

choose thorough—stones of a greater length than the thick

ness of the wall, and afterwards cut oil the ends; but
this is far from an eligible plan, as the wall is not only
subject to be shaken, but the stone is itself apt to
split. In every pier, between windows and other aper-
tures, every alternate jamb-stone ought. to go through the
wall with its bed perfectly level. When the jamb-stones
are of one entire height, as is frequently the case when
architraves are wrought upon them, upon the lintel
crowning them, and upon the stones at the ends of the
courses of the pier which are adjacent to the architrave-
jamb, every alternate stone ought to be a thouroughvstone:

‘25

“Rituals? ~

BUILDING. 151

and if the piers between the apertures be very narrow, no
other bond-stone is required; but where the piers are
wide, the number of bond-stones are proportioned to the
space. Bond-stones must be particularly attended to in
all long courses below and above windows.

Iron clamps are now used in all cases where it is prac-
ticable, instead of thorough-stones. The shrinking of
the mortar in the backing is very apt to start the thorough-
stone from its true position, which either fractures it, or
causes the wall to bulge, and open the seams on the outside.
This inconvenience is obviated by the use of clamps.

All vertical joints, after receding about an inch with
a close joint, should widen gradually to the back, there
by forming hollow spaces of a wedge—like figure for the
reception of mortar, rubble, &c. The adjoining stones
should have their beds and vertical joints filled, from
the face about three quarters of an inch inwards, with
oil putty, and the rest ofthe beds must be'filledjwith well-
tempered mortar. Putty cement will stand longer than
most stones, and will even remain permanent when the

stone itself is mutilated. All walls cemented with oil-
putty, at first look unsightly; but this disagreeable effect
ceases in a year or less, when, if care has been taken to
make the color of the putty suitable to that of the stone,
the joints will hardly be perceptible.

In selecting ashlar, the mason should take care that
each stone invariably lays on its natural bed; as from
carelessness in this particular, the stones frequently flush
at the joints, and sooner admit the corrosive power of the
atmosphere to take effect.

It ought also to be observed, that in building walls or
insulated pillars of small horizontal dimensions, every
stone should have its bed perfectly level, and be without
any concavity in the middle; because, if the beds are
concave, the joints will most probably flush when the
pillars begin to sustain the weight of the building. Care
should also be taken, that every course of masonry in such
piers be of one stone.

Having thus given to the practical mason an outline of
ehe subject of walling, we will proceed to the considera-
tion of the more difficult branches of the art, that of con-
structing arches and vaults.

DEFINITIONS.

An arch in masonry, is that part of a building which is
suspended over a given plane, supported only at its ex-
tremities, and concave towards the plane.

 

 

The upper surface of an arch is called the extrados ;
and the under surface, or that Which is opposite the plane,
the intrados. '

The supports of an arch are called theispring walls.

The springing lines are those common to the supports
and the intrados; or the line which forms the intersec-
tion of the arch with the surface of the wall which sup-
ports It.

The chord, or span, is a line extending from one spring-
ing line to the opposite one.

Section of the hollow of the arch is a vertical plane,
supposed to be contained by the span and the intrados.

The height or rise of the arch, is a line drawn at right.
angles from the middle of the chord, or spanning line to
the intrados.

The crown of the arch is that part which the extremity
of the perpendicular touches.

The haunches orflanks of the arch, are those parts of
the curve between the crown and the springing line.

When the base of the section, or spanning line, is par-
allel to the horizon, the section will consist of two equal
and similar parts, so that when one is applied to the other,
they will be found to coincide. ,

Arches are variously named, according to the figure of
the section of a solid that would fill the void, as circular,
elliptical, cyclodal, catenarian, parabolicol, (S'c. There
are also pointed, composite, and lancet, or Gothic arches.

A rampant arch is when the springing lines are of two
unequal heights.

When the intrados and extrados of an arch are parallel,
it is said to be ertradossed. .

There are, however, other terms much used by ma-
sons : for example, the semi-circular are called perfect
arches ,' and those less than a semi-circle, imperfect, sur-
buscd, or diminished arches. '

Arches are called surmounted, when they are higher
than a semi—circle.

A vault is an arch used in the interior of a building,
overtoppiug an area of a given boundary, as a passage,
or an apartment, and supported by one or more walls, or
pillars, placed without the boundary of that area.

Hence an' arch in a wall is seldom or never called a
vault; and every vault may be called an arch, but every
arch cannot be termed a vault.

A groin vault, is a complex vault, formed by the inter-
section of two solids, whose surfaces coincide with the
intrados of the arches, and are not. confined to the same
heights. An arch is said to stand upon splayed jambs,

 

152

when the springing lines are not at right angles to the
face of the wall.

In the art of constructing arches and vaults, it is neces-
; sary to build them in a mould, until the whole is closed;
the mould used for this purpose is called a centre.

The intrados of a simple vault is generally formed of
ap’ortion of a cylinder, cylindroid, sphere, or spheroid;
that is, never greater than the half of the solid: and the
springing lines which terminate the walls, or when the
vault begins to _rise, are generally straight lines, parallel
to the axis of the cylinder, or cylindroid.

A circular wall is generally terminatedwith a spherical

vault, which is either hemispherical, or a portion of a
sphere less than a hemisphere.
' Every vault which has an horizontal straight axis, is
called astraight vault ; and, in addition to what we have
already said, the concavities which two solids form at an
angle, receive likewise the name of arch.

An arch, when a cylinder pierces another of a greater
diameter, is called cylindro—cylindric. The term cylindro
is applied to the cylinder of the greatest diameter, and
the term cylindric to the less.

If a cylinder intersect a sphere of greater diamater
than the cylinder, the arch is called a sp/zero-cylindric
arc/I. ; but, on the other hand, if a sphere pierce a cylin-
der of greater diameter than the sphere, the arch iscalled
a cylindro-spheric arch.

If a cylinder pierce a cone, so as to make a complete
perforation through the cone, two complete arches will be
. ”formed, called cone-cylindric arc/res; but, on the con-
trary, ifa cone pierce a cylinder, so that the concavity
made by the cone is a conic surface, the arch is called
a cylindr0~conic arch.

If, in a straight wall, there be a cylindric aperture con-
tinuing quite through it, two arches will be formed, called

plane-cylindric arc/res.
Every description of arch is, in a similar manner to

the above, denoted by the two preceding words; the
former ending in 0, signifying the principal vault, or sur-
face cut through; and the latter in to, signifying the de-
scription of the aperture which pierces or intersects the
wall or vault.

When groins are introduced merely for use, they may
be built either of brick or stone; but, when introduced
by way of proportion or decoration, their beauty will de-
pend on the generating figures of the sides, the regular—
ity of the surface, and the acuteness of the angles, which
should not be obtuded. In the best buildings, when

 

 

BUILDING.

durability and elegance are equally required, they may be
constructed of wrought stone; and, when elegance is
wanted, at a trifling expense, of plaster, supported by
timber ribs.

In stone-cutting, a narrow surface formed by a point or
chisel, on the surface of a stone, so as to coincide with a
straight edge, is called a draught.

0

FORMATION OF STONE ARCHES.

The formation of stone arches has always been con-
sidered a most useful and important acquisition to the
operative mason : in order, therefore, to remove any dif-
ficulties which might arise in the construction of arches
of different descriptions, both in straight and circular
walls, we shall here introduce a few examples, which, it
is hoped, with careful examination, will greatly facilitate a.
knowledge of some of the most abstruse parts of the art.

PLATE 98.

FIG. 1. NO. 1.

To find the moulds necessary for the construc-
tion of a semi-circular arch, cutting a straight

Wall obliquely.

Let A B C D E F G H be the plan of the arch; I
K L M the outer line; and N O P Q the inner line on
the elevation.

at b c d e, on the elevation, shows the bevel of each
joint or bed from the face of the wall; and a b c d e
below, gives the mould for the same, where x g on the
elevation corresponds with re y at a.

The arch mould, No. 2, is applied on the face of the
stone, and on being applied to the parts of the plan,
gives, of course, the bevel of each concave side of the
stone with the face, that is, K to O, on the elevation.

FIG. 2.

To find the mould for constructing a semi-cir-
‘ular arch in a circular wall.

No. 1 is the elevation of the arch, and No. 2 the plan
of the bottom bed from (1 to r.
a to b is what the arch gains on the circle from the

 

so
E
H
C
m
A

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

BUILDING. ‘

bottom bed I; o to l ; and c to d is the projection of the
intrados to p, on the joint I, p.

Nos. 2, 3, and 4, are plans of the three arch-stones,
1, ‘2, 3, in the elevation ; and Nos. 5 and 6 are moulds
to be applied to the beds of stones 1 and 2, in which .9
0 equals .9 c in No. 2, and t w equals t w in No 3.

In No. 1, I: l p o is the arch or face mould.

W'hen the reader is thoroughly proficient in the con-
struction of arches, under given datas, as the circum-
stances of the case may point out, he may proceed to in-
vestigate the principles of spherical domes and groins.

FIGS. 3 and 4 show the principles of developing the
sofftts of the arches in the two preceding examples. In
each the letters of reference are alike, and the operation
is precisely the satne.

Let A B D E be the plan of the opening in the wall ; ,

and A F B the elevation of the arch : produce the chord
A B to C, divide the semi-circle A F B into any number
of parts, the more the better, and with the compasses set
to any one of these divisions, run it as many times along
A C as the semi—circle is divided into; then draw lines,
perpendicular to B C, through every division in the semi—

circle and the line C A, and set the distance 1 b, 2 d, 3f, '

(be. respectively equal to a b, c d, cf, doc. and then by
tracing a curve through these points, and finding the

 

points in the line G D, in the same manner, the sofi’it of 1

the arch is complete.

FIG. 5 shows the method of constructing spherical;

domes.

No. 1 mould is applied on the spherical surface to the
vertical joints ; and No. 2 mould on the same surface to
the other joints; and in both cases, the mould tends to
the centre of the dome.

3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8, are moulds which apply on the

convex surface to the horizontal joint, the lines a b, c d, ‘

ef, doc. being at right angles to the different radii, b c,
d c, f c, &c. and produced until they intersect the per-
pendicular a c; the different intersections are the centres
which give the circular leg of the mould, and the straight
part gives the horizontal joint.

FIG. 6 exhibits the plan of a groined vault.

Lay down the arch, either at the full or half size, on
a floor or piece of floor—cloth, then divide and draw on
the plan the number of joints in the semi-circular arch,
and from the intersections with the diagonals, draw the
transverse joints on the plan, and produce them till

39

 

 

 

153

/

they touch the intrados ofthe elliptical arch, the Curve of -
which may be found by setting the corresponding dis-

tances from the line of the base (to the curve; thus

a b equal to a b. This being accomplished, draw the

joints of the elliptical arch in the manner of which we

give c d as a specimen. To draw the joint 0 d, draw

chord e c and bisect it, draw a line from the centre 0

through the bisecting point, and produce it till it touches

the perpendicular ef; and c d, being at right angles to cf,'
will be the joint required. In-the same manner the

others are found.

By examination, it will be seen, that a rectangle cir-
cumscribing the mould 3, 3, gives the size of the stone in
its square state, and, that ifeach stone in both arches be
thus enclosed, the dimensions for each will be found, as
also the position in which the moulds must be placed.
The dark lines give the ditTerent bevels, which must be
carefully prepared and applied to the stones in the man-
ner represented in the figure.

FIG. 7.

To draw thejoints of the stones for an elliptical
arch in a wall, 81c.

The curve is here described by the intersection of

‘lines, which, certainly, gives the most easy and pleas-

ing curve, as segments of circles apply only under cer-
tain data, or in the proportion which the axis major has
to the axis minor, while the intersection of lines apply
to any description of ellipses. Find the foci I“. In an

; ellipsis the distance of either focus from one extremity

 

of the axis minor is equal to the semi-axis major ; that
is, D F is equal to c G. Then to find any joint, (1 b,
draw lines from both foci through the point b, as F e, f
d, and bisect the angle d b e by the line a b, which is
the joint required.

 

BRICKLAYING.

In building upon an inclined plane, or rising ground,
the foundation must be made to rise in a series of level
steps, according to the general rise of the ground, to
insure a firm bed for the courses, and prevent them from
sliding; for if this'mode were not adopted, the moisture

 

 

.-»

'of the wall, are called headers.

'.

154

in the foundations in wet weather will induce the inclined
parts to descend, to the manifest. danger of fracturing the
walls and destroying the building.

In walling, in dry weather, when the work is required
to be firm, the best mortar must be used ; and the bricks
must be wetted or dipped in water, as they are laid, to
cause them to adhere to the mortar, which they would
not do if laid dry; for the dry sandy nature of the brick
absorbs the moisture of the mortar, and prevents adhesion.

In carrying up the wall, not more than four or five
feet of any part should be built at a time ; for, as all

walls shrink immediately after building, the part which is '

first carried up will settle before the adjacent part is
carried up to it, and, consequently, the shrinking of the

latter will cause the two parts to separate; therefore,

i
t
I

,

no part of a wall should be carried higher than one scaf- i

fold, without having its contingent parts added to it. In
carrying up any particular part, the ends should be reg-
ularly sloped off, to receive the bond of the adjoining
parts on the right and left.

There are two kinds of bond in brick work, which
difi'etamaterially from each other. Bricks laid length-
ways in the direction of the wall are called sh'elc/zers,
and those laid in an opposite way, crossing the direction
The old English bond
is a continuation of one kind throughout in the same
course or horizontal layer, and consists of alternate lay-
ers of headers and stretchers; the headers serving to
bind the wall together in a longitudinal direction, or
lengthways; the stretchers to prevent the wall splitting
crossways, or in a transverse direction.‘ Of these two
evils, the former is by much the worst kind, and is there-
fore the most dreaded by the bricklayer. The brick
work of the Romans was ofthis kind of bond.

The other description of bond, called Flemish bond,
consists in placing a header and a stretcher alternately
in the same course. The latter is dcemedthe neatest, and
most elegant; but, in the execution, is attended with
great inconvenience, and, in most cases, does not unite
the parts of a wall with the same degree of firmness as
the English bond. In general, it may be observed, that
whatever advantages are gained by the English bond in

tying a wall together in its thickness, are lost in the 1011- ,

gitudinal bond ; and vice versa. To removethis incon-
venience, in thick walls, some builders place the bricks
in a cone at an angle of forty-five degrees, arallel to each
other, throughout the length of every course, but reversed

in the alternate courses; so that the bricks cross each

BUILDING.

other at right angles. But man here, though the bricks
in the cone have sufficient bond, the sides are very im-
perfectly tied, on account of the triangular interstices
formed by the oblique direction of the internal bricks
against the flat edges of those in the outside.

. Concerning the English bond, it may be observed,
that, as the longitudinal extent of a brick is nine inches
and its breadth four and a half, to prevent two vertical
joints from running over each other at the end of the
stretcher from the corner, it is usual, after placing the
return corner stretcher, which occupies half the length of
this stretcher, and becomes a header in the face, as the
stretcher is below, to place a quarter brick on the side,
so that the two together extend six inches and three
i quarters, being a lap of twoinches and a half for the next
1 header. The bat introduced is called a closer. A sim-
’ ilar effect may be obtained by introducing a three-quarter

bat at the corner of the stretching course, so that the

 

i corner header being laid over it, a lap of two inches and
1 a quarter will be left, at the end of the stretchcrs below,
‘ for the next header, which being laid on the joint below
! the stretchers, will coincide with its middle.

! In the winter, it is very essential to keep the unfinished
I wall from the alternate effects ofrain and frost ; for if it
i is exposed, the rain will penetrate into the bricks and
l mortar, and by being converted into ice, expand, and
l burst or crumble the materials in which it is contained.

l The decay of buildings, so commonly attributed to
i the effect or time, is, in fact, attributable to this source;
’ but as finished edifices have only a vertical surface, the
taction and counter-action of the rain and frost extend
: not so rapidly as in an unfinished wall, where the hori-
l zontal surface permits the rain and frost to have easy
5 access into the body of the work. Great .care, there—
{ fore, must be taken as soon as the frost or stormy
weather sets in, to cover the unfinished walls. either
with straw, which is the

boarding.

inest common, or weather

\Vlien weather boarding is employed, it is advisable
to have a good layer of straw between the work and the
boarding, and to place the boarding in the form of stone
coping, to throw the water oti‘cqually on both sides.

A number of very pleasing cornices and other orna-
ments may be formed in brick-work, by the mere dispo~
sition ofthe bricks, without cutting; and if cut, a sim-
ple champher will be sutiicient.

A great defect, how—
ever, is very often observable in these ornaments, par-
ticularly in the bulging of arches over

 

windows; which

i
i
3
s

 

BUILDING. "155

arises from mere carelessness, 1n rubbing the bricks too
much on the inside; whereas, if due care were taken to
rub them exact to the gauge, their geometrical bearings
being uhited, they would all tend to one centre, and pro-
duce a well proportioned and pleasing effect.‘

 

PLASTERING-.

The Plasterer is a workman to whom the decorative
part of architecture owes a considerable portion of
its effect, and whose art is requisite in every kind of
building.

The tools of the plasterer consist of a spade, or shovel
of the usual description ; a rake, with two or three prongs,
bent do“ nwards from the line of the handle, fo1 mixing
the hair and mortar together trowels of various kinds
and sizes; stopping and picking- out tools; rules called

str (tight-edges , and wood models.

The trowels used by plasterers are more neatly made 5

than tools of the same name used by other artificers.
The laying)‘ and smoothing tool consists of a flat piece of

. . . . 1
hardened iron, about ten inches in length, and twomchcs ,

and a half wide, very thin, and ground to a semi-circular
shape at one end, but left square at the other;
the back of the plate, near the square end, is riveted a
small iron rod with two legs, one of which is fixed to the

plate, and the other to a round wooden handle. \Vith .:

this tool all the first coats of plaster are laid on, as is also

the last, or, as it is technically termed, the setting. The 1

other kinds of trowcls are made of three 01' four sizes,'
for gauging the fine stuff and plaster, used in forming
cornices, mouldings, doc. The longest size of these is
about seven inches on the plate, which is of polished
steel, about two inches and three quarters broad at the ‘
heel, diverging gradually from a point. To the heel ori
broad end a handle is adapted. ' 1

The stopping and picking-out tools are made ofi
polished steel, of different sizes, though most generallyi
about seven or eight inches in length, and half an inch 1
in b1eadth, flattened at both ends, and ground somewhat i
1011111l.Thcsetcols we used in modelling and finishing}
mitres and returns to cornices; as likewise in filling-up}
and perfecting the ornaments at thejoinings. ‘

The.S'ti‘thLr/zt-cclges are for keepingthe work in an even I
01' perpendicular] ne; and the models 01' moulds are for

and at 1

 

 

 

 

i
l
i

 

i
I
. i
l
1

 

running plain mouldings, cornices, ‘&c.; of these latter
the plasterers require a greater number, as very little of
his finishing can be done without them.

Expe1ienced workmen keep their tools very clean, and
have them daily polished.

Plasterers have technical divisions of their work, by
which its quality is designated, and value ascertained;
as, lathing; laying; prickingup; lathing, laying and set;
lathing, floating, and set; screed, set or putty; render-
ing and set, or rendering, floated and set; trowelled

stucco, &c.; each of which, hereafter, we shall very

minutely explain. .

In all the operations of plastering, lime extensively
abounds; we shall, therefore, first offer some observations
on the properties of this important article.

All who have written on the subject of lime, as a
cement, have endeavored to ascertain what is the due
proportion of sand for making the most perfect cement,
but with a little attention it is evident, that all prescribed
rules must be so very vague and uncertain, as to be of lit-
tle utility to the workman; for, besides the variation which
is occasioned by a more or less degree of calcination, it is
a certain fact, that some kinds of limestone are much
more pure, and contain a much smaller proportion of

sand, than others: consequently, it would be absurd to

I

i say, that pure lime requires as small a proportion of sand,

when made into 111o1'tar, as that which originally contained
in itself a large proportion.

The variation thus produced, in regard to the propor—
tion of sand, is found to be extremely great. It is, how-

ever, stated, that the best mortar which has come under '

examination, was formed of eleven parts of sand to one
of lime: to which was added, by measure, between twice
and thrice its own bulk of sand, which may be allowed
to have been at least three times its quantity by weight.
Supposing, therefore, that everyparticle of the lime had
been so perfectly calcined as to be in acaustic state,
there could not be ess than forty-seven parts of sand to
one of lime; but it is hard to suppose, that above one
hundredth part of this mass, independent of the water,
consisted of pure caustic calcareous earth. ’

From these corisiderations it is conceived, that it is
impossible to prescribe any determinate proportion of
sand to lime, as that must vary according to the nature
of the lime, and other incidental circumstances, which
would form an infinity of exceptions to any general rule.
But it would seem, that it might be safely inferred that
the modems in general, rather err in givingtoo little, than~

 

f1

156

in giving too much sand. It deserves, however, to be
noticed, that the sand, when naturally in the limestone,
is more intimately blended with the lime, than can pos-
sibly be ever effected by any mechanical operation; so
that it would be in vain to hope to make equally good :
mortar artificially from pure lime, with so small a propor- l
tion of caustic calcareous matter, as may sometimes bet
effected, when the lime naturally contains a very large I
proportion of sand. Still, however, there seems to bet
no doubt, that if a much larger proportion of sand than is l
common were employed, and that more carefully and'
expeditiously blended and worked, the mortar would be i
made much more perfect, as has been proved by actual
experiments.

Another circumstance, which greatly tends to vary the
quality of cement, and to make a greater or smaller pro-
portion‘of sand necessary, is, the mode of preparing the
lime before it is beaten up into mortar. When for plas-
ter, it is of great importance to have every particle of the

limestone slacked before it is worked up; for, as smooth-
ness of surface is the most material point, if any particles
of lime be beaten up before sufficiently slacked, the water
still continuing to act on them will cause them to expand,
which will produce those excrescences on the surface of
the plaster, termed blisters. Consequently, in order to:
obtain a perfect kind of plaster, it is absolutely necessary i
that the lime, before being worked, be allowed to remain
a considerable time maceraiing or soaring in water: the
same sort of process, though not absolutely required,‘
would considerably improve the lime intended for mor-
tar. Great care is required in the management: the
principal thing being the procuring of well-burnt lime,
and allowing no more lime, before worked, than is
just sufficient to macerate or 30er it with the water:
the best burnt lime will require the maceration of some
days.

It has been almost universally admitted, that the hardest
limestone affords the lime which will consolidate intoI
the finest cement ; hence, it is generally concluded that
lime made of chalk produces a much weaker cement than
that made of marble or limestone. It would seem, _
however, that, if ever this be the case, it is only inci-i
dentally, and not necessarily. In making of the mortar, !
other substances are occasionally mixed with lime, which i
we shall here proceed to notice, and endeavor to pointl
out their excellencies and defects. Those commonly
used besides sand of various denominations, are powdered
sand-stone, brick-dust, and sea-shells; and for forming

 

BUILDING.

plaster, where closeness rather than hardness is required,
lime which has been slacked, and kept in adry place
till it has become nearly effcte, and powdered chalk,
or whiting, and gypsum, in various proportions, besides
hair and other materials of a similar nature. Other
ingredients have been more lat.ely recommended, such
as earthy balls, slightly burnt and pounded, old mortar
rubbish, powdered and sifted, and various things of the
like kind, the whole of which are, in some respect or
other, objectionable.

Plaster of Paris is employed by the plasterer to give the
requisite form and finish to all the superior parts of his
work.

It is made of a fossil stone, called gypsum, which is
excavated in several parts of the neighborhood of Paris,
where it derives its uan‘e, and is calcined to a powder, to
deprive it of its water of crystallization.

The stones are burnt in kilns, which are generally of
very simple construction, being not [infrequently built of
the gypsum itself.
loosely put together in a parallelepiped heap, below which

The pieces to he calcined are

are vaulted pipes or fines, for the application of a mod-
erate heat.

The calcination must not be carried to excess; as
otherwise the plaster will not form a solid mass when
mixed with a certain portion of water. During the pro—
i‘ises as
white vapor, which, if the atmosphere be dry, is quickly
dissolved in air.

The pounding of the calcined fragments is pe -ormed

,.

l
1
l

sometimesin mills constructed for the pu pose. an.

cess of calcination, the water of crystallization

scme-
times by men, whose health is much impaired by the
particles of dust settling upon their lungs.

On the river \Volga, in Russia, where the burning of
gypsum constitutes one of the chief occupations of the
peasantry, all kinds of gypsum are burnt pl‘omist'uosly
on grates made of wood ; afterwards the plaster is
reduced to powder, passed through a sieve. and finally
formed into small round cakes, which are sold at so
[much per thousand.

These balls are reduced into an impalable powder by
the plasterer, and then mixed with mortar.

The less the gypsum is mixed with other substances,
the better it is qualified for the purpose of making casts,
stucco, doc. The sparry gypsum, or selenite, which is
the purer kind, is employed for taking impressions from
coins and medals, and for making those beautiful imita-

 

 

tions of marble, granite, and porphyry, known by the

 

i=5“

BUILDING. 157

name of scagliola, which is derived from-the Italian
word, scagli.

Finely powdered alabaster, or plaster of Paris, when
heated in a crucible, assumes the appearance of a fluid,
by rolling in waves, yielding to the touch, steaming, &c.
all of which properties it again loses on the departure of
the heat: if taken fretn the crucible and thrown upon
paper, it will not wet it; but immediately be as motion-
less as it was before being exposed to the heat.

Two or three spoonfuls of burnt alabaster mixed up
thin with water, will, at the bottom of a. vessel filled with
water, coagulate into a hard lump, notwithstanding the
Water that surrounds it. The coagulating or setting
property of burnt alabaster will be very much impaired
or lost, if the powder be kept for any considerable time,
and more especially in the open air. When it has been, ‘
once tempered with water, and suffered to grow hard, it '
cannot be rendered of any further use.

Plaster of Paris, diluted with water into the consist~
ence of a soft or thin paste, quickly sets, or grows firm,
and at the instant of its setting, has its bulk increased.
This expansive property, in passing from a soft to a firm
state, is one of its valuable properties; rendering it an
excellent matter for filling cavities in sundry works, i
where other earthy mixtures would shrinn and leave;
vacuities, or entirely separate from the adjoining parts.
It is also probable that this expansion of the plaster t

 

might be made to contribute to the elegance of the in)- ;
pressions it receives from medals, 66¢ by properly con- l
fining it when soft, so that at its expansion, it would be j

 

l

l

forced into the n’linutest traces of the figures. l
Other cements are used by plasterers for inside work. l
The first. is called lame and hair, or coarse stuff, and is j

from the tan-yards. The mortar is first mixed with a1
requisite quantity of sand, and the hair is afterwards!
worked in by the application of a rake.

Next to this isfiue stiljf, which is merely pure lime,
slacked first with a small quantity of water, and after- t
wards, without any extraneous addition, supersaturated i
with water, and put into a tub in a half fluid state,‘
where it is allowed to remain till the water is evaporated. ‘
In some particular cases, a small portion of hair is inc‘or- ‘

 

l

porated. \Vhen this fine stuff is used for inside walls, l

it is mixed with very fine washed sand, in the propor- l

tion of one part sand to three parts of line stuff, and is i

then called trowelled or bastard stucco, with which all t

walls intended to be painted are finished.
40

The cement called gauge stuf, consists of three fifths
of fine stufi”, and one. fifth plaster of Paris, mixed tog ether
with water, in small quantities ata time, to render it,
more ready to set. This composition is mostly used in
forming cornices and mouldings run with a wooden
mould. When great expedition is required, plasterers
gauge all their mortars with plaster of Paris, which sets
immediately.

The technical divisions of plasterer’s work shall now
claim our attention.

Lat/ting, the first operation, consists in nailing laths
on the ceiling, or partition. Laths are made of spruce
or pine, and are fastened with cut nails. They are made
in four foot lengths; and, with respect to their thickness
and strength, are either single, lath and half, or double.
The single are the thinnest and cheapest; those called
lath and half, are supposed to be one-third thicker than
the single ; and the double laths are twice that thickness.
In lathing ceilings, the plasterers should so dispose them
that the joints be as much broken as possible, that they
may have the stronger key or tie, and thereby strengthen
the plastering with which they are to be covered. The
thinnest laths are used in partitions, and the strongest
for ceilings.

Laths are also distinguished into heart and sap laths :
the former should always be used in plain tiling; the
latter, which are of inferior quality, are most frequently
used by the plasterer.

Satced laths have within a few years been introduced,
and are now in general use. They are not subject to so
much waste, cost less, and do not require so much mor- .
tar as the split lath ; the last named, however, retains the

mortar mOst firmly.
prepared as common mortar, with the addition of hair 2‘

Having nailed the laths in their appropriate order, the
plasterer’s next business is to cover them with plaster,
the most simple and common operation of which, is lay-
ing; that is, spreading a single coat of lime and hair
over the whole ceiling, or partition; carefully observing
to keep it smooth and even in every direction. This is
the cheapest kind of plastering.

Priming-up is performed in the same manner as the
foregoing ; but it is only a preliminary to a more perfect
kind of work. After the plaster is laid on, it is crossed
all over with the end of a lath, to give it a tie or key to
the coat, which is afterwards to be laid upon it.

Lat/ting, laying, and set, or whatis termed lath and
plaster, one coat and set, is, when the work, after being

' lathed, is covered with one coat of lime and hair, and

 

r

158 BUILDING.

afterwards, when sufficiently dry, a thin and smooth coat
spread over it, consisting of lime only, or, as the work-
men call it, putty or set. This coat is spread with a
smoothing-trowel, used by the workman with his right
hand, while his left hand moves a large flat brush of
hog’s bristles, dipped in water, backwards and forwards
over it, and thus produces a surface tolerably even for
cheap work.

Lat/zing,floatinfr and set, or lath and plaster, one
coat, floated and set, differs from the foregoing, in having
the first coat pricked up to receive the set, which is here
called thefloatino‘. In doing this, the plasterer is pro-
vided with a substantial straight edge, frequently from
ten to twelve feet in length, which must be used by two
workmen. All the parts to be floated are tried by a
plumb-line, to ascertain whether they be perfectly flat
and level, and whenever any deficiency appears, the hol-
low is filled up with a trowcll-full or more of lime and
hair only, which is termedfilling' out, and when these
preliminaries are settled, the sereeds are next formed.
The term screed signifies a style of lime and hair, about
seven or eight inches in width, gauged quite true, by
drawing the straight edge over it until it. be so. rl'bese
screeds are made at the distance of about. three or four
feet from each other, in a vertical direction, all round
\Vlrcu all are formed,
the intervals are filled up with lime and hair, called by
the workmen, strrfl, till flush with the face of the screeds.
The straight. edge is then worked horizontally on the

the partitions and walls of a room.

screeds by which all the superfluous stuff, projecting

, beyond them in the intervals, is rcm >\’<'tl, and a plain

surface produced. This operation is tcrmed floating,
and tnay be applied to ceilings as well as to partitions, or
upright walls, by first forming the scrceds in the direc-
tion of the breadth of the apartment, aud‘filling up the
intervals as above described. As great care is rcquisitc
to render the plaster sound and even, none but skillful
workn'icn slronl l be employed.

The set to floated work is performed in a mode similar
to that. already pres: ribcd for laying .' but. being employ-

4

ed only for best rooms, is done with more care.

 

 

About ,

one sixth of plaster of Paris is added to it, to make it 1

set more expeditiously. to give it a closer and more corn-
pact appearance, and to rendcr it more firm and better
calculated to receive the white-wash or color when dry.
For floated stucco work the pricking-up cannot be
too dry: but, if the floating,

ting coat, be too dry, before the set is laid on, there will

which is to receive the set- .

 

be danger of its peeling ofi“, or of assuming the appear-
ance of little cracks, or shells, which would disfigure the
work. Particular care and attention therefore must be
paid to have the under coats in a proper state of dry-
ness. It may here be observed, that cracks, and other
unpleasant appearances in ceilings, are mere frequently
the effect of weak laths being covered with too much
plaster, or too little plaster upon strong laths, rather than
ofany sagging or other inadequacy in the timbers, or the
building. If the laths be properly attended to, and the
plaster laid on by a careful and judicious workman, no
cracks or other blemishes are likely to appear.

The next operation combines both the foregoing pro-
cesses, but requires no lathing; it. is called rendering
and set, or rendering, floated, and set. What is under-
stood by rendering, is the covering of brick or stone
wall with a coat oflime and hair, and by set is denoted
a superficial coat of fine stuff or putty upon the render-
ing. These operations are similar to those described for
setting of ceilings and partitions; and tlnrflrm/cd amlset
is laid on the rendering in the same manner as on the
partitions, &c. already explained, for the best kind of
work.

Trorceffed stucco, which is a very neat kind of work,
used in dining-rooms, halls, doc. where the walls are pre—
pared to be painted, must be worked upon a floated
ground, and the floating be quite dry before the stucco is
applied. In this process the plasterer is prm‘ided with
a wooden tool, called a float, consisting of a piece of
half-inch board, about, nine inches long, and three wide,
planed smooth, with its lower edges a lltllt‘ rounded off,
and having a handle on the upper surface. The stucco
is prepared as above described, and tiltcl'wttt‘rls lit-ate;
and tempered with clear water. The ground iutcndctl
to be stuccocd is first prepared with a large trowel, and
is made as smooth and level as possible; when thr- stucco
has been spread upon it to the extent. of four or five feet
square, the workman with a float in his tight hand and a
brush in his left, sprinkles with water and rubs alternate~
ly the face oftbe stucco, till the “hole is rcdnccd to a
fine even surf-ice. He then prepares anhther square of
the ground, and proceeds as before, till the whole is
completed. The Water has the effect of hardening the
face of the stucco. \Vhen the floating is well performed
it will feel as smooth as glass.

Rang/t casting or mug/t trialling. is an exterior finish-
ing, much cheaper than stucco, and therefore more
frequently employed on cottages, farm houses, dzc. than

 

BUILDING.

on buildings of a higher class. The wall intended to be
rough-cast, is first picked-up with a coat of lime and
hair; and when this is tolerably dry, a second coat is
laid on, of the same materials as the first, as smooth as
it can possibly be spread. As fast as the workman
finishes this surface, he is followed by another with a
pailfull of rough-cast, with which he bespatters the new
plastering, and the whole dries together. The r0ugh~
cast is composed of fine gravel, washed from all earthy
particles, and mixed with pure lime and water till the
whole is of a semi—fluid consistency. This is thrown
from the pail upon the wall with a wooden float, about five
or six inches long, and as many wide, made of half-inch
board, and fitted with a round handle. \Vhile, with this
tool, the plasterer throws on the rough—cast with his
right hand, he holds in his left a common whitewasher’s
brush, dipped in the rough-cast also, with which he
brushes and colors the mortar and the rough-cast he has
already spread, to give them, when finished, a regular
uniform color and appearance.

Cornices are either plain or ornamented, and some-
times embrace a portion of both classes. The first point
to be attended to is, to examine the drawings, and meas—
ure the projections of the principal members, which, if

projecting more than seven or eight inches, must be,

bracketed. This consists in fixing up pieces of wood at
the distance of about ten or twelve inches from each
other, all round the place proposed for the cornice, and
nailing laths to them, covering the whole with a coat of
plaster. In the brackets, the stuff necessary to form the
cornice must be allowed, which in general is about one
inch and a quarter. A beech mould is next. made by the
carpenter, of the profile of the intended cornice, about a
quarter ofan inch in thickness, with the quirks, or small
sinkings, of brass or copper. All the sharp edges itl'“

carefully removed by the plasterer, who opens with hi:

knife all the‘points which he finds incompetent to receive .

the plaster freely.

These preliminaries being adjusted, two workmen,
provided with a tub of putty and a quantity of plaster of
Paris, proceed to run the cornice. chore using the
mould, they ga‘uge screed of putty and plaster upon the
wall and ceiling, covm'ing so much of each as will cor-
respond with the tdpn'and bottom of the intended cornice.
On this screed one or two slight board straight Ctlgcs
adapted to as many notches or chases made in the mould
for it to work upon, are nailed. The putty is then mixed
with about one-third of plaster of Paris, and brought to

 

 

 

159

a semi-fluid state by the addition of clean water. One
of the workmen, with two or three trowels-full of this
composition upon h s hawk, which he holds in his left
hand, begins to plaster over the surface intended for the
cornice, with his trowel, while his partner applies the
mould to ascertain when more or less is wanted. “Then
a sufficient quantity of plaster is laid on, the workman
holds his mould firmly against both the ceiling and the
wall, and moves it backwards and forwards, which re-
moves the superfluous stuff, and leaves an exact impres-
sion of the mould upon the plaster. This is not effected
at once; for while he works the mould backwards and
forwards, the other workman takes notice of any de-
ficiencies, and fills them up by adding fresh supplies of
plaster. In this manner a cornice from ten to twelve feet
in length may be formed in a very short time; indeed,
expedition is essentially requisite, as the plaster of Paris
occasions a very great tendency in the putty to set; to
prevent which, it is‘necessary to sprinkle the composi-
tion frequently with water, as plasterers, in order to se-
cure the truth and correctness of the cornice, generally
endeavor to finish all the lengths,'0r pieces, between any
two breaks or projections, at one time. In cornices
which have very large proportions, and in cases where
any of the orders of architecture are to be introduced,
three or four moulds are required, and are similarly ap-
plied, till all the parts are formed. Internal anti external
mitres, and small returns or bre: ks, are afterwards mod—
elled and filled up by hand.

Cornices to be enriched with ornaments, have certain
indentations, or sinkings, left in the mould in which the
casts are laid. These ornaments were formerly made by
hand; but. now are cast in plaster of Paris, from clay
models. “'hen the clay model is finished, and has, by
exposure to the action of the atmos-phere, acquired some
degree of firmness, it is let into 1‘. wooden frame, and
when it has been rctouehetl and finished, the frame is
filled with melted wax, which, when cold, is, by turning
the frame upside down, allowed to fall off, being an
cxacdcamco, or counterpart of the model. By these
means, the most enriched and curiously wrought mould-
ings may be cast by the common plasterer. These wax
models are contrived to cast about a foot in length of the
ornament at once, such lengths beingr easily get out from
the cameo. Thercasts are made of the finest and purest
plaster of Paris, saturated with water; and the wax mould
is oiled previously to its being put in. When the casts,
o: intaglios, are first taken from the mould, they are not

 

160

Very firm ; but being sufl'ered to dry 3. little, either in the
open air or in an oven, they acquire sufi’icient hardness to
allow of being scraped and cleaned.

Basso-relieves and friezes are executed in a‘similar
manner, only the wax mould is so made, that the cast
can have a back ground at least half an inch thick
of plaster cast to the ornament or figure, in order to
strengthen and secure the proportions, at the same time
that it promotes the general effect.

The process for capitals to columns is also the same,
except that numerous moulds are required to complete
them. In the Corinthian capitals a shaft or belt is first
made, on which is afterwards fixed the foliage and volutes;
the whole of which require distinct cameos.

In running cornices, which are to,be enriched, the
plasterer takes care to have proper projections in the
running moulds, so as to make a groove in the cornice,
for the reception of the cast ornament, which is laid in
and secured by spreading a small quantity of liquid plas-
ter of Paris on its back. Detached ornaments intended
for ceilings or other parts, and where no running mould
has been employed, are cast in pieces corresponding with
the design, and fixed upon the ceiling, &c. with white
lead, or with the composition known by the name of
iron-cement.

. The. manufacture of stucco has, for a long time past,
attracted the attention of all connected with this branch
of building, as well as chemists and other individuals:
but the only benefit resulting from such investigations
is, a more extensive knowledge of the materials used.
It would seem, that the great moisture of our climate pre-
vents its being brought to any high degree of perfection ;
though, among the various compositions which have been
tried and proposed, some, comparatively speaking, are
excellent.

Common stucco, used for external work, consists of
clean-washed river sand and ground lime, which are
mixed dry, in the proportion of three of the latter to one
of the former: when well incorporated together, these
should be secured from the air in casks till required for
use. Walls to be covered with this composition, must
first be prepared, by raking the mortar from the joints,
and picking the bricks 01' stones, till the whole is in—
dentec : the dust and other extraneous matter must then
be brushed off, and the wall well saturated with clean
water. The stucco is supersaturated with water, till it
has the appearance and consistence of ordinary white—
trash, in which state it is rubbed over the wall with a flat

 

 

t
t
t
t
t

 

BUILDING.

brush of hog’s bristles. When this process, called
roughing-in, has been performed, and the work has be-
come tolerably dry and hard, which may be known by
its being more white and transparent, the screeds are to
be formed upon the wall with fresh stucco from the cask,
tempered with water to a proper consistency, and spread
on the upper part of the wall, about eight or nine inches
wide ; as also against the two ends, beginning at the top
and proceeding downwards to the bottom. In this
operation, two workmen are required ; one to supply the
stucco, the other to apply the plumb-rule and straight
edge. When these are truly formed, other screeds must,
be made in a vertical direction, about four or five feet
apart, unless apertures in the wall prevent it, in which
case they must be formed as near together as possible.
When the screeding is finished, compo is prepared in
larger quantities, and both the workmen spread it with
their trowels over the wall in the space left between each
pair of screeds. ‘Vhen this operation is complete, the
straight edge is applied, and dragged from the top to the
bottom of each pair, to remove whatever superfluous
stucco may project above the screeds. If there be any
hollow places, fresh stucco is applied, and the straight
edge is again drawn over the spot, till the compo is
brought even to the face of the screeds, and the whole is
level with the edge of the rule. Another interval is then
filled up, and the workmen thus proceed till the whole
of the wall is covered. The wall is finished by floating,
that is, hardening the surface by sprinkling it with water,
and rubbing it with the common woodfloat, which is per-
formed similarly to trowelling stucco.

This description of compo is frequently used by plas-
terers for cornices and mouldings, in the same tnanner as
described in common plastering ; but if the workman
finds it necessary, he may add a small quantity of plaster
of Paris, to make it fix the better while running or work—
ing the mould. Such addition is not, however, calculated
to give strength to the stucco, and is only made through
the necessity of having a quick set.

Scagliola is a distinct branch of plastering, discovered
or invented, and much used in Italy, and thence intro-
duced into France, where it. obtained its name.

Columns and pilasters are executed in this branch of
plastering in the following manner: A wooden cradle,
composed of thin strips of pine, or other wood, is made
to represent the column designed ; but about two inches
and a half less in diameter than the shaft is intended to

be when finished. This cradle is lathed round as for
\ )

 

BUILDING.

common plastering, and then covered with a pricking-up

coat of lime and hair. When this is quite dry, the artists
in scagliola commence operations, by imitations of the
most rare and precious marbles, with astonishing and
delusive effect; indeed, as the imitation takes as high a
polish, and feels as cold and hard as the most compact
and solid marble, nothing short of actual fracture can
possibly discover the counterfeit.

In preparing the scagliola, the workman selects, breaks,
anti calcines the prtrest gypsum, and as soon as the
largest fragments, in the process of calcination, lose their
brilliancy, withdraws the fire, and passes the calcined
powder through a very fine sieve, and mixes it, as re-
quired for use, with a solution of glue, isinglass, 650. In
this solution the eolors required in the marble to be imi—
tated are diffused ; but when the work is to be of various
colors, each color is prepared separately, and afterwards
mingled and combined, nearly in the same manner as a
painter mixes on his palette the primitive colors to corn-
pose his different tints.

When the powdered gypsum is prepared, it is laid on
the shaft of the intended column, over the pricked-up
coat. of lime and hair, and is then floated with moulds
of wood, made to the requisite size: the artist uses the
colors necessary to the imitation during the floating, by
which means they mingle and incorporate with the sur-
To obtain the glossy IUstre, so much admired in
vorks of marble, the Workman rubs the work with one
hand with a pumice stone, while with the other he cleans
he next polishes it with tripoli,
afterwards with a

face.

it with a wet sponge:
charcoal, and a piece of fine linen;

piece of felt dipped in a mixture of oil and tripoli, and 1

finally completes the work by the application of pure oil.
This imitation is, certainly, the most complete that can
be conceived, and \\ hen the bases and capitals are 111ade
of real marble e, as is the common practice, the deception
is beyond discovery. If not exposed to the weather, it
is, in point of durability, little inferior to real rrrarble,
retains its lustre full as long, and is not one-eighth of the
expense of the gmhpe t kind.

'lhere is anotl. er species of plastering, used in the
decorative parts of arthitecture, and for the frames of
pictures, ldoking-glasses, &c. which is a perfectly dis-
tinct branch of the art. This composition, which is very
strong, and, when quite dry, of a brownish color, consists
of the proportion of two pounds of powdered whiting,
one pound of glue in solutionrand half a pound of lin-

seed oil, tnixed together, and heated in a copper, and
41 ’

 

 

 

 

161

stirred with a spatula, till the whole is incorporated
When cool, it is laid upon a stone, covered with powdered
whiting, and beaten till it assumes a tough and firm con-
sistence; after which it is covered with wet cloths, to
keep it fresh, till required for use.

The ornaments to be cast in this composition are
modelled in clay, as in common plastering, and after-
wards a cameo, or mould, is carved in box-wood. This
carving requires to be done with the utmost care, other-
wise the symmetry of the ornament which is to be cast
from it will be spoiled. The composition, when requir-
ed for use, is cut with a knife into pieces of the requi-
site size, and forced into the mould; after which it is
put into a press, worked by an iron screw, and still
further compressed. When the mould is taken from the
press, the composition, which is generally cast about a
foot in length, is dislodged from the mould, and the
superfluous parts pared off with a knife, and cast into the
copper for the next supply.

The ornaments thus formed, are glued upon wooden
grounds, or fixed by means of white lead, &c.; after
which they are painted or gilt, according to the purposes
for which they are intended This composition is at least
80 percent. cheaper than carving, and, in most cases,
equally calculated to answer all the purposes of the art.

It is much to be wished, that the art of plastering
could be restored to its ancient perfection ; for the
Romans possessed an art of rendering works of this kind
much' more firm and durable than can be accomplished at
the present time.

The specimens of ancient Roman plastering still visi-
ble, which have not been injured by force, are found to
be firm and solid, free from cracks or crevices, and as
smooth and polished on the surface as when first applied.
The sides and bottoms of the Roman aqueducts were
lined with this plastering, and endured many ages.

At Venice, some of the roofs of houses, and the floors of
rooms, are covered with a sort of plaster of later date,
and yet strong enough to endure the sun and weather for
several ages, without either cracking or spoiling.

The method of making the Venetian composition is
not known in England; but such might probably be
made by heating the powder of gypsum over a fire, and
when boiling, which it will do without the aid of water,
or other fluid, mixing it with rosen, or pitch, or both
together, with common fiulphur, and the powder of sea-
shells. If these be mixed together, water added to it,
and the composition- kept 011 the fire till the instant of its

162

being used, it is not improbable that the secretmay be
discovered. Oil of turpentine and wax, which are the
common ingredients in such cements as are accounted
.firmest, may also be tried as additions; as also may strong
ale wort, which is by some directed to be used instead
‘of water, to make mortar of limestone of more than
ordinary strength. '

 

S L A T I N G .

This branch of building, which is principally employed
in the covering of roofs, is not unfrequently combined
with that of plastering. The slates chiefly used in Lon-
don are brought from the quarries at Bangor, in Caemar-
vonshire, which supply all parts of the United Kingdom.
Another kind of slate, of a pale blue-green color, is used,
and most esteemed, being brought from Kendal, in VVest-
moreland, called W’estmoreland slates. These slates are
not large; but of good substance, and well calculated to
give a neat appearance to a roof. The Scottish slate,
which assimilates in size and quality to a slate from “Tales
called ladies, is in little repute.

The slates produced in this country are principally from
the quarries in the State of Vermont. In point of dura-
bility they are equal to the Welsh slates, but: have not
that uniformity of color which distinguishes the latter.

The height of roofs at the present time is very rarely
above one-third of the span, and should never be less
than one-sixth. The most usual pitch for slates is that
when the height is one-fourth of the span, or at an angle
of 262% degrees with the horizon. Taking this is a stand-
ard, the following table will show the degree of inclina-
tion, which may be given for other materials.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

g g; .E
o ’9‘» “s 5 ,.
Kind of Covering. g ”:1 I; f s “.e'gl'g‘gmfian
5 —- o quareo 00 mg.
“ iiipimm t I
Uo )er IUU
‘ J r )1' L82 ‘ 1 M ’ w
(.101 pe ( 1d 3 5t) 43 Lead, (00
Slates, large . . . ‘22 (‘70 _1. 1120
D '3. . . g . m) ° i From 900
0. 0H maiy 20 0-) i 2 To 500
Stone Slate . . . 29 41 g 2380
Plain ’l‘iles . . . '29 41 .‘72. 1780
Pan Tiles , . . . :24 00 .25 550
Thatch of strawor reeds 45 00 21

 

 

BUILDING.

Slaters class the Welsh and
following order.

American slates in the

Ft. In. Ft. In.
Doubles, average size, 1 1 by 0 6
Ladies, “ “ 1 3 “ 0 8
Countesses, “ “ 1 8 “. 0 10
Duchesses, “ “ 2 0 “ 1 0
Welsh rags, “ “ 3 0 “ 2 0
Queens, “ “ 3 0 “ 2 0
Imperials, “ “ - 2 6 “ 2 0
Patent Slate, “ “ 2 6 “ 2 0

The doubles are made from fragments of the larger
kinds, and derive their name from their diminutive size.
Ladies are similarly obtained. Countesses are a grada-
tion above ladies; and Duchesses above countesses.

Slate, like most either stony substances, is separated
from its bed by the ignition of gunpowder. The blocks
thus obtained, are, by the application of wedges, reduced
into layers, called scantlings, from four to nine inches
in thickness, and of any required length and breadth,
which are afterwards sawn to the respective sizes by
machinery. The blue, green, and purple, or darker
kinds of slate, are, in general, found capable of being
split into very thin laminae, or sheets; but those of the
white or brownish freestone kind, can seldom be sepa—
rated or divided so fine; consequently, these last form
heavy, strong thick coverings, proper for buildings in
exposed situations, such as barns, stables, and other out-
houses.

The instruments used in splitting and cleaning slates,
are slate-knives, axes, bars, and wedges; the three first
being used to reduce the slates into the required thick-
nesses, and the last to remove the inequalities from the
surface. .

Imperial slating is particularly neat, and may be
known by having its lower edge sawn; whereas all other
slates used for covering are chipped square on their edges
only.

Patent slate was first brought into use by Mr. “Ty-tut,
the architect; but a patent was never obtained. It de-
rives its name from the mode adopted to lay it on the
roofs ; it may be laid on a rafter of much ess elevation
than any other, and is considerably lighter, by reason of
the laps being less than is necessary for the common
sort ofslating. This slitting was originally made from
Welsh rags ,' but it; is now very frequently made from

 

a"

 

BUILDING.

Imperials, which render it lighter, and also somewhat
neater in appearance.

IVestmoreland slate, from the experiments made by
the late Bishop of Landafi', appears to differ a little in its
natural composition from that obtained from Wales. It
must, however, be remarked, that this kind of slate owes
its lightness, not so much to any diversity in the compo-
nent parts of the stone, as to the thinness to which it is
reduced by the workman ; consequently, it is not so well
calculated to resist aviolent winds as those which are
heavier.

Slates, when brought from the quarry, are not suf—
ficiently square for the slater’s use ; he therefore picks up
and examines the slates separately, and observes which
is the strongest and squarest end ; then, seating himself,
he holds the slate a little slanting upon, and projecting
about an inch over the edge of a small block of wood,
which is of the same height as his seat, and cuts away
and makes straight one of its edges ; then, with a slip of
wood, he gauges, and cuts off the other edge parallel to

it, and squares the end. The slate is now considered .

prepared for use, with the exception of perforating
through its opposite ends two small holes, for the recep-
tion of the nails which are to confine it to the roof.
Copper and zinc nails, or iron nails tinned, are considered

the best, being less susceptible of oxidation than nails 3

made of bar iron.
Before we proceed further with the operations neces-

account of the tools used by this class of artificers.
Slaters’ tools are very few, which sometimes are found
by the masters, and sometimes by the men.

of wood at the other.
knife, except that it has on its back a projecting piece
of iron, about three inches in length, drawn to a sharp
point. This tool is used to chip or cut all the slates to
the required sizes.

The ripper is also of iron, about the same length as the
saixe; it has a very thin blade, about anginch and three
quarters wide, tapered somewhat towards the top, where
a round head projects over the blade about half an inch
on each side ; it has also two little round notches in the
two internal angles at their intersections. The handle
of this tool is raised above the blade by a shoulder, which
enables the workman to hold it firm. This instrument
, is used in repairing old slating, and the application con-

 

‘ against both his wrists.

 

The tool ‘
called the suite, is made of tempered iron, about sixteen
inches in width, somewhat bent at one end, with ahandle for the slfltcs to 13y compactly and safely upon; for
This tool is not unlike a large :3

 

 

163 .
sists in thrusting the blade under the slates, so that the
head, which projects, may catch the nail in the little
notch at its intersection, and enable the workman to draw
it out. During this operation the slate is sufficiently
loosened to allow of its being removed, and another in-
serted in its place.

The hammer, which is somewhat difl'erentin shape to
the ordinary tool of that name, is about five inches in
height on the hammer or driving part, and the top is bent
back, and ground to a tolerably sharp point, its lower or
flat end, which is quite round, being about three quarters
of an inch in diameter. On this side of the driving part
is a small projection, with a notch in the centre, which is
used as a claw to extract such. nails as do not drive
satisfactorily.

The shaving tool is used for getting the slates to a.
smooth face for skirtings, floors for balconies, &c. It
consists of an iron blade, sharpened at one of its ends like
a chisel, and morticed through the centre of two round
wooden handles, one fixed at one end, and the other
about the middle of the blade. The blade is about eleven
inches long, and two inches wide, and the handle is about
ten inches long, so that they project about four inches
on each side of the blade. In using this tool, the work-
man places one hand on each side of the handle that is
in the middle of the blade, and allows the other to press
In this manner he removes all

1 the uneven parts from off the face of the slate, and gets
sary in the slating of buildings, we shall give some ‘

it to a smooth surface.

The other tools used by the slater consist of Chisels,
gouges, and files of all sizes; by rneans of which he
finishes the slates into mouldings and other required forms.

In slating roofs, it is necessary to form a base or floor

doubles and ladies, boarding is required, which must be
laid very even with the joints close, and properly secured
by nails to the rafters. This being completed, the slater
provides himself with several slips of wood, called lilting
fillets, about ten iches and a half wide, and three quar-
ters of an inch thick on one edge, and chamferred to an
arris on the other, which he nails down all round the
extreme edges of the roof, beginning with the hips, if
any, and if not, with the sides, eaves, and ridge. He
next selects the largest of the slates, and arranges them
regularly along the eavgs with their lower edges to a line,
and nails them to the boarding. This part of the work
being completed, he takes other slates to form the bond
to the under sides of the eaves, and places them under

 

164 ' BUILDING.

those previously laid, so as to cross and cover all their '

joints. Such slates are pushed up lightly under those
which are above them, and are seldom nailed, but left
‘dependent for support on the weight of those above
them, and their own weight on the boarding. The coun-
tesses and all other descriptions of slates, when intended
to be laid in a good manner, are also laid on boards.

When the Slater has finished the eaves, he strains a
line on the face of the upper slates, parallel to its outer
edge, and as far from it as he deems suflicient for the lap
of those he intends shall form the next course, which is
laid and nailed even with the line, crossing the joints of
the upper slates of the eaves. This lining and laying is
continued close to to the ridge of the roof, observing
throughout to cross the different joints, by laying the
slates one above another. The same system is univer-
sally followed in laying all the different sorts of slates,
with the exception of those called patent slates, as are
hereafter explained.

The largest kind of slates are found to lay firm on
battens, which are, consequently, much employed, and
produce a very considerable saving of expense in large
buildings. A batten is a narrow portion of board, about
two inches and a half or three inches wide; four of
them being commonly procured from an eleven inch
board.

For countess slates, battens three quarters of an inch
thick, will be of adequate substance: but for the larger
and heavier kinds, inch battens wiil be necessary. In
battening a roof for slates, the battens are not placed at
a uniform distance from each other, but so as to suit
the length of the slates; and as these vary as they ap-
. preach the apex, or ridge of the roof, it follows that the
slater himself is the best judge where to fix them, so as
best to support the slates.

A roof, to be covered with patent slates, requires that
the common rafters be left loose upon their purlines, as
they must be so arranged that a rafter shall lie under
every one of themeeting joints. Neither battening nor
boarding is required for these slates. The number of
rafters will depend on the width of the slates; hence if
they be of a larger size, very few willsuflice. This kind
.i’slating is likewise commenced at the eaves; but no
crossing or bonding is required, as the slates are laid
uniformly, with each end reaching to the centre of the
rafter, and butted up to each other throughout the length
ofthe roof. “Then the eaves-course is laid, the slates
which compose it are screwed down to the rafters by

 

 

two or three strong inch and half screws at each of their
ends. A line is then strained about two inches below
the upper edge, in order to guide the laying of the next
course, which is laid with its lower edge touching the
line. This lining, laying with a lap, and screwed down,
is continued till the roof is completely covered. The
joints are then secured by filleting, which consists in cov-
ering all the meeting-joints with fillets of slate, bedded
in glazier’s putty, and screwed down through the whole
into the rafters. The fillets are usually about three
inches wide, and of a length proportionate to that of the
slates, whose joints they have to cover. These fillets
are solidly bedded in the putty, and their intersecting
joints are lapped similar to those of the slates. The
fillets being so laid, and secured by one in the middle of
the fillet and one in each lap, are next neatly pointed all
round their edges with more putty, and then painted over
with the color of the slate. The hips and ridges of such
slating are frequently covered by fillets, which produce
a very neat effect; but lead, which is not much dearer,
is by far the best kind of covering for all hips and ridges.
The patent slating may be laid so as to be perfectly water
tight, with an elevation of the rafters considerably less
than for any other slate or tile covering. The rise in
each foot of length in the rafter is not required to be
more than two inches, which, in a rafter of fifteen feet,
will amount to only two feet six inches : a rise scarcely
perceptible from the ground. .

Slating is performed in several other ways, but the
principles already explained embrace the most of them.
Some workan shape and lay their slates in a lozenge
form. This kind of work consists in getting all the slates
to a uniform size, of the shape of a geometrical square.
\Vlien laid on the roof, which must be boarded, they are
bonded and lapped as in common slating. observing only
to let the elbow, or half of the square, appear above each
slate that is nextbeneath it, and be regular in the courses
all over the roof. One nail or screw only can be used
for such slating; hence it soon becomes dilapidated. It
is commonly employed in places near to the eye, or
where particular neatness is required.

It has been ascertained, that a slate one inch thick will,
in a horizontal pusition, support as much, in weight,
as five inches of Portland stone similarly sitspended.
Hence slates are now wrought and used in galleries, and
other purposes, where it is essential to have strength and
lightness combined. Slates are also fashioned into chim-
ney pieces; but are incapable of receiving a polish like

3“.

BUILDING. ‘

marble. It makes excellent skirtings of all descriptions,
as well as casings to walls, where dilapidations or great
wear and tear are to be expected. For these purposes,
it is capable of being fixed with joints, equally as neat as
wood; and may, if required, be painted over so as to
appear like it. Staircases may also be executed in slate,
which will produce a resemblance of marble.

 

PLUMBING.

Plumbing is the art of casting and working in lead,
and using the same in the covering, and for other pur—
poses in building.

To the plumber is also confided the pump-work, as
well as the making and forming of cisterns and reservoirs, .
large or small closets, &c. for the purposes of domestic l
economy. The plumber does not use a great variety of
tools, because the ductility of the metal upon which be
operates does not require it.

The tools used, consist of an iron hammer, rather
heavier than a carpenter’s, with a short thick handle; two
or three wooden mallets of different sizes ; and a dress—
ing and Ilatting tool.

This last is of beech, about eighteen inches long, and

 

two inches square, planed smooth and flat on the under
surface, and rounded on the upper, and one of its ends i
tapered off round as a handle. “’ith
stretches out and flattens the sheet lead, or dresses it to
the shape required, using first the flat side, then the round

this tool he

one, as occasion may require.

The plumber has also occasion for a jack and trying 1
plane, similar to that of the carpenter.

\Vith this he reduces the edges of sheet-lead to a
straight line, when the purposes to which it is to be ap~
plied require it.

His cutting tools consist of a variety of Chisels and l
gouges as' well as knives. '

The latter ofvthese are used for cutting the sheet—lead }
into slips and pieces after it has been marked out by the l
chalk line. I

Files of different sizes; ladles of three or four sizes,
for melting the solder; and an iron instrument called
grazing irons.

These grozing-irons are of several sizes, generally

42

 

 

165
about twelve inches in length, tapered at both ends, the
handle end being turned quite round, to allOw of its being
firmly held while in use: the other end is a bulb of a
spindle, or spherical shape, of a size proportioned to the
soldering intended to be executed. ' They are, when re-
quired for use, heated to redness.

The plumber’s measuring rule is two feet in length,
divided into three equal parts of eight inches each; two
of its legs are of box-wood, duodecimally : divided ; and
the third consists of a piece of slow—tempered steel,
attached to one of the box legs by a pivot on which it
turns, and falls, when not in use, intoa groove cut in such
leg for its reception. This steel leg can be passed into
places where the others cannot enter; and it is also use-
ful for occasionally removing the oxide or any extraneous
matters from the surface of the heated metal.

Scales and weights are also necessary ; and he must
be supplied with centre—bits of all sizes, for the purpose
of making perforations in lead or wood, through which
he may want to insert pipes, &c. Compasses, to strike
circular pieces, to line or cover figures of that shape, are
occasionally required.

Lead is obtained from ore, and, from its being gen-

; erally combined with sulphur, it has been denominated

‘1 ‘su/p/uu‘ct.’

After the ore has been taken from its bed

i it is smelted, first being picked, in order to separate the
3 auctions and rich, or genuine ore from the stony matrix,
' and other impurities; the picked ore is then pounded
‘ under stampers worked by machinery, and afterwards

washed to carry off the remainder of the matrix, which
could not be separated in picking. It is next put into a
reverbatory furnace, to be roasted ,' during which opera-
tion, it is repeatedly stirred, to facilitate the evaporation
of the sulphur. then the surface begins to assume the
appearance of alpaste, it is covered with charcoal, and

: well shaken together: the fire is then increased, and the

purified lead flows down on all sides into the basin of the

- furnace, whence it runs off into moulds prepared for its

reception. The moulds are capable of receiving 154 lbs.
of lead each, and their contents, when cool, are, in the
commercial world, called pigs.

Lead is of a bluish-white color, and when newly
melted, or cut, is quite bright; but it soon becomes
tarnished on exposure to the atmosphere; assuming first
a dirty grey color, and afterwards becomes white. It is
capable of being hammered into very thin plates, and
may be drawn into wire ; but its tenacity is very inferior
to that of other metals; for a leaden wire, the hundred

 

.166
and twentieth part of an inch in diameter, is only capa-
ble of supporting about 18 lb. without breaking. Lead,
next to tin, is the most fusible of all metals; and if a
stronger heat be applied, it boils and evaporates. If
cooled.slowly, it crystallizes. The change of its external
color is owing to its gradual combination with OXygen,
which converts its exterior surface into an oxyd. This
outward crust, however, preserves the rest of the metal
for a long time, as the air can penetrate but very
slowly.

Lead is not acted upon immediately by water, though
that element greatly facilitates the action of the air upon
it: for it is known that, when lead is exposed to the
atmosphere, and kept constantly wet, the process of oxi-
dation takes place much more rapidly than it does under
other circumstances : hence the white crust that is to be
observed on the sides of leaden vessels containing water,
just at the place where the surface of the water termi-
nates. '

Lead is purchased by plumbers, in pigs, and they
reduce it into sheets or pipes, as they have occasion.
Of sheet lead they have two kinds, cast and milled. The
former is used for covering flat roofs of buildings, laying
of terraces, forming gutters, lining reservoirs, 650.; and
the latter, which is very thin, for covering the hips and
ridges of roofs. This last they do net manufacture
themselves, but purchase it of the lead merchants, ready
prepared.

For the casting of sheet lead, a copper is provided,
and well fixed in masonry, at the upper end of the work
shop, near the mould or casting table, which consists of
strong boards, well jointed together, and bound with bars
of iron at the ends. The sides of this table, of which
the shape is a parallelogram, vary in size from four to six
feet in width, and from sixteen to eighteen feet and
upwards in length, and are guarded by a frame or edging
of wood, three inches thick and four or five inches higher
than the interior surface, called the shafts. This table
is fixed upon firm legs, strongly framed together, about
six or seven inches lower than the top of the copper.
At the upper end of the mould, nearest the copper, is a
box, called the pan, which is adapted in its length to the
breadth of the table, having at its bottom a long horizon-
tal slit, from which the heated metal is to issue, when it
has been poured in from the copper. This box moves
upon rollers along the surface of the rim of the table,
and is put in motion by means of ropes and pulleys,
fiXed to beams above. While the metal is melting, the

 

 

BUILDING. _

surface of the mould, or table, is prepared by cOVering
it with a stratum of dry and clean sand, regularly
smoothed over with a kind of rake, called a strike, which
consists of a board about five inches broad, and rather
longer than the inside of the mould, so that its ends,
which are notched about two inches deep, may ride upon
the shafts. This being passed down the whole length of
the table, reduces the sand to an uniform surface. The
pan is now brought to the head of the table, close to the
copper, its sides having previously been guarded by a
coat of moistened sand, to. prevent its firing from the
heat of the metal, which is now put in by ladles from the
copper.

These pans or boxes, it must be observed, are made
to contain the quantity of melted lead which is required
to cast a whole sheet at one time ; and the slit in. the
bottom is so adjusted as to let out, during its progress
along the table, just as much as will completely cover it
of the thickness and weight per foot required. livery
thing being thus prepared, the slit is opened, and the box
moved along the table, dispensing its contents from the
top to the bottom, and leaving in its progress a sheet of
lead of the desired thickness. “rhen cool the sheet is
rolled up and removed from the table, and other sheets
are cast, till all the metal in the copper is exhausted.
The sheets thus formed are then rolled up and kept for
use.

In some places, instead of having a square box upon
wheels, with a slit in the bottom, the pan consists of a
kind of trough, being composed of two planks nailed
together at right angles, with two triangular pieces fitted
The length of this pan,
as well as that of the box, is equal to the whole breadth

in between them, at their ends.
of the mould. It is placed with its bottom on a bench
at the head of the table, leaning with one side against it:
to the 0pp0site side is fixed a handle, by which it may be
On the
are two iron hooks, to
hold it to the table, and prevent it from slipping while the
metal is being poured into the mould.

The mould, as well as the pan, is spread over, about
two inches thick, with sand sifted and moistened, and
rendered perfectly level by moving over it the strike, and
smoothing it down with a plane of polished brass, about
a quarter of an inch thick, and nine inches square, turned
up on the edges.

Before they proceed to casting the lead, the strike is
made ready by tacking two pieces of old hat on the

lifted up in order to pour out the liquid metal.
side of the pan next the mould

 

BUILDING.

notches, or by covering the notches with leather cases,
so as to raise the under side of the strike, about an eighth
of an inch or more, above the sand, according to the
proposed thickness of the sheet. The face or underside
of the strike is then smeared with tallow, and laid across
the breadth of the mould, with its ends resting on the
shafts. The melted lead is then put into the pan with
ladles ; and, when a sufi'icient quantity has been put in,
the scum is swept off with a piece of board, and suffered
to settle on the coat of sand, to prevent its falling into the
mould, when the metal is poured out. It generally hap-
pens, that the lead, when first taken from the copper, is
too hot for casting; it is therefore suffered to cool in the
pan, till it begins to stand with a shell or wall on the
sand with which the pan is lined. Two men then take
the pan by the handle, or one of them takes it by means
of a bar or chain fixed to a beam in the ceiling, and
turn it down, so that the metal runs into the mould:
while another man stands ready with the strike, and, as
soon as all the metal is poured in, sweeps it forward
and draws the residue into a trough at the bottom, which
has been prepared to receive it. The sheet is then rolled
up, as before.

In this mode of operation, the table inclines in its
length about an inch or an inch and a half, in the length

of sixteen or seventeen feet, or more, according to the i

the thinner the sheet
The lower

required thickness of the sheets:
the greater the declivity; and vice versa.
end of the mould is also left Open, to admit of the super-
fluous metal being thrown ofl‘.

When a cistern is to be cast, the size of the four sides 3
is measured out; and the dimensions of the from having ‘
been taken, slips of wood, on which the mouldings are 3‘
carved, are pressed upon? the sand. Figures of birds, ,3

beasts, &c. are likewise stamped in the internal area, by
means of leaden moulds. If any part of the sand has
been disturbed in doing this, it is made smooth, and the
process of casting goes on as for plain sheets ; except
that instead of rolling up the lead when cast, it is bent
into four sides, so that the two ends, when they are
soldered together may be joined at the back : the bottom
is afterwards soldered up.

The lead which lines the Chinese tea—boxes'is reduced
to a thinness which our plumbers cannot, it is said, ap-
proach. The following account of the process was com-
municated by an intelligent East-Indian, in a letter which
appeared in the Gentleman’s Magazine. ‘ The caster
sits by a pot, containing the melted metal, and has two

 

l

 

167

large stones, the lower one fixed and the upper one

‘ moveable, having their surfaces of contact ground to each

other, directly before him. He raises the upper stone
by pressing his foot upon its side, and with an iron ladle
pours into the opening a sufficient quantity of the fluid
metal. 'He then lets fall the upper stone, and thus forms
the lead into an extremely thin and irregular plate which
is afterwards cut into its required form.’

Cast sheet-lead, used for architectural purposes, is
technically divided into 5 1b. 51} lb. 6 lb. 6.; lb. 71b.
7% lb. 8 lb. and 8.} 1b.: by which is understood, that
every superficial foot is to contain thoSe respective
weights, according to the price agreed upon.

The milled lead used by plumbers is very thin, sel-V
dom containing more than 5 lb. to the foot. It is by
no means adapted to gutters or terraces, nor, indeed, to
any part of a building that is much exposed either to

i great wear or to the effects of the sun’s rays: in the

l and cracks.

former case, it soon wears away; in the latter, expands
It is laminated in sheets of about the same

2 size as those of cast lead, by means ofa roller, or flat-

ting-mill.

Lead-pipes are sometimes made of sheet-lead, by
beating it on round wooden cylinders of the length and
dimensions required, and then soldering up the edges.

Solder is used to secure the joints of work in lead,
which by other means would be impossible. It should

' be easier of fusion than the metal intended to be soldered,
‘ and should be as nearly as possible of the same color.
- The plumber therefore uses, what is technically called

80ft solder, which is a compound of equal parts of tin
and lead, melted together and run into moulds. In this
state it is sold by the manufacturer by the pound.

In the operation of soldering, the surfaces or edges

‘ intended to be united are'scraped very clean,and brought

V cl se up to each other, in which state they are held by

an assistant while the plumber applies a little resin on

‘ the joints, in order to prevent the oxidation of the metal.

ii The heated solder is then brought in a ladle and poured

on the joint; after which itis smoothed and finished by
rubbing itaboutwith a red-hot soldering iron ; when com-
pleted, is made smooth by filing.

In the covering of roofs or terraces with lead, (the
sheets, never exceeding six feet in breadth,) it becomes
necessary in large surfaces, to have joints; which are
managed several ways, but in all, the chief object is to
have them water-tight. The best plan of effecting this,
is to form laps or roll joints, which is done by having a

 

168 BUILDING.

roll, or strip of wood, about two inches square, but
rounded on its upper side, nailed under the joints of the
sheets, where the edges lap over each other; one of these
edges is to be dressed up over the roll on the inside, and
the other is to be dressed over them both on the outside,
by which means the water is prevented from penetrating.
No other fastening is requisite than what is required from
the hammering of the sheets together down upon the flat;
nor should any other he resorted to when sheet-lead is
exposed to the vicissitudes of the weather; because it
expands and shrinks, which, if prevented by too much
fastening, would cause it to crack'and become useless.
It sometimes, however, occurs, that rolls cannot be used,
and then the method ofjoining by seams is resorted to.
This consists in, simply bending the approximate edges
of the lead up and over each other, and then dressing
them down close to the flat, throughout their length.
But this is not equal to the roll, either for neatness or
security.

Lead flats and gutters should always be laid‘with a
current, to keep them dry. About a quarter of an inch
to the foot is a sufiicient inclination.

In laying gutters, &c., pieces of milled lead, called
flushing, about eight or nine inches wide, are fixed in the
walls, all round the edges of the sheet lead, with which
the flat is covered, and are suffered to hang down over
them, so as to prevent the passage of rain_.through the
interstice between the raised edge and the wall. If the
walls have beenpreviOUsly huilt,the mortar is raked out of
thejoint of the bricks next above the edge of the sheet,
and the flushings are not only inserted into the crack at.
the upper sides, but their lower edges are likewise dressed
over those of the lead in the flat, or gutter. When
neither ofthese modes can be resorted to, the flushings

down as before.

Drips in flats, or gutters, are formed by raising one
part above another, and dressing the lead, as already
described, for covering the rolls. They are resorted to
when the gutter or flat exceeds the length of the sheet;
or sometimes for convenience. They are also an useful
expedient to avoid soldering thejoints.

Sheet-lead is also used in the lining of reservoirs,
which are made either of wood or masonry. As these
conveniences are seldom in places subject to material
changes of temperature, recourse may be had to the
soldering without fear of its damaging the work, by pro-
moting a disposition to crack.

 

 

 

 

 

The pumps which come under the province of the
plumber, are confined generally to two or three kinds
used for domestic purposes, of which the suction and
lifting pumps are the chief: these, as well as water
closets, are manufactured by a particular set of workmen,
and sold to the plumber, who furnishes the lead pipes,
and fixes them in their places.

Plumber’s work is generally estimated by the pound,
or hundred weight; but the weight may be discovered
by measurement in the following manner: sheet-lead
used in roofing and guttering is commonly between seven
and twelve pounds to the square foot; but the following
table exhibits the particular weight of a square foot for
each of the several thicknesses.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Thickness. ’lbs. to a sq. foot. Thickness. lbs. to :1 sq. foot.
l

.111 5.699 l .15 8.848 t

.11 6.489 l .16 9.438 f
g, 6.554 .3, 9.8:;
.12 7.078 .17 10.0738
,1. 7.373 .18 10.618

.13 7.668 .19 11.2117 l
.14 8.258 % 11797

% i 8.427 l .21 :12387 i

 

 

 

 

In this table the thickness is set down in tenths and
hundredths, &c. of an inch ; and tlieannexed correspond—
ing numbers are the weights in avoirdupois pounds and
thousandth part of a pound; so that the weight of a
square foot of one tenth of an inch thick, 10-1001hs, is
5 lbs. and 899 thousandth parts of a pound; and the
weight of a square foot 1<9th of a inch in thickness, is

6 pounds and 5.34 thousandths of a pound. Leaden

i‘pipe ofan inch bore, is connnonly 13 or 11 lbs. to the
are fastened by wall-hooks, and then lower edges dressed

yard in length.

 

 

GLAZING.

The business of this class of artificers consists in put-
ting glass into sashes and easements. Glaziers’ work
may be classed under three distinct heads, sash-work,
lead-work, and fret—work.

The tools requisite for the performances of the first of
these departments are, a diamond, a ranging lath, a short
lath, a square, a rule, a glazing-knife, a cutting-chisel, a

.
I,

 

BUILDING.

beading hammer, duster and sash-tool ; and in addition
for stopping in squares, a hacking-knife and hammer.

The diamond is a speck of that precious stone, polished
to a cutting point, and set in brass on an iron socket, to
receivea wooden handle, which is so set as to be held
in the hand in the cutting direction. The top of the
handle goes between the root of the fore—finger and the
middle-finger,_and the hinder part between the point of
the fore-finger and thumb ; there is, in general, a notch
in the side of the socket, which should be held next to
the lath. Some diamonds have more cuts than one.
Plough diamonds have a sqttare nut on the end of the
socket, next the glass, which, on running the nut square
on the side of the lath, keeps it in the cutting direc-
tion.

Glass grinders have these plough diamonds without
long handles, as, in cutting their curious productions,
they cannot apply a lath, but direct them by the point of
their middle—finger, gliding along the edge of the glass.

The ranging lath must be long enough to extend rather
beyond the boundary of the table of glass.

Ranging of glass is the cutting it in breadths as the
work may require, and is best done by one uninterrupted
cut from one end to the other.

The square is used in cutting the squares from the
range, that they may with greater certainty be cut at right
angles. The glazing-knife is used forlaying in the putty
in the rabbets of the sash, for binding in the glass, and
for finishing the front putty.

0f the glass used in building, three qualities are in
common use, denominated, best, second, and third.

The best is that which is the purest metal and free of
blemishes, as blisters, specks, streaks, &c.; the second is
inferior, from its not being so free from these blemishes;
and the third is still inferior, both in regard to quality and
color, being of greener hue.

They are sold at the same price per crate; but the
number of tables varies according to the quality. Best
twelve, second fifteen, and third eighteen tables.

These tables are circular when manufactured, and
about four feet. in diameter, having in the centre a knot,
to which, in the course of the process, the flashing red
was fixed; but for the safety of carriage, and conveni-
ence of handling as well as utility in practice, a segment
is cut off about four inches from the knot. The large
piece with the knot still retains the name of table; the
smaller piece is technically called a slab. From these
tables being of a given size, it is reasonable to suppose

43

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

169

that, when the dimensions of squares are such as cut the
glass to waste, the price should be advanced.

A superior kind of glass may be obtained at some of
the first houses in LondOn, which is very flat and of large
dimensions; some of it being 2 feet 8 inches by 2 feet
1 inch ; these are sold only in squares.

Rough glass is well adapted to baths, and other places
of privacy; one side is ground with emery or sand, so
that no objects can be seen through it, though the light
be still transmitted.

The glass called Gervmawsheet, is of a superior kind,
as it can be had of much larger dimensions than common
glass; it is also of a purer substance, and for these
reasons, is frequently appropriated to picture frames.
Squares may be had of the astonishing size of 3 feet 8
inches by 3 feet 1 inch, and 4 feet 10 inches by 2 feet
8 inches, and under.

The glass is first blown in the form of a globe, and
afterwards flatted in a furnace, in consequence of which
it has a very forbidding appearance from the outside, the
surface being uneVen.

Plate glass is the most superior in quality, substance,
and flatness, being cast in plates, and polished. The
quantity of metal it contains must be almost, if not
altogether, colorless; that sort which is tinged being of
an inferior quality. Plate glass, when used in sashes, is
peculiarly magnificent; and it can be had of larger di-
mensions than any other kind of glass.

Stained glass is of different color, as red, orange, yel-
low, green, blue, and purple.

These colors are fixed by burning, and are as durable
as the glass.

In this country, window glass is used of various sizes,

from 7 inches by 9 inches to 12 by 20 inches. It is
packed by the manufacturers in boxes, containing 50 or
100 square superficial feet. There are many manufacto-
ies of this article in the United States, which usually
produce glass of good quality ; but the reputation of Bos-
ton crown glass stands decidedly higher than ofany other,
either of foreign or domestic manufacture.

Plate glass is not munufacturedin this country. The
‘New England Company,’ in Boston, manufacture
stained glass in a style not surpassed in Europe.

Glass can be bent to circular sweeps, which is much
used in London for shop windows, and is carried to
great perfection in covers, for small pieces of statua-
ary, 6L0.

The application of stained glass to the purposes of

 

 

170

 

glazingvi‘é‘ called fret-work. This description of work
consists of working ground and stained glass, in fine lead,
into different patterns. In many cases, family arms and
other devices are worked .in it. It is a branch capable

'of great improvement, but at present is ‘much neglected.

Old pieces are very much esteemed, though the same
expens’e would furnish elegant modern productions. They
are placed in halls and staircase windows, or in some
particular church windows. In many instances they are
introduced where there is an unpleasant aspect, in a place
of particular or genteel resort.

Lead-work is used in inferior offices, and is in general
practice all through the country. Frames intended to
receive these lights are made with bars across, to which
the lights are fastened by leaden bars, called saddle bars,
and where openings are wanted, acasement is introduced
either of wood or iron. Sometimes a sliding frame
answers the same‘purposes. Church windows are gen-
erally made in this manner, in quarries or in sq tares.

The tools with which this work is performed are in
addition to the foregoing, as follow: —

A vice, with different cheeks and cutters to turn out,
the different kinds of lead, as the tnagnitute of the win-
dow or the squares may require.

The German vices, which are esteemed the best, are
furnished with moulds, and turn out lead in a variety of
sizes.
by the milk which turns them out with two sides parallel
to each other, and about % of an inch broad, with a par—
tition connecting the two sides together, about ,1; of an
inch wide, forming 011 each side a gtoove, neatly by? 1
of an inch, and about (3 feet long.

Besides a vice and moulds, there are a setting-board
latterkin, setting/curfe, resin box, tin, glazing irons,
and clips.

The setting- board Is that in which the ridge of the
light ls marked and divided into squares, struck ottt with
a chalk line, or drawn with a lath, which serves to guide
the workmen. One side and end 18 squared with a pro-
jecting bead or fillet

The latterkin 1s a piece of hard wood pointed, to 11111
in the gtoove of the lead, and widen it for the easier
reception of the glass.

The setting-knife consists of a blade with a round
point, loaded with lead at the bottom, and terminating in
along square handle. The square end of the handle
serves to force the square of glass tight in the lead. All
the intersections are soldered on both sides, except the

The bars of lead cast in these vices are received 5

 

 

{1"

, .
are."
3“?

BUILDING.

outside joints of the outer sides; that is ,where they come
to the outet edge. These lights should be cemented by
pooling thin paint along the lead bats,a11d filling tip the
chasms with dry whiting, to which, after the oil in the

.paint has secreted a little, a little more dry whiting, or

white lead, must be added. This will dry hard, and
resist the action of the atmosphere.

 

, PAINTING.

Painting, as applied to purposes of building, is the
application of artiticial colors, compounded either with
oil or water, in ett1l:cllishing and preserving wood, &c.

This branch of painting is termed economical, and
a'iplles more immediately to the power which oil and
varnishes possess, of preventing the action of the atmos-
phere upon wood, iron and stucco, by interposing an

artificial surface; but it is here intended to use the term

more generally, in allusion to the decorative part, and as

it is employed by the architect, throughout e1e1y part of
his work, both externally and internally.

In every branch of painting in oil, the general pro-
ce ss cs s‘are vety sirnilar,01 with such variations only, as
readily occur toth e workman.

The first coatings, or layers, if on wood or iron, ought
always to be of ceruse or white lead, of the best quality,
previously ground very fine itt nut or linseed oil, either
as that mode is too
tedious for large quantities, passed through a mill. If used
011 shutters, doors, or \vainscotings, made of pine, it is
very requisite to destroy the etlects of the knots ; which
are generally so completelysaturated with turpentine, as
t01e11de1 it, pethaps, one of the most ditlitult ploces ses
in this business.

over a stone with a muller, or,

Tire best mode in connnon cases, is
to pass a brush over the knots, with ceruse ground in
water, bound by a size made of parclnnent or glue ; when
that is dry, paint the knots with white lead, ground in
oil, to which add some powerful siccative, or dryer, as
red-lead, or litharge of lead; about one part of the lat;
ter. These must be laid very smoothly in the direction
of the grain of the wood.

\Vlren the last coat is dry, smooth it with pumice-
stone, or give it the first coat of paint, prepared or diluted
with nut or linseed oil; after which, when sufliciently
dry, all the nail—holes or other irregularities on the sur—

r1,l'

 

imitates.»

,\

BUILDING.

face must be carefully stopped with a. composition of oil
and Spanish white, commonly known by the name of
putty. The work must then be painted with white-lead
and oil, somewhat diluted with the essence of oil of tur—
pentine, which process should, if the work be intended to
be left of a plain white or stone-color, be repeated not
less than three or four times; and if of the latter color,

a small quantity of ivory or lamp-black should be added. :

But if the work is to be finished of any other color, either
grey, green, &0. it will be requisite to provide for such
color, after the third operation, particularly if it is to be

finished flat, or as the painters style it, dead-white, grey, ‘

fawn, doc. In order to finish the work flatted or dead,
which is a mode much to be preferred for all superior
works, not only for its appearance, but also for preserv-
ing the color and purity of the tint, one coat of the flat—

ted color, or color mixed up with a considerable quantity
of turpentine, will be found sufficient; although in large

surfaces it will be frequently requisite to give two coats
of the flailing color, to make it quite complete. Indeed,
on stucco it will be almost a general rule.

In all the foregoing operations, it must be observed

that some sort of dryer is absolutely requisite; a very “

general and useful one is made by grinding in linseed, or
perhaps, prepared oils boiled are better, about two parts

of the best white copperas, which must be well dried ‘
with one part of litharge of lead: the quantity to be
added will much depend on the dryness or humidity oi"

the atmosphere, at the time of painting, as well as the
local situation of the building.

that there is a sort of copperas made in England, and
said to be used for some purposes in medicine, that not
only does not assist the operation of drying in the colors, ‘,
but absolutely preVents these colors drying which would I

otherwise have done so in the absence of all this cop-
peras.

The best dryer for all fine whites, and other delicate
tints, is sugar of lead, ground in nut-oil, but being very
active, :1 small. quantity, about the size of a walnut, will
be sufficient for twenty pounds of color, when the basis
is white-lead. It will be always necessary to caution
painters tovkeep their utensils, brushes, (Sec. very clean,
as the color would otherwise soon become very foul, so
as to destroy the surface of the work. If this should
happen, the color must pass through a fine seive, or
canvass, and the surface of the work be carefully rubbed
down with sand-paper or pumice-stone ; the latter should
be ground in water, if the paint be tender, or recently

 

 

‘ than when prepared on brick.

 

It may here be noticed, §

' will be advantageous.

 

 

 

laid on. , The above may suffice as -to. painting on wood,
either on inside or outside Work, the former being seldom
finished otherwise than in oil : four or .five coats are

. generally sufficient.

It does not appear that painting in oil can be service-
able in stucco, unless the walls have been erected a
sufficient time to permit the mass of brick-work to have
acquired a sufficient degree of dryness. When stucco is
on battened work, it may be painted over much sooner
Indeed, the greatest part
of the art of painting stucco, so as to stand or wear well,
consists in attending to these observations; for whoever
has observed the expansive power of water, not only in
congelation, but also in evaporation, must be well aware
that when it meets with any foreign body, obstructing its
escape, as oil painting for instance, it immediately resists
it, forming a number of vesicles or particles, containing
an acrid lime-water, which forces off the. layers of plaster,
and frequently causes large defective patches, not easily
to be eradicated. ’

Perhaps in general cases, where persons are building
on their own estates, or for themselves, two or three years
are not too long to suffer the stucco to remain unpainted,
though frequently, in speculative works, as many weeks
are scarcely allowed to pass.

The foregoing precautions being attended to, there can
be no better mode adopted for priming, or laying on the
first coat on stucco, than by linseed or nut-oil, boiled
with dryers before mentioned; taking care, in all cases
not to lay on too much, so as to render the surface rough
and irregular, and not more than the stucco will absorb.
It should then be covered with three or four coats of
white lead, prepared as described for painting or wain-
scoting, allowing each coat sufficient time to dry hard.
If time will permit, two or three days between each layer
“'hen the stucco is intended to
he finished in any given tint, as grey, light green, doc.
it. will then be proper, about the third coat. of painting,
to prepare the ground for such a tint, by a slight advance
towards it.
blue, ivory-black, and lake; sage-green, pea, and sea—
greens, with white, Prussian-blue, and fine yellows;
apricot and peach, with lake, white, and Chinese vermil-
lion: fine yellow fawn color, with burnt terra sienna, or
umber and white; and olive-greens, with fine Prussian-
blues, and Oxfordshire ochre.

Distemper, or painting in water-colors mixed with
size stucco or plaster, which is intended to be painted

Grey is made with white lead, Prussian-

 

‘172 l . ' BUILDING.

in oil when finished, but not being sufliciently dry to
receive the oil, may have a coating in water—colors, of any
given tint required, in order to give a more finished ap-
pearance to that part of the building. Straw-colors may
be made with French whites and ceruse, or white-lead
and masticot, 01' Dutch pink. Greys, full, with some
whites and refiners’ verditer. An inferior gr‘éy may be
made with blue-black, or bone-black and indigo. Pea-
greens, with French green, Olympian green,~&c. Fawn
color, with burnt terra de sienna, or burnt 'u‘mber and
white, and so of any intermediate tint. The colors
should all be ground very fine, and mixed with whiting
and a size made with parchment, or some similar sub—
stance. Less than two coats will not be sufficient to

 

cover the plaster, and bear out with a uniform appear-
ance. It must be recollected, that when the stucco is
sufficiently dry, and it is desirable to have it painted in
oil, the whole of the water-colors ought to be removed,
which may be easily done by washing, and when quite
dry, proceed with it after the direction given on oil paint-
ing 1n stucco.

If oil plastering has become disfigured by stains, or
other blemishes, and if it be desired to have it painted
. in distemper, it is, in this case, advisable to give the old
‘ plastering, when properly cleaned off and prepared, one
‘ coat, at least, of white-lead ground in oil, and used with

spirits of turpentine, which will generally fix old stains ;
i and when quite dry, take water-colors very kindly.

 

 

 

BRIDGES.

[ML Ithiel Town’s improvement in the construction of Bridges, being considered preferable to any mode of bridge-building yet laid before the
public, it has been thought best, in this department of the work, to give his arguments, and description in his own words ; and to refer the reader
to the Introduction for such additional facts and remarks, as has been thought necessary to lay before him, in order to‘ give him a more perfect un-

derstanding of this important branch of his profession.]

PLATE 99.

A DESCRIPTION OF ITHIEL TOWN’S IMPROVEMENT IN
THE CONSTRUCTION OF WOODEN AND IRON BRIDGES 3
INTENDED AS A GENERAL SYSTEM OF BRIDGE-BUILD-
ING FOR. RIVERS, CREEKS, AND HARBORS, OF \VHAT-
EVER KIND OF BOTTOMS, AND FOR. ANY PRACTI-
CABLE \VIDTH OF SPAN OR OPENING, IN EVERY
PART OF THE COUNTRY.

To establish a general mode of constructing wooden
and iron Bridges, and which mode of construction shall,
at the same time, be the most simple, permanant, and
economical, both in erecting and repairing, has been, for
a long time a desideratum of great importance to a coun—
try so extensive, and interspersed with so many wild and
majestic rivers, as ours is. It has been too much the
custom for architects and builders to pile together mate-
rials, each according to his own ideas of the scientific
principles and practice of Bridge-building, and the result
has been, 1st. That nearly as many modes of construc-
tion have been adopted as there have been bridges built.
2d. That many have answered no purpOse at all, and
others but very poorly, and for a short time, while most

of the best ones have cost a sum which deters and puts
44 ‘

 

 

it out of the power of probably five-sixths of those inter-
ested in ferries, to substitute bridges, which would obvi-
ate the many dangers and delays incident to them.

That architects and butlders adhere to their own ideas
in the construction not only of bridges, but of buildings,
is most universally true; they are obstinately opposed
to the adoption of any other mode than their own, con-
sequently it is as true, and it is seen to he so, through-
out the country, (and it is much to be regretted,) that
in very few instances either in erecting bridges or build-
ings, there is any model, either uniform, or, in general,
very good. But in bridges and public buildings, it would
seem, something better might be expected, if men scien-
tifically and practically acquainted with such subjects,
would step forward, in a disinterested manner, and de-
termine between principles which are philosophical, and
those which are not, and between modes of execution
which are founded in practice and experience, and those
which are founded in ignorance and inexperience ; and
in matters of taste, if they would determine in favor of
classic and well-established taste, and that which is the
offspring of unimproved minds and whimsical fancies,
which are ever upon the rack to establish new things,
the creation of their own imaginations; and which are

 

174

therefore sure to be wrong, for this good reason, that their
authors are so.

Perhaps the following proposition comprises what is the
most important io be determined with regard to a general
system of Bridge-building, viz.

By what construction or arrangement will the'least
quantity ‘of materials, and cost of labor, erect abridge of
any practicable span or opening between piers or abut-

 

ments, to be the strongest and most permanent, and to ad— .
mit of the easiest repair? I
In giving the best answer». to this proposition, which I I
am capable of, after a number of years’ attention to the I
theory and practice of this subject,_I shall refer to Plate
99. The mode of construction is so simple and plain to
inspection, as to require little explanation ofit.

FIG. 1, is an elevation of one of the trusses of a
bridge; one, two, or three of those trusses placed verti-
cally upon piers, are to be considered as the support of
the bridge, and are to be of a height, at least, sufficient
to admit a wagon to pass under the upper beams, which
lie horizontally upOn the top string-piece of the side
trusses ; and onthese same side—string pieces, rest the feet
ofrafters which form a roof to shingle upon. In this case,
a middle truss is used, which will always be necessary in
bridges of considerable'width; the height of it will be
as much greater than the side ones as the height or pitch
of the roof. The height of the trusses must be equal to
the whole height of the bridge required, and is to be an
exact continuation of the work represented in FIG. 1.

The height of the trusses is to be proportioned to the
width of the openings between the piers or abutments,
and may be about one—tenth of the openings, when the
piers are fifteen feet or more apart—a less span re-
quiring about the same height, for the reasons before
stated. -

The diagonal bearing of these trusses is composed
ofsawed plank ten or eleven inches wide, and from their
to three and a half inches thick; it may be sawed from l
any timber that will last well, when kept dry. White
pine and spruce are probably the best kinds of timber
for the purpose, on account of their lightness, and their
not being so subject to spring or warp as white oak.

The nearer those braces are placed to each other, the
more strength will the truss have, and in no case are
they to be halved or gained, where they intersect each
other ; but they are to stand in close contact, depending
entirely on three or four trunnels, which go through each

 

 

 

 

 

 

joint or intersection, and where the string-pieces pass

BRIDGES.

over these joints the trunnels go through them also, and
are each of them wedged at each end to keep the timber
in close contact: a chain or clamp is necessary to bring
the work tight together. .

Trunnels may be made of white oak, one and a half
inches in diameter. They are made very cheaply and
excellently, by being rived out square, and driven while
green or wet, through a tube fitted to a block and ground
to an edge at the top end; they are then to be seasoned,
before they are used.

The string-pieces are composed of two thicknesses of
plank, ofabout the same dimensions as the braces, and
they are so put together as to break joints as shown at
FIG. 4.. This renders long hewn timber unnecessary,
as also any labor in making splices, and putting on iron
work.

For any span or opening, not exceeding one hundred
and thirty feet, one string-piece at top and one at bottom
of each truss, if of a good proportion and well secured,
will be sufficient; but as the span is extended beyond
one hundred and thirty feet, two or more at top and
bottom would be required, as shown in FIG. 1, where
two string—pieces run over the two upper and lower series
of joists or intersections of the braces, and in wide spans
the floor-beams may be placed on the second string-piece,
as shown at FIG. 1.

FIG. 5, shows on a larger scale how each joint is
secured, by which it is seen that the trunnels take hold
of the whole thickness of each piece.

FIG. 4, is a section of a bridge of this construction,
and shows the manner in which the braces and string»
pieces come together, and also the manner of making the
floor of the bridge, and of butting beams and braces
overhead, which are to be connected with the middle
truss for the purpose of bracing the bridge against lateral
rack or motion. Very flat pitched roofs will be prefera—
ble, as it will, in that case, be a greater support to the
upper part of the bridge.

a a. a a, FIG. 1, show the elevation of the roof.

FIG. 2, is the floor or plan of the bridge, showing the
mode of bracing and the floor-joist.

FIG. 4, is a View of the bottom or top edge of the
string-piece, and shows how the joints are broke in
using the plank, and also how the trunnels are dis-
turbed.

This mode of construction will have the same advan-
tages in iron as in wood, and some in cast-iron which
wood has not, viz. that of reducing the braces in size

 

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,BRIDGES.

between the joints, and of casting flaunches to them
where they intersect, thereby making it unnecessary to
have more than one bolt and nut to each joint or inter-
section.

When it is considered that bridges, covered from
the weather, will last seven or eight times as long as
those not covered, and that the cheapness of this tnode
will admit of its being generally adopted, with openings
or spans between piers composed of piles, and at a dis-
tance of one hundred and twenty to one hundred and
sixty feet apart, then the construction of long bridges

over mud bottomed rivers, like those at 'Washington, 1
Boston, Norfolk, Charleston, 65c. will be perceived to .
be of great importance, especially as the common mode ,

of piling is so exposed to freshets, uncommon tides,
drift wood, and ice, as not to ensure safety or economy
in covering them, and consequently continual repairs
and often rebuilding them, become necessary. There
is very little, if any, doubt that one halfof the expense,
computing stock and interest, that would be required
to keep up, for one hundred years, one of the common
pile bridges, like those at Boston, would be sufficient to
maintain one built in this new mode, keep it covered,
and have all or nearly all the piers built with stone at
the end of the one hundred years. If this be the case,
it would be great economy to commence rebuilding, by
The saving, in the one article
of floor-planks, if kept dry, would be very great, as by

degrees, in this manner.

being so much wet they rot and wear out in about half

the time.

For aqueduct bridges of wood or iron, no other
mode can be as cheap or answer as well; this mode
has equal advantages also in supporting wide roofs of
buildings, centres of wide arches in masonry, trussed
floorings, partitions, sides of wood towers, steeples, dcc.
61.0. of public buildings, as it requires nothing more
than common planks instead of long timber-being much
cheaper, easier to raise, less subject to wet or dry rot,
and requiring no iron work.

Some of the advantages of constructing bridges ac-
cording to this mode are the following:

1. There is no pressure against abutments or piers,
as arched bridges have, and consequently perpendicular
supports orily are necessary; this saving in wide arches
is very great, sometimes equal to a third part of the
whole expense of the bridge.

2. The shrinking of timber has little or no effect,
as the strain upon each plank of the trusses, both of the

 

 

 

 

 

 

175 I

   
 
 

wise of the wood. ‘ , W,

3. Suitable timber can be easily procured arid aned
at common mills, as it requires no large or long tim-
ber — defects in timber may be discovered, and wet and
dry rot prevented much more easily than could be in
large timber.

4. There is no iron work required, which at best is
not safe, especially in frosty weather.

5. It has less motion than is common in bridges, and
which is so injurious and frequently fatal to bridges—
and being in a horizontal line, is much less operated upon
by winds.

6. A level road-way is among the most important
advantages of this tnode of construction.

7. The side-trusses serve as a frame to cover upon,
and thereby save any extra weight of timber, except the
covering itself—and the importance and economy of
covering bridges from the weather, is too well under-
stood to need reommendation after the experience which
this country has already had.

8. Draws for shipping to pass through, may with per-
fect safety be introduced in any part of the bridge,
without weakening as in arched bridges, where the
strength and safety of the arches depend so much on
their pressure against each other and abutments, that a

; draw, by destroying the connection, weakens the whole

 

superstructure.

9. The great number of nearly equal parts or joints
into which the strain, occasioned by a great weight upon
the bridge, is divided, is a very important advantage
over any other mode, as by dividing the strain or stress

: into so many parts, that which falls upon any one part

or joint is easily sustained by it without either the mode
of securing the joints, or the strength of the materials
being sufficient. '

10. The expense of the superstructure of a bridge
would not be more than frotn one half to two-thirds of
other modes of constructing one over the same span or
opening; this is a very important consideration, espe-
cially in the southern and western States, where there
are many wide rivers, and a very scattered population to
defray the expenses of bridges.

11. This mode of securing the braces by so many
trunnels, gives them much more strength when they are in
tension-strain than could be had in the common mode
of seeming them by means of tenons and mortices; for
tenons being short, and not very thick, compared with

 

   

176

this mode, not having so moch hold of the pins or trun-
nels as in this case, will, of course, have much less
power to sustain a tension or pulling strain; and it is
obvious that this strain is in many cases equal to, and in
others greater than, the thrust or pushing strain. It is
also very obvious, that this pushing or thrust strain in the
niode of tenons and mortices receives very little addi-
. .tional strength from the shoulders of the tenons, as the
A shrinkage of the timber into which the tenon goes, is
generally so much as to let the work settle so far as to
give a motion or vibration, which, in time, renders them
weak and insuflicien t.

12. Should any kind of arched bridge, for any reason,
be preferred, however, it may he arched either at top or
bottom, or both, still this same mode of combining the
materials, will have all the advantages as to cheapness
and strength, over the common ones of framing, as in
the case of the horizontal or straight ones before de-
scribed. In cases where abutments are already built, it
may sometimes be preferred.

Side-walks may with equal ease be constructed, either
on the outside or inside of the main body of the bridge,
which particular, as also the great strength of the mode,
65c. may be better seen by examination of the models
which are (or soon will be) placed in most of the prin-
cipal cities of the United States, and no merit is either
desired or claimed in this new mode of construction, by
the patentee, which the mode itself does not command,
even on the most strict philosophical investigation as to
its mathematical principles, the easy, practicable, and
advantageous application of materials, the advantages it
possesses in mechanical execution, and its simplicity,
strength, economy and durability, as a general and
uniform mode of Bridge—building.

V Science and practice will, in a short time, decide on
this question so important to this extensive country.

I shall conclude this article by a few ideas, taken from
the celebrated Robert Fulton’s treatise on canal naviga.
tion, page 117, and subsequent pages.

In England, the attention of engineers has oflate years
been much engaged on bridges of iron. These bridges,
as experience produces courage, are progressively en-
larging their dimensions, nor should I be surprised if
genius should in time produce the mechanic rainbow of
one thousand feet over wide and rapid rivers. ln cross
ing the rivers in such countries as Russia and America,
an extensive arch seems to be a consideration of the first

 

 

BRIDGES. ’

importance, as the rivers or even rivulets, in time of ram
suddenly swell to a great height, and in the spring, on
breaking up of ice, the immense quantity which is borne
down with a rapid stream would, if interrupted by small
arches and piers, collect to such a weight as ultimately
to bear away the whole. It is therefore necessary that
in such situations, an arch should be extended as far as
possible, and so high as to suffer everything to pass
through, or the inhabitants must, without some other
expedient, submit their passage to the casualities of the
weather.

The important objection to bridges of wood is their
rapid decay, and this objection is certainly well founded
when particular situations are alluded to where timber
is scarce, and consequently expensive. But in such
countries as America, where wood is abundant, I conceive
it will be a fair criterion to judge of their application by
calculating on the expense of a bridge of stone, and one
of wood, and then compare the interest of the principal
saved in adopting the wood bridge, with the expense of
its annual repairs.

I have before exhibited the necessity of constructing
bridges in America of an extensive span or arch, in
order to suffer the ice and collected waters to pass with—
out interruption; and for this purpose it must be ob—
served that a wood arch may be formed of a much
greater length or span than it is possible to erect one of
stone; hence wooden bridges are applicable to many
situations where accumulated waters, bearing down trees
and fields of ice, would tear a bridge of stone from its
foundation.

It therefore becomes of importance to render bridges
of’ wood as permanent as the nature of the material will
admit. _

Hitherto, in bridges not covered from theiweatber, the
immense quantity of mortices and tenons, which, how~
ever well done, will admit air and wet, and consequently
tend to expedite the decay of the weak parts, has been a
material error in constructing bridges of wood.

But to render wood bridges of much more importance
than they have hitherto been considered —first, from
their extensive span; secondly from their durability;
two things must be considered, first that the wood
works should stand clear of the stream in every part, by
which it never would have any other weight to sustain
than that ofthe usual carriages ; secondly, that it will be
so combined as to exclude as much as possible the air
and rain, '

 

 

 

  

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BRIDGES.

When the true principle of building bridges of wood
is discovered, their progressive extension is as reasonable
as the increased dimensions of shipping; which, in early

extended the art of ship-building to two thousand tons,"

and in the combination and arrangement of the various, .
and complicated parts, there certainly is more genius and. '

labor required than in erecting a bridge of five hundred,
or one thousand feet span; but the great demand for

shipping has rendered their formation familiar, and their'

increased bulk has gradually grown upon our senses.
But had a man, in the infancy of naval architecture,
hinted at a vessel of two thousand tons, I am inclined to

think his contemporary artists would have branded him ‘

as a madman.

Note.

Those who wish to purchase rights, and to obtain par-
ticular directions for building bridges according to this
improvement, will please to write to me at the City of
Washington, in the district of Columbia, where myself or
an agent will at all times attend promptly to the business.

ITHIEL TOWN.

 

WATERLOO BRIDGE.
PLATE 100.

This bridge thrown over the river Thames, at London,
was projected by Mr. George Dodd, about the year
1903. Considerable time, however, elapsed before the
ultimate arrangements necessary to carry it into execu-
The first act was obtained in the month
of June, 1800, and incorporated the proprietors under
the name of the ‘ Strand—Midge Company,’ empowering
them to raise the sum of £300,000 in transferable shares
of £100 each ; and the further sum of £300,000, by the
issuing new shares, or by mortgage, in ease it should be
found necessary. In July, 1813, a second act was passed
enabling them to raise an additional sum of £200,000;

and 10 July, 1816, a third act was obtained, granting the

tion were made.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Li

the bridges f Blackfriars and Westminster.

177

‘conipany further powers, 851d changing the name from
{Strand-bridge to Waterloo-liihdge, winch; ~ame it now
'bear.s ‘4?”
ages, was deemed a great work if they amounted to one": “i
hundred tons burthen; but time and experience have.

 

Mr. Rennie, having been appemted’engineer to the
company on the 23d day of June, 1810, furnished two

designs, one of seven and the other of nine arches, the
Zlatter of which was finally approved by the commitee

and ordered to be put in execution

This noble bridge -1s situated about half Way between
The river
at this place 18 about 1 ,326 feet wide at high water; and
o1dinary spring tides rise about lafeet, and ordinaiy neap
tides about 9 feet 6 inches. 'Ther‘greatestrdepthat low
water is about 9 feet. The held of the river is composed
principally of a stratum of sand and gravel resting upon

clay. . g

The bridge 1s level, and consists of nine semi— —elliptica
arches, each having a span of 120 feet, and a rise of 35
feet; thus leaving for the navigation 30 feet, of clear
height above the high water of spring tides, and forming
an ample water-way of 1,080 feet. The abutments are
40 feet thick at the bases, and diminish to 30 feet at the
springing of the arches. Their lengths, including the
stairs, are 140 feet. The piers are 30 feet broad at the
base, and diminish to two-thirds at the springing of the
arches. Their lengths at the bases are 87 feet. The
points or saliant angles, of the piers are in the form of a
Gothic arch, and are terminated above by two three-quar-
ter columns, supporting an entablature which forms a re-
cess. The whole is surmounted with a baluster and a
frieze and cornice of the Grecian Doric. The columns are
Doric also, and were selected on account of the extraordi-
nary strength of their proportions, as being best suited
to a structure of this magnitude ; they are 23 feet 9
inches high, or rather more than four diameters.

The clear width between the parapets is 42' feet 4
inches; allowing 28 feet 4 inches for the carriage-way,
and '7 feet for each of the foot-paths.

Four plying places, or stairs, for watermen, are formed
by circular wings, projecting at right angles to the bridge,
with archways leading to the road-way. These wings are
ornamented with columns, entablatures, &c. as before
(lesbribed.

The bridge being level, and of so great a length, it be-
came necessary to provide means for carrying off the
rain—water. This is effected by having circular openings
in the centre of each pier, which enter the river imme-
diately below low-water mark : these openings are con-

178

nected with iron branch pipes up to the level of the
road—way, where gratings are placed to receive the
water.

The roads, or approaches, to each end of the pier, are
'70 feet wide throughout, except just at the entrance into
the strand, and are carried over a series of semi—circular
brick arches of 16 feet span each. The Surry or south—
ern approach is formed by 39 of these, besides an ellip-
tical arch of 26 feet span, over the narrow wall road, and
a small embankment about one hundred and sixty-five
yards long, having an easy and gradual ascent of not more
than 1 foot in 34 feet.

The length of the brick: arches in the Sur—

1y approach Is 766 feet.
Ditto of those 1n the Strand approach 310 feet.
Total length of the bridge from the ends

of the abutments, 1,380 feet.
Total length of the bridge and b1ick

arches, .,2 456 feet.

FIG. 1 exhibits a longitudinal section of one of the
arches, the adjacent piers, and pat of the next adjacent

l

= building.

 

BRIDGES.

arches, with the elevation of one of the trusses {011111110
the centre. The curve of equilibrium passes th1ough the
middle of the length of the a1ch stones, or very nea1ly
so. The hollows over the pie1s are raised to the level
of the summits of the arches by parallel b1ick vs alls, and
connected with blocks of stone from wall to wall, for
supporting the road-way.

The centerng was composed of eight trusses. It is
one thousand two hundred and fifty feet long, has nine
elliptical arches of one hundred and twenty feet span
over the river, with piers twenty feet thick, built entirely
of granite, and forty brick arches fo1 a causeway on the
Surry side. This plate 1s given with a View of showing
the const1uction of masonl y, as generally applied to blidge-
The geometIical p1inciple of constructing
arches, and drawing the joint lines so as to be perpen-
cular to the curve, is sufliciently explained in Plate 96,
FIG. 2.

FIG 2. The horizontal section showing the b1 ick walls,
as a, a, (LC. \1 hlch a1e cme1ed \\ 1th stone:
foundation of the pie1s at 11,11,650.

also the

 

~ GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS.

 

ABACUS. The upper number Of' the Capital of' a Column
whereon the .Architrave rests. In the Corinthian order its ‘.

four sides recede inwardly in segments of circles on the p an,
and are decorated in the centre with a flower or other orna‘
ment. The original obj ect in its use was doubtless to give
breadth to the top of the column, and prepare a large level
bed for the reception of the Entablature.

Scamozzi uses this term for a concave moulding in the
Capital of the Tuscan Pedestal, which, considering its ety-
mology, is an error.

ABUTMENT. The solid part of a pier from which an arch

springs.

ACANTHUS. A plant called in English Bear’s Breech, whose

leaves are employed for decorating the Corinthian and Com-
posite Capitals. _

The leaves of the Acanthus are used on the bell of the
Capital, and distinguish the‘two rich orders from the three
others. In those two orders they are however difl‘erently
disposed, as may be seen by reference to the plates of the
Corinthian and Composite orders in this work.

In the Composite Capitals of the Arches of Titus and-
Septimus Severus, the leaves seem, from their strong inden-
tations, to be meant to represent Parsley leaves. Those in
the Temple of Vesta at Home differ from the Acanthus, and
are usually denominated Laurel leaves.

Acconmxnmxrs. Buildings or ornaments, having a necessa-

ry connection or dependence, and which serve to make a de-
sign more or less complete a characteristic peculiarity of
ornaments.

ACCOUPLEMENT. Among carpenters, atie orbrace; sometimes

the entire work when framed.

ACROTERIA. The small Pedestals placed on the extremities

 

 

and apex, of a Pediment. They are usually without bases
or plinths, and were originally intended to bear statues.

Vitruvius gives rules for their dimensions. Some use the
word Acroterion to express a figure of stone or metal placed
on the top of a building ; but in its strict meaning it can only
be applied to the pedestals above mentioned.

ADMEASUREMENT. Adjustment of proportions ; technically, an
estimate of the quantity of materials and labor of any kind
used in a building. .

ALCOVE. The original and strict meaning of this word, which
is derived from the Spanish fllcoba, is that part of a bed
chamber in which the bed stands, and is separated from the
other parts of' the room by Columns or Pilasters. The seats
in gardens have however in this country been expressed by
this term.

AMPHIPROSTYLE. In ancient Architecture, a Temple with Col-
umns in the rear as well as in the front.

AMPHITHEATRE. A double theatre, of an elliptical form on the
ground plan, for the exhibition of the ancient gladiatorial
fights and other shows. Its arena, or Pit, in which those
exhibitions took place, Was encompassed with seats rising
above each other ; and the exterior had the accommodation
of porticos or arcades, for the public. It was distinguished
from the theatres, by its consisting of two theatres, placed
end to end, thus, (I) _

The remains of tour very considerable Amphitheatres are
still in existence; that of Pola, in Istria; the Coliseum, at
Rome, built by Vespasian ; one at Verona 3 and the fourth in
Languedoc, near Nismes —-besides some others.

Ancomns. The Consoles or ornaments cut on the keys of
Arches, sometimes serving to support busts ‘or other figures.

ANNULET. A small square Moulding, which crowns or ac-

180

companies a larger. Also that fillet which separates the
flutings of a column. It is sometimes called: a list, or It's e la
~—wliich see. A

ANTIE. A name given to pilasters attached to a wall. , Vi-
truvius calls them' parastatw when insulated. They are
not pfdiminished, and in all the Greek examples their capi-
talifiare different from those of the columns, they accom-
pany- : , . / . ,

APOPHYGE.. That part of a Column between the upper fillet of
the base and the cylindrical part of the shaft of the column,
which is usually curved into it by a cavetto.

AQUEDUCT. An artificial Canal for the conveyance of water
either aboveor under ground. The Reman aqueducts are
mostly in theformer predicament. _ .

ARJEOSTYLE. That style of building in whigh the Columns are
distant four, and sometimes five, diameters from each other 3
but the former is the proportion to which the term is usually
applied. This columnar arrangement is suited to theTus-
can order only. .

ARCADE. A series of" arches, of apertures, or recesses, a con-
tinued covered vault, or arches supported on piers or col-
umns instead of galleriesr In Italian towns the streets are
lined with arcades like those of Covent Garden and the
Royal Exchange. , .

ARCH. An artful arrangement of' bricks, stones, or other mate-
rials, in a curvilinear form, which by their mutual pressure
and support perform the office of‘ a lintel, and carry superin-
cumbent weights, -- the whole resting at its extremities upon
piers or abutments.

ARCHEION. The most retired and secret place in Grecian tem-
ples, used as a treasury, wherein were deposited the richest
treasures pertaining to the deity, to Whom the temple was
dedicated. .

ACHITECT. One who designs and superintends the erection
of buildings.

ARCHITRAVE. The lower of the primary divisions of the En-
tablature. It is placed immediately upon the abacus of' the
capital.

ASTRAGAL. From the Greek word for abone in the foot, to
which this moulding was supposed to bear a resemblance.
A small moulding, whose profile is semi-circular, and
which bears also the name of Talon or Tondz'no. The
Astragal is often cut into beads and berries, and used in or-
namented entablatures to separate the faces of the Archi-
trave. .

ATTIC. A term that expresses any thing invented or much
used in Attica, or the City of Athens. A low story erected
over an order of architecture, to finish the upper part of the
building, being chiefly used to conceal the roof, and give
greater dignity to the design.

ATTIC BASE. See Base.

ATTIC ORDER. An order of low Pilasters, generally placed
over some other order of Columns. It is improperly so

, called, for the arrangement can scarcely be called an order.

BALCONY. A projection from the surface of a wall, support-
ed by consoles or pillars, and surrounded by a balustrade.

 

 

 

 

 

GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS.

BALUSTER. A small Pillar or Pilaster, serving to support a rail.
Its form is of' considerable variety, in different examples.
Sometimes it is round, at other times square; it is adorned
with mouldings and other decorations, according to the rich-
ness of the order it accompanies.

BALUSTRADE. A connected range of a number of Balusters on
Balconies, Terraces round altars, &c.—See Baluster.

BAND. A term used to express what is generally called a
Face, or Facia. It more properly means a flat low square
profiled member, without respect to its place. That from
which the Corinthian or other modillions, or the dentiles
project, is called the Modillion Band, or the Dentile Band,
as the case may be.

BANDELET. A diminutive of the foregoing term, used to ex-
press any narrow flat moulding. The taznia on the Doric
architrave is called its Bandclet.

BANKER. [A stone bench on which masons cut and square
their work.

BANQUET. The footway of a Bridge raised above the Car
liege—way.
BARREL DRAIN. A drain of the form of a hollow cylinder.

BASE. The lower part of a column, moulded or plain, on
which the Shaft is placed.

The world also signifies any support, but is in decorative
architecture mostly used in the above sense. The earliest
columns, as those of the Grecian Doric, were without bases,
standing immediately on the floor or pavement of the por—
tico. The Tuscan base has only a single torus or round
member on the plinth; the Roman Doric, a torus and an
astragal; the Ionic a single large torus placed over two
slender scotize, which are separated by the astragals. The
Corinthian base has two tori, two scotiaa, and two astragals.
The composite has a double astragal in the midlle.

Besides the above, there is another species, denomina—
ted the Attic Base. This base consists of' two tori and a
scotia. The former are of different dimensions, the upper
one being the least, and are separated from the scotia
by a fillet on the top of one and at the bottom of the other.

BASEMENT. The lower part or story of a building, on which
an order is placed, with a base or plinth, die and cornice.

BASIL. A word used by Carpenters &c. to denote the angle to
which any edge tool is ground and fitted for cutting wood
&c.

BASIN, en Coquille, that is shaped like a shell.

BASIN, is likewise used For a dock.

BASKET. A kind of' vase in the form of' a basket filled with
flowers or fruits, serving to terminate some decoration.

BASSILICA. ATown or Court Hall, a Cathedral, a Palace
where Kings administered justice. This name is particularly
applied at Rome, to the Churches of' Sanli Croce (li Geru
salemme, San Giovanni Lalcrano, Sanli Alarm JlIaggz'or-e,
San Lorenzo, fuom' le mum, San Paola, Sun Sebastiano, and
San Pietro del Vaticuno.

BASSO-RELIEVO, on BAS RELIEF. The representation of fig—
ures projecting from a back ground, without being detached
from it. Though this word, in general language, implies all
kinds of Relievos, from that. of coins, to more than one half
of the thickness from the back ground.

. a slw

“idly”.

 

‘ i . £3

GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS. ' V v 181

BATH. A receptacle of water appropriated for the purpose of
bathing.

BATTEN. A scantling of stuff, from two to six inches broad,
and from g to two inches thick, used in the boarding Of floors;
also upon walls, in order to secure the lath on which the
plaster is laid. I

BATTER. When a wall is built in a direction that is not per-
pendicular.

BATTLEMENTS. Indentations on the top of a parapet, or wall,
first used in ancient fortifications; and afterwards applied,to
churches and other buildings.

READ AND FLUSH woarr. A piece of panel work, with a bead
run on each edge of the included panel. -

BEAD AND Bur WORK. A piece of framing in which the pan-
els are flush, having beads stuck or run upon the two edges
with the grain of the wood in their direction.

BED MOULDINGS. Those mouldings in all the orders between
the corona and frieze.

BOSSAGE. ( AFrench term.) Any projection left rough on
the face of a stone for the purpose of sculpture, which is
usually the last thing finished. ,

BOULTIN. A name given to the moulding, called the egg or
quarter round.

BULK. A piece of timber from 4 to 10 inches square, and is
sometimes called ranging timber.

CABLING. The filling up of the lower part of the fluting of a
column, with a solid cylindrical piece. Flutings thus treat-
ed are said to be cabled.

Cussox. A name given to the sunk panels of various geo-
metrical forms, symmetrically disposed in flat or vaulted ceil-
ings, or in soffits generally. Caisson, when applied to
bridge building, &c., is a large chest made water tight,
framed of timbers, sometimes used in large and deep rivers,
for the purpose ofbuilding piers upon.

CAMPANA. The body of the Corinthian capital, otherwise
from its figure called the vase or ball.

CAPITAL. The head or uppermost part ofa column or pilaster.
The capitals Of the several orders differ as fOIIOWsz—the
Tuscan capital consists of an abacus or square piece at the
top, under which is an ovolo or quarter round, and under
that a neck, terminated by an astragal or fillet, which latter
is consid as belonging to the shaft of the column. The
Romanr'ifii'ic capital has an abacus, ovolo, and neck like
the Tusea , b . , in addition, has three annulets under the
ovolo and aci‘fi: ogee, with its fillet over the} abacus.
The Grecian” . , however, has only a square abacus,
ovolo, and small fillets. The Ionic capital consists of three
principal parts—an abacus composed of an ogee and fillet, a
rind which forms the scrolls, and an ovolo and astragal at
bottom. The Corinthian consists of an abacus of peculiar
form, and a bell covered with leaves and stalks : the leaves
forming its under part, and lks rising between them,
and turning doWn in the f0 ’ 'rolls when they reach the
abacus. The Composite capita rrows an ovolo from the
Doric, and volutes from the Ion : and a double tier of leaves
from the Corinthian. =‘ j

46

 
  
  

 

CARPENTER. An artifiCer whose. business is to cut, fashion,
and join timbers together, and other woodgfor the purpose
of building: the word is formed from this" French charpew
tier, derived from charpentie, which signifies timber. a,

CARPENTRY, or that branch which is to elaim our

 
 
   

'9 try shows the lines or methods for forming every 8"”. _
work in plane, by the rules of Geometry; Constructive tir-
pentry, the practice of reducing the wood into particular
forms, and joining the forms so produced, so as to make
a complete whole, according to the intention Of the design:
and Mechanical carpentry displays the relative strength of
the timbers, and the strains to which they are Subjected by»
their disposition. . 1

CARTOUCH. The same as m ,7 ‘lion, except that it is exclu-
sively used to signify those blocks or modillions at the caves
of a house.—See Modillion.

CARYATIDES. Figures ofwomen, which serve instead of col-
umns to support the entablature. Their origin, as asserted
by Vitruvius, in representing the captive women of Carya,
is doubtful. It is probableithat they were originally statues
in honor of Diana. '

CASEMENT. The same as Scotia, which see—also the term
used for a sash hung upon hinges.

CAULICULUS. The volute or twist under the flower in the CO-
rinthian capitaL

CAVETTO. A hollow moulding, whose profile is a quadrant of
a circle, principally used in cornices.

T CELL. See Naos.

; CINCTURE. A ring, list, or fillet, at the top or bottom ofa col-
umn, serving to divide the shaft of the column from its cap-
ital and base.

COLUMN. A member in architecture of a cylindrical form, con-
sisting ofa base, a shaft or body, and a 'capital. It differs
from the pilaster, which is square on the plan. Columns
should always stand perpendicularly.

COMPOSITE ORDER. One of the orders of Architecture.

CONGE. Another name for the echinus, or quarter round, as
also for the cavetto: the former is called the Swelling Conge,
the latter the Hollow Conge.

 

 

 

‘1 CONSOLES. See Ancones.

‘ CORBEL on CORBEILLE. A short piece of timber or stone let

i into a wall half its lengh or more, as the burthen super—

I imposed may require, to carry a weight above it, project-
ing from the general face of the work: it is carved in various

I fanciful ways; the commonest form' is, however, that of an

i Ogee.

CORINTHIAN ORDER. One of the orders of Architecture.

CORNICE. The projection, consisting of several members,

which crowns or finishes an e‘ntablature, or the body or part
to which it is annexed. The cornice used on a pedestal is
called the cap of the pedestal. ' . _

’ CORONA, is .that flat, square and massy member of a cornice,
more usually called the ifiip or larinier, whose situation is
between the eyrnatium above, and the bed moulding below.
Its use is to carry the water, drop by drop, from the build-

ing.

 

 

 

182 _ , GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS.

CORRIDOR. A gallery or open communication to the different
apartments of a house.

CORSA. he name given by Vitruvius to a piatband or square

facia, hose height 1s more than its projecture.

-CUPOQ§ 'A small roonr, either circular or polygonal, standing
' he tOp of the dome. By some it is called a lantern.
'"j'NED. See Frieze.

CY‘MA, called also CYMATIUM, its name arising from its re-
semblancerto a wave. A moulding which is hollow in its
upper part and swelling below.

There are, however, two sorts: the Cyma Recta, just de-
scribed,—and the Cyma Reversa, whose upper part swells,
whilst the lowest part is hollow.

 

DECAG'ON. A plain figure, having ten sides and angles.

DECASTYLE. A building having ten columns in front.

DECEMPEDA. (decem, ten, andpes, foot, Lat.), a rod of ten
feet, used by the ancients in measuring. It was subdivided
into twelve inches in each foot, and ten digits in each inch 3
like our surveyors’ rods used in measuring short distances,
8w.

DECIMAL SCALE. Scales of this kind are used by draftsmen,
to regulate the dimensions of their drawings. They are
generally of the denomination of}. ior 2; inch in the first di-
visions, and subdivided into ten parts each , a pair of propor-
tional dividers may be used for the same purpose, with great-
er accuracy and expedition.

DECORATION. Any thing that enriches or gives beauty and
ornament to the orders of Architecture, such as foliage,
sculpture, &c., exemplified more particularly in the capitals
of the Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite, and the various en-
tablatures, as the temple of Erectheus, at Athens, the tem-
ple of J upitor Stator, at Rome, and the Arch of Titus.

DEMI-METOPE. The half of a metope, which is found at the
retiring or projecting angles of a Doric frieze.

DENTILES. Small square blocks or projections used in the bed
mouldings of the cornice in the Ionic, Corinthian, Compos-
ite, and sometimes Doric, orders. Their breadth should be
half their height, and their interval according to Vitruvius,
two thirds of their breadth. The Greeks were not accustom-
ed to use them under modillions.

DETAILS OF AN EDIFICE. Drawings or delineations for the
use of builders, otherwise called working plans.

DIAGONAL SCALE, is a scale subdivided into smaller parts by
secondary intersections or oblique lines.

DIAMETER. The line in a circle passing from the circumfer-
ence through the centre.

DIAMOND. A sharp instrument formed of that precious stone
and used for cutting glass,

DIASTYLE. That intercolumniation or space between col—
umns, consisting of three diameters —- some say four diam—
eters.

DIE, OR DYE. Anaked square cube. Thus the body of a
pedestal, .Or that part between its base and its cap, is called
the die of the pedestal. Some call the abacus the die of the

DIMENSION. (Dimetz‘er, Lat.) in geometry is eIther length
breadth, or thickness.
DIMINUTION. A term expressing the gradual decrease of

thickness in the upper part of a column.
DIPTERAL. A term used by the ancients to express a temple
with a double range of columns in each of its flanks.

DODECAGON. A regular polygon, with twelve equal sides and
angles.

DODEC ASTYLE.
DOME.

A building having twelve columns in front

An arched or vaulted roof springing from a polygo-

nal, circular or elliptic plane: when the base 1s a circular, it
is termed a cupola; when a polygon, it is a polygonal dome;
and when ellipsis, an elliptic dome.

DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE, is properly that branch of the art
which relates to private dwellings, including cottages, farm-
houses, 8w.

DORIC ORDER.

DOOKS.

One of the five orders of Architecture.

Flat pieces of wood of the shape and si e of a brick,
Inserted 1n brick walls, sometimes called plugs or wooden
bricks. .

DOOR. The gate or entrance of a house, or other building, or
of an apartment in a house.

DORMITORY Y. A sleeping room.

DRAWING, or VVITHDRAWING ROOM. .A large and elegant
apartment, into which the company withdraw after dinner
DRESSING ROOM. An apartment contiguous to the sleeping

room, for the convenience oi dressing.

DRIP. See Corona.

DROPS. See Guttae.

EOHINUS. The same as the ovolo or quarter round 3 but per—
haps it is only called Echinus with propriety, when carved
with eggs and anchors. Echinus is the husk or shell of the
chestnut, to which it is said, perhaps erroneously, it bears a
resemblance.

EDG—ING. The reducing the edges of ribs or rafters, that they
may range together.

EDIFICE, is synonymous with the terms building, fabric,
erection; but the word Edifice is more strictly applicable to
architectural erections distinguished for grandeur, dignity,
and importance.

EFFECT. Considered in architecture as the result ‘of the sen-
sations, which the whole and the parts of an edifice together
ought to produce 011 the mind and the eye,’ is difficult to ap-
preciate trom simple designs. Nothing is more deceptive
than the simple delineations which architects make of their
works ; they are only remedied by great experience on
models.

ELBOWS OF A WINDOW.
each shutter.

ELEVATION. A geometrical projection drawn on a plane, per-
pendicular to the horizon.

EMBANKMENTS. Are artificial mounds of earth, stone, or
other materials, made to confine rivers, canals, and reser—
voirs of water within their prescribed limits; also for level-

The two paneled flanks, one under

 

 

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GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS. ' ' 183

ENCARPUS.
flowers, and leaves—See Festoon.

ENTARLATURE. The assemblage of parts supported by the col-
umn. It consists of three parts—the architrave, frieze, and
cornice. .

ENTAsrs. The slight curvature of the shafts of the ancient
Grecian columns, particularly the Doric, which is scarcely
perceptible, and beautifully graceful.

ENTRESOL. See. Mezzanine.

EPISTYLIUM. The same as Architrave, which see.

EUSTYLE. That intercolumniation, which, as its name would
import, the ancients considered the most elegant, viz. two
diameters and a quarter of the column. Vitruvius says this
manner of arranging columns exceeds all others in strength,
convenience, and beauty.

FACADE.
street, court, garden, or other place.

FACIA. A flat member in the entablature or elsewhere, being
in fact nothing more than a band or broad fillet. The arch-
itrave in the more elegant orders is divided into three bands:
these are called Faciae. The lower is called the first Facia,
the middle one the second, and the upper one the third
Facia.

FASTIGIUM. See Pediment.

FEATHER-EDGED BOARDS. Are narrow boards made thin on
one edge. They are used for the facings or boarding of
wooden walls.

FESTOON. An ornament of carved work, representing a wreath
or garland offlowers or leaves, or both interwoven with each
other. It is thickest in the middle, and small at each ex-
tremity, where it is tied, a part often hanging down below
the knot.

FILLET. The small square member, which is placed above or
below the various square or curved members in an order.

FLANK. The least side of a pavilion, by which it is joined to
the main building.

FLATNiNG, in inside house painting, is the mode of finishing
without leaving a gloss on the surface, which is done by add—
ing the spirits of turpentine to unboiled linseed oil.

FLIGHT OF STAIRS, is a series of steps, from one landing place

‘ to another.

FLOORS, The bottom of rooms.

FLUTINGS. The vertical channels on the shafts of columns,
which are-‘usually rounded at the top and bottom. In the
Doric order they are twenty in number; in the other orders,
the Tuscan excepted, which is never fluted, their number
is twenty-four. They are sometimes cabled—See Cabling.

FLYERs, are steps in a series, which are parallel to each other.

FOLDING DOORS, are made to meet each other from opposite
jambs, on which they are hung.

FOLIAGE. An ornamental distribution of leaves or flowers on
various parts of the building. .1...‘

FORE SHORTEN. A term applicabieto the drawings or designs
in which, from the obliquity of the view, the object is repre-
sented as receding from the oppglte side and the plane of
the projection...

The festoons on a frieze, consisting of fruits, '

 

The face or front of any considerable building to a 1

 

 

FOUNDATION. That part of a building or wall which is below
the surface of the ground.

FOOT. A measure of twelve inches, each inch. being three
barleycorns.
FR AME. The name given to the wood work of wiiidovvs, en-

closing glass, and the outward work of doors or windows, or
window shutters, enclosing panels , and in carpentry, to
the timber work supporting floors, roofs, ceilings, or to the
intersecting pieces of timbers forming partitions.

FRET. A kind of ornamental work, which is laid on aplane
surface: the Greek fret is formed by a series of right angles "
of fillets of various forms and figures.

FRIEZE, or FRIZE. The middle member in the entablature of
an order, which separates the architrave and the cornice.
In the Tuscan order it is always plain. In the Doric it is
ornamented with triglyphs. In the Ionic it is sometimes
swelled, and in the Corinthian and Composite is variously
decorated, at the pleasure of the architect. When it swells
in the Ionic order, it is called a pulvinated or cushioned
frieze.

FRONTISPIECE. The face or fore front of a house 3 but it is a
term more usually applied to its decorated entrance.

FRdi'tT. A name given to the principal interior facade of a
building.

FRUSTUM. A piece cut off from a regular figure: the frustum
ofa cone is the part that remains when the top is cut off by
an intersection parallel to its base, as the Grecian Doric col-
umn without a base.

FURRINc-s, are flat pieces of timber, plank, or board, used
by carpenters to bring dislocated work to a regular surs
face.

FUST.

The shaft ofa column. See Shaft.

GABLE. The upright triangular end of a building, in classical
architecture called a pediment.

GAGE. In carpentry, an instrument to strike a line parallel to
the straight side of any board or piece of stuff.

GAIN. The bevelled shoulder ofa binding joist.

GLYPIIS The vertical channels sunk in the triglyphs of the
Doric frieze.
GOLA, or GULA.
GORGE.

The same as Ogee, which see.

The same as Cavetto, which see.

GOUGE. A chisel of a semi-circular form.

GRANITE. A genus of stone much used in building, composed
chiefly of quartz, feldspar and mica, forming rough and
large masses of very great hardness.

GROIN ED CEILING. A surface formed of three or more curved
surfaces, so that every two may form a groin, all the groins
terminating at one extremity in a common point.

GROOVE, or .Morlise. The channel made by a joiner’s plane
in the edge of a moulding, style, or rail, to receive the tenon.

GROUND FLOOR. The lowest story ofa building.

GROUND PL ANE. A line forming the ground of a design or
picture, which line is a tangent to the surface of the face of
the globe , as aground line 18 any straight line serving as
the ground of the design.

 

 

 

' 184

\

GROUND PLOT. The ground on which a building is placed.
GROUNDS. Joiners give this name to narrow strips of wood
put in walls to receive the laths and plastering, flush with
' the outer surface at the base of rooms, the apertures of doors,
windows, chimney-pieces, 8L0. ,
GUTTm Or DROPS. Those frustra of cones in the Doric en-
tabl ‘ re which occur in the architrave below the twnia under
‘ each triglyph. They are also found in the under part of the
mutules or medillions of that order.
GUTTERS, are akind of canals in the roofs of houses, to re-
ceive and carry off rain water.

~HALVING. The junction of two pieces of timber, by inserting
one into the other; in some cases to be preferred to mortising.

 

 

HAND-RAILING. The art of forming hand—rails round circular
and elliptic well-holes without the use of the cylinder, and

supported by banisters inserted in the steps. It is the in- l JOINERY

vention of Mr. Peter Nicholson.

HANGING-STILE, of a door, is that to which the hinges are
fixed. !

HEEL or A RAFTER. The end or foot that rests upon the wall
plate.

HELICAL Line of a Hand-rail. The line, or spiral line, Tepre-
senting the form of the hand-rail before it is moulded.

HELIX. The curling stalk under the flower in the Corinthian
capital.——See Cauliculus.

HEM. The spiral projecting part of the Ionic capital.

HEXASTYLE. A building having six columns in front.

HoOK-PINs. The same as Draw bore—pins, to keep the tenons
in their place, while in the progress of framing: the pin has
a head or notch in the outer end to draw it at pleasure.

H‘YPJETHRAL. In the Open air uncovered by a roof.

HYPERTHYRON. The lintel ofa doorway.

HYPOTRACHELIUM. A term given by Vitruvius to the slender—
est part of the shaft of a column where it joins the capital.
It signifies the part under the neck.

ICHNOGRAPHY. The transverse section of a building, which

 

 

represents the. circumference of the whole edifice 5 the ditler~

ent rooms and apartments, with the thickness of the walls; l

the dimensions and situation of the doors, windows, chim- l
neys; the projection of columns, and every thing that could i
be seen in such a section, ifrcally made in a building.

IMPOST. The layer of stone or wood that crowns a door-post I
or pier, and which supports the base line of an arch or ar-
cade; it generally projects, and is sometimes formed of an
assemblage of mouldings. ‘ I

INCH. The twelfth part of a foot. For the purpose of reck- }
oning in decimal fractions; it is divided into ten parts or i
integers.

INCLINED PLANE. One of the mechanical powers, is used for
raising ponderous bodies, in many instances of immense
weight; a declivity Ora hill, ac. l

|
,
l

l

INSULAR COLUMN, is a column standing by itself.

INSULATED. Detached from another building. A church is
insulated, when not contiguous to any other edifice. A'I
column is said to be insulated when standing free from]

 

 

GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS.

any wall; thus the columns of peripteral temples were
insulated.
INTAGLIO. Any thing with figures in relief on it.
INTERCOLUMNIATION. The distance between two columns.
INTRADOS. The under curved surface or soffit of an arch.
INVERTED ARCHES. Such as have their intrados below the
centre or axis.

IONIC ORDER. One of the orders of architecture.

JACK PLANE. A plane about 18 inches long, to prepare
for the trying plane.

JACK RAFTERS. The jack timbers, which are fastened to the
hip rafters and the wall plates.

J AMBS. The side pieces of any opening in a wall, which bear
the piece that discharges the superincumbent weight of such
wall.

In building, is confined to the nicer and more orna-
mental parts, as carpentry is to the stronger and more pon-
derous 5 such as frames of buildings.

JOINTER. A tool used for straightening and preparing stuff
for joints, 8w. This jointer is about two feet 8 or 10 inches
long.

KERF. The slit or cut in a piece of timber, or in a stone, by a
saw.

KEY STONE. The stone in an arch, which is equally distant
from its springing extremities. In a circular arch there will
be two key stones, one at the summit, and the other at the
bottom thereof 5 in semi-circular, semi-elliptical arches, Sic.
it is the highest stone, and it is frequently sculptured on the
face and return sides.

KING PosT. The middle post in aroof.

LACUNAR, or LAQUEAR. The same as Sofiit, which see—It is
however to be observed, that it is a Lacunar only when
consisting of compartments sunk or hollowed, without the
separation of platbands or spaces between the panels. “'hen
they are added, it is called Laquear. "

LARMIER. Called also Corona, which see. -,. ,"-__

LATH. A narrow slip of wood li- to 1% inches ugh/19, i to 3
inch thick, and four feet long 5 used in plastering, to support
the mortar on walls and ceilings of buildings.

LEAVES. Ornaments representing natural leaves. The an-
cients used two sorts of leaves, natural and imaginary. The
natural were those of the laurel, palm, acanthus, and olive 5
but they took such liberties in the form of these, that they
might almost be said to be imaginary too.

LEVEL. A surface which inclines to neither side. There are
several instruments used to take levels: as, the air level 5
water level 5 pendulum level 5 reflecting level 5 mason’s
level 5 carpenter’s or brick-layer’s level, 8L0.

LINING. Covering for the interior, as casing is covering the
exterior surface of a building.

LINTEL. A piece of timber or stone phed horizontally over
a door, window, or other opening.

LIST, or LISTEL. The same as Fillet, or Annulet.

 

., "fi'b’mmiun- .

o
.1 7-. ’ .t‘air‘fl‘v . ‘1“ ' (Vi
GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS. 185
LIETINE. The cutting the sap-wood out from both edgesof a NICHE. A square. or cylindrical cavity in a wall or other solid.
oar . , ‘ +2 i

LUFFER BOARDING. The same as blind slats.

’ »

MECHANICAL CARPENTRY. That branch of carpentry which
teaches the disposition of the timbers according to their rela-
tive strength, and the straints to which they are subjected.

MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE. The architecture of England,
France, Germany, &c., during the middle ages, including
the Norman and early Gothic styles.

MEMBERS. (membrum, Lat.) The different parts of a build-
ing ; the different parts of an entablature 3 the different mould-
ings of a cornice, &c.

METOPE. The square space between two triglyphs of the Do-
ric order. It is sometimes left plain, at other times decorat-
ed with sculpture.

MEZZANINE. A low story introduced between two principal
stories. ‘

MINERVA POLIAS. A Grecian temple at Athens.

MINUTE. The sixtieth part of the diameter ofa column. It is
the subdivision by which architects measure the small parts
of an order.

MITRE. An angle offorty—five degrees, a half of a right angle.

Model. See Effect.

MODILLION. An ornament in the entablature of richer orders
resembling a bracket. Modillions are placed with the inter—
vention of one or two small members under the corona.
They should be so distributed that the centre of one should
always stand over the centre of a column. In the COIinth—
ian order they are enriched with carvings ,1 in the Ionic and
Composite. they are generally more simple.

T he term Mutule, which Is confined to the Doric order, is
in fact the same as the Modillion. The Inutules always
answer to the triglyphs.

MODULE. The semi—diamater of a column. This terms is
only properly used when speaking of the orders. As
a semi-diameter it consists of only thirty minutes—See
Minute. "

MosopTEEALg-r, Among the ancients, a circular sacred enclos-
ure by mea . f columns without a cell.

MOSAIC. A .. I of painting representing cubes of glass, &c. .,
and is formed of different colored stones, for paving, &c.
Specimens of this kind have been found among the ruins of
antiquity.

MOULDINGs. Those parts of an order which are shaped into
various curved or square forms.

MOUTH. The same ‘as Cavetto, which see.

MUTUI E. A projecting ornament of the Doric cornice which
occupies the place of the modillion In imitation of the ends
of rafters. See Plate 38, Fig. 3.

,1

 
 

NMAKEI) The unornamented plain surface of a wall, column,
or other part of a building. I

NAOS, or CELLA. The flrt of a temple within the walls.

N EWEL. The solid, or imaginary solid, when the stairs are
open in the centre, round wich the steps are turned about.

 

 

OBELISK. A tall slender frustrum of :8” pyramid, usually placed
on a pedestal“: The difference between an obelisk and a
pyramid, independent of the former, being only a portion of
the latter, is that it always has a small base in‘proportion to
its height. " '.

OCT ISTTLE A building with eight columns‘in front.

OGEE, or OGIVE. The same as Cyma, which see. 1

ORDER. An assemblage of parts, consisting of a base, shaft,
capital, architrave, frieze and cornice, whose several ser-
vices requiring some distinction in strength, have been con-
trived or designed in five several species—Tuscan, Doric,
Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite; each of which has its
ornaments, as well as general fabric, proportioned to its
strength and character. These are the five orders of ar-
chitecture, the proper understanding and application of
which constitute the foundation of: all excellence in the
art.

OaDomrINCE. The arrangement of a design and the disposi-
tion of Its several parts.

ORLE. (Ital. ) A fillet or band under the ovolo of the capital.
Palladio applies tl. e term also to the plinth of the base of a
column or pedestal.

OVOLO. A moulding sometimes calledaquarter round, rom
its profile, being the quadrant of a circle. When sculptured
it is called an Echinus which see.

OVUM. The same as Ovolo.

11.5%.

PANEL. A thin board having all its edges inserted in the
groove of a surrounding frame.

PARAPET. From the Italian Parapetto, breast high. The de-
fence round a terrace or roof of a building.

PARASTATE. Pilasters standing insulated.

PAVILION. A turret or small building generally insulated, and
comprised beneath a single roof. This name is also given
to the projecting parts in front of a building, which mark
the centre and which sometimes flanks a corner, when it
is termed an angular pavilion.

PEDESTAL. The substruction under a column or wall. A pe-
destal under a'cblumn consists of three parts,—the base,
the die, and the cOInice 01 cap.

PEDIMENT. The low triangular crowning ornament of the
front of a building, or of a door, windOw, or niche. Pedi- .
ments are however sometimes in the form of a segment
of a circle, when applied to doors and windows. The ped-
iment of a building is not unfrequently ornamented with
sculpture.

PERIPTERAL. ’ A term used by the ancients to express a building
encompassed by columns, fanning as it were an aisle round
the building. '6?!" -

PERISTYLJUM. In Greek and Roman houses, a court, square,
or cloister, which sometinies had a colonnade on three sides
only, and therefore in that case improperly so called.
There were other peristylia with a colonnade on each of

 

 

. PIER.

._ if
”dug

 

186

the four sides; that on the South side was sometimes high-
erthangthe rest. This species was called 'a Rhodian Per-
istrler” ‘ . .

PER‘SIMC/TIVE. Is the science which teaches us to dispose
they. Ines and shades of a picture, so as to,.represent, on
a/flgne, the image'of objects exactly as they appear in
nature. .

PIAZZA. A continued arch-way, or vaulting, supported by
pillars or columns 5 a portico.

A solid between the doors or the windows of abuild-

 

ing. The square or other formed mass or post to which a ‘l

gate is hung. The solid support from which an arch springs.
In a bridge, the pier next the shore is usually called an
Abutment Pier.

PIASTER. A square pillar engaged in a wall.

PILE. A stake or beam of timbers, driven firmly into the l

ground, to form the foundation of buildings, piers of
bridges, 81c. In foundati us th ey are only employed when
the foundation is suspected of being unsound.

PILLAR. A column of irregular form, always disengaged, and
always deviating from the proportions of the orders 3 whence
the distinction betwen a pillar and a column. .

PLANCEERu The same as Sotfit which see.

PLATBAND. A square moulding, whose projection is less than
its height or breadth. The fillets between the flutes of col-
umns are improperly called platbands.
or window is sometimes called by this name.

PLINTH. The square solid under the base of a column, pedes-
tal, or wall. The abacus of the Tuscan capital is sometimes
called the plinth of that capital.

PORCH. An arched vestibule at the entrance of a church, or
other building. ‘

PORTICO. A place for walking under shelter, raised with arch—
es in the manner of a gallery the portico is usually vault-
ed, but has sometimes a flat soffit or ceiling. This word is
also used to denote the projection before a church or temple
supported by columns.

POST. A piece of timber set erect in the earth. Perpendicu-
lar timbers of the wooden frame of a building.

POSTICUM. The back door of a temple, also the portico behind
the temple.

PRINCIPAL RAFTERS.
port the roof. »

PROFILE. The contour of the different parts of an order.

PROJECTURE. The prominence of the mouldings, and mem-
bers beyond the naked surface of a column, wall, 8:0.

PROSCENIUM. The front part of the stage of the ancient thea-
tres, on which the actors performed.

PROSTYLE. A building or temple with columns in front only.

PSEUDO-DIPTERAL. A term used by the ancients to express a
building or temple in which the distance from each side of
the cell to the surrounding columns is equal to‘two interco-
lumniations, but .wherein the intermediate range of columns
which would occur between the outer range and the cell, is
omitted.

PULVINATE. A term used to express the swelling of the frieze
in the Ionic order.

PURLINS. Pieces of timber framed horizontally from the

The two inclined timbers which sup-

The lintel of a door~

. REGLET.

 

 

GLOSSARY'OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS.

principal rafters to keep the common rafters from sinking
in the middle. ,4

PYCNOSTYLE. An intercolumniation equal to one diameter and
a half. ,

PYRAMID. A solid With a’square polygonal 01" triangular
base, terminating in a point at top.

QUARTER ROUND. See Ovolo and Echinusi

QUIRK MOULDINGS. The convex part of Grecian mouldings,
when they recede at the top, forming a re-enticent angle
with the surface which covers the moulding.

QUOINS. The external and internal angles of building or of
their members. The corners.

RADIUS, in geometry is the semi-diameter of a circle, or a
right line drawn from the centre to the circumference; in
mechanics, the spoke of a wheel.

RAILS, in framing, the pieces that lie horizontal 3 and the per-
pendicular pieces, are called stiles, in wainscoting, &c.

BAKING. A term applied to mouldings whose arrises are in-
clined to the horizon.

The same as Listel.

REGULA. The same as Listel.

RELIEvo, or RELIEF. The projecture of an architectural
ornament.

RESISTANCE, in mechanics, that power which acts in opposi-

, tion to another, so as to diminish or destroy its efl‘ect.

RETICULATED \VORK. That in which the courses are arranged
in anet-like form. The stone are square, and placed loz-
engewise.

RETURN. (Fr.) The continuation of a moulding, projection,
&c. in an opposite direction, as the flank of a portico, Sic.

RIB. (Stun) An arched piece of timber sustaining the plas-
ter—work of a vault, 8:0.

RIDGE. The top of the roof which rises to an acute angle.

RING. A name sometimes given to the list, cincture, or fillet.

ROMAN ORDER. Another name for the Composite.

    
  

ROOF. The covering of a house. See Plate 95. 5L
ROSE. The representation of this flower is carve " ' ' the cen-

tre of each face oil the abacus in the Corinthi ital, and
is called the Rose of that capital. It is also us in decora-
ting the caissons in the sollit of the corona, and in those of
ceilings.

RULE. An instrument for measuring.

RUSTIC. The courses of stone or brick, in which the work is
jagged out in to an irregular surface. Also, work left rough
without tooling.

SAGGING; The bending Of abody in the middle by its own
weight, when suspended horizontally by each end. .

SALoN. An apartment for state, or for the reception of paintings,
and usually running up through two stories of the house. It
may be square, oblong, polygonal, or circular. .

SALOON. (Fr.) A lofty hall, usually vaulted at the top, With
two stages of windows. "

SASH. The wooden frame which holds the glass in windows.

 

 

_-.. mam

,, ""“GL'ossA’RY‘ sprireaiesmm Terms; 187

SCAFFOLD. A frame Of wood fixed to walls, for rriasons,
plasterers, 810. to stand on, while working the parts of a
building which they could not otherwise reach.

SCANTLING. The name of a piece of timber, as of quartering
for a partition, when under five inches square, or the rafter,
purlin, or pole-plate of a roof.

SCAPUS. The same as Shaft of a column, which see.

SCARFING. The jointing and bolting of two pieces of timber
together transversely, so that the two appear but as one.

Scorn. The name of a hollowed moulding, principally used
between the tori of the base of columns. It derives its name
from the darkness which its form create. It is sometimes
called a casement; and sometimes trochilus, from its resem-
blance to a common pulley.

SHAFT. That part of a column which is between the base and
capital. It is also called the Fust, as well as Trunk of a
column.

SHANK. A name given to the two intersticial spaces between

the channels of the triglypli in the Doric frieze. They are i

sometimes called the leg of the triglyph.

SHOOTING. Planing the edge of a board straight, arid out of
winding.

SHOULDER. The plane, transverse to the length of a piece of
timber from which a tenon projects. See Tenon.

SHUTTERS. The boards or VV'ainscoting which shut up the
aperture of a window.
SILL. The timber or stone at the foot of a window or door,
the ground timbers of a frame which support the posts. ’
SKIRTncs. T he narrow boards which form a plinth round the
margin Ofa floor.

SOCLE. A square flat member, of greater breadth than height
usually the same as plinth.

'SOFFIT. The ceiling or underside ofa member in an order. It
means also the underside of the larmier or corona in acornice-

3

3

also, the underside of thatpart of the architrave which does
}‘ TRIMMER. A small beam, into Vlec‘i are framed the ends of
SOMMER. The lintel of a door, window, 81c. ., a beam tenoned I

not rest on the columns—Sec also LaCunar.

into igirder, to support the ends ofjoists on both sides ofit,
a co on term in some places for a girder.
Spmufie‘ 1% curve line of a circularlar kind, Which 1n its progress
recedes‘ frOm its centre.

STEPS. The degrees in ascending a staircase, which are com-

posed of twoi'parts, the tread or horizontal part, and the riser ,

or vertical part. Steps round the circumference of a circle
are called wanders, and when they proceed straight forward,
fiycrs. 7

STEREOBATA, STYLOB1TA. .The same as Entasis.

STRAP. An iron plate, to secure ‘the junction of two or more
timbers, into which it is secured by bolts.

STRETCHING COURSE. Bricks or stones laid in a wall with
their longest dimensions in the horizontal line.

SURBASE. The mouldings immediately above the base of a
room.

SURFACE. The side or superficies of a body.

SWELLING. The same as Entasis.

SYSTYLE. An intercoltmniation equal to two diameters.

TENIA. A term usually applied to the listel above the architrave
in the Doric order.

 

TAILLIOR. . The French term for Abacus.

TALON. The French name for the Astr'agal. It is by the
French also used to denote the C a ReverSa.

TEMPLET. A mould used by bricgmayers and mason " ' it cut-
ting or setting the work; a short piece of timber sometimes
laid under a girder.

TENON. A piece of timber the thickness of which is divided
into about three parts, the two outside parts are cut away
leaving two shoulders, the middle part projects,- and being
fitted to a mortise, is usually termed tenon.

TERMINUS. A stone anciently used to mark the boundary of .
property. A pedestal increasing upwards, or sometimes a.

l, parallelopiped for the reception of a bust. ‘

i TERRACE Roors. Roofs which are flat at the top.

; TETRASTV'LE. A building having four columns in front.

jTHEA’I‘RE. A building for the exhibition of dramatic shows.

i It was among the ancients semi—circular in form, (see Am-

i phitheatre,) encompassed with porticos, and furnished with

numerous seats, which included a place called the Orchestra,

in the front of which was the floor of the theatre, called the

Proscenium. 1'

TONDINO. The same as Astragal.

TONGUE. The part of a board which is left projecting, to be
inserted 1n the groove of another. ‘

TORus. A moulding of semi- -ci1cular profile used 1n the bases

   

TR 113E_1T1ON. The same as Entablature, which see.

TR 1NSOM A beam across a double—lighted window. if the
window have no transom, it is named a clear- -stmy window.
TRIGLYPH. The ornament ol the frie/e in the Doric order,

consisting of two Whole and two hall channels, sunk triangu-
larly on the plan.
TRIMENS. Pieces of timber framed at right angles with the

l
H of columns.
1‘
i

l
1' joints against the wall, for chimneys, and well-holes for
‘1‘ .

stairs.

severaljoists. The two joists into which each end of the
trimmer 1s flamed are called [1 immingjoists.

1 TROCHII US. See Scotia. ‘

f TROUGH-GUTTER. A gutter below the dripping caves, to con-

vey the water to the pipe by which it is discharged.

j TRUNK. See Shaft. When the word is applied to a pedestal
it signifies the dado or die, or body of the pedestal ansVV e11ng
to the shaft of the column.

TRUSS. When the girders are very long, or the weight the

1 floors are destined to support is very considerable, they are
trusscd. See Plate 93. Fig. 2. A

TUSCAN. One of the orders of architecture.

Tusx. A bevel shoulder, made above a tenon, to strength-

. en it. "

TYMPRNUVg. The space enclosed by the cornice of the
sloping sides of a pediment, and the’level fillet of the
corona.

'1.

UNDER-PINNING. Bringing a wall up to the ground-sill.

VALLEY. The internal angle of two sides of a roof. The
rafter which supports the valley is called the valley rafter,

 

 

 

188 , , ' GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS.

or valley piece, and the board fixed upon it, for the leaden
gutter to lie upon, istermed the valley board.

, VASE. A term sometimes used to denote the inverted bell-like
.form'of the ground on which the leaves of the Corinthian
capital/are placed. '

VAULT. ;' An arched roof so contrived that the. stones or other
materials of Which it is composed, support and keep each
other in their places. Arched ceilings, which resemble vaults,

'and‘ are circular, elliptical, or of other forms. When more
than a semi-circle, they are called surmounted, and when less,

urbased Vaults. '
fiNETIAN DOOR. A door which is lighted on each Side.
ENETIAN WINDOW. A_ window having thrcc‘separate aper-
tures. I I '
VESTIBULE. An anti-hall, lobby, Or porch.
VOLUTE. The scroll which is appended to the capital of the l
Ionic order. There are volutes also in the Corinthian order, 1
but they are smaller, more numerous, and always diagonally l

 

 

 

placed. In‘ the Composite the volutes are also diagonally
placed, but larger than in the Corinthian.

WAINSCOT. The wooden lining of walls, generally in panels.

WALLS. A body of masonry, of a certain thickness, formed of
stone or bricks.

WALL—PLATES. Pieces of timber which are so placed as to form
the supports to the roof of a building.

WELL. The space occupied by a flight of stairs: the Space
left in the middle, beyond the ends of the steps, is called the
well-hole.

XYST or XYSTOS. A term used to express a portico of great
length, in which running and wrestling were practised. It
was sometimes covered, and sometimes Open.

ZOCLE, or ZOCCOLO. See Socle.
ZOOPHORGS. The same as Frieze.

 

 

 

    
   
   
  
   
 
  
 
 
  
  
  
 
 
  
  
  
  
 
 
 
  
     
  
   
  
   
    
      

 

 

A GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS-’1

USED IN MASONRY AND ‘IN BUILDING GENERALLY.

 

 

ABSCISSA. A right line which bisects all the ordinates of a
curve. . \

ACUTE. Any sharp edge. 3 _;.¢

ACUTE ANGLE. An angle less than a right angle. A

ANGLE. The space contained between two right lines, which
meet each other in a point, but which are not both In the
same right line. . - ~

ANGLE OF THE JOINT LINES. The angle made on either 'Of the
beds of stone comprised between the face of an arch and
the intrados. ‘

ANGLE-TIE. A short beam supported at each return of the wall
plate from the angle, and for supporting one end of the
dragon beam.

Aac. Any small portion‘of acurve; but in a circle an arc is
any portion of the circumference.

ARCH. In masonry, a mass of wedge-formed stones, support-
'ed at the extremities by butments, and supporting each other
by their mutual pressure.

ARCH STONE. One Of the stones of an arch.

ARCHIWE. The lowest part of an entablature, and that which-

rests upon the columns.

Anus. '13? HIE; which two surfaces meet.

Auxmu BAP Pieces of timber framed in " the same

.. ivelfiga he with the principal rafters, under and parallel to
them, iiir giving additional support to the truss. They
”aresometimes called pwcipal braces, and sometimes cush-
loned rafters.

AXAL PLANE. A plane pasSi along the axis. In domes, all
the axal planes; are perpe “ _‘r to the horizon.

AxAL SECTION. .‘3The secti I ' a body through its axis.

Axrs OF A CONE. A right in pass' 1 - from the vertex to the
centre of the base. , .

-_j 48

  
 
 

 
 

 

 

  
 

‘

Axis OF A CURVE. A right line which bisects all the ordinates.

Axrs OF A CYLINDER. A right line passing through the solid
from the centre Of one of the circular ends to the centre of
the other. ~ '

AXIS OF A, DOME. A right line. perpendicularto the horizon,
passing through the centre Of its base.

BACK OF HIP. The angle formed in the upper edge of it, in
order to make it range with the two adjacent sides of the
roof

BACK OF A RAFTER. The upper face of it, which ranges with
the inclined plane of the roof.

BASE. The lower line of a figure, or the lowest face of a
solid. I . .

BASE LINE. The line upon which a figure is supposed to
stand.

BASE OF A CONE. The circular end Opposite the vertex.

BASE OF A CYLINDER. Either of the two circular ends.

BASE 01% A PRISM. Either Of the parallel ends.

BASE OF A PYRAMID. The figure which is joined at the ver-
tices of its angles to the summit, by straight lines separating ‘
every two of its sides.

BATTEEINq WALL. A wall of which the upper part of the sur-
face falls Within the base. .

BEAM. A piece of timber in a horizontal position, some-
times performing the office of a strut, and sometimes the
Office of a tie. All horizontal pieces of timber are, how-
ever, not called beams, as wall plates, which are sup-
ported throughout the whole length, so that a horizontal
timber, 1n order to be a beam, must not be everywhere sup—
ported.

BEAaEa. Any piece of timber that supports another.

 

 

'$

 

190 f TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN MASONRY AND BUILDING.

 
    

form the sides of 't'h’eizjoints. ' "’

BEVEL BRIDGE.’ A bridge in which the axis of the cylindretic
surface is not at right angles to the face.

. BISECT. To divide any thing into two equal parts.

BOARD. A substance of wood generally contained between
two parallel planes. Boards are formed by the operation of
the pit-saw or saw-mill, by slicing a log into a number of
parts, either of the same or various thicknesses.

BOND TIMBER. Ail the timber that is built in the walls of a

-. , I house for the purpose of fixing the internal finishing, is call-

ed by the name {of bond timber, or timber in bond; the

. 3i pieces employed for this purpose are quarterings about the

J r thickness and breadth of a brick. It is the shrinking of the
bond timbers that mostly occasions the bulging of walls.

BRACEs. A slanting timber used in truss partitions, or framed
roofs, so as to reduce the length of the timber to shorter
bearings.

BREAKING DOWN. The dividing of deals or the trunks of trees
into boards. '

BRESSUMMER or BREST—SUMMER. A beam for supporting the
superincumbent part of an outside wall.

BRIDGE upon an oblique Plan. See Bevel Bridge.

BRIDGING JOISTs. The smallest joists in double floors, and are
supported by the binding joists. The bridging joists are
those to which the boarding, for walking upon, is fastened.

BRING UP. To build a wall to its intended height.

 

CAMBER. A beam is said to camber when it rises on the top
from each end to the middle, in a straight-line, as in camber
beams.

CAM'RER BEAMS. Those used in the flats of truncated roofs,
and raised in the middle with an angle, and are boarded over
for suppporting slreeted lead in covering. The obtuse angle
on the top of the beams produces a declivity from the mid-
dle to each edge of the flat, and consequently the rain water
is discharged with great ease.

CANTIIJVEHS. Horizontal rows of timbers, projecting from a
wall for sustaining the eaves of a roof or supporting a cor-
nice.

CANTED. A prismatic body.

CANTEI) Bow \VINnow. A window which has three or more
upright faces.

CANTENARIAN CURVE. The form of the iron chain which sup-
ports the roadway in suspension bridges.

CARRY UP. The same as Bring up.

CENTRE. A mould for supporting an arch in the progress of
building.

CENTRE OF A FIGURE. The point through which a straight line
may be drawn in any direction, which will divide the figure
into two equal parts.

CENTRE oF A CIRCLE. The point from which all right lines
beihg drawn, to points in the line. surrounding the figure,

are equal.

CENTRE OF AN ELLIPSE. The point through which any diam-
eter must pass.

halting; Those horizontal faces which V

 

 

CHORD. A straight line drawn from any part Of an arc to any
other point of that are.

CIRCLE. A plane figure, of which its boundary is everywhere
at an equal distance from a point within its surface, called
its centre.

CIRCULAR ARC. Any portion of the circumference of a circle.

CIRCULAR ARCH. An arch of which the profile is a portion of
the circumference of a circle, not exceeding the half.

CIRCULAR ROOFS. All roofs upon a circular plan are so called.

CIRCULAR COURSE. A course or row of stones in acircular
wall.

CIRCULAR EDGES. Those edges ofa stone where two surfaces
meet in the arc of a circle.

CIRCULAR PLAN. A plan of which the exterior or interior
edges are the circumferences of circles, or any portion of
them.

CIRCULAR VVALL. A wall built upon a circular plan.

CIRCUMFERENCE. The curve line which bounds the area of a
circle.

COMMON AXIS. An axis which equally belongs to two or sev-
eral things, as the axis of a spherical dome belongs to all the
vertical great circles of the sphere.

COMMON SECTION. VVhen two or more lines or surthees all
meet in the same line or point, the lim- or point is called the
common section.

COMMON VERTEX. The point in which two or more plane an-
gles or surfaces meet each other.

CONCAVE SURFACE. That in which, if any two points whatever
be taken, and if a straight line stretched out between them
cannot meet the surface in any intermediate point, the side of
the surface on which the line is extended is called the concave
smy‘iree, and the other is the convex surface.

CONCENTRIC CIRCLES. Those that have the same centre.

CONCENTRIC CONICAL SURFACES. Those that have the same
axis.

CONCENTRIC CYLINDRIC SURFACES. Those that have the same
axis.

CONCENTRIC SPHERICAL SURFACES. Those that have the
same centre.

CONIC ARCH. The arch of a eireulanheaded aperture, applied
over splayed jambs, as in doors and windows.

CONIC PAR AROI.A. That parabola which is one of the three
conic sections.

CONIC SRCTIONS. The. plane figures made by cuttin a cone,
which do not include the triangle nor the circle. T ese three
sections are the ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola.

CONIC SURFACE. The surface of a piece of masonry present-
ing the whole or a portion of the surface of a cone. In the
construction of domes and tapering buildings upon a cir-
cular plan, the beds of every joint are frequently conic
surfaces.

CONIC WALL. A battering built upon a circular plan, of which
wall the. line of batter is a straight line.

CONJUGATE DIAMETER. The term applied to the least axis of
an ellipse, being the shortest of all the diameters of this
curve.

CONSTRUCTION. A drawing or building performed by certain

5
I:

 

 

 

TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN-MASONRY AND Bur

rules, and is the result of the operations by which it was made
to exist.

CONVEX SURFACE. See Concave Surface.

CONVEX CONICAL FACE. The convex surface Ofa cone.’

CONVEx CYLINDRICAL FACE. The convex surface of a cylin-
der. '

COURSE OF STONES. A row of stones generally placed on a
level bed. The stones round the face and intrados of an
arch, are also called a course of stones.

COURSING JOINT. The joint between two courses of stones.

COURSING JOINT LINEs. The edges of the coursing joints in
the face Of the work.

CURVED EDGE. A mould with one of its edges curved, in or--
der to draw a curve line on the surface of a stone, or ascer-
tain its concavity or convexity.

CURVE LINE. A concave or convex line.

CURVE-LINED JOINTs. Those joints which meet curved sur-
faces.

CURVED SURFACE.
Concave. ,

CYLINDRETIC ORLIQUE ARCH. An arch of which the axis of
the surface is not perpendicular to the face.

CYLINDRICAL INTRADOS. The intrados of an arch, of which
the surface is that Of a cylinder, or a portion of a cylindrical
surface.

CYLINDRICAL SPIRAL.

CYLINDRICAL SURFACE.
face Ofa cylinder.

CYLINDRICAL ‘VAIJM

CYLINDROIIIIC \VALL.
whole or a portion of the surface ofa cylindroid.

CLOSE CURVE. That which encloses a space.

CROWN POST. The middle part of a trusscd roof, being the
same as King Post, which see.

That which is concave or convex. See

A spiral on the surface Ofa cylinder.
The whole or a portion of the sur—

A vertical wall on a circular plane.

A scheme or drawing Of something intended to be
as the design Ofa

DESIGN.
constructed Of stone or other material,
house, Sac.

DEVELOPABLE SURFACES.
plane; the surfaces of prisms, cylinders, and cones, are
velopable surfaces.

DEAL TIMBER. The timber of the fir-tree cut into boards for
the use of building.

Such as can be extended upon a
de-

DEVELOP jNT. The extension of a surface upon a plane,
so that every point of the surface may coincide with the
plane.

DIAGRAM. Any scheme 01‘ geometrical construction of a prop-
osition.

DIMENSIONS. Such measures Of extension as will be sufficient

tO ascertain the superficies or solidity Of a body, or to con-
struct a surface or solid.

DOUBLE CURVATURE. A curve Of which its parts cannot be
brought into one plane.

DOUBLE ONDINATE. TWO equal ordinates of a curve in a
right line, separated by another right line called the fib-
scissa.

 

A wall of which the surface is the:

 

l
ELLIPSE.

 

 

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' ELLIPTIC ARC.

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DOUELLE. The surface 0 «, , ,
is to form a phrtion Of the iiitrhdo 1- '

DORMERS. Windows in a roof havrng their‘glass frames in
vertical planes above the inclined plane of the roof. The
whole of a dormer is similar to that of an entire simple
building, which terminates in a roof sloping from both
sides.

DOVE-TAIL. The form Of indenting the end Of one piece Of
timber into that Of another, when the two pieces are required

to form an angle with each other, by which they are fixed
One part con.- 1

in the most secure manner tO each other.

tains the dove-tail tenons, and the other the dove-tail mar-”w

tices. i
DOVE-TAIL NOTCH.
DRAGON BEAM.

A notch Of a wedge-like form.

dragon beam is frequently supported at the angle upon the
return Of the two wall plates, and at the other end upon an
angle tie. The dragon beam is sometimes extended under
the whole length of the hip, and'in this case it is fastened
to the tie beam, and called the sub-hip. Its use is to prevent
the hip rafters from flying out at the bottom.

DRAUGHT. A grove or rebat, sunk in a stone for the purpose
Of directing its reduction to the required surface.

A close curve which may be. divided into two equal

and similar parts by a diameter drawn in any direction, '

moreover, the semi-ell Ipse, terminated by either axis, may

be divided into two symmetrical parts.

Any small portion of the curve Of an ellipse.

ENTERTICE. See Intertie.

EQUATORIAL CIRCUMFERENCE OF A DOME.
at the base Of a hemispheric dome.

EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE. One having three equal sides.

EXTERIOR CYLINDRIC SURFACE. The curved surface Ofa cyl-
inder, whether solid or hollow.

EXTRADOS. The outer surface Of an arch.

EXTRADOSAL ARC. The outer curve Of the section of an arch.

The circumference

FOCUS. One Of the two points to which a string may be fixed
so as to describe the curve Of an ellipse.

FOOT. An extension containing twelve inches.

FIGURE. Any area enclosed on all sides.

FIGURES OF THE FACES OT A STONE. The two beds, the face
or faces, and the vertical joint or joints.

FEATI-IER-EDGED BOARDS. Boards whose edges are wrought
to an acute angle, one side Of which is parallel to a side
plane Of the board. These are generally used in weather
boarding, which, in temporary building, is substituted for
slating.

FIR POLE. Small trunks offir-trees, from ten to sixteen feet
in length, used in rustic buildings and out-houses.

FILLING-IN PIECES. Timber less than the full length, as the
jack rafters Of a roof, the pieces Of quartering in partitions,
which terminate at one end upon the braces.

 

A beam under the hip rafter in the same ver— I»
tical plane to which the foot of the rafter is fixed. _The ”3

Ii... '

  
  

I

 

 

 

   

, 1;): ‘ '
192 .

FOUNDATIONS. A prefiaration of piling, and a grated timber
flooring for building upon, where the structure to be raised
is heavy, and where the ground is not sufficiently solid to
bear its weight.

73- FLOOR. All the timber which is necessary to support the board-'

ing for walking on. See Naked Flooring.

FURRINGS. Slips of timber nailed to the joists or rafters, in
order to bring them to a level, and make them range in any
required surface; as when a floor is to be laid, the surface
must be level, and if the backs of rafters are to be furred,
then the surface must be that of an inclined plane. Furrings
are chiefly used in the repairs of Old buildings, frequently
under the ceiling joists.

GEOMETRY. The science which explains, and the art which
shows, the construction of lines, angles, plane figures, and
solids.

GEOMETRICAL ELEVATION. An orthographical projection of
an object of which the surfaces are plane figures, either par-
allel or perpendicular to the plane of projection.

GIRDER. A beam for supporting the ends of the binding joists
in a floor, where the bearing is of too great extension for
the binding joists in one length, and consequently the gird-
er supports the binding joists on each of their vertical
sides. If the girder is made of wood, it is cut into mor-
tices, and the ends of the binding joists into tenons, which are
inserted in the Inortices; and thus one end of the binding
joist is secured, while the other end rests upon a wall or
partition. If the material of the girder be iron, a flanche is
made to project, in order to support the binding joists, which
in this case may be either of wood or iron.

GOTHIC ARCH. An arch of which the two sides of the intra-
dos meet in a point or line at the summit.

GOTHIC ISOSCELES ARCH. A pointed symmetrical arch, of
which the springing lines are in the same level.

GROUND PLATE or SILL. The lowest plate ofa wooden build-
ing for supporting the principal and other posts.

GROVED NOTCH. A recess of a rectangular form on one side,
of a piece of timber, for receiving a correspomling prom—
inence.

GROUND LINE. The straight line upon which the vertical
plane of projection is placed.

HAMMER BEAM. A beam in a Gothic roof, not extended to
the opposite side.

HEADING. The vertical side of a stone perpendicular to the
face.

HEADING JOINTS. The thin stratum of mortar comprised be-
tween the vertical surfaces of two adjacent stones.

HELIX. A spiral winding round the surface Ofa cylinder.

HORIZONTAL JOINT. The same as the bed.

HORIZONTAL PLANE 0F PROJECTION. The plane which con-
tains the plan of an object or its horizontal projection.

HORIZONTAL PROJECTION OF AN OBJECT.
plan of the object.

The same as the

 

 

‘ V TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN MASONRY AND BUILDING.

HORIZONTAL TRACE. The intersection of any plane and the
horizontal plane of projection.

HYPERBOLA. An Open curve, being one of the three conic
sections of which the curve will never meet a certain right
line.

HYPOTHENUSE. The longest side of a right-angled triangle.

INCLINATION. The angle contained betWeen a line and a plane,
or between two pla es.

INTERSECTION. The point on which two lines meet or cut
each other ; the line in Which two surfaces cut or meet each
other. '

INTERTIE. A horizontal piece of timber framed between two
posts, in order to tie or fix them together.

INTRADOS. The inner curve of an arch.

INTRADOSAL CURVE. The inner curve of the profile of an arch.

INTRADOSAL JOINTS. Those joints which are seen in the in—
trados of an arch.

IRREGULAR. A term expressing the inequality of the sides and
angles of a body.

JACK TIMBER. A short timber fastened at the ends to two
timbers which are not parallel, or to two timbers which
actually meet in a point, as to the wall plate and hip
rafter of a roof, the braces and heads or cells of parti-
tions, &0.

JACK RAFTERS. Those jack timbers which are fastened to the
hip rafter and the wall plates.

JACK RIBS. Those jack timbers or parts of curved ribs which
are fastened to the angle ribs, and rest upon the wall plates in
groined or deemed ceilings.

JOGGLE PIECE. A truss post with shoulders and sockets for
abutting and fixing the lower ends of the struts or braces.

JOINING. The act Of fixing one piece of timber to another,
according to any required mode ;- the joiniugs of timber
are very numerous, as dove—tailing, cogging, mortice and
tenon, &c.

JOINTS OF A STONE. The mortar comprehended between the
adjacent sides of two stones and the face of the work.

JOISTS. Those beams in a floor which either immediately
sustain the boarding, or are necessary in supporting the
boarding or ceiling, as binding joists, bridging joists, ceil-
ing joists: the girders are however to he excepted, as an~
swering the purpose of a Wall, and are theretbre not called
joists.

JUFFERS STUFF. About four or five inches square, and of sev—
eral lengths. This term is out of use, though frequently to
be met with in old publications, which treat of the Art of
Building.

KEY COURSE. The horizontal range of stones in the summit
of a vault, in which the course is placed.

KEY STONE. The stone which appears in the front and in the
summit of an arch.

 

a.
1
f

 

 

TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN‘ MASONRY AND BUILDING. A V ,

KERF. The way made by the saw in dividing timber.

KING POST. The middle post in a roof. lts office is to sup-
port the tie beam and the struts which either support the
middle of the principals, or support the principals in part.

LEG or A RIGHT ANGLED TRIANGLE. One of the three sides
which contain the right angle.

LEG OF A TREHEDRAL ANGLE. Either of the two planes of a
righ trehedral angle, which contains the right angle.

LINE IN SPACE. Any line of which the projection is required
but not in the plane of projection.

LINE or BATTER. The line of section made by a plane and
the surface of a battering wall, the plane being perpendic-
ular both to the surface of the wall and to the horizon.

LIN'rEL. The stone which extends over the aperture of a
door or window.

LINTELS. Short beams over the heads of apertures for sup-

 

porting the inside part of a wall over an Opening, the part
on the outside being supported by an arch or long stone;
and this support of the lintels is necessary when the wall
over the head of the window on the inside is made of stones
or bricks, which are not sulficient to reach from side to side,
or from jamb to jamb.

LUTHORN. The same as Dormer, which see.

MASONRY. The art of constructing buildings of stone.
MERIIIIANs. The curves and the surface of a dome made in
vertical planes.
MERIDIONAI. ARC.

dome.

MERIDIONAL JOINT. The vertical joint of a vault, of which
the horizontal sections are all Circles.

MORTICE AND TENON. A method of joining two timbers by }
cutting a hollow prism or recess from a face near the end of j
one of the timbers and a coresponding projecture at the end
of the other.

A portion of the meridional curve of a 1

 

I
NAKED FLOORING. The flaming of one or more rows ofj
equi-distant timber-beams in horizontal planes, for support- l
ing the boarding for walking upon. The timbers emploved 1
are called by the geneIal name of joists; other strong;
beams called girders are sometimes introduced. The joists 1
have different names, according to the office they have
to perform, 01' the situation in which they are placed.
Single or common joists are employed in the construction
of common floors, which consist of only one row of joists.
Binding joists are employed in the best description of
floors, along with other joists, called bridging joists, and
ceiling joists, which altogether make a grated frame of tim-
ber Work: the bridging joists, which are the strongest tim-
bers, are placed in the middle rOW, with the binding joists
above and the ceiling joists below, and support both the
bridging and ceiling joists. The bridging joists are notched
a certain porticzi of their depth upon the binding joists, and
9

 

 

 

 

  

198

l . i in 3}
the ceiling joists are mostcdtnfiionlyadone in the same man- -
ner- , the notches,- in order to preserve the strength of the
binding joists, are only cut from the edges, but In the bridg-
ing joists the notch is cut through the entire thickness.
In floors of great extent, girders are introduced, and the J '
binding joists are framed into each side Of the girder. The
top of the girder is generally below the level of the tOp of
the bridging joists. The ceiling joists are generally nailed
up to the under side of the binding joists, forming by their
under edges a level surface for nailing the lath, which is to
sustain the plastering Of the ceiling. Binding joists are'
placed at the distance of about four feet six inches clear;
bridging joists, one foot; and ceiling joists, about fourteen
inches. ~

NORMAL. A right line perpendicular to a curve.
NOTCHING. A hollow cut from one Of the faces of a piece of
timber, generally Of a rectangular form.

OBLIQUE ANGLES. Adjacent angles, of which their line of
separation is not perpendicuiar to the base.

OBLIQUE ARCH. A cylindric arch, of which the axis is not
perpendicular to the face.

OBLIQUE BRIDGE. A bridge which crosses a river, and Of
which the faces of the arch are not perpendicular to the
direction of the stream.

OBLIQUE CYLINDER. A cylinder of which the axis is not per-
pendicular to the circular ends.

OBLIQUE CYLINDROID. A cylindroid in which the axis is not
perpendicular to the two bases.

OBLIQUE PLAN. A parallelogramic plan, of which the sides
are not at right angles.

OBLIQUE TREIIEDRAL. A trehedral of which the angles
contained by any two of its faces are not a right angle.

OPEN CURVE That which does not enclose an area.

ORDINATE. A right line comprised between acurve and its
abscissa, and is parallel to a tangent at the extremity of this
abscissa.

PARABOLA. An Open curve, being one of the three conic
sections, of which both of its branches may be extended in-
finitely without ever meeting.

PARALLEL RIGHT LINES. Those which can never meet.

PARALLELOGRAM. A quadrilateral figure, of which the op
posite side are equal and parallel.

PARALLELs. The same as parallel right lines.

PARAMETER. The ordinate of a conic section, which passes
through the focus perpendicular to the axis.

PERPENDICUI AR. A right line perpendicular to another right
line or to a surface.

PERPENDICULAR SURFACE.
right line or to a plane.

PITCH or A ROOF. The inclination of the plane of the roof
to the wall head. Hence the pitch of the roofs is greater
or less, according as the base of the roof contains the height

A surface perpendicular to a

 

 

 

   

 

194: ' TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN MASONRY AND BUILDING.

a less or greater number of times. The usual pitch is that
in which the height is one-third or one-fourth'the breadth of
the building. -

PLANE. A surface in Which all the points of a right line will
concide. _ ‘ ‘.~

PLANE ANGLES. Those drawn upon a plane surfade.

PLANE CURVE. That which has all its parts in one plane.

PLANE WALL. A wall of which the surface is a plane.

PLANE or PROJECTION. The plane on which an object is to

.- be represented.

PLANKS. All boards. above one inch thick are called planks.

PLATE. A horizontal piece of timber in a wall, or upon the
top of a wall, for resting the ends of beams, joists, or raft—
ers, and is therefore denominated a floor or roof plate accord-
ingly. The plate on the top of the wall is called the Raising
Plate. ‘

POLE OF A DOME. The summit or upper extremity of the axis.

POSITION. The situation in which one thing is placed in re-
spect of another.

POSTS. Rectical pieces of timber, as truss posts, door posts,
&c.

PRICK POSTS. Intermediate posts in a wooden building,
framed between the principal posts.

PRINCIPAL POSTS. The corner posts of a wooden building.

PRISM. A solid bounded on the sides by parallelograms, and
on the two remaining faces by polygonal figures in parallel
planes. '

PROBLEM. A proposition which proposes something to be
done.

PROJECTANT. The distance ofa point from its projection.

PROJECTION. The art of finding the representation of a point,
line, surface, or solid.

PROPORTION. The parts of two things, so that the whole of
the one may be to any one of its parts, as the whole of the
other is to its corresponding part.

PUNCHEONS. Any short posts of timber, as the small quar-
terings instead of partitions over the heads of doors.

PURLINES. The timbers which support the spars or common
rafters of a roof.

QUADRANT. The fourth part of a circle.
QUANTITY OF BATTER. The angular distance between the
plumb-line and the line of hatter.

RADIUS. A right line, of which if one end be fixed in a cer-
tain point, the other, if moved round, may be made to coin-
cide with all the points of another line, or with the points of
a surface.

RADIUS OF A CIRCLE. Any right line drawn from the centre
to the circumference.

RADIUS OF A CYLINDER. The radius of a circle which is the
profile of the cylinder.

RADIUS or A SPHERE. The right line extending from the cen-
tre to the surface.

RADIUS OF CURVATURE. The radius of a circle which has the

I same curvature as the curve at the point to which this radius
belongs.

l RADIATING JOINTS. Those joints which tend to a centre.

[ RAFTERS. All the timbers in the sides of a roof which are in

’ vertical planes, and parallel to the covering of the roof,

I and are generally in pairs Similarly and symmetrically dis-

l posed, so as to recline from each opposite wall agthe same

i angle of inclination.

j RAISING PLATES, or TOP PLATES. Those plates which support

i the ends of the tie beams.

4 RAKING MOULDINGS. Mouldings which run in an inclined
position.

REAR LINE. A line on the back of any object.

REBATED NOTCH. A prismatic recess made by taking away a
part of the wood, at one of the angles, generally in the'direc-
tion of the fibres.

REGULATING LINE. A line which fixes the position of other
lines.

RETREATING SIDES OF THE JOINTS. Those which recede from
the surface.

RIGHT ANGLE. An angle of ninety degrees.

RIGHT ARCH. An arch of which the intrados is perpendicular
to the face.

RIGHT CONE. That of which its axis is perpendicular to the
base.

RIGHT SECTION. The section of a body at right angles to the
axis.

RIGHT TREHEDRAL. A trehedral having one of its angles a
right angle.

RING STONES. The stones which appear in the face and intra-
dos of an arch.

RULER SURFACE. A curved surface on which two parallel
straight lines may be drawn through any two given points.

 

“ SECTION. The figure formed by cutting a solid by a plane.

; SEGMENT. The part of a surface or solid containing the upper

l extremity or summit.

i SEGMENT or A CIRCLE. A portion of the circle contained by

l an arc and its chord.

SEGMENT OF AN ELLIPSE. A portion of an ellipse contained

i by a part of the curve and its chord.

SEGMENT OF A CYLINDER. A portion cut oil' by a plane paral-

l lel to the axis.

l SEMI-AXIS MAJOR. The longest diameter of an ellipse.

l SEMI-AXIS MINOR. The shortest diameter of an ellipse.

. SEMI-PARAMETER. Half the parameter, or the focal ordinate.
SEMI-CYLINDER. The half of a cylinder contained by the
curved surface and plane passing along the axis.

i SEMI-CYLINDRIC SURFACE. The Whole or a portion of the

l surface of a cylinder. - .

SEVERIES. The compartments of grained ceilings.

‘ SHINGLES. Thinpieces of wood used for covering, instead of

A slates or til.

. SIMILAR FIGURES-0R BODIES.’ Those which are of the same

shape.

 

 

 

1 SLEEPERS. Timbers laid upon dwarf walls for supporting the

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TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN-MASONRYAND BU mm...

ground joists Offloors. This term was formerly applied to
the valley rafters of a roof.

SLEEPERS. Cross timbers for fixing the planking, where it is
necessaryjo pile under, in order to make a secure founda-
tion.

SOFFIT.

SOFFIT JOINTS.
face.

SOLID. Any body whatever.

SOLID ANGLES. Angles in which three or more surfaces all
meet in one point.

SOLID GEOMETRY. The consideration of the properties and
construction of solids.

SOLID OF REVOLUTION.
an axis.

SPA‘RS. The common rafters of a roof for supporting the tiling
0r slating.

SPHERICAL DOME.

SFHERICAL NICIIE.
is spherical.

SPHERICAL TRIANGLE.
spherical.

SPIRAL CURVES.

SPIRAL JOINTS.

SPIRAL SURFACE.
straight line tends to an axis.
Stairs.

SPLAYED. A bevelled jamb.

SPRINCING PLANE OF AN ARCH 0R VAULT.
which the first arch-stones rise.

SQUARING A STONE. The form to which it is made in order to
apply the moulds so as to obtain its ultimate form as inserted
in the building.

STANCHEONS. The same as Puncheons, which see.

STONE-CUTTING. The art of reducing stones to their intended
form.

STRAIGHT EDGE.

face.
STRAIGHT VAULTS. Those which have their axis straight.

STRAIGHT WALLS. Those which have plane surfaces.

STRUTS. Timbers which support the middle of the principal
rafters, or aid in supporting them. The struts are theIII-
se es supported by the posts upon oblique abutments, which
are made on the lower ends of the posts to receive the lower
abutting ends of the struts.

The under surface of any part of a ceiling.
Those joints which appear on the under sur-

That which may be generated round

A dome having a spherical surface.
A niche of which the surface of the head

A triangle of which the surface is
Those consisting of one or more revolutions.
Those joints which run in spiral lines.

A ruler surface, ofwhich the direction ofthe
Such are soffits of winding

The plane from

A rule with a straight edge for trying a sur-

SUMMER. A large beam in a building, either supporting the

superin bent part ofa wall, in which case it is called a

bressum or supporting the binding joists of floor, when

it is called a girder.
SURFACE OF REVOLUTION.

an axis.
SURMOUNTED ARCH. Ap arch or vault of greater height than

half Its width.

L Such as may be generated round

TALLUS LINE. The battering line ofa wall.
TARGEN T. A straight line which touches a curve without be-

ing able to cut it.

 

 

 

 

 

C TRUSS ROOF.

. TUSK.

 

   

TANGENT PLANE. A plane ‘» . I ch .fiéilchesdihe curved surface
without being able to cut it. «ii-

TEMPLE'rjs. Short pieces of timber placed' In a Wall under the
end of girder'for distributing the pressure along the wall
inore irally, and for this reason they should be sufficiently
0110 it

TENON. The projecture on the end of a piece of timber, fitted

to a mortice which Is to receive the tenon. .

TIE. A timber placed In any position performing the flice of
a string, in order to secure the distance of two thing which
have a tendency to recede from each other.

TIMBERS. A general name for a piece of wood employed in
performing some office In the construction of a building.

THIRD PROPORTIONAL The fourth term of four proportions;
when the two middle terms are equal, it is called a third pro-
portinal.

TRACES OF A PLANE. The intersections of an oblique plane
with the horizontal and vertical planes of projections.

TRANSVERSE AXIS. The longest diameter of an ellipse.

TREHEDRAL. A solid angle consisting of three plane angles.
TRIANGLE. A figure consisting of three sides.
TRIMMERS. Those pieces ofjoists for supporting the ends of

other joists, as those opposite fire-places, in order‘to make
a way to receive the slab before the fire-place. Or trimmers
are those joists at the beginning of a landing for supporting
the ends of tIimming or other joists.

TRIMMING JOISTS. Those which support each end ofa trim-
mer, Viz. those on each Side of a fire- place. TIimming joists
ought therefore to be much stronger than common joists.

TRUSS. A framcoftimber work, capable of being suspended
between two supports without sagging or descending on any
part. Trussed frames are employed in partitions and roofs.

A roof formed by trussed frames, for the pur-
pose of being capable of sustaining its own weight, or to
resist any adventitious pressure.

TRUNCATED ROOF. A roof in the form of the frustum ofa
pyramid or wedge, when the sides generally slope at equal
angles with the wall head or base of the roof.

TRUSS POST. Any of the posts ofa trussed roof, as king post,
queen post, or other posts into which the braces of a truss
partition are fixed.

The beveling Shoulder above the tenon in binding
joists.

TRYING EDGE. The edge of a rule for trying a given surface.
Timber is generally denominated round, and square. Ton
timber is that which is sawed or hewn ten inches square, or
more; it is reckoned forty cubic feet to a ton. {anging tim-
ber is that which measures less than ten inches across the
end, and reckoned according to linear measure.

The surface of a right cone.
The surface of a right cylin-

UNIFORM CONIc SURFACE.

UNIFORM CYLINDRIC SURFACE.
der.

UPPER BED OF A STONE. The side of the stone that comes in

contact with that above it.

VALLEY RAFTER. That which is disposed in the internal anv

l A ‘ ”1'95 '

 

 

 

.A. ‘
A’g‘fitu‘lm

  
 
 
  

cehd’ proportion
'A concave iling. , ‘
The summit of anything

 
 
    
  
     
      
 

‘ ANGLE. The opposite angle.
, , on A ATTER; The perpendicui .
no PLANE A plane perpendiculafio the ho

   
  

 

Anne; PLANE or PROJECTION. The plane on whieh the
61" 121011 is made. j .

    

 

 

i-w

 

I

AND ‘BUIinJmNG.

:15

VnnrrcAnPnoucTAm. The distance of a point from its
projeCtion, inthe hompntel plane of projection. i
Vinnie”; Pneancmidiw éfl‘he elevation ofl an object. _
VERTICAL Times. The time of a planégfl the verti . ,_
of projection.
Vnn'I-IcAL WALL. An upright well. - . , e

  

‘ WALL PLATES. Those plafi either built' In the wall for sup-

porting the joists, or those which are laid'upon the top of
the wall for supporting the tie heaIn, when employed for
supporting the roof, hey are called raising plates, or top

plates.
WALL IN TALL69. A battering wall * 11;, , V
WINDING JOIN'I-s. Spiral joints.‘ 1 it? ‘

   

1
3

3,
.s
‘i
4

._~

..--,:A .42. .

       

 

 

7‘ a:
C O N T E N T S .
Page. Plate. Pace. Plate.
INTRODUCTION. 5 Elevation of a Circular Ring - — 7°62 19
Construction of Houses - - - 13 Lines of Light and Shade on a Sphere 7 2 20
Doors and Windows - - - - 14 Lines of Light and Suade from the Abacus of a
Mouldings - - - - 13 Cylinder — - - - - 73 90
To draw V olutes, Columns, and Cornices - 18 Light and Shade on a Prism - - 74 21
Construction of Bridges - - - 94 Effect of do. on Mouldings - - - 75 22
Wooden Bridges - - - - 93 MOULDINGS.
Iron Bridges - - ‘ ‘ 29 Base and Capital - - - - 79 23—24
V’Vestern Avenue ' " ' ‘ 30 Of a Cylindrical Recess - - - 79 25
V’Varren Bridge ‘ " ‘ ' 31 A Hemisphere - - - - 80 25
Directions to the Binder - - ' 3Q FOLIAGE
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. Definitions _ _ _ '_ _ 89
Definition of Lines and Points - — 33 1 Drawing Foliage _ _ _ _ 82 26
CiTCIGS - ' ‘ ‘ ’ ‘ 35 2 Specimens from the Arch of Adrian at
Problems on Points and Lines - - 35 2 Athens _ _ _ _ _ 83 Q7
Trapeziums ' ' ' " ‘ 39 4 —from the Temple of P013. in Istra 83 28
CONIC SECTIONS Roses in the Capitals of Columns - - 83 29—30
Definitions - - - - 41 5 Elevation of Roses in the Capitals of Columns 84 31—35
2‘1“?“ t - - - - - 2‘: ‘75 GRECIAN DORIC.
onjuga es - - - - - -
To describe Ellipses — — - - 45 8 13:25:12)?er _ — _ - _ - _ - _ :3
The Parabola ‘ ' ' - :11; 13 From the Temple of‘ Minerva - - 91 36
Hyperbola ' - , ' , - - - As shown on the Flanks of the Temple - 92 37
T0 descrlbe 3 Come Section ' ' 49 11 From the Temple of‘ Theseus - - 92 38
Sections 0f Sohds ' ' ' - :3 :51) A lighter example of' the Doric - - 93 39
___—.—ofa 0,0“6 T ' ' - ~ From the Portico at Athens - - 93 4O
Cyclo1d or Eplcyc101d - ' ' 55 13 cc cc cc cc cc _ - _ 93 41
Sectionsof planes ' ' ' 56 14 “ “ Choragic Monument - - 93 42
Applicat1on Of the trehedral ' ' — 57 14 To draw the Flutes of Columns - - 93 43
Principles of projection - - 59 15 1
Devolopment of the Surfaces of Solids 63 15 GRECIAN IOhIC.
Projection of Prisms - - - 65 16 Plan of the-Temple on the Illysus - - 95 44
a; SHADOWS. The Order 1n proportional numbers - 96 45
E: The effectlof Distance - - - 67 i The Capri a1 inverted _ ‘ . ' ' 96 46
f! Seat of the Sun’s Rays - - - 69 17 From the Temple 01 Pol1as at Priene - . 96 47
, I WUpright Prisms _ , _ - 7o 13 A Section through the Cormce, Sic. - 96 4S
' , . 70 19‘ Elevatlon of the Capital - - 95 49

 

 

, 5'1»; fiTolygonal Ring 7 ‘ "
50

198 . CONTENTS.
_ Page. Plate. Page. Plate.
From the Temple of Bacchus - - 95 50 Construction of Windows - - 125 81
From the Temple of Erectheus - _ - 95 51 Inside finish of Windows - - - 128 82
Volutes - - - - 95 59 Fancy Pilasters - — - 19.9 83—84
From the Temple at Athens - - 95 53 Stairs _ .. _ _ - 130
Roman Doric - - - - 96 To find the Helinet - - - 133 85
From the Baths at Rome - - - 97 54 Falling Mould - - - - 133 85
me Palladio - - - - 97 55 Resting Points - — - - 134 ~ 86
.1 : ROMAN IONIC ORDER. Face Mould - - - - - 135 86
1;: 4 From the Temple of Concord - - 98 58 Scrolls . - - — - - 136 87—89
’ Capital inverted _ _ _ 93 57 Application of the Moulds to the Plank - 137 90
CORINTHIAN ORDER. Formation ofthe String - - — 138 91
From the Pantheon at Rome - - 99 58 , CARPENTRY'
Capital and Leaves — - - 99 59 Framlng - _ - - - 143
From the Temple of Jupiter - - 100 60 ¥OIUCBS and Tenon — " ' 11:: 3:
TUSCAN ORDER. 1:12:38 _ ' _ ’ _ _ ' _ ' 145 94
From VitTiViUS - - ' ' 101 61 Designs for Roofs - - - - 145 95
Modern Tuscan ' ‘ ‘ ' 101 61 To glue up the head of'a Niche - 145 96
COMPOSITE ORDER- Hips and backing of Rafters - - 146 97
From the arch of‘ Titus - - - 103 6% BUILDING. 148
Pedestals — - — - 104 63 Mortar . _ _ _ _ _ 149
Imposts ' ' ' ‘ ‘ 1 O7 64 Masonry - - - — 150
Pilasters ' " ' ‘ 108 Stone Arches - — - - 15?. 98
Mouldings, Definitions - - - 111 Bricklaving _ _ _ _ 153
Grecian Mouldings - — — 112 65—66 Plastering _ _ _ _ _ 155
Roman Mouldings - — — 113 67 Slating _ _ _ _ _ 162
Grecian compared with the Roman - 114 Plumbing _ _ __ _ _ 165
The effect of the Grecian compared with Glazing _ _ _ _ 168
the Roman - - - - 115 Painting - — - - - 170
Modern Mouldings - — - 116 68 BRIDGES. 173
Roman Bases - - - " 117 69 Town’s Patent — - - - 173 99
Modern do - - - - 117 70 VVaterloo - - - — 177 100
Cornices — — - - ' 118 ““72 Glossary of Architectural Terms - - 179
Chimney Pieces - - - 119 73‘74 Glossary of Terms used in Building - 189
Doors — - - - - 191 75~79 Rules of work - - - - 199
Sliding Partitions - - — 124 80 Diameter of a Circle.——Cylindrical Measures 208

 

 

 

lr'

 

‘Mflmm‘ ,

 

' ’W%w— .,

it}
1?:

'*

RULES OF Won-K,

ORIGINALLY ADOPTED BY THE CARPENTERS OF THE TOWN OF
'BOSTON, IN 1774:

Revised in 1800, and now generally approved and consulted as a correct standard of
‘PRICES OF CARPENTER, WORK.’

These Rules were again revised in 1820 ; but the revision of 1800 is in most general use, and therefore has

been preferred. _

The prices as here fixed are predicated on the presumption that the work measured is to be done in a thorough
workman-like manner ,' otherwise a deduction is to be made according to the judgment of the Surveyor.

Framing Floors of all kinds.

Framing b'ick or wooden house floors, with
summers or plank, from 1010 12 inches deep,
at per square

And where the summers or plank are deep-
er, for every inch depth, add per square

Framing Sides and Ends.

Framing sides and ends, where the girts are
from 10 to 12 inches deep, and the posts not
less than ’7 nor more than 10 inches square, at
per square

Small Framing.

Framing small frames, such as wood-house,
&c. of smail timber or large joist, including
the roof, at per square

Framing hips and gutters, at per foot

Framing Roofs.

Framing a plain pitched roof, with rafters of
8 inches deep, at per square

Framing .,a plain gambol roof, with timber
of the above size, including collar beams, at
per square .

Framing a hip’d roof, with rafters of 8 inches
deep, at per square

tow

M.‘ or

 

 

‘3

C}?

And where the rafters are more than 8 inches
deep, add for every inch in depth, per square

And all beams under hips whole framing, and
all others half framing; and if any joists are let
into dit., at per square for dit.

Rafters framed with one king post, half framing;
rafters framed with one king post and two braces,
whole framing. Rafters framed with king post,
two struts and two braces, add one—fourth. If
more work in any of the above, add in the same
proportion.

Framing gutters and hips, at per foot

Framing flat roofs with beams on a curve, at
per square

Framing flat trussed roof, with regular pitch,
including beam and hip rafters, at per square

Framing .Middles.

Laying out middles for stores with one sum-
mer
dit. dit. with two summers
dit. dit. with three summers
Putting on floors, hewing and planing timber,
scaffolding, shoring, sawing and shooting plank,
for framing, collecting materials, stocking boards,
hewing and laying sleepers, to be paid for by the
day.
Raising wooden house frames, and putting on

fall roofs, to be paid for by the day.

 

.i-i ,3
.a “3";

one

200

it

. Rough Boarding.
Rough boarding, per square \
If shot dit.
If feather edged dit. »
fifabbeted dit.
pen a roof more than two stories high

If‘grooved with match planes '

Boarding hips and gutters, at per foot

Laying rough floors, at per square

If shot and well laid, dit.

Laying rough plank floors with hewed joists,
at per square

If shot, at per dit.

If planed suitable for store floors, at per square

Window Frames of all kinds.

Making a window frame to contain 24 panes,
or less, of 6 by 8 glass

If for 7 by 9, or 10 by 14

US by 10, or 11 by 15

If 12 by 18

If 13 by 21

lflarger, add in the satne proportion.

If any of the above are sunk from 3 to 4 inches,
add

If plain OGEE, add

lf double moulding, add

If cased to receive shutters outside, add

If double architrave, add

If solid flat cap, worked with lip and OGEE, add

For setting any ofthe above, add

If any of the above frames have a circular
head, add for dit.

For setting dit. add

If OGEE on dit. add for the sweep per foot

If double architrave, add for the sweep per foot

If the stool is rabbetted, add

A plain Venetian window frame, the centre
part of which to contain not more than 12 panes
0f12 by 18 glass

If larger, add in proportion. If to receive
pilasters 8 inches Wide or less, and an entablature
from 7 to 15 inches wide, add

For setting dit.

For a plain bow window, to contain not more
than 30 panes of 18 by 12 glass, or less, at per
frame

If larger, add in the same proportion.

Setting dit. to be paid for y the day.

Boxing any of the above frames

For letting in iron or brass box pullies, each

Making a cellar window frame, (with bars
put in) from 2 to 3 feet from out to out

If larger, add in proportion.

Setting dit.

$

Hl—l

cts.

150

p—a

F-l-dy—Ai—A,_

{O

76
50

25
50
’71

96

25
a
0

4O
50

4O
25

Na '
C30“!

25

 

 

RU LES OF WORK.

$ cts.

Making plank lintels, each
Making centres, to be paid for by the day.

Window Caps outside.

Equal to the Tuscan order 2
Equal to the Doric or Corinthian 4
Equal to the Ionic 2
Equal to the Composite 5

Sashes of all kinds, and IIanging dit.

Making sashes 7 by 9, or 8 by 10, with ovolo,
per light

If larger each way, per inch

Nosing sashes, add one-fourth to the prices of
ovolo sashes per light.

Plain sashes 6 by 8, 7 by 9, or 8 by 10 glass,
per light
. Hanging sashes single, with line or hinges, per
window

Hanging dit. double with 4 laths, and 4 weights

Sashes in bow windows, add 100 per cent. per
light. If in two sashes, add 150 per cent. per light.

A true sweep sash, from a segment to a semi-
circle, per light

If Ellipsis
Clapboarding, Batting and Scribing.

For shooting Clapboards, per hundred
Planing dit. per dit.

Laying dit. per dit.

Scribing on Shingles, at per foot

Plain scribing, and butting, per foot

H)—

Shingling Crippels, Gutter Boards, and lVeather
Boards.

Laying shingles, per square 1

Shingling hips, per foot

Shingling gutters, per foot

Building crippels behind chimnies, at per foot,
measuring on the ridge . _

Ripping up old shingles and clearing the nails, .
at per square '

Half gutter boards, per foot

Whole gutter boards, per foot

Plain weather boards, 6 inches wide or under,
at per foot .

If wider, add for every inch in Wldlh more

If OGEE on (lit:

If plancere .
Hip ridge and cave pieces for slattng, at per foot

F acia under Eaves.

If 6 inches wide, or under, per foot
If Wider, for every inch in width, add per foot

17

OWlON)
wmoo‘o‘

50
10
18

on
on ,

00
A {3 69

p.

GIOCDM-u Q

to- ca

 

< km s

RU LES OF WORK.

OGEE, on dit. per foot
If single cornice on dit.
If dentil cornice on dit.

Water Tables, Corner Boards, and Saddle
Boards.

Water tables of plank, 6 inches wide or under,
at per foot

If wider, add for every inch in width

Water tables of timber, worked with a moulding
at per foot

Corner boards, double, 6 inches wide, or under,
per foot

If wider, add for every inch in width more
per foot

Corner boards, single, half price of double.

Saddle boards at per foot, run ‘

If made of plank

Rustic Corners, Fronts, Plain Sheathing
and Belts.

Rustic corners, including the ground work, at
per foot, superficial

Rusticated fronts at per

Butting and scribing dit.

Plain sheathing with 1%
superficial

ll 1 inch stuff dit. dit.

Butting, scribing, and mitring 1% inch stuff, at
per foot, run

Butting, scribing, and mitring 7 inch stuff, at
per foot, run

Belts from 7 to 12 inch. wide per foot, run

lfmoulding underneath, add for dit. p. f. run

Trunks and Gutters.

Making a square trunk at per foot

Making a round trunk per foot

Single cornice head to square trunk

Dentil cornice and necking to dit.

Solid cornice gutters per foot, run

If rabbeted to lodge on bricks, add per loot

Plain cant gutters per foot

Cant gutters worked with cornice

Putting up trunks and gutters to be paid for by
the day. '

loot dit.
at per foot, run
inch stuff, at per foot,

Casing, Coving, and-gnCornices of all kinds.

Casing coving with pldnceii'é' and facia only at
per foot, run

Single cornice at per dit.,

Tuscan dit. at per inch in height, for evaery
foot, run

Doric and Corinthian cornices from 5 to 7
inches, per foot

For every inch in height more, add per inch

51

$

ate.
2
6
1 8

NIH C)

18

10

[G] H

p—i
O0)

21

13

13

10 add per foot one third the price of the cornice; except the Doric,
‘ which- add one. halfthe price per foot of the cornice.

‘ scribes equal to a foot of cornice.

 

 

 

If a double fret dentil

For every inch in height more, add

Ionic cornice from 5 to 7 inches per foot

For every inch in height more, add per foot ,

Composite cornice from 5 to 7 inches at per fdé't

And for every inch in height, add 4% cents for
every foot.

Single cornice with fluted frieze and astragal
neck, from 5 to 7 inches per foot

For every inch in height more, add per inch

Block cornice from 5 to 7 inches per foot

For every inch in height more, add per inch

Gothic cornice with modillion and chain dentil
from 5 to 7 inches per foot

If a gutter, add per foot

For every inch in height more, add per inch

Gothic dit. without modillion from 5 to 7 inches
per foot

For every inch in height more, add per inch

Gothic dit. without fret and with modillion
from 5 to 7 inches per foot

For every inch in height more, add perinch

Composite cornice with modillion, and the
frieze to be ornamented from 5 to 7 inches, at
per foot

For every inch in height more, add

201
$ etc.

75
4%

‘75

67
3

If an of the above cornices have a reirular frieze and architrave
Y _—, i .

Outside Pedestals and Pilasters.

Plain pilasters, including base and necking, at
per inch in width

Fluting columns and pilasters, add per inch

Tuscan pedestal, at per inch in width

Doric dit. dit. dit.
Corinthian dit. dit. dit.
lonic dit. dit. dit.
Composite dit. dit. dit.

If for pilaster, or ,1 column measure, one face;
if for a whole column measure, 2 faces.

Lat/tern Windows.

Hip’d luthern window boarded, with single
cornice broke round dit.

Pitched pediment with cornice
mould broke round dit.

Dit. dit. with dentil cornice

Dit. dit. with circular head

and bed

Turrets.

Small diatnond work, superficial
Turrets with hoard rails morticed in posts
Plain posts and rails with plancere per foot

All mitres and

50
20
20
25
28

30

'OCDO

13

17

 

 

 

202 - ,, —

_ $ as
Dit. posts morticed, rails made with boards, and

moulding under plancere per foot 25
If plank rails . 33
Diamond work turrets at per foot, run ' - 40
Chinese dit. at per foot, run ,. 5O
Balust ade straight work at per foot, run 75
Dit. broke over posts at per dit. l

Frontispieces, and Porticos of all kinds.

Plain casing doors with plancere, cap, truss,
architrave, and straight light over the door 7
With dentil cornice, fluted trusses, open pilas--

ters, and cased for {an light 20
With fret, or eye dentil, fluted frieze and trusses,
and cased for fan light 25
Plain Tuscan frontispiece, straight cap, and
plain pilasters 20

Tuscan dit. with pediment, brake and pilasters 26

If with columns, add 4
Doric frontispiece, straight cap, plain ground

and fluted pilasters 33
lfa pediment, add 10
”rustic ground, add (i
ll brake and columns, add 6
Ionic h'ontispiece, straight cap 30
Ilwith pediment, add 9

Corinthian frontisliiiece the same as Doric.
Open pediment, trtth platn columns, equal to

the Ionic order 40
Open dit. equal to the Doric or Cor. order 40
If with coluznn‘s 45
ll‘ any ol'the above have fluted columns, add 5
If any of the above h'ontispieces have rusti-

cated grounds, add 6

Tuscan portico, plain ground, pilasters, and
columns
Doric dit. plain ground, pilastets, and fluted

columns 80
(‘orinthian dit. the same as the Doric.

Ionic dit. plain ground, pilasters and fluted
columns 65
Swelled portico with two columns equal to the
Ionic order ~ 85

Bit. dit. with four columns, dit. dit. 113

Dll- dil- “ill! Six columns, equal to the Doric
or Corinthian order 1

Outside Door Cosesfor Brie/c I’anls.

Plank door cases for brick or stone walls, per
foot. superficial »

Door cases made \tith pine timber, 9 inches
wide, and 4 inches thick or under, at per foot, run

Dir. l‘t'nm 9 to 12 inches wide, and from 4 t0
6 inches thick, per foot, rnn

”larger, add per inch in width

t...

50

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

RULES OF WORK.

If oak thresholds, add per foot for dit.

Door cases made of hard wood, add 100 per
cent. for dit.

Circular heads for door cases per foot without
architraves

Outside Cellar Doors.

Cellar doors, with head, fills and strings,
slanted to the house

If plank top and bottom, add

Cellar doors with solid cheeks, plank top and
bottom

If with pediment, add

Rough Partitions, Rough Ceilings, and
tough Furrings.

Rough partition solid of plank, per square

Dit. dit. Open of dit. per square inclu-
ding sawing

If the planks are sawed from 3 to 4 inches in
width, shot to a width, and set edgewise, per
square

Rough fuming and rough ceiling, per square

All circular ceilings to it: paid [or by the day.

Inside Door Cases.

inside door cases with framed head
Rough (lit. with stops, and hard nood threshold
Dit. dit. with stops and pine threshold

Casing Outside Doors.

Edge casing, outside doors on studs including
threshold

For a circular head without architraves

Casing on outside with plank '

Dit. on three sides, with hoard casings

Double Doors, and Shutters. toil/t Boards
planet] to a thickness.

Doors and shutters with boards planed to a
thickness. at per foot, supei ficial
All kinds of fastenings tor dit. each

Casing "lint/0103.

Casing five inches wide, or less, at per foot
For evcrv inch more, in width add

I.' ‘ ,
Box casrngs per loot

Cusiug Timber.

Casing timber, at per foot, measuring on the
corners
Strips' for stopping plastering, per foot

Plotted Partitions, Butterzed Doors, and

. Shutters.

Planed partitions ofhonrds on one side, battened
0r matched, at per foot, superficial

$ cts.
20

50

5O

Nix!

125

90

 

any

“3’7.“ ‘9 “

 

RULES OF WORK;

If planed on both sides

Plank partitions, planned on one side, battened,
or matched, at per foot, superficial

Dit. planed on both sides

All battened doors planed on one side, at per
foot, superficial

Dit. on both sides dit.

The above prices for doors, includes the
stops.

All battened shutters the same price as doors.

flrchitraves and .Mouldt'ngs.

Single lace architrave, per foot, running

Double lace dit. per loot, dit.

Dit. with extra moulding

Fluted architrave per loot

Compass double lace architrave

Dit. single lace

OGEE, ovolo or cove, straight work, at per
foot, run

Dit. dit. dit.
Lzside Door Caps.

Door cap equal to the Tuscan order
Dit. equal to the Doric

Dit. equal to the Ionic

Dit. equal to the Corinthian

Dit. equal to the Composite

compass per loot

$

Amman-

cts.

4%

4

«I as cm!—

10
12
17
30
18

£003

090110614
OC‘CUVOOV

If any of' the above Doors are more or less than 3 feet wide, and 7

feet high, add or deduct in proportion.

Inside Il’indow Shutters.

Shutters made with planed boards and ends
clealed, per loot, run

Two panelled shutters, squarejoints, at per loot

Dit. with quarter round work, at per foot

Three panelled shutters, with quarter round, at
per loot

Two panelled shutters, with ovolo, or OGEE, at
per foot

Three panelled dit.
per loot

Two panelled dit. with ovolo, or quirk OGEE
sunk panel,'and astragal neck, at per foot

Three panelled dit. dit. dit.

Two panelled dit. with ovolo, or quirk OGEE,
on one side, and bead and flush on the other, per
loot

/ Three panelled dit. dit. dit. at per loot

If any of the above shutters are bead and but,
deduct from the two panelled 3 cents, and from
the three panelled 4 cents. ‘g

Hanging stiles, each

Fitting shutters into box, per window

with ovolo; or OGEE, at

20
23

24
30

25
33

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2

$ cts.
Shutters, bead and flush on both sides at: per foot; the same price as
quirk OGEE and neck on one side, and bead and flush on the other.
And if any of the preceding shutters are more than twelve inches
wide, to be measured superficial at per foot the same as running.
The foregoing prices include hanging.

Fastenings.
Plain lastenings to windows, each , 12%
Dit. spring lastenings to dit. each 25
Stairs of all kinds.
Common rough plank stairs, straight run, per
step 33
Dit. il winders 50
Planed plank stairs, straight run, at per
step 42
ll winders 60
ll planed both sides, straight run, per step 50
Dit. il winders 67
Newel plank add 5
ll posts and hand rails to either of the above
stairs, at per foot, run, for the rail 16
Rough stairs of boards, straight run, per
step ~ _ 25
Dit. ilwinders 30
Planed stairs of boards, straight run, per
step 30
Dit. the winders 35
Back stairs, straight run, with moulding under-
neath the step, per step 33
40

Dit. il winders

The above plank stairs are considered to be not more than four feet
long, and the board steps not more than three feet long; longer, add
in the same proportion.

Framed stairs, straight run, with banisters and

risers mitred in the string board, per step 1
Dit. il winders per step 1 25
ll short platlorm ‘ 2
ll long platform 3
ll gallery, per loot 50
Bracket stairs made with boards, per

step " l 25
Dit. with plank steps, and nails hid, per

step 1 55
ll with double bracket 1 75
ll cased underneath, add per step 75
ll short platform 2 75
ll long (lit. '4 50
Straight gallery, per foot, run 77
Working a common quarter twist rail and cap-

ping the first post 4
Working a scroll (including the curtail) 1(1) 50

Work, ‘g knees, each

 

 

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

204- ,- RULES OF WORK.
’14:». i _ $ cts $ cts.
Working mahogang rail, per foot, run . 25 Dit. dit. With panels and quarter round work,
‘ W‘Mer stairs, ‘per step ‘ a, 3 50 per foot, superficial 15
_ - ’g‘dit. underneath, per step ,. 1 34 Dit. dit. with’ ovolo dit. 16
Gallery, per foot . 1 '75 Dit. dit. with quirk OGEE, sunk panel, and as-
_ Guests-r rail on galleries, per foot ' 1 tragal neck, per foot, superficial 18
Working twists in a continued rail, at per Plain back boards and elbows, per foot, sup. 18
foot ‘ 2 50 Back boards and elbows, with quarter round
Fitting banisters of pine, per dozen 25 work, and panels raised, per foot, sup. 30
Dit. dit. of hard wood 50 Dit. dit. ovolo dit. dit. ~32
‘ Dit. quirk OGEE, sunk panel, and astragal neck,
. . . . er foot so erficial 35
Wamscotmg, Dadozng Rooms and Stairs. P Plainiscflifiha per foot superficial 8
‘ _ - I ’ , k
, , .. _' Quarter round dit. anels raised er foot su-
Wainscoting rooms from floor to ceiling With perficial P i p i 22
twister Wilmd work, per {00h superfiCIal 8 Ovolo dit. per foot, superficial 24
Dit. wit) small ovolo ~ 9 Quirk cone, sunk panel, and astragal neck, per
.. 1 it. l:vith qu1rk OGEE, and sunk panel, and astra- foot, superficial 95
‘ gaLnec _ _ _ ' _ 12 Circular soflita, if plain, per foot, superficial 22
d ’OW wainscoting m rooms UP to the “7”" Dit. dit. quarter round work, panels raised, per
fioiwls, quarter round work, at per foot, super- [0 foot superficial 60
c a Dit. dit. ovolo dit. dit. ' 62
th' , d”: OVOIO 11 Dit. dit. quirk OGEE, and astragal neck, per foot,
Dit With quirk OGEE, sunk panel and astragal superficial 75
neck - 15
If Up stairs, add one third to their respective N. B. The above prices of'circular sofiitas are estimated for open-
rices ings about three feet, and soflitas one foot wide.
p ' . . . Smaller openings, and narrower soffitas are worth more.
If any Of the above WameCOimg have il‘leze Larger openings, and wider soffitas are worth less per foot.
panels, add to their respective prices one fifth R 1‘1. _ . d l . 1‘
part. . \ac ' inings to Wln ows, p mm, per oot, super-
Bolexion work in rooms, per foot, super- fiC'Bll 1. b d d h f 4,}
ficial 16 p it. ( it. ea an ut, per oot, superficial 14
Dados in rooms, gm. per foot, superficial 6 ,1 Dit. (lit. with quarter round work, ovolo or quirk
Each but in dado. 8 i OGEE, the same prices respectively, as risers and
Each mitre in dit. 10 1‘9“";{15- .
Dado on stairs, per foot, superficial 7 \V_mdow seats of pine, per foot, superfiCtal S
Capping on Dado equal to Tuscan order, per Dli- 0f mahogany d1[- 20
foot, run 9
Dit. on dit. equal to Doric, per foot, run 11 Doors ofall Kinds.
Base suitable to Tuscan or Doric cappiugs, per
foot, run 11 Eight panel door, quarter round work, one side, '
Capping on dado, equal to the lame order, per raised one side, per foot, supcr‘icial at. 15
foot, run . 13 Dit. dit. two sides, raised one side, per foot,
Base surtable for such order, per foot, run 12 superficial 17
Capping on dado, equal to the Corinthian order, Eight panel door, two sides, raised two sides,
per foot, run 25 per foot, superficial 20
Base suitable for such order, per foot, run 20 Eight panel door, ovolo moulding one side,
rai i one ‘i ‘ 00 V
N. B. Mop boards and plinths are included in the bases of dados; i; d-5 de,,p61'df t, Stlflperfit lai 'd 16
Mitres in capping, and bases, each the same as their respective price ”6 . llt' “"0 5' es’ rahed Pne 5‘ e, per fOOt!
per foot run. . super era 18
The above prices of capping and bases are estimated for dado~ two ' ' v ' ‘.
feet eight inches high, or under. If the dudes are higher, add for Dit. dlt. m0 Sides, Per font, superficral 21
such height one tenth part of their respective prices for every three . Eight panel door, qmrk OGEE, aStmgal “90k one
inches. Side, quarter round, and panel raised on the other,
per foot, superfiCial . 22
Finislnng Windows, Inside. Dit. dit. with qutrk OGEE, and astragal neck on
_ . both sides, per foot, superficial 24
Plano users and returns for seats, per foot, su- Six panel door, quarter round one side, raised .
perfiCial 11 one side, per foot, superficral 13
is,

 

VMRWMC - -

 

 

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g? '

. “an“

i V irifiwfl t..,fl , 3‘

 

«no r» Ragga; .u .
' ‘Q’ . a

2.: ms
~ e “V

“2‘5?
J1;

35! NT?"

ficial l4
Dit. dit. quirk OGEE, and astragal both sides,
per foot, superficial 16
Two panel door, quarter round one side, six
feet high, and two feet wide, or under 1 25
Two panel door, ovolo moulding on one side,
raised one side, sixfee’t high, and two feet wide,
or under 1 33
Two panel door, quirk OGEE, and astragal neck
on one side, six feet high, and two feet wide, or
under, at per door 1 50
Two panel door, quarter round one side, raised
. one side, from six feet high, two feet wide, and
"Upwards, per foot, superficial 8
Dit. dit. two sides, raised two sides, dit. dit.
10

 

RULES OF WORK:

cts.
' Dit. dit. two sides, raisedpne side, dit. $ 16
Dit. dit. two sides, raised two sides, dit. 19
Dit. dit. ovolo moulding one side, raised one
side, per foot, superficial l4
Dit. dit. two sides, raised one side, per foot,
superficial 17
Dit. dit. two sides, raised two sides, per foot,
superficial 20
. Six panel door, quirk OGEE, and astragal neck
on one side, ovolo and raised panel on the other,
per foot, superficial 21
Dit. dit. with quirk OGEE, and astragal neck
on both sides, per foot, superficial 22
Four panel door, quarter round one side, raised
one side, per foot, superficial 10
Dit. dit. two sides, raised one side, per foot,
superficial , 12
Four panel door, two sides, raised two sides,
per foot, superficial 14
Four panel door, ovolo moulding one side, raised
one side, per foot, superficial 11
Dit. dit. two sides, raised one side, dit. 13
Dit. dit. two sides, raised two sides, dit. 15

Four panel door, quirk OGEE, and astragal
neck one side, raised one side, per foot, super-

at perifoot, superficial

Dit. quirk OGEE, and astragal neck one side,
from six feet high, two feet wide, and upwards, at
per foot, superficial 9

Dit. dit. quirk OGEE, and astragal neck on

two sides, from six feet high, two feet wide, and

upwards, at per foot, superficial , 12
Putting on iron and wooden stock locks, and

closet locks, each ’4' . 25
Putting on mortise locks, each 75

N. B. If any of the above doors are worked with wide mun-
tin, wtth head in the centre, add two cents to their respective
prices . _ _ .

The above prices include the hanging of doors, With a or H L hm-
ges; if hung with but hinges, add, per door, 25 cents.

 

Putting on knob latches, th “ThElatches, plate

‘ bolts, and plain bolts. each ”.5 w 12%
. 52 V ,
p r a
3‘
tfi "

 

Putting” on buttons, each V I i' 1%
Putting on hooks and staplesmeaclr -

Chimney Pié'be‘stdsz‘ngs, '&c. ‘

Casing kitchen chimne;r with shelf and sfigl:

corner, per shelf

Stiles to stop plastering, per foot, run

Plain chimney casings, each

If one moulding, round dit. add

Panel breast work to chimneys, per foot, super-
ficial _

Large ovolo round dit. per foot, run

Ovolo and OGEE round dit. per foot, rttn

Each mitre in the above moulding

A plain chimney piece, or equal to the Tuscan
order

Dit. equal to the lonic order

Dit. equal to the Corinthian or Doric order

Dit. equal to the Composite order

If any ofthe above chimney pieces have double
pilasters or columns, add to their respective
prices

Putting on composition ornaments to be paid
for by the day.

’ t

' w'.

  

5

7
13
‘18

2

    

:
15w

2"] :‘u
75
25

5
7
4

50 .
50

Linings in Rooms, and Closets, with their .Mouldings.

Plain linings, boards grooved, per foot, sup.
Nosing, capping, per foot, run
Astragal dit. per foot, run

Floors of all kinds.

Floors laid with merchantable boards not planed
to a thickness, at per square

lf rabbeted

Dit. dit. planed to a thickness

Floors laid with narrow boards of the best sort,
per square

Ke *cd or grooved floors, nails hid, at per
square

NDNDND

3

6

N. B. When floors are laid in places measuring less than

hundred feet superficial, 'add to their reSpcctive prices one fourth.

.Mop Boards.

Under mop boards for plastering, at per foot,
run

Planed mop boards, per foot, run

Dit. with a moulding, per foot, run

Mop boards from 5 to 8 inches wide, per foot,
run

if wider, add iuproportion.

IFor mitres in mop boards one
per foot, run, each

Fences, Posts, Gates, &‘0.

'Gate post framed with fill, yoke and braces,
post planed, and capped with bed mould, or

half the price,

‘m

2

(\‘DNIH 0“

one

Oubw

 

 

 

s.

 
     
      

     
     

K

rorn four feet to six feet, per

cornice, the,“ ening

Pair ‘ > t»
. Single ppst, planed and capped with single cor-

~ mcegpergt‘ st :,
Grate," ‘st framed as above, the opening from

xffeemtfi' o twelve feet, capped as above

t g "le post, cased plain, with a cornice equal to

i guscan order

 
 
      
 
    

‘ E'Dit. dit. dit. equal to the Ionic order ,-
" if a sunk panel in front and architrave round,
add to their respective prices .
' If sunk panel on more than one side, add for
each side i -

If plain pilaster, mouldings broke over it,
add

If fluted pilaster, and mouldings broke over it,
add i

If either of the above posts have rusticated
grounds, add to their respective prices

5 cts-
{7 25
2 37
1a.
4“ 62
6 .
5 25
l 82
75
2 50
3

2

Hewingi and trimming posts, digging holes, and setting posts, to be

paid for by the day.

Panel gates, per foot, superficial

Panel gates, with pales in upper part, per foot,
superficial

Dit. dit. and with wings, at per foot, sup.

Single pale fence, moulding on rail and cant,
per foot, run
' Single pale fence, plain cant and rail, per foot,
run

Single pale gates and piers to dit. per foot,
run

Do. without piers

Double pale fence with moulding on rail and
cant, per foot, run

Double pale fence plain cant and rails, per foot,
run

Double pale gate with piers, per foot, run

Without piers

Any ornament in friezes of gate, paid for by the
day.

Plain plinths to fence under cant, per foot, su-
perficial

Rusticated plinths to fence under cents, per
foot, superficial

at
g .
if

16

18
25

80

60

 

 

 
 

 

 
  
 

itiwms or, WORK,

Planed board fence, boards grooved, per foot,
superficial ‘

lf planed both sides, add

Single cornic'e facia and plancere, per foot, run

Planed battens on fence, per foot, run

Double or Tuscan cornice on fence, per foot,
run

Rough fence, not shot or feather edged, at per
square

Rough fence, shot or feather edged, per square

Dit. dit. shot and grooved, per square

Dit. dit. boards an end, shot and pickets sawed,
at per square

Dit. dit. boards an end, shot and grooved, and
pickets sawed, at per square

lf plank at bottom and rabbeted, add per foot,
run

Planed board fence, boards an end, shot and
pickets sawed, per square

Plank at bottom superficial foot

Planed board fence, boards an end, grooved,
and pickets sawed, per square

Plain picket open fence, per foot, tun

Dit. dit. ifthe pickets are worked, per foot, run

Plain posts, capped plain for such fence, each

Gates for picket fence measure double.

Rough batten gates, at per foot, superficial

Planed batten gates, at per foot, superficial

Planet] gates with battens laid on in front to
form panels, per foot, superficial

Blinds.

Blinds for windows, for 24 squares or less, of
7 by 9, or 8 by 10 glass, in two parts, per win-
dow

lf larger, per foot, superficial

lf circular heads to blinds, at per foot, super-
ficial [or the circle.

Blinds ought to be estimated at 27 cents the
Superficial foot. Hanging and fastening paid for
by the day.

Cants on ll’alls.

Plank rant on hattlemr‘nt, per foot, run
Timber cam and dit. at per foot, run

   

 

16
75
1 25
l 25

150

2 25
25
33

ll

4 25
20

60

12‘

101°

 

 
      

   

Blinds.

is” Plain Blainds with square slats at per foot

L Plain Blinds with middle rail and slats rounded

f ’ per foot ' _ .

3' '. If astragal on one side, add one cent per foot;
if on two sides, add two cents per foot.

    
       
   
   

t, ' Hanging blinds and putting in turn-buttons, per
Window 50
1f spring fastenings let into rail, 75
hi Inside Blinds.

Make plain with square slats, in two or more
parts, the full length of the window, and. from

{- inch to If inch thick, per foot - 48
The same with middle rail and slats rounded,
per foot, 45

When each leaf is made in two? parts, per foot, 60
If beads are flushed in at ends of slats, measure
the bead and count the mitres, per foot , 3
lithe foregoing blinds are less than 12 inches
wide, to be measured lineal.
The foregoing prices pay for fitting the blinds
ready {or hanging.
Inside blinds hung with but. hinges, for each
hung 10
If, the above-mentioned blinds are made of mahogany,
cherry, or birch wood, add to the above prices 100 pr; ct.

Door, 4 panels, 6ft. 8 by 2ft. 8.

 

Jambs, stops and spruce threshold 67
Single architraves 1 08
3:13 Band moulding 50
Hanging with but hinges. 25
K Case or closet lock ’ Q5
' -Door 17 ft. 9 inches, sup. 2 84
$5 59

g i

.. ‘ floor, 6 panels—6 fl. 10 by 2 ft 10.
Jamhs 75

‘ / Single‘arcbitrave and '2 16
Band moulding 53
25

 

' Hanging bt'ttg, hinges

’ufl “f - iv
V . .

:L‘s»
, “'15:.

.t

 

RULES or, ., ',

\ RULES soreness,

”in; fiameyd «190 if,

 

 

 

t

   
  

_,, 2.”

Pilastérsltitil y I 4“

 

 

 

 

Roset or blo‘ gainers 55¢. _t'
Hanging pro ecting but 30
Mortise lock \ 75. '
Door 21 ft. sup. 3 36 ;, i:
a a
$10 101“
Finish of Windows, 11 by 17 glass, 12 lights.
Frame, set in brick wall ' l 81 \
Parting beads and slips 16
Staff or oval mouldings 36
Putting in 4 pulleys . 25 ‘
$2 58
Inside Finish.
Shutters, 4 fold 4 panels, each 4 14
Fitting into boxes 33
Fastening with hooks 12
Hanging I ‘ 50-
Setting Frame 25
Backs and elbows 3 50 ;
Back linings 2 10
Sofiit l 00
Pilasters 4 20
Stops , 75
Plinths 50
Pine sash, and hanging 2 42
Blinds, hanging and spring fastening: 6 65
$29 10

 

$5 The prices in the preceding rules are, of course,
subject to such deductions as may be warranted by circum-
stances, or as may be agreed upon by the contracting
parties. ’

N. B. The style of work and the mouldings in Architecture vary
so materially now, from what they Were in 1800, that the prices of
mouldings and other work are fixgd by the surveyors, by analogy to
such work, in the proportion to the style so altered.

- ma"!

 

   

-chor A, B, is 36, and the versed sine
,t,hi div/i by 6 the quotient is 54, then add

1 -~. 0
' me am um 60 the whole diameter of the circle C, E. a: _
‘ . , , A 35 2D 3

 

...._..../’

 

IE
‘1 f?" V ‘ 60 the diameterC, $1,.
31118. Divide the square of halfthe length of the chord y the length of the versed sine to this product add the length
ofthe versed sine, and the amount will be the answer. .

i

r

TABLE OF CYLIND ICAL MEASURES,

Designed for the computation of the contents of Lead Pipes, rom one inch diameter to three and upwards; also Cis-
“terns of ten feetdiameter and under. The quantity and weigh of water in pumps, suction pipes, 650. from one inch di-
ameter and upwards.

 

 

  

 

  

  
 

 

    

DiTaixilieesr 31111133201125: 2:399:31)? 1’11;st 5:3- 3313:2113] ,3: 231 23:11:17 N. B. If the diameter should fall between any of the
' ' mg” p ' parts. and parts. umbers in the first column, the mean proportional con-
l 00 55 1:0 53 N4 ’34 ’00,” nts may be found by adding the two contents between
2 :0218 I34 ,16 1,36 ,0175 \ hich it falls, and' dividing by two. Suppose it falls be-
3,0491 301 ’37 3,06 ,0394 t een 108 and.l20 of the diameters, required the wine
4 ,0873 ,534 ,65 5,45 ,0700 g Ions in 114 1nches, or Qfeel 6 inches diamet’er,
5 :136 :835 [’02 8,52 ' ,1 10 which falls between 587 ,52
6 ,196 1,20 1,47 12,27 ,158 and 475 S9
,5, 7 ,267 1,64 2,00 16,70 ,215 -—-—
g 8 ,349 2,14 2,61 21,82 , ,281 ‘~’)1063,41
.5 9 ,442 2,7 l 3,30 27,61 ,355
e 10 ,545 3,34 4,08 34,09 ,438 Answer 53' 70:
g 1] ,660 4,04 4,94 41,25 ’530 if between 60 and7 °,say 64 inches or 5 feet 4;
f; 12 ,785 4,81, - 5,88 49,09 ,631 one- ird of 1213 4, then required the cubic feet and
-:1 24 3,14 19,25 23,52 196,36 2,521 parts 22.28
3:2 36 7,07 43,30 52,92 441,79 5,68 Subtract 19,64
.2 48 12,57 77,00 94,08 785,44 10,10 . . ”—
as 50 13,64 83,55 102,00 852,21 11,00 Dmde 3)8.64
‘ 60 19,64 120,30 146,88 1227,19 15,78 —
72 28,28 173,20 21151 1767,15 22,72 2:83
84 38,49, 235,81 287,88 2405,28 30,92 Add 19.64 s.

06 50,27 308,00 37601 3141,59 40,30 .
22,52 Answer.

108 63,62 389,79 475 89 3976,08 51.12
120. 78,54 481,25 587,52 4903,74 63,11

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

in the contents; as, required the number of

119,25

Any depth may be found by multiplying by the depth any of the numbe
ale gallons in 24 inches diameter at 6 feet deep.

  

 
 
  
     
  
  
  
 
 
   
   
               
             
  
   
  
     
    
     

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UNIVERSITYfloE‘ CALIFORNIA LIBRARY
' A BERKELEY

Return to desk from which borrowed.
This book is DUE on the last date stamped below.

 

ARCHITECTURE LIBRARY

 

 

LD 21-100m-7,’52 (A2528816)476

 

 

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