5 ‘ 4m:

.‘PRAEiCAL HEUSE CARPENTER.

BEING

A COMPLETE DEVELOPMENT OF THE

GRECIAN ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE,

METHODISED AND ARRANGED IN SUCH A SIMPLE, PLAIN, AND COMPREHENSIVE MANNER,.

AS TO BE EASILY UNDERSTOOD;

EACH EXAMPLE BEING FASHIONED ACCORDING TO THE

STYLE AND PRACTICE OF THE PRESENT DAY.

CONTAINING

ONE EXAMPLE OF THE TUSCAN ORDER, THREE EXAMPLES OF THE DORIC ORDER, THREE EXAMPLES
OF THE IONIC ORDER, ONE EXAMPLE OF THE CORINTHIAN ORDER, AND ONE
EXAMPLE OF THE COMPOSITE ORDER, I

WITH ALL THEIR DETAILS DRAWN TO A LARGE SCALE;

TO WHICH ARE ADDED,

A Series of Designs for Porticns, Frontispieccs, Doors, “’indows, Caps and Sills, Sash-Frames, Sashes and Shutters, Base
and Sur-Base Mouldings, Architraves, Clnmney-Plcces, Trusses for Roofs and Partitions, Stairs, &c.

ENGRAVED ON

SIXTY-FOUR LARGE QUARTO COPPER PLATES.

 

BY ASHER .. BENJAMIN,
ARCHITECT.
fluthor 0f “ The flmerican Builder’s Companion,” and “ The Rudiments of flrchitecture."

 

BOSTON :

Q PUBLISHED BY THE AI'TIIOR, R. P. & C. IVILLIAMS,
AND ANNIN 6’; SMITH.

1830.

5a

 

..

District of JVlassachusetts—tu wit .—

ms-rmc-r CLERK’S OFFICE.

BE IT REMEMBERED, that on the fifth day of January, A. D. 1830, in the fifty-fourth year of the Independence
ofthe United States of America, ASHER BENJAMIN, of the said District, has deposited in this Office the title of a
Book, the right whereofhe claims as Author,* in the words following, to wit 2

“The Practical House Carpenter. Being a complete Development ofthe Grecian Orders of Architecture, method-
ised and arranged in such a simple, plain, and comprehensive manner, as to be easily understood; each Example be-
ing fashioned according to the Style and Practice of the present Day. Containing one Example of the Tuscan 0r-
der, three Examples of the Doric Order, three Examples of the Ionic Order, one Example of' the Corinthian Order,
and one Example of the Composite Order, with all their Details drawn to a large Scale; to which are added, a Series
of Designs for Porticos, Frontispieces, Doors, Windows, Caps and Sills, Sash-Frames, Sashes and Shutters, Base
and Sur-Base Mouldings, Architraves, Chimney-Pieces, Trusses for Roofs and Partitions, Stairs, &c. ; engraved on
sixty—four large quarto Copper Plates. By Asher Benjamin, Architect, Author of ‘ The American Builder‘s Com-
panion,’ and ‘ The Rudiments ofArchitecture.’ ”

In conformity to the Act of the Congress of the United States, entitled “ An Act for the encouragement of Learn-
ing, by securing the copies of Maps, Charts and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such copies, during the
times therein mentioned ;” and also to an Act entitled “ An Act supplementary to an Act, entitled, an Act for the
encouragement of Learning, by securing the copies of Maps, Charts and Books to the Authors and Proprietors of
such copies, during the times therein mentioned; and extending the benefits thereof'to the arts of‘ designing, engrav-
ing, and etching historical and other Prints.” J. W. DAVIS,

Clerk of the District of Massachusetts.

* The Author claims, as Proprietor, three-eighths; Armin 82: Smith, as Proprietors, three-eighths, and R. P. & C. Williams
two-eighths. '

 

John Cotton, Printer.
Annin & Smith, Engravers of the Plates.

M. J
3

PREFACE.

——

THE favorable manner in which my former publications on
Architecture have been received, and the .want of a practical
treatise on that subject, adapted to the present style of building
in our own country, are the principal motives which induce me
to place this work before the public.

Since my last publication, the Roman school of architecture has
been entirely changed for the Grecian. Very few things of the
same nature differ more than the Greek and Roman creeds of the
orders. The Roman orders are chiefly composed of small and
ungraceful parts, and the mouldings are made up of parts of a
circle, which do not produce that beautiful light and shade, so
happily effected by the Grecian mouldings. These latter are
composed of parts of ellipses, parabolas, hyperbolas and other
conic sections, and consist, mostly, of large bold parts, which are
so strongly marked that each member of the profile is plainly seen
at a very considerable distance ; and can likewise be executed with
less expense than the former. I confess myself to be an admirer
of Grecian architecture, yet I am not disposed to condemn the
general proportions of the Roman orders, none of which, except
the Doric, differ essentially from those of the Grecian. The
column of that order was generally made, by the Greeks, about

MEOSSGB

o. 0
iv PREI“. 5,
five diameters in height; but t e same order ~waségenerally
made, by the Romans, from seven and a half to eight diameters
in height. It is therefore evident that the latter proportion comes
nearer to our practice than the former one, especially when the
orders are used in private houses. The members of the Grecian
columns and entablatures, however, are certainly better propor-
tioned to each other than those of the Roman.

With a strong desire to make this work useful to the practical
builder, I have endeavored to divest myself of any prejudice I might
have for or against any school of architecture, and to select, from
all the books on that subject, those parts which I thought would
best promote my object. With this View, I have first given an
example of the Tuscan order, which is of Roman origin : then one
of the Doric order from the Temple of Theseus at Athens, exactly
corresponding to the measures taken of that celebrated building by
Stuart and Revet; again, a second example of the Doric order,
from Sir William Chambers, whose orders are esteemed the most
perfect and beautiful of the Roman school; and lastly, a third
example, composed from the two first, but chiefly from the Temple
of Theseus, which I believe better adapted to the practice of our
own country, at the present time, than either of the others—but
those who differ from me in opinion have one of the most perfect of
the Greek, and one of the best of the Roman examples, to make
their selection from. I have proceeded in the same manner with the

Ionic orders, giving first an example from the Temple of Minerva

PREFACE. v

Polias at Priene, which is considered one of the best Greek exam-
ples ; secondly, an example from Sir William Chambers ; and
thirdly, one of my own compiling, which is chiefly Greek, the capi-
tal being taken from the Ionic temple on the river Illyssus at
Athens. The Corinthian order having been little used by the
Greeks, the Roman examples are generally esteemed the most
perfect; I have therefore given an example of this order from the
Temple of Jupiter Stator at Rome. Although the Composite order
was evidently of Roman origin, and is not much in use here
or elsewhere, I have nevertheless thought it proper to give an
elevation of that order from that most beautiful example, the Arch
of Titus at Rome. I have also given a profile of the entablature
and capital, taken from the Choragic Monument of Thrasyllus at
Athens, and the Ionic entablature from the Temple of the Muses,
at the same place; and also several other examples for entablatures
and capitals, which will often be found useful.

I consider it necessary that all practical house carpenters should
be fully acquainted with the orders of architecture, particularly
those who reside in the country, where they have no opportunity of
consulting an architect: I have therefore been very particular in
the descriptive part of the orders ; which care, together with that I
have taken in drawing and representing the most difficult parts on
a large scale, will, I am persuaded, make them so plain and easy
that a workman of ordinary capacity can make himself perfect

master of the orders, without the aid of an instructer ; and when he
2

vi PREFA’gia.
fully comprehends them, he will be able to understand the whole
subject of this book.

With a view to render this work completely a- practical one, and
to facilitate and assist the efforts of master carpenters, I have
drawn all the architraves, base and sur-base mouldings, and all
other examples where it was possible so to do, at full size for prac-
tice, and I trust they will be found particularly useful to those car-
penters who have not had an opportunity of learning to draw
architectural subjects.

I am indebted to Mr. Peter Nicholson’s ingenious treatise on
stairs for the principles of handrailing. I have made the drawings
on that subject somewhat different from his, and have explained
them in my own way. I therefore believe that this book will be found
to contain the most direct and best method of handrailing, and will,
I am persuaded, be more useful to the stair builder than any one of
his books on that subject. I am likewise indebted to Mr. Charles
Roath, and to Mr. Abijah S. Johnson, both eminent stair builders
of this city, for their practical advice ; and also to Mr. Mark
Ware, and to several others of my friends, who are eminent master
carpenters of this city, from whom I have received valuable assist-
ance. A considerable part of the description of Grecian archi-
tecture is taken from the Edinburgh EncyCIOpoedia.

A. BENJAMIN.
Boston, January 1, 1830.

I N D E X.

Plate
UPON a given straight line to construct any regular polygon - - - - - - I.
The method of drawing Grecian and Roman mouldings - - -- - - - - II.
Tuscan order - - - - - — - - - - - - - - 111.
Doric order from the temple of Theseus at Athens - - - - - - - IV.
Doric order as approved by Sir William Chambers - - - - - - - V.
Doric order, Example No. 3 - - - - - - - - - - - VI.
Raking mouldings, triglyphs, &.c. - - - - - - - - - - VII.
Planceer of the Doric cornice, and base mouldings - - - - - - - VIII.
Ionic order from the temple of Minerva Polias at Priene - - - - — - IX.
Plan and elevation of the Ionic capital - - - - - - - - - - X.
Ionic order as approved by Sir William Chambers - - - - - - - XI.
Ionic order, Example No. 3 - - - - - - - - - - - XII.

Entablature and capital from the Choragic monument, and an entablature from the Ionic
temple of the Muses - - - - - - - - - - - - XIII.
Two composed entablatures, and a capital for a pilaster - - -' - - - XIV.
Ionic entablature with modillions - - - - - — - - _ - — XV.
Best method for drawing the Ionic volutes - - - - - - XVI. and XVII.
Corinthian order from the temple of Jupiter Stator at Rome - - - - -_ XVIII.
Corinthian capital, modillions, 6pc. - - - - - - - - - XIX.
Composite order from the arch of Titus at Rome - - - - - - - XX.
Tuscan, Doric, Ionic and Corinthian pedestals - - - - - - - XXI.
Impost mouldings and architraves - - - - - - - - - - XXII.
The method of fluting and diminishing columns - - - - - - - XXIII.
The method of glueing up and finishing shafts of columns - - - - - XXIV.
Designs for key-stones and for balusters - - - - - - - - - XXV.
Designs for vases - - - - . - . .. .. . - - XXVI,
Design for a frontispiece to a door - - - - . - - - - XXVII,
Design for a frontispiece to a door with pilasters - - - - - - XXVIII.
Plan and elevation for an Ionic portico - - - - - - XXIX. and XXX.

 

viii INDEX.

Design for a window, shutters, cap and sill - - - - - - - - XXXI.
Design for a dormer window - - - - - - - - - - XXXII.
Designs for wooden fences - - - - - - - - - - XXXIII.
Designs for eave cornices - - - - - - - - - - XXXIV.
Designs for eave cornices with friezes - - - - - - - - XXXV.
Designs for stucco cornices - - - - - - - - XXXVI. and XXXVI].
Designs for sash frames, sashes and shutters - - - - - - - XXXVIII.
Designs for inside doors, with mouldings at large -- - - - - - - XXXIX.
Designs for sur-base mouldings, full size for practice - - - - - - - XL.
Designs for base mouldings, full size for practice - - XLI. XLII. XLIII. and XLIV.
Designs for architraves, full size for practice - - - - XLV. XLVI. and XLVII.
Method of fitting the architrave to the block at the angles, and to the plinth - - XLVIII.
Designs for chimney-pieces - - - - - - - - - XLIX. L. and LI.
Designs for frets and guiloches - - - - - - - - - - - LII.
Designs for roofs - - - - - - - - - - - LIII. and LIV.
Designs for truss girders, floors, &c. - - - - - - - - - - LV.
Designs for truss partitions, angle brackets, 65c. - - - - - - - LVI.
Designs for stair newels and sections for handrails - - - - - . - LVII,
Designs for scroll, curtail step, face and falling mould - - - « - - LVIII.
Reciprocal spirals and scrolls - — - - - - - - - - - LIX.
Construction of the moulds for a circular staircase - - - - - - - LX.
Construction of Spring moulds for circular stairs - - - - - - - - LXI.
Plan and elevation for a circular staircase - - - - - - - - LXII.
Plan and elevation for a pulpit - - - - - - - - - - LXIII.

Moulding in detail for a pulpit - - - - - - - - - - LXIV.

THE

PRACTICAL HOUSE CARPENTER.

 

PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

.—

PLATE 1.

FIG. 1.

IN a given square, A B C D, to describe a regular octagon. With
one half the distance A C or B D, and on A B C D, as centres,
describe the arcs g m d, e m k, c m h andfm i; join f6, d c, k 2', and
fig, and it will be the octagon required.

FIG. 2.
In a given circle to describe an equilateral triangle. Upon any
point A in the circumference, with the radius A G, describe the arc.
B G F; draw B F and make B D equal to B F: join D F and

D B, then B D F will be the equilateral triangle required.

. FIG. 3.

In a given circle to describe a square or an octagon. DraW the
diameter A C and B D at right angles ; join A B, B C, C D and
D A, and A B C D will be the square. For the octagon, bisect
A B in E, and carry A E eight times around the circumference.

FIG. 4, 5 and 6.
Upon a given line, a b, to construct any regular polygon. Upon

a and b as centres, with a radius a I) describe two arcs intersecting
3 .

. 10 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

each other at f; from b'draw the perpendicular b c, and divide the
are a 0 into as many equal parts as the polygon is to have sides.
Through the second division d draw b g, make efequal tofd, and
through 6 draw a g, meeting bg atg ; theng willrbe the centre,
and g a the radius of a circle, that will contain a b to any number
of sides required.

FIG. 7'.

To describe the segment of a circle by means of a triangle. Let
A B be the length ofthe segment, and C D the perpendicular height
in the middle ; through the points D and A draw D A, and draw
D E parallel to A B; make D E equal to D A, and join E A,
which makes the triangle E D A. Put in pins at the points A D B ;
then move your triangle around the points D and A, and the angular
'point will describe half the segment. The other half will be de-
scribed in the same manner, which will complete the whole segment
required.

FIG. 8.

The transverse and conjugate axes A B and C D of an ellipsis
being given, to find the two foci, and from thence to describe an e1;
lipsis. Take the semitransverse A E or E B, and from C as a cen-
tre described an are cutting A B at F and G, which will be the, tbei.

Fix pins in those points, a string being extended about the points
FCC G," then move the point C around the fixed points F and G,
keeping the string tight, and the ellipsis will be described.

FIG. 9.

To describe an ellipsis by an instrument called a trammel. Set
the distance of the first pin B, from the pencil at C, to half the short-
est diameter, and the distance of the second pin A, to halfthe long-
est diameter ; the pins being put in the grooves, as shown in the fig-
ure, then move the pencil at C, and it will describe the ellipsis
required.

 

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11

MOULDINGS.

.—_—.—.

PLATE 11.

FIG. 1, 2 and 3.

To draw the Grecian echinus or ovolo. Divide the height A B
into any number of equal parts, into four for instance, as shown on
the plate, and the projection B C into the same‘number of equal
parts; draw lines'from A through the divisions 1 2 3 4 on B C,
and through the points where these lines intersect the lines cutting
A B at 1 2 3 4 ; trace the curve of the ovolo, and it is completed.

It will be plainly seen that an ovolo or cimarecta of almost any
curvature may be drawn by this application of the conic section.
Where it is desired to make the ovolo thinner at the extremity, and
the lower part of the curve approach nearer to a straight line, divide
a smaller portion of the Whole height of the ovolo, as in fig. 4, say
three— fourths, two-thirds, or even one- -,half and by this method you
'may make almost any curve you choose.

To describe the Grecian ovolo, fig. 4, divide D A into four equal
parts, leaving off the lower fourth pait as at D B; divide B A and
D C each into the same number of equal parts; then draw lines
from A, cutting D C at 1 2 3 4, and through those points trace the
curve as before directed.

To describe the cimareversa, fig. 5, divide A B and 3 D each into _
a like number of equal parts, into six for instance as here, and draw
A 1, A 2, A 3, and C 1, C 2, C 3 ; then trace the curve as before
directed.

To describe a scotia, fig. 6, join the ends of each fillet by the
right line A B ; bisect A B at D ; through D draw C D F parallel

12 TUSCAN ORDER.

to the fillets, and C D and D F, each equal to the depth of the sco-
tia; divide D A, D B, A G and B F, each into the same number of
equal parts ; from E, and through 1 2 3 on A G, and also through
1 2 3 on B F, draw lines. Then from the point C,'and through the
points 1 2 3 on the line A B, draw lines, cutting the former lines at
1 2 3 4 5 6, and trace the curve through those points.

 

TUSCAN ORDER.

PLATE III.

THE Tuscan order is nearly the same in its proportions as the
Doric. Of this order we have no complete example remaining from
antique buildings. There is one given by Vitruvius, from whom we
derive all we know concerning the origin of the order, of which the
column is seven diameters high, including base and capital, and di-
minishes one fourth part of its lower diameter. But the cornice pro-
jects more than one fourth part of the height of the column, which
renders the example unfit for our practice.

In the example here given, I have, in imitation of Vitruvius, made
the column seven diameters high, including base and capital, and
the entablature two diameters ; although in practice I do not always
follow this rule, since in difl'erent situations both column and enta-
. blature require different proportions. They should in all cases be
proportioned according to the weight, or apparent weight, which
they have to sustain. It will sometimes be convenient to lower the
entablature, in which Case it may be reduced to one hundred and
ten minutes, or any where between one hundred and ten and one
hundred and twenty, taken in about equal proportions from the

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TUSCAN ORDER. 13

frieze and architrave, and leaving the cornice its full proportions.
The base given in this example may, when expense is to be avoid-
ed, be kept off with prepriety; and particularly when the column is
seven diameters or less. The mouldings in the capital and bed-
mould are Grecian, although the order is of Roman origin.

To draw the Tuscan order to any given height, the height given
must be divided into nine equal parts, because, the column being
seven and the entablature two diameters, one ninth of the height is
the diameter of the column just above the base. Suppose it be re—
quired to find the diameter of the column to a height of twenty-one
feet. One ninth of twenty—one feet is two feet four inches. Of that
length make a scale of sixty equal parts, which are called minutes.
First divide two feet four inches into six equal parts like the scale
a b; then divide a 10 into two equal parts, and a 5 into five parts.
Each of the last divisions will be one minute, or a sixtieth part of
the diameter of the column. '

Under H and against each member of the order is figured the
number of minutes in their respective heights, and under P, the
number of minutes which each member projects. The measures of
the order are to be taken from the scale of minutes above, as will
be seen by the following directions given for drawing the base.
Against the plinth c d is fifteen minutes ; take fifteen minutes from
your scale and set it down on a vertical line drawn for the side of
the column. Against the torus is twelve minutes ; set that down
on the same line; and against the fillet efis three minutes ; set that
down also. Under P and against the plinth atg is ten minutes; the
projection of the plinth ; set that down at right angles with the col-
umn, and draw the line across the plinth g d. Against the torus at

h is ten minutes, its projection; with six minutes in your compasses
4

14 DORIC ORDER.

describe the half circle, which completes the torus. Against the
fillet at z' is four minutes, which set off for its projection ; then with
four and a- half minutes in your compasses‘deseribe the part of a
circle which joins the fillet to the column, and the base is complet-
ed. Go on in the same way to describe the remaining part of the
ordel.

A is a section of the cornice showing the bedmould recessed up
into the soffit of the corona.
‘ B 1s a section of the band to the architrave.

C is the capital drawn 011 a large scale for the purpose of' show-
ing the exact curve of the ovolo.

 

GRECIAN DORIC ORDER.

__‘._.——

PLATE 1V.
FIG. 1.

THE district of Argolis first received colonies who introduced
civilization into Greece. It has been reckoned the cradle of the
Greeks, the theatre of the events which produced their earliest an-
nals, and the country which produced their first heroes and artists.
It was in the temple of Juno at A1 O‘os, 11l1ele the Doric orde1 ti1st
a1ose to a ma1ked eminence, and became the model fo1 the 111agniti-
'cent edifices afte1wa1ds erected 111 the other cities, states, and islands.
After the Doric order had been established in the temple of Juno at
Argos, it was employed in the temple of Jupiter Nemeus, between
Argos and Corinth ; Jupiter Olympius, at Olympia in Elis ; in a
splendid triple portico in the city of Elis ; and also in three temples

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DORIC ORDER. ‘ 15

in the same city, to' Juno, Minerva, and Dindymene ; at Eleusis, in
the great temple to Ceres ; in that of Minerva, at Sunium ; in. the
temple of blinerva Parthenon; in the temple of Theseus ; in the
entrance to the Acropolis, and other public edifices, of great magni-
tude and splendor, at Athens. I11 many of the islands there were
also temples ‘of the Doric model: that oprollo in the isle of Delos ;
Juno in Samos ; Jupiter, Panellenius, ngina, and Silenus, in Sicily ;
and innumerable'in places of inferior note. Even in Ionia, it was
employed in the temple of Apollo Panionius. blany ofthese edifices
were of great magnitude. The temples of the Greeks were univer-
sally of an oblong form; in some, the porticos were at the ends
only ; in others, they were extended quite around the cell, some in
single, others in double ranges ; some were covered with roofs,
others were left partly uncovered; and some of them were divided by
ranges of pillars along the middle of the cell. The superstructure
was placed upon aplatform composed of three steps, which surround-
ed the_whole edifice, and upon which the columns were all placed
without bases. The number of columns was either six along the
ends and thirteen along the sides, or eight along the ends and seven-
teen along the sides, counting the angular columns twice. “’Then
formed upon so large a scale and the ranges of columns so distinctly
insulated, and when artists of the first talents not only formed the
models of the edifice, and directed its execution, but also, under the '
strongest influence ofrivalship and thirst of glory, with their own
hands clothed those edifices with sculptures, and enriched them with
statues, under these circumstances the essential parts ofthe Doric
order produced effects not to be exceeded for simplicity and majesty.

That the proportion which the different members of the Dorie
order bore to each other was practised by the Greeks with consider-

.16 DORIC ORDER.

able latitude, and that the ancients did not scrupulously adhere to
any precise proportion, will be evident from the following table,
which exhibits the dimensions of the principal parts of this order in
many of the ancient Greek edifices, which have been examined with
accuracy. The dimensions here put down are in diameters and
minutes;

A Table ofhthe Proportions of the Doric Order. of Architecture.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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é i» etc? 3: a 3 2: i5 5

5 5 E4 5 -;; 3 g ‘2 s g as

Names of Examples. 9:5 5 I: o :5. F“ U E c:

Min. Min. Diam. lflin. DIin. Min. Min. Diam. blin.
Portico ofthe Agora, at Athens . 60 47 6 % 40 42 21 *
Temple of Minerva, at Sunium . . 60 45% 5 54 48.1; 48%- —— 1 28
Temple of Jupiter Nemaeus . . . 60 49 6 31 38% 43;— ——
Temple of JupIter Panellenius . . 60 44‘2 5 24 51;— 51% ———. 1 41
Temple of Theseus . . . 60 46% 5 42% 50 4‘ g -— 1 37%
Temple of Minerva, at Athens . . 60 47 5 33% 43 43 3,3 1 1735
Temple at Corinth . . . . . 60 44% 4 4 48f} —— l 14
POItico at Philip . . . . . . 60 49% 6 32% 3 ‘g- 43% 25.}, 2 42%
Temple of Apollo . . . . . 60 42% 6 3;} 49131 42% '
Temple of Minerva, at Syracuse . 60 46 4 245 44g 40 —— 1 5%
Temple ofJuna Lucina . . . . 60 45% 4 42 55 45 1 15
Temple of Concord . . 60 46 4 45} 46} 463 2,3 1 10%
Pseudo- Dipteral Temple, at Paestuin 60 40% 4 27' 50 ~—— 1 7%
-Hexastyle Temple, at Paestum. . 60 4:3 4 47,3 45'} 44; 5243 I 1%
Hypaethrul Temple, at Pazstum . (50 41} 4 8 4‘2; 40; 21% 1 4%
Inner Peristyle of dItto . . . . 60 43 4 13:} 3S) ———- 1 22}
Upper Columns of ditto, ditto . . 60 44% 3 50 68 -— :3 4‘.)
Temple at Selinus . . . . 60 46 4 21% 46} 44%;» —— l 2%
Temple ofJIIpiter, at Selinus . . 60 35.:T 4 3-7} 52 4423: 26
Temple at ngesta. . . . . . 60 44}— 49} 522% 40g! 1 11
Theatie at Marcellus . 4 . . . 60 48 7 51% 30 45% 57%

In every Greek Doric, the vertical face of the architrave projects
beyond the superior diameter, but is within the inferior one. In the
temple of Corinth, and the Doric portico at Athens, the ovolo or

’ Where the members have not been measured, they are noted in the table by this mark,——.
I

DORIC ORDER. 17

echinus is of an elliptical shape ; but in every other instance of
Greek capitals, it is hyperbolical, excepting the single instance of
the portico of Philip, king of Macedon, which is a straight line.

The number of annulets in the capital varies from three to five ;
and the number of horizontal grooves which separate the shaft from
the capital varies from one to three.

Elevation of the Doric Order on the Temple of Theseus at Athens.

This temple is one of the most ancient and beautiful examples of
that order now existing. It was erected about ten years after
the battle of Salamis, by Cimon, the son of Miltiades. The ceiling
of the porch is remarkable for its construction, having large beamS'
of marble with the upper sides level with the bed of the cornice, and
the ends corresponding exactly to the triglyphs in the frieze, which
gives the idea of the disposition of the timbers first used in buildings,
and from which the Doric order~had its origin. This building is
adorned with beautiful sculpture. The metopes of the frieze are
charged with historical figures, in which are represented various
exploits of Theseus.

The height of the column is five diameters and forty-two and a
half minutes, and that of the entablature two diameters and ten
minutes, so that column and entablature both together are seven di-
ameters and fifty—two and a half minutes. Ifthe column was seven
and a half minutes higher than it is, its diameter would be one eighth
part of the entire height, and it will be near enough in practice to
divide the whole height into eight parts ; then giving one part to the
diameter of the column, proceed to draw it as before directed in the
Tuscan order. The column diminishes thirteen minutes, and its

sides are composed of straight lines.
5

18 DORIC ORDER.

FiO‘. 2 is a plan ofthe soffit inverted, showing the distribution of
the drops, which are'two and a half minutes in diameter and one and
a half in length.

Fig. 3 is a section of the cymatium on a large scale.

Fig. 4 shows the capital on a large scale, in which the cantor of
the ovolo, and also the shape of the annulets, are more plainly seen.

 

ROMAN DORIC ORDER.

._.—_

Doric Order, as approved by Sir William Chambers.

' Vignola’s Doric being composed in a greater style, and in a man-
ner more characteristic of the order, than any other, I have chosen
it for my model ; though in particular members, I have not scrupled
to vary, When observation taught me they might be improved.

Perfect proportion, in architecture, if considered only with regard
to the relations between the different objects in the composition, and
as it merely relates to the pleasure of the sight, seems to consist in
this ; that those parts which are either principal or essential, should
be contrived to catch the eye successively, from the most considera-
ble to the least, according to their degrees of importance in the
composition, and impress their images 011 the mind, before it is af-
fected by any ofthe subservient melnbers ; yet, that these should be
so conditioned, as not to be entirely absorbed, but be capable of rais-
ing distinct ideas likewise, and such as may be adequate to the pur-
poses for which these parts are designed.

The different figures and situations of the parts may, in some de-
gree, contribute to this effect ; for simple forms will operate more

DORIC ORDER. - i 19

speedily than those that are complicated, and such as project will
be sooner perceived than such as are more retired ; but dimension
seems to be the predominant quality, or that which acts most power-
fully on the sense ; and this, it is apprehended, can only be discovered
by experience ; at least to any degree of accuracy. When, there-
fore, a number of parts, arranged in a particular manner, and under
particular dimensions, excite, in the generality of judicious specta-
tors, a pleasing sensation, it will be prudent on every occasion, Where
the same circumstances subsist, to 'observe exactly the same arrange-
ment and proportions; notwithstanding they may in themselves
appear irregular, and unconnected.

In composing the orders and other decorations which are contain-
ed in the present publication, this method has constantly been ob-
served; the author having himself, with that view, measured with
the utmost accuracy, and not without some danger, many ancient and
modern celebrated buildings, both at Rome and in other parts of
Europe ; strictly copying such things as appeared to be perfect, and
carefully correcting others, which seemed in any degree faulty, rely-
ing therein not alone on his own judgment, in doubtful cases, but.
much on the opinion and advice of several learned, ingenious artists
of different nations ; with whom he had the advantage of being
intimately connected when abroad.

The height of the Doric column, including its capital and base, is
sixteen modules ; and the height of the cntablature, four modules ; the
latter of-which being divided into eight parts, two of them are given
to the architrave, three to the frieze, and the remaining three to the
cornlce.

In most-of the antiques, the Doric coltlmn is executed without a
base ; Vitruvius likewise makes it without one, the base, according

20 « DORIC ORDER.

to that author,having been first employed in the Ionic order, to imi-
tate the sandal or covering to a woman’s foot. Scammozzi blames
this practice ; and most of the moderns have been ofhis opinion, the
greatest part of them having employed the Attic base in this order.
Monsieur de Chambray, however, whose blind attachment to the
antique is, on many occasions, sufficiently evident, argues vehement-
ly against this practice, which, as the order is formed upon the model
ofa strong man, who is constantly represented barefooted, is, ac-
cording to him, very improper ; and “ though,” says he, “ the cus-
tOm of employing a base, in contempt of all ancient authority, has
by some unaccountable and false notions of beauty prevailed, yet, I
doubt not but the purer eye, when apprised of this error, will easily
be undeceived ; and as what is merely plausible will, when examin-
ed, appear to be false, so apparent beauties, when not founded in
reason, will of course be deemed extravagant.”

In imitation of Palladio, and all the modern architects except Vig-
nola, I have made use of the Attic base in this order: and it certain-
ly is the most beautiful of any; though, for variet-y’s sake, when the
Doric and Ionic orders are employed together, the base invented by
Vignola, of which a profile is annexed, may sometimes be used.
Bernini has employed it in the colonades of St. Peter’s, and it has
been successfully applied in many other buildings.

The ancients sometimes made the shafts of the Doric column
prismatic, as appears by a passage in the fourth book of Vitruvius :
and at other times they adorned it with a particular kind of shallow
flutings, described from the centre of a square, no interval of fillet
being left between them. Of this sort there are now some columns
to be seen in the temples of Pestum, near Naples ; in different parts
of Sicily ; and in the church of St. Peter in Catenis, at Rome.

I) (DR '1 C OH D E R .;m appmved by Sir W. Chambers. l’!.. f.

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DORIC ORDER. 21

Vitruvius gives to the height of the Doric capital one module;
and all the moderns, except Alberti, have followed his example.
Nevertheless, as it is of the same kind with the Tuscan, they should
both bear nearly the same preportion to the heights of their respect-
ive columns ; and consequently the Doric capital ought to be more
than one module, which it accordingly is, both at the Coliseum and
in the theatre of Marcellus; being in the former of these buildings
upwards of thirty-eight minutes, and in the latter, thirty-three
minutes high.

In the design here offered, I have made the height of the whole
capital thirty-two minutes, and in the form and dimensions of the
particular members, I have deviated but little from the profile of the
theatre of Marcellus. The frieze or neck is enriched with husks
and roses,* as in Palladio’s design, and as it has been executed by
Sangallo at the Farnese palace in Rome, and by Cigoli in the Cor-
tile of the Strozzi at Florence, as well as in several buildings of
note in this metropolis. The projection of these husks and flowers
must not exceed that of the upper cincture of the column.

The architrave 1s one module 1n height, and composed only of one
fascia and a fillet, as at the theatre of Marcellus; the drops are coni-
cal, as they are in all the antiques, not pyramidal, as they are im-
properly made by most of our English workmen, they am supposed
to represent drops of water draining from the triglyph, and conse-
quently they should be cones, or parts of cones, not pyramids.

The fiieze and the cornice are each ofthem one module and a half
in height ; the metope is square, and enriched with a bull’s scull adorn-
ed with garlands ofbeads, in imitation ofthose on the temple of Jupiter
Tonans, at the foot of the_capital. In some antique fragments, and in

* The husks, roses and ox sculls, are left offin this example. .

6

22 DORIC ORDER.

a greater number of modern buildings, the metopes are alternately
enriched with these OX sculls, and with pateras; but they may be
filled with any other Oinaments of good forms, and frequently with
greater propriety.

Thus in militaiy st1uctures, heads of Medusa, or of the Furies,
thunderbolts, and other symbols of horr01, may be introduced; like-
wise helmets, dagge1s, gallands of laurel or oak, and crowns of va-
rious kinds, such as those used among the Romans, and given as re-
wards for different military achievements; but spears, swords, quivers,
bows, cuirasses, shields and the like, must be avoided, because the
real dimensions of these things are too considerable to find admit-
tance in such small compartments ; and representations in minia-
ture always carry With them an idea of triviality, carefully to be
avoided in architecture, as in all other arts. In sacred buildings,
cherubs, ehalices, and garlands of palm or olive, may be employed ;
likewise doves, or other symbols ofmoral virtues. And in private
houses, crests or badges of dignity may sometimes be suffered,
though seldom, and indeed never, when they are of stiff, insipid forms.

Too much variety in the ornaments of the metopes must be avoid-
ed, lest the unity of the composition should be destroyed. It is best
never to introduce more than two different representations, which
should not consist of above one, or at most two objects each, of sim-
ple forms, and not overcharged with ornaments. _In the disposition
of these, care must be taken to place them with regard to symmetry ;
those on the right in correspondence with those onthe left. “Vliere-
fore, when a triglyph happenspto be in the middle of a front, it be-
comes necessary to couple the middle ones, by filling the two
metopes, on each side of the central triglyph, with the same sort of
ornaments; distributing the rest alternately as usual. It is likewise

.1"

DORIC ORDER. ' 23

to be observed, that ornaments in metopes are not to project beyond
the triglyphs, which ought to predominate, as being essential, and
principal parts in the composition. Palladio, in his Basilica of Vi-
cenza, has given to the most elevated part of the ox sculls and 'pa-
teras, with which the metopes are filled, very little more projection
than that of the triglyph; and in this he has copied the ancients, who
seldom or never gave more projection to any ornament, than that
of the frame or border in which it was enclosed; as appears by
those inimitable fragments in the Villa Medici, and many others in
different parts of Rome, and elsewhere. The channels of the trig-
lyph on their plan, commonly form a right angle; but to give them
more effect, a narrow square groove may be cut in the inner angle,
from top to bottom, and into the solid of the frieze.

In the cornice, I have deviated very little from my original. Le
Clerc, who in his Doric profile has imitated that of Vignola, makes
the mutules as broad as the capital of the triglyph. But Vignola’s
method is preferable, who makes them no broader than the triglyph ;
as it is more sightly, and more conformable to the carpenter’s art,
in which the width ofthe rafter never exceeds the width of the beam
or joist it stands upon. The ornaments ofthe soffit are nearly the
same as those of Vignola. They should be entirely sunk up,
wrought in the solid of the corona, and never drop down lower than
its soflit. There is no necessity for cutting them deep: in most of
Palladio’s buildings, they do not enter above two minutes into the
corona, and that is quite suflicient. ’

Of all the entablatures, the Doric is most difficult to distribute, on
account of the large intervals between the centres of the triglyphs,
Which neither admit of increase or diminution, without injuring the
symmetry and regular beauty of the composition. These constant-

24 DORIC ORDER;

1y confine the composer to intercolumniations, divisible by two mo-
dules and a half, entirely exclude coupled columns, and produce
spaces, which, in general, are either too wide or too narrow for his
purposes.

To obviate these difficulties, the triglyphs have often been omit-
ted, and the entablature made plain, as at the Coliseum in Rome,
the colonades of St. Peter’s, of the Vatican, and in many other
buildings both at home and abroad. This indeed is an easy expe-
dient; but while it robs the order of its principal characteristic dis-
tinction, leaves it poor and. very little superior to the Tuscan, the
remedy seems desperate, and should never be employed but as a
last resource.

‘ The ancients employed the Doric in temples dedicated to Miner-

, va, to Mars, and to Hercules, whose grave and manly dispositions
suited well with the character of this order. Serlio says it is proper
for churches dedicated to Jesus Christ, to St. Paul, St. Peter, or
any other Saints remarkable for their fortitude in exposing their
lives, and suffering for the Christian faith. Le Clerc recommends
the use of it in all kinds of military buildings, as arsenals, gates of
fortified places, guard rooms, and similar structures. It may like-
wise be employed in the houses of generals, or other martial men,
in mausoleums erected to their memory, or in triumphal bridges and
arches, built to celebrate their victories.

I have made the height of the Doric column sixteen modules;
which, in buildings where majesty or grandeur are required, is a
proper proportion ; but in others, it may be somewhat more slender.
Thus, Vitruvius makes the Doric column in porticos, higher by half
a diameter than in temples ; and most of the modern architects have,
on some occasions, followed his example. In private houses, there-

DORIC ORDER. 25

fore, it may be sixteen and a third, sixteen and a half, or sixteen
and two thirds, modules high, in interior. decorations even seventeen
modules, and sometimes perhaps a trifle more; which increase in
the height may be added entirely to the shaft, without changing ei-
ther the base or capital. The entablaturc, too, may remain unalter-
ed in all the aforesaid cases ; for it will be sufficiently bold without
alteration—Chambers on Civil Architecture.

 

DORIC ORDER, EXAMPLE No.3.

._._—.—__

PLAT E Vl.

I HiE'RE give an example of the Doric order compiled chiefly from
the antiques of Greece, with very few exceptions. The Grecian
order is composed of large beautiful parts, and is of so distinct a
character that each member may be entirely seen at a very consi-
derable distance. The exceptions I allude to, are the annulets in the
capital and the drops below the triglyphs, both of which I think are
quite too small and trifling for the remaining part of that beautiful
composition. I have, therefore, in their place substituted annulets
and drops of the Roman character, which I think better adapted to
the taste 'and practice of the present time.

I have in this example left out the mutules over the metopes, and
in their place have substituted a pannel sunk up into the soflit.
I have also followed the Roman examples, so far as to finish the
bedmould with an ovolo, thinking that the mutules would appear
much better against the fillet of the ovolo, than they do against the
capital of the triglyph. The column is seven diameters in height,-

7

25 DORIC ORDER.

and the entablature two, a lighter proportion than the Grecian, but
heavier than the'Roman examples. The ancients seem to have
been governed in their proportions of' columns altogether by the
magnitude and situation of the buildings which they were to ac- ‘
company, and we‘cannot do better than follow their eXample in the
proportion of columns and mouldings of all kinds. It will be seen
by the plate, that the column is without a base ; but where the order
is very light, as it sometimes will be with inside finishings, the col-
umn being not less than eight diameters, the Attic base may improve
its appearance. _

The directions ‘before given for drawing the Tuscan order will
answer for the Doric, as both column and entablature are of the
same height. The column diminishes thirteen minutes, and the
sides are composed of straight lines, which may be changed for
curved ones, when a base is added, and the column made eight
or more diameters in height.

Fig. 1 shows a drop of the mutule, the corona, cimatium and
the ovolo.

Fig. 2 shows the capital on a large scale, figured in minutes.

The curves of these mouldings have been carefully drawn, and it
is believed that they will. appear very graceful, if correctly imitated.

A on fig. 2 shows that the face cf the architrave is in a vertical .
line with the upper fillet of the capital, which projects three and a
half minutes from the neck of the column.

In the Roman examples a difficulty exists, where columns and undi-
minished pilasters are employed, in supporting the same entablature,
because there is given to the pilasters the same diameter as to the
column, and the lower fascia of the architrave is situated in a verti-
cal line with the neck of the column. It therefore happens that the

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RAKING MOULDINGS. 27

neck of the pilaster projects beyond the face of the architrave;
which defect they endeavor to avoid by diminishing the pilaster.
But pilasters, of the same diameter with the columns, have the ap-
pearance of being larger than the columns, on account of their form
being angular and that of the column round, and a pilaster certainly
is larger, viewed from any other situation than directly in front.

I have, in this example, endeavored to avoid both defects, by mak-
ing the diameter of the pilaster equal to that of the upper fillet of
the capital, which in this order is fifty-four minutes; so that the
lower fascia of the architrave is in a vertical line with the neck of
the pilaster. What is here said with regard to the diameter of pi-
lasters will apply to both the Tuscan and Ionic orders.

It will be observed, by reading the description of pediments, that
the Grecians never employed either mutules, dentils or modillions in
the cornices‘ of the sloping sides of their pcdiments. I have there-
fore on plate 34, fig. 1, given an example of a cornice suitably con-
structed for that purpose, which is figured in minutes.

 

BAKING MOULDINGS.

——

PLATE VII.
FIG. '1.

LET A be the given moulding, B the raking moulding, and C the

return moulding. Draw a 9 in A, a 9 in B, and a 9 in C ; make a ‘

9 in B at right angles with the rake of the pediment, and a 9 in C
and A both perpendicular. Take the projection 8 9 in A, and set it
from 9 to 8 on both B and C; draw a 8 in A B and C; divide

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28 BASE MOULDINGS.

the given moulding A into eight parts, and draw lines through each
of these parts parallel to the rake of; the pediment ; then take the
distance 1 1 from. the given moulding A, and prick it down from 1
to 1 on the line a 8 in both B and C, and take the distance 2 2, 3 3, 5 5,
6 6, and ’7 7, and set them down on the line a 8 in B and C, as be-
fore directed; then through the parts so set of, trace the curve,
which will be the shape of the raking and the return moulding.

At fig. 3 is shown a design for a triglyph, including the fillet
and drops below it, drawn on a large scale; the sides of its drops
would meet in a point at e, if drawn from c to e and from d to c.
Fig. 4 is a section which is taken from c tof. On fig. 3, and on
fig. 2 at A B, is shown a section of the triglyph and its capital, also
the under side of the ovolo and its fillet, showing the method of cap-
ping the triglyph, and disposing the fillet over the metopes. And on
fig. 4 is shown the size and shape of the lower end of the drops;
the dotted line shows the size and shape of the top end where they
join the fillet above it. The different members are figured in mi-
nutes on the plate.

 

BASE MOULDINGS.

PLATE VIII.

A snows the soffit of the Doric Cornice to Example No. 3.

B is a design for a Doric Base by St. Le Clerc.

C is a design for an Ionic Base by Vignola ; and

D is a design of the Corinthian .Base, taken from the portico of
the Rotunda at Rome.

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29

GRECIAN IONIC ORDER.

..___——

PLATE 1X.

I); Ionia, the temple of Apollo Panionius was built after the Do-
rie manner ; but that refined people, not satisfied with the simplicity
of this order, invented another of a more delicate character, and
named it after their own country, the Ionic. They made the height
of the column greater in proportion to its diameter than in the Do-
ric ; the capital was totally different in principle, the entablature was
changed in its members and proportions, and a base was added to
the bottom of the column. Vitruvius says that as the Doric Was
strong and masculine, the Ionians modelled their order with female
delicacy, and that the volutes were taken from the curls of hair 011
each side of the face.

In the architrave and frieze, all appearances oftriglyphs and gut-

ta) are omitted; and in the cornice, instead of the bold mutules of

the Doric, the ends of smaller pieces of wood, to which the covering
tiles were fixed, are represented by what are termed (lentils or teeth.
This order differed from the Dorie, by having a base at the lower ex-
tremity of the shaft ; the propriety ofthis might have arisen from the
diameter of the shaft being much less than that of the Dorie, in pro-
portion to the height of the order, or the weight it had to sustain.
The volute is the great distinguishing feature of this order. In
the Athenian Ionics, and in the temple of Minerva Polias at Priene,
the lower edge of the channel which runs between them is formed
into a curve, bending downwards in the middle, and revolving about

the spirals on either side. In the temple of Erectheus and Minerva
8

30 IONIC ORDER.

Polias at Athens, each volute has two channels, formed by two dis-
tinct spiral borders ; the borders forming the exterior volute, and the
under side of the lower channel, have between them a deep recess
or spiral groove, which diminishes gradually in breadth, till it loses
itself in the centre of the eye. In the temple of Bacchus at Teos,
the great theatre of Laodicea, and in all the Roman Ionics, the
channel whereby the two volutes are connected has no border on
the lower edge, but terminates with a horizontal line, falling in a
tangent to the commencement of the second revolution of each
volute.

The capitals of both Greek and Roman Ionics have the echinus,
astragal, and fillet ; the echinus is always cut into eggs, surrounded
with borders of angular sections With tongues between them ; the
astragal consists ofa row of beads, having two small ones inserted
between two large ones. In all the Roman buildings, except the
Coliseum, these mouldings are cut in the same manner. The height
of the Ionic column was originally eight diameters ; the moderns
have increased it to nine. The shaft is generally cut into twenty-
four flutes, with as many fillets.

The section of the flutes of the columns, in the temple on the II-
lyssus at Athens, is elliptical ; the flutes descend and follow the curve
of the scape of the column in the following specimens, viz. : the tem-
ple of Minerva Polias and of Erectheus at Athens ; the temple of
Bacchus at Teos ; and Minerva Polias at Priene.

The base of the Athenian Ionics consists of two tori, having a sco-
tia between them, separated from the tori, above and below, by two
fillets ; the fillet above the inferior torus projects, in general, as far
as the extremity of the superior torus, and the fillet beneath the up-
per torus projects beyond both. The scotia is very flat, its section

IONIC ORDER. 31

forming an elliptic curve, which joins the fillet on either side. The
tori and scotia are nearly of equal altitudes. In the temple on the
Illyssus, there is a bead and fillet on the upper torus, joining the fillet
to the scape of the column ; the upper torus of the base is fluted ;
but the lower part, which joins the upper surface of the fillet above
the scotia, is left entire.

On account of the frieze being wanting in most of the Asiatic
remains, although the architrave and cornice have been accurately
measured, the height of the entablature cannot be ascertained. The
only instance in which a frieze has been discovered is in the theatre
of Laodicea; and there it is rather less than one fifth of the entabla-
ture. The height of the entablature may, in general, be two diame-
ters, and it may be increased in works of magnificence.

In the temple of Erectheus and Minerva Polias at Athens, the
architrave has three fasciae and a cymatium. In the temple of Bac-
chus at Teos, and Minerva Polias at Priene, the architraves are
also divided into three fascize below the cymatium. Their propor-
tions are very different from those at Athens, though also elegant in
character and effect.

In all the Asiatic Ionics, the crowning mouldings of the cornices
are cima-recta, less in projection than in height. The dentil
bands are never omitted. The cymatium of the denticulated band is
recessed upwards, being almost entirely wrought out of the soflit of
the corona, which nearly conceals its height.

When Ionic columns stand in the flanks as well as in the fronts
of buildings, two volutes at the corner of each angular column are
contrived so as to present the same form in the flank as in the front,
as in the temple of Bacchus at Teos; of Minerva at Priene ; Erec-
theus, and that of the muses at Athens ; and likewise of Fortuna

 

 

32 ‘ ' IONIC ORDER.

Virilis at Rome : the angular capitals have, in all these instances,
one volute on each side, projected in a curve towards the angle.
Amongst the ancient Romans, as at the temple of ”Concord at
Rome, the capitals of all the columns are made to face the four sides
of the abacus ; and it was from this specimen that Scammozzi, en-
couraged by the example of Michael Angelo, composed the capital
upon this principle, which bears his name.

Elevation of the Iom'c Order on the Temple of Minerva Polias

at Priene.

The great height of the cimarecta and its small projection is of
itself beautifulhand well calculated for ornament. '-

The dentils show to great advantage, their bold projections
making them a striking feature in this order.

The architrave and capital are well proportioned and elegant;
and the surprising delicacy of the ornaments, their bold relief, and
the grand ratio of the parts to each other, render this example one
of the most beautiful of the Ionic order.

 

GRECIAN IONIC CAPITAL.

PLATE X.

Fig. 1 represents one half the plan of an Ionic capital; fig. 2, a
side; and fig. 3, a front elevation of the same capital on a large
scale.

 

 

 

 

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33

ROMAN IONIC ORDER.

——

PLATE XI.
Ionic Order, as approved by Sir William Chambers.

AMONGST the ancients, the form of the Ionic profile appears to
have been more positively determined, than that of any other order ,1
for in all the antiques at Rome, the temple of Concord excepted, it
is exactly the same, and conformable to the description Vitruvius
has given thereof.

The modern artists have likewise been more unanimous in their
opinions upon the subject ; all of them, excepting Palladio and his
imitators, having employed the dentil cornice, and the other parts of
the profile, nearly as they are found in the Coliseum, the temple of
Fortune, and the theatre of Marcellus.

In this plate of the Ionic order, there is a design of the antique
profile, collected by'me from different antiquities of Rome. The
height of the column is eighteen modules, and that of the entabla-
ture four modules and a half, or quarter of the height of the col-
umn, as in the other orders ; which is a trifle less than in any of the
regular antique Ionics. The base is Attic, as in all the antiques,
and the shaft of the column may either be plain or fluted, with twen-
ty-four or with twenty flutings only, as at the temple of Fortune ;
of which the plan should be a little more than semicircular, as it is
at the temple of Jupiter Tonans, and at the forum of Ncrva ; be-
cause then they are more distinctly marked. The fillet, or interval

between the flutes, should not be broader than one third of their
9

34 ' IONIC ORDER.

width, nor narrower than one quarter thereof. The ornaments of
the capital are to correspond With the flutes of the shaft ; and there
must be an ove or a dart above the middle of each flute.

Vignola and Scammozzi, Serlio, Alberti, and others, have, in their
architraves, imitated those of the theatre of Marcellus, and of the
Coliseum, having composed them of three fasciae, distinguished
from each other only by small projections. This has but an indif-
ferent effect ; the separations so faintly marked are not sufliciently
striking, and the architrave is left too destitute of ornaments for the
rest ofthe profile, a defect most striking whenever the mouldings of
the profile are enriched. .

On the other hand, Palladio’s and De L’Orme’s architravcs ap-
pear too rich, being likewise composed of three fasciee, separated
by mouldings ; I have therefore, in this particular, chosen to imitate
the profile of the temple of Antoninus and Faustina, Where' there
are only two fasciee, separated from each other by a moulding.

The three parts of the entablature bear the same proportion to
each other in this, as in the Tuscan order ; the frieze is plain, as
being most suitable to the simplicity of the rest of the composition,
and'the cornice is almost an exact copy from Vignola’s design, in
which there is a purity of form, a grandeur of style, and a close
conformity to the most approved antiques, not to be found in the
plofiles of his competitors.

If it be required to reduce this entablature to two ninths of the
height of the column, which on most occasions is a p1 oportion pre-
ferable to that of one quarter, particularly where the eye has been
habituated to contemplate diminutive objects, it may easily be done,
by making the module for the entablature less, by one ninth, than the
semiwdiameter of the column; afterwards dividing it as usual, and '

IONIC ORDER. 35

observing the same dimensions as are figured in the design. The
distribution of the dentil band will, in such case, answer pretty nearly
in all the regular intercolumniations ; and in the» outer angle there
will be a dentil, as in the temple of Fortune at Rome.

In interior decorations, where much delicacy is required, the
height of the entablatute may be reduced, even to one fifth of the
column, by observing the same method, and making the module
only four fifths of the semi- -diameter.

The antique Ionic capital differs f1 om any of the others. its
front and side faces are not alike. This particularity occasions great
difficulty, wherever there are breaks in the entablature, or where
the decoration is continued in flank, as well as in front ; for either
all the capitals in front must have the baluster side outward, or the
angular capitals will have a different appearance from the rest ;
neither of which is admissible. The architect of the temple of For-
tune at Rome has fallen upon an expedient, which in some degree
remedies the defect. In that building, the corner capitals have their
angular volutes 1n an oblique position, inclining equally to the front
and side, and offering volute faces both ways.

In this order, I have employed the Attic base. _ Of the antique
base, described by Vitruvius, and used by Vignola and Philibert De
L’Orme in their Ionic orders, and by Sir Christopher Wren in some
parts of St. Paul’s, I think there is no example among the antiques ;
and being universally esteemed a very imperfect production, I have
not even given a design of it. -

As the Doric order is particularly affected in churches or temples
dedicated to male saints, so the Ionic is principally used in such as
are consecrated to females of the matronal state. It is likewise
employed in courts ofjustice, in libraries, colleges, seminaries, and

36 IONIC ORDER.

other structures having relation to arts or letters ; in private houses
and palaces,-to adorn the women’s apartments ;' and, says Le Clerc,
in all places dedicated to peace and tranquillity. The ancients
employed it in temples sacred to Juno, to Bacchus, t0 Diana, and
other deities Whose dispositions held a medium between the severe
and the efl‘eminate—Chambers on Civil Architecture. ‘

 

IONIC ORDER, EXAMPLE No.3.

.—

PLATE XII.

THE members of this example have been selected chiefly from
the antiquities of Grdece and Rome, particularly from those of
Greece. The cornice is made from large, bold‘parts of the Grecian—
Ionic, and the ovolo and fillet, above the (lentils, are entirely recess-
ed up into the sofi‘it of the corona; which allows all the members of
the cornice to be so large as to be distinctly seen at a distance.
The architrave is also composed of large distinct parts, divided by
two plain faseite. The entablaturc is two diameters in height, and
may be increased in buildings of magnitude. The capital is taken
~ exactly from that beautiful example found on the little Ionic temple,
near the river Illyssus, at Athens. In imitation of Palladio and
other modern architects, I have made the column nine diameters in
height, including base and capital : and I have ornamented it with the
Attic base, that base being generally considered more beautiful than
either of the Ionic bases which were used by the Greeians, they
generally having a clumsy, and sometimes an unsolid appearance.
It has been my intention, in composing this example, to make it in

 

 

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ENTABLATURES. 37

the whole and in its details conformable to the taste and practice'of
the present time; and I have the satisfaction of knowing that those
who think I have not succeeded in my design, can make selections
from the Grecian Example No. 1, or the Roman Example No. 2,
both of which are thought the most perfect and beautiful examples
of their kind. 7' '

Fig. 1 is a section of the cymatium, showing the fascia and cima-
recta on a large scale.

Fig. 2 is a design of the ovolo and fillet above the (lentil, com-
pletely recessed up into the soflit of the corona.

Fig. 3 shows a profile of the mouldings of the capital on a
large scale.

 

ENTABLATURES.

PLATE XIII.

FIG. 1.

Is an entablature’taken from the Ibnic temple on the river Illys-
sus. This entablature is two diameters and seventeen minutes high.
The simplicity and magnitude of the parts render it one of the most
beautiful and bold examples of this order.

FIG. 2.
Is taken from the Choragic monument of Thrasyllus, at Athens.
Its proportions are considered very beautiful, when employed on
works of no great magnitude. The projections of the mouldings

are figured from the central line of the antw.
10

t .

38 ENTABLATURES.

PLATE XIV.

On Plate XIV. are two designs for entablatures. Fig. 2 has the
Doric proportions, and is intended to be used with plain columns or
pilasters of that order, without a base, and where plainness only is
desired, or expense is to be avoided. The capital accompanying
this entablature is intended to be used with pilasters only, and was
designed as a substitute for that beautiful but complicated one be-
longing to the Choragic monument of Thrasyllus, at Athens. The
great number and delicacy of the parts of this capital render it ex-
pensive, and very difficult to be worked, even in wood; and it is
almost impossible to work it in granite.

The one on this plate, intended for a substitute, is composed of
few and large parts, and is of such a construction as to be easily
worked on either wood or granite.

Fig. 1 is intended to be used with Ionic columns, or pilasters,
where simplicity of character is desired. Fig. 3 shows the band of
the architrave on a large scale ; and fig. 4 shows the crown mould-
ing, also on a large scale.

PLATE XV.

On Plate XV. is a design for an Ionic entablature with me-
dillions.

The modillion does not properly belong to the Ionic cornice, but,
as it has been so frequently used by Palladio and other modern
architects, I thought it best to give a design of one here, for fear
that otherwise, I might disappoint some, who rigidly adhere to the
Roman school of- architecture‘. It will be seen by the plate, that

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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1014310 VOLUTE. 39

the capping of the modillion is a square instead of an ogee, and that
it is recessed up into the soffit of the corona, and by that means
forms a pannel between the modillions.

Fig. 1. To draw the soffit of the modillion, divide the line a 6
into six equal parts ; on 2 with the distance 1 2 draw g h ; on c
with the distance two and one half parts draw h 2' ; and with the
same distance and on d draw 2' b.

Fig. 2 is a design for a cornice. See explanation of plates

XXXIV. and XXXV.

 

VOLUTES.

PLATE X VI.

TO DRAW THE IONIC VOLUTE.
FIG. 1.

THE centre of the eye N and the distance A being given ; on the
centre N, and with a radius equal to one half the diameter of the
eye, describe a circle, cutting N A at O ; divide O A into two equal
parts at E, and divide O E into one part more than you intend to
have revolutions in the volute ; then take one of those divisions for
the side of the square 9, 10, 11 and 12, and divide it as is shown on
a larger scale at fig. 3 ; then with the distance 12 A in your com-
passes and on 12 draw the quarter of a gircle A B. Then on 11,
and with the distance 11 B, draw the qdiarter .circle B C ; on 10
and with the distance 10 C draw 0- D ; on 9 with the distance 9 D
draw D E : This completes one revolution. On 8 draw E F ; on

7drawFG; on6drawGH; on5drawHI; on4draWIK;

r40 IONIC VOLUTE.
on 3 draw K L; on 2 draw L M; and on I draw M O; which

completes the outside circle. Draw the inside circle, from centres
one fifth part of oneof the divisions of the square, nearer the centre
Of the eye of the volute.

FIG. 2.

The height of the volute D E being given, divide it into eight
equal parts ; take one of those parts for the diameter of the eye,
leaving four parts above and three below the eye ; then draw the
diagonal line A B, cutting the centre of the eye at C, and divide
1 2 into siX equal parts, as is more clearly seen on the eye at large,
fig. 4. With the radius 1 F and on I draw the arc F A ; on 2 and
with the distance 2 A draw A B ; on 3 with the distance 3 B draw
B G ; and so on, until you have completed the outside of the fillet ;
draw the inside of the fillet from centres one fifth part of one
division, nearer the centre, as before directed.

PLATE XVII.

TO DRAW A SPIRAL LINE T0 TOUCH A GIVEN CIRCLE, WHOSE CENTRE
IS THE CENTRE OF THE SPIRAL, TO ANY NUMBER OF REVOLUTIONS;
THE WHOLE HEIGHT BEING GIVEN.

From the height of the spiral F E, set ofi‘ the diameter of the
eye E G. If three revolutions are intended, divide G F into twelve
equal parts : if four revolutions, divide G F into sixteen equal parts.
Take seven of the twelve vfparts, together with one half of the eye
or one half of E G, and set it from F downwards, and it will extend
to the centre of the eye, A. In fig. 2 the centres are drawn on a
large scale, from which I shall make the description ; which will

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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CORINTHIAN ORDER. 41

also make plain fig. 3, which is calculated for two, fig. 4, which is
calculated for four, and fig. 5, which is calculated for five revolutions.

A is the» centre of the eye just found ; make A B perpendicular
toA C, and each equal to one half of one of the twelve parts of
G F. Fig. 1. Make B 1, B 2and C 2 each equal to A B or A C;
draw A 1 andA 2 ; divide A C into three equal parts, or into as
many parts as it is intended to make revolutions in the volute : divide
A 1 on A C into two parts at D ; rdraw D 4 parallel to A 2, D 3 3
parallel to A 1 : then draw lines cutting the diagonals at 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12, which will be the twelve centres, from which
the volute is to be drawn. In fig. 1, and on 1 as a centre, with the
distance 1 a, draw the quadrant of a circle a b ,' on 2, with the dis-
tance 2 I), draw b c ; on 3 draw c d ; on 4 draw d e ; on 5 draw
cf; on6drawfg; 0n7drawgh; on8draw h i; on 9 draw
z'j ; on 10 drawj k ; on 11 draw 16 l; and on 12 draw I m ; and
the outside of the fillet is completed. Draw the inside line, as be-
fore directed.

 

CORINTHIAN ORDER.

.——_—_

PLATE XVIII.

THE artists of Graecia proper, perceiving that, in the Ionic order,
the severity of the Doric had been departed from, by one happy
effort invented a third, which still much surpassed the Ionic in deli-
cacy of proportion and richness of decorations : this was named the
Corinthian order. The merit of this invention is ascribed to Calli-

machus, an Athenian sculptor, who is said to have had the idea
11

42 . CORINTHIAN ORDER.

suggested to him, by observing acanthus leaves growing around a
basket which had been p1aced,.with some favorite trinkets, upon the
grave of a young lady of Corinth ; the stalks which arose among
the leaves having been formed into slender volutes by a square tile,
which covered the basket.- The whole fabric of the Corinthian or-
der is composed with great delicacy of taste. It is admirably fitted
for the most highly ornamented states of architecture, and is
strongly expressive of the refinement and excellence to which
* the Greeks had carried their taste and skill in architecture and
sculpture.

The Greeks, having invented and established three orders, with
each a separate character, calculated for edifices, gradually ascend-
ing from the most simple to those which were highly ornamented,
completed a distinct and perfect school of architecture, to which
there remained nothing to be added. '

In all the examples in Stuart’s Athens, this order has an Attic
base ; the upper fillet of the scotia projects as far as the upper torus.
In the monument of Lysicrates, the.upper fillet of the base projects
farther than the upper torus, which is an inverted ovolo.

Vitruvius observes, that the shaft ofthe column has the same pro-
portions as the Ionic, except the difference which arose from the
greater height of the capital, it being a whole diameter, whereas
the Ionic is only two thirds of it. But this column, including the
base and capital, has by the moderns been increased to ten diame-
ters in height. If the cntablature is enriched, the shaft should be
fluted: the number of flutes and fillets are generally twenty-four ;
and frequently the ‘lower third of the height has cables, or
reeds, husks, spirally twisted ribands, or some sort of flowersinsert-

If

CORINTHIAN ORDER. ' 43

ed on them. The great distinguishing feature of this order is its
capital, which has for two thousand years been acknowledged the
greatest ornament of this school of architecture. The height is
one diameter of the column ; to which the moderns have added one
sixth more. “

The best specimens are, the monument of Lysicrates, the Stoa,
and arch of Adrian, at Athens ; and the Pantheon of Agrippa, and
the three columns of the Campo Vaccino, at Rome.

This order seems never to have been much employed in Greece
before the time of the Roman conquest ; but this powerful people
employed it almost exclusively in every part of their extensive em-
pire ; and it is accordingly in edifices constructed under their influ-
ence that the most perfect specimens are to be found. Vitruvius
says that Corinthian columns were sometimes surmounted by a
Doric entablature ; which is not supported by any antique example
now to be found. His observation respecting the Ionic entablature
over the same kind of columns is verified in a number of instances.

The arch of Adrian, at Athens, has a cornice with dentils, a plain
frieze, an architrave with two plain fasciaa, and an Attic base.

A temple at Jackly, near lVIylassa, has a corniCe with dentils, a
swelled frieze, an architrave with three plain fascite, and an Attic
base. . -

At Salonica (the ancient Thessalonica) a building called the In-
cantada has a cornice with dentils, a swelled frieze ornamented
with flutings, an architrave with three plain fasciae, and an Attic
base. .

The temple of' Vesta, or Tivoli, has a plain cornice, with the
dentil band uncut, an ornamented frieze, an architrave with two
fasciaa divided by an astragal, and an Attic base.

44 CORINTHIAN ORDER.

The portico of Septimius Severus, in the same city, has a plain
cornice, with a small uncut dentil band, a plain frieze, and an archi-
trave with three fasciae divided by mouldings.

In all these instances the entablature and base are similar to those
generally observed in the Ionic order, from which these Corinthian
examples differ only in the form of their capitals. But it will ap-
pear that the Romans attempted to give the Corinthian order a
more distinct character, by appropriating to it a peculiar entabla-
ture and base, and thus making a complete order of what might be
previously regarded as a composition; in which light Vitruvius
seems to have considered it.

The portico of the Pantheon has a cornice with modillions, and
an uncut dentil band, a plain frieze, an architrave with two fascia:
divided by mouldings, and a Corinthian base.

The temple of Peace, at Rome, has a cornice with modillions and
dentils, a plain frieze, and an architrave with three fasciae divided
by mouldings.

In the Campo Vaccino, the three columns, supposed by some to have
belonged to a temple of Jupiter Stator, and by others, to a temple
dedicated to Julius Caesar, have a cornice with modillions and den-
tils, a flat frieze, an architrave with three fascia: divided by mould-
ings, and a Corinthian base.

The temple of Jupiter Tonans, at Rome, has a cornice with
modillions and dentils, a flat frieze, and an architrave with three
fasciae divided by mouldings. The arch of Constantine has a cor-
nice with modillions and dentils, a plain frieze, an architrave with
three plain fasciaa, and an Attic’ base.

At Ephesus, the temple supposed by Chandler to have been erect-
ed by permission of Augustus, in honor of his uncle Julius, has a

CORINTHIAN ORDER. 45

cornice with modillions and dentils, a swelled and ornamented frieze,
an architrave with three fasciae divided by mouldings, and an Attic
base. .

The Maison Quarre, at Nismes, has a cornice with modillions
and dentils, a flat frieze, an' architrave with three fascia), divided by
mouldings, and an Attic base.

Of the modern architects who treated of this order, Palladio
makes the column nine and a half diameters high; one fifth of
which he gives to the entablature, consisting of a cornice with mo-
dillions and dentils, a flatfrieze, and an architrave with three fas-
cia), divided by astragals : the base is Attic. The design of Scam-
mozzi bears a general resemblance to that of Palladio, but his
column has ten diameters in its altitude ; his entablature is one fifth
of this height ; the cornice has modillions, the architrave consists
of three fascia divided by astragals, and the base is Attic. Serlio,
following Vitruvius, has given this order an Ionic entablature, with
dentils, and the same proportion of the capital ; his column is nine
diameters high, and has a Corinthian base. Vignola’s Corinthian
is a grand and beautiful composition, chiefly imitative of the three
columns. He makes the column ten diameters and a halfin height;
the entablature is a fourth of that altitude, the cornice has modil-
lions and dentils, the frieze is plain, the architrave of three fasciae,
divided by mouldings, and the base is Attic.

In the following table will be found the proportions of some of
the principal examples of the Corinthian order ; in examining
which, it is to be recollected, that the several members are mea-
sured by the lower diameter of the shafts, which is divided into sixty

parts, called minutes.
12

46

CORINTHIAN CAPITAL.

 

 

 

 

Hegght Hedtght fig:- Frieze. Cornice.
Column. Capital. 1
Diam. -Min. Min. Min. lVIin. lVIin.
Portico ofthe Pantheon . . . . . . . . 9 341— 67g 42% 39'; 54
‘Temple of Vesta, at Tivoli . . . . . . . 9 21% 57 30 37% 32-;-
Temple of Antomus and Faustina . . . . 9 36;. 68% 435 40% 512‘?
Three Columns In the Campo Vaccino . . . 10 6% 66% 43% 43% 6‘ {a
The Basilica ofAntonius, at Rome .‘ . . . 10 11% 695- 43% 82% Missing.
The Arch of Constantine . . . . . . . 9 37 65% 45 4O 58T7§
Temple at Ephesus . . . . . . . 10 15 64 48 45% 48
Temple at Jackly, near Mylassa 9 31‘ 63 43% 40 Missing.
V Poeile, at Athens . . 9 32 64% 3942 34% 38%
Arch of Adrian, at Athens . 9 52 72 41 38% 46
The Incantada, at Salonica . 9 31 * 6631 46 41% 425-
Palladio . . . . . . . . . . 9 3O 70 38 28% 472',
Scammozzi . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 70 40 32 48
Serlio . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 60 30 37 39
Vignola . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 70 45 45 60

 

 

 

 

*This example of' the Corinthian order is taken from the temple

of Jupiter Stator, at Rome, and is considered one of the most
beautiful examples of the order.

A is a design of the base on a large scale.

 

CORINTHIAN CAPITAL.

. PLATE XIX.

PROJECTION OF‘THE CORINTHIAN CAPITAL.

FIG. 1 is the plan. Make the length of the diagonal of the aba-
cus two diameters; the centre of eoach side is determined by the
vertex of an equilateral triangle; the semi- -plan 1s divided into eight
equal parts, which being carried up perpendicularly to fig. 2, the
elevation gives the centres of the leaves of which the projections

  
  
   
   
    

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COMPOSITE ORDER. 47

are formed by those upon the plan, as is shown by dotted lines. To
draw the faces of the abacus: With the distance ab describe the
segments of a circle a b, b c, c d and d a. Fig. 3 shows the form
and manner of raflling the leaves ; fig. 3 being the front, and fig. 4
the side view. Fig. 5 is a design for a leaf differing from fig. 2,
and was taken from the three columns in the Campo Vaccino. Fig.
6 is a design for the solfit, and fig. 7 the side View of a modillion.

 

COMPOSITE ORDER.

_——————

PLATE XX.

THIs example is taken from the arch of Titus, at Rome, which
was executed soon after the destruction of Jerusalem, in order to
commemorate that remarkable event.

This order is evidently derived from the Ionic and Corinthian or-
ders. It was first used by the Romans, in their triumphal arches,
to show their dominion over the people whom they conquered. Of
this order we have many ancient examples, but this example is con-
sidered to be the most chaste and beautiful of any.

 

PEDESTALS.

PLATE XXI.

PEDES'I‘ALS are, I believe, a Roman invention; they are useful
for supporting a colonnade or a pilastrade, and sometimes supply

48 ‘ PEDESTALS.

the office of a basement to a building. They consist of a base, die,
and cornice.

In the original examples of Grecian architecture, we find the co-
lumns standing on the uppermost of three steps ; a rule to which‘we
know of but one existing exception, to be seen in the temple of The-
seus, at Athens, which has but two steps. The Romans, however,
when they raised the floors of their temples and other edifices high,
were under the necessity of discontinuing the front stairs, lest they
should prove inconvenient by occupying too much ground around
the building, and of adopting the pedestal raised to a level with
the top of the stairs, and projecting to the front of the steps
which profiled on its sides.

Wherever pedestals are introduced the grandeur of the order is
diminished, as all the parts are proportionably reduced; yet they
are indispensable in some situations.

In ancient Roman buildings, the proportions of pedestals are very
variable ; but some modern writers have endeavored to reduce them
to a regular standard. Vignola-would have them to be one third
of the altitude of' the column: but as this appeared to make them
too high, Sir William Chambers reduced it to three tenths ; but both
ratios must be subject to variation, according to circumstances.
Pedestals still lower are to be preferred.

As to the decorations of pedestals, projecting tablets are inad-
missible. It is sometimes customary to adorn the dies with sunk
pannels, surrounded with mouldings; and the pannels themselves
are occasionally occupied by bas reliefs or inscriptions.

Pedestals should never be insulated, though the columns sus-
tained by them be so. In_ the ancient theatres and amphitheatres,
the inferior orders rested upon steps, while all the superior orders

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ARCADE S. . 49

stood upon pedestals, which formed a parapet for raising the base
of the order sufficiently high to be seen on a near approach to the
building, and for the spectators to lean over; but they never ex-
ceeded the height necessary for the. prevention of accident.

On Plate XXI. are four designs for pedestals, which may be
used with the Tuscan, Doric, Ionic and Corinthian orders, their
details being figured on the plate.

 

ARCADES.

PLATE XXII.

WHEN an aperture in a wall is too wide to be lintelled, it is arch-
ed over, and receives the appellation of an arcade, which term, in
the plural number, indicates a continued range of such apertures.
They are not so magnificent as colonnades, but are stronger, more
solid, and less expensive.

In the construction of arcades, the piers require the utmost care,
to have them of sufficient strength to resist the pressure of the
arches, particularly those at the extremities. In large arches, the
keystone should never be omitted, and they should be carried to the
soflit of the architrave, where they would be useful in supporting
the centre of the entablaturre, which would otherwise have too great
a bearing. The altitude of arcades should never be much more nor
much less than double their breadth. The breadth of the pier should
seldom exceed two thirds, nor be less than one third of that of the
arcade ; and the angular one should have the addition of a third, or

13

 

 

50 FLUTES AND FILLETS.

even a half more than the rest, according to the nature of the de-
sign. The impost should not be less than a ninth, nor more than a
seventh of the breadth of the arch ; and the archivolt not less than
a tenth, nor more than an eighth of the same breadth. The bottom
of the keystone should be equal in breadth to that of the archivolt ;
and its length not less than one and a half, nor more than double
its bottom breadth. Make the height of the impost moulding equal
to the breadth of the impost.

 

FLUTES AND FILLETS.

_—_———

PLATE XXIII.

FIG. 2 shows the manner of setting out the flutes on the column
of the Doric order. A represents the size of the column at base,
and B at the neck. Divide the circumference into twenty equal
parts, that being the number of flutes for this column, and give one
part to each flute; divide one part, as a 1), into four parts; with
three of these parts, and on 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, &c. describe the
curves.

Fig. 1 shows the elevation of a part of the column, when fluted.

Fig. 5 shows a semi-plan, and fig. 4 an elevation Of the Ionic
column. Divide its circumference into twenty-four equal parts, and
divide one of these twenty-fourth parts into four parts ; with one and
a half'of these four parts, and on 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, &c. describe
the flutes, making each of them a half circle, so that each fillet'is
equal to one third of a flute.

Fig. 3 shows the division of' the flutes and fillets on a large scale.

   

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COLUMNS. 51

Fig. 6 shows how to diminish a column after the Roman taste.
Divide the shaft of the column into four parts, and leave the lower
fourth undiminished; divide the remaining three fourths into six
equal parts, as represented on the central line of the column. On
A describe the circle I) e, d c ; make 6 d equal to the diameter of
the column at the neck, and divide the circle I) (3 into six equal
parts; draw lines parallel to b 0 through each of these divisions,
cutting the circle on each side of the centre of the column ; then
transfer the distances 1 1, 2 2, 3 3, 4 4, 5 5, in A, to 1 1, 2 2, 3 3,
4 4, and 5 5, from the central line of the column both ways, and
through these parts trace the curved lines of each side the column.

PLATE XXIV.

TO GLUE UP THE SHAFT OF A COLUMN.

0n Plate XXIV. is shown the method of glueing up the shaft of

columns.

Draw the plans of the column intended to be made at both base
and neck, as shown in fig. 1 and 2. In this example I have made
the column sixteen inches in diameter at the base, and have divided
it into eight staves. If the sides of the column be straight, two
inch plank will be sufficiently thick for the staves. Make the joints
in a fillet, or between two flutes. It will be seen that the plans
show the exact width of each end of the staves, and also the bevel
of their edges, and the curve of the outside. After the staves are
got out by an accurate plan and with great exactness, as theymust
be or your work will be bad, proceed to glue the edges of two of
them. When the glue is dry, glue in blocks on the inside, as
shown in the plans at c c c, &c. Let the blocks be from fifteen

a:

52 BALUSTRADES.

to twenty inches long. Fit them exactly to the staves, and place
the grain of the wood the same way as that of the column, so that
if the wood shrinks or swells, the joints will not open or be affected
thereby. ProCeed in the same manner until you come to the last
stave ; then get out the blocks sufficiently wide to reach across the
space left for the last stave ; then glue the block on to each of the
adjoining staves, and when the glue is dry, proceed to glue in the
last stave. As it is wider at the base than at the neck, an opportu-
nity is offered to drive it up to a joint. Then, after working off the
superfluous wood and completing the flutes, give it a good coat of
paint to prevent its cracking or being affected in any way by the
weather.

In making large columns, a greater number of staves twill be re-
quired, and it will alSo be necessary that the planks be increased
in thickness.

 

BALUSTRADES.

——

PLATE XXV.

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terraces, and on the sides of passages, open on one or both sides.
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the upper part of' the front ofa building, as a screen to conceal the
whole or part of the roof, or as a finish to insulated triumphal arch-
es. They consist of short pillars of a peculiar outline, standing
upon a plinth, and covered with a small cornice. No remains of
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BALUSTRADE S. 53

and amphitheatres of the Romans, the pedestals ofthe upper orders
were always continued through the arcades, and served as parapets.
The lower seats next to the arena in the amphitheatres, and those
next to the orchestra in the theatres, were guarded 'by a parapet,
called the podium. The top of the monument of Lysicrates, at
Athens, is finished with a sort of'parapet or ledge, composed of ho-
neysuckles, solid behind and open between every pier. Each plant
is bordered with a curved head ; and the bottom of every interval,
with an inverted curve. Balustrades are represented in the works
of the earliest Italian writers, who might have seen them in the
ruins of Roman structures ; but none have been discovered in mo-
dern times. VVhen a balustrade finishes a building, where an order
is employed, its height should be proportioned to the architecture
which it accompanies, but ought never to exceed that of the enta-
blature on which it is placed, or be less than two thirds the height
of the same. A good proportion, for balustrades of'this kind, is to
divide the whole given height into thirteen equal parts, and to make
the height of the base equal to three of' these parts, the height of
the baluster to eight, and that of the cornice to two. The baluster
may be divided into seven or eight parts in height, one of which
will be the diameter at the base ; the one or the other, as the work
which they accompany is light or heavy. The distance between
the'balusters should not exceed half the breadth of their plinth, nor
be less than one third. On stairs and inclined planes the same
proportions are to be observed as on horizontal surfaces.

I have given four designs for balusters, which are figured on the
plate, as to both height and projection, so as to be made plain to
inspection. The contour of the mouldings has been carefully drawn,

and it is believed that they will appear graceful, if imitated.
l4

54

ANTZE.

__

a

THOUGH the earlier architects of Greece were either unacquaintJ
ed with the use of pilasters, or refused to introduce them into their
designs, they frequently placed a kind of square pillars at the-ends
of their walls, which they called antae, and which sometimes pro-
jected to a considerable distance from the principal front, . forming
the pronaos, or vestibulum. The breadth of these fintae was
always much less on the flanks of temples, than on the front;
and sometimes they had columns between them, in which case the
return within the pronaos was of equal breadth with the front. The
capitals of the antac never correspond with those of the columns,

though they always retain some characteristic marks by which the
order may be distinguished.

 

PILASTERS.

_—

PILASTERs differ from columns in having their horizontal sections
of a rectangular figure, whilst the sections of columns are either
complete circles, or sections of circles, equal to or greater than
semicircles. They are probably of Roman origin ; there being but
few Grecian buildings, and those of the later ages, (except the
monument of Thrasy]lus,) in which they are repeated at regular
intervals, as in the monument of Philopapus ; but of their applica-
tion in Roman works we have numberless instances.

When ranged with columns under the same entablature, or behind
a row of columns, they have their bases and capitals like those of

PILASTERS. 55

the columns, with the corresponding parts at the same heights:
when placed at the angles of buildings, the breadth of the return is
equal to that of the front. The trunks, also, have frequently the
same diminution as the shafts of columns ; as in the arches of Sep-
timius Severus and of Constantine, the frontispiece of Nero, and
the temple of Mars Ultor at Rome. In these cases the top of the
trunk is equal to the soflit of the architrave, the upright face of
which rests on the capital, in the same perpendicular with the top
of the pilaster. When the pilaster is undiminished, and of the same
breadth as the bottoms of the columns, the face of the architrave,
resting on the capital, retreats within the head of the trunk, as in
the Pantheon of Agrippafi‘

Pilasters may be either plain or fluted, without regard to the co-
lumns. Thus, in the portico of the Pantheon, the columns are
plain and the pilasters fluted ; but in that of Septimius Severus, the:
former are fluted and the latter plain ; the architects seeming to be
governed by no other rule than their taste. The angles, or
coins, of fluted pilasters, are frequently strengthened with a
bead, as in the Pantheon, and the flutes are generally of a semi-
circular section. Sometimes the faces of pilasters are sunk
within a margin, and the pannels charged with foliage, or other
ornaments. '

When placed on the front or outside of a building, pilasters
should project one fourth of their breadth at the bottom ; but in the
interior, or behind a row of columns, they should not project more
than one eighth of that breadth.

Pilasters are not only ornamental to a building, but they also
tend to strengthen it greatly ; to which we may add that they be-

"“ See Explanation of Plate VI.

55 COLONNADE.

come an object of economy, as being less expensive than columns.
In situations where they are either placed behind a range of co-
lumns, or for the support of the extremes of an entablature across
an opening, they are also more concordant with the walls, to which
they are attached.

Clustered pilasters, or those which have both exterior and inte-
rior angles, with their plains parallel and perpendicular to the front,
may be executed with good effect when the order is plain, as in the
Tuscan ; but in the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian orders, where trig-
lyphs and capitals meet but imperfectly in the interior angles, such
a junction should be avoided as much as possible. The same may
be observed of Ionic and Corinthian capitals of half pilasters meet-
ing each other in the interior angles of rooms. In the Ionic order,
a difference must be made between the capitals of pilasters and of
columns; for, in the latter, the projection of the ovolo is greater
than that of the volutes : but the horizontal section of the ovolo be--
ing circular, the ovolo is bent behind the hem or border of the vo-
lutes. It therefore becomes necessary either to give the ovolo but
a small projection, or to make it so prominent in the front that its
extremities may appear to retire behind the border of the volutes.

 

COLONNADE.

 

COLONNADE, a range of attached or insulated columns, support-
ing an entablature, is named according to the number of columns
supporting the entablaturc : tetrastylc, when there are four ; hexas-
tyle, when six ; octostylc, when eight ; and dccastyle, when ten.

COLONNADE. - 57

The intervals between the columns, measured by their inferior
diameter, are called the intercolumniation, whence the area between
every two columns is termed the intercolumn.

The intercolumniation is of five denominations, viz. : the areeos-
tyle, or thinly set, when the columns are at the distance of four dia-
meters ; the diastyle, when they are at three diameters ; the eustyle,
when at two and a quarter; the systyle, when at two ; and the pyc-
nostyle, or thickly set, when at the distance of one diameter and a
half. Of these the eustyle was in most general request among the
ancients; and though, in modern buildings, both the eustyle and
diastyle are employed, the former has obtained a marked prefer-
ence. The pycnostyle is frequently rejected from want of room.

The intercolumniations of the Doric order are regulated by the
number of triglyphs, one of which is placed over every intermediate
column. When there is one triglyph over the interval, it is called
monotriglyph ; when there are two, it is called ditriglyph ; and so
on, according to the progression of the Greek numerals. The in-
tercolumniation of the Grecian Doric is rarely any other than the
monotriglyph, there being but two deviations from it at- Athens,
in the Doric portico and in the prophylaea ; and even in these in-
stances the exception applies only to the middle intercolumniations,
which are ditriglyph, and were necessary from their situation, being
opposite to the principal entrances. Indeed, from the massive and
bold character of the Grecian'Doric, the monotriglyph succeeded
best; but in the Roman Doric it would be inconvenient, because
the passage between the columns would be too narrow, especially
in small buildings ; and therefore the ditriglyph is to be preferred.

When the solid parts of the masonry of a range of arcades are

decorated with the orders, the intercolumns necessarily become
' 15

58 ORDERS UPON ORDERS.

Wide, and the intercolumniation is regulated by the breadth of the
arcades and of the piers. Vignola used the same intercolumniation
in all his orders, and though this practice is condemned by some, it
is founded upOn a right principle, as it preserves a Constant ratio
between the columns and the intervals.

Coupled, grouped, or clustered columns, seem not to have been
used by the ancients.

The moderns seldom employ more than one row of columns in
either external or internal colonnades ; for in double rows the back
range destroys the perspective regularity of that of the front; and
the rays of light, proceeding from both ranges, produce confusion.
Pilasters, placed behind a row of insulated columns, are liable to
the same objection, except that the relief is stronger, owing to the
rotundity of the One being contrasted with the flat surface of the
other.

In buildings upon a small scale, the intercolumniations, or at
least the central one, must be broader than the positive dimensions
of the pillars would admit.

 

ORDERS UPON ORDERS.

IN placing one order above another, we shall be naturally led, by
the known laws of gravity, to give the strongest and heaviest the
lower place, and the weakest and lightest the upper. Symmetry and
. strength will likewise direct us to keep all their axes in the same
vertical line.

ORDERS UPON ORDERS. 59

In columns of equal diameters, the altitudes increase from the
Tuscan, by the gradations of the Doric and Ionic to the Corinthian.
In this progression, we perceive that the Tuscan is stronger than
the Doric, the Doric than the Ionic, and the Ionic than the Corin-
thian: consequently, if the Doric be the lowest order, the succeed—
ing one must be the Ionic; if a third be added, it must be the
Corinthian.

When a front of a building is to have two or more orders in the
altitude, the succession must be complete, or the symmetry will be
destroyed by the abrupt contrast of the parts. In attached columns,
the superior may be permitted to recede, without danger either of
greatly offending the eye, or of impairing the strength of the struc-
ture. But when the stories of orders are insulated, the axes of the
superior and inferior columns must be kept in the same vertical
lines.

The first and second orders should stand on plinths, as likewise
the third when there is one ; the point of View regulating those of
the upper stories. In this case pedestals should be omitted in the
upper orders ; but if there be one or a balustrade under the win-
dows, the base and cornice should have but a small projection, and
be continued to profile upon the sides of the columns.

When stories of arcades are raised one upon another, and the-
piers decorated with orders, the inferior columns should stand on
plinths, and those of the upper stories on pedestals, that the arches
may receive a due proportion.

In some cases, instead of employing several orders one above
another, the ground floor of a building is made in the form of a
basement, on which is placed the order by which the principal story
is decorated.

60

PEDIMENTS.

.—_—~_—

THESE ornaments probably owe their origin to the inclined roofs
of the primitive huts. They consist of a horizontal cornice, repre-
senting a tie beam, and two others of equal inclination over it, indi-
cative of rafters; or the latter are exchanged for an arched one.
The surface included within these cornices is called a tympanum ;
which, of course, is either a triangle, or the segment of a circle.

In the ancient buildings of Greece, we find only the triangular
pediment : but in those of Rome both triangular and circular are to
be met with; and in rows of openings, or niches, both kinds are
employed in alternate succession,—though they seem to have pre-
ferred the triangular form for doors, windows and gates, and to
have applied the circular pediment to the covering of large or
small bodies promiscuously.

Pediments, among the Romans, were exclusively appropriated to
sacred edifices, till Cmsar obtained leave of the senate to cover his
house with a painted roof, after the manner of the temples.

The ancients introduced but few pediments into their buildings ;
even the Romans usually contenting themselves with a single one
to adorn the middle or principal part.

Vitruvius has given the following direction for finding the pitch
of a pediment. “ Divide the space between the extremities of the
cymatium of the corona into nine equal parts, and take one for the
height of the tympanum.” This rule has been considered as too
low: but, it.must be recollected, that of the octostyle portico of
the Pantheon, at Athens, is nearly of the proportion here described ;

PEDIMENTS. ” 61

that of the hexastyle portico of the temple of Theseus, is about an
eighth ; that ofthe Ionic temple on the Illyssus, and of the Doric por-
tico, are about one seventh ; and the tympanum of the pediment over
the door of the Tower of the Winds, is about one fifth ofthe span;
all which edifices are Athenian.

From this comparison a kind of reciprocal ratio seems to exist
between the extension of the base of the tympanum and its height;
and, indeed, were a fixed ratio applied to both large and small pedi-
ments, the latter would frequently consist of a cornice only, without
any tympanum. It is therefore with good reason that the pitch of
small pediments is made higher than large ones.

VVhen pediments are to be covered with either slates or shingles,
they cannot with safety be less in height than two ninths of their
base.

It is an observation of Vitruvius, that “the Greeks never used
mutules, modillions, or dentils, in the front, wherein the end of the
roof appears, because the ends of the rafters and of the laths which
support the tiles, only appear at the caves of the building ; and as
mutules and dentils originated from the projecting ends of the raft-
ers and laths, it would have been absurd to introduce them into the
pediment, where the exemplars are themselves to be seen.” VVe
find in the Grecian remains that though neither mutules, dentils, nor
modillions are employed in the sloping sides, mutules are constantly
used in the horizontal cornice. In edifices of the period of Roman
domination in Greece, indeed, we sometimes may observe them in
the sloping cornices; but they must be considered as innovations.
At Rome, we find examples of modillions in the Pantheon, and in
the frontispiece of Nero ; and in the temple of Fortune dentils are

used. In the inclined cornices, the sides of the modillions and den-
16

62 ATTICS.

tils are planes perpendicular to the horizon, and to the front of' the
edifice, and in the same vertical planes of those of the horizontal
cornice.

It is to be observed, that the two uppermost mouldings of the
cornice are always omitted in the horizontal one of a pediment;
that part of the profile being directed upwards, to finish the inclined
cornices.

The face of the tympan is always placed on a line perpendicular
with the face of the frieze.

 

ATTICS.

 

AMONG the Athenians it was a rule to conceal the roofs of their
buildings, for which purpose they crowned their cornices with low
square pillars, of a form nearly approaching that of a pedestal,
which have obtained the appellation of Attics, from the country in
which they were first or chiefly employed, though no remains are
now to be discovered among the ruins of the ancient city of Athens.

Roman attics are to be seen in the remains of the triuinphal
arches, and in the piazza of Nerva. In the arch of' Constantine,
the columns are surmounted with pedestals as high as the base of
the attic, upon which are placed insulated statues. At Thessaloni-
ca there is an attic over a Corinthian colonnade, with breaks forming
dwarf pilasters over the columns, as in the arch of Constantine.
The attic which is carried round the two courts of the great temple
of Balbec is also broken into dwarf pilasters over the columns and
pilasters of the order ; which dwarf pilasters are surmounted with
blocking courses, wherein statues are supposed to have stood.

i. NICHES. 63

In all these remains the attics are disproportional ; some of them
being nearly one half of the height of the order. The moderns
make their height equal to that of the entablature ; and the propor-
tion of the members may be regulated as in the cases of pedestals.

 

NICHES.

—.—.—

THESE, among the Romans, have either a circular or rectangular
plan. The heads of those of the circular kind are generally sphe-
rical.

The plans of niches with cylindrical backs should be semicircular
when the thickness of the walls will admit of it; and the depth of
those upon rectangular plans should be half of their breadth, or as
deep as may be necessary for the statues they are to contain.
Their heights depend upon the character of the statues, or on the
general form of groups introduced ; yet seldom exceeding twice
and a half their width, nor being less than twice.

In point of decorations, niches admit of all such as are applica-
ble to windows ; and whether their heads be horizontal, cylindrical,
or Spherical, the enclosure may be rectangular. In antique re-
mains, we frequently meet with tabernacles as ornaments, disposed
with alternate and arched pediments ; the character ofthe architec-
ture should be similar to that placed in the same range with them.

Niches are sometimes disposed between columns and pilasters,
and sometimes ranged alternately, in the same level with Windows.
In either case they may be ornamented or plain, as the space will
admit ; but in the latter, they should be of the same dimensions with

64 VASES.

the aperture of the Windows. When the intervals between the
columns or pilasters happen to be very narrow, niches had better
be omitted than have a disproportionate figure, or be of a diminu-
tive size.

When intended for statues, vases, or other works of sculpture,
they should be contrived to exhibit them to the best advantage ;
and consequently, the plainer the'niche the better will it answer the
design, as every species pf ornament, whether of mouldings or
sculpture, has a tendency to confuse the outline.

 

VASES.

i

PLATE XXVI.

ON this plate are a series of designs for vases. When vases are
used on pedestals, posts to fences, and for such like purposes, their
largest diameter may be made equal to the diameter of the pedes-
tal, or post, on which they are to be placed, or from that size to

-one fourth part less, as judgment may dictate. As the heights and

projections of all the members to each vase are figured on the plate,
I trust that, by an examination, they. will be clearly understood.

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65

FRONTISPIECE.

.—————

PLATE XXVII.

ON this plate is a design for a frontispiece of the most simple
kind. It may be used with success where the facade of the house
is very plain. To prOportion the architrave, divide the width of the
door into five equal parts, and make the Width of the architrave
equal to one of these parts.

Fig. 1 shows an elevation of the jamb to the door, and also a
section of the threshold and impost between the door and sash.

Fig. 2 shows a section of a part of the stile and panel of the
d001, at full size.

Fig. 3 shows the moulding of the threshold, also at full size.

A scale of feet and inches 18 annexed, by which any part of the
design may be measured.

PLATE XXVIII.

On this plate are a plan and elevation of a Venetian entrance,
decorated with pilasters and an entablature, which are so plain and
simple that they may be easily wrought in stone. The pilasters in
this example are seven diameters in height ; but they may be made
seven and a half, or'eight, when a lighter proportion is desired.
The capital and entablature are taken from Plate XIV. The other
parts of the design may be measured by the scale of feet and inches

annexed.
17

66

IONIC PORTICO.

..————-

PLATE XXIX.

ON this plate, in fig. 1, is represented the plan, which clearly
shows how to place the columns and pilasters of the portico.

Fig. 2 shows the soffit of the cornice, architrave and ceiling, in-
verted. A A is that part of the soffit of the arehitrave which is
directly over the capital of the columns ; and B B B B that directly
over the capital of' the pilasters.

Fig. 4 shows a section of a part of the panelling.

On Plate XXX. is shown the elevation, the proportions of which
are taken from the Ionic Order Example No. 3, Plate XII.

On Plate XXIX. fig. 3, is a section of a cornice, suitably con-
structed for the inclined sides of a pcdiment. I know of no deter-
minate rule by which the general proportions of a frontispiece can
be ascertained, in all situations. He who takes the most compre-
hensive View of all the circumstances connected with the building
to which the frontispiece is to be attached, will be the most likely
to produce the most successful effects, by a true proportion.

The frontispiece must, in some degree, ‘ be in proportion to the
house it is to accompany, with respect to both size and character.
If the house be large and highly ornamented, the frontispiece must
also be large, and the ornaments partake of the character of the
house.

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67

WINDOWS. -

PLATE XXXI.

THE size of the apertures depends chiefly on the size and desti-
nation of the building. The height ought to be about twice their
breadth; and the breadth of the piers is generally from one to one
and'a half the breadth of the window: but this proportion must
often be departed from, in order to admit of external and internal
decorations. The sills of windows should, in common edifices, be
placed at a height of from two feet two, to two feet siX inches from
the floor. In elegant apartments, the sills are frequently placed at
a height of seven or eight inches from the floor, and, in that case,
the windows are made in height more than twice the breadth. It
is common in different stories to have different heights to Windows,
decreasing in the upper stories, until in the attics they are often
made in height equal to their breadth. Windows ought always to
be placed vertically, one over the other, and not too near the angles
of the building. Fig. 2 represents a sash, frame, Window cap, and
sill, set into a brick wall. Fig. 1 shows a section through the sash,
frame, cap, and sill, and a part of the brick wall.

A stone cap over a window indicates strength, its object being to
support the bricks which rest upon it. All embellishments, there-
fore, that are made on its front, must project from a vertical line of
the wall. Never suffer any of the cuttings to go beyond this line,
because that would indicate weakness, and of course would be

highly improper.

 

68

DORMER WINDOW.

—_

PLATE XXXII.

ON this plate is shown a design for a dormer window, suitably
constructed for being placed on the roof of a building. It is drawn
on a scale large enough to make it plain, without further explana-
tion. Fig.1 shows a front, and fig. 2 a side elevation.

Fig. 3 and 4, on the same plate, show designs ofa species of the
guiloche, which may sometimes be used with good effect on fences,
railings, &c.

 

FRONT FENCES.

.____.__.

PLATE XXXIII.

ON this plate are three designs for fences, suitable for the enclo-
sure of a country residence, which may be made of wood, when iron
is not to be obtained, or when expense is to be avoided: also two
designs for gates, to be made of the same material. Mouldings do
not form any part of the composition of these designs. Their con-
struction is bold and simple, and will, if well executed, produce a.
more chaste and pleasing effect than if the cornice, top rail and
base were composed of small trifling mouldings, and is the means
of saving considerable expense. .

It is not supposed that the size of these examples will suit all
situations. There are many situations which require the size of

   

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EAVE CORNICES. 69

front fences to be varied ; as for instance, When the house is very
large and located on an elevated piece of ground, and at a conside-
rable distance from the road: in this case the fence should be of
the largest dimensions. But if the house be small, and so situated
as to have the fence near it, the fence ought then to be small and
low, so that it may not appear as a principal in the structure.

 

EAVE CORNICES.

__

PLATE XXXIV.
.

ON this plate are four designs for eave cornices. To proportion
their height, divide the height of the building, on which A is to be
used, into twenty-four equal parts, and make the height of the cor-
nice on the wall equal to one of these parts. If B or D is to be used,
divide the height of the building into twenty-five parts, and make the
height of the cornice equal to one of them. If C is to be used,
divide the height into thirty equal parts, and give one of them to
the height of the cornice.

PLATE XXXV.

On this plate are designs for eave cornices with friezes. In
determining their height and proportion, judgment is to be used.
If a house have a front of forty or fifty feet, it will be necessary to
make the cornice somewhat larger than if the front only occupy a
space of twenty or twenty-five feet. As a general proportion, give
to the height of the cornice on the wall, without the frieze, from one

twenty-fifth to one thirtieth of the height of the wall.
18

’70

STUCCO CORNIQES.

PLATES XXXVI. and XXXVII.

ON these plates are designs for stucco cornices. What has
heretofore been said with regard to the proportions of columns and
cornices, will apply equally well here. There are many circum-
stances which ought materially to affect the size of cornices in
rooms of the same height ; such as the size of the room, and the
style of the finish of the other parts of it. If the finish generally
be light, the cornice ought also to be light ; and ifdle finish of the
room be composed of large bold parts, make the cornice conforma-
ble thereto. L ,

As stucco cornices occupy more space on the ceiling than on the
vertical walls, I have thought it more proper to determine their
projection than their height ; and more particularly so, as in many
situations a very small height only can be had. In such cases the
defect can in some degree be remedied by adding to the projection.
As a general rule, give to the projection of the cornice five eighths
of an inch for each foot in the height. If the room be ten feet in
height, make the cornice project six and a quarter inches, or fifty
eighths of an inch ; then divide that distance into as many parts as
are contained in the projection of the cornice you intend to make
use of, and give those parts to the different members of the cornice,
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71

FINISHING. WINDOWS.

—_

PLATE XXXVIII.

FIG. 1 shows a section of part of a brick wall, sash frame, win-
dow shutters, back lining, rough furrings, stucco, grounds and ar-
chitrave. A, top of stone sill; E, top of wooden sill to sash frame ;
a, outside casing ; c, pulley stile; h, ovolo ; I), back side casing next
to bricks ; d, inside casing to which the shutters are hung ; 6, part-
ing strip between weights; q, 7‘, weights ;f; parting bead; g, inside
bead to sash frame ; I, back lining ; m, rough furrings ; n, grounds ;
o, stucco ;p, architrave ; and i, k, shutters. .

Fig. 2 is a section of the cap to a sash frame. 0, edge of out-
side casing ; b, parting slip ; (1, inside bead.

Fig. 3. g, section of sill to sash frame; z', back under window ;
h, bead connected with sill and back ; d, inside bead ; e, parting
slip; f, face casing.

Fig. 4 shows a section of the meeting rails, and parts of the up-
right bars of the sash, drawn at full size. B is a section of a sash
bar, and C and D are sections of the stile, the mouldings, and part
of a panel to shutters, also drawn at full size.

72

INSIDE DOORS.

.—

PLATE XXXIX.

DOORS are generally varied in their dimensions, according to the
height of the story, and magnitude of the building in which they
are used. The aperture of those of the smallest dimensions must
be of a size sufficient to allow a man to pass easily through them :
the smallest door cannot, therefore, be much less than two feet six
inches wide, by six feet six inches high ; nor should they be more
than three feet eight inches in breadth, by eight feet in height, in
private houses. . Whenfolding doors are used for the purpose of
connecting rooms by large apertures, it will be advisable to make
them double the width of the other doors, and very often to exceed
that width; their height ought in general to exceed that of the
other doors in the same room, by twelve or fifteen inches. A good
proportion for small doors is three to seven, and for very large ones
one totwo; for rooms about sixteen by eighteen or twenty feet,
and ten to twelve feet high, a good proportion for the doors will be
three by seven; feet. Fig. 4 is a design of a door with five panels,
without mouldings, as is shown by fig. 1, which represents a section
of the stile and panel at large. Fig. 3 is a design for a door with
eight panels ; and fig. 2 shows a section of the moulding, a part of
"the panel, and also a part of the stile, drawn at full size. The
doors are drawn from a scale of one inch to a foot.

   
 
  
  

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73

SUB-BASE MOULDIN’GS.

.___——

PLATE xL.

ON this plate are six designs for sur-base mouldings, drawn at
full size for practice. I have given these designs a place here, al-
though the sur-base and dado seem at present to be quite out of
fashion ; nor indeed do I think it very desirable that they should be
again received into favor. It is my opinion, that a room finished
with a base only, presents a more chaste and pleasing appearance
than when encumbered with a dado and sur-base. When plastering
is substituted for the boards of the dado, it is less expensive and a
greater preventive against the cold air.

 

BASE MOULDINGS.

.—————

PLATES XLI. XLII. XLIIl. and XLIV.

ON these plates are nineteen designs for base mouldings, all of
which are drawn in full size for practice. As a very good fashion
seems now to prevail, of not using either dados or sur-bases, it is
necessary to make the base somewhat larger than it was when these
were in fashion. It will be proper to make the plinth to these de-
signs for base mouldings about seven inches wide; in small low
rooms their size may be somewhat reduced. Correct or incorrect '
judgment, in considering the size and situation of the room when
base mouldings are to be used, will always have a decided effect on

their good or bad appearance.
19

74

ARCHITRAVES.

PLATES XLV. XLVI. and XLVII.

THESE plates contain designs for architraves. They are all drawn
at full size for practice ; but as it is not probable that they will suit
every situation, I shall give some general rules for their preportion.
Doors and windows in the same room are necessarily of different
heights and widths, the windows always being considerably larger
than the doors ; but it would be highly improper to make two widths
of architraves. It therefore becomes necessary to make a compre-
mise between them. I have in practice generally divided the width
of the door into six equal parts, and given one to the width of the
architrave: say if the door is three feet wide, one sixth would be
six inches, which would be rather too wide for the door ; but as the
windows in the same room would be from ten to twelve inches wider
' than the door, six inches would be rather too narrow for the win-
dow, if its size only was to be considered; I therefore should make
the architrave one sixth of the width of the door.

PLATE :XLVIII.

Shows the manner of applying the plinth under the arehitrave to
doors and windows, and also the application of the block at the up-
per angles of the door or window against which the architrave butts.

D is a section of the block and architrave, and shows Clearly
how far the block projects front of the architrave.

E is a section of the plinth and arehitrave, and shows how
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CHIMNEY PIECES. 75

F is a section from a to b through the block, showing the
formation of the panel. It is both proper and common to ornament
these panels with rosettes, from the plainest kind up to the most
rich and beautiful ; and where the panel is large it may be enriched
with the honeysuckle, or any other appropriate ornament.

All the figures on this plate are drawn at half the full size.

 

CHIMNEY PIECES.

._.—.——

PLATES XLIX. L. and LI.

ON these plates are three designs. for chimney pieces. These
designs are formed suitably for marble, but may be constructed of
wood.

In the decoration of chimney pieces the wildest fancy has been
indulged. Their composition should conform to the style and cha-
racter of the room in which they are placed, whether of marble or
of wood. If of wood, they may be painted black and varnished,
which will give them a neat appearance, and render them less liable
to be soiled with smoke than when painted a light color.

A A on Plate XLIX. shows the plan of the pilasters ; c c, a sec-
tion of the jambs ; and D, the section of the back. The jambs and
back are intended to be made of soap stone, but may be made of
any other kind of stone which will stand the heat of the fire, or of
iron. a a a (6 represents the front edge of the cornice, or shelf.
E E shows how the plinth of the pilasters, and that of the room,
should be connected W 1th each other.

76 GUILOCHE AND FRETS.

On Plate L. is shown the plan ofthe fire place, E E being the
plan of the pilasters, G G that of the jambs, F the back, and D D
the facings. C shows an elevation of one of the jambs, with the
top end narrowed off to its proper width. Every part of these de-
signs can be accurately measured by the scale of feet and inches
annexed to each plate. ’

Open fire places for burning wood ought to be proportioned in’
some degree to the room in which they are placed. It is however
difficult to lay down any precise rule for their proportion. An open
fire place cannot be made much less than three feet in breadth, if
the room be not more than twelve feet square, and should never
exceed three feet nine inches in any room, whatever be its size.
A fire place of three feet opening between the .jambs, should have
an opening from the hearth upwards of about two feet seven inches.

Where open fire places are made for burning coals, the grate set
in them should be about one inch in length for every foot in the
length of the room; that is to say, if the room is twenty feet square,
make the grate twenty inches long, and about ten inches deep.
The top bar of the grate should not be less than eighteen inches,
nor more than twenty-four, from the hearth.

 

GUILOCHE AND FRETS.

PLATE LII.

ON this plate are given seven various ornamental pieces of the
guiloche and fret, intended for friczcs, bands, panels, and va-
rious other decorations, the use of which, if tastefully employed,

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CARPENTRY. 77

will not fail to produce a chaste and pleasing/effect. They' lay
claim to the highest antiquity, having been used by the Chinese in
their earliest periods, from whom they were carried into Egypt, and
from thence into Greece, embellishing‘ their buildings as Well as
their vases. From the nature of their construction an endless va-
riety of forms may be obtained.

A is composed of parallel right lines, which form geometri-
cal squares of any magnitude, connected together by quadrants of
a circle on the outsides. The proportions of the parts to each
other are figured on the plate. Fig. B, C and D are composed of
circles, as is evident from inspection, and their relative proportions
are figured on the plate. E, F and G are three different designs
for frets, with their divisions marked on the plate.

 

CARPENTRY.

__——__

PLATE LIII.

ON fig. 1 is shown a design for a roof, suitably constructed to
cover a dwelling house, where it is desired to use the space between
the rafters for lodging rooms. The height of the pitch is equal to
two sevenths of the base line of the roof. This is a 'good pitchvfor
either slates or shingles. The span of this example is calculated
for forty-four feet, but it may be extended'to fifty or more by pro-
portionally enlarging the size of the timbers of which it is composed.

A shows the method of confining the king post to the tie beams
by bolts. In this example the bolt should be about one inch in

diameter, with a strong head of about one and three fourths of an’ inch
2O

78 CARPENTRY.

in diameter ; and a plate of iron about one fourth of an inch thick
and of about four by five inches surface, should be placed between
the tie beam and the head of the bolt. The nut, which is let into
the king post, should be three fourths of an inch thick, and about
three inches square. One nut will be suflicient here, but When the
strain is very great two will be required.

The tenon, connecting the king post with the tie beam, is not
required to be more than two inches long. The size of the
timbers of this example may be as follows : tie beam, seven by
twelve inches ; principal rafters, seven by ten at foot,_and seven by
eight at head ; queen posts, seven by ten; straining beam, seven by

. eleven ; purloins, eight by nine ; small rafters, two and three fourths

by five: ridge pole, four by seven; braces, three by seven inches.

Fig. 2 shows a design for a trussed roof, which is of the same
pitch as that of fig. 1, and is calculated for a span of seventy feet.
The construction of this roof is very ancient, strong and simple ; it
has been executed with great success for churches, theatres, and
other large buildings, and is the least expensive and the best con-
structed plan of any new in use. Size of timbers is as follows : tie
beams, eight by twelve ; principal rafters, eight by ten at foot, and
eight inches square at the head; king posts, eight by twelve ; queen
posts, eight by ten; purloins, eight by nine ; small rafters, two and
three fourths by five ; braces, three by seven ; plates, six by ten inches.

Fig. 3 is a design of a roof for a church, or any other large
building in which it is desired to raise a circular ceiling.- It is
drawn from a scale of ten feet to one inch, and is calculated for
seventy feet span. The perpendicular height of the ridge is equal
to one third- of the base line of the roof. It will be unsafe to lower
the ridge when the recess up into the roof is as great as in this
example. ‘

CARPENTRY. 79

A shows a longitudinal section of the tie beams and king post.
The tie beams are locked into each other, so that the outsides of
each are in the same plane. The king post is to be made in two
parts, and a space cut away in each half, as shown in B, so as just
to admit the tie beams, when locked together, to pass through them.
In this kind of roof, the strain on the tie beam is very great; it
will therefore be necessary to make them eight by fifteen inches,
and each half of the king post eight by fourteen inches, so that when
they are bolted together the king post will be fourteen inches
wide and sixteen inches thick. It will then admit the tie beam to
pass through it, and leave four by fourteen inches of solid wood on
each side. Diminish it in thickness and in straight lines from the
foot of the braces upwards to the head and thickness of the princi-
pal rafters.

C shows the method of connecting the tie beam and that of the
principal rafter. The joint at the foot of the rafter should be made
at right angles with its back, or upper edge. Make a 0 six inches,
cutting five and a half of them out of the tie beam. Make the joint
0 d as here-represented, and make a tenon to the rafter two inches
thick and two and a half long, as shown by the dotted line b c. It
being of’ the utmost importance that those two timbers should be
strongly united, I have represented at g f an iron strap or hoop,
which should be two inches wide and three eighths of an inch thick ;
and, in addition to this, there should be at least one good strong
iron bolt. At 2' h is shown the method of connecting the trusses for
the support of the vertical strain on the rafters, at F and E. The
foot of this truss must also be cut at right angleswith its upper
edge, and let into the tie beam about two and three fourths of an
inch, and must be confined to it by an iron hoop one and a half inch

80 CARPEN TRY.

wide and three eighths of an inch thick. A bolt will be necessary
at both G and H.

,D shows the method of fitting the purloins to both the principal
and common rafters. The top of the principal rafter is to be notch-
ed one inch only, in order to receive the purloin ; and the purloin is
to be notched, so asto be left four inches above the principal rafter.
Notch the common rafters, on the under side, about two inches.

The- sizes of the tie beams, principal rafters, and king posts, have
already been given. Make the purloins eight by ten ; the king
posts, E and F, each eight by ten ; the braces three by eight ; the
small rafters two and three fourths by six ; and the plates seven by
twelve inches. The principal rafters should not be more than
nine feet from centre to centre.

PLATE LIV.
TO FIND THE LENGTH AND BACKING OF HIP RAFTERS.

Let A B C D be the plan of the building and the angles of the
roof; draw E A, E B, E C, and E D, the base lines, over which the
hip rafters are to stand ; let I) n m be the pitch of the roof; draw
E F at right angles with E A,' and equal to o n, the pitch of the
roof: then draw A F, which is the length of the hip rafter ; draw
g k h at any distance from the angle A, and at right angles with
A E ; make .16 2' equal to k r, or from k to the nearest point of the
top line of the hip rafter, draw g i and i h, the backing of the hip
rafter required. This method will give the backing of the hip rafter,
whether the building be square or bevelling.

Fig. 2 is the plan of an octagon dome, a btbeing the base line
of the given rib. No. 2 shows the curve of the dome, in this case

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CARPENTRY. 81

half of a circle drawn from the centre a. Draw a 6, cutting the
circle at 6, and at right angles With d b, and produce it to a ; divide
b 6 into six or more equal parts. Make a b No. 3 parallel and equal
to a b No. 2, b c equal to b c No. 1, and draw 0 (L. Then draw
ordinates from a b No. 2 to a c No. 3, parallel to a 6, cutting the
circle in 'No. 2 at the points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and a c No. 3 at 1, 2, 3,
4, 5. Draw a 6 at right angles with a, c, also 5 5, 4 4, 3 3, 2 2, and
l 1, parallel to a b, and equal to 1 1, 2 2, 3 3, 4 4, 5 5, and a 6, in
No. 2, and then trace the curve c 1 2 3 4 5 and 6, which will, when
placed in its right position, correspond with the given circle.

PLATE LV.

Fig. 1 shows the method of framing floors with plank, or wide
joists. In this example the joists are eighteen feet long; for that
bearng the common joists should be twelve by two and a quarter
inches, and the trimmer joists, b b and c, twelve by four and a
half inches. They should be got out by a mould, made about
three quarters of an inch crowning. The girders, a and d, should
each be twelve inches deep and seven inches thick. A shows the
method of making the tenons to the common joists, arid B those, of
the trimmer joists. B also shows a section of the trimmer when
the mortice is made through it. D shows the section of a brick
wall, and C the shape of the ends of the joists when they lay on the
wall. fand 6 show two courses of bridging. Great care is neces-
sary in fitting them between the joists ; they ought not to be driven in
so hard as to crowd either the wall or girders out of their places, nor
ought they to be too loose. They may be made of boards, but they

should be as Wide as the joists, and the ends cut so as to fit the
21

82 CARPENTRY.

sides of the joists in the most perfect manner. The expense of this
kind of floor is about one third less than that of any other kind, and
it certainly is more equal in its strength than is the timber and joist
floor. When a good ceiling is required, and the joists are over
fifteen feet in length, it is advisable to fur them with strips of boards
of two and a half or three inches wide. It appears, by an experi- '
mcnt made by Professor Robinson, that the saving of timber is
considerably more than one third. The experiment is thus related:
Two models were made of eighteen inches square, one framed with
girders, binding, bridging, and ceiling joists, and the other with
single joists, containing the same quantity of timber as the girders
alone of the framed floor. They were both put into wooden
trunks, of eighteen inches square, resting on projections within the
trunks. Small shot were gradually poured over each; the framed
floor broke down with three hundred and twenty-seven pounds, and
the single joisted floor with four hundred and eighty-seven pounds.

Fig. 2 is a design for a truss, proper for the support of the front
of a gallery in a church, or any other place where the bearing re-
quired is so large that a single timber is not sufficient to support
the weight which is to be placed thereon. A and B show two dif-
ferent methods for scarfing timbers, and C represents a mortice and
tenon proper for connecting large timbers ; the thickness of the
tenon may generally be about one sixth of the whole depth of the
timber on which it is made.

PLATE LVI.

Fig. 1 is an elevation of a trussed partition, in which it is conve-
nient to place two door ways ; and in that case it becomes necessary

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CARPENTRY. 83

to place the truss over the doors. The tie beam and king posts
are locked into each other at a a. ‘

At fig. 2 is shown the best methods of framing the head of a prin-
cipal rafter, and also of the braces to the king posts. It is prefera-
ble, where it can conveniently be done, to make the joints of both
at right angles with their working sides, like a and c ; but where
that cannot be done, the next best method is shown at d b. A
represents a side View of the tie beam, and B a section of the
plate, and also the best method of cogging them together.

Fig. 3 shows how to draw the dilferent angle brackets, to form a
cove ceiling; and by the same principles the different curvatures
for the ribs of a dome, or any other circular roof, may be drawn.
Let a b 10 and 0 represent the angles of a room over which it is
desired to make a groin ceiling ; on the line c 10 at 5, and with the
distance 5 c or 5 10, describe the half or given circle ; draw the
diagonal line c b ,' divide the circle A, from 0 around to 10, into any ‘
number of parts, as here into ten ; draw lines from each of these
divisions, and parallel to c a, cutting c 10 and c 6 each at 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8 and 9, and from those points on c b draw lines at
right angles from c I), and also from the same points draw lines
through 10 b, and at right angles with 10 b ; make the distance 1 1,
2 2, 3 3, 4 4, 5 5, &c. in both C and B, exactly equal to the corres-
ponding distance 1 1, 2 2, 3 3, 4 4, 5 5, &c. in A, and through
those points trace the curves in both C and B, which gives the
bracket required. '

Fig. 4 shows how to draw the different curvatures of the edges
of boards for the covering of' a dome. Draw the vertical line 8 g,
and divide one half of the dome into as many parts as there are in-
tended to be courses of boards, as in this example into seven;

84 CARPENTRY.

through 1 and 2 draw a right line, cutting 8 g at j, and on j as a
centre, with the distances j 1 and j 2, describe both edges of the
board 2', and through 2 and 3 draw a right line, cutting 8 g at k ;
on k, andwith the distances k 2 and k 3, describe both edges of the
board it. Proceed in the same manner until the boards g,f, e and
d are-completed.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON CARPENTRY.

The floors in a room of eighteen or twenty feet square should be
made crowning, about three fourths of an inch, and in the same
proportion if the room is larger. The curve should be that of a
segment of a circle, and rise equally‘from each side of the room to
the centre. Under doors, the floor should be raised a little, so that
the door may swing freely over it, without touching. “There this
precaution is not attended to, and the floor made straight, it will, by
its own weight and that put upon it, soon settle below a straight
line, and of course crack the plasterng beneath it. It will be wise
to observe the same precaution in all horizontal and inclined fram-
ings of any considerable bearing.

It is recommended, in many practical books on carpentry, to
make the mortices in girders, beams, and other large timbers, near
the upper side of the stick: the reason given for this is, that
when the girder settles it tends to compress that part above the
middle in the direction of its length, and proportionably to lengthen
the part below the centre; and, that if the tenon be inserted near
the upper edge, the compression of the girder will press hard on
each side of the tenon, and thus prevent the girder from being
weakened by the mortice. But it is evident, that if the tenon be of

CARPENTRY. 85

any tolerable Width, its shrinkage will be greater than the compres-
sion, and that no advantage therefore can be gained by the above
method. As the centre of the girder is less affected by either the
compression above the middle or the expansion below it, the middle
is the best place for the mortice, which may generally be made
about one sixth part of the depth of the girder. Great care is re-
quired, in making mortices and tenons, that they may fit each other
exactly. The same care is also required in making all kinds of
joints, so that the part out of sight may fit as completely as that
Which is seen. Double tenons in house framing are not admissible.
I know of no advantage gained by them, but, on the contrary,
they cut up the girder too much, and are not often brought up to so
good ajoint as simple ones; nor does the pin have the effect to
draw up the joint, for it generally cripples before it passes through
the lower tenon.

Joists in framed floors, purloins, common rafters, &c. will gain
much additional strength by being notched into their supports, and
made in continued lengths. In the framing of roofs, where bearing
timbers are not at right angles with each other, the joints should be
made a little open at the angular points, as there will always be a
shrinkage of the timber, which will cause a small settlement of the
roof; and the joints being likewise made to bear on their angular
points, will either be crippled, or indented by the strain, and there-
by, unless the above precaution is taken, cause a further settlement.

All bolts, nuts, straps and plates of iron, when used either in
damp situations or on green timber, should be well secured against '
rust; since, after the rust has once fastened upon them, and this
usually happens very soon unless provided against, it will continue

to eat into the iron until its strength is destroyed. Mr. Sweaton
22

86 CARPENTRY.

recommends, as a preventive against rust, to heat the iron to about
a blue heat, and immediately strike over its surface with raw linseed
oil, which will fill up the pores of the iron, and effectually protect it
against corrosion.

In the directions given for the size of the timbers in the forego-
ing examples for roofs, I have supposed them to be of white pine :
but if they should be made of hard pine, the sizes may be somewhat
reduced ; or if ofoak, a considerable reduction may be made. It is
best to use hard wood for the king posts, and particularly when the
roofis of large dimensions ; for the tendency of the strain is to
draw the king post in the direction of its length, and that of the
principal rafters to compress them in the direction of their length.
A great pressure is therefore sustained between the head of the
king post, and that of the principal rafters, which will cause the
heads of the rafters to indent themselves into the head of the king
post, and thereby cause a small settlement of the roof. The king
post ought to be well seasoned, and its breadth no more than is re-
quired for its connection with the head of the rafters, and the sup-
port of the strain necessarily thrown upon it by the weight of the
roof; for a shrinkage in its breadth would cause a small settlement
of the roof.

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87

HANDRAILING.

PLATE LVII.
DESIGNS FOR HANDRAILS AND NEWELLS.

FIG. 1 is a design for a stair post or newell, which is drawn at
full size. .Fig. 2, 3 and 4 are sections of stair rails, which are also
drawn at full size for practice. It has been customary to lay down
rules for drawing sections of handrails composed of parts of circles
and straight lines; but they certainly are not so graceful as those
here laid down, which are composed of parts of ellipses and
straight lines.

To Draw the Falling Mould. Fig. 5, a b 0, represents the
pitch board. Divide b 0, its height, into six parts, to give the level
of the scroll ; the distance bf is from the face of the riser to the
beginning of the twist, and the distance from f to dis equal to the
stretchout of the scroll, from c, the beginning of the twist, to a, on
Fig. 1, each being any part taken at discretion more than the first
quarter of the scroll; divide e g, the rake of the pitch board, and
g d, the level of the rail, each into the same number of equal parts,
and by intersecting lines complete the top edge of the mould, and
make the under edge parallel thereto.

a.

PLATE LVIII.

To Draw the Scroll for a Handrail. Divide a b, the width of
the scroll, into nine equal parts ; make I) c and a d each equal to

88 HANDRAILING.

one of these parts and at right angles with a b ; draw cl 0 ; join c b
and cl a ; also join the diagonal line c a. Draw f e perpendicular
to a b, and at a distance from c of‘five of the nine parts into which
a b is divided. Divide f g into two equal parts at h, on h, with the
distance hf or ihg. Draw the half circle f 0 g (see fig. 2, on
which the centres are drawn on a large scale) from f; and through
0 draw the diagonal f 0 2'; also from g draw g 0 h, cutting 0 eX-
aetly where the half circle f 0 g intersects the diagonal c a ; then
draw g 2', i h‘, k l, l m, m n, n 19,]? g, &c. at right angles with each
other, cutting the diagonals at g' i, i h, k l, lm, m n, n p, p (1, &c.
Then, with the distancefc and onfi draw the quarter ofa circle 0 e ;
on g, and with the distance g e, draw e a ; on i, and with the dis-
tance i a, draw a r ,' and so on, until you have completed the out-
side circle, drawing one quarter of the circle from each centre.
The inside circle is drawn from the same centres as the outside.

7) ’0 show where to place the face of the two first risers. The
dotted line, e a cl r ls, represents the extreme projection of the
nosing around the curtail step, and z z the extreme projection of
the nosing to the second step. The lines w (U, which are drawn
from the same centres as the rail, show where to place the balusters.

Fig. 3 represents the method of' making the curtail step; a a a
represents the riser glued on to the block; b 1), keys for keying up
the riser around the curtail step, when glued on ; c, a block to be

glued on to both riser and step, for the purpose of keeping them
firm in their place.

To Draw the Face Mould, for Squaring the Twisted Part of
the Scroll. Fig. 4 is a plan of the rail, in all respects like fig. 1.
a b c No. 2 is the pitch board, No. 3 the face mould. Draw d h

 

 

 

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HANDRAILING. 89

through the centre of the scroll, and parallel to a, b ; draw a d at
right angles with a b, and It h h at right angles with a b, cutting
the upper edge of the pitch board at h ; draw it It No. 3 at right
angles with a c, the upper edge of the pitch board, and a 01 also at
right angles with a 0. Make a d and h [L No. 3 each equal to a d
and h It No. 1 ; join d h No. 3. Draw ordinates through No. 1 at
e e e, fff; and g g g, cutting the upper edge of the pitch board at
efg, and from these points draw ordinates at right angles with
a 0 across the face mould, cutting d h at e f g. Then on the scroll
No. 1 divide d e, f g and g h each into any number of parts, either
equal or unequal; draW' ordinates through each one of these divi-
sions, 1 2 3, 4 5 6 7, 8 9 10 11, parallel to those before drawn,
cutting the upper edge of the pitch board at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, '7, 8, 9,
10, 11, and from those points and at right angles with the upper
edge of the pitch board a c, draw ordinates across the face mould,
cutting 03 h at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, '7, 8, 9, 10, 11.

From d [L No. 1 take the distance ,1 1, and set it off from 1 to 1
ontho.3;thentake22,33,ee,ff,44,55,66, &c.onNo.
1, and set them off from dh No. 3, 2 to 2, 3 to 3, e to e, f to j; 4
to 4, 5 to 5, 6 to 6, &c. Proceed in the same manner to take from
d [L No. 1 all the distances on both inside and outside of the scroll,
and set them ofi'both ways on all the corresponding ordinates from
d h No.3; then trace the curve through all these points, and it
will complete the plan of the face mouldi"=

"‘ The Explanation of fig. 5 should have been inserted here; but by mistake it follows that of
Plate LVII.
22

90 HANDRAILING.

PLATE LIX.
RECIPROCAL SPIRALS AND SCROLLS.

To Draw the Reciprocal Spiral and Scroll. Suppose a circle
drawn from the centre of the intended Spiral, and divided into eight
equal parts. Draw lines through the centre of' the spiral, cutting
each of these eight parts on the supposed circle, of a sufficient
length to intersect the curve of the scroll, as represented on fig. 1,
at P, K, L, R, S, T, U, V; and suppose the length of the ordinate
O P to be given, make B A in fig. 2 equal to O P fig. 1, and
draw E‘D at any angle from A B; the number of revolutions
intended to be made in the scroll will determine the number of
parts into which B D is to be divided. If' one revolution is wanted,
it will require eight parts ; if one and a half, twelve parts ; if two,
sixteen parts, and so on. Make E B and C A each equal to B 1 ;
from C as a centre draw C 1, C 2, C 3, C 4, &c. cutting B A at
a, b, c, d. It has already been mentioned that B A is equal to O P
fig. 1. Make 0 K equal to A a fig. 2, and O L fig. 1 equal to A b
fig. 2 ; make 0 R fig. 1 equal to A c fig. 2 ; also make 0 S, O T,
O U and O V, in fig. 1, each respectively equal to A d, A c, Af,
and A g, in fig. 2, &e. and draw the curve through P, IL L, R, S,
T, U, V, &e. which Will be the spiral required. The scroll, fig. 3,
is drawn from the scale F G, fig. 2, the distance G J being equal
to that of o 772-, fig. 3 ; G F, fig. 2, being equal to o a, fig. 3, and
the distances 0 b, o c, 0 cl and o c, are respectively equal to the dis-
tances G 1, G 2, G 3, G 4, &c. The scroll may be drawn by
centres, as follows: with the distance 0 a, and on f, draw k a b ;
with the distance 0 b, and on g, draw I) c ; with the distance 0 c,
and on h, draw 0 cl ; with the distance 0 d, and on i, draw (l e, &c.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

HAN DRAILIN G. 91

It will be perceitred that this scroll is not so open as that of fig. 1 :
the reason is obvious; the lines A B and F G are not parallel,
they make an angle of seventeen degrees, and the divisions on F G
are much nearer equal than those on B A. It is therefore evident,
that the nearer equal the divisions are, the closer will be the scroll,
as is more plainly shown by the scroll, fig. 4, the divisions of which
are taken from the scale H I, which makes an angle with A B of
forty-five degrees. As this spiral can easily be made close, or to
expand at pleasure, and as its curve is more graceful than any of
those which are drawn by centres, it will be found exceedingly
useful in stair building, and it can be used with success for many
other architectural purposes.

PLATE I X.

TO FIND THE MOULDS FOR MAKING STAIR RAILS ON A SEMICIRCULAR
PLAN, WITH EIGHT VVINDERS.

To Draw the Falling Mould, Fig. 1. First draw the plan of
the rail and winders as in fig. 2 ; then draw the line 03 8 equal to

the height of all the winders, eight in this example ; make d e and.

8 c each at right angles with d 8, and d 6 equal to the development
of E D, the quadrantal part of the rail ; ".11 fig. 2 also make 8:0 equal
to the development of the quadrantal part of the raif D 8. Make
6 k and h 2' each equal to the rise of one step, and parallel to d 8 ;
make 16 g equal to the tread of one step, and parallel to d f.

In fig. ljoing e, e c and c i, which is the central line of the
straight part of the rail; then set off on each side about an inch
for the depth of the rail, which is generally about two inches,
from 6, the point where you intend to have the straight and curved

a.

92 ' HANDRAILING.

parts of the rail join, as at e 0 and e p (see fig. 8). Divide e 0 and
619 each into the same number of equal parts, as here into six.
Through each of these divisions draw lines intersecting each ether, .
and these lines will produce the curve required for finishing the fall-
. ing mould.

Produce d e in fig. 1 to f, and make ef equal to the straight
part of the rail E F ; draw f 3 at right angles with df, cutting the
top ofthe rail at s ; draw 3 t parallel and equal tof d. Then
make c l equal to the straight part of the rail, 8 9, on fig. 2 ; draw
lm at right angles with 8 h, cutting the top of the rail at m, and
m 72 parallel and equal to 8 l; then join n 8 and s 4, and m will
show where the rail is to be joined.

To Draw the Face J‘Joula’. Take from the plan of the rail on
fig. 2, D E B C, the quadrantal part, and E F A B, the straight
part, of the rail, and transfer them to fig. 3 No. 2 ; draw the cord
line A C, produced to 1 and 5 ; draw 5 D H 5, C 0 u c and 1 F G,
at right angles with the cord line A C, and G H parallel to the cord
line A C. Then take the distance from t to u in fig. 1, and set it
from u on G H, fig. 3, to c ; draw G 0 produced to 5 ; then draw
'fromthecordlineACNo.2,6Jnt6,4Ims4,3Blr3, 26E
q 2 and A 1610 a, ; and at right angles with G 5 draw G F, a k, 2 E,
3 l, 4 m, 6 72, 0’0 and 5 D. Transfer the distances 5 D in No. 2 to
5 D in No. 1, from C 0 No. 2 to C 0 No. 1, from 6 n to 6 72, from
4 m to 4 m, from 3 l to 31, from 2 E to 2 E, from A k to a k, and
from l’F to G F; also from 6 J to Gj, from 4 I to 4 i, from 3 B to
3 b, and from 2 e to 2 e ; then trace the curves F k E l m n 0 D
and cj 2' b. The lines 6 e a and F k E are straight, and E b shows
Where the straight and circular parts of the rail join.

 
 

 

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HANDRAILING. 93

Fig. 4 shows the face mould for the upper quarter part of the
rail, which I think will be clearly understood without further expla-
nation. The height of the face mould is taken from v to n on fig.
1, and applied to v n on fig. 4. .

Fig. 7 shows the edge of the plank on which the face mould fig.
3 is to be applied; and fig. 6 that on which the face mould fig. 4 is
to be applied. The angle 0 a, b, in fig. 7, must be exactly equal to
the angle H 5 G, in fig. 3, No. 1 ; and the angle c a b, in fig. 6, to
the angle 1) n u, in fig. 4. The points of the face mould at c and a
must be applied exactly to those at a and c on the upper side of
the plank fig. 7, and also to the points I) and d on the lower side of
the plank.

PLATE LXI.

TO FIND THE MOULDS FOR A STAIR RAIL WITH A SEMICIRCLE OF
’ EIGHT W'INDERS.

Let fig. 1 be the plan of the rail, on which the risers are marked
1, 2, 3, a, 5, 6, 7, 8, and let A D E H T I No. 2 be the quadrantal
part of the rail, and exactly equal to e a hi in fig. 1; and let
E F G H, the straight part of the rail in fig. 3 No. 2, be equal to
e f g h in fig. 1, I being the upper and F the lower resting points ;
make D, the middle resting point, equal to one half of the stretch-
out of the rail from A to F, and draw I D. In the figurap of the
falling mould, which has been described in page 91, set up on the
line a b the height of each of the eight risers; draw a e at right
angles with a b, and equal to the stretchout of the rail from A to E.
Produce a e to f, and make 6 f equal to E F, the straight part of

the rail. Draw flparallel to a b, cutting the top of the falling
24 .

94 HANDRAILING.

mould at l; draw l 2' parallel and equal to f a ; make 2' d equal to
the development ofA D, and e f equal to E F. On a f make a d
equal to I D ; draw cl m parallel to a 1), cutting the upper side of
the falling mould at m, and draw m n at right angles with a b, cut-
ting a b at n. Draw cl 7' parallel to a b, cutting m n at r, and from
the point 0 on the upper side of the falling mould and through r,
draw 0 q, cutting l 2' at q ,' make I Q, equal to 2' q ; then draw Q, F,
touching the point of the rail at F, and produce it to K ; draw K L
at right angles with QK, and B I Z Z parallel to Q K ; make Z Z
equal to z' 0 in fig. 2. Draw K Z and produce it to L, and draw
A L L ; also draw other ordinates from the outside of the rail, cut-
ting K L at Y, a, D, U, G, and from these points, and also from
L, Z and K, draw ordinates at right angles with K L, cutting the
convex side of the face mould at A, B, C, b, c, 0, e, E, F ; then find
the points on the concave side of the face mould, and trace the
curves as directed in page 92.

How to Apply the Face Mould on each Side of the Plan/ls, so
that, when the lVooel is cut away, the Carved Seufaces may stand
Perpendicular t0 the Plan. In fig. 5 let a l) c (l efg be the figure
of the face mould, placed in the proper position to the pitch line g i.
In fig. 6 let Y represent the edge, X the upper side, and Z the
under side of the plank from which the rail is to be made ; make
the angle g K L equal to the angle L L K. In fig. 3 place the
points 6 i the face mould at g and i on X, and mark of the plank
by the edges of the mould. Draw L g at right angles with the
arris of the plank g i; then make the angle L g K on Z equal to
the angle g e i fig. 5. And in fig. 6 make Lg equal to g K; draw
g 6 parallel to the lower arris of the plank, and place the points of
the face mould at g and e, and mark by both of its edges.

 

 

 

 

 

 

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STAIRS.

PLATE LXII.

ON this plate are a plan and elevation of a circular staircase,
drawn from a scale of one inch to a foot. By an inspection of the
plate the method of drawing the elevation of a circular staircase
will be- clearly understood.

 

CHURCHES.

_—

GENERAL REMARKS ON HOUSES ERECTED FOR PUBLIC WORSHIP.

THEIR character should harmonise particularly with the purpose
for which they are designed ; for the same proportions which would
be beautiful in a room of a light or gay description, would be a de-
fect in one of a solemn or devotional character. Abuilding erected
for public worship should therefore be so contrived as to produce in
the beholder serious and devotional feelings. This effect is obtained
by composing the building, generally, of large, bold angular out-
lines, by continuing the entablatures and cornices unbroken over
the columns and pilasters, and giving all the decorations, either of
mouldings or sculpture, a large and grave appearance ; excluding
all ornaments composed of slender, curved, or winding outlines,
which are expressive of lightness and gaicty. The windows should

96 CHURCHES.

be large, and so constructed as to admit the air to circulate freely
throughout the house, Without producing a glare of light; for a
glare of light, and bright and gay colors, are opposed to solemnity
in a house of worship. Ceilings are most appropriate when so
arranged as to cause the greatest quantity of sound ; and, if deco-
rated at all, when divided into Compartments, and ornamented by
deep sunk panels, surrounded by large plain fillets, or mouldings.

When columns are employed for the support of a gallery, they
should be surmounted by an cntablature, and the general propor-
tions of the pedestal given to that part of the front of the gallery,
above the entablature ; and, as it is not usually convenient to make
the plinth either very high or thick, it will be necessary to leave the
upper edge square, or a little sloping. The face of the wainscot
must be in a vertical line with the frieze of the cntablature, and the
panels deeply sunk and surrounded by mouldings strongly marked,
since in the cornice slender mouldings, viewed at the distance they
must necessarily be, would appear indistinct; it will therefore be
advisable to compose the cornice of a few bold parts.

The pulpit ought to partake of the character of the building in
which it is erected. It may with propriety be made of mahogany,
when pine is used for the finish of the other parts of the building ;
but the style of architecture, and decorations, must correspond
with those of the house. Its height from the floor should be about
seven feet, and the platform on which it stands should be raised at
least two steps from the floor of the aisles, for the purpose of giving
the congregation an opportunity of seeing the ordinances, adminis-
tered there. It has been a common practice to make two stair
cases to a pulpit; a custom, which cannot be justified by the rule of
proportioning the means to the end, or any other, except that of

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CHURCHES. 97

uniformity. There does indeed seem to be a great impropriety in
erecting two stair cases, where only one person is to ascend,and
who cannot of course use but one at the same time; but it is difficult
to preserve the necessary uniformity without two stair cases ; and it
will therefore be advisable to construct two, yet in such a manner
as to make the least possible show, that they may appear as small
in the composition as possible.

PLATE LXIII.
PULPIT.

On Plate LXIII. is a plan and elevation of a pulpit, drawn frOm
a scale ofone half an inch to a foot. Its height is seven feet above
the platform on which it is to be placed. One end of the steps of
each flight of stairs finishes against abuttress ; this buttress is form-
ed like the pilasters, with the exception of the cap, which extends
back to the wall a a, and by the wall, in a sloping direction, con—
forms to the inclination of the steps, until it butts against the pilas-
ters at b b. The dotted line on the plan, at 0, represents the pro-
jection of the cornice, the bedmould and corona of which, profile
against the pulpit on each side of both doors at (Z (Z d d. The crown
moulding with its fillets continues across the doors, which are
intended to be himg on the front side of the pulpit, e e, and to open
inwards.

PLATE LXIV.

On this plate are designs for the entablature, pilasters and cap-

ping, drawn at one third of the full size. Divide the entire height
25

98 . CHURCHES.

into twenty-one equal parts ; give two to the diameter of the pilas-
ter, two to the plinth, four to the height of the entablature, and
fifteen to the height of the pilaster. The pilasters in this case are
eight inches in diameter ; divide the diameter into forty equal
parts, and by that scale draw all the mouldings.

Fig. 2 is a section ofthe pilaster at an external angle. Fig. 3 is
a design for the capping to the buttress”. Fig. 4 represents a sec-
tion of the moulding for the panelling and a part of the panel, and
also a part of the stile, at full size for practice. The guiloche in
the panel is not to project beyond a vertical line of the frieze. In
fig. 1 a. should project four parts and two thirds from b, 0 should
project three parts from a, and d should project three parts from 6.

THE GRECIAN AND ROMAN ORDERS.

REMARKS ON THESE ORDERS, THEIR APPLICATION, AND FITNESS.

IT is possible that many ingenious builders, who have for a long
time rigidly adhered to the Roman system of the orders, particularly
those who live atga distance from any of our large cities, and have
not had opportunities for frequently visiting them, so as to witness
with What a rapid progress the Grecian system has advanced be-
yond the Roman within the last fifteen or twenty years, may regard
the general recommendation of the Grecian system of the orders as
a whim of my own, and, without taking the trouble to give it a fair
trial, reject it as an innovation on their former practice. Fearing
this, and desiring to extend as far as possible the usefulness of the

Grecian orders with all the details, I have thought it best to
i give the opinions and reasoning, on the Grecian and Roman
orders, of Mr. James Elmes, a distinguished English architect, who,
in addition to a long and extensive practice, has had the advantage
of visiting the most celebrated temples, both in Greece and Rome.

The Greek architects had no difficulties to contend with, in pro-
portioning temples. According to Vitruvius, after the size of the
front and number of columns have been determined upon, if six
columns are in front, the whole front is to be divided into twenty-
four and a half equal parts, without reckoning the projection of the

100 GRECIAN AND ROMAN ORDERS.

bases of the two outer columns; the diameter of the column to be
made equal to one of those parts, and the height equal to eight and
a half diameters. He means, I suppose, to employ the Ionic order,
as the Greeks always, when columns were employed on the flanks
of their temples, used double the number, and one more, than they
did on the front, counting'the angular columns twice ; so that, if six
columns were employed in front, there would be thirteen along each
of the sides. Where columns were not used on the flanks, it ap-
pears that the length bore the same proportion to the breadth of
the building, as when they were used ; and as they had not, as we
have, to calculate for two or three stories in height, with windows
in each to accommodate different sized rooms, stair cases, &c. we
can suppose, that when the Doric order in its full proportions was
employed on buildings of the size of the temple of Minerva at
Athens, which was one hundred feet in breadth and two hundred
and twenty-five in length, with eight Doric columns on each front
and seventeen on each side, measuring six feet one inch in diame-
ter, and, including capital, thirty-four feet two inches in height ; the
entrance doors on each front being twelve feet six inches in
breadth, and twenty-eight feet eight inches in height; a building,
moreover, constructed of the finest marble, and displaying the nicest
workmanship ; we may suppose, I say, in this case, that the pro-
portions of this building on so large a scale, would produce effects
not to be surpassed by any alterations which could have been made
in them.

But we have now to proportion buildings of a totally different
character, and under much more embarrassing circumstances. If
for public use, they are chiefly churches, buildings for the accom-
modation of our courts of justice, or banks.

GRECIAN AND ROMAN ORDERS. 101

Ifa Church is to be erected, the committee, chosen for that pur-
pose, will take care to instruct the architect not to make the build-
ing larger than is necessary for seating all their congregation.
The architect is therefore under the necessity of making a gallery
and two tier of windows, unless, by making one tier of windows, he
submits to the awkward appearance of the gallery crossing them.
The increased size and the additional expense which would accrue
by erecting porticos each side of the building, would forbid such an
attempt; and the architect is confined to the front and rear of the
house, where he may indeed show his taste and skill by embellishing
them with columns and entablatures, of the Greek proportions.
The massive Doric may there often have its full proportions.

In a Court house there are generally two tier of Windows and
two stories, circumstances against adopting all the proportions of
the Grecian temple; nevertheless, the architect may so construct
such a building that it will produce a chaste and pleasing effect.

Banks, being usually built in our cities and situated in the most
crowded and business part of them, seldom show more than the
front on the street, and, on account of the value of the land on
which they are located, are often made three stories in height.
This would forbid the front being embellished With columns, sup-
porting a pediment, whose roof is in the same plane with the roof
of the building ; but if it should be only two stories in height, and
completely insulated, then an opportunity is offered to the architect
to decorate it with the Grecian orders and proportions.

All the Grecian buildings which have been accurately measured
and transmitted to us, were erected for public purposes. Time has
swept from us every vestige of their private houses, and it. is impos-

sible to ascertain, at the present day, whether or not the Grecian
26

102 GRECIAN AND ROMAN ORDERS.

architects gave the same proportions to the Doric order when used
in their private dwellings, as when used, in their temples. It is
probable, however, that they were much lighter in the former case.

, I see no propriety in making a Doric column, according to the
Greek proportions, from four to six and a half diameters, when
used in dwelling houses.

Take the ease of a country house, constructed of wood, the front
of which it is desired to decorate with a portico in the Grecian
style. A house having such an embellishment would not be less
than twenty-six feet in height. If it is to be of the Doric order,
the example of the temple of Corinth would make the column four
feet four inches in diameterfi‘= and the entablature eight feet eight
inches in height. No one could tolerate this proportion, since it
would require the thickness of the column, at its base, to exceed
the breadth of the doors and windows, and the entablature would
cover one third of the front of the house.

Again, let us take the example of the portico of Philip, king of
Macedon, which is one of the lightest of all the Grecian Dorics.
By this example the column would be three feet three quarters of
an inch in diameter, and the entablature six feet one and a half
inch in height; which is still much too large, especially if the
columns are made of wood, as ours usually are.

Let us now take an example from the theatre of Marcellus, at
Rome. This would make the column two feet nine inches in
diameter, and the entablature five feet six inches in height.

No one, I think, will say that this last example is too light. If
any thing different is preferable, it is to make the column two feet
six inches. I therefore repeat what I have before said, that the

*‘ I leave out the fractional parts.

GRECIAN AND ROMAN ORDERS. 103

general proportions of' the Roman Doric orders come nearer to our
practice in private buildings than the Grecian proportions. The
Greeks and Romans did not differ essentially in their general pro-
portions of the Ionic and Corinthian orders.

It will be seen by turning to page 16, on which is a table of the
proportions of all the Grecian Dorics which have been accurately
measured, that the column in the temple of Corinth is four diame-
ters and four minutes in height, and the column in the portico of
Philip six diameters thirty-two and a half minutes in height ; making
a difference of two diameters twenty-eight and a half minutes in the
height of the columns of these two examples. The capitals like-
wise of these examples differ as widely as the columns; that in the
temple of Corinth being in height twenty-four and a quarter
minutes, and projecting sixteen minutes, while that of the portico of
Philip is in height fourteen and one third minutes, and projects six
and a quarter minutes. The contour of the echinus in the latter
capital is a straight line, and the contour of that at Corinth is
elliptical.

It seems to be supposed, by many persons, that the Grecian
orders must be executed without any deviations from the original
examples. Of' such persons I would inquire, What example they
would choose; for it is a singular fact that no two can be found
which agree, either in their general proportionsor in their details.
To those acquainted with this fact, it is needless to urge the impro-
priety of binding one’s self to a servile imitation of the general
proportions of any of those examples, unless they happen to suit
our purpose.

I do believe, however, that it is Wise in us to study all the sys-
tems of architecture, in particular those of Greece and Rome, and,

. wwwpvw,‘

104 GRECIAN AND ROMAN ORDERS.

in determining the general proportions of a building, to endeavor to
prOportion the means to the end ; but, in the details, I believe no
one, who thoroughly understands the two systems, can hesitate for
a moment in giving his decided preference to the Grecian.

I will give here the above-mentioned extracts from Mr. Elmes,
which I think will be read with interest, and I hope to advantage.
They are taken from his Lectures, published in 1821.

“ The great superiority of the Greeks in architecture is to be
traced to causes similar to those which occasioned their pre-emi-
nence in every thing else : namely, a deep investigation into first
principles ; an accurate perception of the elements of all that they
attempted to execute.

“ A similar investigation, and a similar perception or knowledge,
and nothing else, will produce the like effects in our country and in
our times.

“ To the Greeks, and to them alone, let the student look for
grandeur of composition, and, indeed, for all the laws of architec-
ture, painting and sculpture.

“ The grand divisions of the architecture of Greece are, first, the
three orders of columns, technically called the orders: secondly,
the several orders of temples, or their sacred edifices; and, thirdly,
the various methods of intercolumniations, or manner of regulating
the distances of columns.

“ It is these great or primary divisions, and their due observance,
which entitle the architecture of the Greeks to the dignified epithet
of the wisdom of the orders.

“ Every order is composed of primary and divisional parts, which
differ in each of the orders, as will presently be described.

GRECIAN AND ROMAN ORDERS. 105

“Every column, except the Dorie, has three parts: the base, the
shaft, and the capital. The lowest 0r thickest part of the shaft is
used by architects as the universal standard whence all the mea-
sures which regulate and~ determine heights and projections are
taken. ' y i _

“ The bases of the various orders differ from each other in their
essential parts, and even among themselves in non-essentials, al-
though not in character. The base of a column is composed of a
series of mouldings encircling the bottom diameter according to its
order.

“The Doric has no base. The Ionic differs in various speci—
mens ; but that which has been the most used for this order is
called the Attic base, and is composed of a cubical plinth, on which
are a circular torus, a fillet, a scotia, and a compound moulding
called an astragal, consisting of a small torus and two fillets, one
above and the other below. A small cavetto or hollow connects
the upper fillet, which is somewhat larger than a diameter, to the
lower extremity of the shaft.

“ From this simple and beautiful base all the others appear to
have emanated, as it contains the component members and leading
characteristics of them all. It has also been more universally used
than any of the others, having been borrowed from its Ionian pro-
prietor by the Corinthian, and even occasionally by the Roman
Doric.

“ Some of the Greek, or true Ionic bases, differ from the Attic in
their arrangements, but are generally inferior where the difference
is essential.

“ The Corinthian base consists of a plinth, a torus, a fillet, then a

large scotia, next a fillet, sometimes two beads, then a second and
27

106 GRECIAN AND ROMAN ORDERS.

smaller scotia, and the concluding astragal, fillets, and usual hollow
on the top to connect it With the shaft.

“ The Composite base differs so little from the Corinthian, Where
the Attic base is not used, that it is not worth detailing.

“ Having thus defined the lower division of the column, its base,
our next step will be to the shaft. The shaft of a column is that
columnar conical body which is situated between the base and the
capital. In some examples it is plain, in others fluted, or divided
into perpendicular circular channels, which are differently formed,
and variously divided, in the different orders. In the Doric, that is,
the true Doric, they are formed without intervening fillets, and are
called by workmen arris flutes. Such are Doric flutes, which
should never be used to any other order, nor should any other kind
of fluting ever be applied to the Doric order. These rules are
sanctioned by first principles, and the examples of the Greeks, and
violated by the Romans, the modern Italians, and the Anglo-Italian
architects of the present day.

“ The flutings of the Ionic and Corinthian shafts are differently
executed. Between each flute there is a fillet or part of the shaft
left uncut, of half its width, and the flutes are channelled in equal to
half their width, forming semicircles on their plan. These are also
often fluted only two thirds of the way down, and then the lower
third is carved to resemble a circular staff placed in the flutes and
rounded on the top.

“ The next and concluding portion of the column is the capital,
which differs, according to the order to which it belongs. The
capital is the most striking part of an order, and to common ob-
servers is the portion by which they best judge the name of an
order. In the pure, that is, the Greek system of classical architec-

GRECIAN AND ROMAN ORDERS. 107

ture, every other part of an order bears its character as completely
as the capitals; but in the R0 and modern systems, they are
huddled, mixed, and perverted, 1 a manner destructive to good
taste and correct classification.

“ The capital of the Doric order agrees in character in all the
ancient examples, although it differs in minor parts, Which differ-
ence is specific, and does not detract from the generic characteris-
tics of the order; therefore the following general description is
applicable to all. ’7’

“ The Doric capital is divided into three principal parts : the aba-
cus, the echinus, and the annulets. The abacus is the superior
member or covering of the capital, and appertains to each of the
three orders, but it assumes a different and characteristic form in
each. In the Doric and Ionic the abacus is square in its plan,
plain in the Doric, and moulded in the Ionic ; and in the Corinthian
each face is hollowed into a circular, and (with the exception ofthe
example in the portico at Athens, called the Poekile) cut off at the
angles. '

“ The abacus of the Doric capital is a parallelopipedon, or une-
qual cube, varying from ten to twelve minutes, or" about the sixth
part of the bottom diameter, in height, in the best examples. Imme-
diately under the abacus is the large elliptico-circular member
called the echinus, the outline of which resembles a chesnut. The
echinus, in the finest specimens of the order, is either elliptical 0r
hyperbolical in its perpendicular outline, but never circular; and,
with the annulets under it, is the same height as the abacus.

“ The annulets, as their name imports, are three rings, or circu-
lar fillets, under the echinus, falling of? under each other perpendi-
cularly, like an inverted flight of steps, andpartaking of the general
outline of the echinus in the arrangement of its angles.

108 GRECIAN AND ROMAN ORDERS.

“In many examples, at about thirty minutes below the top of the
abacus, is a channel sunk roundi'ne shaft, as if to determine the
size of the capital, situated in th place of the Roman hypotraehe-
lion, or necking, whether the shaft be fluted or plain.

“ In no instance is the superiority of the Grecian style of archi-
tecture over the Roman more apparent than when Viewed compara-
tively in this order. To the beautiful and characteristic abacus of
the true Doric, the Romans have added the moulded cymatium and
fillet on the top. For the chaste simplicity and elegant outline of
the e-chinus they have substituted the clumsy and tasteless ovolo,
which they even have often spoiled by carving. For the annulet
they often substitute an astragal, or a bead and fillet. For the
delicate and effective channelled hypotraehelion they bolster round
the shaft the colarino of the Corinthian ; and, to complete the ab-
surdity, leaves have even been added in the part between the neck-
ing and the under moulding of the capital, which Palladio, oddly
enough, calls the frieze of the capital. To its beautifully propor-
tioned shaft they have added several diameters in height. For its
conical outline they have substituted the swelling shaft; and for the
shallow arris flutings of the original, the semicircularly hollowed
flutes and wide fillets of the other orders have not seldom been
misapplied.

“I shall now proceed to the investigation and description of the
Ionic order. The Ionic capital is divided into two principal or
leading features, the abacus and the volutes. The abacus is a
right-angled parallelogram, nearly square on its plan, and moulded
on its perpendicular sides, or edges, sometimes with a cymatium,
sometimes with an echinus. The volutes are two spiral mouldings
on each side of the front, perpendiCular to the horizon, alike on two

GRECIAN AND ROMAN ORDERS. 109

faces, and the other two profiles or sides alike in themselves, but
differing from the front ; the extremities of each are the same dis-
tance from the centre of the column. Each spiral, or volute, has
the same number of volutions, or spirals, which are differently con-
nected by mouldings, passing between and behind them round the
shaft of the column.

“ One of the most beautiful examples of simple dignity found in
this order, or perhaps in any other, is that of the small Ionic temple
on the banks of the river Illyssus, at Athens.

“ Another fine and more embellished example of the Ionic order
is taken from the beautiful temple of Minerva Polias, at Priene, in
Ionia; the architect of which was Pytheus, who, requiring an en-
riched order, did not, like the Romans, corrupt the Doric with
misplaced ornaments, but rejected it entirely, and composed this
elegant specimen upon the pure elements of the ancient order.
The small projection of the cymatium, or upper moulding of the
cornice, and its great height, are beautiful and well adapted to
receive its ornaments, as it is less obscured by the shadow of the
concave and convex parts of the moulding. The dentils are intro-
duced in the bed-mould of the cornice with great propriety and
effect, as their bold and singular projection relieves them completely
from each other. The architrave is well proportioned ; but, having
three fasciae instead of two, it encroaches too much upon the

Corinthian.
“ The capital is an elegant and embellished variation of that from

the Illyssus; it is more enriched without destroying the harmony
and elegance of its proportions, and the spirals of the volutes are
elegantly and tastefully drawn.

“ The hem, or border, of this capital, from volute to volute, with

its delicate fillet resting on the grandly designed ovolo, connecting
28

a.

110 GRECIAN AND ROMAN ORDERS.

with a graceful curve the spirals of the volute, seems to keep them
in their situations, and greatly conduces to the beauty of the capital.

“ Our next and last step in the description of the orders, is to the
Corinthian. This is the richest and most embellished, and is as it
were the seal and completion of them all.

“ This order, though the most embellished, is yet the most simple
and easy to use in either colonnades or porticos, having neither the
difficulty of the triglyphs of the Doric nor the dissimilar faces of the
Ionic, which require much Skill to adapt in angle columns.

“ The principal examples of the Corinthian order now remaining
in Italy and Greece do not differ from each other so essentially in
character as either the Doric or the Ionic. '

“ The Corinthian order, as used in the Pantheon, at Rome, is,
although rather plain, of beautiful proportions : it is chaste, correct,
and an excellent model for imitation and study. Another very fine
example is found in the three columns of the Campo Vaccino, at
Rome, supposed to be the remains of the temple of Jupiter Stator.
The elegance and beauty of this example, particularly the capital,
its graceful form, and the delicacy of its ornaments, render it one of
the most complete examples now existing of the Corinthian order.

“Another fine specimen of this order is that of the temple of Ves-
ta, or the Sybil, at Tivoli, near Rome. Yet no less to be admired
is the order of the Choragic monument of Lysicrates, near Athens,
called by some travellers the lantern of' Demosthenes.

“ Having extolled the architecture of the Greeks above that of
the Romans, in a manner beyond what the admirers of the Roman
style may approve, permit me to repeat, by way of explanation,
that it was not in costliness or magnitude that the mighty genius of
the Greeks developed itself so much as in invention, in taste, in
beauty, in refinement, and in leaving to posterity the best models

GRECIAN AND ROMAN ORDERS. 111

for imitation. These qualities have given this gifted people their
deserved pre-eminence over all their imitators or competitors.

“ No remains of architecture 'or sculpture are to be found in
Greece but What are canons of art, While Rome possesses more to
corrupt the taste of the young architect than all its excellences can
counterbalance. It is, therefore, to the rules, the forms, the pro-
portions, the taste of the former, that the attention of the student
should be perpetually recalled.

“The three essential and distinct qualities in architecture are
strength, grace, and richness. The three orders of the Greeks
possess all these requisites, and the five anomalous orders of the
Romans possess no more. The aforesaid qualities are the land-
marks, the boundaries, the north and south poles of the art. The
Doric displays the first—mentioned quality of strength; the Ionic,
the second, of grace; and the Corinthian, the third, of richness.
The Corinthian is the maximum, uniting beautiful simplicity and
florid decoration ; While the Doric possesses pure simplicity, plain-
ness, and robust strength; and the Ionic is the connecting link be-
tween the two.

“ The orders and styles of architecture are but the means; to
build with good sense, propriety and taste, is the end.

“ Ancient examples, selected with judgment and pure taste ;
adapted, with the latitude of genius, to modern necessities; com-
bined with the scientific inventions of modern construction; and
perfected by study and practice ; are the best schools of true archi-
tecture.

“ The Roman Doric order has been so altered and abused by va-
rious architects since the decline of Grecian purity, that some ex-
amples hardly appear to belong to the same order. This order is
by Palladio restored and compounded from all the best antique

112 GRECIAN AND ROMAN ORDERS;

specimens found by him in Rome : his column is purer in style than
anysingle ancient remain. The bed moulding, or under part of
the cornice, however, is too complex and enriched for the simplicity
and manly character ofthe order. The frieze is divided as he found
the best remains in ancient Rome, and the triglyphs are conse-
quently misdivided; the architrave has two faces, and the whole
entablature too small a proportion of height. The capital is also
overloaded with ornament, the abacus is destroyed. by the addition
of mouldings ; the echinus is converted to a quadrant ; and the
graceful channelling of the Greek hypotrachelion is omitted, to
make room for a clumsy necking, belonging to any order but the
Dorie. He has also added a base to the shaft, and omitted the
beautiful mutules which support the corona over every triglyph and
metope of the Greek original.

“The next order in the Roman system is their Ionic, which differs
almost as much in detail as the Doric. In its leading character, the
volutes, however, it has not been so violated as the Doric.

“ The first specimen to which I beg leave to call your attention is
from the temple of Fortuna Virilis, at Rome, an excellent restora-
tion of which, in all its details, may be found in Palladio’s work on
the ancient temples of Rome. Its order is undoubtedly the best to
be found in Rome, and resembles the one of the theatre of Marcel-
lus, but will not bear comparison with the beautiful Greek original,
whose name it usurps.

“ It remains for the student to inquire from which source, Roman
or Greek, he can draw the most graceful proportions of the Ionic
order. In the Roman specimens, their overloaded cornices, their
ill-proportioned entablatures, their vulgar profiles, and the broken
spiral lines of their volutes, render them, in my opinion, utterly
unfit for models.”

GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS.

A.

AARON’S R01); an ornamental figure represent-
ing a rod with a serpent entwined about it,
and called by some, though improperly, the
Caduceus of Mercury.

Abacus; the upper member of a capital of a,

column, serving as a kind of crown piece in
the Grecian Doric, and a collection of mem-
bers or mouldings in the other orders.

Abutment ; a pier, upon which the extremity of
an arch rests.

Accessories; in architectural composition, those
parts, or ornaments, either designed or acci-
dental, which are not apparently essential to
the use and character ofa building.

Acropolis ; from the Greek: the highest part of
a city, the citadel or fortress.

Acroteria; small pedestals placed on the apex
and two sides ofa pediment. They sometimes
support statues.

[Egricanes ; sculptures representing the heads
and skulls of rams; commonly used as a deco-
ration of ancient altars, friezes, &c.

JEtoma; a pediment, or the tympanum ofa ped-
iment.

Aile, or Aisle; a walk in a church on the sides
of the nave ; the wings of a choir.

Alcove ; a recess, or part of a chamber, separated
by an estrade, or partition of columns, and
other corresponding ornaments.

Amphiprostyle ; an order of temples among the
Greeks, having columns in the back, as well
as the front.

Alto-relievo, or High-relief; that kind, or portion ,

of sculpture, which projects so much from the

29

surface to which it is attached as to appear

nearly insulated. It is therefore used in com-

parison with Mezzo-relievo, or Mean-relief,
and in opposition to Basso-relieve, or Low-
relief.

1 Amphitheatre; a spacious edifice, of a circular
or oval form, in which the combats and shows
of antiquity were exhibited.

Ancones ; the carved key-stone of arches.

Angle-rafter; in carpentry, otherwise Hip-rafter.
See Hip. ».

Angular capital; the modern Ionic, or Scammo-
zian capital, which is formed alike on all the
four faces, so as to return at the angles of the
building.

Annulet; a small square moulding, commonly
used to connect the others.

Antae; small projections, in Grecian architecture,
from the wall, to receive the entablature from
the columns ofa portion, and having bases and
capitals different from the columns.

Apophyge ; the curve connecting the upper fillet
of the base, or under one of the capital, with
the cylindrical part Ofthe shaft.

Araeostyle; a manner of intercolumniation, in
which all the columns are distant from each
other about four diameters.

Arcade; an aperture in a wall, with an arched
head. It also signifies a range of apertures
with arched heads.

Arch ; a part ofa building supported at its extre-
mities only, and concave towards the earth or
horizon.

Architectonic ; something endowed with the
power and skill of building, or calculated to

i assist the architect.

‘9’

114

Architrave; the undermost principal division of
an entablature.
Astragal ; a small moulding, semicircular in pro-

file.
B.

Back ; generally that side of an object which is
opposite to the face, or breast: but the back of
a handrail is the upper side of it; that of a
rafter is the upper side of it, in the sloping
plane of one side ofa roof.

Back-shutters, or back-flaps ; additional breadths
hinged to the front-shutters, for completely
closing the aperture, when the window is to
be shut.

Balcony (from the French Balcon); an open
gallery, projecting from the front of abuilding,
and commonly constructed of iron or wood.

Baluster; a small kind of column or pillar, be-
longing to a balustrade.

Balustrade; arange of balusters, supporting a

 

cornice, and used as a parapet or screen, for '

concealing a roof, or other object.
Band; a square member in a profile.
Base; the lower division of a column.
Greek Doric there is no base.
Battlement; see Parapet.
Bay-window ; a window projecting from the
front, in two or more planes, and not forming
the segment ofa circle.

In the

Bed-mouldings ; the mouldings below the coro- ‘

na in a cornice.

Belfry, anciently the campanile; the part of a
steeple in which the bells are hung.

Belvidere; a turret, look-out, or observatory,

commanding a fine pl‘Ospect, and generally.
very ornamental.

Boultin; a name for the echinus.
Bow-window; a window forming the segment of
a circle.

Breach (in Gothic architecture); a spire, or po-
lygonal pyramid, whether of stone or timber.
Bracket (in Gothic architecture) ; a projection to

sustain a statue, or other ornament, and some-
times supporting the ribs of a roof.
Buttress (in Gothic architecture); a projection on ‘

the exterior of a wall to strengthen the piers i

and resist the pressure of the arches within.

GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS,

C.

Cabling; cylindrical pieces let into the lower
part of the flutes of columns.

Caduceus; an emblem or attribute of Mercury;
a rod entwined by two-winged serpents.

Caisson ; a name for sunk panels of geometrical
forms.

Campana; the body of the Corinthian capital.

Campanw, or Campanula, or Guttae; the drops
of the Doric architrave.

Canopy (in Gothic architecture); the ornamental
dripstone of an arch. It is usually of the ogee
form.

Canted (in Gothic architecture); any part of a
building having its angles cut off, is said to be
canted.

Capital ; the upper division of a column, or pillar.

Cartonch ; the square blocks under the eaves of
a house.

Cant-moulding; a bevelled surface, neither per-
pendicular to the horizon, nor to the vertical
surface to which it may be attached.

Cap (in joinery); the uppermost of an assem-
blage of parts, as the capital of a column, the
cornice ofa door, 650.

Caryatidae, or Caryatides; so called from the
Caryatides, a people of Caria; an order of
columns or pilasters, under the figures of wo-
men dressed in long robes, after the manner of
the Carian people, and serving to support an
entablature. This order is called the Cary-
atlc.

Case ofa door; the frame in which the door is

hung.

Catacomb ; a subterraneous place for the inter-
ment of the dead.

Cavetto; one of the regular mouldings of Roman
architecture, hollowed in the form of a qua-
drant of a circle.

Chancel ; the communion place, or that part ofa
christian church between the altar and balus-
trade which encloses it.

Chantry ; a small chapel on the side of a church.

Cincture ; a ring or fillet surrounding the top and
bottom of a shaft, with which it is connected
by the apophyge.

Circus; a spacious building in which equestrian
exercises are exhibited.

g4

zaiLosssnY 0F ARCHITECTURAL TERMS. 115

Coin, or Quoin; the corner or angle made by
the two surfaces of a stone or brick building,
whether external or internal.

Colonnade; a range of columns, whether attach-
ed or insulated, and supporting an entablature.

Column; according to the best method of de-
scribing it, a column is a frustum of a very
elongated parabola, and circular in its plan.
It consists tin Greek and Roman architecture)
of three parts, viz. the base, the shaft, and the
caphaL

Composite order; one of the Roman orders of
architecture. ‘

Conge ; a moulding consisting ofa simple curve,
whether bending outwards, as the ovolo or
swelling conge, or inwards, as the cavetto or
hollow conge.

Conservatory ; a superior kind of greenhouse for
valuable plants, &c. arranged in beds of earth,
with ornamental borders.

Console; a bracket, or projecting body, shaped
like a curve of contrary flexure, scrolled at the
ends, and serving to support a cornice, bust,
vase, or other ornament. Consoles are also
called, according to their form, ancones or
trusses, mutules, and modillions.

Continued ; uninterrupted, unbroken, as a conti-
nued attic, pedestal, &.c. not broken by pilas-
ters or columns.

Contour; a French word for Outline.

Coping; the stones laid on the top of a wall, to
strengthen and defend it from injury.

Corbeils ; carved work representing baskets filled
with flowers or fruit, and used as a finish to
some elegant part ofa building. This word is
sometimes used to express the bell or vase of
the Corinthian capital.

Corinthian order; one of the orders of architec-
ture.

Cornice; a crowning: any moulded prnjection
which crowns or finishes the part to which it
is attached.

Cornucopia ; the horn of plenty, represented in
sculpture under the figure of a large horn, out
of which issue fruits, flowers, grain, &c.

Corono ; the upper member of a cornice, in
Greek and Roman architecture.

Corridor; a gallery or passage in large buildings,
which leads to distant apartments.

 

Counter-forts; projections of masonry from a
wall, at certain regular distances, for strength-
ening it or reSisting a pressure.

Coupled columns ; those disposed in pairs, so as
to form a narrow and wide interval alternately.

Crosettes; in decoration, the trusses or consoles
on the flanks of the architrave, under the cor-
nice.

Crown ; the uppermost member ofa cornice, in-
cluding the corona, &c. Of an arch, its most
elevated line or point.

Cupola ; a dome, the hemispherical summit ofa.
building.

Cusp (in Gothic architecture); a name for the
segments of circles forming the trefoil, qua-
trefoil, &c.

Cyma, Cymatium; the‘cyma is of two kinds:
the cyma-recta, a moulding hollowed at the
top and swelling beneath, generally called cy-
matium ; and the cyma-reversa, or ogee, which
is swelled above and hollowed beneath.

D.

Dentils; small square projections used in the
cornices of several of the Roman orders, and
in the Grecian Ionic.

Diastyle; a manner of intercolumniation in which
the columns are three diameters apart.

Die of a pedestal; the part comprehendedgbe-
tween the base and cornice.

Ditriglyph ; having two triglyphs over an inter-
column.

Dome ; a concave ceiling, commonly hemisphe-
rical.

Doric order; one of the orders of architecture.

Dormant, or Dormer Window (in Gothic archi-
tecture); a window set upon the slope of a.
reef or spire.

Drops; in ornamental architecture, small pendant
cylinders, or frustums of cones attached to a
surface vertically, with the upper ends touch-
ing a horizontal surface, as in the cornice of
the Doric order.

Drum or Vase, of the Corinthian and Compo-
site capitals; the solid part to which the fo-
liage and stalks, or ornaments, are attached.

Dye; the plain part ofa pedestal, between the
base and cornice.

at

ta:

I

116
E.

Eaves; the margin or edge ofa roof overhanging
the walls.

Echinus ; a moulding, in the Roman orders, con-
sisting of the quadrant of a circle turned out-
wards ; in the Greek, it is composed of one of
the conic sections.

Embattled; a building with a parapet, having
embrasures, and therefore resembling a batte-
ry, or castle.

Encarpus; the festoons on a frieze. See Festoon.

Entablature ; the horizontal part of an order,
supported by the columns.

Entail (in Gothic architecture) ; delicate carving.

Entasis; the swelling ofa column.

Epistylium; or architrave ofthe entablature.

Eustyle; the manner of intercolumniation in
which the columns are distant two diameters
and a quarter.

F.

Facade; the face or front ofa building.

Falling moulds; in joinery, the two moulds which
are to be applied to the vertical sides of the
railpiece, in order to form the back and under
surface of the rail, and finish the squaring.

Fane, Phane, Vane (in Gothic architecture); a
plate of metal usually cut into some fantastic
form, and turning on a pivot to determine the
course of the wind.

Fascia; a band or fillet. This term is usually
employed to denote the flat members into
which the architrave is divided.

Fastigium ; see Pedimont,

Festoon ; a carved ornament resembling a wreath,
attached at both ends and falling in the middle.

Fillet; see Annulet.

Flutings ; vertical channels on the shafts of
columns.

Flyers ; steps, of which the treads are all parallel.

Fret; a species of ornament commonly composed
of straight grooves or channelures at right an-
gles to each other. The labyrinth fret has
many turnings, or angles, but in all cases the parts
are parallel and perpendicular to each other.

Frieze ; the member of an entablature between
the architrave and cornice.

Fust; the shaft ofa column.

 

 

GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERME‘.‘

G.

Glyphs ; the channels in the triglyphs of the
Doric frieze.

Gola; see Ogee.

Gothic; a peculiar style of architecture, distinct
from either the Grecian or Roman.

Gorge; see Cavetto.

Greek orders of architecture; the Doric, Ionic,
and Corinthian. See these names respectively.

Griffin, or Grifi'on ; a fabulous animal, sacred to
Apollo, and mostly represented with the head
and wings of an eagle, and the body, legs and
tail of a lion.

Groin; the diagonal line formed by the inter-
section of two vaults in a roof.

Groined ceiling; a cradling constructed of ribs.

Grotesque; the light, gay and beautiful style of
ornament, practised by the ancient Romans in
the decoration of their palaces, baths, vil-
las, &c.

Guiloches; an ancient ornament composed of
fillets, which cross and recross each other, and
generally encompass a plain or ornamented
roset.

Guttae; small cones representing drops, placed in
the soffit of the mutules, and under the trig-
lyphs in the Doric entablature.

H.

Hall; a word commonly denoting a mansion, or
large public building, as well as the large room
at the entrance.

Hyperthyron : the lintel ofa doorway.

Hypotrachelion ; the neck of a capital.

1.

Impost; any combination of mouldings serving as
the capital or cornice of a pier.

Intercolumniation ; the distance between two
Columns.

Insulated; standing alone, or detached from any
contiguous building.

Ionic order; one of the orders of architecture.

J.

Jambs; the vertical sides of an aperture, as of
doors, windows, &c.

GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS.

K.

Key-stone; the centre or highest stone in an
arch. It is frequently larger than the rest,
and ornamented with sculpture.

L.

Labyrinth; a building, the numerous passages
and perplexing windings of which, render the
escape from it difficult and almost impossible.
Hence Labyrinth fret; a fret with many turn-
ings, which was a favorite ornament of the an-
cients.

Lacunariae, or Lacunars ; panels or coffers form-
ed on the ceilings of apartments, and some-
times on the soflits of corona: in the Ionic,
Corinthian and Composite orders.

Lantern; a turret raised above the roof, with
windows round the sides, and constructed for
lighting an apartngent beneath.

Larmier; see Corona.

Lintel; the horizontal piece which covers the
opening ofa door or window.

List; see Fillet.

M.

Mechanical powers; such implements or ma-
chines as are used for raising greater weights,
or overcoming greater resistances, than could
be effected by the natural strength without
them.

Medallion; a circular tablet, ornamented with
embossed or carved figures, bustos, &.c.

Metope ; the space between two triglyphs in the
Doric frieze. It is frequently decorated with
sculpture.

Mezzanine; a low story between two floors.

Minaret; a Turkish steeple with a balcony.

Minute; the sixtieth part of the diameter of a
column.

Modillion ; a projection under the corona of the
richer orders, resembling a bracket.

Module; the semi-diameter of a column at the
foot ofa shaft.

Mono-triglyph ; having only one triglyph be-
tween two adjoining columns: the general
practice in the Grecian Doric.

30

 

117

Mouldings; the smaller parts of architecture,
whether Roman or Grecian, which are shaped
in regular forms. They are so called from
being worked with a mould.

Mutnle; those projections in the Doric cornice

" supposed to represent the ends of rafters.

N.

Nave; the body of a church, reaching from the
choir or chancel to the principal door.

Neck ofa capital; the space between the chan-
nelures and the annulets ofthe Grecian Doric
capital! In the Roman Doric, the space be-
tween the astragal and annulet.

Newel; in a circular staircase, the centre round
which the steps ascend.

Niche; a cavity in a wall to receive a statue, or
other ornament.

O.
Obelisk ; a quadrangular pyramid, high and slen-

der, raised as a monument or ornament, and
commonly charged with inscriptions and orna-
ments.

Odeum; among the ancients, a place for the re-
hearsal of music and other particular purposes.

Ogee ; a moulding of two members, one con-
cave, the other convex. It is otherwise called
a cymatium.

Orlo; the plinth ofa column or pedestal.

Ovolo ; see Echinus.

Orthography; an elevation showing all the parts
ofa building in true proportion.

P.

Pagoda, or Pagod; an Indian temple common in
Hindustan and the countries to the east.
These structures, dedicated to idolatry, are
mostly of stone, square, not very lofty, without
windows, and crowned with a cupola.

Panel; a compartment enclosed by mouldings.

Parapet; a low wall round the roof ofa building.

Pavilion; a kind ofturret or building usually in-
sulated and contained under a single roof;
sometimes square and sometimes in the form
of a dome: thus called from the resemblance
ofits roofto a tent.

.... wr~w7pwrmm

 

118

Pedestal ; a square body of stone, or other ma-
terial, raised to sustain a column, statue, &c.
It is therefore the base, or lowest part of an
order of columns. A square pedestal is that
of which the height and width are equal.

Pediment; an ornament properly of a low tri-
angular figure, crowning the front of a build-
ing. A

Pentastyle ; an edifice having five columns in
front.

Periptere'; a building encompassed with columns,
which form a kind of aisle round it.

Piazza ; a portico, or covered walk, supported by
arches.

Pilaster; a pillar of a rectangular plan.

Pillar; a column of an irregular make, not form-
ed according to rules, but of arbitrary propor-
tions; free or insulated in every part, and
always deviating from the measures of regular
columns. This is the distinction ofthe pillar
from the column. A square pillar is some-
times called a pier.

Pinnacle ; the t0p or roof of a building, terminat-
ing in a point.

Planceer; see Sotfit.

Platband; a square member of slight projection.

Plinth ; the square solid under the base ofa col-
umn, pedestal, or wall.

Porch ; the kind of vestibule at the entrance of
temples, halls, churches, &c.

Portico; an entablature supported by columns,
and surmounted by a pediment.

Post and Railing; an open wooden fence, con-
sisting of posts and rails only.

Profile; the contour of the parts composing an
order. _

Pronaos ; an ancient name for a porch to a tem-
ple or other spacious building.

Proscenium ; in a theatre, the stage or the from
of it.

Prostyle; having columns in front only..

Pycnostyle; a manner of intercolumniation of
one diameter and a half.

Pyramid ; a solid figure, having its base triangu-
lar, square, or polygonal, and terminating in a
point at top.

 

GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS.

Q.

Quadra ; any square border or frame encompass-
ing a basso-relievo, panel, &c.

Quirk mouldings; the convex parts of Grecian
mouldings, where they recede at the top and
form a re-entiant angle with the soflit which
covers the moulding.

Quoin, external or internal ; the name is particu-
larly applied to the stones at the corners of
brick buildings. \Vhen these stand out beyond
the brick work, with edges chamfered, they
are called Rustic Quoins.

R.

Raiser ; a board set on edge under the fore 'side
of a step, or stair.

Raking Moulding ; a moulding whose arrises are
inclined to the horizon in any given angle.

Ramp; in handrailing, a concavity on the upper
side, formed over risers, or over a half or
quarter space, by a sudden rise of the steps
above.

Reglet, or Riglet; a flat narrow moulding, used
chiefly in compartments and panels to separate
the parts or members, and to form knots or
frets, &c.

Revels, pronounced Reveals; the vertical re-
treating surface of an aperture, as the two
vertical sides between the front of the wall and
the windows or door frame.

Roman, or Composite Order.

Rose; an ornmant in the form of a rose, found
chiefly in cornices, friezes, &c.

Rotundo, or Rotunda; a common name for any
circular building.

Rudenture; the figure of a rope, or of a stafi‘,
whether plain or carved, with which a third
part of the flutiug of columns is frequently
filled up. It is sometimes called cabling :
hence the columns are said to be cabled, or
rudented.

Rustic; a manner of masonry in which the stones
are indented at their angles; also stones left
rough.

GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS.

S.

Saloon; 3. spacious, lofty and elegant hall, or
apartment, vaulted at top, and generally having
two ranges of windows.

Section of a Building; a representation of it, as
vertically divided into two parts, so as to ex-
hibit the construction of the interior.

Sesspool, or Cesspool ; a deep hole, or well, un-
der the mouth of a drain, for the reception of
sediment, &c. by which the drain might be
choked.

Sewer ; a common drain, or conductor for con-
veying foul water, &c.

Shaft; the part of a column between the base
and capital. '

Shank; a name for the flat space between the
channels in the Doric triglyph.

Socle, or Zocle; a square piece, broader than it
is high, placed under the bases of pedestals,
&c. to support. vases, and other ornaments.
As there is a continued pedestal, so there is
also a continued socle. See Pedestal.

Soflita, or Soffit; any timber ceiling formed of
cross beams of flying cornices, the square com-
partments or panels of which are enriched with
sculpture or painting.
under side of an architrave, and that of the
corona, or drip, &,c. ; also the horizontal un-
dersides ofthe heads of apertures, as of doors
and windows.

Sphinx; a favorite ornament of Egyptian ar-
chitecture, representing the monster, half wo-
man and half beast, said to have been born of
Typhon and Echidna.

Spire; a slender pyramid of a polygonal plan.

Squaring handrails ; the method ofcutting a plank
to the form of a rail for a staircase, so that all
the vertical sections may be rectangles.

String-board; in stairing, a board placed next to
the well-hole, and terminating the ends of the
steps.

Stylobata ; see Pedestal.

Systyle ; an intercolumniation of two diameters.

T.

Tania; the term for the fillet separating the
frieze from the architrave in the Doric order.

 

Soffit also means the .

 

l

 

119

Talon ; a French term, either for the astragal
or cyma-reversa.

Terrace ; an elevated area for walking upon, and
sometimes meaning a balcony.

Tetrastyle ; having four columns in front.

'Torus; a large moulding, semicircular in profile,

used in bases.

Tread of a step; the horizontal part of it.

Triglyph ; the ornament in the Doric frieze sup-
posed to represent the end of beams.

Tripod ; a three-legged seat, from which the
priests of antiquity delivered their oracles, and
frequently represented in architectural orna-
ments.

Trophy; an ornament representing the trunk of
a tree, supporting military weapons, colors, &c.

Tuscan order; one of the Roman orders of ar-
chitecture. '

Tympanum; the Space within a pediment. It
is sometimes adorned with sculpture.

V.

Valley; the internal angle oftwo inclined sides
ot‘a roof.

Vase; a name for the hell, or naked form of the
Corinthian capital, on which the leaves are
disposed.

Vault ; an arched roof. \Vhen more than a
semicircle, they are called surmounted, and
when less, surbased vaults.

Venetian door; a door lighted on each side.

Venetian window; a window having three sepa-
rate apertures.

Volute ; the scroll which distinguishes the Ionic
capital.

W.

\Vreathed columns; such as are twisted in the
form ofa screw. Not now used.

Z.

Zocle; see Socle.

Zophorus; see Frieze.

Zystos; among the ancients, a portico or aisle
of unusual length, commonly appropriated to
gymnastic exercrses.

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